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The Pencil Points Library

SKETCHING AND
HINDERING IN PENCIL

ARTHUR. I/ GUPTILL

Presented to the

LIBRARY of the

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

front
the Library of

COLONEL H. H. MADILL

THE PENCIL POINTS LIBRARY.

ANY readers of PENCIL POINTS have suggested to us the need
for n group of books dealing in a thoroughly practical and
helpful way with subjects of interest to architects, draftsmen and
students — a library embracing the varied interests that centre in the'
drafting room.

Some time ago we called upon the readers of PENCIL POINTS to
suc/f/esi subjects jor treatment in such a group of books, and we have
carefully siuaicd the targe number of replies received. Guided by
ihese suggestion:: and by the indications of special interest on the pan
of readers in certain articles which have appeared serially in PENCIL
POINTS, we have prepared a plan for THE PENCIL POINTS LIHRAKY,
which is to be developed as time goes on.

The fundamental idea is to provide books to meet the definite
needs of large numbers of men in- this field, and to do this at as
moderate a price as is found consistent with the satisfactory presen-
tation of the matter; not costly publications of limited appeal, but a
practical working library.

"Sketching and Rendering in Pencil," by Arthur L. Cuplill, is
the first book in THE PENCIL POINTS LIBRARY. The second book will
be "Details of Construction," by Philip G. Knobloch, which is now in
preparation. Additional books to be published in the near future are:
"The Study of Architectural Design," by John F. Harbeson ; "Inte-
riors Old and New"; "The Aesthetics of Building Materials," and
"Architectural Lettering."

It is the purpose of the publishers to add books to this library as
the need for them is determined and as arrangements with the authors
best qualified to produce them can be made.

Thi publishers desire to thank all who have, by their suggestions
or otherwise, encouraged them to enter upon the production of this
Library and to ask for further suggestions either from those desiring
to offer manuscripts for publication or from those who see the need
for a book on a given subject that would fit logically into THE PENCIL
POINTS LIBRARY.

THE PENCIL POINTS PRESS, INC.
September, I<j22.

THE PENCIL POINTS PRESS, Inc.

All Right! Reserved

SKETCHING AND
RENDERING IN PENCIL

<By

ARTHUR L. GUPTILL

Architect
With a Preface by

HOWARD GREENLEY, A. I. A.

THE PENCIL POINTS LIBRARY

EUGENE CLUTE, Editor

New York

THE PENCIL POINTS PRESS. Inc.
1922

To
ALBERT E. MOORE

WHO TAUGHT THE AUTHOR THE VALUE OF TRUTH

IN REPRESENTATION AND PERSEVERANCE

IN EFFORT. THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED

IN GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENT.

PREFACE.

AN ARTISTIC conception is susceptible of
translation into graphic expression through a
variety of media, but by a certain universality
of custom, or perhaps more accurately of convenience,
the familiar lead pencil has achieved a significance
derived from its immediate association with all forms
of pictorial delineation. One may speak of it as
a kind of staff upon which the artist or the drafts-
man leans most heavily. But this popular accept-
ance or recognition has, curiously enough, failed
to carry with it an equivalent degree of appre-
ciative comment or of authoritative instruction
in the technique of its individual employment.
Therefore, an examination of the text and illustra-
tions contained in this volume must be of special
and compelling interest to any one of artistic pro-
fession or aspirations, for in his accomplished and
excellent interpretation of the potentiality existent
within the pencil, Mr. Guptill is practically a pio-
neer.

By far the greater acknowledgment must be given,
however, to the very definite stimulus contained in
this volume toward a really effective educational
development among architectural draftsmen. The
atelier system which offers an inexpensive means of
acquiring certain architectural training, based on
the general principles of instruction at the Ecole
des Beaux Arts in Paris, nevertheless, stops short of
completeness from the lack of stress placed on the
important element of free-hand drawing. Great
emphasis is properly laid on the solution of the
plan and its presentation but the adherence to the
mechanical method more or less predicated in the
drawing of the two-dimensioned plan, has been car-
ried with almost equal insistence into the study of
the three-dimensioned elevation. Out of this prac-
tice has grown a kind of formalized T-square and
triangle "indication," much in vogue, and with
scarcely more suggestive value than the working
drawing produced with the other mechanical para-
phernalia of ruling pens, compasses and dividers.

Most draftsmen avoid the blunted pencil point as
they would a plague. A large part of their time
is spent in sharpening the pencil to the length and
sharpness of a needle. With such an implement
their horizon is narrowed down to the production
of scale drawings and the conventionalized sectional
hatchings indicative of various materials. Form

expressed in the graceful, flowing suavity of line
becomes a remote possibility under such conditions.

If I am dwelling with some insistence upon the
value of free-hand drawing, it is not in disparage-
ment of instrumental drawing, nor with any view
to its neglect. It is rather in the desire to build
something more vital and engaging on this founda-
tion of mechanical skill which will result in the
draftsman becoming ever increasingly more of a
draftsman that I most earnestly recommend this
book. Mr. Guptill has with every evidence of suc-
cess endeavored to assist the draftsman out of this
automatic conventionalized indication into the realm
of appreciation of the greater artistic possibilities
lying within himself. To suggest to others a way
of increasingly beautiful accomplishment is ob-
viously no slight contribution. This volume is a
plea for better instruction in free-hand drawing and
for the thorough perception of its value.

The illustrations accompanying the text, by their
variety and excellence of selection and their orderly
arrangement, furnish in themselves a basis of sug-
gestion to students which should awaken the most
enthusiastic response.

The initial and almost certain discouragement
which the making of a drawing from life connotes,
inevitably becomes an emotion of compelling inter-
est once a grasp of the elements of form and con-
tour has been accomplished. I know of no way in
which artistic capital, in the sense of facility and
sureness of drawing, can be obtained better than by
drawing from life and the transition from the
plastic model to the rendering of the static architec-
tural ornament enables the student to embody in his
drawing the spirit of the design with a sureness and
a refinement of detail not possible to one who has
not passed through the former experience.

There is some distance to be travelled along the
road of artistic endeavor before the student can ex-
press his personality in the composed statement of
the artist. Mr. Guptill has, I think, in pointing out
the road and contributing to its illumination, wisely
kept away from the indication of style. His in-
sistence has been in the line of encouragement of a
greater fluency of speech in the language of
pencil technique and of the assistance that intelli-
gent conventionalization can render in the presenta-
tion of form and of color and of materials.

New York City.

HOWARD GREENLEY.

VII

CONTENTS
Part I.

CHAPTER PAGE

I. FIRST CONSIDERATIONS ..... ......

II. THE ESSENTIAL EQUIPMENT ..... ... 3

III. OHJECT DRAWING IN OUTLINE ........... 5

IV. OnjKCT DRAWING IN LIGHT AND SHADE ........ 17

V- FREE-HAND PERSPECTIVE ............ 24

VI- CAST DRAWING . ............ 34

VII- LIKE DRAWING . . . . 39

VIII. SKETCHING ANIMALS . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

Part II.

CHAPTER PAGE

I. ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS ..... ..... 61

II. STARTING THE WORK ............. 67

III. INDIVIDUAL STYLE . ..... . 76

IV. METHODS AND LIGHTING ....... 88

V. COMPOSITION AND DRAWING EROM PHOTOGRAPHS ... 94

VI. GRADED TONES ......... 103

VII. THE REPRESENTATION OK SMALL I!UII,'>INGS . . . 109

VIII. THE REPRESENTATION OK DETAILS . . . \\g

IX. INTERIORS AND FURNITURE . 11;

• • • « . J. tJv/

X- OUTDOOR SKETCHING ....... 147

X I. ACCESSORIES . ^ eg

XII. DECORATIVE TREATMENT .... if-o

XIII- LARGE BUILDINGS . . . 171
XIV. CONCLUSION

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Troy Kinney, Study for "Provoquante" Frontispiece

Study of Fokina in Her Dance of Salome 55

Charles Livingston Bull, Studies of Animals 56, 57, 58, 59 and 60

Kenneth Conant, Sketches of Durham Cathedral 77 and 81

Sketch of Cathedral, Santiago de Compostella 83

Frank Vincent DuMond, Study for Mural Decoration 49

Otto R. Eggers, View from a Window in Milan 79

Bits of Paris 80

View in Tanfield Court 82

Choir Screen at Chartres 82

Proposed Treatment for a Living Room 142

Proposed Treatment for a Dining Room 143

Detail of Cluny Museum 4

Barry Faulkner, Figure Studies for Mural Paintings 45 and 53

Landscape Study for a Mural Painting 168

] lugh Ferriss, Sketch of Madison Square Garden 173

Rendering of Bush House, London 174

Rendering of Bush I louse, London 176

Jules Guerin, Figure Studies for Mural Decorations 38, 40, 51, 52 and 54

M. R. Hermann, Landscape Drawings 150, 154 and 155

Albert Kahn, Sketches of Wrought Iron Work and Wood Carving in South

Kensington Museum, London 131, 132 and 133

Louis Kurtz, Sketch for House at Kingsport, Tennessee 116

Otto F. Langmann, Sketches of Old New York 167, 181 and 185

Schell Lewis, Detail of an Entrance for a Country Residence 130

Robert A. Lock-wood, Pencil Sketch 180

Birch Burdette Long, Rendering of the Lincoln Memorial, Washington. D. C 87

C. D. Maginnis, Pencil Sketch — In the Rue St. Etienne Des Tonneliers, Rouen 85

Erwin J. Pauli, Rendering of a Design for a Club Room 144

Chester B. Price, S. W- Straus & Company Building 177

Building for Hartford Trust Company, Hartford, Conn 183

The Heckscher Building, New York City 183

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)

Eugene F. Savage, Figure Study for Decorative Painting 43

Taher Sears, Studies of Heads 44 and 50

Studies of Hands 47

Andre Smith. Pencil Sketch. Segovia 84

H. I. Stickroth. Figure Studies for Mural Paintings. 46 and 48

Francis S- Swales, Rapid Pencil Sketch 117

Ernest Watson, Pencil Sketch of Pennsylvania Station, Pittsburgh, Pa 33

Sketch of Old Buildings 66

Pencil Sketch of Williamsburg Bridge, New York City 86

Kthel M. Weir, Accented Object Drawing 23

Miscellaneous

Fragments from the Roman Forum, D'Kspouv 134

Pencil Drawing of Design for Decoration of Vaulted Ceiling 145

Rendering in Pencil and Water Color. Table in the Louis XVI Manner 146

Students' Work 20, 21, 23, 37

ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR

Drawings by the author, illustrating points brought

out in the text, are found throughout this work and

are designated as Figures 1 through 53.

It is a pleasure for the author to express here his grate-
ful appreciation of the co-operation of all those who have
contributed towards the making of this volume — especially
to Walter Scott Perry, under whom, as Director of the
School of Fine and Applied Arts, Pratt Institute, Brook-
lyn, New York City, the lectures upon which this work
is based were prepared, and to the artists who have kindly
given permission for the reproduction of the drawings
shown in the supplementary illustrations.

FOREWORD.

IN VIEW of the popularity that the pencil has
long enjoyed as a medium of artistic expres-
sion, it seems rather strange that so little has
been written relating exclusively to it. For it is cer-
tainly true, whatever the reasons may he for this
apparent neglect on the part of our writers, — reasons
on which it is idle and irrelevant to speculate here,
— that though there is a wealth of material dealing
with kindred subjects, contributions hearing di-
rectly on the uses of this universal medium are few
and meagre indeed.

This dearth of material became clearly apparent
to the author when he was called upon, some ten
years ago, to teach pencil sketching and technique
in the art and architectural classes at Pratt In-
stitute, for at that time a book was sought which
might be employed as a text and reference work for
his students. As nothing seemed available complete
enough to satisfactorily meet all the requirements,
a series of lectures was prepared by the author,
based on his own training in art and architecture,
which, after having been revised and amplified from
time to time to meet the needs of the various classes
under his instruction, forms the basis of this pres-
ent volume.

Some of these lectures were arranged for pupils
seeking a general art education ; others were espe-
cially for architectural students, while a few, tak-
ing up the representation of furniture, draperies
and the like, were used for the classes in interior
decoration. As records were kept in all of these
classes from year to year of the difficulties most
frequently encountered and of points which seemed
to require the most thorough explanation; also of
the mistakes most commonly made by the pupils, it
was possible to so revise the lectures as to antici-
pate and cover in advance many of the questions
and problems which might otherwise have given
trouble. An effort was made to guide the student
step-by-step through the work, explaining each part
with the greatest care.

\Yhen arrangements were made in 1920 to pre-
pare a serial article on the subject of "Sketching
and Rendering in Pencil" for "Pencil Points" it
obviously became necessary to approach the whole
subject from the standpoint of the architect and the
architectural draftsman and student, so arranging
the facts presented as to make them of the greatest
value and interest to persons connected with the
architectural profession. It seemed advisable, there-
fore, to exclude considerable maferial of a general
nature, but in its place several additional sections
were prepared, based on the professional experience
of the author as architect and architectural illus-
trator and dealing especially with the uses of pencil
in the free-hand rendering of architectural subjects.

This article, based on the lectures mentioned above,
appeared in "Pencil Points" from August, 1920, to
December, 1921, inclusive, in seventeen instalments,
and met a much warmer reception than was ex-
pected by either the author or the publishers. Be-
cause of the rapid growth of the magazine, the back
numbers of each issue were soon exhausted — it be-
came impossible to meet the demand for the early
installments; therefore the publishers, taking into
consideration the fact that the inquiries received were
not only from those connected with the architec-
tural profession, but from artists and teachers and
art students as well, decided that it was advisable
to republish the entire series in some permanent
form so as to make it available to all. The present
volume is the result of this decision, and as it now
stands contains in revised form the material pub-
lished in "Pencil Points." to which has been added
much material which was omitted from the maga-
zine mainly because it approaches the subject en-
tirely from the art rather than the purely architec-
tural standpoint. Then, besides many new illustra-
tions by the author drawn especially for this pur-
pose, we are able to include through the kind co-
operation of many well known artists, numerous
examples of pencil work, showing a wide range of
subject and great variety of technique. All these
various reproductions are presented not merely as
excellent examples of pencil drawing, however, but
each is selected to illustrate some principle of com-
position or some suggestion for technique given in
the text, thus adding, we believe, to the usefulness
of the whole.

In preparing this volume we have presupposed
that our readers would lie. in the main, students of
art or architecture or some allied subject, on the
one hand, and architects or draftsmen, artists and
art teachers on the other. We have endeavored to
offer suggestions of value to all these classes of in-
dividuals and to do so it is plainly necessary to include
much that is too elementary for the experienced
man and much that is a bit too advanced for the
novice. Therefore let the former omit or hurry
over the rudimentary portions and the latter seek
advice from his teacher as to the parts best suited
to his state of progress. For the beginner needs a
teacher and no book or books can take the place of
personal instruction, — in fact, a book of this sort
can do little but offer general instructions and
suggestions, a bit of knowledge and a little inspira-
tion; — if the reader gains a few thoughts that are
new or has ideas which were partly forgotten brought
back to him or is made to see familiar things from
an enlarged viewpoint, this work will have served
a useful purpose.

XII

Courtesy of Kennedy & Co.

A FIGURE STUDY BY TROY K1NNEY FOR HIS ETCHING "PROVOQUANTE"

SKETCHING AND
RENDERING IN PENCIL

PART I.
CHAPTER I.

FIRST CONSIDERATIONS

UNDOUBTEDLY the ready availability and
low cost of the pencil and materials needed
for use in conjunction with it are partly re-
sponsible for its popularity among artists, while the
ease with which it can be carried from place to place
and prepared and kept in condition for work are in
its favor, also.

But aside from these intrinsic merits of the pen-
cil itself, it has other advantages of a different sort,
— for instance its common employment for writing
and similar purposes has given us all a certain famil-
iarity with it, so that the beginner, having become
accustomed from earliest childhood to these every-
day uses to which it is put, finds it a natural and sim-
ple matter to learn to hold and manipulate it prop-
erly when drawing, which is, of course, highly im-
portant as it leaves him free to give his attention to
other difficulties less easily avoided.

Yet the advantages we have mentioned, great as
they are, seem insignificant when put into com-
parison with the one leading fact which has given
the pencil its place in the world of art, — the fact
that it is suitable for any kind of a drawing from
the roughest outline sketch or diagram to a complete
rendering of an elaborate subject. What other me-
dium is there which responds so readily to any
demand made upon it? Sharply pointed it will give
us a line as fine and clean-cut as that of the pen ;
bluntly pointed it can be used almost as a brush.
It will make strokes sufficiently light and delicate
or bold and vigorous to suit the most exacting, or
tones so smooth that in them no trace of any line
can be found. It is responsive to the slightest touch,
allowing us to grade at will from light to dark or
from dark to light. What other medium will do
all this ? What other medium permits so great free-
dom in correcting and erasing at any time during
the progress of the work? What medium permits of
such rapid manipulation when speed is desired and
still proves suitable for the most careful and pains-
taking study? It should not be supposed that it is
only in the making of drawings in light and shade or
outline that it is of value, either, for when color is
desired there are excellent colored pencils to be had
by the use of which wonderful effects are obtain-
able, either on white paper or on tinted surfaces,
— furthermore light washes of water-color can be
run over pencil work satisfactorily, charming com-

binations of such mediums being frequently seen.

Nor should it be forgotten that aside from all
these various types of work in which the pencil plays
a leading or a most conspicuous part, there are many
drawings in which it serves a less prominent but by
no means less important one, for it is employed
with great frequency in the preparation of drawings
to be completed in other mediums ; — pen drawings,
for example, are almost invariably blocked out in
pencil before any ink is applied, while its use is
not infrequent for the same preliminary preparation
for paintings in wash, water color or oil as well as
for making the numerous studies which are usually
done before a large or important composition is fi-
nally executed. Therefore, even though the student
intends to become a painter, pencil facility should
prove invaluable to him. In fact, practice with this
instrument helps greatly to fit one for work in all
other mediums — drawings done in fine line train one
for pen-and-ink, broad line shading being more like
charcoal or crayon or brush work helps one in the
use of these mediums, while pencil shading in mass
or full tone prepares one directly for painting in
wash or color.

With these various facts before us, it is not dif-
ficult to see that the pencil is an instrument which
no artist or art student can afford to ignore; espe-
cially is it of value to the beginner for as has been
pointed out it is hard to find another medium that
approaches the pencil in permitting the same speed
and accuracy in drawing, coupled with ease in cor-
rection. It is unfortunate if the student allows his
impatience to attempt work in pen-and-ink or pastel
or water-color or oils to cause him to proceed to the
use of any of these mediums before he has mastered
the pencil, for if he does so he will face unneces-
sary difficulties.

But if the pencil is valuable to the artist or art
student it is absolutely indispensable to the architect
and his assistants, for whereas the artist has numer-
ous mediums from which to choose the one best
suited to his particular needs or individual taste,
the architect has nothing that can take the place of
the graphite point for a major portion of his work.
What other medium would answer for laying out
his accurate plans and elevations and sections, and
what else would do for all the various detail draw-

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

ings which must be carefully made to scale? Yet
the pencil serves the architect in other ways than
these, for aside from this instrumental work which
is hardly within the scope of this volume, many
drawings of a free-hand nature are required, such as
details of carved stone and wood, ornamental iron,
lettered inscriptions and the like, and what is still
more important the pencil is particularly valuable
for making rendered presentation sketches of the
kind submitted to a prospective client to show how
a proposed structure will appear when completed,
these sketches frequently serving to bring new work
into the office. Then, too, the architect finds a knowl-
edge of free-hand perspective sketching of great
value in other ways, for he can by means of a few
strokes of his pencil make some point clear to his
client or express his ideas satisfactorily to his drafts-
men, or help his contractors to visualize some
matter not readily understood from the working
drawings.

The architect's indebtedness to this little instru-
ment which helps him to get work and to execute it
is plain then, but if he feels a debt to this constant
friend, so indeed should the architectural draftsman
or student, for the pencil perhaps offers him more
assistance in learning architecture and in advancing
in this profession than does any other one thing.

For it is natural that the draftsman who gains
proficiency in the use of an instrument so frequently
employed by the architect stands in line for promo
tion, especially if he is able to do all the free-hand
work which the average draftsman is so often un-
qualified to handle.

And even though a man may never reach a point
where he stands out among his fellows because of
his pencil sketches, he can gain much benefit in many
ways by practising sketching during his spare
moments. Drawing from photographs or buildings
always increases a student's knowledge of architec-
ture, but it does far more than this. It improves
his powers of observation and retention, for he is
forced to observe in order to draw at all and in
drawing he unconsciously assimilates not only knowl-
edge of the buildings drawn, but also a sense of rel-
ative proportions and shapes applicable to original
problems in design. The more such drawings he
makes, too, the greater will be his power to visual-
ize the appearance of a proposed building long
before a single study on paper has been made. The
ability to thus form in the mind an image of the
completed structure is most desirable, but the aver-
age draftsman gives so much time to working in
elevation or plan only that he is likely to lose sight

of the fact that the building is to be finally judged
by its appearance in three dimensions and not by
the drawings from which it is built. The drafts-
man who has the power to visualize does not forget
this fact and so makes all his drawings with greater
intelligence.

There are some men, on the other hand, who are
able to see in their minds a building exactly as they
wish to erect it, yet they are unable to freely express
their ideas on paper. To such men a knowledge
of free-hand drawing would be of the greatest bene-
fit. In fact a man who can sketch well is able not
only to express his own thoughts on paper but can
draw from a description given him by someone
else.

Then there are others connected with the archi-
tectural profession besides the architect and his
draftsmen and designers who find a knowledge of
sketching of value, for engineers and construction
superintendents can often explain to others or make
clear in their own minds certain obscure points in
construction by means of quick sketches.

And just as the architect and his assistants find
skill in pencil handling advantageous, so do those
connected with such professions as interior decora-
tion and landscape architecture, and in much the
same way — this is not difficult to see. What is not
so commonly understood, however, is that skill in
pencil sketching often proves of practical value to
the layman, though he may make infrequent use of
his accomplishment. There are problems which
sometimes come up in the daily life of any person
difficult to express or explain by oral or written
word but which can be easily made clear by even the
crudest sketch.

Does it not seem rather strange, then, when we re-
flect on these various advantages of skill in sketching,
that of all the millions of people in this country
using pencils every day, and of the thousands of men
in the architectural and similar professions alone
who work from morning till night throughout the
year with the pencil as their principal tool, that so
few ever attempt to make anything but the crudest
sort of free-hand sketch and that among those who
do seriously try to make finished pencil drawings a
still smaller number have the perseverance to reach
any real degree of success? For taken all in all
there is much of a practical nature to be gained
through free-hand pencil work, and in addition to
this a great deal of pleasure to be obtained, — in
fact, the satisfaction of being able to draw well is
worth in itself the time spent in acquiring the neces-
sary knowledge.

Chapter II.
THE ESSENTIAL EQUIPMENT

THERE is nothing, perhaps, which so kindles
the interest and enthusiasm of the student as
to surround himself with the required draw-
ing materials, while even the experienced man who
is accustomed to the everyday use of these accessories
can hardly gaze upon a new clean sheet of paper
and pencils pointed ready for his hand without an
itching to commence, a desire to seize a pencil and
he at it, for there is something about such materials
to lure one on — to urge one to do his best.

In fact the appeal of all such things is so strong
that the beginner is almost sure, unless guided by
his instructor, to buy too great a variety and quan-
tity of materials and is inclined to attach too much
importance to them, for important as they are (and
no man can do good work with poor tools), the
truth of the matter is that few and comparatively
inexpensive things are needed for such work, and
especially for the earlier problems. But these few
should be the best of their respective kinds, for the
difficulties that beset the beginner are so many and
great that it would be a grave mistake for him to
handicap himself by using anything of an inferior
nature, as even the best materials are none too easily
mastered.

If the student has no teacher to aid him in his
selection he is usually safe in securing the standard
drawing pencils and papers and the like which are
carried in stock by reliable dealers in artists' sup-
plies. After a time he will develop a liking for
certain kinds for certain purposes and will even-
tually choose without hesitation the pencil and paper
best suited to the subject to be drawn and the sort
of drawing to be made. And whether one works
with an instructor or without, his personal prefer-
ences will become more and more marked from year
to year, and the more difficult it will be for him to
adapt himself to materials with which he is not per-
fectly familiar. This unfortunately causes some
artists of mature years to heartily condemn every-
thing to which they are unaccustomed, which is
hardly fair, for that which is worthless to one may
be excellent for another. After the early problems
are over, then, it is often well to experiment until
a certain familiarity with all the standard materials
is gained. Those which are here recommended will
do for most of the problems of the beginner while
others are discussed in later chapters.
Materials

Pencils — Drawing pencils are usually graded
from 6B, the softest and blackest, to 9H, the
hardest and firmest, with fifteen grades between,
or seventeen in all, arranged as follows: — 6B, SB,
4B, 3B, 2B, B, HB, F, H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H,
7H, 8H, 9H. Of these the soft pencils are best
suited to freehand work, though some papers de-
' mand much harder pencils than others. In fact,

the choice of pencils depends almost entirely on
the character of paper to be used, a smooth, glossy
paper demanding a much softer pencil than is
needed for work on rough paper which has con-
siderable "too'.h." For quick sketches, one soft
pencil, perhaps a 2B or B or HB, will sometimes
do for the whole drawing, but a carefully finished
sketch showing considerable detail may require as
many as seven or eight pencils grading all the way
from 3B or 2B to 4H or 5H. In such a drawing
most of the work would be done with the softer
pencils, the harder ones being used for the light,
transparent tones and fine detail. A little experi-
menting will usually show what pencils are best
suited to the paper to be used and to the subject
to be drawn. The fact that the weather makes a
great difference in the pencils required is not us-
ually recognized, but it is true that pencils that are
just right on a dry day will prove too hard when
the air is damp and the paper filled with moisture.
Pencils of different manufacture vary in their grad-
ing so it is generally best to use those of one make
on a drawing. Cheap pencils seldom prove satis-
factory as the lead is variable and often so gritty
as to scratch the paper.

Paper — Almost any drawing paper will do, but
the choice depends mainly on the size and charac-
ter of the drawing to be made. For small sketches
it is best, as a rule, to use smoother paper than for
large work, — in fact it is almost impossible to draw
fine detail on extremely rough paper. A glazed
paper, however, is seldom desirable as the shiny
surface is dulled in an objectionable manner if the
eraser is used. Sometimes, however, very crisp,
snappy sketches are made on glazed paper, but a
soft pencil is required for such work. Extremely
rough paper is occasionally satisfactory for a large
drawing, but a medium-rough surface is best for
general work. Some tracing papers are very good
and have the advantage that the sketch can be first
blocked out on one sheet and then rendered on a
second sheet placed over the first. The drawings
by the author illustrating this text were made for
the most part on "kid finish" Bristol Board, which
has the advantage of being stiff and durable, with a
firm surface.

It is often well to have several standard sizes
for sketch sheets, one small enough to slip into
the pocket, and one or two larger sizes. Drawing
paper of the Imperial size of 22 in. x 30 in. can be
cut without waste to several convenient proportions,
such as 15 in. x 22 in., 11 in. x 15 in. and 7l/2 in. x
11 in. Some draftsmen prefer to have punched
sheets to be used in a standard notebook cover,
8 in. x 105/2 in., being satisfactory. The sketch
hooks and pads for sale in all art stores are good
for small work.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

Erasers— As a rule it is best to avoid the use of
erasers so far as possible, as erasing often injures
the paper surface, but art gum or a soft white
eraser is necessary for removing construction lines
and for cleaning the sheet. A fairly hard red or
green eraser may be required sometimes for correct-
ing errors, and a soft "kneaded" rubber is very
useful in lifting superfluous tone from a portion
of a drawing. An erasing shield is an essential
if changes are to be made.

Brush — A soft brush is needed for keeping the
drawing free from dust as tiny specks often cause
spots and streaks as the pencil passes over them.
The paper should always be dusted with care after
erasing is done.

Boards — It is usually well to fasten the drawing
to a board of convenient size with thumb tacks.
Be sure that the board is very smooth, for unless
it is so or the paper very thick, the grain of the
wood may show in the final drawing. When us-
ing thin or medium-weight drawing paper it is best
to put an extra sheet or two under the drawing to
insure a good surface.

Fixatif — Sketches done with soft pencils rub and
soil so easily after they are completed that it is
customary to spray or "fix" them. An atomizer
and bottle of fixatif can be obtained in any art
store but the fixatif usually sold tends to turn the
drawing slightly yellow and also causes a gloss or
.shine if too much is applied. A French fixatif
made for spraying pastels has the advantage of
being more transparent and of causing less shine,
but is quite expensive.

Sandpaper Block — A scratch pad of sandpaper is
essential as an aid in pointing the pencils. These
are sold in a convenient form with handles so
attached as to make their use possible without soil-
ing the hands. A sheet of fine sandpaper or a file
may be substituted for the block if desired.

Knife — Obviously a sharp knife will be useful
for trimming the paper, sharpening the pencils, lift-
ing thumbtacks, etc.

The above materials are needed for all problems.
Drawing tables, easels, etc., will be described in later
chapters which take up the kinds of work for which
thev are essential.

l Window- Cny Muir- um .

Pencil Sketch by Otto R. Eggers.

Chapter III.
OBJECT DRAWING IN OUTLINE

WHEN one studies drawing he usually does so
because of his personal inclination, — hence
when the necessary materials have been se-
lected and prepared he is anxious for his first instruc-
tion, and if his early problems prove interesting he is
quite sure to become so enthusiastic as to make
rapid progress. But this is an age of rush and
hurry; perseverance and thoroughness seem to
have been almost superseded by impatience and
superficiality. Therefore progress, however rapid
in reality, often seems painfully slow to the begin-
ner, who is all too frequently so blinded by his de-
sire to hasten on to the sort of thing which is way
beyond him that it is hard for him to realize the
importance of thorough mastery of the elements.
If he is given problems which he considers beneath
him he becomes resentful but if he is allowed to
attempt difficult subjects of his own choosing and
then fails to get the results hoped for he is apt to
give up the whole matter in disgust, — blaming the
instructor oftimes for his lack of success. Is it not,
then, part of the duty of the teacher to point out
the reasons why it is necessary for one to advance
slowly enough to permit thorough mastery of each
fundamental as he goes along? For if the student
can be made to see the need for first learning to
draw simple things well, — if he can be brought to
realize that his progress will be all the more rapid
in the end for having done so, problems which might
otherwise prove irksome will be approached, if not
with enthusiasm, at least with patience born of
understanding.

Even cubes and cylinders and pyramids are in-
teresting to draw if one takes the proper attitude
towards them, and there is often no better starting
point for the beginner than just this class of sub-
jects. If we select a wooden cube, for instance,
stripped bare of everything which might detract
attention from its simple geometric form, and study
it from various angles and make many sketches of
it (as will be explained more at length later on) its
appearance will be fixed forever in the memory so
that one can recall it at any time and represent it
on paper. "But," the student may ask, "what is the
advantage of spending so long on a simple block of
wood ? I want to draw ships and street scenes and
buildings and not blocks such as children use for
toys." The advantage is clear if we pause to con-
sider that most large objects like buildings and trol-
ley cars and chairs and tables are based, so far as
their general form is concerned, on just such ele-
mentary shapes as cubes, prisms, cones and pyra-
mids. Once skill is acquired in drawing these, a big
step has been taken towards learning to do larger
and more complex subjects. If one starts with a

cylinder and masters that and then tries pails, bar-
rels, logs, tree trunks, smoke stacks, reservoirs and
the like, as well as such architectural features as
round buildings, circular towers, columns and arch-
ways, he will be surprised at the ease with which
all these last may be proportioned, for these things
differ little in basic form from the simple cylinder.
If one can draw in addition triangular and hexag-
onal prisms and pyramids and cones, he can do all
sorts of roofs and dormers and things of that kind,
as well as innumerable small objects.

It is often advisable, then, for the beginner to
start with such simple objects, drawing each one over
and over again, attempting as has been pointed out
above to memorize its shape so that it may be
sketched at any time without reference to the object
itself.

One will be helped greatly if he studies along
with his practice in object drawing the principles of
perspective as applied to freehand work, so the
reader is referred to Chapter V, which deals di-
rectly with this phase of our subject, and which
should, therefore, be read in conjunction with this.
When one has become thoroughly acquainted with
the appearance and with the methods of represen-
tation of such objects (and has gained familiarity
with the perspective principles involved) the next
step is to apply this knowledge to the drawing of
objects showing greater variety of form and sur-
face and color, — such everyday things as books,
dishes, fruit, or old shoes. Here the architectural
student may ask why it is essential for him to know
how to draw books, for "what have books to do
with the sketching of architecture?" But indirectly
they and kindred objects have much to offer, for aside
from the skill in form representation and the perspec-
tive knowledge gained from their study (directly
applicable to larger problems such as buildings), one
learns also in the quickest way from these small
things which are easily seen as complete units by
the eye, how to express all sorts of textures of mate-
rials. When one has learned to show the leather
of shoes and the glass or porcelain of dishes and
the cloth or metal or wood of other objects it is not
difficult for him to represent brick and stone and
shingles and slate. Columns and balusters and all
like architectural forms have much the same play
of light and shade and gradation of tone, too, as is
found on dishes and similar objects and it is much
easier to draw from these little things which are near
at hand than from features like columns which are
usually so large that a confusing amount of detail
is visible to prove troublesome to the beginner. Let
him feel confident, then, that when spending his
time as we have suggested, it will not be wasted.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

Arranging the Working Space, Now if one is
to gain the greatest advantage from his practice,
whether the subject is a geometric solid or a bit of
still life, he must seek a place where he can work
undisturbed, and must have his equipment well
chosen and arranged in a convenient way.

A room where one can be alone is ideal, or where
the other occupants are engaged in similar pursuits
as in an artist's studio or a class room. North light
is desirable, for if windows face the east or south
or west there will be sunlight streaming in at times
during the day, which will cause the shadows and
reflected lights on the objects to shift in position
and to change in value constantly. North light, on
the other hand, is a sort of indirect light, coming
not straight from the sun but being largely reflected
from the sky. It is more diffused, therefore, and
gives softer and less changeable shadows and re-
mains more constant during the whole day, being
not so much affected by shifting in the sun's position
or by the passage of clouds. And north light is
purer in hue, too, less yellow than the direct rays of
the sun, though this is of especial advantage only
when working in color. Light from too many sources
is disturbing, as it causes complexity of shadow and
reflection. It is best to have the illumination from
one window only, the shades being so arranged that
the light may be cut off at either the top or the
bottom as desired. (See Figure 1, which is de-
signed to show a practically arranged room for this
type of work.) Generally it is the lower half or
two-thirds of the window that should be shaded, as
light from above gives more pleasing shadows.
Many studios are for this reason provided with
overhead light from skylights or dormers, though

for our purposes the upper half or third of the ordi-
nary window will do very well.

The objects to be drawn should not be too far
from this window for if they are they will not only
lack sufficient light but the shadows will be too much
elongated. If rays fall downward at an angle of
about 45 degrees from the left they should prove
satisfactory, the objects being from three or four
to eight or ten feet from the window.

Object stand. There should be some sort of
stand on which these objects may be placed and
usually a small table of average height (about 30")
will do very well. One painted white or with a
white cover is good. If a dark table is used it will
be necessary to cover it with a white or very light
cloth or paper on which the objects may rest and
show good contrast. A background of the same
material should be provided so that sharp relief can
be obtained, and the surroundings cut off from view.
The diagram Figure 2 shows a method of mak-
ing a convenient folding object rest or shadow box
of heavy cardboard which may be used on any table.
Thin wood or wall-board may be substituted if de-
sired. Cut two cardboards "A" and "B" of equal
size, about 15"x22", next binding them together
with tape in such a way that "A" can be raised to
a vertical position while "B" remains horizontal to
rest on the table. Flaps "C" and "D," each 15"
square, are attached to "A" in the manner shown.
Figure 2 gives at "B" and "C" two of several
positions in which the box may be used, the first
being the best for the early problems.

Chair or scat. A simple chair with a rather
straight back and no arms is the best — one which
though permitting freedom, will at the same time

FLAPS FOLDLD
TO FORM

THIS WAY
FOR. FIRST
. PR.OBLEM5

A FOLDING ''OBJECT R.L3T
OR SHADOW 50X

- ( OF CA.R.DE.OAR.D OR TH IN WOOD)-

Figure 2. Illustrating a Method of Making an Object-Rest or Shadow Box.

OBJECT DRAWING IN OUTLINE

Figure i. A Room Arranged as a Studio for Object or Cast Drawing.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

not prove so comfortable as to invite laziness. For
in object drawing it is essential that one should sit
upright all the time. The chair should be so placed
that the student will sit directly facing the objects.
Easel or adjustable draining table. An easel or
adjustable drawing table is essential on which the
drawing board may rest. Usually this should be
kept in an almost vertical position so the sketch is
at right angles to the line of sight from the eye.
If the board is tipped in some other manner the
paper will be so foreshortened as to prevent accu-
rate work, unless one changes his own position so
as to still view it at right angles. The type of ad-
justable table shown in the sketch, Figure 1, has
some advantages over the customary easel, espe-
cially for the architectural student, for it can be
used not only in a great variety of positions as an
easel but will also serve as a drafting board or as
a table when placed horizontally or nearly so.
Easels such as are available in any well stocked art-
ists' supply house will do very well, however, those
which permit of easy raising or lowering of the
drawing to any desired height being the best.
Whether table or easel is chosen it should be placed
slightly to the right of the student as he faces the
objects, just enough to one side to keep it from ob-
structing the view. This position and the height
from the floor should be such as to make it easy
to glance from the objects to the drawing and back
again.

These three things, then, the stand on which the
objects are to rest, the seat, and the easel or adjust-
able table, are most important and taken together
with such smaller necessities as paper and pencil
constitute the essential equipment. Cases or draw-
ers or folios in which new paper, finished drawings
and the like may lie kept are convenient, and in
addition there should be some provision made for
taking care of the pencils, erasers and knives which
must be near at hand. Attachments may be pur-
chased for the type of table pictured in Figure 1,
specially designed to accommodate such accessories,
whereas the easel is usually equipped with a shelf
to serve the same purpose. Some of the stands
made for smokers are convenient if we substitute
pencils and sandpaper pad for pipe and tobacco. As
an added improvement to the studio a shelf should
be provided where the drawing may be placed from
time to time for comparison with the objects drawn.
The top of the cases shown in Figure 1 would
answer for this purpose (these cases, by the way,
allow for storage of still-life, casts, etc., as well as
books and drawings) though a rest or shelf right
beside the objects would be still better. Students
sometimes have a portable music rack such as musi-
cians use placed near the object stand so they are
able to set the drawing side by side with the sub-
ject for study and comparison.

If one plans to work by artificial light it will be
advisable to arrange it to take the place so far as i?
possible of the natural daylight. The lamp near the
window in Figure 1 is an adjustable one of tele-
scopic nature which is excellent for the purpose as
it may be shifted instantly to any desired position.
Some artists prefer kerosene to electricity, claim-
ing it gives a softer light. The kind of lamp is per-

haps of less importance than its placement, how-
ever, as great care is necessary to avoid unpleasant
glare or reflection. The light should be secured
against so swaying or moving as to change the
shade and shadow.

And last but not least a wastebasket proves a
desirable adjunct to the studio.

Selecting the Subject. When this equipment has
all been assembled and arranged we can select our
first subject and start to draw. But there are va-
rious kinds of drawings of objects which may be
made and it seems advisable to consider these for a
moment for they are all useful, and one's training
in still-life is incomplete until he has done drawings
illustrating each of these different types.

First come the drawings in outline only, in which
special attention is given to correct proportion and
perspective ; next we have studies in full value, in
which all the tones are worked out with the utmost
care so that each drawing gives as truthful a rep-
resentation of the objects as it is possible to get with
pencil. Then we have drawings in which some tone
is added to outline, — a sort of combination of these
other two methods, and others in which tone is built
up by successions of fine lines or broad lines or
both. All of these types are careful studies but
there are still others in which speed is a leading con-
sideration, a time limit being set before the draw-
ing is commenced. These are frequently called
time sketches. Aside from all these studies and
sketches in which truth is sought, drawings are
sometimes made in which the objects simply serve
as a motive for a somewhat original composition for
which a rather decorative treatment usually seems
appropriate.

Of all these various classes of drawings we will
discuss in the next chapters the first two quite
fully, — the drawings in outline and the studies in
full values. Much that we say concerning these
will relate also to the others, which will, therefore,
be more briefly described.

So let us select our subject and be at it.

We have already mentioned that there is nothing
better for the beginner who is just ready to start
his first practice than some simple object with which
he is already quite familiar, something small enough
so that it can be seen easily at a glance and yet large
enough so that little effort is required to see it.
And it should have a certain amount of individuality
or distinctive character rather than mere prettiness,
for one of the first things that we should learn is
how to so analyze the subject as to discover its lead-
ing characteristics, and record them on paper with
a few deft strokes. It should be of a simple color
scheme, too, for the beginner has enough to occupy
his attention if the colors are few and these few not
too brilliant and distracting. To meet these require-
ments common, everyday objects are often the best
that we can have. Geometric forms have been
previously mentioned as desirable but as the repre-
sentation of these will be especially considered in
Chapter V we will turn to objects having less
regularity or symmetry of form, such as old shoes
or dishes. Bear in mind, however, when Chapter
V is read that much which is given here relates
as well to the representation of the geometric forms.

OBJECT DRAWING IN OUTLINE

So let us take as our first subject an old shoe,
quite the worse for wear, for this will give
us variety of shape in abundance as well as indi-
viduality (for no two old shoes look just the same).

Beginning the work. Now that our equipment
is arranged and our subject is selected, we are nearly
ready to begin, but must first place the shoe on the
object stand in a natural position with the light fall-
ing upon it in an interesting way (though the light-
ing is less important for outline work than for the
later shaded studies). Thumbtack a sheet of paper
about H"xl5" or larger to your drawing board
(see Chapter II in regard to the selection of pa-
per) remembering that if several additional sheets
are placed beneath the drawing, the surface will be
better. Whittle a medium soft pencil such as an
HB to a fairly sharp point, and place your chair and
easel in a position which will permit of comfort and
a clear view of the object and good light on the
paper. Then when seated there are certain things
to l)e decided before touching pencil to the paper.
We must determine what sort of a drawing we are
about to make. Is it to be in outline or in black and
white? Is it to be a rough sketch or a carefully
finished study? Are we to attempt to accurately
represent the subject as we see it, every spot and
line, every infinitesimal detail that we are able to
discover on close search, or are we to work more
for the general impression that one gets on looking
at such an object in the usual way? As a rule it
seems best for the beginner to confine his early
attempts to outline, getting the main proportions as
accurate as he can, seeking to bring out in his sketch
the individual characteristics of the object. If the
drawing is to be of a shoe, let it represent that par-
ticular shoe and not some other. Perhaps it may
be well if the writer here digresses for a mo-
ment to relate his own experiences when making his
first drawing under instruction. It was in the
studio of Mr. Albert E. Moore at Portland, Maine
— to whom this volume is dedicated, and whose in-
fluence is felt in every page. The drawing mate-
rials had been prepared and the author was eagerly
waiting to see what the subject was to be. And
then it was brought out, — an old, ragged felt hat.
And a block of wood a few inches long, and two or
three inches high. And that was all. And the hat
was raised at one side on the block and arranged
to form an interesting composition. Then the work
was started, the directions being to make an outline
drawing of that hat, expressing its individuality, get-
ting right at the essentials, considering the whole
thing in a big way. A half hour later the drawing
was finished, — perfect, according to the personal
opinion of its youthful author, — an improve-
ment on the original in every way. And then came
Mr. Moore ! In the light of later understanding his
patience seems truly remarkable. For he pointed
out how the drawing was wrong here and wrong
there, was, in fact, (though commendable for a first
attempt) wrong in all its larger proportions, but
especially how it failed to express the character of
that particular hat. So the sheet was wiped clean
and a new drawing made, and again, until the end
of the morning found a somewhat discouraged youth
whose pride in his newly acquired materials had

received quite a setback. Finally after three or four
half-days' time the drawing was finished (and what
a feeling of satisfaction this accomplishment gave),
the first of many similar studies, each of which
brought added emphasis to the need of truthfully
expressing the leading characteristics of the subject
drawn.

We should perhaps try to make clear to the stu-
dent just what is meant by "truthfully expressing
the leading characteristics of the subject." To do
so takes us back to a consideration of what a draw-
ing is or should be. A drawing is simply an ex-
planation. The best drawings which we have are
those which tell their story directly and simply and
which do not confuse us with multitudinous and
irrelevant details. It is seldom that the artist
attempts to tell in one drawing all the facts about
the subject represented, but the leading truths are
sought for, — the characteristics which appeal to him
as being the most valuable and interesting. Just as
individuals differ from one another in their choice
of clothes, so artists differ in their selection and
interpretation of the characteristics of any subject,
so if several skilled men were to depict certain ob-
jects as viewed from the same point under the same
conditions the resulting pictures would be quite
different, though it is perfectly possible that all
might he of equal merit and all considered as equally
truthful; far more truthful than a photograph of
the same objects. This may sound a bit strange as
the student is often under the impression that the
drawing which comes the closest to a photographic
representation is the best and the most true. Rut
this is not so. The tiny details of nature are with-
out number and if we study any object minutely we
are almost overwhelmed with the small parts which
close inspection reveals. A clear photograph shows
many of these things. When we glance at an
object in the usual way, however, we are not aware
of each tiny detail for it is onlv when we focus our
attention upon one portion after another that we
see the smallest of the visible parts at all, — the usual
impression that we get is the one which we should
attempt to transfer to our paper ; not a photographic
likeness which seeks and records every fact.

As the student gradually develops his perceptions
he will be able to choose that which is essential
according to the purpose for which the drawing is
made from that which is superfluous, so that when
we look at his drawings we will be conscious with
little mental effort of the subject drawn and its prin-
cipal attributes. It is undoubtedly largely this ease
in understanding a good drawing which causes us
to enjoy it in preference to a photograph of the
same subject.

So the beginner must strive to retain in any sub-
ject such elements as have the greatest significance,
in some cases even exaggerating them, sacrificing
at the same time some of the lesser truths if by so
doing the drawing as a whole will be easier to read
or understand. It will be no less honest because
of this.

To learn what to look for and what to overlook
is as important as the improvement of draftsman-
ship, and there is perhaps no better way to begin
to do this than to start with outline, as an outline

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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OBJECT DRAWING IN OUTLINE

drawing is the simplest that we can make, for as
light and shade is largely disregarded in snch work,
concentration can be given to representing propor-
tions and contours. It is for this reason that we
assume that we are to draw the shoe in outline,
attempting to honestly delineate it in a simple way.

It is here that the student, if left to his own de-
vices, will often make the mistake of starting to
draw at one point (such as "A," Sketch 1, Figure
3) at the top of the shoe, work down one side,
completing the entire outline as he proceeds, next
going across the bottom and up the other side and
finally back to the starting point. Should an ex-
pert artist choose to do so he might employ this
method successfully, but it is not to be recommended
to the beginner as it is a very difficult way in which
to work, for however careful one may be in draw-
ing each small portion as he goes along, the larger
forms are almost sure to be wrong, which in turn
means that the smaller proportions are wrong too,
in relation to one another. Sketch 1 shows the in-
correct result that the employment of such a method
is quite sure to bring. At first glance this drawing
perhaps seems as correct and as interesting as doss
Sketch 4, made by the method which we are about
to describe, but its chief fault lies in its propor-
tions, for Sketch 4 gives the correct shape of the
shoe as viewed from the one position from which
it was drawn. If we start at "A" and compare the
contour of the shoe in Sketch 1 with that in Sketch
4, bit by bit, we find them much the same. That
is the danger of the system, it leads us astray
almost without our knowing it. For when we get
to drawing the sole and glance across at the heel
we find the sole is too low, the sole and heel com-
ing to a horizontal line, whereas at 4, the sole is
higher. Compare the height of the toe in the two
sketches with the table line at the back and note that
this height in 1 is too low. Then as we go on up
to the top we find the ankle much larger at 1 than
at 4. Now in drawing a shoe such inaccuracies are
not wholly disastrous but if the same method were
applied to drawing the portrait of a person and as
many mistakes crept in, a correct likeness would
surely fail to materialize.

So instead of working in this wav one should go
at the whole matter very methodically. First of
all, as soon as the object is in place and the easel and
chair are in position, mark the location of the chair
and the model stand on the floor in some way. A
chalk mark around each leg of the easel and of the
chair will do very well. Otherwise it is possible
that some change will be made in their position and
even the slightest shift is often enough to prove
very confusing and cause inaccurate results. Then
when you sit on the chair, sit right in the middle
and keep erect. This is most important. For if
you shift a bit to one side or the other or slump an
inch or two, the object will present quite a differ-
ent appearance (the change being particularly no-
ticeable when one is drawing books and boxes and
the like). So all the while that you are working
hold the same position. As an aid to remain;ng
stationary some instructors go so far as to have
the student sight across some mark or point along
the top of the object stand to some coinciding mark

which can be made on the wall. Then the stu-
dent, sighting from the first point to the second
point, will establish his position and if he finds
at any time that the points are not in line, one be-
hind the other, he will know <he is out of position.
The same marks will prove useful to the instructor
when he sits to give criticism, as they will enable
him to view the objects from exactly the same point
used by the student ; in fact if he is of different
height it may otherwise be very difficult for him
to assume the correct position and unless he does so
he cannot give the proper criticism.

As soon as the student has taken his position he
should study the object for a few minutes before
starting to draw. Notice the general shape of the
mass, forgetting the detail but considering the sim-
ple form. Compare the height with the width. Is
the mass taller than it is wide or is the opposite true ?
Is the general form square or round or oval or tri-
angular? What are its most individual character-
istics? Is it flat or rounded? Are its edges regu-
lar or irregular? Are the surfaces rough or
smooth? When the subject has been analyzed with
the greatest care the next step is to determine how
large the drawing is to be and to locate the extreme
limits of the object on the paper. If the subject is
higher than its length it is best to place the paper
in a vertical position so that the picture space will
be in proportion to the object (or objects). Usually
the size of the drawing will be less than that of the
subject itself. Place a light mark towards the top
of the paper to locate the extreme limit of the
drawing in that direction, next another for the same
purpose at the bottom, followed by others at the
sides. These marks are shown at 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Sketch 2. Figure 3. Next block out very lightly
with a few sweeps of the pencil the larger propor-
tions, the point barely touching the paper surface.
Now set the drawing back near the objects. Com-
pare. Is the height right in relation to the width ?
If it is hard for the student to determine this there
is a. test which may be applied here which is com-
monly used by artists, not only in object drawing,
hut in life drawing, nature sketching, etc., — namely,
thumb measurement.

Thumb Measurement. This test is known as
thumb or pencil measurement. One eye is closed
and the arm outstretched at full length towards the
object, the hand grasping the sharpened end of a
pencil held at right angles to the arm (more prop-
erly at right angles to the line of sight from the
eye to the object). The pencil can then be used as
a measure for comparing width and height or the
length of one line with another (just as a ruler
might be applied directly to the objects themselves),
the thumb nail being allowed to slide along on the
pencil until it marks any desired point. It is best
to take the smaller dimension first and use it as a
unit of measure for the larger. As the various pro-
portions are compared in this way the correspond-
ing dimensions on the drawing can he tested either
by the eye or by laying the pencil directly upon
them. If they are not relatively the same the dif-
ferences will be obvious and corrections can be
made. The value of this test is lost unless the pencil
is kept at exactly the same distance from the eye,

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

TRIANGULAR-
CD M POM T1OM

COM PO5IT ION

- CIRCULAR.
COM POSITION

5 TOY RAb£!T (iLt TLXT

POORLY COM POSED

WOULD iE, SETTER. IF
PORTION OF b^S

VliliLL

AN OiJLCT HANGING
FROM ABOVE MLLD5
MO TA5LL LINL

Figure 4. Offering Some Suggestions on Composition, for Use in Object Drawing.

OBJECT DRAWING IN OUTLINE

so the elbow must not be bent or the body turned ;
therefore, keep the shoulders firm against the chair
back. At best this method of measurement is use-
ful merely as a test as it is only approximately ac-
curate, so the student should not employ it too fre-
quently but should, instead, learn to depend on the
eye, especially for the smaller proportions. If the
drawing is frequently set back near the object he
will soon learn to see and correct his own mistakes.
In making corrections it is not always necessary to
erase the incorrect lines, for if they are very light
the new strokes can be made a bit heavier and will
be easily distinguished. If the wrong lines prove
confusing, however, erase them by all means.

It is not enough to compare the height of the
object with the width, or the relative lengths of dif-
ferent lines as is done by the thumb measurement,
but the slant of the lines should be studied also, to
make sure that they are pitched correctly. Hold
the pencil at arm's length in such a position that it
hides, or coincides with, some important line in the
object, — then do the same with the same line on
your drawing. Or hold the pencil vertically or
horizontally and sight across it at some sloping line.
Compare the angles formed by the various inter-
secting edges, too, and make corrections wherever
necessary.

As soon as the main proportions have been prop-
erly established and the larger subdivisions blocked
in and corrected in turn, we have completed the
first stage of our work as illustrated in Sketch 2,
Figure 3. At this time the larger characteristics
or peculiarities of the subject should be clearly ex-
pressed.

In the second stage, pictured in Sketch 3, the
larger parts are still further subdivided and more
of the small details are added. In this stage the
drawing should be set back several times, too, for
comparison with the subject. Here, as in the first
stage, it is not necessary to erase all the construc-
tion lines or incorrect strokes unless they prove dis-
tracting. This second stage expresses the smaller
or minor characteristics, retaining at the same time
most of the larger. At this point the drawing is
really a construction diagram over which it is in-
tended to work. For shaded problems drawings
are often brought only to this second stage before
the values are added.

Now, before going on to the third and last stage
illustrated in Sketch 4, get away from the work en-
tirely for a few moments. In fact it is advisable
to rest the eye every fifteen minutes or half hour
by doing something else. One can even save time
in the end if he goes to the window and looks out,
or walks about a bit, forgetting the drawing com-
pletely. After such relaxation mistakes will usually
be evident at the first glance and the brief respite
will make it easier to resume and hold the correct
position. This is important. Every time you take
your seat you must be sure you are viewing the ob-
ject from the right spot for, as we have said, the
slightest difference in position will make a marked
difference in the appearance. In this last stage
remove all wrong or unnecessary lines. Then partly
erase with a soft or kneaded rubber or art gum

the correct lines until they are barely visible, show-
ing just enough to afford a guide for the final relin-
ing. A great deal of thought should be given to
this last work for the final line should not be a
perfect and mechanical one but should be expres-
sive of the shapes and textures represented. For
some parts the pencil will need a rather sharp point,
—for others it must be quite blunt. The pressure
should be varied, too, as certain lines need to be so
light and delicate as to be barely visible while others
will be bold and strong. In places gradation will
take place from light to dark or from dark to light.
No rules can be given for obtaining satisfactory re-
sults ; it is a matter of taste and feeling. But draw
thoughtfully and observe before you draw. This
third stage expresses many of the smaller peculiar-
ities of the subject, being a subdivision of the lines
of the second stage, carefully refined, preserving,
however, the big characteristics of the first stage.

Table Line. In order to make an object appear
to rest on something solid instead of to merely hang
in the air it is usually advisable to draw a hori-
zontal line, often called a table line, which frequently
represents the back of the object stand. Such a
line gives some evidence of material support. If
graded to light as it disappears behind the object
or objects, it will add also to the feeling of detach-
ment and space. This line should never be just half
way between the margin lines. A second table line
representing the front edge is sometimes advisable.

Margin Line. A freehand line drawn an inch or
so from the edge of the paper all around, thus act-
ing as a frame, adds to many compositions. Some-
times this line is carried only part way around as at
"A," Sketch 7, Figure 4.

As soon as the sketch is completed, sign it with your
name, date it, and put on approximately the amount
of time required from start to finish. Then spray
the drawing with fixatif, if you wish, or clip a piece
of paper over it for protection and place it in your
folio or some safe place for preservation. Don't
make the mistake of destroying these early sketches,
thinking they are of no value, for though they may
not be beautiful pictures, it is often both interest-
ing and instructive to look them over later, the
comparison of a number of them done at different
times showing just what progress has been or is
being made.

When the sketch of the shoe is signed and laid
to one side select another similar subject and draw
it in just the same way, striving to truthfully ex-
press the individuality as before. Proportion the
object as you see it and not as you think it ought
to be — there will be time enough to use your orig-
inality later on, for remember it is truth we are
seeking now, as a knowledge of truth is a foun-
dation for all the rest to follow.

Marginal Notes or Sketches. When a subject
has been selected for a drawing it is often advis-
able to make very quickly a tiny sketch of it on
the margin of the paper before going ahead with
the final drawing. A few minutes will do for such a
marginal sketch or note, just time enough to allow for
a blocking in of the larger proportions, — the main
lines of construction. When making this tiny
sketch one is observing the subject and acquainting

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

himself with it as preparation for the larger work.
Figure 5 shows a number of these trial sketches.

Time Sketches. As a means of acquiring skill
to grasp and delineate the leading characteristics
of an object quickly, time sketches are valuable.
These are nothing more or less than drawings done
in a limited time, which is often set in advance.
For a simple subject to be left in outline, five min-
utes is allowed, or fifteen or whatever seems ad-
visable (this depending partly on the subject and
partly on the skill of the artist). As good a draw-
ing is made as is possible within the limits set. In
such work it is especially important to block out the
main-proportions first, adding as many of the smaller
details as time permits. Then there is another sort
of time sketch (often referred to as a time study)
in which a drawing is pushed to completion as
quickly as is possible and the required time noted.
The speed and dexterity gained through all such
training will prove indispensable when it comes to
working from the living model or sketching moving
objects. Animals, people, vehicles, boats and clouds
do not always remain still to suit the convenience of
the artist. Although all this "speed work" is essen-
tial and a pleasant change from the usual form of
drawing where time is not a leading consideration,
too much of it leads to carelessness and inaccuracy,
being detrimental rather than beneficial. Alternate
your problems, then, making some quick sketches
and some painstaking studies, and progress should
be steady and consistent.

Memory Drawings. When one has acquired a
fair amount of skill doing the types of work de-
scribed above, let him try a few drawings of the
same objects from memory, for the ability to draw
from memory or the imagination is a great asset to
the artist. When you have finished a drawing of
an old shoe, for instance, done from the object it-
self, leave the shoe in the same position on the
object stand but hide it from view, temporarily, with
a cardboard or sheet of paper and lay the study just
finished to one side. Then on a fresh piece of paper
try to draw the object from memory. When the
main lines have been blocked out, look at the shoe
again and compare your drawing. Hide the shoe
once more, correct your drawing and push it nearer
to completion and again compare it with the object
itself. Go on in this way until the drawing is com-
pleted. Then try some quick sketches of the shoe
from memory, looking at it first until you get a fresh
impression of it in your mind, next drawing swiftly
and freely, working for only the larger proportions
and individual characteristics. This sort of work
is of the greatest value in training one to observe
carefully and to retain that which is observed. It
may not be out of place to say that the student who
looks at an object for a long time, forming sort of
a photograph of it in the brain, is usually better able
to memorize the form than is the student who glances
back and forth constantly from the object to the
drawing as he works, forgetting the impression of
each line once it is represented on paper. This is
only a general rule, however, and has many excep-
tions as some students have the power to really ob-
serve and memorize more at a glance than do others
in several minutes.

Outline Drawing of Several Objects. The draw-
ing of two or three objects instead of one is logically
the next step. It involves few new principles, though
the matter of arrangement or composition now needs
our attention, for it is not always easy to choose and
arrange several objects to form a satisfactory whole.
The reader is referred to Chapter V, Part II, which
offers suggestions of assistance at this time. Study
what is said there about unity and balance. In order
to obtain unity it is essential that the objects chosen
should be well related by use, — objects which we
find associated for one reason or another. We have
already mentioned that such things as are frequently
found in the cellar or shed or attic often have more
character than objects which are merely pretty.
Objects that grow are often interesting, especially
if the forms are irregular.

It is not enough, however, to have things of a
kind or things associated by use unless they also
offer variety of form and surface and texture (and
if drawings are to be shaded, variety in light and
dark). Little pleasure would be taken in a sketch
showing several objects of equal roundness grouped
together, or several others based on cubes of like
size. Instead we look for dissimilar forms. , We
look for dissimilar edges, too, some that are soft,
broken or indefinite and some that are sharp and
clean-cut. An ink bottle with stationery and pen
might be pleasingly arranged, or a hat and gloves
and grip, or any of the many combinations to which
we have referred at the end of Chapter IV. An
enormously large object fails to harmonize in size
with something much smaller unless they are
arranged with the utmost care and even then such
a composition is difficult, so too much difference in
form or size is as bad as too little. Thought and
rare must be used, then, in both the selection and
arrangement.

When two or three objects have been chosen place
them on the stand and shift them about until they
compose satisfactorily. A view-finder such as de-
scribed on page 95 in Part II will be of use in this
work. It is often advisable at this point to make a
little trial marginal sketch to see how the arrangement
will look on paper. Then try some different group-
ing of these same objects. If some object does not
seem to fit, substitute another for it. Make a new
marginal sketch. Go through this process two or
three times and the best arrangement will be found.
Figure 5 shows at "A," "B" and "C" several
such sketches blocked out as a study of grouping.
Considering the fact that still life objects are always
shown in repose and bearing in mind that a triangle
resting on its base always seems to express this feel-
ing as much as any shape, many compositions of ob-
jects conform to a triangular proportion. Sketches
"A" 3, Figure 5 and "1," Figure 4, are tri-
angular in general mass and are, therefore, rest-
ful. When a triangle is placed on its apex, how-
ever, or any of its vertices, the opposite is true.
The two sketches of the little toy rabbit in Figure
4 are shown to illustrate this point. At "A"
the toy seems stationary ; at "B" it seems to be run-
ning off the paper, showing action rather than re-
pose, and the latter effect is obtained mainly by the
position of the triangular mass. Sketch 2, Figure

OBJECT DRAWING IN OUTLINE

EXAMPLES OF TRIAL SIUTCHE'S OR MARGINAL NOUS
5HOWIHG IRREGULAR. FORMS SU1TAHE FOR. EARLY PROBLEMS

Ju.

CURVED LINL

O&J ECTS

TRIAL STUDIES OF
LESS IRKEGULAS. OBJECTS

STRMijHT LINE.
OiJtCTi

k COMilNXTION
CURVLD AMD STRA.1QHT LINE OfcJECTS-'

Figure 5. Illustrating Some of the Uses of Marginal Notes and Trial Sketches.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

4 shows a square composition ; Sketch 3 one
which is circular. Rectangular compositions fre-
quently seem restful; when using circular or oval
masses care must be taken that the objects do not
seem inclined to roll out of the picture. The more
nearly horizontal the base is, the better, for if it is
too round in form the objects give an impression
of instability, seeming to have a desire to rock back
and forth or fall over. Both the irregular mass at
"A" and the circular mass at "B," Sketch 4, Figure
4, have an unstable appearance, the first seeming
to rest on too sharp a point at the base. As a
further illustration of the principle that objects seem
more satisfactory if resting firmly on some support
we call attention to the feeling of incompleteness
and restlessness that one notices in objects which
show no portion of their bases. The vase in Sketch
6 for instance, disapj>earing behind the book, gives
us a sense of something lacking. Another point
worth considering is that objects should not be
placed so far below the eye that they seem to tip vip,
as this always seems disturbing.

The other sketches on Figures 4 and 5 explain
themselves, and as experience will soon teach the stu-
dent how to get a satisfactory arrangement of the
objects, it seems needless to say more here. Once
they are in position the outline drawing should be
carried forward by gradual steps just as we have
explained for single objects, using care that in each
drawing there is good relative proportion between
all the different objects. When it comes to the final
stage greater variety of outline may lie needed to
represent the larger number of surfaces and textures.

When the student has learned to draw well in
outline it is time for him to start his work in light
and shade and this will lie discussed in the next
chapter. Before turning to this, however, attention
should be called to a means of learning freehand
work which is growing in favor.

Drawing on Glass. If one stands facing a china
closet or dish cupboard which has glass doors, and
closes one eye, and then takes a lithographic pencil
or china marking pencil he can trace on the glass the
form of some dish inside, and this tracing will be
a correct drawing of the dfsh as it appears from that
particular point. Of course, it is rather difficult to
draw in this way well for it is no easy matter to
maintain just the same position throughout the
work, and neither is it easy unless one's hand is

well trained, to follow the outline with sufficient
accuracy to produce a perfect drawing. Nor would
there be any particular advantage in being able to
do so. But students who have difficulty in perceiv-
ing or understanding certain facts in perspective
can sometimes find help by using glass, making sure
that it is at right angles to the line of sight from
the eye to the object. One can sketch on a window,
drawing, or more correctly, tracing, buildings or
trees or any objects in repose which may be visible
through the glass.

Occasional use of this method may help the be-
ginner, but there is another far more valuable use to
which glass may be put as a drawing surface, and
with this use every beginner should be familiar.

A sheet of glass is placed on the easel or drawing
table as a substitute for the usual paper, with a
sheet of paper or white cloth beneath so the lines
will be plainly visible when they are drawn. Then
the objects are sketched on the glass with the china
marking or lithographic pencil just as they would
be blocked in with pencil on paper. When the main
proportions are drawn as accurately as the student
is able to get them the glass is raised to such a
position that the drawing comes between the eye and
the objects drawn, using one eye only. When the
glass has been shifted to just the proper position the
lines of the drawing should coincide with those of
the object, this method therefore being an excellent
test for accuracy. If errors are noted, return the
glass to the table and erase the incorrect lines with
a damp cloth. Make the necessary corrections and
test again in the same way as before. Repeat the
process as often as is necessary ; then when the pro-
portions are right wash off the drawing and try a
new one of a different subject.

There is perhaps no way in which the beginner
can learn to see his own mistakes and acquire a
knowledge of perspective foreshortening more easily
than this, and the use of glass is especially recom-
mended to those who are unable to secure the serv-
ices of a teacher. The glass invented by Anson K.
Cross is a patented one having a spirit level in
the frame, and it is used in somewhat the manner
described above. Many well-known artists and edu-
cators advise the use of this glass, which has been
introduced into some of the leading schools of the
country. A crayon is especially prepared for use
with it.

Chapter IV.
OBJECT DRAWING IN LIGHT AND SHADE.

WE NOW come to the making of shaded draw-
ings of objects in which we wish to repre-
sent the exact amount of light and shade
found in the objects themselves.

In this work no outline will appear for we are to
make as truthful a representation of the tones seen
in nature as is possible with a lead pencil, and nature
shows us no outline. A little observation will prove
that we are able to tell one object from another by
its light or shade or color. Most areas of light or
of shade have clearly defined shapes which explain
to us the forms of the objects and all these shapes
seem to have boundaries where one tone stops against
another. In elementary work and for certain types
of explanatory drawings lines may be used to repre-
sent these contours or boundaries, the light and
shade being omitted or merely suggested, and the
eye is satisfied with the result. But the result is a
wholly conventional one. Now we must stop think-
ing of lines but must think of tones instead. We
must learn to think of the exact degrees of light and
shade found in the objects and to represent them
correctly. We must learn to translate the values of
color into values of light and dark. For the value
of a given color must be represented by a tone of
gray which has the same degree of light and dark
that the color has. These tones will vary all the way
from the white of the paper to the pure black of the
softest pencil. We have white tones, and light tones,
and middle tones and dark tones and black tones,
and though there are in reality many more than these
five groups (in fact the1 tones in nature are innu-
merable), it is best in drawing to simplify the values,
not attempting to break up a tone to express every
slight difference in value which may be discovered
on close inspection.

For the first problems it is suggested that some
object or objects be chosen with little color, confin-
ing the choice to such things as are white or gray
of black or of dull tints or shades, for with these the
relative values can be seen quite easily. The stu-
dent will be helped in judging a value if he com-
pares it with white. So take a small sheet of white
paper a few inches in size and compare it with the
various objects to be drawn. Is there any tone in
the objects as light as the paper? Select the light-
est tone that you can find. You may discover two
tones of different color but the same value. Now
hold your sheet of white paper in bright light and
compare its tone with that of similar paper in some
darker place. Now take a piece of black paper and
compare that with the objects. Is there any tone
as dark as the black paper? Select the darkest tone
that you can find in the objects. Now place the
dark paper in brilliant light and compare its tone
with that of another piece of the same paper in
some darker place. Such experiments will prove

that even though a surface is white it will not
always appear white, and though black, its value
will change in effect as it is moved from place to
place — the less light a surface receives the darker
its values will seem to be.

It should be remembered also, that if we have
two objects of exactly the same form under the
same lighting conditions, but one light and the other
dark, the darker one will have darker values all
over as its local color is added to the shade.

So the lightest value on the objects will usually
be found in that one having the lightest local color
and in that part of it receiving the brightest light
(usually that portion nearest the window). There
are some exceptions to this-; highly glazed dark
objects will sometimes reflect a value so light as
to be the lightest in the whole composition, being
even more brilliant than the paper on which the
objects are being drawn.

When we intend to do shaded work in full values
we prepare first of all an outline drawing just as was
described in the preceding chapter, though the final
accented outline is not needed, — instead the outline
should be softened with an eraser until it becomes
simply an inconspicuous guide for the work in
shading. Next we lightly add the contours or boun-
daries of the most clearly defined areas of light or
shade. Now we determine the lightest light and
the darkest dark and make a comparison of the other
values. Then sharpen a medium soft pencil to a
fairly sharp point (a softer one may be necessary
for extremely dark tones) and we are ready to be-
gin. There are several methods of procedure open.
Some teachers feel that it is best to first draw the
darkest tone, then the next lighter, and so on up
through the values, leaving the lights for the last.
Others start with the lightest tones, next add the
grays, working down to the darkest values. Really
everything depends on the individuality of the art-
ist and the type of drawing desired. Assuming that
we are to make as correct a representation as we
know how, it will probably be easiest to work over
the whole drawing, not attempting to bring any one
portion to the proper tone at first, but building up
all the various tones gradually. In this way unity
will be obtained. Set the drawing back frequently,
and get away from it once in a while for a few
minutes' rest.

We have already mentioned that as a rule such
surfaces as are receiving the brightest light (which
means they are turned directly towards the source
of light), will be the brightest. If we have an ob-
ject which is rounded in form (such as a cylinder)
we will usually find it the lightest in value towards
the window. Those portions which are turned away
from the light will of course be rather dark. There
may be a gradual change of tone from the lightest

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

SKETCH 1

TOP VIEW

DIRECTION or
LIGHT •

.SKETCH 2

PLR5PLCT1 VI

TOP VI E.W

5KLTCH 3

- PER5PECT1 VE.

TOP

Figure 6. Modelling or Shading of Objects.

parts to the darkest, — see Sketch 1, Figure 6, — or
if the object has a somewhat irregular surface
sucli as the decagonal prism, shown at Sketch 2 in
the same diagram, the values may change gradually
plane by plane from the lightest plane to a slighter
darker plane, to a still darker one, and so on around
to a point on the back opposite the lightest plane.
Jt is not always true, however, that the darkest plane
or portion of curved surface will he the one farthest
from the source of light, for there is sometimes a
certain amount of illumination from some other
direction, and even if there is not, there are fre-
cjuently rays of light reflected onto the parts in shade
or shadow, thereby neutralizing the otherwise dark
values. Sketches 1 and 3, Figure 6, will serve to
illustrate this point (the reader is referred also to
Chapter VI, Part II, on graded tones). At "1" the
brightest value is on that portion of the cylinder re-
ceiving the strongest rays of light. Then as the sur-
face curves more and more away from the source of
illumination the darker it gets. At "3" a different
condition exists. The brightest part of the surface
is at "A" as in "1"; then the tone gradually darkens
until it reaches "B," which is the darkest. Then at
"C" a lighter value is found, caused by the reflection
of light rays from some other object.

Planes. Now few objects which we draw have sur-
faces curving as gradually as those of the cylinder
just illustrated or planes so mechanically arranged as
those of the prism. • More often the objects are so
irregular that the light and shade varies from part
to part ; there may be many portions turned towards
the light and many turned more or less away. These
various areas of light and shade which are seen in
an object, caused by its irregular form and its posi-
tion in relation to the source of light, are usually
referred to as "planes," even though they do not
fully meet the geometric definition of the word.

Edges of Planes. In some irregular objects
there is quite a definite line of demarkation be-
tween the various planes. In gradually curving ob-
jects there is no such line — the tone simply grades
as we have noted in the case of the cylinder, with
no sudden, perceptible change in value. In most
objects both of these two conditions exist; in parts
the planes seem quite definite, in others they merge
together. There is nothing more important than
to draw these edges correctly, sharpening them or
losing them as the case may be. In the same way
there is great difference in the edges of the objects
themselves as they come in contrast with the back-
ground or with other objects. Some stand out in
sharp relief, others are indistinct. Some dark ob-
jects become so lost in shadow on their shade side
that it is hard to distinguish the form, hence it
should not be over-accented in the drawing.

Sliadoivs. Shadows out-of-doors and shadows in-
doors are entirely different in their appearance.
In-doors they are softer and more indefinite ; —
whereas some edges of shadows seem sharp, many
are almost lost. Hold the end of your pencil on a
sheet of paper and the shadow will seem sharpest
right at the point of intersection. Bear this in
mind when shading. Correctly drawn shadows have
much to do with the effect of modelling or projec-
tion. Needless to say, unless the objects are
arranged with care and the whole group well lighted
the shadows may prove very distracting; consider-
able experimenting will be necessary to compose a
group to the best advantage. If light is coming
from several sources the shadows will surely be un-
fortunate, for the complex forms cast in different
directions will tend to restlessness and confusion.

Now when your drawing seems finished set it
back for a final comparison. Have you the exact
degrees of light and dark in the drawing as in the

OBJECT DRAWING IN LIGHT AND SHADE

, -

THE. 5KLTCHJNG
OF O&JLCTJ

Figure 7. Illustrating the Representation of Objects in Light and Sliadc.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

objects themselves? Have you the correct degrees
of sharpness and softness in the edges? Is there
too much dark on one side or at the bottom or the
top, or does the whole hold together nicely? Are
the tones clear and transparent, or heavy and dead?
Have you succeeded in expressing space, depth,
weight, texture? Have you practiced economy of
tone or is the drawing confusing because of too
many different values? Have you lost the outline
as you should in drawing in light and shade, remem-
bering that the mere contrast of tones as in nature
will bring out what you wish to express?

Now partly close the eyes and study your draw-
ing reduced to its simplest elements. Do the nearer
parts seem to come forward properly and the farther
parts to go back? If not, force the nearer parts a
bit and sacrifice the distant portions. We must get
a feeling of projection and distance. Is there a
complexity of high light? If so, tone clown all lights
a bit, leaving one to be the strongest of them all,
for a picture is better witli one lightest light and
one darkest dark. Too much emphasis cannot be
attached to the importance of studying the objects
drawn and the drawing itself through partly closed
eyes, not only when it is completed but from time,
to time as the work progresses. For in this way
one shuts out all but the essentials, and hence is
not led into complication and restlessness of ef-
fect.

Now we have said little about the kind of stroke-
to be used for this work, for it is better that there
be no definite line showing. The tone should be
built up by going over and over it with a compara-
tively sharp point, merging the various lines to-
gether until they arc lost. Naturally the textures
represented make a difference in the manner of
working, but to make such studies of the greatest
value each tone should be as nearly perfect as pos-
sible, the student striving for transparency and
luminosity. The drawing of the apple at 1, Figure
7, was done in this manner. Sometimes tones are

rubbed smooth with the finger or with a stump, but
this method has little to commend it for this class
of work.

There is another type of shaded still life draw-
ing, however, which is more sketchily done, where
a few strokes of the pencil are used to express a
great deal. This type of work has been illustrated
in Figure 7 which shows separate strokes in
many places rather than continuous tone. The stu-
dent should practice this kind of work, too, so
drawing the strokes as to best express the surfaces
represented, using some fine and some broad lines.
In line work the strokes should as a rule follow the
direction of the surface.

In types of work sometimes seen the still life
becomes a motif for a decorative scheme or com-
binations of tone and outline are found, or washes
of color are added to the pencilling, but there are
many elementary text books which show examples
of such work, therefore the interested student can
find a great deal of material to help him, if he desires
to do so. The student's drawings opposite illustrate
some of these possibilities for decorative work and
on page 23 is an excellent example of a type of draw-
ing frequently made in which a few very dark, crisp
accents are added to a clean-cut outline. Notice the
direct and economical way in which the various ma-
terials are suggested, and the commendable sim-
plicity of the whole.

Objects for Draii'iny — Objects having distinct
character are best as subjects for drawings. Quaint
and old-fashioned things are particularly interesting,
or things which are worn or broken. Rummage the
attic or stable or cellar. Look in the garage or
garden. Fven the kitchen and laundry will yield
many simple and useful implements and utensils ex-
cellent for our purpose. The following list may
guide the student in his search.

Objects for elementary or comparatively small
compositions : Garden trowel and flower pots ; ham-
mer, box of nails ; screwdriver and screws ; basket

Courtesy of Pratt Institute Ethel M. Weir

Accented Outline Drawing by Student at Pratt Institute.

OBJECT DRAWING IN LIGHT AND SHADE

Courtesy of Pratt Institute

A. Mershon

Courtesy of Pratt Institute

Marjorie House

DRAWINGS BY STUDENTS AT PRATT INSTITUTE

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

of clothespins, coil of clothesline; pail with cloth
hanging over side, scrub brush and scouring powder ;
old battered coalhod ; tack hammer, box of tacks,
etc. ; flatirons with stand and holder ; whet stone
with knife and piece of wood half whittled; sponge,
soap and basin of water ; dust pan and brush,
feather duster ; ice-cream freezer, bag of salt, etc.

Among larger objects we have : Snow shovel,
rubber boots and mittens ; shovel and tongs ; wash
tubs on bench with basket of clothes ; wheelbarrow,
rake and basket ; broken box with axe ; watering
pot, trowel, broken flower pots; hat and coat on
nail ; old trunk partly opened, etc. ; old hats and
hatboxes; umbrellas in various positions, opened,
closed and half closed; brooms and mops with dust-
pans and pails ; chopping block, sticks of wood, axe ;
basket of kindlings and hatchet; old churn with
chair beside it ; baseball bat, mitt and ball.

Books can always be arranged effectively, piled
up, tumbled down, spread out, open or closed.

Book, candle stick and matches ; old novel partly
opened, apple between leaves; half open newspaper
with books ; book with reading glass or with spec-
tacles; ink bottle with copy book and pen; books,
paper weight, half-open letter and envelope.

Then there are other objects which can be found
around^ the house, such things as are in every-day
use: Glove box and gloves; collar bag; photograph
in frame, bowl of flowers; cribbage board and cards;
pipe, tobacco jar, matches, etc. ; opera glasses, bag
and program ; slippers, gloves and fan ; hats or caps';

hat, grip and gloves ; shaving mug, brush, razor, etc. ;
basket or bag with sewing or knitting; brush, comb
and mirror; children's toys and dolls.

The following suggestions are for the uses of
fruits, vegetables, etc. Such combinations are of
course innumerable : Paper bag with fruit, vege-
tables or candy falling out and at the side ; bananas
half peeled on plate with knife; lemons, squeezer,
glass, sugar and spoon; box of sardines, sliced
lemons and plate of crackers; cocoanut, broken
open ; bunches of beets or carrots or similar vege-
tables with tops ; several apples, one cut in half, an-
other partly pared ; tea pot, tea cups, plate of sand-
wiches; fruit bowl or basket filled with fruit; pine-
apple with knife and plate; squash or pumpkin cut
open, partly sliced; pumpkin made into jack-o-lan-
tern; bread on plate, some sliced, with knife; salad
plate with lobster and lettuce, mayonnaise bow!,
spoon and fork; roast of meat on platter with carv-
ing knife; plate of beans, bottle catsup, napkin;
sugar bowl, cubes of sugar, sugar tongs; box of
candy open or partly open ; crackers in box or bag,
bowl of milk, spoon; strawberries or grapes in
basket; bunches of grapes with bit of vine, leaves,
and tendrils; apples, pears or peaches hanging on
branches with leaves ; heads of lettuce, cauliflower
and bunches of celery; sliced meat on platter, garn-
ished with parsley. And bowls and vases of flowers
are always good, too, or branches of leaves or ber-
ries. For more elaborate studies, views of room cor-
ners or portions of a yard or street offer many pos-
sibilities.

OBJECT DRAWING IN LIGHT AND SHADE

ACCENTED OBJECT DRAWING

TIME. 2 HOUR 5.

E.THE.L

OBJECT DRAWING BY ETHEL M. WEIR

Chapter V.
FREE-HAND PERSPECTIVE.

OBJECTS usually appear different in shape
from what we know them to be. or, in other
words, the appearance seems contrary to the
facts which we know regarding these objects. We are
aware, for instance, that a cube has six equal faces
and that each of them is square. If we dra^jt six
squares, however, or a smaller number, combin-
ing them in any and every possible way, the final
result will certainly not give us the same impression
as the cube itself. We also know that the top of
a right cylinder is a circle, yet it is seldom indeed
that we see a cylinder in such a position that the top
appears as a true circle. We think of it as a circle •
simply because we know it to be one ; not because
it seems really circular, for unless we look straight
at the end of the cylinder it appears elliptical or
even as a straight line.

So when we are in doubt as to how things should
be drawn in order to have them look right, we not
only study the things themselves but we also turn
to the science of perspective which gives us prin-
ciples that are helpful to us in drawing objects cor-
rectly, not as they actually are, but as they appear
from the point from which they are viewed. Free-
hand perspective trains us especially in the applica-
tion of these principles to the practical problems of
free-hand sketching.

For the purpose of this book it seems desirable
to discuss very briefly only a few of the more im-
portant of these principles. Nothing short of a
complete volume could do justice to the subject,
and as there are already many excellent works avail-
able it seems needless to duplicate here that which
has already been so successfully and completely
handled elsewhere. The reader who really desires
to thoroughly master the subject should read some
such book as "Free-hand Perspective and Sketching"
by Dora Miriam Xorton, not forgetting, however,
that the reading itself will do little good unless
sketches are made to illustrate each point as the
student goes along. And one should learn to be
observing of the perspective appearance of objects
all about him; if he is studying circles and ellipses,
let him take notice of every circular arch, or clock
face, or barrel, or other similar form which he sees.

Now fundamentally these principles which have
to do with the appearance of things are few, and
among them the following are perhaps the most
important.

First, the apparent size of an object decreases in
proportion to its distance from an imaginary plane
which passes through the eye at right angles to the
direction in which one is looking.

Second, a surface appears in its true shape only
when parallel to this plane, or, in other words, when
at right angles to the line of sight from eye to sur-
face.

This first principle can be easily tested if one stands

close to a window and looks straight through it ; —
an entire building in the distance will appear only
a few inches in size on a single pane of glass. If
there are several objects of equal size at varying
distances from the eye it will be noticed that the
nearest one appears to be the largest and the others
seem smaller and smaller in proportion to their dis-
tance away.

By way of illustration of the second principle it
will be easy for the student to demonstrate for him-
self that when a surface (take a circular end of a
cylinder, for example) is not so placed as to be
at right angles to the line of sight it appears smaller
in one dimension because of being turned away, and
the farther it is turned the smaller this dimension
seems, until when turned so far as to cause the sur-
face to coincide with the direction of sight it will
appear simply as a line. This apparent change of
shape is called foreshortening.

Now in order to give a working knowledge of
the application of these principles in the quickest
and most direct way we will discuss the appearance
and methods of representation of a few typical geo-
metric forms. Flsewhere we have explained that
once the simple forms are understood it will not
be difficult to do objects which are more complex,
applying exactly the same principles.

The Horizon Line or Eye Level — This is an
imaginary horizontal line at the level of the eye.
In object drawing or other small work, the latter
term is the more commonly used ; for buildings and
outdoor vork in general, the former is customary.

The appearance of any object will vary according
to whether it is at or above or below the eye level
and to the right or in front or to the left of the
spectator. To observe just what variation does take
place in the appearance of objects as viewed from
various points, it is advisable for the student
before doing any drawing, to take simple things and
to hold them in different positions, noticing just how
they look when moved from place to place, nearer
or farther from the eye and higher or lower in
relation to the horizon line.

The Sphere — Take, for example, a sphere, or an
apple or orange or some other object of spherical
form. When held above the eye it appears as a
circle. — below the eye and at the eye level its con-
tour is practically the same. If it is a true sphere
there will not be the slightest variation. If we
take an apple, however, with the stem at the top, and
hold it level but below the eye, not only is the stem
visible but so is a portion of the surface beyond it.
If we raise it until the top of the apple is at the
height of the eye, still holding it level, the stem is
still seen but none of the surface beyond is visible.
A bit of the "blossom" below may now show. As we
raise it above the eye the stem will gradually dis-
appear as will a portion of the top surface, and as

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SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

this is lost to view more of the lower part will be-
come visible, so if it is held some distance above the
eye we will see the entire "blossom" and the surface
beyond. In other words, whereas a sphere remains
the same in profile regardless of its position, we see
different portions of its surface as it is moved up
and down, and the same is true if it is shifted to
the right or to the left, or spun round and round.
Sketch 1, Figure 8, illustrates this point. Study
this and then draw several objects of spherical form
placed in a variety of positions.

Attention should lie called to the fact that we
seldom see half way around a sphere. Sketch 2
perhaps explains this more clearly. If "X" repre-
sents the top view of the sphere and "Y" the posi-
tion of the spectator, the lines drawn from "Y"
tangent to the sphere, mark at "A" and "B" the
limits of the visible portion of the sphere at the
plane of its greatest circumference. The larger the
sphere or the closer the spectator the smaller this
distance becomes.

The Cylinder, Vertical — Now take a right cylinder
and hold it vertically, and with one eye closed raise
it until the top is level with the other eye. In this
position the top circle will appear as a straight line,
the circular plane being so greatly foreshortened
that only its edge can be seen. Now lower it a bit.
The circular top is now visible but still so much
foreshortened that it is elliptical instead of circular
in appearance. Lower it still farther and the
rounder the ellipse becomes. Now just as this top
ellipse appears rounder as it is dropped below the
eye. it is evident that if the bottom of the cylinder
could be fully seen it would appear still rounder
than the top. as it is even farther below the eye.
Experience will prove that the degree of roundness
of the ellipse will be in proportion to its distance
below the eye. Next raise the cylinder vertically
until the lower end is at the eye level; this now
appears as a straight line just as did the top end
before. Raise it still higher and the bottom comes
in sight as an ellipse, the top of the cylinder being
now hidden. And the higher the cylinder is raised,
the rounder the ellipse of the bottom becomes, its
fullness being in proportion to its distance above the
eye level. If the cylinder is lowered until the bot-
tom and top are both equi-distant from the eye
level both will be invisible but the visible edges of
each will have like curvature, and if the cylinder
were transparent so both the top and bottom could
be seen, the ellipses representing both would be
identical in sixe and shape, as both circles are the
same distance from the level of the eye.

Transparent cylinders of glass are convenient for
such experiments or the student can make one of
celluloid or some similar material.

What is true of the perspective appearance of the
top or bottom of a cylinder is true of any circle,
and if the student wishes to prove this, let him cut
a circle from a sheet of heavy paper or cardboard
and experiment with this. When held horizontally
and level with the eye does it not look like a straight
line? And when raised above or dropped below the
eye level does it not appear as an ellipse? Note
the apparent change in roundness of this ellipse and
in the length of its short axis as the circle is raised

or lowered. Only the long axis will appear of the
same proportionate length regardless of the position
of the circle. Is it not true, also, that when a circle
appears as an ellipse the ellipse is always perfectly
symmetrical about its long and short axis lines, and
is it not divided by these axis lines into four quar-
ters which appear exactly equal?

Go back to the cylinder again and see if this,
too, does not, when held vertically, appear sym-
metrical about a vertical central axis line at all times,
every element of the cylindrical surface being ver-
tical also? As in the case of the sphere we seldom
see half way around the circumference; hence less
than one-half of the cylindrical surface is visible
at any one time.

Now try a number of sketches of the vertical
cylinder and the horizontal circle as viewed from
different positions (Sketch 3 shows a few). Prac-
tice drawing ellipses, too, until you can do them
well ; this is no easy matter.

The tipped or horizontal cylinder will be discussed
later.

The Vertical Cone — While we still have the hori-
zontal circle in mind let us consider the right circu-
lar cone placed vertically. Sketch 4 shows the cone
in this position. It will be seen that the appear-
ance of the circle is the same as in the case of the
cylinder. Also that if the apex of the cone is at the
top and the cone below the eye, we can see more
than half way around the conical surface. If raised
above the eye we see less than half way around.
And if the cone is inverted the opposite is true.
Note also that a right circular cone will always ap-
pear symmetrical, the long axis of the ellipse of the
base being at right angles to the axis of the cone.
Make several drawings of the vertical cone; — the
horizontal or tipped cone will be discussed later.

The Cube in Parallel Perspective — We now turn
to the cube. Hold it with the top at the eye level
and the nearer face at right angles to the line of
sight so it is seen in its true shape. Only one face
of the cube is visible now, and that appears as a
square. Lower the cube a few inches and the top
appears, greatly foreshortened. The farther hori-
zontal edge, being a greater distance away than the
nearer one, seems the shorter of the two. The par-
allel receding edges of the top seem to slant. If
these slanting edges were continued indefinitely
they would appear to meet at a point and that point
would be on the eye level. Lower the cube a few
inches farther. The top now appears wider and
the two receding edges have still greater slant. If
continued they would still meet at a point on the
eye level, the same one as before. The front face
still appears square. Now raise the cube above the
eye, still holding it vertical. The top goes out of
sight and the bottom becomes visible. The front
face looks square as before. Now the higher the
cube is raised the more the bottom shows. The re-
ceding1 lines now seem to slant downward towards
the eye level; if continued they would meet the
very same point on the eye level as when the cube
was below the eye.

Now in order to convince yourself that these same
facts are true of other objects, take a box or any
form similar to the cube, and study it in various

FREE-HAND PERSPECTIVE

horizontal positions above and below the eye, keep-
ing the nearest vertical plane so turned that it is
always seen in its true shape. When the object is
below the eye do not the horizontal receding lines
seem to slant upward with an appearance of con-
vergence? And when the object is above the eye
do not these horizontal receding lines seem to slope
downward in the same way? And whether above
or below the eye is it not true that all the horizontal
surfaces appear to slope towards the eye level as
they recede? It is interesting to note as mentioned
above that such parallel edges as recede would, if
continued far enough, appear to converge towards
the same point on the eye level, exactly opposite the
eye itself, this being termed the vanishing point for
that set of edges. Such edges as do not recede
have, of course, no appearance of convergence and
hence no vanishing point.

All the time that you are studying the object ask
yourself such questions as the following, for it is by
personal observation and analysis that one can best
gain a knowledge of perspective appearances. Is it
true that every set of parallel receding horizontal
lines has a common vanishing point of its own?
And that of two parallel lines of same length which
do not recede the one nearest the spectator appears
the longer? And that any parallel edges which are
at right angles to the line of sight actually appear
parallel ?

When an object is placed like the cube or bos;
which we have mentioned, so its principal face is
at right angles to the line of sight from the eye, we
say that it is viewed in parallel perspective. Sketch
5 shows cubes in parallel perspective in various rela-
tions to the eye level.

The Cube in Angular Perspective — We now pur-
pose to turn the cube into a new position, placing
it in a horizontal manner below the eye and turned
at an angle with all four of the edges of the top
receding. None of the edges now appears hori-
zontal. Now sketch the to]) of the cube in this
position. It will be noticed that if the cube is so
turned as to make equal angles with the line of sight
as at "A," Sketch 6, Figure 9, we will see equal
portions of the lines marked "a" and "b" and they
will have equal slant. The same will be true of
"c" and "d." Now if we turn the cube so that it
makes unequal angles with the line of sight, as at
"B," Sketch 6, we find that line "a" will seem
shorter and line "b" longer than before.

Now to more firmly fix these thoughts in vour
mind shift the cube from place to place and ques-
tion yourself in this way. If two edges of the square
top of the cube recede from you at unequal angles,
which of the two appears the longer? Which the
more nearly horizontal ? And considering the com-
plete cube, turned at an angle so that two or more
of its faces are visible, can any one of these appear
in its true shape ? Will all parallel edges receding
towards the left appear to converge or vanish to
one point and those towards the right to another?
And if so will these points be on the eye level?

Continue your analysis in this thorough way and
you will observe many interesting things. You will
see that such edges of the cube as are truly vertical
appear so and hence should be drawn so. You will

notice that the nearest vertical edge will be the
longest and that the others will decrease in length
as they get farther away.

When a cube or other object is so placed that
no surface is seen in its true shape, or that its prin-
cipal planes are at other than a right angle with the
line of sight, it is said to be in angular perspective.
As it is rather difficult for the beginner to draw
in angular perspective well, he should work for some
time from a cube itself, placing it in different posi-
tions above and below the eye. In drawing such
an object it is usually advisable to actually locate
and draw a line representing the level of the eye
on the paper, making sure that the various receding
lines are converging to the proper vanishing points
on this eye level. It is sometimes wise in these
early problems to actually continue such receding
lines indefinitely, allowing them to meet at the proper
points, as at "C" and "D," Sketch 6. As an aid
in testing for correct drawing of a cube in angular
perspective it is occasionally helpful to draw diag-
onal lines on the top foreshortened square as we have
done with the dotted lines at "A" and "I?," Sketch
6. At "A" with the cube turned at equal angles,
the long diagonal is horizontal, the short perpen-
dicular. Let the cube be swung around as at "B,"
however, and the diagonals immediately tip. Point
"g" drops lower than "e," and "h" moves to the
right of "f" instead of remaining above it. If the
vertical faces are turned at unequal angles, then,
we not only see more of one than of the other but
the diagonals of the top plane will always be tipped;
never vertical or horizontal. Rules of this sort are
of comparatively little help, however; the thing that
counts in all these objects is the observation and
practice from the things themselves.

The Cylinder, Not Vertical — Now that the draw-
ing of the cube has given one a little knowledge of
receding lines, it is well to go back to a considera-
tion of the cylinder, only this time we will not place
it vertically. Hold it, instead, in a horizontal posi-
tion at the level of the eye ("closing one eye) and
turn it so that the circular end appears in its true
shape. In this position nothing is seen but the end.
If we then swing it or tip it so that the end a.nd
some of the curved surface are both visible, the end
will appear as an ellipse. The less of the curved
surface shows, the rounder this ellipse will be. Then
swing the cylinder until one end appears a straight
line. In this position the other end is invisible but
if the cylinder were transparent it would be found
that this end would appear as an ellipse. Study
the cylinder in all sorts of positions above and below
the eye, making observations of this sort. Such
study and comparison will prove that the right cylin-
der, regardless of position, will always appear sym-
metrical about its long axis line ; that the long di-
ameters of the ellipses forming the ends will be at
right angles to the axis of the cylinder. One will
notice,' too, that it is never possible to see quite half
way around the cylindrical surface. And when the
farther end of the horizontal or tipped cylinder is
a greater distance from the eye than the nearer end
it will appear smaller, which means in turn that the
elements of the cylindrical surface will appear to
converge, and these elements being all parallel lines

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

they will seem to vanish towards a point. If the
cylinder is placed horizontally this point will be on
the eye level ; i f tipped in some other position the
point will he ahove or below the eye. To this same
vanishing point the axis of the cylinder will also
recede if produced. And it will be noticed, too. that
regardless of the placing of the cylinder those ele-
ments of the surface which form the straight boun-
daries will appear tangent to the curves of the bases.
At "A," Sketch 7, the cylinder has been drawn with-
in a square prism. To do so gives one a knowledge
of the relationship between objects based on the
square and the circle.

The Conr. Tipped — And if we turn to the cone
once more for further consideration and look directly
at its apex we will find that it appears as a true
circle. And when so held that its base becomes a
straight line it has the contour of a triangle. The
visible curved surface of a cone may range from
all to none. The bounding elements of the cone
are always represented by straight lines tangent to
the ellipse which represents the base. And the right
cone, like the cylinder, will always appear sym-
metrical, being divided by its long axis into two
equal parts.

Study the little sketches of -cylinders and cones in
Sketch 7, Figure ll Then make many of your o\vn.

Now in just the same way consider other geometric
forms, such as the triangular prism placed verti-
cally and horizontally, and the pyramid and the
hexagonal prism in various positions. Though our
space does not permit full discussion of these here,
it seems essential to call attention to a few facts
in regard to the appearance of the triangle, the
hexagon, etc. Rut first, let us say another word or
two about the square. \Ye have drawn a square at
Sketch 8 and have crossed its diagonals. Doing
this locates the true center of the square "o" as it
appears in perspective. It seems more than half
wav back, for the farther half of the square, being
a greater distance from the eye than the first half,
seems smaller For the same reason, liiu- "bo"
seems longer than "od," though in top view we know
they would be equal. This will perhaps make more
clenr the fact that equal distances on any receding
line seem unequal, the farther seeming the shorter.
Xow suppose that at the end of this square we draw
a triangle, as at "R," Sketch 8. locating its apex b\
drawing a line horizontally from center "o" to line
"be," erecting a vertical altitude at the point of
intersection "tY" choosing point "e" arbitrarily on
the altitude and then drawing "ec" and "eh." This
triangle illustrates the truth that the apex of a ver-
tical isosceles or equilateral triangle having a hori-
zontal base appears in a vertical line erected in the
perspective center of the base. As it is easier to
judge the correct proportion of a square in perspec-
tive than of a triangle, a square is sometimes drawn
first as a guide as in Sketch 0. At Sketch 10 we
have shown a hexagon. It will lie noticed at "A"
that the two short diagonals "hf" and "ce" and the
long diagonals "lie" and "cf" divide long diagonal
"ad" into four equal parts. For in a correct draw-
ing of a hexagon it is always true that any long
diagonal when intersected by two short and one long
diagonals will lie divided into four equal parts.

\Yhen a hexagon is sketched in parallel perspective
as at "B" they all appear equal. Now in drawing
polygons, especially those which are regular such as
the hexagon just mentioned, it is often easiest to
first draw an ellipse representing a circumscribed
circle. In drawing the decagonal prism in Figure
6, for instance, an ellipse was first drawn just as
for the cylinders, then the decagon was drawn within
it. So try a number of polygons, and later prisms
and pyramids built upon polygonal bases.

Concentric Circles — Even in so brief a treatise on
perspective it seems necessary for us to make some
reference to concentric circles, as they must be fre-
quently drawn and as they often cause trouble. Stu-
dents sometimes are under the mistaken impression
that circles in perspective do not appear as true
ellipses. They argue that as the nearer half of the
ellipse is not so far from the spectator as the other
half it appears larger and hence must lie drawn so.
\Yhereas this may sound logical on the face of it,
it is not true. For if you test actual objects yon
will find the circles always appear in perspective as
true ellipses. \Ye can make this more clear by
referring to Sketch 11. \Ye have already mentioned
that one cannot see half way around a cylinder. At
"A," we have drawn the top view of a cylinder.
The spectator is standing at "s." Lines of tangency
from "s" to the cylinder give us at "1" and "2"
points representing the extreme limits of the cylin-
drical surface visible from "s." If we draw a
straight line across from "1" to "2" it marks tin-
greatest width of the cylinder as it appears from
"s." This line really does not pass through the true
center of the circle, represented at "o." but is be-
tween this center and the spectator, and becomes
the major axis of the ellipse representing the circle.
The shaded portion back of this line on the sketch
will appear from "s" exactly the same size at that
portion left white ; hence the ellipse must appear
truly symmetrical about this line. At "B" the spec-
tator stands closer, and sees less of the cylindrical
surface. Xow suppose we have two concentric
circles representing the tops of two concentric
cylinders as indicated at "C." the spectator still
standing at "s." If we treat these independently
as before, drawing tangents to the curves, these
tangents will measure off visible surfaces from 1 to
_' on the larger and from 3 to 4 on the smaller.
This shows that the eye will see relatively more of
the cylindrical surface of the smaller cylinder. Line
3-4 is nearer the center "o" than line 1-2 but does
not pass through it. Xow the easiest way for the
student to draw such circles in perspective is to
assume that they are inscribed in squares. At "D"
two squares having a common center are shown in
perspective. The crossing of the diagonals gives
us the true center of the circle at "o,"^ correctly
located in perspective. At 1. 2. 3 and 4 are points
through which the larger ellipse must pass. Line
"x," just half wav from points 1 and 3 will be the
long axis of the large ellipse, which will be drawn
symmetrically about this line, passing through points
1, 2, 3 and 4. The smaller ellipse will be drawn
in exactly the same way. passing through points
5, 6. 7 and 8, and drawn symmetrically about axis
"v." which is half wav from 5 to 7.

FREE-HAND PERSPECTIVE

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Figure 9. Illustrating Some Further Perspective Considerations.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

Study these circles at "D" and examine objects
in which other concentric circles are found. Is it
not true that foreshortened concentric circles appear
as ellipses? And would not the short axis lines of
these ellipses coincide? It will he noticed, too, at
"D," that distances 3-7, 7-0, 0-5 and 5-1 on the short
axis seem to decrease gradually though actually
the same as the un foreshortened distances on the
long axis, 2-6, 6-0, 0-8 and 8-4. So in drawing
such ellipses remember to have the space between
them widest at the ends as at 2-6 and 8-4, and a
little wider between the near curves as at 3-7 than
at the farther side as at 5-1.

When one feels able to do all the more common
of the geometric forms individually in every pos-
sible position let him draw combinations of several.
This work should be followed by a practical appli-
cation of the same principles to the drawing of
objects of all sorts and sizes based on the same
forms, as discussed in the chapter on object drawing.
And as one draws he should analyze and memorize.

And one should attempt to make free-hand per-
spective sketches from memory or the imagination
or from actual working drawings prepared instru-
mental!}' such as a front and side and top view.

In the chapter on object drawing some of the
advantages of studying certain things by drawing
them on glass have been pointed out and we have
also described the glass invented by Mr. Cross spe-
cially for this purpose. Either the common or the
patented glass might be of great help to the student
in his perspective studies, particularly if this sub-
ject proves difficult. Training in instrumental per-
spective, is often of help, too. though instrumental
perspective sometimes shows apparent distortions
which mislead one. A certain amount of help is
gained from it. however, and students who arc
familiar with the instrumental work usually advance
more rapidly in free-hand work because of the train-
ing. Likewise the student who understands free-
hand perspective will find a great deal in the sub-
ject to help him to do instrumental problems more
artistically than he otherwise could.

We have several times mentioned that once skill
is gained in drawing cubes and other simple forms
such as we have just described, it is not difficult to
apply the knowledge acquired to the representation
of more complex subjects.

The architectural student desires to sketch build-
ings and so let us consider the application of the
principles stated above to work of this nature.

Let us assume that we are to draw a house, for
example, which is twenty feet wide and forty feet
long, and twenty feet from the ground to the eaves,
the house being so turned that we look more di-
rectly at the long face than at the end. The land
is assumed to be level. At Sketch 1, Figure 10,
such a house has been drawn. As the eye is usually
from four to five feet above the ground, the horizon
line has been drawn one-quarter of the way up on
the building. The nearest cube was worked over
first until its proportion and perspective convergence
seemed satisfactory. Then lines "D" and "E" were
produced indefinitely (See "A," Sketch 1) and a
diagonal line AC was carried through point "R,"'
exactly half way from the ground to the eaves, thus

automatically marking off at "C," the end of a sec-
ond cube. When the two cubes were completed the
roof was added. By crossing the diagonals of the
square ends of the house proper, centers "o" and
"p" were located and through these, vertical lines
"s" and "t" were erected, and on these points were
taken to mark the height of the ridge "F," which
was converged towards its correct vanishing point
at the right. Sketch "B" is the same with the ex-
ception of the roof which is here hipped instead of
gabled. The ends of the ridge were located by
erecting "A" and "B" perpendicularly through the
points of intersection of the diagonals of the tops
of the two cubes forming the main house. And
Sketch "C" shows a different roof of the gambrel
type, the gable having been drawn first just as at
"A" as a guide.

The student may feel that these are unusual con-
ditions; that few houses would be of just the pro-
portion of two cubes, — and this is of course true.
It is not a difficult matter, however, when a cube
has been drawn as a unit, to add one or several more
in any direction, or portions of one. If the house
just considered was to be thirty feet long, for in-
stance, instead of forty, the second cube could be
easily cut in half, the correct perspective distance
being judged by the eye, or the diagonals of its
nearest face could be crossed which would give the
correct point of intersection for the cut.

Once the main proportions have been established
the doors and windows, roof overhangs, etc., can
be added and the whole completed. Experience will
show many uses of diagonal lines in locating centers
and measuring distances, and other short cuts which
will prove a saving of time and an aid to accuracy.

Sometimes it is desired to show buildings en-
tirely above the eye, as on a high hill or mountain,
and again it is a part of the problem to represent
them below the eye. Sketch "2" illustrates these
conditions in a simple way.

Now whether buildings are above or below the eye
or at its level and whether simple or complex, the
same general principles hold. But when a building
is complicated in its masses, or irregular in plan,
it is usually best to think of it as inclosed within a
more simple mass, drawing this mass first, and then
subdividing it into the smaller parts. Sketch "3"
was designed to illustrate this thought, the dash lines
showing the simple mass which was drawn first.

When the larger proportions of a building arc
established there are many details to lie added and
Sketch "4" pictures a few typical ones in a very
meager way. Many towers are based on pyramids
and cones such as those shown at "A" and "B." One
should practice these, then, and should try his hand
at steps, chimneys, arches, dormers, etc., until he
feels able to sketch any of the more commonly seen
details easily and well, either from the objects them-
selves (which is excellent practice) or from memory.

Sketch "S" is to show that when furniture is to
he represented it is often well to first block it in
very simply so far as mass is concerned, just as
we did the building in Sketch 3. For the chair at
"A" two cubes were drawn as shown by the dotted
lines, and the seat below was sketched within a
square prism. When objects are thus inclosed

FREE-HAND PERSPECTIVE

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Figure 10. Illustrating the Application of Perspective Principles.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

within simple forms or "frozen into a block of ice"
one is less likely to get them incorrect in perspec-
tive. It is suggested that as a means of adding to
one's ability to do this well lie cut out prints of
buildings and pieces of furniture and sketch simple
shapes around them with a few lines, preferably
straight, for this will help one to realize that all
objects are comparatively simple in basic form.

Photographs or prints can help us in another way
in the study of perspective, for we can lay a ruler
on them or a T-square or triangle and produce with
a pencil the various series of parallel lines to or
towards their vanishing points, locating and draw-
ing the eye level or horizon line first of all. This
will help one to understand the perspective phenom-
ena more quickly, perhaps, than any other one thing.

We should not close without some reference to
the perspective of interiors, though a brief word
will suffice, for it is hardly necessary to say more
than that interiors are done in just the same way as
are exteriors, only we are looking at the inside of
the cubes and prisms instead of at the outside, which
means that we simply remove those faces which are
the nearest to us. Rooms themselves are usually
very simple as to form; it is in the furniture, turned
at various angles and of irregular shape, that one
encounters the greatest difficulty. A little practice,
however, will give one considerable proficiency in
all of this work.

One should be cautioned, nevertheless, that the
difficulties are not few, for whether one is drawing
interiors or exteriors or small objects it must be
borne in mind that in theory he is supposed to look
in the same fixed direction constantly until the draw-
ing is finished, and although in practice this is not

especially hard to do when an object is so small as
to come entirely within the range of vision without
the gaze being shifted, when it comes to large ob-
jects or entire rooms or buildings we are so accus-
tomed to glancing about from place to place that it
is not easy to keep from making a sort of composite
sketch in which the various small parts may be cor-
rect in themselves, but wrong when considered in
relation to one another and to the whole. When
drawing a room, for instance, it is easy to go astray
by looking first at a window and drawing that, and
next doing a door, and so on, one thing at a time.

When this method is followed the whole is quite
sure to look distorted. For this reason one should
locate a horizon line on the drawing whenever pos-
sible and if vanishing points would naturally come
within the paper area find them also, and in sketch-
ing the main lines try to give them the right pro-
portion and perspective convergence, for if a sort
of framework can be correctly built up for the whole
it will not be hard to add the detail ; therefore spend
plenty of time on this first work. If too much
trouble is encountered when drawing from actual
buildings sketch from photographs for a while as
this will be much easier to do. Then go on to por-
tions of interiors and exteriors before attempting
them in an entirety.

The excellent drawing by Mr. Watson on page 33
shows a type of subject which would prove extremely
difficult to block out because of the great number of
converging lines, unless one was familiar with the
perspective principles involved ; and if a subject of
this nature is not correctly constructed the errors
will usually be glaringly apparent, regardless of the
quality of the technique.

FREE-HAND PERSPECTIVE

PJTT/fJUdC

PENCIL SKETCH BY ERNEST W. WATSON PENNSYLVANIA STATION, PITTSBURGH, PA.

Chapter VI.
CAST DRAWING

WE NOW come to another important phase of
our work — cast drawing, for as soon as the
student has gained facility in object draw-
ing, the next logical step is to turn to plaster casts
for his subjects ; in fact, many teachers make cast
drawing a starting point for the beginner.

If one is to work at home a few casts may be
purchased, and the expense of obtaining the smaller
ones is not great. One is more fortunate, however,
if he has access to a museum or school collection
which will give him the opportunity to make such
a choice for each drawing as will best meet his needs,
for there are casts of many kinds and sizes, ranging
all the way from tiny ones of coins and medals and
jewelry to huge plaster representations of sculptured
groups, too enormous to be housed in any but the
larger museums.

The student will be wise in selecting first a cast
of medium size, say a foot or so in its greatest di-
mension, and of a simple subject. The architec-
tural student will find it extremely beneficial to make
a series of drawings of architectural ornament, and
there are casts available of all of the better-known
forms. A good starting point would be the lotus
flower or palmette or something of the sort which
has come down to us from the earliest times. This
might be followed by others of like nature, one or
two typical forms being selected from each well-
known period. There would be the acanthus and
anthemion of the classical work, perhaps, or some
of the incised patterns of the Byzantine, or the
roughly carved grotesques of the Romanesque, while
the Gothic is particularly rich in ornamentation,
showing not only many geometric forms but natu-
ralistic and conventionalized carving of ivy, oak and
grape leaves, the ball flower, etc. Then compara-
tive sketches might be made of capitals of different
styles of architecture and of mouldings; these last
are especially important and every draftsman should
be familiar with such moulded members as are in
common use, enriched with the well-known egg and
dart, leaf and dart, guilloche, dolphins and acanthus,
bay leaf, etc., etc. Let him study these and not only
his knowledge, but his appreciation of architecture
will be strengthened. For advanced studies the or-
ders of architecture might be drawn from the cast,
correctly represented in perspective and with all the
metopes, triglyphs, mutules, modillions, etc., care-
fully represented: — it is doubtful if there is a better
way to master the orders than to work in this man-
ner. Nor is there a better way of learning to design
carved wood or stone or ornamental terra cotta than
by working from casts of antique examples, as one
not only stores up knowledge of the forms of the
past but unconsciously assimilates a sense of pro-
portion and design of the greatest value in doing
original work.

If casts of ornament are chosen for the first prob-

lems let them be simple, as we have indicated above,
and comparatively low in relief, as these are the
easiest to do. Then the later problems should be so
arranged that high relief decoration and incised
ornament are also represented and that not only geo-
metric patterns are shown but conventionalized and
naturalistic representations of plant and animal life
and the human form as well. Some casts that are
delicate in detail should be done and some which
are bold and vigorous in character ; — in short, one
should not rest content until he feels that he has
quite successfully mastered every type of ornamental
subject.

The art student, however, may find a few of these
ornamental casts enough and then go on to the type
of subject which will prepare him more directly for
later work in drawing from the living model. Here
as before it is best to select something which is not
complex, a cast of a foot or hand or arm offering a
good starting point. After a while heads may be
attempted and the complete human figure.

One is hardly wise to attempt to draw from the
living model until he has spent considerable time
in working from these inanimate objects, which will
hold the pose until a drawing is finished, something
which the living model can hardly be expected to
do. And neither do these casts have hues of color
to add to the difficulties of the student.

Then there are anatomical casts, especially de-
signed to show the various bones and muscles, and
these should be studied at this time, for the art stu-
dent cannot begin too early to learn anatomy and
its application to problems in art.

This practice from casts of the human form is to
the art student absolutely indispensable. And it is
hardly less essential for those of the architectural
profession, for^ from the earliest times the human
figure has been used in connection with architecture,
sometimes merely as applied ornament or decoration
and sometimes structurally, as, for example, the
caryatids of the Erechtheion at Athens. So no
architect can afford to neglect this part of his train-
ing. He should study especially the use of the
human figure as applied to such architectural fea-
tures as friezes, the tympana of the pediments, the
spandrels of arches, and the pendentives of vaults;
also the free-standing figure as used in connection
with or as a part of architecture.

Now regardless of the type of cast selected for
the first subject, the method of procedure is exactly
the same as for the drawing of objects, and as this
has been described fully elsewhere it seems needless
to repeat it here. We might mention, however, that
in order that the lighting shall be satisfactory, the
cast should be shifted, if possible, to various posi-
tions until one is found which brings a pleasing
relation of light and shade. Then the form should
be sketched and the shading started.

CAST DRAWING

Figure IT. An Example of Cast Drawing in Light and Shade.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

It should be understood that the appearance of a
cast will vary greatly under different lighting con-
ditions, and at various times of the day, for even
though north light is used it will be more or less
changeable from time to time. Therefore it is best to
work for only an hour or two daily until the drawing
is finished, these hours being in the morning, for
example, or in the afternoon. For the light is
usually about the same for a few hours in succes-
sion at any given time of day, dark or rainy days
being, of course, exceptions.

We have explained before that the darkest tone
on light objects is usually lighter than the darkest
tone on dark objects, though, strange to say, it does
not often appear so, therefore even though the cast
is light, its deeper tones will seem quite dark in
contrast with those areas receiving their illumination
more directly.

In the first problems it is usually best to work in
full values with a fairly sharp pencil, completing
each drawing with the greatest care, modelling until
the nearer parts seem to come forward, and the
farther portions retreat, subordinating the unimpor-
tant, but emphasizing the essentials. Caution must
lie used not to force those darks too strongly which
are found in the lighter areas or the lights within
the shade tones; instead simplicity should be sought
just as in object drawing, all unimportant tones
being suppressed. Figure 1 1 is an example of cast
drawing in full values of light and shade.

In later problems separate lines may be used in
building up the tones ; in fact there is no harm in
experimenting in various ways of working, trying
out any ideas which suggest themselves. The archi-
tectural student can perhaps improve his draftsman-
ship if he does a few cast drawings on tracing paper,
mainly in accented outline or entirely so if he wishes,
using a rather clean-cut line which is suitable for
blue-printing; in fact, prints may be made of each
drawing when completed. Such work trains one to
make better scale or full-size details of ornament
and the like. It is helpful also for one to occa-
sionally select some cast of an architectural subject
and instead of drawing it in perspective just as it
appears, to make instead an elevation of it (using
instruments, perhaps, for some of the straight lines)
and a section or two or a side elevation, all so
drawn as to correctly express the form and model-
ling of the object. These drawings may be shaded
or left in outline.

On page 20 is a drawing of ornament in accented
outline only, while at the top of page 37 parallel
strokes of shading are combined with accented out-
line effectively. The drawing at the bottom of the
same page has strokes of shading following the lines
of growth.

Casts based on the human figure seem more dif-
ficult to the average beginner than do those of
ornament, and like them should be most carefully
drawn, painstaking effort being expended on every
part. For the first portrait drawings such casts
should be selected as show the greatest amount of
individuality; those which have certain marked
peculiarities which can be clearly grasped and repre-
sented. Study the various planes of light and shade
and shadow as to form and value, giving particular

attention to the edges of the planes, sharpening them
or softening them truthfully. As the values are
being built up it is often well to over-accent or force
such edges a bit, as this will help one to retain the
virility and strength expressed in the cast. The
reason for so doing is to safeguard the student
against having everything too soft and round, a
common failing of the beginner. In giving a draw-
ing its final touches, edges which have been made
too sharp must of course be lifted or softened until
they become less definite.

In portrait work we have a real test of skill. One
may make errors when sketching an old hat or shoe
and they may not be conspicuous, — even in ornament
drawings mistakes are not always evident when the
work is completed. But when one does a portrait,
whether from photograph or cast or life, unless
proportions and modelling are true there will not
be a perfect likeness and unless a student is able to
get a likeness he knows that his drawing is faulty.
If a good likeness is lacking the drawing should be
compared frequently with the original and corrected
and changed until the desired effect is gained and
the modelling brought to as near perfection as is
possible. This work from cast should never be hur-
ried over or neglected, for one cannot hope to cope
with the difficulties of drawing from the living model
until skill has been acquired in representing well that
which has no disturbing hues of color and which
holds a steady position.

When one has acquired considerable skill in work-
ing on white surfaces, tinted paper may be tried,
the tone of the paper representing the middle values,
the lights being added with white pencil or chalk or
paint, and the darks built up with pencil. Such
sketches are often very effective and results may be
obtained quite quickly in this way, but one should
not neglect the painstaking studies on white paper
in order to make time for this sort of thing. Aside
from all the other advantages which careful work
has, it prepares one for work in other mediums; it
is an easy step from pencil to wash and from wash
to color, while pen drawing is much like the line
shading which is often done with the pencil. The
architectural student is called upon to render much
ornament in wash, such as the details used in the
Class B Analytique problems in the course of the
Beaux-Arts Institute of Design, and in renderings
of a competitive nature done in the offices, and the
making of carefully shaded drawings from the cast
will prepare one directly for this class of work.

Now by way of a final suggestion, it should be
made clear that unless a student really has unusual
ability he should not attempt this advanced work
without a competent instructor, and any student,
regardless of his ability, should get criticism from
others from time to time, for even though one may
develop by himself tricks of technique and a certain
cleverness of handling, such things do not offset
faulty drawing, although they may hide it from the
student himself. Now we will pass on to a consid-
eration of life drawing, not without admonishing the
student, however, to attempt no work from life until
his skill warrants it ; remembering that unless one
can draw a good likeness from the cast he surely
cannot do so from the living model.

CAST DRAWING

Courtesy of Pratt Institute

Freda Uhl

•FCMCti. • KCNDRIMG- OF

•ORNA

• IN • UG HT-

Courtesy of Pratt Institute

ORNAMENT DRAWINGS BY STUDENTS AT PRATT INSTITUTE

PENCIL STUDY BY JULES GUERIN FOR ONE OF THE FIGURES IN HIS MURAL

DECORATIONS IN THE LINCOLN MEMORIAL. WASHINGTON, D. C.

HENRY BACON, ARCHITECT

Chapter VII.
LIFE DRAWING

THERE seems to be a general desire on the part
of art students to hurry on through all the
preliminary work of practice strokes and ton?
building, and object drawing and cast drawing to
the subject which is now before us, — life drawing.
When one starts to draw from real living people
he feels that he is about to get somewhere, that he
is really on the road to becoming an artist. And
the importance of drawing from the living model
cannot be denied. So large a percentage of all of
the drawings and paintings which we see about us
every day make some use of the human figure, —
(many of then), and especially the work of an illus-
trative nature such as we find in our books and
magazines, giving figures the position of primary
importance), it seems plainly evident that unless the
art student learns to draw them well his place in
the art world will be considerably restricted.

So the students of sculpture, mural painting, por-
trait painting, illustration and commercial art need
no urging to study life drawing, as they realize fully
to what extent their success will depend upon it.
The architect, or more especially the beginner in
architecture, is often slow, however, in perceiving
the advantages to be gained from pursuing such a
course, especially those of that profession who lean
towards the practical rather than the aesthetic. And
it is not our contention that life drawing is the one
thing of primary importance to the architect. What
we do wish to point out is that it offers enough of
advantage to make its study well worth the while,
and we can give no stronger proof that this opinion
is quite general than by stating that in nearly all of
our larger architectural schools the students are
given life work as a regular part of their prescribed
courses of study. It is not merely that the archi-
tect is sometimes called upon to draw a few figures
to add interest or give scale to a drawing of some
proposed building, (for such work can be done well
enough to serve the purposes without particular skill )
—neither is it because he may find it necessary to
draw sculptured figures as a part of his design, as
in a pediment, for instance, or flanking a doorway,
for though this second reason is more important
than the first, sculptors or trained modellers are
usually called in to actually execute such work on
the building itself, and they are capable of correct-
ing errors and going ahead with the whole thing
sympathetically once the architect has given them
his general idea. The study of life drawing is im-
portant more because it gives such excellent tra'ning
in light and shade and proportion, and an apprecia-
tion and understanding of design than for these
other reasons. For if one acquires the fine percep-
tion which will enable him to note and analyze and
understand the subtle variations between one tone
and another which one finds, especially when work-
ing from the nude, his architecture will be the better

for it; and if one assimilates, as he should, a feel-
ing for rhythm and balance and symmetry and other
characteristics of good composition, it may be ap-
plied advantageously to his daily work ; — more than
this, his improved skill in draftsmanship will be
always worth the effort expended to obtain it, for
if one acquires such dexterity as enables him to
flraw figures in correct proportion he will have no
great trouble sketching the most complicated archi-
tecture.

So the architect should be encouraged to take up
life work and the art student's enthusiasm should
not be curbed. Both should be cautioned, neverthe-
less, that it should not be attempted until proper
preparation has been made for it, and it is for this
reason that we have given so much space to urging
thoroughness in the preliminary work in object
drawing, still life, perspective, cast drawing, etc.
And both should be cautioned, too, against the folly
of attempting to do life drawing without proper in-
struction and criticism. Fortunately, there are
evening courses in most of the larger cities which
give the students who lack the time or means of tak-
ing day courses the opportunity of learning at night.
To supplement such training there are many excel-
lent books on all branches of the subject which can
be studied as time permits.

Because there are so many books available and
so many classes open to students, it seems scarcely
necessary for us to go into the matter at any length
here, — in fact, we could hardly do so without going
beyond the scope of our subject, for whereas the
pencil is used frequently for figure work it is per-
haps more often employed in preliminary sketches
and studies than for the final execution. Then, too,
there are so many kinds of life drawings that to
describe them all would require a good-size volume.

Whenever we start to erect any sort of a build-
ing it is essential to have a firm foundation and
framework on which to build the superstructure.
In the same way in studying the human figure it
is necessary to have our framework ; in this case the
human skeleton. So the student should learn about
the skeleton first ; he should study anatomy until he
becomes familiar with the different bones, individ-
ually and in their relation one to another. He should
learn the names by which they are known. He
should know the different positions which they
assume when one walks or runs or sits or reclines,
and the acquisition of such familiarity with them
will require conscientious study, and practice with the
pencil. In fact, there is no part of life drawin?
which should be carelessly done; too much empha-
sis cannot be given to this point.

Once the bones are well understood, attention
must be directed to the muscles and to the flesh
which rounds out the body. One should learn in
just what manner the muscles are attached to the

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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PENCIL STUDY BY JULES GUERIN FOR FIGURE IN HIS MURAL DECORATIONS

IN THE LINCOLN MEMORIAL, WASHINGTON, D. C.

HENRY BACON, ARCHITECT

LIFE DRAWING

bones themselves, just how they appear when at
rest and when in action. And it is necessary to not
only study each important muscle by itself, but to
also learn its relation to every other muscle and to
the body as a whole. When the larger groups of
muscles are mastered attention should be given to
some of the more important of the smaller ones,
such as those of the face. The sculptor or portrait
painter or illustrator will, of course, give special
thought to these, for unless they are well understood
it will be difficult for him to properly express such
emotions as sadness, joy, fear, surprise. For al-
though the entire pose of the figure varies with these
emotions, it is not enough to have the proper action
in the body as a whole; much depends on these
smaller parts. To learn them well one must study
the action of the muscles when people talk or eat
or smile or whistle, special studies being made of
the eye, the ear, the nose and the mouth. Then, too,
one must study the various characteristics of youth
and of old age, and of the different races. It is
not only the faces which should be carefully ana-
lyzed, however. Hands, too, are very expressive;
the clenched fist tells a far different story than does
the hand extended for a clasp of friendship. Even
feet are very important ; some artists who seem
quite familiar with the rest of the figure have much
difficulty with them or consider them too unimpor-
tant to be studied with care.

Now needless to say it is best before studying
all of these smaller parts in detail to learn to draw
well the figure as a whole, so as soon as one has
had some practice from the skeleton placed in dif-
ferent positions, he should start working from the
nude model. In line with what we have said above,
the models should be varied not only as to sex but
as to age, size and race. Then, too, the lighting
should not always be the same. As to posing the
model it seems almost needless to remark that the
student should work from a great variety of poses ;
the figure should be shown at rest, sitting or stand-
ing or reclining, and in action. Action poses are
often hard for the model to take and to hold, but
they should be attempted, especially after the stu-
dent has gained enough practice from the figure in
repose to enable him to work swiftly and directly,
so that the main lines of action may be swept in
while the model is still fresh. In these let the model
be doing something in a natural way; give a boy a
baseball bat for instance and let him put as much
action into the pose as though he intended to make
a home run; give an aged man a wheelbarrow (or
as a substitute for it — two sticks will do) and let
him pretend to trudge across the garden. In these
poses the model will, of course, remain as nearly
as possible in the one set position, resting and resum-
ing the pose as often as seems necessary. There is
another type of action pose, however, in which the
model repeats some motion a great number of times,
rather slowly, so the student is able to study the
muscles as they assume different positions. Quick
sketches can be made showing these changes in a
comparative manner. Boxing, fencing and the like
offer excellent movements for this type of action
sketch, especially if one motion is repeated over and

over again. Too little of this w&rk is given in most
of our schools.

The architectural student has less need, perhaps,
for these action sketches, than the artist, for the
nude or partly draped figure as used in architectural
sculpture and ornament is more often shown at rest ;
too much motion would be disturbing to the design
as a whole. So in posing the model, horizontals
and verticals should be worked for to harmonize
with the structural lines of the architecture, many of
the lines being straight or nearly so, and the whole
arranged to express strength and solidity.

In drawing from the nude there is no principle
which is at all different from those already described
under object and cast drawing. The placing on the
paper is arrived at in just the same way, points
being located to mark the extreme limits of the fig-
ure. The student must learn to work quickly for
even the easiest poses cannot be held for over a
half hour and a new pose is seldom quite the same,
even if intended to be. The student who has the
necessary foundation for this work will be able to
do away with many of the construction lines which
are needed by the beginner in object drawing, but
he will, instead of making so many trial lines, locate
only a few salient points, comparing these with the
model carefully and correcting them until they are
just right, for the model is likely to sway and slightly
change the pose at any time. On the first drawings
forget all such small details as the features, fingers,
etc., but above all be sure that the action of the fig-
ure and the general masses are correct. A half hour
or an hour is usually enough for each subject ; — it
is better to do a number of them and get the essen-
tials of each pose than to spend too much time on
one. The shading may be almost neglected or
merely suggested on the early problems, but care-
fully finished studies should be made later with
special attention to the values.

The amount of time given to the study of the nude
figure will, of course, depend largely on the aim of
the student, whether he is to take up illustration or
portraiture or sculpture or some other form of art
work.

Then when one has gained a certain facility in
drawing the nude figure, the draped figure would
be a natural subject, and here, too, the problem is
difficult. For it is very easy when representing the
folds of drapery to lose the proportions of the form
underneath ; hence, it is often desirable to sketch the
main lines of the figure first exactly as though it
were undraped, adding the drapery later. In fact,
in all work where people are drawn (or painted for
that matter) it is necessary to have in mind con-
stantly the correct proportion of each complete fig-
ure, so expressing or suggesting it that the effect
will be correct, for no amount of work on the cloth-
ing itself will make up for faulty construction.

When it comes to the figure in full costume new
difficulties are encountered, for the expression of
the forms and textures of the various fabrics is
not easy. But work from the costumed figure is
very interesting, especially if the model is posed to
tell some story. Students of illustration should get
a great deal of work in which the problems are made

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

as real as possible, illustrating incidents in actual
life or some character in literature, the model being
so dressed and posed as to express the idea to the
best advantage. Backgrounds may be added from
the imagination.

And aside from this work from the posed model
there is no better practice in figure drawing than
to sketch members of one's family and his friends,
or people passing in the street. Catch them un-
awares if you can and the sketches will be all the
more lifelike for it. When you have no sketch book
at hand or no opportunity to use one, study people
all about you, and imagine that you are drawing
them, for this will help more than would be supposed.

Of all these types of drawings which we have
touched upon, it is hard to say which is the most
important, for everything depends on the purpose
for which each study is made. The. architect needs
one kind of work, the sculptor another, the com-
mercial illustrator a third, and so on. Needless to
say the portrait painter or illustrator will follow the
work in pencil with more advanced study in pen or
wash color, and there is no harm if the others do
too ; these other mediums can usually be handled
quite easily, however, once the pencil has been well
mastered. And it is equally true that whether one
does object or cast drawing or outdoor sketching or
anything of this sort in pencil, lie is doing far more
than mastering this medium ; — he is building a strong
foundation for all other work in art.

The illustrations are shown as typical examples
of life work from the nude, done in pencil.

Those by Jules Guerin on pages 38, 40, 51, 52
and 54 are reproduced from some of his original
studies for the symbolic figures in his mural dec-
orations recently put in place in the new Lincoln
Memorial at Washington, D. C, of which Henry
Bacon was the architect. These drawings are ail
made from life and are excellent examples to study,
being unusually interesting in technique.

The study on page 43 by Eugene F. Savage is
for one of the figures in his decorative painting
"Idealism" in the Polytechnic Preparatory School,
Brooklyn, N. Y. This drawing is the one from
which this figure was sketched into the picture : pre-
viously a number of studies had been made from the
model. A formal character was given to this figure
to fit it for incorporation in the picture, and though
the model was used this has not the naturalistic char-

acter of the customary life drawing. The horse was
first sketched in from the full-size cartoon, then the
figure was added.

The drawings by Taber Sears reproduced on
pages 44, 47 and 50 are also studies from life for
mural paintings. Mr. Sears' paintings of religious
subjects are especially fine in conception and embody
much of the spirit of Mediaeval times. They have
a character and a manner that fit them especially
well for their places in juxtaposition to the archi-
tectural detail of the churches for which they are
made.

On pages 45 and 53 are excellent studies by Barry
Faulkner for figures in the mural decorations which
he has done for the great Cunard Building, New
York City, B. W. Morris, architect. These are both
extremely fine examples of technique.

The reproductions on pages 46 and 48 are of
studies from life by H. I. Stickroth for his mural
painting "The Valley of Contemplation" drawn
while a Fellow of the American Academy in Rome.
The originals are in pencil on buff paper. This
technique, too, is well worthy of the most careful
study on the part of students of drawing.

On page 49 is a different type of subject, a study
by Frank Vincent DuMond for one of his mural
decorations for the Panama-Pacific Exposition.
These decorations represent the influx of the widely
different human elements that went to make Cali-
fornia:— the Spanish adventurers and the mission-
aries, the scholars, the "forty-niners" and all the
others. In this spirited sketch we see a group of
homeseekers pressing on across the plains to the new
land of promise. The study is in pencil on gray
paper, size about 30 in. by 40 in.

The sketch of Vera Fokina by Troy Kinney on
page 55 is a figure study of unusual power. It is
one of many rapid sketches Mr. Kinney makes in
studying the movements of a dancer as a preliminary
to the execution of one of his notable etchings of
the dance. By means of these studies Mr. Kinney
makes definite many impressions of movements of
the dance preceding and following the movement
which he chooses to represent in his etching. In
this way he fixes his impressions of the character
of a momentary action and this undoubtedly helps
him to embody in his etchings the sense of life that
is one of their most admirable qualities. The frontis-
piece to this volume is another of Mr. Kinney's de-
iightful sketches.

LIFE DRAWING

4.3

STUDY BY EUGENE F. SAVAGE FOR FIGURE IN HIS DECORATIVE PAINTING "IDEALISM" IN
THE POLYTECHNIC PREPARATORY SCHOOL, BROOKLYN, N. Y.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

•

STUDIES OF HEADS BY TABER SEARS FOR ALTAR PAINTING IN TRINITY CHURCH. BUFFALO, N. Y.
BERTRAM GROSVENOR GOODHUE, ARCHITECT

LIFE DRAWING

FIGURE STUDY BY BARRY FAULKNER, FOR ONE OF HIS MURAL PAINTINGS IN THE
CUNARD BUILDING, NEW YORK CITY

SKETCPI1NG AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

PENCIL STUDY BY H. I. STICKROTH FOR ONE OF THE FIGURES IN HIS MURAL PAINTING
"THE VALLEY OF CONTEMPLATION"

LIFE DRAWING

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SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

STUDY BY H. I. STICKROTH FOR ONE OF THE FIGURES IN HIS MURAL PAINTING
"THE VALLEY OF CONTEMPLATION"

LIFE DRAWING

STUDY BY FRANK VINCENT DU MONO FOR A MURAL DECORATION
FOR THE SAN FRANCISCO EXPOSITION

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

STUDY OF HEAD BY TABER SEARS FOR MURAL DECORATION IN GRACE CHURCH CHOIR SCHOOL, NEW YORK CITY

YORK & SAWYER, ARCHITECTS

LIFE DRAWING

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STUDY BY JULES GUERIN FOR FIGURE IN MURAL DECORATION IN THE
LINCOLN MEMORIAL, WASHINGTON, D. C.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

STUDY BY JULES GUERIN FOR FIGURE IN ONE OF HIS MURAL DECORATIONS
IN THE LINCOLN MEMORIAL. WASHINGTON, D. C.

LIFE DRAWING

53>

DRAWING BY BARRY FAULKNER FOR MURAL DECORATION IN THE CUNARD BUILDING, NEW YORK CITY

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

•

PENCIL STUDY BY JULES GUERIN FOR MURAL PAINTING IN THE
LINCOLN MEMORIAL, WASHINGTON. D. C.

LIFE DRAWING

Courtesy of Kennedy <S* Co.

STUDY BY TROY KINNEY.
FOKINA IN HER DANCE OF SALOME

SKETCH OF A GREAT DANE BY CHARLES LIVINGSTON BULL

Chapter VIII.
SKETCHING ANIMALS

AMONG artists there are many specialists ;
men who -give attention to the representation
of some one type of subject only. We have
our portrait painters, for instance, and our land-
scape painters. There are those who do nothing but
marine views or who select city streets or gardens
and flowers or some other kind of thing which
appeals to them individually.

Included in these special groups of men are those
whose interest lies wholly or mainly in the picturing
of animals, — who devote years to the acquisition of
knowledge on this particular class of subject ; who
go on expeditions far afield seeking first hand infor-
mation; who travel the world over, perhaps, sketch-
ing and drawing and painting all the time, wherever
animals are found.

Hut we 'do not purpose to consider our subject
here from the standpoint of these specialists; instead
we simply wish to point out to the reader some of
the benefits which the average student of art may

gain from animal sketching in pencil, and to offer a
few suggestions regarding such work.

Animal sketching combines some of the advantages
of drawing from the human figure with those of out-
door sketching, for as the subjects to be pictured are
often in motion, one gains an ability to grasp the
most significant of their characteristics instantly
and a facility to rapidly represent them on paper,
and as animals are found out of doors, as a rule,
one must go into the open to draw them, which
should add to his enjoyment and afford a beneficial
change from the class room or studio. Aside from
these considerations, however, which do not always
exist, as the beginner frequently works indoors from
photographs or stuffed specimens which can be
drawn at leisure, there is another point worth men-
tioning, for it should not be forgotten that the more
things one learns to draw and the greater his mental
collection of facts of form and of light and shade
and of color becomes, the easier it will be for him

Pencil Sketch by Charles Livingston Bull.
57

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

to advance, especially if he wishes to become an
illustrator or turns to the usual types of commercial
art for a livelihood. And the more one knows about
animals, the more he will wish to know, as a rule,
for his life will be the richer because of his knowl-
edge.

It is seldom that living animals can be used to
advantage for indoor classes, so the beginner in ani-
mal sketching is more often provided with photo-
graphs or with stuffed specimens from which to
draw. Through these things he gains a fundamental
knowledge of his subject before he ventures to
attempt the more difficult task of working from liv-
ing things. In many of our cities it is possible to
obtain sketching permits which allow one to work
in the museums, and the student who has this oppor-
tunity should avail himself of it. not only because
it will fit him for his later work, but because he can
find in such collections mounted specimens of a rare
or unusual nature, such as animals from the tropics
or the polar regions.

It would hardly be wise for the student who has
not advanced some distance in his art studies to
spend much time drawing from living animals, yet
there will be no harm if he occasionally does so, and
once he has gained a certain amount of skill in work-
ing from still life and casts and the like, he can
profitably give considerable time to it. Then as soon
as he is grounded in the fundamentals of animal
sketching through the work from photographs or
stuffed specimens as described above he should take
every opportunity for such practice and make the
most of it. We say "take every opportunity" be-
cause one soon learns that he must get this practice
when he can ; — we do not always have animals about
us and even if we do they sometimes fail to show
a willingness to pose. In fact, it is often necessary
to follow animals from place to place in order to
sketch them at all. This is of course difficult, so

Head of Russian Wolf Hound, Sketch by
Charles Livingston Bull.

Head of Puma, Sketch by
Charles Livingston Bull.

the beginner, drawing from living animals for the
first time, should try to catch them asleep or busy
eating or at rest ; even then they will offer difficulties
enough.

Domestic animals usually afford us the most satis-
factory subjects for our first sketches, partly because
they are more often available, partly because we
are already more or less familiar with them, and
partly for the reason that they have little fear of
man and so assume natural positions. Cats and dogs
are good and they offer a wide variety of subjects,
and horses and cows and other quadrupeds common
to our farms are excellent, too. The beginner will
also find that as a rule cows or oxen or sheep or
other slow moving creatures are easier to sketch
than such restless or quick moving types as horses
or dogs or kittens, but this is not always so, for when
they are at rest one is about as easy to do as another.

When the student has his paper ready and the
subject selected, the method of working will be
about the same as for drawing from the human fig-
ure. Of course the different kinds of animals dif-
fer more in appearance than do people, and this
means that even greater attention must be given to
the interpretation of the individual characteristics
of each subject, which in turn means that before
starting to draw, one should analyze his subject
thoroughly, searching especially for such charac-
teristics as are not common to other animals. Then
when the first strokes are made on the paper they
must be direct, for there is little time for fumbling
or erasing. Of course if the animal is at rest the
work may be carried on more leisurely, but it is
well to get the habit of drawing quickly and posi-
tively. Animals move so constantly that the artist
can seldom draw more than a few lines before some
change in posiEon is noted. In this case it is often
better to begin anew, and if another move is soon

SKETCHING ANIMALS

Head of Airedale, Sketch by
Charles Livingston Bull.

made of enough importance to prove disturbing
start still another sketch, until there are possibly a
half dozen or more small ones begun on the same
sheet. Then these can be carried along simultane-
ously, for the animal will probably either resume a
previous pose sooner or later, or the artist can
change his own position until his subject appears
relatively the same as before.

Usually the first sketches are done in outline only,
though this outline should be made as expressive as
possible, — an entirely different line is needed for the
shaggy coat of a Saint Bernard dog than would be
used for some short haired type like the hound. If
the animal remains fairly still it will not be difficult
to add some shading to the outline, and if time per-
mits, it may be possible to put in enough surround-
ing detail so that the sketch tells some story, for the
animal can be shown as if doing a special thing, —
a kitten can be sketched, for , instance, as if playing
with a spool of thread, or a dog gnawing a bone
may be shown, or a calf drinking from a pail.

It should not be supposed that domestic animals
are the only ones suitable for this free-hand work,
for if one has the opportunity to sketch wild things
in the woods- -though one seldom does — or caged
animals as in a zoo, he should make the most of it,
and will sometimes find them even more interesting
than the domestic species, not so much that they
are different in themselves but more because they
are less familiar to us. Needless to say, such ani-
mals as these would be drawn by the same method
which we have already described for those of a
domestic nature.

Now the student cannot make these sketches too
frequently for the practice will always be beneficial,
but if one wishes to become really proficient in ani-
mal sketching, he should not stop with work of this
kind. He should learn something of the anatomy

of animals and this is by no means simple ; he should
learn to interpret and express their emotions, for
animals, especially the more sensitive types such as
dogs, will show fear or surprise or pleasure just as
plainly or even more plainly than a human being.
He should study their habits. He should learn whal
animals have ths most strength or alertness or agil-
ity and in what manner they display these charac-
teristics ; and he should bear in mind, too, that just
as animals have individuality considered singly, so
do groups of animals have certain characteristics
common to a given species. If we study such groups
we will notice these differences in many ways ; let
a number of horses and cows and sheep out to
pasture and they will collect in formations of dif-
ferent sorts and these formations will change under
varying conditions. Some groups of animals if-
driven to fight will make a circle with their heads
towards the outside ; others will separate and each
go his own way. It seems hardly necessary to more
than touch on such differences here and it would
take much space to do so, but let the student make
observations for himself.

Now when it comes to sketching groups of animals
it will be found that one can scarcely work without
some recourse to his memory and imagination, for
even though a few in a group may retain their posi-
tion for some time it is more than likely that others
will be moving. This means that it often proves
necessary to sketch them one or two at a time, put-
ting them into natural arrangements on the paper
later.

The most difficult thing of all, perhaps, is to suc-
cessfully picture animals in rapid motion. One must
learn by observation and study the impression given
by such movements and then attempt to put this im-
pression on paper.

The excellent sketches of animals by Mr. Charles
Livingston Bull, accompanying this text, are taken
directly from his own sketch books and are worthy
of the most careful studv.

Head of Red St. Bernard, Sketch by
Charles Livingston Bull.

•»¥,

•

' : ----^

i . • '

HEAD OF A LION. SKETCH BY CHARLES LIVINGSTON BULL

PART II.

Chapter I.

ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS

WHEN the student has obtained a sound fun-
damental knowledge of the subjects treated
in Part I, namely — Object Drawing in Out-
line, Object Drawing in Light and Shade, Free-hand
Perspective, Cast Drawing, Life Drawing and
Sketching Animals, it would seem that he might find
little difficulty in sketching buildings, street scenes
and the like.

Yet every new subject presents its peculiar prob-
lems ; — there are many things that the beginner will
hardly know how to approach. A street scene or a
landscape or a building, for instance, needs a far
different treatment than a posed model in the life
class, but the artist should be trained to do all of
these well, especially if he hopes to become an illus-
tator or commercial artist. If typical book or mag-
azine illustrations, or free-hand drawings of almost
any sort in which figures appear, are studied, it will
be seen that buildings or portions of buildings or
bits of landscape are given almost as much attention
as the figures themselves, — one could hardly hope
to become successful in such a line of work if he
lacked skill in the representation of any of these
things.

Among the following chapters the art student will
find many valuable hints to help him draw these sub-
jects for some have been especially prepared to
offer suggestions on the drawing of buildings, both
in whole and in part, as well as all sorts of acces-
sories such as water and clouds ; then there are other
chapters presenting many facts regarding technique,
composition, decorative drawing, the uses of tinted
paper, etc., for one should master these, too, in order
to gain versatility.

If skill in the representation of buildings is im-
portant to the artist or the art student it is indis-
pensable to the architect and his assistants, and it
is mainly to meet their requirements that the fol-
lowing chapters have been prepared. If the time
for drawing practice is limited, the work in ob-
ject drawing and cast drawing and life drawing
described in Part I may be omitted by the reader
of architectural inclination and he may turn directly
to the problems discussed in these coming pages,
where the subject of Sketching and Rendering in
Pencil is considered mainly from the standpoint of
the architect. Rut unless the reader is well grounded
in drawing it is desirable that he study Part I and
before going further it is advisable to study at least
the first two chapters of Part I, and Chapter V
on free-hand perspective. A knowledge of per-
spective is essential to anyone who paints or draws,
and especially to those who find the representation
of buildings or street scenes a part of their work.

Selecting the Subject — In Part I emphasis was

placed on the importance of selecting a suitable sub-
ject for each drawing, and it is equally essential for
the work to be done at present that the choice be as
carefully made ; — it is as much of a problem to learn
to select as it is to learn to draw. Now the archi-
tectural draftsman or student wishes to learn archi-
tecture as well as how to draw, so it is usually best
for him to choose some architectural object of merit.
The drawing may be made directly from some in-
teresting portion of a building, if the student feels
capable of attempting this, or from a photograph.
In either case it is well not to attempt too much at
one time.

When the subject has been chosen it is neces-
sary next to decide exactly how much of the ob-
ject is to be drawn. If one works from the photo-
graph this is comparatively easy, for by using
strips of paper or cardboard as a frame, suitable
compositions can be found. One has more diffi-
culty, however, when drawing directly from a build-
ing for it is then necessary to determine the point
from which the best view can be obtained. If you
were to photograph such an object as you have
selected to draw, the view-finder of the camera
would help you to determine the best point at which
to stand and would frame for you any number of
interesting views from which you might select the
best. The same idea may be carried out by the
student of sketching, either by using a camera view-
finder or, what is more commonly done, by making
a view-finder by cutting a rectangular opening
about \l/2 in. x 2 in. through a sheet of stiff paper
or cardboard, which, when held near the eye, will
help you to decide the point from which the draw-
ing can best be made. Once the subject has been
chosen and the point from which it is to be drawn
decided upon, we are ready to block in the propor-
tions of the sketch.

At this point it is as well to remind the student
that it is more difficult to learn what to leave out of
a drawing than what to put in. As we minutely
examine any object in nature we see an overwhelm-
ing mass of small detail. Even as we sit in our
rooms and glance around we find, if we search,
thousands of spots of light or shade or color. These
tiny spots are the many lines of the delicate grain-
ing of the wood, the hundreds of partly-visible
threads from which the hangings and upholstery
materials are woven, the myriad indentations and
projections of the masonry and plaster.

It is hardly necessary to point out that it would be
impossible to correctly indicate each of these spots
on a small sheet of paper, even if it were desirable
to do so. Instead we must try to represent the

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

• FOCUS AT RIGHT, CENTER AMD LEFT •

Figure 12. Illustrating a Method of Focusing Attention on Different Parts of a Building.

ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS

effect of the mass as a whole, the effect that we get
not when we hunt for such details, but when we
enter a room and look around in the usual way.
If we do look directly at some object such as a
chair in a room corner we see little detail with
the exception of that in the chair itself and in
those objects adjacent to it. Even in these ob-
jects we are not conscious of each tiny spot, but in-
stead notice only the broad general tone and effect.
The chair, being directly in the range of vision, is
the center of interest and the other objects become
more and more indistinct and blurred the farther
they are from this center. It really is a surprising
thing what a small area we are able to see plainly
when looking in one direction only. We are so
accustomed to shifting our eyes constantly from
one object to another that we fail to notice this
limitation. Stand within ten feet of a door and
gaze intently at the knob. Without shifting the
eyes, are you able to see the top of the door dis-
tinctly? If you raise the eyes and look at the top
of the door, do you see the bottom plainly? Go to
the window and look at some building across the
street. Fix your attention on an upper window or
chimney or some part of the roof. Are not the
lower portions of the building blurred and indistinct
unless you shift your gaze to them? When you
look at the foundation you do not see the roof
distinctly.

Now in making a drawing it is assumed that the
artist is looking in some one fixed direction. He
gazes at some interesting object or, if the entire
object is too large to come within his range of
vision, he selects some prominent feature which
then becomes the center of interest or focal point.
In making the drawing more detail is shown near
this center of interest than in the other parts, which
are allowed to become more and more indistinct
towards the edges of the picture, just as they ap-
pear in nature. Every drawing should have this
center of interest or focal point and all else should
be subordinated to it.

Now turn to the illustration, Figure 12. Cover
the lower two drawings and study the upper draw-
ing "A." In this sketch the spectator was looking
towards that part of the old farm buildings near-
est to him, so this becomes the center of interest
or focal point ; all else is subordinated.

Look at sketch "B," first covering up sketches
"A" and "C." Here the spectator's eye has turned
towards the center of the building and interest
centers in the large doorway and adjacent walls —
here the details show most plainly and here are
the strongest accents of light and shade. The two
ends of the building become rather blurred and in-
distinct ; they are subordinated.

Now uncover "C" and cover "B." In "C" the
spectator is looking still farther to the left and
even though that portion of the building is some
distance from the eye, it is .the portion on which

the eye is focused, hence the strongest contrasts
and accents are there and the rest of the building
is subordinate.

Turn to Figure 13, the street scene. In the draw-
ing at the left the spectator is looking at the upper
part of the tower; that becomes the subject of the
sketch, the foc#l point or center of interest. The
street is blurred, the detail is softened. In the second
drawing the spectator is looking down the street ;
the archw'ay becomes the center of interest and the
tower is almost lost against the sky. Now in draw-
ing such a subject as this street scene from nature
the student is likely to get into difficulty. He looks
first, perhaps, at the tower and draws that. If he
stops there all well and good ; the tower becomes
the subject of the sketch. But if he lowers his
gaze to the street and adds the archway to his draw-
ing it is quite possible that this will form a second
focal point which will compete with the tower.
Then the drawing will be a failure for the eye will
jump back and forth between the tower and the
archway and the balance will be destroyed. In such
a composition as this, where there are two possible
centers of interest, be sure that one is subordinated
to the other.

Now turn to Figure 14, the little interior- Where
is the center of interest represented in the drawing
at the top of the sheet? Where does the eye see
the most detail and the strongest contrasts of light
and dark ? The window with its seat is outside the
focus and it is only when the eye turns towards it
as it does in the lower picture that it becomes the
center of vision or focal point. In this latter case
the mantel is out of focus and might be omitted
from the drawing; in fact, this room could be made
the subject of two interesting sketches, one of the
fireplace and one of the window and seat. In such
a room as this we can well imagine that in the
evening the fireplace with the family drawn up en-
joying a cheerful blaze would be in all ways the
center of interest in the room, while in the daytime
the window with its seat would doubtless gain
greater attention.

Now turn to the delightful sketch by Mr. Watson
on page 66; — notice that he has built up his center
of interest very effectively yet without forcing it
upon the attention unpleasantly, and observe, too,
that the drawing is allowed to soften or fade away
gradually from those parts which come most directly
within the range of vision.

Let it be plain, then, that in starting a drawing
it is important to first of all select something of
interest to draw ; next, it is necessary to find the
best point from which the drawing can be made ;
then we must analyze our subject to determine the
center of interest or focal point, and having done
this we must use every care to subordinate all those
parts which have little or nothing to do with our
subject, and which might detract from the center
of interest.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS

FOCUS AT MANTEL

FOCUS AT WINDOW

Figure 14. Illustrating Method of Accenting or Subordinating Parts of a Room.

OS
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Chapter II.
STARTING THE WORK

THE student should determine before sharpen-
ing his pencils just what they are to be re-
quired to do, and should point them accord-
ingly. Sharply-pointed pencils will answer very well
if a drawing is to be small or if much fine detail is
to be shown, but if it is to be large, broad pointed
pencils will usually produce an effect equally satis-
factory in a much shorter space of time. Many
drawings combine both fine lines and wide lines with
excellent results.

No special directions for forming a sharp point
seem necessary, but a broad point is not so com-
monly used, so the following suggestions are of-
fered. First of all, cut away the wood in the usual
manner just as for a sharp point, but leave one-
quarter or three-eighths of an inch of the full-sized
lead exposed. (If this lead is left too long, how-
ever, especially in the softer pencils, it will quickly
break under pressure.) Next, wear the point
down on fine sandpaper holding the pencil at an
angle of about 45 degrees with the paper, until the
lead has the appearance shown at "A," Figure 15.
The end of the lead should next be smoothed by
rubbing it on rough paper until each stroke gives
a firm, even tone when the pencil is held as at "B."
Occasional fine lines or accents in a drawing can
be made with this broad point if it is held on its
sharp edge as at "C," but if many fine lines are
needed a sharply-pointed pencil will prove more sat-
isfactory. The type of broad point just mentioned
is used by many artists but others go still further,
and by slightly squaring the whole of the exposed
lead, after it has been sharpened as described above,
obtain a very crisp, clean-cut line. The illustrations
made by the author for this text were for the most
part drawn with this latter type of point.

Regardless of how the pencil is sharpened care
should be taken that the point is wiped with a cloth
in order to remove all dust, for otherwise it is
difficult to get a clean, firm line and next to impos-
sible to keep the paper from becoming soiled by
the loose grit from the pencil. Another point for
the beginner to remember is that in sharpening the
pencil the letters or numbers indicating the degree
of hardness or softness of the lead should never be
removed.

Having pointed and dusted the pencils, they are
ready for use, though it will be convenient to
so mark each one that its grade can be told at a
glance. There are several ways of doing this.
One is by cutting or painting the letters indicating
the grade of the lead on several sides of the pencil
where they can be seen easily, and another is by
notching the pencils, increasing the number of
notches as the pencils become harder in grade.
Such letters or notches are perhaps most convenient
if placed about one and one-half inches from the
unsharpened end of the pencil where they will re-

main in view. If near the point they will soon be
cut away and if at the other extremity they will
be hidden if a pencil holder or lengthener is used.
Some artists, instead of marking their pencils, always
lay them on the drawing board according to grade.
By this arrangement they can tell the degree of
hardness of a pencil at a glance by its position on
the board and when it has been used it can be re-
turned to its proper place and another taken up. A
still different way of marking pencils for identifi-
cation is by dipping them into various colors, each
color representing a definite grade of lead.

The question may arise as to the number of pen-
cils necessary for one sketch. This number will
vary all the way from one, for a quick sketch, to
seven or eight as used by some draftsmen for care-
fully finished work. Some very well-known men
never use more than one grade of pencil for an
entire drawing but the student can as a rule get
better results by the use of three or four. The two
little sketches on Figure 20 were made with a 2B,
HB, F, H and 3H.

Practice Strokes — When the pencils have been
properly sharpened the student can do nothing of
greater benefit than to draw many individual lines
with each point before attempting complete draw-
ings. Try to make every stroke a thing of beauty,
for it is only by combining many beautiful strokes
that a pleasing final result can be obtained. Draw
lines of all kinds and in all directions ; some straight
and others curved; some uniform in tone from end
to end and others grading from light to dark or
from dark to light. Allow some to fade out so grad-
ually that the ends are lost in the tones of the paper
and accent others at the ends by using extra pres-
sure as the pencil touches or leaves the drawing
surface. Keep some straight and sharp, drawing
them very quickly with much freedom, and form
others rather slowly, allowing them to quaver or
tremble. Use considerable pressure on some, thus
smoothing or "ironing out" the paper, and in others
barely touch the pencil to the surface. Make lines
with both broad and fine points, with various grades
of pencils, and on all sorts of paper until you feel
a certain confidence in your knowledge of your
mediums.

Tone Building — When this feeling of assurance
is acquired, attempt building up even tones by mass-
ing the strokes together, either touching or with
slight spaces between. Think clearly what you wish
to do before you begin and then draw with direct-
ness and vigor, remembering that sharp "snappy"
work is the kind most popular for architectural
purposes.

There are no definite rules regarding tone build-
ing but perhaps the simplest method is to draw
parallel straight or slightly curved lines just touch-
ing one another or with slight spaces between.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

SHARP ENIN G THE PENCIL

HOLDING THE PENCIL

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SOKAE. PRACTICE STR.OKE5

MAKING THE 5KETCH
{•DRAW THE OUTLINE.-
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SLACK ACCENTS -

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75. Illustrating Methods of Sharpening and Holding Pencil, Practice Strokes,
and Steps in Sketching.

STARTING THE WORK

50 ML PRACTICE. 5TR.OKE.3

Figure 16. Illustrating Methods of Tone Building, and Two Ways of Making Sketches.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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Figure if. Illustrating Quick Sketching; a Means by Which Much Knowledge
of Architecture Can be Obtained.

STARTING THE WORK

Sometimes these lines are horizontal but more often
vertical. Occasionally entire drawings are made by
using tones composed of vertical strokes only. The
drawing of the doorway "A" at the bottom of Fig-
ure 16 is done by this method. There is danger,
however, of such lines becoming too rigid or me-
chanical, or in some cases too conspicuous, so the
method shown at "B," in which the lines are allowed
to go in any and all directions, is a much more
popular one, and one adaptable to all types of sub-
jects. This method is sometimes referred to as the
"Free Line Method."

In building tones there are several points con-
cerning which the beginner should be cautioned.
First, beware the use of too many small lines. If
twenty lines will do, it is ordinarily folly to use
forty. There is danger especially in the use of
many short, broken lines, as they often produce a
spotty effect, — the more so if the white spaces be-
tween the ends of the lines are too conspicuous.
Long, unbroken lines, on the other hand, sometimes
appear too mechanical. It is best as a rule to so
vary the length of lines as to produce an interest-
ing variety, avoiding too many lines of equal length
and similar direction. Tones are occasionally built
up by "cross hatching" but it is usually best to avoid
this expedient. Figure 16 shows, however, several
examples of cross hatching, and sometimes such
tones are highly desirable, especially for shadows
and background purposes. Frequently in drawing
shadows, especially under cornices, the lines form-
ing the shadow tones are so slanted as to suggest
the direction of the light. A sparkling, sunny effect
is obtained, too, if the shadow tone is sharpened or
darkened along the lower edge, thus forming a
strong contrast against the light surfaces below.

Needless to say, it is most important to so vary
the lines and tones as to express the textures of the
materials represented by the sketch. Observation
and practice will teach the student the best way to
indicate wood, masonry, glass, metal, cloth, water,
and the like.

Do not erase unless absolutely necessary, as results
are never entirely satisfactory over an erased sur-
face. If mistakes are made, use a soft eraser with
extreme care and be sure to dust the paper thor-
oughly afterwards with a soft brush or cloth. Al-
ways keep an extra piece of paper under the hand
as you work to protect the surface of the sheet.
Figure 15 and Figure 16 show a number of practice
strokes and tones done partly with a broad and
partly with a fine point.

Small Drawings and Quick Sketches. — When the
student has practiced tone building for some time
he is ready to try simple drawings. Often more
benefit can be gained from making a number of
small sketches than from attempting one large ren-
dering. As has been before suggested, the archi-
tectural student will be wise if, when selecting
subjects for his sketches, he chooses objects of
architectural value and interest. The sheet of
sketches, Figure 17, is shown for two reasons. First,
it illustrates a quick method of sketching, the
drawings being very freely and rapidly made ; and
second, it suggests to the student a means by which

much knowledge of architecture can be obtained.
One cannot fail, when making such sketches, to
learn a great deal of value concerning the objects
which he represents. Figure 18 is also published
here for two reasons. First, it shows in a com-
parative manner two types of line, the broad and
the fine, used side by side for representing the same
building; and second, it is a typical presentation
drawing such as is submitted to a client as a means
of securing a commission. This sort of drawing
often brings new work into the office, and is, for
that reason, of the greatest value to the architect.
This particular drawing was laid out instrumentally.
The original sheet measures about 10^"xl4^" to
the margin lines. Figures 15 and 17 were originally
drawn about 9"xl2j4", so the student should allow
for this reduction when studying these sheets.

It may be of service to mention that, once a sub-
ject is selected for a sketch or rendering, whether
large or small, it may be drawn in outline in either of
two ways ; the outline may be roughly blocked in with
sketchy lines, which are to be erased when the final
rendering is started, or it may be more carefully
drawn directly with final lines, keeping them as a
rule very light by using a hard pencil, and leaving
them to become a part of the finished work. When
the outline has been completed there are several
methods of procedure before the student ; he can
put in the darkest tones of the whole drawing, later
adding enough gray tones to complete the picture,
or he can put in the gray tones first, as has been done
in making the little sketch at the bottom of Figure
15, later adding the dark tones and sharp accents to
finish the drawing.

Many artists complete their work as they proceed,
beginning at the center of interest and working out,
or beginning at the top and working gradually down
towards the bottom. This latter method has one
great advantage in that the drawing can be kept
clean more easily than by the other methods, but
unless the student is able to think very clearly be-
fore drawing or unless he makes first a preliminary
sketch for the purpose of studying the values of
light and dark, it is a difficult one. As a rule it
is far safer to start at the center of interest, making
sure that the strongest contrasts of light and shade
and the sharpest details are there, keeping the rest
of the drawing properly subordinated.

Contrasts. — There are various ways of obtaining
contrasts and two of the most common are illus-
trated by Figure 19. A white spot against a black
background always shows so plainly that the eye
goes to it very quickly. Likewise a black spot against
white attracts immediate attention. Now, many ob-
jects in nature are similar to these spots. For
instance, a white house in strong sunlight against a
background of dark trees is similar to the white
spot mentioned above and the eye sees it quickly be-
cause of the contrast. A dark building silhouetted
ngainst the sky illustrates the idea of the dark spot
against the light background. Now, a white spot
against a dark tone appears even whiter if the dark
tone grades gradually to white so as to have no
sharp edges to lead the eye from the spot itself,
and in the same way a dark spot against a

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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18. The Same Subject Drawn with BroadLines and with Fine Lines. A Type of Sketch to be
Submitted by the Architect to His Client to Show Proposed Alterations.

STARTING THE WORK

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Figure /p. Illustrating Method of Focusing Attention by Means of
Strong Contrasts of Light and Dark.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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STARTING THE WORK

white background will appear even blacker if the
white background grades out gradually to gray or
black, for this will cause the white background to
appear even whiter by contrast. The spots "A"
and "B" at the top of Figure 19 illustrate this point
.as do also the small sketches of houses "C" and "D."

It must be remembered, too, that the light con-
ditions in nature Vary constantly, so it is possible for
an object to appear light against dark during certain
times of the day and dark against light at others.
For example an office building in bright sunlight
might appear light against a deep blue sky until eve-
ning when it might change to a dark silhouette
against a brilliant sunset sky. The drawings of
the lighthouse, "E" and "F" at the bottom of Figure
19 still further illustrate this point. This example
is rather extreme but serves to make clear that two
sketches of a building made at different hours
might vary greatly from each other. Therefore,
when working from nature it is necessary to draw
very quickly as the light is constantly changing.

In order to prevent a sketch being broken up
into too many equal areas of light and shade, thus
causing confusion, it is often well to look for
some one leading light area and some one leading
dark area in the objects to be drawn. If a sketch
is to be made of a dark stone building, that perhaps
becomes the leading dark area and the light area
may be found in the foreground or sky or both.
On the other hand, if a building is light in tone it
becomes in itself the leading light area and the back-
ground of trees or sky or the foreground masses
become the dark area. Having decided on these
leading light and dark areas, look for subordinate
areas, such as doors, roofs or similar details and
give each just its proper amount of accent to make
a satisfactory composition of the whole. It is
usually true that we find in the same subject many
contrasts of light against dark and dark against
light, but in making a sketch remember that the eye
would see the strongest contrasts near the frcal
point, or center of interest. Look for the sharpest
accents here and in the drawing subordinate all
others, for unless this is done the eye will jump
from one point to another, which will cause the
picture to lack unity and repose. It is easy to hoH
the eye at the center of interest as has been shown
above if strong contrasts of light against dark or
dark against light are shown there. The two

sketches on Figure 20 still further illustrate this
principle of contrast. The center of interest in the
first is around the arched entrance and here the
contrasts have been kept sharp and strong. First
there is the light spot of the opening to the street.
Then in sharp contrast to this is the dark tone of
the archway itself. This in turn is strong in its
contrast with the lighter tones of adjacent walls,
and these light tones on walls and street are empha-
sized further by the fact that they are graded to
dark at the edges of the sketch. In the second
sketch, showing one of the earliest forms of tim-
ber construction, there are similar contrasts to hold
the eye to the center of interest. First the dark
doorway becomes the focal point. This is strong
in its contrast with the surrounding light walls of
the building and with the street, while these light
tones are in turn surrounded by the large dark area
of roof tones, verge board shadows and the like,
which are graded outward to the edges of the sketch.

In starting a pencil drawing the student is urged
to make a preliminary study of the values of light
and dark as soon as the outline has been completed.
This study can be made to good advantage on trac-
ing paper directly over the outline drawing, and
when completed will serve as a guide for the actual
rendering. Once the values have been determined
in this way, the student is free to give his atten-
tion to the technique. At this point it might be
well to offer a few suggestions. First of all we
must work for variety of line, for it is impossible
to express all materials, and surfaces with one type
of line. Smooth, straight strokes suggest smooth
surfaces, while irregular strokes are best for repre-
senting rough, uneven surfaces. As a rule it is well
for the strokes to follow the structural lines of the
objects to be represented. This means that the
strokes used on vertical w; 11s will usually be vertical
or perspectively horizontal. The roof lines will
follow the slope of the roof or vanish towards a
point with the other parallel lines. Curved surfaces
can as a rule be best represented by the use of
curved lines.

It is suggested that the student try a few prac-
tice sketches to further fix in his mind some of the
ideas suggested in this text. Do not be discouraged
if the first results are not entirely satisfactory; it
is only by making mistakes and profiting by them
that one can learn to draw.

Chapter III.
INDIVIDUAL STYLE

STUDENTS of drawing often foolishly handi-
cap themselves right at the start by attempting
to produce sketches that show marked original-
ity or individuality. Such students seem to be of the
erroneous opinion that unless their work- is so
unusual in presentation as to appear almost freak-
ish, it is not good. They therefore sacrifice tru'.h
in order to create drawings with a technique so
peculiar and predominant as to detract from the
subject of the sketch itself. In some types of deco-
rative drawing a conspicuous method of technique
is not wholly bad, but for architectural purposes
anything that lessens the interest in the architecture
itself is unsatisfactory.

It is not to be understood by this that work
should not show a certain individuality ; it should
and will, for it is impossible for one to practice
drawing for any length of time without developing
certain original mannerisms. This is most desir-
able, for it would be unfortunate indeed if all pencil
artists were to draw in exactly the same way, pro-
ducing work of monotonous similarity. But there
is no danger of this. Just as most of us acquire
a certain characteristic style of penmanship which
our friends are able to distinguish as ours at a
glance, we are also sure to attain a style of draw-
ing having a character exclusively its own.

To be sure many draftsmen do draw in very
much the same way and this is perfectly natural
and proper, for we are all influenced by the work
which we see others do, and we all share, also, the
definite limitations which our medium imposes upon
us. It will be found, however, that drawings which
seem very similar in technique at first glance, reveal
individual differences on closer inspection, even
though done by men with similar training and ex-
perience. Have no fear then of losing your own
individuality, even though you frequently study or
copy the work of master draftsmen.

In order to profit to the greatest extent by the
experience of others, collect as many reproductions
of excellent pencil drawings as possible. By care-
fully analyzing and comparing these, studying the
composition, the values of light and dark, the
methods of technique, the representation of details
and the like, you will obtain many ideas applicable
to your own work. Do not, however, attempt to
imitate the style of any one man, as this will deaden
your initiative and be unfair to him as well. Select,
instead, from the drawings of many individuals
the suggestions that appeal to you personally, and
apply these, with any changes that may suggest
themselves, to your own work.

It is surprising what a variety of ideas such an
analysis and comparison of many drawings will
reveal. If we consider the width of line used we
shall find that some drawings are entirely made up
of very fine lines, others of broad lines, and still

others of solid mass shading. In some, two or more
of these types of lines will be found combined. If
we look at the kinds of lines we shall learn that
some sketches consist wholly of sharp, crisp
strokes ; others of soft "woolly" lines ; some show
strokes almost mechanically perfect in contrast with
others having lines made with the greatest freedom.
If we consider the values of light and dark we
shall see that certain drawings are left almost white,
others rather gray, and some quite black. Most
drawings, however, combine the white, gray and
black, as all of these are usually necessary to prop-
erly represent the values existing in the object to
be drawn.

Considering the great variety of work to be
found, it is no small wonder that the student should
be in doubt often as to the best way of treating a
given subject. In such an emergency our good
friend Common Sense is perhaps the best teacher.
Decide first of all just what the purpose of the
drawing is to be. Some drawings best meet the
requirements if left in outline only. Others demand
careful shading of every part. For a quick sketch
the roughest sort of line is often just the thing,
whereas a fully rendered drawing sometimes re-
quires that every stroke be painstakingly made.
For most architectural purposes firm, sharp strokes
are better than rough, "woolly" ones, for firm
strokes seem to best represent solid or smooth mate-
rials. Soft, yielding materials might perhaps be
better suggested by rough, soft lines or tones.

Architectural pencil sketches are often shown to
the client in conjunction with the instrumentally
drawn plans and naturally harmonize better with
these plans if sharp and clean-cut. The student
should not take this to mean that such sketches
should appear too mechanical, for the fact is that
the average draftsman uses far too little freedon;
in his freehand work. It is sometimes difficult for
him to remember that he should not draw every
brick and stone, every modillion and dentil, but
that he should learn rather to suggest and in-
dicate these things in a clear, "snappy" way.

It is in learning how to thus suggest detail that
perhaps the greatest benefit can be gained through
the study of good pencil reproductions. It should
be remembered, however, that such reproductions
have as a rule been reduced in size considerably
from the original drawings, and the student should
take this into account. Many reproductions show
drawings apparently made with very fine lines, while
in reality the lines were several times as large as
the reproductions suggest. Needless to say it is
a foolish waste of time to attempt to cover large
areas of paper with fine lines when broad ones
answer as well, yet many draftsmen get the habit,
possibly because they are accustomed to working
with a sharp point, of making more tiny lines than

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PENCIL SKETCH OF DURHAM CATHEDRAL BY KENNETH CONANT

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

are necessary. Partly for this reason it is unwise
for the student to devote too much time to copy
work from plates. When working from nature or
the photograph there is far less tendency to fall
into finicky ways. On the other hand, some stu-
dents make drawings so sketchily and carelessly
that they fail to meet the usual architectural require-
ments.

Warning should be given that there is a vast
difference between the rough, scratchy sketches of
beginners and the apparently carelessly made draw-
ings by well known men. Some students feel, evi-
dently, that the road to success lies through imi-
tating this extremely sketchy sort of work. They
fail to realize, perhaps, that these men have learned
accurate drawing in the past, and that it is equally
necessary for them to acquire the ability to do care-
ful work before they can make rough sketches in-
telligently. An art student, visiting a collection of
lithographs by Mr. Joseph Pennell, was heard to
remark that he could "take a chunk o' charcoal and
do as well." Doubtless this student was ignorant
of the fact that during a period of many years Mr.
Pennell made hundreds of illustrations of architec-
ture, almost photographically accurate in their
drawing and wonderfully delicate in their render-
ing. These years of training make it possible for
Mr. Pennell to produce his lithographs in a very
broad, bold way, with remarkable directness and
freedom, but his earlier work offers more of assist-
ance to the beginner.

This brings us to another fact : that a man's
style of rendering usually changes with the years,
as the best of men are constantly striving to im-
prove, with the result that they gradually alter their
manner of work. This fact should help to make
clear the folly of the beginner attempting to at once
arbitrarily make a "style" of his own. If he is
content, instead, to do his work as well as he knows
how, searching for truth in drawing and an honest
interpretation of nature's values, studying all the
while other drawings in order to benefit by the
experience gained by other men, and seeking always
for the best way to meet the requirements of the
problem at hand, he will unconsciously develop a
method or style expressive of his own individual
self.

It is impossible to over-emphasize the need for
constant practice if one is to acquire more than
ordinary skill in drawing. Many students with
considerable innate ability fail to make the best use
of it because of their lack of interest or persever-
ance, whereas others, who show at first far less
natural talent, but who are endowed with an aspira-
tion to achieve dexterity and with a willingness to
work for it, often gain such skill as to far outshine
those students with greater inborn aptitude. It is

deplorable that so many persons fail to make the
most of their natural abilities, but it is, on the other
hand, most gratifying to find others who force
themselves to the front through their persistency
and commendable effort.

The drawings illustrating this chapter should be
carefully studied as they show a variety of excellent
individual treatments. The originals of most of
these were done entirely with pencil, though that by
Mr. Eggers on page 79 (which is, by the way, re-
produced at the exact size of the original) had light
washes of water color added to the pencilling, while
that by Mr. Long on page 87 is really a color ren-
dering rather than a pencil drawing. In this latter
example, however, the preparation for the coloring
was done in pencil, so the reproduction is shown as
an illustration of a style of work in which the pen-
cil plays a by no means unimportant, although a
rather inconspicuous part-

It is of interest to mention that the charming
drawing by Mr. Eggers, to which we referred a
moment ago, was made from his window in Milan
in 1912, when he was studying as the first holder
of the LeBrun Travelling Scholarship. His sketches
on pages 80 and 82 were also done at about the same
time, and are reproduced here directly from his
sketch book, and with the exception of that at the
top of page 80. showing Notre Dame, they are at the
exact size of the originals so as to convey the tech-
nique as faithfully as possible.

The drawings by Mr. Conant on pages 77, 81
and 83, show a keen sense of appreciation and a
sound knowledge of architecture, as well as remark-
able skill and sensitiveness in drawing, and they are
worthy of the most careful study.

On page 84 is a sketch by Andre Smith, which is
notable for the direct method of drawing and the
production of a wide range of values by skillful use
of a very delicate line. The freshness of the draw-
ing is due to the artist's habit of working rapidly
and making a drawing at a single sitting.

The sketch by Mr. Maginnis on page 84 is handled
in a masterly manner, conveying very delightfully
the character and detail of an interesting architec-
tural subject.

In the drawing on page 86 Mr. Watson has been
very successful in rendering the structural strength
and comparative lightness of one of New York's
great modern bridges, and the activity along the
water front, and in suggesting the shipping by
means of smoke clouds, wisps of steam, a stack and
a spar or two.

Compare these drawings with those of a similar
nature in other parts of the volume or with examples
which you may have at hand, noting the differences
in individual style that such a comparison reveals.

INDIVIDUAL STYLE

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VIEW FROM A WINDOW IN MILAN. FROM A DRAWING BY OTTO R. EGGERS

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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PENCIL SKETCHES BY OTTO R. EGGERS

INDIVIDUAL STYLE

PENCIL SKETCH OF DURHAM CATHEDRAL BY KENNETH CONANT

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INDIVIDUAL STYLE

Courtesy of Arthur H. Harlow & Co.

CATHEDRAL. SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELLA, BY KENNETH CONANT

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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INDIVIDUAL STYLE

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PENCIL SKETCH IN THE RUE ST. ETIENNE DES TONNELIERS, ROUEN, BY C. D. MAGINN1S

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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PENCIL SKETCH OF WILLIAMSBURGH BRIDGE, NEW YORK CITY. BY ERNEST WATSON

INDIVIDUAL STYLE

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Chapter IV.
METHODS AND LIGHTING

AS WE are unable to fully and exactly repro-
duce by means of pencil drawings, all of na-
ture's intricate form, her complicated light
and shade, and her varied coloring, we are forced to
adopt certain conventional methods for their sugges-
tion and indication.

Of the numerous conventions thus employed
outline is perhaps the one most commonly used.
Natural forms, it should be understood, have no
definite outlines. We are able to distinguish ob-
jects one from the other only because of their con-
trasts of light or shade or shadow or color. To
demonstrate the truth of this, study the objects
about you, and you will see that each is visible
only because it is light against dark or dark against
light or because one color is contrasted with a dif-
ferent one, but never because it has an outline. Tt
may by chance have a border of some strong color
or tone which at first glance seems to be an out-
line, but closer inspection will prove it to be merely
a narrow tone of light or dark or of color, so
small as to appear as a line. Cracks between floor-
boards, for instance, often seem to be the outlines
of the boards themselves, but in reality we see
these cracks only because they form shadows or
because they are filled with dirt or other materials
of a color or tone different from that of the wood
itself. Streaks of highlight along the edges of ob-
jects frequently appear to be outlines, too, unless
the source of light causing them is hidden or moved,
when they either disappear or change their positions.

Granting, then, that nature employs no real out-
line, it is remarkable that her forms can be so
quickly and accurately suggested by its use. Even
a child, as a rule, is able to so indicate objects by
a few simple profiles that we can recognize them
easily, and primitive peoples, ages ago, made out-
line drawings which we are able to read and under-
stand with little effort. Because such drawings do
indicate form simply and directly, it is important
for the student to learn to make them well and he
should frequently practice this form of work. By
varying the lines used, the textures and materials
represented can be more accurately and artistically
suggested than at first seems possible. Shadow,
too, can be indicated by darkening such edges as
are turned away from the light. Outline drawing
has, at the same time, so many limitations that for
architectural purposes it is mainly valuable for the
suggestion of form. Therefore whenever we wish
to do more than simply indicate the light and shade
or color we are forced to either supplement the
outline by the addition of tones of gray or black,
or to do away with it entirely, representing the
object wholly by values of light and shade, approxi-
mating as closely as is possible those tones found
in nature itself.

At "A," Figure 21, is a sketch of an old chim-
ney done in outline only, but this outline is so
accented as to suggest the textures of the various
surfaces and a few tiny lines are added also as an
indication of the shade and shadow. At "B" the
same chimney is shown in full tone of light and
shade but with the outline omitted. This drawing
is much like a photograph of the same subject, in
that the stone and brick and other materials have
been given tones as similar as is possible to those
appearing in nature. Though this type of draw-
ing is used to some extent, it is not as popular as
that shown at "C" in which much of the white of
the paper is left. Drawing "C" not only has more
character than "B" but the method used is a more
economical one. In this particular instance the
outline was drawn exactly as at "A" and then
enough tone added to suggest the values of light
and shade as found at "B." For architectural work
this method is quite satisfactory, for much of the
form can be represented by the accented outline ;
the white of the paper answers for the lighter
values and the darker tones can be drawn with the
gray and black of the pencil. Color cannot, of
course, be more than suggested in any pencil draw-
ing. A dark red brick wall can be shown dark,
and light green shutters can be shown light, but
unless explanatory notes are added or some color
employed there is no way of making it clear that
the brickwork is red and the shutters are green.
Because of these limitations, tints of water color are
frequently washed over a pencil drawing and the
results obtained in this way are often very effec-
tive, especially if the tints are light and delicate.
Colored pencils are sometimes used, too, with con-
siderable success.

Figure 22 is one sketch in which the effect
is gained by the use of values representing the color
and tone of the various building materials and ac-
cessories, little attempt being made to show the
shadows. It is sometimes possible to obtain a very
pleasing result by this means and it would be well
for the student to try a few such drawings, but
the average subject demands some suggestion of
the shadow tones as well. Many drawings, can, in
fact, be entirely made by the use of the shade and
shadow tones only, the color of the building mate-
rials being largely disregarded, and the lower
sketch, Figure 22, is shown to illustrate this point.
This method proves especially useful when draw-
ing objects made of light colored materials such as
carved white marble, ornamental terra-cotta, white
clapboarded or stucco walls, etc.

Although the natural tone and color of mate-
rials in buildings and their surroundings is of great
importance, so much of the effect of a structure,
both as a whole and in detail, depends on its

>-1

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

Figure 22. The Upper Sketch Shows an Effect Mainly Gained by the Use of Values Representing the

Tone of Various Building Materials and Accessories. In the Lower Sketch the Effect Depends

More on the Indication of Shade and Shadow.

METHODS AND LIGHTING

shadows that the study of light and shade deserves
special attention. When a sketch is in outline only,
the light is either indicated in a simple manner or
entirely disregarded, but when a drawing is to be
done in full values it is especially important to
determine both the source of the light and the
direction in which it is coming before starting to
render. Students have been known to cast the
shadows on a building in one direction and to in-
dicate the shade on the trees as though the light
were coming at a different angle. Such inconsis-
tencies are amusing, but warning should be given
that they are almost sure to occur when students
attempt to copy and combine parts of several draw-
ings by other men or even make original drawings
of their own unless the matter of lighting is care-
fully thought out before the pencil rendering is
begun. Such mistakes show that the student can-
not give too much study to this subject if he is to
avoid many similar errors. There are, however,
so many separate influences affecting the lighting
-of all objects, such as the condition of the atmos-
phere, the reflective or absorbing powers of dif-
ferent surfaces and materials, the constant shifting
and moving of clouds and foliage, that it seems un-
wise to attempt here to give the student more than
a few hints to point the way for his further indi-
vidual study. Even in interiors the light often
comes from so many sources and is reflected from
so many surfaces that nothing but constant obser-
vation and sketching will teach the student what he
should know of such conditions. The opening or
closing of a door may be sufficient to entirely change
the appearance of an interior and in the same way
the shifting of a cloud may cause windows viewed
from without to appear very light one minute and
almost black the next. Sometimes the lighting
varies to such an extent that an entire building
may appear dark against light at one time and light
against dark at another, as was illustrated in the
example of the lighthouse in Figure 19. Such an
extreme change as this, though by no means un-
usual, generally takes place at morning or in the
evening or under exceptional lighting conditions,
but even the average building under normal condi-
tions will vary greatly in appearance from hour to
hour. Because of these constant changes most
buildings appear to better advantage at certain
time of day than at others, and so if drawings of
them are to be made it is naturally best to make
them during these favorable moments. Buildings
and foliage usually get the most satisfactory light
during the late afternoon when the sun's rays are
so slanted as to cause an interesting variety of
shade and shadow, but there are of course excep-
tions to this, a great deal depending on the location
of the building in relation to the points of the com-
pass. Many architects fail when designing build-
ings to give sufficient attention to the fact that a
design which will appear well when turned at a
certain angle with the sun or other source of illumi-
nation, may be much less effective placed in some
other position. It is not enough to make instru-
mental studies of buildings, with shadows cast in
the usual 45 degree manner, but in addition the
designer should consider how the structure will

appear under the vertical rays of the sun at mid-
day or the slanting rays of early morning or late
afternoon, and should, in many cases, make special
studies with the shadows shown as they would exist
in the completed building. The author has in mind
one particular public building which was most
attractive in the preliminary drawings, with its
shadows cast in the conventional manner. Unfortu-
nately the building is so situated that for months
at a time the sun seldom shines on the main facade
and in the evening this faqade is especially unin-
teresting when the bright light from the street
lamps entirely eliminates the cornice shadows. Ob-
viously it is impossible to foresee and prevent all
such unpleasant appearances, but the student who
has learned to study and observe light effects and
has drawn much from nature will find the knowl-
edge gained from this work of great assistance to
him if he is called upon to do original work in
design, both in avoiding such unpleasant results
as we have mentioned and in making the greatest
use of the lighting conditions as they exist. Such
knowledge is of great importance, too, when one
is called upon to make renderings of proposed
buildings or sketches from memory or the imagi-
nation.

Do not for a moment think that it is our inten-
tion to condemn the practice of casting shadows
on elevations in the conventional 45-degree man-
ner, for that is not the case, as even the student of
freehand drawing can gain considerable knowledge
useful in sketching through a course in shades and
shadows. What we do wish to make clear is that
the draftsman or designer who studies light and
shade directly from nature does not allow himself
to be handicapped by the man-made rules govern-
ing shades and shadows, but supplements these
with his knowledge of nature's own laws, and so
applies them all with far greater intelligence. We are
told, for example, when studying the architectural
subject of shades and shadows, that those surfaces
in a building which are turned most directly
towards the source of light will usually appear, all
other things being equal, the brightest. From this
one might judge that a shingled roof receiving di-
rect rays of light from the sun would appear very
bright, and in fact it often does. Not infrequent-
ly, however, such a roof seems very dark under
these conditions, even though the wood of the
shingles be light in color, this appearance being
largely due to the fact that the horizontal lines of
the butts of the shingles, which 'are so turned as
to receive little light and are also, beer use of the
nature of their grain, often dark, show so black and
are so conspicuous as to deepen and darken the
effect of the otherwise light tone. The rule is
worth remembering, however, in spite of such ex-
ceptions, as is also the rule that the darkest, sharp-
est shadows are cast by the edges of the surfaces re-
ceiving the most direct light. It naturally follows that
surfaces so turned as to receive the light rays in a
slantwise direction will be less bright than those re-
ceiving the direct rays. It is true, too, that a shiny
surface generally appears brighter than a dull surface
of the same actual value and sometimes even a black
shiny surface will reflect some light tone and so

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

ALL Li&H-r~TuT END
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ALL DARK &UT F R. O M-T^ VTX L L

ALL OARK, RUT

ALL PARK j^ A COMPROMISE.

- LIGHTING- SUGGESTIONS FOR. ARRANG ING

Figure 23. Illustrating Different Value Schemes for the Same Subject.

METHODS AND LIGHTING

appear practically white. There are exceptions to
this for a shiny, light surface may reflect some very
dark tone and thus appear nearly black, and like-
wise a smooth gray surface may appear either lighter
or darker than it really is. In other words glossy
surfaces change in appearance with changes of light
to a much greater extent than dull surfaces. Even
light, dull surfaces, however, often throw much
brilliancy onto other objects and white concrete
walks or terraces or driveways sometimes reflect
enough light upon adjacent buildings to materially
affect their appearance, as such lights soften the
shadow tone or even cast shadows themselves.

While we might go on with such general hints as
these it is hardly worth while, for it is only by
observing nature at first hand that the student can
gain much knowledge of real value. One excellent
way of studying constantly changing effects of light
on a building is by making a series of snapshots
from some one fixed point at intervals during a
clear day and comparing them wHi care. Such
photographs reveal much of interest and value to
the observing student, especially if the building
chosen be rather small. It might be well to make
sketches from these pho'ographs as this would help
to fix the idens in the mind, or, if the student has
sufficient ability or training to sketch rapidly di-
rectly from the building, he can possibly learn more
by making a series of sketches instead of the snap-
shots.

We have spoken of the fact that it is sometimes
possible to make an effective drawing by the use
of shadows only and sometimes by suggesting the

building materials alone, but it is more often neces-
sary to represent both the material and the shadows
in order to obtain a satisfactory drawing. It is not
always easy, though, to decide just how much of
each should be shown, especially when working
from the imagination as the architect is often called
upon to do. This can, perhaps, best be determined
by making several rough studies on tracing paper
directly over the outline drawing or by making two
or three small sketches similar to those shown in
Figure 23. These eight sketches illustrate the fact
that it is often possible to get many fairly satisfac-
tory compositions of the same subject, but there
are usually one or two which are better than the
others, 'and one of these should be selected as a
guide for the final larger renderings. It is suggested
that the student make several similar small sketches
of some object from memory or the imagination as
practice in composition, and it is well to remember
too, that in making drawings from the photograph
it is often helpful to try similar studies on tracing
paper directly over the photograph, to determine
how much to omit and how best to compose that
which it seems essential to show.

It may be well to repeat here that the only way
to learn to draw is by constant practice. Reading
a dozen books on drawing might give the student
many ideas, but unless such suggestions are carried
out they are useless. If you bck the inspiration to
draw by yourself, it would be well to join some
sketching class or engage a critic to help you with
your work.

Chapter V.
COMPOSITION AND DRAWING FROM PHOTOGRAPHS

MANY draftsmen and students easily acquire
the ability to satisfactorily represent small de-
tails of buildings like bricks and shingles and
even such larger parts as doors and windows, but the
skill to compose these lesser units into a complete
and well-balanced whole is not so easily gained. And
yet the student who is unable to pleasingly arrange
all the smaller parts into a fine composition is seri-
ously handicapped, regardless of his cleverness in
sketching each single detail, so though it may prove
a difficult task it will pay him well to earnestly
attempt to master the art of composition. Even
though it is only through serious study and faithful
practice that the necessary principles can be acquired,
once they are understood it will be found that they
apply equally well whether a drawing be large or
small and whether it is hastily sketched or executed
with painstaking care. The principles are valuable
also when using other mediums than pencil, such as
pen and ink or wash or color.

It seems hardly necessary to give here more than a
brief outline of the most important of these principles,
and a few hints as to what to do and what not
to do, but these suggestions should be supple-
mented by reading books on the subject such as
"Pictorial Composition," by H. R. Poore, A. N.
A., "Composition," by Arthur Wesley Dow, and
the chapter on composition in John Ruskin's
"The Elements of Drawing." A study of such
books will show a difference in opinion on some
points, for composition is an art rather than a
science, and it is impossible to lay down exact
rules as to what should or should not be done.
Perhaps the greatest value of such works is that
they point out many pitfalls which lie in the path
of the artist, and by analysis of the pictures of
acknowledged masters, give the student a cer-
tain standard by which he is able to judge and
criticise his own work. Though the study of
books is very desirable, one should never forget
that drawing cannot be taught by rule, and a
hundred lengthy volumes could do no more than
start one in the right direction and offer sugges-
tions to assist him in his progress.

As the word "composition" means the putting
together of things and the arranging of them in
order, so as to make one unit out of them all, it
is evident that we must first have good things to
put together if the final composition is to be
good. This means that in starting work we should
use extreme care in the selection of our subject,
not only as a whole but in each of its parts. Stu-
dents, more especially the beginners, seem to be
of the opinion that any object found in nature

is a satisfactory subject to draw, and they are
led into this belief, perhaps, by hearing state-
ments to the effect that all nature is beautiful.
It is not for us to deny this but it should be
made clear that good pictures are not to be ob-
tained ready-made by simply copying bits of
nature at random. Amateur photographers are
well acquainted with the fact that a successful
photograph is not often secured by simply point-
ing the camera in any direction and making an
exposure ; it is necessary to give some thought
to the selection and composition of the subject.
Experienced artists often do produce good draw-
ings by re-composing poor material, but the stu-
dent will avoid difficulties if he chooses either
something which is well composed in itself or
which can be made so with few changes.

We have previously spoken of the advantage
of using a view-finder when selecting composi-
tions and wish to call attention again to its value.
Of the several types in general use one which
we have already described as consisting simply
of a rectangular opening two inches or so in
length cut in a piece of heavy paper or card-
board, is especially helpful when working direct-
ly from nature. By holding it in an upright posi-
tion and looking through it at the objects be-
yond, it is very easy to select interesting sub-
jects and to determine, too, how large an area
or how much of an object or objects it is best to
show to give the finest composition. Again it
has another use, for if the student is in doubt as
to just what slope should be given to a roof line
or slanting tree trunk, a comparison of these
inclined lines in the objects with the vertical or
horizontal lines of the opening of the finder will
be of great assistance in determining the correct
slope or angle. The finder will help the student,
also, to judge correctly the values of light and
dark as seen in nature, for each tone of the objects
can be compared in turn with the value of the
cardboard itself.

The other commonly used finder or frame con-
sists of two "L" shaped pieces of paper or card,
which will give, when lapped as shown at 1,
Figure 24, an endless variety of shapes and sizes,
and it is, for this reason, much better than the
other finder when working from photographs.
As soon as a pleasing composition has been se-
lected this frame can be clipped or pinned in posi-
tion on the photograph and left in place until
the drawing is finished. It thus serves to hide
those parts which have no relation to the sketch
and permits the eye to rest on the selected com-
position without distraction.

THE PICTURE. SPACE. SHOULD II SIMILAR.
IM iHAPt TO THE O&JLCTj EMCLO5LD

I 'I. I »1 I 1

ViLW F1NDLH

VEHTICU OBJECTS AfcL USUALLY
PLACED WITHIN AW UPRIGHT SPACE.

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Figure 24. Illustrating the Use of the View-finder, and the Proportioning
of the Picture Space to the Subject Drawn.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

Figure 25. Illustrating Possibilities of Deriving Inspiration from Photographs. These Sketches Were
All Based on the Photograph Shown on the Opposite Page.

COMPOSITION AND DRAWING FROM PHOTOGRAPHS

Some art students carry a view-finder of the
kind first described with them constantly and
gain a great deal of pleasure and useful knowl-
edge of composition by studying different ob-
jects through its opening. In making one, cut
several spaces through your card instead of one,
if you prefer, of various shapes and sizes. They
need not be large as the card can be held near the
eye ; in fact two or three small openings or a
single large one can be made in a finder of postal
card size. Sometimes threads are fastened across
the openings from side to side and from top to
bottom in such a way as to divide them into a
number of smaller rectangles or squares. Those
who have preference for this finder feel that it
lessens the difficulty of laying out correct pro-
portions when drawing from nature, just as in
copying a photograph or enlarging a sketch the
work is simplified when the print or sketch is
marked off into squares or rectangles.

Several excellent compositions can often be
found for the same object or objects when viewed
from one point, by snowing more or less of the
surroundings, just as a number of satisfactory
photographs can be secured. Naturally, too, an
infinite variety of compositions of any archi-
tectural object can be discovered by studying it
from various positions and under different light-
ing conditions. When working from the photo-
graph several excellent sketches can sometimes
be made from different portions of one print, es-
pecially if the picture is a street scene or a gen-
eral view similar to that of the Wye Bridge and

Cathedral, published below on this page. It
is easy to frame a number of attractive compo-
sitions on this photograph and it would be to
the student's advantage to do so. Figure 25 shows
three sketches drawn from this very picture.

It will be noticed that no attempt has been
made to slavishly copy the values and details
exactly as they appear on the print, for it is sel-
dom wise to do this, but the general effect is
indicated in a broad, simple way. There is per-
haps no better manner of learning composition
than by making such selections with the finder
and also such sketches as we have shown here. For
this reason the following exercises are offered
to fix in the memory the ideas which we are con-
sidering.

First of all, obtain several photographs such
as street scenes or general views, each showing
a number of objects which might make pleasing
sketches, and with the finder frame on one of
your prints some selection which seems to com-
pose well, remembering that each composition
should have a center of interest. Remember, too,
that there should always be a pleasing relation
between the shape of the picture space or margin
line and the subject itself. If, for example, a very
tall building such as a skyscraper or church
spire has been chosen, it is as a rule best to draw
it on paper placed vertically or to frame it in a
vertical picture space, whereas a long horizontal
building or mass of buildings can usually be rep-
resented to the best advantage when enclosed
in a horizontal manner. This has been illus-

Courtesy of Pratt Institute

Photograph of the Wye Bridge and Cathedral. Three Sketches Drawn from this Photograph

are Shown in Figure 25.

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

trated in Figure 24. The English cottage shown
at "1" at the top of the sheet, seemed, when
viewed in connection with the nearby trees,
to demand a horizontal treatment, while the
church tower at "2" suggested at once a vertical
handling. A group of buildings such as that
shown at "3" usually calls for a horizontal space,
for if the horizontal masses are more prominent
than the vertical the fact must be recognized and
expressed. Thus the church at "4" is given a
long, low, frame, but if its tower alone was to
be shown the contrary treatment would be more
appropriate. As a general rule it is well not to
use circular or oval or triangular frames or mar-
gin lines on architectural drawings as such shapes
often have little or no relation to the form of the
architecture itself. A square shape might be well
related in this respect and therefore might some-
times do, but from an artistic standpoint a square
is usually less interesting than any other rec-
tangle. It is even true that certain rectangles
are more pleasing than others. One with a length
just twice its width is not as desirable, for in-
stance, as another which is one and one-half times
as long as it is wide, while even this proportion
is less subtle and hence less satisfying to the
eye than one about three parts wide and five long.

While discussing margin lines it might be well
to mention that the line itself should never be
so black as to draw the eye away from the sub-
ject. The width and tone of line should vary in
different drawings so as to always be in harmony
with the sketch. Again, attention should be
called to the fact that sketches in some cases
are carried way to the margin lines while in
others they are allowed to fade gradually into
the paper, or "vignetted" as it is called. In either
of these cases if the exterior of a building is be-
ing drawn it will be found that the margin lines
need not be far from the building itself, with the
exception, perhaps, of the line at the top, as all
spaces will appear much greater after they are
rendered than before, for such surroundings as
are generally used add a sense of distance. If
too much space is left in such drawings the land-
scape and accessories may easily become too
prominent in relation to the architecture.

When a selection has been decided upon and
framed to a good proportion, fasten the finder
to the photograph and then on very thin tracing
paper with a soft pencil make a simple tracing,
not in outline alone but in values, trying to give
the effect of the whole in a direct and simple
manner, with sufficient accent at the center of
interest. Do not spend more than five minutes
on the sketch and then frame the same object in
a slightly different way and make a second trac-
ing. Compare the two. If one is better than
the other, why ? Is it because you have shown
more foreground or sky, or because the frame
has been kept of a size or shape better suited
to the leading objects? Ask yourself such ques-
tions and then make perhaps a third and even
a fourth sketch, comparing them all with care,
and if one seems better than the others, make a
larger and more carefully finished drawing using

this last sketch as the basis of your composition.
Next try to find some entirely different composi-
tion in the same photograph, using a new sub-
ject, and make another series of quick sketches
or tracings, and again compare them and analyse
each, trying always to learn by this comparison
why one composition is good and another not.
Select a different photograph and repeat the proc-
ess, or, if you feel that you have the ability to
work in a similar way from nature, do so, choos-
ing a comparatively simple subject so that each
sketch can be done in a few minutes.

One will encounter more difficulty when work-
ing from nature, for whereas on the photographs
the forms and values remain constant, in nature
the values are always changing and the forms
more difficult to represent. We have previously
had occasion to mention that subjects which are
full of interest and good in composition during
some hours are entirely different under changed
lighting conditions, and buildings which appear
to good advantage at certain times of day are
much less pleasing at others. This is largely be-
cause the areas of shade and shadow are never
the same for long. Part of the time they nicely
balance one another so that the lights and darks
are all well related. At other times too much
light or too much dark appears at one side or
above or below, thus destroying the restful effect.
At some hours, too, there may be patches of
shade or shadow so odd in shape as to prove dis-
tracting. It is therefore well to do your sketch-
ing during favorable moments, if this is possible,
returning, if necessary, to the same subject at
the same hour during a number of days in suc-
cession until the study is completed.

If a subject which is otherwise good in compo-
sition exhibits a few unpleasant features, either
in nature or in the photograph, it is perfectly
legitimate to take certain liberties with them, if
by so doing the drawing can be improved with-
out sacrificing the truth of the main idea. Should
a tree, for example, seem a bit too small in re-
lation to a building, or too light or dark in value,
or should some shadow be too dense and black
or form a displeasing mass, it is permissible to
make such changes as seem necessary to improve
the composition providing the final result repre-
sents a condition which might be possible under
slightly different circumstances, without the break-
ing of any of nature's laws.

In landscape painting and decorative drawing
more such liberties are taken, however, than are
permissible in most architectural sketching or
rendering, for architecture must as a rule be truth-
fully portrayed, the changes to better the compo-
sition being made for the most part in foliage,
shadows, and the like. To illustrate this matter of
changes, we have shown in Figure 25, Sketch 2,
the dark boat in exactly the same position as on the
photograph. This spacing is not wholly satisfactory
as the boat seems isolated in the center of the
sheet, attracting by its placement more than its
proper share of attention. In such a case as this
it would be better to improve the composition by
moving the boat to the right or the left or it might

COMPOSITION AND DRAWING FROM PHOTOGRAPHS

be tied into the scheme by the addition of extra
lines or tones. Amendments like this are always
advisable, and it is also wise to omit from a sketch
such objects as have little or no relation to the sub-
ject itself-, and which, for this reason, detract from
the main idea which the drawing is intended to
express. This means that we must observe the
"Principle of Unity," which requires that a compo-
sition must be a homogeneous whole, all its parts
related and so thoroughly merged and blended to-
gether that they become a single unit. In order to
secure unity in a drawing only as much of the
material before us is selected as relates directly to
the subject of the sketch. Separate your subject
from everything else that is visible, and think of
it as a single harmonious whole. This rule applies
whether your subject be an entire building, or some
portion such as a dormer window or some still
smaller detail, — a door knocker, for example. Once
you have determined which of the ideas are to be
rejected as irrelevant, you must decide on the rela-
tive importance of those which have been accepted
as essential, for unity in a drawing depends not
only on the selection or rejection of material but
on its emphasis or subordination as well, for unless
each detail is given just the amount of attention
that is proportionate to its importance, the compo-
sition will not count as a complete and satisfactory
unit. Failure to give sufficient emphasis or accent
to the leading parts of a drawing causes a loss of
force to the entire composition and in the same
way neglect to properly subordinate the unimpor-
tant parts leads to confusion and complication.

To further illustrate this principle of unity let
us consider some simple objects found in everyday
use. An ink-bottle, a turnip and a vase of roses
might be arranged into a pleasing composition so
far as variety of form and size and value are con-
cerned, but unity would always be lacking in sucli
a group for these objects are not sufficiently well
related by use to ever become a satisfying single
whole. It would be equally difficult to compose a
coal scuttle, a hair brush and a cut glass pitcher,
but a comparatively simple matter to form an ex-
cellent composition of a loaf of bread partly sliced,
with knife, plate, etc., or of a garden trowel, flower
pot and package of seeds. Fortunately nearly all
objects of an architectural nature are so closely
related that little difficulty is experienced in find-
ing things which go well together, so the delineator
of architecture has much less trouble in this respect
than does the painter of still life. Unity in archi-
tectural work is often injured, however, because
certain accessories a-e too important in relation to
the architecture itself. It is not inappropriate to
show an automobile at the curb before a Colonial
doorway, but if it is indicated so large in size or
made so conspicuous in any manner that it detracts
from the doorway it then prevents a perfect unity
in the sketch. It is mainly for this reason that in
rendering architectural drawings such accessories are
often left in what sometimes seems to the beginner an
unfinished state. Trees are shown in a conventional
and inconspicuous manner, clouds are often either
omitted or only lightly indicated and shadows are

simplified- This brings us to a discussion of the
"Principle of Balance" which is so closely related
to the principle of unity as to be really a part of it ;
in fact without balance there can be no unity, for
by balance we mean, as the name implies, the
equilibrium or restfulness that results from having
all the parts of a composition so arranged that each
receives just its correct share of attention. Every
part of a picture has a certain attractive force which
acts upon the eye and in proportion to its own
power to attract it detracts from every other part.
If we find our interest in a drawing divided between
several parts, — if certain tones or lines seem too in-
sistent or prominent, — we know that the composi-
tion is lacking in balance and likewise lacking in
unity as well. It is impossible to give concise and
definite rules for obtaining balance in drawings,
mainly for the reason that the attractive force of
each portion of a drawing depends on an infinite
number of circumstances which are variable. A
short, straight line drawn near the center of a clean
sheet of paper has a power to catch and hold the
eye. Let a figure "6" or some other curved line
be drawn near the straight one and even though
they are of equal size the curved line will prove the
more powerful attraction of the two. In the same
way a star-shaped form or a triangle has more
strength to attract than a square or rectangle of
like area. This power depends not entirely on
shape, however, but on the value of light and dark
as well. Draw two squares on paper, side by side,
the one dark and the other light and if the paper is
white the dark square will exert the strongest force
but if the paper is black the white square will jump
into prominence. Again, the attractive power of
an object varies in proportion to its proximity to
other objects. If, for example, a man is shown
at small scale in a standing or sitting position near
the center of the sheet he will receive considerable
attention if by himself, but if surrounded by other
objects he will seem much less noticeable. Then,
top, a moving object or one which suggests motion,
will be more prominent than a similar object in
repose. Let a man be shown running and he is
seen far more quickly than if he is at rest. Objects
near the edges of the sheet or in the corners usually
arrest the eye more quickly, too, than they would
if near the middle of the paper.

These examples are sufficient to show the diffi-
culty of attempting to give definite directions for
obtaining good balance. The best suggestion we can
offer is that the student make first of all, as soon
as a drawing has been blocked out in its main pro-
portions, a preliminary sketch such as we have de-
scribed. A painter is able to make many corrections
in his work as he progresses, until excellent balance
in every part is gained, but in pencil sketching,
where the nature of the medium and the limitation
of time demand that the work be done very directly
and with few changes, it is difficult to make well
balanced drawings unless the artist or student has
had considerable practice or unless preliminary
studies are made. Almost invariably such studies
save time and give results in the end that more than
justify the labor spent on their preparation. Then,

100

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

Figure 26. Illustrating Some of the Principles of Composition in Examples of Various Character.

COMPOSITION AND DRAWING FROM PHOTOGRAPHS

101

by way of additional precaution, as the final sketch
progresses set it away from you at intervals or
turn i£ upside down or on end or even reflect it
in a mirror so as to see it in a reversed or changed
position. When so viewed the balance should still
be good, and if not the necessary adjustments should
be made. If some part seems too prominent either
tone it down or accent other parts until balance is
restored.

These principles of unity and balance which we
have described all too briefly are most important
as they apply to all forms of drawing and design,
but we must leave them to offer a few suggestions
which relate especially to architectural work.

First of all, in making drawings of architecture
strive for an effect of restfulness and repose. A
painter of birds and animals or of marine views
often desires an appearance of motion, but care
must be taken not to suggest much movement when
drawing architecture, for each building should look
permanent and solid and should appear to rest firmly
on the ground. Avoid, therefore, any effect of
violent wind or of speeding automobiles or hurry-
ing people. If persons are indicated it is well to
have them walking quietly into the picture or ap-
proaching the center of interest, for if they are
shown walking away from the center towards the
margin line the eye follows them and the balance
is thus disturbed. There are, of course, exceptions
to this. If many people are shown, as in a street
scene, they may be represented as going in all di-
rections, for the sense of motion in one direction
will be offset by that in the other. Figures of any
sort greatly injure a drawing, however, unless they
are well drawn and naturally arranged into effec-
tive groups, and so should either be omitted entirely
or represented well.

Figure 26 is designed to show certain displeasing
effects often found in architectural drawings, which
it is best to try to avoid. A reference to Diagram
1 will disclose that the foremost corner of the house
is equi-distant from the two end margin lines. It
is seldom advisable to place a building in this posi-
tion, a possible exception being a tower which is
absolutely symmetrical. Diagram 3 illustrates the
same point, while Diagram 5 applies the idea to
an interior, and in both of these the effect is some-
what unpleasant. Do not, then, divide the picture
space into two equal parts by having some impor-
tant line directly in the center. Look again at Dia-
grams 1, 3 and 5 and you will find that the horizon
line or eye level towards which all the receding
horizontal lines seem to vanish is just one-half way
from top to bottom of the picture space, and this
division is unsatisfactory, too, and better results
are obtained when the horizon or eye level is either
above or below the center of the sheet. In the same
way the sketch of the bridge at 3, Figure 25, would
be better if the top line of the bridge was not so
near the center, for here the picture space is also

divided into two nearly equal parts by this line.
Again, it is usually well to avoid many opposing
lines of the same slant or angle, for variety is al-
ways desirable. In Diagram 1 the lines at A, B, C
and D are all of equal pitch. This leads to monot-
ony. The same fault is found in 3 and 5. It is
better to so place the building on the sheet as to
avoid these difficulties and Diagrams 2. 4 and 6
are better in placing than 1, 3 and 5. Diagram 3
has other faults. First the perspective is so violent
that the building has the unstable effect of resting
on its lower corner, and the crossed lines of the
streets form too conspicuous a pattern with a tend-
ency to draw the eye away from the building
towards points A and B. Diagram 4 has a more
pleasing variety of masses and the interest plainly
centers in the main building. Diagram 5 shows a
fault in that the two visible wall surfaces are equal
in size and shape, as are also the ceiling and floor,
and here, too, there is no real center of focus, for
the eye jumps back and forth between A and B.
Diagram 6 is better, for the interest undoubtedly
centers at A, and even though there is an impor-
tant mass at B it is toned down so as to seem un-
important. The floor, too, has been made larger in
mass than the ceiling, but the advantage thus gained
is largely lost, for the rug is unfortunately of the
same size on the drawing as the visible portion of
the ceiling, so that this sketch could be still further
improved by adding either more rug or more ceil-
ing. Diagram 7 shows that when a room is so
turned that we are looking directly at one of its
walls or is placed in "parallel perspective" as this
is called, similar faults may develop. Here the
main surfaces are all monotonous, the interest is
divided and the drawing made still more unpleasant
because the receding lines exactly meet the margin
lines at the corners. At 8 an attempt has been made
to avoid some of the difficulties of Diagram 7.

The little sketch of the dormer is shown to illus-
trate an important matter of composition. When
drawing small details care must always be taken
that they do not seem to be merely suspended in the
air. They should appear instead to be attached to
a solid background or support, and one of the best
means of giving this impression is by allowing each
sketch to fade out gradually into the sheet, show-
ing enough of the adjacent surroundings to give the
whole a sense of stability and strength.

If at all essential, we might go on with many
suggestions on composition similar to these which
we have given, but if the student is interested and
really serious he will take the time to obtain addi-
tional ideas from such books as we have recom-
mended. The student is urged to make drawings
of his own to illustrate and make clear in his mind
any of the principles he acquires, for unless he does
so it is probable that many of them will be soon
forgotten.

•! ;• ••!•

. .

C-A

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S
^

Chapter VI.
GRADED TONES

CAREFUL observation and study of objects in
nature, as well as those contrived by man,
will reveal one fact of the greatest value to
the student of drawing, and this is that although
not a little of the beauty of such objects depends
on color, on profile and on the proportions of the
various parts into which they are divided, more
of it than we usually suppose is caused by the
varying light and shade and especially by the
gradation of tones from light to dark or from
dark to light.

There are, to be sure, some objects which
seem to have no gradation of tone, each surface
being apparently of one value throughout, but
in spite of such exceptions there are far more
"graded" tones in nature than "flat" tones of
uniform appearance, and it is certainly true that
a graded tone has more interest and variety than
one of exactly the same value in every part.

It naturally follows that in representing nature
by drawings, graded tones usually prove of
greater value to the artist than do those which
are flat. Almost any object can be represented
satisfactorily by graded tones, whereas many
objects, especially those which are rounded or
curved, cannot be made to appear correct if flat
tones alone are used. We can, for example, make
a pleasing drawing of a square box, and, if we
wish, have every tone graded. It is impossible,
on the other hand, to nicely represent a sphere
or an object of spherical form by the use of flat
tones only, unless we resort to a succession of
small adjacent flat tones, each slightly different
in value from its neighbor, and such a combina-
tion really is, after all, a graded tone. If we try
to portray a sphere by drawing its outline as at
"1," Figure 27, we fail to give our picture any
effect of convexity of form, and shading the en-
tire circle with a flat tone as at "2" gives no bet-
ter result. It is only when we copy as well as
we can the gradations found on such surfaces
in nature, as we have done at "3," that we ap-
proach the desired effect. In fact we would not
even recognize a sphere when placed before us
were it not for this subtle grading of its surface
tones, for without these gradations it would ap-
pear simply as a flat circular disk. In the case
of the cylinder and cone and similar rounded
forms it is perhaps a bit less difficult to suggest
their shapes on paper without recourse to graded
tones providing they are drawn in perspective,
for when so drawn their forms can be fairly well
indicated even in outline. If a real feeling of
solidity and roundness is desired, however, it can
best be obtained by the use of graded tones. If

such objects are shown in elevation, instead of
perspective, it will be found that these tones are
absolutely essential for their successful repre-
sentation. Take for example the cylinder which
is shown in elevation at "4," Figure 27, drawn in
outline only. In this form it appears as a
rectangle and seems flat. A smooth tone added
as at "5" is of no help, and it is only when we use
the grades as at "6" that we get the real appear-
ance of roundness.

Now just as the surfaces of cylinders and
spheres and such geometric forms depend largely
on gradation of tone for a pleasing effect, so, in
architecture too, much of the beauty of the mould-
ings and ornament depends on similar gradations.
After all, the mouldings are mainly combinations
of curved surfaces, and if these curves are pleas-
ingly designed the light and dark will be graded
in a satisfactory manner. In fact these gradations
on mouldings so nicely express the profiles which
cause them that we are often able to judge the
curve of each moulding at a glance even though
its profile is not visible. If the light is favorable
we are usually able to name every member com-
posing a cornice and tell its exact form without
once seeing its true profile. One of the main
reasons why a designer works so hard to produce
a good profile for a cornice or similar group
of mouldings is that he is seeking the most pleas-
ing arrangement of light and shade and shadow
possible, and knows that an excellent profile is
important, not as a thing in itself, for it is seen
in its true form only at the corners or breaks in
a building, but as a means of obtaining the most
satisfactory results in light and shade. A poor
profile usually means a poor cornice.

At "7," "8," "9" and "10," Figure 27, are four
sketches of typical architectural mouldings,
drawn in elevation, and with their tones graded.
For convenience their profiles have been shown
but even if these had been omitted it would not
be difficult to visualize the correct curves. It
should be borne in mind, however, that without
the use of graded tones it would be impossible
to produce such effects of curvature.

Now just as it is necessary to use graded tones
for a truthful expression of the curved surfaces
of mouldings, they are obviously needed also in
the representation of other rounded surfaces such
as those which we so often find in ornamental
work. Most ornament, in fact, consists so largely
of curved surfaces of every possible shape that it
would be very difficult to represent it on paper
without the use of some graded tones. At "11,"
Figure 27, is a drawing of a rosette, nearly every

103

104

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

surface of which is curved, and therefore repre-
~sented by grades of light and dark. Certainly an
object of such gradual curvature as this can be
successfully portrayed only by equally subtle
gradations of its values.

Balusters, columns, archways, round towers and
all sorts of similar architectural objects and de-
tails require a certain amount of graded shading.
At ."12" and "13," Figure 27, a baluster and a
capital are shown. Even though drawn in eleva-
tion the rounded effect is very evident. Had they
been done in perspective less care would have
been needed in the shading to express roundness,
but for architectural purposes it is often neces-
sary to work in elevation and therefore these
sketches have been done in that manner to prove
that it is not essential to show objects in perspec-
tive when a feeling of projection and curvature is
required.

In order to illustrate the points under discus-
sion in the clearest possible manner the draw-
ings on Figure 27 have been done with very
evenly graded tones, for by this means the values
as found on the objects themselves could be
more accurately represented than by the use of
tones built up of separate lines. As a general
rule, however, such smooth tones are not needed,
for much the same effect can be arrived at by
forming them of lines just touching, in the usual
manner, and the result is less mechanical or
photographical and hence more desirable. At
"14" a few suggestions are offered for the forma-
tion of graded tones by individual strokes. (It is
suggested that the student make a few drawings
similar to these on this plate, trying some with
the smooth tone and others with a more sketchy
handling.)

It should be remembered that although the
exact form which the gradation of a tone takes
depends largely on the curve of the surface, it
really owes its effect to the light which causes
it to be visible. If we had no light the most
perfect mouldings would be lost in darkness • —
if we have too much light their beauty is often
destroyed. The author has in mind a certain
coffered ceiling of unusual beauty. After this
ceiling had been in existence a number of years
and had been much admired, it was decided to
install a new indirect lighting system in the room,
and this was done. The system was so arranged
that the light was uniformly distributed over the
ceiling in such a way that nearly all of the shade
and shadow was destroyed. The lighting en-
gineers pronounced the job a perfect one, but
from an artistic standpoint the effect of the ceil-
ing was ruined ; the mouldings and detail were
barely visible while the few shadows that re-
mained took weird and grotesque shapes of a
most bewtldering nature. In this case too much
light, or rather light distributed in too uniform
a manner, destroyed the effect. This all goes to
prove that even a beautiful curve may lose much
of its value through unfavorable lighting, and it
shows also that the gradation of tone on any given
moulding or curve varies with changes in light.
Spheres and cylinders, for example, do not ap-

pear the same at all times and hence cannot al-
ways be represented in the same way. It should
be remembered, too, that the gradation of tone
on any given form, take a cylinder for example,
depends not a little on the nature of the material
of which the object is made. A study of a num-
ber of cylinders of equal size and of various ma-
terials such as wood, plaster, polished white mar-
ble, sandstone, red granite, brass, silver, etc., will
reveal, even under the same conditions, a surpris-
ing difference in the values and the method of
gradation of the tones. Those cylinders with
highly polished surfaces will show a greater com-
plication of values and much sharper and more
sudden contrasts, as a rule, mainly because their
surfaces serve as curved mirrors to reflect dis-
torted images of other objects. Such surfaces
usually have brilliant highlights in spots while
those of the wood or plaster or other dull appear-
ing objects will not only lack these highlights
but will show throughout a more simple and
gradual change in tone. It is because of such
conditions as these that there can be no definite
rules given as to just how such objects should
be represented. Observation and study will give
the student the desired knowledge.

We have, up to this point, spoken mainly of
graded tones as found on curved surfaces, yet it
should be realized that smooth flat surfaces often,
appear to grade from one part to another. Prove
this to yourself by observing objects around you.
It is especially true that on surfaces indoors, where
the light is frequently coming from a number
of sources and is all more or less diffused, we
find many tones which are graded. A ceiling,
for instance, often appears light at one side and
dark at the other, but it is in the shadow tones
especially that we find a great amount of grad-
ation. As a rule the shadows of objects indoors
seem the darkest and have the sharpest edges
near the object casting them. A chair leg, for
example, usually casts a dark shadow where it
touches the floor, but this shadow softens as it
gets farther from the leg and soon disappears.
The little sketch of the pencil touching the paper
at "1," Figure 28, was made to illustrate this
point, the shadow being the darkest at "A,"
softening as the light becomes more diffused to-
wards "B." In brilliant light, such as bright
sunshine, the opposite effect is often found. Let
an object project from the wall like the little
cornice shown at "4" and the lower edge of the
shadow as at "B" frequently seems sharper and
darker than the edge nearer the object as at "A."
Such an effect is as a rule only an optical illusion
for unless there is something to cause a strong
reflection of light into the upper portion of the
shadow the tone is usually of equal value
throughout. The effect of darkness towards the
lower edge is due to the fact that sunlight is so
extremely brilliant that when it falls on a light
wall or similar surface it produces a value so
bright that it is impossible for us to correctly
represent it on paper, and so when a shadow tone
cast by some object similar to the cornice at
"4" falls on this bright surface the tone appears,

GRADED TONES

105

•10 ^

A- c

fffltt • WIB!

Figure 28. Some Applications of Graded Tones.

106

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

o
•w

•ft,
•ft.

.55

GRADED TONES

107

in its relation to the bright surface, darker than
it really is. A shadow may be a medium gray
if compared with black but if its lower edge is
thrown into sudden and sharp contrast with ex-
tremely brilliant light it often seems actually
black. In drawing shadows, therefore, there is
a legitimate reason for such a gradation as we
have shown in the sketch "4," as this method
causes the white of the paper to appear brighter
than it otherwise would, and therefore to more
correctly represent the sunlit surface. The ligh'.er
shadow tone above also gains, by this gradation, a
quality of depth and transparency.

There is another use for graded tones which
is of the greatest importance and this is to so
employ them as to give a sense of distance and
of detachment or separation of one object from
another. We can perhaps best explain this by
reference to sketches "5," "6" and "7," Figure 28.
Objects in nature, even when they are of the
same value, can usually be easily distinguished
one from another because of differences of color
or by their motion or in a number of other ways.
In photographs, such objects, if (he values of
light and shade are the same or nearly the same,
often seem lost or indistinct. Sketch "5," made
from a photograph, shows at "A" just the condi-
tion which we describe ; the roof tone and wall
tone lack detachment — • it is hard to distinguish
one from the other. In sketch "6" this same wall
tone has been graded back to light from dark
and at "A" the roof has been darkened. The re-
sult gives us a much greater feeling of separation
— the roof seems to come nearer to us and the
wall tends to recede — as it should. The edge
at "B" still appears just as sharp as it did before
the wall was lightened towards "A," in just the
same way that edge "C" in diagram "3" seems
as sharp or even sharper than the same edge in
diagram "2" (because in "2" the edge "D" detracts
from "C" to a greater extent than it does in "3").
We therefore have about the same relative con-
trast in sketches "5" and "6" between (he wall in
light and the wall in shade, so that sketch "6" is
not injured in any way because of the changed
values at "A." Sketch "7" is another and very
emphatic illustration of the use of graded tones
in securing detachment, the chimney being light-
ened towards the bottom and the roof darkened
towards the top in order to gain a sharp con-
trast. This method brings the roof forward and
carries the chimney back, and so gives an effect
of distance. The idea is, therefore, a useful one
to remember as it can be applied in many dif-
ferent places in nearly every drawing. In sketch
"1," for instance, the horizontal line is softened
as it goes behind the pencil, thereby bringing
the pencil forward.

Sketch "8" shows a similar application of a
graded tone, for by darkening the cornice shadow
towards the nearest corner of the house, that
corner actually seems to come nearer. This
method is of even more value when the wall is
turned at a sharper angle, making the foreshort-
ening more acute.

Graded tones are of the greatest assistance in

forcing the eye to any given portion of a drawing,
and the little diagrams "A" and "B," sketch "9,"
show two methods of bringing attention to a
desired spot, in this case the dark circle. The
sketches really explain themselves. Method "B"
is perhaps the stronger one for the dark tone at
"C" in sketch "A" detracts from the spot itself.
Of the two little window sketches below, the
second carries out the same idea represented by
method "B," the dark shadow taking the place of
the dark spot in the diagram. The eye here is
forced to the bright upper portion of the window.
The first window sketch shows in place of such
strong contrast a more gradual grading from
dark at the top down to light.

Occasionally it is necessary to apply the idea
of separation or detachment to such accessories
as fences and tree trunks. In sketch 10 the fence
is so graded as to bring it light against the two
dark masses of foliage and dark against the light
background. When this same idea is applied to
trees the trunks and branches often appear dark
against the sky, then are. graded to a lighter tone
against the background of hedge or other foliage,
and sometimes reappear dark in contrast with
the grass of the lawn.

Just as graded tones prove of value in innum-
erable ways when representing small details, they
are of use, too, in composing entire drawings.
Occasionally compositions grade from dark at the
top to light at the bottom as do "1" and "3,"
Figure 29; sometimes they are light at the top and
dark below like "4" and "6" on the same sheet.
These are all rather extreme examples, however,
though it is frequently the case that drawings
combine grades in two or more directions.
Sketch "2" in Figure 29, for example, shows dark
masses of foliage behind the building which grade
away to light. At the end margins there are
opposing dark masses causing a sharp contrast
which seems to set the building back into the
middle-distance. Sketch "5" also shows two sets
of grades, the one on the building itself, going
from light at the center to dark at the ends ;
the other on the hedge, which, by grading in just
the contrary direction, gives contrasts which
carry the eye towards the center of the composi-
tion. Sketch "7" is a further illustration of forc-
ing the attention to a given point, in this case
the near end of the building, by so grading the
walls that they are left light at the end to form
a strong contrast with the trees. Drawings are
sometimes graded off into distance in just the
opposite way — that is, they are carried from
dark in the foreground to light in the back-
ground.

In fact there are so many places in which
graded tones are found and so many uses to
which they may be put, it has been our main
purpose simply to call attention to their beauty
and enough of their uses to give the student a
realization of their importance. It is not our
intention to give the impression that flat tones
should never be used, for there are instances in
which drawings have been wholly done with flat
tones with a remarkable degree of success.

Wash Drawing from H. D'Espouy's "Fragments If Architecture Antique" to Illustrate Uses of Graded
Tones in Suggesting Roundness of Objects Which Show no Perspective.

Chapter VII.
THE REPRESENTATION OF SMALL BUILDINGS

WE HAVE already pointed out a few of the
many advantages to be gained through prac-
tice in pencil sketching and rendering. It
is our present purpose to further explain some of
the reasons why a knowledge of such work is of
value, especially to the draftsman anxious either to
better his position or to build up a practice of his
own, and to offer as well some practical suggestions
as a help towards this end, these suggestions relating
especially to the representation of the simpler sort
of building such as the small house.

It should be remembered that the average
client who comes to an architect's office builds
but once or twice in a lifetime, and for this
reason is, as a rule, entirely unfamiliar with
the drawings employed in carrying on such work.
The instrumental plans mean little to him, though
he can read them, perhaps, so far as the general
layout of the rooms is concerned, and can under-
stand the elevation drawings if the building is
simple in form, but let it be broken up into
an irregular mass with numerous projections and
varying roof pitches and he finds it impossible
to visualize its finished appearance. This is not
to be wondered at for even experienced designers
and architects are sometimes surprised when they
see one of their own buildings taking definite
form on the site ; — with all their training they
are not always able to judge beforehand just how
the completed work will appear in relation to its
surroundings. Doubtless one of the main reasons
why clients are sometimes disappointed with
their buildings when finished is that they prove
entirely different from what they expected them
to be, for they have not really understood the
architectural drawing's and so have been unable
to judge until too late whether or not the sub-
mitted designs were satisfactory. Unwilling to
admit this inability or overconfident because of
the architect's words of assurance that every-
thing would come out all right, they have ap-
proved the designs and given word to go ahead
with the work, when they actually had very little
idea as to how the completed structure would ap-
pear. When such a building is finished it is only
natural, then, that the client may be displeased,
but if so he is much more likely to condemn the
architect than to admit any error or lack of un-
derstanding on his own part.

It is largely because of this difficulty of ex-
pressing a building adequately by the plans and
elevations alone, in such a way that the client
will fully understand the scheme, that the prac-
tice has grown of preparing rendered perspective
drawings which show in a very clear manner

exactly how the completed structure will appear.
Such perspectives are of value to the architect
in many ways, for they not only serve as a con-
vincing expression of the problem to the client
but are of equal use in his own drafting room as
a means of studying the design. In addition to
this, new jobs are often brought to the office because
of such renderings, submitted to some possible
client frequently in competition with work from
other architects. Again, when an attempt is being
made to raise money to finance the erection of a
new building, such a perspective, submitted along
with the plans and specifications, may prove of
the greatest service in obtaining the necessary
loan.

These are only a few of the uses of perspec-
tive drawings, but enough to show that they
are of immense value to the architect, and this
being true it is only natural that there is a
constant demand for draftsmen who are able, in
addition to doing the usual instrumental work
on plans and details, to make such renderings.
Men with the skill to sketch and render well are
almost certain to advance rapidly, as they soon
come to the notice of their employer and are able
to serve him in many important ways. First of
all, when a new project is conceived many little
sketches are needed as a means of study. These
are usually done freehand, in pencil. Then as the
design takes more definite form, accurate but
simple instrumental perspectives are sometimes
laid out and over these, on tracing paper, the
designs are given further study, a few of the main
lines being perhaps drawn instrumentally and the
rest free-hand. With these designs quite definite-
ly settled, a carefully finished drawing is often
made to show the client, done instrumentally
and rendered in any desired medium. After this
perspective, with its accompanying plans, eleva-
tions, sections and the like has been approved
and the final contract drawings started, free-hand
studies are frequently made of such details as
chimneys and dormers. Then, after the contract
is let, another accurate rendered perspective is
sometimes worked up, showing all the corrections
and changes. Even while the building is being
erected sketches are occasionally needed — per-
haps to explain matters to the client — often to
make some detail clear to a contractor or work-
man, or again simply as a means of giving fur-
ther study to a doubtful point. It should not
be supposed that so many renderings and sketches
are needed for every job, for naturally everything
depends on the cost and nature of the work.
Often no finished perspectives are made and few

109

110

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

sketches, on the other hand there are buildings of
complex design which require, in addition to sev-
eral perspectives both of the interior and exterior,
many ornament drawings, including such details
as carved stone or wood, wrought iron, leaded
glass, etc., as well as carefully lettered inscrip-
tions. All of these offer work for the man who
can sketch and render. There are, to be sure,
many professional delineators who are sometimes
called upon to render the drawings of large or
unusually important buildings, but there are many
smaller jobs, such as suburban houses, in which
the architect's fee is not sufficient to warrant the
expenditure of any great sum for renderings. It
is such jobs as these which usually fall to some-
one in the office and the man who is capable of
doing them is often advanced to a position of
greater responsibility with its corresponding in-
crease in salary.

There is another important advantage which
often comes from having skill in making sketches
or renderings of small buildings, for it is true
that such drawings are frequently the principal
means by which a draftsman is able to obtain
his first commissions as an architect. Many
a draftsman has learned to his sorrow that it is
much easier to open an office calling himself
an architect and with his name on the door, than

it is to induce clients to enter. When we consider
that even the cheapest of buildings usually costs
a number of thousands of dollars, we can hardly
blame the public for failing to patronize young
and comparatively inexperienced men when older
and better known architects with many buildings
to their credit are willing to accept the work
for the same fee. But the young architect must
get his start in some way and unless he is so
fortunate as to have wealthy and influential
friends to shower him with their favors he is
often wise to remain associated, perhaps as drafts-
man or designer, with some fairly well-known
firm, and to gradually build up a clientele of
his own. This may be done in a number of
ways, one of which especially concerns us. Some
of the larger firms do not care to bother with
small houses and the like and so frequently turn
any clients that desire this sort of work over
to some draftsman or designer. If such a drafts-
man is able to impress the client favorably he
is quite likely to get the work, for even though
his experience as an architect may be limited his
connection with the well-known firm will give
him a certain standing. There is perhaps no
surer way of creating such a favorable impression
than by submitting attractive rendered drawings
showing just how the proposed building will

— —

tf-*9j'<5%&

,^3$^r . ^jr £"'*•>.

Rendering by Chester B. Price, Portion of a Proposed Housing Development Near Stamford, Conn.

McKim, Mead & White, Architects.

THE REPRESENTATION OF SMALL BUILDINGS

111

look when completed. Somehow people seem to
feel that if sketches are nicely done the job itself
will be executed as well, and many times the
man submitting a pleasingly rendered drawing
done in perspective will be given work, when blue-
print plans and elevations from other architects,
showing a scheme of equal merit, will be ignored.

Perhaps you are one of those draftsmen with
a desire to learn to make renderings of a quality
suitable for the average job but with the feeling
that it will never be possible for you to do so.
If this is the case you should be offered encour-
agement, especially in regard to pencil rendering.
It is not easy, of course, to become an artist
in the true sense of the word, and a half dozen
lessons or a bit of study will not make one an
expert, but on the other hand it is not difficult
to master the few principles of composition and
tricks of rendering which are needed to enable
one to do a creditable sketch for the ordinary
building. The writer has seen many students of
only fair ability turn out excellent drawings of
simple buildings after a comparatively brief per-
iod of training, though they often lacked at first
the confidence which is necessary for success in
this work.

Pencil rendering of architectural subjects really
is, after all, comparatively simple. One does
not encounter the same difficulties as when
working in color for there are only the values
of light and dark to consider; neither is it diffi-
cult to make changes as in work with the pen.
Originality is not looked for as it is in some
forms of art work, nor is it necessary to strive
for a decorative effect. As the small drawing
does not often need figures or animals it is not
absolutely necessary to be able to draw them ;
even if figures are to be shown they are usually
so small in scale as to need little detail.

The most convincing sort of pencil technique
for the usual architectural subjects is the conven-
tional type such as is employed in most of the
offices, published examples of which appear from
time to time in all of our architectural magazines.
The student should collect such reproductions as
seem excellent and study them with care. Better
yet, if opportunity offers to see originals of -this
work in the offices or the architectural exhibitions,
analyze them thoroughly. Notice the way in
which the various details such as the doors and
windows are indicated. Study the methods of
suggesting different materials — shingles, clap-
boards, brickwork, stone, stucco, etc. Look at the
way the foliage is shown. Copy either the whole
or portions of some of these, trying at the same
time to memorize the methods of expression. It
is valuable also to compare the drawings with
photographs of similar subjects or even with
buildings themselves, and sketch directly from the
buildings, too, trying small drawings of doors and
windows or other similar portions first. Photo-
graphs of small houses will offer many sugges-
tions for surroundings which can be copied to
advantage- As a help to the student we have intro-
duced in the following chapters a number of
drawings showing certain methods of represent-

ing details of various sorts, but it should be re-
membered that it is always well to study the
work of a great many different people in order
to adapt those ideas which appeal most strongly
to you.

After considerable practice has been given to
the drawing of details, a real rendering of some
small house may be undertaken. It is perhaps
well to remind the student that a rendering is a
more carefully finished production than a sketch ;
that whereas a sketch is usually made rather
hastily, a rendering is more in the nature of a
study — this in spite of the fact that many such
drawings appear at first glance to be hastily
done. In order to gain an accurate result the
subject to be rendered is first laid out instru-
mentally directly from the plans and elevations.
This work of course demands some knowledge
of the science of instrumental perspective. The
few facts necessary for drawing the usual type
of building can be acquired easily, however, even
though one does not go deeply into the theory
of the subject, and many men learn simply a
few "rule of thumb" methods which really answer
all general requirements. It is not within the
scope of this volume to give instruction in in-
strumental perspective but there are a few points
which it seems essential to cover as they relate to
both instrumental and free-hand work, and concern
especially the composition of the entire sheet.

First of all, it is wise when starting a perspective
to decide where to stand in order to obtain the
best view. Though this position varies with dif-
ferent buildings it is usually well to show much
of the main faqade and if the plot be flat to take
the eye level or horizon line about five feet above
the ground, as the eye is actually approximately
this distance from the plane on which the build-
ing rests. If, instead, it is to be on a hill so
it would be natural to look up at it, that is the
way it should be drawn, and in this case the
horizon would be way below the house as it is
always level with the spectator's eye. Contrarily
if we are to look down on the building from above,
as in a bird's eye view, the eye level or horizon
will be towards the top of the picture. Now it
is seldom that we do see houses from above, and
even if we should, as from a mountain or airplane
it would not generally be wise to show them
that way, but there are cases where the building
is very irregular in plan or where we have a com-
plex group of buildings to picture and under these
conditions there is sometimes no other means of
expressing the entire subject adequately. An-
other point worth remembering is that it is best
not to stand too close to a building when making
the perspective, as this causes the receding lines
to become so acute as to seem unpleasant. A
little experience will teach the correct distances
for various types of buildings. Again, if you
are to make a perspective and the plot has al-
ready been purchased, obtain either photographs
or sketches of the site to help you in drawing
the surroundings. A plot plan or survey show-
ing the contours of the land, location of rocks,
trees, etc., is always of immense help, too, in

112

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

Figure 30. Two Schemes for a Small House: Typical Renderings of the Type Often Submitted to the

Client for the Purpose of Showing How a Proposed Building Will Look When Completed.

These Were Drawn Directly from Blueprint Plans and Elevations.

THE REPRESENTATION OF SMALL BUILDINGS

113

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114

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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THE REPRESENTATION OF SMALL BUILDINGS

115

Rcndcrhiy by Chester f>. f'rice, {'or/ion of a Proposed Honsini/ Development near Stamford, Conn.

McKiin. Mead c'r U'hitc. Architects.

getting a layout correct. If no plot has been
selected, photographs showing houses of a sim-
ilar nature to that which you are drawing may
offer valuable suggestions, especially for the en-
tourage. It should be remembered that a pleas-
ing relation should exist between a building
and its environment — the house should seem to
belong to the spot. If, for instance, you are draw-
ing a little English cottage of informal nature,
do not arrange your landscape in too formal
a manner. Have some curved walks, irregular
hedges, a quaint garden, etc. A Colonial
house of dignified proportions demands, on the
other hand, a more symmetrical treatment with
formality extended throughout the scheme. A
rustic camp in the forest should show a real forest
character and not look like a suburban cottage, and
if a house is to be in Florida do not use trees
found only in the North, and likewise avoid hills
and mountains if the location is in a level country.
These are of course only matters of common sense
and may seem too simple to mention, but they are,
nevertheless, extremely important. There is some-
thing else, too, which helps a composition im-
mensely and this is to have some line or group of
lines such as a path or drive or shadows on the
lawn or perhaps a succession of bushes, which will
serve to lead the eye into the picture. In Figure

24, Chapter V, Part II. it will be noticed that
all four of the sketches have paths which cause
the attention to be directed gradually to the center
of interest. It helps a drawing, too, if there are
little vistas to draw the eye out of the picture again.
A glimpse of some distant lake or down a pathway
to the garage or of a neighboring building seen
through the trees will add value to the picture,
though naturally care must be taken not to make
these incidentals too prominent, otherwise they will
take interest from the house itself. In this con-
nection we refer the reader to Figures 30 and 31 in
this chapter. The end of the distant house in 31
and the garage in 30 add to the effect. When a defi-
nite plot has been chosen such buildings as may
be visible should of course be correctly represented
if shown at all.

Leaving the subject of composition for the pres-
ent, let us return to the consideration of practical
points relating to the laying out of the drawing.
Now after the station point at which the spectator
is to stand has been decided upon and the eye level
or horizon determined, the various vanishing points
are correctly located and the work is under way.
As most perspectives are drawn directly from the
working drawings and as these arc often at the scale
of one quarter inch to the foot this same scale is
frequently used for the perspective. There is no

116

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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THE REPRESENTATION OF SMALL BUILDINGS

117

rule about this, however, but it is sometimes diffi-
cult to show enough detail if a smaller scale is
chosen. The English house in Figure 31 was done
at the scale of one eighth inch to the foot and is
reproduced here at the exact size of the original,
so this gives a fair idea of about what can be easily
done at that scale. The two houses in Figure 30
were also made at one eighth inch but are repro-
duced at about one-half that size. Once the scale
is decided, the work of the layout can be pushed
right ahead and as soon as this is completed we are
ready for the rendering. There are several cus-
tomary methods of proceeding with this. Some-
times the layout is on common paper and then the
rendering done on tracing paper placed over the
other. One advantage of this system lies in the
fact that there is no special need to keep the paper
clean when drawing the layout — again there are
no hard mechanical lines to show in the final result,
and if the rendering is spoiled in the making for
any reason it is easy to begin once more. When
the drawing is completed the tracing paper can be
smoothly mounted on heavy cardboard. Another
method, and the more common one, is to make the
layout right on the final paper, using a fairly hard
pencil such as a 3H, and drawing not only the
outline of the large portions, but also all the win-
dow mouldings, clapboard lines and other such
details as well. When this is completed go over
the whole with a soft eraser until the lines are just
visible as a guide for the freehand work. This

final rendering may vary in style somewhat, accord-
ing to the subject to be drawn. An English cottage
of hewn timbers and rough brick or stucco, roofed
with thatch or uneven slate, can be done with a
rather sketchy line, as this will satisfactorily ex-
press the irregular surfaces. If a formal house of
cut stone is to be pictured, smoother tones and
straighter lines are often better. This does not
mean that it is impossible to nicely represent such
a house by a very sketchy sort of line, but it is
certainly wiser for the beginner to render a build-
ing of this character in a painstaking way. With
these facts in mind you are ready to start work,
considering carefully the direction of the light,
casting the shadows with care. A knowledge of
the subject of shades and shadows is of course of
great help here, while photographs of similar
buildings offer many suggestions. Then a prelimi-
nary sketch is often made on tracing paper and
the values carefully worked out on that. If this
is done it often seems best, when making the final
drawing, to render from the top down, for it is
possible by this means to keep the paper clean quite
easily. In theory it is better to work from the
center of interest out towards the edges, as we have
stated in a previous chapter, or to put in the darkest
tones first, all over the drawing, later adding the
half tones. If no preliminary is made, one of these
methods should be followed unless the student has
had a great amount of experience. In any case
there is no excuse for untidy work and if reason-

Rapid Pencil Sketch to Show to Client. New Porch for Residence of Col. J. W. Woods.
Designed and Drawn by Francis S. Swales, Architect.

118

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

able care is used to keep the drawing brushed off
and the pencil wiped clean, with a paper always
under the hand to protect the surface, there should
be no difficulty from that source.

Finish the drawing to the best of your ability
and if you are not satisfied with it, and you are not
likely to be, try another of the same or a similar
subject. It is only by such practice, and by learn-
ing to look for your own mistakes and to profit by
them, that success will be gained, but have in mind
always that it is well worth the effort.

The illustrations. Figures 30 and 31, are given
simply as typical of the sort of renderings which
can be quite easily and quickly done. These draw-
ings show little individuality or originality, in
fact they are very similar to dozens of drawings
which we see from time to time. In both in-

stances they were drawn to accompany sketch
plans before any definite site had been chosen. Fig-
ure 30 may have some additional interest to the
student as it shows two different compositions for
the same house, for Schemes "A" and "B" are both
developments of the one plan. Figure 32 is a sketcli
done directly from nature and by comparing this
with Figure 30 the difference between a sketch
and a rendering of a similar building should be
very evident, for the old antique shop is drawn very
hastily and in a free manner, no use being made of
instruments, and with no attempt to more than ex-
press the general character of the building.

The supplementary illustrations accompanying this
chapter, and Figure 50 on page 170, offer ad-
ditional suggestions for the treatment of small build-
ings. Study these and as many others as you can find.

Chapter VIII.
THE REPRESENTATION OF DETAILS

WE HAVE now reached a point in our discus-
sion of sketching and rendering where it
seems advisable for us to give additional
attention to methods of indicating brickwork, stone-
work, clapboarded and shingled walls, slate and tile
roofs, etc., and such details as chimneys, dormers,
cornices and doorways, for it is plain that unless the
student learns to nicely suggest these various com-
ponent parts he cannot hope to make an excellent
drawing of a building as a whole, any more than a
portrait painter can obtain a satisfactory likeness of
a person without a knowledge of how to draw the
ear and the eye and the mouth. These repre-
sentations of chimneys and dormers and the like,
are, in other words, the draftsman's alphabet, —
the A B C's that he should learn before attempt-
ing difficult compositions.

In previous chapters a few instructions of a gen-
eral nature for the drawing of such portions of
buildings have already been given, so the present
text with its accompanying illustrations is mainly
an amplification of these earlier suggestions. If
repetition is found it is because certain points seem
worth repeating, for the importance of the subject
is such that it deserves elaboration.

Unfortunately for the beginner there are few
definite rules to help him in such sketching, for
each artist develops methods of his own which
he varies from time to time as he feels inclined,
choosing always the one which seems appropri-
ate to his particular problem. Naturally his
manner of working differs, too, according to the
size at which the details are to be drawn, for it
is obvious that a window, for example, shown at
one-quarter inch to the foot, requires treatment
decidedly different from that demanded by the
same object presented at a much larger scale.

Because there are so many methods of indica-
tion in common use it is not strange that
students feel uncertainty as to just how to
approach a problem of this nature. Of course
in theory it is best to turn to actual buildings
and to landscape for inspiration and practice, ob-
serving and sketching the desired details directly
from the buildings and their surroundings. The
average student finds it rather difficult, however,
to work in this way without considerable prelim-
inary preparation, and therefore, valuable as
such practice undeniably is, the beginner can
perhaps learn more at first (as we have explained
in a previous chapter) by studying good draw-
ings, copying portions of them over and over
aerain, later applying the ideas thus acquired to
similar original problems.

The plates which accompany this text show
certain methods of indicating such details as we

mention and it might be well to make copies of
some of these, not, however, blindly imitating
the manner of handling. Give, instead, serious
thought as to why they were done in this way,
for each line and tone should be made with a
definite purpose. As these sketches offer only
a few of many possible methods do not rest con-
tent with copying parts of them, but study other
similar drawings and copy some of them, too,
in order to learn additional tricks of indication.
In all of this work if you feel that you can obtain
equally good results by a slightly different proc-
ess, do so, for it is by no means necessary to
reproduce the original from which you are draw-
ing line for line, so long as the same general
effect is gained. If you supplement this copy
work with sketching from the photograph and
from nature, using both broad and fine lines, on
all sorts of paper and with pencils of various
kinds and grades, your efforts will surely bring
increased skill and a natural individual style will
be gradually acquired.

It is usually best to adopt some standard size
sketching paper, the notebook proportion of 8"
by W/i" being convenient for the smaller
sketches. A cover for preserving sheets of this size
can be secured easily. It seems advisable to re-
tain all such sketches or at least the best of them,
for this gives you the opportunity to note your
progress from time to time, and the drawings
themselves may prove of great help when mak-
ing finished renderings. Group a number of
sketches of similar subjects on one sheet, so
arranged that they permit easy comparison, — have,
for instance, sketches of chimneys drawn with a
fine line on one, others done with a broad line on
another, dormer windows on a third, details of
stonework on a fourth, and so on.

Before proceeding with our discussion of the
plates it may perhaps be well to once more warn
the student, especially the architectural drafts-
man, never to attempt to draw every tiny detail
that he knows to exist. It is not strange that
one so familiar as he is with all the variety of
small units which go to make up a building finds
it difficult to remain free from the desire to
overemphasize the importance of some of them.
The mere fact that one has been trained to ac-
curately draw each detail, whether large or
small, when making an instrumental elevation of
a portion of a building, acts as a hindrance when
it comes to pictorial representation, where we
are striving to gain the effect of the whole in a
broad, direct manner in a comparatively short
space of time. As an illustration of the fact that
an accurate instrumental elevation gives less of

119

120

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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THE REPRESENTATION OF DETAILS

121

the true appearance than does a sketch of the
right sort with the nonessential lines omitted or
subordinated we have made two drawings at A
and B, Figure 33, of a typical cornice such as we
might find at the eaves of a Colonial residence.
The one at A is done instrumentally at the scale
of 1/2"=1'-0" and is a copy of an actual work-
ing drawing. Such a mechanical representation
as this, offers, of course, an accurate statement of
certain facts of form, but it stops there. It
gives us a wrong sense of the values, for the
numerous lines necessary to bound the various
members form a dark mass on parts which in
the executed work might appear rather light, and
there is nothing to show the difference in tone
between the brick and wood. In a sketch or
rendering, on the other hand, we usually work
for an effect of reality, and even though certain
details are of necessity slighted, by means of a
free handling we are able to suggest in addition
to facts of form, the light and the shade and the
tone and texture of the materials. In the sketch
at B we have attempted such an indication of
the cornice shown at A, striving to gain approxi-
mately the same relative values as might be
found in nature. The brickwork is shown darker
in the shadow than in the light, as is the white
woodwork, too, while the shingles are given a
tone which quite accurately suggests the color
that they might appear in the direct rays of the
sun. As this particular sketch is at a fairly large
scale it has been possible to retain most of the
fine detail shown at A, but if a smaller rendered
drawing of the same cornice were to be made it
would probably prove necessary to further
simplify the subject.

This one illustration i« doubtless sufficient to
show that the draftsman must work for a wholly
different result in a sketch from that required
in an elevation, forgetting or merely suggesting
many of the tiny members, in obtaining the
broad effect. As a further example we might
add that in drawing a window he must not allow
his knowledge of the blind-stop, the pulley-style
and the parting-strip to interfere with the sim-
plicity of the result ; — in fact whatever the detail
may be, the same care should be taken not to
overemphasize relatively unimportant portions of
the subject.

Let us return for a moment to our discussion
of cornices, for they contribute so much to the
effect of a building that extreme care must al-
ways be used in their representation. First of
all do not overdarken the projecting portions,
for it is the contrast of the light corona against
the shadow below which gives the desired sense
of projection. We might also speak again of the
advantage which may sometimes be gained by
using a graded shadow below a cornice, allow-
ing the tone to gradually darken towards the bottom,
thus giving transparency at the top and a clean-cut
contrast at the lower edge. (See Chapter VI and
illustration 4 at the top of Figure 28.) Remember,
too. that the cornice shadow is usually made darkest
at the corner of the building nearest the spectator,
lightening gradually as the walls recede, thus
adding to the effect of distance. There is some-

times a question as to how much detail should be
shown in a cornice shadow, and the answer to
this is not easy, for all depends on the size and
purpose of the drawing. If it is large and made
as a means of studying the proportions and de-
tail it may prove necessary to draw every modil-
lion and dentil, but if it is small or made simply
to give the general effect, the less important
parts can be omitted. Sometimes mutules or
brackets or rafter ends or any details with con-
siderable projection are left white or nearly so,
for if the sketch is small and such parts are
drawn in their true values they may be lost in
the darkness of the shadow. This point is illus-
trated by Sketch 1, Figure 33, in which the rafter
ends are shown lighter than they would probably
be in the executed work. In some drawings
such details are made quite distinct in a few
places, especially in those parts of the building
nearest the eye, and then made less definite or
omitted in others. If well done this treatment
gives an excellent impression with a minimum
expenditure of time and effort.

Of the various ways of building up a shadow
there are three which are in general use. The
first is illustrated at "B," Figure 33. where the
lines composing the shadow are so merged to-
gether as to make it difficult to tell their direc-
tion,— in fact in a shadow where the lines them-
selves are so indefinite this direction is unim-
portant and the tone may be formed in the most
convenient way. In the second method, illus-
trated at "1" and "2," Figure 33, the shadow
value is "built up" by a succession of adjacent
strokes, either touching or nearly so, the strokes
being often drawn in a vertical position, as our
illustrations show, but sometimes taking the
same general slope as the rays of light which
cause the shadow. This method is frequently
employed when the sketch is made at small
scale. If a drawing is of such a size or character
as to demand much detail, however, a still dif-
ferent method is popular. In place of the mass
shading of the first and the parallel strokes of
the second, the lines run in the direction or
directions which best suggest the bricks or the
clapboards or whatever the materials in shadow
may be. Sketches "3," "5" and "6" illustrate this
third method and it is not difficult to tell, even by
the shadow tone, which sketch represents brick,
which one stone, and which shingle. In using this
method the student must be careful not to get too
"spotty" a character to the value for it is essential
to preserve a restful breadth of effect throughout
the tone.

We should not leave the subject of cornices with-
out some reference to reflected light and reversed
shadows. It is frequently the case that bright light
is reflected from some brilliant object into dark
tones such as those beneath a cornice. This not
only means that the shadow value itself is neutral-
ized and so made lighter, but a reflection of this
sort is often the cause, also, of what are termed
"reversed shadows," which really are shadows with-
in a shadow, caused by modillions or any such pro-
jections which prevent the reflected light from
penetrating some of the deeper corners. These

122

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

reversed shadows are of especial value in render-
ing elevations in wash such as that shown on page
134. In this sort of drawing where the shadows
are cast in the conventional 45-degree method,
Ihe reversed tones are usually reflected in just the
opposite way, as is the case in the rendering to
which we have just referred. (Note particularly
the reversed shadows cast by the dentils.) In na-
ture, however, the location and the form of the
reversed shadows will of course depend on the di-
rection of the rays of reflected light, and this direc-
tion may vary from hour to hour as the sun or
other source of direct illumination changes in posi-
tion. So far as cornices are concerned, however,
it is true that reflected light often causes the soffit
to appear quite brilliant, so in many drawings the
soffit value is represented no darker than in Sketch
"5." Figure 33, and in tiny drawings such horizon-
tal planes as this are sometimes left actually white.
Though we have so far spoken of reflected light
mainly as it influences cornice tones, it should not
he supposed that it has no effect on other values,
for it has, though as a rule the horizontal planes
seem to catch more such light than do the vertical.
A window soffit, for instance, is often quite bril-
liant as is the intrados of an arch, while even as
large a surface as a porch ceiling is often visibly
brightened.

Before we drop our discussion of Figure 33,
attention is called to the variety of methods of sug-
gesting roof shingles which it shows. Too much
care cannot be given to such representations, for in
a drawing of the average residence so large an area
is taken up by the roof planes that unless they are
well handled the effect of the whole drawing may
be ruined. First of all the values of the different
parts of the roof must be decided upon, as some
portions can perhaps be left white or nearly so
while others will appear quite dark. Next, the
me'hod of indicating the roof material must be
chosen, and it is here that the sketches on Figure
33 may prove useful, or. if the roof is of some other
material, Figure 34 offers some suggestions.
Sketch "A" on the latter plate represents shingles,
flat tiles or slate — Sketch "B" indicates a rough tex-
tured slate in graduated courses — Sketch "C" shows
shingle thatch, "D" straw thatch, "F." suggests
tile, while "F" again shows slate, though a similar
indication would answer for shingle. It may be
well to mention here that good pen renderings are
sometimes of great assistance when drawing roof
or wall surfaces as they offer much in the way of
material indication which can be adapted to pencil
rendering.

There are several faults frequently found in rep-
resentations of rrof surfaces, concerning which the
student should be warned. First of all, if a draw-
ing is small in scale one should seldom attempt to
show every course of slate or shingles, for if this is
done the value is almost sure to become either too
complex or too dark. It is better to space the lines
separating the courses somewhat further apart than
they would be in the actual building. In larger
drawings this criticism does not hold unless the
roof pitch is very low or the roof planes greatly
foreshortened, in which case a small number of lines

may prove sufficient to suggest many courses.
When graduated courses of slate are shown as at
"B" Figure 34, decreasing in size from the bottom
to the top, an unpleasant effect of curvature of the
roof sometimes appears. Such an effect, if con-
spicuous, can usually be overcome by throwing a
shadow bounded by approximately straight lines
onto the roof, as from a tree or some neighboring
building. In fact, the addition of any straight lines
following the pitch of the roof will help to correct
such distortion. Whatever material is used as a
roof covering, avoid breaking the tone into too many
conspicuous spots, for one of the most common de-
fects of the drawings of beginners is the spottiness
of surfaces which in actual buildings would be either
"flat" throughout or gradually graded.

Just as roofs deserve careful attention, wall sur-
faces also need to be represented with the greatest
care. Here ag; in it is seldom advisable to try to
show every brick course or each stone but the mate-
rials should be so indicated as to leave no doubt as
to their nature. Figures 33, 34, 35 and 36 all give
suggestions for the treatment of such surfaces, the
larger drawings on Figure 35 being of sufficient size
to show the detail very clearly.

J/Vw/flTi1 Representation — There is no great diffi-
culty in acquiring the skill to render a wall of brick
or stone, or a roof of slate or shingle, but when it
comes to successfully representing windows or glazed
doors or any objects containing large areas of glass,
cur task proves less simple, for glazed surfaces are
so complex and changeable in their appearance as
to demand special care and skill in their indication.
It is not hard, to be sure, to learn to draw a typical
window or two, especially if shown at small scale,
but if the scale is so large as to make any consider-
able amount of detail necessary it is no easy task
for the beginner to do even this much well, while
it is still more difficult to so render a number of
adjacent windows as to give them the best effect in
relation to one another and to the remainder of the
building. If they are made too dark or too light
they may, even though good in themselves, attract
more than their proper share of attention, and if
all are drawn in the same way the result will prob-
ably prove monotonous, while if, instead, too much
variety is shown, the breadth of effect of the whole
drawing is almost sure to be destroyed. Before
attempting finished renderings of windows the stu-
dent should, therefore, acquaint himself through
observation and study with the appearance of glass
under different circumstances and conditions, for
it is only by so doing that he can represent it to
the best advantage in any given problem. Walk-
along a street and study the windows that you see,
—not only those near at hand but those in the dis-
tance as well. Compare those on the sunny side
with those in the shade, and those in the upper
stories with those in the lower. As you make these
comparisons ask yourself such questions as the
following: What is the difference in the appear-
ance of glass in sunlight and in shade? Do win-
dows in the upper stories have the same general
effect as those in the lower? How do windows in
the distance compare with those near at hand?
Can you see the curtains or shades distinctly in

THE REPRESENTATION OF DETAILS

123

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Figure 34. Sonic Roof Treatments, Suggesting Shingles, Slate, Thatch and Tile.

124

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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Figure 35. Various Indications of Brickwork and Stonework.

THE REPRESENTATION OF DETAILS

125

all the windows? How much of the interiors of
the rooms do you see as you pass? Is the glass
always plainly visible? Is it hard to tell if panes
have been broken from a sash? Is it easy to dis-
tinguish plate glass when you see it? If so, why?
Do all the lights of glass in one window look the
same? Does the glass usually seem lighter or
darker than the sash itself? Do you see images
reflected in the glass? If so, are they sufficiently
definite to permit you to tell trees from buildings?
Does your own image appear in the windows? Are
images more distinct in glass in shade than in glass
in the sunlight? Are reflections as clear on a rainy
day as they are when the sun is shining?

A little observation will answer such questions
as these and make it evident that ordinary window
glass has two leading characteristics which relate
especially to its appearance, and which are, there-
fore, of the greatest importance to the student.
First comes its transparency. Under certain con-
ditions glass seems practically invisible. This is
especially true of clean plate glass favorably lighted.
We are sometimes able, then, in our representation
of windows, to neglect the glazing and treat the
sashes just as though the panes were non-existent,
showing distinctly the shades and hangings within,
or, if the drawing is made from an interior, look-
ing out, the foliage and sky beyond. The other
characteristic, and the one which causes much of
the trouble of the beginner, is the power that glass
has to act as a reflector or mirror, giving, very
often, a shiny effect to the window, and usually
images of objects as well, which in some cases are
almost as clear as those obtained in the usual
"looking glass." One of the difficulties confront-
ing the student who tries sketching directly from
buildings is the complication in the effect of glass
resulting from these reflections, for often trees and
buildings and skies and clouds and people are all
pictured in the windows, showing so plainly as to
prove confusing, for the images are not only some-
what distorted, as a rule, because of imperfections
in the glass, but are crisscrossed by the sash bars
and mingled and blended with the curtains in a
most bewildering manner. It is not easy, therefore,
to know just what to put in and what to leave out.
so considerable experience will be necessary to teach
what really is essential and what should be subordi-
nated or omitted. It is worth remembering that as
a rule the two characteristics of glass which we
have mentioned appear in combination ; — the glass
seems sufficiently transparent to enable us to see
through it quite easily yet has enough reflection to
give it a shiny appearance. Sometimes, however,
this power to reflect neutralizes the effect of trans-
parency to such an extent that we find it impossible
to look through the panes at all. This is especially
true in windows near the top of a building where
the reflection of sunlight or bright sky is frequently
so strong as to make the curtains within either in-
visible or very indistinct. Such windows, and
particularly those of the upper stories of very tall
buildings, often take on much the same color and
tone as the sky, and if the sun itself is reflected,
the windows become dazzling in their brilliancy.
A reflected light cloud may make the glass almost

white, while a blue sky may cause a blue reflection
of a value similar to that of the sky itself. If we
observe the windows nearer the street level we find
as a rule that most of them seem darker, for in
place of the sky reflections we have those of nearby
buildings and trees. It is useful to bear in mind,
then, that when rendering tall buildings the gen-
eral tone of the glass, taken as a whole, may often
be correctly shown lighter in the upper than in the
lower stories. Even in the ordinary suburban
home or country house the windows of the lower
floors frequently seem darker when viewed from
without than do those above, especially if the nearby
foliage is comparatively low, so as to reflect in the
downstairs windows only. It is true, too, that glass
within shadow, or on the shady side of a build-
ing, usually seems much lighter than we would ex-
pect, so it is by no means necessary to represent
it by a dark tone simply because it is within shade
or shadow. Its light appearance is generally due
to the fact that it mirrors the brightness of the
sky or some nearby building in sunlight. This
power which glass has to reflect varies under dif-
ferent circumstances. If glass has black or dark-
ness as a background, or is in shadow as we have
just mentioned, it usually proves a stronger reflec-
tor than it does when in light or with light shining
through from behind, or with a light background.
Paint glass black on the back and it becomes a good
mirror, reflecting objects very distinctly. When
we look at a window from without, in the daytime,
and it has no shades or curtains, its glazing may be
likened to the painted glass just mentioned, the
darkness of the interior being relatively of a deeper
value than the outdoor tones and therefore taking
the place of the black paint, and such a window
shows reflections more distinctly than one with
light curtains behind. If a window by chance
shows portions of a black, or any very dark window
shade and of a light one as well, the reflections
will be more distinct on that portion of the glass
which has the dark shade behind it, and contrarily
if a similar window has a light shade lowered to the
sill so as to fill the whole opening the reflections
will be comparatively indistinct. As a further
proof that glass is a good mirror when backed up
with black, stand facing a window in a lighted room
at night, with the shade raised, and if it is dark
out-of-doors your own image can be easily seen.
In the daytime, however, if you stand in the same
place and look out into the sunlight you will find
your reflection to be quite indistinct or even invis-
ible. When making a drawing of an interior as
it appears in the daytime it is, therefore, seldom
necessary to show any reflections in the glass of the
windows or doors of the outside walls, as the
brighter light without renders them impotent. In
fact in architectural drawing it is only occasionally
that definite reflections of objects are shown, for
unless extreme care is used to keep them incon-
spicuous they may become so noticeable as to seri-
ously detract from the result. It is not often ad-
visable, for instance, to show the reflections of tree
trunks or nearby buildings, and if such images are
indicated they should be drawn correctly and kept
subordinated. There are times, however, when a

126

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

reflection of a window reveal or an arch intrados
or some similar adjacent part of a building may
prove interesting, and in the sketch at "5," Figure
36, a dark reflection of the shaded intrados is
shown. Even though comparatively little use is
made of definite images of objects, when represent-
ing glass, the effect of most windows is, neverthe-
less, modified to such an extent in general tone by
the indefinite reflections of the sky and distant
objects as to demand some expression of this modi-
fication, but as the spectator, when viewing a draw-
ing, seldom has an exact knowledge of what these
objects influencing the appearance may be, the artist
is usually at liberty to assume such conditions as
best suit his requirements and convenience. This
means that if it pleases him to draw his windows
light, on the assumption that they are reflecting a
bright sky, or dark for some similar reason, he is
at liberty to do so, and as windows often change
in effect completely and suddenly, it is hard to dis-
pute his authority.

Now to get down to a few practical facts of
value to the beginner. First of all, decide whether
the glass is to be shown light or dark. This de-
pends largely on the surrounding material. If the
walls are of light plaster, and strong contrast seems
desirable, keep the glass dark ; if, instead, the walls
are of dark material, light windows will attract
more attention. There are many cases, however,
where it seems wise to keep certain windows incon-
spicuous, as a matter of presentation, and under
such conditions strong contrast is of course to be
avoided. The best way to determine which win-
dows should be dark and which light is by making
a preliminary study on tracing paper before start-
ing the final rendering. As a rule those windows
nearest the spectator, or, in some instances, nearest
the center of interest, should show, not only the
sharpest contrasts but also the greatest amount of
detail. This gives us an opportunity to get a cer-
tain variety of treatment in the different windows,
which is essential, but at the same time care must
be taken not to provoke unrest by overemphasizing
the differences of representation. Once a general
scheme for the values has been determined upon,
it is necessary to reach a decision as to how much
detail is to be shown through the glass. This will
depend largely on the location of the windows and
on the nature of the building. If a dignified faqade
is to be rendered, it is seldom wise to show much
inside the glazing, as curtains and the like some-
times detract from the architectural character of
a formal building unless rendered in a very con-
ventional manner. An informal building, such as
a suburban residence, permits greater freedom of
expression, however, so in a building of this sort
it is usually best to show the shades and curtains
quite distinctly. Stiffness of effect is avoided if an
occasional window is shown open, or with the shut-
ters partly closed, while awnings and screens and
such things sometimes add to the feeling of reality.
In a formal building if shades are shown in the
windows they are usually all lowered to the same
point, generally about one-third to one-half way
down from the top, or are arranged in some uni-
form manner, but greater variety of spacing is per-

missible in less formal structures. Inside draperies
harmonize better with the structural lines of the
building if shown hanging vertically or nearly so,
and for this reason it is often well not to drape
them in curves, as curved lines frequently attract
too much attention. Neither is it necessary or de-
sirable to show much detail or design in the hang-
ings, though there is no 1m rm in suggesting some
simple pattern, as in "4," Figure 36, especially if a
sash is unbroken by muntins or other objects. When
it comes to the rendering of the sashes and the
window frame, treat the woodwork very broadly,
merely suggesting by one or two lines all the va-
rious members of which the whole is composed. The
sash bars will usually be sufficiently well indicated
if a single line, representing their shady side, and
their shadow on the glass is used. Sashes are, as
a rule, left white on renderings, but there are in-
stances where the glass is shown so light as to cause
dark sashes to seem essential as a means of produc-
ing proper contrast. In "5," Figure 36, it will IK
noticed that the woodwork of the door is left light
at the bottom where the glass is dark, but graded to
dark at the top so as to count strongly against the
light reflection. In "9," Figure 37, the sashes are
in shadow and consequently dark, but the glass
here is catching a strong reflection of light, as in
the previous example. It perhaps seems a bit ex-
treme to leave the glass as white as it is in this
sketch and in the doorway at "13" on the same
sheet, but an effect of transparency is obtained in
this way, and the light tone of the glass pleasingly
breaks up the monotony of the shadow. Often,
however, the glass in such windows is shown very
dark, this being a matter of choice, as both condi-
tions are found in actual buildings.

In most drawings of windows the shadows cast
by the frame and by the sashes on the shades and
curtains are made quite prominent, and this often
adds greatly to the effect, and it is well as a rule to
emphasize the shadows of the shutters also. There
is another point worth considering and this is thit
if there is a large dark shadow near the top of -i
window it is best not to have a similar dark tone
at the bottom, as such duplication may injure the
result.

Figures 36 and 37 show a variety of suggestions
for the treatment of windows. Figure 36 was
drawn at exactly the same scale as here reproduced,
but Figure 37 was reduced from a larger drawing
measuring 8 inches by 11 inches. These sheets
seem to call for no special comment in addition to
that already made unless attention is directed to
"6" and "12" in the latter plate. In "6" it should
be noted that the open sash is shown transparent,
the shadow cast by the sash itself on the wall lie-
hind being visible in its entirety. In "12." how-
ever, the sash appears as a reflector, the dark vine
behind being invisible just as though the glass were
opaque. These two sketches illustrate the two
characteristics of glass already described.

In Figure 39 are shown several interior sketches
in which windows are featured. These drawings
explain themselves, though mention might be made
of the fact that when facing a window or any

THE REPRESENTATION OF DETAILS

127

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Figure 36. Some Door and Window Suggestions, iviih Considerable Attention
to the Representation of the Smaller Architectural Details.

128

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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Figure 57. Additional Details Such as Are Common to Architectural Delineation.

THE REPRESENTATION OF DETAILS

129

glazed opening from the inside the sashes and
frames usually appear dark in their relation to the
outdoor light beyond. Because of this strong con-
trast even light woodwork often seems very dark
if seen in silhouette.

When drawing an interior it is not wrong to
show objects out of doors providing they are not
made so prominent as to take too much interest
from the interior itself. Unless such objects are
quite near the glass, however, they should be drawn
very simply and lightly.

Having studied the illustrations accompanying
this text, as well as other reproductions that you may
have at hand, and having demonstrated for your-
self the truth of some of the facts mentioned here,
try some studies of your own, attempting to get a
glassy effect to each window, and crispness of draw-
ing as well, remembering all the while that windows
are too important to be slighted in representation.

The drawing by Schell Lewis on the following
page is an unusually fine example of pencil render-
ing of a portion of a building drawn in elevation,
and shows that even without the aid of perspective
it is possible to obtain a very truthful and at the

same time interesting effect. In this type of draw-
ing a knowledge of shades and shadows is particu-
larly desirable as the sense of relief and projection
depends largely upon the form and value of the
shade and shadow tones. Notice the manner in
which the feeling of curvature in the goose necks
above the leader boxes has been obtained, and give
particular attention to the handling of the smaller
detail within the shadow of the cornice of the door-
way itself.

The sketches by Albert Kahn on pages 131, 132
and 133 are excellent representations of an entirely
different sort of detail, for these are measured
drawings made directly from examples of wrought
iron and carved wood in the South Kensington Mu-
seum. Apparently a few of the main lines were laid
out to scale instrumentally on a smooth coated paper
and the rest of the work done free-hand. Obviously
architectural students or draftsmen can profit greatly
by making such measured drawings as these, as they
offer not only a means of becoming acquainted with
and preserving a record of the objects drawn, but
train one also for the making of. drawings from
which original work is to be executed.

130

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

PENCIL DRAWING BY SCHELL LEWIS. DETAIL OF A COUNTRY RESIDENCE
CHARLES A. PLATT, ARCHITECT

THE REPRESENTATION OF DETAILS

131

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SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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PENCIL SKETCH BY ALBERT KAHN. DETAIL OF WOOD CARVING IN THE
SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, LONDON

THE REPRESENTATION OF DETAILS

133

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Chapter IX.

INTERIORS AND FURNITURE

THOUGH a large percentage of all perspectives
and renderings made for architectural pur-
poses show exteriors of buildings, the drafts-
man is, nevertheless, sometimes called upon to make
drawings of interiors, including such accessories as
furniture and draperies, and, as interiors offer certain
problems not usually encountered in exterior work,
special practice and study are necessary to insure
their satisfactory solution. Then, too, there are
some draftsmen and designers, particularly those
employed by decorators, or in furniture or uphol-
stery houses, who devote the greater portion of their
time to rendering interior subjects, and these men.
even more than those doing the usual form of archi-
tectural work, need a knowledge of how interiors
actually appear and how this appearance can be
best represented.

A lengthy discussion of this interesting subject
seems hardly necessary, for many of the suggestions
already offered in previous chapters relate to inte-
rior as well as to exterior work, and, therefore, as
some special comments have also been made which
refer to interiors only, it is our present purpose
merely to add a few ideas, bearing especially on
methods of representing some of the many objects
and materials which do not appear in exteriors,
such as the furniture and draperies mentioned above.
Before doing so, however, it will perhaps be well to
first call attention to a few of the essential differ-
ences in the appearance of interiors and exteriors,
for a comparison of these differences, and of their
effect on the manner of indication should prove of
value to the student.

First of all, interiors are considered by many
artists to be more difficult to draw than exteriors,
and for a number of reasons. To begin with, the
actual mechanical process of laying out an interior,
preparatory to the work in rendering, is usually
more laborious than for an exterior. Exteriors are.
to be sure, often far from simple, but when doing
an office building or a hotel or some structure of
similar general form, the mass of the whole is
seldom complicated, so it is usually easy, once the
main construction lines are instrumentally laid out,
to project the various measurements of the win-
dows and the like along the wall surfaces to the
desired position. Interiors, however, though often
as simple in mass, are only begun when the archi-
tectural shell of ceiling and floor and walls (with
their accompanying doors and windows) is com-
pleted, for there remain such details as furniture
and lighting fixtures, and these require consider-
able time, for it is, as a rule, rather a lengthy proc-
ess to accurately obtain all of the different meas-
urements in perspective, as many of these objects

stand away from the walls, which adds to the diffi-
culty of projection; and once the correct placing
and general dimensions are obtained, it is frequently
the case that the objects themselves are so irregular
in form as to necessitate considerable labor, for
often many curved or slanted lines are required ; —
in fact, such pieces as rocking chairs sometimes
consist entirely of curved lines and lines sloping at
various angles. Then, too, it is not uncommon to
find furniture so turned that nearly every piece
requires vanishing points of its own. It is, there-
fore, mainly because of such accessories that the
mechanical layout of the typical interior proves
laborious to make, though there are certain types
of buildings where the block form itself is difficult.
One of the hardest kinds of interiors to draw
accurately is the theatre, where the bowled floor,
the disposition of the seats in curved rows with
radiating aisles, the rounded and sloping balconies,
the tiers of boxes, the proscenium arch and the
vaulted or domed ceiling, all offer labor enough to
tax the patience of the most persevering.

In addition to this difficulty of instrumental
construction, the draftsman of interiors is some-
limes handicapped a bit by his inability to introduce
accessories just where he wishes to have them for
the purpose of obtaining the best composition. In
drawing exteriors the artist can often make an
otherwise ordinary composition interesting by ar-
ranging his trees and vines and clouds and auto-
mobiles,— in fact, all such accessories, — about where
he wishes, and many of these can be made, also, of
almost any desirable size and shape. Interiors
sometimes permit the use of potted plants and vases
of leaves or flowers to serve a like purpose, and of
course in conservatories we find much of this sort
of thing, but on the whole there is less opportunity
for such freedom of arrangement, though the fur-
niture and pictures and hangings do offer a similar
means of relieving the bareness of the architectural
background, so that this of course offsets to some
extent the handicap just mentioned.

Another difference in appearance between inte-
riors and exteriors is found in the effect of the light
and shade, for in exteriors the sun usually affords
a single direct means of illumination, so that the
shadows can be laid out by an accurate mechanical
method, if one knows the science of doing so, and
the division between the light and the dark is gen-
erally clearly marked. Interiors, however, are
usually far more complex in their lighting, the rays
of light coming frequently from several sources,
thereby causing complicated values, the shadows
often falling in a number of directions at the same
time, and the tones of these various shadows dif-

135

136

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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INTERIORS AND FURNITURE

137

138

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

faring greatly, some being light and others dark,
with certain edges sharply defined and with others
indistinct. A chair leg, for example, often casts sev-
eral shadows on the floor at once and a lighting fix-
ture as many more on the wall or ceiling. This com-
plication is further augmented by the numerous
reflections, concerning which we will say more in
a moment, but notwithstanding all this, the mere
fact that such a complex condition does exist,
though often very confusing to the beginner, fre-
quently works to the advantage of the more expe-
rienced man, for, as we are accustomed to this com-
plexity of tone, the skilled artist is able to arrange
his values almost as he chooses and we are un-
aware that any liberties have been taken so long as
the natural effect has not been sacrificed.

As a rule it is best for the beginner not to draw
;very little change of tone that is seen, but he
should, instead, simplify the whole, working for the
general effect in a broad, direct manner, for when
one enters a room he is not conscious of all this
detail, — therefore it should not be forced on the
attention in the drawing. There is another point
worth remembering and this is that because much
of the illumination of interiors is indirect and the
light rays therefore diffused, the general effect is
usually softer than is the case where we have an
exterior in direct light, — the tones blending or
merging into one another and the division between
the light and shade being less clearly defined. This
indefinite effect, though often desirable in certain
types of drawing, can be easily carried to extremes,
and the artist who strives for it sometimes obtains
a result which, even though satisfying in one sense,
may be displeasing in another, for such a render-
ing is often so gray and lacking in contrast as to
prove hardly suitable for architectural purposes,
where a drawing with clean-cut edges and sharp
definition of tone is preferred as a rule to a soft
and vague interpretation. The artist who is work-
ing for a crisp result will find a certain fact to his
advantage, and this is that many objects found in
interiors, being well polished and smooth, offer
strong reflections and highlights which, if judi-
ciously used, serve as a pleasing break in the gray-
ness of the general effect. Out-of-doors we seldom
find such shiny surfaces as we do inside, with the
exception of a few like those of smooth water and
glass. The building materials used outside are
usually rather dull in finish, and even if polished
when first put in place soon lose their gloss because
of the action of the weather. Materials found in
interiors, on the other hand, often exhibit the con-
trary characteristics. Floors are of highly polished
wood or marble ; the trim is frequently varnished
or given some enamel finish, and glazed tiles or
similar objects are sometimes introduced, particu-
larly around mantels, but it is especially in the
furniture and in such accessories as the lighting
fixtures, vases, etc., that we find many surfaces of
high reflective value. Table tops, for example, fre-
quently act almost like mirrors, while the glass in
the framed pictures on the walls has similar char-
acteristics. Chair arms, door knobs, clocks, dishes,
etc., all add little highlights, often of extreme bril-
liancy in relation to the surroundings, and the stu-

dent is wise who learns to employ these sharply
contrasting accents to give life to his work, espe-
cially in drawings of an architectural nature. Many
otherwise "dead" drawings receive most of their
character from just such accents as these.

So much of a general nature by way of compar-
ing exteriors and interiors. The main points to be
remembered are that interiors are usually more dif-
ficult to lay out, — that it is not, as a rule, so easy
to arrange the accessories to assist the composition,
— that the values are more complex, with the
shadows made difficult because of light from various
sources, and, last of all, that the general effect is
sometimes rather vague and soft, but that highlightL
and accents are frequently to be found on the pol-
ished surfaces, which, if properly interpreted by
the artist, will give a clean-cut character to his
work.

Now, as we proceed to our discussion of meth-
ods of representing various objects and materials
common to interiors, it is necessary to repeat the
statement which we have already made a number
of times, and this is that few definite rules exist to
tell us how to do such work. Each student must
learn to see and to interpret the things that he sees
in his own way, and books and instructors can
merely offer a few suggestions by way of assistance.
Learning to draw is, in fact, so much a matter of
learning to see, that it is impossible to overempha-
size the importance of cultivating the ability to
observe things intelligently. In order to draw
draperies, for example, or upholstery materials, it
is necessary to first of all carefully observe the
various fabrics employed for such purposes, study-
ing each one with care, looking at it close at hand
and in the distance, in bright and in subdued light,
laid out smoothly and draped in folds, searching
always for its special characteristics under all such
conditions, and endeavoring also to retain mental
impressions of these peculiarities for future use.
Then compare one fabric with another, or drape
several in such a way that they can be easily seen
at one time. It is surprising what differences can
be discovered by an inspection and analysis of this
sort. A piece of satin and a piece of cotton cloth
of similar color and tone will vary greatly in
appearance, and even a light piece of cotton and
a dark piece of the same material will show marked
dissimilarity of effect in addition to the contrast
in color. It is impossible to describe such differ-
ences in a single chapter, but there are one or
two suggestions worth offering : first of all, light
colored cloth usually shows more contrast in its
values than does darker material of a similar kind,
as the dark color seems to absorb many of the
lighter values of shade and shadow. A smooth
material with a sheen will not look at all like some
dull fabric of similar tone, as it will have many
highlights and reflections, and certain fabrics such
as velours will sometimes appear dark where we
expect them to be light, and light where other mate-
rials would be dark, ?nd by nibbing the nap the
effect can be changed from light to dark or from
dark to light instantly. Many materials of a shiny
nature grow dull and soft with age, but there are
exceptions, for some others, — leather, for example,

INTERIORS AND FURNITURE

139

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SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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Figure 41. A Conventional Drapery Study Combining Free-Hand and Instrumental Lines.

Note the Simplicity of Treatment.

INTERIORS AND FURNITURE

141

— often become smooth and glossy with wear. The
smoother the material, the more complicated and
changeable are its values, as a rule, and the stronger
its highlights. Now when it comes to draping fab-
rics there is great variety in the way they hang,
for some are stiff and inflexible and others soft
and yielding. Heavy materials usually hang quite
straight and show fewer small folds and creases
than do those which are light in weight. Heavy
materials, too, are generally opaque and for this
reason are sometimes less difficult to represent
than are thin nets and scrims and similar fabrics
which are so translucent or even transparent as to
show light, or occasionally objects, through them.

As soon as the student has carefully studied the
appearance of all these things he is ready to
attempt some drawings, giving special attention to
the representation of surfaces and textures. Where-
as there is no harm in sketching one single object,
like an upholstered chair, it is often of greater
benefit to arrange compositions of several objects
which are associated by use, and which offer, in
addition, a variety of surfaces. Old objects such
as 'are found in museums are especially good for
practice of this sort as the textures of antiques are
more varied and interesting than are those of most
modern pieces. If it is not convenient to do mu-
seum work, however, things at home will answer
very well. Arrange an easy chair and a table and
reading lamp, for instance, in natural position to
form ^. pleasing group, adding, perhaps, a book or
magazine and such other accessories as will make
the composition complete. Have the light coming
from one direction if this is practical, so as to avoid
complicated shadows. Then in making the draw-
ing use the greatest care in suggesting such things
as the shine of the table top and the floor, the
numerous touches of highlight, and the texture of
the rug and the table runner and the lamp shade.
Try, as in any composition, to properly emphasize
the center of interest, and give especial attention,
also, to the treatment of the edges separating the
light from the shade, having them clean-cut where
they appear so in the objects and indefinite where
such an effect seems called for. If a trial proves
that it is too difficult to draw directly from objects,
or if it is hard to secure suitable ones, work from
photographs, instead, selecting those which show
the detail quite clearly and have little effect of per-
spective distortion. It is sometimes advantageous
to choose pictures of period furniture and furnish-
ings for this work, for by so doing valuable knowl-
edge of the periods rmy be obtained in addition to
the drawing practice.

Figures 38, 39 and 40, accompanying this text,
require little explanation. Figure 38 is shown
mainly for the suggestions that it offers for the
treatment of such textures as we find in the brick-
work, the rough plaster, the hewn beams and the

polished floor. It might be well to mention that
when drawing such a surface as a shiny floor or
table top it is well to show some lines representing
the reflections of objects, and others, often in the
opposite direction, indicating the surfaces of the
boards themselves. A study of the floor shown
here will reveal both these sets of lines and for
additional examples see the top of the dressing table
and the chair arms and the floors in Figure 40.
Figure 40, by the way, is a more conventional type
of rendering than Figure 38, for here the back-
ground is simply suggested, _all of the attention
being focused on the furniture itself. Such draw-
ings as these are often used by furniture houses
and for advertising work. Observe that in these
particular examples comparatively little tone is used,
the white of the paper counting quite strongly.
Figure 41 is also a conventional rendering, the
drapery itself receiving all of the attention, the
architecture being merely suggested by the fewest
possible lines, and here again much of the paper re-
mains untouched. One advantage of this type of
rendering is that after the student has had a reason-
able amount of practice it can be done very quickly.
The supplementary illustrations on the following
pages should prove of great interest and value as
they are excellent examples of widely different types
of work. Those by Otto R. Eggers on pages 142
and 143 were made to show the client how the rooms
of his house, as designed, could be made to look, —
how the comparatively low ceiling and the simple
window treatment would produce a dignified and
home-like effect if the rooms were furnished in a
suitable manner. These interiors were sketched
lightly in pencil without being laid out instrumentally.
The washes of water-color were then applied roughly
and when dry the sketches were completed with
lithographic pencil, this procedure being necessary
as water-color cannot be successfully flowed over
lithographic pencil lines. The drawing by Mr. Pauli
on page 144 shows an entirely different handling, the
whole being carefully blocked out instrumentally and
finished free-hand in pencil with infinite care, some
of the instrumental lines being allowed to remain.
Such drawings as this are often used for catalogue
purposes where furniture or lighting fixtures or
things of that sort are advertised. The ceiling draw-
ing on page 145 also combines free-hand and instru-
mental work, being a typical vaulting development
such as is frequently employed by interior decorat-
ors, this particular study being from the office of
Theo. Hofstatter & Co. From the same office is the
drawing of the side table on page 146, which was
clone in pencil with washes of color added, this pres-
entation effectively showing the piece in a way to
give the decorator's client a clear idea of it.
Now compare these drawings with others in order
to learn different methods of obtaining similar
effects, and. — what is still more important, — prac-
tice constantly.

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THEO. HOFSTATTER & CO., DECORATORS

Chapter X.
OUTDOOR SKETCHING

IN THE last few chapters special attention has
been given to the representation of minor por-
tions of both exteriors and interiors of build-
ings, and it has been pointed out that these small de-
tails really are the draftsman's A B C's, which he
should learn before attempting large or important
compositions.

His alphabet will not be complete, however, until
he has added to his knowledge of how to draw
these elements of a building itself a fund of in-
formation concerning the indication of such acces-
sories as clouds, water, automobiles and other
vehicles, also animals, people and foliage.

Foliage is especially important as there are com-
paratively few drawings .of architecture which fail
to show more or less of it, while in many render-
ings it occupies a very large and prominent place.
(We use a broad meaning of the word here, in-
cluding under the one general term "foliage" not
only masses of leaves but all such forms of plant
life as trees, bushes, vines, grass and flowers.) It
is, in truth, almost as essential to be able to draw
the natural setting for a building, as it is to draw
the building itself, and the student should con-
stantly bear this in mind ; neither should he lose sight
of the fact that when sketching foliage, especially
trees, he is acquiring, in addition to a knowledge
of drawing, certain principles of design directly
applicable to architectural work, for there is a very
definite analogy in several ways between trees and
buildings. As an example of one such similarity,
suppose we liken a tree to a tall tower. Just as the
tree starts at the ground with a strong and sturdy
trunk, and gradually, as it rises in height, becomes
more complex and delicate in its parts, so, the
tower, springing likewise from a solid base, becomes
lighter, also, and its smaller parts more numerous,
until, finally, as it meets the sky it terminates in
some crowning feature, graceful in proportion and
fine in detail. Nor should it be forgotten, when
studying foliage, that the student is assimilating a
knowledge of plant form which may be of value
when designing or drawing ornament, for much
architectural ornament is either copied more or less
literally from nature or thoroughly conventionalized
like the lotus of the Egyptians and the acanthus
and anthemion of the Greeks. Again, aside from
all esthetic considerations, the architectural student
should not overlook the fact that he can acquire
from the study of trees much valuable knowledge
of various building and finishing woods.

It is because of these numerous advantages to be
gained from a study of trees and their foliage, and
because there is, too, so much pleasure to be de-

rived from such a pursuit and especially from the
outdoor sketching which is so frequently a part of
it, that we are devoting an entire chapter to its con-
sideration.

First of all, before discussing actual means of
representing foliage, it may be well to point out that
its frequent employment in drawing is natural, not
only because we are accustomed to see buildings in
an environment of green, but also because compo-
sitions which are otherwise ordinary can be made
interesting by its use, even "bad" architecture be-
coming sometimes so improved in effect as to seem
attractive, if the surrounding planting is well designed
and rendered, while the beauty of "good" architec-
ture is correspondingly enhanced by a proper setting.
Then, too, foliage can probably be put to the great-
est variety of uses of any of the accessories, and in
the most ways. Trees, for instance, can be shown
of any kind and age, thus permitting a wide diver-
sity of shapes and sizes. Bushes and shrubs can be
drawn in almost any place and of any reasonable
proportion desired by the artist, while vines can be
given an equally free treatment without any feel-
ing of their being inappropriate or inharmonious.
Of course in some instances it becomes impossible
or undesirable to exercise such complete freedom,
for if a site for a building has already been selected,
having existing foliage worth retaining, it is usually
advisable to show with considerable accuracy that
part which falls within the range of vision, but even
under these or similar conditions many liberties are
possible. It is within the artist's province, for ex-
ample, to decide whether the trees are to be shown
with or without leaves. Then if he feels that an
improvement in the composition can be obtained by
slightly shifting the position of a tree or two, or
by adding a few bushes or flowers, the privilege is
his. He can vary his effect, also, by his choice of
the values used in their representation, employing
either light or dark tones as he wishes.

With these facts in mind, consider for a moment
the common methods of indicating people and ani-
mals and automobiles and note the contrast that
such a comparison shows, for though such acces-
sories as these last are undeniably important, espe-
cially in renderings of city buildings, it is easy to
see that the artist finds greater restrictions when
drawing them. To begin with, they must be shown
with considerable accuracy of form and size.
Whereas trees may vary a number of feet in any
dimension, or somewhat in contour, without attract-
ing attention to such variations, let a single figure
be too large or small or poorly drawn, or an auto-
mobile out of scale, and the fact is usually appar-

147

148

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

Figure 42. Some Methods of Suggesting Foliage.

OUTDOOR SKETCHING

151

ent. Foliage is, therefore, often rather less difficult
to represent than are these other accessories, yet
mainly because of its varied uses it is frequently
of greater value to the student, especially as a
means of obtaining satisfactory composition. Warn-
ing should be given, however, that in architectural
renderings one should never make the foliage so
conspicuous that it detracts from the architecture.

It is not our intention to give the impression that
the representation of foliage offers no problem, as
this is not the case, for to draw it well is, indeed,
far from being a simple matter, — in fact, many
draughtsmen who have little trouble in rendering a
building find foliage a stumbling block. To draw
it well one should know it well. Too often begin-
ners try to sketch from memory, forming masses
of almost meaningless lines on their paper, trust-
ing to chance that the result will be satisfactory.
Perhaps it will, occasionally, but unless one has
drawn a great deal from nature or at least from
good photographs, his memory will probably play
him false or lead him into the common error of
drawing all foliage alike, for there are many men
who have acquired the knack of indicating one or
two typical forms fairly well and who use them
over and over again regardless of conditions. Such
repetition of course produces inexcusable monot-
ony.

Whereas it is from such outdoor sketching and
drawing from photographs as we have just men-
tioned that one is able to acquire most easily a
knowledge of foliage representation, it is suggested
that as a valuable preliminary preparation the stu-
dent should study his botany, and read, also, some
of the many excellent books devoted mainly to the
consideration of trees. (There are plenty such, so
it seems unnecessary to call attention to any particu-
lar ones here, though for a concise volume on the
subject, F. Schuyler Mathews' "Field Book of
American Trees and Shrubs" is excellent, especially
from the draughtsman's standpoint, as it is fully
illustrated with pen, crayon and color reproductions.
Then there are some written entirely from the art-
ist's standpoint, among which Rex Vicat Cole's
"The Artistic Anatomy of Trees" is an excellent
example, for although it is an English publication
dealing mainly with trees native to England, it
nevertheless offers many suggestions applicable to
the representation of our own trees.) A perusal of
such volumes will not only familiarize one with the
names and leading characteristics of the more
common varieties, and train him in the laws that
govern their growth, but should, also, strengthen
his love and appreciation of the beautiful in nature.
It is by no means necessary to learn all the scientific
terms employed by the botanist or to memorize more
than a few of the essential facts, but it is advantag-
eous to gain enough of a knowledge to enable one to
answer such questions as the following, — What are
"evergreen" trees? What are "deciduous" trees?
Name some characteristics of the Pine family;—
of the Maple family ; — of the Birch ; — of the Beech.

Do Elms grow in Ohio? Are Hemlocks found in
Kentucky? Name five trees that are tall and
pointed. Name five that are short and wide-spread-
ing- Questions like these may seem unrelated to

pencil sketching, but they really are not, for the
architectural delineator may be called upon to make
sketches for a building in Florida or Maine or Cal-
ifornia or in some part of the country which he has
never visited, using trees of an appropriate kind and
shape. Unless he acquires such a knowledge, there-
fore, or knows where he can easily secure the infor-
mation when it is needed, he may make absurd errors.

It is, of course, especially important for the artist
to be familiar with the foliage in his own vicinity,
so as soon as he has gained a considerable amount
of this "book" lore he is ready to visit a park or
the country, sketchbook in hand, looking for actual
examples to illustrate the things which he has read.
Before starting to draw, it is well to take a walk
among the trees, comparing one with another, ob-
serving the shape of the general mass of each,
analyzing, also, its skeleton of trunk, limbs, branches
and twigs. Search, meanwhile, for a suitable sub-
ject for the first sketch. This may be a whole tree,
or simply some portion of one, or perhaps a pleas-
ing group of several. In any case the view-finder
will be of help in selecting an interesting compo-
sition.

At this point it may be well to offer a few prac-
tical hints, and one is that the best time of day for
sketching is usually the late afternoon, for the rays
of the sun are then so slanted as to produce an ex-
cellent contrast of light and shade and shadow.
Needless to say, however, there is no time between
dawn and dark when one cannot sketch to advan-
tage. The student is wise to sit in the shade, if
this is possible, or at least to keep the sunlight from
falling directly on his paper, for a bright glare will
not only prove trying to the eyes but may prevent
a correct judgment of the values, especially if one
is accustomed to spending the greater portion of
his time indoors. In order to offset to some meas-
ure the brilliancy of the outdoor light, some art-
ists use gray or straw-colored paper for sketching
purposes, which, besides having less tendency to
cause eye strain, also permits a pleasing use of
white pencil or chalk for picking out some of the
high lights. More will be said about such tinted
paper in another chapter. As to the size of paper,
anything will do, some of the pocket sketch-books
being very convenient. The objection to the
smaller ones is that they prohibit freedom of move-
ment of the arm and wrist and thus force one into
unnecessary difficulties. The notebook proportion
of 8 in. by 10^2 in., which we have previously
recommended, seems practical, and some artists
prefer still larger sheets. As the main object of
outdoor sketching is to record facts in a direct and
forceful manner, one should not use many grades
of pencils, for this is no time to worry over tech-
nique. Have several pencils, however, of each
selected grade for they wear down rather quickly,
and be sure to carry a knife as they will need fre-
quent pointing.

Now as soon as the subject .for a sketch is
selected and the materials prepared, make yourself
as comfortable as circumstances permit, in order
to have your attention free for the task at hand. In
this connection another suggestion may prove worth
mentioning and this is that a newspaper or magazine

152

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

* • *

Figure 44. Additional Studies from Nature and Suggestions for the Uses of Trees
in Conjunction with Architecture.

OUTDOOR SKETCHING

153

makes a fairly comfortable seat on the ground or
on some stone or log or wall, if no better one is
available.

When all is in readiness, proceed with your
sketch, blocking in the main proportions lightly, in-
dicating also the lines of the trunk and principal
branches. Observation will prove that the contour
of a tree is seldom as round as we sometimes imag-
ine, in fact the general mass of most trees can be
bounded by an outline made up largely or wholly
of straight strokes. When starting a sketch remem-
ber this truth. Then, once this outline and the main
subdivisions have been quite definitely established,
begin the shading, considering carefully the direc-
tion of the light, studying the subject through partly
closed eyes in order to eliminate the less essential
values, remembering the impossibility of drawing
every leaf and twig. Some foliage masses seem
very sharp and clean-cut against the sky while
others soften gradually into the surroundings, so
it is necessary to choose the type of line best suited
to the conditions at hand. This choice depends
partly on the individuality of the artist and the time
available but mainly on the characteristics of the
foliage itself. The line which would nicely suggest
the leafage of the willow might fail, for instance,
to represent the individuality of the pine. The
sketches at "1" at the top of Figure 42 show a num-
ber of ways of building up foliage tone, while at
"5" sketches "B," "C," "D" and "E" show differ-
ent methods of representing similar masses. This
variety of strokes should make it plain to the stu-
dent that there is no set manner of working. Con-
sequently sketch the objects before you in what
seems the most natural way, and if the results are
not satisfactory try again using some other kind
of strokes. The type of line employed is of less
importance than are the values themselves, for if
these are carefully worked out the tree will seem
properly modelled to give a sense of depth and pro-
jection. Use care, too, in suggesting the roundness
of the branches and trunk, noting the great differ-
ence in the tone of the bark in sunshine and in
shade. The shadows cast by the various branches
on one another are worthy of special attention as
are also those cast by each tree on the ground and
on surrounding trees or buildings, in fact, so far
as architectural purposes are concerned, it is most
essential to be familiar with tree shadows as they
appear when falling on the walls or roofs of build-
ings and on the lawns and sidewalks.

Because of the many difficulties encountered
when drawing entire trees it is often well to sketch
first of all certain portions only, making studies

somewhat similar to "2," "3" and "5A," Figure 42.
After a number of these have been done it is time
to attempt complete single trees such as those on
Figure 43, adding a bit of the surroundings if you
choose. Later try groups of two or more trees, as
indicated at "1," Figure 44. This sort of work is
most important, but neither should hedges and
bushes and grass be neglected, so make some studies
similar to "2A," Figure 44, and even some of rocks
and ledges such as those at "2" and "5F," Figure
42, and "2B," Figure 44, for though these cannot
be classified under jhe term "foliage" they can be
studied to advantage at this time. It is not enough
to sketch nearby trees, but those in the distance
should be done as well, Sketch 3, Figure 44, show-
ing the simplicity which is often found in far away
foliage. It is sometimes advisable to draw the same
tree from both near at hand and from the distance,
and it is also beneficial to sketch it at different
seasons of the year, for it is in the winter when
the leaves are gone that the best opportunity is
presented for studying the tree "skeleton." If the
winter proves too cold for outdoor work several
photographs might be taken to be sketched la*er, —
the first when the limbs are bare and others in the
spring, showing the leafage at various stages in its
development. During all of this study and sketch-
ing try to memorize the leading characteristics, for
by so doing you will build a firm foundation for
future memory work. It might be well, in closing,
to point out the desirability of preserving all such
sketches, for no matter how incomplete or imper-
fect they may seem, when foliage is required in
later renderings they will offer many suggestions of
great value, for the only real difference between the
work from nature and that done in architectural
renderings is that in the case of the latter the foliage
is made rather inconspicuous and is also in many
cases given a more conventional handling.

At "4," Figure 44. are shown six "thumb nail"
sketches of the same house done from the imagina-
tion, each with a distinctive foliage treatment.
These show only a few of numerous possible
schemes which could be devised by the student to
meet similar conditions, but in order to success-
fully develop any of them at large scale the kind
of knowledge gained from outdoor work would
be of great help.

It is suggested that the reader study at this time
the various drawings of trees which are found from
place to place in this volume, and especially the
masterly outdoor sketches by Mr. Hermann on pages
150, 154 and 155, which are excellent examples of
studies made directly from nature.

154

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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Chapter XL
ACCESSORIES

IN LATER chapters we will consider the render-
ing of large buildings, the decorative handling of
architectural subjects, and the uses of tinted pa-
per, colored pencils, etc., but before doing so it seems
advisable in this chapter and the next to round out
our discussion of architectural accessories by touch-
ing upon the representation of water, skies, clouds,
people and vehicles, repeating for the purpose of
emphasis a few of the suggestions already given and
adding such others as seem essential.

Needless to say these accessories are of sufficient
importance to deserve a more exhaustive treatment
than this, but the student who is interested in ob-
taining additional information can find many spe-
cial treatises devoted entirely to these and similar
subjects. There are various publications, for in-
stance, describing the different kinds of clouds, and
numerous books on figure drawing and anatomy ;
the recent book on figure drawing by Mr. Bridge-
man, "The Human Figure" by John H. Vander-
poel, "Figure Drawing and Composition" by R. G.
Hatton, as well as volumes on composition with
chapters on the arrangement of groups of figures.
The student is advised to consult books of this sort,
and it seems hardly necessary to add that the knowl-
edge thus acquired should be supplemen'ed by
sketching nil these things directly from nature or
from the object, taking a course in life drawing
(if this is possible) as a means of acquiring not
only an understanding of the human figure but ex-
cellent training in drawing as well.

Now let us turn to a brief consideration of the
representation of water, and suppose we liken it in
appearance, for a moment, to window glass.

We have mentioned in a former chapter the com-
plicated effect of glass, but if that offers difficulties
to the student, so indeed does water, in fact, the
latter is even harder to draw well, for whereas the
former has the two important characteristics of
transparency and power to reflect images of ob-
jects, water not only has these but adds to them a
new peculiarity in that its surface is constantly
changing in form, being smooth one moment,
rippled the next, 'and disturbed a little later, per-
haps, into large waves. Smooth water often gives
as perfect a reflection as does a mirror, yet under
slightly altered conditions the images pre distorter!
or destroyed or the surface becomes like a trans-
parent pane of glass, the bed or bottom below being
plainly visible. Again such water sometimes seems
opacme and lifeless, the surface alone being- visible.
Such appearances and changes are due in part to
three conditions: First, the depth, color and purity
of the water; second, the point from which it is

viewed, and lastly, the angle at which the rays of
light reach its surface. Deep, pure water, for in-
stance, is usually, if still, an almost perfect mirror,
especially if we look along it rather than straight
from above, but in a shallow or muddy stream or
pool the reflected images are often merged or
blended with the tone of the water itself and with
that of the bottom showing through, distorted by
refraction. If we look directly down upon water
it seems far more transparent, as a rule, than when
viewed in a more-nearly horizontal direction and
this is true whether it is smooth or rather rough.
It is true, too, that when the light rays reach the
surface at some angles, reflections which otherwise
exist wholly or partially disappear, and the effect
of transparency is lost also, the surface becoming
apparently opaque. This refers to calm water. Let
the slightest breeze ruffle the surface and the com-
plications are still greater. And each civ nge in
the force or direction of the wind causes a still dif-
ferent effect. These things all show the impossi-
bility of giving definite rules as to how water should
be rendered and make it plain that only personal
observation and practice will bring any real pro-
ficiency in its treatment.

There are, however, a few suggestions that may
be of help to the studen\ one of which is that the
greatest care must be exercised to have the lines
bounding any body of water correctly drawn, for
unless this is done distortion may appear, the water
seeming to slope or bend in an unnatural m-'nner.
It may be well to point out that in a large lake or
sea where the farther shore is invisible because of
distance the horizon line for the water will coincide
with the eye level for any visible buildings. Occa-
sionally, however, this line is "faked," up or down
a bit, if a better composition can be obtained
thereby. In smaller bodies the distant shore lines,
unless viewed from a very high point, also appear
practically horizontal. Once the outline is correct
it is well to block in whatever definite reflections
there may be, drawing them with the greatest care.
If the water is smooth the reflection of an object
will appear very much as the object itself would
if suspended in an inverted position. If the water
is roueh the reflection will be more or less elongated
and distorted, for the Waves will act like a series
of convex and concave mirrors, the amount of
elongation depending on the size and shape of the
waves. This is illustrated at "1," Figure 45, where
at A the reflection practically duplicates the object,
while at B the waves in the foreground show bits
of reflection thus elongating the whole image. Such
images are often slightly darker than the object

156

158

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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Figure 46. Clouds aj Seen in Nature and as Used in Conjunction with Architecture.

ACCESSORIES

159

reflected though the re\*erse is sometimes true, and
they are usually quite definite near the object and
more and more broken and interrupted by contrast-
ing values as the distance from the object increases.

Another very important point is that in represent-
ing a large body of water account should be taken
of the 'fact that nearby waves appear larger than
those in the distance; consequently larger pencil
strokes are often employed in their indication. Re-
member, too, that the distant shore is usually rather
indistinct, therefore it should be shown so, with 'all
detail subordinated."^

The general tone of water often depends on its
reflective power. If a sky is light, for instance, the
water will be quite light also, as a rule, especially
if smooth, and vice versa, though there are many
exceptions to this.

So great is the variety in the effect of water that
every sort of line is needed for its indication.
Vertical strokes are often satisfactory when it is
smooth, whereas those of a generally horizontal
direction are sometimes better when it shows ripples
or waves. The sketches in Figure 45 offer a num-
ber of suggestions for water, using different
strokes. Perhaps the only one of these needing spe-
cial comment is that at B sketch 4, showing the
wet streets. This has been presented because de-
lineators of architectural subjects sometimes show
wet streets and sidew'alks in their renderings,
mainly for the purpose of introducing a little inter-
est-and preventing a hackneyed result, and such
sketches as this offer suggestions for that kind of
work. On wet sidewalks and streets as well as
where water is of greater depth it is usually well to
combine with the lines suggesting reflection, others,
generally opposite in direction, indicating the sur-
face itself.

Before leaving this subject it may be well to
mention' that shadows are often cast upon water by
various objects, the dark tone having a tendency to
cause the water to appear still darker ; this is sim-
ply another of the many complications that make
a thorough study of the whole matter essential.

Now let us give a few moments' thought to the
indication of skies and clouds, which are, perhaps,
as easy to handle in pencil as any of the accessories.
A few suggestions on essential points should prove
sufficient for it is by no means necessary to attempt
more than a simple sky treatment in the average
architectural drawing. It is, in fact, often possible
to allow the white of the paper to remain untouched
or to cover it with a uniform tone of gray or to
grade it in the simplest manner from dark above to
light at the horizon. The value selected usually
depends on the tone of the building illustrated ;
when it' is dark in color or has a dark roof the sky
is left light, but if light it is sometimes shown
against a dark sky in order to secure a satisfy-
ing contrast, as in sketch 5, Figure 46. These
simple treatments are especially appropriate in ren-
derings of formal buildings where many clouds
might prove distracting. Picturesque buildings per-
mit greater freedom, for^he accessories should have
a character similar to that of the building, — but
even these informal structures may be left with
white paper for the sky if there is foliage and the

like to add interest to the whole. It is perhaps in
the representation of very plain buildings with a
rather monotonous setting that clouds serve the
best purpose,- for even though restrictions prevent
the use of trees or other accessories, there is seldom
an exterior drawing in which clouds cannot be em-
ployed if one wishes, and nature gives us so many
kinds and arranges them in so many ways that there
is always opportunity for an appropriate selection.
A building of awkward proportion or displeasing
contour can be so disguised by skilful sky treatment
as to take on a far different 'aspect, and perspective
distortion can likewise be hidden in many cases, or
made less conspicuous, while the shadows cast by
clouds can also be used to great advantage, thrown
across a monotonous roof or wall surface or upon
the ground. Clouds, like other accessories, should
never be made too prominent, however. Some stu-
dents draw the masses so round that the curves fail
to harmonize with the straight lines of the architec-
ture while others form such "wooly" strokes or such
rough textures that no sense of distance is obtained,
the clouds seeming nearer perhaps than the archi-
tecture itself. Each line and tone should quietly
take its place. So unless a drawing is large or
done with a very bold, vigorous technique, lather
light but firm strokes would seem best, using a
medium or hard pencil and striving for a silvery-
gray line, for smoothness suggests distance. Again,
as skies seem softer in effect and the individual
clouds smaller in size and less definite as they recede
towards the horizon, it is best, as a rule, to have
the boldest strokes and the largest and most definite
masses near the zenith. Storm clouds, especially
those showing strongly contrasting forms and
values, are seldom desirable in architectural work,
and sunrise or sunset effects detract, unless skil-
fully handled, from the architecture itself.

In the actual representation of clouds two meth-
ods are common, one being the simple indication of
the forms by outline alone ; the other a naturalistic
rendering of the full tone. As the former obviously
requires less time it is often the more desirable one,
though the choice really depends on what seems de-
manded by the remainder of the drawing. Avoid
too mechanical an outline in any case, but work in-
stead for a suggestion of the variety of mass and
edge found in nature, giving special care to the
suggestion of modelling, remembering that clouds
are not the flat disks that students sometime repre-
sent them to be.

Figure 46 shows a number of sketches from na-
ture such as the student should make for purposes
of study, and several others showing sky treatments
applied to architectural subjects. We should per-
haps remind the reader, before going on, that clouds
are possibly the one thing in nature least affected
in appearance by man, for though he may destroy
forests and alter shore lines, they continue to go
their own way uninterrupted.

Now we turn to a consideration of the represen-
tation of what is perhaps the most difficult of all
the architectural accessories, the human figure.
It is not our purpose to discuss at any length the
drawing of the individual figure, but rather to
offer a few suggestions for the use of figures as

160

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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Figure 47. Illustrating Certain Principles Regarding the Representation of Figures

as Accessories to Architecture.

ACCESSORIES

161

they form a part of an architectural setting, and
right at the start it is well to state that it is
better to omit figures entirely than to draw them
poorly. This should not be interpreted to mean that
they must be indicated with photographic accuracy
— in fact, it is often possible to suggest them satis-
factorily in what seems a rather careless manner,
omitting or subordinating the features and other
detail, especially if the scale is small. It does
mean, however, that the first impression gained
when one looks at the drawing should be of pro-
fessional excellence rather than of an amateurish
attempt at something beyond one's capabilities. The
figures should be correct in size, as they give scale
to the architecture itself, and should be arranged
in a natural disposition, so grouped that they aid,
rather than injure, the unity and balance of the
composition ; considerable practice is necessary to
enable one to do this well. There should be a pleas-
ing variety, too, in their selection, using figures of
men, women and children if many people are shown.
Choose the number and type, also, that are appro-
priate to the location of the building. In picturing
a railroad station, for instance, show people with
suitcases or hand bags, also railroad porters and the
like. When drawing an office building have busi-
ness men, stenographers, postmen, telegraph mes-
sengers, etc., with most of the figures in action. At
a summer hotel, on the other hand, we would find
people dressed for bathing, boating, riding, tennis,
golf, and other sports, or leisurely enjoying them-
selves dressed in appropriate summer clothes. Need-
less to say, fashions should be up-to-date in such
a scene, but by all means avoid the unnatural people
often found in the conventional "fashion drawings."
Be especially careful not to have the figures too
straight and stiff; this is a very common fault. Use
care also not to make foreground figures so large
or important that they dwarf the architecture or
lead the eye from it. Occasionally people so near
as to be exceptionally prominent are made slightly
smaller than they would actually be, though such
liberties should never be taken unless one has suf-
ficient experience to enable him to do so to the best
advantage, and a figure beside the building pictured

should always be of correct size or a wrong im-
pression of scale will be given. Too many figures
spotted around carelessly will destroy balance, so,
in composing, plan for the eye to be lead gradually
from one group to another. It should not be in-
ferred from this that all drawings demand a number
of figures, for this is not true. Sketches of resi-
dences seldom need more than two or three at the
most and 'are frequently made with none at all and
a single person standing beside any building is
enough to give scale and can be done in a very sim-
ple, conventional manner. Period costumes are
sometimes used for such figures, a Colonial lady or
gentleman being shown, for instance, at the door
of a Colonial mansion.

Figure 47 shows at 1 the steps sometimes gone
through in drawing a figure. At A the salient points
have been established, at B the outline is completed,
while C gives us the finished result ; D simply adds
a somewhat more sketchy indication of the same
person standing before a window, and serves to
remind us that the technique used for figures should
harmonize with that of the rest of the drawing.
At 2 is a quick suggestion of men walking, while
3 and 5 show a number of action sketches, very
hastily done. Sketch 4 is a bit of street scene
such as might be used as a portion of a large render-
ing. Perfect drawing and finish is by no means
necessary in this sort of work.

Vehicles, 'automobiles, and similar accessories
require no special instructions, as catalogues and
other advertising matter give many excellent illus-
trations which can be adapted to the work at hand.
Be sure to draw them in correct perspective in rela-
tion to the buildings, and of proper size; neither
should you m'ake the mistake of showing any vehicles
drawn or parked on the wrong side of the street.

Horses, dogs and other animals require as much
skill to draw 'as do people and unless one is confi-
dent of his ability he will do well to omit them en-
tirely or to get assistance from someone with greater
dexterity.

The reader is advised to review at this time Chap-
ter VII, Part I, on Life Drawing, and Chapter VIII.
Part I, which discusses more fully the sketching of
animals.

Chapter XII.
DECORATIVE TREATMENT

WE HAVE mentioned in previous chapters
that all pencil drawings are somewhat con-
ventional in treatment, the objects being
rendered more according to rule or precedent than
by attempting to duplicate nature or fact. Nature
shows us color, for instance, which in black-and-
white drawings can be suggested only in a some-
what meager manner, and she makes no use of
outline, so firmly established by convention in pen-
cil representation. She gives us also such ex-
treme brilliancy of sunlight that it is obviously
impossible to adequately portray it on paper, so
here too we resort to convention for its sugges-
tion. There are certain conventions, then, that
are forced upon us because of our inability to suc-
cessfully picture some of nature's complexities, but
there are many others which are entirely a matter
of choice. It is within the power of the skilled art-
ist to approximate, if he desires, the forms and the
values (with the exception of the more brilliant
ones) of objects in nature, but, mainly because it
has been found that such drawings as most closely
approach perfection in this direction are usually too
photographic in effect to prove pleasing from an
aesthetic standpoint, there has always been an at-
tempt to obtain a somewhat individual interpreta-
tion rather than mere excellence of depiction. In
striving for such expression, artists have developed
conventional methods of their own, or have copied
from their predecessors and contemporaries such
ideas as have strongly appealed to them, with the
result that the student now finds unlimited sugges-
tions from which he may select those that he de-
sires, modifying them to suit his problems and his
personal tastes. Most draftsmen have a leaning
towards some definite type of work ; — some like
the naturalistic, for instance, while there are others
who take greater pleasure in employing a style which
is more highly conventionalized, adding a certain
decorative quality, perhaps, to all that they do ; —
who so compose their masses and arrange their lines
that regardless of the objects represented this qual-
ity is conspicuous. Now the average architectural
subject fails to lend itself readily to such treatment,
as the tnor£ photographic type of work better ex-
presses, from the client's standpoint, the character
of buildings, but there are, nevertheless, some classes
of drawings in which .''rchitecture is prominently
shown, but where composition and technique of a
decorative nature seem more essential than does a
truthful delineation of the architecture itself and
its surroundings, and it is this type with which we
are especially concerned just now.

Rendering of this sort is used for so great a va-

riety of purposes and is handled in so many dif-
ferent ways that we can hardly do more here than
attempt to show its importance, pointing out to the
draftsman that his knowledge of sketching and ren-
dering will not be well rounded out until he has
given this decorative style his careful consideration.
(In this connection we urge him to collect and
study many examples by different artists, copying
such drawings or portions of drawings as make a
strong appeal.)

Among the uses of such drawings may be men-
tioned the illustration of types of advertising mat-
ter in which drawings of buildings, or parts of
buildings, are required or the making of magazine
covers, the designing of title pages, or the illustra-
tion of certain classes of books and articles, such
as those pertaining to the purchase or furnishing
of the home (and others of similar nature) — or,
again, the drawing of decorative headings, marginal
sketches and tailpieces.

It should not be supposed from what is said
above, that architectural perspectives of proposed
buildings for submission to the client cannot be
done satisfactorily in a decorative manner, for if
the style is not forced the results may be very pleas-
ing without detraction from the subject, and even
the more naturalistic type of drawing cm be made
somewhat decorative in effect, if it seems desirable
to do so, by the addition of an ornamental border
or lettered inscription or something of that sort.
There are many drawings, however, wh^re the
architecture is simply a part of the decoration, be-
ing sometimes entirely imaginary or perhaps dis-
torted into forms which would be impossible to
build or undesirable if built, yet which add nfcely
to the decorative appearance. In such work the
drawing is not a means to an end (as is the average
architectural rendering) but is an end" in itself, and
as its main purpose is frequently to catch and hold
the attention, as in advertising work, prominence
is therefore often given to such architectural feat-
ures as are considered quaint and picturesque.
Thatched and tiled roofs are popular, for example;
as are huge chimneys, windows with shutters of
unusual design, flower boxes, lattices, garden gate-
ways, etc., — birdhouses, weathervanes and sundials,
rainwater leaders and leader-heads, door knockers,
ornamental hinges, and so on. •

It is not only in the selection of these details,
however, but it is in their arrangement as well that
the picturesque is sought, for the spacing of the
windows and doors, — in fact all those parts. — often
depends more on what looks interesting and- attrac-
tive than on what would be practical. The search

162

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SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

for the picturesque is not confined to the architec-
ture, for trees and shrubs of all sorts are utilized,
distorted into any shape and arranged in any way
that pleases the fancy of the artist. Flowers of un-
heard-of species grow in curiously fashioned pots
or are grouped in beds of fanciful design while
clouds are piled in the sky in a manner wholly with-
out precedent in nature. The technique is as
varied, too, as the selection, all sorts and kinds of
lines being used in every possible way. One should
not gain the impression from all this, however,
that these things are jumbled together in a haphaz-
ard manner, for quite the opposite is true, — the
greatest pains being usually taken that the com-
pleted whole shall be a beautiful and interesting de-
sign, rendered in an attractive manner, and although
in much of this work the imagination is given free
play, it is by no means permitted to run riot.

Many of these decorative renderings are done in
pen-and-ink or wash or some medium other than
pencil, but as in nearly every case careful pencil
preparation is required, regardless of the medium
used for completing the final drawing, the subject
seems to fall within our scope. In fact the impor-
tance of such preparation cannot be over empha-
sized. When a decorative sketch is desired the cus-
tomary method of proceedure is the same as we
have explained for other pencil work, for once the
artist has conceived his scheme a number of rough
sketches are generally made first of all at small
scale, from which the best is selected for further
study, following which larger scale sketches are
drawn, frequently on tracing paper and one over
the other, changes and corrections being performed
as the work progresses. When the design meets
the requirements and satisfies the artist it is trans-
ferred to the final paper and completed. The num-
ber of studies made from start to finish depends on
the skill of the artist and on the kind and size and
importance of the problem.

At "1," Figure 48, is a "fine line" pencil sketch
of a decorative nature, and yet the naturalistic
effect is not in this case wholly lost ; — in fact one
can gain a clear conception of the building and its
environment in spite of the decorative character
of the rendering. At "2" and "3" are several other
suggestions, showing a somewhat similar treatment
of smaller subjects, and in these, too, architecture
of a practical nature has been indicated.

Not infrequently artists make decorative sketches
just as a pastime, either combining existing ele-
ments, or fragments of some definite style, into a
decorative arrangement or composing fanciful de-
signs entirely from the imagination. In such pro-
jects no limitations of any sort are present unless
the designer wishes to impose them upon himself,
so he is able to forget the many handicaps that
ordinarily restrict him in every direction and find
an opportunity to lose himself for the moment in
these creations of his imagination.

Uses of Color — Mention pencil sketching or ren-
dering to the average individual and he immediately
conjures up in his mind a visualization of the mak-
ing of the customary type of drawing such as we
find in common use, done on white paper, as a

rule, and with ordinary graphite pencils. This is
only natural, for a large majority of sketches are
done with these mediums and in this way, and it is
because of the frequency with which they are found
that so much has been written in previous chapters
referring especially to this everyday sort of repre-
sentation.

There is, however, another class of work which
comes within the scope of our subject yet which
differs in many respects from the type just men-
tioned, and which, in so differing-, offers -so many
opportunities for variety, both in the selection of
materials and in the technique employed, that it
finds special favor among those who prefer to
break away from the commonplace and exercise
their abilities in a less restricted field, — one which
offers, in fact, unlimited opportunities for indi-
vidual expression. For it is our present purpose
to describe briefly some of the uses of papers of
various tints and shades ; to touch upon the em-
ployment of wax crayons, lithographic pencils
and the like; to point out also a few of the ad-
vantages of colored pencils, and most important
of all, perhaps, to describe some of the many suc-
cessful combinations of two or more media, such
as pencil tinted with water color, water color
touched up with pencil, and colored crayon ac-
cented with brown ink.

A glance at the appended list (on page 170
concluding this text) which shows some of these
combinations, will emphasize the futility of even
attempting an adequate exposition of our sub-
ject within a single chapter, but if the student
desires to acquire a more complete knowledge of
some of these inexhaustible possibilities for ob-
taining effective results, let him study such ex-
amples as he finds available, and then take his
own tinted papers and his pencils and colors and
work out for himself such ideas as make the
strongest appeal to him.

First of all it is well to learn what the market
affords in the way of materials for such work,
for too many artists are ignorant of the numerous
kinds of pencils and crayons and papers and the
like that have been prepared to serve him. So
multitudinous are these offerings, in fact, and so
varied, that to recommend any particular ones
here might handicap rather than help, for it is
best for each student to experiment with all these
things himself. As an instance of the wealth of
drawing materials at our disposal, inquiry of any
large dealer in artist's supplies for black pencils
and crayons alone will bring out many sorts,
each having its individual characteristics and
uses. Some give a shiny and some a dull tint or
tone, — some are easily erased while others
smear and smudge when rubbed or are practically
indelible. There are those which offer resistance
to water, too, and others so soluble as to blur or
wash off under its application. Then again, the
extreme softness of some prevents a firm line
while in others brittleness makes a sharp point
impossible. Now just as these pencils vary, so
also do the numerous colored ones, hence con-
siderable testing is necessary if one desires to
ascertain their possibilities and limitations, but
once such a knowledge is obtained and along with

DECORATIVE TREATMENT

165

-• • •

Figure 49. Some Sketches Done with Black and White Pencils on Dark Green Paper, the Highlights,
Being Sharpened with Chinese White Applied with a Brush.

166

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

it a reasonable facility in handling, it will be
realized that notwithstanding these differences
each kind of pencil or crayon, whether black or
white or colored, is capable of serving a useful
purpose. It is not only in pencils and crayons
that we find a wide diversity, however, for papers
are multifarious also, and in addition to the num-
erous kinds, both white and colored, especially
prepared for artists, wrapping paper, cover
papers, mat stock and the like are used, even wall
paper of some sorts occasionally iinding favor.
The beginner increases his difficulties, however,
if he selects papers which do not permit of con-
sideiable erasure. In this connection attention is
directed to the fact that erasers have individual
characteristics, also, and some which prove
satisfactory on certain papers, or for erasing
some grades of pencils or crayons, are useless
with others, so here again personal experimenta-
tion is desirable, seeking all the time for ideal
combinations of pencil, paper and eraser.

Now in order that the student who is accus-
tomed to working in the usual manner on white
paper may become acquainted gradually with
these materials and methods which are new to
him, it is suggested that as a rirst step the same
pencils and technique be employed as for this
familiar type of drawing, but with some tinted
paper such as cream or buff or light gray sub-
stituted for the customary white. This brings in
little that is different yet the effect gained is
often very interesting, and if one cares to go a
bit further and the subject seems to suggest it, a
few touches of high light may be added with a
white pencil or crayon or with Chinese white or
some similar water color. Do not forget, how-
ever, that water color causes thin paper to wrinkle
and buckle out of shape unless mounted, and in-
jures or destroys the gloss of glazed paper,
though there is a difference in the appearance of
various white pigments when dry, some being
flat or dull and others shiny.

As the ordinary pencil line has more or less
gloss, some artists prefer, especially when using
pencils in connection with other mediums, to em-
ploy such kinds as give a dull effect. It is ad-
visable, then, for the student to become familiar
with these, so as soon as fairly satisfactory re-
sults have been obtained with the usual pencils
on the tinted paper, it might be well, before at-
tempting any of the more difficult combinations,
to try out, first on white and later on tinted
paper, the various black pencils and crayons,
making, perhaps, on each sheet of paper used
several comparative sketches, for by so doing one
can most easily learn the adaptability of each '
particular pencil to the paper and to the subject
represented. Then when numerous experiments
have been made with the black pencils on various
papers try colored pencils. As their use leads to
new difficulties it is best for the beginner to con-
fine his attempts to one or two colors, using a
red or brown tone, for example, making an entire
drawing with the one pencil. Surprisingly pleas-
ing results are frequently obtained in this mari-
ner, the effect being somewhat similar to that of
the red chalk drawings often made by the old
masters. Whereas white paper may be used for

this work, lightly tinted sheets will do nicely too,
offering again the opportunity for added high-
lights if they are felt to be desirable. Though
charming sketches are found in which pencils or
crayons of many colors have been employed, the
beginner should bear in mind that unless he has
had training in color harmony or has an excellent
innate color sense, the difficulties of combining
the various hues will be far from negligible, es-
pecially if the paper is not white. For this reason
it might be better for him to first turn his atten-
tion to some of the more simple combinations of
mediums, such as pencil and a wash of monotone.
Some of his old drawings might be utilized to
advantage in this connection, treating them in
different ways. Take one of these, for instance,
and run a light wash of yellow ochre or Naples
yellow or some other simple tint uniformly over
the whole thing, bringing the wash to an even
edge a quarter of an inch or so outside the mar-
gin line all around. The effect will resemble to
some extent that obtained by using paper of a
similar tint, with the one exception that the pig-
ment will have a tendency to soften the lines of the
pencil, removing more or less of the gloss, and so
"fixing" the lines that they will smudge less easily
than before. Another scheme is to apply a wash
of gray of a tone somewhat like that of the pencil
lines themselves to such portions of the drawing
as need to be toned down or pulled together. A
sky may be grayed, for instance, in order to in-
crease the contrast of a building against it, or a
lawn may be simplified by passing a wash from one
end to the other, and not only are such results often
very pleasing but time can frequently be saved by
thus combining the wash work with the pencil, as
it is much quicker as a rule to cover a surface with
the brush than with the smaller point. Pencils can
be used very often in drawing fine detail and the
brush then taken up for the larger work, or if this
larger work has been done with the pencil but the
values seem too light or complicated they may be
toned to the desired depth or satisfactorily simpli-
fied by wash. For such work ivory black, lamp
black, neutral tint, sepia, india ink or any such pig-
ments will do or a ..gray can be mixed by combin-
ing two or more neutralizing colors.

Now just as tints of monotone can be used in
connection with pencil work so can tints of several
hues, in fact the author has found that a great de-
mand exists among the architects for such render-
ings, as they afford an opportunity for a suggestion
of the colors of the building materials and the sur-
roundings, thus adding greater interest and value.
As a rule a drawing to be so tinted is completed
in the usual manner in pencil and then very trans-
parent washes of the desired hues are flowed over
the various parts. When using this method there
are several points worth remembering, and one is
that the color should be applied in very light tints
rather than in' more nearly its full intensity, for the
result should count pri'ilarily as pencil work, with
the tints of secondary importance, and much of
the charm is lost if the colors do become so conspic-
uous as to compete with the pencilling for su-
premacy. If such prominent color is desired it is

DECORATIVE TREATMENT

167

OH-HOWI

WATTJ

PENCIL SKETCH BY OTTO F. LANGMANN, OLD HOUSES, WATTS STREET, NEW YORK CITY

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DECORATIVE TREATMENT

169

better to make the usual sort of water color draw-
ing and be done with it, so subordinating the pen-
cilling that it becomes in itself almost negligible, serv-
ing simply as a guide for the color work. Another
point is that when tints are to be used, whether of
monochrome or varied colors, it is well to first flow
one or two washes of clear water over the entire
paper, for this will remove the shine of the pencil
to a large extent, thus insuring greater harmony
between the pencil strokes and brush work, and
will at the same time act as a cleansing agent re-
moving superfluous pencil dust and preparing the
paper surface for the subsequent tints. Again, as
some tints are quite transparent and others rather
opaque, a c;ireful choice should be made, the trans-
parent ones being generally considered best for this
sort of work. As the chief objection made to
tinted pencil drawings is that the shiny lines and
dull washes have dissimilar characteristics, it is
better, when it is known in advance that washes
are to be applied, to select one of the special pencils
that gives a dull instead of a glossy line, thus avoid-
ing any unpleasantness from this source. As some
pencils such as the lithographic ones offer little re-
sistance to water, however, they are hardly suitable
for such work, so if a new kind of pencil is used,
tests should be made beforehand to make sure the
line will stand washing.

This brings us to another method of combining
pencil and color, one which is perhaps less com-
monly used but which offers at the same time op-
portunity for excellent results, especially in the
making of quick sketches. In this method the ob-
ject pictured is outlined in pencil in the usual way
and washes of water color are added, much as
would be done in making the regular sort of water-
color sketch. When the general tones have been
thus obtained, a pencil which will give a dull line
is selected and used for adding accents and finish-
ing touches : — usually this is black but sometimes
one or more colored pencils prove more effective.
These need not, of course, be proof against wa*er
as they are not employed until the surface is dry.
The two delightful sketches of interiors by Mr.
Otto R. Eggers, on pages 142 and 143. Chapter
IX, Part II, were touched up with litho-
graphic pencil after the washes were applied, thus
illustrating the method just described. A similar
method offers a means of improving such portions
of water-color renderings .as become muddy, losing
their crispness and directness, for under such con-
ditions a few touches or accents of colored pencil
or crayon or pastel often do much towards over-
coming the difficulties and securing the desired
effect. There are, in fact, numerous ways of com-
bining water color and colored pencils pleasingly,
washes being sometimes applied over the pencil
work, in contrast to the method just mentioned.
Occasionally ink lines are added to these others, in
fact very effective results can be obtained on tinted
paper by sketching in the forms with brown ink,
next adding a few washes of color, finally touch-
ing up the whole with crisp strokes of black or
colored pencils.

Colored pencils alone produce pleasing results

also, especially if used on tinted paper or board,
and a very satisfactory combination is gray or buff
board, brown ink, one or two colored pencils and
a white pencil or Chinese white.

So numerous are the possibilities of thus employ-
ing several mediums in one sketch that we cannot
hope to describe them all here, — in fact, words fail
to convey an adequate impression of such subtle-
ties of tone and color, so we must leave the stu-
dent to perform his own experiments and arrive at
his own results. Before closing, though, just an-
other word regarding papers and some of the me-
diums best suited to special surfaces.

The kid-finish bristol board such as we have pre-
viously recommended for pencil work takes light
tints nicely and does not warp badly if the entire
surface of the sheet is first wet with water. If it
should buckle out of shape in spite of this precau-
tion it may be thoroughly dampened after the ren-
dering is entirely completed, and put to press for a
few hours between two drawing boards held to-
gether with weights. Thin drawing papers are best
if mounted before the washes are applied. Then
even if they do wrinkle somewhat as they are damp-
ened, they will dry back into shape. Some grades
of tracing paper are excellent for wash work if
floated or stretched beforehand, or if used without
stretching they permit of interesting results of an-
other kind, for if quite thin, colored pencils may be
effectively used on the back of the paper, just as is
frequently done in preparing house plans, thus per-
mitting the color to show through, or delicate tones
of pastel may be rubbed on the front, accented with
as many pencil lines as seem necessary. Another
useful fact is that regardless of how white in ap-
pearance tracing paper may seem to be, Chinese
white will always stand out against it distinctly,
hence it is useful for highlights. One of the most
effective kinds of quick sketches is made by first
outlining the masses with brown ink on tracing
paper, next pencilling the darker tones in black or
such a_ color as conditions seem to demand, finally
adding Chinese white on the lighter portions.
Brown ink is recommended for such purposes rather
than black as the lines seem less hard and mech-
anical and harmonize because of their color with the
other mediums, and at the same time better rep-
resent the hues of such materials as brick, tile, tim-
ber work, etc., which are often of a color similar to
that of the ink itself.

The illustrations accompanying this chapter show
some of the combinations here described but it
should be understood that in the processes of re-
production the effect of the originals is somewhat
changed, this being especially true of the tints of
the papers on which the drawings are made. The
three sketches on Figure 49 were all done by the
same method on a charcoal paper of a greenish
gray hue. This paper was allowed to represent the
middle values while the dark tones were made with
a black pencil which was purchased as one of a set
of colored pencils. The white was done for the
most part with pencil, too, being added gradually
as the work progressed, but as it proved difficult to
keep the point sufficiently sharp for the finer de-

170

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

tail some finishing touches of Chinese white were
done with a brush, especially in the drawing of the
church. The size of the original sheet is 924 '"

Figure 50, below, was drawn on a light gray mat
board, being first laid out instrumentally from the
plan at a scale of Ty to the foot, then rubbed down
with an eraser and rendered with a black pencil
giving a dull line. Two washes of water were next
applied, brushed well into the pencilled portions
each time, as the lines had a tendency to resist or
shed the water. Then washes of ivory black were
added to the roof, shutters, foliage, etc., and to the
shadow tones, after which Chinese white was ap-
plied sparingly fur the high lights. The white
should always be the last thing used in such a case,
as it is almost impossible to pass any washes over
it without causing messy results. This whole
sketch was very quickly done as it measures only
7y2"xlOy2". The charming sketch by Mr. Otto F.
Langmann on page 167. presenting a bit of old
New York, was drawn in lithographic pencil on a
thin, ivory-tinted Japanese paper of fibrous texture.
The drawing by Harry Faulkner on page 168 is re-
produced from one of his pencil studies for a series
of mural paintings forming a continuous landscape
around the dining room of the city residence of
Mr. Richard 1 fenry Dana, Jr.

The list below is given to show at a glance some
of the uses of pencil and some of the most effec-
tive combinations of various mediums as used in
conjunction with it, and though it is by no means
complete it may suggest to the student some ideas
for his own experiments.

1. Black pencils or crayons of various sorts on

white papers.

2. Black pencils or crayons with washes of gray

added.

3. Black pencils or crayons with washes of color

added.

4. Black pencils or crayons on tinted papers.

5. Black pencils or crayons on tinted pnpers with

highlights added.

6. Black pencils or crayons on tinted papers with

washes of gray, with or without highlights.

7. Same as "6" but with washes of color.

8. Colored pencils or crayons on white or tinted

paper.

9. Same as "8" combined with wash or color.

10. Combinations of black, white and colored pen-

cils or crayons on white or tinted paper.

11. Same as "10" with wash or color added.

12. Combinations of pencils with ink or wi*h ink

and wash or color on white or tinted paper.

Figure 50. A Sketch on Colored Paper, Done in Pencil and Wash, with Chinese White Sparingly Used.

Chapter XIII.
LARGE BUILDINGS

IN THE preceding chapters the greater part of
our space has been devoted to describing methods
of sketching or rendering the small type of build-
ing such as the average student or draftsman usually
desires to draw, so although much that has been
contained in them relates also to such larger subjects
as office buildings, hotels, theatres, churches and the
like, it seems wise to offer some suggestions which
apply especially to their handling, supplementing
these with a few additional facts not yet discussed
in this volume applicable to the treatment of both
small and large structures.

When a proposed building of such magnitude
as a hotel or court house or railway station is to
be represented in perspective there are many
architects and clients who prefer to see it done
in water color or wash, or, if the drawing is to
be reproduced, pen-and-ink is popular because
of the ease of getting a good reproduction at
comparatively low cost. Pencil, then, is perhaps
less in demand as a medium for large subjects
than it is for smaller ones, but there is, neverthe-
less, enough call for it to make its study essen-
tial. It should be borne in mind also that the
pencil plays a most important part in laying
out subjects to be rendered in water color, pen
and ink and other mediums, — in fact it is diffi-
cult indeed to make an excellent color rendering
unless the instrumental pencilling has been very
carefully prepared, and it is quite an art to do
this well, for certain profiles, lines of division
between light and shade, etc.. are often best if
accented or strengthened, while subordination is
necessary in some other parts. When such a
layout is complete and before the color is ap-
plied, free-hand pencil lines are often added to
indicate the brick courses, etc., a texture being
thus obtained which could not be gained with
the brush alone. Even for a pen drawing where
the pencil layout simply serves as a guide for the
ink lines it must be prepared with care, though
no great attention need be given to the neatness
of the draftsmanship as the lines will be erased
or obliterated as the pen work progresses.

It is not this pencil preparation for rendering
in other mediums which especially interests us
at this time, however, but rather the free hand
completion of a pencil rendering after the in-
strumental layout has been made. lust a word
first, though, regarding this layout. To begin with,
it is of course necessary to select such a paper
or board as is known to be satisfactory for the
free-hand pencil work, — then in drawing the in-
strumental lines it is best to use a hard enough
pencil to permit later cleaning of the paper with

a soft eraser without entirely effacing them, a
2H or 3H answering very well for such a pur-
pose, the choice depending, of course, on the
nature of the paper, too hard a pencil or too
much pressure forming such deep grooves as to
mar the perfection of the finished work or es-
pecially those parts of it which are to remain
the tone of the paper itself, whereas too soft a
pencil will leave hardly enough of a guide to
be easily followed after the paper is cleaned.
This layout, although it must be accurate, need
not be quite so carefully drawn or at least so
fully completed as would be necessary for wash
or color work, unless, as is sometimes the case,
part of the lines are to be left in the finished
rendering, — then, of course, extreme care is es-
sential.

Once the layout has been completed it is ad-
visable for the student to make, just as for small-
er work, a preliminary study or two, as a means
of deciding the values and working out a pleas-
ing composition of the surroundings, — in fact be-
cause of the amount of time and labor involved
in making a large rendering such preliminaries
are even more essential than for smaller prob-
lems, and an hour or two spent making them
will usually result not only in the saving of
several hours in the end but at the same time
in better work. (It seems hard, however, to
impress this fact on students, who therefore
waste much time trying to render without any
definite plan in mind). Such studies are usually
made on tracing paper directly over the layout
and the best selected and saved as a guide for
completing the drawing. On work of such mag-
nitude a diminishing glass is often of help in
making both the layout and the final as it is
possible by its use to reduce the whole to a size
easily seen without shifting the eye. Setting the
drawing away at a distance of several feet will
accomplish the same result.

If the preliminary sketch is well done it will
be possible for the student in starting the finish-
ed rendering to begin at the top of the sheet and
work down, completing the drawing as he goes,
with the exception of a few final touches which
will probably be necessary at the last moment.
In order to do this successfully, however, the
preliminary must be carefully worked out, special
care being taken to see that there is a center of
interest for the entire composition and that unity
and balance are obtained, for it is generally true
that the larger and more complicated the sub-
ject the more likely the student is to be led into
overaccenting relatively unimportant parts. As

171

172

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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LARGE BUILDINGS

173

soon as this sketch is completed and "fixed" for
preservation the rendering of the final is started,
pencils of several grades being prepared before-
hand as described in a previous article. Begin-
ning at the top, then, and working as a rule from
left to right, a strip an inch or two in height can
be completed at one time, — for instance if a
balustrade forms the crowning feature of a build-
ing this and the cornice beneath might be finish-
ed first, — next the upper story, — then the story
below and so on down until the street is reached,
adding the surroundings as the rest progresses
or completing them after the building itself is
finished. Finally it may be necessary to go back
to touch up here and there, as has just been
mentioned above, adding a bit of tone in one
place, lifting a little in another, until the results
are satisfactory. Some teachers and artists
would doubtless criticise this method as not
being conducive to the best results but it at
least offers the great advantage of reducing the
difficulty of keeping the drawing crisp and clean,
which means much to the architect, who takes
little pleasure in smeared or soiled drawings.
Perhaps a more logical method, however, would
be to render at the center of interest first as has
been mentioned in a former discussion of smal-
ler problems, gradually carrying the work to-
wards the edges, thus building up the entire
drawing as a unit, going back over the different
parts as often as may prove necessary, to change
them or correct them. Whatever method is fol-
lowed, however, perseverance is the one thing
most needed. There seem to be many drafts-
men willing to attempt to render comparatively
small subjects and who succeed with them nice-
ly yet who shun such buildings as we are con-
sidering here, though -mere size seldom brings
difficulties greater than are found in work of less
magnitude, and so should not cause one to refrain
from attempting to represent them. — in fact
small residences with their irregular plans, slop-
ing roofs, numerous chimneys and the like, to
say nothing of their variety of building materi-
als, are often far more difficult in proportion
to their size than are the bigger structures.
Again, the smaller the building as a general rule
the larger the scale at which it is drawn, simple
residences being sometimes done, for instance,
at a scale of Y%" or J^" to the foot and seldom at
less than J4", whereas larger buildings are more
often %" or &", thus reducing such details as
windows to a size too small to require much labor.
Of course the greater mass of a big building does
make necessary the expenditure of more time
and patience than are usually demanded by one
which is small, because of the mere effort need-
ed to cover the extensive area of paper, and
some such complicated subjects as Gothic ca-
thedrals doubtless call for more skill as well. It
is usually lack of persistency rather than lack
of skill, however, that causes the failures among
attempted renderings of large subjects, though
it is nevertheless true, paradoxical though it may
seem, that those renderings which are completed
by students or draftsmen attempting large sub-

Skctch by Hugh Fcrriss. Madison Square Garden,

New York. McKiin, Mead &• White,

Architects.

jects for the first time, often show as their great-
est fault overstudy rather than lack of study
and too much detail rather than too little. Too
often every window is indicated with painful
precision, while not a brick or stone course is
slighted or omitted. Though such conscientious-
ness about the detail is frequently found, too
little attention is given as a rule to the study of
the effect as a whole, — it is for this reason that
we are laying such stress on the importance of
the preliminary study.

The amount of time spent on a drawing
should depend largely on its purpose, a few
hours answering for some problems while sever-
al days or even a week may be required for
others. It should be remembered that most ren-
derings are drawn for a practical reason, — to
show the architect or client how a building will
look when completed. The drawing has, there-
fore, a limited and a somewhat temporary value.
Naturally, then, the person paying for it can
seldom afford a larger amount than the drawing
is expected to be worth to him, and this will de-
pend on its purpose. As we have previously ex-
plained, some renderings are simply studies to

174

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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LARGE BUILDINGS

175

* / •*/$&

Figure 52. A Quick Sketch Done in Lithographic Pencil on Tracing Paper as a Preliminary Study.

176

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

help the architect to visualize his design, — more,
perhaps, are to make its appearance clear to the
client. Others are submitted to banks as an
aid in obtaining loans for building purposes,
while some, again, are drawn for publicity or
advertising uses, perhaps reproduced in circulars
or magazines, the original being exhibited, pos-
sibly, in a show window or other conspicuous
place. It is evident, then, that the delineator
must, as in smaller work, prepare the kind of
drawing demanded by his particular problem, —
if a rough, quick sketch will answer as well as
any other that is the kind to make by all means.
It is necessary, therefore, to ascertain all the re-
quirements right at the start. The architect him-
self is often at fault in not giving the delineator
sufficiently plain directions, forgetting that a
project which is clear in his own mind is not
equally so in the minds of others. Or he will
ask, perhaps, for a rough, sketchy drawing, "just
a few hours work," and then on seeing it either
completed or partially drawn will object emphat-
ically and vociferously to the inaccuracies of incom-
pleteness of this or that small detail. The architect
should endeavor to make plain beforehand just
what is needed, and the artist should try equally
hard in turn to successfully fill the requirements,

Rendering by Hugh Ferriss. Bush House, London,
England. Helmle & Corbett, Architects.

remembering that the architect is the one who is
paying for the job. In order to do this it may
be necessary for him to be familiar with several
kinds of technique, for sometimes very bold
drawings will be demanded, strong in contrasts
and vigorous in treatment, while again prefer-
ence will be shown for a more delicate type with
the detail more accurately handled. Drawings
of the bold type are often on rather rough paper
while the others are more frequently done on a
smoother surface. There are architects, however,
who while they wish the general effect of a ren-
dering to be rather bold, at the same time desire
greater accuracy, even in the smaller parts, than
can be obtained easily on a rough textured paper.
This demand has caused the introduction of a
rather interesting trick, the building itself being laid
out first of all in the usual way instrumental!/ on
a good quality tracing paper and rendered quite
carefully and completely with the desired attention
given to the smaller details, nothing being done to
the surroundings, however, at this stage. Before
they are rendered the tracing paper is loosened from
the board and a rather rough sheet of cardboard or
paper or even of cloth is put beneath the drawing and
the rendering of the entourage then done, the pencil
lines on the tracing paper taking an impression of
the rough surface below. Then the building itself
can be touched up a bit, enough to bring it into
harmony with the surroundings, and the tracing
mounted on a stiff board, which, if rather rough,
will add to the effect desired. This same idea can
of course be utilized in the making of drawings of
less pretentious subjects, as can another trick which
it may be worth while to mention, though it is more
frequently used in connection with color work.
This trick is borrowed from the printers and con-
sists in running finished renderings, usually done
on a fairly smooth paper, through heavy machines
containing rollers which are designed to press pat-
terns onto the paper, such surfaces as eggshell, linen,
crash, canvas, moire, etc., being obtainable. These
surfaces may seem a bit artificial but the idea is
handed on for what it is worth. Perhaps it is well
as a word of caution to mention that this process
often makes the paper slightly smaller, destroying
the accuracy of the dimensions.

Then there is one more addition to our list of
tricks, this idea having been stumbled upon quite
by chance by the author, though the same thing has
perhaps been done many times by others. As the
muntins and meeting rails of windows, as well as .
other similar architectural members, are usually
left white on small scale pencil drawings, consider-
able labor is sometimes involved in so darkening
the glass or adjacent members as to leave them
sharp and clean cut. It has been found that if a
pencil drawing is being done on a fairly thick board,
such as the illustration boards in common use, it
is possible to rule these small members with a clean
ruling pen or dull knife point or anything of that
nature, pressing a groove into the surface for each
white line desired, using care of course that the
instrument employed is perfectly clean and that the
lines start and stop at just the right points. Then

LARGE BUILDINGS

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PENCIL RENDERING BY CHESTER B. PRICE. S. W. STRAUS & CO. BUILDING, NEW YORK CITY
WARREN & WETMORE. ARCHITECTS

178

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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LARGE BUILDINGS

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with a little practice one can learn to pass two or
three strokes of the pencil over each window,
grooves and all, toning the various parts to the de-
sired values, using a similar process wherever the
grooves are employed. If the pressure is not too
great and the point is rather blunt the pencil will
pass over the grooves without darkening them,
leaving them instead to appear as white lines. Af-
ter a day or two or as soon as the paper has become
damp (it may be lightly washed or sprayed with
water if desired) the grooves themselves practically
disappear, simply leaving the white lines. Possibly
the greatest objection to this way of working is
that the lines so formed sometimes seem a bit too
perfect in relation to those drawn more freely with
the pencil, yet on drawings at small scale enough
time can frequently be saved by this method to make
a knowledge of it worth having.

So much in regard to the architectural handling
of large buildings. For additional suggestions see
the previous chapters of this book, nearly all of
which offer something related to our present sub-
ject, and study the numerous examples of rendering
that have appeared from place to place in the text.

We should not close our discussion of the
rendering of large buildings without some refer-
ence to the very sketchy and often rather impres-
sionistic type of drawing in which the architec-
ture is treated from the point of view of the art-
ist rather than of the architect, and which, there-
fore, gives special attention to the effect of the
whole and not to the almost photographic repre-
sentation of the architectural detail common to the
work of the architect and the professional delin-
eator. In drawings of this type, for instance, the
whole is treated very broadly, some of the windows
being merely suggested, perhaps, or omitted entirely,
while practically all of the tiny members such as
dentils are left out. Such drawings !are usually
more interesting than the architectural type, partly
because more is left to the imagination and partly
because of the absence of mechanical perfection of
line. (In fact many are made entirely freehand from
start to finish). Again, the accessories may be
treated with greater freedom as no reason exists
for suppressing them, — so all-in-all, when the art-
ist draws architecture the results are better from a
purely aesthetic standpoint than those obtained by
the average architect or architectural delineator,
who is of necessity usually forced to show so much
detail (in order to make the design clear to the
client) as to prevent the most artistic result.

Then there is another form of work in which
large buildings are shown but where they become
subordinate to something else. As examples of
this we have advertisements of automobiles and
clothing and the like, where the buildings are sim-
ply a setting or background. Here of course the
greatest freedom in their treatment is permissible,
the slightest suggestion of the architecture often
sufficing.

So much variety is found in all this sort of work
that we can hardly do more than mention it here,
and bring emphasis to the fact that the outstanding

difference between this and the architectural type
is, as we have mentioned, the greater freedom used
in the former in relation to the latter. This free-
dom is not confined to the technique but is found
in the composition also, and in the general treat-
ment, moonlight or evening scenes, sunsets, rainy
day effects and the like being popular. Even though
these are not common in architectural work, it
would be well for the student of architectural ren-
dering to study all this sort of thing, as much can
be learned from it which is adaptable with modifi-
cations to his own problems.

Whether the student desires to better his ability
to do architectural renderings or whether it is this
other work which interests him most, there is no
better training in either case than to sketch directly
from buildings. It is by making many such sketches
as that by Otto F. Langmann on page 181 from the
big buildings themselves that one can get a strong
grasp on how to handle them.

Now of these various types of drawings our
illustrations have been selected from those of an
architectural nature. Figure 52, page 175, is the
reproduction of a very quick sketch of a pro-
posed building done on tracing paper with a
lithographic pencil. Unfortunately this reproduc-
tion is reduced from so large a drawing that the
values show stronger contrasts in many ways than
on the original, making the whole lighting seem
somewhat unnatural and artificial. It will serve to
show, however, that such a drawing, even though
hastily done without preliminary study, conveys
the general impression of the proposed structure.

Figure 53, page 178, was done at much smaller
scale (ys-inch to the foot) with ordinary graphite
pencils. Both of these illustrations show compara-
tively simple buildings, simple indeed so far as
general mass is concerned, and in presenting them
we wish to point out a truth not commonly recog-
nized by the beginner who attempts this sort of
work, and this is that it is more difficult to get an
interesting representation of simple masses of this
type than of buildings having towers or domes or
pediments or, in fact, any irregular shaped features.
Even the outline drawing of a domed structure is
full of interest before the rendering is started,
whereas the block forms or skeletons of such build-
ings as we are picturing here seem very common-
place, which means that greater care must be given
to the rendering. Choose, then, for your early prac-
tice, structures with domes or towers which will
form interesting silhouettes and you will find it less
difficult to obtain good results, saving the more
simple forms for later practice. This seems strange,
perhaps, but it is true.

Figure 51, page 172, was also made at the scale
of y&" to the foot, on kid-finished bristol board, and
in this case the main lines were drawn instrumentally
and left to show in the final result, the free-hand
work being added to them. This building, like the
others, is very simple in general mass, but because of
the trees it was possible to avoid the rather hard and
uninteresting outline against the sky which we find
in Figure 53.

180

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

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LARGE BUILDINGS

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PENCIL SKETCH BY OTTO F. LANGMANN. A BIT OF LOWER NEW YORK FROM WEST STREET

182

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

The admirable rendering by Hugh Ferriss of Bush
House, London, England, on page 174, was done
after the designs for the building had reached a defi-
nite stage and as the surroundings were well known
it was possible to produce a drawing which conveys
a very convincing and realistic impression ; one
which while showing considerable detail is not with-
out atmospheric effect. A carbon pencil was used
for this rendering which was made on a fairly
smooth, heavy drawing board. Attention is directed
also to the smaller reproductions of masterly render-
ings by Mr. Ferriss on pages 173 and 176.

On page 177 is an exceptional example of fine
line treatment of a large building, by Chester B.
Price, the subject being the new structure for S. W.
Straus & Co., Fifth Avenue, New York City. Al-
though a close inspection of this reproduction re-
veals that every essential detail of the architecture
has been shown, the drawing has, nevertheless, a
remarkable breadth of effect and a most commend-
able simplicity. Two other drawings of large build-
ings done by Mr. Price have been reproduced on
page 183, opposite, and these, too, are worthy of the
most careful study on the part of the student.

The sketch by Robert A. Lockwood on page 180
is a very virile interpretation of a building in course
of construction. Subjects of this sort are excellent
for the student to attempt.

\Ye have already mentioned the delightful sketch

by Mr. Langmann on page 181. This is one of a
series which Mr. Langmann has made of interesting
groupings of New York buildings, old and new,
approaching his subjects in much the same way that
the travelling student of architecture sketches build-
ings and groupings abroad. The original from which
this particular reproduction was made is in litho-
graphic pencil on white paper.

Now study and analyze all these various examples
carefully and try to obtain others of your own.
Copy parts of them, if you wish, but in doing so
remember that the amount of reduction in size is
considerable, so allow for this while doing your copy-
ing. Next go ahead with larger subjects, but in this
work as in the sketching of smaller buildings it mighr
be well to make first a number of sketches from
photographs, and when larger subjects of an original
sort are undertaken do not forget what we have said
about the importance of the preliminary study. It
is often a good plan, if an architectural rendering
of a big building is being attempted for the first
time, to select photographs and reproductions of ren-
derings of similar buildings viewed from about the
same point, and to keep these around you for study
and comparison all the time that you are working
on your preliminary study and on the final render-
ing itself. And above all do not lose your confi-
dence and patience simply because the subject is
large.

LARGE BUILDINGS

183

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Chapter XIV.
CONCLUSION

IF ONE desires to learn to draw, let him draw and
draw and draw. The author wishes that this
message might remain fixed in the mind of every
reader of these chapters, for even those who have
had the patience to follow them through from the
very first to this the concluding one, will profit little
by them unless such ideas as have been acquired are
put to practice before they are forgotten, as it is
only by drawing over and over again until such
assimilation has taken place as will enable one to
make unconscious use of them, that they will prove
of more than partial and transitory value.

Yet it is not enough to draw, without plan or
reason, for one gets even through faithful practice
far less gain than should be rightfully his, unless
he follows a logical system, adopting some scheme
which seems best suited to his individual require-
ments. For what might be logical for one might
be illogical indeed for another. There are students,
for instance, so imbued with earnestness and en-
thusiasm, so passionately fond of drawing, that they
seize with avidity every hint or suggestion which
is offered as an aid to the development of their
talent, and who at the same time possess enough
common sense to realize their own shortcomings
and weaknesses and to direct their own energies to
the best advantage in their attempt to overcome
them, so planning their study and practice that they
move on step-by-step up a road of steady progress.
Such men are also occasionally so fortunate as to
have the somewhat rare ability of judging correctly
the merits of their own work, being able to view it
impartially from a wholly unbiased standpoint, act-
ing as their own critics with considerable success.

Needless to say men of this type are scarce,
however, the average student falling into one or an-
other of three classes, the first including such as
either underrate their own ability or are easily dis-
heartened, the second and largest class consisting of
those having a fair amount of ability and confi-
dence coupled with a willingness to work, and with
an excellent attitude towards the acceptance of in-
struction and criticism, the third being made up of
a few such vain and self-conceited individuals as
hold the egotistical opinion that their work is the
acme of perfection, ignoring with thinly masked
ridicule the suggestions of their instructors and
fellow students, seemingly ignorant or careless of
the fact that their attitude of antagonism is deter-
rent to their own progress.

Now the student of this first class needs a guid-
ing hand and word of encouragement, for once he
gains a reasonable amount of confidence in him-
self and his own ability his advancement is fre-
quently rapid. Such a student should by all means
join a class or work under a critic or patron, as

otherwise he may lack the necessary incentive to
inspire him to the achievement which is possible,
and neither should he be discouraged by adverse
criticism. Especially if one is self-conscious and
supersensitive he should strive to become so thor-
oughly immersed in his work as to grow forgetful
of self and unmindful of unfavorable comment or
the gibes of the thoughtless.

Students of the second class, which includes a
large percentage of all the men interested in such
drawing, should put themselves under instruction
also, either attending school (many night schools
offer courses for those to whom day attendance is
impossible) or, if no organized classes are avail-
able, gathering as a group to form a sketch club, meet-
ing once a week or so to compare work and receive
criticism from each other or, better yet, from some
capable critic engaged for the purpose. Or if it
seems impractical to join or form a club or class
it is all the more important to work under an able
teacher. As far as the architectural draftsman is
concerned this should be easy, especially in the larger
cities, as capable men may be found in nearly every
office, glad to give their services either gratuitously
or for reasonable compensation. The choice of a
teacher or critic should not be made hastily, how-
ever, for it is not enough that he be a skilled artist,
for many who draw exquisitely well cannot tell
how they do it or what is wrong with another's
work. Again some teachers are so dogmatic and
opinionated as to try to force their own ideas upon
all their students rather than to aid in developing
the individuality of each. So make your choice with
care, but once you go to a teacher, put yourself
under his direction unreservedly, and even though
you sometimes fail to agree with him or with his
corrections or criticisms, try to get his viewpoint, to
see from his eyes, as his vision may be broader
than your own. It is not always wise to remiin
under the instruction of one man for too long a
time, however, as there is sometimes a tendency to
mimic his style, but it is better, instead, to change
after a while, gaining new inspiration and help by
the fresh contact.

But we are digressing a bit from our considera-
tion of the three various classes of students so let
us return to discuss the third, the conceited lot.
Perhaps the less said about them the better, for such
men are well-nigh hopeless unless they can be made
to see the light, and this is not easy if they are con-
firmed egotists. But some men are egotists only
so far as their drawing ability is concerned, and
for these there is hope. This condition is some-
times brought about because friends or members
of a student's family or possibly teachers have in
their ignorance or in their desire to flatter, heaped

184

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PENCIL SKETCH BY OTTO F. LANGMANN. A BIT OF OLD NEW YORK

186

SKETCHING AND RENDERING IN PENCIL

unwarranted praise upon him, causing him to arrive
at false conclusions as to his ability and knowledge.
If such a man joins a class or sketch club, how-
ever, the truth will generally be forced upon him
sooner or later that his work, when compared with
that by others, lacks the perfection which he imag-
ined it to possess.

We should not go on without some mention of
the man who earnestly desires to draw but whose
efforts bring him little reward. Such a person
should try over and over again. Then if after
repeated attempts improvement seems as far away
as ever, failure may be quite properly attributed to
lack of natural ability, in which case it is doubtless
better to give up the hope of ever becoming more
than mediocre, seeking perhaps to win greater suc-
cess in some other direction, for even the man of
real ability has no easy task to gain recognition.
But do not let discouragement deter you from re-
peated trial, for many who show little promise in
their early work persevere until their results show
amazing improvement.

The reader can readily understand that in con-
sideration of these many types of men who are
studying these chapters, men at various stages of
progress and development, too, ranging all the way
from beginners with their first problems to men
professionally engaged in some form of art work, it
is impractical to lay down definite courses of study
here. Disappointment has perhaps been felt by
some that more actual problems have not been given,
but it has seemed best, under the conditions, to offer,
instead, general suggestions, hoping to make the stu-
dent see what things it is essential for him to know,
and to point out the way for acquiring such knowl-
edge.

And so in Part I we have discussed among other
things the preliminary preparations, the drawing of
objects in outline and light and shade, the principles
of free-hand perspective, methods of doing cast
drawing and life drawing, and the sketching of
animals; and we have tried to make the reader see
that whether he is interested in art or architecture
all such training is of benefit to him.

We have touched here in Part II on the prepara-
tion of drawing materials, the choice of subjects to
draw and how to begin. We have written on such
matters as individual style and method and on
different ways of obtaining results in outline and
light-and-shade and flat and graded tones, and have
devoted considerable space to the important subject
of composition with attention to unity and balance.
We have discussed working from the object, from
the photograph and from nature, and have covered
in special chapters the representation of buildings
both small and large, including exteriors, interiors
and street scenes, while the treatment of their details
and accessories has been broad, too, offering sugges-
tions for the handling of furniture and draperies,
doors, windows, chimneys and all these smaller parts.
Neither have clouds and trees and water and the
like been neglected, nor have people and animals as

used in connection with building representation.
Then to round out the subject we have opened a
large field for exploration in the recent chapters on
decorative drawing and on uses of tinted papers,
colored pencils, pencils used in connection with
other media, etc., — a field in which the student may
wander far, constantly finding new pleasure and
delight.

So with all this as a background we must leave
the reader to map out for himself the course which
it seems best for him to pursue, and this, as we
have explained, depends wholly on his present stage
of progress and his individual requirements. Let
each man study himself and his needs. If he lacks
the ability to sketch objects^in correct proportion,
let him spend considerable time in drawing directly
from objects themselves, as described in Part I, thus
giving special attention to this common weakness.
In fact, too much emphasis cannot be given to the
importance of such work, especially for the archi-
tectural student who so often lays out his propor-
tions instrumentally and to scale, that to do so by
the eye in a free-hand manner proves especially dif-
ficult. Yet architectural students are sometimes in-
clined to scoff at object drawing, being of the erro-
neous opinion that cubes and cylinders and books and
dishes have little to do with architecture.

In fact, too often students fail to see that it is
fully as important to learn to do other kinds of free-
hand drawing as it is to do the kind directly applic-
able to their own work. It is especially valuable for
the architectural man who spends much of his time
at instrumental drawing to vary his sketching prac-
tice by frequently choosing such subjects as will get
him entirely away from the mechanical, — a dilapi-
dated barn or vine-covered ruin, for instance, or
anything of this sort which will serve as an aid to
"loosening up" from the "tight" type of drawing
which is of necessity a part of his day's work. He
should try such subjects as the bridge by Mr. Watson
on page 86, or the old houses by Mr. Langmann,
page 167, or even less ambitious things where the
subject is small and few straight lines are found.
In such work try to seek and record that which is
really vital in a free and easy way, with little atten-
tion to the technique itself.

But whether one draws from the geometric forms
or still life or cast or figure or some architectural
subject, truth is the thing to be sought, for a knowl-
edge of truth is the foundation for all the rest.

So in closing let us repeat, then, that each rrnn
should study his needs and straightway commence
to correct his faults and ^overcome his weaknesses,
seeking instruction, inviting criticism, comparing
results with drawings by others and so striving
constantly for greater perfection, remembering that
one never reaches the point where it is not possible
for him to advance still further, — and let it be
remembered, too, that even though one fails to
acquire exceptional skill, whatever of dexterity is
gained will always prove a source of pleasure and
satisfaction.

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