Full text of "A sketch of the natural history (vertebrates) of the British Islands. With a concise bibliography of popular works relating to the British fauna, and a list of field clubs and natural history societies in the United Kingdom"

See other formats

rd^d^d** ****** ti< * < < <<<.<J

r<:<:<//

4 < < < (

Library of:

Ernest E\Willianis

©^/^^e€^^^

-Z^^otAe-^f'c/of'e'.

^..^^yt^^e'i.n.tx^rt..

4 AFLALO, F. G. Natural History
;! (Vertebrates) of the British Islands. W.
%- frontisp. & numer. textfig. Edinburgh
' 1898. 12mo. Cloth. $1.00

en
O
<

X
H

H
O

A SKETCH OF

THE NATURAL HISTORY

{VERTEBRATES)

OP THE

BEITISH ISLAXDS

WITH A

CONCISE BIBLIOGEAPHT OF POPULAE WOEKS EEI.ATIXG TO

THE BEITISH PAOA

AND A LIST OP

PIELD CLIBS AND XATUEAL HISTOEY SOCIETIES
U THE UNITED KIXGDOX

F. G. AFLALO, FE.G.S., F.Z.S.

AUTHOR OF 'a SKETCH OF THK NATURAL HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA,' ETC

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS

EDINBURGH AND LONDON

MDGCCXCYIII

All Hights reserved

PREFACE.

It is a long hark from the wonders of that zoological
backwater, Australia, to those more homely curiosi-
ties which lie, as Childrey had it, "at your own
doors, easily examinable with little travel, less cost,
and very little hazard." With works on natural
history leaving the press almost every week, it may
be deemed worse than futile to add yet another.
The more than kindly reception, however, accorded
to a slight sketch of the natural history of the Aus-
tralian colonies, that I had the temerity to publish
last year, has encouraged me beyond the bounds
of mere discretion ; and I am so bold as to hope that
the same leniency may be extended to a second
offence in the shape of a similar attempt to give in
small space a plain sketch of the vertebrate fauna of
our own islands. That there is up to the present
no single volume on the subject may be seen

VI PREFACE.

from a perusal of the bibliography given hereafter.
Let me endeavour to express the unambitious aim
of this little book. It is offered as no more than
the merest outline, an introduction to the many
excellent handbooks to county fauna enumerated
in the bibliography, from which I may perhaps,
without incurring the charge of making invidious
distinctions, be allowed to indicate as admirable
models the series prepared by Messrs Harvie-Brown
and Buckley. What these and other county chron-
iclers have been able to give in detail, it has been
my duty only to outline. The physical peculiari-
ties of the various zoological divisions have, except
in the introduction, been dealt with but incidentally;
those of counties, which in no way conform to the
natural boundaries, have been all but ignored. The
great difficulty throughout, of course, has been
compression ; but it is hoped that, since it has been
found impossible to give the v:liolc truth, there has
at any rate been included nothing but the truth.
It will probably be noticed that slightly different
methods of description have been adopted in the
several cases of the mammals, birds, and fishes ; but
these have been thought to offer the most convenient
aid in each case to identification. In short, the
object of the following pages is to give some clue to
the appearance and life-history of the 700 odd verte-

PREFACE. Vll

brates which still, after generations of extermination,
protection, and acclimatisation, either reside in or
visit these islands. Their anatomy, their synony-
mies, and their range outside the British Islands, are
all to be found elsewhere. The bibliography and
list of field-clubs are added in the hope of assisting
all who may desire to supplement the information
here given by either reading or correspondence with
local experts. Neither is offered as in any way
complete ; indeed, unavoidable delays in printing,
of which this book is one of many victims, have
conspired to prevent my including at least one field-
club inaugurated since the list was closed, not to
mention a number of later works, such as R. and
C. Kearton's attractive book, 'With Xature and a
Camera,' and Dr Laver's ' Mammals, Reptiles, and
Fishes of Essex.' The Right Hon. Sir Herbert
Maxwell has most kindly read the proof-sheets, and
to both him and Mr J. E. Harting I am under obli-
gation for a number of suggestions made while the
book was passing through the press. To Dr Arthur
Stradling I am also indebted for much assistance
with the notes on reptiles, as well as for two very
effective photographs of British snakes.

F. G. A.

Bournemouth, December 1897.

CONTEXTS.

INTRODUCTORY ....

MAMMALS ....

LIST OF BRITISH MAMMALS
CHAP.

I. THE BATS

IL THE INSECTIVORA .

III. THE CARNIVORA

IV. THE RODENTS .
V. THE DEER

VI. THE WHALES AND POUrOISES

BIRDS

LIST OF BRITISH BIRDS

I. THE PERCHING BIRDS .
II. THE SWIFTS, WOODPECKERS, ETC.

III. THE OWLS

IV. THE BIRDS OF PREY
V. THE CORMORANT, SHAG, AND GANNET

VI. THE HERONS, BITTERNS, AND STORKS
VII. THE FLAMINGO ....
Vni. THE GEESE, SWANS, AND DUCKS
IX. THE DOVES .....

PAGE
1

31
37
46
66
83
86

95
112
132
189
205
209
219
223
230
230
244

CONTENTS.

X. PALLAS S SAND-GKOUSE ....

XI. THE GAME-BIRDS .....

XII. THE RAILS AND CRAKES

XIII. THE CRANES AND BUSTARDS .

XIV. THE ^VADERS .....
XV. THE TERNS, GULLS, AND SKUAS

XVI. THE ALBATROSS, PETRELS, AND SHEARWATERS
XVII. THE GUILLEMOTS, DIVERS, AND GREBES .

REPTILES

LIST OF BRITISH REPTILES ....

I. THE LIZARDS ......

II. THE SNAKES ......

AMPHIBIANS

LIST OF BRITISH AMPHIBIANS (aND BATRACHIANS)
I. THE FROGS AND TOADS ....
IL THE NEWTS . . . .

FISHES ........

LIST OF BRITISH FISHES .....
I. THE PERCHES AND SEA-BREAMS .
II. THE BULLHEADS AND GURNARDS .
in. THE ANGLER-FISH ....

IV. THE WEEVERS .....
V. THE MACKEREL FAMILY
VI. THE CORYPHENES AND THEIR ALLIES
VII. THE HORSE-MACKERELS AND THEIR ALLIES
VIII. THE GARFISH AND FLYING-FISH .
IX. THE GOBIES AND SUCKERS .
X. THE BLENNIES AND BAND-FISHES .

XI. THE ATHERINES AND GREY MULLETS

XII. THE STICKLEBACKS ....

XIII. THE WRASSES .....

246

247
256

260
260
276

285
288

297
301
302
304

309
312
313
315

317
326
340
347
352
353
354
358
359
364
365
369
372
374
375

CONTENTS.

XIV. THE COD FAMILY

XV. THE SAND-EELS AND ALLIED FORMS

XVI. THE FLAT-FISH .

XVII. THE EELS .

XVIII. THE HERRING FAMILY .

XIX. THE CARP FAMILY

XX. THE SALMON FAMILY ,

XXI. THE PIKE .

XXII. THE PIPE-FISHES .

XXin. THE FILE-FISHES .

XXIV. THE ARCTIC CHIM^Rxl .

XXV. THE STURGEON .

XXVI. THE SHARKS AND RAYS

THE LOWEST VERTEBRATES

APPENDIX I. MATERIALS FOR A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS ON
THE BRITISH VERTEBRATE FAUNA

ti II. A LIST OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES AND

F-IELD-CLUBS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, WITH
THEIR SECRETARIES . . . . .

377

386
394
396
400
408
414
415
417
418
418
419

435
441

460

INDEX .

469

ILLUSTRATIONS.

FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS.

OTTERS OX THE BROADS

RED GROUSE

ADDER

SALMON swunnxG

Frontiapiece

To face p. 97

299

319

ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.

MAMMALS.

HEDGEHOG

MOLE

COMMON SHREW

FOX

MARTEN

STOAT

BADGER

SEAL

SQUIRREL

DORMOUSE

MOUNTAIN HARE

RED-DEER

PAGE

37
40
44
48
52
54

-^ *-

G7
70
79
83

BIRDS.

PAGE

MISTLE-THRUSH

133

NIGHTINGALE .

141

DIPPER

149

BEARDED REEDLING .

150

NUTHATCH

154

TREE-CREEPER .

156

WHITE WAGTAIL

158

GOLDEN ORIOLE

162

RED-BACKED SHRIKE .

163

CHAFl-'INCH

173

CROSSBILL

176

MAGPIE .

. 184

XIV

ILLUSTRATIONS.

JAY

186

REPTILES

SWIFT ....

190

RINGED SNAKE . . . 307

NIGHTJAR

192

FISHES.

GREEN WOODPECKER .

196

PERCH

. 340

KINGFISHER

198

BASS

. 341

CUCKOO ....

202

RED MULLET

. 344

LONG-EARED OWr.

207

MACKEREL

354

GOLDEN EAGLE .

212

JOHN DORY

362

PEREGRINE

215

GARFISH .

364

OSPREY ....

218

GREY MULLET

. 373

CORMORANT

220

COD .

377

GANNET ....

222

POLLACK

. 380

HERON ....

224

TURBOT

388

BITTERN ....

227

PLAICE

390

MALLARD ....

236

CARP

401

RED-BREASTED MERGANSER

243

BARBEL

402

CAPERCAILZIE .

251

ROACH

403

BLACK GROUSE .

253

CHUB

404

COOT ....

259

TENCH

406

LAPWING ....

264

TROUT

411

WOODCOCK

267

PIKE

415

KITTIWAKE

283

BLUE SHARK

421

GUILLEMOT

290

SPUR-DOG

427

GREAT CRESTED GREBE

293

THORNBAC

430

JfAP OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS

at page 1

A SKETCH OF THE NATUEAL HISTORY
OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS.

INTPtODrCTOPvY.

It was a fancy of Eichard Jefferies,^ and one which, with-
out being pushed beyond certain limits, had in it many ele-
ments of truth, that the British Islands afforded the student
of animal distribution an epitome of the greater world with-
out. Quite apart from the poverty of our fauna in the
mere number of species, it is significant that of the eleven
recognised orders of quadrupeds, five only are wanting ; of
the twenty-three living orders of birds, our list includes,
if we count the stragglers, examples of no fewer than
seventeen ; of the fishes, of which science recognises five
existing orders, our seas, streams, and lakes provide in
greater or less abundance typical representatives of three.
There is. however, with the exception of the restricted
distribution of one bird (the red grouse) and about half-
a-dozen non-migratory varieties of the trout and char,
nothing actually peculiar about the vertebrate fauna of
this archipelago anchored off the north-west coast of the
European continent, a group consisting of two principal
islands and several thousand islets, some of them mere
rocks. Thus, in the Scilly Islands alone there must be

1 Life of the Fields.
A

2 INTEODUCTORY.

nearly one hundred and fifty such rocks, and in the
Orkneys there are sixty-seven.

The area of the islands under consideration is, for all
practical purposes, about 120,000 square miles, of which
England and Wales, with their islands, are
reaanc roughly the one half, or rather less, while
Scotland and Ireland, with their islands, are
roughly the other half, or rather more. The coast-line is
proportionately enormous — probably, if we take into con-
sideration all the deep inlets on the west coasts of both
Great Britain and Ireland, not far short of 10,000 miles.
This will be better appreciated when we recollect that of
Ireland it has been said that no inland town is more than
fifty miles from salt water, or when we compare our coast-
line with the 8000 miles of coast-line in Australia to
3,000,000 square miles of area. Of these 120,000 square
miles it should, however, be remembered that, at the lowest
possible computation, one-third at the least is composed of
mountain, bog, and moor — wild nature, in fact ; while of
the 50,000,000 acres that approximately remain, little more
than 35,000,000 are in all probability under cultivation,
three-quarters under grass, the rest under oats and other
crops. Market-gardening and the cultivation of orchards
usually occupy attention on the outskirts of our larger
towns. Space will not admit of dwelling at greater
length on these important considerations as factors in
the animal life of different parts of the country : it must
suffice to leave them with this bare enumeration.

A few words must now be said on the subject of our
climate. It is customary to sjjeak of this in terms of de-
rision, and without a doubt it is subject to ex-
traordinary and unlooked-for developments of
such a nature as to interfere seriously with private arrange-
ments for outdoor excursions. Climate is not, however,
measured by considerations of this kind. As a matter of
fact, these islands enjoy, thanks to the surrounding water,
the genial influence of the Gulf Stream, and the prevalence

INTRODUCTORY. 3

of south-west winds surcharged with moisture, a climate in
many respects unique, certainly more temperate by far than
that of any other, taking it all the year round. Of the
great changes that have of necessity passed over these
islands, then mainland, since the days when elephants
crashed through vast forests long since turned to coal,
while the hippopotamus basked in our streams, the huge
moose browsed on the forest-trees of Ireland, and graceful
palms and tree-ferns waved over the northern lochs, there
is here no need to speak. It is sufficient to note that Great
Britain is to-day the summer resort of tropical birds, the
winter-quarters of Polar waterfowl, all repairing hither,
year after year, those to reproduce their kind, these to
enjoy the food denied them in their natural home. So, too,
people who have resided in lands where the annual extremes
of mean temperature lie 150° apart, where even day and
night show a difference of 75°, learn with the birds to
appreciate the much-abused British climate. As might,
however, be expected, there are not inconsiderable varia-
tions within the limits of these islands, the damp south-
west of England, and, still more, the rainy west of Ireland,
contrasting unmistakably with the drier eastern counties,
which, hotter in summer and colder in winter, possess a
climate far more closely approaching that of the Continent.
In addition to the chief islands of the group — to wit.
Great Britain and Ireland — there are a dozen other groups
of special interest to the naturalist, the Orkneys, Shet-
lands, Inner and Outer Hebrides, St Kilda, the Bass Kock,
the Fame Islands, the Channel Islands, the Scillies, Eockyll,
Lundy Island, the Isle of Wight, the Duke of Buccleuch's
gull-preserve on Walney Island, and, lastly, the Isle of Man.
Heligoland now lies, politically if not zoologically, outside
the region ; but all who are interested in its capabilities as
an observatory for the study of bird-migration will find an
excellent account in the late Dr Gaetke's book,i a transla-
tion of which has appeared in the English language.
1 Heligoland as an Ornithological Observatory.

4 INTKODUCTORY.

As little more lias been attempted in the following pages
than to treat the British Islands as one zoological area, it
seems desirable to say a word in this place of the subdivi-
sions that might, in a more pretentious contribution to
the literature of their fauna, have been followed.

These are two, the zoological and the political. Of the

former, examples are found in the fens, moors, and forests ;

the latter are of course the counties, and may

reas, conn- -^^ easily dismissed, since they in no way corre-
spond with the zoological divisions. With the
great Australian colonies the case was, and is, different.
Their boundaries are, for the most part, natural, a lofty
range, a broad river, a deep strait ; and, as might be
expected, corresponding differences are to be observed in
their animal life, as, for instance, where the diamond- snake
of New South Wales is replaced in the other colonies by
that species, sub-species, or variety, the carpet-snake. In
England, however, we are confronted with few such natural
boundaries. The task of detailing the physical peculiarities
of each and every county — its soil, its hills and valleys, its
water-courses, moors, marshes, and forests — has devolved
upon the authors of those handbooks to county fauna, par-
ticulars of which will be found in the bibliography. It would,
no doubt, have been easy to gather from my own notes,
easier still to have compiled from the works in c^uestion,
supplemented by the Ordnance Survey maps, some account
of most shires in the kingdom. To take an example.
Sussex might have been contrasted with low, sandy, pine-
clad Hampshire on the one hand, and high, chalky, hop-
growing Kent on the other ; and some account must have
been taken of its three or four mentionable rivers, its
four harbours, the 500-feet fall of Beachy Head, the low-
lands near Pevensey and Pagham, the great oak-woods
scattered over the western half of the county, and the
beeches of Charlton and Goodwood. I have my own ideas,
however, of the function of the present sketch, an introduc-
tion or supplement, not a substitute, and I have therefore

INTRODUCTORY. 5

abstained from including such detail as is given else-
where at far greater length than I could spare in these
pages.

Coming for a moment to the zoological divisions, which

are of considerably greater interest and importance, the

task of establishino; fixed rules whereby field-

00 ogica naturalists learn to associate peculiar types of

tlivisions

animals with certain physical conditions opens
up a wealth of fascinating study, and still more fascinating,
because more daring, deduction. Let us take an example
in the birds and fishes found to frequent rocky or sandy
coasts. In either class we find well-marked distinctions.
Thus, the ornithologist knows that he will find on a bold
rocky coast, like, say, that of Cornwall, such fowl as
puffins, guillemots, cormorants, and gannets, birds that
find their food in deep water, the majority by diving ;
whereas on the low sandy shore of Essex, on the other
hand, he will look for long-legged wading dotterels and
sandpipers, all of which seek their molluscan and insect
food in the shallows. Nor is the contrast in the legs of
the birds in these two groups more striking than that
afforded by their bills, the waders being armed with long
slender bills that they can thrust into the mud, the divers
having short stout bills, usually hooked, to assist in the
capture of the slippery fish on which they feed. In like
manner, the student of fish knows well enough that along
with the puffins and their kind he will find conger, pollack,
and wrasse ; with the w^aders, flat fish and whiting.

These principles admit of almost infinite extension, and
if an occasional excejDtion to the rule should be sprung
upon the investigator — and it must be confessed that
Nature holds some strange surprises in store for those who
are so bold as to pry into her secrets — he will, after the
first shock has worn off", cheerfully accept it as the one
thing necessary to prove the rule he has laboured so hard
to establish.

Thus, he will look for certain types in each district, the

6 INTRODUCTORY.

ruff and reedling among the least drained parts of the fens
and the quieter retreats of the broads ; the grouse, short-
eared owl and harrier on the bleak moors;
ypica ^j^g mountain-hare and jjtarmigan among the
hills and stony plateaux of the Highlands of
Scotland ; and the woodcock, snipe, and quail on the edge
of the peat-bogs of Ireland. The student of birds will
recognise — nay, expect — that a certain influence should be
exerted on their course in migration by headlands that bid
the weary rest, and muddy estuaries that stay those that
hunger. Indeed, one estuary or one promontory is not to
him as another, and he wdll not deem as of slight moment
the difference between the chalk of Shakespeare Cliff or
Beachy Head and the shingle of Dungeness. He will
notice, too, that the mountains of Ireland fringe the coast,
leaving the interior, by comparison, lowland.

All these matters appeal so differently to the casual
reader and to him who takes an interest in them. How

Fauna of many would find food for reflection in the pecu-

Isle of liarities of the denizens of the Isle of Wight ?

Wight. Yet it is surely not quite devoid of interest
that in that little outpost of England, separated from
the New Forest^ and the most fishful rivers in the south
country by a mere ditch, the woods should afford shel-
ter to but few owls and woodpeckers, the streams hold
neither pike, nor perch, nor chub, nor gudgeon ; that the
ring- ousel should abstain from breeding there; that the
toad should be commoner than the frog, the viper in excess
of the more harmless snake.

To the few, however, the bare enumeration of such facts
as the imi30ssibility of inducing certain birds to take kindly
to island or even mainland districts, offering to all ajipear-
ance the identical conditions of their not far-distant home,

1 It must be admitted that, save for ]\Ir Witherby and others blest
with exceptional opportunities for exploring it, this most attractive of
our forests is not an ideal bird-resort. I recollect Mr Lascelles attrib-
uting this to lack of suitable food.

INTRODUCTORY. 7

the quest of the whys and the wherefores which Nature is
often so reluctant to answer, discloses a prospect of en-
grossing research. As a homely example of how little such
reasons are understood, a lady was deploring to me a short
while ago that the stiqnd nightingales, which were in such
abundance just then round Christchurch, not more than
Nightingale ^^^ miles distant, would not sing of an even-
in Hamp- ing within earshot of her house, a short way
sliire. Q^^ q£ Bournemouth. I endeavoured to ex-

plain that their preference for Christchurch, or, for that
matter, for Parkstone, equally close in the opposite direc-
tion, might lie in the presence of retreating waters and
muddy banks that possibly furnished them, in addition
to their staple caterpillars, with some kind of soft food,
whereas the Bournemouth valley, lying between, was, on
account of a deficiency in this respect, passed by. This
explanation contented the lady, who seemed quite recon-
ciled to the absence of nightingales as soon as she was
able to realise that it did not arise from mere lack of judg-
ment on their part.^ A book that should do no more than
collect a number of such cases in the apparently capricious
distribution of some of our resident and visiting birds
would, I am convinced, command a large audience.

Frankly, however, that is not among the objects of this
book, in which, as already set forth, the British Islands are
dealt with almost as one area. Adhere to this plan, how-
ever, as we will, it is impossible to ignore two interesting
pictures, a comparison and a contrast, that constantly recur
during our studies of British vertebrates, and these are the
strong resemblance between our fauna and that of neigh-
bouring Continental countries, and the still more remark-
able deficiencies in the Irish list.

The former points unquestionably to the union, at no

1 I think it right to mention that both Sir Herbert Maxwell and
Mr Harting take exception to my explanation of the distribution of
nightingales around Bournemouth, but I prefer letting the suggestion
stand, lor want of a better.

8 INTRODUCTOKY.

very remote zoological date, of these islands and the north-
west coast of Europe. The latter — examples of which

are found in the wild cat, polecat, weasel,^
fauna roebuck, mole, dormouse, harvest mouse, two

shrews, voles, and snakes — would appear to
indicate the earlier isolation of the western island. Or, as
A. R. Wallace puts it : " This may be accounted for by
the smaller and less varied surface of the latter island ;
and it may also be partly due to the great extent of low-
land, so that a very small depression would reduce it to
the condition of a cluster of small islands caj)able of
supporting a very limited amount of animal life."^

Of the above Irish absentees, the mole, which occurs in
abundance as far west in these islands as Holyhead, is in
one respect the most interesting, since there are, in spite
of its never having occurred in the island, several old
Celtic names for it. There are also Celtic names for the
roebuck [Earhog), but that animal, though not indigenous,
has been introduced on private estates. Mr Harting, of
whom I once asked an explanation of this, suggested that
my so-called Celtic names for the mole may possibly have
been introduced by immigrants from Scotland, who would
have known the creature in their own country. This
explanation, which is probably the correct one, brings me
to the consideration of the present confusion in the local
names of beasts and birds.

Together with the subordination of county distribution
above ailluded to, I have found it necessary to pay but

little attention to such provincial vernacular,
names ^^ regards the birds, at any rate, whole

volumes have been devoted to the subject.
Moreover, in these days of cheap and easy railway travel,
great inducements are offered to young keepers to better
their condition elsewhere, and these men carry into the
new home the names they have used from childhood, so

1 The weasel has been freely claimed as an Irish quadruped (see p. 55).

2 Geographical Distribution of Animals, i. 197.

INTRODUCTORY. 9

that we find nowadays that such creatures at any rate as
come within the ken of these gentry, " vermin " and the
like, are very often called by the same name in counties
far apart and with vastly difi'erent dialects. This, while
it tends in course of time to simplify matters and facilitate
intercourse, detracts vastly from the interest, philological
or otherwise, of these same local names.

I come for a moment to what is perhaps the most inter-
esting aspect of the contemplation of any country's fauna,

the comparison of its condition at the present
Extinct
mammals ^^^ ^^^^^ what it was five-and-twenty, fifty, or

five hundred years ago. In the case of most
British mammals, this comparison becomes doubly inter-
esting in view of the impossibility, on account of their
isolation, and leaving out of account private efi'orts towards
reintroduction, of the reappearance of any species that has
once become extinct. In Continental countries, whatever
the practical probabilities and improbabilities may be, this
impossibility has, theoretically at any rate, little force. To
us, however, the boar and bear, the wolf, beaver, and rein-
deer, can of their own accord never more return. To our
islands they are as dead as are the rhytina ^ and great auk
to all the world. Polar bears may occasionally be sighted,
from the bridge of some transatlantic steamer, drifting on
ice-floes far south of their natural range ; but it will require
a miracle indeed to restore these vanished Britons. Ac-
cording to Mr Harting,^ the last British bear died in the
ninth century ; the last boar in the seventeenth century ;
the last wolf in Ireland was killed as late as the middle of
the eighteenth century ; the last beaver and reindeer had
gone about the twelfth century. In like manner, the last
survivor of the old native stock of bustards M'as bagged in
1829, though this striking bird has visited these islands

1 For the causes of extinction of the rhytina, more commonly known
as Steller's sea-cow, see an interesting article in the ' American Natu-
ralist ' for December 1887.

- Extinct British Animals.

10 INTKODUCTORY.

on many occasions since, notably when its Continental
haunts were shaken by the cannon of 1870-71 ; and a hen
bustard met the usual fate, if I remember rightly, only
two or three years ago. So too, we are told, the old stock
of capercailzie died out in the middle of the eighteenth
century, to be reintroduced over fifty years later by Lord
Fyfe and Sir T. Fowell Buxton. These lost islanders, a
fuller list of which will be found in the interesting chapter
on paleontology in Lydekker's volume on ' British Mam-
mals,' ^ will, there seems reason for supposing, be joined
at no remote future by the polecat, wild cat, marten, and
black rat, among quadrupeds, and by the ruff and bearded
reedling, bittern and chough, among birds.

These recent changes would seem, with the exceptions
of the vanishing black rat and chough, to be the w^ork of
man, the direct outcome of his improvements on the face
of the earth. The discomfiture of the two exceptions
seems to have been rather the work of their own kindred.

It is the order of things that the children of man shall
increase and supplant the wilder children of nature. The
transformation that is being achieved under the eyes of
the present generation in other continents more recently
exploited has long since reached the climax in these
islands. Gone are the vast herds of mixed game that but
yesterday roamed the African veldt, evoking the admi-
ration of even such hunters as Cornwallis Harris and
Gordon-Cumming ; gone too are the great herds of bison
that, within the memory indeed of Mr Roosevelt and other
living American sjitortsmen, thundered over the boundless
prairies. Populous capitals stand on land just reclaimed
from the kangaroo and dingo; and I have occupied quarters
on the outskirts of Buitenzoorg, in Java, where a few years
ago tigers prowled among the affrighted villagers, but
where nowadays one can lie at ease in the cool verandah
and imagine oneself in the respectable security of a London
suburb. These changes are not all matter for rejoicing,

i Allen's Naturalist's Library.

INTRODUCTORY. 1 1

but they are inevitable. There is not room for the children
of man and the children of nature ; and as the former have
called in the rifle to help them, the latter must soon dis-
appear, with the exception of those which man may, for
purposes of his own, choose to domesticate and keep about
him. The larger beasts will inevitably go first, nor will
those that are swift of foot necessarily survive the longest,
for difficulty is as essential to the pursuit of sport as danger,
and the hunter is far more attracted by the flying herds of
antelope and deer than by the sluggish hippopotamus or
crocodile. That something of this may be due to the con-
sideration of the trophy, it would be impossible to deny ;
but the readiness of the beasts to escape must, as in the
case of the fox and hare, have aroused the instinct of
pursuit. Man is not, after all, unlike his favourite dog,
which will invariably run after those who show the in-
clination to run away.

In these islands, the process has been slower than
abroad. For one thing, the weapons were less precise

and less far-reaching. All our larger quad-

Extermmatiou , -n i j. r

r • rupeds were, as will be at once seen irom a

of species. ^ '

glance at the above dates, exterminated long
before the use of firearms had become general. In the
remote Highlands of Scotland, or in equally wild districts
in this country and Ireland, a very few may have lingered
to meet their death by gunpowder, but the chief work of
destruction was achieved with the arrow and the spear.
More recently, however, the extermination of many of our
most interesting beasts and birds has been furthered by
means less direct than the gun and snare. These have of
course played their part, and the gamekeeper and farmer
have doubtless much to answer for. It is, in any case,
useless to bring a general indictment against gamekeepers :
on the part of any but their employers, it is not far from
an impertinence. The ignorance and destructiveness and
wanton cruelty of this class are themes which, to my way
of thinking at least, are worn threadbare. That there are

12 INTRODUCTORY.

offenders among them, as among any other class, is not
improbable ; but, whether or not their attitude towards
the beasts and birds of prey is always a judicious one, it
is surely within the bounds of possibility that they are
acting, according to their lights, conscien-

> game- •^iQ^giy ^i^A ^g ^jjey think, in their masters'
keepers. . *' ' . ^ '

interests. It is possible even that the conduct

of keepers as a class may in this respect be open to some
fair criticism ; but it is, I think, impossible that their
prejudices, the growth of generations of close touch with
Nature, whom they learn to know more intimately than
any other class of men except, perhaps, the poachers, can
be utterly without foundation. I, for one, should be re-
luctant to pin my faith unconditionally to the teachings of
the class-room as opj^osed to such downright assertions as
are, for example, to be found in Speedy's 'Sport in the
Highlands.' Nor may we hoj^e in a little while to soften
the still more merciless creed of the farmer. Jesse told

^ , him that he would find the rook followinsf the

By farmers. ^

ploughshare and not the sower; but such an
assurance would, even if beyond denial, appeal Avith little
force to men whose finer perceptions of these matters are
pardonably blunted by the bitterness of succeeding years of
depression, and who, in their despair, are not unnaturally
prepared to lay the mischief at any door but the right one.^
There are others engaged in this work of slaughter,
some of them with less excuse. There are the bird-catcher

and the naturalist - collector. The former

\ !^^^ ' empties all the music of Surrey into the
catcners. ^ ^ -^

jiurlieus of Little St Andrew Street — and
small blame to him : it is his living. The latter commits
his dej^redations in the cause of science ; and these, indeed,
sometimes almost pass belief. They are scarcely less
shocking than the evils perpetrated in the name of re-

1 When ladies disagree, indeed, as they have in tlie recent sparrow
controversy hetween Miss Ornierod and Miss Carrington, the farmers
may well keep their own counsels.

INTRODUCTORY. 1 3

ligion. As an instance, the late Mr Seebohm, whose four

volumes are the delight of all who care to read about

our birds, owns in one place to having robbed in one day

upwards of 450 egg.i, (not, be it remarked, in
By collectors. , , • i i \ • i t 1 c

these islands), including nearly 150 of one

species and over 80 of another. In another account he
mentions 250 eggs of the lesser tern as the gleaning of one
week. After these confessions, it is surely intended for
humour when he complains at yet another i^age of the
"hard-hearted" peasants of Siberia, who habitually take
quantities of these eggs for food. Worse than all these is
the wanton pot-hunter, who, without any rational interest
in game, crops, or science, loafs abroad at all times and
blazes at any oriole, hawk, or other bird that may chance
to cross his path. Boys are among the worst offenders,
and it is not without regret that one finds the editor
of an excellent school magazine delivering himself thus :
" School arrangements may limit them, irate farmers
and keepers may rage, and Acts of Parliament thunder,
but eggs and bugs will still be sought and acquired
wherever there be boys." That our four-footed animals
have not by such means been long since reduced to the
level of those of Xew Zealand, that our song-birds are not
as scarce as on the great plains of Italy, ^ is owing less to
any measures taken for their protection than to the sacred
rights of ownership in land, against which the lover of
nature is not likely, whatever his politics, to raise his voice.
But the museum-men ! As Ruskin says of the birds : " One
kills them, the other writes classifying epitaphs."

As above remarked, however, it is by less direct means
that our mammalian and bird fauna has become gradually
impoverished, not alone in variety, but rather in actual num-
bers. Here and there, i)erhaps, the keeper's gun may have
told. We learn, for instance, that in parts of the North

1 In the ' Times ' of July 10 of tlie present year (1897) appeared a
letter from a lady deploring the well-known spoliation of Italian wild
birds for the London table !

14 INTPtODUCTORY.

Country he has practically exterminated the jay and
magpie. 1 The buzzard, kite, and hen-harrier have likewise
in many parts of these islands been driven to the verge of
extinction.

But it is by cultivation and draining, the latter more
especially, that our smaller birds have been most power-
By draining ^^^^7 affected. The reclaiming of carseland
and cultiva- has been the death - warrant of the bittern
tion- and ruff, of the bearded reedling and Savi's

warbler. The Scots cut down their great forests in olden
time to rid them of the wolf, and with it they lost the
capercaillie. One of the most remarkable and sudden of
recent changes in the face of a country is to be found
in some of the Channel Islands, where, since gin took
the place of cider as the national beverage, the orchards
have been abandoned, and the whole country is under
vegetables for the early London market.^ The effect of
such a transformation on the number of the migratory
species that formerly stayed to breed in those islands can
scarcely be overestimated. The draining of the fens, with
the accompanying cutting down of the dense reeds that
had for all time afforded shelter and nesting-sites to many
fen-birds, has perhaps been the most important factor
of all. The actual spread of bricks and mortar, though
doubtless a condition to be reckoned with, is not of such
paramount importance as might at first sight appear. In
the first place, there must always be very large tracts which,
1 r cr ^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ suppose, will not, for a very long
time at any rate, be built over. Marvellously
as the population of these islands has increased during
the past century, having already passed that of France,
a country of considerably more than half again the area, it
is to be remarked that the tendency has been to crowd
more closely into those centres of i3opulation which were
cities and towns at the beginning of the century, in many

1 Muirhcad, Birds of Berwickshire, pp. 200, 202.

2 Smith, Birds of Guernsey, vol. viii.

INTRODUCTORY. 15

cases within almost the old limits, rather than to start
new townships in waste parts of the country. If a new
town does now and again spring up, it is certain to be
a watering-place, the mushroom rise of which is not in-
frequently followed by sudden decay. As an instance of
this, I may cite Southbourne-on-Sea, a new speculation
which was, we were told a very few years ago, to rival
Bournemouth and eclipse Boscombe ; but the venture has
to all appearance come to nothing, and the whimbrel and
dotterel and redshank are left in possession of the sand-
flats below Christchurch, laying their eggs peacefully on
the sands and shingle which should, in the fertile imagina-
tion of investors, have been thronged ere now with chil-
dren and nursemaids. Thus rapidly does Nature reclaim
her own. Secondly, it is notorious that a large number of
beasts and birds, so far from shunning his presence, follow
man into new districts.

But man not only exterminates, both directly and in-
directly; he also acclimatises and protects. It is not so
easy as might be expected, when sketching the fauna of a
highly civilised country like ours, to draw the

. . ^. ' ' line strictly between the indigenous and the
tisation. , "^ ° , .

imported. In the case of Australia, the dis-
tinction was far simpler, the placental dingo presenting
the only difficulty. As for the horse, cattle, sheep, and
dog, the camels, oxen, buffaloes, poultry, and the like, all
these had obviously no place among the rightful owners of
that remarkable island. With us, however, it is different.
The palpably domesticated animals are easily reckoned
with. The horse, ass, goat, sheep, dog, cat, hog, poultry,
guinea-pig, and foreign cage-birds — these are ignored in
the following pages, as also the semi-domesticated remnant
of our wild oxen. But what shall be said of our fallow-
deer, pheasants, capercailzie, red-legged partridge, edible
frog, and carp ? or who would have the courage to omit
all notice of these from an account, however slight, of our
natural history ? This tinkering of an impoverished fauna

16 INTRODUCTORY.

has indeed gone on for so many years, that it is hard to
know where to begin and where to leave off. The case of
both our rats, the black and the larger brown, misnamed
Norway or Hanoverian, illustrates the difficulty. We have,
by contrast with the more recent introduction of the latter,
come to regard the weaker species as a much older resident
of these islands, which, in point of fact, he is. But this has
become so strong in the minds of some, that a recent writer
on the subject of ferrets alluded to the black rat as "the
oldest inhabitant of this country," and this too w^hen it
was introduced from the East in all probability not earlier
than the fourteenth century ! Thus, in addition to the
species introduced by man, the classification is complicated
by others that have arrived in ships or otherwise, but not
under his auspices. This is a difficulty which it is im-
portant to grasp, because we shall more than once be con-
fronted by it in the following pages.

To make this still clearer, I will give one instance. It
will be observed that I have, contrary to the usual practice,
omitted the turtles from the list of British vertebrates. I
think I should scarcely have ventured, on my own respon-
sibility, to do so, had it not been for a trivial episode that
I shall relate as my justification. My ship was nearing
the end of a long voyage. We had covered 15,000 miles
of sea, and had brought successfully through every degree
of climate, from a tropical summer to a British winter,
two leather-back turtles, which were allotted private
quarters in the long-boat, and played on with the hose
under my supervision twice a -day. Thus they thrived
exceedingly, until, not a hundred miles south-west of the
Eddystone, one got washed overboard. The captain, to
whom they had been tendered as an advance Christmas
gift by one of the Company's agents, raved and stormed
in language suitable to the occasion ; but my own regret
at his discomfiture was largely tempered by curiosity as
to whether the creature might perchance get washed
ashore alive, in which case nothing would, if we may

INTEODUCTORY. 17

judge by the analogy of some of the British-North- Ameri-
can birds that figure in our list, have prevented its being
temporarily recorded as a British turtle. I do not, be
it understood, take upon myself for one moment the re-
sponsibility of criticising the validity of examples pre-
viously recorded. I prefer relating what did happen,
and suggesting what might have happened but that,
fortunately for British zoology, the precious morsel was
evidently carried away into the broad Atlantic by wester-
ing currents, and thus lost to our fauna. I hope it is
unnecessary to add that I fully intended, perhaps after
duly enjoying the humour of the situation, to set matters
right. This is why I have ignored the turtles ; and if I
had only the evidence of my own eyes, my own opinion
is that the bird-list might in like manner have been con-
siderably curtailed, as I fancy that if the spars and sheets
of the Atlantic liners bound for Liverpool could speak,
they might tell strange tales of stowaway birds.^

Nor have the factors that have united to make our
fauna what it is been quite exhausted in the foregoing
remarks, for it w^ould be impossible to overestimate the
effects of protection. Man has not only exterminated,
or in some cases kept under, indigenous beasts
and birds; not only has he introduced and
acclimatised foreign species; but he has also, almost en-
tirely for sporting purposes, extended his protection to both
beasts and birds that would otherwise have disappeared
long since from our countryside. Such are the fox, hare,
otter, red- and roe-deer, and grouse, which were at any
rate among the early inhabitants of these islands. The
fallow-deer, as also the various breeds of pheasants, come
under another category, for they were introduced, and not
indigenous. It has been shown that the preservation of

1 A turtle of very large dimensions has at various times during the
past summer (1897) been sighted — and more than once harpooned — oft"
tlie Cornish coast. I have reason to believe that it is still at large in
those waters.

18 INTRODUCTORy.

game is responsible for a deal of destruction ; but it
should not be forgotten that it is at the same time acting
in an ojjposite direction, and that, but for the landowner
and preserver, our country rambles would never be en-
livened with the sight of the passing fox or flying deer,
our meditations never broken by the sudden whir of
the grouse or the soft splash of the otter. For the lat-
ter, although undoubtedly much harassed by the riparian
owner, would perhaps have been exterminated w^ere it not
that many an owner of a trout-stream has a soft corner
in his heart for an occasional day with the otter-hounds.
It would seem, indeed, as if the best chance of survival
lies, anomalous as it may appear, in being prized for the
chase ; and it may well be' asked. Where will the wild cat
and marten be in another fifty years unless some kindly
soul discovers, ere it be too late, that there is legitimate
sport to be had out of them ? This will be a more
laudable venture than the more ambitious, though less
successful, efforts which are from time to time directed
towards the reintroduction of the beaver and boar, or the
acclimatisation of zebus and musk-rat.

There will always be this about the study of natural
history in these islands, though to many it will appear
but a poor recommendation, that it may be pursued with-
out risk, from either climate or the creatures themselves.
Our climate, subject though it is to sudden changes, is
neither too hot nor too cold to put a stop to field natural
history throughout the year. In this we are singularly
blest, for there are few other lands of which as much
could be said. Even on those portions of the Continent
that lie at our door there are, as more than one ill-fated
expedition of other days learnt to its cost, great dangers
in the seasonal changes. Those who have, as I have, gone
in search of birds' nests in the Eoman Maremma, will
appreciate what we have to be thankful for. Nor are the
bea.sts of these islands any more fearsome than the climate.
Our existing carnivora would, save on rare occasions the

IXTPtODUCTORY. 19

weasel, make off on the approach of a child ; our only-
poisonous reptile, equally fond of making itself scarce,
causes little more than temporary inconvenience by its
bite, unless, indeed, the patient be in a bad state of health
already ; the sharks of our seas are mostly infants ; even
our insects are to be dreaded less than those of any other
country I know of.

This little volume may, perchance, prove an incentive
and a help to such outdoor study. I hope, indeed I might
dare expect, so much of it. For there is much to be gained,
by both the individual and the nation, not to speak of the
benefit accruing to the beasts and birds themselves, if only
this taste for natural history become more general. There
is a large and ever-increasing class of readers. These are
well in their way, and it is not for writers of books, at any
rate, to deny their usefulness. But this reading of natural
history should be the prelude to observation at first hand,
not its substitute. The book of nature is in many chap-
ters, and most of its pages are as yet un-
^* turned by man. The book is free to all who
will open it. None are privileged, and the deepest secrets
are revealed at a moment's notice to professor or plough-
man. The interpretation is another matter ; and what
is fraught with meaning for one, causing him, no mat-
ter what his creed, to stand amazed, baring his head in
presence of that which not all his poor book-learning can
explain, another will pass by with a shrug, the even tenor
of his thoughts not for one instant disturbed. It is the
old story of "Eyes and no Eyes." The boy is father to
the man ; and he who, as a truant from morning school,
regards the hedge-sparrow as designed for no more than a
butt for swan-shot, whose acquaintance with his country's
beasts and birds is strictly limited to the fitness of each
species for the table, will in riper years make no secret of
his creed : The earth is the Anglo-Saxon's, and the fulness
thereof !

MAMMALS

MAMMAL S.

The mammals of these islands are surpassed in poverty
only by the reptiles. New Zealand is the only land, ex-
Poverty of cej)ting perhaps the Polar regions, of consider-
literaiure on able size with a poorer list of fom'-footed in-
cur mammals, habitants ; and, compared with the doubtful
rat and various bats of that region, our quadrupeds make
quite a formidable list. They have failed, however, to
arouse that interest that has ever attached to our birds,
fishes, and insects, as witness the literature of the subject.
There are not many more than half-a-dozen works of any
standing, as against over two hundred treating of our
birds. For this lack of interest in the quadruj^eds many
reasons might be assigned, but none operates perhaps more
powerfully than the great difficulty of observing them,
second only to that of studying living fishes. Birds live
under our eyes : they are, with few exceptions, creatures of
daylight, and we can watch them obtaining their food
and rearing their young. Our beasts are, with equally few
exceptions, creatures of twilight and darkness,

1 cu le.s o ^^^^ tliose that come abroad in the sriare of day

observing. , o ./

are careful to keep far from the haunts of man.

How far this love of darkness is natural, and how far it is

the result of a proper appreciation of man's peculiarities,

who shall say ? The fact remains ; and the discomfort,

often impossibility, of nocturnal excursions has, I think.

24 MAMMALS.

much to answer for in the paucity of books on the subject.
That there is need of a new and up-to-date account of our
mammals no one will doubt, for the standard work on the
subject is nearly a quarter of a century old, and some pro-
gress has been made since its appearance, more particularly
in our knowledge of the distribution of the smaller rodents,
which wants collecting. Such a volume is more than half
completed by ]\Ir Harting — as mentioned indeed in his
valedictory remarks when resigning the editorship of the
' Zoologist ' ; and the name of the author of ' Extinct
British Animals ' should be a guarantee that the work
will be all that is required.

Meanwhile, then. Bell remains the handbook on the sub-
ject, though some later information is to be found in the
Bell's volume in the ' Naturalist's Library,' in which,

' British however, Mr Lydekker's chapter on our " Ex-

Quadrupeds.' tinct Mammals" will probably have attracted
most readers. Examined critically in the light of an addi-
tional quarter of a century's investigation. Bell's second
edition (1874) has no doubt its faults, and in the Irish
list more particularly, as also in the old error of the beech-
marten, needed some correction ; but, for careful attention
to detail, it stands alone.

Of the six orders that find representatives among the
seventy-one mammals on the British list (I exclude the
so-called wild cattle and the domestic beasts), two only,
the bats and cetaceans, and a sub-order, the seals, present
much difficulty, since they alone can, like the birds, move
freely between these islands and the neighbouring main-
land. This does not imply that there is not yet a great
deal to be learnt about the habits and distribution of the
smaller land mammals ; but the older errors — as, for in-
stance, the presence of two martens, the inclusion in the
Irish list of the wild cat, dormouse, and others, as well as
the long-lived fable about the alpine hare not changing
its coat in that island — are confusions that belong to an
age of imperfect communication.

MAMMALS. 25

These and other deficiencies in the Irish fauna, as well

as their probable explanation, have been alluded to on

a previous page; and it may be added that

, several attempts have from time to time been
mammals. . -■• ,

made to differentiate the Irish stoat, otter, and
long-tailed field-mouse. These have not as yet, however,
been generally accepted as more than varieties. Formerly
too, before the appearance of the second edition of Bell's
work, the Irish hare was distinguished on account of the
above-mentioned error respecting the permanent colour of
its coat.

I have already enumerated the animals which have be-
come extinct in these islands in comparatively recent times.
Protection ^^^ wild cat and the polecat will probably be
versus ex- next to go ; and in truth very few of those
termination, ^yho have most right to a voice in the mat-
ter will miss them. Extreme views are never more to
be deprecated than in this question of protection ; and
the keeper who shoots and traps indiscriminately without
thought of the mischief he may be doing, is scarcely more
to blame than are those dwellers in cities who, without
any concern, direct or otherwise, in such matters, raise
their voice in pious ejaculation whenever they read in the
' Field ' or elsewhere of the death of a polecat or other
vermin. Our noxious mammals are, though small, many
and active. True, there is no danger to man, for our
woods harbour no beast that could not with address be
despatched with a spade ; but the damage done, one way
with another, by the fox, wild cat, polecat, marten, stoat,
weasel,^ otter, seals, and all the rodents with the excep-
tion of the largely insectivorous dormouse, is simply in-
Interferinf calculable. It would not, of course, answer to
witlithe exterminate any one of these; for if the car-
" balance." nivora were gone, the rodents would multiply
into a plague, and even if the latter could be annihilated,

1 Sir Herhert Maxwell informs me that he i)rcserves weasels, being
persuaded that their staple food consists of mice, voles, and rabbits.

26 MAMMALS.

the larger beasts would l3e forced to turn their attention
exclusively to the hen-house and the game-i)reserve. The
balance has been Uf)set so often, and with such dire results,
that the present generation should be chary about experi-
ments of this kind, though even lately " lady-birds," as we
call them, have been introduced into a tropical island to
devour certain noxious native ajAides, and there is a still
more recent movement afoot for acclimatising the nightin-
gale in America, as a pleasant change from the mocking-
bird. It would seem fair, however, to suppose that an
island without either rodents or carnivora would be an
ideal one for the agriculturist and farmer ; and New Zea-
land, indeed, is a case in point. In the ordinary course,
however, an island incapable of supporting so much wild
life has little in its soil to recommend it for such purposes.
It is, above all things, important that we should not
harbour any false notion that there is nothing more to be
learnt about our few mammals. From time to time we
hear the same plaint about the birds, yet book after book
appears ; and though it would be wide of the mark to say
that each new contribution to our bird-lore is full of original
matter, it is at least safe to aver that there is something
new, some trifling addition to our knowledge of the birds, in
almost every one. The food and reproduction of many of
our mammals are still matters of argument; and if an
opening for original investigation is sought, we need not
look further than the remarkable and still unexplained
mortality to Avhich our shrews are subject at the end of
summer.

LIST OF BRITISH MAMMALS.

+J -

■bt>f.

lO OO lO »o oo
^Tl C) CM "^ Tl

CO CO CO CO »o

c. I G^l CO C^5 ^ CO

lO I— I

ooooo oooooo

CO lO

05 iO CO C<1 CO

• • • . ,

O O O o o

o
o

(»

o
s ' o

s - o

o 'SC

- I-- bn

-f-5

o oj s o

^ _2^ ,^ ^ 03 ^

=1^ ^ i? t^ t^ -

.2 2 ^c
r^ o

■^ W

^5t ^ ~

^ ^ '^ "it ^

O
5^

^ S o
S~ '^ 53

~ .- s

No
=0

p-(

pLn
O

I— I

§ CO

Cm «

^-5

l-H

o
>^
o

1—1

l-H

o
t— I

l~o^

2 S

O ai

CZ2

Co CO

S> S:

S<^

c3
+3

4^
1)

O
Co
«o

MAMMALS.

ilj?

<: —

O i-~ O »p o

-* <f 1 (fq I—I Ah

ir^ cr> »o

■^ -T^ Tji

J/2

Zfl

»r-l -t^ .— c

<» u ci ci

C/2

S 3^ --

s c b

rr-"
O
O

w
O

«0 -ri

<»

**--.

>^>

l-N

*«^

-^^

■»■)

f-<.

•♦o

►<

tin

sylvatica

erminea
vulgaris

-5^

§
^

vitulina
hispid a
grcenlan

•>>

•2

Pf>

►— t

1^.
o

h- <

t-H

U-l

Z/1

>— I
ft

p:!

LIST OF BRITISH MAMMALS.

I— IrHOOOO I— lOO (Mr— li-H

1'^

ooo o

a;
a;

-t->

f— <

.i^

arvest-
'ellow-i
oocl-

o
>

•

!•)

-(-^

•:;

C/2

Ph ,^

s .=^;3

O -^ Ph

rt f-"^ --^

C O) cS O

,— .

- r-S^'d

5 ^;:S^

y^ r^

5; Co

•<:^ CO

• > s>,

; ■ — ■ CO

r<5

CO S

g si ?i

S-^ CO

■*^ '^ "-o

-5^

>!5<

•-o

Si.

•^0

§:

n
o

I— I

o
-'I

]\rAMMALS.

pq
o

ifi

t3 *»

•

K<4

r— t

«2

•~t M

• p— 1

s <=>

+"<x>

OO CO

<r) (N

I— 1

-i-t

l~^

• 1— •

^ "

-3

•<

1 ^

O ^

e« o
Q 02

o
<v

r—H

■X

r-*
1

r-"

r— (

O
ft

-t-J

o
PQ

^-o

«0

§^

•^

■w

Co r#v

g §

)^ CO

s ^

■♦o

•-^ ^

<?*

S rC

1*^

«3i

I^O

•to

^ -s^

«C

"■C

(-^

•■o

•to

1^ 1

ft, 1^

1
t

<**

•i

, , •

H-l

►-I

<-,

t-H

fl^

•

1 S

1 s

CHAPTEE I. THE BATS.

The list of Bats as given by the older writers on British
zoology now requires some revision ; and we find the

present number to be at the outside four-
c,->A^iAc teen, while a fifteenth, the particoloured bat,

is included on slender evidence. Their posi-
tion, too, has undergone change, for while the older natu-
ralists regarded them as the link between mammals and
birds, they are now more correctly placed between the
lemurs and insectivora. All British bats are truly insec-
tivorous, the large fruit-eating kinds, so common in India,
Australia, and Madagascar, being absent from this part of
the world. ^ They are particularly fond of moths. Their
teeth are therefore cusped, and vary in number from thirty-
two to thirty-eight. It is also believed that they drink
regularly. The hairless membrane that joins the tail and
fingers is worked by powerful muscles, so that these crea-
tures are virtually winged and fly much as birds, their
steering, which is remarkably sharp, being achieved by
the aid of the inter-femoral membrane that encloses most
of the tail.

1 Roughly speaking, the bats of temperate regions are almost ex-
clusively insectivorous, Avhereas tropical kinds {/'/.eropus, &c.) live on
fruit, and some of the larger species suck the blood of sleej^ing
mammals. From some islands where winged insects are not con-
spicuous (Iceland, Kerguelen, &c. ) there are no bats.

32 MAM:\rALS.

So extraordinary is the sensibility of this entire mem-
brane that several naturalists, Spallanzani among them,
have attributed to these animals the posses-

A_ sixtii

sion of a sixth sense, a hypothesis that rests
sense. 5 j i

for the most part on the fact that, when arti-
ficially blinded, they have been known to fly clear of
threads suspended in a darkened room. Other observers
have testified to the remarkably keen sense of smell pos-
sessed by them.

All bats are without doubt seen to greatest advantage
on the wing. On the ground, they shamble for the most
part very awkw^ardly, the long-eared bat by alternately
hookinc^ on with the curved nail of the fore-thumb and
raising itself on its hind-legs, the rest running along with,
bent head. Most bats can swim, though they do not take
to the water by preference, nor can they leave it without
some difficulty.

Without exception, they sufi'er much from parasites,
numbers of small ticks, not unlike those associated with
house-martins, being found beneath the fur. They are
also preyed on by stoats and owls, and occasionally by
the hobby and kestrel.^

It is a mistake to regard bats as creatures of darkness,
for although the majority of species do not come abroad
until, at all events, the twilight, it is not by any means
uncommon to find a stray one or two about, especially in
early summer, at midday.

They hibernate for various periods, some kinds in soli-
tude, others in pairs, but the greater part in colonies, in

which each sex often keeps to itself, in old
Hibernating. . -u i, 4. 1 ii ^

rums, caves, church -towers, or hollow trees.

In this winter sleep they are usually found hanging head

downwards. Mild days will, however, tempt them forth

1 It is a remarkable fact that a number of clogs show the greatest
reluctance to pick up a bat, the scent apparently affecting them ; and
Sir R. Payne-Gallwey records a similar objection in respect of dogs
retrieving snipe and woodcock.

THE BATS. 33

at all seasons, and I have seen the pipistrelle abroad within
a fortnight of Christmas. When disturbed and dragged
forth against their will, they usually become very active for
an hour or two, but rarely survive this unwonted energy.

In breeding, the different species vary somewhat ; but,
as a rule, the female brings forth one, or at most two, at
a birth in early summer, wrapping the young in a fold of
her membrane.

It will now suffice to enumerate briefly the fourteen
species referred to.

The Great Bat, called by White the "high-flier," is
found in hollow trees, its presence being often betrayed
Great Bat hy its fetid odour. It is this bat that has
or Noctule. been found hibernating in pairs. The mem-
brane starts above the ankle. There is a line of hair
along the forearm, in which it resembles the next species.
It appears not to have occurred in either Wales or Scot-
land, but has been noticed in Ireland.

The Hairy-armed Bat, a smaller species that closely re-
sembles the last, save for certain differences in the teeth,
Hairy- is apparently confined to our south-western

armed Bat. counties, and to a few districts of Ireland.
It is at most but a rare wanderer.

The Pipistrelle is the commonest of our bats, and is the
more in evidence inasmuch as it rarely hibernates for more
than three months, and is consequently seen at
a time when most other species are in hiding.
Though insectivorous by preference, devouring even the
hard wing-cases of beetles, it will also, in captivity at any
rate, feed readily on flesh. Save for a tuft of black hair
over the eye, the face is almost naked. The fur is reddish
brown at the surface, but much darker, almost black, at
the roots. The ears are conspicuously lobed and notched
on the margin. Over the mouth are large glands. The
membrane starts below the ankle.

The Serotine (the V. noctula of St Hilaire, whose Y.
serotinus is our V. noctula) is a solitary bat met with in

34 MAMMALS.

the home counties, and in the immediate neighbourhood of
the Metropolis. Its name implies that its activity com-
mences only in the evening, and few bats are
less frequently seen abroad by day. Its torpor
lasts for at least six months, as it is rarely seen before the
early days of May, and disappears again in September or
October. Its flight, especially when it first returns to life,
is laboured, though at all times easily distinguished, by
those who know both, from the more deliberate movements
of the last species, to which it has in this respect been
compared. In other j^articulars there is considerable re-
semblance. This bat does not, however, give birth to
more than one at a time, while the pipistrelle has been
known to produce two.

The Mouse- coloured Bat is the largest, as it is also one
of the rarest, of British bats ; indeed its claim to a place
Mouse- ^^ ^^^ fauna is, like that of the next, very
coloured slight. It is described as a quarrelsome, un-
■^^** sociable species, feeding largely on moths, as

well as on smaller insects. The membrane, which includes
all but the tip of the tail, is dark yellow, and partly cov-
ered with hair. There are also conspicuous tufts over the
eyes, and there is some hair elsewhere on the face.

[Once recorded from the New Forest, Bechstein's bat
Bechstein's has been admitted into our fauna, which is as
Bat. unsatisfactory as the inclusion of a number of

so-called " British " birds.^]

Natterer's Bat is a smaller allied species, and lighter
in colour. It is the most hairy of all British bats. The
fur is long and soft ; in colour reddish grey
grey or and white. The membrane, which has a grey
batterer's shade, includes the ankle. Ears very long
and pointed. This species, which is widely
distributed throughout the British Islands, though less

1 The Rougli-legged and Particoloured Bats are also admitted to the
British list on the strength of the cajiture of a single example of each !
They do not therefore invite description in the present outline.

THE BATS. 35

partial to forest districts than the last, may be distin-
guished by the conspicuous fringe on the interfemoral
membrane. '

Daubenton's Bat is not infrequently seen hawking
Dauben- over water. On the face are two prominent
ton's Bat. swellings. The ears, nearly as long as the
head, are oval in shape, lobed and notched on the outer
margin. It occurs throughout these islands, though no-
where is it very common.

The AMiiskered Bat is a small, solitary, and swift-flying
bat, not uncommon in Hampshire and the neighbouring
"WTiiskered counties, but gradually rarer farther north,
Bat. and not indeed recorded from Scotland until

comparatively recently. In Ireland its occurrences would
also appear to be few and far between. This species
hibernates for a short period only in ruins, caves, or hollow
trees. The face is thickly furred, hence the trivial name.
There are a number of transverse bands on the membrane,
which is devoid of lobe and starts from the base of the
foot. The tail is long and curved.

The Long-eared Bat is one of the commonest kinds indi-
genous to these islands, easily distinguished by the great
Long-eared length of its ears and tail, the former being
B^*- flexible and semi-transparent, and almost as

long as the body. When the animal is asleep they are
observed to fold downwards. The voice of this bat is par-
ticularly shrill and high-pitched — so much so, indeed, that
many folks are quite unable to distinguish it. Bell and
some older writers described a smaller species, in w^hich the
ears were proportionately less and the tail longer. It is
now, however, referred to the present species.

The Barbastelle is a rare bat of remarkable appearance

and restricted distribution, being found chiefly,
Barbastelle. .

' though nowhere in abundance, in our south-
eastern counties, scarcer as we proceed northward, and

36 MAMMALS.

apparently wanting in Scotland and Ireland, More than
one writer has noticed its absence from apparently suit-
able districts. The expression imparted by the position
of the nostrils in a hairless depression over the muzzle
is grotesque in the extreme, the effect being heightened
by the tufts of black bristles on the cheeks. The face
and ears are black, the latter being short, broad, and
notched on the margin. This bat undergoes long retire-
ment.

The group to which our two Horseshoe Bats belong is

characterised by the presence of a hairy, leaflike hood over

Greater ^^^^ snout, the exact purpose of which has

Horseshoe not, so far, been satisfactorily determined. St

^ ' Hilaire regarded it as a valve to the nostrils,

but Bell considered it rather in the light of a highly de-
veloped organ of smell, a view that has been more or less
accepted by later writers.

The Greater Horseshoe Bat is fairly common in the
southern counties of England, becoming rarer farther
north, and absent altogether from Scotland and Ireland.
Its food consists largely of chafers, and it is essentially a
forest bat.

The nose-leaf is in three sections, that in front being in
the form of a horseshoe, the second flat and bent at the
sides, and the hinder one pointed. There is a conspicuous
groove ill the lower lip. The ears are pointed and the tail
short.

Long regarded as a variety of the last, the Lesser Horse-
shoe Bat is distinguished by its inferior size, the position
Lesser ^^ ^^^ lower teeth, and the depression in the

Horseshoe hinder portion of the nose -leaf. Like the

^ ' larger, it is found only in the southern coun-

ties, but, unlike it, it is recorded from Ireland, where it
has been taken in caves. It is not so fond of forests, and
its Hight is more powerful.

THE INSECTIVORA.

CHAPTER II. THE INSECTIVORA.

I. The Hedgehog.

Food.

The Hedgehog is among the creatures generally reck-
oned as vermin of the farm. If any one has just cause
of complaint against the hedgehog, it is not the farmer but
the gamekeeper, as it has often been taken in traps baited
with game-birds or their eggs.

Its chief food, however, consists of worms and insects,
and, when domesticated in the kitchen, it subsists largely
on cockchafers. It is also known to attack
adders, which lacerate themselves against its
armour of spines.
At any rate its
diet is entirely
animal, and White
was in error when
he endowed it with
vegetarian tastes.
Its worst offence
is a rare raid on
the hen-house.

The most famil-
iar habit of the
hedgehog is that

of rolling in a ball when threatened by danger, a special
arrangement of the muscles enabling it to assume this re-

^ . markable position. In this way it is able to
Enemies. - . ...

keep off most of its enemies, including even

dogs specially trained for its pursuit, but the fox is said to
possess the secret of making it unbend by ducking it in
some swamp, or by a disgusting process which it is unde-
sirable to describe in detail. The badger is also said to be

38 MAMMALS.

a sworn foe of this animal.^ Another advantage of the coat
of spines is that its elasticity is sufficient to break any fall.
This it was that formerly lent weight to the slander that
the hedgehog was given to climbing fruit-trees and bearing
off the fruit impaled on its spines. It has a curious habit
of taking up its quarters in particular gardens, where, if
unmolested, it will remain for many months. A young
hedgehog had taken up its residence in this way in the
garden of a house in Cornwall where I was recently stay-
ing, and it would run about the gravel walks all night,
lying in hiding during the day. At last the owner of the
house bought some poultry, and it was all I could do to
prevent his throwing the unfortunate hedgehog into a
neighbouring stream. I managed, however, to persuade
him to deposit it in a market -garden close by, where I
have no doubt it did good service.

Early naturalists were pleased to weave romance round
the birth and nourishment of young hedgehogs, which are,
needless to say, as those of other mammals. The hedge-
hog pairs for life, and the young — five, six, or, according
to Mr Harting, even seven in number — are born early in
August in a roomy nest of dead leaves.

When first born they are blind, the spines being, more-
over, white and soft, but soon assuming the colour and
hardness of maturity. Save by gipsies, who
roast it "in its jacket," the flesh of the hedge-
hog is not eaten in this country, though it is a favourite
dish in the French provinces, where, according to some
writers, two species are recognised.

The appearance of the hedgehog is unique among British

mammals, nor is any one likely to confuse it with any

other beast, unless it be with the Australian

A "n 11 p IT*?!! 1 r* p

&c ' echidnas, to which it certainly bears some

superficial resemblance. Rather less than a

foot long, the arched body is covered with dull white,

sharp spines, an inch or more in length, and having a dark

1 See the ' Zoologist,' January 1888, j). 10.

THE INSECTIVORA. 39

ring at the centre, from which they taper to either end. On
the head and belly these spines are replaced by coarse
yellow bristles. In colour, hedgehogs show considerable
variation, and perfectly white examples are on record.
The ears and neck of this animal are short, as are also the
legs, the feet having five toes armed with strong curved
claws The weight of a live grown hedgehog now in
possession of a friend of Mr Harting's is i^ lb. Being
unable to find any record of the hedgehog's weight, I
persuaded Mr Harting to have this one weighed specially.

2. The Mole.

Although partial to the interesting little Mole, which,

like the Californian black ant among insects, is for its size

about the strongest of its class, I have always

^ ^^ been careful not to spoil its case by pretend-
onender. - ^ . n. , , .

mg that its offences are altogether imaginary.

They are at any rate light. From February onward it
may undermine the potato-bed, and later in the year it
may even disturb the even surface of the cricket-pitch or
tennis-court, or, worse still, chase grubs through the drills
of young turnips. Nor can it claim to be the friend of the
gardener by reason of its destruction of myriads of earth-
worms, for gardeners of the present enlightened age know
well that the erst-despised worm has its uses in nature's
economy. At the same time, much of their work, which
consists for the most part in turning over the clogged soil,
is accomplished by their devourer, which also consumes
vast quantities of such noxious creatures as the wireworm
and larva of the "daddy long-legs," known in England as
" leather grub," in Scotland as " pout."

The mole also devours mice, shrews, small reptiles, and
frogs, but is said to draw the line at the toad. It has also
been described as laying up a store of worms
for the winter in an underground pit, a state-
ment which is, however, open to considerable doubt, as

MAMMALS.

the mole Avorks throughout the year, its casts in winter
often showing through the snow.^ This lean animal diet —
for, like the hedgehog, the mole eats no vegetable food —
induces continuous thirst, to quench which the mole is
known to sink deep shafts for water. Its enormous ap-
petite is partly attributable to its constant exertion, but I
have once or twice had captive moles, that had no work to
do, die overnight for want of worms. It seems indeed as

if this animal must
be ever feeding,
and certainly no
other starves more
easily.

Though it seems
to do most of its
engineering and
hunting by night,
the mole is not by
any means inactive
in the daytime,
and it is observed to be in motion at certain fixed hours,
which it appears to keep with great precision. It works
near the surface, almost above it when there is snow on
the ground ; and Mr Lydekker has happily compared its
progress to that of a porpoise in a smooth sea, which re-
calls the curious fact, already mentioned, that, though un-
known, both now and formerly, in Ireland, there are sev-
eral Irish names for this creature, and one of these denotes
"porpoise." ^

The distribution of the mole is not devoid of interest.
In many apparently suitable districts, where it would

1 I do not intend calling in question the existence of such stores of
worms, for these are not uncommon ; but their ultimate object, to pro-
vide food in winter, or, as is also alleged, to feed the new-born young,
seems at least very questionable.

2 Sir Herbert Maxwell points out that the common Irish equivalent
for porpoise is muc mara (sea-pig) ; but the word I have in mind, but
cannot recall, may be a provincialism.

-4;

■ T>*...-

" U ,M,a3a m*^^.. '

- ' ' * .

- >'- ■

^^B^^^^^^^H^^BhL^ *^^WF^^^^^

,k ' ^^^

. .^^

^^^^£. ^^^I^B.

'-'- .^^

^^^^Bh ^^^^^K * '

• "^

•f-^'-iiE.^

THE INSECTIVORA. 41

find food in abundance and soft soil to work in, it is
wanting altogether. Very abundant throughout England

and the Lowlands of Scotland, it becomes

Distribution. . ,■, tt- i i i i • -l i.

very rare m the Highlands, and is absent

from many of the islands.

The question is asked from time to time, "What becomes
of the moles in flood-time ? and I fancy the solution of
the riddle is to be sought in the instinct that prompts
them to tunnel in sloping ground in the neighbourhood
of rivers. This is at any rate the case in the Dover valley,
where last February (1897) I found hundreds
of runs in the soft soil of either cliff, but not
a single one down on a level with the stream.

Of the structure of the mole and its marvellous adap-
tation to its conditions of existence, little remains to be
said. Built essentially for progress, always

^^/.^^.,. hungry and always tunnellino- into fresh
peculiarities. °. *' i n 1 i

hunting-grounds, all the strength of the

" moudiewarp " is concentrated, as is apparent from a
casual examination of the skeleton, in the fore -limbs,
the others being comparatively weak. The fur, growing
perpendicular, lies equally well in any direction, thereby
offering little resistance to the narrow walls against which
it brushes. The mole can run rapidly, as Le Court proved
by placing little sticks with flags in its run and noting the
rapidity with which it displaced them.^ It is also some-
thing of a swimmer, though it is not known to take to the
water unless pursued by the weasel, its worst enemy
after man. As in the hedgehog, the senses of smell
and hearing are acute, and it is owing to this that the
traps of the professional mole-catchers often make large
catches on the most windy nights. There is, for all the
mole's keen sense of hearing, no external ear, but merely
an orifice hidden by coarse hairs.

1 The value of this historic experiment has been called in question, for
a horn was inserted in the run and sounded to frighten the mole, and the
displacement of the flags has been attributed to the sudden air-pressure.

42 MAMMALS.

The sense of sight is, however, practically in abeyance,
though the eyes are not, as in its cousin of the Mediter-
ranean countries, totally enveloped in the skin, but may
be seen by any one who will take the trouble to blow
aside the fur that normally conceals them.

The elongated muzzle, which is the most sensitive part
of the mole's anatomy (especially in the North American
genus, on the snout of which is a starlike growth, recalling
the nose-leaf in some bats), is thought to give assistance
in tunnelling, though the powerful back -turned claws
would ajDpear to need little heljD.

The engineering works of the mole have been so often
described that a very brief notice of its wondrous under-
ground establishment will here suffice. What

Molehills. , i i -n • ..i • ^.-l

we know as a molehill is nothing more than

the earth thrown up by the creature as it forages into
fresh feeding-grounds, its course being along a kind of
highroad, also clearly discernible at the surface. It is
in this main track that the traps are set. The actual
fortress of the mole, a circular abode reached by a number
of passages converging from this highroad, is not thrown
up in the exposed part of a field like the hills, but is
generally in a natural hummock, or I have found them
in hedges. It has a circular gallery, into which run the
paths from the highroad. The mole works at various
depths according to the nature of the soil and the scarcity
of worms, and it is by this that its mischief to the farmer
is reckoned. As already mentioned, when snow lies thick
on the ground, it works almost at the top. When, how-
ever, worms are scarce, as in periods of drought, it sinks
its shafts to a much greater depth, and is at such times
incapable of doing any damage whatever. On occasion,
these animals will obtain their food above ground, where
they often feed on certain larva?. This is observed most
frequently in the early part of the year.

The females, being in the minority, have a number of
lords, and great fights are held in their honour, it being

THE INSECTIVOEA. 43

impossible for two males to pass one another in the pairing
season without a desperate fight a Voutrance.

The nest, distinct from the fortress, is likewise beneath
some hillock ; and as the moles use it but once, the
deserted dwelling is usually appropriated by
field-mice. The number of the litter would
seem to average five, and personally I never found more,
though six, and even seven, are recorded. They appear to
be born about the end of July, at least I have found them
still blind the first week in August.

The appearance of the mole is too familiar to need

detailed description ; in fact, as the characters given in

this little book are only such as may enable the reader

to distinguish the species under notice, it is

ppearance, g(,g^j.(.giy necessary to enumerate the features

of one that could scarcely be confused with
any other. In colour the mole is, as a rule, glossy black,
but grey, yellow, and even albino examples are not rare.
When first born, the young are pale brown or grey, their
snout being of a delicate pink. The average weight of an
adult mole is just under 4 ounces.

It has attracted the attention of more than one writer
on the subject that so interesting a creature as the mole,

one, too, sufiiciently common in his part of
-D ,^ , Hampshire, should have been mentioned but

once, and that incidentally, in White's ' Sel-
borne.' This reminds me of the drawing of a mole's hand
with six fingers, which embellishes Buckland's (1875)
edition of that work.

3. The Shkews.

In the Shrews, we come to the least of our mammals,
smallest of all being the Lesser Shrew, which holds the
same position in its class as the goldcrest among our birds.
Though frequently confounded with the rodent mice, they
have no more in connnon with them than have the so-called

MAMMALS.

"pouched mice" of the Australian region. Indeed they
bear, especially in the peculiarly sensitive snout, consider-
ably more resemblance to their near ally, the mole. Being,
however, still more exclusive in their preference for insect
diet, though their pugnacity leads them to attack with
zeal small birds, lizards, frogs, and the like, they are even
less mischievous, though the AVater-Shrew makes an occa-
sional raid on fish and their spawn. They are normally of
dark colour, but albinos have been recorded from time to
time in the columns of the ' Field,' both of the Common
species in Great Britain and of the Lesser in Ireland.

The Common Shrew is widely distributed throughout
Great Britain and some of the Scottish isles, but is not
Common found in Ireland. It has the fighting instincts
Shrew. ^f j^g j-ace ; and the quantities of dead shrews
found in country lanes in late summer might easily be
attributed to this cause, were it not that they bear on
them no outward signs of violence. As it is, this singular
mortality remains without satisfactory expla-
nation. The shrew has many enemies. By
man, curiously enough, it is but little troubled, which may
in part be due to its retiring habits, though formerly a

very cruel and
ridiculous super-
stition that its
touch was suf-
ficient to lame
cattle led to its
persecution and
the barbarous
antidote of the
" shrew ash," in Avhich the offender was buried alive,
imparting to the wood, so it was said, marvellous healing
qualities. It is, however, largely consumed
by owls and moles, while cats kill but do not
eat it, a habit tliat has been thought by some to account
for the dead shrews aforementioned.

Mortality,

Enemies

THE INSECTIVOKA. 45

The shrew breeds in the spring, the young, which number

from five to eight, being born in July or August in an un-

derground nest made of dry grass and leaves.^

The shrews are all of more or less nocturnal

habits, but, unlike the mole, they find their food at the

surface, and consequently, instead of displacing the soil,

their runs are made in the grass, much as those of fish and

waterfowl in the reeds in Broadland. They

become torpid in winter, their sleep being

more perfect than that of bats, and rarely, if ever, disturbed

by any unusual rise in temperature.

The colour of the Common Shrew is usually reddish

above and grey beneath. Its most distinctive

PP^rance, fg^ture is the short, bristly, four-sided tail.

Like all the group, it secretes an unpleasant

odour in lateral glands concealed by long hairs.

Of the Lesser Shrew little need be said beyond the

interesting fact in its distribution that, while less common

Lesser in England, it replaces the larger shrew in

Shrew. Ireland and the Hebrides. The forearm is

Distribution, relatively shorter than in the latter, the teeth

being also more minute.

The Water Shrew is a rapid swimmer and powerful
"Water diver, the fur keeping comparatively dry when
Shrew, immersed. It does not occur in Ireland.
Its food consists, like that of the others, chiefly of
insects, caddis among the rest ; but it seems admitted that
it has occasionally been caught in the act of
devouring the spawn and fry of game fish.
In turn, it is much persecuted by the weasel, which over-
takes it in the water with ease, and also by pike and, in
Continental rivers, wels.

The female, considerably the smaller of the two, gives

1 The nest is usually in a depression of the ground, but Mr Harting
tells me that it is sometimes found in a clover field, ball-shaped, like
that of the harvest-mouse. This shrew is thought by some to rear a
second litter (see the ' Zoologist,' November 1896, p. 432).

46 MAMMALS.

birth to a litter of from five to eight young in May,
rearing them at the end of a long burrow of her own
digging in a nest of moss and dry grass.

This is the largest of our shrews. The body is broader,

the snout less tapering, the tail more slender than in the

common species, and fringed with white hairs.

ppearance, rpj^^ teeth, of reddish hue at the tips, are

slightly recurved. The fur is black above,
white beneath, as also within the ears.

[The older writers described a fourth shrew, a variety, as
is now well known, of the present species.]

CHAPTER III. THE CARNIVORA.

I. The AVild Cat.

Of the now narrow distribution of the Wild Cat, fiercest
of our surviving carnivora, much has been written, while
its European range is the subject of a most interesting
volume. An additional interest formerly attached to it
by reason of its having been long regarded as the pro-
genitor of our domestic breeds; but this view is now
generally rejected. Nevertheless, the wild and domesti-
cated cats are known to interbreed.

That the wild cat still holds its own, though in dimin-
ishing numbers, in the wilder districts of Argyllshire, in
Lochaber, and the extreme north-west of Scot-
land generally, is beyond all doubt, though
considerable caution is necessary before accept-
ing every reported wild cat as genuine, so many examples
having proved on investigation to be the domestic animal
run wild. Apart from this, there has been confusion, as

THE CARNIVOEA. 47

Harvie-Brown ^ points out, between this creature and the
marten. The same writer refers to its absence from the
Hebrides. Not so many years ago the wild cat survived
farther south. Roebuck^ gives the year 1840 as the date
of its extinction in Yorkshire. Major Fisher -^ saw one in
very bad condition in North Wales. I recollect Sir Her-
bert Maxwell telling me of one said to have been caught
less than fifty years ago in Oxfordshire, and now in a glass
case at Middleton. He has not, however, been able to
verify the date of its capture. From the Lake district it
seems to have vanished half a century ago ; and as it is
undoubtedly a very great nuisance to the farmer and
gamekeeper, it would not be surprising if its extinction in
these islands were to follow closely on the dawn of the
twentieth century. Such folks have no time to devote
much thought to the less practical consideration of the
impoverishment of our mammalian fauna, nor, it must
be confessed, is there much to be said on behalf of this
fierce and voracious beast. It is almost a blessing that
it is so easily trapped, showing very little suspicion of
any baited fall, a little valerian root being, according to
Speedy, sufficient to attract any game-hunting cat. The
wild cat, it is now generally agreed, never occurred in
Ireland.

The young, five or six in number, are born
BrGGtlin"'.

°" in early summer, the lair being either in a

hollow tree or in some deserted badger-earth.

Seen in the museum — and few have nowadays any op-
portunity of seeing it elsewhere — it is a striking animal,
bearing a strong resemblance to the lynx,
ppearance, rpj^^, body gives the impression of combined

strength and immense activity, and is well
balanced by the bushy tail, which is proportionately far
shorter than in the domestic cat. In colour it seems from
all accounts to vary considerably, the type being yellow

1 Fauna of Argyll, p. 11. '- Yorkshire Vertebrata, p. 5.

3 Outdoor Life in England, p. 4.

MAMMALS.

with darker bands, and having l)lack rings on the tail and
a black line along the back. The soles of the feet are
black.

2. The Fox.

In the Fox we have a beast of peculiar interest, which is

chiefly due to the fact that the amusement afforded by its

pursuit has invested it in this country with an altogether

disproportionate importance, in consequence of which it is

strictly protected at the expense of the farmer

ro ec ion. ^^^ game - preserver, whose birds it destroys
wholesale. But for this artificial protection, there is every

reason to suppose that it would have followed the wild
cat, and survive only in the waste mountains of North
Britain.

As its pace and endurance endear it to the hunting-man,
so does the naturalist find much to interest him in its
sagacity. It is not easy, indeed, to be quite sure where
this sagacity stops short; in literature, at
any rate, it goes great lengths, and the fox
is represented in the folk-lore of all nations as invariably
getting the better cT other creatures, both weaker and
stronger than itself. Among the many dodges by which

Sagacity,

THE CARNTVORA. 49

it has been alleged to outwit its more j^owerful adversaries
is that of feigning death (hence known as " foxing "), a
habit commonly observed in the Australian dingo ; but
few hunting -men appear to believe this, none to have
seen it.

The accomplishments of this much -hunted animal in
making good its escape are many and varied. It is swift
of foot, can on very rare occasions clamber up a tree out of
reach of the hounds, and will even, when hard pressed by
them, take to the water and swim with great ease and at
considerable speed. It also fouls the scent, and is even
said to roll in manure with this object. In the recent floods
in the Fen Country (1897) foxes were, however, reduced
to such straits, more especially on the various temporary
islands, as to become quite tame. This shows that these
animals are not by nature fitted for long distances in the
water, choosing it only in preference to the more certain
death behind. A case was, how^ever, not long since re-
ported in which a vixen reared a litter on an islet, travers-
ing several hundred yards of water every few hours to
procure food for the family. A good deal of this so-called
cunning in seeking sanctuary, some interesting examples
of which were enumerated in a recent issue of the ' English
Illustrated Magazine,' may in fact be attributed to the
desperation to which the terrified beast is reduced. It
would be too much to think that it stopped to argue to
itself whether or not the hounds would follow it into that
favourite and oft-quoted asylum, the old woman's apple-
cart.

Though known to excavate now and again the earth in

which, curled up like all dogs, it passes the day, and in

the hills frequenting heaps of fallen rocks, it more often

appropriates the burrow of the badger, so foul-
<< Earths," . . .

ing it that the real owner has — being, for all

the popular estimate of its offensive odour, a fastidious

beast — no more taste for it. Were the intruder not to

adopt some such plan, indeed, it would probably be

In Scotland.

50 MAMMALS.

evicted, making a very poor show against the teeth of
the badger.

An interesting contrast is furnished between the sleek
red fox of the hunting counties and the finer grey race
of the Highlands. In England, the shooting of a fox is
regarded as an act of heresy, and excites obloquy such as
falls on the man who in riding country in India shall dare
to shoot a wild boar. Sport has its unwritten laws, and
they are respected a deal more than some others enacted in
less uncertain phrase. In Scotland, however, these sturdy
" greyhounds " are shot and trapped without
mercy. Attempts have from time to time
been made to transplant them to the low countries ; but
th-ey show to greater advantage amid their native hills,
giving but a poor run on the flat, and showing an irre-
pressible tendency to get back to the hills. Attention has
also been called quite recently to the large introduction of
German foxes into Bedfordshire, and the farmers have
been loud in their condemnation.

The food of the healthy fox is very varied, in fact it is
almost omnivorous, readily accommodating itself to circum-
stances. Where furred game is available, it
undoubtedly prefers it ; but poultry is always
acceptable ; and hedgehogs, rats, mice, and even beetles, are
often made the best of. On the sea-shore, foxes are known
to prowl, especially after a storm, for the crustaceans and
molluscs thrown up ; and among other jetsam, ambergris is
said to be highly appreciated. Mangy foxes, which feed
more on poultry than on rabbits, are most harmful in a
district, and are greatly dreaded by huntsmen on account
of infection. The mange spreads to the badgers, and even
to the rabbits, of the neighbourhood.

From three to five cubs are born in the latter part of

April ; but the most interesting question in connection

with the breeding of this animal is its relations

iwg- ^\\\^ domestic dogs. That crosses (known as

" cocktails ") do occur there can be little doubt, but the

THE CARNIYORA. 51

subject is one that requires considerable investigation before
the extent of their breeding can be satisfactorily estimated.
The cubs remain blind for some days after birth.

Little need be added as to the appearance of so familiar
an animal. Few creatures alter their appearance more

under different conditions. The lithe, snake-
ppearan^e, j^^ body gives, when seen sneaking away

along the ground, a very different impression
from its appearance when flying before the hounds, where
the observer can appreciate the use of the slender legs and
the steering power of the bushy tail, which has sometimes
a conspicuous white tip. Unlike the larger grey fox of the
Highlands, our race is of an almost uniform reddish hue
with variable grey markings, underparts white, as also the
extremity of the tail, some black on the head and legs. The
pointed muzzle, oblique eyes "\^dth elliptical pupils, and
tapering ears, always erect, are all sufficiently familiar fea-
tures. The characteristic scent ^ is secreted in a gland be-
neath the tail. The white " tag " is no indication of sex.

3. The ]\Iartex and its Allies.

The Pine Marten, another of our rapidly diminishing

beasts, is still known to breed in the Peak country and in

Pine parts of Wales, and one was said to have been

Marten, obtained in Leicestershire as recently as last

year. It also holds its own in a few wild parts of the

Highlands, and was seen in Argyllshire last year, though

of late years it has sensibly diminished, and

has disappeared altoa;ether from some of the
range. . .

islands where it was formerly not uncommon.
In parts of Ireland, especially in Kilkenny, the "marten
cat " is not scarce.

1 Lord Coventry, in the course of his article on Fox-hunting in the
* Encyclopaedia of Sport, ' points out an interesting fact known to
hunting-men, and that is, that the scent is certain to be poor on days
when gossamer is observed floating in the air.

MA]MMALS.

Food.

Essentially, for all its partly webbed feet, a tree-haunt-
ing species, the marten feeds almost entirely,
save for an occasional relapse to such humble
fare as wild honey, on birds and squirrels, which it pur-
sues among the
branches. Though
it is known to de-
scend periodically
to the ground to
vary its diet with
game and rabbits,
there is reason to
believe that its
offences in this
direction are ex-
aggerated.
Like all its tribe, it can get over the ground very rapidly,
advancing with sidelong leaps.

More than one litter is brought forth in the year, the
first, numbering three or four, appearing some
time in April, in an old squirrel's drey appro-
priated for the purpose.

The brown fur is long and glossy, the ears round and

hairy. The underparts are of yellowish hue, and there is a

conspicuous patch of the same on the throat.

^^^'Tc''°''^' "^^^^ ^^^^^^ becomes deepest on the tail, which
terminates in a brush. This species lacks the
offensive odour of some of its relatives.

[The Beech, or Stone, Marten never existed in these
islands, save in books and menageries.]

Breeding.

The Polecat is the largest and the worst smelling of our

weasels, the scent being secreted in an anal pouch, and at

Polecat or o^^ce impregnating everything with which it

Foumart, comes in contact. The foumart (foul marten),

as it is therefore appropriately called in the North Country,

is of somewhat restricted distribution, it having become

THE CARNIVORA. 53

rarer and rarer throughout these islands, until neighbour-
hoods where it was till com23aratively recent years not
uncommon, now know it no longer. Accord-
ing to Messrs Harvie-Brown and Buckley, it
never occurred in the Hebrides. To Ireland it is not
indigenous.

Any kind of live food seems acceptable to this voracious
beast, among its favourite items being poultry, ducks,
rabbits, and young game-birds, frogs, toads,
and even eels, a picture of a polecat with a
large eel in its jaws figuring in the " Naturalist's Library,"
in Mr Lydekker's volume on 'British Mammals.' There
would be nothing remarkable in its taking eels, since they
will often wriggle through the wet grass from one water to
another, besides which the polecat is a powerful swimmer.
Most of its hunting is done by night, but one was shot in
broad daylight when pursuing something in a hedge on a
private property (July 1893) in Suffolk.

The female brings forth five or six young in early
summer, rearing them in some rabbit-burrow.

In colouring, this animal is of a uniform dark brown,
some of the longer fur being almost black. White mark-
ings are present on the sides of the head and near the
mouth. The bushy tail is shorter than that
Appearance, ^^ ^^^ marten. Maximum weight, about

6 lb.
[The Ferret is merely a domesticated variety of the j^ole-
cat, from which it is easily distinguished by its inferior
size and the lighter colour of the fur. Never-
theless, escaped ferrets are continually re-
ported as genuine polecats. The ferret, as is the case with
most domesticated races, multiplies much more rajjidly
than its wild relative, the litter numbering as many as
eight or nine, and a second litter being frequently pro-
duced.]

The Stoat, or Ermine, is not more than two-thirds the

MAMMALS.

Change of
coat.

size of the last, yet often confounded in parts of York-
shire.^

The most interesting point in connection with this
member of the tribe is its seasonal change of coat. In
Stoat or summer-time, when it is known in the Fen
Ermine. Country as " lobster," its coat is reddish-
brown ; in winter, however, this is replaced (whether by
fresh growth or by actual colour-change in the fur itself
was long a disputed point) by almost uniform
white, only the extreme tip of the tail retain-
ing its blackness. It is now generally ad-
mitted that this protective colouring is brought about by
the growth of new fur, and not, as formerly averred, by

the effect of the
fall in temperature
on the colour of its
summer coat. The
change is observed
to be less complete
in the milder win-
ters of our south-
ern counties, there
being permanent
dark patches about the head and back. In autumn, there
is an intermediate pied stage.

Unfortunately for the beast, the mingled black-and-white
fur has long been in special demand for the linings of State
robes ; and though the fur, even in Highland
examples, of our ermines is not of sufficient
beauty for the market, in Northern Europe and Asia the
little animals are persecuted wholesale, their pursuit having
led to the opening up of a deal of the interior of Siberia.
The stoat is an unmitigated nuisance in the hen-house
and game-preserve. It is an accomplished
swimmer, and its movements on land, includ-
ing the sideling leaps so characteristic of the family to which

1 Eagle-Clarke and Roebuck, Yorkshire Vertebrata, p. 7.

Fur.

As vermin.

THE CAENIVORA. 55

it belongs, are exceedingly rapid, so that it can run down

a rabbit, as I have more than once seen it do, without

difficulty. It is said to leap on its victim's back ; but I

never saw this, my experience being rather that the rabbit,

half stupefied by fear, was easily dragged down

by the ear after a very short chase. The
prey. *' "^ .

squeals of the unfortunate rabbit on such oc-
casions are piercing, and seem different from its ordinary
voice. The stoat is also known to ascend trees after birds
and their eggs. In the fall of the year, stoats wander in
packs, and are then said to attack even man, but I do not
remember ever coming across an authenticated instance of
this.

Five or six young (as many as eight have been recorded)
are born in spring.

The stoat is widely distributed in these islands, its
range extending to the Hebrides. Some naturalists pre-
fer to distinguish the smaller Irish stoat,
° ' which is said to exhibit some slight varia-
tion in colouring.

In appearance it is not unlike its larger relative, the
polecat, though its length is, with the tail, fully one-fourth
less. In connection with the aforementioned winter change
of coat, it is of interest to note that stoats have been
found in the southern counties in their winter
ppearance, ^^^^ ^^ mid-summer. At considerable alti-
tudes they retain, as might be expected, the
white coat throughout the year.

The Weasel is the smallest British member of the group.

Of wide distribution throughout the mainland of Great
Britain, it is apparently unknown in Ireland
and the smaller isles. The so-called " weasel "

of Ireland is the stoat. ^ In the Xorth, the weasel is known

1 The absence of the true weasel from Irehand has been denied by
many gentlemen in the ' Field ' and ' Zoologist ' ; but, as the tJien
editor (Mr Harting) of the last-named magazine once had occasion to
remark, the promised skins of Irish weasels were never forthcoming.

56 MAMMALS.

as the "Whittret" ( = Whitethroat). The food of this
species consists chiefly of the brains of rats, mice, and moles,
all of which are seized by the head, the brains
sucked, and the body left. The alleged habit
of blood - sucking is discredited by many. AVhen hard
pressed, these animals will eat carrion, and are at times
partial to eggs, though these belong for the most part to
wild birds that nest in trees and not to game-birds. They
are also known to swim in pursuit of water-voles.

These animals, though mostly feeding at night, are
frequently met with in daylight ; and I came across two
in the same week a few miles out of Winchester.

The greatest enemies of the weasel are the larger birds
of prey ; and it is said to get the better of even the larg-
est occasionally, clinging to their throat and
bringing them back to earth faint from loss
of blood. I have seen one carried up by a partridge, but
the ascent was brief, the descent rapid, and the death of
the stoat, brought about by a keeper who had no respect
for the fact that "nature is one with rapine," the immedi-
ate sequel.

The weasel nests in some bank or hollow tree, and is

prolific, the litter numbering from four to six. The

alleged rearing of a second, or even third,

litter appears to rest on scanty evidence.

The weasel is less striking in appearance than its British

relatives. The tail, more particularly, is inconspicuous,

head small, neck long and muscular, body

ppearance, j^igQ^j^^j. ^y^^ arched. In colour, it is usually

reddish above, white below. A winter change
of coat is occasionally observed, but the 2>henomenon is of
irregular occurrence.

[Bell and other early writers alluded to a smaller species,
an error apparently arising from the great variation in size
to which the female is especially liable.]

If appearance went for much in zoological classification,

THE CAKNIVORA.

we might well be tempted with the older naturalists to
press the relationship of the Badger with the extinct
British bear. The heavy gait, short legs, and
^^^" hairy body, all lend it at least as much resem-
blance to the true bears as that possessed by the so-called
bear of Australia. Appearances, however, go for very

J-

^•Ot-

little, and more reliable characters link the badger with
the weasels and otter, though the resemblance be exter-
nally slight.

The "brock," or "grey," as it is called in the provinces,
where the former survives in a number of place-names, is
often spoken of as on the verge of extinction, a notion

partly due to its nocturnal and retiring habits,
scarcity ^^ ere it in the habit of seeking its food by

day, so large a beast — an old dog-badger may
weigh anything up to 40 lb. — could not long escape obser-
vation and the persecution that invariably accompanies it.
As it is, it suffers a good deal of unnecessary cruelty.

Not many years ago, the sport of baiting the

badger, otherwise exjjosing it in a greased
barrel to the onslaught of rough terriers and mongrels,
which eventually, and after undergoing much punishment

Persecution.

58 MAMMALS.

from its terrible jaws, worried it to death, was a recognised
diversion. This pastime is believed by some to be obso-
lete. Others are curious to know what becomes of the
large number of badgers openly caught on moonlight nights
by bolting with the help of trained dogs into a sack placed
in the entrance to its earth. The great care exercised in
taking it alive may well arouse suspicion as to the unhappy
beast's ultimate destination.

Another modern method of taking the badger is that
of digging it out with the aid of small dogs sent into its

earth, and gripping it, as soon as it appears
capture ^^ ^^® entrance, in a pair of blunt tongs made

for the purpose. Here, again, the extreme
solicitude with which I have observed it on these occasions
to be transferred to a roomy sack has suggested ultimate
possibilities. There has been at least one badger club
engaged in its pursuit.

The food of this burrowing and undoubtedly carnivorous
beast is exceedingly varied, and includes roots of bracken,

nuts, fruit, more especially blackberries, small

mammals (especially hedgehogs), and reptiles,
grasshoppers and other insects, eggs and honey, wasps'
nests being also a favourite dish. With the exception of
an occasional leveret, its damage in the game-preserve may
be generally dismissed as imaginary. Thus, Sir Herbert
Maxwell has with no unsatisfactory results re-established
it in Wigtownshire, where it had become extinct. Speedy,-^
however, in his interesting book, declares it to be "the
most formidable and difficult of ground vermin to deal
with," but very sensibly advocates, instead of its wholesale
destruction, its being caught alive and conveyed to those
parts of the country where game-preserving is not the
paramount consideration. It is, however, too often killed
at sight. Only this spring (1897) a Yorkshire farmer
killed with a blow from his stick a fine vixen weigh-
ins 20 lb.

Sport ill the Highlands, p, 320.

THE CAENIVOKA. 59

The strong scent of the badger is secreted in a large
glandular pouch beneath the tail.

For so heavily built an animal, it is singularly swift of

foot, though it has not, as some aver, legs of unequal

length to enable it to run uphill. When escape from the

dogs is out of the question, its strongly articulated lower

jaw and sharp teeth encourage it to stand

disposition ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^^ good account of itself.
It is nevertheless extremely gentle by nature,
and is, when taken young, capable of great affection for
the hand that feeds it. A friend and myself kept one for
nearly a year, which preferred young rats to any other
food. At the end of that time it died, and I remember
we thought at the time that its decease was due to the
absence from its diet of some necessary corrective root of
which we unfortunately did not know the secret. The
badger is as a rule a silent beast, but it will occasionally
utter piercing cries without apparent cause.

The distribution of the badger in these islands is some-
what local. As already remarked, its burrowing and
nocturnal habits have caused it to be regarded as rarer
than it really is. In the Lake district, however, it cer-
tainly does appear to have diminished of late
Present range. "^ ^ ^ t ,

years, though correspondingly extending its

range in other directions. According to Roebuck,^ it is also
dwindling in Yorkshire. By no means rare in the High-
lands, where it hibernates, it is apparently unknown on most
of the islands, though introduced into Jura.^ It is com-
mon in parts of Ireland, where the peasantry cure its flesh.
It breeds in the spring, four young being born in March
Breedino- ^^ April as a rule, though litters are recorded
hiberna- in the summer. The period of gestation is
tion, and said to vary. Its hibernation is no more
appearance. ^^^^^ ^ broken sleep, for, although it stores
a quantity of moss and grass in its so-called winter

1 Yorkshire Vertebrata, p. 7.

2 Ilarvie- Brown and Buckley, Fauna of Argyll, p. 18.

60 MAMMALS.

quarters, yet at no season is it torpid, in this country at
least, in the true sense of the word. The prevailing colour
of the badger is reddish -brown, with white streaks and
white stripes on the face. Unless, however, the observer
is close, the animal looks uniform grey.

We have in the Otter another much persecuted member
of the family, for which, although perhaps the most beau-
tiful of our surviving quadrupeds, even its
admirers cannot in lairness claim innocence
of the charges brought against it. In the fox we had
a beast preserved, notwithstanding the hatred of the
farmer, for the sake of sport. In the otter we find a
curious contradiction, for whereas it affords sj^ort to a
limited number of enthusiasts, it equally spoils the pros-
pects of many a good salmon-stream. In consequence, it
is mercilessly slaughtered, and the most one can hope for
is, that it shall be killed in a manner worthy such a sport-
ing beast, and not trapped or j)oisoned. To those who
have no such direct interest in the stock of the rivers, few
creatures lend more enchantment to the scene ; and there is
that in the otter's fiute-like whistle that makes the angler,
if he be not the veriest pot-hunter, pause and listen.

The distribution of the otter throughout these islands is

universal. Pollution has driven it from some rivers where

it was formerly plentiful, and the draining of the fens has

sent it to the Broads ; but it still flourishes in most parts

of Great Britain and Ireland, on the wilder coasts of

which, especially down in the west, otters remain alto-

^. , ., , . erether, seldom revertinsf to the inland waters.
Distribution. 2,, c ^ c i • i

These must not, of course, be confused with

the larger (and generically distinct) sea-otter of the North

Pacific. Otters are particularly abundant in the lochs and

streams of the Scotch isles, in writing of which Harvie-

Brown and Buckley ^ give a spirited account of the

animal's " holt," as its lair in the bank is called.

1 Fauna ol' Argyll, p. 17.

THE CAKXIVORA. 61

Though a fish-eater by preference, most of its poaching

being done at night, it is occasionally driven by the scarcity

_ , of its favourite food to levy toll on rabbits
Food. ^ , 1 j^ 1 . 1 . ,

and poultry ; but such raids are comparatively

rare, and it is in its character as fish-poacher that the
otter is detested. Among the other creatures on which
it feeds with avidity are moorhens, which it captures by
ambush, frogs and crayfish. Of all these it is particularly
fond ; and when its native stream ceases to furnish it with
any of these in sufficient quantity, it migrates elsewhere,
even finding its way down to the sea-coast, where, much
like the fox, it picks up a living on crabs and other
jetsam. I know of several caves down near the Lizard
where these animals have made a temporary home. In
one instance, several years ago, I recollect a prolonged
storm causing the death of one of these refugees; but
whether it was starved to death, or whether an unusually
high wave dashed it against a sharp rock, I never dis-
covered. At any rate, my boatman picked its emaciated
body up on a little beach just within the entrance, and its
remains were respectfully lowered in a crab-pot, where they
did good service for many days.

Like so many of our wild creatures which in earlier days
found their proffered confidence sorely abused, the otter,
having grown shy, is regarded as much rarer
*. ^ than is really the case. Few people, compara-
tively speaking, unless they live beside some
stream, have watched this singularly beautiful creature
catching or devouring its prey, or, better still, gambol-
ling with its young. The crown of its head disappearing
at the apex of diverging ripples, as the w^ary creature
swims rapidly away to the other bank, is the utmost that
is vouchsafed to many a patient watcher. Nor are the
In captivity. opi)ortunities for studying it in captivity
very much better, for it is, in most zoological
gardens, kept in a half-starved condition, its slender dole
of fish being seized and devoured in hasty and unnat-

62 MAMMALS.

ural fashion, so that the impression that the visitor
carries away with him is that of a restless, cat-like, some-
what noisome creature, with even less claim to beauty
than a skunk. In reality, however, whether reclining on
its unsavoury lair with a half-devoured fish between its
forepaws, ever on the alert for danger, or hunting up
the fish beneath the surface, the air-bubbles imparting a
beautiful silvery appearance to its fur, not unlike their
effect on the plumage of diving-birds, the otter presents

a most fascinating picture. The lithe form,
In nature. . .

smooth fur, rudder-like tail, short legs, and

large webbed feet, all have their part to i^lay. Though
seen to greatest advantage in the water, the otter is by no
means an ungraceful animal on land, and the pace at which
it can run over the earth, be it hard or swampy, is marvel-
lous. It is not many years since a large otter was run
over by a passing train near Market Drayton.

The worst habit of this creature, and one w^hich has
doubtless gained more enemies for it than

rue ive- ^ other, is its mischievous practice of kill-
ness, . .

ing more than it can eat, a wanton spirit of

destructiveness that recalls the Australian dingo in its
palmy days. The otter has not many natural enemies,
though a recent Continental writer^ gives a graphic ac-
count of a combat between two otters and a sea-eagle.

The " holt " of the otter is in some convenient hole in
the bank, and the young, four or five in number, are born in

_ ,. the summer, not, as frequently stated, in early

Breeding. . , . •, ^ -, ^

spring, at which season the dam has not even

thought about making ready the bed for the coming family.
The otter is a larger beast than would seem to be com-
monly supposed. In weight the dog, or male,
ppearance, commonly turns the scale at from 20 to 25
lb. ; 28 lb. is scarcely an exceptional weight,
while one of 40 lb. has been recorded. The body of the

1 Von Mosjvar, Das Thierleben Jer osterr-ungar Tiefebeuen (1897),
p. 228.

THE CAEXIYORA. 63

otter is elongated and sinuous, the head flattened, as is
also the tail, the latter being thickest at the root, and
having beneath it two fetid glands. The eyes are small
and exceedingly bright, the ears short and rounded, the
muzzle broad and ornamented with sensitive whiskers, the
latter typical of the carnivora. Further, the nostrils are
narrow, and close hermetically under water. The snout is
so sensitive that a smart tap on it will kill or stun the
animal. In colour the soft under-fur is pale grey, shading at
the tip to brown ; the longer, coarser fur is of darker hue.
The narrowness of the gullet has also attracted notice, and
is thought to aid the otter in keeping under water without
too frequently rising to breathe.

4. The Seals.

Our coasts are visited by five seals and the walrus, the
latter differing in the position of the hind-limbs and the
possession of tusks, overgrown canines without root. The
horrors of the Behring Sea butchery, still fresh in the
public mind, roused considerable interest in these fur-
bearing, fin -footed amphibians. The com-
mercially useless seals of British estuaries are
slain whenever occasion offers, out of regard for their
destruction of salmon. For the greater part of the year
they subsist on flounders.

Though separated from the true carnivora, there are
many points of outward resemblance between these crea-
tures and the otter, the chief difference lying in the limbs,
which in the seals are modified as flippers to suit the
requirements of an aquatic existence. Of the breeding
season of this group, writers and travellers give various
^ accounts, some species apparently bringing
forth their young in the early spring, others
in late autumn. One point there seems, however, to be
in common between the young of all seals, and that is the
whiteness of their fur in the early days or weeks of their

64 MAMMALS.

existence, and the curious reluctance with which many of
them take to the water until driven to it by their parents.
~No British seal has either external ears or under-fur, and
it is in consequence of the latter deficiency that none has
any commercial value whatever.

The Common Seal is nowadays confined for the most part

to the northern estuaries, though I have twice come across

Common solitary examples on the Cornish coast. Not

Seal. jj^ ^-^Q ordinary course a strictly migratory

species, it nevertheless occasionally finds its way up the

river Thames, where it is promptly shot by some riverside

loafer, and reappears a few weeks later grinning against

an unnatural background from the farther side of a glass

case. A similar fate befell one a year or two ago .above

Conway Bridge in Wales. Harvie-Brown and Buckley ^

mention the occurrence of this seal in Loch Awe, and

quote a case in Loch Suinart in which one took a small

coal-fish off a hook.^

The common seal breeds on our northern coast in the

_ -,. summer ; one, or at most two, would seem to

Breeding. ^ ' . '

be produced at a birth, and some females are
said to breed only in alternate years. This species is of
gregarious habits.

1 Fauna of Argyll, p. 21. 2 Hjja., p. 24.

THE CAENIVORA. 65

The head and face are small, the molar teeth growing
Appearance, obliquely for want of room. In colour brown-
^^- ish grey with dark-brown spots ; belly lighter

and without spots.

The Einged Seal is a rare visitor on our coasts, though
sufficiently common among the Norwegian fjords, where

Kinged its blowhole is often seen in the young ice.

Seal. rpj-^-g species is said to have occurred on our

east coast within the last ten years. It does not breed on
our coasts. The teeth do not lie obliquely as in the last.

The Harp Seal, a large, migratory, and gregarious
species, is one of the worst destroyers of salmon. It oc-
Harp casionally enters our rivers, having been taken
Seal. jjj ^]je Thames and the Severn, and has been
once at least recorded from the Irish coast. In colour it is
of a dark grey, having on the back a curious black mark,
to the supposed form of which it owes its trivial name.

The Hooded Seal is named from the bladder-like process

over the snout of the male, which, when inflated by the

Hooded animal, in either anger or fear, assumes the

Seal. form of a hood. This species, which is said to

be of polygamous habits, finds its way but rarely to our

coasts.

The Grey Seal is easily distinguished froin the foregoing
by its flat skull, and is fairly common on the less fre-
quented tracts of the north-British and south-Irish coasts,
being well known to breed at the present day among the
Hebrides, but not on the mainland.^ I have seen one or
Grey two of these seals in the Baltic (Christmas
Seal. 1890), but they kept at a safe distance from
the boat from which we were shooting wildfowl.

The Grey Seal is considered to lack the intelligence that

1 Harvie-Brown and Buckley, Fauna of Argyll, p. 27.

66 MAMMALS.

characterises the rest of the family, a deficiency that

is chiefly interesting by reason of its association with

the flat skull and expressionless face. The

• 'Tit ffrindinej teeth are without tubercles,

intelligence. . .

In colour this seal is grey, with numerous
small black markings.

The Walrus, Morse, or Sea-Cow, has only been recorded

in British waters on two or three occasions, yet, like a

number of our birds, it is freely claimed as a
"Walrus. . . . .

British subject. Its food consists largely of

crustaceans. Its fierce disposition, the theme of so many

travellers' tales, must be subject to moods, for Nansen

tells of walruses so gentle that he had to strike them

on the snout with his stick before they would move.

Doubtless Nansen's walruses had not yet benefited by the

educating influence of contact with man. The appearance

of the walrus is certainly suggestive of ferocity, especially

the long tusks and bristling moustache.

CHAPTER IV. THE RODEXTS.

This large and important group, of which four families

are represented in our fauna, is easily distinguished from

any other by the presence of a pair of curved

enamelled incisors in either jaw. These teeth

are ever growing and ever wearing down by friction.

Cases are recorded in which, owing to either accident or

malformation, one pair has grown unchecked into the

opposite jaw, soon causing the death of the animal from

starvation. These creatures are, from the
As vermin. n i - n i ^

nature of their food, among the worst enemies

of the agriculturist and planter, the squirrel ring-barking

THE KODENTS.

the young trees, ^ the rats and voles devastating the crops.
Plagues of the latter occur periodically, when the rejjrisals
are enormous, tens of thousands paying the penalty.

I. The Squikrel.

The Scjuirrel is certainly the most 2)leasing of our
rodents, its antics in the higher branches of beech or fir
tree being extremely fascinating. It apjDcars
to be widely distributed over the greater part
of these islands, and is extending its range in Scotland,

Range.

from parts of which it had temporarily disappeared. In
the New Forest it is particularly plentiful, and I have
more than once seen it in gardens and on bypaths in the
very heart of Bournemouth.

Unlike its distant connection, the dormouse, the squirrel
never falls into a state of torpor, though it is compara-

1 The damage done to trees by squirrels was discussed at some length
in the ' Times ' this year (1897), some correspondents giving evidence
of their girdling the trunk several feet from the top, while others stated
that their gravest offence was eating out the Luds, letting the twigs fall
to the ground.

G8 MAMMALS.

tively inactive in very severe cold. The food of this

animal is, more especially in the warm months, exceed-

„ , inorly varied, includincr cherries and other stone
Food. p . T 1

fruits, nuts, beech-mast, certain toadstools, and,

according to one authority, daffodils, though I never came

across an instance of this. True, I once succeeded in

inducing a captive squirrel to eat one of these flowers,

having read of this strange preference ; but the success of

this experiment goes for little, as the animal would in all

j^robability have accepted with equal readiness a blossom

of the Australian lily, such as neither it nor its forebears

had ever in the natural course had the chance of tasting.

Like all the rodents, the squirrel masticates its food with

a peculiarly free movement of the jaws. During the

winter, at which season its appetite is less active, the

squirrel subsists on nuts which it has stored in holes in

trees. In addition to these, its favourite articles of food,

the squirrel will also feed on birds and their eggs. This

is one of our most active quadrupeds, and, indeed, exercise

seems to be essential to its wellbeing. Without, therefore,

. . advocatinor the casrinsj of so free a creature.
In captivity. . . ^ , ., , ^ ^ , , , , '

it IS permissible to remark that the much-
condemned revolving cages are not in themselves cruel,
since without some such arrangement the animals would
in all probability get seriously out of condition. It is,
however, essential that there should be a stationary dark
box, for there are times when, like all beasts and birds in
captivity, the squirrel finds the glare of daylight unbearable.
The breeding of the squirrel has been the subject of
some errors. In point of fact, it presents no great diffi-
^ ,. culty. Its "drey" or " casre " is built in a

hole, or in a fork, in some beech or fir, and
a number of these bulky structures are found in an
unoccupied, half - finished condition. The young, three
or four in number, are brought forth in summer, and
in a comparatively short time they appear to mate and
breed in their turn.

THE RODENTS. 69

The external features of this little animal are suffici-
ently familiar to render any description unnecessary. The

arched body, bushy tail, rounded head, and
ppearauce, prominent eyes, the ears surmounted by tufts

of hair, the long, curved claws in which the
animal grasps the refractory nut, — all these are unmis-
takably the squirrel's. In colour, which is subject to
considerable variation according to season, it is usually
reddish above and white on the underparts. In winter
there is a good deal of grey in the coat. The tail has
in some cases been observed to be of a creamy yellow at
all seasons, and not, as Bell had it, in late summer only.
During the breeding season the ear -tufts are shed, and
are not renewed until the late autumn. The Squirrel is
a rai^id swimmer, and Mr J. G. Millais has in his latest
work ^ given a striking picture of its action in the water.

2. The Dormouse.

The dormouse is widely distributed over the south of
England, though apparently unknown in the Highlands
and in Ireland. Though physically far nearer the mice, this
little animal bears in its general mode of existence, in its
choice of food and methods of eating and storing it, a
marked resemblance to the squirrel, the chief differences
in habit being found in the nocturnal activity of the dor-
mouse and in its regular hibernation. For,
Hibernatiou. ^^^ .^ • i • i i • • i

unlike the squirrel, it slumbers intermittently

for almost six months out of the twelve, though the first
mild day suffices to awaken it, when it promptly feeds on
its stored nuts, and slumbers again. Though October is the
season at which most dormice fall asleep, it is observed
that those of the year go into retirement somewhat later.
When awakened artificially from its slumber, the dormouse
becomes very active for a short period, then relapses into
slumber, nor does such interference usually have fatal
1 British. Deer and their Horns, p. 44.

MAMMALS.

results, as in the case of bats. The two degrees of torpor
are in fact quite different.

Physically, save in colour, the dormouse bears but slight
resemblance to the squirrel, the most striking difference
being in the poverty of its tail. It is, however, in more

reliable characters
that the student
has to seek the dis-
tinction between
them and the affin-
ity which the mem-
bers of the present
family have with
the mice.

The food of the
dormouse resem-
bles, as already stated, that of the squirrel, but Mr Hart-
ing has noted an interesting difference in the fact that it
is in addition insectivorous. Although it com
sumes, as implied by its specific name, large
quantities of hazel-nuts, other nuts of various kinds seem
to be equally acceptable.

The nest is made in a hole in the ground or in some
tree; and dormice are known to have approj^riated the
nests of jays and like birds, and to rear their
young in them, using the nest at a later date
for the winter slumber, in which, however, the
animal is thickly enveloped in a covering of dry grasses.
The young, three or four in number, are born in spring,
and some writers are of opinion that a second litter is pro-
duced in the autumn, at which season the dormice are very
fat previous to their retirement.

In colouring, the dormouse is not unlike the squirrel,

being reddish above and white on the under-

Appearance, pg^j.^g ^\^q q^j.^^ proportionally smaller than

in the squirrel, are never tufted.

Food.

Nest and
breeding.

THE KODENTS. 71

3. The Rats, Mice, and Voles.

The Black Rat is frequently spoken of as the "British "
rat, implying that it occurred in these islands from the
Black Rat earliest times. Such, however, is far from
or Ratton. the truth, as this species was undoubtedly, as
geologists are able to tell us, of comparatively late intro-
duction. It would appear to have come, like its more
Introduction powerful antagonist, from the East, travelling
into these via the Continent, the period of its arrival
islands. \^ these islands being in all probability about

the end of the fourteenth century. Its stay has been
short, indeed, for within little more than five hundred
years of the date commonly assigned for its introduction
it was already becoming scarce, disappearing before the
superior strength of its brown relative. Now-
rresent adays, it Only lingers in a comparatively few
^ ' towns, and, so at least it is said, in some
London cellars in the neighbourhood of St Paul's, where
one was taken, I believe, as recently as 1895. It is also
said to hold its own in Sark and others of the Channel
Islands; Stockton-on-Tees is, according to Roebuck, one
of its last strongholds in Yorkshire; and Sir Herbert
Maxwell has caught it in Galloway farmyards.

Though associated, like all vermin, in the popular mind

with all that is dirty and offensive, few animals

are of cleanlier habits, for, like other rats, the

present species is always combing its fur and keeping itself

sweet.

The black rat is prolific like the rest of its family, the
female producing during the year an aggregate of from
thirty to fifty young, each litter numbering
reec mg. g^y^j^ qj, eight. The roomy nest of leaves and
debris is used as the nursery of successive families, the first
of which are themselves parents ere their younger brothers
of the same year have seen the light.

72 MAMMALS.

The food of the black rat is varied, though its preference
is unquestionably for vegetable matter.

The rats need little descrijDtion, their typical appearance
being too familiar. In colour the present species has a good
deal of grey in its fur, though its common name
Appearance, ggj^^gg ^^ distinguish it from the other species.
The short lower jaw of the black rat gives the
face a shrew-like expression. The ears are large and naked.
The tail, longer than the head and body, is nearly naked
and ringed with scales. The feet are plantigrade, the hind-
feet with five well-developed toes, the forefeet with four
toes and a rudimentary clawed thumb.

The Brown Rat, easily distinguished by its superior size,
is the rat commonly met with in this country, where it has
all but ousted its smaller black relative, just
as, in the Antipodes, it has driven to extinc-
tion the possibly apocryphal Maori rat of New Zealand.
It is wrongly called the Hanoverian or Norway rat, and
would a23]3ear to have been introduced at the end of the
seventeenth century.

Its food is still more varied than that of the last species,

as it is not only carnivorous at certain seasons, but is also

known to relapse on very slight provocation

into cannibalism. Game, fish, young birds,

eggs, frogs, snails, truffles, and grain, are among the

articles on which it commonly feeds ; and it is also known

to gnaw hard substances from which it could not possibly

derive any nourishment, in the endeavour, possibly, to keep

its teeth worn to the proper level. It is a i^owerful

swimmer, and I remember seeing one night in Sydney

Harbour a large number of these rats leaving a ship,

having in all i)robability exhausted the food suj^ply.

If anything, this species is even more prolific than the

. last, as many as twelve having often been

recorded in one litter, though the number of

THE RODENTS. 73

litters in the year has not, so far as I know, been satis-
factorily determined.

This rat is widely distributed in these islands, there

being a black race from the east coast of Ireland. It is

this race (J/, hihernicus) that occurs, according to Harvie-

Brown and Buckley,^ in the Hebrides, where the true

black rat is unknown. This race has a con-

'^ ' spicuous white patch on the chest.

Besides its superior size, this rat is easily distinguished

from the last by its lighter fur, broader

ppearance, jjj^2zle, shorter ears, and shorter, more hairy

tail.

The Common Mouse needs but a brief mention, since
it is still more familiar than the brown rat. Easily tamed,

Common like the white variety kept as " pets " by boys.

Mouse. i\^Q mouse will grow bold with very little en-
couragement ; and I well recollect how, ten years ago at
Bexley, a tiny mouse used to sit on my foot night after
night as I sat reading late in an outhouse. So bold is
this animal, indeed, as to attack, even in the daytime, large
cage -birds, which it has been known to overcome and
devour. It is prolific, like most noxious creatures, and
probably increasing in spite of owls, cats, traps, and poison.
In former times the Welsh used to roast mice alive over a
slow fire, but this pastime is no longer in favour.

In colour, the mouse is subject to considerable variation,

for all that its tyj)ical shade has passed into a household

word, and ladies would probably be able to

ppearance, (;[gg(.j.^]3g^ qp ^.t any rate distinguish, mouse-
colour to their own satisfaction. The typical
colour is between a grey and a brown. The tail is long
and curling; the muzzle is tapered; the ears large and
sensitive, and fringed with long hairs; the feet furred
and of a delicate pink tint.

1 Fauna of the Outer Hebrides, p. 36a.

Breeclinsr

74 MAMMALS.

The Harvest-Mouse, the smallest of the family, is widely
distributed over the southern counties of England, but

Harvest- rarer in the Midlands, and practically absent

Mouse. from the Lake Country. In Scotland it is very
rare, and in Ireland is all but unknown, though it has from
time to time been reported.

Like the squirrel and dormouse, it burrows, usually
underground or in hay-ricks, sometimes breeding in the
latter. Its diminutive nest is, however, more
often hung among the wheat or thistles, the
long dry grasses of which it is composed being plaited in a
very neat manner round the corn-stalks. Several litters,
each numbering from five to eight, are produced during
the year, the young being blind and less red in colour
than their parents.

The harvest - mouse feeds on grain and insects, and

lays up stores of the former for the winter
Food. -^ ,, ^

months.

It is one of our smallest mammals, only the lesser shrew

being inferior. In colour, reddish brown, with white under-

parts. The tail, rather less than the body, is

ppearance, prehensile, and the little creature continually

winds it around any convenient object in order

to steady itself, as may be observed by taking it in the

hands. It is a curious fact that, like snakes, mice and rats

are, if held by the tip of the tail, head downwards, unable

to recover the upright position, or bite the captor's hand.

[The Yellow - necked Mouse was added to the British
Y 11 fauna by De Winton in 1894. This variety

necked is distinguished by the yellow band on the
Mouse. chest ; is reddish above and white beneath.]

The Wood-Mouse is a large species, of wide distribution
in these islands, where attempts have been made to distin-
guish more than one variety, notably the small dark race

THE PtODENTS. 75

from Ireland, and another from the Outer Hebrides.
The name wood -mouse is not entirely satisfactory, for
Wood- the species is more commonly met with in

Mouse or corn -fields and among the ricks, and has
Field- even been recorded in dwellings. Like the

Mouse. squirrel, this animal becomes inactive, but

not actually torpid, during the cold weather.

The wood-mouse feeds principally on grain, and is one
of the farmer's worst enemies. It also lays up vast stores
of grain in underground granaries. Humble-
bees are said indeed to form a favourite article
of food, but it is improbable that this animal is to any
extent anything but a vegetable-feeder. It has, however,
been known, in common with others of the family, to
eat considerable quantities of putty without apparently
suffering any ill effects. On occasion, too, it has been
known to develop cannibal tastes and to devour its own
offspring — a tendency oftenest observed in the buck shortly
after the young are born.

The wood-mouse is prolific above most of its prolific
race. Some years ago Mr Barrington made a calculation
in the 'Zoologist,' by which he showed that
^' a doe could produce from fifteen to twenty
young in the course of four or five months. Were it not
that this mouse is a favourite article of food wdth ow^ls,
weasels, and foxes, its increase w^ould be an alarming prob-
lem for the farmer. As it is, its numbers are kept well under,
and it rarely makes its presence felt as do the voles. It nests
for the most part, like its fellows, in the ground, but is also
known to rear its young in deserted nests in high trees.

The hind-feet are slender and w^hite, as are all the lower
parts, including the under- surface of the tail, the last
named being about the same length as the
^^ " ' body, or a trifle less. Ears, with a projecting
lobe, not much shorter than the head. In col-
our, reddish above, with a dark patch on the white breast.

76 MAMMALS.

In the voles we have a group distinct from the rats

and mice, and outwardly distinguished by their clumsier

build and shorter ears and tail. Being almost
Water-Vole. , . , , . • , i • p t , i

entirely vegetarian m their leeding, they are

even worse enemies of the farmer.

The Water- Vole is often misnamed " water-rat," though,
as I had occasion to point out in a previous work, water-
rats, so common in Australia, have no place
"w't t" ^^^ ^-^^ British fauna. This false analogy has
possibly been heightened by the fact that the
black race of this vole, common in our eastern counties
and in jjarts of Scotland, is often reported as a genuine
black rat. Like the other voles, this animal is unknown
in Ireland and on some of the Scottish isles.

For all that its toes (of which the fore-feet have four,
the hind-feet five) are not webbed, this vole is a remark-
ably good swimmer, striking out with its hind-legs after the
fashion of a frog. It is also a diver, and will, as I have often
timed it, remain below the surface for more than a minute.

It makes its nest usually in the neighbourhood of

water, but sometimes far from it : and the
IBrBBcIiiif. . . .

°' female appears to bring forth a litter of six

or seven in early summer. A nest of seven dead voles
was found by me this summer on the banks of the little
stream at Felpham in Sussex.

The food of this vole consists almost exclusively of
aquatic plants and insects, principally the former. It
is accused of destroying fish-spawn and water-
fowl, but this is untrue. I watched one quite
recently through my glasses rooting up the gravel in the
bed of the Hampshire Stour, and it was easy to see from
its rapid movements beneath the surface that it was jDur-
suing water-larva3 of some description, as it turned and
doubled in a manner totally unnecessary had it been
merely picking up spawn. As for an animal of such
comparatively sluggish habits catching water -fowl, it
seems difficult to credit.

THE RODENTS. 77

In colour, this vole is dark brown or black above, grey

beneath. A pied vole of this species was recorded in the

* Field' for June 5, 1897. The head is short,

&c^^^*^' *^® ®y®^ small, the ears almost hidden in the

fur. The tail is tapering and of moderate

length only. The toes are not webbed ; the soles are

pink, and the claws have a reddish tinge. The teeth

are yellowish.

The Field- Vole, otherwise the Short-tailed Field-Mouse,
is the most destructive of all, as in the famous "vole-
plagues," the subject of parliamentary in-
quiries (of which Lydekker gave a useful
summary in his ' British jMammals ' in the " Naturalist's
Library"); and the 1892-93 Commission, of which Sir
Herbert Maxw^ell was chairman, brought home most of
the mischief to one species only. Though also found
near water, it is particularly partial to damp localities
at some little distance from any river. It is a great
burrower, and the mischief done by it is almost incal-
culable, though, being a most prolific creature, it is by
no means easy to get rid of. Its best friend is the keeper
who traps weasels and shoots owls, as these natural
enemies are far more efficacious in the long-run than
any device of man. Although a powerful and rapid
burrower, the field-vole does not hesitate to aj^propriate
the deserted run of the mole, though the latter, should
they meet, is known to attack, rout, and even devour the
intruder.

This vole hibernates much in the same way as the

dormouse, any mild day rousing it for a meal
Hibernation. ^y •< • i 1 c, i • t •, i

oil its Winter stores, atter which it relapses

into its long slumber.

It nests underground, several litters, each numbering

four or five, beino; produced during the warm
Breeding. .1

months.

A considerably smaller sj^ecies than the last, the field-

78 MAMMALS.

vole is distinguished by its shorter tail and by the posses-
sion of six 2)ads on the sole of the hind-foot
ppearauce, .^ j^^^ ^£ ^^ ^^ .^ ^-^^ water -vole. The

oCC

colouring is very similar.

The Bank-Vole, or Red Field- Vole, as it is often called,
is another destructive product of our fields and forests.
It seems exceedingly rare in our northern counties, and
is absent from Ireland and probably from
the extreme north of Scotland. It is distin-
guished by the tail being nearly black above and white
beneath, and covered with hair. The rudimentary thumb

of the fore-foot is also more conspicuous. In

Appearance, i. c 2.^ j. xi,- • •

^^. ' many parts or the country this species is

scarcely distinguished from the field - vole.

In colour reddish above, white beneath.

4. The Hares and Rabbits.

The chances of the Hare increasing beyond bounds are
slight. For although it is exceedingly prolific, although it
is swift of foot, quick to scent danger, gifted
with eyes so placed as almost to see behind
as well as before, and, more important than all, j^ro-
tected to some extent, though all too little, for purposes
of legitimate sport, yet its natural enemies are so many
and so voracious that its numbers are always certain to
be kept under. At the same time, the foregoing influ-
ences cannot but work powerfully in its favour ; and
when all is said and done, no beast, after the fox, has
a better chance of survival, though the numbers are by
no means what they were.

Yet its distribution is interesting by reason of the almost
unaccountable rate at which its numbers are,
in some districts like the New Forest, steadily
decreasing.

Except for their general form and affinities, few animals

THE RODENTS.

SO closely allied could well present more jioints of differ-
ence than the hare and rabbit, from their birth and life
Contrasted habits to the time when they figure at length
Avith the on the table, and the flesh is so different in

rabbit. colour and otherwise as to suggest two animals

of totally distinct orders.

In the first place, the young of the hare, or "leveret,"
as it is called, is born in a comparatively advanced state.

its eyes being open and its body sparsely furred, whereas
that of the rabbit is born blind and naked. Again, the
hare is a larger beast, and its ears have cons]:)icuous black
tips rarely found in those of the rabbit. Lastly, while the
weaker, slower rabbit is forced to pass the greater part of
its life underground in burrows of its own digging, the hare
crouches close on a " form " or shallow depression in the
ground, in which position it may, with some little practice,
be closely approached.

80 MAMMALS.

The hare has also several peculiar habits which are not

observed in its smaller relative. For instance, it has a

Curious foolish trick of doubling back to its form,

habits when or starting - place, when pursued, which does

pursued. -^q^ avail it in the least when two greyhounds

are after it, the one driving it into the jaws of its rival.

Another instinct observed in the hare is that of escaping
uphill, a performance in which, especially for very short
distances, it is aided by the fact of the fore-legs being con-
siderably shorter than the others. This discrepancy may
possibly account for the curious sideling leaps, so familiar
to all who have watched the beast closely, yet so unlike
any other mode of progression except perhaps that of the
hare's enemy, the stoat.

Although a good swimmer when put to it, this animal
rarely takes to the water save when no other way of escape
is possible, though Mr J. G. Millais records an instance.^

Its food consists of all manner of vegetables and grain,

^ , and it is said to be partial to the bark of
Food. ^

young trees.
It is generally held that the common hare will not inter-
breed with either the Alpine species, which replaces it in

^ ,. Ireland, as well as in some of the higher por-
xJreetlino'. ox

tions and islands of Scotland, or the rabbit.
So far, however, as the former is concerned, this view is
rejected by a correspondent of Harvie-Brown.^ More than
one litter, each numbering four or five, is produced during
the summer. The advanced state in which the leverets are
born has already been alluded to.

In addition to the characters incidentally given above,
the following may be noted : The ears are longer than the

head ; the upper lip is cloven ; the claws are
ppearance, j^^^^ ^^^ curved ; there are long bristles over

the eyes and mouth. In colour, greyish-brown
or reddish, with some black on the back and ears, white
beneath. Black hares have been recorded, also uniformly
1 British Deer and their Horns, p. 44. - Fauna of Argyll, p. 42.

THE RODENTS. 81

white examples, some of the latter having the eyes of the
normal brown, not pink as in albinos. The hare is covered
with hair all over, even to the soles of its feet. Mr Harting
fixes the average weight at 8 lbs.

The Blue Hare (otherwise, Varying, Alpine, or Irish
hare) is found chiefly in Ireland (where it replaces the
preceding species), in the Highlands and isles of Scot-
land, and in the Lake Country, though it is not uncom-
mon in Yorkshire and Cheshire and a few
Blue Hare. , ,

other counties.

The interest chiefly attaching to this rather smaller
species is in its winter change of coat, a metamorphosis

which, like the stoat, it undergoes in greater

or lesser degree throughout its range, although
older wa-iters denied, for some reason or other, that this
change took place in Ireland. The process is now held
to be similar to that observed in the stoat, and not, as
was also alleged in the case of the latter, through any
actual change in the colour of the old fur. The common
hare is said to undergo a similar change in the colder
portions of its range. The black tips of the ears never
change colour. The food of this species consists largely
of pine-seeds and hill-grasses. It has no " form " like the
common hare, but it has the same habit of lying close.
Like the hill-fox, its pace is far inferior to that of the
hare of the plains.

This hare is said to produce but two litters during the

year : and if this is indeed the case, then it
^* is the least prolific of the British members of
the family.

The chief differences, in addition to the winter whiten-
incr of the coat, between this and the common hare,

are as follow : The hind - legs are shorter.
Appearance, approaching the others in length; the ears

are also shorter, and the fur is softer. In
colour greyish, the tips of the ears black.

82 :NrAM:\rALS.

Something has been incidentally said above of the
apj)earance and habits of the Rabbit, and a very short
account will here suffice. It is widely dis-
tributed throughout these islands, though,
owing doubtless to the presence of natural enemies
unknown in the Southern Hemisphere, it has never be-
come so serious a trouble here as in Australia, where
the problem of dealing effectually with this imported
plague costs the colonial Governments millions sterling.
Even in these islands, however, farmers have periodically
suffered from its increase, particularly from the plant-
death caused by its bite.

As an article of food it is, save with Jews and Shet-
landers, in almost general use.

Like the hare, this animal multiplies with alarming

rapidity, breeding at the age of six months, and pro-

^ ,. ducing in her underm-ound warrens several

Breeuuig. .... . i • c

litters m the year, each numbermg from five

to twice that number. The naked, blind condition of the

new-born young has been alluded to above. Colonies of

rabbits are in some parts known to inhabit hedges in lieu

of the underground burrow.

Like the hare, the rabbit, though an excellent

swimmer, takes to the water only as a last

resource ; indeed, it takes quite as readily
swimmer. ' , \ ^ ^ •^

to a tree, in which, when pursued, it can
climb with ease.

The ears of the rabbit lack the black tip that dis-
tinguishes those of the hare. The white

Appearance, ■, r. r j.i j. ^ m •

^^ o under-suriace oi the erect tail is very con-

sjiicuous.

THE DEER.

CHAPTER Y. THE DEEE.

The Red - Deer only occurs wild in the Highlands of

Scotland, in at least a few wild districts in Ireland, in

one wood in the Lake Country, at two spots

in Devon and Somerset, in parts of Mull

and the Hebrides. In addition to these, there are still

a few head in the New Forest ; and tame herds are
^ ^ kept in some eighty parks, an account of

which is to be found in Whitaker's ' Descrip-
tive List of the Deer Parks and Paddocks of England '
(1892).

The male, otherwise stag or hart, is, as in other deer,

84 MAMMALS.

distinguislied by the possession of solid branched antlers,

which are shed each year after the breeding season, and

occasionally eaten by the hinds. These antlers,

which in the young stag are intersected by the

circulating blood, are, at a later stage, without blood and

not sensitive to pain, and the skin gradually peels off,

leaving the horn bare.

It is unnecessary to go into the technical terms which

have, as in most sports, sprung up around stag-hunting.

Suffice it to say that the new-born fawn is termed a

"calf"; on the first appearance of the velvety horns it

' becomes a " knobber " ; in its second year

„ ^"^^ ' . ' the male is a "brocket"; in the third a
ferent stages. 55.

" spayad ; m the fourth a "staggard"; in

the fifth a "stag"; in the sixth a hart.

The food of the red-deer consists of grasses, heather,

^ , „ toadstools, acorns, and like fare. It drinks
Food, &c. . , ' ' . -, . ,

with great regularity, and is known to take

a certain amount of salt with its food. ExcejDt when in
search of hinds in the autumn, at which season they are
exceedingly quarrelsome, the stags keep apart, feeding on
the higher ground, the hinds and young keeping to the
lowlands. All deer are subject to epidemics of great
virulence.

A single fawn, spotted at first, is produced in early
summer, the period of gestation being rather
over eight months. Instances are known of
two at a birth, but one is the rule.

The red-deer has the typical appearance of its family.

That is to say, arched back, long neck and legs, taper

naked muzzle, large expressive eyes with a

ppearauce, ^^^^ gland or furrow beneath them. The tail,

the lower surface of which is white, is short.
In colour, reddish along the back and sides, l^ecoming
lighter, with more grey, in winter. A light patch on the
rump. A yellowish -white race is also known. Weight
between 15 and 30 stone.

Breeding.

THE DEEK. 85

The Fallow-Deer is not, like our two other deer, in-
digenous to these islands, though the date of its introduc-
Fallow- tion is uncertain. From the last it is dis-
Deer. tinguished by its inferior size and palmated
horns. It is this deer that is said to supply the finest
venison.

Fallow-deer are kept in a number of parks; and there

are large herds in the New Forest, differing, according

to Mr Lascelles, in the narrow palmation of

p^ . the antlers and in the spring and autumn

change of coat.

Where they occur, as in the New Forest, together with

the larger species, it is remarkable how hounds, laid on to

the red-deer, are nowise diverted by the scent of the

smaller animal.^ When alarmed, these deer bunch together,

and when escaping, the bucks bring up the rear.^

The doe gives birth to one or two (very rarely, if ever,

^ ,. three) in early summer, the middle of June

being the usual time. When the horns first

appear in the second year, the young male is known as a

"pricket."

Fallow-deer suffer intensely in cold weather, and during
one severe winter some hundreds were found dead in one
part of the New Forest.

The fallow-deer crops the grass, and is par-
ticularly fond of acorns and chestnuts.

In addition to its smaller size, it is easily distinguished
by the palmate antlers and longer tail. In
ppearance, ^^Jq^j. ^^ ^g light brown with white spots.

There are two races of this deer, a lighter
and a darker.

The Roe-Deer, smallest of our deer, though formerly
widely distributed in these islands, is, with
the exception of a number of reintroductions,

1 De Crespigny and Hutchinson, The New Forest, p. 158.

2 Millais, British Deer and their Horns, pp. 145, 149.

86 MAMMALS.

now restricted to tlie northern counties and Scotland. It

is, like the chamois, an alpine species. From Ireland it
appears to have been always absent. In the
New Forest it is scarce, and the few that

are there fomid are said to be of comparatively recent

introduction.

Two, in very rare cases three, spotted fawns are born in

^, ,. May or June : and a remarkable phenomenon,
Breeding, *^ ' , ^ '

known as suspended gestation, is observed in
the reproduction of this species.

The food of the roe-deer is much the same as that of
the rest, though it has a special weakness for fungi.

The antlers of the adult show three points, each the
growth of a year. The tail is very short,
ppearauce, j^^ colour, the roe-buck is brown, lighter in
wdnter ; rump and under-side of tail white.
The buck utters a loud bark in presence of danger. Roe-
deer are fond of running in circles, and Mr Millais ^ gives a
most interesting account of their so-called " playing-rings."

CHAPTEH VI. THE WHALES AND PORPOISES.

"When the unscientific world regarded the bat, after its

kind, as a bird, it also considered the cetaceans in the

Formerly light of fislies, — a view confirmed by their

regarded w^atery surroundings, their mode of getting

as fishes. about, their generally fish -like outline, and

the nature of their food. It needed the research of

Linnaeus and others to assign them to their true class

as warm-blooded creatures, breathing by lungs and bearing

and nourishing their young in true mammal fashion.

The food of these cetaceans is very varied, and presents

1 Millais, British Deer aud their Horus, p. 188.

THE WHALES AND POKPOISES. 87

one singular anomaly in the fact that the largest of the
order, the right or whalebone whales, are toothless, and
„ consequently manage to support their huge

bulk on a diet consisting exclusively of mi-
nute crustaceans, tiny organisms known to the crews of
whalers as "whale-feed," and often encountered in mid-
ocean covering several acres of the water's surface. I have
noticed that it possesses a peculiar aroma, and I recollect
our ship passing, off the coast of Sumatra, through a con-
siderable tract of it, which gave forth a most unpleasant
stench. The method of feeding adopted by these tooth-
less whales is well kno\vn. They engulf a mouthful of
this feed, then expel the water, and leave the foreign
matter stranded on the plates of baleen, or " whalebone,"
as we call it, which thus forms a convenient sieve. It lies
in plates in the upper jaw, and the term " bone," as applied
to it, must not be taken too literally, as in jDoint of fact it
is not exactly bone.

The great toothed whales, on the other hand, consume
vast quantities of squid and cuttlefish, which they swallow
whole, a greedy habit to which we are indebted for that
exceedingly valuable product ambergris.

The external characters of whales do not need to be very
closely studied before they show how superficial is the

supposed resemblance to fishes. The X-rays

External j i.i t i.- i -r r, i.i,

, , and the dissectmsr - knite soon show the so-

characters. • °

called "fins" to be more of the nature of
gloved hands. The whales — most of them at any rate —
have five fingers like ourselves, only, needing their hands
for swimming purposes, and having no use for the sejDarate
action of the fingers, they have been permitted to grow
flesh gloves, thus transforming the useless hand into the
useful flipper. The tail, again, though forked somewhat
after the manner of that organ in some fishes, is attached
horizontally, not vertically, a few strokes of this powerful
propeller being sufficient to bring the whale ujj from the
great depths at which it passes its life, whenever it wants

88 MAMMALS.

to breathe. The skin is not scaly like that of fishes, but
perfectly smooth, having, moreover, beneath it an elastic
cushion of fibrous blubber, — a wonderful provision against
the heavy pressure under which, for the most part, these
animals live. Again, the whales have no gills, but in
their place are endowed, like ourselves, with lungs, by the
aid of which they breathe the air direct; and, in order
that they may remain for considerable periods beneath the
surface, they are further provided with a marvellous means
of aerating the blood. The blowhole, through which they
breathe or " spout," closes hermetically with a powerful
valve whenever they dive. In short, it would be difficult
to find another order of living creatures better adapted to
the peculiar conditions under which they have elected to
live. Their mental standard cannot be very easily judged,
but it is probably low. Indeed, as their brain does not
amount to much more than three per cent of their total
bulk, some of the larger whales should be more stupid
than most creatures.

Their reproduction is slow, indeed cynical folks have
some cause for remarking that this is the case with most

„ ■ . valuable creatures, only the rats, sharks, and

other vermin multij^lying with rapidity. The
possible explanation of this discrepancy is that nature did
not plan everything beforehand for the comfort of man.
At any rate, the whale only produces a single " calf " at a
birth, carrying it for over a year, and, after its appearance,
tending it with a devotion almost rare in some higher
mammals. She never hesitates, for instance, to jjlace her-
self between it and any danger that may threaten.

Of the three most valuable products yielded by these

creatures — the fourth is the oil run down from their

blubber — it will be well to say a few words. Of these,

,,^, , , the first is the so-called ivhalehone, to which

WnniGDOiifi

passing allusion has already been made. This
is put to a variety of uses, the chief being in the manufac-
ture of corsets, while a less important function is in the

THE WHALES AND PORPOISES. 89

rings of landing-nets. I have used a landing-net with the

ring of whalebone for upwards of eight years of sea-fishing,

the sport that above all others tries the angler's tackle,

and it is still as good as new ; indeed, as the market price

has, after many fluctuations, risen above that at which I

bought it, its value has increased. The value of this

product varies considerably, and was at one time over

^2000 per ton. At the time of writing I believe it standi

at rather more than half this figure.

Spermaceti comes from the cachalot, being contained in

fluid form in the " box " within the forehead. This fluid

,. hardens on coolinsj, and, after a simple treat-
Spermaceti. 4. -^1 n r • f ' • i. 4.
ment with alkalis, is ot use m ointments.

The spermaceti from a large whale will fill over a dozen
barrels. Sperm-oil is better than the commoner train-oil.

The third of these commodities is unquestionably the
most interesting of all. It also has its origin in the cach-
alot, and a passing strange origin it is. In the court-

. , . mg season, that husre cetacean repairs with
Ambergris. . ° .

its mate, or maybe m search of her, to the
warmer waters of the Gulf Stream, where together they
gorge on the cuttlefish that swarm in those waters. In its
great haste, the whale swallows these cephalopods whole,
an indecent greed that is punished by the accumulation of
the beaks, the least digestible portion of the cuttlefish, in
the creature's inside. Here they presently set up so severe
an irritation as to give rise to the secretion of ambergris
in great masses, which are usually vomited in mid-ocean
and subsequently carried ashore, largely in the Bahamas,
by the tides. Less frequently the whale retains the
ambergris, which then accumulates by the time of its
death to an enormous bulk weighing many hundreds of
pounds — a very acceptable addition to the marketable
value, when it is remembered that the price of this in-
significant, greyish, half -greasy substance is something
like ;^5 per ounce. Some curious finds of this secre-
tion are on record. On one occasion an old negress

90 MAMMALS.

found an enormous mass on the foreshore of one of our
West Indian possessions, broke off a moiety weighing
about 500 ounces, and thrust the remainder under a bush.
A fellow-countryman subsequently advised her to throw
the evil-smelling "rubbish" away, which she did. As a
result the fragment fell into the hands of a more sophisti-
cated European, wdio disposed of it in London for close

on ^3000 •

The use of ambergris is for the most part confined to
the manufacture of perfumes. Ground up with sand and
treated with alcohol, in which it slowly dissolves, it is
effectual in intensifying and fixing certain essential per-
fumes. In the East, and notably by the jMoors, it is also
drunk in tea, on which, greasy as it is, it floats. Its
flavour, taken in this way, is peculiar, but not unpleasant,
and Orientals value it chiefly as a stimulant. According
to I\Iilton, it was formerly used in English cookery. It is
desirable to point out that, save as part of the ocean's
flotsam, this substance has nothing in common with amber.
The latter is a vegetable, not an animal, product ; it comes
largely from the Baltic, not from the warmer Southern
seas; and its value is 5s. an ounce instead of ^5.

It will now be necessary to enumerate very briefly the
score of whales and allied dolphins and porpoises which
wander, rarely for the most part, to the coasts of these
islands, though, as their collective points of interest have
been given above, the notice may in each case be restricted
to a few words only.

The Eight or Whalebone Whale is a great toothless
species. The head is large and flat, the baleen, or whale-
Southern bone, lying within the upper jaw in some six
'Whale. hundred jilates. This species, which has been
recorded from the east coast and Orkneys, was confused
by the older writers with the allied Greenland w^hale. In
colour it is black above, lighter beneath. Head large
and flat.

THE WHALES AND PORPOISES. 91

Of the four Rorquals, or Finners, recorded from Brit-
ish waters, only two, the common and lesser, visit these
islands with any regularity. I have seen the
latter, which rarely exceeds a length of 30
feet, rounding up the pilchards oif the Dodman near Meva-
gissey. The Common Rorqual is said to attain to a length
of 70 feet, and the rarer Sibbald's Rorqual, the largest of
them all, grows to 90. It has, however, occurred on our
coasts less than a dozen times. The fourth, Rudolfi's Ror-
qual, which rarely exceeds 50 feet in length, has also not
strayed to our waters more than half-a-dozen times, having
occurred mostly on the east coast of England.

The Humpback Whale is found in summer on the
northern coasts. It is distinguished by the
hump on its back and by the fold of skin
along; the throat. In colour this whale is black.

The Cachalot is the toothed whale. It has no baleen ;
indeed, as already mentioned, it feeds chiefly on squid and
Cachalot cuttlefish. It is but a rare straggler to these
or Sperm islands. The head and body are of almost
"WTiale. equal length. In the lower jaw are some
twenty pairs of well - developed teeth, and some rudi-
mentary teeth are discernible in the upper. This whale
is recognisable by the swelling over the snout. It has a
rudimentary back-fin.

Sowerby's Whale is easily distinguished by its long beak,
Sowerby's dorsal fin, and the two short teeth in the lower
"Whale. jaw. It has been recorded a score of times in
the waters around these islands.

The Bottlenose is not uncommon, especially on the
north coast, and may be recognised by the
truncated forehead and beak-like snout. It

1 The " Bottlenose " of our south-coast watering-places is neither this
nor the true bottleuosed dolphin, but the common Z>. delphis.

92 MAMMALS.

has, like the last, two teeth in the lower jaw. The dorsal
fin lies back near the tail.

Cuvier's A rare beaked whale allied to the last.
Whale.

The PorjDoise, or Sea-Hog, is a familiar object on our
coasts, where its appearance in numbers is locally, and
with some reason, regarded as the prelude to
a spell of east wind. It feeds entirely on fish,
herrings more especially, and when the shoals of the latter
break up, it ascends rivers after the salmon. Its fate is
usually a rifle-ball, and it has always seemed to me matter
for regret that it should not be more systematically hunted
for its superb oil, which is worth at the least half-a-
sovereign the gallon, as also for its hide, excellent material
for shooting boots. The female bears one calf only at a
time. This cetacean is too common to need description ;
its triangular back fin is often seen cleaving the water, and
the arched backs have, when several proceed in single file,
given the impression of a sea-serpent. The blowhole is
crescent -shaped. In colour our porpoise is black above,
white beneath.

The Kound-headed Porpoise, " Black fish," or " Pilot-
whale," rarely encountered in English waters, is seen in
Round- herds, often driving along at high speed,
headed among the northern isles. It is the "ca'ing
Porpoise, ^^i^j^ig ,^ yf ^Yie Shetlanders, who kill it for its

oil. Its food is said to consist largely of cod, flounders,
and cuttlefish.

This cetacean has a short dorsal fin, the flippers be-
ing short and narrow. On the forehead is a conspicuous
swelling. Some twenty conical teeth lie in either jaw. In
colour it is black above, white beneath ; a heart-shaped
white patch is situate below the head.

The Grampus, or " Killer," is the most voracious of the

THE WHALES AND PORPOISES. 93

sub-order, and feeds on large fish and cetaceans, the por-
poise being a favourite meal. The dorsal fin is long and

high. There are sharp teeth in either jaw.

The grampus is not uncommon in the Channel.
In colour it is, like the rest, black above, white beneath ;
a white patch is conspicuous over the eye.

Generically distinct from the last, Eisso's Grampus has
Bisso's no teeth in the upper jaw. It has not been
Grampus, recorded in these waters more than a dozen

times. In colour this grampus is black above, lighter

beneath, with irregular spots.

The " Beluga," or White Whale, is, like so many of our

"White whales, met with only in our more northern

"Whale, waters. It has no dorsal fin, and the flij^pers

are short. The head is also short, and there are small blunt

teeth in either jaw. In colour the beluga is almost pure

white, streaked in some cases with yellow.

The Xarwhal is the most singular in appearance of all
the sub-order, and has occurred but three times ofi" the
coasts of these islands. It is unmistakable by
reason of the single enormous tooth, or tusk,
that protrudes from the left corner of the upper jaw to a
length of as much as 8 feet. There is in the right corner
a second tooth, which, however, save in very rare cases,
remains undeveloped. This strange twisted tusk is de-
veloped in the male only. In place of a dorsal fin, this
genus has a ridge along the back. In colour this species is
greyish white with darker spots.

The Dolphin, next to the porpoise the commonest ceta-
cean in the Channel, is in that sea known, on account of
its beak -like snout, as the " bottlenose," a
name that should more properly be given to
the far rarer species that follows. It is not known to
ascend rivers, like the porpoise. (On the other hand,

94 MAMMALS.

there are dolphins in the Ganges that never go down to
the sea.) There are numerous teeth in either jaw. The
dorsal fin is high. In colour, the dolphin is black with
yellowish stains.

Bottle- The Bottlenosed Dolphin is a member of a

nosed

-r, T I,- rarer 2;enus.

Dolphin. ^

The rare White-beaked Dolphin has occurred about a

dozen times in our waters, chiefly on the east coast,

Trri.-^ hut also in both Scotch and Irish in-

W^hite-

beaked shore waters. The white beak and lips
Dolphin, contrast strangely with the black of the
back and sides.
White- ^^^ allied White - sided Dolphin has the

sided sides yellowish white. It occurs at long

o phm. intervals among the Orkneys.

BIRDS

Hfy. :.._.., J^TwaiH?^

1 I

• •* -,

tr.

o
w

* _

BIRDS.

Since the days of Aristophanes, at any rate, man has been
the recognised foe of the birds, but his affection for them
Persecu- is a tender plant of modern growth, rearing its
tion and head only in a few highly civilised lands, and
protection, gyen there in constant danger of being killed.
For the tendency of the present day trends dangerously
on that exaggeration that is certain to provoke the charge
of maudlin sentimentalism. It is perfectly right to en-
deavour, even, as in Massachusetts, by legislation, to re-
strain the senseless fashions that have resulted in feathered
women. It is equally laudable to attempt to bring home
to the farmer, ay, and game-preserver, the wholesome fact
that nature's balance was established before the dawn of
farming or preservation ; that limits had already been put
to the untoward increase of bird - life, the egg - eating
mammals and reptiles, the terrific winds to thin the ranks
of migrants, and the late frosts to kill the early broods.
Man's arrival on the scene was a bad day, indeed, for the
birds, and a bright one for the insects on which they fed.
Bird-protecting societies have plenty of excellent work to
do if they can only stamp out the catapult ; if they can but
persuade the agriculturist that a single wagtail, or swal-
low, or nightjar may be worth a ton of vermifuge. They
need not go beyond their strength and jDrotest against the
shooting of game-birds reared, even imported, for the pur-

98 BIRDS.

pose. It may, or may not, be cruel, but it has simply
nothing to do with the case. The business of bird-pro-
tection societies in this country is with our wild birds ;
and, but for the people who shoot them, the pheasant and
capercaillie would not be here. Even the partridge and
red-grouse, though indigenous, would, it is fair to assume,
have disappeared long since but for the preserver.

One outcome of the modern movement in favour of
wild-bird protection has unquestionably been an enormous
Increase increase of late years in the literature of the
of books subject. It is difficult, indeed, to distinguish
on birds, j-j^g precise extent to which the movement has
evoked the literature, and that to w^hich the literature
has furthered the movement. It is, in fact, one of those
cases of continuous action and reaction. At any rate, the
books are a reality. The old errors began to lose ground.
Doubts arose as to the cuckoo sucking eggs in summer
to clear his voice, and changing in winter into a merlin ;
soon folks came to ridicule the notion of the wren hiber-
nating, the nightjar sucking cows' milk, the siskin build-
ing an invisible nest, the heron hatching her eggs, like
the flamingo of books, astraddle, and catching eels with
the aid of an attractive oil exuded from her foot. Com-
mon-sense began to ask how the race of nightingales
could be perpetuated if, as averred, the mother reared
only those (males) that gave promise of good voice.
The swallow was no longer believed to jjass the winter
at the bottom of frozen lakes, to know the healing pro-
perties of celandine, to have in its crop a magic stone
like the equally apocryphal jewel of the toad. Folks
were told that the skin of a dead kingfisher was an in-
fallible protection in a thunderstorm, but they grew so
matter-of-fact as to prefer the ordinary lightning-conductor.
One naturalist revealed the truth about the halcyon's
noisome nest ; another ridiculed the simple old faith in
its suspended body foretelling the quarter of the wind,
and suggested that any live bird j^erching in a tree-top

BIRDS. 99

was a far better guide, since it would at least arrange
itself head to the wind, so that its feathers might not
be unduly ruffled, just as waterfowl can only rise
from the water head to wind. The greed for know-
ledge so characteristic of the nineteenth century has
made itself felt in no direction more than that of
natural history. If the old beliefs had to go, the sooner
they were replaced with the bare truth the better for
all concerned. And so, as knowledge grew from more to
more, the natural history of their fathers went piecemeal.

Hence the books. Elaborate monographs, illustrated by
what were then costly processes, of the various orders and
families ; minute county records ; popular life-histories of
sea-birds, moor-birds, forest-birds, London birds, and the
rest ; volumes on their eggs and nests, their migrations,
their voice ; treatises on the birds of the classics, of the
Bible, of Shakespeare, of heraldry : in short, the changes
have been rung on the bird theme until any original addi-
tion to the shelf would seem impossible. Yet, for all the
fifty works on British birds, many of them running into
several volumes, that have, as may be seen from the bibli-
ography appended hereto, been either completed or com-
menced during the past ten years, students of the subject
are looking forward with the greatest interest to the ap-
pearance of the new edition of Mr Howard Saunders'
'^Manual,' or, more locally perhaps, to the long-expected
volume on Hampshire birds from the pen of Mr Hart of
Christchurch. The summary of British birds given in the
following pages has of necessity been compressed until it is
little more than a list. But little has there been said on
the subject of the external features of birds, and on one or
two other points of interest, upon which I therefore venture
to preface a few notes.

Some of the reasons why these islands should, under
certain conditions, prove j^eculiarly attractive to birds of
passage have already been indicated on a previous page.
At any rate, of the birds known to science, probably not

100 BIRDS.

short of ten thousand, quite four hundred are alleged, and
seven - eighths of them probably with justice, either to

reside in or to visit the British Islands.
^^1 1 IS 1 These are found on analysis to fall, roughly

speaking, under five categories : (i) The resi-
dents (which may or may not perform certain consider-
able migrations within these islands) ; (ii) the regular
summer (breeding) visitors ; (iii) the regular winter vis-
itors (from the Northern seas) ; (iv) those which are
with us for a short time only on passage to and from
remote breeding-grounds (in spring or autumn, or both) ;
and (v) the casual migrants, including rare stragglers.
(These various categories are indicated by types and signs
in the following pages.) It is found convenient for some
purposes to subdivide these still further, but the above
will suffice for the purpose of this book. It will be noticed
that the line is not drawn very rigidly in the case of the
so-called "residents." This lenient interj^retation is, in
fact, necessary in each case. Thus, not alone are our
residents continually recruited from the Continent, but
many so-called summer visitors have stayed through mild
winters, just as winter visitors, and even more commonly
spring visitors on migration, have stayed the summer.
jVIany of our seafowl which breed in the northernmost
lochs are really and to all practical purposes winter visitors
to the rest of these islands. A word is said on the subject
of migration on a subsequent page.

Ornithologists are by no means quite agreed as to what
exactly constitutes a title to rank as a British bird, some
among them being more cautious than others in dealing
with evidence. The candidates for this honour that excite
the keenest controversy are, as might be expected, those
American stragglers which, it is very properly objected,
are likely to have travelled a considerable part of the
journey in the rigging of some swift liner. Those of us
who have made the passage of that mournful cemetery the
Tied Sea know well how the hawks, finches, and wagtails

BIRDS. 101

cling about the sheets during that trying and dangerous
run. Of the thirty or more " doubtful " birds given at the
end of the section — they might easily have been doubled,
had I included many that Mr Saunders and others have
shown to be too preposterous — it will be observed that over
half hail from the other side of the Atlantic. As it is, one
occurrence, properly authenticated, suffices to add a bird
to the British list. Only last autumn, Mr Keulemanns
showed me the skin of "a new British warbler," which he
had just drawn for the British Museum.

Of the external features of the bird it lies not within the

scope of a small and unscientific book like this

n\. , , to give any detailed account, the subject being

but little less foreign to its purpose than its

anatomy. A few remarks of an elementary nature may

not, however, be out of place.

Feathers, of which there are several categories, including
the so-called " down," are the distinctive character of the
class. No other living creature has a cover-
ing of this sort ; no bird is without it. The
colouring of this plumage is, as a rule, the first aid to
identification. It is of importance to bear in mind the
seasonal changes, most noticeable in the male, which, save
in the dotterel and phalaropes, is always more gaily clad
than his mate. If it were possible to lay down a general
rule, it would be that the male puts on brighter garments
during the breeding season, resuming in winter a duller
plumage closely resembling, if not identical with, that of
his mate. To this, the ducks ofi'er a striking exception.
This seasonal change of plumage reaches its climax in the
well-known instance of the ptarmigan, which has three
moults in the course of the year, turning, all but the black
eye-stripe, completely white in winter. In some birds, as
the ruff and grebes, this breeding dress includes not only
brighter colours, but also the development of some extra
collar or tippet of feathers, which are dropped again as
soon as the courting-time is over. Of the relation between

102 BIRDS.

the plumage of the parents and that of the young bird, as
well as the broader questions of the origin, development,
and shedding of feathers, there is no space to treat, further
than to point out that the young of birds in which the
two sexes differ little in plumage themselves resemble the
parents; the rest follow, broadly speaking, the colouring
of the adult female. The brief hints given in the follow-
ing pages for identification have reference to the adult
male, in either breeding or winter plumage, according to
the season at which he is most conspicuous in these islands.
For the transitional plumage, as for that of the female and
young, I had no space. Before quitting the subject, how-
ever, there is another point of interest about these feathers
which cannot fail to strike the most casual observer of
bird-life, and that is the marvellous way in which they
resist water or shot, the former more especially. The
smallest bird shields with thatch -like back her precious
eggs from the rains or snows of April without danger to
herself; and still more remarkable is the imperviousness
of waterfowl. Though birds unquestionably preen their
feathers with their own oil, yet wildfowlers know well that
the great secret of this waterjjroofing lies not wholly in
the action of the oil, but rather in some muscular action
of the bird itself, in proof of which they can show that
dead or badly wounded fowl are in a very few moments
damaged by the water, and even one wing which is broken
will take in water to the detriment of the feathers, while
the rest of the bird is yet healthy and dry.

Evidence of nature's wonderful workmanship is nowhere
more apparent than in the bill of birds, whether we con-
sider the curved bill of the creepers, the chisel
of the woodpeckers, the scissors of the cross-
bill, the serrated mandibles of the fish-eating goosander,
the sensitive sucker of the woodcock, the bristles on the
bill of the moth-hunting nightjar, or the absence of open
nostrils on that of the plunging gannet.

The foot has four toes, normally, instead of our live.

BIRDS. 103

There are never more, and in many birds the fourth, or
hind-toe, is either so small as to be obsolete or else want-
ing altogether. It will be found, I have noted,
that the swiftest runners {e.g., the ostrich and
emu) have fewest toes, a rule that, with few exceptions,
holds true of the mammals as well. The adaptations of
birds' feet are not less striking than those of their bills.
There is the grasping foot of the perching birds, slightly-
modified in the case of owls and woodpeckers ; the webbed
toes of waterfowl, supplemented in the rapacious skuas
by powerful claws ; the curious lobed membrane on the
toes of the grebe and coot; the comb -like claw of the
night-jar and heron.

Since birds dropped the lizard-like tail of their early
days they have little left ; indeed, what we call the tail is
in reality the feathers that cover it, and they
are undoubtedly of more practical use than
the real article. In all birds, they serve to some extent as
rudders, and to the woodpecker and tree-creeper they
are climbing- spurs. Few indigenous British birds have
brilliant feathers beneath the tail, which must be a con-
sideration when flying silently before a keen-sighted enemy.
When I lived in the country, I knew the note of most
birds ; but I cannot, try how I will, convey what appears
to me a satisfactory equivalent on paper.
Many there are who have made a study of
the subject, who write learnedly on the cuckoo's "minor
third," and who are content to express the note of each
bird by something like "zick-zack," "fink-fink," "churr-
wit," &c. Of the nightingale one gives the note as
"jug -jug," another as "wit-wit," while Tennyson, who
gave us nature with as little editing as possible, rightly
caught the spirit of one portion at any rate of its carol
as "bubbling." Another word eminently suggestive of
bird-song is "shivering."

I must confess, however, that these attempted inter-
pretations of bird-song appear to me scarcely more satis-

104 BIRDS.

factory than the " little bit o' bread and no cheese " attrib-
uted to the yellow-hammer, or the still worse " in another
week will come a wheatear," which is said at a certain
season to constitute the daily remark of the chaffinch.
(The German chaffinch, by the way, says "Fritz, Fritz.")
A few birds, such as the skulking corncrake, the night-
ingale, the cuckoo, and the lapwing, are as unmistakable
in their voice as in their appearance; but in the great
number of cases, identifying a bird by its note, as by its
flight, requires much practice and long residence in the
country. To add to the difficulty, many of our birds,
like the small woodpeckers, which warble quite agreeably
in the breeding season, are devoid of voice, other than a
harsh grunt, in winter; and, worse still, many others,
as the starling, thrush, sedge-warbler, jay, and magpie,
are such accomplished mimics as to make the confusion
worse than ever. In some cases, the study of bird-voice
is of course both interesting and profitable. Thus, one
ornithologist is said to have recognised in the crow over a
score of distinct notes, each conveying a different meaning,
which I believe he also translated ; while it is notorious
that old wildfowlers learn from the voice of the birds uj)
to which they are punting whether they are in suspicious
mood.

It seems to me, however, that this subject is one rather
for close study than careless handling ; therefore I have
made but few references to it in the following pages. I
leave the subject, at any rate, in many zealous hands ; and
there will always be observers to tell of the whitethroat's
confession of "I did it, I did it"; of the "tzac, tzac"
of the shrike; or the "glock, glock" (see Crockett's
'Raiders') of the raven.

A ready means of identifying many of our commoner

birds, though one requiring observation at

first hand, is by their flight. Country folk

know at a glance the dash of the i^eregrine, the gliding

of the kite, the hovering of the kestrel, the soaring of the

BIEDS. 105

skylark ; and gunners recognise the curved neck of the
flying heron, and the drooping head of the woodcock.

One episode in bird-life has, their breeding excepted,
attracted more attention than any other, and has formed
the subject of voluminous works by Gaetke,
■ Dixon, and other writers. Much has yet to
be learnt with reference to their wondrous organised move-
ments, and the obstacles that lie in the way of systematic
observation are scarcely less formidable than those which
beset the investigator of marine life. So much is hidden,
for the wandering birds move often at great altitudes,
mostly at night. This preference for travelling at a
great height means, in all probability, that the birds find
the higher atmosphere clearer and less disturbed by cur-
rents. Their movements by night are, as may be imagined,
much influenced by lighthouses, and, to a lesser extent, by
the bright lights, mostly electric nowadays, of our harbour
and other seaside towns. The lighthouses cause the de-
struction of thousands that dash themselves against the
glass, sometimes right through it.

Regular migrants, as the swallow, must be guided to
a great extent by transmitted instinct, for they "\^dll fly
straight north and south, and are known to follow the
shortest route over the sea, the track maybe of a former
isthmus. The swallows, type of birds of passage, will
cover over one hundred miles in the hour, will return
year after year to the same eaves, and, strangest of all,
will, on the wane of summer, and when the insect food
is giving out, feel the returning instinct so strong within
them as to leave a third brood to perish of starvation.
Of these summer visitors these islands are the native
land ; many of them remain for more than half the year.
Of the waterfowl, however, those wondrous hordes that
rear their young in the glow of the midnight sun, far
from the disturbing i^resence of man, they are but a
winter feeding-ground.

With the casual migrants and stragglers, again, the case

106 BIRDS.

is different. They must have a hard time of it, and
very many must perish by the way. As a sort of com-
promise between the two classes, we have the case, in
many ways unique among animal migrations, of Pallas's
sand-grouse, that remarkable little Asiatic wanderer, of
which live irruptions have found their way to these islands,
the last (1888-89) extending to their westernmost limits.
Intervals of from five to twelve years elapsed between
these invasions, whole generations in fact of sand-grouse
that never straggled to the Western continent. Here,
then, was clearly no case of transmitted instinct, but the
thousands that came so far from their native tundras
were evidently the children of circumstance, driven forth
by some sudden and unlooked-for alteration in the con-
ditions of life in those parts, some lack of food or maybe
some fall in temperature. The difficulty of drawing a
hard-and-fast line between the residents and the visitors
has already been indicated. It is only possible to lay
down certain jjrinciples, leaving room for numerous ex-
ceptions. Summer visitors are occasionally tempted to
stay the winter ; winter birds will bide with us in spring.
The divers and the fulmar and many others, residents
in the north of Scotland, are winter visitors only to the
coasts of England ; the whinchat breeds freely in the
north of Ireland, but is a winter visitor to the south.
And, before quitting the subject of migration, it is of
importance to mention the wanderings of many birds
within these islands. The robin is a case in point. Other
kinds, too, which in winter are found only on the sea-shore,
resort in the breeding season to inland moors and bogs.
Of such are the curlew and dunlin.

Under normal conditions, the various grou2)s of birds
affect a certain class of food. So much it is safe to say,
and the anatomist can, as a rule, make a
close guess from the form of the bill. Open-
air observation soon leads us, however, to supplement the
creed of the text-book, the ethics of the hard-billed and

BIRDS. 107

soft-billed birds, with a broader belief in the almost un-
limited capacity shown by birds in adapting themselves
to any diet that offers. They are, in fact, like many
mammals, omnivorous ; though this does not of course
preclude them from having special fancies. Nor is there
any need to seek such far-away instances as the much-
quoted carnivorous kea of New Zealand. It is only
necessary to suspend a lump of suet or half a cocoa-nut
from a tree and watch how in a little every titmouse
within call will soon be clinging to it and pecking eagerly
at what can scarcely be its natural food.^ So, too, the
so-called insectivorous birds devour at certain seasons
great quantities of grain and fruit; and gulls, that live
normally on fish and flotsam, are seen hawking after
mice and insects, and will, if kept inland, kill and devour
every small bird that comes within reach. Some birds
swallow certain substances, grit usually, to assist digestion.
The habit of swallowing its own feathers, noticed, among
others, in the grebe, is probably a case in point.

Birdnesting has at all times been a favourite recreation
with schoolboys, and not a few of their elders have, from

more scientific motives, also amassed consid-
Nest .

erable collections of eggs. In these days of

decrease of wild birds, it is just as well that laws should
be enacted and enforced against the practice ; but, for the
benefit of those who may find themselves in newer lands
with no such restrictions, it may be as well to point out
that there is birdnesting and birdnesting ; and in earlier
days I got together a collection of over three hundred
representative British eggs without, I am perfectly certain,
causing a single bird to desert, and without disturbing a
single open nest. The collection was the result of several
years' work in very different localities — in Kent, Hamp-
shire, Cornwall, North Germany, and Tuscany. One egg

1 White pointed out a parallel case in the fondness of the cat for
fish, which it could not catch for itself. This gave his numerous
editors an opening for anecdotes.

108 BIRDS.

was taken from each nest, rarely two, and 1 always took
every care not to frighten the sitting bird. There are
critics of this kind of pastime who admit of no distinc-
tion in the matter of degree, and to them I prefer not
to excuse myself. It is possible, however, that they
may extend their mercy in consideration of my never
having shot a single song-bird, all my stalking in that
direction having been done with binoculars. The study of
nests is an interesting one, but unfortunately it is among
those that cannot be pursued in the armchair ; and the
existing regulations preclude the necessity of my entering
into the subject as fully as I might otherwise have been
inclined to do. What will at once strike the observer,
however, is that this architecture is surely the result of
instinct, and not of memory or imitation. One ^\Titer has
objected to what he is pleased to call the "loose " employ-
ment of the word " skill " in connection with this perform-
ance. Skill, he says, is the result of education. But skill
is, in my humble opinion, too old a word for any gentle-
man to begin playing tricks with now ; and it is almost
as applicable to the nest-building bird as to the human
mechanic and engineer. The great difference in merit
shoAvn by various nests is another fact which soon makes
itself felt. Not alone do we note the difference between
the beautiful dwelling of the goldfinch and the mere plat-
form of the dove or bullfinch, but even in birds that nest
in different situations there is a perceptible difference in
the amount of care lavished by the same bird. Thus, it is
generally conceded that the nests of birds that rear their
young in darkness build a very careless nest ; and in the
common instance of the house-sparrow, it is notorious that
the nest when built in open tree-tops is a more elaborate
domed structure than the mass of grass, paper, and rubbish
that suffices it in our roofs. There are certain orthodox
sites for the nests of each group of birds, but these are
open, like everything else in the ordering of their lives, to
exceptions. Thus the wood-pigeon nests, as a rule, amid
the topmost branches of firs and beeches, but I have seen

BIRDS. 109

many a nest in low bushes within a couple of feet of the
ground, more especially on well-wooded slopes. On the
other hand, game-birds deposit their eggs on the ground ;
but Mr J. G. Millais ^ gives instances of the nests of both
pheasant and capercaillie high in trees. The doubtful
point is how the parents convey the young in safety to the
ground. Perhaps the most remarkable instance, however,
of deviation in this respect is to be found in one of the
sandpipers (^Helodromas och7'02Jus), w^hich is known on its
Continental breeding-grounds (it does not breed in these
islands) to lay its eggs in the deserted nest of thrush or
magpie, instead of building a primitive nest, like the rest
of the group, on or near the ground. From the elaborate
nest of the goldfinch or oriole, we find every grade of work-
manship, good, bad, and indifferent, down to the work of
the waders and game-birds, whose nests are often mere
depressions in the earth, and the seafowl that simply
deposit their eggs on a ledge, the nightjar that rears her
young on the bare earth, the cuckoo who billets her
eggs on other nests and leaves the duty of incubation,
and subsequently of rearing the chicks, to the owners.

Of eggs, their shape and colouring, their size as com-
pared with that of the bird, their resemblance to their
surroundings, much has been written. Their
' protective colouring more particularly has been
the subject of some learned treatises, and in no case more
than that of the cuckoo. One has it that the bird can
colour the coming egg to suit certain surroundings ; another
claims, with more probability, that, having laid the egg,
she flies along with the same in her bill until she comes
to some clutch to which it bears some sort of resemblance.
Personally, I have had the misfortune to take so many
dark-brown eggs of this bird from among the azure eggs
of the hedge-sparrow that these rival theories have lost
much interest for me.

Another striking feature of the cuckoo's egg is its small
size compared with that of the bird, in which it furnishes

1 Game-Birds, p. 17.

110 BIRDS.

a marked contrast with that of the guillemot. The egg
of the latter recalls yet another consideration, that the
pyriforni shape of the eggs of certain seafowl minimises
the danger of their rolling off the narrow ledge on which
they are deposited, although a great many undoubtedly
get destroyed in this manner, some even finding their way
into the trawl. Mention of the colour of eggs reminds me
of the " light " egg found in most clutches of the tree-
sparrow and in some of the house-sparrow. This egg is
generally unfertile. I have given only general descrip-
tions of the various eggs, their average number, length,
and markings, relying for the commoner kinds on speci-
mens in my own collection, on standard text-books for the
rest. Not the least interesting aspect of the study of the
nests and eggs of birds is the discovery of new and strange
sites, some amusing examples of which were cited in a
recent article in the ' Pall Mall Magazine,' including
sparrows nesting in a cannon -box (the cannon being
fired twice daily) and in a growing fungus ; titmice
rearing their young in a lamp-post and a letter-box;
Avrens nesting in an old bonnet that had been converted
into a scarecrow ; and thrushes apj^ropriating a garden-
roller.

The identification of a living bird that crosses our vision
one moment and is gone the next is not always an easy

matter; and I fear that I have succeeded but

Identification. • !•«• .i • i ^i, i. j -t.

indinerently m my endeavour throughout the

descriptions which follow to give the character, whether
it be a patch on the wing-coverts, a line over the eye,
a crest or a collar, most likely to be arrested in a snaj)-
shot with the binoculars. No bird is difficult to identify in
the museum, where there is leisure to take account of the
exact number of feathers in the tail, the number of toes,
or the shape and nature of the nostrils. Identifying the
specimen is, however, a very difierent matter from recog-
nising the living bird ; and I have purposely omitted the
details given in every text-book in order to lay stress
on what to look for at the short notice usually available.

BIRDS. Ill

A. longer acquaintance with the birds will put us in a
position to identify them in a number of indirect ways,
by their nest and egg, their flight or voice. At first,
however, it is essential to note at a glance some such
slight peculiarity as those enumerated above. The im-
pressionist instinctively notes the yellow bill of the
blackbird, the bald forehead of the coot, the grey
collar of the jackdaw, the coloured proboscis of the
puffin ; nor, trifling as may appear these often ephemeral
characters, is the practice of taking note of them with,
or still better without, the binoculars, an unimportant
factor in the training of the eye to that rapid, unpre-
meditated, and accurate observation which, whether inborn
or acquired, is a part and parcel of the field naturalist.

In all ways, then, birds are perhaps the wild creatures
that most repay study, nor is it a small matter that they
are the easiest of observation. Those who take the
trouble to observe them in nature are always finding
some new and hitherto unsuspected feature of their
lives. At one time, they note with interest the limits
to their instinct, which seems to have no inkling of
those late snows that, year after year, make AjDril fools
of the old birds and corpses of the young. The sports-
man learns to distinguish between the solitary and the
gregarious ; and the mutual advantages derived from
this sociability soon occur to him when he finds how
much harder are the latter to stalk, whether they mount
sentinels, as is sometimes their practice, or not. The
book-student, it is true, brackets the exquisite kingfisher
and the hideous lizard. The quadrate bone between
lower jaw and skull, the single condyle in the neck,
the oval blood - corpuscles, as well as the origin and
development of the two, all stamp them the " sauropsidan "
progeny of a common reptilian ancestor. And if the
bird-lover should recoil from thinking of his favourites
as feathered reptiles, let him give the library and dissect-
ing-room a wide berth, and wander in blissful ignorance
alono; the forest ridings or beside the stream.

112

BIRDS.

>^ ^

1'^

oT "^

2 S

^4-1

s >

cS ^

Tc ^

■^

.i-H

jj .a»

-t-3

t firs
lUS, f

Oh
tc

rt C

O rt

F— H

<* ._

• rH

•ri to

-t-3

H- 1

m
• i-i

.-H

m C

.!-<

• rH

1— 1

' s_J

fH ^

•s

^■"4

--H

§ o

• rH

t -^

tJD.t^

;/5

« ^

1— 1

•I-H

his i
ally

*-H

H "S

a»

r"<

• ^H

. cc

— 1 O)

•r-

r-4

r-*

ii ^

^
^

•rH

■tS *^

o >

••J

-4J

•rH

tremit
decep

;-i

r—t

^4-1

X <p

H— 1

z; 03

:/i

!X>

o •;r

■4J r^

' —

k-i

r-l

-4-^

■<

<
o

zn
P
S5

<:
[^

I— I Oi o oo'

O"-!

o • —

r:5

-4J

.r-l ■ -•■

r' ■" '^

5^ c

o -^ a> o °i-

C£3

j3 ^

J^Scj ^

r- o

S eo «o
« f S
«o 55 S^

«0

s "^ w

5a a Si^v

t7» i:

5i CO «; -vo

^^ "^ 2* *^

=: 8 8*2
4; -co Co ^

5* O
pO i<5

«o

A LIST OF BRITISH BIRDS. 113

D o r;

^ i*

« 1— I -!1 !_ TT! -1 i^ -,, -^ r; "^ O r*. r.

-M

v; r:; o .-^ H

^ ^

fH ~

^ ^

*" —

-^ ^

i> 0

> ' — '

-1^

^' > --

^-2,-

^1^

r^ 0

1— 1

«0

5»

«.;>

ro «0

^ ?t^

•<^

^^•

«j

-Si.-"

•0

•^ CO C15

.. 1 I liilill II ss&3^ ^ -i P

1 1 i •irrfill 11 ti|1i I I II

c—

«0

f-<i

CO 00

:s •*>.» ci ^ ^

BIRDS.

P^
W

I— I

n -^ -/

o = .

— I'M

r:!-)*

-«?«

-♦ri

r-*M

Hci

»4'-M' -<^

-t?>

-«-M

?cii

-T

u-^

»o

<:o

O -^ T

>s, s

-^ s

•

1 '

1->
o

• l-H

!— t

1-^

Com

I— t

a: ^

5
1

•i— t

jj g is s $

ffi^

fi5

1—1

;zi

<»

'«

*/>

"(SS

•^

-od

"*-

r>^

•^

"/^

>>o

8 §

•^ -^

s> «

'^'

43 <^

«0

•2 2 2

2 ««

l^^l CO

o 2 s -^
~» ■'^ 5 ^ 5»

«o

•

•*>

■»o

'-0

"«

tfj

l^W.

->*

-S

•^o

•^

•c

-M

•

;

Q
o

Q
P

fiH ::u

I— (
H
H

o
>-]

o
o

CO s

w.s

20 S

'Jl

A LIST OF BRITISH BIRDS. 115

HOI -pi rw 1-+* -n» r^i

tbrrrr = = r = - = = _g

t>.

• t— <

■A

'«

< s S

O ^ O J <3l

116

BIRDS.

1:2 1

« " X

^ :^ —

50 O

<X) CO »o

»— I

P5
C

,£3

"^ ^ cz '4—4 »— • '^ ^ ^^ ^r*

C^ J-" ^

^ " ^

;5 P^

3 ^ •- |3 S

? s? ?>

»rH Oml-:i SiJH PQCL,

5»

--0
5^

«0

«o

^ 2 §
o ?: v>

to .<>

S-S,

■Si

«9

e
^

..*»

«o

o
Co

a
xn

Q
I— I

S 8

A LIST OF BRITISH BIRDS.

117

1>.?0 CD

«D

r*<I

-«

C-. U-. OO

I— 1 04 I— 1

r— 1

C-1

bti

XI
O

« 0;

-- ?-:

I — 1 $-1

-)J

•S =3

'^ r^

w o

P >

^ J^

P5 S.5

^ •— i^ ,

I — I ^^ r^ s^ O (— 1 1

J. ji > -,5

uC uO

o
o

O -

f- -
*-* ^ ^

c a :^ c ^

I—*

p^p:?^:;::;^

►si

Of*

s s -^

S -^ ;*

♦* ^ sj

<li

Co ^

5: cj

T^^ CO

«0

s
^

•^

«o

5^
CO

^^e g S c

S 5> O ^ 5»

,%. O rO O O

S~^ O S cj o

«0

•p— I

!/:

<y=!

<4-l

I—I

05
• 1— »

-fJ

^-1

•>->

; ,

.-^

T-

I— 1

-tJ

(/.

• •— <

-t-i

-4-»

•1— (

;-4

f-l

PL.

►o

••-I

•0

►<

■•*o

^ (i.

Q
i-i

118

BIRDS.

- ®-r

< s

t^«o

g
^

m
ft

I— I

l-H

i>> ii

rii!

ce = -

i-q

,.,_,

r— • ^

"T" o •r'

-T- ^ t:! -f^ i

S^i^-ii^

■--' O y: ^ •—

i-i

K^j c aj O ^

^^57.^

»>

fc-

C^H =

«t-l
-f— 1

o
o

Tc ~

^-^

1— f

•1— (

-M -

kyi ^

-tJ

^-<

'-J ^

eats
sser

^ --^

D &D

Si ai

02 <1

^c^S"

Oh^

S 2 5- ^^

C ?5 ;j> fCs 05

.'^

- =^ CO

c** o* c:i
<» &. ^

5- K

D
55

e
■^

«0

^ ft, '^

.'Si

o
«

8
a

c
o

■^

c
o

I "«

CO s

<!
iJ

Q
i-i
iJ
H

Q
i-i
O
1-1
t)

p-l

I— (

03
O

l-H

A LIST OF BEITISH BIRDS.

119

HC1

CO O ^*i «o

o
o

S-i

-s

>-,

f— 1

3:;

o
o

-»J

-t-3

r-H

^-^

-iJ

c3
PQ

?-" —

ci
® ,

s c

c ^

1-::/:

r be

X —

Si.

•0

i«.

§^

e
<»

e
^

«0

o
«o

VI ^

,>5

i«

■^

■^o

J=^

■Ki

^ ^ y

l-l H-l ?r

<
■A

>— (

I— I
o

t-i

1—1

120

BIRDS.

.Sv- ?

c " x

v.- ■'J *—

■rf<
CO

■30

P
I— I

c
S

> S

fee

^
•S
O

5-1 P^ *-•
c3 0) O

'S* "T^ !>!

r^ f^ 1^

S '^

<i<5

O e/5 'W

S S i^

•S^ <> «o

5^ s-'s

bi)

W -s

a)
be
bc

o j_

E'bb

o o

zoo

ci
I—'

02 MP5

fes

«0

•o

«o

»q

^ '6

5y<

«0

1— I

(

>>*

1 ^

H 8

2 ^'

<%» -^

1-3

c«

I— I
02

p— I

PL,
t— (

o
o

A LIST OF BEITISH BIRDS. 121

T—l I— I T— ( CM CO C^ CO CO

S o o

^1 :ssb| ^

« ^i_^ I ^^ . I -., -s^l

5 e3

(r>

I -iistli-st 1 III •5|5'i'?l X "i ^§

I 1 i « E

P-i <

O H

Ah Iz;

o o

122

BIPvDS.

ZTl

I— I

h— I

'^.

I— I

r— n

l-H
<

^'zi

•^ .— ..c^

-t^ o o

S(t2 c

S ti 5"

^ S fc,

»rti -^ oo t—

ooo

COCO(N(M

«C>«0 T}<

0<I

rf s =

sS c

<5~i

cc _ _ -

o - - -

= = =

;z;

O ^

-4-3

tIj

o
o

-T.

•r.

o
be

<— <
• 1— «

bO o i
ce o .

> ' F— ^

_ ^

-»

® c3 - ^

^ ^

3J ;_ 0)

«c

Ed
Oh

>:>

e«5
S
■Si

§41

<^ V «J -r^

_«<5 ti?
111

5^ 52 c>

5 «

».c

»"<i

S ?5i «<i

O ?5 «>•

O 8

'^^

•2 <W S ""^

C*^

r* <?» (vs

l-O -i ^

•o ^^ e

•<

i- rCl -^

o ;;^c

w o

•.;>

.♦5

§^

-1

■^

;

ta^

i-i

O
o

I— I

^1
O Q

I— (
H

>-H O

. "^ CO

A LIST OF BRITISH BIRDS. 123

-KN

-1^

«D

TT<

I—I

F— 1

■^ OS «D O -^ ir; Oi

QO GO

I— 1 I— 1

c3 K^ O

o ^

's; ^ til's ^'^<v^ r::

*-i c3 aj -^ rd -rn -2 ?J 3 b ^, fcc-r; ^ r • ^ -*f ^

« "i E «.^

8 >.g ^-giioSiS

3r^ S

K, O S 2C

't:^

■to

•♦^

Q»

124

BIRDS.

H
(—1

c ^*

.F^(^ i-

^c-s

^^--^ O

HIN

-4^

-♦n

t^?0-rt<

t^co

C-l

i-HCM !M

»— . 1— 1

?— t

J— 1

rt i =

t- ^- "

P H E

■<•" i

(XI

/-^

ci -

<i>

be "

■^

—

•t!;

■0/

o =

bn >

.^ o

-i-i

bfj

o « o

t
l>

n3
•1— 1
;-i

-t-3

■ID

—

fo f^J

C 5£

J5 «o >*

e S ?i

.«0

•5

«0

f<a

s=^

•o

!S^

rC)

"cs>

•"<,

"*^

>•

1 s

M g

H o

< o

•«!

Jz;

E-i

PL,

flH

i'?

g-|

o
o

1— 1

K o

p^^

rn ^

a£

A LIST OF BRITISH BIRDS.

125

r-tN

(M<r>

I— t

I— 1

(M r-H

F— 1

1— 1

I— (

r— 1

I— t

T-<

-tJ

r-"

■ O) i

;=! o

• p-^

f-t

bX3

Caperc
Black

Red

Little
Baillo]

o
o

4-5
o
o

Crane
Demoi

Great
Little
Macqii

*-(

urogallus
tetrix

o
Co

«o

to
ts

«0

«o

■to
•to

•to

•*o

"♦O

•"a

::3

«0

i^-O

'<o

^-o

-o

•to

f-O

•

■

•

■

•

■

•

t-t
O

M
P

M
Q

1— 1

H
O

1— 1

Q
1— 1

H^l

12G

BIRDS.

a:
I — I

rjl
I— I

s =

r^r* fH

hKM

» -„

•

t^ -o

I— I

-M

'-C

I— 1

o
-J

«J

!25

> _ _ _

o - - -

r =

-(-3

rC3

P^H

b/3

-rJ

»— <

«-H

r— t

1-^
rt O

i-<

o
Q

o
o

-(J
m
>>

o
>

o
ci

**>

s -i e

- ^ s «

S 2 ~ <o

.to S

2
8

;^^ Sin

•^ S e o

*S,5^

■^i

S 5~

■^

S ^

•< S S ci

a.^

?> ii

•^

-^^

D
03

«o

•r^

•^o

•*o

>!=>'
^

■■Si

«o
"to"

.5^

03
o

«o

fI5

Q
I— I

K
O

O
hi

o
o

A LIST OF BRITISH BIRDS.

127

QO ?0

QO O

o
o
o

o
o

5 .'.

OQi-5

J-l

-M

Ph « J- a cu -s -to
-^ c -^ ^^ 2 =7: S^o

i-:i -*1 rn O Oh W

m (IhWC^I

•^

r:3

-M

I—"

ffi

S o aj

0 50.^

•f^ ^ 1^0

«0

S'se

•".p

«-

?: 0 toj

."=0

■^

Si, S:^ « « S

<*» ^i <7*

^
^

'«

^ ^ '^

»3

Ksi

^Si fciC

:?i

■^

•<c

0
^

«
^

5 =0 c

«0

•s

<>*
•*0

128

BIRDS.

v-i

i£

U-5 to

«o

CZ2
ft

I— I

-«;

!?;

o
i^
S

o
o

'*> S -Ti '^ '—

^ J ® ^ s

-M ^ 53 ^ S

Tz _11 "*— '

Wpq

"^^ G fl
DCS

c --1
o ^

•-H o o r;

^ C3

M 22 ^

0-72 1^

K*"

be
•1— 1

S-i

^
X

r >

5 5~

«0
CO ^ §

■^ s ^
?? § s

<4>

!• io 50

•0

«9

« 8

J i'g^ I s § §^

~ I^ s^ ^

8
v.

o
o

-I

i-i

a;
O

o
o

I— t

A LIST OF BEITISH BIRDS. 129

-+M

a5co«o coo ^ ':^o

(Mr- C<1 CO i-l (M (M

^ .. ^ . = = .-- = =-. _ o

'^ "^

^ri=^

.. .

ri-'

1— 1

1 >y«

0) V3

r-" "

br2 ^

-(J

n; OS

J»

•I-H

en-in
lack-]
edite

— 0)

J.1
O

O
>
1— (

-.—1

X^"^

CkJ

h^m-

OCm S^

■^

atiis
ocephal

«0

s *=

a
it-

•^

orhinu.
atus

«0

rgent
idibu
lelam

chthy
uscus

e j> s

■^^

s c^

-^ A, S

•^

^?^ V'

►<

'«

Co
S
O

►si

• ^H

• i-H

•i-i

-u
,a^

130

BIRDS.

OS »o

X/1

I— I

M
O

o
S

-t->

u
o

• »— t

^
rt

p; ^

^ - - -

«« :3 S d
§ ^ -? '^

^!^ »-^ C/- s.^

3 G VI

.«o

fiS S <» o
■ '" f S

•<s>

■^ r V

10 rCs JTi

•♦o

^ S

■♦0

r«0

-»*

t*i

5S.

e
o

«Q

*»-o

>»o

?S.

4?^

r-~

«
O

■^

0 *5

0 Q

C3 -'

"Jl

Pl4

A LIST OF BRITISH BIRDS.

131

H-5

HTl

O CO

(N ?o

CO (M

(M l-H

t->

■ ^-1 ^ — »■

<» -

^ ^

^ -

"■ ■"

!=! '^

^ i ^ -

«^

-(-J ^^ O -

M <3^

o •- ^

fl^ ^

O O)

.1-1

Great
White
Black-
j Red-

Great
Red-n

Eared
Little

<s>

-o

•2 00

ialis
msi
icus
entri

tatus
eigen

<0 Wi >o -io

CO to
5~ ^

■§^§

^« !3 CO

t: C::>

«0

<»

.8-

Q
n

a
Pi

132 BIRDS.

CHAPTER I. THE PERCHING BIRDS.

[Tliroiighout the following pages on birds, the summer, winter, and
niigrational visitors are denoted respectively by *, f, §. Rare stragglers
are in italics. The rest are residents. ]

I. The Thrushes and their Allies.

[A glance at the Turdinae sub-family (p. 112) will show
that it includes not alone such outwardly similar birds as
the thrush, fieldfare, and ring-ousel, but also distinct forms
like the redbreast and nightingale. Five residents ; eight
regular visitors; ten irregular visitors.]

The ]\Iistle-thrush, largest of the group, is common in

all the wooded districts of Great Britain and Ireland,

its range extending to the Hebrides. Larger

tliru8h"or than the common thrush, this sj^ecies is dis-

Storm- tinguished by the streaks of white on the

^^^ * wings and the lighter hue of the breast. Its

favourite food consists of berries and snails ; and, although

no migratory bird, it will nevertheless wander far in search

of these. The trivial names of this bird are not entirely

satisfactory, since, although fond of them with the rest, it

does not at any season make a special feature of eating

the berries of the mistletoe.^ Nor has it any connection

with storms, though it is true that, like many other birds,

it will raise its voice in rivalry during a gale.
v^oicG

How any one living in the country could

question the fact of this bird singing it would be hard

to say, yet not only did a lively correspondence on the

subject fill many columns of a north - country paper as

recently as last February (1897), but a similar controversy

evidently engaged the attention of the naturalists of a

1 Tn the south-western counties it is known as the "holm thrush"
(holm = holly).

THE PERCHING BIRDS.

133

bygone generation, since Brown has a note on the subject
in his (1833) edition of White's ' vSelborne.' It all depends,
I siipi)Ose, on the exact distinction between song and noise,
which would seem to be more or less a matter of taste.

The mistle-thrush nests early in the year, the nest, which
is usually placed in the fork of an oak, being in most years
finished by the third w^eek in February, if not sooner. At

this season the bird becomes shy and silent. Lined with
grass and mud, and placed, as a rule, 10 or 12 (I have
found them at only 4) feet from the ground, few nests
of the size are more easily overlooked. Eggs, 4, rather
over I inch; greenish, with red spots and lines. Two
broods are reared in exceptionally fine seasons— rarely,
however, in Scotland.

134 BIRDS.

By no means a very timid bird, and allowing close
observation, the Common Thrush is familiar to most, and,
though of inconspicuous plumage, save for the speckled

Song- breast, is easily distinguished on the lawn by

thrush, its curious hopping gait when after worms, and
the long low flight for covert when flushed. Only the
blackbird, distinct by reason of his black back and yellow
bill, has such antics, indeed he runs more like a starling,
and has in addition a peculiar way of cocking his tail.
The song-thrush is of darker hue, with less grey in its
j)lumage, than the preceding species.

Its food consists of w^orms, snails, seeds, wild berries,
and, for a very short period, ripe fruit, I watched a
thrush break snails on a particular stone near its nest
beneath my window almost every evening for nearly a
fortnight last May (1897).

The familiar nest is cup-shaped, lined or plastered with
mud and rotten wood, and is placed at varying heights
in a hedge. The bird has also been known, when the
original nest is disturbed, to lay in a depression in the
earth. Eggs, 4 or 5, about i inch ; bright blue, with
small spots of black or dark brown. Two or three broods
are reared each year, the first being hatched by the end of
March. When disturbed, the female glides away from the
nest without a sound.

Both the Fieldfare and Redwing arrive early in October,
and leave again late in March or early in Ajjril, the fleld-
t Fieldfare ^^^'^'^ being last to go. They come from the
and north of Europe. The redwing feeds almost

t e wing, exclusively on insects ; the fieldfare varies its
insect diet with juniper, rowan, and other berries and
grain. The redwing is easily distinguished by the pale
streak over the eye ; the fieldfare by the conspicuous white
of the belly. Neither bird has ever been known to breed
in this country.

Black -throated 'T/iriiiih. — A rare visitor from Siberia,

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 135

recorded twice (1868, 1889) only. The belly is of a
spotless white.

White's Thruxh. — Another rare stra£i;2;ler from northern
Asia to most of our southern and eastern counties.

American Robin. — This is the migratory thrush of North
America. Its occurrence in these islands is considered by
many to rest on insufficient evidence.

Siberian Thrush. — Another doubtful visitor.

The Blackbird is one of the handsomest and sweetest of

our song-birds. The body and legs of the male are of

orrevish black, his bill bri2;ht oran2;e, I

Blackbird. ''•',, ' . °i /I ^ V T.

recently saw a cinnamon - coloured i^ritisn

blackbird at the Zoological Gardens, and believe this to
be a not very rare variety. The female is dark brown,
bill and all. The note varies in quality, being most
mellow in the spring. Of wide distribution throughout
these islands, in several districts of which it is yearly ex-
tending its range, the bird, although resident, undertakes
considerable inland migrations, like those of the mistle-
thrush. It feeds on worms, snails, seeds, fruit, and haw-
thorn berries ; and it drinks regularly. This spring, I
observed a blackbird constantly drinking from the gutter
beneath the eaves of a house, a trick which I believe it
caught from a pair of jackdaws that had their nest there.
The shallow nest is ready by the end of March. It is lined
with grass, and almost invariably placed in a hedge 3 or 4
feet from the ground. Eggs, 5 or 6, about i inch ; pale
green, with reddish spots, either at the larger end only or
over the whole surface. This bird rears a third, or even a
fourth, brood. It is also known to interbreed with the
thrush ; and I took two blue, unspotted eggs from a nest
at Bexley (1886) that were, I believe, the product of this
union, though I only saw the hen, a blackbird. These
birds sit very close, and, when the intruder is upon them,
fly silently from the nest.

A bird of the moors, the Rini;-Ousel arrives from the

136 BIRDS.

Continent in March or early in April. It rears, as a rule,
but one brood, then leaves these islands in October, though
*Bing- a few remain the winter both in the Midlands
Ousel. and in Ireland. It is easily distinguished by
its conspicuous white collar. It feeds on worms and
snails, also on fruits and berries. Its voice is inferior to
that of the thrush or blackbird. The ring-ousel breeds in
the higher districts of Great Britain and Ireland, not much
south of the Thames, save in the south-western counties.
The nest, placed on or near the ground, is not unlike that
of the blackbird, and the same resemblance applies to the
eggs, which are 4 or 5 in number.

Roch-thrush. — A very rare visitor from Asia. Has been
recorded but once (1843).

The Wheatear arrives from the Continent in ]\Iarch, and
leaves again in September or October. Only a portion of
the vast flocks that visit these islands on
migration remain to breed, the majority, a
larger race, jDassing on to more distant breeding-grounds.
The wheatear is easily distinguished from the other small
migratory species with which it congregates by the black
ear-coverts and lores. It feeds exclusively on insects, and,
like the wagtail, has a habit of continually jerking its tail
to the accompaniment of a short sharp utterance. The nest,
lined with finer grass or fur, is of coarse grass, and is usually
placed in rabbit-burrows or under similar cover. Eggs, 5 or
6, nearly i inch ; pale blue, with or without a few specks.

Isabelline Wheatear. — An African straggler. Recorded
once (1887) only.

Black-throated Wheatear. — A straggler from the Conti-
nent. Occurred but once (1875).

Desert Wheatear. — A straggler from Africa, Has oc-
curred three times (1880, 1885, 1887).

The Whinchat, one of our latest visitors, arrives from

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 137

the Continent late in April, and leaves again early in
October. It is easily distinguished from the stonechat
and sundry other small birds, with which on
* occasion it foregathers,- by the white spot on
each wing and the white line over the eye. This bird is
very partial to the noxious wireworm. The nest, built of
fine grasses and moss, is placed at the foot of a furze-bush,
on or near the ground. Eggs, 5 or 6, considerably under
I inch ; greenish blue, with a zone of reddish spots. The
first brood is reared in May, and there is usually a second
early in July. This bird does not appear to breed in
Cornwall, but is widely distributed over the rest of these
islands.

Not unlike the last, the Stonechat is distinguished by its
uniformly black head and the white bars on its wings. A
common resident in parts of Great Britain and
Ireland, its range extends to the Hebrides
and Orkneys : in the latter, rare. In some districts it is
migratory, uncertain and capricious in its comings and
goings. Its food consists almost entirely of insects, which
it captures on the wing. Its nest is not unlike that of the
last, only somewhat more carefully lined. It is usually
on the ground. It used to nest abundantly on Dartford
Heath and round Chiselhurst (1886-87). Eggs, 5, about
yz inch ; two types in my collection both greenish blue,
one with a narrow belt of spots, the other with the larger
end thickly spotted with red. A second brood is some-
times, but not invariably, reared.

Arriving from Eastern Europe in March, leaving again
in September, the Redstart, an insectivorous bird, is far
more common in Great Britain than in Ire-
land, where, save in a few districts on the
north and east, it is extremely rare. It is also rare in
Cornwall. The redstart is easily recognised by its white
forehead and black throat. It nests, at no great height

138 BIRDS.

from the ground, in holes in trees or walls, and, like
almost all builders in holes, constructs a bulky nest of
grass lined with feathers. Eggs, 6, ^ inch ; very pale
blue and usually without spots.

The Black Kedstart, a regular, but never common, visitor
to the southern counties of England and Ireland, rarely
t Black reaches Scotland. It is said to have bred in

Redstart. Qj-^g qj. ^^q counties, Essex among them; but
this appears by no means certain. I have taken its nest
in old walls in Mecklenburg, the eggs being pure white.
The bird is distinguished from the last by its black fore-
head and the white patch on the wdng.

The Ked- spotted Bluethroat wanders from Northern
tRed- Europe and Asia, as a rule, to only our east

spotted coast, but a few are recorded from Scotland.

Bluethroat. rpj^^ ^^^^^^ -^ ^^^^^ ^^.^j^ ^ ^^jj ^^^ ^^^^^^ .^^

the centre.

[t White-spotted Bluethroat, possibly a race only of the
last. The throat-patch is Avliite.]

The Robin is one of the most familiar of our resident
birds. I found an almost identical bird (Fetro'ica) in Aus-
tralia, its voice as pleasing, its ways as pert.
The redbreast is at all times, save perhaps in
the autumn moult, a bold bird, and one easily observed.
The precise extent of its migrations, as well as the question
of its pairing for life, seem still undecided. I believe per-
sonally that it does mate for life, as, having taken from
a robin's nest near Crayford (April 1886) a remarkably
beautiful type of egg, of coffee colour and without spots or
markings of any kind, I tried the experiment of abstract-
ing two eggs, the rest of the clutch being of the commoner
type with red spots, to induce the female to make up the
proper number before sitting, a habit noticed so far only
in the life-pairing birds. ]My attempt was so far success-

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 139

fill that the hen dei^osited some ten or eleven eggs, I
forget which ; but here my success ended, as the new-
comers were none of the coveted type. At last I gave up
the attempt, and left her the normal half-dozen to sit on.

As regards the migrations of this bird, they are, it is
generally believed, confined for the most part to season-
able journeyings for favourite food from one part of the

country to another. It is also known, however.
Migrations. , . , i -n i • i ^i

that intense cold will drive a number across the

Channel. Human brutality has for some reason or other —
a relic maybe of earlier suj^erstitions — stayed its hand at
the robin, the result being that the bird is trustful and
slow to take alarm. There is every reason to suppose
that the other birds might have given us their friendship)
in exchange for kind treatment in lieu of small-shot and
bird-lime.

The food of the redbreast varies with the season, and
few birds adapt themselves more readily to w^hatever is
handy. AVorms and flies, fruits, wild or cul-
tivated, seeds and grain, each have their turn.
Then at length, when the ground is snowbound, the bird
reaps the benefit of its familiarity with man, and gets
crumbs from the table. As it is quite the most quarrel-
some and pugnacious of our smaller birds, not even the
bully sparrow cares about crossing it. Its conspicuous
red breast, as well as the low undulating flight, render
it impossible to confuse this with any other British bird.
The young, which the parents soon drive oft" to cater for
themselves, are speckled like thrushes.

The nest of the redbreast is usually in the ground, pref-
erably half-way up the side of a grassy bank. I have
also found it in another very common jDOsition

, . ' ., — namely, the thickest part of fac!:got-heaps :
nestmg-sites. . . . . ^

and it is a curious fact that it generally selects
those most recently stacked. The eccentric choice of situa-
tion often shown by this bird is so well known, and has
been the theme of so many writers, that it needs but

140 BIRDS.

passing mention. As an instance, I found one nesting
in a disused rat-trap whicli the gardener had pitched over
the hedge ; and in this dungeon, still occupied by a large
piece of dried bacon, a pair of robins reared four young
ones. A similar instance, in which a pair nested in an
old tin can, is quoted by Mr Barrett-Hamilton.^ The nest
is also found in holes of trees and old walls. In form
it varies little, the outside being of dead leaves, sometimes
wdth moss, the lining of hair or feathers. Eggs, 6 to 7,
I inch ; usually white or greyish, with numerous red spots.
I had three pure white. As a rule, the texture of the
shell is coarse and rough, but the creamy ^gg alluded to
above was highly polished. Two or three broods are
reared.

Writers who must at any cost show that singing-birds
are invariably dressed in sober hues, are fond of describ-
*]srightin- ing both the Nightingale and the linnet as ex-
gale, tremely plain creatures. As a matter of fact,
the cock-linnet is, in the breeding season at any rate, a
handsome bird ; and it can hardly be denied that the
nightingale has a pleasing appearance, the brown and red
of the tail and upper parts contrasting sharply with the
dull white beneath. The distribution of this migratory
bird, which is with us, as a rule, from the
* " middle of April until the middle of September,
the males being the first to arrive, is regulated by suitable
conditions of climate and food, which are not easy to assign.
Thus, it has not yet occurred in either Scotland or Ireland,
and is extremely rare in Wales. Yorkshire is one of the
most northerly counties included in its range in these
islands, and it is unknown in West Devon and Cornwall.
Within a short radius, too, it may be capricious in its
fancies. Thus, taking the west of Hants, I have heard
numbers this year behind Poole, and again near Eingwood,
whereas in the apparently suitable (and strictly enclosed)

1 Harrow Birds, p. 4.

THE PERCHING BIRDS.

141

woods and coppices in and around Boiirnemoiitli, immedi-
ately between these two districts, I heard or saw never

a one. From its habit of singing loudly on
opu ar moonlight nights, many people seem to imagine

that the bird is silent throughout the day,
whereas in reality it sings the spring through from soon
after daybreak until about an hour before noon ; then, after
a silence during the hottest hours, again through the after-

noon into the darkness. Another fancy is that this is the
only bird that sings after darkness has set in, whereas the
song-thrush, and in some parts the sedge- warbler, also
sing, and the wood-pigeons coo, during the w^arm summer
nights. The song of the nightingale, the curious sustained
gurgling and shivering of which is unlike that of most
birds, the nearest being the blackcap's, is admirably
described in Hudson's 'British Birds.'

The food of the nightingale consists almost entirely of
insects and worms, largely of caterpillars and elderberries,
rarely of soft orchard fruit.

142 BIRDS.

The nest, made of leaves and lined Avitli liorse-hair and
rootlets, is placed close to the ground at the foot of a
clump in the thickest and most tangled part of a hedge.
J^ggs, 5, about | inch; resemble small olives, being un-
spotted greenish brown.

2. The Warblers,

[With the excejDtion of the foregoing, most of our song-
birds are included in this group, though they vary greatly
in the equality of their voice. Two residents; twelve
regular visitors; eight irregular visitors and stragglers.]

The Whitethroat is widely distributed from Ai)ril to
September, save in parts of the Highlands. The note

* "White- i^ sweet, but neither loud nor sustained. The
throat, bird feeds on insects and grubs, with an oc-
casional meal of fruit. The nest, built early in May, is of
dry grasses and bents, lined with hair, and is j^laced, not
far from the ground, in bushes. Egg?^, 5, about ^ inch ;
there are several types; and in the summer of 1886 I took
eleven distinct varieties from the furze-bushes of Dartford
Heath and the neighbouring park. They go through every
shade from palest yellow to deep green, some spotless, but
the majority profusely speckled with pale brown.

Also with us in the southern counties from Ajn-il to
September, the Lesser Whitethroat is rarely found in

* Lesser ^^^^l^s or Scotland, never reaches the High-
AAThite- lands, and is unknown in Ireland. It bears
throat, considerable resemblance to its larger relative

in appearance, being distinguished by the absence of red
from the wings. In habits and food there is little diifer-
ence. The nest, similar but smaller, is found in the same
situations. The egg, also smaller, is of lighter hue with
similar markings. A second brood is usually reared.
Orjjhean Warbler. — A rare straggler from the South.

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 143

Has occurred only twice, once in Yorks, the other time in
Middlesex.

Yearly with us from April to Sej^tember, the Blackcap
has often been shot in the southern counties in winter ;
so that some, at all events, remain through
the year. Excej^t in the extreme north of
Scotland, and to those islands w^hich it passes only on
its autumn wanderings, the bird breeds throughout the
United Kingdom. Easily distinguished by the contrast
of the black head with the uniform grey of the rest of the
plumage, this warbler has a song w^hich, though not the
theme of many poets, is at its best little inferior to that
of the nightingale. It feeds on insects, fruits, mostly
wild, and berries. A most interesting habit has been
noticed in connection with its capture of insects, which
it is said to effect with the aid of the intoxicating juice
of the hibiscus, pricking the flower with its bill and
returning anon to feed on the helpless insects that lie
around. The nest, of dried grasses lined with fine
bents, is placed in thick bushes 3 or 4 feet from the
ground. Eggs, 5, ^ inch ; stained white, with dark
brow^n or reddish spots and blotches at the larger end.
Two broods are usually reared. It is curious how densely,
given suitable conditions, these birds will nest, almost in
colonies. In May 1886 I took, in one morning, an o^gg
from each of five nests in a hedge not 500 yards long
on the banks of the Cray in Kent. T have generally
found the nest of this warbler in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of running water.

The rarer, duller brown-and-white Garden Warbler is

with us for five months only, not arriving until the second

week in May. Though not uncommon in our

"Warbler south-eastern counties, it is rare in most parts

of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, and Cornwall

is almost beyond its usual range. Like the last, it feeds on

144 BIRDS.

insects and fruit. Its nest, a large edition of the black-
cap's, is found in similar i)laces, more often in gardens.
The eggs, also a, trifle larger, are otherwise nearly identical.
Barred Warbler. — A rare autumn straggler, distin-
guished by the white bars on the wings and tail and
the dark bars on the chest. Only about half-a-dozen
occurrences are recorded — one in Ireland, a second in
Skye, the rest in our eastern counties.

The collector of eggs finds a solemn interest in the
Dartford Warbler akin to that which the entomologist

might experience after a week's hunt for the
art or d chimerical and coveted " skipper " in and

around the sleepy little cove at Lulworth.
Judging from my own experience of three summers spent
right on Dartford Heath, I should think that the tyj^e
from which in 1773 the species was named must have
been the first and last ever seen in the neighbourhood. I
have taken the eggs in Richmond Park and in the Isle of
Wight, but not within ten miles of Dartford. Though
comjDaratively scarce north of the Thames, it has been
found breeding in Yorkshire. It is a much darker bird than
the other warblers. It feeds on insects and berries. The
nest is usually found in furze-bushes (hence called " Furze-
chat "), and is a slightly more compact structure than that
of the whitethroat. £^c/gs, 5, rather smaller than those of
the blackcap ; brownish white, with many brown spots.
Two broods are reared.

The Goldcrest, smallest of British birds, is, owing to its
wanderings from one part of the country to another,
known in some parts, notably at the coast,
as the " Woodcock- pilot," presumably from
its arriving just before the Woodcock. It has a black-and-
yellow crest, and the wings are barred with black and
white. With the exception of the Outer Hebrides and
some other of the isles, it breeds throughout the kingdom.

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 145

It feeds entirely on insects. Its nest, perhaps the most
beautiful of British nests, is of moss, lined with wool
and feathers and hair, and is often hung beneath the
horizontal branch of a yew. Eggs, 8 or lo, yi inch; dull
white, with red spots.

Distinguished by the deeper orange of the crest, the

Firecrest is an irregular winter visitor to the

Channel counties, and has been recorded from

Yorkshire. Some reported firecrests have turned out to

be old male goldcrests. It has occurred in Scotland, but

is not yet recorded from Ireland.

AVith us from March to October, the Chiffchaflf has also
been shot in winter. Except in the Highlands, its dis-
tribution is wide throughout these islands.
There is a good deal of yellow in the plumage.
It feeds on insects. The nest, dome-shaped, is of moss and
grasses, lined with feathers, and placed near the ground.
Eggs, 5, rather over y^, inch ; dull white, with red spots.

Yelloiv-browed Warbler. — A rare autumn straggler from
Asia. Has occurred on the east coast four times, and
once in Ireland.

Pallas' s Willoiv-warhler has been once recorded (1896).^

The Willow- wren is with us from April to September.

There is much yellow in the plumage, especially a line

over the eye and along the edges of the

♦Willow- ^yings. The song is pleasing, but of no very

high order. Its food consists almost entirely

of insects. The nest, domed and placed on or near the

ground, is of grass and lined with feathers. Eggs, 4 to 8,

f inch ; dirty white, with pale red spots.

Distinguished from the last by the white feathers in
the tail, which is proportionately shorter, the Wood-wren

1 See Mr Southwell's notes in the ' Zoologist ' for January 1897.

146 BIRDS.

also seeks these islands from Aj^ril to SeiDtember, though

considerably more local in its occurrence and very rare in

Ireland. It feeds on insects ; occasionally on

^Wood- fi.^^i|;_ "pj^e j-^ggt jg domed and placed on or
wren. , . . ^

near the ground. It is lined with fine grasses.

]'^ggsj 6 to 7, about ^ inch; white, with brown spots.

The wood -wren used to nest in great abundance near

Doberan, ^Mecklenburg, iij May 1890.

Rufous Warbler. — A rare straggler from the South.
Only three have been obtained — in Sussex and Devon.

Icterine Warbler. — A rare straggler from the Continent.
Five have been obtained — one in Ireland, the rest on
our east coast.

The Reed-warbler is with us from A})ril to September,
chiefly in the southern counties ; rare in Scotland and

* Keed- Ireland. Song, loud rather than sweet. There
■warbler, jg g^ conspicuous yellow streak above the eye.

The underparts are wdiite. This is among the birds that
sing during the summer nights, a j^erfoi'niance credited
by some to the nightingale only. It feeds entirely on
insects. The deep nest, hung in the reeds, or, more rarely,
in trees, is of grass lined with feathers or wool. Eggs, 5,
nearly ^ inch ; bluish white, with dark sjjots.

A very short stay is made by the Marsh-warbler, since
it does. not arrive till late in May and leaves again in

* Marsh- August. This bird clpsely resembles the last,
warbler, ^^nd its song is pleasant. Its food, like that of

the rest, consists almost entirely of insects. Its distribu-
tion is local. It has nested near Taunton, Banbury, and
Bath. The nest is of grass lined with hair, and placed in
low bushes in the neighbourhood of water. Eggs, 5 to 7,
about ^ inch ; white, with brown spots.

Great Reed-warhler. — A rare straggler from the Conti-
nent. May have bred.

Aquatic Wa7'bler. — A rare straggler. Three occurrences,

THE PEKCHING BIEDS. 147

two of which were on the south coast, the third in
Leicestershire.

Kare in northern Scotland and the isles, the Sedge-
warbler is found in most parts of these islands from April

* Sedge- to the end of September. It has a yellowish
-warbler, streak over the eye, the crown is buff and the

throat white. It feeds on aquatic and other insects. The
nest, of moss lined with hair, is perhaps less often hung
among the sedges than among bushes close to the water's
edge, though I have taken eggs from both situations, early
in June, not far from Ringwood. Eggs^ 5 or 6, Yz inch ;
yellow, with black spots and streaks.

Fairly common in Great Britain, save in the extreme
north of Scotland, from April to September, the Grass-

* Grass- hopper Warbler is very local in Ireland. The
hopper underparts are very pale brown. The name

has reference to the curiously vibrating song,
which, like that of the reed -warbler, is often heard in
the stillness of a summer night. Its food consists of
insects. The nest is of grass lined with finer grasses, and
placed near the ground. Eggs, 5, nearly y^ inch; pinky
white, with brown spots. A second brood is reared.

\_Savi's Warbler, which formerly bred in the eastern
counties, has, singularly enough, not been seen in this
country for the last forty years.]

3. The Hedge-Sparrow.

The Hedge-Sparrow is one of the commonest of our
country birds. In order to emphasise its distinction from
the true sparrows, most naturalists have j^referred to give
it the somewhat cumbersome name of Hedge-Accentor,
• which seems hardly necessary so long as the distinction is
borne in mind. Another of its many aliases is " Shuffle-
wing," by which it is widely known. The song, which is

148 BIRDS.

exceedingly sweet, is heard in some parts of the country
throughout the year. I have repeatedly found this bird
abroad in the late evening, after other small birds are
gone to roost, though at such times it is silent. It feeds
in summer on worms and winged insects ; in hard weather
on seeds. The neat moss nest, a favourite with the cuckoo,
is ready by the middle of March, if not sooner. It is
lined with hair or feathers. Eggs, 5, 3^ inch ; spotless
blue. Several broods are reared.

Alpine Accentor. — A rare allied straggler from the
South, distinguished by the white bars on the Avings. It
has not been obtained more than about a dozen times.

4. The Dipper or Water-Ousel.

The attractive little Dipper, which follows every bend of
the mountain-stream and carols forth its wild song beneath
the very waterfall, is a familiar sight on the river-bank,
less timid too and easier of observation than the more
showy kingfisher, whose name it borrows in the north.
It has been associated with the poaching of trout-eggs, but.
Alleged apart from the fact that its feeding-grounds
damage are often far from the "redds," where the ova
to ova. 1 -g jj-^ -j^ their shingle hummocks, the bird

feeds very largely on caddis and other water-insects. Let
us therefore spare the dipper and confine our attention to
that wholesale culprit, the swan. The dipj^er is not easily
mistaken for any other bird, for no other, save perhaj^s the
wagtail, is seen standing on the slippery stepping-stones,
flirting its tail and nodding its wren-like head. Its white
breast, too, is conspicuous at some distance, as are also the
short round wings. The dipj^er's plunge is all but noise-
less ; and it walks, so we are told, over the bottom with
or against the current, and, like the water-vole, chasing
the larva? and water-beetles. I give these particulars from
other accounts, for, though I have watched the bird through
glasses by the hour, I was never yet so fortunate as to

THE PERCHING BIRDS.

149

take up a position whence I could examine its movements
below the surface ; nor, though we are gravely assured that
it is so, have I ever heard its song from that submerged
region. The dipper is a favourite with travellers and
naturalists, and there are many charming accounts of its
interesting ways, among the brightest of
which are perhaps the tribute paid it by
the author of ' Autumns on the Spey,' and the chapter
in Muir's ' Mountains of California,' the gem of a delight-
ful book, for my introduction to which I was indebted
to Dr A. R. Wallace.

The nest of the dipper, a domed structure of moss lined

In literature.

with dead leaves, is usually placed in some hole in the
rocky bank near its feeding-grounds, occasionally in trees.
^90^1 5) I inch ; pure white. Two or three broods are
reared.

\ Black-hellied Dipper. — A rare visitor to the eastern
counties. It is held by many to be a race only of the
last, and not specifically distinct.

150

BIRDS.

5. The Beaeded IvEedling.

The Bearded Eeedling, more generally known perhaps
as the Bearded Tit, aiKl erroneously classed by many with
the next family, is rare nowadays, confined, so far as its
range in these islands is concerned, to the south of Eng-
land, while its breeding is restricted to the district of

the ISTorfolk Broads.
There the marsh-
men know it as the
" reed-pheasant," in
allusion to its great
length of tail. The
bird is easily distin-
guished by its prom-
inent whiskers, or
"beard," which are
black-and-white in
the male, brown in
the female. Its
food consists chief-
ly of molluscs and
the seeds of water-
plants. In April,
it w^eaves its cuj)-
shaped nest among the decayed reeds. Eggs, 5 to 7, ^
inch; cream-coloured, with brown lines. Though this is
one of our resident birds, a number are suspected to cross
and recross the Channel each year.

6. The Tits or Titmice.

[These active little birds are, in their movements, aptly
compared with mice, and have no song worth the name.
They are easily attracted to the garden in the winter
months by a lump of suet or half a cocoa-nut suspended
from a tree. Six residents ] two rare visitors.]

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 151

The Long-tailed Tit, often confused with a closely allied
Continental species that is but a rare wanderer to these
Long-tailed islands, has the smallest body and proportion-
"^i*- ately longest tail of the group. It is further

distinguished through the glasses by the white on its
crown, together with the broad white margin (and outer
tips) of the tail. The bird occurs throughout these islands,
and its food consists of insects and seeds. The flask-shaped
nest, from the appearance of which the bird is widely
knowTi by the name of "Bottle-tit," is finished, as a rule,
by the first week in April. They had eggs in them in
the ]^ew Forest this year (1897) on the 12th of that month.
It is of moss, lined with feathers, and is placed in high
bushes or in the lower forks of trees ; it is also large for
the size of its occupant, and has but one opening. Eggs,
7 to 12, ^2 inch; white, w^ith or (more rarely) without
reddish spots and lines. The bird will sit close, her tail
projecting from the opening, until the intruder is right
upon her, when she flies off without a sound.

Continental Long-tailed Tit. — A rare straggler from
Northern Europe, distinguished by the absence of black
from the head.

The Great Tit may be distinguished from the rest by its
superior size, the white cheeks, and the black stripe down
the breast ; and the species is common in
most parts of these islands. Though, like
most of the rest, resident, strictly speaking, there is never-
theless a large autumn arrival from the Continent, and
probably, though less accurately recorded, a counter-de-
parture. The note of this bird is piercing. Though its
food consists for the most part of nuts, seeds, and insects,
which last it digs out of the tree after the manner of
woodpeckers, the great tit is known to attack small birds,
and bats too for that matter, for the sake of their brains.
In hard winters it will, with the rest of the family, ap-
proach our dwellings for such scraps as are available.

152 BIRDS.

The nest, ready by the end of March, is placed in any
convenient hole in trees or walls, or even in squirrels'
"cages" or old crows' nests. It is of moss, lined with
hair and feathers. Eggs, 5 to 9, ^ inch; white, with
red spots. A second brood is reared.

Often confused, as the long-tailed tit, with the closely
allied grey variety from the Continent, the white cheeks
and nape and the white bars on the wings
serve to distinguish the Coal Tit from the
rest. Common in parts of England and Ireland, it be-
comes less so in northern Scotland, and exceedingly rare
in most of the isles. A shy bird, it is mostly met with
in the wooded margins of moors and commons. It feeds
on seeds and insects. The nest, also in holes of trees and
walls, or in the ground, is, though smaller, like that of
the last. Eggs, 5 to 10, finch; white, with a few spots
of red.

Continental Coal Tit. — A rare visitor to the eastern
counties.

The best way of recognising the Marsh Tit is to know
the rest, for in truth, beyond having their general ap-
pearance and antics, it has very little about
' it that calls for description. As in the long-
tailed and coal tits, there is a distinct Continental race.
The resident flocks, local in distribution, are augmented
by autumn migrants, and their wanderings inland are con-
siderable. This bird is quite unknown in many English
districts, and is rare in Scotland and Ireland. It feeds on
insects ; also, to a lesser extent, on seeds and fruits. Al-
though it occasionally selects a hole ready made to its
purpose, this bird more often excavates a hole in some
alder in damp situations, being, unlike the woodpeckers,
careful to remove most of the tell-tale chips from the
ground, near which the nesting -hole is usually made.
The nest, a careless structure, like those of most birds

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 153

that rear their young in darkness, is ready early in ]\Iay.
Eggs, 5 to 8, f inch ; white, with pale red spots.

The Blue Tit is easily known by its bright blue crown,

the feathers of which are sometimes raised, and by the

white line on its forehead. Like the rest,
Blue Tit. 11 .1 -^ •

and perhaps even more than some, it is seen

to greater advantage balancing, often head downwards,
on some slender branch than on the wing. It appears to
be found throughout the British Islands. Although nom-
inally insectivorous, the blue tit will, like the rest, eat
almost anything. The nest, a loose structure of moss and
hair, is found early in April in holes in trees or old walls,
more rarely in the earth. Both sexes incubate. Eggs, 6
to 12, about ^2 inch; white, with red spots.

Confined to the Highlands, or at any rate rarely met
with in England, the Crested Tit has a prominent crest of
black and white, the throat and breast also
being of deep black. It excavates a hole in
Scots firs near the ground or in decayed stumps, the
nest being warmly lined with fur. Eggs, 5 to 8, § inch ;
white, with deep red spots.

7. The Xuthatch.

That remarkable and interesting bird, the Nuthatch,
fairly common in the woods of the southern counties, where
it appears to be extending its range westward, is very rare
in Scotland, and unknown in Ireland. It cannot easily
be mistaken for any other bird, for when running uj) and
down and around the trunk of some beech in search of
food, it looks rather like a large brown mouse, while the
reddish sides of the underparts and the white bars on the
tail are enough to distinguish it from other birds — the
w^oodpeckers, for instance, or the tree-creeper — likely to be
found in such situations. It is one of the most pugnacious
of forest birds.

154

BIRDS.

The- food of tlie iiiitliatch is varied, consisting of grubs,
beecli-niast, nuts, and the like. The nuts are Avedged in
(i fork and hammered witli the bill until the
feediuo- ^^^^^ breaks, a proceeding I have witnessed
many a time in the Xew Forest and else-
where ; and the bird throws its whole force into each blow.

Now and attain an
unusually refractory
nut is seized in the
bill and dashed re-
peatedly against the
trunk.

Perhaps, however,
the most interesting
habit of this bird
is to be found in
its notions of archi-
tecture. It is, Jin
fact, a compromise
between the wood-
pecker that excavates its own nesting-hole and the lazier
starling that appropriates one ready made. For the nut-
hatch, though not taking the trouble to hew
the w^ood, casts about until it lights on a hole
that will serve its purpose, and then proceeds
to effect improvements in the front-door, which it plasters
with mud and stones until only just wide enough to admit
its body. The object of this has not been, so far as I
know, ascertained ; if it be done with the idea of making
the smaller hole less conspicuous, Ave have here one of the
instances in Avliich bird-instinct is at fault. The " nest "
consists for the most part of such bark and rubbish as
may be within the hole. Br/r/s, 5 to 8, 3^ inch ; Avhite,
with brown blotches.

Nesting-
hole.

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 155

8. The Wrex.

The Wren is commonly distributed over these islands.
The name of this little bird is, in most European languages,
significant of royalty, and tradition has linked its name
with that equally quarrelsome bird the robin, like which it
utters its somewhat monotonous note throughout the year.
Though more thickset, it is of about the same size as the
goldcrest, from which it is at once distinguished by the
white line over the eye and the absence of crest. It also
carries its square tail erect, while that of the other bird usu-
ally droops. The food of the wren consists of insects when
available, of autumn fruits and seeds in winter. The nest,
built in April, is a bulky domed structure of moss and dead
leaves lined with feathers. Few birds desert
their nest more readily, though some of the
tales of wrens doing this whenever the nest is
touched recjuire confirmation. In consequence, a number
of finished nests, some without the final lining of feathers,
are found throughout the summer, for which various rea-
sons have been offered, among others that they serve as
domiciles for the male birds. These are, however, mere
suppositions. Similar spare nests, it may be noted, are
recorded of the squirrel and swan. In the ordinary course
the wren shows some aptitude for suiting the colour and
material of its home to its surroundings ; but I found
(1886) in Baldwyn's Park, Dartford Heath, a number of
exceptions to this in the shape of nests of dead yellow
fern reposing in low green bushes. E[igSj 5 to 9, f inch ;
glossy white, with red spots at the larger end. A second
brood is reared.

St Kilda A species, sub-species, or race, found only
Wren. on the island of that name. It is slightly
larger than the common type.

156

BIRDS.

9. The Creepers.

The little Tree-Creeper is usually seen running zigzag
up the trunks of trees, against which press the twelve
Tree- stiff tail-feathers. By these, as well as by the

Creeper, white spots and bars on the back and wings,
it may easily be recognised. It never descends trees like
the nuthatch, but having reached the top of the bare
trunk, flies off to the base of a neighbouring tree. The
long curved bill assists it in its search for grubs, of which

its entire food con-
sists. The only
pretence to song
is a twitter. The
nest, laced be-
tween the trunk
and some loose
portion of the
bark, is ready ear-
ly in May. Curi-
ously enough, it is
attached, as a rule,
to the loose bark,
though I have
more than once
found it fast to
the trunk. It con-
sists of straw and bark lined with feathers. Eggs, 6 or 8,
I inch ; white, with reddish spots at the larger end. The
distribution of this bird varies in successive years. In
1886, for instance, I found seven nests within a mile of
Dartford Heath ; but T do not know of one taken in that
immediate neighbourhood in either 1887 or 1888.

Wall-Creeper. — A rare straggler from Southern Europe.
I knew of eggs in three nests in a crumbled wall outside
Pisa (1891), and the old birds used to feed on the large

'^ v^Ji-

'\. ' ''X^^-^*^

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 157

spiders that abound in every ruin in Tuscany. The wings
are conspicuously marked with crimson.

lo. The Wagtails and Pipits.

[These birds nest on the ground, often near water, and
feed on insects. It is hard, in dealing with this group,
to distinguish the residents and migrants. Three (par-
tially migratory) residents ; three regular visitors, six
irregular visitors.]

Though many stay throughout the year, it is more satis-
factory to regard the Pied Wagtail as a summer migrant.
*Pied Known in many parts as the " water- w^agtail,"

"Wagtail, this bird is widely distributed over these
islands, where it is often seen in much the same situations
as those affected by the dipper, though commonly found in
gardens far from water. Its call-note is loud and sharp.
It does not plunge, but trips among the shallows, seizing
aquatic insects from the water. By no means an excep-
tionally shy bird, this wagtail is easily stalked with bin-
oculars so long as the observer keeps moving, but a
moment's halt is sufficient to rouse its suspicions, and
aw^ay it goes, its undulating flight clearing the crests of
imaginary waves. It is a black-and-white bird, with white
face.

Besides aquatic insects and molluscs, it is said to feed
on glowworms.

The nest, large for a bird of its size but withal neat, is
built in April in the bank of its favourite water or in a
stump hard by. It is of moss or soft grasses, lined wdth
hair and feathers. In suitable localities many nest in close
proximity, and I knew of five nests, all with young birds,
within 50 yards of a bend in the little stream that runs
through Buckland, behind Dover. A nest of the pied
wagtail was found this summer (1897) in a truck of coal
that had just arrived at Poole from the north country. It

158

BIRDS.

contained four eggs, three of Avliicli were broken. E(j(js,
4 or 5, I incli ; dirty Avhite, Avitli faint grey spots.

The AVhite Wagtail, a rare visitor from Northern

*"WTiite Europe, is scarce in Scotland, still more so

"Wagtail, jj^ Ireland. But for the white shoulders of

the present species, it might easily be confused with the

T J

last. It has bred in several counties near the Thames.
The tyi^ical nest and eggs closely resemble those of the
last.

The Grey Wagtail is essentially the wagtail of Devon
and Cornwall, and, though it has bred in almost every
Grey county in these islands, its occurrences in the

"Wagtail. «outh-east are comparatively rare, as also in
many parts of Scotland and Ireland. Its habits and food
are those of the rest, save that it is more often seen seeking
its insect food in trees. It is recognised by the white lines
round the eyes, by the pale shade of the legs and feet,
which in other wagtails are black, by the pale blue of the
back, black throat, and yellow breast. The nest, built in

THE PERCHING BIEDS. 159

April in the steep banks of swift streams, is of grass and
roots lined with hair. Eggs, 5, ^ inch ; dirty white, with
pale-brown spots and sometimes a few black lines.

A spring and summer visitor to our east coast, the Blue-
headed "Wagtail is distinguished by the blue tint of the
* Blue- head and a white streak over the eye. Besides

headed this, there is a race, of far rarer occurrence,
lacking the characteristic eye - streak. This
bird ajjpears to find the immediate presence of water less
indispensable, as its nest is not seldom found in corn-fields
at some distance from any river. The nest, not ready
until the middle of May, and placed on the ground, is of
fine grasses lined mth hair or feathers, or both. Eggs, 5,
3^ inch ; yellowish, with pale spots and black lines, the
latter often absent.

Mostly \sAi\\ us from April to September, not a few
Yellow Wagtails remain through mild Avinters. In the
"^YeHow Highlands and Ireland this species is rare.
^Wagtail. The eye-streak is yellow, and there is a good
deal of yellow in the under-plumage generally, while the
prevalent shade of the back is green. Its food consisting
chiefly of molluscs and insects, there seems little reason
for the name "Seed-bird," by which it is widely known,
unless it is that the bird, which often chases insects near
the droppings of cattle, is supposed to be feeding on the
undigested seed. The nest, commenced almost immedi-
ately on arrival in April, is placed on the ground, and is
of fine grasses lined with feathers and hair. Eggs, like
those of the preceding in number and size, and differing
little in appearance.

The Tree-Pipit arrives from the Continent in April, and
leaves these islands about the end of September. It breeds
in most English counties, but is very scarce in Wales and

160 BIRDS.

the Highlands, and quite unknown in Ireland. On Octo-
ber 2, 1892, I saw flocks of these birds, with other small

* Tree- birds, on the cliffs east of Dover. Like many
Pipit. migrants, the tree-pipit is exceedingly caprici-
ous in its change of breeding-area. Thus I did not find
a single nest near Dartford Heath in either 1886 or 1888,
whereas in the intervening summer I took no fewer than
seven. The meadow-pipit, on the other hand, was plenti-
ful in 1888, but I found one nest only, and that deserted,
in 1886. These details seem almost too trivial to insert
without apology ; but I cannot help thinking that the
laws of migration might, for the summer visitors at any
rate, be worked out more satisfactorily by carefully com-
piled records of the nests in each season than by the more
rough-and-ready method of powder and shot.

The tree-pipit is, even after its partial spring moult, no
striking bird, the long tail suggesting, especially when the
bird is on the wing, the appearance of a lark, an impression
strengthened by the habit of trilling while in the air. It
feeds on insects and seeds, and, according to Dixon, on
wheat. The nest, built on arrival, is placed on the ground.
It is of grass lined with fine grass and hair. Sometimes
it is in a shallow depression smoothed by the birds. Er/gs,
6, about 4 inch ; dull blue or grey, spotted all over with
brown. I found one year two clutches with a zone of
spots round the larger end only, and two cloudy blotches
near the centre.

A partly resident, partly migratory pipit, the ]\Ieadov>'-
Pipit is often spoken of as restricted and local in its dis-
Meadow- tribution, though I have taken its eggs near
Pipit. Bexley, Dover, Richmond, and Bournemouth.

It is widely known as the "Titlark," and is characterised
by a peculiar smell. Its distinguishing marks are a white
line over the eye and some light spots or patches on the
tail. Its food consists of insects, snails, and seeds. The

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 161

nest, found on the ground early in April, is usually not far
from water of some kind, if only a pond, and is large and
deep, of grass lined with bents and roots. Eggs, 5, 4 inch ;
grey, "wdth brown spots and lines. I took in one year seven
eggs of the cuckoo out of the nests of these birds, and
indeed the vagrant must find it j)laced more conveniently
than most.

Med-throated Pipit. — A rare straggler from Northern
Europe, which has occurred twice in Sussex and Kent.

Taivny Fipit. — A rare straggler, mostly to the Sussex
coast, on autumn migration.

Richard's Pipit. — An irregular autumn straggler to this
country and Scotland, distinguished by the great length of
its hind-claw.

Water-Pipit. — A rare straggler to the Sussex coast, on
which four examples have been taken.

Resident on all our rocky coasts, the little Eock-Pipit
may be seen, especially down in Cornwall, tripping over
Kock- the decayed seaw^eed in search of insects
Pipit. a^jj(j molluscs. It is a sober-coloured creature,
lightest on the breast. The hind-claw is long and curved.
Two races are known, of which the lighter-hued northern
form is by many authorities regarded as sj)ecifically dis-
tinct. On the flat east coast the bird does not breed, and
is rare even on winter migration. The nest, of seaweed
or cliff grasses, and lined with soft bents or feathers, is
placed among the rocks Two broods are, as a rule,
produced. Eggs, 5, i inch ; greyish white, with red-
brown spots.

162

BIRDS.

II. The Golden Oriole.

The male of the rare and beautiful Golden Oriole that
visits us from the Continent is conspicuous by reason of
his bright yellow plumage and black wings and tail. The
oriole's food consists of insects, and it makes occasional
taids on the orchard. It has bred in Surrey, Kent, and

the Fen Country, and occurs annually in the south-west,
but appears not to breed there. It might j^robably do so
if less molested by the collector and his emissaries. The
deep cup-shaped nest, cunningly made of fine grass and
strips of bark, is suspended in trees, ^i/i/s, 4 or 5, rather
over I inch ; white, with reddish blotches.

12. The Shrikes.

[Carnivorous and insectivorous birds. Two regular and
two irregular visitors.]

THE PERCHING BIRDS.

163

. With us every winter, a few Great Grey Shrikes have
stayed the summer, but not to breed. In Ireland the
t Great Grey species is very rare, and it aj^pears not to
Shrike. have reached the Hebrides. The shrikes are,
as a group, easily distinguished by the hooked bill, their
neighbourhood being betrayed by the small birds, frogs,
lizards, and chafers spiked on the thorns near their
favourite feeding - perch. The present species has an
inconspicuous white line over the eye and two white
bars on the wings, besides which the white of the under-
parts is purer than in the rest.

tPaUas's ^ race, distinguished by having but one
Shrike. ^^^ ^^ t^® wings.

Lesser Grey Shrike. — A rare straggler from Central
Europe, which has reached these islands but four times.

The Red-backed Shrike is common from May to August

south of the Thames, but increasingly rare farther north

__ , and in Ireland. A smaller bird than the rest,

*Ilea- ...... '

backed it IS distinguished, apart from the fact that
Shrike. \^ ^g ^j^g Q^^\y gi^rike known to breed in these
islands, by its
red-and-grey plum-
age. A nearly
white variety from
Essex was recent-
ly recorded in
the 'Field.' It
has the family hab-
it of impaling its
victims on thorns ;
but, singularly
enough, though I
have watched them
by the hour in my garden at Bexley, where they used to
arrive late in May, and through strong glasses, I never

164 BIRDS.

once saw this done, the birds merely leaving their perch,
after the fashion of the flycatchers, darting after some
large winged insect and returning to the j^erch, upon
which the genial couple would, so far as I could see, fight
vigorously over the prize. Sir H. Maxwell tells me, how-
ever, that in 1895 he watched a pair in a chalk-pit near
Winchester impale a young mouse. The harsh chatter of
these "butcher-birds," varied by an occasional note of
purer quality from the male, was heard continually to
the middle of July, after which, up to their departure,
they were com^jaratively silent. The nest, a large and
clumsy structure of moss, hairs, and feathers, is placed,
7 or 8 feet from the ground, in a thorn -hedge. Eggs,
6, I inch ; greenish grey, with brown and purple spots
at the larger end.

Woodchat. — A rare visitor from the South to most Eng-
lish counties, but not to Scotland or Ireland. Under
forty occurrences have been recorded, but there appears to
have been some slight evidence of the bird having bred
in the Isle of Wight. The breast is yellowish, the crown
reddish-brown, and there is a conspicuous white line before
the eye. The woodchat has the hooked bill of all the
shrikes.

13. tTHE Waxwing.

Of that gay visitor from the North, the Waxwing,
occurrences are recorded — alas ! through the medium of
the gun — almost every winter ; so that, in spite of one or
two blank seasons, it seems fair to regard it as a regular
visitor, especially to the north-east portion of Great Britain.
In Ireland it rarely occurs, nor has it, curiously enough,
been recorded from the Hebrides. Its distinguishing points
are the brown crest ' and the black round the eyes. The
general colour is reddish brown, and the wings (hence the
name) are curiously tipped with bright red the colour, of
sealing-wax. The end of the tail is yellow. It feeds on
insects.

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 165

14. The Flycatchers.

The Spotted Flycatcher is an inconspicuous bird with
spotted white breast and the characteristic bristles at the
* Spotted base of the bill. From May to September, its
Flycatcher, range seems to extend throughout these islands.
It has been known to breed, according to Mr Harting and
others, in London parks. The insects on which it feeds
are captured on the wing and, after the style of the shrikes,
devoured on the perch. The nest, a compact structure of
moss, grass, and hair, sometimes lined with feathers, is
placed in holes in trees, or in more exposed situations, as,
for instance, in wall plum-trees or on beams ; and the bird
is known to return, like the nightingale and swallow, to its
old nesting-haunts, and also to avail itself of the old nests
of other birds. Eggs, 5, ^ inch; greenish white, with red
and purple spots.

With us from April to September, the Pied Flycatcher

breeds mostly in the northern counties, less in Scotland, and

* Pied Fly- ^^^^ ^'^^^J occasionally found its way to Ireland.

catcher. The back and legs are black, breast and fore-
head white. This bird feeds almost entirely on winged
insects, but it captures them by preference on the ground
or amid the branches. It has a more powerful and pleasing
song than the last. The nest, similar though less comi3act,
is found in holes in trees. Eggs, 5 to 9, over f inch ; pale
blue, sometimes speckled with brown.

Redhreasted Flycatcher. — A small and rare winter
straggler that has occurred but nine times, chiefly in the
south-west.

15. *The Swallow and Martins.

[The three birds that come under this group (the swift,
popularly associated with them, is not even remotely con-
nected, belonging, indeed, to a different order) are all

166 BIRDS.

summer visitors from the South, whither they duly return
at the end of summer, often, in their fear of being left
behind, leaving a late brood to die of starvation. They
have no very sustained song, though a low sweet twittering
is heard in the breeding season.]

Common throughout England and Wales from April to
October, the Swallow is rare in the northern Highlands
and west of Ireland. A notion was formerly
current to the effect that these birds, instead
of migrating, passed the winter at the bottom of lakes and
j)onds, reappearing in early spring. In the present year
(1897) a gentleman wrote to the papers announcing an
early swallow (March 26), and hinting at the possibility of
the bird having wintered in the neighbourhood, though it
is fair to add that no allusion was made to the local pond.
The swallow is easily distinguished from the swift and
martins, in whose company it flies, by its reddish throat
and deeply forked green tail. There are also metallic
reflections in the plumage that differ from those in the
house-martin. Its food consists largely of gnats, which
it chases early and late, catching them, eating them, and
digesting them during its rapid flight. Few birds take less
rest, and when the swallow does alight on the ground, which
it does rather more often than some imaginative chroniclers
would have us believe, it must be admitted that its move-
ments sadly lack that grace that it exhibits on the wing.
One cannot have everything ; and these birds, so symbolic
of the poetry of motion in the air, are little better than
geese on the ground. The flight, however, is unique ; and
it has been known to cover over 120 miles in an hour. Its
favourite perch seems to be the telegraph wire; indeed
one wonders what swallows did before the introduction of
this useful but unsightly feature in the landscape. The
fact is, that on a perch of that kind the short legs and
long wings do not jilace the bird at so great a disadvantage
as elsewhere. The deeply forked tail must, to judge from

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 167

the marvellous turns, be a wonderfully efficient steering
gear. The swallow commences building its remarkable
nest under the eaves of houses on arrival. Mud, its prin-
cipal ingredient, is incorporated with hair and grass, and
the familiar nest is lined with soft grasses or feathers,
and has a single opening above. When black clay is used,
such a nest will last for years. The bird has also, though
rarely, been known to nest in trees and on the sea-cliffs ;
and it has been shown, by the simple expedient of mark-
ing them, that these birds will return year after year to
the same nest. Eggs, 5 or 6, i inch ; white, speckled and
spotted with brown. A second — some say even a third —
brood is reared.

The Martin is another of the birds spared by schoolboys,
not wholly, let us hope, because its rapid flight renders it

^ . particularly difficult to shoot. It arrives soon

after the first swallows, leaving again early in
October, and is a sociable bird. Its food consists entirely
of insects, which it chases, with flight somewhat inferior
to that of the swallow, high and low. The notion that
these birds act as barometers, forecasting fine weather
when they hawk at a height, and vice versa, is no fanciful
one, the explanation being that their insect prey flies close
to the ground Avhen the glass is low. In Euro^^e this bird
is little persecuted by man, but Michelet gives an instance
in which its virtual extermination in the Isle de Bourbon
brought down on the farmers a plague of grasshoppers
that went near to ruin them. I do not, of course, vouch
for the truth of his statement.

The martin nests in the eaves of houses and in steeples,
its nest differing from that of the swallow in its rougher
surface and in the position of the opening, which is here
at the side. The bird itself is distinguished from the
swallow by the slighter forking of the tail, the white
throat, and the white feathers on the legs and feet. Eggs,
5, I inch ; pure white. Like the swallow, this bird rears

168 BIRDS.

at least two broods, and returns to its old quarters year
after year.

So called from its habit of nesting in colonies in sand-
stone cliffs, the Sand-martin differs from the larger species
* Sand- in having a smaller patch of feathers on the
martin, legs and none on its feet. The back is much
lighter in hue than in the swallow or martin. Like the
rest, it feeds entirely on insects, in catching which it is
said to receive assistance from a thick secretion within the
mouth. Its nest, a careless mass of grass and feathers,
is placed at the widened end of a tunnel which the birds
excavate, claws and bill uniting in the work, to a depth
of a couple of feet in the face of some sandstone or other
cliff. The burrow slopes upwards, so that the overhead
drainage has no chance of damaging the eggs or young,
and is invariably swarming with small vermin. Eggs, 5
or 6, ^ inch; pure white.

16. The Finches.

[This large and important group of hard-billed birds has
several subdivisions (given more accurately on p. 11 6), the
chief being the Finches proper and the Buntings. The
former include, besides the common sparrow, a number of
favourite cage-birds. At the same time, it would be unfair
to weaken the case of a few more deserving birds of other
groups by denying that the greater number of them would
have some difficulty, during a part of the year at any
rate, in posing as friends of the farmer. Fifteen resi-
dents ; four regular, and ten irregular and rare, visitors.]

The Greenfinch (extending its range in Scotland, but

not in the isles) is known by the yellow stripe over the

eye and the yellow on the wings and tail,

the extremities of which are almost black.

From its prevailing colour it is also known as the " Green

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 169

Linnet." Its food consists of grain and seeds. The song
is tuneful, but not of any great power. It has a habit,
not generally noted, of roosting in ivy. The nest, built
about the second week of April, is placed in high hedges,
and is of twigs and wool lined with hair. Eggs, 5 or 6,
4 inch ; w^th reddish spots. Two broods are reared.

A larger bird than the last, the Hawfinch is recognised
by its powerful short bill, as well as by the black markings
on the face and throat, the reddish feathers
on the crown, and the white in the tail. It
breeds in the counties round London, less frequently
farther north, and never in Wales, Scotland, or Ireland,
in all of which it occurs in winter only. Besides seeds
and berries, particularly those of the yew and hornbeam,
it is partial to the stones of fruits, which it easily cracks
with its sturdy bill. The nest, not of any great depth,
is of twigs and roots, lined sparingly with hair. Eggs,
5, I inch ; greenish, with black spots and lines.

The beautiful Goldfinch, unmistakable by reason of the
bright red on its face and throat, the yellow on the wings,

and the black on the crown, is, as the result
Goldfinch. « ,. , . tj. r i

of persecution, becoming rarer. Its lood con-
sists largely of thistle-seeds and groundsel, and its song
is very pure. The slight nest, of moss lined with wool
and feathers, is found in May, orchards being a favourite
situation. Eggs, 4 or 5, rather over ?- inch; bluish white,
with red spots. There is a second brood.

Breeding regularly amid the dense plantations of Scots
firs, as well as in Cumberland and sparingly in the eastern
counties of Ireland, the Siskin nests but rarely
in the southern half of this country, where it
is seen mostly in winter. It may be recognised by the
black chin and crown, and the yellow stripe behind the
eye. Its white breast is streaked with black. The nest

170 BIRDS.

is not unlike that of the last, and the eggs, somewhat
smaller, are of a more pronounced blue.

Serin. — A rare straggler from the South. It has occurred
about a dozen times in England and once in Ireland.

The House- Sparrow resides in most countries of the

civilised world, and where nature had mercifully omitted

it from the programme, as, for instance, in

parro . ^^g|-j,^jjg^ g^j-^(j New Zealand, man had the

good sense to introduce it and temper the pleasures of
colonising to an extent which the present generation
has no difficulty in recognising, and for which it duly
respects the judgment of the pioneers. Nature is often
best left alone, and this introduction of the
Artificial sparrow into continents in which nature had

introduction. ^ . , , r^ • , ^ ^

provided no emcient check, was even more
culpable than the other extreme of exterminating it in
others where it may have had its sphere of usefulness in
the scheme. Not only is it a scavenger which some teem-
ing cities could ill spare, but it may at times be of use even
in ao-ricultural districts where the conditions would, with-
out it, be favourable for the undesirable multiplication of
insect life. At the same time, it may possibly keep away
other preferable fowl. It is an old story, but an instruc-
tive one, how Frederick the Great once offered a reward of

one halfpenny a head for dead sparrows, a bait
.* to be considered in so poor a country as his ;
but the orchards were ere long overrun with grubs, and
the great one had to own his error, and to take the bird
under his own royal protection. On another occasion,
the Hungarians exterminated the bird, which their Gov-
ernment had to restore at a cost of thousands of pounds.
And it is within the memory of the present generation
in Ireland how the sparrow mercifully came on the scene
thirty years ago and put an end to the plague of cock-
chafers.

Without, however, going to either extreme, a moderate

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 171

policy should be found productive of good results, the
birds being neither unduly encouraged nor ruthlessly
exterminated, but judiciously kept under. It must not
be forgotten that, although the grown bird has little
fancy for anything but grain and fruit, the food of the
young consists entirely of caterpillars and all manner of
noxious grubs ; so that, without perhaps making up for
the very considerable damage they do during the rest of
the year, there are yet several months of parenthood in
which the sparrows render not unimportant services by
way of reparation. The means of keeping them under are
various, much work being done in this direction by the
organisations known as " sparrow-clubs " ; and if these
crusaders confined their attentions to the heads of the
infidel only, they would be less to blame than is the case,
for they also destroy numbers of other interesting and
harmless birds. These notes will have gone to press
before the appearance of Miss Carrington's promised pam-
phlet, but we have heard much said on both sides of the
question. The domestic cat is another valuable agent in
the sparrow death-rate, preferring its oily flesh to that
of any other wild bird. The sparrow is, as already men-
tioned, essentially the companion of man and the bird of
cultivation ; and the only portions of these islands in which
it does not occur are a few wilds as yet untouched by
the ploughshare. Description of so familiar a bird seems
superfluous, although the smoke of cities often obscures
the distinctive bluish crown, black chin, and light brown
chest. Its favourite nesting-place is in the roofs of our
dwellings, and too often in some drain -pipe, which its
nest chokes, with unpleasant consequences. It also nests,
usually in solitary pairs, in holes in trees, and I have
found its nest in the hen-house, close to the sitting hens.
Swallows' nests under the eaves are also approjDriated for
the later broods. I have also taken the nest in trees,
but never in company with the tree-sparrow, though the
latter was breeding in neighbouring trees. The nest

172 BIRDS.

when in trees is far more elaborate and better finished
than the heap of noisome rubbish that contents the birds
that nest in house-tops. On one occasion in Hampshire, I
found a nest with four young in the deserted " cage " of
a squirrel.

^99^1 5 or 6, nearly i inch ; very variable, but generally
greyish white, with few or many brown spots, though I
had some in my collection without spots. The shape is
also subject to variation, and I have taken them of elon-
gated form like those of the swallow, or perfectly round
like some of the robin's. Two or three broods are reared.

The sparrow is an interesting bird in spite of, perhaps
by reason of, its power for evil. Not the least difficulty
in the way of its repression is its remarkable indifi'er-
ence to extremes of temperature, and I have found it
equally impudent and pugnacious in the midday heat of
a Queensland October and the short grey dawn of a Baltic
Christmas.

Common in the south of England, less so as we go
north, and unknown in the Orkneys and, according to
Tree- report, over the greater part of Ireland, the

sparrow. Tree-Sparrow is distinguished from the more
familiar bird by the bars on the wings, the black patch on
the cheek, and the lighter hue of the legs and feet. The
nest of this bird is by no means found only in trees, for
it is also known to nest in the roof of thatched cottages,
and I have myself taken the eggs from nests in old
barns. It is more compact than that of the other, but
also consists of grass and feathers. Egys, 4 to 6, ^
inch ; white, with brown sj^ots, and, in most clutches,
one with fewer spots than the rest, known as the " odd "
egg, and often infertile. Several broods are reared.

The Chaffinch, considerable numbers of which cross
and recross the Channel, appears to breed throughout
these islands, save in the Shetlands. It is a most attrac-

THE PERCHING BIRDS.

173

tive type, easily distinguished by the white tail-feathers,

the yellow in the wings, and the reddish breast ; and the

somewhat harsh call-note of the male is occa-
Chaffinch, . ,, • i i • i ,i ,

sionally varied by a more musical outburst.

The food of the
chaffinch consists
largely of grubs
and winged insects,
though it certainly
does some damage
among imj)erfect-
ly protected newly
sown seed. The
nest, one of the
most compact and
beautiful of those
found in this coun-
try, is of moss
lined with hair and down, and is usually placed in orchard-
trees at a height of 4 or 5 feet. Eggs^ 5, | inch ; greenish,
with purple spots and smears. An unspotted variety of
the Qgg is also known, but I never found one. A second
brood is reared in June.

tBrambling.

Now a regular winter visitor to parts of Scotland, and
an occasional wanderer to almost every county in England
and Ireland, the Brambling was once found
breeding in Perthshire. It is also known
as the Mountain Finch. The breast is of reddish hue,
and there is some yellow about the Mdngs.

The Linnet, or " Untie," is a common resident in these
islands, except in the north of Scotland, where it is rare,
and the Shetlands, where it seems to be un-
known. As the sparrow is a bird of cultiva-
tion, so is this a bird of waste ground. Not a very
handsome species, the male has just sufficient red in his

174 BIRDS.

crown to make him, especially wlieii the tail grows its
white edges, at least attractive, while the song is superior
to that of any other member of the group. For this
reason the linnet is a favourite cage-bird, and it must
be admitted that few take more kindly to captivity, only
it would be well if folks who keep these little prisoners
could only bear in mind that they have the greatest
objection to being exposed the livelong day to the full
glare of the sun. At best, the surroundings of captive
birds are the most hopeless parody of natural conditions,
but a very slight attention to detail of this nature may
ffo far to minimise their discomfort. The food of the
linnet consists largely of oily seeds, also charlock, with
some berries in autumn. Its nest of twigs and moss,
lined with wool and hair, sometimes feathers, is found
by the middle of April in trees and bushes surrounding
commons and other open land. Eggs, 4 to 6, ^ inch; dirty
white, mth a belt of brown sj^ots around the larger end.

The Mealy Kedpoll is a winter visitor to Scotland, less
often met with in England, and only twice recorded from
t Mealy Ireland. The breast is reddish, striped with
Kedpoll. l^rown, the forehead is crimson, the throat
black, and there is some white in the wings. A larger
race, regarded by Dr Sharpe as a sub-species, has been
taken twice in Norfolk.

The Lesser Redpoll, the smallest British member of the
family, is a resident in most parts, but becomes local in
Lesser the breeding-season, absenting itself from the
Kedpoll. south-west and from parts of Scotland. In
the home counties it breeds regularly. It is a smaller
and darker bird than the last, and lacks the white mark-
ings on the wings. Dr Sharpe recognises a sub-species
in the larger Greenland straggler, one occurrence of which
was recorded many years ago in Northumberland. It feeds
on seeds. The nest, placed at no great height in bushes and

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 175

small trees, is of twigs and grass, with a soft downy lining.
Eggs^ 4 to 6, I" inch ; bluish grey, with brown sj)ots.

Living in the hills and mountains of the north, and
more especially in Scotland and Ireland, visiting the

lowlands and southern counties in winter, the
Twite. . . . .

Tmte is a duller bird than the foregoing, hav-
ing little or no red about its plumage, save on the rumjD.
The food of the " Mountain Linnet," as it is also called, con-
sists largely of seeds, as does indeed that of all the group.
It nests in May in low bushes, or close to the ground in
tufts, often near the sea-shore, and the nest is of grass,
with a soft lining. Eggs, 3 to 6, 3^ inch ; greenish, with
red spots and lines.

The Bullfinch is widely distributed over the British
Islands, and is continually extending its range in Scotland
and Ireland, in parts of which, especially on
the islands, it was, up to a lew years ago,
almost unknown. The bird is a favourite both on account
of its handsome plumage and for those imitative faculties
that atone for any weakness in its tuneful song. The
bullfinch has a glossy black head, red throat and breast,
while the rump, as well as some feathers in the tail and
wings, are white. The female is, both in voice and ajjpear-
ance, an improvement upon most of her sex in the bird
world. The food of the bird consists of insects in the
warm months, supplemented by fruit and buds, as well
as by the seeds of various weeds. The nest, a shallow
platform of twigs, which, but for its spare lining of hair
and roots, would be a miniature of that of the ring-
dove, is j)laced about 5 feet or more from the ground
in bushes in the midst of woods. Eggs, 4 to 6, ^ inch ;
pale blue, with a belt of reddish spots at the larger end.
A larger race, or sub - species, a rare wanderer from
Scandinavia, has been obtained in Yorkshire.

Scarlet Grosbeak, the " Rosy Bullfinch " of some author-

176

BIEDS.

ities, is a rare straggler from the Xortli, and has occurred
bilt twice in England — in Sussex and Middlesex.

Pine Grosheak. — An exceedingly rare straggler from the
far North, the validity of even the few that have reached
these islands being questioned.

A local resident, though more commonly seen in winter,
the Crossbill is distinguished from every other British

Crossbill.

bird, excei:)t its rare congener, by the scissors-like bill, the
mandibles of which cross at the tip. Its j^lumage is dull
crimson. It breeds regularly in some Scottish
l)ine - forests, but its breeding in England
and Ireland is exceedingly irregular. Crossbills were
unusually plentiful in Shropshire during the winter
1894-95.^ The food of. this bird consists of the seeds
of the fir, spruce," larch, and kindred trees, its bill being

A Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Clulj ' Record,' 1895.

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 177

admirably adapted for extracting them from their hard
covering. The " Parrot Crossbill," a larger race A\ith
stouter bill, has wandered to Great Britain and Ireland at
long intervals. The nest, ready by the end of February, is
of twigs lined with grass, and is placed among the boughs
of fir-trees. Eggs^ 4, nearly i inch ; grey, T\ith red S23ots.
Two-barred Crossbill. — A rare straggler from the north
of Europe, a slightly different American race having also
occurred 'but a few times. In the winter of 1894-95, one
was killed in Somersetshire and another near Enuiskillen.
There are two white bands on the mngs.

Blaclc-lieaded Bunting. — A rare straggler from Southern
Europe, which has occurred three times.

The Corn-Bunting, or " Bunting Lark," as it is often
called, is widely distributed throughout the British Islands,

Corn- though little known in many districts, especially

bunting. \^ Ireland. The breast of this bird is yellowish
white, with brown spots, and there is a not very distinct
whitish line over the eye. The food of the corn-bunting
consists of insects and grain, chiefly, it is to be feared, the
latter ; though there is compensation in the fact that when
fattened on this diet it is, like its still better relative the
ortolan, excellent eating. The nest, placed on the ground,
is of grass and straw lined with hair. It is built late in
May. Eggs.^ 4 or 5, -i inch ; greenish white, with purple
and brown spots and streaks.

The Yellow-" Hammer " nests throughout these islands,
save in the Shetlands. This bird is the handsomest of the
Yellow- buntings, and may be at once recognised by
Hammer, ^-j^g bright yellow of its head and breast. The
crown is spotted. It feeds on insects, berries, and seeds.
The nest is usually on or near the ground, but I have
taken it in bushes quite 2 feet above it. It is of grass
lined with hair. Eggs^ 4 or 5, -i inch ; brownish white, wdth
curious violet or purple scribblings (hence "Writing Lark ").

178 BIRDS.

The Cirl Bunting, distinguislied by the yellow collar,
black throat, and yellow lines round the eye, breeds south
Cirl of the Thames, but is a straggler only to Scot-

Bunting, lo^n^ and Wales, and is unknown in Ireland.
It feeds on grain. The nest is not unlike that of the last,
but is placed a trifle higher. BgffSj 4 or 5, i inch ; greyish,
with very dark markings.

Ortolan. — An irregular visitor on migration to the south
of England, twice recorded from Scotland, and once from
Ireland.

Hustle Bunting. — A rare straggler from Northern
Europe, which has been recorded only three times.

Little Bunting. — A rare straggler from Northern
Europe, recorded once.

A common resident, breeding everyw^here in the British
Islands except in the Shetlands, the Reed-bunting is dis-
tinguished by its black head and throat and
bunting white breast and collar. It is also known as
the "reed -sparrow"; while in some parts it
goes by the name of "Black-headed bunting," which is to
be regretted on account of the confusion risked with the
straggler properly so called. It feeds on aquatic larvae
and molluscs ; in winter, on seeds. The nest, placed low
down in the reeds, is of dry reeds lined with hair and
down. Eggs^ 4 or 5, ^ inch; grey, with deep brown
spots. Two or more broods are reared.

Lapland Bunting. — An irregular wanderer from the
Arctic regions to the south of England. It has occurred
twice in Scotland and once in Ireland.

The Snow-bunting must be regarded as a winter visitor

to the northern portions of the British Islands, although

it has long been known to breed in the Shet-

tSnow- lands and on the mainland in Sutherland and
bunting.

Banffshire. Large flocks visited Highgate in
February 1895. It is a handsome black-and-white bird

THE PEKCHING BIRDS. 179

with strikingly long wings, and feeds on insects and corn.
It breeds only on the sides of the higher mountains, the
nest being of grass lined with hair and feathers. Eggs^
4 to 7, -i inch ; grey, with brown and purple markings.

17. The Starling.

The Starling is one of the comparatively few birds that
have been, and are still, steadily increasing their range in
these islands, especially in Scotland. It is at all seasons
a familiar bird, whether on the chimney-stack, raised to
its full height, flapping its ^^dngs and shrieking at high
pitch ; or, again, running (not hopping like the thrush)
over the lawn, tugging at the retreating worm, or, in
harder weather, sharing the crumbs with the sparrows.
Viewed casually, the starling is no striking bird, but the
glasses reveal much beauty in the steely sheen of the
brown-tipped green plumage, the bright yellow bill, and
reddish-brown legs and feet. The female is spotted, and is
generally seen running in the wake of her lord. The voice
of the starling, though not out of keejDing with the grey
dawn, cannot be described as more than a shriek, followed
by a spell of chattering in a half whisper. Always a wary
bird, for which reason the bird-catchers call it "Jacob,"
the starling is particularly difficult of approach when in
company with its fellows, and the flocks which feed to-
gether in cold weather move off simultaneously on the
least sign of intrusion. This is even noticeable in summer,
when they find agreeable insect food on the back of each
grazing cow, and even draw leeches from its nostrils. If
any one approaches that part of the field, the birds at once
leave their feeding-grounds and fly shrieking to the nearest
tree, from which, when all is quiet again, they descend to
resume their favourite occupation. Though its food con-

^ , sists for the most part of insects, there seems
Food. ^

little doubt that the starlmg does at one

season commit much havoc among the fruit-trees, though

the notion of its sucking game-birds' eggs, a charge pre-

180 BIRDS.

ferred with more reason against the magpie and jay, is
probably fanciful. At times, especially towards the end
of summer, these birds are observed to fly at a great
altitude, and we are told on respectable authority that
their object is to course certain high-flying insects. I
have no means of denying this, though it would be of
interest to learn how the information, unless acquired
from a balloon, was arrived at ; but I have repeatedly
watched these lofty starlings through powerful glasses
without observing any of the somersaults and other antics
that usually accompany the capture of winged insects. It
seems therefore more reasonable to assume, in the absence
at any rate of stronger evidence, that the birds prefer
performing their considerable journeys in the purer, lighter
medium above. The starling is a hardy and not unpopular
cage-bird, its imitative faculty and occasional soft notes
compensating for the more usual shrillness of its voice;
and it is also used, by those who have a fancy for so
remarkable a form of sport, as a substitute for the more
costly trap-pigeon. The nest, which is often stowed away
in eaves or in the top of a drain-pipe, but is also found in
holes in the earth or in trees, less frequently open to the
sky, is not, as a rule, an elegant structure, being loosely
put together with grasses, paper, string, w^ool, and any
other debris that is available. I never found one with an
elaborate lining, though such are recorded. Fjgr/i^, 5 or 6,
I inch ; pale blue, glossy, and elongated.

Rose-coloured Starling. — A rare autumn visitor from
the South. It is a gaily-coloured bird with a large black
crest; and is also known as the "Hose-coloured Pastor."

18. The Crow Tribe.

[Somewhat large birds, mostly of gregarious hal)its, and
almost omnivorous. Eight residents ; one straggler.]

The liook, already widely distril)uted in Great Britain
and Ireland, is extending its range in Scotland, where it

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 181

was by no means common a few years ago, and breeds,
save in the Shetlands and Outer Hebrides, everywhere.
On account, perhaps, of the readiness with
which the rook dwells in the midst of cities, it
is the best known of the family. There have been rooks at
Haverstock Hill and in Kensington Gardens and elsewhere
in London for many generations ; and there is a consider-
able colony in the centre of Dover town, where I saw the
elders repairing their old nests on February 12th of the
present year (1897). I understand, from Mr W. N. Wilson,
honorary secretary of the " Rugby School Natural History
Society," that the members of the Zoological section alw^ays
made a feature of annually recording the number of rooks'
nests in the Close. Unfortunately the great storm of
March 1895 destroyed twenty of the old elms, so it has
been useless to continue the record. The adult rook is
at once distinguished from the rest of the tribe by the
featherless patch of Avhite skin at the base of the bill.
This has been attributed to the action of the earth into
which the latter is plunged in search of grubs ; but this
method of seeking food is also employed by other mem-
bers of the family in which the face remains thickly
feathered. The young bird retains the face-feathers or
bristles until the second moult. The rook is a fowl of
sociable habits, both in the nesting-time and during the
winter migrations in search of grain. Its morals are those
of all the crows, and any falling off in the supply of wire-
worm and other noxious grubs, of w^hich (being for the
greater part of the year the farmer's friend, as it is un-
questionably his enemy for a month or so) it destroys vast
quantities, is promptly made up for by a raid on the near-
est grain, while even the game -preserver has learnt to
dread the bird's taste for eggs and young birds. Dr
Sharpe includes walnuts among its favourite food. The
nest is, as a rule, completed early in March, but I have
noticed that the birds settle down to their duties some-
what earlier where the old nest is refurnished. Occa-

182 BIEDS.

sionally, where there are no trees, the rook is known to
breed near the ground. -AV/r/s, 3 to 5, i^ inch; brownish-
green, with dark spots.

The Eaven, the largest of the family, is diminishing

yearly owing to persecution on the part of keepers, to

whom, it must be admitted, the bird is an

"R, fii "XT' ^ n

unwelcome neighbour. It is only in the hilly
parts of Scotland and the isles that the raven is nowadays
at all plentiful, though it breeds in isolated districts of
England and Ireland. It is a pugnacious bird, not hesitat-
ing, in defence of its young, to attack those of tmce its size,
and even men have to proceed warily after the eggs. The
raven is a destroyer of young lambs and weakly ewes, but
it also destroys large numbers of rats. It is easily recog-
nised by the long throat-feathers. It nests in cliffs or trees,
preferably on or near the coast. The nest, always large,
becomes huge in time unless destroyed, as the bird adds to
it year after year. It is of tw^gs and heather lined with
lamb's-w^ool. Eggs, 3 to 5, near 2 inches ; much as those
of the rook save for their greater size.

Like many of its tribe, the Jackdaw has a liking for the
sea-coast, where it may always be seen to advantage by
those who walk along the top of the cliffs in
which it nests. The dull grey collar dis-
tinguishes it from the rest of the family. Those who
have visited the quieter glades of Sherwood Forest will
not soon forget the large colony of jackdaws which are,
or were, one of the sights of the place. There was a
large colony, too, in the white cliffs not far out of Rams-
gate ; but the cliffs are continually crumbling in those
parts, and the birds consequently desert freely. This
small member of the crow family is an insect-destroyer
on a large scale, one of its favourite feeding - grounds
being the backs of sheep and cattle. It is, however, a
poacher as well, for in addition to its taste for fish it has
a fancy, not altogether rare, for eggs. The long wings

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 183

of this bird enable it to wheel with rapidity. The nest, a
careless mass of sticks and feathers, is placed in some hole
in the cliflfs, or in steeples, hollow trees, or chimney-stacks.
It has, though rarely, been recorded in the open. J^ggs,
3 to 6, i^ inch or less; greenish, with grey spots. I
had two or three in which the spots were all but invisible.

The Hooded, or " Eoyston," Crow breeds commonly in
Scotland and Ireland, but to the greater part of England
Hooded and Wales it is only a winter visitor, though
Crow. a few are known to breed. It is distinguished
from its closely allied relative the carrion-crow by the
grey mantle and breast, though the birds breed so freely,
the hybrids being to some extent fertile, that the number
of intermediate forms makes identification no easy matter
in every case. The name given to the other crow, by the
way, does not point to any gentler tastes on the part of
the present species, for it will eat carrion with any of
them, and is among the worst ofi'enders of the whole
robber gang, being very partial to the eggs of grouse. It
also eats molluscs. The hooded crow is perhaps less
j^artial, on the whole, to the sea -shore than the rest. It
nests mostly some way inland ; the nest is of sticks, with
a lining of wool. It is placed indifferently in high trees
or rocks, or on the ground. Eggs, 3 to 5, i^ inch;
green, mottled with brown.

Unlike the last, the Carrion Crow is commoner in Eng-
land than in either Scotland or Ireland. It lacks the lighter
Carrion plumage of the last bird, and the long bristles
Crow. at the base of the bill are always conspicuous.
In addition to its love for carrion, jDreferably in an ad-
vanced stage of decay, the bird is a great poacher of game
and poultry, and will even attack lambing ewes. It nests
late in spring, not, like the rook, in colonies, but singly.
The nest is softly lined, otherwise resembling that of the
rook. Eggs, 3 to 5, i^ inch ; jmle green, with dark spots.

184

BIEDS.

Xutcracl-er. — An irregular visitor from the North. It
is easily recognised by the brownish white spots with which
the plumage is thickly covered. Its food is not, like that
of the nuthatch, even chiefly nuts, as it poaches game and
eggs like the rest of the group. The seeds of pine and fir
trees are also largely eaten.

Though lacking the brighter colouring of the jay, the
Magpie is, perhaps by reason of the sharp contrasts afforded

by the black and white of the plumage, the most attrac-
tive, as well as the most conspicuous, of our Corvidte.

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 185

Unfortunately, it is also an abandoned poacher, and be-
sides its fondness for young birds and eggs, it delights
in a meal of carrion, knowing well when the
^^^* deer is getting near the end of its wind. It
has also been observed to feed on a dead donkey, and the
observer of this spectacle, no other than the late Lord
Lilford, was doubly privileged, for it has been said that
few men have ever seen a dead donkey. The voice of
our magpie is, except for an occasional but very brief
improvement during the courting weeks, the reverse of
pleasing ; but in Australia the so-called magpie, an even
greater cage -favourite than the genuine bird at home,
has a beautiful voice. The long tail of the magpie is
much in evidence, especially when the bird is on the wing,
its flight being laboured. The magpie, though all but
exterminated by its enemy the keeper in some parts of
these islands, is, in those districts at any rate where game-
preserving is not the one end and aim of life, extending
its range. This is particularly noticeable in Ireland.
Although, as already mentioned, a robber in the game-
j)reserve, it is on the whole more correct, as well as
certainly more charitable, to regard worms, slugs, and
snails as its staple food. The nest, 23laced according to
circumstances in high trees, in bushes, or on the ground,
is of sticks and clay lined with grass. Eggs^ 6, i^ inch;
pale green, speckled with brown.

Like the magpie, the beautiful Jay with the blue-
barred wings and black-and-white crest, black moustaches
and pale -brown legs, has been very sternly
^^' dealt with by the gamekeeper ; and it would
be mere folly to deny that those whose interest or duty it is
to preserve have few worse enemies. Though energetically
kept under so far as actual numbers go, it seems to be
spread over a much larger range in Scotland^ than was the

^ Sir H. Maxwell informs me tliat lie has reintroduced it in the
south-west.

186

BIRDS.

case a few years ago, while in Ireland the reverse is taking
place, and it is diminishing in range as well as in numbers.
In Northern Germany the jay is exceedingly common,
and in the Eostocker Heide, in Mecklenburg- Schwerin, I
frequently had opportunities in the sj)ring of 1890 of
witnessing the remarkable assemblies of courting birds,
which are rarely to be seen nowadays in this country.

The birds would chase one another, almost oblivious of
intrusion and with some of the abandonment noticed in
the love-sick black grouse, hopping, too, unlike the rest
of the group. There was also a sweeter note than is
usually uttered by the bird — an effort, doubtless, of the
suitor. During the actual breeding- season the jays were
comparatively silent, being once more at their noisiest in
July. The bird will, true to its scientific name, take

THE PERCHING BIRDS. 187

acorns whenever they can be had in sufficient quantity
and with little labour, but eggs are almost equally rel-
ished, and it will kill and eat young birds. The nest,
of twigs lined with grass, is placed in the forks of trees
from lo to 20 feet from the ground, or even in bushes.
I took several nests in Germany not 3 feet from the
ground. Eggs, 4 to 6, li inch ; grey or greenish, speckled
with black.

Recognised by the red of its legs and curved bill, as
also by its remarkable antics and cries in the air, the
Chough is not only not confined, as is some-
times alleged, to the duchy after which it is
often called, but is even less common there than in many
other parts of these islands. It is popularly supposed that
the tourist has no sooner crossed the Brunei bridge west
of Plymouth than he will see this handsome bird on every
rock and tree. Nothing of the kind happens. I know
something of Cornwall, both of its coast and its interior,
and I have only seen four of these birds there in the course
of my wanderings. On the other hand, it is not uncommon
in parts of Devon, on Lundy Island, throughout the coast
districts of Wales and the Scottish isles, the west coast
of Ireland, and several places in the Channel Islands
whence the pugnacious jackdaws have not expelled it.
It breeds regularly on the Galloway coast. Indeed its
own tribe are its worst enemies, for, being the only one of
them not classed by the willing keeper under the head of
vermin, it is little troubled by any one save the collector
and his familiars. It is rarely found at any great dis-
tance from the coast, and it feeds chiefly on insects, less
on grain. Its nest, placed in cavities and holes in the
cliffs, is of twigs and heather lined with wool. Eggs, 3
to 5, i^ inch; greyish white, with brown spots.

[The single Alpine Chough, a species from Central Eu-
rope, in which the bill is yellow, taken in Oxfordshire in
1 88 1, is commonly regarded as escaped from confinement.]

188 BIRDS.

19. The Larks.

[Two residents (partially migratory) ; one regular, three
irregular visitors.]

The Skylark, or " Laverock," is, though partially migra-
tory in cold weather, a strictly resident bird. Different
races are recognised by ornithologists, but the
^ ^^ ' amount of red in the speckled plumage seems
the only mark of distinction. The white tail-feathers and
the great length of the hind-claw distinguish it from the
smaller woodlark, the only bird with which it is likely
to be confused. Already widely distributed, it is even
extending its range and increasing in numbers wherever
its enemies the hawks are kept under. This lark is most
familiar as, in spring, it soars up into the blue, voice
vibrating, wings beating, tail stretched out like a fan,
the bird ascending rapidly, not straight but obliquely.
At last it is a mere speck ; then, after a motionless pause,
slowly descends the singer, with jerky progress, a last
halt, and, with wings folded and voice stilled, down like
an arrow into the long grass. Not straight into the nest
either, but some little distance away, reaching its treasures
by rapid running. It has been observed to perch ; and it
occasionally sings on the ground. It feeds on insects
and seeds, and is said to do some damage among the
clover and corn. The nest, a simple affair of grass lined
with finer grass or hair, is placed on the ground, usually
beneath some tuft in open fields. I have also found
many on the sea -shore only a few yards above high-
water mark. Eggs^ 3 to 5 (second brood only 3), nearly
I inch ; dark brown or grey, with numerous spots and
mottlings.

The smaller Woodlark is easily distinguished by the more
conspicuous white stripe over the eye and the shorter tail.
It is more local in its distribution than the last, being

THE SWIFTS, WOODPECKERS, ETC. 189

exceedingly rare in parts of Scotland and Ireland, and
most numerous in the south of England. It perches more
commonly, and its sweet song, little inferior to
that of the last, is heard both from its perch
and on the ground. The nest is a more elaborate estab-
lishment than that of the skylark, being usually made of
twigs and bents lined with grasses and hair. It is found
in similar situations. Eggs, 5, 4 inch ; greenish, with
reddish and violet spots.

Crested Larh. — A rare straggler from the Continent, of
which seven examples only are authenticated — two in
Sussex, the rest in Cornwall.

Short - toed LarJc. — A rare straggler from Southern
Europe, of which about eight have been taken in the
south of England and one in Ireland.

White-ivinged Larh. — A rare straggler from Asia, one
example of which was taken many years ago near
* Brighton.

The Shore-lark is a spring and autumn visitor on migra-
tion to and from the North. It is distinguished by its

yellow throat, black crown and collar, and
§ Shore-lark. , , , . n • 1 n ,^

black crest, and is rarely seen away irom the

sea-shore, where it sings as it trips among the pools, look-
ing for molluscs. It has not yet been noticed in Ireland.

CHAPTER 11. THE SWIFTS, WOODPECKEHS,

ETC.

[In this, the next order after the Passerine birds, we
have a somewhat motley group, their feet being the com-
mon point wherein most of them differ from the foregoing.
In some we find all four toes directed forward, enabling

190

BIRDS.

the birds to cling to perpendicular surfaces ; in others two
toes point forward and two behind — thus we find some of
these birds perching lengthwise. AVith the exception of
the cuckoo (whose song is hallowed by association) they
lack tune.]

I. The Sw^ifts.

[O,

Swift.

)ne regular visitor ; one irregular visitor ; one rare
straggler.]

Popularly associated with the swallow and martins, the
Swift is in reality allied to the group under notice. Apj^ar-
ently larger, the swift, uniform black, save for
the grey chin, is easily distinguished from these
other birds, with which it hawks. Last to arrive, it is also

the first to leave
us for its African
winter quarters,
and ^lay and Au-
gust are the peri-
ods of its migra-
tions. The shrill
note of the swift
as it dashes over-
head is not easily
mistaken for that
of any other bird.
It is not often
seen to alight,
though I have
caught a few, a very few, in the act of dusting themselves
in Kentish lanes, from which, in spite of the length of
their wings, they can rise without quite so much difficulty
as some chroniclers would have us imas-ine. The lencrth
of wing does not hamper them much in getting clear of
the side of a cliff, to which, thanks to the distribution of
their toes, they are able to cling firmly, even in a high

THE SWIFTS, WOODPECKERS, ETC. 191

wind. The food of the swift consists entirely of insects.
The height at which it flies varies considerably : in com-
pany, they are observed to move at a great altitude, but
when hunting alone the bird seems to prefer dashing along
within a few feet of the earth. The nest, a loose, flat bed
of grasses, is placed in any convenient hole in cliff or
church tower, and, like those of the swallow and martins,
is infested, as is the swift itself, with parasites. Eggs, 2,
I inch ; spotless white.

AljMue Swift. — A larger, white-bellied bird that has
wandered on about four - and - twenty occasions from
Southern Europe, thrice to Ireland, but not yet recorded
from Scotland.

Needle-tailed Swift, — A very rare straggler from Siberia.
It has occurred once in Essex and once in Hampshire.

2. The Nightjars.
[One regular visitor ; two stragglers.]

A straggler only to Shetland and the Outer Hebrides,

the Nightjar is from May to September widely distributed

over the rest of these islands. A bird of

ig jar. j^gg^^j^g ^^^ commons, it is, like the British

cuckoo, a nestless bird ; but it lays its eggs on the bare
earth. The unfortunate creature is the victim of un-
founded suspicions, in consequence of which it suffers the
same persecution at the hands of the rustic as does its ally
the morepork at the hands of the Australian stockowner.
Most of its Australian cousins, by the way, build a nest,
as do some Australian cuckoos. Its supposed offence is
sucking the milk of goats and cows, hence the name goat-
sucker, which has descended on it from olden time. j\Iost
often seen on the wing or on the ground, it is nevertheless
no very uncommon sight to see the bird perching on some
old fence, and it does so, not as most birds, but lengthwise.
The nightjar, not being abroad much before sundown.

192

BIRDS.

though not exclusively a bird of the half light, is among
the least familiar of our summer visitors. During three
years, in a part of Kent much afFected by these birds, I
met but one in broad daylight, and it seemed to be chasing
small winged insects round a quantity of dead bracken.
Indeed only on one other occasion have I ever seen the
bird abroad by day, and that was in the Bournemouth
Gardens, not a hundred yards from a busy street, about
four o'clock on a September afternoon. A singular fact
which I have noticed on many occasions is the frequency
with which one comes across a single egg of this bird (the
full clutch is two) in the ridings of small unfrequented

woods. Twice in 1886, once in 1887, and once again in
the following year, I all but trod ujjon an egg in this
manner not a hundred yards from the house near Dart-
ford Heath in which I was then living, and in each case
the egg was right in the path, its strong resemblance to
the earth making recognition difficult until I was almost
upon it. Eyewitnesses describe the bird as
o/^^ "th ^y^^fe' open-mouthed among the moths of the
gloaming and catching the yellow underwings
in its bristled gape. This may be so ; 1 )ut I have

THE SWIFTS, WOODPECKERS, ETC. 193

watched many of these birds with great care, by no
means a difficult business once the eye grows accustomed
to the half light in which they conduct their operations,
and, as their slow flight hid no movement from me,
I could be certain the bill was closed. I certainly never
witnessed the actual capture of a moth ; so that, for all I
know to the contrary, the bristles at the base of the bill
may assist in delaying the moth for a moment until the
bird swallows it. The note of the nightjar is a low vibrat-
ing "churr," and the bird has some slight power of ven-
triloquism. There is also a louder, harsher note that sets
the hearer's teeth on edge. It seems hardly necessary to
devote any space to the description of a bird that could
not by any possibility be mistaken for any other ; but the
nightjar may always be recognised by the white sjDots on
the reddish wings and tail, and the remarkable head. The
bird has a jagged claw, the precise use of which, like the
spur of the beaver and platypus, has not been satisfactorily
determined. The food of this bird consists of insects,
chiefly moths ; and it is in the habit, like the owls, king-
fishers, swifts, and cuckoo, of ejecting the hard and un-
digested portions in the form of pellets. As already said,
the nightjar makes no nest, but lays its eggs in a slight
depression in the earth, usually near a clumjj of fern or
heather. Eggs, 2, i^^ inch; yellowish white, with brown
spots.

Red-necked Nightjar. — Has straggled once to Newcastle
from Southern Europe.

Egyptian Nightjar. — Has straggled once from Africa to
Notts.

3. The Woodpeckees.
[Three residents ; one summer visitor.]

The Great Spotted Woodpecker, a rare bird nowadays,
is but a winter visitor to the greater part of Scotland and
to Ireland; indeed it is not known to breed in the latter

194 BIRDS.

country, and its breeding in Scotland is extremely uncer-
tain. In this species the crown is black, the tail being

conspicuously marked with white. It feeds
Great .

Spotted ^11 insects, berries, and acorns ; and is wonder-
Wood- fully armed, like the rest of its tribe, for hunt-
pec er. .^_^^ ^^^ grubs out of their retreat in trees.
They all have the low-keeled breast-bone, enabling them
to hug the trunk closely ; the stiff, pointed tail-feathers
to support them, although the claws are already specially
modified to that end ; the powerful wedge-shaped bill for
exploring ; and, lastly, the wonderful extensile tongue, that
w^orks, as it were, on a powerful spring from the back of
the skull, and that is further connected with a salivary
gland and armed at the tip wdth recurved hooks. Of a
truth the insects have but a poor chance against such
odds, and the woodpecker is not likely to go short of a
meal wherever there are trees. These remarkable features
are common to all three woodpeckers, so that it will be
unnecessary to allude to them again. This woodpecker
usually hew^s the hole for its nest in some half-rotten
trunk, but occasionally spares itself some of the labour
by adapting to its rec|uirements a hole already in existence.
Unlike the marsh-tit, it rarely takes the trouble to remove
the telltale chips from the foot of the tree, ^f/f/s, 5 to 7,
I inch ; creamy white, without spots of any kind.

The Lesser Spotted Woodpecker is a much smaller
species than the last, which it otherwise greatly resembles
in both appearance and habits. Though by
Spotted rio means uncommon in the south of England,
Wood- in the home counties more especially, and
scarcely rare in the Midlands, it is rare in
Scotland and a strasirler to Ireland, there beins; at most
half-a-dozen authenticated records of its occurrence in the
latter country. It has the undula,ting flight of all the
woodpeckers, and, like them, is to be seen by the ex-
perienced stalker who, guided by the tapping on the bark

THE SWIFTS, WOODPECKERS, ETC. 195

rather than by the low monotonous note, makes his way
noiselessly to the foot of a neighbouring tree, whence he
can watch the little black-and-white bird dodging round
the trunk, over which it appears to glide, often with head
downwards. It is then that a strong field-glass reveals to
perfection the marvellous equipment of these birds alluded
to above. Like the rest, it feeds on the larvae of wood-
boring insects, as well as on the perfect insects themselves.
Any one who has watched this bird clinging to a tree and
the swift clinging to a cliff, w411 be at no loss to understand
why the latter bird is no longer placed among the passerine
birds next the swallows. The lesser woodpecker excavates
a hole for its nest similar to that of the last species, but
oftener near the ground ; and I have taken the eggs not
more than 3 feet from the root. Eggs, 5 to 7, ^ inch ;
creamy white.

The Green Woodpecker or "Yaffle," the largest and

perhaps least shy of all, is common in most wooded

„ districts south of Durham, very rare in Scot-

Green . "^ . .

"Wood- land and Ireland. It is most capricious in its
pecker, movements, suddenly taking a violent fancy
to a neighbourhood apparently unsuitable hitherto, as
instances of which there was, not many years since,
a great influx into West Cornwall and a still more
recent immigration into Ireland, where, previous to the
appearance of the last edition of Mr Saunders's admir-
able Manual, but two examples had been recorded. This
bird, which is about a foot in length, is one of the hand-
somest of our feathered carpenters, the bright green-and-
yellow plumage, with the crimson crown and moustache
(the latter black in the female), making its identifica-
tion a simple matter. Like its smaller fellows, it feeds
chiefly on wood - insects, but I have often come across
it digging insects, presumably ants, out of the ground ;
and acorns are included among its makeshifts for insect
food.

196

BIRDS.

Woodpeckers have often proved a nuisance to telegraph-
poles, into which they peck, deceived by the humming of
the wires into the belief that insects lurk within ; and
there is even an American species that uses these poles for
its winter stores of nuts.

The nesting-hole, larger than those of the others and
somewhat more perfectly circular, is made by the bird,

,^S^fy'>^-j^

and, after running straight into the tree, turns abruptly
downwards to a wider cavity, Avherein the eggs repose on
the sawdust and chips that have accumulated there. J'^gffs,
5 to 7, I ^ inch ; creamy white.

[Several other woodpeckers — Americans for the most
part — have been included in the British list, but all on
unsatisfactory evidence.]

THE SWIFTS, WOODPECKERS, ETC. 197

• Associated in some parts witli the cuckoo,^ presumably
because they come and go about the same season of the
year, the Wryneck is not uncommon in j^arts
of Kent and Surrey, but is rare in the north
and west, and but an occasional straggler to Scotland and
Ireland. Its habits are not unlike those of the wood-
peckers, only, being in some respects less perfectly equipped
for tree-climbing, as, for instance, in the absence of stiff
tail-feathers, it feeds more on the ground, its worm-like
sticky tongue making short work of the ants. It also eats
fallen berries at times when ants are scarce. I have also
seen it feeding on trees, though never with head downwards.
Both birds take part in incubating the eggs, and a loud
hissing is at once set up if they are disturbed, so suggestive
of snakes that the intruding hand is, as a rule, rapidly
withdrawn by the tyro unaccustomed to the ways of this
dweller in darkness. The wryneck is no true carpenter,
for it makes the best of any hole deserted by woodpecker
or tomtit or sand-martin. In appearance it differs from
the woodpeckers in the erectile crest and in its curi-
ous habit of t^\dsting its neck. It is also an adept at
feigning death, a trick known to few of our birds. The
glass reveals black bars on the tail and throat, and a black
patch in the centre of the back. £^ffgs, 6 to lo, f inch;
pure white, with thin shell.

4. The Kingfisher.

The kingfisher, loveliest of British birds in plumage, one
of the meanest of voice, and certainly one of the dirtiest
in its dwelling-place, is to be found along most of our
inland waters, where it gives plenty of occupation to those
whose business it is to look after the young trout, on

1 The " impressionist " has strange flights of fancy. Quite recently
a writer spoilt an otherwise excellent picture by pressing the compari-
son between the cuckoo and corncrake, because, forsooth, each has a
double note !

198

BIRDS.

wliicli, it were maudlin sentimentality to deny, the bird
levies terrible toll. Even those who are bound to keep it
under cannot but admire the great beauty of its plumage,
the blue-and-green body, the white throat, and the reddish
l)atch at the side of the head; but even admiration cannot,
or should not, blind us to faults, and water-bailiffs have a
perfect right in their masters' interests to shoot or trap
the kingfisher. The only hope is that the gun may miss

fire as often as possible, and that the traps may at least be
humane and constructed with due regard to the fact that,
whereas four-footed vermin are usually caught by the head
or body and crushed outright, birds are as often as not
caught by the leg, and may thus linger through hours of
horril)le pain. The trapper should also be at least merciful
enough to do the round of his traps every few hours, so as
to put his victims out of their pain as soon as possible. If
writers in general would only have the goodness to regard

THE SWIFTS, WOODPECKERS, ETC. 199

keepers as a very intelligent and often high-minded class
of men, instead of assuming them to be bloodthirsty ogres,
their diatribes against cruelty to the children of nature
might bear more fruit than it can be said to do at present.
The keepers are in possession, that is certain ; and it is for
the advocates of the furred and feathered delinquents to
make of those in j^ossession allies and not enemies.

To return to the kingfisher, the cause of this unpardon-
able digression. Fairly common, as already said, in this
country, it is scarce in the north of Scotland, and, though
resident in many counties, but a straggler to some
parts of Ireland. It is, however, a bird of such rapid
flight and such retiring habits, as to be comparatively
unknown in many districts where it is in reality not
scarce. The wings beat rapidly like those of the star-
ling. Indeed, the dense foliage of the river -bank con-
ceals it from our gaze during the warmer weather when
we are most likely to pass near its haunts; and from
the fact of the kingfisher being for this reason so much
more in evidence during the winter months, they call it
,. ,„ in Mecklenburoj the "Ice -bird." It must
not, however, be forgotten that it is by no
means a hardy winter-bird, for numbers are found dead
in the Thames valley every hard winter. A greater
recluse, save perhaps the owls, does not exist among
birds ; and it is observed to beat its own particular
stretch, where no other appears to intrude. It is, how-
ever, undeniable that, in spite of an occasional meal,
for want of better, of water-insects and molluscs, small
fish, preferably troutlets, form its principal food. The
kingfisher also feeds on the foreshore near estuaries, and
there is generally one throughout the summer perched of
early mornings on the west works of the Arun estuary
at Littlehampton. Its nest, which takes remarkable forms
in poetry -books, is in reality no more than some hole,
bored or borrowed, in the bank, or in some wall near the
water.* Here, at the end of an up -sloping tunnel some

200 BIRDS.

2 or 3 feet in length, its eggs are laid and its young
reared on a dirty bed of fish-bones and excrement. The
bird rears two broods, and it has been said, though I
never found them so myself, that the second clutch is
laid before the first brood of young are fledged. Eggs,
6 to 8, I inch ; glossy white, and globular in shape.

[The Belted Kingfisher, a North-American bird, is said
to have occurred twice in Ireland, but few authorities
seem satisfied with the admission of this species to the
British list.]

5. The Rollee.

The Holler is a rare and irregular visitor to these islands.
Its home is in Africa. It is a beautiful bird, the prevail-
ing colours of its plumage being light and dark blue.
[Two Abyssinian Rollers were said to have been obtained
in Scotland many years ago, but their claim to rank as
British birds is rejected.]

6. § The Bee-eater.

The Bee- eater is but an occasional wanderer on migration
to the British Islands, chiefly to the southern counties of
England and Wales. Quite recently it was rejDorted in
the 'Field,' as far north as Caithness, in the month of
May. I have taken its white eggs from holes in the
hills round Florence. It is easily known by its long
green tail with black tips, and the yellow throat with
black cravat.

7. ^The Hoopoe.

The HoojDoe, a remarkable-looking bird, with reddish,
black-tipi^ed crest and conspicuous white bars on the wings
and tail, breeds sparingly where it is not immediately shot
on its arrival in our southern counties in spring. ^lore
often, alas I its beauty rouses the greed of the local 2)ot-

THE SWIFTS, WOODPECKEES, ETC. 201

hunter ; and the papers even reported, let it be hoped in
error, that one of the last examples noted in this country-
was shot only last February (1897) by a Yorkshire parson,
who might have been better employed in ministering to
his flock. Besides the small numbers that arrive in the
Channel counties in spring, there is often a larger influx
in autumn. The bird is, however, only a rare straggler
to Scotland and the north of Ireland. Its flight is grace-
ful, as are also its stately movements on the ground, at
least where I have seen it on the Continent. The nest,
more off'ensive than even that of the kingfisher, is in some
hollow tree, the hole being found, not made. The bird
feeds entirely on insects, and is therefore quite harmless.
Eggs, 4 to 7, i inch ; pale green.

8. The Cuckoo.

The Cuckoo, that reaches us in spring, — the spring
is only a make - believe until the familiar note has
echoed through the woods, — is always on the move. In
March you may see it among the grey hills of Morocco :
northward it flies, however, for its remarkable breeding
operations ; and even when it has reached its goal in these
islands, there is no time for building a nest like other fowl,
but it must needs wander on from county to county, laying
an egg, now here, now there, in the nests of smaller birds,
the eggs of which bear in some cases a resemblance to its
own. That this protective instinct does not, however.
Protective carry it very far, may be gathered from the
colouriug fact that the brown egg is commonly found
of egg- reposing among the blue eggs of the hedge-

sparrow, — I have, at one time or another, seen over thirty
eggs of the cuckoo in the nest of this bird, — to which it
can bear but the slightest resemblance. The egg has also
been taken from the nests of the blackbird and swallow.
Those who have no opj^ortunity of making the compari-
son out of doors may see the approximate effect in the

202 BIRDS.

frontispiece to Dixon's 'Eural Bird Life.' I liave often
wondered — and I ask no credit for the originality of a
fancy that must have struck hundreds of others — what on
earth the cuckoo would have done if her egg had been large
in proportion to herself. She would have built a nest, un-
questionably, like some of her relatives in distant contin-
ents, for, not being by any means a fighting bird — you may
see even the male driven out of the neighbourhood by a

few small finches that mob him, probably under the im-
pression that he is a hawk ^ — she w^ould never dare to in-
trude her unwelcome eggs and young on foster-parents
strong enough to warn her ofi" the premises. As it is, the
young stowaway grows so rapidly that it is able in three
or four days to edge the other young out of the nest and

^ The cuckoo bears, on the wing at anj' rate, a slight resemblance to
a hawk, which is thought by some, added to the fact of its leaving
these shores at the season when birds of prey are much in evidence,
to account for the rustic notion that the cuckoo turns into a hawk
in winter.

THE SWIFTS, WOODPECKERS, ETC. 203

monopolise the attention of their bereaved parents. It is
aided in this nefarious murder, so strangely does nature
sometimes work out her own ends, by a cavity between the
shoulders ; nor can there be any doubt as to the purpose
for which this deformity was intended, since it disappears
soon after the deed is done. Truly, " Nature is one with
rapine " ! The remarkable fascination exercised by the
young interloper over its foster-parents is the subject of
endless speculation. They need only leave the ungainly
little brute to die of hunger, and the shrivelled corpses of
their callow chicks that lie beneath would be avenged. But
they tend the ogre with unflagging care, feeding it every
hour, until, able to go out worming on its own account, it
deserts them without a pang, and flies over the narrow sea
to the fair Southern lands whither its parents journeyed
many days since. A case was recently recorded in the
' Field ' of a young cuckoo being found dead in the nest of
a sedge- warbler, together with a chick of the latter species.
The parent warblers had evidently deserted both. The note
of the cuckoo has been the subject of considerable dis-
cussion ; and even musical authorities have
discoursed in erudite fashion on its mmor
third, and so forth. What is, however, worth noting is,
that the male has, in addition to the more familiar and,
to my mind at any rate, singularly wearisome note
uttered both on the wing and from some hidden perch, a
low hissing or grating noise, which I heard in the New
Forest not more than three days previous to the time of
writing. The orthodox note has also been strangely dis-
torted by those whose fancy is to know nature better than
she knows herself. In the first place, it surely requires
a lively imagination to supply the consonants commonly
supposed to have part in it ; and again, it is scarcely
correct to describe it as a bird of two notes, for I have
more than once heard semitones in its cry, especially
when, towards the days of its silence, it reiterates its
cry as much as six times in close succession, often

204 BIRDS.

when fighting with another of its kind, for, like most
cowards, it is pugnacious on occasion.

The food of the cuckoo consists almost entirely of insects,

more especially in the caterj^illar stage, hairy caterpillars

being preferred. It is also stated on good

authority to be fond of sucking the eggs of

thrushes and similar birds, but I have never got any

evidence of this at first hand.

Its habit of deputing to other birds the hatching of its
eggs and the rearing of its young has already received
mention. It only remains to add that the egg is first laid
on the ground, and then carried in the bill to some suitable
nest close by. I have seen it stated somewhere that the
mouth of the female is provided with a membraneous
pouch for the safer transport of the egg, but this would
appear to be superfluous, as the egg is so small and the
mouth so large. It is in these contrasts, as between the
disproportionate egg of the cuckoo and those, equally
disproportionate, of the apteryx and guillemot, that
nature's forethought is ever apparent. About an inch
or less in length, the egg is of varying pattern, and my
own collection included a series ranging through many
shades of grey and brown, always deeply spotted and
mottled.

Much that is marvellous has been recorded of this bird,
which I have, for reasons that are obvious, omitted. A
Frenchman asserted that there was that in the bird's
breast-bone that precluded the possibility of her incubat-
ing her eggs ; but White proved the error, and more
recently the cuckoo has been reported as sitting on her
own eggs. A German declared that she possessed the
secret of colouring each coming egg to match that of the
intended foster-parent. This theory bears such a stamp
of reality as to invite no criticism. After all, we may
hear worse folly than that of the little girl who defined
the cuckoo as a bird that does not lay its own egg !

Great S2)otted Cuckoo. — A rare straggler from the South,

THE OWLS. 205

that has occurred twice — once in Northumberland, once in
Ireland.

Blach-hilled Cuckoo. — An American straggler, reported
to have occurred once.

Yelloiv -billed Cuckoo. — An American bird that has
been shot on five occasions on the western shores of these
islands.

CHAPTEK III. THE OWLS.

[The owls commonly admitted to the British list include
three residents, two regular and six irregular visitors.
They were formerly reckoned as a group among the birds
of prey, but their distinctiveness is now generally recog-
nised. Another ornithologist placed them next to the
parrots. iVll are birds of the gloaming, remaining through-
out the day in a half-sleepy condition, and being ill at ease
in the glare of the sun. The female is always the larger
of the two, though the difference is not great in the
majority of cases. Their food consists entirely of small
mammals, birds, and reptiles, and they ought therefore
to be encouraged instead of, as is too commonly the case,
persecuted by the keeper and farmer. Three residents ;
two regular, four irregular visitors, and one doubtful.]

The Barn-Owl, smallest of our resident owls, is com-
mon throughout these islands, except in the Orkneys and
Barn- Shetlands, where it is rare. Its disappearance
Owl. from neighbourhoods where it once was plenti-
ful is doubtless due to the short-sighted policy of persecu-
tion meted out to the unoffending bird by gamekeepers.
As rats, shrews, and voles are among its favourite articles
of food, a few of these voracious birds on an estate should
be worth a ton of poison. Besides these, it devours bats

206 BIRDS.

and fish. There is more white about this little screecher
than in most of our owls, and even the bill is almost
white, in which it resembles only that of the tawny
owl, easily distinguished by the absence of orange from
its plumage and the thicker feathers on its feet.

Like all the owls, this bird perches with two toes
on each side of the branch, and not, as in most birds,
three before and one behind. This fact is not, however,
invariably borne in mind by the taxidermist, w^ho is
frequently pleased to edit nature gratuitously. It is a
remarkable fact that even in some recent manuals on birds
the illustrations deliberately give the taxidermist's version
in preference to the true one. The silent flight of the owls
has been much written about and not a little exaggerated.
Between flying more silently than other birds and making
absolutely no noise whatever, there is a gap, though, to
the casual rambler in the country, the flight of all birds is
practically noiseless. This owl roams about our dwellings,
and is especially common in parts of Kent. I well re-
member some fifteen or twenty years ago staying in a
little cottage opposite the Walmer barracks, where these
"screech-owls" would fly in of a night at the open
windows. At first they earned a cheap rejoutation as
ghosts, until one sultry night a sudden chance swoop with
a fishing-rod brought one to book and set the matter at
rest. The way in which gardener, farmer, and game-
preserver unite in persecuting this owl has been men-
tioned, and it is to be doubted whether they would achieve
a far difi'erent result were they actually to breed and turn
down rats and voles, of which this bird must annually
destroy hundreds of bushels. What prompts the small
birds of the neighbourhood to turn out in force and mob
any belated owl who may not have regained the security
of its dark retreat ere the sun is high, it would be difficult
to say. The professional bird-catcher is at any rate con-
tent to use the blinking bird, dead or alive, as a decoy.

The nest of this owl, if nest it can be called, is in some

THE OWLS.

207

hole in a tree or ruin. I have found it less than 3 feet from
the ground. The eggs in a clutch number but two, but
the clutches follow so closely where the bird is not subject
to interruption, that it is not uncommon to find on the
uncleanly bed of vomited pellets two or three clutches of
eggs and a brace or two of young birds. Eggs, 2 to 6, laid
in pairs, i ^ to i ^ inch ; round and white, and not very
glossy. Owls' eggs are found almost throughout eight
months of the year.

The larger Long-eared Owl is common, though rarely
much in evidence, all over these islands. It is easily
Long- distinguished by its prominent ear-tufts with

eared Owl. (jg^j.]^- centres, and the fawn-tinted feathers on
its feet and toes.
The food of this
species is as that of
the last, with per-
haps more insects.
It is one of the
most silent of our
owls, neither hoot-
ing nor shrieking
with any regular-
ity. This is the
only owl that nests
exclusively in the
deserted nests of
magpies and other
birds, or in empty
squirrel - dreys.
Sometimes the interior is relined, sometimes not ; I have
come across instances of both. Eggs, almost identical in
size and whiteness with those of the last, like which, too,
they are found during the greater part of the year.

The Short-eared, or " Woodcock," Owl is for the most

208 BIRDS.

part, and at any rate to the southern counties, a winter
visitor. A comparatively few pairs breed in the Fen
t Short- Country, and a few more farther north, especi-

eared Owl. Q\\y i^ Scotland, where there is a supply of
voles. The ear-tufts in this species measure only half
those of the last, being less than ^ inch. Often seen
abroad by day, the bird, which, as already indicated,
breeds with us only in the fens or on the moors, lays
her eggs in a clump of sedge or heather on or near the
ground. ^[/[/s, 4 to 6, ij4 inch ; creamy white, and
smoother than those of most owls.

Kesident over the major part of Great Britain, the
Tawny Owl is extending its range northward, but has

Tawny not yet been recorded from Ireland. Its toes

^^^- are feathered to the claws, the tail, white at

the tip, is barred with brown, and there are white spots on
the wings. The bird has no ear-tufts like the last. There
are two phases, a red and a grey, the latter being the more
common in our southern counties. This is the hooting owl
of our woodlands, and Wordsworth's famous line about
the wandering voice never seen (though scarcely, perhaps,
" longed for " !) would apply to it with greater force than
to the cuckoo, in honour of which it was penned, for few
birds shun intrusion or hate the light of day more than
this owl. Though no offender in the ordinary course, an
instance is quoted by Mr Witherby (in ' Knowledge,' June
1897) in which one of these birds killed a full-grown
rabbit. It nests, as a rule, in hollow trees ; but occasion-
ally its eggs are found in the deserted nests of crows and
other birds, in squirrels' dreys, or even in rabbit-burrows.
J^[/[/s, 4, 1 4 inch; white, round and smooth.

Tengmalm^ s Owl. — A very rare winter visitor from the
North. Has occurred sixteen times in England and twice
in Scotland.

[Little Owl has occurred in most English counties, and
has bred in some, but has not yet been recorded from

THE BIRDS OF PKEY. 209

either Scotland or Ireland. As so many are yearly brought
over from the Continent, many being turned loose, it is
unusual to treat it seriously as a British bird. The late
Lord Lilford established it in Northamptonshire.]

The large and handsome Snowy Owl, which comes from
the Xorth, is a regular winter visitor to the north of Scot-

+ Snowy land, though of its visits to England less than
Owl. a score have been reported, and to Ireland
eight only. The plumage is white, with black spots. This
owl is not perhaps a very welcome visitor to the game-
preserve, though even there its choice will fall most readily
on the sick or wounded birds. It also fishes, much after
the fashion of the osprey.

Hawk- Owl. — A rare straggler, of which there are two
recognised forms — the American, which has occurred some
half -dozen times, mostly in Scotland. The other, or
European, form has been recorded (by Dr Sharpe) but
once.

*S'co/is Owl. — A rare straggler from the South, which has
been recorded many times in England, once in Scotland,
and five times in Ireland.

Eagle-Owl. — A handsome eared owl from the Continent
that visits the Orkneys and Shetlands, where it once
probably bred at long intervals, but rarely occurs farther
south, never in Ireland.

CHAPTER IV. THE BIRDS OF PREY.

[The group under notice embraces birds of very various
habits and aj3pearance, some being pronounced carrion-
eaters, others, the smaller more usually, disdaining all food
that they have not killed themselves. As in the owls, the

210 BIRDS.

female is the larger bird. The enmity of keepers bids fair
to remove the greater number from the British list. They
all have the distinguishing "cere," a membrane over the
nostrils and upper mandible. Eleven residents (mostly
rare) ; five regular, eleven irregular, visitors.]

Griffon Vulture. — One only has occurred — in Ireland.

Egi/ptian Yult^ire has been obtained twice only — in
Essex and Somerset.

Though to all intents and purposes an indigenous bird,
the Marsh-harrier is so rare nowadays as to call for pass-
Marsh- ing mention only. It is thought that a few
harrier, breed in undisturbed parts of Norfolk, but
this seems to require confirmation. It still straggles to
Scotland, but is no longer to be found breeding freely in
Ireland, as it did comparatively recently, though it may
still do so in one or two counties. According to ]\Ir
Saunders, it uses the nest of the coot.

Distinguished by its grey -and -white plumage, and now
knowm to breed only in comparatively few districts in
Hen- Great Britain (chiefly in the Scottish isles and

harrier. Highlands) and Ireland, the Hen-harrier is
the enemy of the game -preserver rather than the farmer,
its food consisting of small mammals and birds, for which
it quarters the open moors like its congeners. The nest,
placed among the heather, is on or near the ground, and
is composed of twigs and grass. Eggs, 4 to 6, i ^ inch ;
bluish white, rarely spotted. Like most British birds of
prey, the bird lays early in May.

Also far less common than formerly, Montagu's Harrier
is still known to breed sparingly in the Channel counties,
* Montagu's still more rarely as far north as Yorkshire.
Harrier. To Scotland, save in the extreme south, it is
a very rare straggler, as also to Ireland. It is far less
destructive than most birds of prey, for its food consists

THE BIRDS OF PREY. 211

largely of reptiles and large insects, as grasshoppers.
It is also known to devour the eggs of Avild birds. A
smaller and darker bird than the last, it has the wings
proportionately longer, the tail being also barred. The
nest is on the ground among the heather or sedges. E[fg>^,
somewhat smaller and paler than those of the last.

Earer every year, the large and handsome Buzzard still
breeds in a few western districts of Great Britain and
Ireland. The district of the Broads was once
its favourite haunt in these islands, but it
has been sacrificed to the preservation of game. As, how-
ever, it is by no means one of the most active, and
as it is certainly among the least courageous, of our
raptorial birds, there is some reason to doubt whether
it does much damage among the pheasants. This buzzard
is of large size, some examples being dark, others much
lighter, all having bars on the tail. Nests of this bird are
found in lofty trees or cliffs, and consist of twigs and
leaves. They are very bulky. Er/gs, 3 or 4, 2 ]^ inches ;
dull white, with reddish spots and blotches. Both sexes
incubate.

The Kough- legged Buzzard, in which the legs are

feathered to the toe, occurs every winter, its visits being

tRouffh- measured by the number shot, for it is of

legged those visitors never recorded as observed.

Buzzard. Q^^^^g recently (March 1897) one was shot
in Yorkshire by one of Lord Feversham's keepers. Not
more than half-a-dozen have been recorded from Ireland,
and the various reports that have at one time or other
been credited are disposed of by Mr Saunders and others
as impositions.

Spotted Ear/le. — A rare straggler from Southern Europe,
four examples of which have occurred in England and two
in Ireland. The smaller Continental form is not known
to visit these islands.

212

BIRDS.

The Golden Eagle is perhaps the only one of our birds
of prey of which it can be said that protection, tardy
Golden yet not too late, is causing it to extend its
Eagle. breeding-range in the Scottish Highlands and
isles, where it is known as the "Black Eagle." It is
almost certain that this splendid bird, the largest of our
eagles, is more numerous to-day in parts of North Britain
than it was ten years ago ; and this is the work of the

landowner. It also breeds in a few isolated localities in
Ireland. The bird feeds on mountain -hares and grouse;
but it also snatches an occasional lamb from the fold, and
will even eat carrion. The legs are thickly feathered to
the toes. Examples have been shot of a length of 3 feet.
The nest, in some high tree or inaccessible rock, is a large
platform of sticks with some softer lining. To this the
bird adds every year, so that, as do those of the raven,
old nests grow to unwieldy dimensions. E(i<j.% 2 or 3,
nearly 3 inches ; greyish, with red spots.

THE BIRDS OF PREY. 213

The White-tailed Eagle, distinguished by the absence
of feathers from the lower half of the leg, and by the

"White- ^road scales on the toes, is commonly (im-
taiied mature visitors to the South more particu-
^^^^®' larly) reported as the Golden Eagle. It is
also known as the " erne," and breeds nowadays only on
the more northerly coasts of Scotland, among the Shet-
lands, and here and there on the wild west coast of Ire-
land. The bird feeds on fish and any carrion. Its nest,
sometimes found inland, is like that of the last, as are also
the eggs, though rather smaller, and without spots.

Goshaivh. — A rare straggler nowadays that has not bred
in these islands since the beginning of the century. It
may be recognised by the short wings and the white line
over the eye.

American Goshaivh. — A closely allied species, said to
have occurred once in Scotland and twice in Ireland, but
whether it arrived unaided as a genuine visitor seems
uncertain.

The small SjmrroAv - Hawk is fairly common in all
wooded districts, and recognised by its short wings, the
Sparrow- flciTk reddish bars on the breast, and the great
Hawk. length of the legs. Though the smaller wild
birds and mammals form its principal food, there is no
doubt but the sparrow-hawk can, especially when there
are young to feed, be a great trouble in the farmyard, and
also among partridges. It feeds on the ground, and one
may often come upon small heajos of blood-stained feathers
in the clearings of w^oods, showing plainly where the
bird has had a recent meal. The female is much larger
than the male, and Mr J. Steele-Elliott ^ points out that
this is the origin of the common error of regarding them
as birds of different species. As a rule, the sparrow-hawk
builds a large nest of sticks and twigs, which is placed
near the top of high trees ; but it is also known to adapt
1 The Vertebrate Fauua of Beclfordsliire, p. 11.

214 BIRDS.

to its requirements the deserted nests of crows and other
birds. Egfii<j 4, 5, or 6, i=i inch; pale blue, with red
blotches.

The Kite is very rare nowadays, and only known to
breed in a few spots in Wales and Scotland, the precise
locality of which those who are in the secret
wisely conceal. In Ireland it is still rarer.
Its long forked tail and exceedingly graceful gliding flight
distinguish it from others of its size. Its destructiveness
is probably on a j^ar with that of the last, the damage
being confined for the most part to the time when there-
are young in the nest. The nest, found in lofty trees, is
not unlike that of the last, but a considerable quantity of
rags and other rubbish is usually found in its lining. Egffs,
3,23^ inches ; bluish white, with red spots and blotches.

Black Kite. — A rare straggler from the South, which has
been recorded once only — in Northumberland.

Sivallow-tailed Kite. — An American bird, said to have
visited these islands (Harting) on five occasions. Mr
Saunders, however, discredits all but one, and regards even
that as a bird escaped from confinement.

It is doubtful whether the Honey-buzzard, known by
the three dark bars on the tail and the white, brown-
* Honey- spotted breast, breeds any longer in these
buzzard, inhospitable islands, where collectors are as
thick as thieves. It visits us, however, every May, and it
is possible that a few, a very few, remain to nest under
the protection of those for whom the high prices ofi'ered
have no charm. Let us hope so. To Ireland it finds its
way but rarely, though it has been recorded from there
on several occasions of late years. Wild bees and honey
are the staple food of this inoffensive bird during the warm
weather, after which it eats small mammals, reptiles, birds,
and even worms. Colonel Butler recently reported one in
the 'Field,' which was shot in Suffolk as late as July 1,

THE BIIIDS OF PKEY.

215

1897. Eggs^ 2, 3, or 4, 2 inches; cream, with brown
blotches.

Gyr Falcon, Iceland Falcon, and Greenland Falcon, three
closely allied species, rare stragglers from northern regions.

The Peregrine, boldest and perhaps handsomest of our
smaller birds of prey, is the species chiefly used in the
Peregrine sport of falconry ; and those who have seen
Falcon. it lift a rabbit or a partridge in its dashing-
course are not likely to forget the suddenness of the action.

ij^^**

By no means very superior in size to the kestrel and
sparrow-hawk, though a somewhat heavier bird, it does
not hesitate to attack them, and invariably comes off victor ;

216 BIRDS.

indeed it is said to eat the vanquished now and again.
The resident peregrines of these islands are temporarily
augmented by immature birds on autumn migration. The
peregrine still breeds in the cliffs of our south and south-
west coasts, and in the Xorth, though many reported cases
are partly apocryphal. The bird is easily distinguished
from others of the same size by the conspicuous black-
ness of the head, as well as by the black line on either
side the throat ; and its " kek, kek," is a somewhat more
distinctive cry than that of most of its kind. It nests
on the ground among the cliffs, or in the deserted nest of
a crow or other large bird. It never builds a nest in any
case, but it will return year after year to a suitable site.
Eggs, 2 to 4, 2 inches ; yellowish, with red spots.

The Hobby is with us, though in no great numbers, from
May to October, breeding in Hampshire and other south-
ern counties, not, however, farther north than
Yorkshire. It has been taken in almost every
part of Scotland, to which country it can, however, be re-
garded as only a straggler ; while from Ireland not more
than eight examples have been recorded. Its food consists
for the most part of large insects, also of small birds. In
many respects, as, for example, the long pointed wings and
the black head and throat-stripe, it bears considerable re-
semblance to its larger ally the peregrine. Like the latter,
too, it breeds in the nests of other birds ; and a curious
habit has been noticed in the female bird — namely, that
of brooding, before her own eggs are laid, on those of the
kestrel, a freak which has given rise to some curious
mistakes. Eggs, 3, 4, or 5, over i)4 inch; yellowish,
speckled with red.

§ Red-footed Falcon. — Practically an annual spring and

autumn visitor, though never in numbers. It comes chiefly

to the southern counties of England, though in Yorkshire,

where it was first added to the British list,^ as many as a

1 Clarke aucl Roebuck, Vertebrate Fauna of Yorkshire, p. 47.

THE BIKDS OF PREY. 217

dozen have been recorded. In Scotland, it lias been
obtained but three times ; in Ireland, but once.

The Merlin is our smallest falcon. Its tail has a broad

black band just above the white tip ; and it breeds in the

northern moors of Eno-land, as well as in the
Merlin. . . o '

higher districts of Scotland and Ireland. In

winter, it may be seen at the coast chasing the smaller

waders ; but during the breeding season it is noticed, as a

rule, perched motionless on some rocky boulder. It is not

a rapid flier, so that there may possibly be some foundation

for the charge, often preferred against it, of robbing nests

of the newly hatched young. Egffs (laid in a depression

in the earth), 4 to 6, i^ inch; deep red. The bird has

been known, though rarely, to lay in deserted nests.

The Kestrel, distinguished from the smaller merlin
by the reddish hue of the back, which is covered with
Kestrel or ^^^^k spots, is our commonest bird of prey,
" Wind- and its peculiar motionless hovering is as well
hover.' known on the country-side as is the far-reach-

ing, not unpleasing, cry. Its food consists almost entirely
of mice, so that its persecution is wanton folly. It lays its
eggs in old nests of crows or other like birds, or occasion-
ally on the bare earth. Eggs, 4 to 6, if inch ; yellowish,
with deep red spots and blotches.

Lesser Kestrel. — A straggler from Southern Europe,
which has been recorded but three times — in York, in
Kent, and near Dublin.

The Osprey is practically a winter visitor to the greater
portion of these islands, though it still breeds in a few
Highland lochs. In the winter months it
occurs almost annually on the Broads and
other inland waters ; and it has been recorded recently
hawking over the joint estuary of the Hampshire Stour
and Avon, below Christchurch. The breast is white, with
a brown band. It feeds almost entirely on mullet, salmon,

218

BIRDS.

and trout, upon which it pounces with great dash, bearing
its victim off lengthwise in its long pointed claws, which
are admirably adapted for the purpose. Its nest is an

enormous structure of twigs and sticks, Avith a soft-lined
receptacle for the eggs. -Er/r/s, 2 or 3, 2 ){> inches ; white,
v/ith deep red blotches.

THE COKMOllANT, SHAG, A^D GANNET. 219

CHAPTER V. THE CORMOKANT, ^HAG,
AND GANNET.

[These three birds, British allies of the pelican, are of
great interest on the coast, where their fishing operations,
the diving of the first two, and the wonderful oblique
plunge of the last, can be watched wherever there are
high cliffs overlooking the shallow bays where they seek
their favourite food. Though pleasing on the wing, how-
ever, they are all grotesque on land, for, the feet lying far
back, they walk with diflSculty, and their movements are
devoid of grace.]

The Cormorant, or " Diver," is a common bird at most
Channel ports, where it is seen either flying rapidly over
the water, neck and legs stretched out fore and aft, or
else perched on some rock, its burnished wings
spread to dry in the sun. From its smaller
relative the shag it is distinguished by the white feathers
on the neck, a large white patch on the thigh, and some
yellow skin at the throat. As in the rest of the order, the
nostrils are covered by a membrane. The bill is sharply
hooked on the lower mandible, the value of which may
be seen where, as at Regent's Park, the bird is fed in
captivity. In many countries, and by a few amateurs in
these islands, among them Mr Salvin, the cormorant has
been successfully trained to catch fish, which it is pre-
vented from swallowing by a tightly fitting collar. This
practice comes from the East. When seen flying rapidly
over the water, the cormorant is usually bound for some
fixed destination. For several years now there has been
a single old male cormorant in Bournemouth Bay, and I
have watched it from my boat, when about three miles
from shore, day, after day and at all seasons, fly every
hour or so from Swanage across to Hengistbury Head and
back. It is always alone, so I should be inclined to put
it down as an old bachelor, as it is well known that a

220

BIRDS.

number of these birds remain solitary during the breeding
season.^ When fishing, the cormorant is seen paddling
quietly about some sheltered bay, often under the shadow
of a pier, well knowing that the small fry congregate in
such shelter, and every now and then suddenly diving

head first and swimming some distance under water. It
roosts in the ledges of the cliffs. The large nest is of
sticks and seaweed ; but it also nests inland, particularly
in Ireland. Eggs (laid in May), 3, 2^ inches; pale blue,
incrusted with a chalky coating.

The Shag is a green bird, smaller than the last, but often,
though quite unnecessarily, confused with it. In addition

1 A parallel case of a single old cornioraut is to be found at Little-
liaiiipton, where a fine inale luis haunted the west works for some
years.

THE CORMORANT, SHAG, AND GANNET. 221

to the points of distinction already enumerated, we may
note the presence of yellow spots on the gape. Like the
last, this is a denizen chiefly of rocky coasts,
and it is more numerous on the wilder cliffs of
western Scotland and Ireland. In the former it is known
as the "scart." In diving after fish it first lifts itself
clear of the water, making more of a splash than the cor-
morant. The nest, seldom at any distance from the coast,
is not unlike that of the cormorant, but much more dirty.
Eggs, 3 to 5, under 2^ inches; otherwise similar to those
of the last.

The Gannet, or " Solan Goose," is a beautiful white bird
of large size and striking appearance, which breeds only
on the Bass Rock, on Lundy Island, on an
island off Pembrokeshire, on Ailsa Craig, at
three spots in the Scottish isles, and in the south-west of
Ireland at two stations. The bird is entirely white, except
some conspicuous black feathers on the long pointed wings.
The tip of the lower mandible lacks the strong hook
noticed in the cormorant and shag, though there is a
slight depression. There was a fine gannet in the
Brighton Aquarium this August (1897), but it looked to
me strangely out of condition. The spectacle of a number
of gannets fishing in some Cornish bay is one not easily
forgotten. On the hottest days, the shoals of smaller
pilchards will wander right inshore ; and at such times
these magnificent "geese" will sail overhead, and, each
one soaring to a great height, will fall headlong, wings
folded, on the fishes, harried from below by pollack and
other scaly allies of the greedy birds above. For greedy
the gannet undoubtedly is. I have watched half-a-dozen
of them fish in this way for over an hour, killing fish at
every plunge, and even then they were on the look out
for more. Sometimes they dash obliquely on the fish
from a low elevation. A very wonderful provision is
observed on examining the bill of this bird, for, as in the

99 9

BIRDS.

cormorant, the nostrils are found to lie beneath the
membrane, or, roughly speaking, the gannet has no nos-

'€■'

trils, which must comfort it considerably in its high diving.
Booth, ^ who gives a most interesting series of plates of the

1 Rough Notes, vol. iii.

THE HERONS, BITTERNS, AND STORKS. 223

gannet in various stages of plumage, expresses the doubt
of this bird being able to rise from fiat ground unless
assisted by a high wind. I have also noticed something
of the kind ; but I came upon three of these birds, or
rather of the closely allied Australian species, feeding one
still evening in Middle Harbour, Port Jackson, and flying
with ease from one fiat " beach " to another. Like all
waterfowl, the- gannets and cormorants cannot rise from
the water except head to wind. The nest is of grass and
seaweed. Erig, i, 31^ inches; bluish, with a whitish
coating of chalky matter, which soon soils.

CHAPTEE YL THE HEEOXS, BITTEENS,

AXD STOEKS.

[The characters of the present order are long bill, neck,
and legs, and the curious comb-like edge of the middle toe.
The herons have twelve feathers, the bitterns only ten.
All of these birds feed on fish, also on small mammals,
reptiles, and even crustaceans, molluscs, and insects. They
are for the most part but rare stragglers to these islands,
though the bittern has only become so of late years, thanks
to the reclaiming of marshland, as it bred and " boomed "
among the fens and broads up to within a c^uarter of a
century ago. One resident ; thirteen irregular visitors.]

I. Herons.

Though the water-bailiff and collector are doing their

best to thin the ranks of the grand and stately Heron, it

is still, especially far from the haunts of man,

a familiar figure to fellow - anglers ; and it

requires no more than ordinary caution to watch the

224

BIRDS.

ragged-looking sentinel gazing down unmoved at liis own
retiection in the shallows, more often on some ditch or
tributary than beside the larger rivers. The least false
step is, however, enough to break the spell, — down comes
the other leg with a snap, and in a trice the graceful form

yC^.'

is cleaving the air under the slow and regular beat of long
wings, the legs stretched rudder-like behind, the neck in a
fold between the shoulders, and the black-crested head
held well back after the fashion of a deadly snake about
to strike. It is a curious fact, and one which I have
noticed all the world over, that those birds which cus-

THE HERONS, BITTERNS, AND STORKS. 225

tomarily rest on one leg, with the other tucked away
in the line of the body, cannot to all appearance take
wing without first putting the other foot to the ground.
The food of the heron is by no means confined to fish,
but includes a variety of small mammals, as moles and
w^ater-voles, young birds — especially those of the moor-
hen— frogs, lizards, and various shell-fish and insects. I
know a spot in west Hampshire whither to this day one
or more herons will resort of a July evening to sup off
young moorhens. As it is not improbable — though the
verdict so far is "not proven" — that the moorhen is at
times a greedy consumer of trout-ova, it may be conceded
in ali charity that the heron thus atones in part for his
misdemeanours.

I never to my knowledge witnessed a heron on the
water, though there is no reason why it should not swim
after a fashion, as recorded by some observers from time to
time. Herons, although often solitary when on the prowl,
are sociable during the breeding-time, which is very early
in the year ; and they nest in colonies, known as heronries,
which are nowadays more or less protected, if only through
the fact that their love of seclusion leads them to select
spots near private waters. Thus laws framed with a very
different object have operated most beneficially for these
birds. There are few large heronries in either Scotland ^
or Ireland, but the number in England is very consider-
able, some, as the small colony in Richmond Park near the
Penn pond, quite near the metropolis ; and it is doubtless
from these that those occasional herons hail whose bright
white figures, sailing high over the chimney-stacks, cause
the citizens to stare upward open-mouthed and the evening
papers to publish accounts of so unwonted an apparition.
Yet, considering the number of colonies within a very few
miles of the city boundaries, it is more than probable that
a very large number pass unrecorded over the greater colony

1 Muirhead (Birds of Berwickshire, ii. 43) enumerates eight in Ber-
wickshire.

226 BIRDS.

beneath, the members of which are, as a rule, far too busy
with the affairs of earth to trouble about what is transpir-
ing up above. During a high wind, herons may be seen
grasping the swaying boughs with their bills in most
grotesque attitudes. The nest, often used and enlarged
year after year, is at first a mere platform of sticks with
some kind of grassy lining, and is placed in the top of
high trees. Eggs, 3 to 5, 2^/2 inches; pale green.

Purple Heron. — A rare straggler to the east coast, of
which only two or three have been obtained in Scotland,
and but one in Ireland.

Great White Heron. — A very rare straggler from the
South, less than ten having been taken in Great Britain
and none in Ireland.

Little Egret. — A still rarer wanderer from the South.
Almost all of the supposed occurrences are rejected by
Mr Saunders and others.

Buff -hacked Heron. — One example only exists, and it
was taken in Devon. It is a southern bird.

Squacco Heron. — An occasional straggler from the South
to our southern counties. Has also occurred twice in
Scotland and half-a-dozen times in Ireland.

§ Night Heron might, so far as the south-western counties
go, be regarded as an almost regular sj^ring and autumn
visitor, but wanders rarely farther north than Yorkshire,
where it occurs only at long intervals. It has been taken
half-a-dozen times in Scotland and about a dozen in Ire-
land. It is only about two-thirds the size of the heron ;
the plumage is metallic black, the wings and neck grey,
the crest white.

2. Bitterns.

Almost a regular summer visitor to the eastern counties,
this bird has also straggled to Scotland and Ireland. It
* Little is supposed to have bred comparatively re-
Bittern, cently in the Broad district, but the nest has
never been seen. It is a small bird, about half the size of

THE HERONS, BITTERNS, AND STORKS.

227

the last, the crown and tail conspicuously black, the face
and neck reddish.

Having a liking for the inoffensive bittern, I stretch
a point and treat it as a regular spring visitor, though
it is to be feared that the wish is father to
the thought, and that in the greater part of
these islands, if not throughout, its visits are nowadays

* Bittern.

somewhat irregular, and the hope of its once more estab-
lishing itself as a resident is a vain one indeed. So
large a bird is such a pleasant mark for the indifferent
shot who could not hope to bag smaller fowl. Its long
green legs would alone distinguish it from all our other
birds, and it has further a conspicuous ruff on the
neck. The general plumage is brownish, but the crown
is black, and there is a black bar on the wing. The ex-

228 BIKDS.

istence of the bird in these islands has been shortened
not alone by the pot-hunter, but also by the reclaiming of
the marshes. I was only once, to my knowledge, within
reach of a bittern in this country, and even then I did not
see it, for the occasion was an eeling expedition not far
from Lowestoft, and the hour was not far short of mid-
night. Something large rose from out the reeds close to
our boat, flew, as we could plainly hear, about a dozen
yards only, then dropped to earth, after which we heard
it running rapidly away. I had only the word of my
attendant (an ex -poacher) for its being a bittern, and
such evidence would, in the opinion of the cautious
naturalist, " require confirmation." Still, I never knew
him pervert the truth when there was nothing to be
gained; and at any rate I like to fancy that I did
actually put up a bittern so near a large town. It was
by far the most pleasant incident of the night's outing.
In Australia, however, I have many a time seen an
almost identical bittern, and have even heard its extra-
ordinary booming note, uttered, not in the hushed stillness
of the night, but in the broad light of day. The last
bitterns I saw were running about a deserted estuary in
Central Queensland, picking up a living on small snakes
and frogs. This food they swallow whole and alive. In
uttering the note, which struck me as rather like the
howling of a dog, the birds would throw their head back.
I shall possibly be disbelieved if I say that on one
occasion, when walking near that same estuary after a
chance wallaby, with a double-barrelled shot-gun loaded
in my hand, I put up two bitterns, not of the common
species but almost as large, within half-a-dozen yards,
one of which, if not the brace, I could have bagged
with ease. But they flapped their way in peace, and it
will be a consolation to me, if I should live to see the
day when many of Australia's birds, now common, shall
have joined the things that were, to reflect that my gun
was at any rate used for the most part against creatures

THE HERONS, BITTERNS, AND STORKS. 229

that, however interesting to the naturalist, mean ruin to
the stockowner. When threatened by an eagle or other
danger, the bittern does not, like the heron, rely solely on
the sharpness of its bill, but throws itself, so eye-witnesses
relate, on its back, and strikes out desperately with its
claws as well. The bill is not less powerful than that
of the heron, though the latter bird is, when winged, by
no means to be approached without caution.

t American Bitteryi. — A winter straggler to these islands.
It is a slighter bird than the last, and lacks the black bars
on the wings.

3. Storks.

White Stork. — An irregular spring visitor to the eastern
counties, which has never stayed to breed. Has also
been recorded rarely in Scotland and Ireland.

Black Stork. — A still rarer visitor to the southern and
eastern counties, not up to the present recorded from
Scotland or Ireland.

4. The Ibis.

Glossy Ibis. — A rare autumn visitor to the south of
England, with long curved bill and glossy plumage. It
has also occurred in most other parts of the country, and,
very rarely, in Scotland and Ireland. It was formerly
known as the "black curlew."

5. Spoonbill.

The Spoonbill, formerly breeding (seventeenth century)
in this country, is now only a straggler to the eastern and
southern counties, Norfolk and Cornwall being favourite
haunts. It has found its way to the Scottish isles, but
only a few have been seen in Ireland, chiefly in the
extreme south. It was also known as the "shoveller."
The plumage is white and yellow, and the bird is said to
have a remarkable mode of feeding, by immersing its bill
in the mud under water and walking round and round.

230 BIRDS.

CHAPTER YIL THE FLAMIXGO.

A short chapter, truly; but, following my plan of
enumerating the British rej^resentatives of each order in
a chapter, I have no option but to devote this one to
that rare and handsome straggler, the Flamingo. The
home of this tall bird, vrith the pink-and-scarlet plumage
and remarkable curved, pink, black-tipped bill, is in Africa
and Southern Europe. It breeds among the salt marshes,
and sits on its mud nest, which resembles a small ant-
hill (I have in memory countries where anthills of ten
feet high are common), with folded legs, and not, as
formerly represented, astraddle. It is known to eat a
certain quantity of frogs, but its food is for the most
part of a vegetable nature. Its occurrences in these
islands have up to the present been but four, one of
which Mr Saunders regards as possibly escaped from
captivity. Another of the four was, I am happy to say,
observed only, not shot. It is scarcely to be supposed
that so large and conspicuous a bird could have visited
us unnoticed.

CHAPTER YIII. THE GEESE, SWANS,
AND DUCKS.

[A large and important order of waterfowl, varying
in size from the swans down to the teal, a little bird
less than a third of their length. Some of them have
been totally domesticated, others resort to inland waters
under a kind of tacit protection. The decoys used for
taking many of these birds, elaborate accounts of which
have been given by Mr Cordeaux, Mr Harting, Sir R.
Payne - Gallwey, Mr Southwell, and others, are found

THE GEESE, SWANS, AND DUCKS. 231

chiefly in our eastern counties, though there are a few
still working in Ireland. The order is represented in
these islands by no less than forty -two birds, which
analyse as follows : four actual residents ; twenty - two
regular visitors (many staying to breed); sixteen irregu-
lar visitors.]

I. The Geese.

The Grey Lag Goose is a winter visitor to the greater
part of these islands, though still breeding in Sutherland
t G-rey Lag and among the Outer Hebrides. In Ireland
Goose. [I breeds only in a semi-domesticated state.

It is the largest of our geese, being usually regarded as
the progenitor of our tame birds, and has the general
plumage brown and grey, the under parts white, and
the terminal nail of the bill also white. As in all
geese, there is no difference in plumage between the
two sexes. I recollect on one occasion seeing three
flocks, numbering in all not far short of a thousand, as
I computed them roughly, flying south over the Baltic
in the dawn of a September morning. As I had no gun
with me, they were well wdthin shot. The nest, ready
by the end of March, is placed on the ground ; and it is
of interest to note that the lining of her own down is
not added by the female bird until she is about to sit
on the full clutch of eggs. .Eff^s, 5 or 6, 3^ inches ;
creamy yellow.

The Bean Goose is not known to breed in these islands,
but is a tolerably common visitor to the west and south-

tBean west, comparatively rare on the east coast and

Goose, jjj Scotland,^ but visiting the greater part of

Ireland. It is a somewhat darker bird than the last, and

the nail at the tip of the bill is black. Like most geese,

it is a strict vegetarian.

1 Muirhead (Birds of Berwickshire, ii. 72) enumerates nearly one
hundred farms in Berwickshire visited of late years by these birds.

232 BIRDS.

Like the rest of the family, the Pink-footed Goose has
its true home in arctic regions, but it visits our east

.p. , coast in large numbers each winter; to the

footed southern and western counties it is but a
Goose. j.j^j.g straggler only; in Scotland^ its appear-
ances vary considerably in different years ; while in Ireland
it has been obtained but once. It is a smaller bird than
the last, the nail on the beak is black, while the legs
and feet, though subject to variation, are pink. There
are conspicuous white markings on the tail.

The White - fronted or " Laughing Goose " visits the

western portions of these islands every winter in large

fWhite- flocks. It is not unlike the somewhat larger

fronted grey-lag goose, having the nail on the bill

Goose. white ; but it may be distinguished by the

white on the forehead and the black bars on the breast.

There is also a smaller race, w^hich has more white

about the face. This lias been obtained but once — on

Holy Island.

Snoiu Goose. — The Snow Goose is a rare \vanderer from
arctic America, wdiich has been obtained about half-a-dozen
times, mostly in Ireland, and which has more recently
been rej^orted as wintering in flocks in the northern coun-
ties of England. It has not occurred farther south than
Yorkshire. There is a larger race from arctic Asia, which
has not, however, straggled to these islands.

Red-hreasted Goose. — A very rare straggler from Eastern
Siberia, which has been obtained seven or eight times,
mostly on the east coast.

The Brent Goose visits the east coast every winter in

t Brent large numbers, though its haunts are much

Goose, disturbed by shore-shooters. It is easily known

by its black head and breast and the white patch on either

1 Muirhead (Birds of Berwickshire, ii. 72) enumerates nearly one
hundred farms in Berwickshire visited of late years by these birds.

THE GEESE, SWANS, AND DUCKS. 233

side the neck. In one race the lower portion of the
breast is much darker, and there is less white on the
neck; and both forms, or sub-species, or w^hatever they
are, visit the British Islands. We used to stalk this bird
with rifle on the large brackish lagoons that lie close to
the Baltic, although the cold was often intense and the
birds were usually too shy to afford a shot.

The Bernicle Goose from Greenland visits our western
counties with regularity and in considerable flocks. Along
t Bernicle the eastern seaboard, however, it is rarer. To
Qoose. Ireland it is a regular visitor. It differs from
the last in the white face, broken only by a black line
before the eye. In its food it is more omnivorous than
most geese, digging with its short bill in the mud for
molluscs and the like. Its note is louder than that of
most of our geese; and, like them, it loses its quills
so completely in its moult as to be unable to fly, and
at that trying period it has to escape by running. It
breeds freely in captivity, but its natural resting-place is
unknown.

2. The Sw\4ns.

Practically a domesticated bird, the Mute Swan is every
now and again shot in the wild state, to which it easily
reverts. Its most remarkable feature is the
shield or " berry " betw^een the eyes, not found
in other swans. The name " mute " is unsatisfactory, as
the bird has a loud trumpeting note, and will always hiss
loudly when provoked. It lacks, however, the call-note of
the next species. The swan will undoubtedly pick up a
living off water-plants and insects, but there can be little
doubt either of its helping itself freely to spawTi and
young fish wherever these delicacies are available, hence
the complaints of London anglers of the misdeeds of the
Thames swans, many of which are the property of the
liveried companies, others belonging to Eton College.

234 BIRDS.

One of the largest swanneries, where the birds are regu-
larly farmed and plucked of their down, is not far from
Weymouth, and the birds there are a very beautiful sight.
Some ornithologists distinguish the so - called " Polish
swan," which seems to differ only in the whiteness of the
young or cygnet, which in the ordinary swan is grey. As,
however, Mr Saunders failed to find the alleged differences
(colour of legs, &c.) in the adult, it seems unnecessary to
manufacture even a race out of these abnormal youths and
maidens — there are so many races and forms and sub-species
as it is. Swans are said to be exceedingly long-lived.

The Whooper, or "Whistling Swan," which nested in
the Orkneys at the end of last century, is now but a
winter visitor, staying on in secluded spots
until w^ell into the spring. In his 'Manual,'
Mr Saunders mentions Poole Harbour as one of its
favourite resorts ; but unfortunately Bournemouth has in-
creased during the eight years that have elapsed since the
publication of that unique work, and loafers, of which
there must always be a large number during the " slack "
months of a watering-j^lace, have not been idle, so that
the gunner would have to sjDend a good deal of time now-
adays in watching for a wild swan in Poole Harbour. In
this swan, nearly two -thirds of the bill is yellow, the
lowest third being black. The note of this species is but
indifferently described as "whistling," — a fresh proof of
the difficulty of adequately rendering the various notes
of wild birds, to which allusion has already been made.
It is more like a toy trumpet, — a vulgar comparison, I
fear, but at any rate as near the mark as the other.

Bewick's Swan is a rarer visitor, though more common

in Ireland. It is a much smaller bird than the last, and

t Bewick's is further distinguished by the smaller patch

Swan. of yellow (only one-third) on the bill. The

note, equally indescribable, is softer.

THE GEESE, SWANS, AND DUCKS. 235

3. The Ducks.

[These are conveniently divided into two groups, the
non-diving, and the sea- or diving, ducks — the former in-
cluding such familiar species as the Widgeon. Mallard, and
teal, while to the latter belong the less known Pochard,
Smew, Scoter, and Eider. It is interesting to note that in
captivity almost all ducks will interbreed; and they all
have a curious habit of adding down to the nest only when
the eggs are laid and incubation is about to start.]

(a) The Non-Diving Ducks.

Although not included in the so-called " sea-ducks," the
Sheld-Duck is never met with far from the coast, and I
Sheld- have often observed it in Hampshire on little-
Duck, frequented j)arts of the sandy foreshore. It is
a bird of extremely shy habits, and it flies at no great
height and at only moderate speed. The female is a very
noisy bird. It would be difficult to mistake this hand-
some bird for any other, with its glossy green head and
throat, its deep-red knobbed bill, the white band beneath
the green throat, the dark patch on the white belly, and
the black tip to the white tail. If only every bird were
as conspicuously marked, binoculars would be almost
superfluous. The plumage is alike in both sexes. The
sheld-duck feeds for the most part on marine plants and
small molluscs, also on sandhoppers. It breeds in May
in some hole, usually a rabbit-burrow, but also in round
tunnels of its own excavating, or, very rarely, in natural
fissures in the rocks. The nest, at some considerable dis-
tance from the light, is of grasses lined with down. Eggs,
8 or 10, 2^ inches; creamy white.

Ruddy Sheld-Duch. — A wanderer from the South, which
has been obtained on several occasions in Ireland, and of
which a number were obtained as recently as 1892. In
summer the adult male is unmistakable by reason of the

236 BIRDS.

narrow l3lack ring which he then wears round his neck.
Otherwise he is a bird of sober jjhimage, in size about the
same as the last.

The Mallard is the "wild duck" of the British Islands,

the largest of our commoner ducks, and the ^^rogenitor of

the domesticated bird. In his full dress, the
Mallard. . ...

drake is a very handsome bird, with his green

head and neck, narrow wdiite collar, and the four blue

curled feathers in his tail ; but during the summer months
he moults to a far quieter looking being, more like his
mate. There are two races, — the smaller birds that visit
us from the Continent, and the larger home-bred residents.
It is interesting to note that, like other domesticated
birds, this duck is polygamous only in the tame state,
being by nature content with one mate. It is also a much
cleaner feeder than its degenerate relatives. The quacking
cannot, by the ordinary ear at any rate, be distinguished.

THE GEESE, SWANS, AND DUCKS. 237

It nests on the ground, usually near inland waters, but
also in hedgerows, and even in the deserted nests of other
birds. The nest is of grass lined with down. Eggs, 8
to 12, 2]^ inches; greenish white.

Breeding in a semi-protected state in parts of Norfolk,
the Gadwall must be more correctly regarded as a winter
visitor, and by no means a common one. The
^ * plumage of this bird is not striking at any
distance, and indeed its most distinctive feature is to be
found in the laminae of the upper mandible of the bill,
which project sideways. The white outer webs of the
wing are also somewhat conspicuous.

Like the last, the Widgeon, though, strictly speaking,
a winter visitor, breeds in a few places in the northern
counties of Scotland and in most of the islands
except the Outer Hebrides. Its nesting in
Ireland seems a matter of some uncertainty. It feeds
entirely on vegetable matter, and only at night. It may
always be remembered that all these drakes assume the
plumage of the female during the late summer months.
In his brighter dress, the widgeon has a creamy- white
forehead, the face and neck reddish brown, spotted with
green, and the shoulder white. The nest, of grasses lined
with down, is placed on the ground among the rushes.
Eggs, 7 to lo, 2^ inches; creamy white.

The American Widgeon has been recorded but once on
sufficient evidence. It is distinguished by a green stripe
behind the eye.

Another winter visitor, the Pintail breeds in a very few

districts, as in the Hebrides. The head and neck of the

male are of a reddish brown, the neck being

bordered with a white stripe ; but the bird is

chiefly distinguishable by the two very long tail-feathers,

from which it takes its familiar name, as also that of " Sea-

238 BIRDS.

Pheasant," by which it is often known. It is frequently
found in company with widgeon. Its food consists largely
of water-insects and shell-fish. It is known to breed some-
what freely wdth the mallard. The nest, rather deeper
than that of most ducks, is otherwise similar. Eggs, 7 to
10, 2 inches; pale green, and of elongated form.

The Shoveller, or "Spoonbill," may, in both sexes, be
distinguished by the spoon-like bill. It breeds in several
parts of Ireland, also locally in Scotland as far
as the Inner Hebrides. Its breeding-places in
England are few, and are confined to the eastern sea-board.
This duck consumes more insect food than most. The nest
is on dry ground near water. Eggs, 8 to 12, 2 inches;
pale green.

The Teal, smallest of our ducks, breeds in many parts of
the British Islands, chiefly in the northern counties and

Scotland, but also as far south as the Thames
Teal . .

valley. It is easily recognised by the con-
spicuous green patch behind the eye, the brown stripe
down the centre of the forehead, and the numerous black
spots on the breast. The food of the teal consists largely
of vegetable matter, but insects are also consumed. It
is remarkable for a devotion to its young that is by
no means characteristic of all ducks. The nest, in the
immediate neighbourhood of water, is like those of the
rest. EggSy 8 to 12, i^ inch; brownish white.

American Green-ivinged Teal. — A very rare straggler,
which has occurred but thrice — in Devon, Hampshire, and
Yorkshire, though the bird is omitted, whether intention-
ally I do not know, from Clarke's list in his and Roebuck's
' Yorkshire Vertebrata.'

Blue-ivinged Teal. — Another American straggler, which
has occurred once only — in Scotland.

1 Not to l)e confuscti with the true Spoonhill, also known as
"shoveller."

THE GEESE, SWANS, AND DUCKS. 239

The Garganey is a rare spring visitor, a few also reach-
ing these islands in autumn. A somewhat larger bird than
the allied teal, the garganey is distinguished
ney. ^^ ^^^ white line that runs behind the eye and
down the side of the neck, as well as by the conspicuous
black crescent-shaped marks before the rump. The curious
grating note of the male has gained for this bird in East
Anglia, where it is least rare, the name of " Cricket-teal."
It has found its way at irregular intervals to nearly every
part of Scotland and the isles, except the Outer Hebrides.
Nest, among the sedges. Bf/gs, 8 to 12, nearly 3 inches;
like those of the teal, but lacking the greenish tinge.

(b) The Diving Ducks.

[Although a number of the foregoing are observed to
feed with their head submerged and the legs and tail
waving in the air, yet they cannot be said to get their
food by diving, as do for the most part the following nine-
teen, which have, moreover, a distinct preference for the
neighbourhood of salt water.]

The Pochard, or Dunbird, is one of the winter visitors

of which, on the slightest encouragement, numbers remain

to breed, chiefly in the eastern counties. I
t Pochard. , /« • i • i t

knew a case 01 a single pair breeding on a

small private water not far from Poole. The hind -toe

of this, as of all the grouj), is prominently lobed. The

bird is at once recognised by the black collar and apron,

and by the band of greyish blue across the centre of the

otherwise black bill. The pochard feeds, largely at night,

on water-plants, also on crustaceans. From its curious cry

when flushed, the pochard is also known as "Curre."

The nest, not a very elaborate structure, is found on the

ground among sedges. I came upon a nest of this bird

on one occasion with two out of the three greenish eggs

badly broken, the third intact. Eggs of ground-nesting

240 BIRDS.

birds are not unfrequently found cracked in deserted nests,
and it has been suggested that the departing hen does this
in despair ; but in the case mentioned, where the third egg
was unhurt, some other explanation is wanting. Eggs^ 7
to 10, 2^3 inches; greenish grey.

Red-crested Pochard. — A rare straggler from the South,
which has occurred over a dozen times in England, and
once each in Scotland and Ireland.

§ Ferrugmous DucJc. — An irregular spring and winter
visitor to the east coast. It is also known as the " White-
eyed " duck, from the white iris, and is further distin-
guished by a white spot on the chin.

The Tufted Duck is a winter visitor in numbers, though
a great many remain to breed, especially in Notts, and in

t Tufted other counties, also in parts of Scotland and
Duck. Ireland. This bird may be recognised by its
glossy black crest and pale blue bill. Like many ducks,
it is most active after sunset, and its food consists largely
of water-plants. As food, this duck is worthless. The
nest is placed among the sedges. Eggs, 8 to 12, 2^
inches; greenish.

The Scaup, a common winter visitor, is said to have
bred in Scotland. It lacks the crest of the last, but
otherwise resembles it much in colourins;,
save for the lighter hue of the upper parts.
In uttering the harsh note from which it takes its trivial
name, the bird is said to twist its head in a peculiar way,
but I do not remember having seen this. It is one of
the ducks least esteemed for the table.

The Golden-eye has likewise been said to breed in Scot-
land, but authorities, Mr Saunders among them, regard the

t Golden- statement with extreme suspicion. This hand-

®y®' some duck may be recognised by the white

patch beneath the eye, black back, white uiiderparts, and

THE GEESE, SWANS, AND DUCKS. 241

a sort of rudimentary crest on its green head. Like most
of these sea-ducks, the golden-eye is excellent gun practice,
for it is exceedingly shy, either diving at the flash or
rising at once from the water and flying rapidly away,
with audible whistling of the wings.

Buffet-headed Duck. — A very rare straggler from North
America, so called from the white patch behind the eye,
which has found its way to these islands (not to Ireland)
on five occasions.

Harleqidn Duck. — A rare straggler from arctic regions,
which appears to have been obtained, always in the North,
on less than half-a-dozen occasions. Its prevailing colours
are black and white, distributed in striking patterns.

The Long-tailed Duck, for the most part a scarce winter

visitor, is thought to breed in the Shetlands. It is chiefly

t Long- ^^^* y^\\h in Scotland and Ireland, though it

tailed has been obtained in nearly every county of

Duck. England. The male is easily recognised by

the brown patch on its white neck and the two very

long black tail-feathers; and, unlike most ducks, he has

a distinct summer dress.

The Eider Duck, a winter visitor to England, breeds
in the Fame Islands, also in the Orkneys, Shetland, and

t Eider Hebrides. It is a somewhat striking bird, with
Duck. white back and breast, black crown and tail,
and a black line of feathers on the bill. I have seen it
occasionally bagged on the Baltic shores in mid- winter;
and I noticed that it flew even closer to the water than
most ducks, and that it was remarkably silent. It is a
valuable bird on account of its soft down. The nest,
placed on the ground on the shore, is of sea-weed and
grasses, lined with this down as the young are expected.
^99^^ 5 or 8, 3 inches ; green.

King Eider. — A rare straggler from arctic regions, which
has been obtained on but few occasions in England, and

242 BIRDS.

no farther south than Norfolk, half-a-dozen times only in
Ireland, and rather more frequently in Scotland and the
isles. It is distinguished from the other by the presence
of a large red tubercle at the base of the bill.

Steller^s Eider. — A smaller species which has wandered
from arctic regions on two occasions only, both to our
east coast.

The " common " Scoter, a winter visitor to our east and
south coasts, breeds in Caithness, Ross, and elsewhere in
t Black the Highlands. It is uniformly black, about
Scoter, i^g Qjjiy touch of colouring being the orange
line along the top of the bill. Like most ducks, this bird
does not breed until late in May. Nest near inland water.
Eggs, 6 to 8, 2 J^ inches ; brownish white.

The Velvet Scoter, a winter visitor from the North, oc-
curring in small numbers on our east coasts, is believed to
+ Velvet breed in certain spots in the North of Scot-
Scoter, land, but on slight evidence. It has also been
observed in the west of Ireland in summer and in breed-
ing plumage. It differs from the last in having a white
patch behind the eye, and a more conspicuous white bar
on the wings. It has been captured in the salmon-nets.

Surf-scoter. — A North American bird, which has strayed
to the Scottish isles on several occasions, and, more rarely,
to the English and Irish coasts. There is no white about
its plumage, which is deep black, save two patches, one on
the forehead, the other on the back of the neck.

The Smew, or " Nun," is a not uncommon visitor to
the unfrequented waters near the sea on our south coast,
though, as a rule, it is more likely to be met
with at some little distance out at sea; and
I have steamed near it, forgathering with pochards, in
November, about three miles south-west of Plymouth. In
his full plumage, the male is a handsome black-and-white

THE GEESE, SWANS, AND DUCKS. 243

bird with a green patch on the crown and a white crest.
Like the rest of the group to which it and the next three
belong, the mandibles are serrated, which must give the
fish and frogs and the like, in pursuit of which it dives,
a very poor chance of escape.

The Goosander, a very much larger bird than the last,
and distinguished by its dark-green head and crest, pink

tGoos- breast and bright -red bill, is not only a
ander. winter visitor to Great Britain and, in smaller
numbers, to Ireland, but breeds in parts of Sutherland,
Argyll, and the neighbouring counties. The nest is in a
hollow trunk, or, less frecpently, on a ledge. Eggs^ 8 to
13, 2^ inches; brownish white.

The Eed-breasted Merganser is a winter visitor to most
of our coasts, estuaries, and tidal rivers, breeding in many
tRed- loughs in Ireland (known as " Sheld-duck "),

breasted as well as in most of the Scottish isles and
Merganser, ^^^^^r gpots on the mainland. It is a smaller,

but more striking, bird than the last, having a green crest,
white collar, reddish breast, and white belly. Like the
Goosander, it is an unmitigated nuisance on the Highland

244 BIRDS.

trout- and salmon-streams, and its protection has been the
subject of a deal of discontent. The nest is either under-
ground or else in the heather or long grass, and is lined,
as are those of almost all ducks, with a profusion of down.
Eggs, 8 to lo, 2^ inches; greenish drab.

Hooded Merganser. — A rare straggler from North
American waters, which has occurred half-a-dozen times,
mostly in Ireland.

CHAPTER IX. THE DOVES.

Three residents ; one summer visitor.

The Wood-Pigeon, Ring-Dove, or Cushat is the largest of
our doves, and is familiar, more especially to the farmer
"Wood- whose crops it raids, in most parts of these
Pigeon, islands. It is one of those birds that have
increased and extended their range in our islands, and is
common in agricultural districts where but half a century
ago it was not known. Being the most abundant of our
doves, it is not easily mistaken for any other ; besides,
it is sufficiently distinguished by the green patch on the
neck, below which are the white feathers which, after
the second year, form a kind of incomplete collar. The
straight flight of this bird, as also its great speed, is
appreciated by those who have waited in the woods at
sunset for an overhead shot as the birds fly home to roost.
They move like arrows, and are as easy to miss as most
birds. The note of this pigeon, the low vibrating " cooing,"
cannot be mistaken for that of any other bird, or, for that
matter, any other dove. Like all the family, it is a great
drinker, and, in Australia at any rate, it is generally easy
to reckon on a bag of the indigenous pigeons, of which
that continent has such a variety, by repairing at sun-
down to the neighbourhood of some water-hole. Its food

THE DOVES. 245

is unfortunately composed for the most part of grain, peas,
clover, and various seeds, all of which man has planted
for his own use, so that the bird is no favourite. The
nest, a j^latform of sticks, is placed at almost any height,
commonly in the tops of the fir-trees ; but I have also
taken the eggs, especially on wooded hillsides, less than
4 feet from the ground. It is likewise known to lay in the
deserted dreys of squirrels or nests of hawks or magpies.
Two or three broods are reared, the first eggs being found
in the early days of April. Eggs, 2, if inch ; glossy white.

The Stock-Dove is a smaller and more silent bird, and

may be distinguished by the absence of the white collaret.

In the Highlands this dove has extended its
Stock-Dove. . , , , <• i , ,i 1 .^

range considerably 01 late years, though it was

till comparatively recently found no farther north than the
Forth. In Ireland, it appears still confined to parts of the
east coast ; but along the south and west coasts of Eng-
land it seems to be extending as rai3idly as in Scotland.
Its flight is still more rapid than that of the ring-dove. Its
food consists largely of charlock and other seeds. The bird
makes no nest, but lays its eggs in rabbit-burrows, holes in
trees and clififs, deserted nests of magpies and other birds,
squirrels' cages, &c. Eggs, 2, i^ inch; yellowish white.

The Rock-Dove, the wild form of our domestic pigeons,
is distinguished best by its white rump and black bars on
the wing. It is a bird essentially of the ground,
of the cliffs and foreshore ; and its distribution
amons: the coast caves of Scotland and Ireland seems to
be general, though in England it is exceedingly local, and
absent from apparently suitable districts. It is a well-
known resident on the Isle of Man, and Flamborough
Head is a favourite breeding-station. The bird feeds, like
the rest, on grain and seeds, and it also drinks much and
regularly. It nests on ledges in caves, the nest being a
very slight structure. Eggs, 2, ij4 inch ; pure white.

246 BIRDS.

The Turtle -Dove lias bred in some of tlie northern
counties, and has recently extended as far north as

* Turtle- Caithness. A bird of more twisting flight
Dove. than the rest, it is distinguished by the
somewhat longer tail, which is edged with white, and by
the black-and-white patches on the neck. It is the
smallest of our doves, and in food and habits closely re-
sembles the wood - pigeon, only the nest is generally
placed nearer the ground. I have taken the nests, how-
ever, in adjoining plantations, and at the same height.
Eggs J 2, li- inch; white.

CHAPTER X. § PALLAS'S SAND -GROUSE.

Pallas's Sand-Grouse, which must stand by itself, is a
capricious migrant from the steppes of Asia, spring and
autumn irruptions passing over Europe to these islands
at long and irregular intervals. These arrivals of this
curious bird, known by its long tail - feathers, short
feathered legs, and the possession of three toes only,
united by a membrane, have occasioned a great deal of
discussion and learned correspondence, and have even
been the subject of more than one monograph. Here
it suffices to say that the chief arrivals have been in
1859, in the winter 1863-64, in 1872, 1876, and 1888-89,
the last being also the greatest and in many ways the
most interesting, as a large number were kept in confine-
ment,^ and many more remained, probably to breed, as
esfcrs were taken in several counties. Moreover, this in-
flux extended over a greater range than its predecessors,
reaching even to the extreme west of Scotland and Ire-
land. The bird feeds entirely on seeds, and its flight has
been likened to that of the golden plover. It builds no
1 Macplierson, Visitation of Pallas's Saiul-Grouse, p. 31.

THE GAME-BIRDS. 247

nest, but scratches a depression in the earth for the re-
ception of the eggs. Eggs, 3, ij^ inch; buflf, with brown
or purple blotches ; elliptical in form.

CHAPTER XL THE GAME-BIRDS.

[Our game-birds include eight species, of which perhaps
the most interesting to the naturalist is the red grouse,
which occurs nowhere else in the world ; while still
more interesting in its history is the splendid capercailzie,
reintroduced from Scandinavia sixty years ago, after it
had become extinct for nearly a century. Several of the
rest were artificially introduced. The term " Game-birds "
is applied somewhat loosely to this order, for, legally
speaking, the snipe and woodcock, though they may be
trapped without licence, rank as " game " for the gun.
Seven residents; one summer visitor.]

The Pheasant, introduced from Asia at some remote
date, — as some say, by the Romans, — now crossed with
more recently introduced breeds, is met with
throughout these islands, even to the Outer
Hebrides, though it would have had a poor chance of sur-
vival were it not for the protection extended to it during
half the year that it may be better shot during the
other half. It is on many estates practically a tame bird
for six months, a wild one for the other six. A remark-
able bird too in many of its arrangements and instincts,
for not only is it said to be common for three or four hens
to incubate the same clutch of eggs, but the male is also
alleged on rare occasions (not like those birds in which
such duties regularly devolve upon his sex) to take his
share of incubating the eggs and of looking after the
young birds. The natural food of the pheasant consists
of berries, grain, and worms, but it has of course learnt

248 BIRDS.

to look for the food placed in certain spots by the keepers.
It is remarkable how oblivious these birds have grown of
the passing train. Even in the height of the shooting
season, when they might be expected to be shy, both
sexes will feed placidly within 20 yards of the track;
indeed so little fear does the steaming engine inspire in
them, that a cock-pheasant is said to have flown (March
1897) into a first-class compartment, closely pursued by a
hawk, the latter withdrawing, and its victim soon dying
of its injuries. The way in which these birds will, w^hen
disturbed, run swiftly under cover, then, rising in a curve,
top the nearest hedge and alight in some sheltered place
beyond, is well known. The hen bird, whose sober
colours certainly bear a close resemblance to those of
earth, especially in a ploughed field, is said on good
authority to rely somewhat on this protective colouring,
crouching where she stands, and only rising reluctantly
and at the last moment. Although I have commonly ob-
served this crouching in the partridge, I must confess to
having missed it in the larger bird, my idea having been
that she behaves very like her lord, but escapes, if possible,
by running under cover.

Like most birds of this group, the pheasant passes most
of its time on the ground, the shelter of dense undergrowth
suiting it better than high trees, though it usually roosts
in them, and has been known to lay its eggs in deserted
nests at a great height from the ground, — a departure from
the normal state of things that recalls the nests of the
cushat which I have more than once found on the ground.
The cock bird fights gallantly for his establishment of
hens, and is, as a rule, prompt to desert them as soon
as the young appear. Like all grain -eating birds, the
pheasant is a great drinker. The cock-pheasant is too
familiar to need description, but it is desirable to draw
attention in passing to the remarkable spur at the back
of the leg — a spur tliat recalls that in the beaver, platypus,
and clianticleer. Old hen pheasants that no longer busy

THE GAME-BIEDS. 249

themselves with family affairs assume a plumage not un-
like that of the male.

The nest, when on the ground, is a slight structure,
usually placed under cover. Eggs, lo to i8, if inch;
glossy greenish-bro\\Ti and spotless. When the hen, de-
serted by her mate, has to leave the nest, usually for water,
she is mindful to cover the eggs with leaves or bracken.

The Partridge is a familiar bird in all the more cul-
tivated portions of these islands. It is indeed essentially
_ . , a bird of cultivation, and there are therefore

untilled districts in Scotland (particularly in
the isles) and Ireland where its distribution is local. It
was more abundant in Ireland ten years ago than to-day.

Like the other game-birds, the partridge is swift of foot,
and to this, as well as to its protective colouring, the bird
prefers to trust. When flushed, however, the short wings
beat rapidly until the bird considers itself at a safe dis-
tance, when it glides for perhaps a hundred yards, alights
and runs a very little way, then looks back to see what its
disturber is about. But this procedure is perhaps too well
known to need mention, since partridges can be observed
any day in the fields, though, in the hurry of shooting, many
of their most interesting habits go unnoticed. The most
distinctive mark on the old partridge is the horseshoe on
the breast. These birds roost on the ground, a habit much
approved by stoats and foxes. They consume more insects
than the pheasant, and snails are a favourite article of food.
The partridge appears to have but one mate. The nest, not
unlike that of the pheasant, though smaller, is built in April.
Eggs, 12 to i8, nearly i^ inch; olive brown and spotless.

The French Partridge, introduced towards the end of
the last century, is most abundant in East Anglia, but
Red-legged occurs in many other southern counties, though,
Partridge. fQj. gome reason or other, it will not thrive in
Scotland or Ireland. It is a wretched bird to shoot unless

250 BIRDS.

well driven, for it possesses in an exaggerated degree the
family objection to rising from the ground, and will run
before the dogs. The notion that it is in any way in-
jurious to the indigenous bird is probably an error. They
preserve a kind of armed neutrality, rarely interfering, still
more rarely interbreeding, though instances of the latter are
on record. At the same time, it seems advisable to mention
that more than one authority on the subject of game-birds
has stated the existence of a sort of blood-feud, much as
that existing between the black and brown rats, and with
much the same result, the victory of the new-comer.

Unlike the common partridge, this bird frequently
perches on stumps and even at a considerable height ; and
it will even nest at some little distance from the ground,
notably in stacks. It is easily distinguished from the other
bird, not alone by its red legs and bill and the presence of
a blunt spur, not unlike that in the pheasant, only less,
but also in the very easily recognised black patch under
the throat, and the black and red bars on its sides. The
nest is as slight as those of most of the family. Egr/s, lo to
i8, i| inch; creamy white, with numerous reddish spots.

With us from May to October, the migratory Quail is a

small edition of our common partridge, except for the

black patch on the throat. It is a southern
* Quail. .

bird, and the flocks on migration are immense.

A number remain with us through the winter ; and this
was also the case in Ireland, where, however, the bird has,
both as a visitor and as a resident, gradually diminished
in numbers of late years. In Scotland its distribution is
extremely limited. This is another bird difficult to get off
the ground, and even on the wing it rarely rises to any
height. Its note is peculiar, but I, at any rate, find it in-
describable. Its food consists mostly of seeds, chickweed
for preference. The nest is placed in an open field, and is
no more than a hollow in the ground sjiarsely lined with
grass. Eggs^ 7 to 12, i inch ; creamy, with brown blotches.

THE GAME-BIRDS.

251

The Capercailzie, handsomest of our game-birds, if not

indeed of British birds irrespective of order, has, as already

mentioned, been successfully reintroduced

Capercailzie.^^^^^^ the pine-forests of Scandinavia to those

of Scotland, after an absence of nearly a hundred years.

The precise meaning of the name is "horse of the woods."
A great deal of interesting information on this and every
other point in connection with the bird's distribution and
history is to be found in Harvie-Brown's ' Capercaillie

252 BIRDS.

in Scotland.' In Ireland, where it apparently became
extinct about the same time as in Scotland, it has not
been reintroduced ; in England it may never have occurred,
or, if it did, it became extinct at some early period of which
there remains no record. The legs of the capercailzie
are feathered, but the foot, unlike those of the red grouse
and ptarmigan, is bare. The tail is long and rounded,
therein differing from the striking lyre-like extremity of
the next species. The male, the larger of the two, is a
fighting bird ; and Sir Henry Pottinger and others who
have made a study of it give most interesting accounts of
his spring "sj^el," wherein he performs all manner of
antics to engage the attention of the hens. He is a con-
firmed polygamist, and fights, or makes a great pretence of
doing so, for his wives. These birds feed largely on berries
and fir-shoots, the latter imparting to their flesh a flavour
of turpentine, and the Scandinavian peasantry call it by a
name that has reference to this peculiarity. The eggs are
laid in a depression scraped in the earth. Eggs, 7 to 10,
2 ^ inches ; brownish or pale orange, with brown blotches.

The Black Grouse (the male being known as the " Black
Cock," the female as the "Grey Hen") is a smaller bird
Black than the last, which it nevertheless somewhat
Grouse, resembles in habits. The adult male is at
once distinguished by the lyre-shaped feathers in the tail,
the underpart of which is white. There is also a conspic-
uous bar on the wing. The distribution of this bird is
somewhat local and subject to unaccountable changes. It
seems pretty generally at home throughout Scotland, includ-
ing the Inner Hebrides, though said to be on the decrease
in the Loch Lomond district ; in Ireland, it appears to be
wanting ; in England, it occurs in many suitable districts,^
wherever there is secluded forest, but generally in small
numbers. Thus, I have learnt to look on those said to

1 Sir Herbert Maxwell informs me that the bird has almost, if not
quite, disappeared from Surrey.

THE GAME-BIRDS.

253

inhabit the New Forest as apocryphal, though they are
doubtless to be found by those enjoying greater oppor-
tunities of visiting the more secluded shades of that en-
chanting waste. As already said, this bird agrees closely
in habits with its larger congener, and notably in the
curious spring tournaments and "spels," being also, like
the capercailzie, both pugnacious and polygamous. Con-

tinental sportsmen take advantage of the love ecstasies
of both these birds to shoot them from ambush ; and
in the case of the capercailzie a good deal of manoeuvring
seems to be necessary, as the love-song lasts only for a
few seconds, and unless engaged in singing or otherwise
showing off to the hens, the bird is very alive to danger.
Buds, seeds, and grain are the chief food of this bird.
The black grouse breeds with almost all our other game-
birds, and some remarkable fertile hybrids are the result.

254 BIRDS.

The nest is merely scratched in the earth. Eygs, 6 to lo,
2 inches ; yellowish white, with reddish-brown spots.

The subject of the full-page plate, the Red Grouse (p. 69),
is, as already mentioned, peculiar to these islands, where it is
Bed practically restricted to the northern portions,

Grouse, being commonest on the Scottish and York-
shire moors, and even extending to the Midlands, but not
as far south as the Thames. It seems widely distributed
in Ireland, but it does not thrive in the Shetlands. It is
closely allied to the Scandinavian Willow-grouse; indeed
the points of difference are somewhat slight. Another
bird not distantly related is the delicious little " Hazel-
hen," to eat which to perfection one must visit a restaur-
ant in its native country or in ISTorthern Germany in
autumn. It is one of the most delicate birds for the
table in Europe. In the grouse and its congener the
ptarmigan, the leg and foot are thickly feathered, and
the hind-toe is so short as to be almost obsolete. This
national bird passes its whole existence on the soft bleak
moors, nesting there and only going on short migrations
in very severe weather. It feeds on the sprouts of heather
and on corn, berries, and seeds. The dire disease to which
the grouse is liable has been the subject of public in-
quiries and of several books, but the mystery seems to
remain unsolved. Besides this remarkable ailment, this
bird is the host of a number of parasites, which have also
been specially studied by veterinary authorities. The red
grouse has all the little peculiarities of its tribe, the
vanities when in presence of the hens, and the singular
habit of burying itself in snow, also observed in the caper-
cailzie and ptarmigan. The nest is no more pretentious
than that of most game-birds. Eggs^ 7 to 10, 1 3^ inch;
pale coffee, with red blotches.

The white Ptarmigan, sometimes seen in English^ poul-
terers' shops in early spring, is confined, so far as these

THE GAME-BIRDS. 255

islands are concerned, to the stony plateaux of the High-
lands. It seems, though once found, according to some,
in Cumberland, to have never occurred in
the south of England or anywhere in Ire-
land ; and even in Scotland it steadily refuses to thrive
in many apparently suitable spots, both on the mainland
and among the islands, into which sportsmen and landed
proprietors have repeatedly endeavoured to introduce it.
The interesting part of this bird is its habit, like that
of the mountain hare and stoat, of changing its brown
summer coat to white when the snow is on the ground.
Even the conspicuous red swelling over the eye of the
male disappears in winter. He, however, retains black
stripes before the eyes, which serve to distinguish him at
once from the female and from the almost identical
willow-grouse in its winter garb.^ It is interesting to
notice that, while the stripe on the face never loses its
blackness, so, on the other hand, the feathers of the tail
are white winter and summer alike. The legs and feet of
this bird are very thickly feathered, and the hind-toe is
exceedingly short. Mr J. G. Millais relates in one of his
interesting books ^ a most ingenious and simple method
employed in poaching this bird during snowy weather.
The poacher merely presses into the soft snow an inverted
champagne-bottle, and fills half the pit thus formed with
grain, scattering a little more of the latter around by way
of attracting the birds and whetting their appetites. They
approach the pits, and, in trying to get at the contents,
overbalance and tumble in. Then the frost comes to the
aid of the iniquitous, and the hapless bird soon struggles
to death in its prison. The ptarmigan has much the same
food and habits and disease as the grouse. The nest and
eggs are also much the same. Eggs, 8 to lo, nearly i^
inch ; pale brown, with reddish markings.

1 Most of the white birds sold as "ptarmigan " are in reality willow-
grouse in winter clothing.

2 Game Birds, p. 71.

256 BIRDS.

CHAPTER XII. THE RAILS AND CRAKES.

[These include seven small and mostly familiar, thougli
not conspicuous, birds. The landrail, indeed, is seen less
often than heard. They are all insect-eaters, though
not exclusively so. Three residents ; two regular and two
irregular visitors.]

The Landrail, or " Corncrake," is a bird to which the
poet's complaint in respect of the cuckoo might far better
apply, for it is often exceedingly difficult to
get a glimpse of the owner of the harsh note
that sounds at dusk from out of the long grass close by.
Any summer evening, often indeed far on into the night,
the strange rasping sound may be heard. Swift, how-
ever, as it is on foot, it is but a poor performer on the
wing, its legs dangling in careless fashion. It is said by
most observers to feign death — a trick common to many
beasts and birds ; but I never had the good fortune to
witness this, though I have handled many live birds of
this species, and, so far from "foxing," they one and all
pecked vigorously.

The landrail is a timid skulking bird, and knows full
well how poor it is in the air, for it quits the earth with
the greatest reluctance, and it is often only by very patient
and careful observation that one is enabled to see the long
neck craning over the top of the waving corn, among
which the bird finds the insects and seeds on which for
the most part it feeds. It is, according to Mr Saunders,
also known, when put up by dogs, to climb into bushes.
There seems to be some slight uncertainty as to whether
the female also utters the " crek-crek." This much I
know, that the bird, whatever its sex, almost invariably
stands still during the moment of utterance ; but I never
got more than a passing glimpse of the owner of the voice,
and the sexes present no striking differences in plumage.

THE EAILS AND CRAKES. 257

They nest soon after arrival, late in May. The nest is of
grass lined with softer grasses, and is placed on the ground
in the corn or long grass. Eggs, 7 to lo, i^ inch; dull
brownish white, with red spots.

Not uncommon in the marshy tracts of these islands,

but rarer than formerly, the "Water-rail is as shy as the last,

even noisier, and still more reluctant to rise on
"Water-rail. , . * i ^ x-l • -x • ^^

the wing. About the same size, it is easily

distinguished by the conspicuous white bars on the wing,

as also by its red bill. It passes its life among the sedges,

feeding on aquatic insects and molluscs, and nesting in

March, two broods being reared. The bird is by no means

so close a sitter as the last, the nest being of reeds, and

therefore admirably concealed among the same material.

Eggs, 7 to 10, under i^ inch; creamy white, with red

and grey spots.

The Spotted Crake breeds during its visit in the east and

south of England, in parts of Wales and Scotland, rarely

* Spotted ill Ireland. The return migration takes place

Crake. in October, but a few birds are thought to
remain through the winter. The small white spots with
which the bird is thickly covered distinguish it at once
from the rest, which it closely resembles in food and
habits. Its nest, placed among the reeds, is a far more
artistic structure than those of its relations, consisting of
flags, with a soft-lined receptacle for the eggs. Eggs, 7 to
10, I ^ inch; greenish brown, with red spots.

§ Little Crake. — A rare visitor from the south, chiefly to
the eastern counties, where it has occurred over a dozen
times. The bill and legs are green.

§ Baillo7i''s Crake. — A very rare straggler, chiefly to the
eastern counties. Its home is in Africa. It is said to
have nested in this country.

The Moorhen, or Water-hen, is familiar on many of our
inland waters, and may be recognised by its red-and-yellow

258 BIRDS.

bill and the red mark on the leg, which is otherwise green-
ish. These birds frequent certain waters in numbers, and

on a short stretch of the Cray in North Kent
Moorhen. ^ , , . • i , l • j.

I took SIX or eight nests m two successive years.

The birds were by no means shy, being little persecuted,
though they were made less welcome at the trout-hatchery
close by. It is a good deal molested on account of its
supposed destruction of young trout and game-birds. I
do not, from what I have been able to observe, believe
in the damage done in this respect, though I have more
than once detected it, on a certain private water that shall
be nameless, feeding, as I believe, on trout-ova. I could
plainly see it with the aid of my glasses feeding on some-
thing very like spawn ; and I admit in all contrition that,
having been refused permission to fish the water not long
before, I did not feel called upon to warn the owner of the
presence of poachers. The swimming and diving of this
bird are, considering that the feet are not webbed — differ-
ing from those of the landrails only in their narrow mar-
ginal membrane — marvellous, nor is it by any means so
poor on the wing as some writers make out. It dives at
the flash of the gun, and, like some other waterfowl, has
a knack of remaining submerged all but the bill. The
moorhen is very susceptible to cold, and in the severe
winter of 1886 I picked up several birds that had
obviously died of the cold.

In addition to the aforementioned trout-ova, which are
available for a short space only, the bird consumes
quantities of insects and grain. The nest is of flags and
sedges, and is placed low down by the water, sometimes
floating, at others partly submerged, and the bird is said
to resort to ingenious methods of keeping both nest and
contents dry in flood-time. It is also known to nest in
trees at some height above the water, and I have found its
nest in the dry bracken a couple of hundred yards from the
water's edge. Eggs^ 6 to 9, if inch ; brownish white,
speckled with red.

THE KAILS AND CRAKES.

259

Coot.

The Coot, a fairly common pond-bird, may be easily dis-
tinguished by the bald white patch on its forehead. Its
habits are much those of the last, as it dives
when shot at, reappearing several yards away.
The feet of the coot have a remarkable lobed membrane
along each toe, which may partly assist the bird in its
rapid progress over the water-lilies. Each toe has a free
flap. To appreciate this palmated foot, as also the slighter
membrane of the moorhen, it is absolutely necessary to
examine the bird alive if possible, or at any rate im-

mediately after its death. The museum specimen, no
matter how skilful the taxidermist through whose hands
it has passed, gives a very inadequate idea of its func-
tions. The coot is a sociable, not over-timid bird. Like
the last, it is rarely seen off the water, even roosting on
its surface. It feeds on water weeds, snails, insects, and
seeds, and perhaps a few small fish. The nest, placed
among the reeds, is very large for the size of the bird, being
a compact structure of flags and reeds. E<j(/s^, 6 to lo,
2 inches; greyish, speckled with very dark brown.

260 BIEDS.

CHAPTEE XIII. THE CRANES AND BUSTARDS.

The Crane. — Nowadays a rare straggler only, though at
the end of the sixteenth century it bred in East Anglia.
The old male has a red patch on the crown, and is a bird
of about 4 feet in length.

\Tlie Demoiselle Crane, another southern bird, is included
by some in the British list, but many regard it as doubt-
ful. It has been recorded in Somerset.^]

The Great Bustard, familiar in the old engraving with
the appropriate Stonehenge in the background, is another
straggler in the islands where once it reared its young.
The white bristles on the neck distinguish the male.
The extinction of the bustard as an indigenous British
bird took place in the first third of the present century.

The Little Bustard. — A straggler from Africa, now as
always. It is worth noting that the bustards have but
three toes. This bird, which is less than half the size of
the last, is further distinguished by the bands of white on
the throat and neck.

MacqueerCs Bustard, a large and handsome bird with a
conspicuous black-and-white crest and rufi", has wandered
hither from its home in Central Asia on, so far as is known,
two occasions only.

CHAPTER XIV. THE WADERS.

[These include the curlews, plovers, snipes, and sand-
pipers, a large and important group, most in evidence on
our foreshores in winter. They are birds of very similar

' Proceedings Wincanton Field Club (1893).

THE WADERS. 261

habits, wading among the channels left by the receding
tide and picking up a living on crustaceans and molluscs.
The bill is long and slender ; in some it is soft and adapted
to sucking. They are mostly visitors on spring and autumn
migration. The hind-toe is often wanting. They build no
nest, laying the eggs in a depression in the earth. Eight
residents, twenty-five regular, nineteen irregular, visitors.]

Also known as "Norfolk Plover" or "Thick-knee," the
Stone-curlew breeds freely in the south and east of Eng-
* Stone- land, and a few remain in the warmer portions
curlew, of the south-west through the winter, though
the majority dejDart for the south in October. To Scotland
and Ireland the bird is a rare straggler only. The under-
parts are dull white with brown streaks ; the bill is black
towards the tip, the base yellow. There is no hind-toe.
It is a bird of nocturnal habits, feeding, chiefly on small
mammals, reptiles, and beetles, after dusk, and not until
the moon is up is its singular cry heard to any great
extent. Heaths and rabbit-warrens are the favourite re-
sort of the stone-curlew. Like the rest of the group, it
lays its eggs in a depression among the stones, which
they closely resemble. Eggs, 2, over 2 inches; pale
brown, with grey spots.

^Pratincole. — An irregular visitor in spring and autumn,
chiefly to the southern counties, though it has occurred as
far north as the Shetlands. Its home is in Africa. One
occurrence only is recorded from Ireland.

Cream-coloured Courser. — An African straggler to the
south of England. One has occurred in Scotland, but
none in Ireland.

Otherwise " Einged Dotterel" or "Sand -Lark," the
Ringed Plover is a familiar shore -bird on the east and
south coasts, where it breeds in April. There are two

262 BIRDS.

races, a larger and a smaller, the latter being for the most
part visitors on migration only. I know of a number of
Kinged patches on the coasts of Sussex and Hampshire
Plover, where the birds' eggs are to be found regularly
every spring, and, curiously enough, they seem to know
instinctively how hard the eggs are to pick out from among
the surrounding stones, for, unlike many other ground-
breeding birds, I have noticed them show but little anxiety
when I was close upon the eggs. The latter lie with their
points to the centre. The black collar and breastplate
scarcely distinguish the bird from some of its relatives,
which also affect these ornaments, but there is a conspicu-
ous white stripe hehind the eye, which should serve the
purjDOse. The note of the bird is as shrill as that of
most of the group, but a softer note is heard from the
male during his courtship. The bird feeds on crustaceans
(being very partial to sand-hoppers) and molluscs. Eggs, 4
(pear-shaped), if inch ; grey, with black spots.

The Little Ringed Plover, distinct from the smaller
race of the last-named bird, is a very rare straggler from
the south, having occurred not more than half-a-dozen
times.

The Kentish Plover is a regular visitor to England and a
rare one to Ireland, nor does it occur so far north as Scot-
* Kentish land. The black band on the chest is distinc-
Plover. |;jv3 jjj ^jjQ case of this bird, as its continuity
is broken in the centre, and it therefore resolves itself
into a patch on either side. The behaviour of this plover
is very different from that recorded above of the ringed
plover. It manifests the greatest anxiety when any one
approaches the eggs or young, performing all the more
commonly recorded tricks of the male lapwing, though
much of this distress is unnecessary, for its treasures are
fully as difficult to find. Nevertheless, collectors have
played the mischief with the eggs of this once plentiful
bird. They are often, though not invariably, placed with

THE WADERS. 263

the pointed end in the earth, but not to the centre as
those of most plovers. They are laid either on the
shingle, or, occasionally, in the deserted nest of a tern.
Eggs^ 3, i}i inch; grey, with black spots and lines.

KiUdeer Plover. — A very rare American straggler, which
has been obtained twice only — in Hampshire and the
Scilly Islands.

The Golden Plover, which retires to the inland moors to
breed, is known by its black j^lumage, profusely spotted

Golden with bright yellow. It is found breeding in

Plover, tjjg Hebrides, also in the Orkneys and Shet-
lands, the breeding-stations being on the moors and on high
land. The note of this bird, often heard at nights, is shrill
like that of the rest, though there is a more liquid sound
about it. Eggs — laid in a dej^ression slightly lined — 4,
2 inches; greyish yellow, with clark-brown blotches.

Lesser Golden Plover, of which there are two forms, the
American and the Asiatic. Each has occurred not more
than twice.

The Grey Plover, a common winter visitor to the coasts
of these islands, chiefly on the east side, may be known
t Grey by the white line over the eye, and may be
Plover, further distinguished from the golden plover,
a bird of much the same size, by the absence of yellow
from the plumage and the presence of a hind-toe. I give
its general appearance in the winter plumage in which it
visits these islands, for in its Siberian breeding-stations
its breast is conspicuously black, the knowledge of which,
however, will not greatly assist in its identification while
with us.

The Dotterel should more properly perhaps be regarded
^ as a passing visitor on spring and autumn pas-

sage, but a number breed in the Lake District.
According to Mr Saunders, its decrease in this country is

264

BIllDS.

due to the employment of its feathers in the manufacture
of artificial flies. The crown of this bird is very dark, and
there is a white curved line behind the eye, as well as a
white band, somewhat indistinct, on the chest. It has the
reputation of being a very stupid bird. Its food consists
of insects. In Ireland its occurrence is exceedingly rare.
It breeds up in the mountains, the eggs being laid in a
depression in the grass. Eggs^ 3, i ^ inch ; yellowish,
with brown blotches.

The Peewit, or Green Plover, is easily distinguished by

its black crest and breast, the underparts being

white. It is found almost throughout these

islands, and its curious flight and shrill cry are familiar.

more particularly on the mud flats near the sea, in April
after it has i)aircd. Perfectly white lapwings have been re-
corded. This bird is commonly included among the food of
the peregrine, but I was recently witness of the interesting

THE WADEES. 265

sight of one of these fine birds flying rapidly over a large
flock of peewits near Christchurch in Hampshire without
showing any inclination to molest them. What, however,
was even more significant than this — for the bird may of
course have been gorged — was that the peewits showed
not the least fear in presence of the falcon, as they might
surely have been expected to do in the presence of a
natural enemy. On the other hand, the wheeling bird
seemed to have a business eye on the movements of a
number of little white tails that were bobbing among the
sandhills close by, — in short, it appeared to be bent on
a meal of fur rather than feather, for which its prefer-
ence is universally admitted. The male lapwing's tricks
for diverting attention from his eggs or young have been
alluded to ; but, even before the breeding season, the
evolutions in the air of both sexes are somewhat remark-
able, and I have seen in the low land within a mile or
two of the Baltic a flock of probably some hundreds of
these birds behaving like tumbler pigeons. Mere wanton
gambolling evidently, since they would not, even were it
the practice of this bird to feed in the air, have been
chasing any insects in a temperature several degrees below
zero. In that country I have eaten the bird, and very fair
it was, though I always believed it w^as not much eaten
in these islands. Sir Herbert Maxwell, however, protests
strongly against our w^asteful consumption of both the bird
and its eggs. The food of the lapwing consists of insects.
The so-called " false " nests, which are so common in the
vicinity of the breeding-grounds, are said to be caused by
the males dancing to the females. The eggs are laid in a
shallow depression, often lined with a few grasses. Eggs^
4, if inch ; greenish brown, with black blotches. These
are the "Plovers' eggs" of trade, and so important is the
industry that special dogs are trained to find them.

Sociable Lai^wing. — A rare straggler from the Continent,
which has occurred once only — in Lancashire. It has no
crest, and there is a white line over the eye.

2G6 BIRDS.

The attractive black-and-white Turnstone is with us only
on its way to and from its northern breeding -grounds,

§ Turn- though a few are said to stay the winter. It
stone. jQQ^y \yQ gggjj in sj^ring running among the sea-
weed just above the high- water line of late winter storms,
and also turning over the shingle (though I have seen this
far less commonly) for the little sand-hoppers beneath. It
utters a loud twitter during its short flights to new feeding-
grounds.

The Oyster-catcher, or " Bea-pie," is a conspicuous black-
and-white bird, nearly twice the size of the last, and easily
Oyster- distinguished by the absence of hind-toe, the
catcher, greater length of the bright yellow bill, the
upper mandible of which is also distinctly grooved, and
the pink feet. It is seen seeking its crustaceans and
molluscs on the flat weed -covered rocks, where also it
lays its eggs. Like the turnstone, though rather more
frequently, it is sometimes observed on the water, but
only in still weather. Its double note is even shriller
than that of most of the other w^aders. ^f/</s, 3 or 4,
2j^ inches; yellowish, with dark spots and lines.

§Avocet. — A rare spring and autumn visitor from the
south, which formerly bred in our southern counties. To
Scotland and Ireland its visits are few and far between.
The most striking feature of this bird is the black, up-
curved bill, with w^iich it scoops crustaceans from the
sand. It is an expert swimmer.

Black - ivinged Stilt. — A rare spring visitor to these
islands, chiefly to the south of England.

The Grey Phalarope is an almost regular but usually

scarce wdnter visitor, chiefly to the south of England.

I Grey Some winters it arrives in great numbers.

Phalarope. j^g fggj; ^re yellow, and the toes are lobed.

The underparts are dull red.

THE AVADERS.

267

To the greater part of these islands the Eecl- necked
Phalarope is only a spring or autumn visitor on migra-
j, , tion, and in Ireland it has occurred only once,

necked A few still breed in the Scottish isles. Like
Phalarope. ^]^g last bird, than which it is rather
smaller, it has curiously lobed toes, and, like it also,
the female is the handsomer bird. The bill is pro-
portionately longer and more slender. Eggs^ 4, i inch ;
greenish, with black blotches.

In sf)ite of the fact of the Woodcock breeding, more than
ever of late years, in almost every part of these
islands, it seems more desirable to regard it
as a winter visitor, so familiar, to all at any rate who

tWoodcock.

'•y

have resided on the north-east coast in autumn, are the
return " flights." The birds leave again for Scandinavia in
early spring, though, as above mentioned, a large number
remain to breed. A number nest annually in Hampshire,

268 BIRDS.

and their tracks in the New Forest often arrest the atten-
tion of picnic-parties who have not the least idea of their
meaning. There are many points of interest in connection
with this bird, among those most often disputed being the
method in which the mother carries her young (between
the legs, and pressed with the bill, is, I believe, the actual
manner), the j^recise extent of the bird's migrations, and
the exact manner in which it produces the curious sound
known in some parts as " roding," which is quite distinct
from the " drumming " of the snipe. With regard to its
migrations, ornithologists seem on the whole to regard
these as very capricious, and Mr ^Saunders attributes much
of the scarcity of the woodcock at certain times to the
bird's secretiveness after moulting. In its external feat-
ures the woodcock is also among the most interesting of
our birds, the eye being placed far back, obviously by reason
of the way in which the bird obtains the soft worms
by thrusting its bill into the mud, the latter organ being,
moreover, most sensitive towards the tip, which is curved
and wrapped in a membrane. AVhen on the foreshore,
the woodcock also devours c[uantities of small shrimps
and sand-hopjDers, most of its food being obtained after
sundown. It bears some resemblance to the snipes, but
may be readily distinguished by the presence of feathers
down to the tarsus, which gives it the appearance of
being much shorter-legged than the latter. On the mng,
the woodcock hangs its head in a fashion unicj[ue among
birds. The bird lays in April in a depression in the earth
lined with dead leaves. It breeds in all the southern
counties. Eggs, 4, i3^ inch ; yellowish, with brown
blotches.

The Great Snipe, a winter, or, more i)roperly, autumn,
visitor to the east and south of England, is rarer in the

t Great west; while in Scotland and Ireland its re-

Smpe. corded occurrences have been little more than

a dozen. It is also known as the " Double " or " Solitary "

THE WADERS. 269

snipe, and is the largest of the three found in these
islands, having .a good deal of white in the tail; the
latter, moreover, has sixteen feathers, being two more
than in that of the common snipe, and four more than
in that of the Jack-snipe.

The Snipe is one of those j^artly resident birds, the
numbers of which are, after breeding, replaced by autumn
Common visitors. There is a black variety, practically
Snipe. confined to these islands, and formerly dis-
tinguished as a species under the name of " Sabine's snipe."
The bird breeds near bogs, and is perhaps more generally
distributed in Ireland than in any other part of these
islands. It is a shy bird, and is often surprised tripi^ing
about the mud in search of worms and other soft food,
but is rarely hard to jDut up. It squats low, and is occa-
sionally successful in baffling a dog in this manner. The
" drumming " of the snipe in the breeding season, as he
drops into cover, is among the most extraordinary of bird
sounds, and there seems reason to suppose that it is caused
by the action of the air rushing through the feathers of
the wings. Sir E. Payne-Gallwey gives a very interesting
account of this in his 'Letters to Young Shooters' (1896,
pp. 348-352). It makes a slight nest. Eggs^ 4, if inch ;
yellowish, with brown blotches.

The " Half -snipe" is found on our foreshores and among
the swamps in the vicinity from October until April. In

t Jack- spite of a few having been, on what appears

Snipe. loose evidence, known to stay the summer

year after year, there seems no reason to suppose that

it has ever bred in these islands. This is the smallest of

our snipes.

Red -breasted Snij^e. — A straggler, mostly in autumn,
from North America, which has occurred about a dozen
times in England, twice in Scotland, and once in Ireland.

270 BIRDS.

[There is a larger species, sub-species, or variety, which
has occurred once — in Ireland.]

Broad-hilled Saridpiper. — A straggler from Scandinavia,
which has occurred five times in the south and east of
England, and once in Ireland.

Pectoral Sand^nper. — A straggler from North America.
It has been obtained over twenty times in England, mostly
on the east side, and twice each in Scotland and Ireland.

Bonajmrte's Sand])i2:)er. — Another American straggler,
of which about a dozen, or rather more, have been ob-
tained in England, most in the west, and one in Ireland.

Sharp-tailed Sandpiper. — A Siberian bird that has been
obtained once — in Norfolk.

The Dunlin, or " Ox-bird," is common throughout these
islands in winter, at which season flocks are seen on all our
low shores; but in the spring, the breeding
season being about May, these birds become
more local, especially in Ireland, where its breeding-stations
are very few. In England it breeds chiefly on the higher
moors. In the breeding j^lumage the breast of the male
is conspicuously black, and the great length of the bill is
certain to attract attention. The food and habits are the
same as those of the rest of the group. It builds a slight
nest in the grass or heather. Eggs^ 4? i /^ inch ; greenish,
with brown spots.

The Little Stint, a small and noisy bird, bears some
resemblance to "the dunlin. I have seen numbers on

§ Little the Sussex and Hampshire coasts in former
Stint. years, though they seem less plentiful of late ;
and they are often found in the company of larger waders,
which has always suggested to me the parallel of the herds
of mixed game that in the old hunting days were, we are
told, to be seen browsing together in peace in the South

THE \YADEES. 271

African veldt. Its trivial name is unsatisfactory, as it is
slightly larger than Temminck's Stint.

American Stint. — A very rare straggler, which has been
obtained on three occasions — in the south-west.

A spring and autumn visitor, reported to have wintered
§Tem- ^^ Ireland, from arctic regions. There is

minck's more white in its plumage than in that of
S*i^*- the other stints.

This small visitor on migration, chiefly to the eastern
seaboard, may be distinguished by the reddish tinge in the
§ Curlew underparts and the white on the back. Its
Sandpiper, chief resemblance to the curlew, a bird three
times its size, lies in the long curved bill. Its flight is
rapid; and its egg and breeding - place were, until the
present year (1897), unknown.

An idea prevails among ornithologists that the Purple

Sandpiper may breed sparingly in the Shetlands. It is

t Purple seen on our shores in winter, seeking its food

Sandpiper. ^^ q^, ^q^^ ^^j^q water. The short leers are

yellow in colour.

The Knot is a common winter visitor to all our coasts.
I have observed that this wader is far less shy when
alone, a not uncommon way of finding it, than
when in company; and this is characteristic
of all gregarious birds, which probably flock for the double
object of finding food and being on the alert for enemies.
A hundred pairs of eyes and ears can recognise danger, as
a hundred bills can find worms, so much sooner than the
number allotted to the individual. The antics of the knot
at the edge of the receding tide, where it thrusts its long
straight bill after the retreating solen, are often very strik-
ing, and when it takes flight the mottled under23arts are
most conspicuous. The back is black, barred with pale

272 BIRDS.

brown. The bird's breeding-grounds and egg are a mys-
tery, though the young have been taken but a few days
old. The knot is a great traveller, being found as far
south as Australia, whither it journeys from a presumably
arctic birthplace in incredibly short time.

The northern Sanderling, which is found in numbers on
most of our coasts in early autumn (the old and young
§ Sander- birds arriving together), and again in spring,
img. jg easily known by the conspicuously black

back and white underparts, the absence of a hind-toe, and
the straight black bill, slightly swollen at the tip. I have
shot the bird on the mud-flats north of Leghorn, and I
noticed that, unlike a number of waders, it invariably flew
straight out to sea when disturbed. They were the small-
est waders on that coast, and were always very fat.

The Piuff (the female is called "Eeeve " ^)must be regarded
as an autumn visitor nowadays, though a few may still
breed in East Anglia, where formerly the birds
nested in hundreds. Thus the bird is seldom
seen with us in the full glory of his many-coloured ruff,
which he only wears for a short time during the breeding
season, and when flocks pass us in spring the sides of the
face are patchy, wearing a half-ragged appearance. The
spring "hilling," or sparring, of the males consists for the
most part of show, not unlike the similar mock-tourna-
ments observed in some of the game-birds. The ruff
feeds on worms and seeds. The nest is in the grass.
^</[/s, 4, if inch; greyish, with brown spots.

Biif- breasted Sandpiiier. — A straggler from arctic
America, which has been obtained about a dozen times
in England, chiefly in the south, three in Ireland, but not
once, it is thought, in Scotland.

1 In the same way (among fish) the dull female of the Gemmeous
Dragonet goes by the name of Dusky Skulpin.

THE WADERS. 273

. Bartram''s Sandpiper. — Another Xortli American strag-
gler that has occurred less than a dozen times, of which
three were in Ireland. Xot recorded from Scotland.

The " Summer Snipe " is found in these islands between
April and September, though it breeds chiefly in the west,
* Common also in most parts of Scotland and Ireland,
Sandpiper, ^gg^j. aH ^j^e great inland waters. The white
in the tail-feathers and the indistinct white line over the
eye are not so useful in distinguishing this bird from the
others as its restless manner. The bird is never still, and
will even fly to some low perch and back, if watched. It
is also seen on the water. The nest, always in the imme-
diate neighbourhood of water, is a less elementary structure
than that of most of the group. Eggs^ A-) ^Y^ inch ; red-
dish, with brown sj^ots.

The Wood-Sandpiper is a scarce, though regular, visitor

on migration, rarer in Scotland, and reported once only

§"Wood- from Ireland. It has conspicuous white spots

Sandpiper. ^^ ^]^g wings and back, and white bars on the

tail It formerly bred in Northumberland.

Formerly confused with the last, and chiefly distinguished

by the broader black bars on the tail and the shorter legs,

§ Green the Green Sandpiper is also a slightly larger

Sandpiper. ]3ij.(^^ ^^^ \^ ^^^^ \^ ^f ^ more decided green.

Although it probably never breeds in these islands, it is
interesting to note that, unlike the rest of the group, it
is known on the Continent to make use of the deserted
nests of thrushes and magpies, — a very remarkable diff'er-
ence from the nesting habits of its fellow-waders. It is
the largest of our sandpipers.

Solitary Sandpiper. — An American straggler which has
been obtained on three occasions.

The Redshank is found on the coast in winter, going to

274 BIRDS.

its inland breeding-places early in March. It is one of

the noisiest of a noisy family. Its distinctive points are

the brio;ht red leojs and black-tipi^ed yellow bill.
Kedshank. ^^ ° . ° , . \ j. t

It can swim well, and is even known to dive

when wounded. Like the lapwing, it is said to throw itself

into the most remarkable contortions to tempt the intruder

away from its eggs, which are concealed in a tuft of grass.

Bggs, 4, I ^ inch ; yellowish-grey, with brown blotches.

The Spotted Redshank is a spring and autumn visitor to
the eastern counties ; rare north of Yorkshire and across
§ Spotted the Border, and has occurred in Ireland only
Bedshank. about half-a-dozen times. The legs are darker
red than in the last, and the plumage is more mottled. It
is also a slightly larger bird.

Yelloivshanh. — An American straggler that has occurred
only once or twice. The legs and feet are bright yellow.

The Greenshank is a visitor on migration to our inland
waters, a very few remaining the winter, especially in Ire-

§ Green- land, and others breeding, according to Harvie-
shank. Brown, in the Outer Hebrides and some other
of the isles, and also on the mainland in the far north. It
is a larger bird than the redshank, the legs and feet are
green, and the black bill has a slight upward curve. Water
seems somewhat less essential to its comfort than is the
case with the rest of the group, for it seeks much of its
food in u})land fields, and the primitive nest is also found
at some distance from water. J^ggs, 4, 2 inches ; grey, with
purple blotches.

The Bar-tailed Godwit is a visitor on migration to every

part of the British coasts, but never breeds in these

§ Bar- islands. The white bars on the tail, from

tailed which it takes its name, are most conspicuous

in the summer plumage, though discernible

even in the duller tints of winter. The bill is slightly

THE WADERS. 275

ujj-curved, and the toes are partly united by a membrane,
the centre one having a comb-like edge. The double note
is soft.

Though now only a visitor on migration to the east side

of England, rarer in Scotland and Ireland, the Black-

§ Black- tailed God wit formerly bred in the fens. A

tailed slightly larger bird than the preceding, it is

distinguished by the black tail and white

bars on the wing.

The Curlew is a resident in these islands, but it should
be borne in mind that its migrations within their limits
are considerable, and it is not to be found
in the same district all the year round. Like
the next bird, the curlew is consj^icuous by reason of its
long down-curved bill ; the rump is also white, and the
underparts are profusely streaked with dark brown. This
bird is a great trouble in winter to the shore-shooter, for
it is easily alarmed, and its shrill note is enough to alarm
everything else within range. So rapid is the flight of
this bird with the wind behind it, that one has been
known to go through a J^-inch plate-glass window. The
curlew breeds in almost every part of these islands, except
in the south-east of England and the Outer Hebrides. It
visits the latter, however, in winter. Eggs, 4, 2 ^ inches ;
greenish-brown, with dark blotches.

The Whimbrel, "May bird," or "Titterel," is a visitor
on migration to the mainland of these islands, breeding

§"Whim- only in some of the Scottish isles, as in the
brel. Orkneys and Shetlands, and one or two spots
in the Outer Hebrides. It is a much smaller bird than
the curlew, to which it, however, bears strong resemblance,
differing chiefly in the presence of a whitish stripe over
the eye. As in the case of the curlew, the female is the
larger bird. I have also fancied that I observed less order

276 BIRDS.

in the passing ranks of wliimbrels moving in flocks. It is
said to be very bold in defence of its eggs, and is also said
to be partial to land berries. Eggs, 4, 2}4 inclies ; greenish,
"with brown blotches.

Eshimo Cw'leiv. — A rare straggler from North America
to the British Islands, to which it has found its way about
half-a-dozen times.

CHAPTER XV. THE TERNS, GULLS,
AND SKUAS.

[An important group, including the majority of our sea-
birds, most of which are resident, others being mere
stragglers. These birds are web-footed, and rapid on the
wing. The terns have been termed not inaptly the
swallows of the sea, and their swallow-like flight as they
skim the waves recalls the little migrants, as does also
their awkwardness on land. They lay their eggs on the
earth without any approach to a nest. They are, in some
localities, great enemies of the gulls, destroying their
eggs and young. Nine residents ; twelve regular, eleven
irregular, visitors.]

I. The Terns.

The Common Tern, with us from May to September, is

a grey bird with black crown and white underparts. The

' Common tail, as in all this group, is deeply forked.

Tern. 'pj^g \y[\\ r^^([ ^q^j} c^^q orange-coloured. This

tern feeds, as do the rest, on small surface fish, and,
though no diver, may be seen plunging on the shoals
and generally securing a prize. Eggx, 3,1^ inch ; grey,
with dark blotches.

THE TERNS, GULLS, AND SKUAS. 277

Apparently resident on the east side of Scotland (where
it breeds on the islands), also on the west in the Hebrides,
Arctic and off the English coast on the Fame group,
Tern. -j^j^g Arctic Tern is a somew^hat darker bird
than the last, and the bill and legs are of a more pro-
nounced red. In food and habits, it resembles the last.
Egg 8^ 2 or 3, i ^ inch ; greenish, with red spots.

The Little Tern, with us from May to September, and
breeding, somewhat locally, on almost all our coasts, ap-

* Little pears to be absent from most of the Scottish
Tern, isles. The bill is bright yellow, tipped with
black, while the crown and a line from the eye to the
bill are also black. Like the other terns, the bird is
bold when near its eggs. It makes no nest. Eggs, 2 or
3, i^ inch ; grey, with brown spots.

Sooty Tern. — A straggler from the tropics, obtained
three times. I have seen large numbers on the islets in
the Red Sea.

ScopoU's Sooty Tern. — A very rare straggler from the
tropics ; has been obtained but once — at the mouth of the
Thames.

G%dl-hilled Tern. — A rare straggler from the south.
About a score have been obtained in England, chiefly in
the east and south ; none in Scotland or Ireland.

The Caspian Tern, the largest of British terns, is a
rare visitor to the east and south of England, but has
not reached Scotland or Ireland.

Though the Sandwich Tern is a regular visitor to

these islands, and, while far less plentiful than formerly,

*Sand- ^^i^l found breeding on the Fame Islands

•wich. and in other spots on the English, Scottish,

and Irish coasts, the breeding - stations of

this bird are at the present day few and far between.

The male has a black crow^n, and the long, forked tail,

with the rump, is conspicuously white. The bird feeds

278 BIRDS.

largely on sand-eels, and I once saw a pair of them lifting
these little lish from the surface of a sheltered bay in
Cornwall early in July, and visiting a ledge of rock not
much above high- water mark. I had my suspicions that
they were feeding their young, but as the bird is said to
have forsaken the Cornish coast and Scillies as breeding-
stations, this was 2:)robably fancy on my part. At any
rate, my object w^as fishing, and not molesting sea-birds,
so that I gladly left the matter in uncertainty. Eggs,
2, 2 inches; yellowish, with reddish-brown spots.

The Roseate Tern formerly bred among the Scilly Islands,
but now nests only in a semi-protected state on the Fame
* Roseate Islands. The ]}ii\k. tinge on the underparts,
Tern. from which the bird derives its name, is not
lasting ; the legs and feet are red ; crown black ; and
general plumage on the back silver grey. This tern is
rarely if ever seen away from the immediate vicinity of
the coast. After the last two, this is about the largest of
our terns. Eggs, 2 or 3, i ^ inch j pale brown, with deep
brown blotches.

A scarce visitor on migration, the Black Tern formerly
bred in East Anglia and in the Solway district. Its occur-

§ Black rence north of the Border seems more frequent
Tern. on the west side, which is the reverse of what
obtains farther south. The tail in this (and in the follow-
ing) species is much less forked than in the preceding terns
— the same difference, in fact, as between the tails of the
martins and swallows. It is chiefly an insect-eater, dragon-
flies being among its favourite articles of food.

The White -winged Black Tern is a scarce visitor on

migration, chiefly in spring. It appears not

''winged ^0 have reached Scotland, and has been

Black reported about half - a - dozen times from

Tern. ^ i ^

Ireland.

THE TERNS, GULLS, AND SKUAS. 279

Whiskered Tern. — A rare straggler from the south. It
has been obtained half-a-dozen times only.

Noddy. — A rare visitor from the troj)ics, which has
been reported twice — from Ireland. There were several
species of noddy in Australia, handsome birds with uni-
form dark plumage. They feed on fish, which are picked
off the shallows.

2. The Gulls.

The trivial name of the Common Gu:ll is an instance of
the loose employment of the prefix "common," since the
Common commonest of our gulls, especially during the
^^11* summer, when people visit the Channel towns,

is the Herring-gull, the so-called common species having
flown north to breed. In Ireland, again, as Mr Saunders
points out, the commonest gull is the black-headed species,
also abundant all the year round on our south coast. In
company with both of these, this gull will follow the
plough, especially in rough weather, and feed on the
worms that it turns up ; and it will also wander up tidal
estuaries, though those which venture up the Thames
regularly as far as Battersea are, so far as I have ever
seen, of the black-headed species. I once saw in France,
near the coast, several of these gulls following the plough
in company with a pair of choughs, and there was a
good deal of fighting, though it did not appear that family
ties entered very much into the matter, as the gulls
were punishing each other severely, as well as shrieking
at the red-legged birds. The latter were, however, sworn
allies, and this gave them the better chance. At any rate,
the gulls presently flew to another part of the field, leaving
the choughs to worm in peace. This gull will, when there
is nothing more to its taste, eat grain and turnips, but it
cannot of course be treated seriously as an offender in this
respect ; while, on the other hand, its undoubted fondness

280 BIRDS.

for that curse the wireworm constitutes it undoubtedly a
friend and ally of the farmer. In summer the head and
neck of this gull are white, but in winter they are spotted
or streaked. The bill is yellow at the tip, darker at its
base. It makes a large nest of grass and seaweed on some
islet, and close to the water. Eggs, 3, 2^ inches; light
brown, mth black blotches.

The Herring-Gull, a larger bird than the last, is found
breeding on all our coasts. I have seen its eggs, sometimes
Herring- from above and in anything but pleasant places,
Gull. near Dover, Hastings, and Torquay, and have

found the nest mth young just outside Lul worth Cove,
in Dorset, and west of Polruan, in Cornwall. The name
is not a very happy one, for most other gulls will follow
and harry the herring and pilchard shoals, besides wdiich
this bird feeds a good deal on sloping fields on the downs,
and is a great egg- lifter. It is easily recognised by the
sharp contrast of the black of the folded wings, the tips
having some bright white spots, and by the yellow-and-red
bill. The head and neck, pure white in summer, are, as in
the last, streaked in winter. Like the other gulls, this
bird is no diver. I have had them round my lugger when
fishing the whole day eight or ten miles from the Cornish
coast. The seafowl in those parts seem to be but little
molested by the fishermen, if one can judge at least by the
absence of fear. I have had herring- gulls and black-
headed gulls and guillemots (or " murrs '') all feeding on
whatever I threw them. To the gulls the most suitable
offering was a dry fish that had been caught some time,
and that would consequently float while they tore pieces
from it. Otherwise they liked best a fresh wrasse, which,
from the buoyancy of its distended air-bladder, would also
float. As soon as I threw a piece of wet fish, however,
which immediately sank, the gulls would merely hover
over it, seemingly unable to snatch it from even an inch
or two beneath the surface. Then came the turn of the

THE TERNS, GULLS, AND SKUAS. 281

guillemots, which would disappear on business and return
at a safe distance from the larger fowl that might have
resented the intrusion. I tried this many days, and
always with the same results, for the question of gulls
being able or not able to dive has an interest in con-
nection with the harm they are alleged to do the fisheries,
a matter to which I may have to allude on a later page.
The nest is sometimes near the ground. Those who have
seen only casual breeding -sites associate the birthplace of
these birds with inaccessible clifi"s and crannies ; but some
of our most famous guUeries — for instance, the Lincoln
colonies at Scotton and Twigmore — are in low flat situ-
ations in the immediate neighbourhood of ponds. Eggs^
3, nearly 3 inches ; pale brown, with dark blotches.

The Black-headed, or "Laughing," Gull is another of
our common species, and is familiar nowadays even to
Black- Londoners, as some are generally to be seen
headed in the winter months above Waterloo Bridge.
It breeds on several parts of our coasts, more
particularly in Scotland and Ireland. I recollect one arm
of the Baltic, not far from a large wood inhabited by wild
swine, where these birds bred in hundreds, and the eggs
were easily obtained, being, in fact, on the ground. The
name of this gull is not much nearer the mark than that
of the last, for in the first i:)lace the head is white in
winter, and even in summer it is dark-brown, not black.
Xor can its voice be considered more like laughter than
that of several other members of the genus. Like many
of the rest, it is partial to wireworms, and I saw these
gulls on more than one occasion catching mice in some
fields east of Bognor. Eggs, 3? 2 1 inches; light brown,
with dark blotches.

Mediterra7iean G\dl has been obtained once or twice —
in the eastern counties.

Great Black-headed Gidl. — A southern straggler that has
been obtained once.

282 BIEDS.

In the Lesser Black -backed Gull the back is almost

black, the head and neck white (streaked in winter), and

the bill yellow with red tip. It breeds on our
Lesser "^ ^

Black- northern coasts wherever there are elms and

backed rocks, also in Cornwall. In the north it does

damage to the eggs of moor -breeding birds,

and is on that account kept under. In winter it occurs

all round these islands. Eggs, 3, 24 inches ; light brown,

with blotches.

The Great Black-backed Gull, the largest of the gulls

that breed in these islands, is not unlike the preceding,

though a considerably larger bird. I have

Black- seen its eggs through glasses down near the

backed Land's End, but they were always in places

that did not tempt me farther. It is, like

the last, a pest, only much worse on account of its greater

size ; and is even known to attack lambing ewes. It does

not breed on the east coast, but has a number of stations

among the Scottish and Irish cliflfs. Eggs, 2 (sometimes i),

3 inches ; brownish-grey, with dark blotches.

The Glaucous Gull, a winter visitor only, is a splendid

bird with yellow bill and pink legs, the wings white,

t Glaucous the back silvery grey. Its visits are chiefly

^^11- to the coast of Norfolk and the east of

Scotland.

The Iceland Gull is a scarce winter visitor, smaller
t Iceland than the last, and having proportionately

Gull. longer wings,
Bonaparte^s Gull. — A rare arctic straggler, which has
occurred half-a-dozen times only.

The Little Gull is an irregular visitor from Northern
t Little Kussia. The head, black on the breeding.
Gull. grounds, is almost white while the bird is
with us. Legs bright red. Wings dark below.

THE TERNS, GULLS, AND SKUAS. 283

^o.ss's Gull. — A wedge-tailed bird, that has wandered
from the Polar regions on one occasion only, many years ago.

Sabine's Gull is a rare visitor on autumn migration.

The tail is forked. The head and neck are grey while

§ Sabine's the bird is with us, though in summer quite

^^^^* black. It is not a regular visitor, and only
about a dozen specimens are recorded from Ireland.

Ivory Gull. — A scarce winter visitor from the north.
Of the thirty odd examples that have been obtained, most
were recorded from Scotland.

The common Kittiwake breeds in Devon and Cornwall,

also on the north-east coast, and in most of the

Scottish isles. It also has several colonies on

the more precipitous coasts of Ireland. Like the last, it

is a short-legged bird, and the hind-toe is absent. The
tail is white, the wings long and pointed and tipped with
black. It is essentially a sea-bird. I have met with it

284 BIEDS.

hundreds of miles from land, and its flight is rapid and
sustained. I have also observed that its swooping on the
fry embraces a nearer approach to diving than is ventured
on by most gulls, the bird's head and wings being often
completely immersed. The name has of course reference
to its grating note, and is about as descriptive as most
other bird-names bestowed for similar reasons. The nest
is on rocky ledges. Eggs^ 2 or 3, 2 inches ; greenish-grey,
with dark blotches.

3. The Skuas.

The Great Skua is a large, dark bird, with powerful bill
and hooked claws, the name originating in its supposed
Common cry. I have watched, day after day, the " Jack-
Skua. Hurry " out on the Cornish fishing-grounds,
as it swooped on the gulls and made them disgorge their
food. The fishermen told me that when it attempted to
levy toll in this way on a shag, that wily bird would dive,
at which the skua was no match for it. There prevails on
parts of the coast a notion to the effect that the skua feeds
on the excreta of gulls, and the name of " Dung-bird " is
in consequence bestowed on it. There must be a large
number of non-breeding birds; for, in spite of the fact
that it breeds nowhere in these islands save in a semi-
protected state in the Shetlands, it is to be found every
summer off Cornwall, and I have met it off the Needles
in June. Besides making the gulls disgorge their food, it
feeds largely on the smaller birds themselves, notably on
the young of the kittiwake. The bird nests on the ground
on the high waste lands in the Shetlands. Eggs^ 2,
2i inches; greenish-brown, with very dark markings.

The Pomatorhine Skua is an autumn and winter visitor
tPomator- to our east coast, less frequently to Ireland,
hme Skua, f^j^e lower parts are white, and the long tail-
feathers are twisted vertically.

THE ALBATROSS, PETRELS, AND SHEARWATERS. 285

Of Richardson's Skua two forms occur on our coast — a
light-chested one, known more properly as the Arctic Skua,
Richard- and a darker. Both breed in most of the
son's Skua, gcottish isles, and intermediate forms are
found, which bridge over the differences. The tail is long
and tapering. This skua obtains most of its food by vio-
lence, but it also feeds on shore crustaceans. Eggs, 2,
2^ inches; green, with brown blotches.

The Long-tailed Skua is so called from the long brown
tail-feathers. It visits our coasts, more particularly on the
ILong- east side, in autumn, and less frequently in

tailed Skua, spring. Save for the longer tail and some
yellow on the neck, this bird is not unlike the somewhat
stouter light form of the last.

CHAPTER XVI. THE ALBATROSS, PETRELS,
AND SHEARWATERS.

[A group of sea-birds, mostly of small size, distinguished
by their tubular nostrils. They spend most of their time
on, or over, the water, and feed entirely on fish. They
comprise three residents ; two regular visitors ; five irregu-
lar visitors.]

I. The Black-broaved Albatross.

A specimen of the Black-browed Albatross was taken
this summer (July 1897) near Linton, in Cambridgeshire.
The legs and feet are greyish-blue, the tail blackish, head
and underparts white. The occurrence inland of this
southern bird, which has more than once been seen hover-
ing in the neighbourhood of the outlying Faroe Islands,
created something of a sensation in the press and
elsewhere.

286 BIRDS.

2. The Petkels.

Those who know the great albatrosses of the southern
hemisphere find its flight wonderfully rej^roduced in that of
Storm- its tiny black-and-white relative, the " Mother
Petrel. Carey's chicken," or Storm-Petrel, of northern
seas. The foolish notion that connects this bird with
storms has just so much truth in it as that, knowing
instinctively when a storm is nearing, it seeks the com-
pany of ships. The albatross does, as a matter of fact,
often fly better in a gale than in still weather, and I
have seen these birds following the ship for days of very
dirty weather heedless of the storm. Not only does the
flight of the petrel recall the larger bird, but its features
are those of the other in miniature — the tubular nostrils
and hooked bill; and, to complete the resemblance, there
is the same unpleasant oily smell about the plumage.
When a j)etrel is brought aboard, it is visibly distressed,
like its larger relatives, keej^ing its footing with difficulty
and hanging its head, while oil drops from its bill as if
it were sea-sick. Like all its kind, the storm-petrel is a
true sea-bird, feeding on the floating squid and other
surface food, and even roosting on the water. It breeds
in the Scilly Islands and on Lundy. The single egg is laid
at the farther end of a burrow that smells yet worse than
the bird. E[/c/, IyV i^^ch ; white, slightly sj^otted.

Leach's, or the "Fork -tailed," Petrel, is an irregular
visitor to the east coast of England, but breeds on St

Leach's Kilda, as well as in parts of the Hebrides and

Petrel. elsewhere on the Scottish and Irish coasts.
I recollect one of these birds being picked up dead after
a three days' gale one November off Ecclesbourne, near
Hastings. The bird is somewhat less sombre than the
storm-petrel, and the white -barred black tail is forked.
Br/r/^ I yi inch ; white, with tiny spots.

[An example of an allied species was found on the Sussex

THE ALBATROSS, PETRELS, AND SHEARWATERS. 287

coast in 1895, another in Colonsay on Xew Year's Day
1897.]

Wilson's Petrel. — A rare straggler from the southern
seas, of which under a dozen have been taken in England,
a couple in Ireland, but none in Scotland.

Bulwer's Petrel. ■ — An Atlantic straggler, which has
occurred once only — in Yorkshire.

Capped Petrel. — A southern straggler, which was ob-
tained once — in Norfolk.

The Fulmar is known on the English coasts only in
rough winter weather, but breeds in the Shetlands, Outer

t Fulmar Hebrides, and St Kilda. It is the largest of
PetreL our petrels, and has all the family characters.
There are two forms, one with darker grey underparts,
but it is the whiter race that breeds in the above islands.
This bird is closely allied to the great "Mollies" of the
South Australian coasts, and, like them, and in fact all the
petrels, feeds on the water. I have seen several flying
slowly about the herring-boats at the mouth of the Elbe.
The egg is laid on a ledge. Pog-, 3 inches; white. It
has a rough surface and, when first taken, a strong smell.

3, The Shearavaters.

Tolerably common — the non-breeding birds at any rate
— on most parts of our coasts throughout the year, the
Manx Manx Shearwater breeds off the Cornish coast,

Shearwater, perhaps on Lundy, and, I am told, among some
islets not far from Weymouth. It also nests among the
Scottish isles and at several points on the Irish coast. The
shearwaters differ from the petrels in the much longer
curved bill. The flight is rapid, and is performed just
clear of the water ; and I have seen the bird riding on

288 BIRDS.

the water on calm days, but I think it never dives unless
it first gets up plenty of way on the wing. Then it will
go right through the waves and come up a little way
ofi". Its food consists, however, for the most part of
squid and other creatures that it can get without diving.
Egg^ 2f inches ; white.

DusTcy Skeartvater, — An Atlantic bird, which has
occurred twice only.

Sooti/ Shearivater. — An irregular visitor in the cold
months, formerly confused with the young of the next.

The Great Shearwater is a scarce visitor on migration,
§ Great chiefly in autumn. Its food consists of squid

Shearwater, and cuttle. The fishermen use it for bait.

CHAPTER XVII. THE GUILLEMOTS, DIVERS,

AND GREBES.

[The three groups of which the order is composed differ
widely, for the first have stout short bills for the most part ;
the divers are all marked by curious bands on the throat ;
and the tailless grebes have singular palmated feet, recall-
ing those of the coot. In all, the underparts are white.
They all dive, however, for their food, but in their nesting
habits they bear little resemblance, one group construct-
ing large floating nests, another making no nest whatever.
There are, in all, eight residents, five regular visitors and
one irregular visitor.]

The Razorbill is a common bird on our coasts all the year

round, breeding in most of our cliffs. Down near Lul-

worth Cove there are inaccessible ledges cov-

Razorbill. ^ ^^^ .^ • 1 1 T- 1

erecl with their eggs and young ; and I have
noticed that the gulls and other seafowl that breed there

THE GUILLEMOTS, DIVERS, AXD GREBES. 289

take up different levels. The bird must occasionally seek
congenial food at some distance from its nesting -place,
for this summer there was a pair right through June and
July every morning under Bournemouth pier just after
sunrise. I used to go down at daybreak almost without
fail to get smelts and sand-eels for baiting with later in
the day, and there were these two diving birds, which had
also apparently learned that the small fish congregate in
the shelter of the weed-covered greenheart piles when
they were not to be found elsewhere in the bay. There
are, however, no cliffs in which these birds would care to
nest nearer than St Alban's Head on the one hand and
Hengistbury Cliff on the other, the latter fully three or four
miles away, the former indeed considerably more. It is
therefore to be presumed that the birds had some means
of conveying food to their young, but where they stowed
it, unless in their mouth, I do not know. The only other
assumption was that there were no young to feed, though,
as the birds were of different size, therefore presumably of
opposite sex, there seemed, considering the time of year,
slight ground for such a sup230sition. This bird is about
the same size as the equally familiar guillemot, but the
bill is conspicuously humped at the end, and the back is of
a deeper black. It also floats at the surface with its tail
cocked, like most of our ducks. In taking wing from their
nesting-ledges, all these birds drop sheer from a great height,
then suddenly sweej) up in a curve just when they seem
about to fall into the water. Like the guillemot, this bird
lays a single large egg, which it also incubates lengthwise.
Egg, 24 inches ; brownish-white, with dark blotches.

The Guillemot is an equally familiar bird, with long

straight bill and brown plumage. There is a "ringed"

^ .„ variety having conspicuous white lines round

Guillemot. .. ^ -r.\ ^ i i i j t

the eye. It breeds on rocky ledges, and I

have had eggs from every county between Hampshire

and the Land's End (including the Isle of Wight), but

290

BIEDS.

its chief stations are, I believe, in the north-east. In the
spring of 1894 I was witness of a somewhat interesting
sight, which enabled me to record in the ' Field ' a new
article of food for this bird, notably large barnacles. I
was steaming near the Wight when I saw something on
the water, which developed under strong binoculars into

a small plank, evidently a fragment of wreckage, covered
with those crustaceans, which two guillemots were busily
tearing off and eating — such portions at least as they could
manage, for a barnacle is not all eatable. There could be
no doubt about their occupation, for I could plainly see
them first worrying the creatures off the wood, then throw-
ing up their heads, evidently swallowing some portions.

THE GUILLEMOTS, DIVERS, AND GREBES. 291

This is interesting, as I never knew of any bird before,
either north or south of the equator, that tackled a full-
grown barnacle and came off alive. On the Cornish coast,
where the guillemot, or "murr," is found in abundance, it
will seek the comj^any of fishing-boats for the sake of the
scrajDs of ground-bait (vernacular, " guffin ") thrown over-
board ; and I have known one paddle round my boat in
this way for hours together. It is often caught in the
stake-nets, and so many were recently destroyed in this
way off the Fowlsheugh, near Stonehaven, that the Gov-
ernment was petitioned to cancel the lease of the nets,
and did so. Egg, 31^ inches (the female is only about
16 inches !) ; pear-shaped and green, white, or stone-colour,
with black or brown blotches and lines.

Brilnnicl^s Guillemot. — A rare straggler from Polar
regions.

The Black Guillemot, with the conspicuous white patch
on the back of the wings, is found breeding on the Isle of
Black Man, also among the Orkneys, Shetlands, and

Guillemot. Hebrides (where it is known as the " Turtle-
dove"), and on rocky parts of the northern portion of
Ireland. In other i3arts of these islands it is seen only
very rarely, in winter. Unlike the other guillemots, this
bird lays two eggs. Eggs, 2, 2^ inches; bluish- white,
with brown blotches.

t Little The Little Auk, an uncommon winter visitor

•^^^- to our north and east coasts, is a small black-
and-white bird, with stout bill and a white spot over the
eye.

The Puffin, " Sea -parrot," or "Culterneb," is a little

black-and-white bird, the most remarkable feature of

which is unquestionably the bill, for, instead

of putting on smarter courtmg plumage, it

grows a larger bill at breeding-time, and that protuber-

292 BIRDS.

ance becomes, moreover, brightly streaked with red and
gold. In autumn this attraction is shed piecemeal. It is
after this bird, which has burrowed there from time
immemorial, that Lundy Island is named. It also breeds
in the Scilly Islands, among the Hebrides, and in fact
among all the wilder cliffs of the Scottish and Irish coasts.
Egg, 2 y^ inches ; dirty white (in collections), with small
brownish spots. It is said to be pure white at first, but I
have not taken it myself.

2. The Divers.

The Great Northern Diver, a large and handsome bird,

must be regarded as a winter visitor to these islands,

t Great though it is said to breed in the Shetlands.

Northern The black plumage is spotted with white ;

Diver. ^jjg underparts are white ; and there are two
white streaked bands on the throat. It seeks food at con-
siderable depths. This bird is not uncommon off the
Cornish coast in early winter. Like the rest, it is awk-
ward on land, and is seen to best advantage in the water.
White- (or Yellow-) hilled Northern Diver. — A Polar bird
which has been obtained on four occasions only, all on the
east coast. It is a slightly larger bird.

The Black-throated Diver, a rare visitor to England in

the winter months, breeding in the north of Scotland

Black- ^^^ among the isles, has the throat conspicu-

throated ously black, with a narrow white streaked

^^^^' band. Eggs, 2, 3 inches ; greenish-brown, with

black spots.

j^g^. The lied-throated Diver, or " Eain-Goose,"

throated as it is often called, has the throat conspicu-
^^^^* ously red in the spring and summer. Eggs,
2, 2^ inches; marked as those of the last.

THE GUILLEMOTS, DIVERS, AND GHEBES. 293

3. The Grebes.

The Great Crested Grebe, largest of our grebes, is found

on our inland waters throughout the year. These grebes

Great ^^®5 ^^ outward appearance, tailless ; but their

Crested most distinctive and interesting feature is the

^^ ^* remarkably lobed membrane of the toes. The

present species is distinguished in summer by the presence

of a brown crest and some long black feathers on the

throat. It is no very unusual sight in the neighbourhood

of the Broads to see several of these birds flying at a con-
siderable height. The food consists of fish and frogs, and
even aquatic larvse ; and the birds are known, for some
reason connected with their digestion, to swallow feathers,
a habit noted in several other groups. These feathers
are found in the castings. This grebe does not breed in
the north of Scotland. The floating nest of sedges is
continually added to. J^ggs, 4, over 2 inches ; dirty
white.

The Red-necked Grebe is a smaller bird, with a grey

294 BIKDS.

patch on the side of the face, a black crest, and the front
of the neck red; is a winter visitor only to the east of
+ Red- these islands, very rarely to Ireland. I have

necked seen its nests in some small See or other in
Grebe. Xorth Mecklenburg, I forget exactly where.
It constructs a floating nest like that of the last, but in-
variably makes it fast near a clump of tall reeds. Such
at least was the case on the lake in question. Eggs^ like
those of the last, but slightly smaller.

The Slavonian Grebe is a winter visitor from the north,
which is supposed on some evidence to breed in the north
t Slavonian of Scotland. The bird in its summer dress
Grebe. has conspicuous tufts of reddish feathers on
the side of the head, but in winter these are gone. The
black bill has a white tip. Eggs, 2 to 4, i^ inch; bluish
white.

The Eared, or " Black," Grebe is a rare spring and

§ Eared autumn visitor. There seems even some idea

Grebe. ^hat it has bred recently in Norfolk. In the

summer plumage there is a bright reddish patch on the

side of the head.

The Little Grebe, or "Dabchick," is the smallest and
most familiar of the group, and has all the antics of its
Little fellows, among them the habit of diving with
Grebe, the young beneath its wing or on its back.
In addition, the female covers the eggs with weeds when-
ever she leaves them. The bird is considerably darker
in its breeding-plumage than in winter. It spends a good
deal of the colder season at the coast, feeding on small
fishes and crustaceans, but it goes inland to breed, when it
consumes much insect and vegetable food. The dabchick
may in spring-time be seen paddling under water with its
wings in search of submerged weed wherewith to build its
nest. The bird has been held up to ridicule for troubling

ALLEGED BRITISH VISITORS. 295

to drag every weed from the bed of the river when there is
so iiiuch floating around ; but I have always preferred to
believe that these sunken weeds are so softened and
seasoned by immersion as to be particularly suited to
the architect's requirements. Its feet are green. The
nest, large for the bird, is much like that of the rest.
EggSy 4 to 6, i^ inch; dirty white.

ALLEGED (POSSIBLY GEXUIXE) BRITISH VISITORS
(Mostly North American).

Bee-eater, Blue-tailed (Merops philippinus).
Buzzard, African (Buteo desertorum).
Cape Pigeon {Daption capcnsis).
Caspian Plover {^(juditis asiatica).
Crake, Carolina (Porzana Carolina).
Crane, Crowned {Balearica pavonina).
Flycatcher, Red-eyed ( Vireo olivaceus).
Gallinule, Martinique {Porphyrio martinicus).
Grackle, Rustic {Scolepthagus ferrugineus).
Grebe, Pied-billed {Podilymhus piodiccps).
Hemipode, Andalusian {Thirnix sylvatica).
Kite, Black- winged {Elanus cceruleus).
Lark, Calandra {Alauda calandra).
Martin, Purple {Progne purpurea).
Myna {Gracula religiosa).
Owl, Saw-whet {Nyctnla acadica).
Phalarope, American {PhaJaropiis wihoni).
Pigeon, Passenger {Ectopistes iniigratorius).
Sandpiper, Marsh {Totanus stagnatilis).

It Spotted (T. macidarius).

Scops asio.
Serinus icterus.

Sparrow, AVhite-throated {Zonotrichia alhicollis).
Starling, Meadow {SturneUa inagna).

II Red- winged {Agelceus phccniceus).

296 BIEDS.

Swallow, Tree {Tachycincta hicolor).
Thrush, Gold-vented {Pycnonotus capensis).
Woodpecker, Black {Picus martius).

II Downy {Dendrocopus puhesccns).

II Golden-winged {Colaptes auratus).

II Hairy {Dendrocopus villosxis).

Wren, Ruby-crowned {Rcgidus ccdendida).

EEPTILES

ADDER.
IVoni a jihotograph in the Collection of Dr Arthur Stradling.

REPTILES.

The i:)overty of the British Islands in this class is not
likely to cause profound regret to any one who has lived
Scarcity of i^i tropical parts. Although the fear of snakes
British is much exaggerated in the Colonies, it is
reptiles. nevertheless a relief to be able to ramble in
the New Forest without the hindrance of heavy top-boots
or leggings ; and it is pleasant to contrast the six British
reptiles, only one of which can ever be mischievous, with
the hundred snakes, two-thirds of them poisonous, and
the two hundred lizards of the Australian continent. In
addition to its slight power for evil, the adder of our
woodlands is so easily distinguished from the harmless
species that there is no excuse for an accident, nor is it
necessary to slay every snake encountered on the chance
of its being dangerous. Unfortunately, however, the same
policy prevails both north and south of the Line : the
snake is killed first, identified afterwards. In the Colonies,
where the differences are as often as not internal, and
where a fatal bite might be the result of a moment's delay,
there is much to commend this destructive policy ; but in
this country the habit of persecuting these harmless and
beautiful creatures should be condemned, though few
indeed who cry so loudly against the slaughter of their
cousins, the birds, would offer the slightest objection to
the murder of ringed snakes.

It is not difficult to define the class of reptiles, par-
ticularly for the present purpose, where it is
not necessary to include alligators and tor-
toises. Suffice it to say that the animals composing this

300 REPTILES.

class are scaly and cold-blooded ; and that they reproduce
their species in one of two ways, either laying eggs much
like birds, or else hatching the egg within their own
bodies, and bringing forth the young in the perfect state,
— a birth which must, however, be regarded as distinct
from that of the mammal.

One of the most remarkable functions in reptiles is the
periodic casting of the loose skin or slough, which comes
away entire, — a performance which, in some

cases, involves considerable rubbing against
any convenient stone or other hard substance. In birds,
which may be considered as modified reptiles, w^e call the
process "moulting." After this change the new undercoat
is very bright ; and the reptile, more especially a snake, is
at this time particularly susceptible to cold. I never went
so near to losing a 6-foot constrictor that I was bringing
home from Australia as after it had cast its slough piece-
meal (which is by some considered a sign of bad condition)
while we were crossing the Timor Sea. It pulled through,
however, and died recently at the Zoo. Dr Stradling,
who kindly read this portion of my proof, tells me that
young snakes usually cast the slough entire, wdiereas old
snakes rarely do so, quite independent of the condition
they are in at the time. Lizards are generally credited
with the power of reproducing any limb which they lose,

more particularly the tail, which frequently
fT'^^"^ ^°^ comes away when a lizard is roughly handled.

Miss Hopley^ criticises this, however, and is
of opinion that the reproduction of the tip of the tail is
a very imperfect performance. It is commonly stated
that there are no reptiles in Ireland. This is a mistake,
as although there are no snakes there, — it is interesting
that zoologists should have failed hitherto in finding a
creditable explanation of their absence from a soil and
climate apparently suited to their requirements, — lizards
are abundant.

1 British Reptiles, p. 83.

LIST OF BRITISH REPTILES.

301

I— I

Xfl

O
in

o .

iz; c^

» u

hi S

r- ^

l^C.

0:1

I— (

1— 1

-5t<

< ^

(£, ^

m -'

•<

« -

riil

N -

—

O K

■^3

r-*

i-^

15D

0
0

zii

•:>

-<>

•2

-40

•<s>

^■:?*

i-^

r— '

•f— (

H^;

< .

•j:

.73

E>q

;>
<

w
0

c
0

I— i

•

1— 1

Q
1-^

1— 1

Ah
0

302 REPTILES.

CHAPTER I. THE LIZARDS.

We have three lizards, including the slow-worm, which
is popularly, but erroneously, regarded as a snake.

The small and handsome Common Lizard is greenish-
brown in colour, having black or dark-brown longitudinal
Common bands, the belly being of a bright orange-
Lizard, yellow with black spots. The head of this
species is flattened. This, our smallest lizard, is, like the
rest, perfectly innocuous, feeding almost entirely on insects.
It takes readily to the water, and is a rapid and powerful
swimmer ; and it is also observed to show a preference for
high ground. It is viviparous, the young, three or four
(occasionally as many as six) in number, being nearly
black, and remaining, so some authorities assert, with the
parents until able to shift for themselves. Others C[ues-
tion the existence of the parental relations in reptiles.

[The Continental Green Lizard^ many examples of which
have been recovered in these islands from confinement, is
not indigenous, though some of the evidence formerly
given for its admission to the British list may have been
based on the green colour often assumed by the male of
the next species.]

An inhabitant of the plains, the Sand -Lizard difiers
from the cmaller and commoner kind internally by the
Sand- presence of teeth in the palate, externally by
Lizard. ^}^g presence of granules over the eyes, as well
as by the smaller scales, which are more numerous round
the middle of the body. In colour this lizard varies con-
siderably, being some shade of brown with green reflec-
tions, the belly white and covered with small black spots.
There are a varying number of white spots along the back
and sides, usually in three rows. The sand-lizard passes
the winter in a torpid condition, and I have dug it up in
this state near Bournemouth, where it is very common.

THE LIZARDS. 303

It is oviparous, the female depositing about a dozen eggs in
the sand, where they are left to hatch out by themselves.

In the Slow-Worm, or " Blind-Worm," as it is often mis-
called, we have a type outwardly resembling the snakes.
Slow- but in reality — as proved by the traces of
'Worm, rudimentary feet beneath the skin, as well as
by the movable eyelids (which it closes when hibernating
or asleep), the shoulder-girdle, pelvis, and solid lower jaw —
a lizard. This harmless creature is, like the snakes, absent
from Ireland. It grows to a length of over 15 inches, but
the average measurements are considerably under this, and
a more common length is 10 inches. In colour, it is of a
metallic red or grey along the back, dirty w^hite or darker
along the belly. The tail, which is about the length of the
body, is covered with minute scales; the head and eyes
are small; the tongue notched, but not forked, as in snakes.
There is a rudimentary third eye, not functional, in this
reptile. I have observed as many as a dozen large slow-
worms on the Downs beyond Clifton, all within a hundred
yards ; and in the low land bordering on the Avon beyond,
both it and the viper were common in summer, the latter
showing the more decided preference for w^et spots. The
period of hibernation is shorter with the slow- worm than
wdth any other reptile. It casts its slough in the same way
as snakes. Its food consists largely of snails and worms.
It is viviparous, producing ten or twelve young in July,
often in the vicinity of a manure-heap. True to its name,
this reptile shows less anxiety than any other I know to
get out of the way when disturbed. It lies stiff and
motionless in your path, and, if seized roughly, will some-
times, though not invariably, leave the tail in its captor's
hand, a habit characteristic of many lizards. The brittle-
ness of this creature, however, to which it owes its specific
name, has been grossly exaggerated. Though its teeth are
too insignificant to penetrate the skin, the slow-worm is
very savage, and bites furiously.

304 llEPTILES.

CHAPTER II. THE SNAKES.

There are in Great Britain three snakes, one noxious.
No snake occurs in Ireland.

As already incidentally mentioned, our only poisonous
snake, the Adder, is easily distinguished from the rest.
Adder or Equally unmistakable are the dark zigzag line
Viper. along its back and the Y-shaped black patch
on the crown of its blunt head. On closer inspection, too,
the plates on the head are observed to be smaller and more
numerous than in the others. In colour, it is true, this
snake exhibits considerable variety, examples showing every
shade of brown to black. In 1881 I remember catching
in Fairlight Glen, near Hastings, a small red kind, which
was locally described as particularly venomous. Dr Strad-
ling tells me that the red phase, there regarded as a valid
species, is also credited in Herts, Somerset, Devon, and
parts of Scotland, with special virulence. The adder, like
all snakes, casts its slough regularly, wriggling out of it in
such manner that the skin, even to the transj^arent eye-
covers, is turned inside-out. The bite of this snake is
instantaneous. The venom lies in a gland above the
upper jaw, and when the two fangs strike, it is driven
down a canal in the fang into the wound. The fangs are
at once withdrawn, and the adder strikes a second time
with lightning rapidity. When not in use, the fangs lie
back, not unlike a similar arrangement in some sharks ;
and there is a series behind which are probably ready to
take the place of those in active service should the latter
get broken, as not infrequently happens, though the second
series are often not perforated. The venom is of greenish
hue. I knew a herpetologist in Sydney who had dessi-
cated the venom of almost every known j^oisonous snake
of that continent, and who kept the powders in sealed
bottles, — poison enough to have rid the capital of the
Colonies of its larrikins and Chinamen.

THE SXAKES. 305

Wonderful tales are related of Australian snakes jump-
ing backwards to bite, and our own adder has been
credited with a similar trick. This, like most zoological
fiction, is not without its grain of truth ; and the fact is
that the adder, like the common snake, does coil and un-
coil with such rapidity, its belly touching the ground the
whole time, as to give the impression of a spring. But
for any snake to leap several times its own length is a
sheer impossibility. The average length of the adder may
be given at 18 inches, but I have found examples of 24
inches, and have read of others much longer. It is more
common in our southern counties, becoming rarer in the
north of Scotland, though met with on Jura, Mull, and
some other of the isles, especially in the deer-forests.^
The forked tongue of the adder, a sensitive organ that
aids it in finding its food, has absolutely nothing to do
with its bite, which is, by the way, often described as
a "sting." Like our other snakes, the adder hibernates,
unless disturbed, until the end of spring, though its sleep
is lighter than that of the smooth snake. I have found
adders lively in the New Forest in the middle of April,
rarely before ; but Sir Herbert Maxwell tells me that he
has seen them in Scotland as early as March. The thin-
shelled egg is hatched out in the body of the j^arent, the
young varying in number, according to Dr Stradling, from
fourteen to forty. On the vexed, question of whether the
adder swallows her young for safety, I shall not enter.
I have never, in spite of much patient watching, seen
anything myself that could be construed into such a
performance, but, on the other hand, I have met many
who, with nothing to gain by lying, declared that they
have witnessed it on many occasions. Always prepared
for the marvellous in nature, however, a frame of mind
induced by even a nodding acquaintance with her, I cannot
find sufficient reason to disbelieve the fact, though ocular
testimony would of course be welcome.

1 Harvie-Brown and Buckley, Fauna of Argyll, p. 216.

306 REPTILES.

When feeding, the adder moves its jaws over the surface
of its prey, the fangs working independently; and ahhougli
its bite is rarely fatal, or even productive of serious results,
save when the reptile is in unusually good condition and
the patient the reverse, it is always best to avoid it. Sheep
have been known to die at once from its bite. It is thoucjht
that, on the whole, men and monkeys succumb more fre-
quently to snake-bite than other animals. Dr Stradling
has record of five fatal cases in this country. The food of
the adder consists of mice and various lizards, small birds
and their eggs, and insects. It has been denied that snakes
eat insects, but Dr Stradling recently watched a green whip-
snake in Ceylon taking quantities of ants from an ant-hill.

The Common, or Kinged, Snake, an absolutely harm-
less creature, is distinguished from the adder by the ab-
Common sence of the V-patch ; besides which, it has a
or Ringed, yellow patch on either side the head, form-
Snake, jjjg g^ kind of collar, as well as some dark
blotches on the sides of the body, the general shade of
which is greenish. This is the largest of our snakes,
growing to a length of nearly 6 feet, though I never
managed to obtain one more than about 2,3 inches. Lord
Londesborough had one of 5 feet 8 inches' from the New
Forest. It feeds on frogs, which are seized by the hind-
leg and swallowed alive, having been known to survive
the passage down the throat, toads, rejected by almost
every other living creature, birds and their eggs, mice
and newts — the last-named being often captured in the
water, but invariably consumed on the bank. Both toads
and newts are highly deleterious food. This snake is ap-
parently rare in Scotland. It is ovi23arous, depositing
between two and four dozen leathery-shelled eggs in any
convenient manure-heap ; and these eggs have been known
to remain unhatched through the winter and hatch out the
following spring. They absorb moisture, and grow to
twice the original size. The young are very dark at first,
the collar only being light.

THE SNAKES.

307

The Smooth Snake is the rarest of all, especially in the
north of Scotland. In colour it is reddish-brown, with a
Smooth double row of black spots. From the last-
Snake, named it is easily distinguished by the absence
of keel from the scales, and the consequent smoothness of
the latter. Its favourite food consists of lizards. Though
quick to resent a liberty, its bite is perfectly harmless, and,
when excited, this snake also, like the last, emits a strong
secretion. It is viviparous.

RINGED SNAKE.
From a photograph in the collection of Dr Arthur Stradling.

AMPHIBIANS

AMPHIBIANS.

OuK amphibians are, like our reptiles, few and small,
numbering only seven. From reptiles, the members of

this class may readily be distinguished by the

Definition oi , x. l^ ^ i t •

. , ., . metamorphoses they undergo, resembling, m-

deed, fishes in their earlier stage; and these
changes are undergone, not in a torpid state like that
of insects, but in continuous activity. These animals are
oviparous, spawning like fish. Like the reptiles, they cast
the slough periodically, usually making a meal of it. It
is interesting to note that the newts assume during the
breeding season, the only time at which they take to the
water, certain ornamental crests, often • serrated or fes-
tooned, as well as additional webbing on the toes to enable
them to hold their own in their temporary abode. All
these amphibians are able to breathe through the skin. Of
tailless amphibians we have four : the common and edible

frogs (the latter an introduction from the Con-
form? tinent), the toad, and the natterjack. Of tailed

forms we have but three : the common, palmate,
and great water newts, Bell's fourth species having been
rejected by later authorities.

312

AMPHIBIANS.

55 33

» »

-! a

r-. O

H-i-

H?l

■CI*

-IC-l

S S5

COCO

CO<M

on com

^ ^

« y;

H -

-4-J

1— 1

-fj

i=i

I—- rt

r*,

0)
c5

git?

O rt !^

OPq

OPhC

r^r^

1—1

CO
•Si

■2 « e

Ifl

e ::^ :£

S
o

^^i

^ t^ ~

■£
■o

~ i; <>

t— 1

I— 1

V— 1

■f.

■ii

Y-

1— 1

1 — 1

r \

;5
o

1— 1

->1

-ij

Zfl

THE FROGS AND TOADS. 313

CHAPTER I. THE FROGS AND TOADS.

The frogs are in their habit more or less aquatic, while
the toads, on the other hand, are more or less terrestrial.

TJie common British Frog was introduced into Ireland
a couple of centuries ago. The early metamorphoses of
Common this species are those of all the group. The
Frog. spawn is deposited in ponds in early spring,
floating at the surface in irregular masses. In three or
four weeks the tadpoles are hatched out. These remark-
able little creatures breathe by gills enclosed in a fold of
skin. The mouth is beak-like, the food consisting in all
probability of small organisms and water-plants. The
tail is long. Gradually this tail is absorbed, the limbs
develop, the mouth loses its beak form, and step by step
the tadpole emerges into the perfect frog, a being of very
different characters, breathing by lungs, and feeding on
land- and water-insects. Some tropical frogs are expert
climbers, the discs on the toes enabling them to scale per-
pendicular surfaces, even of glass. The eye, the pupil of
which is horizontal, is furnished with a nictitating mem-
brane and two other lids. The frog is able to glance side-
ways. The characters of the common frog need scarcely
be given in detail. In colour it is brownish, with or
without spots. The female is larger than the male. The
hind-leg is long, and the toes webbed ; the forefoot of the
male develops a swelling in the breeding season. The frog
captures most of its insect food with the aid of its tongue,
which is protruded, being tipped with a viscid secretion.

[There has always been some doubt as to the exact

claim of this Continental form to a place in the British

Edible list, but it appears to me, since it was intro-

Frog. duced at an indefinite date and is now general

among the fens, that this claim is at any rate as strong as

314 AMPHIBIANS.

that of some game-birds that found their way into our
fauna under like auspices. There are many points of dis-
tinction about this frog, chief among them being the black
markings on the back, the fold of skin at the throat, the
complete webbing of the hind-toes, and the presence of
vocal sacs on the sides of the head, which are connected
with its croaking and are most in evidence in the breeding
season. This frog has a greenish hue, and there are black
marblings and white lines on the back.]

A more innocuous creature than the insect-eating Toad
would be hard to imagine, yet it has always been re-
garded with disgust in every age and land.
The spitting of the toad is pure fiction, though
there is of course a dirty white sticky secretion in the
pores of the skin, which is used only in self-defence, and
which, with its poisonous, or at any rate irritant, pro-
perties, is able to procure the toad immunity from many
beasts and birds that do not thus spare frogs. When ex-
cited, the toad is observed to pufF itself out and exude beads
of this secretion. From the frog this animal is easily dis-
tinguished by its warty skin, the swellings over its eyes,
its clumsier build, and the shortness of its hind-legs. The
mouth has no teeth, the tongue, free behind though at-
tached in front, being but slightly cleft at the tip. With
this organ, tipped like that of the frog with a gummy
secretion, the toad catches insects with lightning rapidity,
much after the fashion adopted by the chameleon, the
sight of which on the feed is among the most interesting
reminiscences of a visit to Regent's Park. Othermse, it
is a sluggish creature. On the stories current about dis-
interred toads, however, that have survived ages imprisoned
in sandstone, the gravest suspicion is usually permitted to
rest. In colour, the toad is brown above, with black
markings ; below, white, with black spots. There are
double tubercles beneath the hind-toes. It spawns, like
frogs, in the water, the spawn floating in a double row.

THE NEWTS. 315

The tadpoles are darker in hue than those of the frog.
Save for the purpose of spawning, however, the toad lives
little by the water, hiding rather among the stones in
damp situations. It hibernates, like frogs, in the ground,
and often in companies. Lastly, it casts its transparent
slough more than once in the year, often swallowing it.

Somewhat rarer, a-nd apparently altogether wanting in
the Highlands, the Natterjack is distinguished from the
larger toad by the light line down the centre
of the back, in allusion to which it is known
in some parts as " Golden Back." The hind-toes of this
toad, which is of far more active habits than the last, and
even indulges in something approaching a run, are not
deeply webbed; the hind-leg is short, and has a gland.
There are also the same small glands over the eye, which
is prominent, being plainly visible within the mouth, and
has three lids like those of the frog and toad. The warts
on the back are porous in both species. Like the fore-
going, this toad feeds on insects, and occasionally on
small mice. It is not of aquatic habits excej^t during
the breeding season. The tadpoles are small, but develop
with remarkable rapidity. For some reason this has been
called the "Cornish toad."

CHAPTER IT. THE NEWTS.

Our three newts are of terrestrial habits excepting in
the breeding-season, when they deposit their spawn in the
crumpled leaves of water-j^lants, and the young soon start
life as tadpoles. During the breeding season, too, as
already mentioned, the adults, the male more particularly,
put on extra ornaments in the shape of a crest, usually

316 AMPHIBIANS.

serrated, along the back and tail. As in the frogs, the
skin is a supplemental breathing apparatus.

The handsome Smooth Xewt is of green or brown hue,

profusely spotted ; below, yellow, with black spots. The

Common ^ower surface of the flattened tail is red in the

or Smooth male, with bluish lines and markings ; in the

®^^' female it is yellow, w^ithout markings. In the

breeding season the male develops a festooned frill along

the back, the female growing a smaller frill. This species

seeks the neighbourhood of water in the warm months only,

at which time too it sheds the sloui^h.

The Palmated Newt, smallest of the three, has dark

spots on the body, and lines along the head, which is

Palmated sj)eckled with black. The crest, which is not

Newt. festooned as in the last, is black-edged. In

the breeding season the male has the toes webbed, and

grows a curious filament on the tail.

Larger than either of the foregoing, the Great Water-
Newt is in colour black above, yellow beneath, with
Great black spots ; and the male has during the

"Water- breeding season, in addition to his high ser-
^®^*- rated crest, a light band on the tail. This

newt seems to be more common in our southern counties
than in the north. Its distinguishing character lies in
the warts that stud the skin, and there are curious pores
along the head and body. Teeth are present in the palate
and jaws. The great water-newt lays its ova in the leaves
of water-plants, and the tadpoles hatch out in the course
of a month. All the newts feed much on frog-tadpoles.

FISHES

vm^^'^^i^

SALMON SWIMMING.

FISHES.

This class, lowest but one of the vertebrates, is of great
interest and importance. Our British fishes are about two
hundred in number, of which, roughly speak-
ing, rather over three-fourths are either marine
species. °'

or anadromous forms, the former passing their
whole existence in salt water, the latter entering rivers for
the purpose of spawning. A few, like the eel and flounder,
go down to the sea to spawn, passing most of their ex-
istence in fresh water, and these are termed " catadromous."
Of our fifty or more fresh-water fishes, a few, non-migratory
members of the salmon family for the most part, have
from time to time been introduced. As in the case of
birds, several divisions of the subject might have been
permissible in a small work of this kind, such as the sep-
aration of sea- and fresh-water forms, the commercial and
non-commercial fish, or like arbitrary groups. It has been
thought best, however, to follow the systematic classifica-
tion in general use, though an attempt has been made to
give some indication, by means of two familiar signs, of the
division between the purely fresh-water and purely marine
forms, as well as of the third group, embracing members
of widely different orders, that are able to exist in both
fresh and salt, some entering one or the other at regular
intervals and with a fixed purpose, others rather frequent-
ing brackish estuaries at all seasons indifferently.

The definition of a fish, which it is here necessary

320 FISHES.

plainly to enunciate, may be given as follows : A verte-
brate animal that lives in water, breathes the dissolved air

by means of srills, and swims by the aid of fins,
uennmon j^ ^-^^ majority of cases, the body is covered

with scales; in some, however, as the tench
and eel, these are minute and embedded ; in others, as the
conger, they are absent. It will now^ be desirable to con-
sider briefly some of the chief external characters of fishes.
Though not sufficient in themselves to distinguish them
from the class of reptiles, among the most characteristic of

these are the scales, which are, as above men-

tioned, sometimes small and embedded in the
skin, sometimes absent and replaced by an arrangement of
calcified processes like teeth, as in sharks, in which order w^e
find the skin similar within the mouth. In the sturgeons
we find rows of plates along the body. These scales have
been denominated according to their form, as ctenoid, those
with serrated edges ; cycloid, in which the edge is smooth.
(See figures in Taylor's ' Half-Hours in the Green Lanes,'
cap. ii.)

The shape of fishes is subject to considerable variation,

for in addition to the typical tapering, torpedo
ape o fQj.jjj^ -yyg ^^^ i]^Q i3ody flattened, laterally, as

in the flat-fish ; vertically, as in the rays and
skates ; elongated, as in eels ; spherical, as in sunfish.

The organs of locomotion, or fins, are vertical (lying
along the back and belly) and unpaired, or horizontal
(lying on the sides) and paired. The vertical
fins are called, according to their position,
dorsal (along the back), anal (on the belly, just before the
tail), or caudal (the tail-fin) ; the paired fins are the
pectoral (behind the gill-covers) and ventral (or x>elvic^
beneath the last), the latter being either ahdoininal (im-
mediately beneath the pectorals), thoracic (behind and be-
neath the pectorals), or jii(/idar (before and beneath the
pectorals). The dorsal fins are either soft or spinous, in-
termittent or continuous, the salmon and its kind havin*

rt>

FISHES. 321

in addition to the front rayed dorsal, an adipose or fatty-
second dorsal without rays. The caudal, or tail-fin, is
usually in two distinct lobes, often, as in the sharks, of
unequal length, and usually either forked or fan-shaped,
convex or concave. In some of our forms, however, as the
rays and chimsera, there is no terminal fin, the tail ending
in a whip-like lash. (See fig. of Perch, p. 340.)

The mouth of fishes is subject to more variation, both

in position and form, than the same organ in any of the

foregoing classes. Its position is normally in

tleth^ ^'''^ ^^^^^* ^^ *^® ^^^^' ^^® ^^®^* opening towards
the tail, as in the salmon. In sharks and rays,

however, we find it beneath the head ; in the weevers it

is directed, like the eyes, upwards. Its shape is various.

In the flat-fish it becomes distorted in the adult, though

symmetrical in the larval form. In the sea-horse it is a

tube ; in the garfish, a toothed beak. In the wrasses, the

mouth has thick lips ; in the cods, loaches, red mullet, and

some of the carp family, it is supplemented by a varying

number of feelers or barbels. In the pike, hake, pollack,

and some other predatory forms, the lower jaw protrudes.

The tongue, which is sometimes absent, is never protruded

as in the other classes of animals. The teeth are usually

solid, and are continually being shed and renewed. In

size and shape they vary much, the two leading types being

those which are sharp and adapted to cutting and tearing,

and those which are flat and suitable for crushing. The

former belong to fishes that feed on other fish, the latter

to those which feed chiefly on molluscs and crustaceans.

In some sharks, there are hinged teeth, which are capable

of lying back and preventing the escape of prey ; and there

are, as in snakes, latent series ready to take the place of

those in use when the latter sustain injury. In some

rays, too, the teeth slant, with the inner margins cutting.

As in other classes, the eye is, so far at least as shape

goes, less subject to variation than any of the foregoing

characters. In size, it is true, the eyes show some differ-

322 FISHES.

ence, and we learn to associate fishes having very large
eyes with residence at considerable depths, at which light
is scarce and must be economised ; those, on the
^ * other hand, with strikingly small eyes, often
embedded in the skin, with still greater depths, beyond
the range of light altogether. It is in their position, how-
ever, in which we find the greatest amount of variation in
the eyes of fishes. Normally they are situate on either
side of the snout ; in the adult flat-fish they are on the
same side, both on the upper, or coloured, surface of the
fish, the right or left eye travelling round to the opposite
side as mentioned under the division in question. In the
hammerhead, again, we find the eyes, of large size, at
either extremity of the "hammer." In the weevers the
eyes are, w^th the mouth, directed upwards, or, as the
inventors of trivial and scientific names have it, towards
the stars. In some sharks we find a loose nictitating
membrane ; and in mackerels and mullets there is present
a fatty eyelid.

Without extending the province of this little book to the
consideration of internal anatomy, two characters of great
interest in the class before us must at any rate
be mentioned, — the lateral line and the air-
bladder. The lateral line, which is to be traced in the
majority of fishes as a curved black or white line along the
middle of the sides, but which is in many fishes absent
altogether, in others interrupted about half-way from the
head, is in reality a row of perforated scales through which
exudes the secretion from the mucous canal, so important
a factor in the free passage of fishes through the water.
Their bodies being lubricated with this matter to a still
greater degree than the much-discussed similar operation
in wildfowl, move through the water with a minimum of
friction, and almost, as it were, without (in our sense of
the word) getting wet.

In the air-bladder, or, as it is often called, the swim-
ming-bladder, we have nothing more or less than an

FISHES. 323

internal gas-bag inflated with a preponderance of nitrogen,

its function being to assist fishes in rising or sinking by

alteration of their specific gravity. Sharks and
Air-bladder. , . „ , » , ^ ,

chimaeras, as well as a number or bony nsnes,

are without air-bladders, and it is interesting to note that
these include both slow ground -loving forms and rapid
surface - swimmers.

We must now consider certain of the more important
functions of fishes.

Our British fishes breathe, without exception, the dis-
solved air by means of gills, in passing over which the
. . blood is aerated. These gills are, in adult
fishes at any rate, covered with flaps of flesh
or gristle, though embryonic sharks show bunches of ex-
ternal gills. In some fish, like herrings and some sharks
of great size, we find appendages called gill-rakers, the
function of which is, like the baleen of whales, to filter
the water and retain the minute floating organisms on
which these forms feed. In the sharks, moreover, the
gills open as so many external slits, usually five in num-
ber, but in one British form six.

Like the higher vertebrates, fish may be classified, with
considerable reservation, according to their chief food,
as carnivorous, herbivorous, or insectivorous,
though the line of demarcation is perhaps
even less exact. They vary, as every angler knows, in
their degree of fastidiousness — some, as the conger, habitu-
ally rejecting all but the freshest of food; while others,
like the bass, show a constant preference for stale offal.
The crabbers find this distinction between crabs and lob-
sters, the latter not objecting to bait a few days old.
The sharks are, with the exception of the very large
basking forms, exclusively carnivorous, some preferring
living prey, others, fewer in number, being content with
carrion. Bays subsist, as may be gathered from their
flat crushing teeth, largely on crustaceans. It is not neces-
sary to enter in detail into the various foods of the dif-

324 FISHES.

ferent orders of fishes, for these have been mentioned in
the proper place in the following pages. As examples,
however, of widely different tastes, I may mention, in ad-
dition to the foregoing, that the grey mullets are, like
Girella of Australian waters, partly herbivorous; that fiat-
fish consume sand-worms and other soft food, the sole feed-
ing almost entirely by night ; hake, pollack, mackerel, and
others pursue living fishes, chiefly sand-eels and mackerel-
midge (young rocklings), at or near the surface. Some
fish, as the torpedo, swallow their prey whole, and salmon
have been recovered from the interior of the ray without
bearing any marks of violence.

Fish are either oviparous, as the majority of our fishes,
spawning at fixed seasons ; or viviparous, as one of

our blennies, one or more of our sharks, and
tion *^® t)ergylt, bringing forth the young alive,

also at a regular season. Some of the sharks

and rays deposit the Qgg in a remarkable receptacle known

as a " purse," those of the sharks being furnished with

tendrils or filaments, with which they attach themselves

firmly to weeds or rocks.

As in the case of birds, much remains to be learnt of

the periodic concerted movements among the great fish

families, which, also like the birds, perform
Migrations. . i • i • i

these journeys at a great altitude — in other

w^ords, near the surface of the water. The general tendency
of the present day, on the strength of the careful obser-
vations recorded by Cunningham (whose admirable book,
recently published, I have had such frequent occasion to
quote in the following pages) and others, is to reject many
of the more extensive movements, as those of the Arctic
lierrings, recorded by the older wTiters with great minute-
ness, and to regard the migrations of fishes chiefly as move-
ments of more moderate extent to and from deep water
for purposes of spawning or in search of food. Even the
so-called "stationary" fish, as an examjDle of which we
may take the plaice, move about in some degree — one of

FISHES. 325

the most important factors in their arrangements being
doubtless those sudden changes in temperature to which,
though in a less degree than the atmosphere, the sea is
subject.

Lastly, a word must be said of the habitat of our com-
moner fishes — of the forms that inhabit sandy, and those
others that frequent rocky, coasts. In the
ordinary course it is found that the two divi-
sions rarely overlap. Thus, the flat-fish and silver whiting
keep to the sand, while the conger, wrasses, and pouting
are found among the rocks. ]\Iost fishes within twenty
miles of the coast dwell near the bottom, in the lowest
third, at any rate, of the total depth, though the garfishes,
mackerel, herrings, pollack, mullet, bass, and some others,
even some of the flat-fish and eels, are found, more par-
ticularly of an evening, feeding or gambolling at the
surface. As a rule, however, the flat-fish lie in the sand,
only the eyes, which have an extraordinary range of vision,
projecting above it.

It will now be necessary to enumerate the orders,
families, genera, and species of our British fishes, with
some remarks on their characters and life-history ; but it
must be prefaced in apology for the meagreness of some
of the accounts that the scheme of the present little
work excluded sternly anything in the shape of anecdote,
and the whole has necessarily been drawn up in the spirit
of condensation.

326

FISHES.

ri S

•^ >

^ <U

• r-i

•*
^

<I>

^-^rG

CJ "^

•^ i^

r- 02

1"^

.2 «

•

s o

•

new syi
a the f

>,^

C O)

-(J ri

(4-1
O

opts a
le Perc

<1
1

1— 1

1— )

•

r2
e3 -^3

^
^

6=H

•l-t

1—1

m
O

?§

0) «

Eh
1

• l-H
O

(-1

hich on

^ fe

■5

O r~->

Si
03

tc g

•

;-i

o e

1^^ ^

-4->

c5 rO

•T3

•+J

-^ <^

r''^

S V.

r£4

_ c «'

? — H

— ^o

u
Q
«

QO -^
1-1 (M

«D

P4 w

c3
02

i_C I— I <-C 1—1

.^ Co

l»

"^^

■*■)

s -^

■O ?55

■3

S -^

o
p

LIST OF BRITISH FISHES.

327

OkO

co«o

'S3

eS
02

.3?

^ §

O <5 02 P^. O

o
pq

OS
<u

I O rC

?cq
2 ^

-4-3

•*o Co

1^ S

S 2^

o i^ 5»

J»5

.«0

60
CJ

S CO

05 CO rO <»

«0

: s

s I S . _

i-H

c3
CD
ci

«o

«0

-■^

Q
P

«
O

O
Q

>
Vo

« .

S O
a:

+ ci

328

FISHES.

^
^

W
m
I— I

r- "

- i J)

isi

i-i a:

""* 0! t-

»rit^

1— 1

c: s c

Cp — * ^

« ^> ^

^•S3

'■J

—

"(J

?-<

-*J

*w^

7-K

-j:

• p— 1

be
bD

*— *

• I-I

(— •

;-•

r— <

1— (

^<:

r*-

•*o

•s

Co
5ri

«0

••SI

e
g

•rO

•^

■^

!5i

►-0

•2

0«

►5J

<**

•^

»— (

1 t^

o
- -i.

i :^

<
i-i

i-i

E-

-«!

•¥»*

■w

•*o
O

H>^

^05

LIST OF BRITISH FISHES. 329

o (M <r> CO o CO

(M C^ CO i-< T-H

■s

o -
O

-(J

1— «

• »-(

'ill

ci
o

o
ft

1=1

cZ2

Black

Spotted

.«?

-o

►<

•o

>>;>

"Si

■^

•>>
<>-

-1

§H

CSi

t^^

«0

1 I I .§ I 1 I- S ;§^ I I §^ I § J '§

€0

•S

"<s>

krt

)r,

O
H

^ o

§ § S 5 « §

*= ^ s w • s e

g W a o a

Q ki ^ Eh j» O

330

FISHES.

m
I— I

- 2 S'

3 ° a*

W — i

-fi - o

5-3 s

•A

tf
U

D
OS

C-7

CO(M CO

-<!

o =

■^

M OJ

*> p-i^

S T- "^

rt ^ cS

PliHAh

■Jl

l-i

u
05

^ g

<1> c^

-+j

-M

<D •— 1

cj O

-2 W

.::; ^

•-^ •-'

rt A

bC>i''ri

Sea-siiai
Montagi

-5 £ >>

o o o

Shauny
Gattoru
ButtertI
Montag

e § g S-^
Si^'^ 3^ A, ?5H

•I

o
o

Q
I— (

M
O

«0

o
Q

Co S

55 S:

.CO V ^ -ci

-< e ^ e

Si^ 5!5 O

C5 ^

o
«
o

■so

o
o

m
o

«0

•I
i

M
l-l

iz;

"^
^

LIST OF BRITISH FISHES. 331

1-H (M

HIMCI

-Jii

COCMt>.

I— (

■^

!»

-(J

ffi

-:;

1— •

-(J

rt
^

s - -

-r.

■

«-— ^

3c i

^Jl

rr-*

1 '-^

1 r-<

OJ ^

2 s

.5 Is

O 1 Qi

t— (

;^ rt

*J o

<1PQ

HE^^

tA r— 1

5 ^ ;£.

s - § *= ^ S^ .§ S^:

C3 s; "^i S S '^ ** S ■>• " •^■s —-. c^ _ ^

§§:!

•to

CO <^

S o

«►<

S s; s^

■o

.^fCi

« o

e Si^oT

•*o

«0

S2
J

rod

B
^

H-l

i-i

(-1

l-H

332

FISHES.

tt}

».

CD Ttl t-H

o ro

C^ CO

I— I

<]}

i»

cS
f— <

• 1— <

'rt

-(J

rway Pout

or Cod

ver Whiting

Hack

al-tish

utassou

o
02

W ci^ ;^; Oh CC Ph Q f^

hi
H-i

«^ «o ^

Speci

•2

morrhua

ceglefinus
luscus

s « § 2 §

•g So. 3 S

•5

•1

s**

«o

•^

5»

»0

a
O

►5;

"-1

«0

•1

<>•

e
?>
f-^

M
P

'«

1— 1

• I ~

ffips

5z;

En'r^

"-1

^D5

-^S

LIST OF BEITISH FISHES. 333

r-i SOS^ OO

.- O

r-f

<x>

-S

r-*

..-^^

O ^ -►^

-M

;:i a; O

-r.

!l>

;2 »5 o

J-l

P :/: -<

• .— t

rt u s

I-;

r-i

rH^

t-^i-^-C

O s

Tr CD «

r^ =

r-->

ta S

1^ ^

j^ -i^.^

J2— 1

•S5

s- '-i

2 2 5?

Tur
Bril

o so

pq ft em Sco rno;^ ffl

5 « V, e «0

«0

"•>.*

«0

ess

S 2 S

•2

"■-»»

r>d

tricirr
cimhri
mustel

lanceo
tohian
cicerel

"to

■10

•?*>>

'<?*

fe^

C."j

•2

Si.

•^

t>.

•♦o

<7»

|- £^ CO Jo S -O

a. S

O" fe^ C 2^

^ Lr ^^ ^^

■*^

<43

^ -S -2 "^ S^ o*

<i> K ~i L ~ .rrt

S 2 «

9 S ^

I-]

O S Ah

334

FISHES.

-ta •*? T^

,S— *

rt C S

O.Z

CO I— I r— I

^
^

(02

C/2

'to

fcC

.2 o 5 2 oj

iX>

ud-sole

ickback

lenette

--^ i?--- =» o

rf r= O

PnGi^K^hlH

wz/:ib^z/i

fcC

be "^^

g W X £ <; H

0.
02

«0

CO -:;

A(^o ^^ ^

«0

S S 'w

O
CO
«0
O

<4i

^ s

H S

•

o S

>•

- Efl -ro

-i

^ g

O O

PS «

^ 1

w '

•J

Q
P

fi5

Qli
P

i-i'«

a:
A
O

PL,

LIST OF BRITISH FISHES. 335

CO CO CI I— 1 (7^ »0 -*

-u

0=;

,_^ JLi

cS oS

-;«

<0 (U

^ ^

1— «

ffiPQ

o
o

-4->

«— «

-5

o
o

r:4

-1

«0

"< eo

«0

<S3

•o

j» <a o ?5 s^

«c

■""S .■=? T-i'^'

•~ s ■* s o -cs § "li § s •^'

^ ^ .^^ C? ?^ ^ >»> ?^ ^^ >2 r<i lil ^ ^ ^

<!0

."*

lis S O !ii .5 1-0 l-^

^i»

«0

■*o

«;

""T^

rJS

■^

•^

O fi^ Cb S

O M

Q 02

336

FISHES.

^z i

c = ^

-5 i o
rt S s

0-i3

P(3
W

•<

1=1
2 =

-M

ri4

reat

lar

orgo

CS rK -i- C_.

rj rt --^ O

^ •-■,—, S-,
0^3^0 0

.«o

^ I — 1«0

Si— 1 2 S

O j:5 ^^ 05 r— I .,,^ 5; ^

•♦■J O t3 '^*i ^ <>^'".J s>

S ,^ ~-i '^ o ^ "ii -S

J CO u

§2 -^

«0

•i -S ^

S 2 s >^

o»

■ij

•^ « S ^

0 ?» S5^o

Co'

• i-H

-M

, fl

I '^

■ Q

>-l

t-H

'/^

(i<

«0

«o

f*^

<>.

<s:t

>!■>

■

CLi

t«

pL.

LIST OF BEITISH FISHES.

337

_ - -

• r^

09
O

<i)

-|J

rH ,

g rt o

S-i

Co
O

P^ o

02 bo

^ o

020

«0

~* 2 "^

o ;s

&2 CO

«0

n
o

:?;

Co
o

o
bjO

•<

-to

runcat

O
so

■o

f-O

•S to

Q
I— (

M
Hi
<

O
O

QQ
OQ

03
I— I
o

Greatest length

(in inclies) of the

commoner species.

w
<

o
Q

(— '
• 1— (

-a

Species.

monstrosa

Chimcera

>— 1

338

FISHES.

'^i

xn.

rjl

1— 1

o
1^

(— 1

1— 1

r,^

C/J

h^l

f— 1

<X5 Tji

I—"

,^5

ffi

^-4

-t-^

X
O

O
ft

3
O

«c

•;:^

«0

««*

■a

«0

CO
J5^

<4>

^CJ O

«0

''J

1!^

M
Hi

l-H

H
O

bci
o

•!^

."^^

^-^

e -S

(-1

LIST OF BRITISH FISHES.

339

«3 t^

OS oo

O <M

ri4

5CI

fl ^

G O

-l->

1—1

fc'jD

02 -5h OHl-^SSffla2pMa2

■to
o

«0

Co"

8
g

i-O O

o
«

<£

<»

"^^

^i^

•(Si

*"o

1— 1

l-H

1—1

1-3

340

FISHES.

[* Fresh-water fishes ; +Fishes foimd in both fresh and salt ; rare

fishes iu square braclcets.]

CHAPTER I. THE PERCHES AND SEA-
BREAMS.

I. The Perches.

One of the most familiar of our fresh-water fishes, the
Perch is easily recognised by the prominent front dorsal
fin, which has usually fourteen rays, and the
five or more black bands on its sides. In
colour, it is bronze or green on the back and sides, white
below ; fins red. The perch is widely distributed through-
out these islands, being met with as far north at any rate
as the waters of Ross-shire,^ though it does not occur in

a. Anal fin.

c, Caudal fin.

d d. Dorsal (intermittent ; ist dorsal, spinous)

/, Pectoral. v v, Ventral (jugular). See p. 321.

the Isle of Wight. It is not affected by brackish water ;
and I have caught large perch in the Baltic three or four
miles out at sea. The dorsal fin is so sharp that it is

1 Harvie-Brown and Buckloy, Fauna of the Outer Hebrides, p. 1S4.

THE PERCHES AND SEA-BREAMS.

341

customary to remove it before using the fish as bait for
pike, but the young fish are greedily devoured by both
trout and pike. It is a voracious fish, of catholic appetite,
feeding greedily on minnows, small roach and dace, young
water-hens, water-voles, also reptiles and insects, and it
pays the penalty of its want of discrimination by suffering
the attacks of a variety of parasites. It is of gregarious
habits, and those of similar size are usually found together
in the neighbourhood of sluices, weirs, and dams. In the
cold jnonths perch appear to grow sluggish. Anglers are
at all times careful not to prick and lose a perch, as the
rest of the shoal are easily frightened away. Its maximum
weight is about 7 or 8 lbs. ; but a fish of half this weight
is considered a fine specimen. Perch spawn among the
reeds in the month of May.

The Bass, a marine form of perch, also found in
brackish, even in fresh, water, is a fish in great repute
with the sea-angler, chiefly on account of its
exceeding wariness and capricious movements,
but in little demand for the table. The bass is taken,

tBass.

mostly in trammels and crab-pots, in our waters weighing
as much as 20 lbs., but a fish of half the weight must be
regarded as above the average nowadays. Not unlike a
chub in general appearance, especially about the head, the
bass has the distinguishing percoid dorsal fins ; in colour,
it is dark green along the back, shading off to silver

342 FISHES.

beneath, young fish being much spotted. The bass,
though, as aforementioned, uncertain in its goings and
comings, may, so far as our seas go, be regarded as a
Channel fish; but it is not uncommon off the Scottish
coasts, occurring (Buckley) in Loch Carron, in Ross-shire.
It is also met with on most parts of the Irish coast. Bass
of small size are abundant in summer in such enclosed
waters as Southampton docks, and greedily unbait every
hook in the vicinity ; but the heavier fish are usually
driven inshore by a spell of south-west wind, after which
they are found feeding for a day or two just behind the
break of the weaves. They then disappear as suddenly as
they came. Though often shy of the hook, the bass is a
very foul feeder, and I have taken many from lobster-pots
when the latter were baited with stale fish, often too at
places where, as at Lulworth, they are not seldom baited
w^ith rabbit, or even dead horse, which soon becomes par-
ticularly offensive in the water. In addition to its taste
for offal, the bass pursues sand-eels and various fry at the
surface, hence its popularity with the angler, who judges
its whereabouts by the movements of the gulls overhead.
Though not regularly anadromous for spawning jDurposes,
the bass, always an estuarine fish by preference, is fre-
quently taken in fresh water, and I have caught one or
two above Arundel, while the tide was running out and
the water was, for the time being, merely brackish. In
like manner bass are, or were when I was there, taken in
the Tiber as far up as Rome. Small bass move in large
shoals, and even the larger fish are rarely solitary. The
bass spawns in July.

Not unlike a small perch, the Pope is characterised
by the possession of but one dorsal fin instead of two ;

*Pope or and in place of the bands that mark the

Buff. perch, the body of this fish is spotted, the

spots generally extending to the fins. Of somewhat local

distribution even in England — the Thames and Severn are

THE PERCHES AND SEA-BREAMS. 343

both among its native rivers — it is not found in either
Scotland or Ireland. I have taken it in the Baltic in com-
pany with the perch. A fish of sluggish habits, the pope
prefers a muddy bottom. A cruel practice, which I have
also observed followed with unfortunate sea - bullheads,
obtains in some parts, particularly on midland rivers,
which is known as "plugging" the fish, corks being fixed
on the dorsal spines and the pope being then cast adrift
to die of starvation. This fish spawns in early spring.

The Smooth Serranus is an unfamiliar, thick-set sea-
perch, which is practically confined, so far as our waters
Smooth 8^5 ^^ ^^® coasts of Devon and Cornwall,
Serranus where it is taken for the most part in the
or aper. ^rab-pots. In colour it is yellow, having
dark longitudinal bands. The lower jaw projects con-
siderably, and there is but one dorsal fin. The food of
this fish consists of small fishes and crustaceans. It
spawns in the month of August,

The Dusky Serranus is a larger species, taken in the

same waters. It grows to a weight of 60 lbs. (Day),

Dusky is darker in colour than the last, and lacks

Serranus. j^g longitudinal bands. It is said to spawn

in spring.

One of our largest as well as least familiar fish, the
Stone Basse is caught off our south-west coast, and off
Stone the south of Ireland, to a weight of 60 lbs.
Basse. (Day). One examj^le was taken years ago
in the mouth of the Clyde, but that is regarded as north
of its natural region. A deep-water fish by preference, it
is known to follow barnacle-covered planks at the surface,
hence called "Wreck-fish." Its capture is irregular, and
is usually accomplished with some kind of grains, or spear.

I have caught the Dentex in the Mediterranean weighing

344

FISHES.

Dentex.

as much as 12 lbs., but in our seas it is rare, confined prac-
tically to the south-west coast, where, however, the nets
take examples of over 50 lbs. On the Italian
coast, we used to fish for it at night, a torch
being hung out over the bow, and a hook, dressed with two
white feathers and baited with 3 or 4 inches of the tentacle
of an octopus, being " dapped " at the surface. In colour,
it is bluish, with silver reflections. It has but one dorsal
fin ; and the mouth is armed with long curved teeth.

[According to a correspondent of Harvie - Brown, an
example of Holocanthus tricolor, allied to the Australian
coral-fishes, was taken off Stornoway some years ago.]

2. The Red Mullet.

The Eed Mullet has no connection whatever with the grey

mullet, from which it is easily distinguished by its smaller

size, brighter colouring, and stiff "feelers."

^ ' At first sight it might be taken for a small

red gurnard. There are two forms of this fish — the striped,

^\v

or surmullet, the larger and commoner, and the smaller
plain form. Cunningham^ has not found the smaller form
at Plymouth. This fish — it suffices for i3resent purposes to

1 Marketable Marine Fishes, p. 307.

THE PERCHES AND SEA- BREAMS. 345

treat both forms as one — is of a bright red hue, the colour
being fixed, and intensified, to render it more attractive
when offered for sale, by the cruel process of scaling the
fish before life is extinct. The scales are large and thin,
and the commoner surmullet is banded with bright yellow.
This fish is usually taken in the trammel, but a number
of instances, three of them at Bournemouth, have come
under my notice in which it has taken a hook baited with
mussel. It grows to a weight of 2 lbs., though the majority
weigh nearer }^ lb. It spawns late in the summer, and is
rarely caught in the colder months. Eed mullet are very
rare in north Scottish waters.^

3. The Sea-Breams.

The Sea-Bream is a gregarious rock-haunting fish which
approaches the coast in the warm months, breeding in late
Common autumn. Though in greatest abundance in
Sea-Bream, ^j^g Channel, it is found on every part of the
British coasts, where it grows to a weight of 5 or 6 lbs. I
have caught many of 3 lbs. off the Lizard, on a favourite
ground of mine. In colour bright red, the adult having a
conspicuous black spot on the shoulder ; the young are
known as "chad," the intermediate size, of half a pound
or so, being denominated "ballard."- Sea -bream are
caught in the neighbourhood of reefs ; and it is a fact that
where chad of the smallest type are on the feed, there is
little hope of finding larger fish, which would favour the
theory of fish of an age keeping to themselves. Sea-
breams are known on various parts of the Scottish coast
as "Bulgarian (or Barbarian) Haddies."

1 Harvie-Brown and Buckley, Fauna of Sutherland, p. 259.

2 Just as the sea-bream is among our only common fishes with differ-
ent names according to size, so Australians know three stages of the
same fish, to wit, the " red brim," the " squire," and the famous, justly
famous, " schnapper."

346 FISHES.

The Axillary Bream is a somewhat similar fish, having
the fins and belly of paler hue, and lacking the black spot
Axillary on the shoulder. Little appears to be known
Bream. ^f [^^ habits, though from the fact of its having
been taken on the coasts of Scotland and Cornwall, its dis-
tribution in British waters should not be very limited.

The Spanish Bream is smaller, its greatest length (Couch)

Spanish being about lo inches, and is also taken mostly

Bream, q^ the south-west coast in the autumn months.

It is conspicuously spotted with blue. I caught one this

(1897) August at Mevagissey; weight about 2 lbs.

[An allied form, Pagellus acarne, is also taken on rare
occasions.]

The Pandora is a red bream with blue spots. Of
Pandora or Diigratory habits, it is taken off the south
King of the and south-west coasts of Great Britain and
Breams. Ireland, but never in any numbers, though
not uncommon.

The Old Wife, to all intents and purposes the popular
"Black brim" of Australian fishermen, is not uncommon
Old AVife ^^ ^^^ south coast, where it grows to similar
or Black dimensions as those of the common sea-bream,
ea-Bream. though examples of 20 inches are recorded.
Farther north, and on the Irish coast, it becomes rarer.
Like all the breams, it is taken on the rocks, where it finds
crustacean food to its taste. In colour, it is silvery grey
rather than black, and has longitudinal yellow bands on
the body and rows of dark spots on the fins.

The Bogue, which is of a bronze hue with yellow longi-
tudinal lines and a brown spot on the pectoral fin, is not
common in our waters, but in parts of the
Mediterranean there is a regular fishery for
it, and I have taken numbers on the rod off Leghorn.

THE BULLHEADS AND GURNARDS. 347

[Couch's Sea-Bream and the Gilthead are stragglers only
to our seas. One of the former, which grows to a weight
of lo lbs., was taken off the Cornish coast. The latter is
cauo-ht in the same waters. It is named after the crescent-
shaped yellow mark between the eyes.]

4. The Bergylt.

The red Bergylt, which grows to a weight of at least 30

lbs., is chiefly interesting because, like one of our blennies,

Berevltor ^* brings forth its young alive, the breeding

Norway season being in summer. More properly a

Haddock, northern fish, it finds its way to Scottish and

Irish waters occasionally, where it is taken on long lines

set for cod in deep water. Cunningham gives in the

appendix to his recent work an interesting comparison

between this fish and that other European marine species,

the aforesaid blenny, which bears its young in the same

fashion ; and he points out their differences, — the blenny

being a littoral fish, lurking under stones, the bergylt

living out in deep water, where it pursues its food boldly.

CHAPTER II. THE BULLHEADS AND

GURNARDS.

I. The Bullheads.

As the first representative of this group, we have in the

Miller's Thumb a prickly little fish, familiar in most of our

* Miller's clear running streams, where it lurks beneath

Thumb, ^jjg stoiies, a favourite method of dislodging it
being to strike the stone sharply, which has the effect of
stunning the recluse beneath. In colour this fish is greenish
above, lighter on the sides and belly, and marked with

348 FISHES.

vertical black bands. The body is practically without scales,
and the lateral line is distinct throughout. This bullhead
can survive some time out of water. The spines that arm
the head have been the death of grebes and kingfishers,
as the fish instinctively inflates its head whenever a bird
attempts the difticult task of swallowing it. Buckland
mentions, indeed, a case in which one of the next species
choked a fisherman. Of little account in this country,
I have tasted it frequently in German towns, where they
convert it into a soup, and it is also in some demand for
bait. The miller's thumb is said to be injurious to trout
spawn and fry, but its food consists for the most part of
larvae. The male is alleged to defend the eggs and young
with great valour, but evidence of this appears to be want-
ing. In parts of Ireland this fish is exceedingly rare.

The Sea -scorpion is a shore bullhead, and is found
more particularly in the vicinity of estuaries and some

tSea-scor- ^^^^^^ ^^^^Y ^P rivers. It is very common in
pion or the Baltic ; and there were days when, spin-
Stmg-fish. jjjjjg jjg^if ^ hiHq above Rostock (or some ten

miles from the sea), nothing else could have a chance
with the bait, so many sea-scorpions were round it. This
fish, which is dark grey, the underparts white with yellow
spots and streaks, and often having some white and red
markings on the fins, does not in our waters exceed a
length of 15 inches, but there is on the coast of Green-
land a form, practically identical, which grows to a length
of 6 feet. Our fish appears to spawn about December,
the spawn adhering to stones and weeds ; and the father
is, as in the last species, credited with strong parental
instincts.

A smaller and more abundant fish than the last, found
t Father in the rock pools between the tides, and feed-
Lasher, ing on small fishes and crustaceans, the Father
Lasher recalls in general appearance the flatheads that give

THE BULLHEADS AND GURNAEDS. 349

such excellent sport in Australian waters. Our species is
especially common in the fall of the year in the mouth of
the Thames. In colour it is usually brown with black and
white streaks, occasionally deep red. Cunningham ^ attrib-
utes the colour of the carmine examples to the influence
of the red seaweed in the midst of which they lurk.

I .have also taken in the Baltic the greyer Four-horned

Cottus with the red and yellow markings. It resembles

t Four- *^® ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ sluggish movements, occasional

horned activity in rushing at a spoon-bait, and capac-
° ^^* ity for surviving several hours out of water.
Its name alludes to the four rough tubercles upon the
head.

[The Norway Bullhead^ a straggler only to our waters,
has been added to the British list comparatively recently,
a single specimen having been taken off" the Mull of
Kintyre.]

2. The Gurnards.

The gurnards differ from the foregoing outwardly in the
development of a bony armour on the head, inwardly in
the presence of an air-bladder. The square head with its
fleshy feelers imparts anything but a pleasing appearance ;
nor is the impression made more favourable by the curious
grunts which fresh-caught gurnards are capable of emitting
from the air-bladder, a peculiarity to which they owe their
trivial name in many tongues (cf. Gournecm^ Croonan,
Knurrhahn, &c.) Like the bullheads, they are creatures
of sluggish habits, feeding for the most part on or near
the bottom, over which they crawl with the aid of their
sensitive feelers, but occasionally in warm weather gambol-
ling at the surface. They greedily take any bait that
lingers within reach; and I have even caught a fair
number on spinning baits when pollack -fishing, usually
when, for some reason or other, the bait has been allowed
1 Marketable Marine Fishes, p. 326.

350 FISHES.

to sink for a moment among the weeds. The flesh, though
much eaten, is not remarkable.

The Eed Gurnard, commonest, and with one exception
smallest, of our gurnards, is a red fish with silvery belly,

Hed or ^^^ lateral line crossed by plate -like scales.

Cuckoo In the Channel it is particularly common,
urnar . ^g-j-^g found in all rocky localities, where it
preys on crustaceans. It spawns in May, the spawn
floating at the surface.

The Grey Gurnard, another familiar British fish, lacks
the ridge of spines found in the rest of the group, and is
Grey grey in colour, having white spots over the

Gurnard, "back and sides. It is more abundant on the
east coast than the last. The females, the j^roportion of
which is, according to Dr Fulton, about 4-1, are slightly
larger than the males. ^ Day ^ considers this a gregarious
fish, but my own experience in the Channel has invariably
been to catch at most two or three with as many dozen red
gurnards. This, however, has always been in September,
and it is quite possible that they are more sociable at the
spawning season, about May. On the Galloway coast, I
understand, the reverse obtains, and September anglers
take a dozen grey gurnards for every red one.

The Streaked Gurnard has raised red bands down the
sides, hence the trivial name. In colour it is deep red on
Streaked the back and sides, white beneath, and with
Gurnard, blotches on the fins. It is an exceedingly
rough fish to handle, owing to the spines along the back
and lateral line. By no means one of our commoner fish,
it is taken in the trammels on the south coast, rarely, if
ever, on the hook.

The Sapphirine Gurnard is a larger fish. It is easily
recognised by the large blue pectoral fins, the lower
1 Marketable Marine Fishes, p. 330. - British Fishes, i. 63.

THE BULLHEADS AND GURNARDS. 351

surface of which is bright blue with rows of black spots.
Like the rest, it lives at the bottom, and feeds on crus-
Sapphirine taceans and small fishes. Cunningham^
Gurnard alludes to a curious habit which this fish has
u - s . ^£ spreading the pectoral fins when alarmed.

A still larger fish is the Piper, so called from the vocal
performances to which, like the rest, it is addicted. It is
taken principally in the Channel, though not
uncommon farther north. The largest of our
gurnards, it grows to a weight of 5 lbs. or more. In colour
this gurnard is bright red above, white beneath. It is a
more slender fish than the last, lacks the distinguishing
blue pectoral fins, and has the edges of the bony plates on
the snout strongly serrated.

The Lanthorn Gurnard, smallest of our true gurnards,

is recognised by its elongated dorsal fin, after which it

Lanthorn is called in some parts the " long - finned

G-urnard. gurnard." It is red in colour, and has a

bright silver band along the sides. It is said not to

take a bait.

In the little Pogge we have a kind of sea -armadillo,

clad in a suit of impregnable armour. Like the true

Pogge or bullheads, it is destitute of air-bladder. It

Armed is regarded as commonest on our east coast,

^ ^^ ' especially in the neighbourhood of estuaries.

In colour yellowish grey, with black bands.

The Beaked Gurnard is another armed fish, scarlet in
colour. It is but a straggler in our seas, and may at
Beaked once be recognised by the pointed bony pro-
G-urnard. jections before the head, beneath which there
are filaments, and the large plates of bone with which
the body is covered. Like the true gurnards, it has an
air-bladder.

J Marketable Marine Fishes, p. 333.

352 FISHES.

CHAPTER III. THE ANGLER -FISH.

The remarkable-looking Angler- Fish, disposed on the
fishmonger's slab to greatest advantage, its huge gape
Angler or distended with a lobster or other attractive
Fishing- mouthful, is very frequently the cause of ob-
^°^' structions on London pavements. Of voracious

appetite but sluggish habits, it lies in ambush for the
small fish on which it preys, and is said to attract them
within reach of its jaws with the aid of the filaments
that grow from the dorsal fin — a popular estimate which
Cunningham^ criticises, more particularly as regards the
alleged phosphorescence of the forked extremity of the
filament, quoting an interesting fact observed by Mr Lane,
that the fish always contrived, by snapping rapidly, to
catch that portion of a stick which just touched the fila-
ment. This is very different from the old notion of the
" rod " catching the young fish and conveying them to the
mouth. The most striking character of this fish is perhaps
to be found in the huge bulk of its flattened spinous head
as contrasted with the attenuated hind - quarters, a van
concentration of strength similar to that in the mole. In
colour it is dark-brown above, white beneath. Though a
slow swimmer, save in the, larval stage, the angler is able,
with the aid of its arm-like pectoral fins, to walk on the
sand after the fashion of gurnards. It spawns in summer,
the eggs floating at the surface in great sheets of 20 feet
or more in length.

1 Marketable Marine Fishes, p. 338.

THE WEEVEES. 353

CHAPTER IV. THE WEEYERS.

These venomous little fishes are a plague on every coast,
save that of the United States, where, on the eastern side
at any rate, they are unknown. There is in Australian
waters a so-called "whiting" which is closely related to
these weevers, but it lacks the poisonous spines, gives good
sport, and is excellent for the table.

The Greater Weever is the less formidable, if only that
it is not so given to lurking in the sand with its back-
Greater fill protruding. It is most abundant on the
Weever. southern coasts of these islands, much rarer
in the north. Its colour is dark yellow, with lighter lines
on the sides, the head streaked or spotted with blue. Of
sluggish habits, it feeds at the bottom on cephalopods and
small crustaceans. The dorsal spines can inflict a festering
wound, but the contact is a chance one ; those on the gill-
covers, however, are, in both this and the next species,
used intentionally, the fish bending head and tail together
and suddenly uncoiling, striking the offending object with
wonderful precision.

The Lesser Weever is not more than half the size of the
last; in colour, too, it is somewhat paler, and there is a
Lesser conspicuous light band on the tail-fin. This
"Weever. little fish is a source of constant danger to
the netsmen and of annoyance to the amateur; and I
have noticed for years that a number are almost invariably
hooked from piers in the summer months during the pre-
valence of an east wind. Without being exactly dangerous,
a wound from the gill-spines of this fish may cause many
days of intense pain. In the Hebrides this fish is regarded
as the male of the sand-eel.^

1 Harvie-Brown and Buckley, Fauna of the Outer Hebrides, p. 189.

354 FISHES.

CHAPTER y. THE MACKEREL FAMILY.

Of somewhat less importance in this country than with
some Continental nations, the present family furnishes at
any rate one important food -fish. All the members of
this group are rapid swimmers, seeking their food at,
or near, the surface. This has been connected by some
authorities with the well-known difficulty of keeping their
flesh from rapid deterioration. Nor, with the important
exception of the tunny, can their flesh be regarded as
particularly suitable for purposes of canning.

The type of this family, the beautiful blue-and-silvery

Mackerel, is one of the most abundant and familiar fishes

of our seas, in which, however, its sroins^s and
Mackerel. . ' o o ^

comings appear almost the result of caprice,

and still occasion a considerable amount of confusion.

The most familiar form of this fish has the belly silvery,
with purple reflections, and deep bands down the sides ;
but there is a not uncommon form having numerous spots
on the back. For the rest, the mackerel is an elegant
tapering fish, the tail -fin large and deeply forked, and
having small keels above it. There are also a number of
finlets above and beneath the tail end of the body.
Besides undertaking migrations of considerable extent,
which, yet unexplained, are believed to depend largely on
temperature, tlie mackerel performs two regular seasonal

THE MACKEREL FAMILY. 355

movements, from deep to shallow water, and vice versa,
the deeper water being affected in winter ; but as the fish
is found in any quantity on parts of the east coast at cer-
tain seasons only, there is still good reason, for all that has
been said to the contrary, to suspect an extensive migra-
tional movement along shore. In Bournemouth Bay, for
instance, where the fishery is somewhat irregular, mackerel
are taken only between the middle of June and the end of
October. The spawning-time appears to be late in June ;
anyhow, I have found the males with milt early in that
month, but they were sj)ent by the beginning of August.
The mackerel which are caught during June and the first
days of July are rarely over a pound in weight, but the
larger " hook " mackerel of August weigh three times as
much. They are very powerful swimmers, and their first
instinct on being hooked is to sheer wildly to right and
left in the endeavour to shake out the hook. I have often
known them, indeed, to fray the gut against the keel of
the boat. The food of the mackerel consists largely of the
fry of herring and other fishes, also of medusae, small crus-
taceans, and the like. In the early summer it pursues the
fry in large shoals close to the surface, at which time the
fishermen catch it in drift-nets or on baits trailed at the
surface ; but later in the year, about August as a rule, the
shoals break up and the mackerel go to the bottom, when
they are caught in the trawl and on ground-lines. The
fishermen have an idea that these fish are blind towards
the end of winter, being in fact unable to perceive the bait ;
but Cunningham^ offers an explanation of this in their
probable absence at that season from the inshore grounds
where such hand -lining is practised. The blindness is
supposed to be the result of sickness, a fatty film covering
the eye.

The darker, heavier Coly Mackerel can only be regarded
as a wanderer from the Mediterranean to our southern
1 Murket;il)le Marine Fishes, p. 316.

356 FISHES.

shores. In it we find the beginnings of the breastplate

of large scales more characteristic of the bonitoes. In

Spanisli colour, it resembles the common species, being,

or Coly however, distinguished by the blotches on the

Mackerel, ^nderparts. As its appearances on our shores

are irregular, and its flesh deteriorates even more rapidly

than that of the other, it is of no commercial importance.

[The Plain Bonito is another straggler to our seas. It
has the scaly breastplate more conspicuous than in the
last.]

The most important fish in the Mediterranean, the Tunny
is of irregular occurrence on our coasts, though not uncom-
mon as far north as the western lochs of Scot-
^^^^* land,^ where it is known as the "Mackrelsture."
Tunnies of 9 feet in length and 900 lbs. in weight have
been captured in British waters; but the fish grows to
twice the size in the Mediterranean. I have seen them
in the market at Naples weighing probably 1000 lbs.
Tunny is a favourite article of food with the Italians;
and I was regaled with it in one form or another every
day without fail for over three months, the least disagree-
able way of serving it being as a roast with green peas, the
least agreeable being when soused in olive oil and sent to
table in a dish that has been first rubbed with a head of
garlic. In colour, the tunny is very deep blue, lighter on
the scaly breastplate. The tail is well keeled.

In the Albicorc, otherwise Long-finned Tunny, we have
a smaller fish, distinguished by the great length of the
pointed pectoral fins, which, in examples of
large size, may exceed one-third the length of
the fish. It is this fish that ocean travellers observe over
the bow of steamers or in the wake of sailing ships, gener-
ally harassing the flying-fish. I have watched them (some

1 Harvie-Browu and Buckley, Fauna of tlie Outer Hebrides, p. 188.

THE MACKEREL FAMILY. 357

fully 4 feet in length, so far as it was possible to judge)
at this work in the Indian Ocean, mostly about three
hundred miles south-east of Aden. The largest recorded
from British waters was less than 3 feet ; and the occur-
rence of this fish, mostly on the south-west coast, is very
irregular.

Another wanderer to our waters is the ocean-going

Bonito, which does not in these parts exceed a length of

3 feet and a weight of 10 lbs. The pectoral

fin is short, the breastplate embraces a con-

siderable portion of the back and sides, and there are a

number of curved blue bands along the sides.

The Belted Bonito is an allied form which has, at irreg-
ular intervals,* been taken on our south-west coast of a
B It d length of 2 feet and a weight of 6 lbs. It is
Bonito or distinguished by a number of broad vertical
Pelamid. bands, crossed by other bands, curved and
lateral. The habits of all these fishes so resemble those
of the mackerel that it is a saving of space to omit any
individual account.

As the boon companion of sharks, it is only natural that

a good deal, both true and untrue, should have been written

T, at all times about the remarkable little Eemora.

Bemora . .

or Sucking- It has only been taken m British waters at
fish. jQjjg intervals, and as it was always in the

company of sharks, indebted to them, moreover, for its
introduction to British waters, its admission to the present
list is at least open to criticism. It is included, however,
for the sake of the interesting evidence it afi'ords of
Nature's ways to different ends. In no sense of the word
is it to be regarded as a parasite, the name bestowed on it
by the ancients, as it never preys on the great fish whose
company it keeps for various reasons — among them being,
if we may so presume on its secrets, the advantages of free

358 FISHES.

and easy locomotion, protection from the above-mentioned
ravenous bonito and albicore that scour the surface of the
waters day and night, and possibly some crumbs that fall
from the host's jaws. The shark's part of the profit has not
hitherto been explained, but I am inclined to think, from
the examination of a number of small sharks which I caught
in a Queensland river, some with one or more remoras
attached, others without, that the fish may rid its host of
the parasites that bore into its hide. The sucker mth
which this fish attaches itself to sharks or ships is a
modified fin, and is situated on the back of the head.
Contrary to rule, the back of this fish (which passes most
of its life with its belly to the light) is of lighter hue than
the lower surface. The largest remora I ever handled
weighed just over 3 lbs., but one or two out of the ten
existing species run much larger. The power of suction
even in small examples is very great, and, even after death,
it is difficult to remove one without injury, the best way
being to seize it by the head, gently but firmly, and push
it forward. It will then slide to the edge.

CHAPTER VI. THE CORYPHENES AND
THEIR ALLIES.

The five fishes belonging to this group are of slight
importance, and need only be mentioned. Ray's Bream is
Ray's a flattened blue fish, not unlike a bream in
Bream, appearance, with a continuous dorsal fin and
a curious oblique cleft in the mouth. It is rare in our
waters, where, however, it has been taken to a weight of
over 4 lbs. In Irish waters it is known as the " Hen-
fish."

THE HORSE-MACKERELS AND THEIR ALLIES. 359

■ Another occasional wanderer to our waters is the many
coloured Opah (otherwise " Sunfish " or " King-fish "), a
handsome green-and-red fish, with silvery spots.
The lateral line takes a remarkable upward
curve above the pectoral, and the head ends in a kind
of beak. The skin is exceedingly thick. A specimen of
190 lbs. weight was recently taken from the North Sea.

[The Black-fish, as Couch calls it, and the allied Cen-
trolophus hritannicus, are small and rare fish on our coasts,
of which little seems to be known. Another rarity in
British waters is Ltivarus imperialis, one of which, weigh-
ing 120 lbs., is recorded from Cornish waters. It has a
bright red band along the side, the back being dark, the
belly white, fins bright red. Both dorsal and anal fins
extend only a short way from the tail, the foreparts of
either margin being finless.]

CHAPTER VIL THE HOESE-MACKEKELS
AND THEIR ALLIES.

[It is convenient to include in this group not alone the
horse-mackerels proper, but also members of a number of
families that fall naturally in this place — such aj^parently
distinct types as the dory, sword-fish, and hairtails.]

The only fish of the family that occurs in our seas in
any numbers is the typical Scad or Horse-mackerel, shoals
Scad or ^^ which visit our south-west coast in summer-
Horse- time, though I have more often found it in
mackerel, company with the mackerel, joining in keen
pursuit of the "mackerel -midge" and other fry. I have
taken as many as a dozen in a morning when drift -lining

360 FISHES.

for mackerel, but never when sailing under canvas, though
there is of course no reason why fish of habits so closely
resemblino- those of the mackerel should not be taken in
this fashion. The scad is known to the Italians as
cantatore (the singer), owing to a peculiar grunting which,
like the gurnards, it is said to utter when removed from
the water. I must confess never to have noticed this
myself, but it seems a matter of common observation.
This fish may be distinguished by its long, low, dorsal fin,
as well as by the bony plates along the lateral line. In
colour, it is bluish grey above, white beneath. As food
it is not to be recommended. It is still more capricious
in its wanderings than the mackerel. During the early
days of July in the present year (1897), tens of thou-
sands were netted off Bournemouth (locally confused with
pilchards), where they are often not seen for years to-
gether. My boatman took one this August (1897) off
Mevagissey, weighing close on 3 lbs.

With the exception perhaps of the wonderful remora,
few fish have been the theme of more downright nonsense
than that other friend and ally of the shark,
the Pilot-fish. As in the former case, we find
all, or apparently all, the advantage on the side of the
weaker, though, as these arrangements are generally mutual
throughout vertebrate and invertebrate nature, man not
excepted, it is probable that the shark derives some
advantage that has so far escaped our notice. The well-
seasoned story about the pilot warning the shark against
the snare of the baited hook is as incredible as its
fondness, alleged of old, for sailors in danger of running
aground. I have myself seen a 20 -foot shark hooked the
moment after one of its two attendant pilots had swum
round the hook. This was in about 17° S., and the bait
was the half of a smaller shark that I had caught a few
moments before. The pilot made a leisurely survey of the
bait, found it apparently not to its own taste, and the

THE HORSE-MACKERELS AND THEIR ALLIES. 361

minute afterwards the monster rolled lazily towards it
and engulfed bait, chain, and all, but the hook came
away. When such a shark is caught and hauled aboard,
both pilots and remoras soon attach themselves, doubtless
for the sake of protection, to the ship. The pilot-fish
is in colour of a steely blue, having a number of dark
bands down the sides, and occasionally one on the tail.

[The Black Pilot and Derbio have been recorded once
each in our waters. The former, also known as the Snij)-
nosed mullet or "Rudder-fish," is of American origin, and
the solitary British example was found ofi" the Cornish
coast in a broken wooden case (!). The Derbio, or
Glaucus, is a small green fish.]

In the Boar-fish we have a remarkable form, rarely ex-
ceeding a length of 7 inches, and being laterally flattened
Boar-fislior like the more familiar dory. It is very rough-
Cuckoo, skinned, to which, as well as to the prominent
snout, may be due the trivial name. It is also, I believe,
said to grunt on being ca23tured and removed from
the water; but here again, as in the case of the scad, I
have not been favoured with a ^performance, as we used to
net dozens in the little estuary north of Leghorn, and I
never heard a sound from them. It is a bright-red fish,
the fins being long and spinous, the mouth small and
tubular. It occurs chiefly on the south-west coast.

The John Dory, one of the ugliest and most delicate of
British table fishes, is too familiar on the fishmonger's

slab to need much by way of description.

The body is flattened, the skin smooth, the
dorsal fin tipped with long filaments. The colour is a
deep brown, there being also a number of lighter bands
and a single black spot with a light rim on either side.
These spots are associated by tradition w^ith the finger and
thumb of St Peter; hence, according to some etymologists.

362

FISHES.

the name is a corruption of the Italian word gianitore
(gatekeej3er). Cunningham ^ gives an interesting picture
of how the Dory, which is so depressed laterally as to
foreshorten to the merest line, stalks small fishes ; and I
have repeatedly had the opportunity of observing this in
the clear water beneath Bournemouth pier, where several
dories take up their quarters each summer. The tragedy
was continuous. First, the sand-eels harassed the " mack-

erel-midge"; then a pollack would dash out from the
piles, miss the agile launce, and have to content itself
with a small sand -smelt; lastly, a more leisurely dory
would rise slowly from the depths, and, approaching end
on, would quickly catch several sand-eels in its tube-like,
mobile mouth. The dory is to some extent, and within
limits not satisfactorily fixed, a migratory fish. It appears
to spawn at the end of summer, and occurs as far north

1 Marketable Marine Fishes, p. 322.

THE HOPtSE-MACKERELS AND THEIR ALLIES. 363

at any rate as the Moray Firtli.^ Its greatest weight
is about 1 8 lbs., but the average would be nearer 5 lbs.

Easily recognised from all other living fishes by the
curious sword -like growth on the snout, from which it
derives its name, the Sword-fish, which grows
to a length of at least 10 feet, is occasionally
entangled in the mackerel nets on our south-west coast,
and, more rarely, farther north. Another conspicuous
feature of this fish is the high dorsal fin, particularly
noticeable when, as not seldom happens, the sword-fish is
observed basking at the surface. It is endowed with great
strength and activity, and is known to attack with its only
weapon both whales and ships.

The Maigre, practically the Jew - fish of Australian
waters, is a large and handsome fish, growing to a weight
Maigre or of near 400 lbs. We used to fish for its an-
Sciaena. tarctic equivalent with a live bait weighing

as much as a pound. In British seas, it is taken only
casually in the mackerel-nets. In colour, dark grey, with
metallic reflections, above, white beneath.

The Hairtail that occasionally visits our coasts hails
from the West Indies. Examples, the largest of which
Hairtail or bad a length of 2^ feet, have from time
Blade-fish, to time been taken on the south-west coast.
The tail, lacking the usual fin, tapers to a point.

The Scabbard-fish is the famous " Frost-fish," for which
such prices are paid in New Zealand, on the shores of
Scabbard- which it is cast up in winter-time. It has
^^^- also occurred in our seas about a dozen times.

It is a band-like fish with a long dorsal fin and a small
fin at the end of the tail. (The " scabbard-fish," figured on
p. 261 of the ' Eoyal Natural History,' would apj)ear to
1 Harvie-Browu and Buckley, Fauna of Siitlierland, p. 262.

364 FISHES.

be a Hairtail of some kind.) These occurrences have been
confined to the coasts of Devon and Cornwall, and there
seems to be some probability of a single Irish example.
The length of specimens taken in British waters has been
under 6 feet, nor does it anywhere appear to exceed this.

CHAPTER VIII. THE GARFISH AND
FLYING-FISH.

This group finds a different place in every succeeding
scheme. For the purposes of the present elementary work,
however, it may be introduced here.

The well-known silvery-and-green eel-like Garfish, though
excellent eating, is the object of a ridiculous prejudice, the
Garfish or outcome of the green colour of its bones. The
Guardfish. j-Qof of the mouth is, as I have often had occa-
sion to know, extremely hard. When hooked, this fish has
a curious habit, also observed in sharks, of making straight

for the surface, even leaping into the air in its attempts
to shake out the hook. Its food consists of small fish,
which are pursued with long leaps at the surface. It is
also characterised by a strong, unpleasant odour, peculiarly
its own. From the great length of its beak it is known
as the "Long Nose," while its arrival and departure with
the mackerel has obtained for it the local title of " Mack-
erel guide." The migrations of this fish are as yet im-
perfectly understood, all we know being that it is absent
from our coast in winter.

THE GOBIES AND SUCKERS. 365

Not unlike the last, the Saury Pike is a much smaller
species. It is distinguished from small garfish of its own
Sa\iry Pike size by the presence of finlets behind the
or Skipper, dorsal and anal fins, its smaller teeth, and its
bluer colour. As in the garfish, the young skipper has the
lower jaw much longer than in the adult ; and, also like
the garfish, its eggs are attached one to the other by long
filaments.

The beautiful blue-and-silver Flying-fish, in which the
pectoral fins are developed into wings, finds its way into
„, our waters, if ever, at long; intervals only ; in-

deed some caution is necessary m accepting its
recorded occurrences. In the first place, its action at the
surface is, especially when seen at some little distance,
not unlike that of the last, and might easily deceive those
who had never seen the real flying-fish. As regards the
examjDles cast up on the beach, it must be borne in mind
that few South Sea curios are brought over in greater num-
bers, and dried specimens, being easily blown about, might,
and doubtless do, get lost over the side in the confusion of
packing as the ship is getting near the British coast. At
the same time, there seems to be little doubt of the occur-
rence of living examples on our south-west coast.

CHAPTER IX. THE GOBIES AND SUCKERS.

I. The Gobies.

There appears to be some confusion as to the precise
nomenclature of these little fishes, and the following is
offered as an approximate list of British species. The
male guards the eggs, which are deposited in shells fixed

366 FISHES.

in the sand. The gobies are credited with the power of
changing colour when pursued — a phenomenon, however,
that I have not witnessed.

The Black Goby, largest of our gobies (and also known
as the " Eock-Goby "), is common in rock -pools on most

t Black parts of our coasts, clinging with its fins in
Goby. Qne typical position to the rock. It also fre-
quents brackish, even fresh, water, and its food consists
of small fishes and vegetable matter. In colour it is dull
brown, having white blotches on the sides. The tail is
not forked. This goby breeds in June.

The " Polewig," as the Spotted Goby is often called, is
abundant in the estuary of the Thames, in fact all round
Spotted our coasts. A very small fish, it is quick
G-oby. iQ escape when disturbed. It feeds on crus-
taceans. In colour it is dark brown, with numerous
spots.

The small Paganellus is very dark in hue, with some
reddish shades on the dorsal and anal fins. It is said
by Day to occur in both rocky and sandy
localities, and to breed in May or June.

One of our smallest gobies, the Two-spotted Goby, has
a conspicuous black spot above the pectoral fin, and a
Two-spot- second on the tail. According to Harvie-
ted Goby. Brown and Buckley,^ this species is found
breeding in the neighbourhood of mussel-beds, its eggs
being deposited in the shell of that mollusc.

There is, however, a still smaller species in the shape of

White the White Goby, the length of which is i}^

Goby. inch. Tliis little fish is thought to sjiawn

once and die ; and if this is correct, its life lasts but a

1 Fauna of the Outer Hebrides, p, 194.

THE GOBIES AXD SUCKEES. 367

year, and it is one of the only European cases of what is
termed an "annual vertebrate."

tThe Four- X small species occurring in brackish
spotted ,

Goby. water.

Nilsson's A small and rare semi - transjmrent deep-
G-oby. water goby, having dark spots on the jaw
and fins.

Parnell's This goby has light bands on the dorsal
Goby. £jj^ jg^j,]^. Qjj ^^Q caudal.

The Gemmeous Dragonet is a beautiful smooth-skinned
species, the male being orange and blue in colour, with red
Gemmeous and lilac markings, and having the dorsal fin
Dragonet. yellow with lilac bands, with a long ray. The
duller female, known as the "Dusky Skulpin," is brown,
with various spots and blotches, and lacking the long
dorsal ray. The mouth is pointed, its opening being of
small size; and the food consists chiefly of molluscs.

[The SjMttecl Dragonet^ a deejD-water species, has been
once dredged near the Hebrides. There are black spots
on the fins, sometimes on the body.]

2. The Suckees.

Among the ugly fish of the sea none can perhaps bid

against the Lumpsucker for sheer repulsiveness of exterior,

with its slimy skin and rows of tubercles, the

sucker or ^^i^ almost enveloping the front dorsal fin. It

Cock- grows to a weight of 20 lbs., the colour of the

■^^^ ^* male being normally red, that of the female

blue. The young, which are of a bright green, are often

taken in the salmon-nets. The eggs, also reddish, are de-

230sited among the rocks, and are jealously guarded by the

368 FISHES.

male, thougli, according to jM'Intosli/ they are often un-
covered at low tide and devoured by rats and crows. The
ventral fins form in this fish an adhesive disc, by the aid
of which it attaches itself to rocks. It preys on smaller
fishes, and is said in its turn to be much eaten by seals.

The little Sea-snail, which does not exceed a length of

6 inches, has the same modification of the ventral fins,

but is without scales or tubercles. It is lio-ht

brown, with darker bands. Cunningham^ says

that the spawn has frequently been mistaken for that of

the herring.

A smaller and more active fish than the last, Montagu's
Sucker is of similar habits and aj^pearance, only more
Montagu's yellow, and marked with dark spots. As in
Sucker. all these fish, the normal colouring is subject
to much variation. This species is common in the
Hebrides (Harvie-Brown and Buckley).

We now come to a small group of three fishes having
the sucker hetiveen the ventral fins, not to any extent

Cornish formed by them. They also lack the spinous

Sucker, dorsal fin. These, of which the Cornish
Sucker is typical, are thus distinct from the foregoing, and
are included in the present chapter only conditionally and
for convenience. The oval sucking-disc is divided into two
portions, the hinder part having a free edge of thick skin.
In colour this species is red above, lighter beneath, but
subject to much variety. This little fish, which rarely
exceeds a length of 4 inches, is common on all our rocky
coasts. It feeds on crustaceans and breeds in spring,
depositing the eggs in empty shells.

The Connemara and Doubly-spotted suckers are similar
in habits. The first, which has a shorter dorsal fin, is red

1 Life-Histories of British Food-FisliL's, p. 15.

2 MarketaLlc Marine Fishes, p. 351.

THE BLEXNIES AND BAND-FISHES. 369

with light oval spots. The second, which does not exceed
a length of 2 inches, is red above, pink below, and marked
with a few light vertical bands. The male guards the
eggs.

CHAPTER X. THE BLENNIES AND BAND-

FISHES.

I. The Blennies.

From the absence of scales the Shanny is also known

as the "Smooth Blenny." In colour, it is yellowish, with

black spots. Its food apparently consists of

small crustaceans and vegetable matter. The

shanny spawns on the bottom in the summer.

We have in the Gattorugine a far larger species, easily

recognised by the fringed tentacle over the eye, the pro-

Gatto- portionate length of this appendage being ap-

rugine. parently subject to variation. In colour, the

gattorugine is greyish brown with vertical bands, the fins

edged with yellow or white.

The Butterfly Blenny, also known as the " Eyed "
Blenny, may be recognised by the large black white-
Butterfly rimmed spot on the first dorsal fin. In
Blenny. colour it is grey, having half-a-dozen dark
vertical bands. Like the last, it has a tentacle over the
eye. It seems almost confined to the south-west coast.

Montagu's Blenny, smallest of all those of British
Montagu's habitat, rarely exceeds the length of 3 inches,
Blenny. ^nd is covered with conspicuous white spots.
Between the eyes is a fold of skin with a fringe of

2 A

370 FISHES.

tentacles, which the fish appears able to erect at will.
Like the rest of the group, it is a most active fish, making
endless attempts to leap over the side of any vessel in
which it may be confined.

The somewhat larger Yarrell's Blenny, which has been
recorded to a length of 7 inches, is distinguished from the
Yarrell's foregoing by the presence of small scales. In
Blenny. colour it is brown, with dark bands, the latter
being sometimes absent. On the head are four tentacles.
This species appears common on every part of the coast,
and is either dredged or taken in the crab-jDots.

The elongated Butterfish grows to a length of near 12
inches, the dorsal fin being continuous with the tail and
Gunnel or ventral, its base marked by black, white-edged
Butterfish. gpots. There are no tentacles on the head
of this blenny. According to Cunningham,^ these fish
were seen by Mr Holt to be spawning at the St Andrews
aquarium m February, the parents taking turns in rolling
the eggs into a ball, coiling their bodies round the mass.
This blenny is found on every part of the coast, and the
male is known to mount guard over the eggs.

The most interesting, however, of the group is unques-
tionably the Viviparous Blenny. The young, as many as
Viviparous 300 in number and ij^ inch in length,^ are
Blenny. born early in the year, and there appears to
be some evidence in favour of a second brood. This
blenny, which seems, unlike the rest, least in evidence on
our south-west coast, grows to a length of 24 inches. It
is of an olive-brown colour, the body being marked with
arched bands. The dorsal fin, which has a deep notch
just before the tail, is continuous.

1 Marketable Marine Fishes, p. 344.

2 M'Intosh and Mastennan (Life-Histories, p. 13) gives the length as
2 imlu's, imd points out that it is proportionately great.

THE BLENNIES AND BAND-FISHES. 371

The Wolf-fish, largest of our blennies, is the much-
maligned " Stone-biter " of the Baltic fishermen, who de-
Wolf- clare that it is of fierce disposition. It is
fish. certainly not a very attractive creature, but,

as in the case of the dory, appearance does not go for
much, and the " Cat-fish," another of its names, is good
eating. It grows to a length of at least 6 feet, and is
grey, with a row of black bands and small black spots.
A fish of cold seas, it is rarest on our southern coast,
being chiefly known among the isles of Scotland ; only
a few examples are mentioned from Irish waters. There
are no throat-fins ; the tail-fin is small but distinct. The
teeth of this blenny, which are, I suspect, more formidable
than its character, are long and curved, and it feeds on all
manner of shell-fish, whelks more particularly.

[The SharjJ-tailecl Lum'penu&^ was once trawled (1884)
off the Carr Lightship.]

2. The Band-Fishes.

[The three species of this group which have wandered
occasionally to British waters are the Red Band-fish, the
Deal fish, and BanJcs's Oar fish. The first of these, a small
deep-water fish that rarely exceeds a length of 2 feet, is
occasionally hooked, more often thrown ashore in gales.
It is compressed in form ; red, with yellow markings. The
eyes and teeth are conspicuously large. The tail -fin is
absent.

The Deal-fish, which grows to a length of 9 or 10 feet,
the largest British example having measured rather over
7 feet, is taken at long intervals in the stake-nets on the
northern coasts. It is silvery in colour ; and the tail-fin,
raised above the line of the body, has several long rays.
There is no ventral fin.

1 I include this on the authority of M'lntosh and Masterman (Life-
Histories, p. 223).

372 FISHES.

[Banks's Oar-fish, an elongated silvery form, the longest
British example of which measured 15^ feet, has a re-
markable process of the dorsal fin, which gives the impres-
sion of a crest. The pelvic fins are mere filaments. When
this deep-sea form is thrown ashore, the long flattened
body breaks at the least touch. One at least of the dozen
odd British examples has been referred to an allied form,
R. grillii.^

CHAPTER XI. THE ATHERINES AND GREY

MULLETS.

I. The Atherines.

The Atherine, the so-called "Sand-smelt," is common

along just those parts of our south coast where the true

salmonoid smelt is wanting;. Hence, no doubt,

t Atherine. o 5 »

the confusion ; for when seen side by side the

two are distinct enough, the latter being at once recognised

by its soft dorsal and adipose fins, as well as by the numer-

erous sharp teeth with which the mouth is lined. On the

Hampshire coast the little atherine, which rarely measures

more than 6 inches, is particularly abundant. It spawns in

summer, and I have hooked dozens full of roe in June.

These fish are attracted by a bait in motion, and few better

baits can be found than a fragment of atherine ! This

fish is an excellent bait for turbot. In colour the atherine

is brown or green along the back, and has a broad silver

band, with purple reflections, on the sides, the fish being

semi-transparent. The above length is generally supposed

to be slightly exceeded by atherines from the Irish coast.

[+ Boier^s Atherine, a smaller fish with relatively larger

eye, is by many regarded as a variety, by others as the

young, of the common form.]

THE ATHERINES AND GREY MULLETS.

373

2. The Gkey Mullets,

This is one of the handsomest and wariest of our sea-
fish, wandering up some of our rivers, notably up the

^ Sussex Arun. In colour it is silvery, with

Urey or p t

Thin-lipped dark bands, the metallic lustre fading very

Mullet. rapidly after death. Having no teeth, a de-

fect in its digestive arrangements which is in part compen-
sated by the presence of a gizzard-like arrangement in the

stomach, this fish feeds entirely on small soft substances,
among which are various weeds. To varieties of this fish
are now ascribed more than one of the so-called British
species. According to some authorities, the grey mullet
spawns twice in the year, but this appears very doubtful.

The other distinct British form is more gregarious than
the last, and also attains to a greater weight. I have taken

this species in the Mediterranean weighing
or Thick- close on 9 lbs. At Dover and elsewhere in
lipped the Channel I have seen the two species

swimming together. This would appear to
be the commoner species on the Devonshire coast ; indeed
it is the only species that Cunningham has ever observed
at Plymouth.

374 FISHES.

CHAPTER XII. THE STICKLEBACKS.

The little grey and golden Stickleback, with the three

(sometimes four) spines in the dorsal fin, is familiar in

most of our streams. In place of scales, it is

ommon^ clad in bony plates, and the variations to which

spined it is subject in the number of these plates, as

Stickle- 'j-^ |.j^g^^ q£ ^]^g spines, has been the basis for

a number of species, which might be more
properly regarded as varieties. All the sticklebacks are
capable of living in either fresh or salt water ; and they
have been, wrongly, thought to live for one year only.
Like the rest of the group, this stickleback constructs a
nest towards the middle of spring, the male, which assumes
at this important season patches of red, subsequently guard-
ing the eggs and young from intruders.

Regarded as a sore trouble in the trout-stream, the Ten-
spined Stickleback, or "Tinker," is widely, though locally,
distributed throughout these islands, frequent-
spine d i^g brackish as well as fresh waters. There
Stickle- are no bony plates on the sides, and the nor-
mal colour, which is subject to considerable
variation, is greenish-brown, with black spots, belly and
sides silvery. In the breeding season the male, at any
rate, changes to a deep black.

The larger Fifteen-spined Stickleback, or " Bottlenose,"
normally olive-colour with white j^atches, is said to change
hue when excited. In these islands this sjjecies
spined ^^ described by most writers as exclusively
Stickle- marine, but it has been observed to enter
some streams in northern Continental coun-
tries. It is therefore probable that it has similar tastes
with us, but has chanced to escape observation in our
rivers. This sj^ecies has a long attenuated body and

THE WKASSES. 375

pointed snout. It is pugnacious and greedy as the rest,
feeding on similar small worms and larvj3e, and building a
nest of seaweeds, in which the polygamous male presently
mounts guard over the eggs.

[We may here conveniently consider that small and
remarkable form the Belloivs- or Trimipet-fish^ w^hich
has been taken in our waters about half-a-dozen times.
Viewed from above, it has the compressed appearance of
the dory ; from below, the bony plates and spinous edge
give the impression of a knife-blade. This fish, which does
not exceed 6 or 7 inches in length, is of a pink hue ; belly
silver. The bellows-fish has a beak like the last, the mouth
being small and toothless. The body is covered with small
spinous scales, and there is no lateral line. One spine of
the first dorsal fin is long and serrated.]

CHAPTER XIII. THE WRASSES.

The fishes comprised in this group are all characterised
by thick lips, mostly having brilliant colouring and strong
teeth adapted to crushing. They frequent weed-covered
rocks, take almost any bait, and are, for all the ancients
accorded them high praise, the poorest of eating. I have
observed all our species, I believe, and several more on the
Italian coast ; and the largest members of the group I ever
saw were the blue gropers of Australia, which are hooked
weighing as much as 100 lbs.

One of the commonest of our wrasses, which I have caught

„, . ^ off Dartmouth weicrhinoj over 2 lbs., is the
Striped *^ *^ '

Wrasse or Striped Wrasse, or " Cook " (locally, " Carp "),

Cook. g^ red-and-yellow fish with blue bands in the

male, the female being distinguished by black marks near

376 FISHES.

the tail. It is more abundant in the Channel than farther
north, and seems to grow to a length of 13 inches (Day).

Like the last, the greenish Ballan, with blue spots on
the body and red lines on the face, is subject to several
Ballan or varieties. I have taken this wrasse on the
Comber. Comish coast weighing near 5 lbs., and it is
said to grow to a weight of 8 lbs. Like all the wra-sses, it
frequents weed-covered rocks, and feeds largely on hermit-
and other crabs.

More gregarious than the foregoing, the small Connor,
also known as Baillon's Wrasse, has bright red or yellow
Connor or bands on the face, white rings on the tail-fin,
Goldsinny. and black spots on the anal fin. Its greatest
length would appear not to exceed 9 inches, and it occurs
on all parts of the coast.

Equally common on the coasts of England and Ireland,
though somewhat less so ofi" that of Scotland, the small
p. , Brame -^^^^ Brame, which does not exceed a length of
or Jago's 6 inches, is the least esteemed of a worthless
Goldsinny. family. It has a distinguishing black blotch
on the red dorsal fin.

One of our largest wrasses, the Scale-rayed Wrasse, is
easily distinguished by the rows of scales on the dorsal
Scale-rayed fin, to which it owes its trivial name. In
Wrasse. colour it is of a reddish orange, with or
without blue spots on the sides.

The Rock-Cook is a small and uncommon

Rock-Cook . c 1 1 -ii n 1 T

or Small- species, 01 a brown hue, with yellow shadmg,

mouthed having yellow lines and blue bands on the
"Wrasse. , ,

head.

The llainbow Wrasse, another small species, is even

THE COD FAMILY.

377

more brilliantly coloured than the rest, in which particular
it is subject to considerable sexual and other variation.
Rainbow It is difficult to say whether red, purple, green,
"Wrasse. qj. yellow predominates; and there is usually
a large dark spot on the dorsal fin, sometimes a second on
the pectoral. Like most wrasses, it has a peculiarity of the
air-bladder that causes it to float if flung in the water as
soon as it is taken ofi" the hook. I have in this way
thrown back many wrasses, ranging in weight from 3
ounces to as many pounds, and they invariably floundered
helpless at the surface.

CHAPTER XIV. THE COD FAMILY

Of this important group of food-fishes we have a number
of representatives — one only, the burbot or eel-pout, in-
habiting fresh waters. They are cold-water fish, distin-
guished for the most part by soft fins, smooth skin, and
a " beard " or fleshy barbel, not always present, on the
lower jaw. The eyes and mouth are large.

The Cod, type of the family, is too well known to need

^:-\n

minute description, being a large-headed, tapering, greenish
brown fish with distinct white lateral line,
upper jaw longer than the lower, and the

family barbel. Codlings, as the young are called, are

Cod.

378 MSHES.

more yellow in hue, and often spotted with brick -red.
This fish occurs on all our coasts, and seems to approach
the land early in the year for spawning purposes. It feeds
on the ground, the barbel, like the tongue of snakes, help-
ing; it to find and investis-ate the crustaceans on which it
preys. Cunningham gives an interesting account of the
observations recorded by Sars. The cod grows to a weight
of 80 lbs.

This almost equally familiar fish has the lateral line
black instead of white, the barbel shorter, and a conspicu-
ous black blotch on either side, which shares
with that on the dory the honour of associa-
tion with the apostle Peter. In our waters, at any rate,
the haddock is a smaller fish than the last, rarely exceed-
ing a weight of 20 lbs., averaging nearer 5 lbs. On the
coast of Iceland, however, I understand that haddock are
caught of such enormous weight as to be useless for
curing purposes. Like the cod, this species feeds mostly
on shell-fish, though Cunningham^ mentions a case of
haddocks gorged with herring - spawn. The haddock
seems to hug the land throughout the winter months,
and spawns in spring.

One of the commonest fish in the Channel, and almost

equally abundant on other parts of the British coast, is

p + the Pout, a fish with many names, among

"Whiting- which may be mentioned " Bib," " Blain," and

pout. « Pouting." It grows in our waters to a

weight of 4 lbs., though it is more often caught weighing

as many ounces, few fish taking the hook at so early a

stage. The body is deep ; in colour, brown, with vertical

bands ; white below. The barbel is jDresent on the lower

jaw, and there is usually a black spot on the pectoral

fin. Fond of rocks, sunken wrecks, and like "marks,"

these fish wander but little from place to place, and I have

1 Marketable Marine Fishes, p. 152.

THE COD FAMILY. 379

often found it possible in the course of a couple of tides to
empty a spot of its large pout.

[The Norway Pout has apparently been added to the
British fauna recently. It is distinguished by the pointed
snout, large eye, and projecting lower jaw. According
to Harvie-Brown and Buckley,^ it is not uncommon in
Kilbrannan Sound.]

In the smaller Poor Cod we find the body narrower,

the eye larger, and the lateral line less curved. There

Poor Cod are no vertical bands. It has the family

or Power, barbel. This fish occurs all round these

islands.

Most familiar after the cod, the Silver Whiting is re-
markable for the delicate flavour that makes it invaluable
Silver to convalescents, though it deteriorates almost
'Whiting, ^yj^jj the rapidity of mackerel. More elongated
than the foregoing, this species lacks the barbel. In colour,
it is silvery, having the lateral line black, as also a spot on
the pectoral fin. The mouth is large, the teeth small and
numerous, and very sharp; the food consisting of sand-eels,
worms, crustaceans, and the like. Essentially a sand-fish,
it moves from place to place much more than the pout, and
seems to undertake movements of considerable extent to
and from the deep water. It is recorded to the weight of
4 lbs., but the average is very much below this. The
whiting spawns about May. With reference to its migra-
tions, it occurs to me as of interest to mention that I have
noticed for years at Bournemouth a spring inshoring of
small silver whiting, measuring about 3 inches, early in
May, after which there are few or no whiting in the bay
until the larger fish put in an appearance late in July.

Rarely seen at the fishmonger's, owing to the little esteem
in which it is held as food and the rapidity with which its
1 Fauna of the Outer Hebrides, p. 203.

380 FISHES.

flesh deteriorates, the Pollack is a handsome green fish, with
protruding lower jaw and no barbel. This fish — which is
Pollack or taken in the Channel, as on the Scottish and
Lythe. Irish coasts, to a weight of 25 lbs. — lurks dur-

ing the day in the darker pools among the rocks; but
after sunset, and for an hour either side of sunrise, it comes
to the surface, where it either chases the sand-eels, or, as I
have repeatedly watched it, gambols in a manner that,
unless its object be the riddance of its body from some

unwelcome parasite, can only be regarded as wanton sport.
When hooked, this fish at once heads for the bottom, and
the angler tries, at any cost, to keep it from the rocks. It
is often taken coiled up in a crab-pot; and its fondness
for the neighbourhood of these baited pots is so well
known that pollack-fishers ask no better moorings than
the corks on the line of the pot. Pollack taken on the
sand are not only lighter in colour, but usually exhibit
light patches soon after death.

Why the Coal-fish should ever have been confused with
the pollack, seeing their many points of difference, is not
Coal-fish, easy to understand ; but the fact remains that
or Saith. -tj^ey have been confused. This fish, which
grows to, if anything, a heavier weight than the pollack,
may be readily distinguished by the presence of a small
barbel, and the more abrupt division between the greenish
grey of the back and the silvery white of the belly. The

THE COD FAMILY. 381

lower jaw also protrudes less. The habits and food
seem, indeed, to bear considerable resemblance to those of
the pollack, but the present species is said to spawn some-
what later. It is also known as the "green cod," and the
young go by the name of "podleys.'

jj 1

Another species without the barbel is the little Poutassou,
which is known as Couch's whiting. The general colour
^ is brown, and there is a yellow band on either

side the nearly straight lateral line. Nowhere
very common, this fish occurs seasonally on every part of
the British coast.

As an example of the more voracious gadoids, a greater
offender by far than the pollack, we may take the formid-
able Hake, which is caught in the pilchard-nets
weighing over 20 lbs. It differs from the fore-
going mainly in the presence of but two dorsal fins ; it
has no barbel, and the teeth are large. Of elongated
form, its scales are large and rough ; and its colour is
dark grey above, silvery beneath. It chases the pilchards
on our south-west coast, the herring and mackerel farther
east, causing irreparable damage among the nets, most of
its raids being perpetrated at night.

Another very large member of the group, which reaches
a weight of upwards of 100 lbs., the Ling is dark grey on
the back, lighter on the head and belly. It
is yet more elongate than the last, the skin
being much smoother, fins soft and narrow, upper jaw
protruding beyond the lower. Essentially a ground-fish,
wherein it differs from the hake, it feeds almost exclu-
sively on the small fish that inhabit those depths. It
spawns in summer.

The Burbot, our only fresh-water form of cod, is much
1 M'Intosli and Masterman, Life-Histories, p. 209.

382 FISHES.

like the ling in appearance, but the scales are rougher and
the teeth smaller. The burbot rarely exceeds, in our rivers
Burbot or at least, a weight of 3 lbs., and its colour is
Eel-pout. yellowish, with dark spots and blotches. Its
distribution in these islands is confined, singularly enough,
to the east side of England, being absent, or apparently
so, from both Scotland and Ireland. It is even locally
distributed in the limited area mentioned, occurring only
in the Ouse, Cam, and Trent, as well as in a few smaller
streams in Yorkshire, Staffordshire, and Durham. A fish
of somewhat singular habits, it lurks during the greater
part of the day among the stones (hence " Eabbit-fish "),
feeding chiefly at night on small fishes and insects. It is
accounted a great trouble in a trout- or salmon-river, and
seems to thrive equally well in river, stream, lake, or pond,
evincing a preference for clear deep water, where, accord-
ing to Seeley,^ its colour is usually paler. It spawns in
the spring.

In the Fork -beard, we find the ventral fin modified
Fork- into a long forked ray. The barbel is present,
beard. q^^^ ^j^q ^^[j^ jg extremely smooth. This fish

rarely exceeds a length of 2 feet, and is of a dark colour,
with black margins to the yellow fins.

In the "Tadpole-fish," as the Lesser Fork-beard is some-
times called, the barbel and first dorsal fin are both small.
Lesser The fish, which has a strong unpleasant smell.
Fork- attains a maximum length of i foot, and is
uniformly brown, with purple reflections. Its
food consists of small fishes, and it spawns in summer.

In the northern Torsk, known locally as " Cat-fish," we

_ observe, amons; other characters, a rounded

Torsk. . .

body, thick smooth skin, and one dorsal fin

only ; in colour, it is of a deep grey, with yellow on the fins.
1 Fresh -water Fishes of Europe, p. 85.

THE COD FAMILY. 383

It is taken in more northern waters of a length of at least
3 feet and a weight of 50 lbs., but examples taken off our
north coasts — it does not occur in the south — average
nearer 1 5 lbs. It seems uncertain whether this fish should
find a place in the Irish list.

In the three rocklings we have shore-fishes that feed,

mostly at night, on small fish and crustaceans, lurking

Three- during the day among the stones, and fre-

bearded quently getting left behind in shallow rock-

oc mg. pQQJg ^y. ^-^Q receding tide. The largest of

them, the Three-bearded Rockling, is a light-brown fish
with black spots, and has two barbels on the upper and
one on the lower lip. It a^Dpears to attain a length of 20
inches, but the largest I ever hooked, off Hastings pier,
measured just 9 inches. This fish, locally known as the
" Three - bearded Gade," spawns in summer. It is its
young that are known as " Mackerel - midge " ; they are
silvery and without spots, and a favourite food of herring,
mackerel, and other surface-feeding fish.

The Four-bearded Rockling has one barbel more than

the last, the upper jaw carrying three of these appendages.

Four- *^® lower one. It is brown, and has no spots

bearded of any kind. The small dorsal fin of this fish

oc mg. .g observed to vibrate rapidly, not unlike that

of the j)ipe- fishes. Like the other rocklings, it is a

favourite in the marine aquarium. It spawns in summer.

Yet one more "beard," five in all, has the Five-bearded
Rockling, four on the upper and the usual single one on
Five- ^^^® lower jaw. The body, which is of a uni-

bearded form brown or stone colour, is unspotted. This
oc mg. ^gj^ ^g known down in Cornwall as the " Brown
Whistler," the reason of which sobriquet 1 was never able
to learn. It frequents shallow water, feeds on small crus-
taceans, mostly at night, and in summer deposits its eggs

384 FISHES.

in a nest of seaweed. Conger-fishers know from experience
that there are few better baits for the eel than a rockling
of any species and about 5 inches in length. This might
at first give rise to surprise at the rockling choosing the
same time as the larger fish to be abroad ; but it is to be
remembered that, as pike-fishers have known all time, pre-
datory fish have a special weakness for sickly or wounded
fishes, and it does not by any means follow that the rock-
lings, acceptable though they be when impaled on the
hook, form the conger's natural food.

CHAPTER XV. THE SAND-EELS AND
ALLIED FORMS.

The five fishes that compose this group are, for all the
external dissimilarity, somewhat closely allied to the
cod family. With the true eels they have nothing in
common ; both their appearance and their action in the
water are quite distinct.

The most familiar at many of our watering-places is
the small silvery Launce, which attains a length of over i
foot, but is more commonly found measuring
less than half. In colour it is bright green,
with a silvery band on the sides and a black spot on the
head ; and it may be further distinguished by the pro-
jecting, horny-tipped lower jaw and the two sharp teeth
in the upper. Throughout the summer months these
little fish forgather at the surface, often in company with
the next and with sand -smelts, feeding on floating fry
and other organisms. They are bold and pugnacious,
and when they are minded to take every baited hook,
the atherines seem to know that they stand no chance,

THE SAND-EELS AND ALLIED FORMS. 385

and, as I have often observed on Bournemouth pier, hold
aloof, or pick up what they may lower down. There
seems to be some doubt as to the exact spawning-time.
According to Cunningham, the next species is known
to deposit its spawn in the month of July ; and this,
taken in conjunction with the fact that the larvae of the
present species were got at St Andrews in March of a
size corresponding with that of other larvae, less closely
identified, taken in August, leaves room for two hypoth-
eses— either that the present species spawns in winter,
or that one or both may spawn twice in the year.

The Lesser Launce, known as the "Wriggle," differs
but slightly from small examples of the last, the lower

Lesser jaw being relatively shorter and the two upper

Launce. teeth being absent. In colour it closely re-
sembles the last, though somewhat lighter. The food
and habits are also similar, both species being fond of
burrowing in the wet sand above low-water mark, from
which they are often " scraped " by moonlight, a favourite
diversion in the Channel Islands. Bearing in mind the
limitation mentioned under the head of rocklings, it is
worth mentioning that the sand-eels are the best bait
for almost every fish in our seas, so that it is quite pos-
sible that they have a brisk time of it;

[Day^ only admitted the third sand-eel to our fauna
conditionally, as it is a deep-water form and very rare
in our waters. The Smooth Sand-latmce, as it is called,
is a very small species, toothless, and practically without
scales.]

[The Bearded Opliidium^ or Snake-fish, which has only
been recorded once in our seas, is said to reach a length
of lo inches, has two barbels on the lower jaw, and is
brown, the fins having a black margin.]

1 British Fishes, vol. i. p. 334.
2 B

386 FISHES.

[DrummoncV s Echiodon, which has been taken in our
seas on one or two occasions, is one of a group of small
semi - parasitic fishes that shelter in the folds of large
medusse and holothurians. It appears not to exceed a
length of 12 inches; and is light brown in colour, hav-
ing a tapering tail, a continuous fringe of fins, and no
scales.]

\Coryph(tnoides ruj^estris, which may be placed after the
sand-eels, is a small and spinous silvery fish, the body
tapering to a pointed tail, the head disproportionately
large. Some allied species, all of which inhabit great
depths, exceed a length of 2 feet, but the limits of our
form are not known.]

CHAPTER XVI. THE FLAT-FISH.

These are the most interesting anatomically, and, with
the single exception perhaps of the herring family, the
most important commercially, of all our sea- fish, differing
from the rest in their compressed form, the different
colouring of either side, and the twisted head, in which
the eyes are on the same side. Hence the fishermen
distinguish the rest as "round-fish," though it must be
confessed that their classification is lenient, since, in many
parts at any rate, the skates and rays, cartilaginous fishes
with no resemblance to the present group, are included
under the category of " flat-fish." These fish dwell in the
sand, burying themselves in it, especially in cold weather,
all but the eyes ; but on warm evenings they will rise to
the surface, and I have known several instances of their
taking a spinning bait a few feet only from the top.
With the exception of a single sharp spine over the

THE FLAT-FISH. 387

ventral fin (not always present), these fish are soft to
handle, though this spine sometimes gets in the way
when they are being taken from the hook. Most of them
are smooth, though the dab is rough -skinned, and the
turbot and flounder are covered with tubercles. In speak-
ing of *' right-sided " or "left-sided" flat-fish, it must be
remembered that few families in the fish world are subject
to a greater number of aberrant forms. What is meant
is that, normally, a right-sided flat-fish, as the plaice, has
the eyes and colour on the right side, the fish being held
with its tail to the observer and the ventral fin to the
ground. A comparison with any round -fish will show
that what appears as the back of these fish is. in reality
one of its sides, while the edges of the flat-fish are really
their back and belly. As already said, exceptions are
numerous, and we constantly come across examples with
both sides coloured, known as " double " examples ; others
that should be coloured on the right side are found to
be coloured on the left, and vice versd. These latter
are called "reversed" examples. The mouth of flat-fish
is, as a rule, exceedingly small, and they mostly feed on
worms and other soft food, which they suck from the
sand. The females are larger and more numerous than
the males.

The turbot and brill, with three or four more of less
importance, have the eyes and colour on the left side, and
their mouth is lara;e.

C5^

The first of these, the Turbot, is a familiar fish, in which

tubercles take the place of scales. These tubercles are

confined to the coloured side, the colour beino-
Turbot.

brown or stone-grey. This fish, which has been

recorded to a weight of over 20 lbs., feeds on small fishes,
among them being sand-eels and atherines, and crusta-
ceans. Though a ground-fish, taken on the long line or
in the trawl, I have observed small examples clinging
to the piles of Bournemouth pier within a couple of feet

388

FISHES.

of the surface. The turbot spawns in summer, and ap-
pears to hug the coast at that season.

In the Brill or " Kite," the tubercles of the turbot give
place to the usual scales, which are small in size. This is
a much smaller fish, rarely exceeding a weight
of lo lbs. Its food and spawning-time corre-
spond with those of the turbot.

Brill.

The smaller Megrim, which grows to a length of 20
inches, is lighter in colour than the foregoing, and there
Megrim or are sometimes dark spots on the white side,
■Whiff. though these are the exception. The skin

is very rough to the touch. This species appears to
spawn in spring.

The most remarkable feature about the Scald - fish,
described by Couch under the name of " Megrim," is
the exceedingly delicate skin, which with its
large scales peels off at the least touch. It
is to the singular appearance of these fish when removed
from the trawl that the name, sometimes rendered " Scald

Scald-fish,

THE FLAT-FISH. 389

back," has reference. In colour, this fish is of a pale
brown ; white on the right side, or beneath, as it would
be called ; and its greatest length is given as 8 inches.
It spawns in spring.

The Topknot, commonly known as " Browny," is a

rough-scaled fish, smooth on the uncoloured side. It

api^ears to be common on all our sandy
TcDknot.

coasts. All three topknots ap^^ear to spawn

in early spring.

Another unimportant member of the group, the One-
spotted Topknot, which is not known to exceed a length
One-spotted of 5 inches, is of reddish hue, having a single
Topknot. dark spot on the back and sometimes several
fainter spots. The right, or under, side is rough. This
fish is further characterised by the long dorsal ray.

The third and smallest of the topknots, the Norwegian
Topknot, of which a mature example has been taken meas-
Norwegian uring little over 3 inches, is smoother both
Topknot. above and below than the last, and has not
the elongated dorsal ray. It is said to spawn about
April.

All the remaining flat-fishes of our seas have the eyes
and colour on the right side. The halibut and long rough
dab present certain points in common.

In the Halibut, largest of our flat-fishes, which is
taken in our seas weighing as much as 100 lbs., we find
the skin smooth and the right side dark brown
in colour. The mouth is large and the teeth
are pointed, the food of this species consisting largely of
ground-fish, crustaceans, and molluscs. Though this is to
be regarded as a marketable fish, the flesh is coarse when
compared, at any rate, with that of the sole or turbot.
According to Cunningham, the halibut spawns in the

390

FISHES.

summer months, "from April to August." It should be
remembered that in some parts of Scotland this fish is
known as the "Turbot."

The Long Rough Dab is common on the more northern

coasts of Great Britain and Ireland. As in the preceding,

Lone ^^® mouth is large and armed with pointed

Kough teeth, the food of this species consisting chiefly

Dab. q£ crustaceans and small fishes. This fish,

the colour of which is usually uniform greyish brown,

is rougher to the touch than the halibut. It spawns in

March and April.

In the same group with the Plaice are comprised most
of the familiar flat-fishes, all having the eyes on the right
side. The scales of the body are small and em-
bedded, so that the plaice is smooth to handle,
the only spine being that ' before the ventral fin, which

^jiim^.

t Plaice.

lliis fish has in common with the next. The coloured side
is deep brown, covered with orange spots ; the lateral line
is straight, and there is a bony ridge on the head. Such

THE FLAT-FISH. 391

are the main characters of this common and important
fish, which grows to a weight of over lo lbs., though the
fish trawled nowadays in the home waters average nearer
2 lbs. The teeth are fiat, enabling the plaice to crush the
shellfish on which it feeds ; these teeth are more developed
on the left, or "blind," side, and the mouth is of small
size and situated at the end of the snout. The plaice is
found in brackish waters. I have caught large numbers
in the estuaries of rivers running into the Baltic, a sea
that is itself little more than brackish ; and Seeley ^ men-
tions its occurrence in some rivers in the south of Spain.
The plaice spawns between January and March ; its eggs
are large, and float at the surface. The young, as those of
all the flat-fish, swim in their earliest stage like those of
" round " fish, the eyes being on either side of the head,
until, in the course of a few weeks, the left eye works
round or through the margin of the head, taking its place
beside the other, and leaving only a minute black dot
to indicate its former position. By this time the little
fish has taken to the bottom, and swims on its side, the
twist in the head, which brings the dorsal fin along the
line of the face, being simultaneous.

In the smaller Dab we have a rough-skinned fish of
light-brown hue with dark spots. It is found, often
Dab or in brackish estuaries, on every part of our

Smear Dab. coasts, where it spawns 'in April or May. Its
food seems to be almost confined to small crustaceans.

The Flounder may be regarded as a sea-fish that has made
its way up rivers or taken to a partially fresh- water habitat.
Flounder According to Cunningham,^ it does not shed
or Fluke. j^g spawn in fresh water, invariably returning
to the sea to breed. He alludes to a curious belief current
among the fishermen, to the effect that the flounder carries

1 Fresh-water Fishes of Europe, p. 88.
- Marketable Marine Fishes, p. 229. •

392 FISHES.

its eggs on its back, the so-called eggs being in reality
tumours. The colour of the flounder, which is observed
to vary according to locality, is usually of a dark brown,
with darker mottlings ; and the fish has tubercles, mostly
along the lateral line. The eyes are close together, some-
what above the level of the head, though left-eyed flounders
are not uncommon. The teeth of the flounder are conical,
most developed on the left side, and its food appears to
consist largely of worms and molluscs. It spawns in
March or AjDril.

The Lemon-Sole is occasionally sold by the fishmonger as
"Sole," but the difi'erence between it and the true sole is
Lemon- SO striking that it is fair to suppose that his
Sole. customer makes the purchase with her eyes

open. It is also known as the " Mary Sole," and Cunning-
ham suggests a better name in "Lemon-Dab." Oval in
shape, this fish is so smooth to the touch as to seem slimy,
and in colour it is yellow with dark markings. The eyes
are normally on the right side. The spawning-time of the
lemon-sole appears to vary on different parts of the coast,
April being the month on the south-west coast, June and
July in the North Sea. This fish is widely distributed in
British seas, though its movements in Scottish waters would
seem to be somewhat uncertain. It feeds on crustaceans.

The last of the plaice group, the Witch, is a less familiar
form, pale brown in colour, with some dusky marks on the
Pole Dab left side, longer in body than the plaice, and
or "Witch, having a rough skin. Like the preceding, it
lacks the spine found before the anal fin of the plaice and
dab. The lateral line is almost straight. The food con-
sists of worms, spawn, and other soft matter, and it
appears to spawn in summer. It is also known as the
Pole-flounder.

In the concluding group of flat-fishes we have the most

THE FLAT-FISH. 393

important of all, tlie Common Sole. The mouth of the
sole is more distorted than that of any of the foregoing ;
the eyes, on the right side, are minute; the
lower side of the head is without scales, and
there are filaments at the edge of the snout. All the
teeth are on the left side of the small twisted mouth.
In colour the fish is very deep brown, white on the left
side. The maximum weight of this fish may be placed
approximately at 9 lbs. ; Cunningham, whose monograph
on tliis fish is one of our most important works on
ichthyology, gives the average length as between 12 and
18 inches. There would appear to be a falling off of
late years in the supply of soles from British seas, the
fishermen being compelled to reap the harvest, which
soon spoils, farther and farther from home. This fish
prefers a muddy bottom, and seeks its soft food chiefly
at night. According to Seeley,^ it is capable of develop-
ing marked characters in some rivers.

The greatest length to which the Sand Sole, also known
from its colour as the " Lemon-sole " (a title to which it
S nd r ^^^ certainly a better right than the " Mary
French. Sole" aforementioned), is known to attain is
Sole. j^Q^ above 14 inches, its colour being lemon-

yellow, with or without dark blotches, and usually a black
spot on the pectoral fin. There are filaments on the snout
and round the dilated eds-e of the nostril on the blind side.

"■o"

The "Bastard Sole," as the Thickback is sometimes

called, is taken in deep water, where it grows to a length

of 8^ inches. The colour is reddish brown,

with vertical dark bands. The pectoral fins

are very small.

The smallest member of the family, the Solenette, that
never exceeds a length of 5 inches, has so often been

1 Fresli-water Fishes of Europe, p. 88.

394 FISHES.

regarded by the trawling men — so, at least, they aver —
as the young of the common sole, as to have gained
thereby some fame which would not otherwise
o ene e. j^^^^ belonged to it. In colour this fish is of
a yellowish grey, having numerous small dark spots, as
well as black lines at intervals on the fins.

CHAPTER XVII. THE EELS.

Of eels we have, besides the murry (a straggler), tw^o, the
fresh-water eel and the conger. The eel-pout and sand-eel
are of course distinct. The female of both our eels is
always the larger, and the so-called species of river eel are
only the different sexes. Considerable mystery surrounded
the breeding of both eel and conger, and only lately has
the difficulty been solved by Italian biologists.

The Common Eel, its small scales embedded so as to

give the impression of a scaleless fish, is one of our most

familiar fishes. In colour it is screen or brown
Eel

above, yellow or white beneath ; the upper jaw

protrudes ; the eyes and teeth are of small size. The female
— the so called "Sharp-nosed" eel — exceeds a length of
3 feet ; the male — the " Broad-nosed " eel of some authors
— has not been recorded as measuring quite 20 inches.
Like the flounder, this fish descends in autumn to spawn
in the sea, and it seems certain that it dies after spawn-
ing, as the adult fish are not seen reascending the rivers
like the elvers at the end of winter. I have taken
numbers of females in August off" the east breakwater
at Hastings, which are known to work westward along
the rocky foreshore from Ilye Harbour. Elvers, as the
young are called, are also known to cross fields of damp

THE EELS. 395

grass, and are capable of climbing almost perpendicular
stone banks. The so-called "Silver" Eels appear to be
merely those which are observed just before the breeding
season. According to Cunningham, the growth of the eel
in fresh water is not rapid, several years, apparently the
normal span of eel-life, having to elapse ere the elvers
will be ready in their turn to descend to the sea and spawn.
The larvae of both eel and conger have been identified, the
latter (known as " Morris ") in British waters, the former
hitherto only on the north coast of Sicily, where Professor
Grassi has found the larvae of the eel to be abysmal-dwelling
Leptocephali. The eel is capable of surviving extremes
of temperature, and there are instances on record in which
they have been thawed back to activity, though in very hard
weather these fish are known to lie torpid in the mud.
Besides the spawning journey, eels living in tidal waters
go down to the salt each tide and feed on garbage. One
of the most recent and most lucid summaries of eel-
development will be found in M'Intosh and Masterman
on the ' Life - Histories of British Marine Food -Fishes'
(PP- 434-460).

The large marine Conger, a fish of almost cosmopolitan
range, is found in our seas to a weight of more than
100 lbs. In colour it is dark brown to black
above, white beneath, and having white spots
along the lateral line. There have been attempts to dis-
tinguish two species of conger in our seas, and the
fishermen speak vaguely of the black and white " kinds,"
which are merely colour races from deep or shallow water.
The conger has relatively large head and eyes, the upper
jaw is long, the dorsal fin is continuous and has a black
margin, and the body is devoid of scales. Widely dis-
tributed in our seas, the conger is, owing to the rocky
nature of its habitat, found in greater numbers on the
west than on the east side of these islands. It feeds chiefly
at night, only the smaller examples weighing 6 or 8 lbs.,

396 FISHES.

taking the hook in the daytime. The food of the larger
fish seems to consist mainly of lobsters and cuttlefish, and
they are also partial to a medium- sized rockling. The
breeding of the conger has been much studied of late
years. The eggs are apparently deposited in summer, and
I recollect Mr Dunn of Mevagissey telling me some years
ago that in his opinion a number of ripe females would
gather in a bunch, while a small male would swim round,
impregnating the ova as they fell. This was, however,
mere theory. It seems in any case probable that both
sexes die after the first spawning. Upwards of eight
millions of eggs have been counted in a fish measuring
about 5 feet. Besides her greater length, the female may
be distinguished by her more pointed snout and by the
more complete absence of colour from the belly.

[The Murry, or Muraena, of the Mediterranean seems to
have wandered to our seas on one or two occasions, as Day
mentions an example of over 4 feet. The body is without
scales ; the nostrils are tubular, and there are pores on the
jaws. In colour it is brown, with or without yellow spots.]

CHAPTER XVIII. THE HERRING FAMILY.

This is, commercially at any rate, the most important
group of food-fishes. They are all surface-feeders, and are
therefore taken for the most part in drift-nets, that float
like walls near the top of the water. All our herrings are
small fish, as we have none of the giant members of the
family, such as the tarpon of Mexico, or other giant
herrings of the Queensland coast. The members of this
family are silvery fishes with large thin scales ; and they
lack the lateral line.

THE HEBEING FAMILY. 397

Most familiar of them all is the Herring, which has been
cured in a variety of ways for centuries, involving a traffic
of such magnitude that more than one Con-
tinental city derived its revenues in the Middle
Ages from no other source. The herring reaches a length
of about 1 7 inches in the north, 1 2 ^^ inches in the southern
waters (Cunningham). In the Baltic I noticed that all the
herrings were invariably small. Our best herrings come
from the east coast of Scotland. Unlike the eels, the males
are said to have slightly the advantage both in size and
numbers. The chief characters of the herring are the large
thin scales, absence of lateral line, and keeled belly. The
teeth of this fish are minute, and its food consists of small
floating organisms. The water is filtered through gill-rakers,
the function of which is not unlike that of the baleen in
whales ; and this mode of feeding is characteristic of the
family. The migrations of the herring are even now im-
perfectly understood. It was formerly thought to per-
form journeys of great duration, and the older writers went
to the trouble of describing those pilgrimages to and from
the arctic seas with an attention to detail that did credit
to their imagination. The later theory, however, is that
they simply move to and from the deeper water in search
of warmth or food. The spawning-time appears to extend
over the greater portion of the year according to locality,
but it is not probable that the same fish spawns twice in
the year. The eggs, unlike those of our other food-fishes,
sink to the bottom, where they adhere to stones and are
devoured wholesale by cod, haddock, and other ground-
fish.^ Cunningham^ gives a most interesting account
of the spawning of the various races of herring and the
development of the larvas. The so-called "Whitebait,"
formerly regarded as a distinct species, is now known to
consist of the fry of herrings and sprats, the herrings pre-

1 M'Intosh and Masterman, Life -Histories of the British Marine
Food-Fishes, p. 15.

- Marketable Marine Fishes, pp. 151-163.

398 ' FISHES.

ponderating in summer, the sprats in winter. Other fry
are usually found in the dish, especially those of flat-fish,
gurnards, and sand-eels. As already mentioned, these fish
are mostly taken for the market in the drift-net, as they
comparatively seldom find their way into the trawl. In
some parts there is a regular spring hook-fishery for her-
ring, when they will take bare hooks jigged among the
shoal.

The smaller Sprat differs from the herring in several im-
portant particulars, as, for example, in the serrated edge
of the belly, the origin of the dorsal fin lying
nearer the tail, and absence of teeth. In
colour, the sprat is grey and silver. It spawns on our
south-west coast between January and April; on the
Scottish coast from April to July (Cunningham). The
egg, unlike that of the herring, floats. The young fish
enter largely, as already pointed out, into the composition
of "Whitebait," especially in winter. At a still earlier
stage they are the "Brit," much harassed by gulls and
mackerel.

Another important fish, characterised by a rounded
body, keel-edged belly, large scales, dorsal fin farther for-
Pilchard ward than in either of the foregoing, and the
or Sardine, presence of small teeth in the jaws, is the
Pilchard. In colour, this fish is deep green above, shading
to silver below. When one considers the vexed question
of the identity of the pilchard and sardine, memory recalls
the school exercises in elementary logic : " All pilchards
are sardines, but all sardines are not pilchards " ; the fact
being that, for the inferior brands at all events, young
herrings and sprats are also pressed into the service.
The true sardine is, however, a young pilchard. Although
the British pilchard-fishery is practically confined to the
south-west coast, it is not to be supposed that this fish
does not occur farther east. I have myself met Avith it

THE HERRING FAMILY. 399

at Bournemouth ^ and Ventnor ; and I believe it occurs
at irregular intervals in the herring-nets of the North Sea.
It spawns in July and August.

Connected by many honest fishmongers with the salmon,

a parallel case with those of the atherine and lemon-dab,

the Shad certainly resembles that fish in its
tAllis Shad. , . -, . ... . , ,

anadromous tendencies, as it invariably enters

some rivers, the Thames and Severn among them, to
spawn. It grows to a weight of at least 8 lbs.; and its
colour is pale-green, shading to silver on the belly, and
having a dark-green spot at the shoulder, as w^ell as some
smaller dark spots on the sides. The edge of the belly
is serrated like that of the sprat. There is a transparent
eyelid ; the teeth are small and the gill-rakers very numer-
ous. The shad feeds on small fishes, crustaceans (Cunning-
ham), and vegetable substances (Seeley), and is occasion-
ally hooked off Deal. It spawns in May and June.

The Twaite Shad is a smaller fish of similar habits. Its

tTwaite weight has not been known to exceed 2 lbs.

Shad. This species has the gill -rakers shorter and

fewer than in the last. The spots on the body are also as

a rule more numerous.

Chiefly known in this country in the preserved state,
the delicate little Anchovy is thought to occur in autumn,
sometimes in considerable numbers, on most
parts of our coast, particularly down in the
west. Whether its abundance is at any time sufficient to
warrant a regular fishery has not yet been determined.
Custom rules strong in these matters, and it is not prob-
able that the fishermen would turn their attention to a
hitherto neglected fish without very good reasons. This
is the smallest member of the family, and in colour it is,

1 The fish coiinnouly known at Bournemouth as the pilchard is the
scad !

400 FISHES.

like the rest, green and silver. The projecting snout,
giving the impression of a miniature shark, is sufficient to
distinguish it from the rest, and the deep cleft of the
mouth is also characteristic. The edge of the belly is
smooth. The anchovy is not known to spawn on our
coasts, but in the Mediterranean it deposits its floating
eggs in the summer months.

CHAPTER XIX. THE CARP FAMILY.

Of greatest importance to the angler, to whom they
are collectively known as "Coarse fish," the fishes comi3os-
ing the present group are but little eaten in these islands,
though in general use on the Continent. They are all in-
habitants of fresh water, several thriving best in lakes
without outlet. In most, we find the scales of large size,
the mouth without teeth ; in some, the jaws are furnished
with barbels, differing slightly in appearance, probably in
function as well, from those of the cods. These fish spawn
in the summer months, the close-time in this country last-
ing, with local variations, from March 15 th to June i5tli.
Several of the commoner species are known to interbreed.

That typical pond-fish, the Carp, was introduced from the
Continent, it would appear, a couple of centuries ago, and
is now widely distributed in our rivers and
lakes, though it appears to be exceedingly
rare (if indeed present) in Scotland, and of local occur-
rence only in Ireland. In colour, the carp is generally
between green and bronze, the scales having a black
margin, and the fins having yellow and violet reflec-
tions ; but the colours are subject to some variation. Tlie
growth of this fish is, according to Seeley,^ rai)id, as a carp

J Fresli-water Fishes of Europe, p. 97.

THE CARP FAMILY. 401

of six years may weigh anything between 4 lbs. and 10 lbs. ;
and the largest carp ever recorded in England (Petersfield)
weighed 24 lbs., and had scales the size of florins. The carp
has four barbels, two on either jaw, those on the lower being
longer than the others. It is for the most part a vegetable-
feeder, but also consumes large quantities of the larvje,
which it routs uj) from the muddy bottom. Though a
long-lived fish, and also capable of surviving some time
out of water, the carp is somewhat susceptible to sudden

changes of temperature ; and in very cold weather num-
bers of these fish are known to burrow in company, not
unlike, though under opposite conditions, the mud-fish of
the East. The breeding-time is in summer, and as many
as 750,000 (Seeley) of the small green eggs have been
taken from a lo-lbs. fish. The carp breeds freely with the
two species that follow. It is said to utter sounds not un-
like a grunt. The large size of the scales in our carp is
nothing to what is observed in a Continental variety,
which has enormous scales arranged in rows.

The Continental Crucian Carp is, together with the

goldfish, without barbels on the jaws. A small fish,

* Crucian rarely exceeding a weight of i^ lb., it has

Carp. (jQj^g ^,gjj JQ ^jjg Thames and others of our

rivers. It is somewhat deeper for its length than the
common carp ; in colour, it is greenish above, bronze on
the sides.

2 C

402 FISHES.

['' Golden Caiy or " Goldfish," which came originally
from China and Japan, are known chiefly in the strictly
domesticated state in glass bowls, though they also
thrive, under somew^hat more natural conditions, in the
heated waters of mill-dams.]

Absent from both Scotland and Ireland, the Barbel,

which reaches a weight of at least 15 lbs. in the vicinity

of Thames weirs, is more in evidence in the
* Barbel.

streams of the east side of Enojland. It has

four strongly developed barbels, two on either jaw ; the

snout is long and fleshy, and the upper lip is very thick.

Its colour, which varies somewhat in the breeding-season,

is normally green above, white beneath ; the lower fins
red. It is not fastidious in the choice of food, living
largely on vegetable substances, but also devouring small
fishes, molluscs, and animal droppings. It spawns in May
and June, and is not one of the most fertile of the group.
Like the carp, it is hardy, and stands removal from the
water well. It is little esteemed as food in this country,
and the roe is actually regarded as poisonous.

The Gudgeon, one of the smallest of the family, rarely
exceeds a weight of }^ lb., though, according to Day,i
Pennant mentions one of ^ lb., " which some modern

1 British Fishes, ii. 174.

THE CARP FAMILY. 403

authors have doubled " ! (Unless this be a misprint for

doid)ted, one is inclined to envy the said " modern authors "

their inventive power.) In colour the 2;udo-eon
* Gudgeon. . . o &

is some shade of grey, having dark blotches

along the lateral line. It has only two barbels. Thriving
equally in still or running water, with a preference perhaps
for the latter, this is the fish of the Seine. In England it
is widely distributed ; but its occurrence in Scotland seems
doubtful, and in Ireland it is extremely local. Its food
consists chiefly of insects and their larv^, but it is also
suspected, not wholly without reason, of consuming fish-
spawn. It spawns in the month of June.

One of the angler's favourite fishes, the Roach is found

in most suitable waters, still or running, in Great Britain,

but is absent from Ireland, its place being;
* Roach. . .

supplied, so far as sport goes, by its near ally

the rudd. In colour, this fish is dark blue, or green, above,

lighter on the sides, and silver beneath ; lower fins, red.

According to Seeley, the scales become rough in the
spawning-season. The roach grows to a weight of at least
3 lbs., but one of half that weight is nowadays considered
a trophy from most waters. Its food consists of insects
and molluscs, possibly also of some weedy matter ; and it
is generally accounted by anglers in this country an ex-
ceptionally wary fish. This, however, must be the result

404 FISHES.

of over-fishing, for few fishes were, as I remember them,
easier to capture in the Baltic rivers. Though traditionally
free from disease, the roach is subject to the attacks of a
number of parasites.

From the last the somewhat similar Rudd, which replaces
it in Ireland, may be readily distinguished by its deeper
*lludclor body, position of the dorsal fin (nearer the
Bed-eye. tail), and the presence of more red about the
eye and fins. Easiest of recollection, however, is the fact
that the uj^per lip of this fish is horny and rigid, whereas
that of the roach can be pulled forward. The rudd, which
grows to a weight in these islands of 3 lbs., rises freely to
the fly in parts of Norfolk, at Slapton Ley in Devon, and
in many Irish waters, but does not occur in many of the
largest rivers of the south of England. It is a very " bony "
fish, and not much esteemed as food. It feeds on insects,
and, in captivity at all events, will take, so Alderman
Newlyn of Bournemouth tells me, small minnows.

[The Ide is included by some writers in the British list ;
and the Golden Orfe has been introduced from Germany
within the last five-and-twenty years.]

Save perhaps in the extreme west, the Chub is widely

distributed in England, in the southern two-thirds of Scot-
land, and in the whole of Ireland. Its most
* Chub

characteristic feature is the great breadth of

the head, which has a pink shade, the general colour of the

THE CARP FAMILY. 405

fish being dark green on the back, with some red at the
base of the fins, and white beneath. Its greatest weight
is about 7 lbs. The chub feeds on small fishes, crayfish
(Seeley), frogs, and water-voles. It spawns in May.

Like some others of the coarse fish, the Dace is absent
from Scotland and Ireland, though widely distributed in

* Dace or England. It is a fish of running waters, and
Graining, grows m this country to a weight of i lb. A

more tapering fish than the foregoing, it is silvery blue
throughout, .and has little or no red on the fins. The
"graining" is, more properly, to be regarded as a variety,
in which the head is smaller and the fins longer. The
food of the dace consists of insects and vegetable matter,
and it spawns in May or June.

Rarely, if ever, exceeding a length of 7 inches, and more

commonly measuring less than 4 inches, the Minnow is

found in every part of England, in all but the

* Minnow. . r n ^ f -, •

extreme north or bcotland, and m most coun-
ties in Ireland, into which country, however, it was intro-
duced within the present century. In colour, this little
fish is dark green, with black patches along the lateral
line, which is interrupted about half-way, the breast-fins
being tinged with red. The colours of this fish change
rapidly according to circumstances, owing to two layers of
superimposed pigment-cells that lie just beneath the skin
(Seeley). The minnows are gregarious by habit, and
catholic in their feeding. They are also endowed with a
fatal curiosity that prompts them to congregate over a net
in which are tied fragments of red wool, a habit I have
also found in sand- smelts. The spawning-time is in May
and June.

The mud-loving Tench, in which the small scales are so
embedded as to make it as slippery to the touch as an eel,
thrives well in stagnant waters, but to appreciate the beauty

406 FISHES.

of a large example in good condition it should be placed
for forty -eight hours in running water, after which it
looks a different fish. There are small barbels
* Tench. ^^ ^^^ corner of the mouth. The dorsal-fin
is without spines, the lips are fleshy, and the tail- fin is
large and not forked. The colour of the tench is usually
a dark shade of green, white beneath. Its greatest weight
in these islands is rather over 5 lbs. It is more tenacious

of life than any of the foregoing, surviving many hours
out of water. Every writer on the subject has noticed,
and most have criticised, the reputed healing powers of
this fish. These remain not proven. The tench feeds on
insects, aquatic plants, and mud, and the spawning-season
lasts through the summer. Fond of stagnant water, but
thriving equally in rivers, the tench is widely distributed
in England, more locally in Scotland and Ireland, in which
latter country many regard it as not indigenous.

One of the most familiar of our coarse fish, the Bream is

captured in our rivers and lakes to a weight of nearly 12

lbs., and bream of 7 lbs. are by no means un-
* Bream. .

common in the Broads. These large Norfolk

bream are much used as bait for the crab-pots on the

coast. Deep for its length, the bream is of silvery hue

throughout, save for a tinge of red on the fins. The

lower lobe of the tail is slightly longer than the upper,

the reverse of that in sharks. The bream thrives equally

in still or running waters, preferring the latter with a

THE CAKP FAMILY. 407

muddy bottom. It feeds on worms and insects, and
spawns in May or June. It is poor as an article of
food.

Distinguished from the preceding by the greater amount

of red on the body and fins, as well as by the shorter anal

fin, lonsrer scales, and equal tail -lobes, the
* Bream.- ' o ' ^l '

flat or small and solitary Bream -flat, which rarely
White exceeds a weight of i lb., is found more
particularly in the eastern rivers of England,
and is common in many parts of Ireland.

The small Bleak, the greatest length of which is not
much more than 7 inches, is common in the Thames and
Lea, as well as many other waters, both still
and running, of England, but is absent from
Scotland and Ireland. In colour, it is blue on the back
and sides, silver below ; and the scales have, like those of
the mackerel-midge, long been used in the manufacture of
artificial pearls. This fish is infested with a tapeworm,
often longer than the fish itself. It feeds, near the surface
in warm weather, on insects, and spawns in May and
June.

That small mud-fish, the Loach, which does not often
exceed a length of 4 inches, has no fewer than six barbels,
all on the upper jaw. In colour, the loach is
dark green along the back, yellow on the sides,
and grey below, spotted and streaked with dark brown.
During the day this little fish hides at the bottom, lurking
beneath the stones, from which it may be dislodged in a
half -stunned condition by a smart blow on the stone.
Unlike the foregoing coarse fish, it dies almost immedi-
ately on removal from the water. It feeds on insects,
worms, and spawn, sometimes on vegetable matter, and
spawns in March and April. It appears to be widely
distributed throughout these islands.

408 FISHES.

The Spinous Loach is a still smaller species, its greatest

length in these islands being no more than 3 inches. Like

* Spinous the last, it has six barbels, all on the upper

Loach, jaw; but it is easily distinguished by the
erectile bifid spine beneath each eye. In colour the spin-
ous loach is yellow, having rows of black spots along the
back and sides. It seems to be far rarer in England than
the last, and its occurrence in either Scotland or Ireland
apjjears open to doubt. In habits it is said to resemble
the last.

CHAPTER XX. THE SALMON FAMILY.

The salmonoid fishes are now, as ever, a bone of con-
tention among ichthyologists, some of w^hom recognise as
many as sixty European species, while others refer all
under less than half-a-dozen typical groups, as the salmon,
trout, char, grayling, and the rest. For the purposes of a
small introductory work like the present, in which economy
of space is an ever-present necessity, it will be sufiicient
to glance briefly at the typical species, mentioning such
varieties as are of importance.

Though termed in angling lore the "king of fishes," the
Salmon, with his kind, comes undeniably low in the scale.
Of this well-known fish, the features easiest to
identify are the hooked jaws, the small adipose
fin on the back not far from the tail, the X-shaped black
spots — red after the fish has passed some time in fresh
water — and the 2:>ink colour of the flesh. The remarkable
hook that develojDS in old breeding males on the lower jaw
is regarded by Smitt as no more than the result of irrita-
tion from frequent blows. ^ The salmon is caught in our
1 A History of Scandinavian Fishes, p. 855 fn.

THE SALMON FAMILY. 409

waters to a weight of at least 60 lbs., tlioiigli fish of be-
tween 20 lbs. and 40 lbs. are far more common. An ana-
dromous fish, the salmon repairs regularly to fresh water
for spawning purposes ; and of so-called salmon-rivers
there are several that have become justly famous, as the
Hampshire Avon, the Severn, the Tay, Shannon, and
others. It is even said that the fish will return by
preference to their native river, the females first, the
old males next, the young fish last ; ^ and this view is
at all events borne out, so far at least as the order of
arrival is concerned, by the experience of the nets-men of
the Hampshire Stour and Avon. I have visited the
fishery at Mudeford on many occasions during the past
few years, and have invariably found the catches during
February and March to be few, but most of them picked fish
of over 20 lbs. in weight, whereas at the end of April they
would look for larger numbers of small fish. The present
year (1897) has been one of the worst for a long time, the
fish having been both later and fewer than for ten years at
least. There is a variety of names, diff'ering according
to locality, for salmon at various stages, the chief being
" parr " or " smolt," the name for the young fish ; " peal "
or "grilse," those that enter fresh water for the first time
since they left it; and "slat," "kelt," "baggit" (female),
or " kipper " (male), the spent fish. The salmon spawns
in the majority of our rivers rather before Christmas,
the fertilised eggs being deposited in a heap of gravel.
Salmon-roe is a deadly and illegal bait for the fish them-
selves. The males fight desperately before and during the
spawning-time. This fish is said to leap perpendicularly
almost a dozen feet ^ out of the water ; and it is assisted
over waterfalls of considerable height with ladders specially

1 Seeley, Fresh-water Fishes of Europe, p. 275.

2 Day (British and Irish SalmonidK, p. 73) quotes a number of con-
flicting authorities on the record leap of salmon, according to whom
the perpendicular distance ranges from 16 feet (Landmark) to no more
than 6 or 7 (Scrope).

410 FISHES.

made for the purpose. As already mentioned, reddish spots
and lines make their appearance after the fish has been
some time in fresh water, and it is also noticed that the
steel blue of the fresh-run fish becomes much dulled under
the same influence. Although these fish spend a consider-
able portion of the year in salt water, being in fact re-
garded by many as sea-fish, it is interesting to learn that
fish-culturists have succeeded in hatching the spawn of
land-locked salmon, the product being fertile. Of the
food of the salmon, either in fresh or salt water, little
seems to have been satisfactorily ascertained. It is thought
by some not to feed very much during its stay in rivers ;
but this view is not easily reconciled with the greediness
with which the fish will seize a mass of fur and feather
that bears no resemblance to any living creature. Besides
the attacks of a grey fungus, saprolegnia, which breaks
out in patches on the adipose fin and body, there is a
high rate of mortality among the kelts after the first
spa^vning.

Salmon - fishing, with both net and rod, is subject to
rigorous legislation, there being a close -time on most
rivers of at least three months in the year, and of forty-
eight hours each week during the fishing. The Tweed
closes for only two months and a-half.

The common brown Trout of our rivers, which is re-
garded by many as no more than a variety of the salmon,

- is a familiar form, its colour being silvery
* Trout . '

green or brown with spots, some X-shaped,

l^ut mostly circular, of black or red. In colour, as in

size, however, the trout is subject to greater variety

than perhaps any other fish. The famous Thames trout

grows to a weight of nearly 20 lbs., but the average from

most rivers may be placed at about i^ lb., a fish of 5 lbs.

being excei^tional. The trout is a long-lived fish. Its

food consists of small fishes and different stages of insect

life; it roots up the larvae, and rises at the fly. It spawns

THE SALMON FAMILY. 411

some time between the end of October and January, in
consequence of which want of uniformity local boards,
vested with the necessary f)Owers, exercise considerable

ingenuity in modifying the fence-months to suit the re-
quirements of each river, with more or less success.

The following varieties probably connect >S'. salar and
S. fario : —

^Gillaroo of many Irish loughs and the Shannon, recog-
nised by the muscular thickness of the stomach.

\S. argenteus. — One of the rarest sea-trouts of our coast,
having an extra ray in the dorsal and ventral fins.

^S. nigripinnis. — A small lake-trout, found in parts of
Wales and Ireland (Lough Melvin).
, t/S'. gallivensis. — A Gal way sea-trout.

^ Lochlevai Trout. — Occurring in several Scottish lochs,
also in Windermere and other English lakes.

\Orhiey Trout, of which there are two races,

\Grey Trout. — A migratory species of the Forth, Trent,
and Ouse.

Great Lake -Trout of Derwentwater and some other
British and Irish lakes.

The Sea-Trout is found in various 23arts of the coast,

mostly perhaps in the north. It grows to a length of 3

feet, and bears a stronsj resemblance to the
t Sea-Trout. ' s- ^ • , , p ,

salmon, save tor the occasional absence of the

X-spots. In habits it is also similar, only it feeds more

412 FISHES.

regularly when in I'resli water. It is generally accepted
as a constant species.

The Peal, Sewin, or Bull-trout is also regarded by most
writers as a species, though not admitted by Smitt as
more than a variety. The last-named author-
ity admits, in fact, but two British species, a
salmon (S. salar, S. fario, &c.) and a char (S. salveliniis,
S. alpinus, tfec), and a mass of information and evidence
is to be found in his recent great work (' A History of
Scandinavian Fishes,' pp. 827-919).

Of our Chars there are also half-a-dozen local races,
varieties, all of them delicate fish of nocturnal habits,
requiring still deep water, and not sufficiently
hardy to bear much transplanting. The Char
of Windermere never exceeds a length of 12 inches. In
colour it is deep green above, the belly and ventral fins
being red. The so-called Torgoch, S. coliij S. killinensisy
kc, are nowadays no longer seriously regarded as more
than races or variations.

Already mentioned incidentally in connection wdth the
atherine, the Smelt has the distinguishing adipose fin of the
t Smelt or tribe, and is of a light-green colour, silvery
Sparling, "beneath, with a silver band on the sides. In
length it. rarely exceeds 1 2 inches. Its characteristic smell
has been compared by different waiters with that of
violets, cucumber, and other substances less fragrant.
Like the salmon, it ascends the tidal reaches of rivers
for spawning purposes. It appears to be absent from the
Irish coast. This fish has a large mouth armed with
sharp teeth, and its food consists of small fishes, insects,
and crustaceans. It spawns in spring and early summer,
having a preference for shedding its spawn in stormy
weather.

THE SALMON FAMILY. 413

Another fish inhabiting British lakes, Ullswater, Bala,

and Loch Lomond among them, the Powan grows to a

*Powanor weight of 4 lbs. In colour it is dark blue

Gwiniad. above, silvery beneath. Large shoals of this

fish approach the shores of the lakes in summer.

The Yendace occurs in at least one Scottish loch. Far

smaller than the last, it rarely exceeds a
*'V6ii(ia.c6.

length of 9 inches. It spawns in November,

the female being the larger fish.

The Pollan, on the other hand, is found in certain Irish

loughs (Neagh, Corrib, etc.) and the Shannon, and grows

to an average length of 6 inches. Unlike the
* Pollan. ....

preceding, it is occasionally taken with the fly,

though the greater number are netted. It feeds on small

fishes and molluscs; and spawns in winter among the

rocks.

[Coregomis oxyrliynchus, the " Houting " of Dutchmen,
is supposed to occur in some of our eastern and southern
estuaries along with the smelts. It has a long fleshy
snout, and grows to a length of at least 20 inches. It can
only be regarded as a wanderer to our waters.]

The Grayling is an elegant fish, on the sjDorting qualities
of which there is much difference of opinion, and may
be distinguished from the rest of the family
by the many-rayed first dorsal fin. Like the
smelt, it has a peculiar odour. This solitary fish, fond
of clear running water, is particularly rapid in its move-
ments. In colour it is usually of a pale brown, silvery
below, with black spots on the head and body and light
on the fins, the latter exhibiting red bands in the spawn-
ing-time. The colours are subject to variation according
to season. The food of the grayling is generally supposed
to consist largely of small fishes and molluscs, as it is said

414 FISHES.

not to rise very freely to the fly until the early autumn.
The grayling grows to a weight of at least 4 lbs., among
our more celebrated grayling - rivers being the Trent,
Severn, Wye, Teme, and Yorkshire Ouse. It is not
indigenous to Scotland, but has been introduced into
that country ; nor does it occur in Ireland. It spawns
early in the year, April or May being the usual time.

[The Argentine is a scarce and unimportant little fish,
of which not much appears to be known. It occurs in
our northern waters, where it is occasionally hooked close
inshore. In length it rarely exceeds 10 inches.]

[Argyropelecus hemigymnus and Maurolicus pennantii
are two small and insignificant deep-water forms which are
usually placed either immediately before or after the salmon
group. Their chief interest lies in the presence along the
body of round spots, sometimes raised, the object of which
has been supposed to be luminosity — a theory based on the
great depth at which these little creatures pass their lives,
as well as on the identification of light-giving pores in a
similar Atlantic form. The former is the merest straggler
to the deeper waters round these islands, but the latter is
not uncommon.]

CHAPTER XXI. THE PIKE.

Angling writers have had a great deal to say about the

Pike, which they are pleased to term the "Fresh-water

' Pike, or Shark" ; and it is familiar in most of our rivers

Jack. jj^j^j lakes, thriving equally well, so live food

be abundant, in still or running water. There appear to

be no pike in Sutherland. Many tales have been told of

THE PIPE-FISHES. 415

monster pike, but it is safe to say that it grows to a weight
of 60 lbs., though one of half that weight is, so far as the
British Islands of to-day go, a fine fish indeed. In colour
the pike is dark brown to green above, lighter on the
sides, and white beneath, marbled all over with yellow
spots and bands. It is a voracious fish, consuming great

quantities of its own kind and other fish, as well as of
voles, waterfowl, and frogs. Although a very active fish
when on the feed, it is fond of basking at the surface.
It is easily recognised by the projecting lower jaw, and
the position of the dorsal fin back near the tail, the latter
being forked. The pike spawns in March or April.

CHAPTER XXIT. THE PIPE-FISHES.

In this order we find the gill-openings exceedingly small,
the British family having but one dorsal fin, which, rotated
with a peculiar and rapid action, appears to be the chief
organ of locomotion, their swimming being for the most
part performed in a vertical j^osition. The male has, as a
rule, a j30uch for the reception of the eggs, which he carries
until hatched.

The Broad-nosed Pipe-fish is an eel-like species, the body
having raised ridges, the tail, with a fan-shaped fin, being
a continuation of the lateral line, the snout tapering to

416 FISHES.

a point. In colour this fish, which grows to a length of at

least 12 inches, is dark brown with lighter spots. It is

^ ^ found on most parts of our coasts, being

Broad- . ^ •.-, ^i

nosed confused m some localities with the young

Pipe-fish. Qf tijg garfish.

Greater PijDe-fish. — A striped, deep-water species.

The green, white-lined Straight-nosed Pipe-fish of about

the same size is also found round our coasts, though in

„, . ^. somewhat deeper water than the last. The
Straiglit- ^ . . . ,

nosed tail of this species is pointed, and the male

Pipe-fish. lacks the egg-pouch found in the last.

The largest of British Pipe-fishes, the Sea-adder, grows

to a length of over 2 feet, and is common in the

maioritv of our estuaries, where it is accused
Snake- o j >

Pipe-fish of "stinging." Certainly, those who have

or Sea- never seen a real snake might possibly mistake

this for one — hence, no doubt, the supersti-
tion. In colour this harmless fish is dark brown with
bluish-white bands and a purplish stripe on the face. The
male has no pouch, but retains the eggs in a fold of skin.

In the smallest of all, the Worm Pipe-fish, we have a
species not exceeding a length of 9 inches, and in colour
^^Torm of a dark green or brown, with white lines

Pipe-fish. and spots. Like the rest, it appears generally
distributed on our coasts. According to Couch, this species
keeps almost entirely to the ground.

A familiar object in the aquarium, the remarkable Sea-
horse occurs sparingly on all our coasts. It has a mailed
body, with lateral ridges, also a tubular snout
and the family egg-pouch. The pointed tail
is prehensile, and the sea-horse is fond of winding it round
stems of weed or other support. The body, which is
covered with spines, is black, with white dots and bands ;
and the greatest length of the species is about 4 inches.

THE FILE-FISHES. 417

CHAPTER XXIII. THE FILE-FISHES.

In this order, the bones of the body are not completely
hardened. The gill-openings are small, and in one family
the jaws terminate in a kind of beak.

The name of the curious and unprepossessing File-fish

has reference to the serrated edge of the dorsal spine, as

-ci-7^ -R -u well as to the manner in which the fish can
File-nsn or

Trigger- elevate it at will. It is by no means common
^ ' in British seas, where it has been taken

measuring i6 inches. Its colour is yellowish.

[An allied species is thought to have been taken at
Polperro.]

Not unlike the hideous and poisonous Australian " Toad-
fish," our Globe-fish, which is taken at irregular intervals
in these waters, has the same unpleasant habit
of distending its body when irritated, as well
as the same reputation for tenacity of life. The blue of
the back presents a sharp contrast with the white of the
sides and belly, the latter being covered with star-shaped
spines. The jaws terminate in a beak.

The huge basking Short Sunfish is not uncommon in our
seas, where it has been taken weighing as much as 5 cwt.
Short and measuring fully 5 feet. I have seen the
Sunfish. dorsal fin of this fish cruising about off the
Lizard. It is known at times to display great activity,
and even to leap out of the water. It feeds on small
crustaceans.

The rarer Oblong Sunfish has smoother skin and is less
Oblong deep in the body. The dorsal and anal fins
Sunfish. i[q farther back than in the last. It does
not bask.

2 D

418 FISHES.

CHAPTER XXIV. THE AECTIC CHIMERA.

For a group quite distinct, and placed in some classifi-
cations at a considerable distance from them, the chimcT-
Arctic roids certainly bear extraordinary superficial
Chimeera. resemblance to the sharks, having the same
cartilaginous skeleton, the same " claspers " ; and, like
them, lacking the air-bladder, and depositing the egg in
a "purse." The Arctic Chimaera is found in our northern
waters to a length of 4 feet, which is almost the maximum
length attained by any existing member of the group. The
fishermen know it as the " Rabbit-fish " or " King of the
Herrings." The body of this fish is long, and, in the adult,
smooth ; the snout soft and slightly upturned ; the tail
tapering to a whip-like extremity ; the dorsal fin long, and
having a sharp spine. The head is furnished with pores
and a spine -like crest ; the four gill -slits have but one
external opening. The internal resemblances to the sharks
are also remarkable, but these lie without the province of
the present account. The chimiera is a carnivorous fish,
herrings being its favourite food.

CHAPTER XXV. THE STURGEON.

It seems that, in spite of some inclination on the part of
writers to include a second, but one member of this family
wanders to our estuaries. The Sturgeon is a
ganoid fish, having quadrate scales of true
bone capped with enamel. Bony plates are also disjiosed
in rows along the body. The distinguishing features of
the sturgeon are the longer upper lobe of the heterocercal
tail, the elongated snout with four barbels, and the small

THE SHARKS AND RAYS. 419

toothless mouth beneath the snout, the single gill-opening,
bony plates or shields on the head, and cartilaginous
skeleton. The breathing-spiracle is present, as in sharks.
The sturgeon is only a wanderer to British rivers, the
Thames and Severn among them, which it doubtless enters
for the purpose of depositing its spawn. Examples of over
lo feet in length and 500 lbs. weight have been taken in
British waters. In colour, this fish is reddish or bluish
grey along the back and sides, white beneath. It spawns
early in the year. The food of our Sturgeon consists of
mud and of the worms and molluscs contained in it. The
flesh has a faint pink tinge, and there is a good deal of
fat. It is not bad eating, but rather coarse, and rarely
fetches anything more than a very low price in the
market. Enormous shoals of sturgeon make their way
up Russian rivers from the Caspian, their most valuable
products being the roe, which is made into caviare, and
the air-bladder, which makes isinglass of the first quality.
In this country it is a royal fish, belonging to the Crown.

CHAPTER XXYI. THE SHARKS AND RAYS.

British seas contain representatives of five out of the
nine existing families of sharks, some of formidable dimen-
sions, others of mischievous habits, the latter being in our
waters of small size and comparatively harmless. It seems
probable, indeed, that the vermin will increase in these
parts, a result contributed to by the cutting of the Suez
Canal and the rapid growth of our seaport towns; for
nothing is so likely to attract sharks in from the ocean as
the presence of more off'al and sewage in the shallower
water, as an example of which we have the enormous
increase of sharks in Sydney Harbour during the past

420 FISHES.

twenty years. The Suez Canal has already admitted two
new sharks to European waters, though they have not as
yet been observed west of Gibraltar.

I. The Sharks.

These cartilaginous fishes have the body tapering, the
tail with the upper lobe the larger, the snout pointed or
shovel-shaped, breathing-spiracles on the head behind the
eyes, the mouth, usually crescentic, beneath the head. The
eyes have a movable, nictitating membrane. The teeth, the
formation of which difi"ers from that in teleostean fishes in
a manner that need not be particularised here, lie in rows,
the hinder ready to take the place of those in front. The
skin within the mouth is rough like that without, which
lacks scales. The lateral gill-0i3enings are usually five,
sometimes six or seven, in number. The eye has, in some,
a closing membrane not found in other fishes. By these
features, as well as by the presence of claspers at the vent,
and several internal peculiarities (as the absence of air-
bladder, a spiral valve in the intestine, and the nature of
the optic nerves, which last are not transverse or decus-
sate, as in bony fishes), sharks are not difficult to distin-
guish. They are all of carnivorous tastes, though several,
as our Basking Shark and the Port Jackson Shark, are
quite inofiensive. In reproduction, they are mostly ovi-
parous, many depositing their eggs in oblong receptacles
of a horny substance, known as "purses." The hammer-
head, the i^orbeagle, the tope, and the smooth hound bring
forth their young alive.

One of the handsomest of British sharks, the Blue Shark,

is plentiful on the Cornish coast every summer, where nets

Blue are ruined and long lines torn to shreds. I

Shark. have hooked small examj^les of 20 or 30 lbs. on

the rod, but sharks of this species have been taken in the

nets of twice the weight and at least 6 feet in length.

THE SHARKS AND RAYS. 421

When hooked, this shark not infrequently comes to the
surface to shake out the hook, failing which, it revolves in
the wat^r with great rapidity, the line scoring into the
roughly granulated skin and tying the fish in a knot.
This shark is deep blue above, lighter on the pointed

snout, white beneath. The upper lobe of the tail is
notched ; the eye has the usual nictitant membrane ; but
the spiracle, so characteristic of many members of the
family, is absent. It feeds on mackerel, pilchards, and
ground -fish. This shark is supposed to deposit its egg-
cases in winter when absent from our shores.

The Tope, more familiar on our coasts, and known
locally as the " Silver Dog " or " Rig "—the " School "
Shark of Australian seas — occurs along the
south and east coasts. I have caught them
at Bournemouth over 4 feet in length, as they feed at mid-
water, and are fond of following up the hook and seizing
a whiting already hooked. This shark, which is grey
above and white beneath, grows to a length of over 6
feet, and is slender in form. The eye has a nictitating
membrane, and a small spiracle is present. The teeth,
in three rows, are triangular and serrated. When fresh
caught, this shark has, like the porbeagle, a rank smell.
It is viviparous, extruding one or two score of young
at midsummer. One of 5 feet 4 inches, and weighing
nearly 50 lbs., was taken this summer in the mackerel-
nets off Deal.

422 FISHES.

From the true sharks we come to the Hammerhead, one
of the most remarkable of living fishes, a rare visitor to
Hammer- British waters, but exceedingly numerous on
head. i]^q other side of the world, where it is re-

garded as one of the most dangerous ; and I know of
one man at least whose small boat was chased by one of
these brutes for over a mile up the Brisbane river until
in despair he ran her ashore. The most characteristic
part of this shark is the hammer-shaped head, the large
eye lying at either end and having a nictitating mem-
brane. Sjjiracles are absent. This fish grows to a length
of over 12 feet, and its colour is dark grey above, white
below. The upper lobe of the tail is twice as long as
the lower. This shark is viviparous, the young being
born in autumn. It is also known as the "Balance- fish."

Another group of small ground-sharks is chiefly interest-
ing for the distinction existing before birth between the
Smooth two species that compose it. As some doubt
Hound, exists, indeed, as to whether the second of
these, Mtistela Iwvis, is to be regarded as a British fish, it
is convenient to consider the two under the same trivial
name of Smooth Hound. The difference alluded to is that
in this doubtful British subject — which is, like its com-
moner congener, viviparous — there is a placental connec-
tion between the unborn young and its parent, this con-
nection being absent in the other. The latter, which
is also known as the "' Hay-mouthed Dog," is of frequent
occurrence on our coasts, examples of 4 feet being taken
on the ground-lines. In colour it is grey, Avith indistinct
white spots. The food of this species is said to consist
of crustaceans.

The For! )eagle, the type of another group, belongs to a
genus of which our seas contain no other
member. The fins are spineless as in the fore-
going, but the eye has no nictitating membrane, and the

THE SHAKES AND KAYS. 423

Spiracle is either minute or wanting altogether. This fish
may be further recognised by the deep body and wide gill-
openings, the pores on the snout, and the pit on the
tail-fin. In colour, it is deep grey or brown above, white
beneath. It has been taken on every part of our coasts,
mostly, however, in the south-west, and of a length of over
lo feet. I never knew it seize a hooked fish like the blue
shark, but it will often take a large bait intended for
pollack; and I have caught several in this way, one of
them weighing 23 lbs., on the rod. It is viviparous, ac-
cording to authorities on the subject, though there seems
some little uncertainty as to the breeding season.

In that remarkable form, the Thresher, known even at
some distance by the disprojjortionate length of the
Fox-Shark notched upper tail -lobe, which may exceed
or Thresher, ^j-^g^^ ^f ^^q jjead and body together, we have

one of the commonest of British sharks, which has outside
of these seas a distribution that is practically cosmopolitan.
With the tail, this shark grows to a length of 15 feet, and
its colour is bluish grey above, white beneath. The eyes
are small and round, and there is no nictitant membrane.
Spiracle, if present at all, very minute. The teeth of this
species are small and triangular, and their size has caused
stay-at-home naturalists to denounce the stories of this
shark attacking whales. Those who prefer gathering their
natural history at home are always free to do so, and
are also free to disbelieve others who, not necessarily
in the mantle of Munchausen, travel abroad with their
eyes open. At any rate I certainly saw on one occasion
on the coast of Queensland two of these sharks attacking
a whale of some kind, for we steamed so near that the
resounding blows with which the assailants fell on the
whale were distinctly heard by those on board, while the
captain's glasses left no doubt as to the identity of the
long-tailed fishes that leapt in the air to fall again and
again on the whale's back. The conjectured ^Ji'esenco

424 FISHES.

of tlie saw -fish below the surface rests on somewhat
circumstantial evidence, the theory being, that but for
some forbidding presence of that nature the whale would
have the sense to sink to a depth where the attacks of the
small threshers would be of slight account. In our seas
this shark feeds largely on the mackerel and pilchards.
It occurs there all the year round, but is most in evi-
dence in the summer months. It is ovij)arous, depositing
"purses." The leaping power of this fish is extraordinary;
and I had on one occasion this summer two or three (one
caught in the nets the same evening measured 8 feet 5
inches from tip to tip) jumping quite their own length out
of the water close to my boat and not half a mile from the
end of Bournemouth pier.

The largest, as well as the most innocuous, of our sharks,
however, is the Basking Shark, or " Sail-fish," also known
Basking as the " Sunfish," which occurs with us chiefly
Shark. on the Irish coast, growing to a length of be-
tween 30 and 40 feet, yet so gentle and unsuspecting as to
allow a noose to be slipped over its tail. In colour, this
huge fish is dark green to black above, white or yellow
beneath; above the snout is a stain of reddish brown.
The first dorsal fin is large, and when the fish is basking
at the surface is held erect like a sail. The gill-oj^enings
are wide and furnished with gill-rakers, the function being,
as in the baleen of whales, to filter the water, retaining the
minute organisms on which this, one of the largest of living
fishes, contrives to nourish itself, parallel to the largest of
living mammals. The eye is small and without nictitant
membrane ; and the spiracles are also minute. The tail,
the sides of which are keeled, has both lobes distinct, and
there is a pit at its base Attempts have been made to
distinguish as species more than one aberrant form of this
shark.

The normal number of gill -openings in the sharks is,

THE SHARKS AND EAYS. 425

as has already been mentioned, five; but in the present
comb-toothed species, which has no near ally in our seas,
Six-giHed we find the number of gill - openings to be
Shark. gj^ — indeed there are two allied species in the

Mediterranean with seven. The large and fierce Six-gilled
Shark has been taken on our coasts to the length of nearly
30 feet. The single dorsal fin, situate far back over the
anal, is without spines. The eye is large, and devoid of
nictitant membrane. The spiracles are small, and lie low
down on the neck. The mouth is without labial fold, and
the teeth are not equally developed in either jaw, several
series being in use together. In colour this shark is
uniform grey.

In the dog-fishes we have an important group of ground-
sharks, mostly of small size, and feeding on crustaceans
and carrion.

One of the most familiar of these, a fish that grows to
a length of at least 4 feet, possibly more, is the spotted
Nurse, also known as " Bounce " or " Cat-fish."
In colour this dog-fish is reddish brown on the
back and sides, and covered with large dark spots, lower
surface white. The eye is without nictitant membrane;
the spiracles are of moderate size. I have taken this
fish of a length of nearly 3 feet on the rod, and have
invariably found it show a tendency to wind itself round
my arm, by no means a pleasant sensation, as the skin is
very rough, so much so that it is an efficient substitute
for emery-paper. This is more eaten than most of our
sharks and dog-fish. It feeds, chiefly at night, on crus-
taceans. It is oviparous, the "purses" being deposited in
the autumn. I have observed on the nostrils of this fish
folds similar to those alluded to by Mr Dunn in the black-
mouthed dog-fish, and denoting in all probability smelling
powers of a high order.

The most remarkable property in the allied Kow Hound,

426 FISHES.

"Hiiss," or "Lesser Spotted Dog-fish," and one mentioned

by Day and since verified by myself on many occasions, is

that when first caught and placed in the basket

Hound "^vith pollack and other fish, its touch dis-

or Row colours the latter, the points of contact being

indicated by white patches. It is somewhat

commoner on our coasts than the last, preferring deeper

water. A smaller species, it rarely exceeds a length of

3^ feet. In colour and markings, however, it strongly

resembles the last, the spots being smaller, less blurred,

and more numerous. It is oviparous, depositing its

" purses " in autumn.

The Black-mouthed Dog-fish is not common in British
seas, where it grows to a length of 3 or 4 feet. In colour
-g, ^_ it is greyish, having three rows of black

mouthed white-edged spots along the sides. The snout
Dog-fish, ^g pointed, and secretes a viscid matter ; the
tail has serrated processes ; the skin is very rough through-
out. The inside of the mouth, which has a fold of skin,
is black. The eye is large, and there are spiracles. This
shark deposits " purses " devoid of the usual filaments.
Mr Dunn of Mevagissey, a most accurate observer of sea-
fish, has remarked on the presence of curious reticulated
organs above and below the snout of this species.

[Centrina salviani, a Mediterranean form, has been
trawled on one occasion at least off the Cornish coast. It
grows to a length of nearly 6 feet. The eye is large and
without nictitant membrane, and over it is a distinct
ridge. The spiracle is large, the gill - openings narrow,
and the mouth small. In colour this dog-fish is uniform
dark brown.]

One of the commonest of our smaller members of the
shark tribe is the >Spur-dog or Picked Dog, a gregarious,
fish-eating species, found on every part of the British and

THE SHAPvKS AND EAYS. 427

Irish coasts. It grows, according to Day, to a length of 4
feet, and is easily recognised by the sharp spine before
Spur-dog or each dorsal fin. The teeth of this dog-fish are
Picked Dog. somewhat peculiar, being small and having
the inner edge the sharpest. The eyes are large, as also
are the spiracles behind them ; and there is no nictitating

,Jf^

-a4ii.

membrane. In colouring this fish is grey above, white on
the belly, occasionally dashed with faint yellow, and in
young examples having some white spots. In certain
internal characters, this and the following sharks agree
somewhat closely with the rays. This fish is viviparous,
and seems to breed at various seasons.

A large allied species, growing to a length of 15 feet at
least, the Greenland Shark is another of the whale's most
Greenland formidable enemies. As its name implies, it
Shark. is an inhabitant of the colder northern seas,

only visiting the Scottish, and still more rarely the Eng-
lish, coast at irregular intervals. The colour of this fish is
grey, lighter beneath ; and its chief peculiarities are that
the body is covered with small tubercles, and the fins are
very small, the dorsal fins having no spines. The teeth in
the lower jaw show the peculiarity noticed in those of the
last, and they lie in six rows. This shark is viviparous,
and is said to produce three or four young only at a birth.

The entire body of the large Spinous Shark, which
grows to a length of over 8 feet, is covered with round
tubercles. Like the last, it has all the fins of small size.

428 FISHES.

and the dorsal is spineless. In colour it is dark grey,
with touches of red on the sides and belly, and the lateral
Spinous ^^^® distinctly white. The lower lobe of the
Shark. tail-fin is very insignificant. The eye is large,
and has no nictitating membrane; the spiracle is small.
The teeth lie in several rows, only one of which is func-
tional. In habits, this shark is a ground-species, rarely
coming to the surface, though the existence of a distinct
swimming race has been suggested; and its food would
appear to consist largely of crustaceans. The majority of
recorded British examples were captured west of Plymouth.

In the Monk Fish we find so strange a combination of
the external characters of the foregoing and following
Angel or groups, that it may be regarded in a measure
Monk Fish, ^s the connecting link between the two,
thougli its place is, strictly speaking, with the sharks. It
is common on all our sandy coasts, particularly in the
northern waters, though the Channel furnishes a large
number to the trawlers ; and I recollect measuring one of
a few inches over 4 feet and weighing nearly 50 lbs., which
was trawled off West Bournemouth in the month of Au-
gust 1896. It is rarely taken in the winter months, stray
examples being, however, thrown ashore at that season in
heavy gales, which makes it probable that the monk retires
during the cold weather a few miles only from land. In
colour this shark is usually dark brown or grey, with
numerous blotches, lighter beneath. The dorsal fins,
which lie back near the tail, are without spines, and there
is no anal fin, the pectorals being very large, but not join-
ing the head, as in the rays. There are a number of
tubercles over the skin, but their distribution difi'ers.
Before the nostrils, next the mouth, is a loose process of
skin. The lateral gill -openings are large, as also the
crescent - shaped spiracles. The eyes lie far apart and
somewhat beneath the surface of the head, being in fact
included in the skin. This fish grows to a length of over

THE SHARKS AND RAYS. 429

7 feet. Its food consists largely of flat-fish. In repro-
duction it is viviparous, producing a score of young at a
birth, it is said, in July (Couch). Among the many other
names by which it is known are " vShark - Ray " and
"Mongrel Skate,"" having allusion to its affinities to both
groups, "Fiddle-fish," in reference to its shaj^e ; and
"Kingston," a Sussex name the meaning of which I,
was never able to trace.

2. The Rays.

In this, the second subdivision of the sub-order, we find
a number of characters distinct from those of sharks.
In the first f)lace, the body is flattened; the tail is
slender and whip-like, with or without a notched spine ;
the pectoral fins are enormously developed, the dorsal
fins, if present, lie on the tail, the anal fin is absent.
The mouth is beneath the fish, but farther back than in
sharks ; the teeth flat and adapted for crushing ; the gill-
openings, five in number, lie, with the mouth, on the under
surface. Large spiracles are present behind the eyes,
which are without nictitating membrane, but have in most
cases a fringed eyelid. As already mentioned, the spiny
dog-fishes have strong affinities with the present group,
and should indeed be considered with theiU: With this
reservation, however, it is convenient in an introductory
work to adhere to the older division of sharks and rays.
They deposit their eggs in the same kind of " purses " as
some of the sharks, but these have no filaments, as, for ex-
ample, those of the nurse. Mr Dunn of Mevagissey tells
me that they have, in place of these, an adhesive matter
that keeps them fast to weeds and stones.

The typical family and genus embrace nearly a dozen

Common British species. One of the most familiar

Skate. g^j^(^ largest is the Common Skate, otherwise

"Grey Skate," "Blue Skate," or "Tinker," in which the

430 FISHES.

sexual differences extend to tlie teeth, in addition to the
usual smoothness of skin observed in the females ; and
the male is further distinguished by a patch of tubercles
on the i^ectoral fins. In colour, this skate is pale grey
with black spots, the under surface nearly white, also
speckled with black. On the tail are two spineless dorsal
fins and three rows of tubercles. This skate grows to a
length of over 6 feet, a breadth of over 5 feet, and a
weight of between 150 and 200 lbs. It feeds largely on
whitings and crustaceans, and deposits its "purses," de-
void of tendrils, in early summer.

Another skate of similar habits is the common Thornback

or " Maid," which grows in our waters to a length of over

-? feet, and is trawled or hooked in moderately

Thornback. '-' ' ^ ^ J

deep water. In colour it is brown, sometimes

mottled, above, white beneath. The sexes differ in the

same particulars as those of the skate, the teeth of the
male being pointed, those of the female flat. The upper
surface of the thornl^ack is, as the name implies, covered
at intervals with curved spines that point towards the tail.

THE SHAETvS AND RAYS. 431

This fish is said to feed not only on flat-fish and crusta-
ceans, but also on such surface or mid-water forms as shad
and herrings. The "purses" of this species are deposited
in summer.

The deeper water furnishes the rarer Long-nosed Skate,
which has a long shovel-shaped snout with which to dig up

Long- ^^^ flat-fish, its favourite food. It is grey on

nosed both surfaces, with or without spots and streaks.

^ ^' On the lower surface of the tail there is a

series of spines. The skin of this species is granulated

and rough to the touch, but lacks the larger tubercles.

Like the rest, the long-nosed skate is oviparous.

[The Flap2^e7' Sl'ate of Day is regarded by many natur-
alists, Couch among them, as a variety only. Giinther
considers it a hybrid between the common skate and some
other species.]

The largest of our rays, the Sharp-nosed Ray, also known
variously as the "Burton Skate," "White Skate," or "Mavis
Sharp- Skate," is taken to a weight of 500 lbs., its

nosed Bay. greatest length being given at between 7 and
8 feet. As in all rays, distinguished from the skates proper,
the lower surface is spotless white, the edge of the pectoral
fin being sometimes, though not invariably, shaded with
black. On the tail and pectoral fin, also behind the eyes,
are rows of spines. The edge of the snout is undulated
as far as the pectoral fin.

A deep-water species, caught chiefly in the summer
months, the Shagreen Ray, "Dun Cow," or "French
Shagreen Ray" grows to a length of 3 feet, and is
Ray. more common on the east coast than in the

Channel. The skin of this species is roughly granulated,
and there are two rows of large siDines along the disc
and round the eyes. In colour this ray is light brown
above, pure white below, the edge of the disc being often
of darker hue than the rest.

432 FISHES.

Found in shallow water, the Homelyn, "Spotted Eay,'^
or " Tally " attains a length of 4 feet. The upper surface
is rough, and there are rows of compressed
spines along the back, and in males upon the
head. The tail is somewhat flattened, and has three rows
of spines. The spiracles are very large. The colour of
this ray is brown with black spots. The lower surface
is smooth and white. It feeds like the rest on fish and
crustaceans, and extrudes its "purses" towards the end
of summer.

The Starry Ray is taken chiefly in Scotch waters, the

name having reference to the star-like radiating spines

with which the body is thickly covered. In
Starry Ray. 1 • .r,- ^ i ^^

colouring, this ray bears much resemblance

to the thornback, though the spots are often absent.

It is trawled chiefly in the late summer and autumn.

The " Small-eyed Ray," as the Painted Ray is often
called, is a moderately large species, inhabiting shallow
Painted water, and abundant in the Channel. It is
Ray. more eaten jDerhaps than most other rays.

The colouring is varied, as implied in the trivial name,
but is usually some shade of marbled grey above with
dashes of white and yellow ; the lower surface, in accord-
ance with the unvarying rule in true rays, spotless white.
The teeth of this species are flatter than in the last.

The Cornish trawls generally bring up in summer-time
a large sprinkling of Sand Rays, or " Owls," which seem in
Sandy or winter to retire to the deeper untrawled water
Cuckoo outside. This species attains an average length

^^* of 3 feet, large examples weighing 20 lbs. In

colour the upper surface is brown, spotted and marbled
with yellow. The mouth is arched, and the teeth, which
lie in sixty or seventy rows, are curved and pointed.

[In some systems the Cuckoo Ray is separated as a

THE SHAEKS AND P. AYS. 433

smaller species, having a large black spot with yellow
centre at the shoulder, other yellow spots occasionally
surrounding it.]

In the Torpedo, otherwise " Cramp-fish " or " iSTmnb-
fish," which is not uncommon in our deej^er waters, we come
to another type, the distinguishing feature of
which is the presence of electric organs in the
sides of the head, these organs taking the form of between
four and five hundred hexagonal prisms of cells containing
a gelatinous substance. This power of giving electric
shocks ceases with life. The British species grows to a
length of 5 feet, with an accompanying breadth of upwards
of a yard. The body is plump and without tubercles.
The dorsal fins, the first of which is about twice the size of
the second, are spineless, and situate on the tail. The
eyes, behind which lie oval spiracles devoid of fringe, are
small and embedded. The crescent-shaped mouth is not
very large, the teeth being curved, pointed, and movable
in their sockets. The colour of this species varies from
dull red or brown to black. It feeds on fishes of con-
siderable size, exanii^les of which have been recovered
intact from its inside.

[The Marbled T(yrpedo, a Mediterranean species having
a fringe of tentacles round the spiracle, is included by
some writers in the British list.]

One of the most formidable and indeed commonest of
our rays is the Sting-Eay, or "Firefiaire," which has an
almost cosmopolitan range, and is taken in
British seas to a weight of 80 lbs. This
mud-loving fish is recognised by the serrated spine (6
or 8 inches long in large examples) with which the whip-
like tail is armed. This weapon, which is liable to injury,
can be replaced after accident, if not indeed periodically.
The tail has a fold on the lower surface and a ridge above.
The body is either smooth or sparsely covered with

2 E

434 FISHES.

tubercles. In colour, the sting-ray is generally of a uni-
form reddish brown, rarely marbled or spotted. The tail-
spine is capable of inflicting serious wounds, but it seems
uncertain whether their severity is due merely to lacera-
tion, or whether there is in addition any active poison at
work.

The Eagle-Ray and Ox-Ray are among the largest of liv-
ing fishes, growing, in tropical seas at any rate, to the
enormous weight of upwards of looo lbs. In
ag e- ay. ^^^^ ^q^^^ however, only comparatively small ex-
amples, between 2 and 3 feet in length, have been captured.
The tail of the eagle-ray is, like that of the sting-ray,
armed with a serrated spine as a rule ; but this spine is
sometimes wanting, and in some examples, on the other
hand, there is a second. The tail itself is whip-like, and
bears a small fin before the spine. This ray is exceedingly
broad, the wing-like appearance of the pectoral fins having
doubtless suggested the trivial name. Its colour is greenish
brown above, white beneath, the tail being in many ex-
amples almost black. The teeth are broad, and lie in
seven rows. This fish is generally described as viviparous,
but Couch gives an account of its " purse," which he de-
scribed as of large size and marked with lines and spots.

[The Ox-Ray, likewise a wanderer only to our seas, is
the " Devil-fish " of the West Indies, which is distinguished
by the " horns " before the eyes, fleshy pro-
^" ' cesses which the fish can coil and unfurl at
will. The long and tapering tail, which is three times the
length of the body, is covered with tubercles and armed
with a serrated spine. The gape of the mouth is enor-
mous, and the teeth lie in 150 rows. It has been sug-
gested that the retractile " horns " may be of service in
setting up a current and bringing food to the mouth.
But one example (Irish) is recorded from our seas.]

THE LOWEST VERTEBRATES

THE LOWEST VERTEBEATES.

LAMPREYS AXD HAG-FISHES.

The great sub-kingdom of the Vertebrates, to the consider-
ation of which the present volume is restricted, draws its
lowest subjects from the ranks of these small and remark-
able creatures, which, presumably from a consideration of
their watery habitat, it was formerly the custom to include
among fishes — a habit that has taken such deep root that
one group still retains the title of hag-fishes. The dis-
tinctive features of this class are the absence of jaws, the
single opening of the nostrils, and the curious pouch-like
character of the gills, which are without arches. The
skeleton is cartilaginous, and the skull is closely joined
to the vertebral column.

I. The Lampreys.

Of the true lampreys we have three forms. The largest
of these, the Sea-Lamprey, is an inhabitant of salt water,
tsea- but enters many of our rivers, the Severn

Lamprey, among them, for breeding purposes. It grows
to a length of about 3 feet and a weight of 5 lbs., and its
colour is usually some shade of grey or green, spotted with
black. The young, which remain for some years in fresh
water, their growth being very gradual, are toothless and

438 THE LOWEST VERTEBKATES.

practically blind. The members of this group have seven
gill-slits ; and the mouth, a mere slit when closed, opens
as a circular orifice, having suctorial lips and a flexible
disc. This lamprey is much esteemed as food, and is
caught in wicker baskets specially constructed and placed
in the mud. Like the rest, it is carnivorous, rasping the
sides of living fishes, to which it adheres for the purpose,
with its hard teeth. It enters English rivers to spawn in
the spring.

The commoner Lampern was till recently regarded as a
fresh -water form, but later investigations have estab-
tLam ern Wished its presence in the sea, and it is now
or River- regarded, like the last, as an anadromous
Lamprey. fQj,^^^ j^ difi'ers in its smaller size, rarely
exceeding a length of 15 inches, as well as in the bluish
colour and absence of spots. It spawns in rivers hav-
ing a stony bed, the eggs being deposited in furrows
excavated by the lamj^erns themselves ; and it is thought
to die after spawning. Its food consists of the flesh of
living and dead fish, worms, and insects. Its chief use is
as bait in the cod-fishery.

The smallest of the three, the Mud-Lamprey, familiarly
known as the "Pride," does not exceed a length of 10
t Mud- inches. Like the last, it is, chiefly on account

Lamprey, ^f [^^ toughness, an excellent bait for some
sea-fish. Beyond its supposed residence in salt water and
invariable ascent of rivers for spawning, after which or-
deal it is supposed to die, little has been recorded of the
life-history of this form, the most interesting discovery
being that of its larva, which was long regarded as a
distinct species.

2. The Hag-Fish.

In the singular Hag-fish we have a true parasite, for the
"Borer," as it is called, is most commonly taken from the

LAMPREYS AND HAG-FISHES. 439

bodies of cod into which it has eaten its way. A more
repulsive animal could not be easily imagined, for it is
Hae-fish blind, the mouth without lips and having four
or aiutin- barbels ; the abdomen with rows of sacs that
ous Hag. secrete a quantity of slime. There is but one
opening to the internal gill-pouches. This form inhabits
our deeper northern waters.

APPENDIX I.

MATEKIALS FOR A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BOOKS
ON THE BRITISH VERTEBRATE FAUNA.

[This list has for the mostj'xo't undergone revision by the xmUishcrs.
In the case of works out of print (o.p. ) the price is usually
omitted. ]

INDEX TO COUNTIES AND DISTRICTS.

(g = general, h = birds, m = mammals.)

Argyll, fj .

Harvie-Brown and Buckley.

Banbury, h

.• Aplin.

Bedford, b

. Steele-Elliott.

Belfast Lough, g

. Patterson.

Berks, b .

Clark-Kennedy.

Berwick, b

. Muirhead.

Blackheath, b .

. Collingwood.

Borders, b

. Chapman.

Braemar, g

. Macgillivray.

Breckonshire, b

. Phillips.

Brighton, g

. Merrifield.

Bucks, b .

. Clark-Kennedy.

Channel Islands, </

. Ansted and Latham.

- Smith.

Cornwall, g

. Bullmore, Couch.

b .

. Harting.

Cromarty, g

. Harvie-Brown and Buckley.

Cumberland, b.

. Macpherson and Duckworth

Derby, b . .

. Whitlock and Hutchinson.

442

APPENDIX I.

Devon, (J .

II b .

II b .
Dorset, b .
Dublin,^ .
East Aiiglia, g
Edinburgh, m
Epping Forest, </
Essex, b .
Fenland, g
Gloucester, y
Guernsey, b
Harrow, b
Hebrides, g
Heligoland, b
Hereford, b
Highlands, g

Huddersfield, g
Humber district,
Ireland, g

.1 b
Isle of Man, g
Isle of Wight, g
Lakeland, g
Lancashire, b
Leicestershire, g
Liverpool, g
Loch Lomond, g
Lofthouse, g
London, b
Mailing, g
Marlborough, b
Middlesex, b
Moidart, b
Moray Basin, g
New Forest, g
'b
Norfolk, g

b -
Northampton, b
Northumberland, b
Norwood, b
Notts, b .
Orkney (and Shetland), g

II II b

Oxford, b
Pembroke, b
llej)ton, b
Rutland, g
tScilly Islands, b
Scotland, b

Bellamy.

D' Urban and Mathew.

Pidsley.

Mansel-Pleydell.

Rutty.

Emerson, Lubbock, Miller.

Evans.

Buxton.

Christy.

Miller and Skertchley.

Witchell and Strugnell.

Smith.

Barrett- Hamilton .

Harvie-Brown and Buckley.

Gaetke.

Bull, Home.

Harvie-Brown and Buckley, St John,

Speedy.
Hobkirk.
Cordeaux.

Baily, Patterson, Rutty, Thompson.
Benson, More, Payne- Gall wey, Watters.
Woods.
More.

Macphersou.
Mitchell.
Browne.
Byerley.

Lumsden and Brown.
Roberts.

Harting, Pigott, Swann.
Fielding.
Imthurn.
Harting.
Blackburn.

Harvie-Brown and Buckley, St John.
De Crespigny and Hutchinson.
Wise, Witherby.
Emerson, Lubbock.
Gurney, Stevenson.
Lilford.
Hancock.
Aldridge.

Whitaker and Sterland.
Harvie-Brown and Buckley.
Dunn.
Aplin.
Mathew.
Garneys.
Browne.
Harting.
Harvie-Brown, Macpherson.

BIBLIOGKAPHY.

443

Selborne, g
Sherwood Forest, h
Shetland, h
Somerset, h
Staffordshire, g
h
Stockton-on-Tees, g
Suffolk, h
Sussex, h .
Sutherland, g
I. h

Swansea, g
Tutbury, g
Westmorland, h
Wilts, h .
Wirral, b .
Worcestershire,
Yarmouth, g
Yorkshire, g
b

White.

Sterland.

Saxby.

Smith.

Dickenson, Garner.

M'Aldowie.

Hogg.

Babington.

Borrer, Knox.

Harvie-Brown and Buckley, St John.

Buckley.

Dillwyn.

Mosley and Brown.

Macpherson and Duckworth.

Smith.

Atkinson.

Bund.

Paget.

Eagle-Clarke and Roebuck.

Cordeaux.

Books are in one volume and Svo, unless otherwise stated.

* = illustrated.

1. GENERAL.

Ansted, D. T., and Latham, R. G. The Channel Islands. (Vert,,
pp. 188-196.) W. H. Allen, 3rd ed., 1893.

Atkinson, Rev. J. C. —

* Sketches in Js"atural History, with an Essay on Reason and

Instinct. Pp. 338. Routledge, 1865.

* Forty Years in a Moorland Parish. Pp. 465. Macmillan,

1892. 5s.

Baily, W. H. Rambles on the Irish Coast. (Vert., jjp. 58-69.)
Dublin, 1886.

Bellamy, J. C. *The Natural History of South Devon. Pp. 441.
Plymouth, 1839.

Browne, Montagu. * The Vertebrate Animals of Leicestershire and
Rutland. 1889. £1, Is.

Bullmore, W. K. Cornish Fauna. Pp. 64. Truro, 1867.

Buxton, E. N. *Epping Forest. (Vert., pp. 71-101.) Stanford,
1897. Is.

Byerley, I. The Fauna of Liverpool. (Vert., pp. 34.) 1856.

Collingwood, Cuthbert. The Fauna of Blackheath and its Vicin-
ity. (Pt. IjVert., pp. 46.) Clowes, 1859.

444 APPENDIX I.

Cornish, C. J. *Wild England of To-day and the Wild Life in it.
P. 310. Seeley, 1895. [Seafowl, salmon, deer, osprey, &c.]
12s. 6d.

Couch, Jonathan. A Cornish Fauna. (Vert., Pt. 1, pp. 63.)
Truro, 1838.

Crawford, J. H. *The Wild Life of Scotland. Pp. 280. Mac-
queen, 1896. 8s. 6d. net.

*Summer Days for Winter Evenings. Pp. 274. Macqueen,
1897. 8s. 6d. net.

De Crespigny, R. C, and Hutchinson, H. *The New Forest.
(Vert., pp. 151-165, 204-265.) Murray, 1895.

Dickenson, J. H. Sketch of the Zoology of Staffordshire. 1798.

Dillwyn, L. W. Materials for the Fauna and Flora of Swansea.
(Vert., pp. 17.) /Swansea, privately printed, 1848.

Eagle - Clarke, W., and Roebuck, W. D. A Handbook of the
Vertebrate Fauna of Yorkshire. Pp. 149. Reeve, 1849.

Emerson, R. H. —

*Wild Life on a Tidal Water. Nutt. £3, 3s.

* Pictures from Life in Field and Fen. Nutt. Fol. , £5, 5s.

and £1, 2s.
*0n English Lagoons. £1, Is. and 7s. 6d.

* Birds, Beasts, and Fishes of the Norfolk Broadland. Pp.

396. Nutt, 1895.

Fielding, Rev. C. H. Memories of Mailing and its Valley (with
lists of Kent Vertebrates). West Mailing, 1893.

Eraser, Rev. R. W. *Seaside Divinity. (Vert., pp. 317-377.)
Hogg, 1861.

Garner, R. *The Natural History of the County of Stafford.
(Vert., pp. 241-298.) Van Voorst, 1844.

Graham, P. Anderson. All the Year with Nature. Pp. 237.
Smith, Elder, 1893. 5s.

Green, Rev. G. C. * Collections and Recollections of Natural
History and Sport. Pp. 221. Reeve, 1886. 7s. 6d.

Harvie-Brown, J. A., and Buckley, T. E. —

*A Vertebrate Fauna of Sutherland, Caithness, and West

Cromarty. Pp. 354, 2 vols. Douglas, 1887. O.p.
A Vertebrate Fauna of the Outer Hebrides. Pp. 387, 2 vols.

Douglas, 1889. O.p.
*A Vertebrate Fauna of the Orkney Islands. Pp. 338.

Douglas, 1891. 30s.
*A Fauna of Argyll and the Inner Hebrides. Pp. 262.

Douglas, 1892. 30s.
*A Fauna of the Moray Basin. Pp. 615, 2 vols. Douglas,

1896. 60s. [In vol. ii. Extinct Vert., pp. 50, by Dr

Traquair.]

Hobkirk, C. C. P. Huddersfield : its History and Natural His-
tory. (List of mammals and birds, pp. 138-145.) Ward
Lock, 1859.

BIBLIOGEAPHY. 445

Hogg, John. On the Natural History of the Vicinity of Stockton-
on-Tees. (Vei't., pp. IS.) StocTcton, 1S27.

Idle, C. Hints on Shooting and Fishing. Pp. 293. Longmans,
1855. O.p.

JefFeries, Richard —

Wild Life in a Southern County. Pp. 316. Smith, Elder,

1879, 7s. 6d. 1897, 6s.
Nature near London. Pp. 242. Chatto & Windus, 1883.

6s. and 2s. 6d.
The Life of the Fields. Pp. 262. Chatto & Windus, 1884.

6s. and 2s. 6d.
The Open Air. Pp. 270. Chatto & Windus, 1885. 6s. and

2s. 6d.
Round About a Great Estate. Pp. 204. Smith, Elder (latest

ed.), 1894. 5s.
The Amateur Poacher. Pp. 240. Smith, Elder, 1896. 5s.

Jesse, Ed. Gleanings in Natural History. (Vert, ixissim.) Pp.
945 (3 series). Murray, 1835-36.

Knight, F. A. —

* By Leafy Ways.

The Rambles of a Dominie. Wells Gardner, 1891. 5s.

*By Moorland and Sea. Stock, 1893. 5s.

Knox, A. E. *Autumns on the Spey. Pp. 171. Van Voorst,
1872. [Deer, eagles, owls, &c.] 6s.

Lubbock, Rev. R. Observations on the Fauna of Norfolk, and
more particularly on the District of the Broads. Pp. 156.
Jarrold, 1845.

2nded. [ed. T. Southwell], pp. 239. 1879.

Lumsden, J., and Brown, A. A Guide to the Natural History of
Loch Lomond and Neighbourhood. Pp. 103. Glasgow, 1895.

Macgillivray, W. The Natural History of Deeside and Braemar.
Pp. 507. [Ed. E. Lankester.] 1855.

Macpherson, Rev. H. A. *A Vertebrate Fauna of Lakeland. Pp.
552. Douglas, 1892. 30s. [Preface by R. S. Ferguson : ex-
cellent chapters on extinct mammals, bird-fowling, &c.]

Maxwell, Right Hon. Sir Herbert, Bart., M.P. Memories of the
Mouths. {\evt. jpassim.) Pp.300. Arnold, 1897. 6s.

Merrifield, Mrs. A Sketch of the Natural History of Brighton
and its Vicinity. (Vert., pp. 161-180.) Brighton, 18Q0.

Miller, S. H., and Skertchley, S. B. T. The Fenland, Past and
Present. (Vert., pp. 354-400.) Longmans. O.jj.

More, A. G. Outlines of the Natural History of the Isle of Wight.
(Vert., pp. 1-36.) Spottiswoode, 1860.

Mosley, Sir 0., and Brown, E. The Natural History of Tutbury.
(Vert., pp. 102.) Van Voorst, 1863.

Mudie, Robert. The British Naturalist.
1st ed., pp. 380. Whittaker, 1830.
2nd ed., pp. 763 (2 vols.) Orr, 1835.

446 APPENDIX I.

Paget, C. J. and J. Sketch of the Natural History of Yarmouth

and its Neighbourhood. (Vert., pp. 1-18.) Yarmouth, 1834.
Patterson, R. Lloyd. The Birds, Fishes, and Cetaeea commonly

frequenting Belfast Lough. Pp. 267. Bogue, 1880.
Pennant, Thomas. British Zoology.

lsted.,fol. 1766.

2nd ed. (2 vols.) Pp.754. 1768. [Mammals and birds.]

3rd ed. (4 vols. Vert., pp. 1565, vols, i.-iii.) 1812.
Roberts, G. Topography and Natural History of Lofthouse and

its Neighbourhood. (2 vols.) (Vert, passim, i. 111-388; ii.

87-170.) Leeds, 1882.
■Rutty, John. An Essay towards the Natural History of the

County of Dublin. (Vert., i. 263-370.) (2 vols.) Dublin,

1772.

St John, Charles —

A Tour in Sutherlandshire.

2nd ed. *(2 vols.), pp. 706. Douglas, 1884. 21s. [Ap-
pendix by Harvie-Brown and Buckley. ]
*Wild Sports and Natural History of the Highlands. 1st ed.
Natural History and Sport in Moray.

Shand, A. Innes. ^Mountain, Stream, and Covert. Pp. 334.

Seeley, 1897.
" Son of the Marshes "—

Forest Tithes. Pp. 208. Smith, Elder, 1893. 5s.

Nature Studies. Smith, Elder, 1893. 5s.

Forest, Field, and Fell. Lawrence & Bullen, 1893. 3s. 6d.

Woodland, Moor, and Stream. Pp. 224. Smith, Elder,
1896. 5s.

Speedy, T. Sport in the Highlands and Lowlands of Scotland

with Rod and Gun. Pp. 444. Blackwood, 1884. los.
Thomas, E. The Woodland Life. Pp.234. Blackwood, 1897. 6s.
Thompson, W. The Natural History of Ireland. (4 vols.)

(Vert., pp. 1543.) Reeve, 1849-56. £3, 3s.
Turton, W. British Fauna (containing a compendium of the

Zoology of the British Isles). (Vert., pp. 1-117.) r2mo.

Sviansca, 1807.
Tutt, J. W. *Woodside, Burnside, Hillside, and Marsh. Pp.

241. iy^rt. passim.) Sonnenschein, 1894.
Walsingham, Lord, Sir R. Payne-Gallwey, and others. * Shooting.

Longmans ["Badminton Library"]. (2 vols.) (Nat. Hist.

passim.) £1, Is.

White, Gilbert. Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne.

* White, 1789. 4to, pp. 468 [3 illust.]

* White, 1802. Large 8vo, pp. 692 [2 vols, in one].

* White, 1813. 4to [2 vols.], pp. 888.

*Arch., Longman, &c., 1822. [2 vols.] pp. 715 [orig. text].
*Rivington, &c., 1825. Large 8vo, pp. 714 [orig. text].
Constable, 1829. 12mo, pp. 343. [Ed. Jardine in "Con-
stable's Miscellany."]

BIBLIOGEAPHY 447

White, Gilbert—

'■Hailes, 1833. 12mo, pp. 316. fArranged for young persons
by Lady Dover.]

* Chambers, 1833. Small 8vo, pp. 356. [Notes by Capt.

T. Brown. ]
*Orr & Smith, 1836. Small 8vo, pp. 418. [Ed. Ed. Blyth :

chap, by Mudie.]
*Arch., Longman, &c., 1837. Pp. 640. [Ed. E. T. Bennett:

*S.P.C.K., 1842. 8vo, pp. 328. [This is Lady Dover's 1833
ed. with extra notes and illust.]

* Harper, 1843. 12mo, pp. 335.

*Van Voorst, 1843. Pp. 398. [Ed. L. Jenyns.] 7s. 6d.
*Bohn, 1851. Pp. 416. [Jardine's ed., with notes by Edward

^Routledge, 1854. 8vo, pp. 428. [Ed. J. G. Wood.]

*Bell & Daldy, 1862. 12mo, pp. 426. [Notes embodied in

the letters.]
*Macmillan, 1875. Royal 8vo, pp.- 591. [Ed. Frank Buck-
land.] O.p.

[Ditto, 1876. In 2 vols. 4to, pp. 601, £4, 4s. ; and a
cheaper 1 vol. ed. in 1880, 6s.]
Van Voorst, 1877. 2 vols. 4to, pp. 917. [Ed. Thomas Bell.]

£1, lis. 6d.
*Chatto& Windus, 1878. Pp.348. [Ed. Brown.] 2s.
*Routledge, 1880. 8vo, pp. 475. [The Jardiue ed.]
Scott, 1887. Pp. 366. ['' Camelot Series": pref. by Richard
Jefferies, who speaks of "the little Surrey parish of
Selborne."]
Routledge, 1886. Pp. 160. ["World Library": ed. H. R.

Haweis.] 6d.
*Sonnenschein, 1890. Pp. 583. [Ed. J. E. Harting : ad-
ditional letters.]
Routledge, 1891. Pp. 475. ["Su- John Lubbock's Hundred
Books : the Jardine text and notes, with short intro. by
Lubbock.]
Blackie, 1895. Pp. 252.
*Macmillan, 1895. 2 vols., pp. 422. [The Buckland text,

with 17 pp. in trod, by John Burroughs.] 10s. 6d.
The following undated on title : —

*Warne, pp. 470. [" Chandos Library": ed. Christopher

Davies. ]
Cassell. 2 vols. 120, pp. 334. ["National Library": ed.
H. Morley.] 3d.

"While I was making a list of editions of this classic a complete
bibliography was anuounced in book form. I intended to give the
various editions somewhat in exteiiso, because, in spite of the modern
habit of "smart" naturalists, who sneer at the "slipshod work of
poor old Gilbert "White," much interest must always attach to the
reappearances of a book that has already been issued in something
over flve-and-twenty diflerent editions, hj almost all the leading pub-
lishers, and with at least three naturalists of repute tiguring in the list
of editors. I abandoned the attempt, however, and the above is the
unfinished result.

448 APPENDIX I.

Wilson, Dr Andrew. Leaves from a IS^aturalist's Notebook. Pp.
255. Chatto & Windu.s, 1882. 2s. 6d.

Witchell, C. A., and Strugnell, W. B. [and other contributors].
*The Fauna and Flora of Gloucestershire. (Vert., pp. 166.)
Stroud Press, 1892.

Wood, Theodore. * The Farmer's Friends and Foes : a Popular
Treatise on the various Animals which affect British Agricul-
ture beneficially or injuriously. Sonnenschein. 3s. 6d.

Woods, G. An Account . . . of the Isle of Man. ["On Manx
Zoology," pp. 24-29.] Blackwood, 1811.

2. MAMMALS.

Bell, Thomas. * British Quadrupeds (and Cetacea). Van Voorst.
24s. O.p.
1st ed., 1837.
2nd ed., 1874. Pp. 476 (with other authors). £1, 6s.

Evans, W. * Mammalian Fauna of the Edinburgh District. Fol.,
1892.

Everitt, N. * Ferrets. Pp. 209. A. & C. Black, 1897. 3s. 6d.

Harting, J. E. * Extinct British Animals. Pp. 258. Triibner,
1880.

Jefferies, Richard. Red-Deer. Pp. 207. Longmans, 1884.
*2nd ed., pp. 248. Longmans, 1892. 3s. 6d.

Lydekker, R. *A Handbook to the British Mammalia. Pp. 339.
W. H. Allen, 1895. [Excellent chapter on Ancient Mammals.]

Macgillivray, W. * A History of British Quadrupeds. [Naturalist's
Library.] 1843. O.jj.

Macpherson, Rev. H. A., and others —

*Red Deer. Pp. 330. Longmans ["Fur and Feather

Series " : ed. Alfred Watson], 1896. 5s.
*The Hare. Pp. 274. Longmans ["Fur and Feather

Series": ed. Alfred Watson], 1896. 5s.

Millais, J. G. ^British Deer and their Horns. Pp. 224. Sotheran,
1897. -£4, 4s.

Southwell, T. *The Seals and Whales of the British Seas. Pp. 128.
Jarrold, 1881.

Storer, Rev. J. *The Wild White Cattle of Great Britain. Pp. 384.
[Ed. J. Storer.] Cassell, 1879. 21s.

Whitaker, Joseph. A Descriptive T^ist of the Deer Parks and Pad-
docks of England. Pp. 190. Ballantyne, 1892.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 449

3. BIRDS.

Adams, H. G. —

*Our Feathered Families. Hogg.

1. The Birds of Prey. Pp. 320.

2. Game and Water Birds. Pp. 845.

* Favourite Song-Birds. Pp.192. Groombridge, 1881. 3s. 6d.

Adamson, C. M. —

Sunday Natural History Scraps. Pp. 98. Neivcastle, 1879.
[More especially about birds.]

* Studies of Birds. 1881. [40 sketches, 1 autotype, chiefly

waders and waterfowl : no letterpress.]
*Some more Scraps about Birds. Pp. 273. 1880-81.-
^Another Book of Scraps. 1882. [Letterpress pp. 56 ; 36

f.p. sketches.]

* Some more Illustrations of Wild Birds. Gurney & Jackson,

1887. [24 tinted drawings : no letterpress : mostly water-
fowl. ] O.p.

Aitkinson, W. Wirral Notes. Bolton, 1897. Is.
Albiu, E. —

*A Natural History of English Song-Birds. Pp. 110..

Lowndes, 1779.
*A Natural History of Birds. Pp. 290. (3 vols. 4to.) Innys,
1838. [Includes the " Batt or Fluttermouse."]

Aldridge, W. *A Gossip on the Wild Birds of Norwood and
Crystal Palace District. Pp. 109. Norivood, 1885.

Aplin, F. C., B. d'O., and 0. V. A List of the Birds of the Ban-
bury District. Pp. 29. Banbury, 1882.

Aplin, 0. V. The Birds of Oxfordshire. Pp. 217. Clarendon
Press, 1889.

Arnold, E. L. Bird Life in England. Pp. 325. Chatto & Windus,
1887. 6s. [Grouse-moors, sea-fowl, crows, ducks, &c.]

Atkinson, J. A Compendium of the Ornithology of Great Britain
(with a reference to the Anatomy and Physiology of Birds).
(2 vols.) Hurst, 1820.

Babington, Churchill. * Catalogue of the Birds of Suffolk. Pp.
281. Van Voorst, 1884-86. 10s. 6d.

Barrett-Hamilton, G. E. H. Harrow Birds. Pp. 50. Harrow
School, 1892.

Benson, Rev. C. W. *Our Irish Song-Birds. Pp. 189. Hodges,
1886.

Bewick, T. * A History of British Birds. Pp. 781 (2 vols.) Netv-
castle, 1821.

Blackburn, Mrs H. —

* Birds drawn from Nature. Glasgoiv, 1868. [45 col. plates.]

* Birds from Moidart and elsewhere. Pp. 200. Douglas,

1895. 15s.

2 F

450 APPENDIX I.

Bladen, W. W. Stray Notes on Birds. 1884.

Bolton. * British Song-Birds. (2 vols.) 1824.

Booth, E. T.—

Catalogue of the Cases of Birds in the Dyke Road Museum
(Brighton). Pp. 219. Brighton, 1876.

* Rough Notes on the Birds observed during Twenty Years'

Shooting in the British Islands. (3 vols, fol.) Porter,

1881-87.
Borrer, W. *The Birds of Sussex. Pp. 385. Porter, 1891.

15s. net.
Buckley, T. E. Birds of East Sutherland. Pp. 152. Glasgow
Natural Hist. Soc, 1882.

Bull, H. G. Notes on the Birds of Herefordshire. Pp. 274.
Hereford, 1888.

Bund, J. W. Willis. A List of the Birds of Worcestershire and
the adjoining Counties. Pp. 53. Worcester, 1891. [Tables
faced by notes of occurrences of rare visitors. ]

Butler, A. G.—

* British Birds' Eggs. 1886. £1, 10s.

* British Birds with their Nests and Eggs. (4to.) Brumby

& Clarke, 1896, &c. (In progress.) Weekly, 6d.

Chapman, Abel —

* Bird-Life of the Borders. Pp. 300. Cox. 12s. 6d.

* First Lessons in the Art of Wildfowling. Pp. 270. Cox,

1896.
Christy, Miller —

*The Birds of Essex. Pp. 302. Chelmsford, 1890.

A Catalogue of Local Lists of British Birds. Pp. 42. [Under
Counties.] Porter, 1891. 2s. net.
Clark-Kennedy, A. W. M. *The Birds of Berkshire and Bucking-
hamshire. Pp. 226. Eton, 1868.
Clement, Lewis (" Wildfowler "). * Modern Wildfowling. Cox,

1895. 10s. 6d.
Cordeaux, John. Birds of the Humber District. Pp. 231. Van

Voorst, 1872.
Cornish, C. J. *Nights with an Old Gunner (chiefly birds). Pp.

307. -Seeley, 1897. 6s.
Crichton, A. W. A Naturalist's Ramble to the Orcades. Pp.

132. Van Voorst, 1872. O.ji.

Dixon, Charles —

Rural Bird Life. Pp. 374. Longmans, 1880. O.p. •
*Our Rarer Birds. Pp.373. Bentley, 1888.

* Stray Feathers from many Birds. Pp. 231. W. H. Allen,

1890.

* Annals of Bird Life. Pp. 352. Chapman & Hall, 1890.

7s. 6d.
Idle Hours with Nature. Pp. 278. Chapman & Hall, 1891. 6s.
The Birds of our Rambles. Pp. 249. Chapman & Hall,

1891. 7s. 6d. [Field, Avood, coast, &c.]

BIBLIOGEAPHY. 451

Dixon, Charles —

The Migration of Birds. Pp. 300. Chapman & Hall, 1892.

6s.
*The Nests and Eggs of British Birds. Pp. 371. Chapman

& Hall, 1893. 6s.
*Game Birds and Wild Fowl of the British Isles. Pp. 468.

Chapman k Hall, 1893. 18s.
*The Nests and Eggs of Non- Indigenous British Birds. Pp.

368. Chapman & Hall, 1894. 6s.
The Migration of British Birds. Pp. 320. Chapman & Hall,

1895. 7s. 6d.
* British Sea-Birds. Pp. 295. Bliss, Sands, 1896. 10s. 6d.
The Migration of Birds. Pp. 426. Horace Cox, 1897.
*Our Favourite Song-Birds. Pp. 287. Lawrence (fe Bullen,

1897. 7s. 6d.
Doubleday, Henry. A Nomenclature of British Birds. Wesley,

1836.
Dunn, R. The Ornithologist's Guide to the Islands of Orkney

and Shetland. Pp. 128. Hull, 1837.
D 'Urban and Mathew. *The Birds of Devon. Pp. 546. Porter,
1892. 18s. 6d. net.

Eyton, T. C. *A History of the Rarer British Birds. Pp. 168.
Longmans, 1836. O.p.

Fowler, W. "Warde —

*A Year with the Birds. Pp. 266. Macmillan, 1889. (3rd

ed. ) [The 1st and 2nd eds. contain a list of birds of

Oxfordshire.] 3s. 6d.
*Tales of the Birds. Pp. 210. Macmillan, 1889. (2nd ed.)

3s. 6d.
The Marsh Warbler {A. palustris) in Oxfordshire, &c. Pp.

29. Oxford, 1893.
Summer Studies of Birds and Books. Pp. 288. Macmillan,

1895. [Marsh-warbler, wagtails, song of birds, &c.] 6s.

Fulcher, F. A. *The Birds of Our Islands. Melrose, 1897.

Gaetke, H. Heligoland as an Ornithological Observatory. Pp.
600. Douglas, 1895. 30s,

[A detailed account of nearly 400 species observed by the author
during fifty years of residence on the island. Prefaced by chapters on
the causes, direction, altitude, and velocity of bird-migration.]

Garneys, W. Birds of Repton. 1881.

Gordon, W. J. *Our Country's Birds, and How to Know Them.
Pp. 152. Day, 1892. 6s. [Col. illust. of every species.]

Gosse, P. H. * Popular British Ornithology. Pp. 320. Reeve,
1853.

Gould, John —

*The Birds of Great Britain (5 vols, fol.) Sotheran, 1873.

£75.
An Introduction to the Birds of Great Britain. Pp. 135.
Taylor & Francis. 5s. 6d.

452 APPENDIX T.

Graham, H. D. * Birds of lona and Mull. Pp. 296. Douglas,
1890. £1, Is.

Gurney, J. H. A Catalogue of the Birds of Norfolk. Pp. 47.
Wertheimer, 1884. [285 species.]

Gurney, J. H. , & Son. A Catalogue of a Collection of British Birds.
Porter, 1892. Is. 3d.

Hancock, J. Catalogue of Birds of Northumberland and Durham.
Williams, 18/4. 15s.

Harting, J. E. —

The Birds of Middlesex. Pp. 279. Van Voorst, 1866. O.p.

* Essays on Sport and Natural History. Pp. 463. Cox.

10s. 6d.
Hints on Shore-Shooting. Pp. 88. Van Voorst, 1871. [With

a chapter on skinning.] 3s. 6d.
A Handbook of British Birds. Pp. 196. Van Voorst, 1879.

7s. 6d.
Our Summer Migrants. Pp. 343. Sonnenscheiu, 1889. [An

account of the migratory birds which pass the summer in

the British Islands.]
*Sketches of Bird Life. Pp. 292. W. H. Allen, 1883.

Harvie-Brown, J. A. *The Capercaillie in Scotland. V]). 173.
Douglas, 1879. 8s. 6d.

Harvie-Brown, J. A., and Cordeaux, J., &c. Report on the
Migration of Birds. Edinburgh, 1880-81. [Maps, &c.]

Hayes, C. * Portraits of British Birds. Pp.120. 1808.

Headley, F. W. *The Structure and Life of Birds. Pp. 406.
Macmillan, 1895. 7s. 6d.

Hewitson, W. C. * Coloured Illustrations of Eggs of British Birds.
(2 vols.) Van Voorst, 1856. £3, 3s.

Home, George. An Authenticated List of the Birds of Hereford-
shire. Pp. 24. Hereford, 1889.

Hubbard, Hon. Rose. Ornamental Waterfowl. (A practical man-
ual on the acclimatisation of the swimming birds.) Pp. 208.
Simpkin, 1888.

Hudson, W. H.— • •

*Lost British Birds. Pp. 32. (Soc. Prot. Birds.) [Crane,

capercaillie, avocet, bittern, &c.]
Birds in a Village (and other papers). Pp. 232. Chapman k

Hall, 1893. 7s. 6d. .

* British Birds. Pp.382. Longmans, 1896. 7s. 6d. [A chapter

on anatomy and classification by F. Beddard.]

Hunt, J. * British Ornithology. (3 vols.) iVonaic/i, 1815. (Con-
taining portraits of all the British Birds.)

Imthurn, E. F. Birds of Marlborough. Pp. 117. Marlborough,
1870.

Irby, Tjt.-Col. L. H. British Birds : Key List. Porter.
1st ed., pp. .58. 1888. 2s.net.
2nd ed., pp. 69. 1892. [With an index.] 2s. net.

BIBLIOGKAPHY. 453

Jefferies, Richard —

*The Gamekeeper at Home. Pp. 221. Smith, Elder, 1879.

10s. 6d. Later edition, 1896. 5s.
*Field and Hedgerow. Longmans [" Silver Library "]. 3s. 6d.

Johns, Rev. C. A. * British Birds and their Haunts. Pp. 626.

S.P.C.K., 1867. 7s. 6d.
Johnson, T. B. The Gamekeeper's Directory. Pp. 194. Piper,

1851. [Instructions for the preservation of game.]
Jones, T. Rymer. *The Natural History of Birds, a Popular

Introduction to Ornithology. Pp. 576. S.P. C.K., 1867.

[British passim.2
Kearton, R. —

* Birds' Nests, Eggs, and Egg- Collecting. Pp. 96. Cassell,

1896. Is.

* British Birds' Nests : how, where, and when to find and

identify them (introd. by R. B. Sharpe). Pp. 368. Cassell,
1895.
Klein, E. *The Etiology and Pathology of Grouse Disease.
Pp. 130. Macmillan, 1892. 7s. net.

Knox, A. E. —

Ornithological Rambles in Sussex. Pp. 250. Van Voorst,

1849. 7s. 6d. [Letters and systematic catalogue.] 0.]).
*Game Birds and Wild Fowl : their Friends and their Foes.
Pp. 264. Van Voorst, 1850. [A chapter on four-footed
vermin.] O.p.
Lee, Oswin A. J. * Among British Birds and their Nesting Haunts.
Illustrated by the Camera. In parts. Douglas, 1896, &c.
10s. 6d. per part.
Lewin, W. *The Birds of Great Britain. (8 vols.) 1795. [In
English and French.]

Lilford, Lord —

* Coloured Figures of the Birds of the British Islands. (4

vols.) Porter, 1885. £7, 12s. O.p.

* Birds of Northamptonshire. Pp. 706. Porter, 1895. (2

vols.) £2, 2s. net.
M'Aldowie, A. M. The Birds of Staffordshire. Pp. 151. Stoke,

1893.
Macgillivray, W. —

* Descriptions of the Rapacious Birds of Great Britain. Pp.

482. Edinburgh, 1836.

* A History of British Birds (indigenous and migratory). Scott.

1st ed., 1837. (5 vols.) Pp.3290.
2nd ed., 1846. Pp. 548.

Macpherson, Rev. H. A., and Duckworth, W. The Birds of Cum-
berland. Pp. 206. Carlisle, 1886. [Critically studied, in-
cluding some notes on the Birds of Westmorland.]

Macpherson, Rev. H. A. —

The Visitation of Pallas's Sand-Grouse to Scotland in 1888.
Pp. 38. [A map.] Porter, 1889.

454 APPENDIX I.

Macpherson, Rev. H. A. —

An Introduction to the Study of British Birds. Pp. 120.
1890.

Macpherson, Rev, H. A., and others —

*The Partridge. Pp. 284. Longmans ["Fur and Feather

Series" : ed. Alfred Watson], 1893. 5s.
*The Grouse. Pp. 302. Longmans ["Fur and Feather

Series " : ed. Alfred Watson], 1894. 5s.
*Tlie Pheasant. Pp. 276. Longmans [" Fur and Feather

Series": ed. Alfred Watson], 1895. 5s.

Mansell-Pleydell, J. C. The Birds of Dorsetshire, a Contribution

to the Natural History of the County. Pp.179. Porter, 1888.

7s. 6d. net.
Masefield, J. R. B. *Wild Bird Protection and Nesting Boxes.

Pp. 130. Leeds, 1897. 6s.
Mathe w. Rev. M. A. * The Birds of Pembrokeshu'e and its Islands.

Pp. 131. Porter. £1, Is. and 10s. 6d.

Meyer, H. L. * Coloured Illustrations of British Birds and their
Eggs. (7 vols.) Pp.1501. Willis & Sotheran, 1857.

Millais, J. G. *Game Birds and Shooting Sketches. Pp. 72 (fol.)
Sotheran, 1892.

Mitchell, F. S. The Birds of Lancashire. Gurney & Jackson.
1st ed. 1885. Oqi.
2nded. (Ed. Howard Saunders. ) Pp.271. 1892. 10s. 6d.

Montagu, G. Dictionary of British Birds (ed. Newman). Son-
nenschein, 1889. 7s. 6d.

Moore, Capt. G. P. British Birds, systematically arranged in five
tables, showing the comparative distribution and periodical
migrations, and giving an outline of the geographical range of
376 species.

More, A. G. A List of Irish Birds. Pp. 32. Dublin, 1885.

Morris, B. R. * British Game Birds and Wild Fowl. Pp. 252
(4to). Groombridge, 1855.

Morris, Rev. F. 0.—

*A History of British Birds. (6 vols.) Pp. 2050. Groom-
bridge, 1866. £6, 6s.
*A Natural History of the Nests and Eggs of British Birds
(4th ed. Tegetmeier). 3 vols. Nimmo, 189§.
]Mosley, S. L. *A History of British Birds, their Nests and Eggs.
llnddersficld, 1881, &c. (in progress). Vols. 1 and 2, £2, 16s. 6d.
[ Plumage of male, female, immature, varieties of eggs, &c. ]

Mossop, Rev. J. A Synopsis of British Land Birds in Verse and
Prose. Pp. 259. Jackson, 1841.

Mudie, R. —

*The Feathered Tribes of the British Islands. Pp. 770 (2

vols.) Bohn, 3rd ed., 1841.
*The Natural History of Birds. Pp. 408 (12mo). Orr &

Smith, 1834.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 455

Muirhead, G. *The Birds of Berwickshire. Pp. 1002 (2 vols.)
Douglas, 1889-95. 30s. [Game birds, hei-on, bittern, folklore,
&c.]

Napier, C. 0. G. The Food, Use, and Beauty of British Birds.
Pp. 88. Groombridge, 1865. [An essay accompanied by a
catalogue of all the British Birds, &c.]

Payne- Gall wey, Sir R. —

*The Fowler in Ireland. Pp.503. Van Voorst, 1882. £1, Is.
* Letters to Young Shooters (3rd series). Pp. 630. Long-
mans, 1896.

Phillips, E. C. The Birds of Breconshire. Pp. 45. West, 1882.

Pidsley, W. E. H. The Birds of Devonshire. Pp. 194. Gibbings,
1891.

Pigott, T. D. London Birds and London Insects. (Birds, pp.
121.) Porter, 1892. [Fames, Shetlands, &c.] 6s. 6d.

Poynting, F. * Eggs of British Birds ; with an Account of their
Breeding Habits : Limicolce. Pp. 253. Porter, 1897. £5.

Robinson, Phil. * Birds of the Wave and Woodland. Pp. 224.
Isbister, 1894.

Rodd, E. H.—

A List of British Birds, as a Guide to the Ornithology of
Cornwall. Penzance.
1st ed. 1864.
2nd ed. Pp. 51. 1869.
[Ed. J. E. Harting.] The Birds of Cornwall and the Scilly
Isles. Pp. 320. Triibner, 1886.

Salvin, F. H., and Brodrick, W. Falconry in the British Isles.
Pp. 171. Van Voorst. £3 ; 2nd ed. 1870, £2, 2s.

Saunders, Howard. * Manual of British Birds. Pp.754. Gurney
& Jackson, 1889. £1, Is.

Saxby, H. L. * Birds of Shetland. 1874. £1, Is.

Seebohm, Henry —

*A History of British Birds. Pp. 1898. (4 vols.) (With

col. illust. of their eggs.) Porter, 1883-85. £6, 6s.
Geographical Distribution of British Birds. Porter, 1893.
7s. 6d.

Sharpe, R. Bowdler. * British Birds. (4 vols.) Allen's Natural-
ist's Library, 1895-97.

Slaney, Rev. R. A. *An Outline of the Smaller British Birds.
Pp. 143. Longman, 1832. O.p.

Smith, Rev. A. C. The Birds of Wiltshire. Pp. 558. Porter,
1887. 10s. net.

Smith, Cecil —

The Birds of Somersetshire. Pp. 643. Van Voorst, 1869.

7s. 6d.
The Birds of Guernsey and the Neighbouring Islands. Pp.

223. Porter, 1879. 3s. 6d.

456 APPENDIX I.

"Son of the Marshes." * The Wild- Fowl and Sea-Fowl of Great
Britain. Pp. 326. Chapman k Hall, 1895. 14s.

Sowerby, J. G. * Rooks and their Neighbours. Pp. 169. Gay &
Bird, 2nd ed., 1895.

Stanley, Eev. E. Familiar History of British Birds, their Nature,
Habits, and Instincts. Parker.

3rd ed.. 1840, 2 vols., pp. 564. 7s.
*4th ed., 1848, pp. 480. 7s.
*5th ed. Longmans, 1880. Pp. 420. 6s.
*New ed. Pp. 420. 1896. 3s. 6d.

Steele-Elliott, J. The Vertebrate Fauna of Bedfordshire. Pp. 24.
1897. Private.

Sterland, W. J. * Birds of Sherwood Forest. Reeve, 1881. 7s.
6d.

Stevenson, H. The Birds of Norfolk. Pp. 1326. Van Voorst.
31s. 6d.
Vols. i. and ii., 1866-70. O.p.

Gurney & Jackson. Vol. iii. (cont. T. Southwell), 1890.
Pp. 432.

Stewart, H. E. *The Birds of Our Country. Pp. 397. Digby,
Long, 1897.

Swainson, Rev. C. Provincial Names and Folklore of British
Birds. Pp. 243.

Swann, H. Kirke —

A Concise Handbook of British Birds. Pp. 210. Wheldon,

1896. 3s. 6d.
T^he Birds of London. Sonnenschein. 2s.
Nature in Acadie.

Swaysland, W. * Familiar Wild Birds. Pp. 160. Cassell, 1883.
12s. 6d. [A chapter on eggs and egg - collecting by R.
Kearton. ]

Tegetmeier, W. B. *Pallas's Sand Grouse: its history, habits,
food, and migrations, &c. Pp. 23. Cox, 1888.

Watson, John (and others). Ornithology in its relation to
Agriculture and Horticulture. Pp. 220. W. H. Allen,
1893. '

Watters, J. J. The Natural History of the Birds of Ireland. Pp.
299. Dublin, 1853.

Whitlock, F. B., and Hutchinson, A. S. * Birds of Derbyshire.
Pp. 239. Bemrose, 1893. 10s. 6d.

Whitaker, J., and Sterland, W. J. Descriptive List of the Birds
of Nottinghamshire. (Vert., pp. 71.) 1879.

Witherby, H. F, * Forest Birds, their Haunts and Habits. Pp.
98. Kegan Paul. [Green woodpecker, tree-creeper, nut-
hatch, &c.]

BIBLIOGKAPHY. 457

Willughljy, Franci.s. Ornithology. (In 3 books.) Marty n. [Ed.
John liay.]

Lat. ed., 1676, pp. 311.

Eng. ed., 1678, pp. 447. [Chaps, on trappmg, falconry, &c.]

Wise, J. R. The New Forest. (Birds, pp. 258-276, 307-318.)
Gibbings, 5th ed., 1895.

Wood, C. T. The Ornithological Guide. Pp. 240. Whittaker,
1835.

Wood, Neville —

British Song-Birds, being Popular Descriptions and Anecdotes

of the Choristers of the Groves. Pp. 441. Parker, 1836.
The Ornithologist's Text - Book. Pp. 232. Parker, 1836.
[Extracts and reviews. ]

Wright, M. 0. *Bird Craft. Pp. 305. Macmillan, 1895.

12s. 6d. net.
Wright, M. 0., and Elliot Coues. * Citizen Bird. Pp. 428.

Macmillan, 1897. 6s.

Wyatt, C. W. * British Birds, being Coloured Illustrations of all
the Species of Passerine Birds resident in the British Isles
(with some notes in reference to their plumage). Ff. 25.
(4to.) Wesley, 1894.

Yarrell, W. * British Birds. (3 vols.)

1st ed., 1843, pp. 1722 and a supp. O.p.
2nd ed., 1845, pp. 1893. O.jy.
3rd ed., 1856, pp. 1995. O.p.

4th ed., 1884-85, pp. 2355. [Vols. i. ii., ed. Newton ; vols. iii. iv.,
ed. Saunders.]

4. REPTILES.

Bateiiian, Rev. G. C. *The Vivarium. Pp. 424. Uijcott Gill,
1897. 7s. 6d.

Bell, T. *A History of British Reptiles. Van Voorst.
1st ed., pp. 142, 1839. O.^j.
2nded., pp. 159, 1849. 12s.

Cooke, M. C. "Our Reptiles.

1st ed. (Hardwicke), pp. 199, 1865. 6s.
2nd ed. (W. H. Allen), pp. 200.

Hopley, Catherine, C. * British Reptiles and Batrachians. Pp.
94. Sonnenschein, 1893. Is.

458 APPENDIX I.

5. FISHES.

Aflalo, F. G. * Sea-Fish. Pp. 258 (Nat. Hist., chap. ii. and
passim). Lawrence & Bullen [" The Angler's Library "],
1897. 5s.

**Bickerdyke, John." *Wild Sports in Ireland. Pp. 234 {jxissivi).
Gill, 1897. 6s.

** Bickerdyke, John," and others. * Sea-fishing. Pp. 513. Long-
mans [" Badminton Library "], 1895. 10s. 6d.

Brabazon, Wallop. *The Deep-Sea and Coast Fisheries of Ireland.
Pp. 111. DiiUiji, 1848.

Brown, W. *The Natural History of the Salmon. Pp. 136.
Glasgoio, 1862.

Buckland, F. T.—

* Fish-Hatching. Pp. 268. Tinsley, 1863. 5s.

* Natural History of British Fishes. Pp.407. S.P.C.K.

Cholmondeley-Pennell, H., and others —

* Fishing. Longmans [" Badminton Library "]. (2 vols.) 1893.

(6th ed.) £1, Is.
*The Angler-Naturalist. Routledge, 1884. 3s. 6d.

Couch, Jonathan. *A History of the Fishes of the British
Islands. (4 vols.) Bell, 1878. £4, 4s.

Cunningham, J. *The Edible Marine Fishes of Great Britain.
Pp. 368. Macmillan, 1896. 7s. 6d. net.

Davies, Rev. E. W. L. Our Sea- Fish and Sea-Food. Pp. 128.
Leadenhall Press, 1887.

Day, Francis —

*The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland. (2 vols.) Pp. 724.

Horace Cox, 1880-84. £2, 2s.
^British and Irish Salmonidai. Pp.298. Cox, 1887. £1, Is.

Dean, Bashford. * Fishes, Living and Fossil. Pp. 283. Mac-
millan, 1895. 10s. 6d.

Eraser, Alexander. Natural History of the Salmon, Herrings,
Cod, &c.

2nd ed., pp. 132. Inverness, 1833.

Hamilton, R. *British Fishes. (2 vols.) W. H. Allen, 1876.
9s.

Holdsworth, E. W. H. Sea-Fisheries. Pp. 202. Stanford, 1877.
3s. 6d.

Houghton, Rev. W. * British Fresh-water Fishes. (2 vols.) Pp.
202 (fol.) Mackenzie, 1879. £3, 3s.

Jardine, Alfred. *Pike and Perch. Pp. 200. Lawrence & Bullen
[" The Angler's Library "], 1897. 5s.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 459

M'Intosh, W. a —

*The Marine Invertebrates and Fishes of St Andrews. (Fishes,
pp. 168-186.) Black, 1875.

M'Intosh, W. C, and Masterman, A. T. *The Life- Histories of
the British Marine Food-Fishes. Pp. 516. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1897. £1, Is.

Maitland, Sir J. R. *The History of Howietoun [Fish- Culture].
Pp. 278 (4to). Hotoictoim., 1887.

Mitchell, J. M. *The Herring: its Natural History and National
Importance. Pp. 372. Longmans, 1864.

Wheeley, C. H. * Coarse Fish. Pp. 268 (Nat. Hist, passim).

Lawrence & Bullen [" The Angler's Library "], 1897. 5s. '
Wilcocks, J. C. *The Sea Fisherman. Pp. 298 (Nat. Hist, passim).

Longmans (4th ed.), 1884. 6s.
Yarrell, W.—

*A History of British Fishes. Van Voorst.

1st ed. (2 vols, and 2 suppls.) Pp. 1000. 1836. £2, 15s. 6d.

2nd ed. (2 vols, and 1 suppl.) Pp. 1122. 1841.

3rd ed. (By Sir J. Richardson.) 2 vols., pp. 1345. 1859.
£3, 3s.

* On the Growth of Salmon in Fresh Water (fol.) ]839. O.p.

Young, A. Salmon-Fisheries. Pp. 98. Stanford, 1877. 2s. 6d.

460

APPENDIX 11.

A LIST OF NATUEAL HISTORY SOCIETIES AND
FIELD-CLUBS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM,

With their Secretaries.

[In the hope of making this account of some interest, I addressed
a letter to the secretary of every society in the following list.
Either many of the letters miscarried, or the gentlemen ad-
dressed were too occupied for outside correspondence. A second
whip brought the number of answers up to a considerable propor-
tion of the whole, and there I was constrained to stop. I offer the
complete list at my disposal, with some of the information, vary-
ing in detail, against each, that my letters evoked. Naturalists
wishing detailed information on the fauna of certain districts will,
it is hoped, find some secretary in the under-m-entioned able and
willing to assist them. The date of foundation and present
strength are given for those interested in the history and develop-
ment of the Field-Club movement. As changes in the constitution
and secretaryship of these Field Clubs are constantly happening, I
think it desii-able to refer the reader to two annual publications in
which such information is brought up to date, the ' Year- Book of
Scientific Societies' (Griffin) and the 'Naturalist's Directory'
(Upcott Gill).

The following abbreviations have been used below : A. —
Antiquarian ; Ar. = Arclueological ; F.C. = Field Club ; M. =
Microscopical (or Microscopists') ; N,H. = Natural History; Ns'. =
Naturalists' ; P. — Philosophical ; Publications in italic and annual
unless marked otherwise ; S. = Society ; Sc. = Scientific]

Date of foundation in round brackets ; number of members in
square brackets.

Aberdeen "Working Men's N.H. and Sc.S.
Accrington Ns'.S.

NATUEAL HISTORY SOCIETIES AND FIELD-CLUBS. 461

Andersonian Ns'.S,, Glasgow. (1885.) [180.] Library. Aniuds.

Field ornithology, botany, marine biology, &c. A. I).

Brownlie, 20 Jardine Street, and C. Cunningham, 110 Garth-
land Drive, Dennistoun.
Anstruther : East Fife Ns'.S.
Armagh N.H. and P.S. (1850.) [260.] Library. H. A. Gray,

The Mall.
Ayr N.H. S.
Barnsley Ns'. and Sc.S. (1867.) [103.] Publications occasional

only. H. Wade, 10 Pitt Street.
Bath N.H. and A.S. (1855.) Proceedings. Rev. W. W. Martin,

49 Pulteney Street.
Bedford N.H.S. (1889.) [25.] Chiefly microscopical work.

Library. H. Darrington, St Loyes.

Belfast Ns'.F.C.

Berwickshire Ns'.C.

■D- ■ 1 _ / TIT- n J T-r • \ f M. and Ns'. Union.
Birmmgham (see Midland L nion) i -v- tt fi p q

Birmingham M. and Ns'. Union. (1880.) [50.] Ornithology and
conchology. John Collins, Temperance Institute.

Bradford Ns'. and M.S. (1875.) [50.] Diary of N.R. Observa-
tions (irregularly). B. Spencer, 33 Carlisle Terrace, Man-
ningham.

Bridgend District Ns'.S., Glamorgan. (1897.) H. J. Randall,
jun,, 3 Molton Street.

Brighouse and Rastrick N.H.S.

Brighton and Sussex N.H. and P.S. (1853.) [182.] Library. E. A.
Pankhurst, 12 Clifton Road, and J. C. Clark, 64 Middle Street.

Bristol Ns'.S. (1862.) [160.] Biological, entomological, and
other sections. Proceedings (the vol. for 1896 included papers
on " Summer Visitors to the Neighbourhood," &c.) Theodore
Fisher, M.D., 25 Pembroke Road, Clifton.

British F.C. Huddersfield. (1896.) [260, and 200 Assoc] The
Naturalists' Journal (monthly). W. E. L. Watton, 54 Town-
gate, Newsome.

British Ornithologists' Union. (1858.) [337, with honorary and
foreign members.] The Ibis (ed. P. L. Sclater and Howard
Saunders). Osbert Salvin, 10 Chandos Street, Cavendish
Square.

Buchan F.C, Peterhead. (1887.) [180.] Transactions. (Papers
published : Muirhead's Birds of Methlich and Tarves ;
Arbuthnot's Fishes of the Peterhead Coast ; Serle's Avifauna
of Buchan, &c.) J. F. Tocher.

Burton-on-Trent N.H.S.

Cambridge Practical Ns'.S. (1883.) [707.] Objects : the study
of practical N.H. as bearing on agriculture, &c. ; the promo-
tion of correspondence among the members ; and the publica-
tion of local faunas. The Ns\ Chronicle and Practical
Naturalist (2s. 6d. per ann.) Albert H. Waters, 48 Devon-
shire Road.

Canterbury. See East Kent.

Caradoc and Severn Valley F.C, Shrewsbury. (1893.) [185.]

4G2 APPENDIX II.

Transactions (an iudex of the first four vols, in preparation)
and Record of Bare Facts. Rev. J. H. Painter, St George's,
Wellington.

CardifiFXs'.S. Transactions. (A paper by Professor "\V. N.
Parker on the Objects of the Biological and Geological Section.)
Walter Cook, 98 St Mary Street.

Carlisle Sc. and Literary S. and F.Ns'.C. (1876.) [120.] For-
merly affiliated to the Cumberland and Westmoreland Assoc,
for the Advancement of Literature and Science, which ceased
to exist two years ago. Maintained the museum until taken
over by the Corporation in 1893, J. Percival Wheatley, 27
Aglionby Street.

Channel Islands. See Guernsey.

Chester S. of N. Science and Literature. (1871, by Charles
Kingsley.) [560.] Zoological, microscopical, and other sec-
tions. Museum and library. G. R. Griffith, 30 Hough Green,
and G. P. Miln, Miluholme, Brook Lane.

Chichester and West Sussex N.H.S. (Dormant.)

Cirencester: Leaholme College Nature S. (1896.) [54.] E. J.
E. Creese.

Clifton College Sc.S. (1869.) [70.] A section takes charge of
each branch, the ornithological section recording arrivals and
departures of migratory birds. Transactions (irregularly).
Museum. J. T. Stephen, 34 College Road, Clifton.

Cork Xs'.F.C. (1892.) [70.] The Irish Naturalist (6d. monthly).
E. Brooke -Hughes, 3 Frankfield Terrace.

CotteswoldNs'.F.C, Gloucester. (1846.) [100.] Proceedings {a.
part annually ; 3 parts to the vol.) A History of the Origin
of the Cluh and an Epitome of forty -one years' Proceedings, by
W. C. Lucy.

Coventry : Cow Lane Young Men's F.C.

Croydon M. and N.H.C. (1870.) [230.] Transactions. Zoolo-
gical, microscopical, and other sub-committees. R. F. Grundy,
112 Lower Addiscombe Road.

Darlington and Teesdale Ns'. F.C. (1891.) [60.] Objects: to
compile correct lists for the district, and to discourage the
extermination of rare plants and animals. G. Best.

Denshaw Parish Botanical and F.Ns'.S. (1893.) [30.] Mainly
botany. Isaac Gartside.

Derby N.H.S.

Devizes. See Wiltshire.

Dorset N.H. and A.F.C., Dorchester. (1875.) [350.] Proceed-
ings. Nelson M. Richardson, Montevideo, Chickerell, nr.
Weymouth.

Douglas : Insular N.H.S.

Dover F.C. and N.H.S.

Dublin Ks'. F.C. [200.] (Transactions pub. in the Irish Natur-
alist.) Professor T. Johnston, Science and Art Museum.

Dudley and Midland Geol. S. Museum. W. Madeley, Coalbourn-
brook, Stourbridge, and H. Johnson, Trindle Street, Dudley.

Dulwich College N.H.S.

Dumfriesshire and Gallowav X.H.S.

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES AND FIELD-CLUBS. 463

^ , f Dundee's Ns'.S.

Uunclee | -^^^^ ^^ Scotland Union of Ns'. Societies.

Ealing N. Science and M.S. (1877.) [160.] Report and Proceed-
ings (in last vol. a catalogue, with observations of Birds of
the Brent Valley). Anthony Belt, The Cedars, Uxbridge Road.

Eastbourne N.H.S.

East Kent N.H.S., Canterbury. (1857.) [83.] South Eastern
Naturalist (monthly). Stephen Horsley, St Peter's House.

Edinburgh. See also Scottish N.H.S. Pentland F.C. and
F.Ns'.S. (1869.) [180.] Transactions (since 1882). A
committee of experts has undertaken to work up the fauna
and flora of the county, and it is proposed later to work up
those of the Lothians. A. B. Steele, 5 Brighton Terrace,
Joppa.

Elland Ns'.S.

Epsom College N.H.S. [80.] Ornithological, entomological, and
other sections. T. L. Drapes.

Essex F.C. (1880.) [350.] The Essex Naturalist (qusirterlj). Hon.
Sec. and Curator, W. Cole, Buckhurst Hill, Essex.

Felstead School Sc.S. (Essex.) (1877.) [51, with honorary.]
Library and museum. Zoological, photographic, and other
sections. Report (biennial). Rev. E. Jepp.

Folkestone N.H.S.

Glasgow (see also Andersonian) : N.H.S. of Glasgow. (1850.)
[300, with Assoc] Proceedings and Transactions. Library.
Research, microscopic, and other committees. S. M. Well-
wood, 128 St Vincent Street, and R. D. "Wilkie, 302 Langside
Road.

Gloucester. See Cotteswold.

Greenock N.H.S. (1878.) G. W. Niven, 23 Newton Street.

Grimsby and District Ns'.S. (1897.) [40.] Members note the
rarer fish {Chinuera, &c.) lauded at the market. Arthur
Smith, 75 Newmarket Street.

Guernsey S. of N. Science and Local Research. (1882.) [100.]
Transactions. (Papers chiefly entomological and botanical.)
W. Sharpe, The Corne.

Halifax Sc.S. and Geological F.C. [130.] The Halifax Naturalist
(bi-monthly). C. E. Fox, Burnley Road, and Arthur Crab-
tree, "West Hill.

Hampshire F.C, Southampton. [250.] (Rule 20: "That the
Club discourage the practice of removing and rooting up rare
plants from characteristic localities, and the extermination of
rare birds.") W. Dale, 5 Sussex Place, Southampton.

Harrogate F. Ns'. and Camera C. (1884.) [60.] A museum of
strictly local interest is contemplated. Among publications
by members are : Birds of Harrogate and DistHct by Riley
Fortune, and Flo7'a by J. Farrah. Riley Fortune, Leamd
House.

Haslemere N.H.S.

Hastings and St Leonards N.H.S. (1893.) Meetings at the
Museum, Brassey Inst. Microscopes, &c., for use of members.
Lending library. E. Connold, 1 Cambridge Gardens.

464 APPENDIX IL

Hereford. See Woolhope.

HertfordslureN.H.S. and F.C., Watford. (1875.) [230.] Trans-
actions (in parts ; one vol. to two years : papers have appeared
in these on the fauna of the county by the late H. Seebohm,
J. E. Harting, and other well-known naturalists). J. Hop-
kinson, The Grange, St Albans, and W. R. Carter, Amesbury,
"Watford.

Holmesdale N.H.C. Reigate. (1857.) [87.] Chief work, record-
ing local fauna and flora. Proceedings (triennial : papers have
appeared on The Nesting of the Kentish Plover ; Birds that
nest arowid Reigate ; A Summer Holiday in Cornwall and the
Scilly Islands ; Nesting of the Norfolk Plover ; &c. ) A. J.
Crosfield, Carr End, Reigate.

Huddersfield. See British F.C.

Hull Sc. and F.Ns'.C. (1875.) [120.] Recorders for Zoology, &c.
Library. F. W. Fierke and T. Sheppard, 78 Sherburn
Street.

Isle of Man N.H. and A.S. [150.] Zoological, microscopic, and
other sections. Sends one delegate to the annual meeting of
the British Association. H. Shortridge Clarke.

Kingston: Tiffins Boys' School N.H.S. (1892.) [40.] B. G.
Cooper.

Kirkcaldy Ns'.S.

Lambeth F.C. and Sc.S., Newington Butts, S.E. (1872.) [44.]
Library. H. Wilson, 14 Melbourne Square, Brixton.

Lancaster F.N.S.

Leedsl^^'-^'

\ Yorkshire Ns'. Union.

Lewes and East Sussex N.H.S.

Limerick F.C. (1892.) [110.] Journal (vol. 1, 1897: chiefly
historical). F. Neale, Laurel Hill Avenue.

Lincolnshire Ns'. Union. Objects : to investigate the fauna and
flora of the county. Sections of vertebrate zoology, entom-
ology, &c. Museum. Rev. E. A. Woodruffe-Peacock, Cadney,
Brigg.

Linnrean S., Burlington House, Piccadilly. (1788.) J. E. Harting.

London. See also British Ornithologists' Union, Battersea, Croy-
don, Ealing, Lambeth, Linniean S., North Middlesex, St
Dunstan's, Selborne S., S. for Protection of Birds, West Kent
and Zoological S.
City of London N.H.S.

North London N.H.S., Dalston Lane. (1885.) [59.] Founded
by the "Grocers' Co. School Sc.S." Objects: to popularise
natural history and encourage young members. During 1897
papers were read on " Over-collecting," "British Corvidcc" &c.
Lawrence Tremayne, 51 Buckley Road, Brondesbury.
South London N.H.S.

Ludlow N. Science S.

Maidstone and Mid-Kent N.H.S.

Manchester / ^' ^^'^^^

(Grammar School N.H.S.

Marlborough College N.H.S. (18G4.) [.'MO.] Objects : catalogu-

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES AND FIELD-CLUBS. 465

ing the fauna of the district, and recording habits and dates of
appearance of birds. Report. President : E. Meyrick, Elms-
wood.

Midland Union of N.H.S., Birmingham (Mason's College), formerly
published the now defunct Midland Naturalist. A. Henham.

Newbury District F.C. (1870.) [75.] Transactions (4 vols.,
1870-95, have appeared). G. J. Watts, Donnington.

Newcastle-on-Tyne N.H.S.

Northamptonshire N.H.S., Northampton. Transactions (quar-
terly : papers have appeared : Notes on the Birds of North-
amptonshire; The Mammals of Northamptonshire, &c.) H. N.
Dixon, Wickham House, and G. S. Emson, East Park.

North Kent. See Woolwich.

North Middlesex F.C. (1896.) [15.] A fauna of the district is
being collected. Journal (monthly, Id.) H. R. Creighton,
28 Ferme Park Road, N.

Norwich and Norfolk Ns'.S.

Nottingham Ns'.S.

Old Kilpatrick Ns'. and A.S. (1887.) [31.] David Andrew,
Gavinburn Schoolhouse.

Oxfordshire N.H.S. and F.C. [202.] Mrs V. H. Veley, 22
Nor ham Road.

Paisley Ns'.S.

Perthshire S. of N. Science, Perth. (1867.) [320.] Has estab-
lished and maintains the Natural History Museum (free to the
public), one hall of which is devoted to a general type collec-
tion, the rest to collections representing the natural history of
Perthshire and the basin of the Tay. Transactions and Pro-
ceedings. S. T. Ellison, 56 South Methven Street.

Peterborough N.H. and Ar.S. (1871.) [175.] Museum and
library. J. W. Bodger, 18 Cowgate Park.

Peterhead. See Buchan.

p, ,, J Devon and Cornwall N.H.S.

^ (Marine Biological Association.

Portsmouth and Gosport N. Science S.

Reading N.H.S. (1881.) [40.] Chiefly entomology. Library.
Report (irregularly). F. W. Leslie, Haydn Villa.

Reigate. See Holmesdale.

Richmond (Yorks) Ns'.F.C.

Ripon Ns'.C. (1882.) [100.] Museum and library. B. M.
Smith, The Museum.

Rochester Ns'.F.C.

Rugby School N.H.S. (1867.) [300, a limited number active.]
Report, with lists of observations of the seven sections :
zoological section chiefly interested in the vivarium managed
by Mr H. L. Highton. W. N. Wilson.

St Dunstan's F.C. and N.H.S. (1896.) [24.] Publishes Notes
and Records in the Parochial Magazine. Basil W. Martin, 16
Hampstead Hill Gardens.

St Helens and District Ns'.S. (1897.) [50.] W. Webster, 35
Church Street.

2 G

466 APPENDIX II.

Scarborough F.Ns'.S. (1889.) [70.] List of local fauna in pre-
paration. Museum and library. E. J. Fryer, 3 Ramshill
Road, and E. R. Cross, 96 Westborough.

Scottish N.H.S., Edinburgh. (1881.) [170, besides hon. fellows,
&c.] Each branch has a referee to identify specimens, &c.
(Zoolog. section, J. Arthur Thomson.) Heber H. Brown, 50
Dick Place, Grange.

Selborne S. , 20 Hanover Square. [3000.] Objects: to protect
wild birds, animals, &c., and promote the study of natural
history. Nature Notes (monthly). A. J. Western.

Sheffield Ns'.C. (1871.) [100.] Report. C. Bradshaw, Weston
Park Museum.

Shrewsbury. See Caradoc and Severn Valley.

Society for the Protection of Birds. (1889.) [15,000 members ;
2500 associates; over 150 branches, at home and abroad.]
Object : to protect by precept and example against the indis-
criminate destruction of birds. RejJort and Leaflets. Mrs F.
E. Lemon, Hillcrest, Redhill.

South - Eastern Union of Sc. Societies, Tunbridge Wells. G.
Abbott, 2 Owen's Road.

Southampton. See Hampshire.

Southport S. of N. Science. (1890.) [109.] D. E. Benson,
Queenwood, Lansdowne Road.

Stirling N.H. and Ar.S. (1879.) [90.] The birds of the district
have been worked, the collection being shown at the Smith
Inst. D. B. Morris, 3 Snowdon Place.

Teign Ns'.F.C. (1859.) [120, limited to this number.] Report
of Proceedings. P. F. S. Amery, Druid, Ashburton.

Thirsk N.H.S.

Torquay N.H.S. (1844.) [220.] Museum and circulating and
reference library. Alex. Somervail.

Tunbridge Wells N.H. and P.S. (1855.) [82, and 65 associates.]
Report. E. G. Gilbert, 32 The Pantiles.

W^akefield Ns'.S. W. Rushforth, Horbury.

Warrington F.C. (1884.) [54.] In close association with the
museum. Objects : to compile a Warrington flora and pre-
vent the eradication of rare plants ; to collect information
relative to local drift-boulders ; to form a collection repre-
senting the natural history of the district. A. J. Jolley,
Froghall Lane.

Warwickshire N.H. and Ar.S. (1836.) [30.] The society issued
reports annually for fifty years, but its income is now devoted
to keeping up the museum, in which the avi-fauna is repre-
sented by over 3000 specimens. S. S. Stanley, 3 Regent
Grove, Leamington, and J. Galloway, Jury Street, War-
wick.

Warwickshire Ns'. and Ar. F.C. (1854.) [94.] Report of Proceed-
infjs. S. S. Stanley.

WeardaleNs'.F.C.

West Kent N.H.M. and Photographic S. (1857.) [80.] Stanley
Edwards, Kidbrooke I^odge, Blackheath, and H. F. Witherby,
1 Eliot Place, Blackheath.

NATUEAL HISTORY SOCIETIES AND FIELD- CLUBS. 467

"Wiltshire Ar. and N.H.S., Devizes. (1853.) [350.] Magazine

(29 vols, published). David Owen, Devizes.
Wincanton F.C. (1889.) [36.] Report and Supplements. G.

Sweet man.
Winchester College N.H.S.
Wolverhampton Ns'.F.C. (1894.) [24.] Lists of local fauna,

&c., in preparation. J. Darby, Stonely House.
Woolhope Ns'.F.C, Hereford. (1851.) [200.] Transactions

(biennial). Librarj" (with Transactions since 1866 and pamph-
lets published previously). T. Hutchinson, Aylstone Hill.
Woolwich Polytechnic N.H.S. (late North Kent). (1884.) [50.]

Chiefly entomology and mollusca. H. J. Webb, 3 Gunning

Street, Plumstead.
York and District F.Ns'.S. (1886.) [42.] Chiefly entomology

and zoology. R. Dutton, Phoenix House, Fishergate.
Zoological Society, 3 Hanover Square. Library. Gardens at

Regent's Park. Over 3000 Fellows, Corresponding Members,

&c. P. L. Sclater.

INDEX.

(i''?i. = footnote.)

Abramis, 335.
acadica, 295.
Acanthias, 338.
Acantholahr^is, 332.
A canthopterygii, 326.
Acanthyllis, 118.
acarne, 327, 346.
Accentor, Alpine, 114, 148.

M Hedge, 147-
Accentor, 114.
Accentormce, 114.
Accipiter, 120.
Accipitres, 120,
accipitrinus , 119.
Acclimatisation, 15.
Acerina, 326.
Acipenser, 337.
Acipenserida?, 337.
Acredula, 114.
Acrocephalus, 113.
Actinopterygii, 326.
acideatus, 331.
acuminata, 127.
ac?<s, 337.
aciita, 123.
acutus, 30.
adamsi, 131.
Adder, 37, 301, 304.
Aden, 357.
-4ec?07i, 113.
jEgialites, 126, 295.
ceglefiniis, 332.
cegyptus, 118.
cequoreus, 337.

o&ruginosus, 120.
cesalon, 121.
Agelajus, 295.
agilis, 301.
Agonus, 328.
agrestis, 29.
Ailsa Craig, 221.
Air-bladder, 322.
Alauda, 118, 295.
Alaiulidm, 118.
a^&a (^4r(Ze«), 121.

II (Ciconia), 122.

M {Motacilla), 115.

„ (/^am), 339.
Albatross, Black - browed, 129,

285.
cdbellus, 124.
albeola, 123.
albicilla, 120.
albicollis, 295.
Albicore, 328, 356.
albifrons, 122.
albirostris, 30.
Alhurnas, 335.
.4^ca, 130.
Alcedinidce, 119.
Alcedo, 119.
Alcidce, 130.
Alectorides, 125.
«^fe, 130.
'Allen's Naturalist's Library,' 10,

24, 53, 77.
Allis Shad, 334, 399.
Alopias, 338.

470

INDEX.

alosa, 334.

alpestris, 118.

olpina, 127.

Alpine Accentor, 114, 148.

t. Chough, 187.

,. Hare, 24, 81.

„ Swift, 118, 191.
alpinus, 336, 412.
aluco, 119.
Amber, 90.
Ambergris, 50, 89.
America, North, 17, 42, 97, 295.
'American Naturalist ' (quoted), 9.
americana, 123.
americmms, 119.
Ammodytes, 333.
Ampelidcc, 115.
Ampelis, 115.
Amphibians, 311-316.
amphibius, 29.
Anacanthini, 332.
Anadromous fishes, 319.
ancestheta,, 128.
Anarrhicas, 331.
Anas, 123.
Anatidcc, 122.
Anchovy, 334, 399.
Angel Fish, 339, 428.
Angler-fish, 328, 352.
anglica, 128.
anglorum, 130.
Anguidcf, 301.
Angiiilla, 334.
Angm's, 301.
Anous, 129.
^l?iser, 122.
ylwser^s, 122.
Anthi's, 115.
antiquorum, 337.
a^^er, 329.
J7>A/V/, 330.
apiaster, 119.
apivorus, 121.
Apteryx, 204.
«;>Ms, 118.
aquaticus {Ac7'ocepha/us), 114.

II (Cindus), 114.

n (Jiaiius), 125.
Aqwila, 120.
aquila {Myliobatis), 339.

II {Sciwna), 329.
(trhorea, 118.

Arctic Chimaera, 337, 418.
arctica, 130.
arcticus (Colymhus), 131.

It {Trachypterus), 331.
yln^ca, 121.

Ardeidcc, 121.
Ardetta, 121.

Area of tlie British Islands, 2.
arenaria, 127.
argentatus, 129.
argenteus, 335, 411.
Argentina, 336.
Argentine, 336, 414.
Argyllshire, 46, 51, 243.
Argyropelecus, 336, 414.
Armed Bullhead, 351.
II Gurnard, 328.
Arnoglossus, 333.
arquata, 128.
Arun, 199, 373.
Arundel, 342.
arve7isis, 118.
ascami, 331.
asiatica, 295.
Ylsio, 119.
ttMo, 295.
Ass, 15.
^5^r«-, 120.
«^er, 114.
Athene, 119.
Atherina, 331.
Atherine, 331, 372.

Boier's, 331, 372.
Atherinid(r, 331.
Atlantic, 17, 101.
«<r«, 125.
atricapilla {Muscica2)a), 115.

II {Sylvia), 113.

atrigxdaris, 112.
Auk, Great, 9.

,1 Little, 130, 291.
auratibs {Colaptes), 296.
It {Pagrus), 327.
auritus (Plecotus), 27.

II (Podicipes), 131.
Australia, 2, 4, 15, 31, 44, 49, 57

62, 76, 82, 138, 170, 185, 191

223, 228, 244, 272, 279, 287

299, 300, 305, 324, 344, 345 fn.

346, 349, 353, 363, 375, 417

421.
aiistralis, 29.
'Autumns on the Si)ey ' ((luoted)

149.
Auxis, 328.
avellanarius, 28.
Avocet, 126, 266.
avocetta, 126.
Avon (Gloucester), 303.

II (Hants), 217, 409.
Awe, Locli, 64.
Axillary Bream, 327, 346.

INDEX.

471

Badger, 28, 37, 49, 57-60.

bailloni, 125.

Baillon's Crake, 125, 257.

It Wrasse, 376.
Bala, 413.
Balccna, 29.
Balcenidce, 29.
Bakenoptera, 29.
"Balance Fish," 422.
Balearica, 295.
Baleen, 87.
Batistes, 337.
Ballan, 331, 376.
"Ballard," 345.
Baltic, 65, 90, 172, 231, 233, 241,

265, 281, 340, 343, 348, 349,

371, 391, 397, 404.
Banbury, 146.
"Band-fish, Red, 331, 371.
Banffshire, 178.
hanksii, 331.

Banks's Oar-tish, 331, 372.
"Barbarian Haddies," 345.
Barbastelle, 27, 35.
harhastellus, 27.
barhatuhcs, 335.
harbatum, 333.
barbatus, 327.
Barbel, 335, 402.
Barbus, 335.
Barnacles, 290.
Barrett -Hamilton, Mr (quoted),

140.
Barrington, Mr (quoted), 75.
Bartraviia, 127.
Bartram's Sandpiper, 127, 273.
Basking Shark, 338, 424.
Bass, 326, 341.
Bass Rock, 3, 221.
bassana, 121.
Basse, Stone, 326, 343.
Bastard Sole, 393.
Bat, Bechstein's, 27. 34.

II Daubenton's, 27, 35.

11 Great, 33.

II Greater Horseshoe, 27, 36.

II Hairy-armed, 27, 33.

11 Lesser Horseshoe, 27, 36.

II Long-eared, 27, 35.

II Moiise-coloured, 27, 34.

.1 Natterer's, 27, 34.

II Particoloured, 27, 34 fn.

n Rough-legged, 27, 34 fn.

II Whiskered, 27, 35.
Bath, 146.
batis, 339.
Bats, 24, 31-36.

Beachy Head, 4, 6.

Bear, 9.

Bearded Ophidium, 333, 385.

Reedling, 6, 10, 14, 114,

150.
Tit, 150.
Beaver, 9, 18.
bechsteini, 27.
Bechstein's Bat, 27, 34.
Bedfordshire, 50.
Beech-Marten, 24, 52.
Bee-eater, 119, 200.

,, Blue-tailed, 295.
Behring Sea, 63.
belgica, 128.
Bell (quoted), 24, 25, 35, 36, 56,

69, 311.
Bellows-fish, 331, 375.
Belone, 329.
Beluga, 93.
Bergylt, 327, 347.
Bernicla, 122.
berus, 301.
Berwickshire, 225 fn., 231 fn.,

232 fn.
bevjicki, 122.

Bexley, 73, 135, 160, 163.
bianniciis, 114.
"Bib," 378.
Bibliography, 441.
bicolor, 296.
bidens, 30.
bifasciata, 117.
Bill of birds, 102, 106.
bimaculatus, 330.
Bird-catchers, 12.
Birds, 95-296.

M books on, 98.

II of prey, 209.

„ Perching, 132-189.
'Birds of Berwickshire' (quoted),

14 fn., 225 fn., 231 fn., 232 fn.
'Birds of Guernsey' (quoted), 14

fn.
Birdsnestiug, 107.
Bison, 10.
Bittern, American, 121, 229.

„ Common, 10, 14, 121, 227.

„ Little, 121, 226.
bjorkna, 335.
"Black Cock," 252.
" Black Curlew," 229.
"Black Eagle," 212.
" Black Fish " (Cetacean), 92.

(Fish), 329, 359.
"Black Grebe," 294.
"Black Pilot," 329, 361.,

472

INDEX.

Black Redstart, 113, 138.

II Sea-Bream, 346.
Blackbird, 111, 112, 135.
"Black-brim," 346.
Black-browed Albatross, 129, 285.
Blackcap, 113, 143.
' ' Black-headed Bunting," 11 7, 178.
Black-mouthed Dog-fish, 338, 426.
Black-throated Thrush, 112, 134.
Black-winged Stilt, 126, 266.
Blade-fish, 363.
Blain, 378.
Bleak, 335, 407.
Blenniidce, 330.
Blennius, 330.
Uennoides, 333.
Blenny, Butterfly, 330, 369.

II "Eyed," 369.

II Montagu's, 330, 369.

„ Smooth, 369.

11 Viviparous, 331, 370.

„ Yarrell's, 331, 370.
Blind Worm, 303.
Blubber, 88.
Blue Hare, 29, 81.

„ Shark, 338, 420.
" Blue Skate," 429.
Blue-tailed Bee-eater, 295.
Bluethroat, Red-spotted, 113, 138.
It White - spotted, 113,

138
Boar, 9, 18, 50.
Boar-fish, 329, 361.
horjaraveo, 327.
Bognor, 281.
Bogue, 327, 346.
Boier's Atherine, 331, 372.
Bonito, 328, 357.

„ Belted, 328, 357.

„ Plain, 328, 356.
Books on birds, 98.
hQiips, 29.

Booth, Mr (quoted), 222.
horealis {Bal(Jcnopter(C), 29.

II [Xiimenius), 128.
"Borer," 438.
hoscas, 123.
Boscombe, 15.
Jjotmirus, 121.
Bottlenose, 30, 91, 93.
" Bottlenose," 374.
Boulenger, Mr (quoted), 326.
"Bounce," 425.

Bournemouth 7, 15, 67, 141, 160,
192, 219, 234, 289, '302, 345.
355, 360, 362, 379, 385, 387,
399, 404, 421, 424, 428.

II
II

Box, 327.
boyeri, 331.
hrachy dactyl a, 118.
hrachyrhynchus, 122.
Brama, 328.
brama, 335.
Brambling, 116, 173.
Brame, Pink, 332, 376.
Bream, 335, 406.
„ -flat, 335, 407.
II Axillary, 327, 346.
,1 Black Sea, 346.
II Couch's (Couch's Sea

Bream), 327, 347.
II Pandora, 346.
,1 Ray's, 328, 358.
Sea, 327, 345.
Spanish, 327, 346.
White, 407.
brenta, 122.
Brighton, 189, 221.
Brill, 333, 388.
Brisbane River, 422.
"Brit," 398.
britannicus, 359.
* British and Irish Salmonidoe,'

(quoted), 409 fn.
'British Birds ' (quoted), 141.
"British " birds, 17, 34, 100.
' British Deer and their Horns '

(quoted), 69, 80, 85, 86.
'British Fishes' (quoted), 350,

385, 402.
British Islands, area of, 2.

climate of, 2, 18.
coast-line of, 2.
' British Mammals ' (quoted), 10,

53, 77.
'British Reptiles' (quoted), 300.
Broad-nosed Pipe-fish, 337, 415.
Broads, Norfolk, 6, 45, 60, 150,

211, 217, 223, 226, 293, 406.
" Brock," 57.
"Brocket," 84.
brosme, 333.
Brosmius, 333,
" Bro\\ni Whistler," 383.
"Browny,"389.
bruennichi, 130.
bubalis, 327.
Bubo, 120.
bubulcus, 121.
Backland, 157.
Buckland, Frank, (quoted), 43,

348.
Buckley, T. E. (quoted), 53, 59,
60, 64, 65, 73, 305. 340. 342,

INDEX.

473

345, 353 fn., 356 fn., 363 fn.,
■ 366, 368, 379.
Buffaloes, 15.
Biifo, 312.
Bvfonidce, 312.
Biiilding, eftects of, 14.
Buitenzoorg, 10.
"Bulgarian Haddies," 345.
Bullfiiicli, 108, 116, 175.
Bullhead, Armed, 351.

ti Norway, 327, 349.

Bull-trout, 412.
Bulweria, 130.
Buhver's Petrel, 130, 287.
Bunting, Black-headed, 117, 178.

Cirl, 117, 178.

Corn, 117, 177.
II Lapland, 117, 178.
II Little, 117, 178.
II Ortolan, 117, 178.

Reed, 117, 178.

Rustic, 117, 178.

Snow, 117, 178.
II Yellow, 117, 177.
"Bunting Lark," 177.
Burbot, 332, 381.
" Burton Skate," 431.
Bustard, Great, 9, 125, 260.

Little, 125, 260.

Macqueen's, 125, 260.
"Butcher-birds," 164.
Buteo, 120, 295.
Butler, Colonel (quoted), 214.
Butterfish, 370.
Butterfly Blennv, 330, 369.
Buxton, SirT. F., 10.
Buzzard, African, 295.

Common, 14, 120, 211.

Honey, 121, 214.

Rough-legged, 120, 211.

cahrilla, 326.
Caccabis, 124.
Cachalot, 30, 89, 91.
cccruleus, 114, 295.
cccsia, 114.
Cage -birds, 15.
"Ca'ing Whale," 92.
Caithness, 200, 242, 246.
calamita, 312.
calandra, 295.
calendula, 296.
Calcarius, 117.
Calidris, 127.
calidris, 128.
CaUionymida:' , 330.
Callionymus, 330.

Cam, 382.
cambricus, 335.
Cambridgeshire, 285.
Camels, 15.
campestris, 115.
candicans, 121.
candidus, 126.
canescens, 128.
canicida, 338.
Canido'., 28.
Canis, 28.
CannaMna, 116.
cannabina, 116.
canorus, 119.
Cantharus, 327.
cantiaca, 128.
cantiana, 126.
canus, 129.
canutus, 127.
Cape Pigeon, 295.
cajjensis (Daption), 295.

II {Pycnonotus), 296.
' Capercaillie in Scotland' (quoted),

251.
Capercailzie, 10, 14, 15, 98, 104,

125, 251.
capito, 331.
caprea, 29.
Capreolus, 29.
Caprimulgidm, 118.
Caprimidgus, 118.
capriscus, 337.
Capros, 329.
Caradoc and Severn Valley, ' F. C.

Record ' (quoted), 176.
Carangida;, 329.
Caranx, 329.
carbo, 121.
Carcharia.s, 338.
CarcJuiriidcc, 338.
Co/rduelis, 116.
Careloplius, 331.
Carnivora, 28, 46-66.
Carolina, 295.
carolinensis, 123.
Carp, 15, 335, 400.

11 Crucian, 401.

II Golden, 402.
"Carp," 375.
carpio, 335.

Carrington, Miss, 12 fn., 171.
Carron, Loch, 342.
caryocatactes, 117.
casarca, 122.
caspia, 128.
Caspian Plover, 295.
Caspian, The, 419.

474

INDEX.

Cat, 15.

Cat, Wild, 8, 16, 18, 24, 25, 28,

46-48.
Catadromous fishes, 319.
Cataphracti, 328.
cataphracium, 328.
cata^jJiractus, 328.
catarrhactes, 129.
"Cat-fish," 371, 382, 425.
Cattle, 15.
catulus, 338.
cattcs, 28.
caudacuta, 118.
Caiulata, 312.
caudata, 114.
caudahcs, 329.
cavirostris, 30.
Celtic names, 8.
cenchris, 121. «
Centrina, 338, 426.
Centriscidce, 331.
Centriscus, 331.
centrodontiis, 327.
Centrolahrus, 332.
Centrolophus, 329, 359.
Centronotus, 331.
Cephaloptera, 339.
cephalus, 335.
Cepo^a, 331.
CepoUdce, 331.
cernium, 326.
cermia, 326.
Certhia, 115.
Certhiidce, 115.
Cervidce, 29.
cervinus, 115.
Cervus, 29.
Cetacea, 29.
Cetaceans, 24, 86.
Ceylon, 306.
Chad, 345.
CJwitodontidce, 326.
Chaffinch, 104, 116, 172.
Chameleon, 314.
Channel, English, 93, 145, 150,

172, 201, 210, 219, 279, 342,

345, 350, 351, 373, 376, 378,

380, 428, 431, 432.
Channel Islands, 3, 14, 71, 187,

385.
Char, 1, 336, 412.
Charadriidcc, 126.
Gharadrius, 126.
Charlton, 4.
c/ic^o, 331.
CAm, 122.
Cheshire, 81.

Chiffchaff; 113, 145.^
Chimjera, Arctic, 337, 418.
Chimccra, 337.
Chimceridce, 337.
China, 402.
Chiroptera, 27.
Chiselhurst, 137.
chloris, 116.
ehloropus, 125.
Chondrostei, 337.
Chough, 10, 118, 187, 279.

It Alpine, 187.
Christchurch, 7, 15, 99, 217, 265.
chryscetus, 120.
C'hrysomitris, 116.
Chub, 6, 335, 404.
cicerellus, 333.
Ciconia, 122.
Ciconiidce, 122.
cimbria, 333.
Cinclidce, 114.
Cinclus, 114.
cinclus, 114.
cineraceus, 120.
cinerea (Ardea), 121.
,1 (Perdix), 124.
u (Sylvia), 113.
cinereus, 122.
circia, 123.
circularis, 339.
Circus, 120.
Cirl Bunting, 117, 178.
cirhcs, 117.
citrinella, 117.
Clarke, Mr Eagle- (quoted), 54,

216, 238.
clavata, 339.
Clifton, 303.
Climate of the British Islands, 2,

18.
CZii^m, 334.
Chipeidcc, 334.
clupeoides, 336.
Clyde, 343.
clypeata, 123.
Coal-fish, 64, 332, 380.
" Coarse Fish," 400.
CoJi7?:5, 335.
Coccothraustes, 116.
Coccystes, 119.
Coccyzus, 119.
Cock-paidle, 367.
Cod, 91, 332, 377.

„ Poor, 332, 379.

„ Power, 332, 379.
Codling. 377.
ccclebs, 116.

INDEX.

475

ccelestis, 127.

colchicus, 124.

colias, 328.

coin, 336, 412.

collaris, 114.

Collectors, 12.

collurio, 115.

Colonsay, 287.

Colubridcv, 301.

Colubriformes, 301.

Columha, 124.

Golumbce, 124.

Columhidw, 124.

cohimhina, 130.

Coly Mackerel, 355.

Colymhidcv, 131.

Colymbus, 131.

Comber, 376.

communis {Coturnix), 124.
u ((?rMs), 125.
II {Phoccvna), 30.
„ (Turtur), 124.

Conger, 5, 334, 395.

Conger, 334.

Connor, 332, 376.

Conway Bridge, 64.

"Cook," 375.

Coot, 103, 111, 125, 259.

Coracias, 119.

Coraciidcc, 119.

Coral-fishes, 344.

cor ax, 117.

Cordeaux, Mr, 230.

Coregonus, 336, 413.

Coregouus, 336.

Com, 332.

Cormorant, 5, 121, 219.

Corn-hunting, 117, 177.

Corncrake, 104, 197 fn., 256.

comix, 117.

cornuhica, 338.

cornuta, 122.

Cornwall, 5, 17 fn., 38, 64, 107
1.37, 140, 143, 158, 161, 187, 189
195, 221, 229, 278, 280, 282, 283
284, 287, 291, 292, 343, 346, 347
3.59, 361, 364, 376, 383, 420. 426
432.

cor one, 117.

Coronella, 301.

Corrib, 413.

Corvidoi, 117, 184.

Corvus, 117.

CoryphmnidcB, 328.

Coryphcenoides, 333, 386.

Coryphenes, 358.

Cosmonetta, 123.

Cottidce, 327.

Coitus, 327.

Cottus, Four-horned, 327, 349.

Coturnix, 124.

Couch, Mr (quoted), 346, 359, 388,

416, 429, 431, 434.
Conch's Sea-Bream, 327, 347.

„ Whiting, 381.
Courser, Cream-coloured, 126, 261.
Coventry, Earl of (quoted), 51 fn.
Crake, Baillon's, 125, 257.
11 Carolina, 295.
„ Corn, 104, 197 fn., 256.
„ Little, 125, 257.
„ Spotted, 125, 257.
Cramp-fish, 433.
Crane, 125, 260.
11 Crowned, 295.
„ Demoiselle, 125, 260.
Cray, 143, 258.
Crayfish, 61.
Crayford, 138.
crecca, 123.
Creeper, Tree, 103, 115, 153, 156.

Wall, 115, 156.
Crenilahrus, 332.
crepidatus, 129
Crex, 125.

''Cricket-teal," 2.39.
cristata (Alauda), 118.
tf (Cystophora) , 28.
II {Fuligula), 123.
„ {Molge), 312.
cristatus {Par us), 114.
u {Podicipes), 131.
II (Regidits), 113.
Croonan, 349.
Crossbill, 102, 117, 176.

It Parrot, 117 fn., 177.
u Two-barred, 117, 177.
Crossopus, 27.
Crow, Carrion, 117, 183.
„ Hooded, 117, 183.
ti Eoyston, 183.
Crystallogohius, 330.
Ctenolabrus, 332.
" Cuckoo," 361.
Cuckoo, 98, 103, 104, 109, 119,

197 fn., 201.
Cuckoo, Black-billed, 205.

II Great Spotted, 119, 204.
II Gurnard, 350.
It Ray, 432.

Yellow-billed, 119, 205.
Cuculidce, 119.
cncullatu^, 124.
Cucidus, 119.

476

INDEX.

cumdus, 327.

" Culterneb," 291.

Cultivation, eftects of, 14.

Cumberland, 169, 255.

cnniculus, 29.

Cunningham, Mr (quoted), 324,
344, 347, 349, 351, 352, 355, 362,
368, 370, 373, 378, 385, 389, 391,
392, 393, 395, 397, 398, 399.

Curlew, 106, 128, 275.
II Black, 229,
II Eskimo, 128, 276.
„ Stone, 125, 261.

curonica, 126.

"Curre,"239.

curriica, 113.

Cursorius, 126.

curvirostra, 117.

Cushat, 244.

Cuttle, 87.

Cuvier's Whale, 30, 92.

Gyanecula, 113.

cyaneus, 120.

Cyclopterus, 330.

Cygnus, 122.

cynoglossus, 334.

Cyprinidcc, 335.

Cyprimis, 335.

Cypselidce, 118.

Cypselus, 118.

Cystophora, 28.

Cyttidce, 329.

Dab, 334, 391.

M Lemon, 392.

„ Long Rough, 334, 390.

u Pole, 334, 392.

II Smear, 391.
Dabchick, 294.
Dace, 335, 405.
"Daddy long-legs," 39.
Dafila, 123.
dama, 29.
Daption, 295. -
Dartford Heath, 137, 142, 144,

155, 156, 160, 192.
Dartmouth, 375.
' Das Thierleben der osterr-ungar

Tiefebenen' (quoted), 62.
dasycneme, 27.
dauhentoni, 27.
Daubenton's Bat, 27, 35.
Daulias, 113.
Day, Dr (quoted). 343, 350, 366,

376, 385, 396, 402, 409 fn., 426,

427 431.
Deal, 399, 421.

Deal-fish, 331, 371.

decandolii, 330.

De Crespiguy and Hutchinson
(quoted), 85.

dec2cmamcs, 29.

Deer, Fallow, 15, 17, 29, 85.
II Red, 17, 29, 83.
II Roe, 8, 17, 29, 85.

Delphinapterus, 30.

Delphinidce, 30.

Delphinus, 30.

delphis, 30, 91 fn.

Dendrocopus, 118, 296.

dentatus, 333.

Dentex, 326, 343.

Dentex, 326.

Derbio, 329, 361.

Derwentwater, 411.

' Descriptive List of the Deer
Parks and Paddocks of Eng-
land ' (quoted), 83.

deserti, 112.

desertoruvi, 295.

*' Devil-tish," 434.

Devon, 83, 140, 146, 158, 187, 226,
238, 283, 304, 343, 364, 373, 404.

De Winton (quoted), 74.

Dingo, 10, 15, 49, 62.

Dimyiedea, 129.

Dipper, 114, 148.

Black-bellied, 114, 149.

Discoboli, 330.

discolor, 27.

discors, 123.

''Diver," 219.

Diver, Black-throated, 131, 292.
u Great Northern, 131, 292.
u Red-throated, 131, 292.
„ White-billed, 131, 292.
M Yellow-billed, 292.

Diving Ducks, 239-244.

Dixon, Mr (quoted), 105, 202.

Doberan, 146.

Dodman, the, 91.

Dog-fish, Black-mouthed, 338, 426.
II Lesser Spotted, 426.

Dogs, 11, U), 32 fn., 57.

Dolphin, 30, 93.

II Bottle-nosed, 30, 94.
White-beaked, 30, 94.
White-sided, 30, 94.

domesticus, 116.

Dormouse, 8, 24, 25, 28, 69.

Dorset, 280.

Dory, John, 329, 361.

Dotterel, 5, 15, 101, 126, 263.
ti Ringed, 261.

INDEX.

477

dougalli, 128.

Dove, Rmg, 108, 175, 244.

n Rock, 124, 245.

„ Stock, 124, 245.

„ Turtle, 124, 246.
Dover, 41. 157, 160, 181, 280, 373.
draco, 328.

Dragonet, Gemmeous, 272 fn.,
330, 367.
„ Spotted, 330, 367.

Drainiug, effects of, 14.
" Drumming" of Snipe, 268.
Drummond's Echiodon, 333, 386.
Dublin. 217.
Duck, Buffel-headed, 123, 241.

„ Eider, 123, 241.

„ King, 123. 241.
„ Stelier's,- 123, 242.

„ Ferruginous, 123. 240.

„ Harlequin, 123, 241.

II Long-tailed, 123, 241.

I, Ruddy Sheld, 235.

,1 Sheld, 235.

„ Tufted, 123, 240.

u " White-eyed," 240.

„ Wild, 123. 236.
ductor, 329.
" Dunbird," 239. ■
"Dun cow," 431.
"Dung-bird," 284.
Dungeness, 6.
Dunlin, 106, 127, 270.
Dunn, Mr Matthias (quoted), 396,

425, 426, 429.
Durham, 195, 382.
Dusky Serranus, 326, 343.

II Skulpin, 272fn., 367.

Eagle, Black, 212.

„ Golden, 120, 212.
„ Spotted, 120, 211.
M White-tailed, 120, 213.
Earhug, 8.

East Anglia, 249, 260, 272, 278.
ehurnea, 129.
Ecaitdata, 312.
Ecclesbourne. 286.
Kcheneis, 328.
Echidnas, 38.
Kchinorldnus, 339.
Echiodon, Drummond's, 333, 386.
Ectopistes, 295.
Eddy stone, the, 16.
Eel, 53, 98, 319, 334, 394.

II Broad-nosed, 394.

,1 Conger. 5, 334, 395.

I, Pout, 382.

Eel, Sharp-nosed, 394.

,1 Silver, 395.
Eggs of birds, 109.

II of reptiles, 300.
Egret, Little, 121, 226.
Eider, 241.

II King, 241.

II Stelier's, 242.
Elanus, 295.
elaphus, 29.
Elasmohranchii, 338.
Elbe, 287.
elegans, 116.
Elvers, 394.
Emheriza, 117.
Einberizince, 117.
Emu, 103.
encrascicholus, 334.
' EncyclopaBdia of Sport ' (quoted),

51 fn.
Engraidis, 334.
Enniskillen, 177.
enudeator, 116.
eperlanus, 336.
epops, 119.
Erinacmdce, 27.
Erinaceus, 27.
Erithacus, 113.
Ermine, 53.
erminea, 28.
" Erne," 213.
erythrina, 117.
erythrinus, 327.
erythrophthahmis, 335.
escidenta, 312.
Esocidce, 336.
Esox, 336.

Essex, 5, 138, 163, 191, 210.
Eton College, 233.
Eudromias, 126.
europcea {PyrrJnda), 116

I, {Tcdpa), 27.
etiropceus (Caprwiulgus), 118.
M {Erinaceus), 27.
11 {Lepiis), 29.
excuhitor, 115.
ExocQitus, 329.
exoletus, 332.

Extermination of species, 11, 25.
' Extinct British Animals ' (quoted).

9,24.
Extinct mammals, 9.
Eye in fish, 322.

faher, 329.
Fairlight Glen, -304.
falcinelhcSy 122.

478

INDEX.

Falco, 121.

Falcon, Greenland, 121, 215.
Gyr, 215.
„ Iceland, 121, 215.
II Peregrine, 121, 215.
Eed-footed, 121, 216.
Falconidce, 120.
Fallow-deer, 15, 17, 29, 85.
familiaris, 115.
fario, 335, 411, 412.
Farmers, 12, 47, 48, 50, 75, 97,

210.
Fame Islands, 3, 241, 277, 278.
Faroe Islands, 285.
Father- Lasher, 327, 348.
'Fauna of Argyle' (quoted), 47,

59, 60, 64, 65, 80, 305.
'Fauna of Sutherland' (quoted),

345, 363.
' Fauna of the Outer Hebrides '

(quoted), 73, 340, 353, 356, 366,

379.
Feathers, 101.
Felidce, 28.
Felis, 28.
Felpham, 76.
Fen Country, 6, 14, 49, 54, 60, 162,

208, 223, 275.
ferina, 123.
ferox, 336.
Ferrets, 16, 53.
ferrugineus, 295.
feirrum-equimim, 27.
■"Fiddle-fish," 429.
'Field,' the (quoted), 25, 44, .55 fn.,

77, 163, 200, 203, 214, 290.
Fieldfare, 112, 132, 134.
Field-mouse, Long-tailed, 25, 75.

II II Short-tailed, 77.

M Vole, 29, 77.
Field-work, need for, 19.
Fierasfer, 333.
Fifteen -spined Stickleback, 331,

374.
File-fish, 337, 417.
Finches, 116, 168-175.
Finners, 91.
Fins, 320.
Mda, 334.
Firecrest, 113, 145.
"Firertare, 433.
Fish, definition of a, 320.
Fisher, Major (quoted), 47.
Fishes, 317-434.
Fishing-frog, 352.
Flaiiiborougii Head, 245.
Flamingo, 98, 122, 230.

flammea, 119.
"Flapper Skate," 430.
Flat fish, 5, 322, 386.
Jktva, 115.
jiavescens, 330.
Jlavicollis, 29.
Jktvipes, 128.
Jkivirostris, 116.
Jlesus, 334.
Flight of birds, 104.
Floods, Foxes in, 49.
II Mole in, 41.
Florence, 200.
Flounder, 92, 319, 334, 391.

Pole, 392.
Fluke, 391.

Jluviatilis (Gobio), 335.
(Perca), 326.
II (Podicipes), 131.

M {Sterna), 128.

Flycatcher, Pied, 115, 165.

II Eed-breasted, 115,165.

II Ked-eyed, 295.

Spotted, 115, 165.
Flying-fish, 329, 365.
fodiens, 27.
Food of birds, 106.

„ of fishes, 323.
Foot in birds, 103.
Fork-beard, Greater, 333, 382.

I. II Lesser, 333, 382.

Fork -tailed Petrel, 286.
Forth, 245, 411.
Foumart, 52.
Fowlsheugh, 291.
Fox, 11, 17, 18, 25, 28, 37, 48-51,

60, 78.
Fox-Shark, 338, 423.
fragilis (Anguis), 301.
Fraterc2ikc, 130.
" French Ray," 431.
'Fresh-water Fishes of Europe,'

(quoted), 382, 391, 393, 400, 409.
Fresh-water Shark, 414.
Fringilla, 116.
Fringillidce, 116.
Fringillince, 116.
Frog, Common, 6, 312, 313.

,1 Edible, 15, 312, 313.
Frogs, 61.
"Frost-fish," 363.
friigilegus, 117.
Fidica, 125.
Fidicaricn, 125.
fidicarms, 126.
fuliginosa, 128.
Fuligula, 123.

INDEX.

479

fuUonica, 339.

Fulmar Petrel, 106, 130, 287.

Fulmarus, 130.

Fulton, Dr (quoted), 350.
fulvus{Charadrius), 126.

„ {Gyps), 120.
funerea, 119.

"Furze-chat," 144.
fusca, 124.
fuscicoUis, 127.
fuscus (Larus), 129.

„ (Totanus), 128.
Fyfe, Lord, 10.

Gade, Tliree-bearded, 383.

Gadidce, 332.

Gadiis, 332.

Gadwall, 123, 237.

Gaetke, Dr, 3, 105.

gcdactodes, 113.

galhula, 115.

galerita, 330.

Galeus, 338.

galliciis, 126.

Gallince, 124.

GaUinago, 127.

GaUinula, 125.

gallinuJa, 127.

Gallinule, Martinique, 295.

gallivensis, 335, 411.

Galloway, 71, 187, 350.

Galway Sea-trout, 335, 411.

Game Birds, 37, 97, 109, 247-255.

'Game Birds' (quoted), 109 fn.,

255.
Gamekeepers, 11, 12.
Ganges, 94.

Gannet, 5, 102, 121, 221.
Gaper, 343.
Garfish, 329, 364.
Garganey, 123, 239.
Garrxdus^ 118.
gamdus {Ainpelis), 115.
II {Coracias), 119.
garzetta, 121.
Gasterosteidce, 331.
Gasterostexis, 331.
qattorv.gine, 330.
Gattorugine, 330, 369.
Gavice, 128.
Gexinus, 118.
Gemmeous Dragonet, 272 fn., 330,

367.
* Geographical Distribution of

Animals ' (quoted), 8.
Germany, North, 107, 186, 187.
germo, 328.

Gibraltar, 420.
gigas, 326.
Gillaroo, 335, 411.
Gilthead, 327, 347.
giornce, 339.
Girella, 324.
giu, 120.

glacialis {Colymhus), 131.
M [Falmarus), 130.
{Harelda), 123.
gladiator, 30.
gladins, 329.

glandarius {Coccystes), 119.
II {Gamdus), 118.
glareola, 127.
Glareolidce, 125.
Glareolns, 125.
glareolus, 29.
glauca, 329.
glaucion, 123.
Glaucus, 361.
glaiicus (Carcharias), 338.

„ (Za/v^-s), 129.
Globe-fish, 337, 417.
GlohicejjhaJus, 30.
Glutinous Hag, 439.
Goat, 15.

" Goat-sucker," 191.
Gohiesocidce, 330.
GoUidte, 329.
6^o6«o, 335.
groJw, 327.
G^o6i»5, 329.
Goby, Black, 329, 366.

,1 Four-spotted, 330, 367.

,1 Nilsson's, 330, 367.

II Parnell's, 330, 367.

11 Rock, 366.

II Spotted, 329, 366.

M Two-spotted, 330, 366.

" White, 330, 366.
Godwit, Bar-tailed, 128, 274.

Black-tailed, 128, 275.
Goldcrest, 113, 144.
''Golden Back," 315.
Golden Eye, 123, 240.
Golden Orfe, 404.
Golden Oriole, 13, 109, 115, 162.
Goldfinch, 108, 109, 116, 169.
Goldfish, 402.
Goldsinny, 376.

II Jago's, 376.

Goodwood, 4.
Goosander, 102, 124, 243.
Goose, Bean, 122, 231.
,1 Bernicle, 122, 233.
„ Brent, 122, 232.

480

INDEX.

Goose, Grey lag, 122, 231.

II Laughing, 232.

II Eed-breasted, 122, 232.

„ Pink-footed, 122, 232.

„ Snow, 122, 232.

„ Wliite-fronted, 122. 232.
Gordon-Cumming, 10.
Goshawk, 120, 213.

M American, 213.
gouanii, 330.
Gourneaii, 349.
Grackle, Rustic, 295.
Graada, 295.
graculus [Phalacrocorax), 121.

II (Pyrrhocorax), 118.
Graining, 405.
Grampus, 30, 92.

It Risso's, 30, 93,
Grampus, 30.
Grassi, Professor, 395.
(jrayi, 336.
Grayling, 336, 413.
Great Auk, 9.
Great Bat, 33.

Great Grey Shrike, 104, 115, 163.
Great Lake Trout, 336, 411.
Greater Horseshoe Bat, 27, 36.
Greater Pipe-fish, 337, 416.
Grebe, Black, 294.

I, Eared, 131, 294.

„ Great Crested, 101, 103,
131 293.

„ Little,' 101,' 131, 294.

II Pied-billed, 295.

„ Red-necked, 131, 293.

I, Slavonian. 131, 294.
"Green Cod," 381.
"Green Linnet," 169.
Greenfinch, 116, 168.
Greenland, 174, 233, 348.

„ Falcon, 121, 215.

„ Shark, 339, 427.

Whale, 90.
Greenshank, 128, 274.
grcqarius, 126.
"Grey," 57.
"GrevHen,"252.
Grey Shrike, 115.
"Grey Skate," 429.
"Grey Trout," 335, 411.
gHllii, 331, 372.
griseigtma, 131.
griseus {Grampus), 30.

II (Macrorhamphus), 127.

II {Notidanus), 338.

II (Nyciicorax), 121.

M [Paffinus), 130.

grisola, 115.
grcenlandica, 28.
Grosbeak, Pine, 116, 176.

-I Scarlet, 117. 175.

Grouse, Black, 125, 252.

Red, 1, 6, 17, 18, 98, 125,
254.
,i_ Willow, 254.
Gruidoe, 125. .
Grus, 125.
grylle, 130.
grypus, 28.
Guardfish, 364.
Gudgeon, 6, 335, 402.
Guillemot, 5, 110, 130, 204, 289.
II Black, 130, 291.

,1 Brlinnich's, 130, 291.

Ringed, 289.
Guinea Pig, 15.
Gulf Stream, 2, 89.
Gull, Black-headed, 129, 281.
II Bonaparte's, 129, 282.
II Common, 129, 279.
„ Glaucous, 129, 282.
M Great Black-backed, 129, 282.
I, „ „ -headed, 129,281.

I, Herring, 129, 280.
„ Iceland, 129. 282.
„ Ivory, 129, 283.
II Laughing, 281.

II Lesser Black -backed, 129,

009

,1 Little', 129, 282.
II Mediterranean Black-
headed, 129, 281.
,1 Ross's 129, 283.
„ Sabine's, 129, 283.
Gulls, 279-284.
Gunnel, 331, 370.
gunnel! us, 331.
Giinther, Dr (quoted), 431.
Gurnard, Armed, 328.
II Beaked, 351.
It Cuckoo, 350.
„ Grey, 327, 350.
II Lantliorn, 327, 351.
II Long-finned, 351.
„ Red, 327, 350.^
V Sajjphirine, 327, 350.
„ Streaked, 327, 350.
gurnardus, 327.
Gwiniad, 413.
Gymnodontes, 337.
Gyps, 120.
Gyr Falcon, 215.

Habitat of Fishes, 325.

INDEX.

481

Haddock, 332, 378.
Namatojjus, 126.
hcesitata, 130.
Hag-fish, 438.
Hairtail, 329, 363.
Hairy-armed Bat, 27, 33.
Hake, 332, 381.
Haliaetus, 120.
halia'etus, 121.
Halibut, 333, 389.
Halichcerus, 28.
Hammerhead, 338, 420, 422.
Hampshire, 4, 35, 43, 76, 99, 107,

140, 172, 191, 216, 217, 225, 235,

238, 262, 263, 265, 267, 270, 289,

372, 409.
Hanoverian Eat, 16, 72.
Hare, Alpine, 24, 81.

M Blue, 29, 81.

„ Common, 11, 17, 29, 78.

,t Irish, 25, 81.

,1 Varying, 81.
Harelda, 123.
harengus, 334.
Harrier, Hen, 14, 120. 210.
„ Marsh, 120, 210.
„ Montagu's, 120, 210.
Harris, Cornwallis, 10.
'Harrow Birds' (quoted), 140.
Hart, Mr, 99.
Harting, Mr J. E. (quoted), 7 fn.,

8, 9, 24, 38, 39, 45 fn., 55 fn.,

70, 81, 165, 214, 230.
Harvest-Mouse, 8.
Harvie-Brown, Mr J. A. (quoted),

47, 53, 59, 60, 64, 65, 73, 80,

251, 274, 305, 340, 344, 345, 353,

356, 363, 366, 368, 379.
Hastings, 280, 286, 304, 394.
Hawfinch, 116, 169.
Hazel-Hen, 254.
Hebrides, 3, 45, 47, 53, 55, 65, 73,

75, 83, 132, 137, 144, 163, 164,

181, 191, 231, 237, 238, 239, 241,

247, 252, 263, 274, 275, 277, 286,

287, 291, 292, 353, 367, 368.
"Hedge-Accentor," 147.
Hedgehog, 27, 37-39, 41, 50, 58.
Hedge-Sparrow, 19, 109, 114, 147.
helena, 334.
Heligoland, 3.
'Heligoland as an Ornithological

Observatory,' 3.
Helodromas, 109.
helvetica, 126.
hemiriyvinus, 336, 414.
Hemipode, Andalusian, 265.

" Hen-fish," 358.
Hengistbury Head, 219, 289.
Herodiones, 121.
Heron, 98, 103, 105, 121, 223.

„ BuflMjacked, 121, 226.

M Great White, 121, 226.

M Night, 1-21, 226.

M Purple, 121, 226.

II Squacco, 121, 226.
Herring, 334, 397.

Gull, 129, 280.
Hertfordshire, 304.
hiaticida, 126.
Hibernating, 32.
hihernicus, 73.
Highgate, 178.

Highlands, 6, 11, 41, 50, 51, 54, 59,
69, 81, 83, 142, 145, 153, 159,
160, 166, 210, 212, 217, 242, 243,
245, 255, 315.
" Hilling " of Ruffs, 272.
Himantopus, 126.
Hippocampus, 337.
Hippoglossoides, 334.
Hippoglossus, 333.
hipposiderus, 27.
hirtensis, 114.
Hirundin idee, 116.
Hiru7ido, 116.
hirundo, 327.
hispida, 28.
' History of Scandinavian Fishes,

A '(quoted), 408, 412.
histrionica, 123.
Hobby, 32, 121, 216.
Hog, 15.

Holocanthus, 326, 344.
Holocephcdi, 337.
Holt, Mr (quoted), 370.
Holyhead, 8.
Holy Island, 232.
Homelyn, 432.
Honey Buzzard, 121.
Hoopoe, 119, 200.
Hopley, Miss (quoted), 300.
Horses, 15.
hortensis, 113.
hortidana, 117.
horhdanus, 116.
Hound, Fox, 48-50.
Otter, 18.

,1 Row, 338, 426.

Smooth, 338, 420, 422.
"Houting,"413.

Hudson, Mr W. H. (quoted), 141.
Humpback Whale, 29, 91.
"Huss,"426.

482

INDEX.

hyhrida, 128.
Hydrochelidon, 128.
liyperhoreus {Chen), 122.

It {Phalaropus), 120.

Hyperoijdon, 30.
Hypolais, 113.
hypoleuais, 127.

Ihididcp, 122.

Ibis, Glossy, 122, 229.

" Ice-Bird,'" 199.

Iceland, 31 fii., 378.

ichthyaetus, 129.

icterina, 113.

icterus, 295.

ictinus, 120.

Me, 404.

Identification of Birds, 110.

ignavus, 120.

ignicapillis, 113.

iliacics, 112.

imperialis, 329, 3o9.

India, 31, 50.

Indian Ocean, 357.

Insectivora, 27, 37-46.

interpres, 126.

Irish Fauna, 8, 24, 25, 55 fn.

„ Hare, 25, 81.

II Names, 8, 40.
isahelliaa, 112.
islandus, 121.
Lsle de Bourbon, 167.
Isle of Man, 3, 245, 291.
Isle of Wight, 3, 6, 144, 164, 289,

290, 340.
ispida, 119.
Italy, 13, 344, 375.
Tyngincr, 119.
lynx, 119.

Jack, 414.

Jackdaw, 111, 117. 182.

"Jack-Hurry," 284.

Jack-Snipe, 127, 269.

Jago's Goldsinny, 376.

Japan, 402.

Java, 10.

Jay, 14, 104, 118, 185.

Jetferies, Richard (quoted), 1.

Jesse, Mr (quoted), 12.

Jew-lish, 363.

juUs, 332.

Jura, 59, 305.

Kea, 107.

Kent. 4, 107. 143. 161. 162, 190,
192, 197, 206, 217, 258.

Kerguelen, 31 fn.
Kestrel, 32. 104. 121, 217.
I, Lesser, 121, 217.
Keulemanns. Mr (quoted), 101.
Kilbraunan Sound, 379.
Kilkenny, 51.
" Killer," the, 92.
killinensis, 336, 412.
"Kingfish,"359.
Kingfisher, 98. Ill, 119, 197.

„ Belted, 200.

" King of the Breams," 346.
" King of the Herrings," 418.
"Kingston," 429.
"Kite," 388.
Kite, 14, 104, 120, 214.

M Black, 120, 214.

II Black- winged. 295.

,, Swallow-tailed, 214.
Kittiwake, 129, 283.
"Knobber,"83.
Knot, 127, 271.
'Knowle<lge' (quoted), 208.
Knurrhahn, 349.

Labrax, 326.
Lahridce, 331, 332.
Labrus, 331.
Lacerta, 301.
Lacertidce, 301.
Lacertilia, 301.
Ladybird, 26.
Lcemargics, 339.
Icevis (CoroneUa), 301.

,1 (Mustela), 422.

„ (Rhombus), 333.
Lagenorhynchus, 30.
lagocephahis, 337.
Lagoptis, 125.
lagojjus, 120.
Lake Country, 47, 59, 74, 81, 83,

263.
Lamna, 338.
Lamnidce, 338.
Lampern, 438.
lampetrifonnis, 331.
Lamprey, Mud, 438.
,1 ' River, 438.
It Sea, 437.
Lamiyris, 328.
Lancashire, 265.
lanceolatus, 333.

Landmark, Herr (quoted), 409 fn.
Landrail, 125, 256.
Land's End, ^282, 289.
Laniidce, 115.
Lanius, 115.

INDEX.

483

Lautliorn Gurnard, 327, 351.
Lapland Bunting, 117, 178.
lappoyiica, 128.
lapponkus, 117.
Lapwing, 104, 126, 264.

„ Sociable, 126, 265.
Laridce, 128.
Lariiice, 129.
Lark, Calandra, 295.

„ Crested, 118, 189.

.. Sand, 261.

., Shore, 118, 189.

„ Short-toed, 118, 189.

M Sky, 103, 118, 188.

„ White-wins^ed, 118, 189.

„ Wood, 118, 188.
Larus, 129.
lascaris, 334.
Lascelles, Hon. Gerald (quoted),

6fn.,85.
Lateral Line in Fish, 322.
laterna, 338.
" Laughing Goose," 232.
"Laughing Gull," 281.
Launce, 333, 384.

„ Lesser, 333, 385.
Smooth, 333, 3S5.
"Laverock," 188.
Lea, 407.

"Leather grub," 39.
Le Court, 41.
Leghorn, 272, 346, 361.
Leicestershire, 51, 147.
leisleri, 27.
Lemon Dab, 392.

M Sole, 334, 392.
lentiginosxis, 121.
Leixuiogaster, 330.
Lepidopus, 329.
Leporidce, 29.
Leptocephali, 395.
lepturus, 329.
Lepus, 29.

Lesser Horseshoe Bat, 27, 36.
Lesser Redpoll, 116, 174.
* Letters to Young Shooters '

(quoted), 269.
lexicas, 30.
Leuciscus, 335.
leucopsis, 122.
leucoptera, 128.
leiicopteras, 129.
leucorodia, 122.
leucorrhoa, 130.
levenensis, 335.
Lichia, 329.
' Life - Histories of British Food-

Fishes ' (quoted), 368, 370, 371
fu., 381, 395, 397.
' Life of the Fields ' (quoted), 1.
Ligunnus, 116.
Lilford, Lord, 185, 209.
linucnda, 334.
limandoides, 334.
Limicola, 127.
Limicolce, 125-128.
Limosa, 128.
lincma, 116.
Lincolnshire, 281.
lineata, 327.
lineatus, 327.
Ling, 332, 381.
Linnaeus, 86,
Linnet, 116, 140, 173.
''Lintie,"173.
Linton, 285.
Liparis, 330.
Little Auk, 130, 291.
Littlehampton, 199, 220 fn.
Liverpool, 17.
livia, 124.
Lizard, the, 61, 345, 417.

„ Common, 301, 302.

„ Green, 302.

„ Sand, 301, 302.
Lizards, 111, 302, 303.
Loach, 335, 407.

„ Spinous, 335, 408.
"Lobster," 54.
Local names, 8.
Lochaber, 46.

Lochleven Trout, 335, 411.
Locustella, 114.
Lomond, Loch, 252, 413.
London, 165, 169, 181, 281.
"Long Nose." 364.
Long-eared Bat, 27, 35.
longicauda, 127.
Lophius, 328.
Lophohranchii, 3o7.
Lord Londesborough's Snake, 306.
Lota, 332.
Lowestoft, 228.
Lowlands, 41.
Loxia, 117.
lucidus, 335.
Lucius, 336.
lugubris, 115.

Lulworth, 144, 280, 288, 342.
lumhriciformis, 337.
Lumpenus, Sharp-tailed, 331, 371.
Lnmpenus, 331.
Lumpsucker, 330, 367.
lumpus, 330.

■484

INDEX.

luna, 328.

Lundy Island, 3, 187, 221, 286,

287, 292.
liqms (Anarrhicas), 331.

„ {Labrax), 326.
luscinia, 113.
luscinioides, 114.
luscris, 332.
lutea, 334.
Liitra, 28.
Luvariis, 329, 359.
Lydekker, Mr (quoted), 10, 24, 40,

53, 77.
lyra {Callionyvms), 330.

M {Triqla), 327.
Lythe, 380.

]!^Ictch6t6s 127

M'intosh' Prof, (quoted), 368, 370,

371 fn., 381, 395, 397.
Mackerel, 322, 328, 354.
II Coly, 355.

"Guide," 364.
II Horse, 359.
Midge, 383.
I, Spanish, 328, 356.
"Mackrelsture,"356.
Macpliersou, Rev. H. A. (quoted),

246.
vuicqueeni, 125.
Macqueen's Bustard, 125, 260.
macrocephalus, 30.
Macrorhami^hus, 127.
macrura, 128.
Macruridce, 333.
mactilaritis, 295.
maculata (Raia), 339.

II {Tringa), 127.
maculatus {Callionyrmis), 330.

II [Lahrus), 331.
Madagascar, 31.
magna, 295.
Magpie, 14, 104, 109. 112, 117,

184.
"Maid," 430.
Maigre, 329, 363.
mojor (Bendrocopus), 118.
II {Gallinago), 127.
II (Lanuis), 115.
It (Farus), 114.
„ (Priffinus), 130.
Mallard, 236.
tiudleus, 338.
Mammals, 25-94.

It Bell on our, 24.
11 DilJiculties of observing
our, 23.

Mammals, Extinct, 9.

It Lydekker on our, 24.
II Scant literature on our,

23.
Man. See Isle of Man.
Maori Rat, 72.
Mareca, 123.
marila, 123.
marinus, 129.
Market Drayton, 62.
'Marketable Marine Fishes'

(quoted), 344, 349, 350, 352, 355,

362, 368, 370, 378, 391, 397.
Marten, Beech, 52.

„ Pine, 10, 18, 25, 28, 51.
II Stone, 52.
"Marten Cat," 51.
Martes, 28.
Martin, 116, 167.
I, Purple, 295.
II Sand, 116, 168.
martinicus, 295.
martins, 296.
maruetta, 125.
Mary Sole, 392.
Massachusetts, 97.
Masterman, Mr (quoted), 370 fn.,

371 fn, 381, 395, 397.
Maurolicus, 336, 414.
"Mavis Skate," 431.
maxima, 338.
maximus {Rhomhus), 333.
Maxwell, Sir Herbert (quoted), 7

fn., 25 fn., 40 fn., 47, 58, 71, 77,

164, 185 fn., 252 fn., 265, 305.
"Mav-bird,"275.
Mealy Redpoll, 116, 174.
Mecklenburg, 138, 146, 186, 199,

294.
Mediterranean, 42, 343, 346, 355,

356, 373, 396, 400, 425, 426, 4-33.
Megaptera, 29.
megastoma, 333.
Megrim, 333, 388.
melanocejjhala, 117.
melanocephalus, 129.
melanope, 115.
melanophrjfs, 129.
melanostomus, 338.
melas, 30.
vielha, 118.
Mehs, 28.
melops, 332.
Melvin, Lough, 411.
Merganser, Hooded, 124, 244.

II Red-breasted, 124, 243.

merganser, 124.

INDEX.

485

Mergulus, 130.
■Mergiis, 124.
merlangus, 332.
Merlin, 98, 121, 217.
Merluccius, 332.
Meroindce-, 119.
Merojis, 119, 295.
merula, 112.
Mesoplodon, 30.
Mevagissey, 91, 346, 360, 396, 426,

429.
Mexico, 396.
Michelet (quoted), 167.
microcellata, 339.
microcephalus {Lcemargus), 339.

It (Pleuronedes), 334.

MicroUis, 29.
Middlesex, 143, 176.
Middletou, 47.
migrans, 120.
Migration of birds, 105.

It fishes, 324

It the Redbreast, 139.

migratorius, 295.

Millais, Mr J. G. (quoted), 69, 80,

85, 86, 109, 255.
Miller's Thumb, 327, 347.
Milvus, 120.
Minnow, 335, 405.
minor [Dendrocojncs], 118.

ti {Lanius), 115.
minuta [Ardetta], 121.

I, {Sterna), 128.

It {Tringa), 127.
miiiutilla, 127.
minutus {Gadus), 332.
[Gohius], 329.

n {Larus), 129.
{Mus), 29.

II [Sorex], 27.
mixUts, 331.
Mocking Bird, 26.
modularis, 114.
wioto, 337.
Mole, 8, 27, 39-43.
Molge, 312.
mollissima, 123.
Molva, 332.
t)wnedida, 117.
" Mongrel Skate," 429.
Monk Fish, 428.
monoceros, 30.
Monodon, 30.
monstrosa, 337.
vwntagui, 330.
Montagu's Blenny, 330, 369.

Montagu's Harrier, 120, 210.
It Sucker, 330, 368.
montoMUs, 116.
Monticola, 112.
inontifringilla, 116.
Moorhen, 61, 125, 225, 257.
Moray Firth, 363.
morinellus, 126.
Morocco, 201.
viorrhua, 332.
'^ Morris," 395.
Morse, 66.
Motacilla, 115.
Motacillida:, 115.
Motella, 333.

" Mother Carey's Chickens," 286.
" Moudiewarp," 41.
Moulting, 101, 300.
"Mountain Finch," 173.
Mountain Hare, 6.
"Mountain Linnet," 175.
' Mountains of California, The '

(quoted), 149.
Mouse, Common, 29, 73.

„ Harvest, 29, 74.

II Long-tailed Field, 25, 75.
Short-tailed Field, 77.

I, Wood, 29, 75.

I, Yellow-necked, 29, 74.
Mouse-coloured Bat, 27, 34.
Mouth and Teeth of Fish, 321.
Mudeford, 409.
Mugil, 331.
Mugilidce, 331.
Muir, Mr (quoted), 149.
Muirhead, Mr (quoted), 14, 225

fn., 231 fn. 232 fn.
Mull, 83, 305.
Mull of Kintyre, 349.
Mullet, Grey, 322, 373.

„ Red, 327, 344.

It Thick-lipped, 331, 373.

„ Thin-lipped, 331, 373.
Mullida:, 327.
Mvllus, 327.
Murmna, 334, 396.
Muranida', 334.
muraria, 115.
Muridce, 29.
murinus, 27.
"Murr,"280.
:Murry, 334, 396.
Mus, 29.
Muscardinus, 28.
Muscicajm, 115.
Muscicapida , 115.
mu^culus {Bakvnoptera), 29.

486

INDEX.

masculus (Mus), 29.
music us {(Jygnus), 122.
I, {Turdus), 112.
Musk Eat, 18.
Mustela, 28, 422.
mustela, 333.
Mustelidcc, 28.
Mustelics, 338.
mntus, 125.
Myliohatidce, 339.
Myliohatis, 339.
Myna, 295.
Myoxidce, 28.
viystacinus, 27.

noivia (Aquila), 120.

ti {Locustella), 114.
Nauseu, 66.
Naples, 356.
Narwhal, 30, 93.
natrix, 301.
nattereri, 27.
Natterer's Bat, 27, 34.
Natterjack, 312, 315.
Naucrates, 329.
Neagh, Lough, 413.
Needles, The, 284.
Nemachilus, 335.
Neophroii, 120.
Nerophis, 337.
Nests, 107.
Newcastle, 193.
New Forest, 6, 34, 67, 78, 83, 85

86, 151, 154, 203, 253, 268, 299

305, 306.
« New Forest, The ' (quoted), 85.
New South Wales, 4.
Newlyn, Alderman (quoted), 404.
Newt" Common, 312, 316.

„ Great Water, 312, 316.

M Palmated, 312, 316.

It Smooth, 316.
Newts, 315, 316.
New Zealand-, 13, 23, 26, 72, 107

170, 363.
nifjer, 329.
Nightingale, 7, 26, 98, 103, 104

113, 140.
Nightjar, 97, 98, 102, 103, 109
118, 191.
M Egyptian, 118, 193.
„ Red-necked, 118, 193.
nigra {Ciconia), 122.

II (Ilydrochelidon), 128.

„ (O^Jdemia), 124.
niyricollis, 131.
nigripinnis, 335, 411.

nilssuni, 330.

nisoria, 113.

nisus, 120.

nivalis, 117.

nobiliana, 339.

noctua, 119.

noctida, 27, 33.

Noctule, 27, 33.

Noddy, 129, 279.

Norfolk, 174, 210, 229, 237, 242,

270, 282, 287, 294, 404, 406.
Norfolk Broads, 6, 45, 60, 150, 211.

217, 223, 226, 293, 406.
North Sea, 359, 392, 399.
Northamptonshire, 209.
Northumberland, 174, 205, 214,

273.
norvegicus {Sebastes), 327.

II {Zeugopterus), 333.

Norway Bullhead, 327, 349.
II Haddock, 347.
Pout, 332, 379.
II Rat, 16, 72.
Norwegian fjords, 65.

,1 Topknot, 333, 389.
Notidanidcv, 338.
Notidanus, 338.
Notts, 193, 240.
Nucifraga, 117.
*' Numb-fish, "433.
Numenius, 128.
''Nun," 242.
Nurse, 338, 425.
Nutcracker, 117, 184.
Nuthatch, 114, 153.
Nyctala, 119, 295.
Nyctea, 119.
Nycticorax, 121.
nyroca, 123.

Oar-Fish, Banks's, 331, 372.
Oljlong Suntish, 337, 417.
obscura, 327.
obscurus ( .1 nthus), 1 1 5.

11 (Puffinus), 130.
oceanicus, 130.
Oceanites, 130.
Oceanodroma, 130.
ocellaris, 330.
ochropus [llclodrovias), 109.

It {Totanus) 127.
Odontoglossa', 122.
CEdemia, 124.
(Edicnemidaj, 125.
CEdicnemus, 125.
(X,nanthe, 112.
cenaSf 124.

INDEX.

487

(Estrelata, 130.

Old Wife, 327, 346.

olivaceus, 29o.

olor, 122.

Opali, 328, 359.

Ophidia, 301.

Ophidiidcc, 333.

ophidion, 337.

Ophidiiim, Bearded, 333, 385.

OpMdium, 333.

Orca, 30.

orcadensis, 335.

Orcynus, 328.

Orfe, 404.

Oriole, Golden, 13, 109, 115, 162.

Oriolidce, 115.

Oriolus, 115.

Orkney Trout, 335, 411.

Orkneys, 2, 3, 90, 94, 137, 172, 205,

209,* 234, 241, 263, 275, 291.
Ormerod, Miss, 12 In.
orphea, 113.

Orphean Warbler, 113, 142.
Orthagoriscus, 337.
Ortolan Bunting, 117, 178.
Osmerus, 336.
Osprey, 121, 217.
ostralegus, 126.
Ostrich, 103.
Ot id idee, 125.
Otis, 125.
Otocorys, 118.

Otter, 17, 18, 25, 28, 57, 60-63.
Otus, 119.

Ouse, 382, 411, 414.
Ousel, King, 6, 112, 132, 135.

,. Water, 148.
' Outdoor Life in England '

(quoted), 47.
owenii, 327.
Owl, Barn, 119, 205.

II Eagle, 120, 209.

I, Hawk, 119, 209.

„ Little, 119, 208.

11 Long-eared, 119, 207.

11 Saw- whet, 295.

„ Scops, 120, 209.

II Short-eared, 6, 119, 207.

n Snowy, 119, 209.

„ Tawny, 119, 208.

M Tengmalm's, 1 19, 208.
Owls, 6, 32, 103, 119, 205-209.
"Owls," 432.
"Ox-bird," 270.
Oxen, 15.

„ Wild, 15, 24.
Oxfordshire, 47, 187.

oxyrkynchics ( Curajonus) ,
413.
{Raia), 339.
Oyster-catcher, 126, 266.

336,

Paganellus, 330, 366.
paganellus, 330.
Pagellus, 327, 346.
Pagham, 4,
Pagophila, 129.
Pagrus, 327.

PaUas's Grey Shrike, 115, 163.
II Sand-grouse, 106, 124,
246.
palloni, 332.
palmata, 312.
pcditvibarius, 120.
pahunhus, 124.
pcdustris {Acrocephcdiis), 114.

M [Panes), 114.
Pammelas, 329,
Pandion, 121.
Pandora, 327, 346.
Panuridce, 114.
Pamtrus, 114.
paradoxus, 124.
parasiticus, 129.
Paridce, 114.
Parkstone, 7.
parnelli, 330,

Particoloured Bat, 27, 34 fn.
Partridge, 56, 98, 124, 249,
I, French, 249,

„ Red-legged, 15, 124, 249.
Parus, 114.
parva (Muscicapa), 115.

II (Porzana), 125.
parvulus, 114.
Passer, 116.
Passeres, 112-118,
pastinaca, 339.
Pastor, 117.

"Pastor, Rose-coloured," 180.
pavoniua, 295.
Payne -Gallwey, Sir R, (quoted),

32 fn., 230, 269.
Peak Country, 51.
Peal, 412.
Pedicidati, 328,
Peewit, 264.
pelagica, 130.
Pelamid, 357.
Pelamys, 328.
pelamys, 328.
Pelecanidoi, 121.
Pelias, 301,
Pelican, 219.

488

INDEX.

pellucida, 330.

Pembrokeshire, 221.

penclope, 123.

Penn pond, 225.

Pennant (quoted), 402.

pennantii, 336, 414.

Perca, 326.

Perch, 6, 326, 340.

Perches and Sea-Breams, 340-347.

Perching Birds, 132-189.

PercidcB, 326.

percif minis, 329.

percnopterus, 120.

Perdix 124.

Peregrine, 104, 121, 215, 264.

peregrinus, 121,

pierisii, 336.

Peristethus, 328.

Pernis, 121.

perspicillata, 124.

Perthshire, 173.

Petersfield, 401.

Petrel, Bulwer's, 130, 287.

„ Capped, 130, 287.

„ Fork-taHed, 286.

„ Fulmar, 106, 130, 287.

M Leach's, 130, 286.

„ Storm, 130, 286.

„ Wilson's, 130, 287.
Petro'ica, 138.
Pevensey, 4.
phceopus, 128.
Phalacrocorax, 121.
Phalarope, American, 295.

Grev, 101, 126, 266.
„ Ked-necked, 101, 126,
267.
Phalaropus, 126, 295.
Phasianidui, 124.
Phasianus, 124.

Pheasant, 15, 17, 98, 109, 124, 247.
philadeljjhia, 129.
philippinus, 295
Phoca, 28.
Phoccena, 30.
Phoculce, 28.
phoeniceus, 295.
Phcenicopteridce, V22.
Phmnicopterus, 122.
pluenicurus, 113.
2)holis, 330.
phoxinus, 335.
2)hraginitis, 114.
/%cw, 333.
Phylloscopus, 113.
Physeter, 30.
Physeteridoe, 30.

Physostomi, 334.
Ptcrt, 117.
Picaricv, 118.
Picidce, 118.
Picince, 118.
Picked Dog, 426.
pictus, 330.
Pi^5, 296.
Pigeon, Cape, 295.
II Passenger, 295.

Wood, 124, 128, 244.
Pike, 6, 336, 414.

M Saury, 329, 365.
2nlaris, 112.
Pilchard, 334, 398.
pilchardus, 334.
Pilot, Black, 329, 361.
Pilot-fish, 329, 360.

II -whale, 92.
Pine Grosbeak, 116.

„ Marten, 10, 18,^25, 28, 51.
Pink Brame, 332, 376.
Pintail, 123, 237.
Pipe-fish, Broad-nosed, 337, 415.
u Greater, 337, 416.
t. Snake, 337, 416.
II Straight-nosed, 337, 416.
„ Worm, 337, 416.
"Piper," 327, 351.
Pipistrelle, 27. 33.
pipistrellus, 27.
Pipit, Meadow, 115, 160.

II Red-throated, 115, 161.

„ Richard's, 115, 161.

u Rock, 115, 161.

„ Tawny, 115, 161.

M Tree, 115, 159.

„ Water, 115, 161.
Pipits, 159-161.
Pisa, 156.
piscatorius, 328.
Pisces, 326.
Plaice, 334, 390.
Plain Bonito, 328, 356.
Platalea, 122.
Plataleidce, 122.
Platessa, 334.
platyrhynchus, 127.
Plecotus, 27.
Plectognathi, 337.
Plectrophenax, 117.
Plegadis, 122.
Pleuronectes, 334.
Pleuronecticlcr , 333.
Plover, Caspian, 295.
II Golden, 126, 263.
II Green, 264.

INDEX.

489

Plover, Grey, 126, 263.

M Kentish, 126, 262.

II Killdeer, 126, 263.

II Lesser Golden, 126, 263.

M Little Ringed, 126, 262.

„ "Norfolk," 261.

I, Ringed, 126, 261.
pliwialis, 126.

Plymouth, 187, 242, 344, 373, 428.
Pochard, 123, 239.

Red-crested, 123, 240.
podiceps, 295.
Podicipjedidcv, 131.
Podicipes, 131.
Podilymhus, 295.
"Podleys."381.
Pogge, 328, 351.
Polar fowl, 3, 283, 291, 292.
Pole Dab, 334, 392.
u Flounder, 392.
Polecat, 8, 10, 25, 28, 52, 53, 55.
Polewig, 366.
Polish Swan, 234.
pollachius, 332.
Pollack, 5, 332, 380.
Pollan, 336, 413.
pollan, 336.
Polperro, 417.
Polruan, 280.
Polyprion, 326.
pomatorhinus, 129.
pomeranus, 115. ♦

pompilus, 329.
Poole, 140, 157, 234, 239.
Poor Cod, 332, 379.
Pope, 326, 342.
Porbeagle, 338, 420, 422.
Porphyrio, 295.
Porpoise, 30, 92, 93.

II Round-headed, 30, 92.
Port Jackson Shark, 223, 420.
Porzana, 125, 295.
Pottinger, Sir H. (quoted), 252.
Poultry, 15, 50.
Pout, 332, 378.

,1 Norway, 332, 379.
"Pout," 39.
Poutassou, 332, 381.
poutassou, 332.
Pouting, 378.
Powan, 336, 413.
Power Cod, 332, 379.
pratensis (Anthus), 115.

{Crex), 125.
Pratincola, 112.
2iratincola, 125.
Pratincole, 125, 261.

presbyter, 331.

Preservation of Game, 17, 47, 97.

"Pride," 438.

Pristiurus, 338.

Procellaria, 130.

Procellariidm, 130.

Progne, 295.

proregulus, 113.

Protection of fauna, 17, 25, 97.

Ptarmigan, 6, 101, 125, 255.

Pterochtes, 124.

Pteroclidce, 124.

Pteropus^ 31 fn.

pubescens, 296.

Puffin, 5, 111, 130, 291.

Puffinus, 130.

piignax, 127.

punctatus (Zeugopterus), 333.

pimgitus, 331.

Purple Heron, 121, 226.

11 Sandpiper, 127, 271.
purpurea (Ardea), 121.
u {Progne), 295.
pusilla, 117.
putorius, 28.
Pycnonotus, 296.
Pygopodes, 130.
Pyrrhocorax, 118.
Pyrrhula, 116.

quadricornis, 327.
quadrimaculatus, 330.
Quail, 6, 124, 250.
Queensland, 172, 228, 358, 396,

423.
Querquedida, 123.

Rabbit, 25 fn., 29, 50, 52, 55, 61,

82
"Rabbit-Fish," 382, 418.
raxliata, 339.
B.aAa, 339.
raii {Brama), 328.

II {Motacilla), 115.
Raiidce, 339.
Rail, Land, 125, 256.

u Water, 125, 257.
Rails and Crakes, 256-259.
Rainbow Wrasse, 332, 377.
"Rain-Goose," 292.
Rallidce, 125.
ralloides, 121.
Rallus, 125.
Ramsgate, 182.
Rana, 312.
Raniceps, 333.
Ranidce, 312.

490

INDEX.

raniniia, 333.

Rat, Black, 10, 16, 29, 71.

„ Browu, 16, 29, 72.

II Hanover, 16, 72.

,1 Musk, 18.

II Norway, 16, 72.
Rats, 56, 67, 71-73.
Ratton, 71,
rattus, 29.

Raven, 104, 117, 182.
Ray, Eagle, 339, 434.

II French, 431.

„ Homelyn, 339, 432.

II Ox, 339, 434.

,1 Painted, 339, 432.

„ Sandy, 339, 432.

,1 Shagreen, 339, 431.

II Sharp-nosed, 431.

„ Starry, 339, 432.

„ Sting, 339, 433.
" Ray-mouthed Dog," 422.
Ray's Bream, 328, 358.
Razorbill, 130, 288.
Recurvirostra, 126.
Red Band-fish, 331, 371.

I, Deer, 17, 29, 83.

II Gurnard. 327, 350.

M Mullet, 327, 344.

,1 Sea, 100, 277.
Redbreast, 106, 113, 138.
Redpoll, Lesser, 116, 174.
xMealy, 116, 174.
Redshank, 15, 128, 274.

Spotted, 128, 274.
Redstart, 113, 137.

Black, 113, 138.
Redwing, 112, 134.
"Red Eve," 404.
"Reed Pheasant," 150.
"Reed Sparrow," 178.
Reedling, Bearded, 6, 10, 14, 114,

150.
Reeve, 272.
Rcgalecus, 3-31.
Regulus, 113, 296.
Reindeer, 9.
religiosa, 295.
Remora, 328, 357.
remora, 328.

Reproduction of fishes, 324.
Reptile, definition of, 299.
Respiration in fishes, 323.
Rhina, 339.
Rhinidw, 339.
Rhinolophidce, 27.
Rhino] ophus, 27.
Rhodostethia, 129.

Rhombus, 333.

Rhytina, 9.

richardif 115.

Richmond Park, 144, 160, 225.

ridibundus, 129.

" Rig." 421.

Ring Dove, 108, 175, 244.

,1 Ousel. 6, 112, 132, 135.
Ringed Dotterel, 261.

II Guillemot, 289.

,1 Plover, 126, 261.

II Snake, 301, 306.
Ringwood, 140, 147.
riparict, 116,
Rissa, 129.

Risso's Grampus, 30, 93.
Roach, 335, 403.
Robin, 106.

II American, 135.
rochei, 328.
Rock-cook, 332, 376.

II Gobv, 366.
Rockling, three-bearded, 333, 383.
II Five-bearded, 333, 383.
Four-bearded, 333, 383.
Rockyll, 3.
Rodentia, 28.
Rodents, 25, 66-82.
Roebuck, Mr (quoted), 47, 54, 59,

71, 238.
Roedeer, 8, 17, 29, 85.
Roller, 119, 200.

II Abyssinian, 200.
Rome, 342.
Rook, 12, 117, 180.
Roosevelt, Mr, 10,
Rorqual, Common, 29, 91.
II Lesser, 29, 91.
,1 Rudolphi's, 29, 91.
Sibbald's, 29, 91.
rosea, 129.
ruscHs {Pastor), 117.

II {Phfenicopterus), 122.
rosmarus, 28.
Ross, 242, 340, 342.
Rostock, 348.
Rostocker Heide, 186.
rostrata, 29.
rostratus, 30.
"Rosy Bullfinch," 175.
Rough-leirged Bat, 27, 34 fn.
' Rough Notes ' (quoted), 222.
Round-hi-aded Porpoise, 30, 92.
Row Hound, 426.
•Royal Natural History,' The

(quoted), 363.
riLbecula, 113.

INDEX.

491

rvbescens, 331.

rubetra, 112.

rubicola, 112.

Rudd, 335, 404.

"Rudder-tisli;'361.

rv/a, 124.

ru/escens (Cannabinn), 116.

ti {Tryngites), 127.
Ptuff, 6, 10, 14, 101/127, 272.

„ (Fish), 342.
rujicollis (Bernicla), 122.

II {Caprimulgus), 118.
'nifina, 123.
rufus, 113.
Rugby School N.H.S. (Secretary

quoted), 181.
riipestris [Coryphceuoides), 333,
386.
II {Ctenolahriis), 332.

'Rural Bird Life' (quoted), 202.
Ruskin, Mr (quoted), 13.
Russia, 282.
rustica {Emberiza^, 117.
II (Hirundo), 116.
,1 {Pica), 117.
rusticida, 127.
Ruticilla, 113.
rutilus, 335.
Rye Harbour, 394.

Sabine's Gull, 129, 283.

Suipe, 269.
sabinii, 129.
"Sail-fish," 424.
St Alban's Head, 289.
St Andrews, 370, 385.
St Hilaire, 33, 36.
St Kilda, 3, 286, 287.

Wren, 114, 155
Saith, 380.
Scdamandridcc, 312.
sa^ar, 335j^ 411, 412.
Scdmo, 335.

Salmon, 64, 90, 335, 408.
Salmon Trout, 336.
Salmonidoj, 335.
salvelinus, 336, 412.
salviani, 338, 426.
Salvin, Mr (quoted), 219.
Sand-eel, 353.
Sanderling, 127, 272.
Sandpiper, Bartrani's, 127, 273.

II Bonaparte's, 127, 270.

Broad-bnied, 127, 270.

„ Buff-V)reasted, 127, 272.

11 Common, 127, 273.

II Curlew, 127, 271.

Sandpiper, Green, 127, 273.

II Marsh, 295.

,1 Pectoral, 127, 270.

II Purple, 127, 271.

II Sharp-tailed, 127, 270.

„ Solitary, 128, 273.

I, Spotted, 295.

II Wood, 127, 273.

Sand-smelt, 372.
Sapphirine Gurnard, 327, 350.
sarda, 328.
Sardine, 398.
Sark, 71.

Sars, Prof, (quoted), 378.
Saunders, Mr Howard (quoted),
99, 101, 195, 210, 211, 214, 226,
230, 234, 240, 256, 263, 268, 279.
saurus, 329.
Saury Pike, 329, 365.
Sawfish, 424.
saxatilis, 112.
Saxicola, 112.
Scabbard-fish, 329, 363.
Scad, 329, 359.
"Scaldback,"388.
Scald-fish, 333, 388.
Scale-rayed Wrasse, 332, 376.
Scales of Fish, 320.
scandiaca, 119.
Scandinavia, 175, 247, 251, 254,

267, 270.
Scarlet Grosbeak, 117, 175.
"Scart,"221.
Scaup, 123,, 240.
Scent, 51 fn.
schobiiichis, 117.
School Shark, 421.
Scisena, 363.
Sciasna, 329.
Scicenidce, 329.
Scilly Islands, 1, 3, 263, 278, 286,

292.
Sciuridce, 28.
Sci lints, 28.
Sderodenni, 337.
Scolephayus, 295.
Scolopacidce, 126.
Scolopax, 127.
scolopax {Centriscas), 331.

II {(Edicnemits) , 125.
Scomber, 328.
scuviber, 328.
Scomberidce, 328.
Scombresocidce, 329.
Scombresox, 329.
Sco2Js, 120, 295.
Sco/pcenidce, 327.

492

INDEX.

scorpius, 327.
Scoter, Black, 124, 242.
1, Surf, 124, 242.
„ Velvet, 124, 242.
scoticus, 125.
Scottou, 281.
Scrope (quoted), 409.
Scylliidce, 338.
ScijUium, 338.
Sea-Adder, 416.

„ Bream, 327, 345.

II Cow, QQ.

II It Steller's, 9.

II Hog, 92.

,1 Horse, 337, 416.

ti Lamprey, 437.

., Otter, 60.

,1 Parrot, 291.

„ Pie, 266.

,1 Scorpion, 327, 348.

II Snail, 330, 368.

M Trout, 411.
"Sea-Pheasant," 238.
Seafowl, 100, 109, 110.
Seal, Common, 28, 64.
„ Grey, 28, 65.
u Harp, 28, 65.

M Hooded, 28, 65.
„ Ringed, 28, 65.
Seals, 24, 25, 63-66.
Scbastes, 327.

Seebohm, Mr (quoted), 13.
"Seed-bird," 159.
Seeley, Mr (quoted), 382, 391, 393,

399, 400, 401, 403, 405, 409.
segetum, 122.
Seine, 403.
Selache, 338.
Selachii, 338.
'Selborne,' White's (quoted), 43,

133.
fiej^tentrioncdis, 131.
Serin, 116, 170.
Serinus, 116, 295.
Serotine, 27, 33.
serotinus, 27, 33.
Serranus, Dusky, 326, 343.
I, Smooth, 326, 343.
Serranus, 326.
scrrator, 124.
Severn, 65, 342, 399, 409, 414, 419,

437.
Sewin, 412.
Shad, Allis, 334, 399.

I, Twaite, 334, 399.
Slia-, 121, 220.
Shakespeare Cliff, 6.

Shannon, 409, 411, 413.
Shanny, 330, 369.
Shark, Basking, 338, 424.

I, Blue, 338, 420.

„ Fox, 338, 423.

„ Greenland, 339, 427.

„ Porbeagle, 338, 420-422.

II Six-gilled, 338, 425.

M Spinous, 339, 427.
" Shark-ray," 429.
Sharpe, Dr Bowdler (quoted), 174,

181, 209.
Sharp-tailed Lumpenus, 331, 371.
Shearwater, Dusky, 130, 288.
,1 Great, 130, 288.

„ Manx, 130, 287.

u Sooty, 130, 288.

Shee}), 15.
Sheld-duck, 122, 235, 243.

„ Ruddy, 122, 235.

Sherwood Forest, 182.
Shetlands, 3, 172, 173, 177, 178,

181, 191, 205, 209, 213, 241, 254,

261, 263, 271, 275, 284, 287, 291,

292.
Short 'Sunfish, 337, 417.
Short-eared Owl, 6, 119, 207.
Shoveller, 123, 229, 238.
Shrew, Common, 27, 44.

II Lesser, 27, 43, 45.
Water, 27, 45.
Shrews, 8, 26, 43-46.
Shrike, Great Grey, 104, 115, 163.

It Lesser Grey, 115, 163.

II Pallas's Grey, 115, 163.

II Red-backed, 115, 163.

t, Woodchat, 115, 164.
Shropshire, 176.
"_Shufflewing,"147.
sihbaldi, 29.
Siberian birds, 13, 134, 191, 263,

270.
sibilatrix, 113.
sibirica, 118.
sibiricus, 112.
Sicily, 395.
Silver Dog. 421.

M_ Whiting, 379.
Siphonostoma, 337.
Siskin, 98, 116, 169.
SUta, 114.
Sittidie, 114.

Six-gilled Shark, 338, 425.
Skate, Common, 339, 429.

It Flapi)er, 430.

It Long-nosed, 339, 431.

It Sharp-nosed, 339, 431.

INDEX.

493

Skipper, 365.
Skua, Arctic, 285.

„ Common, 103, 129, 284

„ Loug-tailed, 129, 285.

II Pomatorhine, 129, 284.

II Richardson's, 129, 285.

„ Skye, 144.
Skylark, 105, 118, 188.
Skapton Ley, 404.
Sloughing of Rej^tiles, 300.
Slow-worm, 301, 303.
" Small-eyed Ray," 432.
Small-mouthed Wrasse, 376.
Smear-dab, 391.
Smelt, Sand, 372.

„ True, 336, 412.
Smew, 124, 242.
Smith, Mr C. (quoted), 14.
Smitt, Herr (quoted), 408, 412.
Smooth Hound, 338, 420, 422.

II Serranus, 326, 343.
Snake, 301, 307.
Snake, Common, 306.

M Fish, 385.

,1 Pipe-fish, 337, 416.
Ringed, 301, 306.

u Smooth, 301, 307.
Snakes, 6, 8, 304-307.
Snipe, Common, 6, 32 fn., 127,
247, 269.

„ Double, 268.

„ Great, 127, 268.

„ Half, 269.

„ Jack, 127, 269.

II Red-breasted, 127, 269.

11 Sabine's, 269.

,1 Solitary, 268.

II Summer, 273.
"Snip-nosed Mullet," 361.
Societies for protecting Birds, 97.
Solan Goose, 221.
Sole, 334, 393.
II "Bastard," 393.
II French, 393.
„ Lemon, 334, 392.
„ Mary, 392.
„ Sand, 334, 393.
Solea, 334.
solitaruis, 128.
Solenette, 334, 394.
Solway, 278.
Smnateria, 123.

Somerset, 83, 177, 210, 260, 304.
Sorex, 27.
Soricickc, 27.
Southampton, 342.
Southbourne-on-Sea, 15.

Southwell, Mr (quoted), 145 fn.,

230.
Spain, 391.
Spallanzani, 32.
Spanish Bream, 327, 346.

M Mackerel, 328, 356.
Simridce, 327.

Sparling, 412. i

Sparrow, Hedge, 19, 109, 114, 147.

,1 House, 108, 110, 116,
170.
Tree, 110, 116, 172.

„ White-throated, 295.
Sparrow-Hawk, 120, 213.
Spatula, 123.
"Spayad,"84.
spectahilis, 123.

Speedy, Mr T. (quoted), 12, 47. 58.
Spermaceti, 89.
Sphyrmna, 336.
spinachia, 331.
Spinacidce, 338.
spinosus, 339.
Spinous Loach, 335, 408.
n Shark, 339, 427.
spiniis, 116.
spipoletta, 115.
Spoonbill, 122, 229, 238.
Sport, Animals preserved for, 17,

18, 48, 50.
' Sport in the Highlands ' (quoted),

12, 58.
" Spotted Rav," 432.
Sprat, 334, 398.
sprattus, 334,
Spur Dog, 338, 426.
Squatarola, 126.
squatina, 339.
Squirrel, 28, 52, 67-69.
Staffordshire, 382.
stagnatilis, 295.
stapazina, 112.
Starling, 104, 117, 134, 179.

II Meadow, 295.

M Red-winged, 295.

II Rose-coloured, 117, 180.
Steele-Elliott, Mr J. (quoted), 213.
Steganopodes, 121.
stellaris, 121.
stellen, 123.
Stercorariinw, 129.
Stercorarms, 129.
Sterna, 128.
Sternince, 128.
SternoptychidiV, 336 .
Stickleback, Fifteen-spiued, 331,
374.

494

INDEX.

Stickleback, Teu-spined, 331, 374.
II Three - spined, 331,

374.
Stilt, Black-winged, 126, 26(J.
Stiug-tish, 348.
Stiug-Ray, 339, 433.
Stint, American, 127, 271.

,1 Little, 127, 270.

II Temminek"s, 127, 271.
Stoat, 25, 28, 32,53, 81.
Stockton-on-Tees, 71.
stolichis, 129.
stomachichus, 335.
Stone Basse, 326, 343.

It Curlew, 125, l61.

II Marten, 52.
"Stone-biter," 371.
Stonechat, 112, 137.
Stonehaven, 291.
Stonehenije, 260.
Stork, Black, 122, 229.
„ White, 122, 229.
Stornoway, 344.

Stour (Hampshire), 76, 217, 409.
Stradling, Dr A. (quoted), 300,

304, 305, 306.
strepera, 123.
streperus, 113.
Strepsilas, 126.
striata, 127.
Striges, 119.
StrUjidm. 119.
Striped Wrasse, 331, 375.
Strix, 119.
StroiiuUeido', 329.
Sturgeon, 337, 418.
stuHo, 337.
Sturnella, 295.
Stuniidce, 117.
Stioiius, 117.
subarqiucta, 127.
suhhiUeo, 121.

Sucker, Connemara, 330, 3C8.
,1 Coruisli, 330, 3H8.
„ Double-spotted, 330, 368.
Montagu's, 330, 368.
Sucking-fish, 357.
suecica, 113.
Suez Canal, 419, 420.
Suffolk, 53, 214.
Suinart, Loch, 64.
>SWa, 121.
Sumatra, 87.
Suniish, Oblong, 337, 417.

M Short, 337, 417.
"Sunfish," .3.59, 424.

SU^XTCilioSUS, 113.

surmidetus, 327.

Surmullet, 327.

Siirnia, 119.

Surrey, 162, 197, 252 fn.

Sussex, 4, 76, 146, 161, 176, 189,

262, 270, 286, 373, 429.
Sutherland, 178, 231, 243, 414.
Swallow, 97, 98, 105, 112, 116,

165, 166.
Swallow, Tree, 296.
Swan, Bewick's, 122, 234.

.1 Mute, 122, 233.

„ Polish, 234.

I, Whistling, 234.

,1 Whooper, 122, 234.
Swanage, 219.
Swift, 112, 118, 165, 190.

I, Alpine, 118, 191.

„ Needle-tailed, 118, 191.
Sword-fish, 329, 363.
Sydney, 72, 304, 419.
sylvatica, 28, 295.
si/lvaticus, 29.
Sijlvia, 113.
Si/tviince, 113.
Syngnathidfe, 337.
Syngnathus, 337.
Synottcs, 27.
Syrnium, 119.
Syrrhaptes, 124.

Tachycineta, 296.

Tadorna, 122.

"Tadpole-Fish," 382.

Tail of birds, 103.

"Tally," 432.

Talpa, 27.

Talpidce, 27.

tarda, 125.

Tarpon, 396.

Taunton, 146.

taxus, 28.

Tay, 409.

Taylor's ' Half-Hours in the Green

Lanes ' (quoted), 320.
Teal, 123, 238.

,t American Green-winged, 123,
238

„ Blue-winged, 123, 238.
Teleostomi, 326.
Teme, 414.
temmincki, 127.
temporaria, 312.
tencea, 335.
Tench, 335, 405.
tengmahni, 119.
Tern, Arctic, 128, 277.

INDEX.

495

Tern, Black, 128, 278.
■ II Caspian, 128, 277.
M Coraiuon, 128, 276.
,1 Gull-billed, 128, 277.
I, Little, 13, 128, 277.
„ Roseate, 128, 278.
u Sandwich, 128, 277.
I, Scopoli's Sooty, 128, 277.
I, Sooty, 128. 277.
„ Whiskered, 128, 279.
„ Wliite- winged Black, 128,
278
Terns, 276-2*79.
Tetrao, 125.
Tetraonidce, 125.
tetrax, 125.
tetrix, 125.
Tetrodon, 337.

Thames, The, 64, 65, 136, 144,
158, 163, 178, 199, 233, 2-38,
254, 277, 279, 342, 349, 366,
399, 401, 402, 407, 410, 419.
Thickback, 334, 393.
"Thick-knee," 261.
Thornback, 339, 430.
"Three-bearded Gade," 383.
Thresher Shark, 423.
Thrush, Black-throated, 112, 134.
Gold-vented, 296.
„ Holm, 132 fn.
„ Mistle, 112. 132.
„ Rock, 112, 136.
II Siberian, 112, 135.

Song, 104, 112, 132, 134.
11 Storm, 132.
„ White's, 112, 135.
Thrushes, 132-142.
ThyviaUus, 336.
Thynmts, 328.
thynnus, 328.
Tiber, The, 342.
Tichodroma, 115.
'Times,' the (quoted), 13 fn., 67

fn.
timidus, 29.
Timor Sea, 300.
Tinea, 335.
"Tinker," 374, 429.
tinnunculus, 121.
Tit, Bearded, 150.
I, Blue, 114, 153.
,1 Bottle, 151.
., Coal, 114, 152.
11 Continental Coal, 152.
II II Long-tailed, 151.

II Crested, 114, 153.
M Great, 114, 151.

Tit, Long-tailed, 114, 151.

„ Marsh, 114, 152.
tithys, 113.
"Titlark," 160.
Titmice, 150-153.
" Titterel " 275.
Toad, Coimnon," 6, 89, 312, 314.

I, " Cornish," 315.
Toad-fish, 417.
tobiamis, 333.
Tope, 338, 420, 421.
Topknot, 333, 389.

II Norwegian, 333, 389.
One-spotted, 333, 389.
tor da, 130.
Torgoch, 336, 412.
Toripedinidm, 339.
Torpedo, 339.
Torpedo, 339, 433.

I, Marbled, 433.
torquata, 112.
Torquay, 280.
torqidlla, 119.
Torsk, 333, 382.
Totanus,^ 127, 295.
Trachinidce, 328.
Trachinus, 328.
trachuriis, 329.
Trachypteridce, 331.
Trachypterus, 331.
Tree-Creeper, 103, 115, 153, 156.

„ Pipit, 115, 159.

I, Sparrow, 110. 116, 172.
Trent, 382, 411, 414.
Trichechida;, 28.
Trichechics, 28.
Trichiuridoj, 329.
Tnchiurus, 329.
tricirrata, 333.
tricolor, 326, 344.
tridactyla, 129.
Trigger-fish, 417.
Trigia, 327.
Trinya, 127.
trivialis, 115.
trochilus, 113.
Troglodytes, 114.
Troglodytidce, 114.
troile, 130.
Tropidonotus, 301.
Trout, 1, 335, 410.
Trumpet-fish, 375.
truncatus, 337.
trutta, 336.
Trygon, 3-39.
Trygonida', 339.
Tryngites, 127.

496

INDEX.

Tub-fish, 351.
Tubinares, 130.
Tunny, 328, 356.

tt Long-finned, 356.
Turbot, 333. 387.
"Turbot,"390.
Turdiclce, 112-114.
Turdince, 112, 132.
turdoides, 113.
Turdus, 112.
Turnix, 295.
Turnstone, 126, 266.
Tiirsio, 30.

Turtle Dove, 124, 246.
''Turtle Dove," 291.
Turtles, 16, 17 fn.
Turtur, 124.
Tuscany, 107, 157.
Twaite Shad, 334, 399.
Tweed, 410.
Twigmore, 281.
Twite, 116, 175.
typhle, 337.

Ullswater, 413.
undata, 113.
Ungidata, 29.
unimaadatus, 333.
United States, 353.
Upupa, 119.
Upupidm, 119.
urbica, 116.
Uriel, 130.
nrogallus, 125.

vandesius, 336.
Vanellus, 126.
variegata, 334.
varius, 112.
Vendace, 336, 413.
Ventnor, 399.

Vermin, 9, 37, 39, 58, 66, 71.
'Vertebrate Fauna of Bedford-
shire ' (quoted), 215.
Vertebrates, the lowest, 437-439.
Vespertilio, 27.
Vespertilionidce, 27.
vespertinus, 121.
Vesper ugo, 27.
villosus, 296.
Viper, 6, 304.
vipera, 328.
Viperidce, 301.
Viperiformes, 301.
virens, 332.
Vireo, 295.
virgo, 125.

viridis, 118.
viscivorus, 112.

'Visitation of Pallas's Sand-
Grouse ' (quoted), 246.
vitulirut, 28.
vimpara {Lacerta), 301.
viviparus, 331.
vocifera, 126.
Voice of birds, 103.
Vole, Bank, 29, 78.
„ Field, 29, 77.
„ Bed Field, 78.
„ Water, 29, 56, 76.
Voles, 8, 25 fn., 55, 66, 76-78.
volitans, 329.
Von Mosjvar (quoted), 62.
vidgaris {Acanthias), 338.

II {Anguilla), 334.
{Barbus), 335.

,1 {Belone), 329.
{Box), 327.

„ {Bufo), 312.

,1 {Buteo), 120.

II (Coccothraustes), 116.

II {Conger), 334.

II {Dentex), 326.

II {Galeus), 338.

II {Hip)pogloss%is), 333.

II {Leuciscus), 335.

It {Liparis), 330.
(Zoto), 332.

II {Lutra), 28.

II {Merluccius), 332.
(i/o/ge), 312.
(il/o/m), 332.

I, {Mustela), 28.

,1 (J/?<s^e/its), 338.

„ (P«,r//'Ms), 327.

II {Sciurus), 28.

„ (>SoZm), 334.

,1 (.Sorea;), 27.

II {Sturmis), 117.

II {ThijmaUus), 336.

•' {Tinea), 335.

II {Vanellus), 126.
vulpes {Alopias), 338.

It [Canis), 28.
Vulture, Egyptian, 120, 210.

„ Griffon, 120, 210.
VuUuridcr, 120.

Waders, 5, 109, 260-276.
Wagtail, 97.

It Blue-headed, ll.''), 159.
Grey, 115, 1.58.

,t Pied, 115, 157.

II Water, 157.

INDEX.

497

Wagtail, White, 115, 158.
M Yellow, 115, 159.
Wagtails, the, 157-159.
Wallace, Dr A. R. (quoted), 8, 149.
Wall-creeper, 115, 156.
Walmer, 206.
Waliiey Island, 3.
Walrus, 28, 63, 6Q.
Warbler, Aquatic, 114, 146.
Barred, 113, 144.
II Blackcap, 113.

Dartford, 113, 144.
It Garden, 113, 143.
II Grasshopper, 114, 147.
Great Reed, 113, 146.
II Icterine, 113, 146.
II Marsh, 114, 146.
„ Orphean, 113, 142.

Pallas's Willow, 118, 145.
„ Reed, 113, 146.
Rufous, 113, 146.
Savi's, 14, 114, 147.
„ Sedge, 104, 114, 147.
II Yellow-hrowed, 113, 145.
Warblers, 142-147.
Waterfowl, 99, 102, 103, 105.
Water-hen, 257.
II ousel, 148.
II pipit, 115, 161.
,1 rail, 125, 257.
II rat, 76.
II shrew, 27, 45.
„ vole, 29, 56, 76.
II Avagtail, 157.
Waxwing, 115, 164.
Weasel, 8, 19, 25 fn., 28, 41, 55-.56.
Weever, Greater, 328, 353.

„ Lesser, 328, 353.
West Indies, 363, 434.
Weymouth, 234, 287.
Whale, Cuvier's, 30, 92.
II Greenland, 90.
„ Humpback, 29, 91.

Right, 90.
M Southern, 29, 90.
M Sowerby's, 3U, 91.
II Sperm, 91.
II Whalebone, 90.
White, 30, 93.
"Whale-feed," 87.
Whalebone, 87, 88.
Whales, 86-92.
Wheatear, 112, 136.

II Black - throated, 112,

136.
M Desert, 112, 136.
., Isabelliue, 112, 136.

Whiff, 388.

Whimbrel, 15, 128, 275.
Whinchat, 106, 112, 137.
Whiskered Bat, 27, 35.
"Whistling Swan," 234.
Whitaker, Mr (quoted), 83.
White, Gilbert (quoted), 33, 37,

43, 107.
"Whitebait," 397, 398.
White Bream, 407.
,1 Goby, 330, 366.
II Whale, 30, 93.
"White Skate," 431.
Wliitethroat, 56, 104, 113, 142.
Lesser, 113, 142.
Whiting, 5, 332, 379.
I, Couch's, 381.
It Pout, 378.
" Whittret," 56.
Whooper, 122.
Wigeon, 123, 237.

II American, 123, 237.
Wight. See Isle of Wight.
Wigtownshire, 58.
Wild Cat, 8, 16, 18, 24, 25, 28,

46-48.
Wild Cattle, 15, 24.
Willow Grouse, 254.

„ Wren, 113, 145.
Wilson, Mr W. N. (quoted), 181.
wilsoni, 295.
Wincanton Field Club Proceedings

(quoted), 260.
Winchester, 56, 1 64.
Windermere, 411.
"Windhover," 217.
Witch 392.

Witherby, Mr (quoted), 6 fn., 208.
Wolf, 9, 14.
Wolf-fish, 331, 371.
wolfi, 113.
Wood Sandpiper, 127, 273.

„ Wren, 113, 145.
Woodchat, 115, 164.
Woodcock, 6, 32 fn., 102, 105, 127,

144, 247, 267.
" Woodcock Owl," 207.
"Woodcock Pilot," 144.
Woodlark, 118, 188.
Wood-mouse, 29, 75.
Woodpecker, Black, 296.
„ Downy, 296.

It Golden- winged, 296

I, Great Spotted, 102,

103, 118, 193.
Green, 103, 118, 195.
11 Hairy, 296.

2 I

498

INDEX.

Woodpecker, Lesser Spotted, 118,

194.
Wood-pigeon, 108, 124, 244.
Worm Pipe-tish, 337, 416.
Wrasse, Baillon's, 376.

„ Rainbow, 332,-377.

ti Scale-rayed, 332, 376.

11 Small -mouthed, 376.
Striped, 331, 375.
"Wreck-fish," 343.
Wren, 98, 114, 155.

II Ruby-crowned, 296.

M St Kilda, 114, 155.

I, Willow, 113, 145.

„ Wood, 113, 145.
"Wriggle," 385.
" Writing Lark," 177.
Wryneck, 119, 197.
Wye, 414.

Xema, 129.
Xiphias, 329.
Xiphiidce, 329.

" Yaffle " 195.
Yarrell's Blenny, 331, 370.
Yellow Ammer or Hammer, 104,
117, 177.
II -necked Mouse, 29, 74.
Yellowshank, 128, 274.
Yorkshire, 47, 54, 59, 71, 81, 140,

143, 144, 145, 175, 201, 210, 211,

216, 217, 226, 232, 238, 254, 274,

287, 382, 414.
* Yorkshire Vertebrata ' (quoted),

47, 64, 59, 216, 238.

Zebus, 18.
Zeugopterus, 333.
Zeus, 329.
Ziphius, 30.
Zoarces, 331.
Zonotrichia, 295.

'Zoologist, The' (quoted), 24, 38
fn., 45 fu., 55 In., 75, 145 fn.
Zygcena 338.

THE END.

PRINTUn BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS.

w^^e^^mmai.

3 2044 093 352 268

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "A sketch of the natural history (vertebrates) of the British Islands. With a concise bibliography of popular works relating to the British fauna, and a list of field clubs and natural history societies in the United Kingdom"

See other formats