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SMALLER HISTORY OF GREECE,

FKOil THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ROMAN CONQUEST.

By WILLIAM SMITH. LL.D.

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PUBLISHER'S ADVERTISEMENT,

TiiJi: present History is intended for the use of Public
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lleimcs (Mercury).

Coin of MytiLn6.

CONTENTS.

position of Greece .

Its boundaries

Its size

Its name

Northern Greece . .
Thessaly

2
Epirus 2

Central Greece.
Eastern Locris ,

Doris

Phocis

Boeotia

Attica ,

Mecraris

CHAPTER I.

Geogr-U'iiy of Greece.

I'agel P»p«

1 Peloponnesus . ^ 2

1 Corinth 2

Arcadia 2

Achaia 3

Ai'golis 3

Laconia 3

Messenia 3

Elis 3

Islands 3

Euboea 8

Cyclades 3

Sporades 3

Crete 3

Khodes 3

2
2

2
2i

Western Locris 2 Influence of the physical geography

JEtolia. 2 j of Greece upon the political des-

Acarnania 2 1 tinies of the people 3

CHAPTER II.

Oeigi:^ of the Gueeiis and the IIeboic Age.

Date of the commencement of Gre-
cian histoiy

The Pelasgians

The Hellenes

Dorians

yEolians

lonians

Achaeias

Foreign settlers in Greece

Cecrops

Danaus

Pel ops

Cadmus

Phoenician origin of the Greek

alphabet

Heroic age : its supposed length . . .

Hercules

Theseus 6

4 Minos 7

4 The Argonauts 7

The Trojan AVar 7

Its supposed date S

Eeturn of the Greeks from

5' Troy 8

5 State of Society in the Heroic Age. D

The King 9

The Boule^ or Council of Chiefs 5)
The Afjora^ or general assembly

of freemen 9

Three classes : noble, common

freemen, and slaves i'

Simplicity of manners '->

Advances made in civilization . 1 ft

Art of war 10

CONTENTS.

CIIArTETl III.

GENES.^^L SUBVEY OF THii GbEKK PEOPLE. — NaTICXAL iNBTITXTnONS.

Page

Tiea which bound the Greek people

together 11

C-onimunity of blood and language II
^kj:minuity of religioud rites and

ceremonies 11

Ainphictyonic Council : its

places and times of meeting. 11

Olympic Games 1.'

rytliiiiu Games 14

Para

Nemean Games 14

Isthmian Games 1-1

Influence of these games 15

Oracle of Apollo at Delphi : its

influence 15

Community of raannera and char-
acter 15

Want of political union : independ-
ent sovereignty of each city IG

CHAPTER IV.

Eably IIistoby of rri-opoN^ESCS and Sparta to the End op tub

MEt3SENIAN WaKS, U.C. 008.

B.C. Page

ll04. Con luost of Peloponnesus by

the Dorians 17

The legendary account 17

The Dorians led by the He-

raclidje 17

History of the lleraclidfe . . 17
Tcmonus, (Jresphontes, and
Aristodemus — tlie three
Ileraclida) who led tlie

Dorians 18

Invasion and conquest of

the Peloponnesus IS

Division of I'eloponnesua
among the conquerors. . . 18
Remarks upon the legendary

account IS

T76. Lycurgus the legislator of

Sparta 19

His life 11)

His legislation I'J

Population of Sparta divided
into tlio three classes of —

1. Spartans ^0

2. PeriuDci 20

B.C. Pep*

3. Helots 20

The Spartan government •

1. The two kings 20

2. Tlie Gertixiit^ or Council

of 30 Elders 21

3. Tlic popular assembly. . . 21

4. The five Ephors 21

Ciiaracter of the Spartan fjov-

ernnient 21

Training of the Spartan men . 22

The Syssitia 23

Training of the Spartan women 2S
1 )ivision of landed property . . 23

Iron money 23

Kesults of discipline of Lycur-
gus : growth of Spartan port-
er

743-724. First Messcnian War

GS5-G()S. Second Messenian War . .
Aristomencs, the Messenian

hero

Tyrtanis, the poet

Coii'iuest of Messenia: its in-
corporation with Lacouia. . .

24
24
25

26
25

CirAPTER V.

Kaulv IIistoby of Athens i»own to tuk EBTAnuBiiMKNT or Dr.M(»:;rwAcv

1»Y CLlSTIlENES, JI.O. bltl.

Change nf govcnimont in (Jreeco
from royalty to oligarchy and

democracy £7

Tlie Grecian tyrants or Despots 2S
Early history of Atlicnd ...... 28

( 'ucrnps 23

The.-eus '. S

Cudrus 2S

Aholilitin cf royalty 28

Life jVi-choQS 28

CONTENTS.

B.C. Page B c.

153. Decennial Archons 21)

CSS. Annual Archons: their insti-
tution the first certain date

in Atlienian history 29

Twofold division of the Athe-
nians : 29

1. EupatridiB, Geomori, De- 5C0.

niiurgi 29

2. Four tribes : Geleontes,

Hopletes, ^gicores,

Argades 29 527.

The nine Archons and theii*

functions 29

Government of the Eupatridas 39 514.

624. Legislation of Draco 30 1

C12. Conspiracy of Cylon 30 j

The Alcmseonida? 80 510.

69G. Visit of Epimenides the Cretan :

his purification of the city. . 31

Life of Solon 31

State of Attica at the time of
Solon's legislation : civil dis-
sensions between the inhab-
itants of the Plains, the
Mountains, and the Shores . 31

594 Legislation of Solon 31

Relief of debtors 31

Division of the people into four
classes, according to their
property : 32

1. Pentacosiomedimni. ... 32

2. Knights 32

3. Zeugitaj 32

4. Thetes 32

Senate of Four Hundred 32

S«aate of the Areopagus 32

Pagf
The Athenian government con-
tinues an oligarchy after the

time of Solon 33

Special laws of Solon 33

Renewal of the civil dissen-
sions of Attica S3

Usurpation of Pisistratus 33

Pisistratus twice expelled and

restored 34

Government of Pisistratus 34

His death L4

Government of his sous llip-

pias and Hipparchus 35

Conspiracy of Hannodius and

. Aristogiton 35

Assassination of Hipparchus . . 35
Expulsion of Ilippias by the
Alcmajonidse and the Lace-
daemonians 36

Party struggles at Athens be-
tween Clisthenes and Isagoras 3G
Piefomis of Clisthenes : estab-
lishment of the Athenian de-
mocracy 36

Institution of 10 new tribes,

and of the demi 38

Increase of the number of the

Senate to .500 37

Enlargement of the functions
and authority of the Senate

and the Ecclesia 37

Institution of the Ostracism . . 37
Invasion of Attica by Cleome-
nes to overthrow the Athe-
nian democracy : failure of
the attempt 3T

CHAPTER VI.

Tnn Gkef.k Colonies.

Origin of the Greek colonies,
and their relation to the

mother city 39

Division of the colonies into

four groups 30

L Colonies in Asia Minor and

tlie adjoining islands 3&

jEolic, Ionic, and Doric

colonies . 40

Miletus and Ephesus the

most important 4i

IL Colonies in the western parts

of the Mediterranean 41

(Jumae in Campania 41

Syracuse and Agrigentum

in Sicily 49

Magna Gra?cia 42

Sybaris and Croton 43

Locri 42

Khegium 43

Tarentura 42

Massalia in Gaul 44

Colonies in Mrica : Cyrene and

Barca 41

Colonies in Epirus, Macedonia,

and Thi'ace 4-1

Corcyra 44

PotidiPa, Byzantium, Se-

lymbria 44

CONTENTS.

CHArTEIl VII.

TiiE Teesian Wars.— Fsom tue Ionic KrrvoLT to the Battle of IiIabatuoi^

B.C. 500-4J0.

B.C.

500.

Page! n.c.
Kint^iloni of Lydia: accession
of (JnuPiu^ 45

Tlie MtViC-* and Persians 4(i

fir>?-T>>'.K llvi'^n of Cyru." 40

&iC. G;ii>tiire of Sardi.s : overthrow

of the Lydian monarchy ... 40
Comiucr^t of the A.-^iatic Grcek.^
by llarpagns, the general of

Cyru.'i 40

629-521. l{eii;n of (Jamhy.-cs 40

Polvcrate-', tyrant of Samoa . . 40

521-485.' Kuipn of Darius 47

lli.s inva.-'ion of Scvthia 41

4C5.
4?4.
492.
400.

4S9.

Hit-tia>u.«, tyrant of Miletus.
610. (Jontiuest of Tlirace and Mace-
donia by the Pcrsian.s . . . .47, 4S
501. Expedition of Ari-stagoras and

tlic Persians against Naxos. 48
500. Eevolt of Miletus and tlie other

Greek cities of Asia 4'!

Aristagoras solicits aid from

Sparta and Athens 49 4S3.

Burning of Sardis by the
Athenians and loniaus 49

Death of Aristagoras and Jlis-

ticTUs 50

Defeat of the Ionian tit*t at

Lade 50

Capture of Jliletus and term-
ination of the revolt 50

Exi>edition of Mardouius into

Greece II

Expedition of Datia and Arta-

pheraes 51

Concjuest of the Cyclades and

Erctria 51

Battle of Maratlion 52-54

ExitecMtion of Miltiades against

I'aros 54

Trial and condemnation of

Miltiades 55

War between Athena and

^'Egina 65

Theniistocles and Aristidea;

their cliaracters 55

Ostracism of Aristides 55 ,

CHAPTER VIII.

TUH Peesi^vn Wak8.— The Battles of Tiieemopvl^, SALiUiis, and Platav,

U.C. 4S0-479.

4-95. Accession of Xerxe.s 60

484. Prejiarationa fur the invasion

of Greece 57

A bridge thrown across the
Hellespont and a canal cut
through the isthmua of

Mount Atho.s 57

160. Xerxes sets out from Sardis :

tiic march 57

Numbers of the army 57

Preparations of the Greeks to
resist Xerxes 58

Be«<ilnti'>n to defend the pass
of Tlieruiopyla^ 58

Description oi Thennopyhe. . . 5S

Forces of Lconidas at Ther-
iiiopybr 59

Attack .and repulse of tlie Per-
Hians CO

Treachciy of I'phinltcs : a de-
t.icliment of Persians cross
tlie mouutaiuri by a secret
path CO

Death of Leonidas and his
comrades CI

Persian lleet overtaken by a
storm Gl

First Battle of Artemisium. , . C2

Second stonn 02

Second battle of Artemisium . 02

Ketreat of the CJreciau lleet to
Salamis C3

riight of the Athenians from
their city OS

March of the Pei-slans, and ut-
tenii)t upon Delphi 03

Taking of Athens anil arrival
of the Persian fleet C3

Dissensions and debates of the
Greeks 03

Stratagem of TIiemist«M-le« . . . 04
.^ PosilioM of the hostile Heels . . (i4
'vllattlc of Salnmiri 04

Detent and flight of Xer.ves .. 16

The Greeks celebrafc their vic-
tory Od

CONTENTS.

x»

».c.

479.

Cnrthaginian expedition to
Sicily

Prepanitions of Mardonius for
the campaign

Mardonius occupies Athens. . .

Atlienian embassy to Sparta. .

March of the Spartan ai-my. . .

Page

C7
CT
G7

478.

March of Mardonius and the

Grcelvs into Bujotia Cl

Battle of Platfea G1

Division of the booty C^^

Battle of Mycal-s C3

Siege and capture of Sestos. . . CS

CHAPTER IX.

From the En'D of the Persian Wars to the EEonoaNO or rnn
Peloponnesian "War, ij.c. 47'J-4I]1.

473. Rebuilding of Athens

Attempts of the Lacednemo-
niaus to prevent Athens be-
ing fortified

Defeated by Themistocles

Fortification of Pirjeus

Farther proceedings against

the Persians

]\Iisconduct of Praisanias

The maritime supremacy trans-

feiTed to the Athenians

(Confederacy of Delos

Tiie combined fleet under (Ji-

mon

4T1. Pausanias convicted of trea-
son, and put to death

'Strife of parties at Athens. . . .
Changes in the constitution. .
ISlisconduct of Tliemistocles . .

His ostracism

4 JG. Tiiemistocles flies to Persia. . .

His death and character.

Death of Aristides

47G. Cimon takes Eion on the Stry-

mon and reduces Scyros. . . .

4''/G. Revolt and conquest of Naxos.

Battle of the Euiymedon

iZn. Revolt of Tliasos

4 A. Earthiiu;ike at Sparta, and re-
volt of the Helots and Me.;-

senians

C'.mon marches to the assist-
.ance of the Lacedaemonians :

his abrupt dismissal

Parties at Athens

(jharacter of Pericles

\Iis attacks upon the Areopa-
gus, and otlier refonns

461. Ostracism of (Jimou

Administration and foreign

policy of Pericles

4G0. Expedition of the Athenians
into Egypt to assist Inarus. .
455. Battle of CEnophyta, and con-
quest of Bteotia

•<55. Defeat of tlie Athenians in
i^ypt

C9 440. Expedition of Cimon to Cy-
prus : his death

Conclusion of the war with

70 44S.

70 j

70 447.
71,

I
71

71 445.

Pers

The Athenian power at its
height : their foreign posses-
sions ■

Decline of Athenian power . . .

Battle of Cliajronea: loss of
Bi eotia

Other reverses

In%'asion of Attica by Pleisto-
anax, King of Sparta

Thirty Years' Truce

Pericles has the eole direction
of affairs at Athens

His public buildings

Intollectual activity at Ath-
ens

Athenian colonization : Cleru-
chies

Colony of Thurii

Colony of Amphipolis

Attacks upon Pericles

Accusation of Anaxagoras, As-
I)asia, and Pludias

Imprisonment and death of
Phidias

Nature of Athenian maritime
empire : amount of tribute :
oppressions

Revolt and conquest of Sa-
moa

Quarrel between Corinth and
Corcyra

Defeat of the Corinthiaps

Defensive alliance between the
Corcyraians and Athenians.

Sea-fight between the Corinth-
ians and Corcyrajans : the
Athenians assist the latter. SI

Revolt of Potidiea from Ath-
ens

Congi-ess of tlie Ptloponne-
sians : they decide upon war

I against Athens

77 131. The Thebans attack Plataea . .

72
72
72
73
73
73

74 443.
74 437.
432.
74
74
75
75

440.

75 435.
70
70 1

^433.
76 1
70 432.

771 \

77
7T

78
78

79
79
79

80
SO

Si)

,82
82

82
82

Xll

CONTEXTS.

CHAPTER X.
ArnENS IN TiiE Time of Pekicles.

i.«. Pnpe

Situation of Athens 85

Lyo!i])ettus S6

Orif^'in and progress of the an-
cient city 8G

Temple of the Olympian Zeus 8C

ICxtent of the ncv city 87

1'ir.Tus and the I'orts 8*^

The Long Walls 8s

Monuments of Ciraon 83

Temple of Nike Apteros. . 88

The Theseum 8S

Tlie Acropolis and its monu-
ments 81

The Propylsca DO

B.C. Pup*

The Parthenon tiO

1. Tlie Tympana 91

2. The Metopes 92

3. The Frieze 92

4. Statue of Athena 92

Colossal figure of Athena . 93

Tlie Ercchtlu'um S'3

The Dionysiac theatre 15

The Areopagus 96

TliePnyx 90

Tlie Agora 90

Tlie Ceramlcus 90

Tlie Academy 90

The Lyceum 90

CHAPTER XI.

The PriOPONNESiAN War. — Fiest Periot>, from the Coatwencement of the
Wak to tiie Peace of Nicias, ij.0. 431-421.

431. General character of the war . 99
Allies of the Lucedajmoniaua

and Athenians 99

First Year. Invasion of Attica 100
4B0. »SVco«d Fear. Invasion of Attica 100

Plague at Athens 100

Unpoi)ularity of Pericles : he is

accused of peculation 101

His domestic mi.-' fortunes 102

429. Third Year. Death of Pericles:

his character 102

Siege of Plataja 103

428. Fourth Year. Revolt of Myti-

lOno 103

427. Fifth Year. Sun-ender of Myt-

ilcno 104

The Athenian demagogue Cle-

on 104

Debates of the Athenian A.''-
pombly resi)ecting the Myti-

leii.-nans 104

#?T. Cajiture of Plata'a, and destruc-
tion of the city 103

Civil di.s.«ensions at Corcyra . . 104
425. Seventh Year. The Athenians

take pos.^ession of Pylus. . . . 105

Plockade of Sphacteria 100

Cleon appointed general 107

Capture of Sphacteria 108

Advantages of the victory. . . . lOS
424 Fighth Year. Defeat of the
Athenians at the battle of

Dclium 108

Overthrow of the Atlieuian

empire in Thrace 109

, Prasidas takes Amphipolis. . . . lOD

423. Ainth Year. l?ani.-ihuient of

Thucydides thn historian. . . 109
422. Tenth Year. Cleon proceeds

toTliracc 109

Death of Cleon and P.rasidas. . 110
421. Fleventh Year. Fifty year.s'
peace between Atliens and
Sparta, calleil the I'uace of
Isicias 110

CHAPTER

XII.

The Pelopoxnesian Wah. — Second Periop, fuom ttie Peace of Nicias to
Tim Defeat of the Atublnianb in Sicily, u.c. 421—113,

i20. Twelfth Year. Dis?ati.<facti<>n
• if the Spartiin alii(■^ with
tlio peace: new coiirc^dcMiuy 111
Transactitnis between Sparta
and Athens Ill

Character and policy of Alci-

^lia(lu.^ Ill

1 Ic (Uitwits till' Lacfihi'iiioiiians 1 i'J
Alliaiu-y between Alliens and
Argos 1 IQ

CONTENTS.

Xlll

B c. Pnge

Alcibiades victor at the Oljan-

pian games 113

ilB. Fourteenth Year. Battle of
Mantinea: victoiy of the

Lacedaemonians 113

416. Sixteenth Year. Conquest of

Melos by the Athenians 113

415. Seventeenth Year. Origin of

the Sicilian expedition 113

Preparations at Athens : popu-
lar delusion 114

Mutilation of the llerma? 114

General panic 114

Accusation of Alcihiades 115

Departure of the fleet 1 15

Proceedings in Sicily 115

Alcibiades recalled home to
stand his trial: he makes

his escape 115

He takes refuge Avith the La-
cedaemonians : the advice he

gives to them 110

41 i. Eighteenth Year. Nicias lays

^: siege to Syracuse 110

^^^^Description of the city IIG

B.C. Pu;;*

Nicias seizes Epipolre, and pro-
ceeds with his circumvalla-

tion of the city lit

Arrival of the Spartan general

Gylippus 113

Change in the Athenian pros-
pects lis

Nicias solicits re-enforcements IIJ
413. Ainetecnth Year. Demosthe-
nes sent with a large force
to the assistance of Nicias. . 119

Reverses 120

The Athenians resolve to re-
treat 120

Prevented by an eclipse of the

moon 120

Sea-fight in the Great Harbor. 121

Victory of the Syracusans 121

Retreat of the Athenians 121

SuiTender of Nicias and De-
mosthenes 122

Their death and character . . . 123
Total destruction of the Athe-
nian aiTaament 122

CHAPTER XIII.

The Peloponnebian War. — Thibd Peeiod, feom the Sicilian Expedition
TO THE End of the War, b.o. 413^04.

412. Twentieth Year. Situation of

Athens 123

Revolt of the Chians and of
tlie other Athenian allies,
with the exception of Samos 123 410.

Samos the head-quarters of the

Athenian fleet 124

411. Twenty- Fir stYear. Recovery

of Lesbos by the Athenians . 124

Scheme of Alcibiades 124

lie proposes the establish-
ment of an oligarchy at
Athens 124'403.

Progress of the oligarchical
conspiracy at Athens 125

Abolition of the democracy, 40T.
and establishment of the
Four Hundred at Athens . . . 125

Pi'oceedings at Samos : the
army refuses to recognize
the new government 120

Alcibiades joins the democracy
at Samos, and is elected one
of the Athenian generals. . . 120

Overthrow of the Four Hund-
red 120

Mindarus, the Lacedjcmonian
admiral, defeated at Cyno.i-
.=ema 127

Capture of Cyzicus by the
Athenians, and second do-
feat of the Lacedajmonians
at Abydos 127

Ticentii'Second Year. Arrest
of Alcibiades by Tissapher-
nes : his escape 127

Signal defeat of Mindarus at
Cyzicus : his death 127

Results of this battle 128

The Lacedfemonians propose a
peace, which is rejected 128

Twcnt] I -fourth Year. Capture
of Chalcedon and Byzantium
by the Athenians 12S

Twentii-fifth Year. Return of
Alcibia.de3 to Athens 128

He is appointed general 12S

He escorts the aacred proces-
sion to Eleusis 128

Cyrus comes down to the coast
of Asia 129

Lysandcr appointed command-
er of the Peloponnesian
fleet 129

Interview between Cyrus and
Lysandcr 129

Alcibiades intrusts the fleet to
Antiochns 13^

Jtiv

CONTENTS.

B.C. Page-

Defeat of Antiochua at No-

tiiim mo

Pifmi.seal of Alcibiades 130

40€. Twenty-tdxth Year. Ly.^ander

superseded by (Jallicratidaa. IPifi
His straightfonvard rondiict. . 130
He defeats Conon nt Mytiir-no,

and blockades the town .... 131
The Athenians send a large

ilect 131

Battle of Arpinusa> : defeat and

death of Callicratidas 131

Accusation and condemnation

of the Athenian generals. . .• 132

B.C.

405.

•104.

Pttgi

Twentf/sriirnth Yejir. Reap-
pointment of Ly.sander as
admiral 132

The war transferred to the
Hellespont 133

D'jfeat and destruction of the
Athenian fleet at iEgo'pc-
tami 133

Proceedings of Lycander: cap-
ture of tlie Athenian depend-
encies 133

Tivntn-cirjhth and last Year.
Capture of Athens : terms of
peace 13J

« ♦'

CHAPTER XIV.

The Thirty Tyr.\.nts, and the Death oi'' Sockates, u.c. 404-809.

404. The Athcninn democracy abol-
ished: establishment of the

Thirty Tyrants l."5

Cruelty of Ci-itias 135

Opposition and death of The-

ramcncs 136

De-Atli of Alcibiades 13G

Jealousy of the Grecian states
toward Sparta and Lysan-

der 137

403. Thrasybulus and other Athe-
nian e.\.ilos seize Phylo 137

39a.

Occupy Pineus 1.^7

Death of Critias 137

Deposition of the Thirty, and

establishment of the Ten. . . 137
The Lacediemonians march to

Athens 1.S7

Uestoration of the democracy. 138

Life of Socrates 13S

Eimiity against him '. . 139

His impeachment, trial, and

death UO

CHAPTER XV.

The ExrEBiTlON of tiie Gukeks unpeh Cyrus, and PvETnEAT of tiie Ten

TuouiiANi), 11.G. 401-400.

.. 141

401. Causes of the expedition

Cyrus engages an anuy of

Greek niercenaries

March of Cyrus to Tarsus ....
Discontents of tlic Greeks. . . .
Passage of the Euphrates ....
March through the desert into

lialiylonia

IWittle of < "unaxa

DtMtli of Cyrus

1 )ismay of tlie (J reeks

Their tre.ity with Tissiii)henies
Their retreat to tlie Greater

Zab 140

Seizure of the generals 147

Election of Xeuoplion and oth-
ers as generals 117

March from the Zab to the con-
iincs of the Canhu'hi 147

March across the mountains of

the Carduchl 147

144 400. March tlinmgli Armenia and
other countries to Tnipczus
on tlie Kuxine 14S

March t<> Pyzmtiiim 148

.399. The (^rock- are iti( oiporatPil

with the aimy of Thimbrou. 149

14?
11-2
14i
144

115
145
145
140

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XVI.

The S0PiiEMACY of Sparta, u.c. 404-371.

B.C.

Papre

B.C.

4 4. Nature of the Spartan empire.

140

Uecarchies .ind Ilarmosts

140

SOS.

Acce33ion of Agesilaus

140

150

303

330.

Affairs of Asia Minor

The Lacedu3monians send

301

Tliimbron to assist the

Greeks in Asia Minor

150

Dercyllidas supersedes Thira-

387

broQ ...

150

303.

C.unpaign of Dercyllidas

3SG

300.

Aojesilaus supersedes Dercyl-

lidas

150
150

Mortifies Lysander

3S2

1 Ii-i first caniDaicn

150

lie winters at Ephesus

150

335.

His second campaign

151

lie defeats Tissaphemes

152

Death of Tissaphernes, who is

370.

succeeded by Tithraustes . .

15'J

304.

Agesilaus recalled home

Intrigues of Tithraustes in

152

Ct recce

152

War between Sparta and

Thebes

152

The Athenians join the The-

378

bans . . .

15-^

Defeat and death of Lysander.

153

Retreat of Pausanias

1.5:]

I^eague against Sparta

15:5

153

Battle of Corinth

154

Homeward march of Agesilaus

1.54 374.

Battle of C'nidus

154

Rattle of Coroaea

154 371.

Keturn of Agesilaus to Sparta.

157 1

Results of the battle of Cni-
dus : loss of the Spartan
maritime emi)ire

Conon restores the long walls
of Athens

New system of tactics intro-
duced by Iphicrates

He destroj^s a Spartan mora. .

Peace of Antalcidas

Its character

Aggressions of Sparta in Bceo-
tla

Rebuilding of Plat.Tca

War between Sparta and Olyn-
thus

Phoebidas, the Laceda?monian
commander, seizes the Cad-
mea, the citadel of Thebes, .

Reduction of Olynthus

Unpopularity of Sparta

Pelopidas

Conspiracy against the Lace-
daBmonian party at Thebes.

The Lacedfcmoniuns are ex-
pelled from the Cadmea. . . .

Alliance between the Thebans
and Athenians

Organization of the new Athe-
nian confederacy

The Theban ^^ Sacred Band" .

Character of Epaminondas . . .

Spartan invasion of Bceotia. . .

Progress of the Theban arms .

Jealousy of Athens

Peace of Callias : the Thebans
excluded from it

P«g«

151

158

1.50
150

1.50
15a

159

160
160
100
161

IGl

1G2

102

102
102
103
103
104
104

104

CHAPTER XVII.

Tn3 Supremacy of TnERES, i?.o. 371-301.

Restoration of the Messenians,

871. Invasion of Bceotia by Cleom-

brotus 105

Battle of Leuctra 165

Its effect throughout Greece. . 166
Treatment of the Spartan sur-
vivors 160

Jason of PheriB joins the The-
bans 106

370. Jason of Pherro slain 167

Invasion of Peloponnesus by

the Thebans 167

Alarm at Sparta 167

Vigorous measures of Agesi-
laus 167

Establishment of the Arcadian

confederation 167

Foundation of Megalopolis ... 167

368.
367.

n64.
362.

361.

and foundation of Messene . 16S
Expedition of Pelopidas into

Thessaly 163

Embassy of Pelopidas to Per-
sia 108

Seizure of Pelopidas by Alex-
ander of Thessaly 169

Ilis release 109

Death of Pelopidas 169

Invasion of Peloponnesus by

Epaminondas 170

Battle of Mantinea 170

A general jieace, from which
Sparta alone is excluded . . , 170

Agesilaus sails to Egypt 170

His death 17«

XTl

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XVIII.

JlSTOEY OF THE SICILIAN GREEKS FKOM "^IIE DEBTRCCTION OP THE ATIEENIA*
AliM.UIEMT TO THE DE-VTH OF TlMOLEON.

B.C. Page

4)5. Dionysina the elder becomes

tynint of Syracuse ITl

His prosperous reign 171

His love of literature 171

3S9. Visit of riuto to his court 172

'*G7. Death of the elder Dionysius,

and accession of the younger 172

Second visit of I'lato 172

IJanishmcnt of Dion 172

856. Dion expels Dionyaius from

Syracuse 172

353. Assasaination of Dion 173

B.C. Page
340. Dionysius restored to Syra-
cuse 173

The Syracusans invoke the aid

of Corinth 173

Character of Timolcon 173

He sails for Sicily 173

34S. Surrender of Dionysius, and

con'iuest of Syracuse 173

339. Tinioleon defeats the Cartha-
ginians at the Ciimcsus 174

His moderation 174

3GG. His popularity and death 1T4

CHAPTER XIX.

PniLiP OF Macedon, I!.c. S59-33G.

Description of Macedonia

175 347

Kings of tlie country

175

34(5

359.

Accession of I'hilip

l.G

He subdues the Illyrians

17G

His military discipline

176

35S.

Capture of Amphiiiolis

170

357.

l'\iundation of Thilippi

177

»4'J

;ibi-

" > The Social War

177

3U>.
357.

Commencement of the Sacred

339

War

177

The I'hocians seize Delphi . . .

PrncToss of the war

177

•!;w

25i.

rhilip interferes in the war,

and defeats the I'hocians . .

178

He becomes master of Thessa-

17S

He attacks Thrace and the

Cliersonese

17S

Demosthenes : his oratory . . . .

17S

His first Philippic

179

aivo.

The Olynthiaus ask assistance

33G

of Alliens

179

The Olyntliiac orations of Do-

luostlienos

179
179

Character of rhociou

Fall of Olynthus

I'eacc between Thilip and the

Athenians

C<^>n<iuest of IMiocis by I'hilip .

ICnd of the Sacred War

Kesults of the Sacred War. . . .
I'hilip's expedition to Tliracc.
Ho comes into collision with

tlie Atlienians

Tlie Atlienians compel riiilip

to raise the siege of Uyzan-

tiiim

Charge of sacrilege against the

Amphissians

riiilip appointed general by the

Aniphictyonic Council

He seizes Klatea

League between Athena and

Thebes

Battle of Cha;ronea

Its results

Conpcss at Corinth

I'reparations for the Persian

expedition

Assassination of riiilip

Hid death

IT?

190
ISO
ISO
ISO
ISO

ISO

1*^1

ISl

IRI
isl

ISl
ISl
ISl

1S4

1R2

ISi
182

CHAPTER XX.

Alexander the Great, i;.c. 33G-323.

Education of Alexander 1^."

B36. Kojoicing at Athens for I'liil- I

ill's death 1 "54 V/oC).

Movements in Greece 1S4

Alexander marches into Greece,

and is appointed generalis-
siiuo for the Persian War. . . 194

He luarclie.i against the Thra-
ciniiH and Trilcillians I'^l

Report of iil.< ik'Hth W*

CONTENTS.

B.C. Pape

Revolt of the Thebang 165

Rapid march of Alexander,
and destruction of Thebes. . 1S5

Conduct of the Athenians 185

The orators spared by Alex-
ander ISC

334. Alexander crosses the Helles-
pont 156

Battle of the Granicus 187

lie conquers the western part

of Asia Minor 1S7

833. lie conquers Lycia and Pum-

phylia in the winter ISS

He collects his forces at Gor-

dium in the spring ISS

The Gordian knot 1S8

He marches through Cilicia . . 188

His bath in the Oydnus ISS

Battle of Issus ISi)

Results of the victoiy 100

Conquest of Phoenicia 100

832. Capture of Tyre after a siege

of seven months 101

Proposals of peace from Darius 191

Capture of Ga?a 192

He marches into Egypt 192

He founds Alexandria 102

He consults the oracle of Am-

mon 192

331. He crosses the Euphrates 102

Battle of Gaugamela or Arbela 103

Flight of Darius 193

Alexander takes possession of

Babylon 193

He marches to Susa and Per-

sepolis , 194

The enormous treasures which
he finds in those cities 194

B.C. w

Destruction of Persepolis rJ4

330. March to Ecbatana, and pur-
suit of Darius 105

Death of Darius 1S5

Conquest of Hyrcania and

Drangiana 105

Accusation of Philotas 105

His death. 100

329. Alexander crosses the Oxus in

pursuit of Bessus 19G

Capture and death of Bessus . 196

328. Conquest of Sogdiana ICS

Alexander marries Roxana. . . 106

Death of Clitus lOT

327. Plot of the Pages 197

Alexander invades India 197

He crosses the Indus, and de-
feats Porus on tlie Hydaspes 19S
He advances as far as the

Hyphasis 198

The troops refuse to proceed

farther 198

Descent down tlie Hydaspes

and Indus 198

32G. Voyage of Nearchus 199

March of Alexander through

Gedrosia 199

325. Arrival at Susa 199

Inteimarriages between the
Macedonians and Persians. . 109

Mutiny of the army 200

Death of Hepha>stion at Eo-

batana 200

324. Alexander takes up his res-
idence at Babylon 200

His schemes 200

323. His death 201

His character 201

CHAPTER XXI.

Fkom the Death of Alexandee the Geeat to the Conquest op Geeecb

by tue ko.mans, b.o. 323-1 4^3.

Ambitious projects of Perdic-

cas 20<J

His invasion of Egypt and

death 20T

Fresh division of the provinces

at Triparadisus 20T

Antipater declared regent 207

His death 207

Polysperchon regent 207

He conciliates the Grecian

states 207

Death of Phocion 208

War between Polysperchon

and Cassandcr 20S

111 success of Polysperchon. . . 208
Cassander Ijecomcs master of

Macedonia and puts Olym-

pias to death 2C8

831.

Defeat of Agis in Greece

202

321

330.

Speech of Demosthenes on the

Crown ,

202
202

825.

Karpalus arrives in Athens . . .

Accusation and exile of De-

mosthenes

203

323.

Insurrection of the Grecian

states

203

318

Defeat of Antipater, and siege

of Lamia

204

The Lamian war

204

322.

Defeat and death of Leonna-

317

tU3

204
204

Battle of Crannon

End of the Lamian war

205

316

Death of Demostlienes

205

323.

Division of the provinces on

Alexander'- deutli

206

xvm

CONTENTS.

B.C. Pipe

315. Coalition r-ffainst Antigomia. . *2()S

311. Peace concluded 2(.8

Murder of Uoxana and her sou 20J
310. Itenewal of the war against

Antigonus 209

307. IIU son Demetrius Poliorcetea
expels the Macedonians from

Athens 200

300. He defeats Ptolemy in a sea-
fight off Salamis in Cyprus. 210

2a5. He besieges Rhodes. . . .' 210

JOl. Battle of Ipsus 210

Death of Antigonus 210

Third partition of the empire

of Alexander 211

200. Demetrius captures Athens.. . 211
204. He obtains the Macedonian

throne 211

2S7. Is driven out of Macedonia ... 211

'.Sli. His death 212

281. War between Lysiraachus and

Seleucu.s 212

Battle of Corupedioa: death of

Lysimachus 212 '

2S0. Assassination of Seleucus by |

Ptolemy Ceraunus 213

270. luvasion of the Celts, and death |

of Ptolemy Ceraunus 213

Tlio Celts attack Delphi 213

278. x\iitigonus Gonatas ascends

the Macedonian throne 214

272. Death of Pyrrhus 214

S51.V The Ach.Tan League 214

Revived by Aratus of Sicyon . 214
Constitution of the League . . . 21.5

State of Sparta 215

244. Reforms of Agis 31.5

2'J5. Reforms of Cleomenes 215

War between (Jleonienes and '

the Achaean JjCague 210

224. The Aclucans call in the as-
sistance of Antigonus Doson 21G

221. Battle ..f Sellasia 210

220. Accession of Philip V 21'3

B.C. /

Tiie JEtolian League 2 lb

"War between the ^Etolian and

.\clKpau Leagues 217

The Achicans call in the assist-
ance of Philip 217

The Social War 217

217. Peace between Philip and the

yEtolians 217

216. War between Philip and the

Romans 218

213. Death of Aratus 218

200. Piiilopccmen 216

200. Renewal of the war between

I'hillp and the Romans 21S

107. Battle of Cynosccphate 218

I'JG. Greece declared free by Fla-

I mininus 210

192. War between the Romans and

yEtolians 219

Aiiticchus IH. crosses over into

Greece 219

ilOl. He is' defeated by the Romans
I at the battle of Thennopylaj 219

192. Subjugation of Sparta by tlie

I Achtcans 213

1S9. Subjugation of the ^liItoliau.s by

the Romans 21 >

ilSS. Capture of Sparta by the

AcliR^ans 219

1=!3. Dentil of Philopccmcn 219

170. Death of I'liilip, and accession
of Per.-^eus 219

171. War between Perseus and the
Romans 220

IGS. Defeat and capture of Pei-sQus. 220
Division of Macedonia 220

107. One thousand of the principal

Acha'ans are sent to Ron:e . 120

147. War between the Acha'ans and

the Romans 220

14G. Destruction of Corinth by

Muiumius 221

Greece becomes a Roman prov-
ince 221

CHAPTER XXIT.

Sketch of the History of C;rf,kk LiTEii.vTiKr fkom the earliest Tlmes to
TiiK Reign of Alexander the Gke^vt.

Epic Poetni: its two classes . 222'6G0. Tyrtwus and Alcnjan 224

Poems of Homer: the Iliad JG25. Arion 225

and the Odyssey 222 GOO. Alca'us and Sappho 2'.5

Subject of tlie Hind 222 .V20. Anacroon 22G

Subject i)i tlie ( )(lvssey 2'2'2 .WO. Simonides 220

Birthplace of Homer 223 400. Pindar 220

Date 2231 llistonj 227

Preservation <if the Poems 223 440. Herodotus 2'.7

Collected by Pisistratus 2231420. Thucvdides 228

P..cms of Hesiod 224 370. Nciiophon 220

Jjuric. I'octri/ 224

rOO. Ardiilochus". 224

'J'lir Ihdvin , « 230

Origin of Tragedy 22C

CONTENTS.

XIX

s c. Page

Origin of Comedy 2:50

B20. Thespifl 230

510. Chosrilua and rhrynichus 230

Pratinas 230

Tragic trilogy 2.J1

Satyric drama 231

Subjects of Greek tragedy 231

525-456. iEschvlus 231

495^106. Sophocles 232

430-406. Euripides 233

Old Attic comedy 233

Cratinus 233

Eupolis 233

4-14-380. Aristophanes 2.33

Middle Attic comedy 233

New Attic comedy 234

3o0-2T0, Philemon 234

842-291. Menander 234

Oraton/ 234

480-411. Antiphon 234

4!>T-391. Andocides 234

45S-37S. Lysias 234

4.%-33S. Isocrates 235

420-M3. Isseus 205

B.C. Papa

389-314. Machines 235

3S5-322. Demostlienes 230

Lycurgus, llyperides, and Di-
narchus 2.3G

Philosophy 83(5

Ionic scliool 23G

640-5.50. Tiiales 230

010-547. Anaximander 2.36

540-4S0. Anaximenes 230

500-428. Anaxagoras 226

l'21eatic school 236

540-500. Xenophanes 236

Pythagorean school 237

.580-510. Pythagoras 237

4G9-3^9. Socrates £37

The Academicians 23T

429-347. Plato 237

Tlie Peripatetics 238

384-322. Aristotle 2;»

The Epicureans 239

342-270. Epicurus 2;',9

The Stoics 239

310-221. Zeno 269

The Muse CUj.

LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS.

Acropolis of Athens restored.

Areli of Tiryns

Map of Greece,

Feontibpieck.
Title-page.

xix

IlermcR (Merom-v)

Coin of MytilCiie

The .Muse Clio

Mount Paranssus

Atlicn.i (Minerva) BuperiDtending

the building of the Argo 4

Greek (,'hariot lU

Head of Olympian Zeus (Jupiter). . 11

Tiie Foot-race. V2

Wrestling VI

Hurling the javelin 13

vi;T]ie Parthenon restored

Centaur, from the metopes of the
Parthenon

From the frieze of the I'arthenon.
— Panathenaic procession

The Erechtheum restored

The Piraeus restored

Pericles and Aspasia

P.ay of Pylus

View of the fort Euryalus at Syra-
cuse

Boxing 13 Map of Syracuse

Isthmian crowns 14! View of the theatre at Ephesus

Tripod of Apollo at Delplii 15;Coin of Athens

The Horse-race IG

The Chariot-race 10

Apollo 17

Ancient bridge in Laconia 20

Athena (Minerva) 27

Site of Ephesus 3D

Jlap of the cliief ^reek colonies in

Asia Minor 40

Map of the chic.' rreek colonies in

Sicily 41

Map of the chi ., Greek colonies in

Southern Itafy 4?>

Tomb of Cyrus 45

Plan of the battle of Marathon 5:!

Crfcek soldier r>()

Plan of Thcnnopylfe 5'>

Plan of the battle of Salamis 05

The Parthenon in its present state. 6'.!

Athens restored, from the Pnyx. . . 84
Tonii)le of Niko Apteros (the Wing-
less Victoiy) on the Acropolis at

Athens 8")

Plan of Athens SO

liiiins of the temple of the Olympian

Zeus 87

The Thcseum restored S'.i

I'lan of the Acropolis IM)

The propyljea restored 'Jl

Hust of Socrates

Ruins of Sardis

Route of the Ten Thousand ....

A Greek warrior

Corinth restored, viewed from tlie
Acrocorinthus

Ocrca? (greaves)

(Join of Syracuse

inato

Demosthenes

Coin of Alexander the Great

Coin of Macedonia

Coin of Demetrius Poliorcetes

I oin of Ptolemy I., Soter

( Join of Soleucus

Coin of Philip V., King of Macedo-
nia

(Join of Purseus, King of Macedonia

I A'rc, with seven stiings

Homer

I'indar

Herodotus

Thurydides

Sophocles

Kuripidi B

Mennnder

Aristotle

Paf-e

l»i

P4
15

'.'7

105

117
123
134

ir>5

141
143
14J

l.^-S
105
171
174
175
183
208
211
2T2
218

217
220
S2S
223
22(J
227
228
28'3
233
234
239

ill

111!'

.,)ll!i

l&mJ

';2:^;Jv^_l''i':''l

^ Jmm

^* -;;Ji j

n I

►3

-J-

HISTORY OF GREECE

Mount Parnassus.

CHAPTER L

GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE.

Greece is the southern portion of a great peninsnhi of Europe,
washed on three sides by the MediteiTanean Sea, It is bounded
on the north by the Cambunian Mountains, Avhich separate it from
Macedonia. It extends from the fortietli degree of latitude to the
thirty-sixth, its greatest length being not more than 250 English
miles, and its gi-eatest breadth only 180. Its surface is considera-
bly less than that of Portugal. Tliis small area was divided among
a number of independent states, many of them containing a terri>
tory of only a few square miles, and none of them larger tlian an
English county. But the heroism and genius of the Greeks have
given an interest to the insignificant spot of earth bearing their
name, which the vastest empires have never equalled.

The name of Greece was not used by the inhabitants of the coun-
try. They called their land Ifellas^ and themselves Hellenes. At
first the word Hellas signified only a small district in Tliessaly, from
whieh the Hellenes gi-adually spread over the whole country. The

it HISTORY OF GREECE. Ciiap.L

names of Greece and Greeks come to us from the Romans, uho
gave the name of Gnccia to the country and of Graci to tlie inliab-
itants.

Tlie two northerly pi'ovinces of Greece arc Thcssaly and Ejnntu^
separated from each other by Mount Pindus. Thessaly is a fertile
plain inclosed by lofty mountains, and drained by the river Pencils,
which finds its way into the sea through the celebrated Yale of
Tempe'. E])irus is covered by rugged ranges of mountains running
from north to south, through which the Achelous, the largest river
of Greece, flows towards the Corinthian Gulf.

In entering central Greece from Thessaly the road runs along
the coast through the narrow pass of Thermojjvla", between the sea
and a lofty range of mountains. The district along the coast was
inhabited by the eastern Locrians, while to their west were Doris
and Phocis, the greater part of the latter being occu])ied by Mount
Parnassus, the abode of the Muses, upon tlie slo])CS of which lay the
town of Delphi, with its celebrated oracle of Apollo. South of
Phocis is Boeotio, which is a large hollow basin, inclosed on every
side by mountains, which prevent the waters from flowing into the
sea. Hence the atmos})herc was dapp and thick, to Avhich circum-
stance the witty Athenians attributed the dullness of the inhabit-
ants. Thebes was the chief city of Bwotia. South of Bccotia lies
Attica, which is in the form of u triangle, having two of its sides
washed by the sea, and its base united to the land. Its soil is light
and dry, and is better ada])ted for tlie growth of fruit than of corn.
It was particularly celebrated for its olives, which were regarded as
the gift of Athena (Minerva), and were always under the care of
that goddess. Athens was on the western coast, between four and
five miles from its port, Pira!us. "West of Aitica, towards the isth-
mus, is the small district of Mer/aris.

The western half of central Greece consists of westcrji Lorris,
yE folia, and Ararnania. These districts were less civilized tluin
the other countries of Greece, and were the haunts of rude robber
tribes even as late as the Peloponnesian war.

Central Greece is connected Avith the southern peninsula by a
narrow isthmus, on which stood the city of Corintli. So narrow is
this isthmus that the ancients regarded the ])cninsu]a as an island,
and gave to it the name of l^cloponnesns, or tlie island of Pelojis,
from the mythical hero of this name. Its modern name, the Mo-
rea, was bestowed ujwn it from its resemblance to the leaf of the
mulberry.

The mountains of Pelo])onncsus have their roots in the centre of
tlie country, from which they branch out towards the sea. This
central region, culled Arcadia, is the Switzerland of the peninsula.

Chap. I. MOUNTAINS AND RIVERS. 3

It is surrounded by a ring of mountains, forming a kind of natural
wall, which separates it from the remaining Peloponnesian states.
Tho other chief divisions of Peloponnesus were Achaia, Argolis,
Laconia, Messenia, and Elis. Achaia is a narrow slip of country
lying betAveen the northern barrier of Arcadia and the Corinthian
Gulf. Argolis, on the east, contained several independent states, of
which the most important was Argos. Laconia and ]\fcssenia occu-
jjicd the whole of the south of the peninsula from sea to sea : these
two countries Avere separated by the lofty range of TaygCtus, run-
ning from north to south, and terminating in the promontory of Tse-
narum (now Cape Matapan), the southernmost point of Greece and
Europe. Sparta, the chief town of Laconia, stood in the valley of
the Eurotas, which opens out into a plain of considerable extent to-
wards the Laconian Gulf. Messenia, in like manner, was drained
by the Pamisus, whose plain is still more extensive and fertile than
that of tlie Eurotas. J^iis, on the west of Arcadia, contains the
memorable plain of Olympia, through which the Alpheus flows, and
in which the city of Pisa stood.

Of the numerous islands which line the Grecian shores, the most
important was Euboea, stretching along the coasts of Boeotia and At-
tica. South of Euboea was the group of islands called the Ci/clades,
lying around Delos as a centre ; and east of these were the Sjiorades,
near the Asiatic coast. South of these groups are the large islands
of Crete and Rhodes.

The physical features of the country exercised an important in-
fluence upon the political destinies of the people. Greece is one of
the most mountainous countries of Europe. Its surface is occupied
by a number of small plains, either entirely suiTounded by lime-
stone mountains or" open only to the sea. Each of the principal
Grecian cities was founded in one of these small plains ; and, as the
mountains which separated it from its neighbours were lofty and
rugged, each city grew up in solitary independence. But at the
same time it had ready and easy access to the sea, and Arcadia was
almost the only political division that did not possess some territory
irpon the coast. Thus shut out from their neighbours by mount-
ains, the Greeks were naturally attracted to the sea, and became a
maritime people. Hence they possessed the love of freedom and
the spirit of adventure, which have always characterized, more ol
less, the inliabitanta of maritime districts.

Athena (Minerva) superintending the building of the Argo.

CHAPTER II.

ORIGIN OF THE GREEKS AND THE UEROIC AGE.

No nation possesses a liistoiy till events are recorded in written
(locnmcnts ; and it was not till the epoch known by the name of the
First Olympiad, corresponding to tlic year 77G n.c, that the Greeks
began to em))loy writing as a means for perpetnating the memory
of any historical facts. Before that period everything is vagne and
nncertain ; and the exploits of the heroes related by the poets must
not be regarded as historical fiicts.

The Pelasr/ians are nniversally re])resentcd as the most ancient
inhabitants of Greece. They were s])read over the Italian as well
as the Grecian peninsula ; and the I'elasgic language thus formed
the basis of the Latin as well as of the Greek. They were divided
into several tribes, of which tlie Hellenes were ])r()bably one ; at
any rate, this ])eople, who originally dwelt in the south of Tliessaly,
gradually sjiread over the rest of Greece. The Pelasgians disap-
|)eared before them, or were incorjiorated with them, and their dia-
lect became the language of Greece. The Hellenes considered
themselves tlic descendants of one common ancestor, Ilellen, the
hun of Deucalion and J'yrrha. 'I'o Ik-Ucn were ascribed three sons,
Dorus, Xuthus, and Jl'^ohis. ( )f these Dorus and Tl^^olus gave their
names to tho Dorians and yl'Jolians ; and Xuthus, through his two

Chap. II. CECROPS AND CADMUS. 6

sons, Ion and Achfcus, became the forefather of the lonians and
Achrc'ans. Thus the Greeks accounted for the ori;;;in of the four
great divisions of their race. The descent of the Hellenes from a
common ancestor, Hellen, was a fundamental article in the popular
faith. It was a general practice in antiquity to invent fictitious
persons for the purpose of explaining names of which the origin was
buried in obscurity. It was in this way that Hellen and his sons
came into being ; but though they never had any real existence, the
tales about them may be regarded as the traditional history of the
races to whom they gave their names.

The civilization of the Greeks and the development of their lan-
guage bear all the marks of home grovv^th, and probably were lit-
tle affected by foreign influence. The traditions, however, of the
Greeks would point to a contrary conclusion. It was a general
belief among them that the Pelasgians were reclaimed from bar-
barism by Oriental strangers, who settled in the countiy and intro-
duced among the rude inhabitants the first elements of civilization.
Attica is said to have been indebted for the arts of civilized life to
Cecrops, a native of Sais in Egypt. To him is ascribed the found-
ation of the city of Athens, the institution of marriage, and the
introduction of I'eligious rites and ceremonies, Argos, in like
manner, is said to have been founded by the Egj'ptian Danaus,
who fled to Greece with his fifty daughters, to escape from the per-
secution of their suitoi's, the fifty sons of his brother ^gyptus.
The Eg}T)tian stranger was elected king by the natives, and from
him the tribe of the Danai derived their name, which Homer fre-
quently uses as a general appellation for the Greeks. Another
colony was the one led from Asia by Pelops, from whom the south-
em peninsula of Greece derived its name of Peloponnesus. Pelops
is represented as a Phrygian, and the son of the wealthy king Tan-
talus. He became king of Mycenoe, and the founder of a ]X)werful
dynasty, one of the most renowned in the Heroic age of Greece.
From him was descended Agamemnon, who led the Grecian host
against Troy.

The tale of the Phoenician colony, conducted by Cadmus, and
which founded Thebes in Baotia, rests upon a different basis.
Whether there was such a person as the Phoenician Cadmus, and
whether he built the town called Cadmea, which afterwards became
the citadel of Thebes, as the ancient legends relate, cannot be de-
termined ; but it is certain that the Greeks were indebted to the
Phoenicians for the art of writing ; for both the names and the
forms of the letters in the Greek alphabet are evidently derived
from the Phoenician. With this exception the Oriental strangers
left no permanent traces of their settlements in Greece ; and tho

6 HISTORY OF GREECE. CiiAr. IL

population of tlie countiy continued to be essentially Grecian, nn-
contaminated by any foreign element.

The age of the heroes, from the first apj)earance of the Hellenes
in Thessaly to the return of the Greeks from Troy, v,'iis su]iposed
to be a period of about two hundred years. These heroes -were be-
lieved to be a noble race of beings, possessing a superhuman though
not a divine nature, and superior to ordinary men in strength of
body and greatness of soul.

Among the heroes three stand conspicuously forth : Hercules, the
national hero of Greece ; Theseus, the hero of Attica ; and Minos,
king of Crete, the principal founder of Grecian law and civilization,

Hercules was the son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Alcmena ; but the
jealous anger of Hera (Juno) raised up against him an opponent
and a master in the person of Eurj'stheus, at whose bidding the
greatest of all heroes was to achieve those wonderful labours which
fdled tlie whole world with his fame. In these are realized, on a
magnificent scale, the two great objects of ancient heroism, the de-
struction of physical and moral evil, and the acquisition of wealth
and power. Such, for instance, are the labours in which he de-
stroys the terrible Nemean lion and Lernean hydra, carries off tlio
girdle of Ares from Ilipjiolyte, queen of the Amazons, and seizes
the golden apples of the Hesperides, guarded by a hundred-headed
dragon.

Theseus was a son of -^gcus; king of Athens, and of iEthra,
daughter of Pittlieus, king of Troezen. Among his many memora-
ble achievements the most famous was his deliverance of Athens
from the frightful tribute imposed upon it by Minos for the murder
of his son. This consisted of seven youths and seven maidens,
whom the Athenians were compelled to send every nine years to
Crete, there to be devoured by the Minotaur, a monster with a hu-
man body and a bull's head, which Minos kept concealed in an in-
extricable labyrinth. The third ship was already on the point of
nailing with its cargo of innocent victims, when Theseus otfored to
go witb them, bo]ting to ])ut an end for ever to the horrible tribute.
Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, became enamoured of the hero,
and liaving supplied him with a chie to ti*ace the windings of the
Libyrintli, Theseus succeeded in killing the monster, and in track-
ing his way out of tlie mazy lair. Theseus, on his return, became
king of Attica, and i)roceeded to lay the foundation of the future
greatness of the country. He united into one political body the
twelve inde])cndent states into which Cecrops'had divided Attica,
and made Athens tlie ca]>ital of the new kingdom. He then di-
vided the citizens into three classes, namely, Kiijnttr'uLv, or nobles;
Gcomorif or husbandmen ; and Jjcmlurgiy or artisans.

Chap. II. THE AKGONAUTS. 1

Minos, king of Crete, whose history is connected with that of
Theseus, appears, like him, tlie representative of an historical and
civil state of life. Minos is said to have received the laws of Creto
immediately from Zeus ; and traditions uniformly present him as
king of the sea. Possessing a numerous fleet, he reduced the sur-
rounding islands, especially the Cyclades, under his dominion, and
cleared the sea of pirates.

The voyage of the Argonauts and the Trojan war were the most
memorable enterprises undertaken by collective bodies of heroes.

The Argonauts derived their name from the Argo, a ship built
for the adventurers by Jason, under the superintendence of Athena
(Minerv'a). They embarked in the harbour of lolcus in Thessaly
for the purpose of obtaining the golden fleece which was preserved
in ^a in Colchis, en the eastern shores of the Black Sea, under the
guardianship of a sleepless dragon. The most renowned heroes of
the age took part in the expedition. Among them were Hercules
and Theseus, as well as the principal leaders in the Trojan war ;
but Jason is the central figure and the real hero of the enterprise.
Upon arriving at ^a, after many adventures, King iEetes promised
to deliver to Jason the golden fleece, provided he yoked two flre-
breathing oxen with brazen feet, and performed other Avonderful
deeds. Here, also, as in the legend of Theseus, love played a prom-
inent part. Lledea, the daughter of iEetes, who was skilled in
magic and supernatural arts, furnished Jason with the means of
accomplishing the labours imposed upon him ; and as her fathei'
still delayed to surrender the fleece, she cast the dragon asleep dur-
ing the night, seized the fleece, and sailed away in the Argo with
her beloved Jason.

• The Trojan war was the greatest of all the heroic achievements.
It formed the subject of innumerable epic poems, and has been im-
mortalized by the genius of Homer. Paris, son of Priam, king of
Troy, abused the hospitality of Menelaus, king of Sparta, by carry-
ing oif his wife Helen, the most beautiful woman of the age. Ail
the Grecian princes looked upon the outrage as one committed
against themselves. Kesponding to the call of Menelaus, they as-
sembled in arms, elected his brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenro,
leader of the expedition, and sailed across the ^gean in nearly
twelve hundred ships to recover the faithless fair one. Several of
the confederate heroes excelled Agamemtjon in fame. Among
them Achilles, chief of the Thessalian MyrVnidons, stood pre-emi-
nent in strength, beauty, and valour ; whilst Ulysses, king of Ith-
aca, surpassed all the rest in the mental qualities of counsel and
eloquence. Among the Trojans, Hector, one of the sons of Priam,
was most distinguished for heroic qualities, and formed a striking

8 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. II.

conti-ast to his handsome but effeminate brother Paris. Next to
Hector in valour stood JEneas, son of Anchises and Aplirodite
(Venus). Even the gods took part in the contest, encouraging
their favourite heroes, and sometimes lighting by their side or in
their stead.

It was not till the tenth year of the war that Troy yielded to the
inevitable decree of fate ; and it is this year which forms the sub-
ject of the Iliad. Achilles, offended by Agamemnon, abstains from
the war; and in his absence tlie Greeks are no match for Hector.
The Trojans drive them back into their camp, and are already set-
ting fire to their ships, when Achilles gives his armour to his friend
Patroclus, and allows him to charge at the head of the Mymiidons.
Patrocltis repulses the Trojans from the shij)s, but the god Apollo
is against him, and he falls under tlie spear of Hector. Desire to
avenge the death of his friend proves more powerful in the breast
of Achilles than anger against Agamemnon. He appears again
in tlie field in new and gorgeous armour, forged for him by the god
Hephaestus (Vulcan) at the prayer of Thetis. The Trojans fly be-
fore him, and, although Achilles is aware that his own death must
speedily follow that of the Trojan hero, he slays Hector in single
combat.

The Iliad closes witli the burial of Hector. The death of Achil-
les and tlie ca])ture of Troy Avere related in later poems. The hero
of so many achievements perishes by an arrow shot by the unwar-
like Paris, but directed by the hand of Apollo. The noblest com-
liatants had now fallen on either side, and force of amis had proved
unable to accomi)lish what stratagem at length effects. It is Ulys«
ses who now stejjs into the foreground and becomes the real con-
queror of Troy. By his advice a wooden horse is built, in Avhose
inside he and other heroes conceal themselves. The in&ituated
Trojans admit the horse within their walls. In the dead of night
the Greeks rush out and ojien the gates to their comrades. Troy
is delivered over to the sword, and its glory sinks in ashes. The
fall of Troy is placed in the year 1184 B.C.

The return of the Grecian leaders from Troy forms another series
of i)oetical legends. Several meet with tragical ends. Agamem-
non is murdered, on his arrival at Myccua', by his wife Clyta-nme*!-
tra and her ]>aramour uEgisthus. IJut vt' these wantlcriugs the
most celebrated and interesting are those of Ulys.ses, which form
the subject of the Odvssev. After Iwentv vears' absence lie ar-
rives at length in Ithaca, where he slays the numerous suitors who
devoured his substance and contended fur the hand t)f his wife Po-
nd (ii)e.

Tlie Homeric noenis must not be regarded as a record of histori*

Chap. IL SOCiETY OF THE HEROIC AGE. 9

cal persons and events, but, at the same time, tliey present a valua-
ble picture of the institutions and manners of the earliest known
state of Grecian society.

In the Homeric age Greece was already divided into a number
of independent states, each governed by its own king. The author-
ity of the king was not limited by any laws ; his power resembled
that of the patriarchs in the Old Testament ; and for the exercise
of it he was responsible only to Zeus, and not to his people. Bu«
though the king was not restrained in the exercise of his power b}r
any positive laws, his authority was practically limited by the Bon/e,
or council of chiefs, and the Agora, or general assembly of freemen.
These two bodies, of little account in the Heroic age, became in the
Republican age the sole depositories of political power.

The Greeks in the Heroic age were divided into the three classes
of nobles, common freemen, and slaves. The nobles were raised
far above the rest of the community in honour, power, and wealth.
They were distinguished by their warlike prowess, their large es-
tates, and their numerous slaves. The condition of the general
mass of freemen is rarely mentioned. They possessed portions of
laftd as their own property, which they cultivated themselves ; but
there was another class of poor freemen, called Thetes, who had no
land of their own, and who worked for hire on the estates of others.
Slavery was not so prevalent in the Heroic age as at a later time,
and appears in a less odious aspect. The nobles alone possessed
slaves, and they treated them with a degree of kindness which fre-
quently secured for the master their affectionate attachment.

Society was marked by simplicity of manners. The kings and
nobles did not consider it derogatory to their dignity to acquire
skill in the manual arts. Ulysses is represented as building his
own bedchamber and constructing his own raft, and he boasts of
being an excellent mower and ploughman. Like Esau, who made
savoury meat for his father Isaac, the Heroic chiefs pre])ared their
own meals and prided themselves on their skill in cookery. Kings
and private persons partook of the same food, which Avas of tlie
simplest kind. Beef, mutton, and goat's flesh were the ordinary
meats, and cheese, flour, and sometimes fruits, also formed part of
the banquet ; Avine was drunk diluted with water, and the enter-
tainments were never disgraced by intemperance, like those of our
northern ancestors. The enjoyment of the banquet was heightcne<l
by the song and the dance, and the chiefs took more deliglit in the
lays of the minstrel than in the exciting influence of tlie wine.

The Avives and daughters of the chiefs, in like manner, did not
deem it beneath them to discharge various duties which were after-
wards regarded as menial. Not only do we find tliem constantly

HISTORY OF GREECE.

Chap. [

employed in weaving, spinning, and embroider}', but like the daugh-
ters of the patriarclis they fctcli water from the well and assist their
slaves in washing garmeiats in tlie river.

Even at this early age the Greeks had made considerable ndvauccs
in civilization. They were collected in fortified towns, which were
surrounded by walls and adorned with palaces and temples. The
massive ruins of Mycena; and the sculptured lions on the gate of
this city belong to the Heroic age, and still excite the wonder of the
beholder. Commerce, however, was little cultivated, and was not
much esteemed. It was deemed more honourable for a man to en-
rich himself by robbery and jiiracy than by the arts of peace. Coin-
ed money is not mentioned in the poems of Homer. AVhether the
Greeks were acquainted at this early period with tlie art of writing
is a question which has given rise to much disimte, and must re-
main undetermined ; but poetry was cultivated with success, though
yet confined to e))ic strains, or the narration of the exploits and ad-
ventures of the Heroic chiefs. The bard sung his own song, and
was always received with welcome and honour in tlie palaces of the
nobles.

In the battles, as depicted by Homer, the chiefs are the only im-
portant combatants, while the peoi)le are an almost useless mass,
freciricntly put to rout by the prowess of a single hero. The chief
is mounted in a war chariot, and stands by the side of his chariot*
eer, who is frequently a friend.

Greek chariot.

Head of Olympian Zous (Jupiter).

CHAPTER III.

GENERAL ST7RVET OF THE GREEK PEOPLE-
INSTITUTIONS.

-NATIONAL

The Greeks, as yve have already seen, were divided into manj
independent communities, but several causes bound them togethci
as one people. Of these the most important Avere community of
blood and language — community of religious rites and festivals—
and community of manners and character.

All the Greeks were descended from the same ancestor and spoke
the same language. They all described men and cities Avhich were
not Grecian by the term barbarian. This word has passed into our
own language, but with a very different idea ; for the Greeks applied
it indiscriminately to every foreigner, to the civilized inhabitants of
Egy]jt and Persia, as well as to the rude tribes of Scythia and Gaul.

The second bond of union was a community of religious rites and
festivals. Prom the earliest times the Greeks apj5Eirr'to have wor-
shipped the same gods ; but originally there were no religious meet-
ings common to the whole nation. Such meetings were of gradual
growth, being formed by a numbc]* of neighbouring towns, which
entered into an association for the periodical celebration of certain
religious rites. Of these the most celebrated was tha Amphictyonic
Council. It acquired its superiority over other similar associations
by the wealth and gi'andour of the Delphian temple, of wliich it was
the appointed guardian. It held two meetings every year, one in
the spring at the temple of Apollo at Delphi, and the other in tlia

HISTORY OF GREECE.

Chap. III.

autuniTi nt the temple of Demeter (Ceres) at Tliermopylos. Its
members, wlio were called the Amphictyons, consisted of sacred dej)-
iities sent from twelve tribes, each of which contained several inde-
pendent cities or states. But the Council was never considered as
a national congress, whose duty it was to i)rotect and defend the
common interests of Greece,* and it was only when the rights of
the Delphian god had been Aiolatcd that it invoked the aid of the
rarious members of tlie league.

The foot-nicc.

The Olympic games were of greater efficacy than the Amphic-
tyonic Council in promoting a spirit of union among the various
branches of the Greek race, and in keeping alive a feeling of their
common origin. They were open to all ])ersons who could prove
their Hellenic blood, and were frequented by spectators from all
parts of the Grecian world. Tliey were celebrated at Olympia, on
the banks of the Alpheus, in the territory of Elis. The origin of

Wrcstlinpc.

CUAP. III.

NATIONAL FESTIVALS.

the festival was lost in obscurity; but it is saici to have been revivea

by Iphitus, king of Elis,
and Lycurgus the Spar-
tan legislator, in the year
77G 15. c. ; and, accord-
ingly, when the Greeks
at a later time began to
use the Olympic contest
as a chronological era,
this year was regarded as
the first Olympiad. It
was celebrated at the
end of every four years,
and the interval which
elapsed between each cel-
ebration was called an
Olympiad. The whole
festival was under the
management of the Eleans, who appointed some of their own num-
ber to preside as judges, under the name of the Hellanodicaj. Dur-
ing the month in Avhich it was celebrated all hostilities were sus-
pended throughout Greece. At first the festival was confined to a
single day, and consisted of nothing more than a match of runners
in the stadium ; but in course of time so many other contests were
introduced, that the games occupied five days. They comprised
various trials of strength and skill, such as wrestling, boxing, the
Pancratium (boxing and wrestling combined), and the complicated
Pentathlum (including jumping, running, the quoit, the javelin, and
wrestling), but no combats with any kind of weapons. There were

the ja^'clin.

Boxing.

HISTORY OF GREECE.

CiiAP. in.

also horse-races and chariot-races ; and the chariot-race, with fouf
full-grown horses, beciune one of the most ])oi)ular and celebrated
of all the matches.

The only })rize given to the conqueror was a garland of wild
olive; but this was valued as one of the dearest distinctions in life.
To have his name proclaimed as victor before assembled Ilcllas was
an object of ambition witli the noblest and the wealthiest of the
Greeks. Such a person was considered to have conferred everlast-
ing glory upon his family and his country, and was rewarded by his
fellow-citizens with distinguished honours.

Isthmian crowns.

During the sixth century before the Christian era three other
national festivals — the Py^thian, Nemean, and Isthmian games —
Avhich were at first only local, became oi)cn to the whole nation.
Tlie Pythian games were celebrated in every third 01ym])ic year,
on the Cirrhrean ])lain in Phocis, under the superintendence of the
Am])hictyons. The games consisted not only of matches in gym-
nastics and of horse and chariot races, but also of contests in music
and poetry. They soon acquired celebrity, and became second only
to the great 01ymi)ic festival. The Nemean and Isthmian games
occurred more frequently tlinn tlie Olymjiic and IVthian. They
were ccle!)rated once in tA\o years — the Xcmean in the valley of
Nemca between Phlius and Cleonaa — and the Isthmian by the Co-
rinthians, on their isthmus, in honour of Poseidon (Nci)tune). As
in the Pythian festival, contests in music and in poetry, as well as
gA'mnastics and cliariot-races, formed part of these games. Althou^ih
the four great festivals of which we have been speaking had no in-
fluence in i>romoting the political union of Greece, they nevertheless
were of great importance in making the various sections of the race
feci that they were all members of one family, and in cementing
tliem together by common sympathies and the enjoyment of com-
mon pleasures. The frecjuent occurrence of tliese festivals, for one
was celebrated every year, tended to the same result.

Chap. III.

THE DELPHIAN ORACLE.

The Greeks were thus annually reminded of their common origin,
and of the great distinction Avhich existed between tliem and bar-
barians. Nor must avc forget tlie incidental advantages which at-
tended them. The concourse of so large a number of persons from
every part of the Grecian world afforded to the merchant o])i)ortuni-
ties for traffic, and to the artist and tlie literary man tlie best means
of making their work knoAvn. During the time of the games a
busy commerce Avas carried on ; and in a spaciovis hall appropriated
for tlie purpose, the poets, philosophers, and historians were accus-
tomed to read their most recent works.

The habit of consulting the same oracles in order to ascertain
the Avill of the gods was another bond of union. It was the uni-
versal practice of the Greeks to undertake no matter of importance
without first asking the advice of the gods ; and there were many
sacred spots in which the gods were always ready to give an answer
to pious worshippers. The oracle of Apollo at Delphi surpassed
all the rest in importance, and Avas regarded with veneration in
every part of the Grecian world. In the centre of the temple of
Delphi there was a small opening in the ground from which it
was said that a certain gas or vapour ascended.
Whenever the oracle was to be consulted, a vir-
gin priestess called Ptjthia took her seat upon a
tripod which was placed over the chasm. The
ascending vapour affected her brain, and the
words which she uttered in this excited condi-
tion were believed to be the answer of Apollo to
his worshippers. They were always in hexameter
verse, and were reverently taken down by the
attendant priests. IVIost of the answers were
equivocal or obscure ; but the credit of the oracle
continued unimpaired long after the downfall of
Grecian independence.

A further element of union among the Greeks
was the similarity of manners and character. It
is true tlie difference in tliis respect between
the polished inhabitants of Athens and the rude
mountaineers of Acarnania was marked and strik-
ing , but if we compare the two with foreign ccri-
temporaries, the contrast between thein and the latter is still more
striking. Absolute despotism, human sacrifices, polygamy, delib-
erate mutilation of the person as a punishment, and selling of
children into slavery, existed in some part or other of the bar-
barian world, but are not found in any city of Greece in the his-
torical times.

^-b

Tripod of Apollo
at DelpliL

HISTORY OF GREECE.

Chap. III.

The elements of union of \vljicli we have been spcnkinp; only

-— bound tlie Greeks
J \ together in ccni-
nion feelings and
sentiments: they
never ])rcduced
any political un-
ion. The inde-
pendent sover-
eign of each city
w as a f u n d a -
mental notion in
the Greek niiifd.
This strongly
rooted feeling de-
serves j'articular
notice. Careless
readers of histo-
ly are temjtted
to suppose that
the territory of
Greece was di-
vided among a
c o m ]) a r a t i V c -
ly small nund)er
of inde]itndent
states, such as
Attica, Arcadia,
Ba?otia, I'hocis,
Locris, and the
like; but this isii
most serious mis-
take, and leads to
a total misa]'})rc-
licnsion of Greek
history. Every
sejjarate city was
usually an in-
dependent state,

and consequcnily eacli of the territories described under tlic general
names of Arcadia, Bicotia, Tliocis, and Locris, cemtaincd numerous
jKjIitical communities independent of one another. Attica, it is
true, formed a single state, and its dilVerent towns rcce)gnizcd Athens
as tlieir capital and the soure-c of supreme power; but this is an cx-
rcption to tlio general rule.

Apollo, the priuciiJiil ueity of the Dorians,

CHAPTER IV.

EARLY UISTORY OF PELOPONNESUS AND SPARTA, DO'WN TO TSM
END or THE MESSENIAN WARS, B.C. GG8.

In the heroic age Peloponnesus was occupied by tribes of Dorian
conquerors. They had no share in the glories of the Heroic age ;
their name does not occur in the Iliad, and they are only once men-
tioned in the Odyssey ; but they were destined to form in historical
times one of the most important elements of the Greek nation. Is*
suing from their mountain district between Thessaly, Locris, and
Phocis, they overran the greater part of Peloponnesus, destroyed
the ancient Achaean monarchies, and expelled or reduced to subjec-
tion the original inliabitants of the land, of which they became the
undisputed masters. This brief statement contains all that we know
for certain respecting this celebrated event, which the ancient writers
placed eighty years after the Trojan war (b.c. 1104). The legend-
ary account of the conquest of Peloponnesus ran as follows : — The
Dorians were led by the Heraclidai, or descendants of the mighty
hero Hercules. Hence this migration is called the Return of tho
Heraclidaj. The children of Hercules had long been fugitives upon
the face of the earth. They had made many attempts to regain
possession of the dominions in the Peloponnesus, of which their
great sire had been deprived by Euiystheus, but hitherto without

• lip HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IV.

success. In tlicir last attcrnpt Ilyllus, the son of Hercules, had
perished in single combat with Echemus of Togca; and tlie Ilerac-
lidaj had become bound by a solemn comi)act to renounce their en-
terprise for a hundred years. Tliis period had now expired ; and
the groat-grandsons of Ilyllus — Tcmenus, Cresj)hontes, and Aristo-
demr* — resolved to make a fresh attempt to recover their birthright.
They were assisted in the enterprise by the Dorians. This jicoijIc
espoused their cause in consequence of the aid Avliich Hercules him-
self had rendered to the Dorian king JEgimius, when the latter was
hard pressed in a contest with the Lapithai. The invaders were
warned by an oracle not to enter Pelojionnesus by the Isthmus of
Corinth, but across the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf. The inhab*
itants of the northern coast of the gulf were ftxvourable to their en-
terprise. Oxylus, king of the JEtolians, became their guide ; and
from Naupactus they crossed over to Peloponnesus. A single bat-
tle decided the contest. Tisamcnus, the son of Orestes, was defeat-
ed, and retired with a portion of liis Acha-an subjects to the north-
ern coast of Peloponnesus, then oecu])ied by the lonians. He ex-
pelled the lonians, and took possession of the country, which con-
tinued henceforth to be inhabited by the Acha?ans, and to be called
after them. The lonians withdrew to Attica, and the greater part
©f them afterwards emigrated to Asia Minor.

The Ileraclida) and the Dorians now divided between them the
dominions of Tisamenus and of the other Achaean princes. The
kingdom of Elis was given to Oxylus as a recompense for his serv-
ices as their guide ; and it was agreed that Tcmenus, Cresphontcs,
and Eurysthenes and Procles, the infant sons of Aristodemus (^^ ho
had died at Naupactus), should draw lots for Argos, Sparta, and
Messenia. Argos fell to Tcmenus, S])arta to Euiysthenes and Pro-
cles, and Messenia to Cres])hontcs.

Sucli are the main features of the legend of the Return of the
Ileraclida}. In order to make the story more striking and impress-
ive, it compresses into a single epoch events which ])robably occu-
pied several generations. It is in itself improbable (hat the brave
Achitans quietly submitted to the Dorian invaders after a moment-
ary struggle. We have, moreover, many indications that such was
not the fact, and that it was only gradually and after a long ]»ro-
tracted contest tliat the Dorians became undisi)uted masters of the
greater ])art of PclojKmnesus,

Argos was originally the chief Dorian state in Peloiionncsns, but
at the time of the first Olympiad its power liad been sujtplanted by
that of Si)arta. The ]>r()gress of 8])arta from the second to the first
place among- the states in the ])eninsula was mainly owing to fho
military discijiliue and rigorous training of its citizens. The sin*

B.C. 77G. • KEFORMS OF LYCURGUS. l6

gular constitution of Sparta was iinanimously ascribed by the an-
cients to the legislator Lycurgus, but there were dilFerent stories
respecting his date, birth, travels, legislation, and death. His most
probable date, however, is B.C. 776, in which year he is said to have
assisted Iphitus in restoring the Olympic games. He was the son
of Eunomus, one of the two kings who reigned together in Sparta.
On the death of his father, his elder brother, Polydectes, succeeded
to the crown, but died soon afterwards, leaving his queen with child.
The ambitious woman oifered to destroy the child if Lycurgus would
share the throne with her. Lycurgus pretended to consent ; but
as soon as she had given birth to a son, he presented him in the
market-place as the future king of Sparta. The young king's moth-.,
er took revenge upon Lycurgus by accusing him of entertaining de-
signs against his nephew's life. Hereupon he resolved to with-
draw from his native country, and to visit foreign lands. He was
absent many years, and is said to have emploj^ed his time in study-
ing the institutions of other nations, in order to devise a system of
laws and regulations which might deliver Sparta from the evils
under which it had long been suffering. During his absence the
young king had groAvn up, and assumed the reins of goA^ernment ;
but the disorders of the state had meantime become worse than
ever, and all parties longed for a termination to their present suffer-
ings. Accordingly, the return of Lycurgus was hailed Avitli delight,
and he found the people ready and willing to submit to an entire
change in their government and institutions. He now set himself
to work to carry his long projected reforms into effect ; but before
he commenced his arduous task he consulted the Delpliian oracle,
from wliicli he received strong assurances of divine support. Thus
encouraged by the god, he suddenly presented himself in the market-
place, surrounded by thirty of the most distinguished Spartans in
arms. His reforms were not carried into effect without A'iolent op-
position, and in one of the tumults which they excited, his eye is
said to have been struck out by a passionate youth. But he finally
triumphed over all obstacles, and succeeded in obtaining the sub-
mission of all classes in the community to his new constitution.
His last act vvas to sacrifice himself for the welfare of his country.
Having obtained from the people a solemn oath to make no altera-
tions in his laws before his return, he quitted Sparta for ever. He
set out on a journey to Delphi, where he obtained an oracle from
the god, approving of all he had done, and promising prosperity to
the Spartans so long as they preserved his laws. AV hither he went
afterwards, and how and where he died, nobody could tell. Ho
vanished from earth like a god, leaving no traces behind him but
his spirit ; and his grateful countrymen honoured him with a tem-

20 HISTORY OF GREECE. Ciiai-. IV.

pie, and worshipped him with annual sacrifices dovni to the latest
times.

The population of Laoonia was divided into the three classes of
Spartans, Periocci, and Helots,

I. The Spartans were the descendants of the leading Dorian
conquerors. Tliey formed the sovereign power of the state, and
they alone were eligible to honours and i)uhlic offices. They lived
in Sparta itself, and were all subject to the dicipline of Lycurgus.
They Avere divided into three tribes — the IIi//kis, the I'anijilif/U,
and the Dijmdncs — whicli were not, however, peculiar to Sparta,
but existed in all the Dorian states.

II. The Pei'iocci* were personally free, hut politically subject to
the Spartans. They possessed no share in the government, and
were bound to obey the commands of tlie Spartan magisti-atcs.
They appear to have been the descendants of the old Achaean po])U-
lation of the country, and they were distributed into a hundred
townships, whicli Avere spread through the Avliole of Laconia.

HI. The Helots Avere serfs bound to the soil, Avhich they tilled
for the benefit of the Spartan pro]>rietors. Their condition Avas
very different from that of the ordinary slaA'es in antiquity, and
more similar to the villanage of the Middle Ages. ' They liA'cd in
the rural villages, as the Perioeci did in the toAvns, cultivating the
lands and paying OA'cr the rent to their masters in Sparta, but en-
joying their homes, Avives, and families, ai)art from their master's
personal superintendence. They apj)ear to have been never sold, and
they accompanied the Spartans to the field as light-armed troops.
But Avliile their condition Avas in these rcs])ccts sui)crior to tliat of
the ordinary shiA'cs in otlicr i)arts of Greece, it Avas embittered by
the fact that they Averc not strangers like the latter, but Avere of
the same race and spoke the sanie language as their masters, being
probably the descendants of the old inhabitants, avIio had offered
the most obstinate resistance to the Dorians, and had tliei'cfore
been reduced to slaveiy. As their numbers increased, they became
objects of susj)icion to their nuistcrs, and Avere subjected to the most
Avanton and oppressive cruelty.

Tiie functions of the Sjjartan goA'crnment were distributed among
two kiiv'^'s, .1 senate of thirty m('ml)ers, a ])opular assembly, and an
executive directory of five men called the J^jdiors.

At the head of the state were the two hereditary kings. The
existence of u pair of kings Avas ])eculiar to Sparta, and is said to
Ikiac arisen from the accidental circumstance of Aristodemus hav-

• ThiH word eignifics literiiUy Ihocllcm around the citi'^ an<l was pcnonilly
u^ed to in(li(!it(i tlic inliiiliitaiits in the country (li.-itnit!<, Avho i>otj;:«ri6Cil infcii/
political |nivileg<!d to the citizuuH w1*l) liviil in thu city.

B.C. 776. THE SPAKTAN GOVERNMENT. 21

ing left twin sons, EurystliCnes and Procles. This division of tho
royal power naturally tended to weaken its influence and to ])ro-
duce jealousies and dissensions between the two kings. The royal
power was on the decline during the whole historical period, and
the authority of the kings was gradually usurped by the Ephors,
who at length obtained the entire control of the government, and
reduced the kings to a state of humiliation and dependence.

The Senate, called Gerusia, or the Council of Elders, consisted of
thirty members, among whom the two kings were included. They
were obliged to be upwards of sixty years of age, and they held
their office for life. They possessed considerable power, and were
the only real check upon the authority of the Ephors. They dis-
cussed and prepared all measures which were to be brought before
tlie popular assembly, and they had some share in the general ad-
ministration of the state. But the most important of their func-
tions was, that they were jndges in all criminal cases affecting the
life of a Spartan citizen.

The Popular Assembly was of little importance, and appears to
have been usually summoned only as a matter of form for the elec-
tion of certain magistrates, for passing laws, and for determining
upon peace and war. It would appear that open discussion was
not allowed, and that the assembly rarely came to a division.

The Ephors were of late origin, and did not exist in the original
constitution of Lycurgus. They may be regarded as the represent-
atives of the popular assembly. They were elected annually from
the general body of Spartan citizens, and seem to have been origin-
ally appointc^d to protect the interests and liberties of the" people
against the encroachments of the kings and the senate. They cor-
respond in many respects to the tribunes of the people at Home.
Their functions were at first limited and of small importance ; but
in the end the whole political power became centred in their hands.

The Spartan government was in reality a close oligarchy, in
which the kings and the senate, as well as the people, were, alike
subject to the irresponsible authority of the five Ephors.

The most important part of the legislation of Lycurgus did not
relate to the political constitution of Sparta, but to the discipline
and education of the citizens. It was these Avhich gave Sparta her
peculiar character, and distinguished her in so striking a manner
from all the other states of Greece. The position of the Spartans,
surrounded by numerous enemies, whom they held in subjection by
the sword alone, compelled them to be a nation of soldiers. Ly-
curgus determined that they should be nothing else ; and the great
object of his whole system was to cultivate a martial spirit, and to
give them a training which would make them invincible in battle.

22 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IV.

To accomplish this, tlic education of a Spartan was phiccd under the
control of the state from liis earliest boyhood. Every child after
birth was exhibited to puldic view, and, if deemed deformed and
weakly, was exposed to perisli on Mount Taygtltus. At the age of
seven he was taken from his mother's care, and handed over to the
public classes. lie was not only taught gymnastic games and mil-
itary exercises, but he was also sulyected to severe bodily discipline,
and was comi^elled to submit to hardsliips and suifering without re-
pining or comi)laint. One of the tests to which he was sulyectcd
was a cruel scourging at the altar of Artemis (Diana), until his
blood gushed forth and covered the altar of the goddess. It was
inflicted publicly before the eyes of his jiarents and in the presence
of tlic whole city ; and many Spartan youths were known to have
died under the lash without uttering a comjdaining murmur. No
means were neglected to prepare them for the hardsliips and strata-
gems of war. They were obliged to wear the same garment winter
and summer, and to endure hunger and thirst, heat and cold.
They were purposely allowed an insufficient quantity of food, but
were permitted to make up the deficiency by liunting in the woods
and mountains of Laconia. They were even encouraged to steal
whatever they could; but if they were caught in the fact, they were
severely punished for their want of dexterity. Plutarch tells us of
a boy, Avho, having stolen a fox, and hid it under his garment, chose
rather to let it tear out his very bowels than be detected in the
theft.

The literaiy education of a Spartan youth was of a most restrict-
ed kind. He was taught to despise literature as ui^worthy of a
warrior^ while the study of eloquence and philosophy, whicli were
cultivated at Athens with such extraordinaiy success, was regard-
ed at Sparta with contempt. Long speeches were a Spartan's ab-
horrence, and he was trained to cxi)ress himself with sententious
brevity.

, A Spartan was not considered to have reached the full age of
manhood till he had completed his thirtieth year. He was then al-
lowed to many, to take part in the public assembly, and was eligi-
ble to the offices of the state. But he still continued under tlie
public discipline, and was not permitted even to reside and take his
meals with his wife. It was not till he had reached his sixtieth
year that he was released from the public discipline and from mili-
taiy service.

The public mess — called ,'>'/.<isitfa — is said to have been instituted
by Lycurgus to ])revcut all indulgence of the appetite. Public ta-
bles were provided, at which every male citizen was obliged to take
hia meals. Each table accommodated fifteen persons, who formed

B.C. 776. THE SPARTAN WOMEN. 23

a separate mess, into which no new membei' was admitted except
by the iinanimous consent of the whole company. Each sent
monthly to the common stock a specified quantity of barley-meal,
wine, cheese, and figs, and a little money to buy flesh and fish.
No distinction of any kind was allowed at these frugal meals.
Meat was only eaten occasionally ; and one of the principal dishes
was black broth. Of what it consisted we do not know. The ty-
rant Dionysius found it very unpalatable; but, as the cook told
him, the broth was nothing without the seasoning of fatigiic and
hunger.

The Spartan women in their earlier years were subjected to a
course of training almost as rigorous as that of the men, and con-
tended with each other in running, wrestling, and boxing. At the
age of twenty a Spartan woman usually married, and she was no
longer subjected to the public discipline. Although she enjoyed
little of her husband's society, she was treated by him with deep
respect, and v/as allowed a greater degree of liberty than was toler-
ated in other Grecian states. Hence she took a lively interest in the
welfare and glory of her native land, and was animated by an earn-
est and lofty spirit of patriotism. The Spartan mother had reason
to be proud of herself and of her children. When a woman of an-
other country said to Gorgo, the wife of Leonidas, "The Spartan
women alone rule the men," she replied, "The Spartan women
alone bring forth men." Their husbands and their sons were fired
by their sympathy to deeds of heroism. " Return either with your
shield, or upon it," was their exhortation to their sons when going
to battle.

Lycurgus is said to have divided the land belonging to the Spar-
tans into nine thousand equal lots, and the remainder of Laconia
into thirty thousand equal lots, and to have assigned to each Spar-
tan citizen one of the former of these lots, and to each Pcrioecus one
of the latter.

Neither gold nor silver money was allowed in Sparta, and nothing
but bars of iron passed in exchange for every commodity. As the
Spartans were not permitted to engage in commerce, and all luxuiy
and display in dress, furniture, and food Avas forbidden, they had
■very little occasion for a circulating medium, and iron money was
found sufficient for their few wants. But this prohibition of the
precious metals only made the Spartans more anxious to obtain
them ; and even in the times of their greatest glory the Spartans
were the most venal of the Greeks, and could rarely resist the tempt-
ation of a bribe.

The legisltition of Lycurgus was followed by important results.
It made the Spartans a body of professional soldiers, well trained

24 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IV.

and well disciplined, at a time wlien military training and disci-
l)line were little known, and almost unpractised in the other states
of Greece. The consequence was tlie ra])id p-owth of the political
power of Sparta, and the sulyugation of the neighhouring states.
At the time of Lycurgus the Spartans held only a small portion of
Laconia : they were merely a garrison in the heart of an enemy's
country. Their first object was to make themselves masters of La-
conia, in wliich they finally succeeded after a severe struggle. They
next turned their arms against tlic Messenians, Arcadians, and Ar-
givcs. Of these wars the two waged against Messenia were the
most celebrated and the most important. They were lx)th long
protracted and obstinately contested. They botli ended in the vic-
tory of Sjjarta and in the subjugation of Messenia. These facts
are beyond dispute ; but of the details wc have n© trustworthy nar-
rative.

Tlic First Mcssenian War lasted from B.C. 743 to 724. During
the first four years the Laceditmonians made little jn-ogress ; but
in the fifth a great battle Avas fought, and although its result was
indecisive, the JNIessenians did not A-enturc to risk another engage-
ment, and retired to the strongly fortified mountain of Ithome'. In
their distress they sent to consult the oracle at Delphi, and received
the ai)palling answer that the salvation of Messenia required the
sacrifice of a virgin of the royal house to the gods of the lower
world. Aristodemus, who is the Messenian hero of the first war,
slew his own daughter, which so disheartened the Spartans that
they abstained from attacking the Messenians for some years. In
tlic thirteenth year of the war the S])artan king marched against
Ithome, and a second great battle was fought, but the result was
again indecisive. The Messenian king fell in the action ; and Aris-
todemus, wlio was chosen king in his place, prosecuted the war
with vigour. In the fil'th year of his reign a third great battle was
fouglit. This time tlie Messenians gained a decisive victory, and
the Lacedajmonians were driven back into their own territory.
They now sent to ask advice of the Delphian oracle, and were jjroni-
ised success upon using stratagem. They therefore had recourse to
fraud : and at the same time various ]»rodigics dismayed the bold
Bpirit of Aristodemus. Ills daughter too ai)pearcd to him in a
dream, sliowcd him her wounds, and beckoned him away. Seeing
that his country was doomed to destruction, Aristodemus slew him-
pclf on his daugliter's tomb. Shortly afterwards, in the twentieth
year of tlie war, the ]\Iessenians abandoned Ithome, which the La-
cediemonians razed to tlie ground, ami the whole country became
subject to Sparta. Many of the inhabitants tied into otlier coun-
tries; but those who remained were reduced to the condition of

B.C. 8G8. THE SECOND MESSENIAN WAR. 25

Helots, and Avere compelled to pay to their masters half of the prod-
uce of their lands.

For thirty-nine A^ears the Messenians endured this degradins
yoke. At the end of this time they took up arms against their op-
pressors. The Second Messenian War lasted from u.c. 685 to GG8.
Its hero is AristomCnes, whose wonderful exjDloits form the great
subject of this war. It would appear that most of the states in
Peloponnesus took part in the struggle. The first battle was fought
before the arrival of the allies on either side, and, though it was
indecisive, the valour of Aristomenes struck fear into the hearts of the
Spartans. To frighten the enemy still more, the hero crossed the
frontier, entered Sparta by night, and affixed a shield to the temple
of Athena (Minerva), with the inscription, "Dedicated by Aristo-
menes to the goddess from the Spartan spoils." The Spartans, in
alarm, sent to Delphi for advice. The god bade them apply to
7\thens for a leader. Fearing to disobey the oracle, but with the
viow of rendering no real assistance, the Athenians sent Tyrtaius, a
lame man and a schoolmaster. The Spartans received their new
leader with honour ; and he was not long in justifying the credit of
the, oracle. His martial songs roused their fainting courage; and
so efficacious were his poems, that to them is mainly ascribed the
final success of the Spartan arms.

Encouraged by the strains of Tyrtasus, the Spjirtans again march-
ed against the Messenians. But they were not at first successful.
A great battle was fought at the Boar's Grave in the plain of Steny-
clerus, in which they were defeated with great loss. In the third
year of the war another great battle was fought, in which the Mes-
senians suffered a signal defeat. So great was their loss, that Ar-
istomenes no longer ventured to meet the Spartans in the open field.
Following the example of the Messenian leaders in the former war,
he retired to the mountain fortress of Ira. The Spartans encamp-
ed at the foot of the mountain ; but Aristomenes frequently sallied
from the fortress, and ravaged the lands of Laconia with fire and
sword. It is unnecessary to relate all the wonderful exploits of
this hero in his various incursions. Thrice was he taken prisoner ;
on two occasions he burst his bonds, but on the third he was carried
to Sparta, and thrown with his fifty companions into a deep pit,
called Ceadas. His comrades were all killed by the fall ; but Ar-
istomenes reached the bottom unhurt. He saw, however, no means
of escape, and had resigned himself to death ; but on the third day
perceiving a fox creeping among the bodies, he grasped its tail, and
following the animal as it struggled to escape, discovered an open-
ing in the rock, and on the next day was at Ira, to the surprise alike
of friends and foes. But his single prowess was not sufucient to

HISTORY OF GREECE.

Chap. IV.

avert the niin of his colmtr}^ One night the Spartans sui7)rised
Ira while Aristomenes was disabled by a wound ; hut lie collected
the bravest of his followers, and forced his way through the enemy.
Many of the JMessenians went to Rhegiuni, in Italy, under tiie sons
of Aristomenes, but the liero liimself finished his days in Rhodes.

The second Messenian war was terminated by the com])lete sul)-
jugation of the Messenians, who again became the serfs of their
concjuerors. In this condition they remained till the restoration
of their indei)endencc l)y Epaminondas, in the year 3G9 n.c. Dur-
ing the whole of the intervening period the Messcniana disa])]»ear
from liistory. The country called Messenia in the jnap became a
portion of Laconia, which thus extended across the soutb of Pelo-
ponnesus from the cjistern to the western sea.

Ancient Bridge in Laconia.

Athena (Minerva), the national deity of the Athenians.

CHAPTER V.
eJlRly history of Athens, down to the establishment or

DEMOCKACY BY CLISTHENES, B.C. 510.

Sparta was the only state in Greece which continued to re-
tain the kingly form of government during the brilliant period of
Grecian history. In all other parts of Greece royalty had beeij
abolished at an early age, and various forms of republican govern-
ment established in its stead. The abolition of royalty was first
followed by an Oligarchy, or the government of the Few. De-
mocracy, or the government of the Many, Avas of later growth. It
was not from the people that the oligarchies received their first
and gi-eatest blow. They were generally overthrown by the usurp-
ers, to whom the Greeks gave the name of Tijrants.*

* The Greelc word Tyrant does not coiTcspond in meaning to the same word
in the English language. It signifies simply an irresponsible ruler, and may,
therefore, be more coiTectly rendered by the term Despot.

28 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. V.

The rise of the Tyrants seems to have taken place about the
same time in a large number of the Greek cities. In most cases
they belonged to the nobles, and they generally became masters of
the state by espousing the cause of the commonalty, and using the
strength of the people to put down the oligarchy by force. At
first they were popular with the general body of the citizens, who
were glad to see the humiliation of their former masters. But
discontent soon began to arise ; the tyrant had recourse to violence
to quell disaftection ; and the government became in reality a
tyranny in the modern sense of the word.

Many of the tyrants in Greece w^ere put down by the Lacediu-
monians. Tlie Si)artan government was essentially an oligarchy,
and the Spartans Avcrc always ready to lend tlieir i)owerful aid in
favour of the government of the Few. Hence they took an active
part in the overthrow of the despots, with the intention of estab-
lishing tlie ancient oligarchy in their place. But this rarely hnp-
pcned ; and tliey found it impossible in most cases to reinstate the
former body of nobles in their ancient jirivilcges. The latter, it
is true, attempted to regain them, and were supported in their at-
tempts by Sparta. Hence arose a new struggle. The first contest
after the abolition of royalty was between oligarchy and the despot,'
the next was between oligarchy and democracy.

The histoiy of Athens aftbrds the most striking illustration of
the different revolutions of which wc have been speaking.

Little is known of Athens before the age of Solon. Its legend-
ary tales are few, its historical Hicts still fewer. Cccrops, tlie first
ruler of Attica, is said to have divided the country into twelve dis-
tricts, which arc represented as independent communities, each
governed by a separate king. 1'hey were aftcnvards united into a
single state, having Athens as its cajjital and the seat of govern-
ment. At what time this im])ortant union was effected cannot be
detennined ; but it is ascribed to Theseus, as the national hero of
the Athenian people.

A few generations after Theseus, the Dorians are said to have
invaded Attica. An oracle declared tliat ihey would be victorious
if tliey spared tlie life of the Athenian king; whercuiJon Codnis,
who then reigned at Athens, resolved to sacrifice himself fur the
welfare of his country. Accordingly, lie went into the invaders'
cam]) in disguise, ])rovoked a quarrel with one of the Dorian sol-
diers, and was killed by the latter. I^pon learning the deatli of the
Athenian king, the Dorians retired from Attica without striking a
blow; and the Athenians, from respect to tlie memory of Codrus,
abolished the title of king, and substituted for it that of Archon or
Ruler. The oflice, however, was held for life, and was conlined

B.C. G24. THE ATHENIAN GOVERNMENT. 29

to the family of Codrus. His son Medon was the first archon, and
he was followed in the dignity by eleven members of the family in
succession. But soon after the accession of Alcma;on, the tliir-
teenth in descent from Medon, another change Avas introduced,
and the duration of the archonship was limited to ten ycai's (u.c.
752). The dignity was still confined to the descendants of Medon ;
but in the time of Hippomenes (n.c. 714) this restriction was re-
moved, and the office was thrown open to all the nobles in tha
state. In b.c. G83 a still more important change took place. The
archonship was now made annual, and its duties Avere distributed
among nine persons, all of whom bore the title. The last of the
decennial archons was Eryxias, the first of the nine annual archons
Creon.

Such is the legendary account of the change of government at
Athens from royalty to an oligarchy. It appears to have taken
place peaceably and gradually, as in most other Greek states. The
Avhole political power was vested in the nobles ; from them tlie
nine annual archons were taken, and to them alone these magis-
trates Avere responsible. The people, or general body of freemen,
had no share in the gOA'ernment.

The Athenian nobles Avere called Eupatridce, the two other
classes in the state being the Gcomorl or husbandmen, and Demi-
urgi or artisans. This arrangement is ascribed to Theseus ; but
there was another division of the people of still greater antiquity.
As the Dorians were divided into three tribes, so the lonians Avere
usually distributed into four tribes. The latter division also ex-
isted among the Athenians, Avho AA'ere lonians, and it continued
in full vigour doAvn to the great revolution of Clisthenes (b.c.
509). These tribes Avere distinguished by the names of Geleontes
(or Tekontes), "cultiA'ators," Ilopletes, "Avarriors," yEgicores,
"goat-herds," and Argades, "artisans." Each tribe contained
three riiratrire, each Phratry thirty Gentes, and each Gens thirty
heads of families.

The first date in Athenian history on Avhich certain reliance can
be placed is the institution of annual archons, in the A^ear G83 n.c.
The duties of the government Avere distributed among the nine
archons in the foUoAving manner. The first Avas called The Arch-
on by way of pre-eminence, and sometimes the Ai-chon Eponymus,
because the year Avas distinguished by his name. The second
archon Avas called The Baslkns or The King, because he repre-
sented the king in his capacity as high-priest of the nation. The
third archon bore the title of 'The Polemarch, or Commander-in-
chief, and AA^as, doAvn to the time of Clisthenes, the commander
of the troops. The remaining six had the common title of Thes'

30 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. V.

7nothef.(v, or Legislators. Their duties seem to hare been almost
exclusively judicial.

The government of the Eupatrids was oppressive; and the dis-
content of the people at length became so serious, that Draco was
appointed in 024 B.C. to draw up a written code of laws. They
were marked by extreme severity. He affixed the penalty of
death to all crimes alike ; to petty thefts, for instance, as well as
to sacrilege and murder. Hence they were said to have been writ-
ten, not in ink, but in blood ; and we are told that he justified this
extreme harshness by saying that small offences dcsei*ved death,
and tliat he knew no severer punishment for great ones.

The legislation of Draco failed to calm the prevailing discon-
tent. The people gained nothing by the written code except a
more perfect knowledge of its severity, and civil dissensions pre-
vailed as extensively as before. The general dissatisfaction with
the government was favourable to revolutionary projects ; and ac-
cordingly, twelve years after Draco's legislation (n.c. G12), Cylon,
one of the nobles, conceived the design of depriving his brother
Eupatrids of their power, and making himself tyrant of Athens.
Having collected a considerable force, he seized the Acropolis; but
he did not meet with support from the great mass of the people,
and he soon found himself closely blockaded by the forces of the
Eupatrids. Cylon and his brother made their escape, but the re-
mainder of his associates, hard pressed by hunger, abandoned the
defence of the walls, and took refuge at the altar of Athena (Mi-
nerva). They were induced by the archon INIcgacles, one of the
illustrious family of the AlcnuTonidui, to quit the altar on the
promise that tlieir lives should be spared ; but directly they had
left the temple they were put to death, and some of them were
murdered even at the altar of the Eumenides or Furies.

Tlie cons])iracy thus failed; but its suppression was attended
with a long train of melancholy consequences. The whole family
of the Alcma;onida3 was believed to have become tainted by the
daring act of sacrilege committed by Megacles ; and the friends
and i)artisans of the murdered consjnrators were not slow in de-
manding vengeance ujion the accursed race. Thus a new element
of discord was introduced into the state. In the midst of these
dissensions there was one man who enjoyed a distinguished repu-
tation at Athens, and to whom his fellow-citizens looked up as the
only i)ers()n in the state who could deliver them from their i)oliti-
cal and social dissensions, and secure them from such misfortunes
for the future. This man was Solon, the son of Execestides, and
a descendant of Codrus. He had travelled through many parts
of Greece and Asia, ami had formed accpmintance with many of

B.C. 594. LEGISLATION OF SOLON. 31

the most eminent men of his time. On his return to his native
country he distinguished himself by recovering the island of Sala-
mis, which had revolted to Megava (n.c. GOO). Three years after-
wards he persuaded the Alcma^onidaj to submit their case to the
judgment of three hundred Eupatridas, by whom they were ad-
judged guilty of sacrilege, and were expelled from Attica. The
banishment of the guilty race did not, however, deli^-er the Athe-
nians from their religious fears, A pestilential disease with which
they were visited was regarded as an unerring sign of the divine
wrath. Upon the advice of the Delphic oracle, they invited tha
celebrated Cretan prophet and sage, Epimenidcs, to visit Athens,
and purify their city from pollution and sacrilege. By perform-
ing certain sacrifices and expiatory acts, Epimenides succeeded in
staying the plague.

The civil dissensions, however, still continued. The population
of Attica was now divided into three hostile factions, consisting of
the PecUeis, or wealthy Eupatrid inhabitants of the plains ; of the
Diacrii, or poor inhabitants of the hilly districts in the north and
cast of Attica ; and of the Parali, or mercantile inhabitants of the
coasts, who held an intermediate position between the other two.
Their disputes were aggravated by the miserable condition of the
poorer population. The latter were in a state of abject poverty.
They had borrowed money from the wealthy at exorbitant rates
of interest upon the security of their property and their persons.
If the principal and interest of the debt were not paid, the creditor
had the power of seizing the person as Avell as tlie land of his
debtor, and of using him as a slave. Many had thus been torn
from their homes and sold to barbarian masters, while others were
cultivating as slaves the lands of their wealthy creditors in Attica.
Matters had at length reached a crisis ; the existing laws could no
longer be enforced ; and the poor were ready to rise in open in-
surrection against the rich.

In these alarming circumstances the ruling oligarchy were obliged
to have recourse to Solon ; and they therefore chose him Archon
in B.C. 594, investing him under that title with unlimited powers
to effect any change he might consider beneficial to the state.
His appointment was hailed with satisfaction by the poor; and all
parties were willing to accept his mediation and reforms.

Solon commenced his undertaking by relieving the poorer class
of debtors from their existing distress. He cancelled all contracts
by which the land or person of a debtor had been given as se-
curity ; and he forbid for the future all loans in which the person
of the debtor was pledged. He next proceeded to draw up a new
constitution and a new code of laws. As a preliminary step, ho

33 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. V.

repealed nil the laws of Draco except those relatinfc to murder.
He then made a new classification of the citizens, distributing tliem
into four classes according to the amount of their property, thus
making wealth, and not birth, tlic title to the honours and ofiices of
the state. The first class consisted of those whose annual income
was equal to r>00 mcdimni* of corn and upwards, and were called
Pentacosiomcdlmni . Tlie second class consisted of those whose
incomes ranged between 300 and "jOO mcdimni, and were called
Knights, from their being able to furnish a war-horse. The third
class consisted of those who received between 200 and 300 mc-
dimni, and Averc called Zeu(jU(r, from tlieir being able to kccji
a yoke of oxen for the plough. The fourth class, called T/icfcs,
included all whose property fell short of 200 mcdimni. The first
class were alone eligible to the archonship and the higher offices
of the state. The second and third classes fdled inferior posts,
and were liable to militarj' service, the former as horsemen, and
the latter as heavy-armed soldiers on foot. The fourth class were
excluded from all public offices, and served in the army only as
light-armed troops. Solon, however, allowed them to vote in tho
public assembly, Avhcrc they must have constituted by far tho
largest number. He gave the assembly the right of electing the
archons and the other officers of the state ; and he also made the
archons accountable to the assembly at the expiration of their
year of office.

This extension of the duties of the public assembly led to the
institution of a new body. Solon created tho Senate, or Council
of Four Hundred, with the special object of i)rei)aring all matters
for the discussion of the public assembly, of j)rcsiding at its meet-
ings, and of carrying its resolutions into cil'ect. No subject could
be introduced before the people, except by a previous re^jolution
of the Senate. The members of the Senate were elected by tho
public assembly, one hundred fiom each of the four ancient tribes,
which were left untouched by Solon. They held their office for
a year, and were accountable at its expiration to the public as-
sembly fur the manner in Avhich they had discharged their duties.

The Senate of the Areopagusf is said by some writers to have
been instituted by Solon ; but it existed long before his time, and
may bo regarded as the representative of the Council of Cliiefs in
the Heroic Age. Solon enlarged its powers, and intrusted it with
(he general siijx'rvisiou of tlic institutions and laws of tlic state,
and iin])osed upon it the duty of insj)ectin^ the lives and occujia*

* 'I'lio iiic(liinim^< wiis ono Ixislicl jind i\ li:ilf.

t It loceivcil its nnmc from its \Anvv. of nRt'liiit;, whiili was a rocky ciuin«nco
^jV*Ho tho Acropolii^, culled tho liill of Arcs (Mhi-»' Hill).

B.C. 560. USUKPATION OF PISISTRATUS. 33

tions of the citizens. All archons became members of it at the
expiration of their year of office.

Solon laid only the foundation of the Athenian democracy by
giving the poorer classes a vote in the popular assembly, and by
enlarging the power of the latter ; but he left the government ex-
clusively in the hands of the wealthy. For many years after his
time the government continued to be an oligarchy, but was exer-
cised with more moderation and justice than formerly.

Solon enacted numerous laws, containing regulations on almost
all subjects connected with the public and private life of the citi-
zens. He encouraged trade and manufactures, and invited foreign-
ers to settle in Athens by the promise of protection and by val-
uable privileges. To discourage idleness, a son was not obliged to
support his father in old age, if the latter had neglected to teach
him some trade or occupation.

Solon punished theft by compelling the guilty party to restore
double the value of the property stolen. He forbade speaking e\il
cither of the dead or of the living.

Solon is said to have been aware that he had left many imper-
fections in his laws. He described them not as the best laws
which he could devise, but as the best which the Athenians could
receive. Having bound the government and peojtle of Athens by
a solemn oath to observe his institutions for at least ten years, he
left Athens and travelled in foreign lands. During his absence
the old dissensions between the Plain, the Shore, and the Mount-
ain broke out afresh with more violence than ever. The first
was headed by Lycurgus, the second by Megacles, an Alcmroonid,
and the third by Pisistratus, the cousin of Solon. Of these lead-
ers, Pisistratus was the ablest and the most dangerous. He bad
espoused the cause of the poorest of the three classes, in order to
gain popularity, and to make himself master of Athens. Solon, on
his return to Athens, detected the ambitious designs of his kins-
man, and attempted to dissuade him from them. Finding his re-
monstrances fruitless, he next denounced his projects in verses ad-
dressed to the people. Few, liowever, gave any heed to the warn-
ings ; and Pisistratus, at length finding his schemes ripe for action,
had recourse to a memorable stratagem to secure his object. One
day he appeared in the market-place in a chariot, his mules and
his ov\'n person bleeding with Avounds inflicted with his own hands.
These he exhibited to the people, telling them that he had been
nearly murdered in consequence of defending their rights. Thes
popular indignation was excited; and a guard of fifty clubmen
was granted him for his future security. He gradually increased
the n^unber of bis guard, and soon found himself strong enough to

Ui niSTORY OF GREECE. Chap. V.

throw off the mask and seize the Acropolis (n.c. 500). Mcgaclcii
and the Alcniaconidaj left the city. Solon alone had the courage
to oppose the usurpation, and u])braided the jjcoplc with their co\v<
ardice and their treachery. "You niiKlit," said he, "with ease
have crushed the tyrant in the bud ; but nothing now rcmaing
but to i)luck him up by the roots." But no one responded to his
appeal. He refused to fly; and Avhen his friends asked him on
what he relied for protection, "On my old age," was his reply.
It is creditable to Pisistratus that he left his aged relative unmo-
lested, and even asked his advice in the administration of the gov-,
crnment. Solon did not long survive the overthrow of the con-
stitution. He died a year or two aftenvards, at the advanced ago
of eighty. His ashes are said to have been scattered by his own
direction round the island of Salamis, which he had won for the
Athenian people.

Pisistratus, however, did not retain his power long. The leaders
of the factions of the Shore and the Plain combined, and drove the
usurper into exile. But the Shore and the Plain having quarrel-
led, Pisistratus was recalled and again became master of Athens.
Another revolution shortly aftenvards drove hii i into exile a sec-
ond time, and he remained abroad ten years,
the assistance of mercenaries from other GreciAi states and with
the aid of his partisans in Athens, he became milster of Athens for
the third time, and henceforth continued in possession of the su-
preme power till the day of his deatli. As soonlas he was firmly
established in the government, his administration was marked by
mildness and equity. He maintained the institAtions of Solon,
taking care, however, that the highest offices should always be
held by some members of his own family. He not only en-
forced strict obedience to the laAvs, but himself set the example of
submitting to them. Being accused of murder, he disdained to
take advantage of his authority, and went in person to plead his
cause before the Areo])agus, where his accuser did not venture to
appear. He courted ])opularity by largesses to the citizens and by
throwing open his gardens to the poor. He adorned Athens with
many ]»nblic buiklings. He commenced on a stui)endous scale a
temple to tlie Olynijiian Zeus, wliich remained unlinishcd for cen-
turies, and was at length completed by the Emperor Hadrian. He
was a patron of literature as well as of the arts. He is said to
have been the first person in Greece who collected a library, which
ho threw open to the pid)!ic ; and to him ]u)stcrity is indebted for
the collection of tlie Homeric ])()cms. On the wliolc, it cannot bo
denied that he made a wise and noble use of liis power.

Pisistratus died at an advanced age iu 527 B.C., thirty-threo

B.C. 514. ASSASSINATION OF IIIPPARCIIUS. 85

years after his first usurpation. He transmitted the sovereign pow,
er to his sons, Hippias and Hipparclius, who conducted tlie govern-
ment on tlie same jsrinciples as their fother, Hipparchus inherited
his father's literary tastes. He invited several distinguished poets,
such as Anacreon and Simonides, to his court. The people ap-
pear to have been contented with their rule; and it was only an
accidental circumstance which led to their overthrow and to a
change in the government.

Their fall was occasioned by the conspiracy of Harmodius and
Aristoglton, who were attached to each other by a most intimate
friendship. Harmodius having given offence to Hippias, the des-
pot revenged himself by putting a public affront upon his sister.
This indignity excited the resentment of the two friends, and they
hovr resolved to slay the despots at the festival of the Great Pana-
thensea, when all the citizens were required to attend in arms.
Having communicated their design to a few associates, the con-
spirators appeared armed at the appointed time like the refit of the
citizens, but carrying concealed daggers besides. Harmodius and
Aristoglton had planned to kill Hippias first as he was arranging
the order of the procession outside the city, but, upon approaching
the spot where he was standing, they were thunderstruck at behold-
ing one of the conspirators in close conversation with the despot.
Believing that they were betrayed, they rushed back into the city
with their daggers hid in the myrtle boughs which they were to
have carried in the procession, and killed Hipparchus. Harmo-
dius was immediately cut down by the guards. Aristoglton died
under the tortures to Avhich he was subjected in order to compel
him to disclose his accomplices.

Hipparchus was assassinated in B.C. 514, the fourteenth year
after the death of Pisistratus. From this time the character of
the government became entirely changed. His brother's murder
converted Hippias into a cruel and suspicious tyrant. He put to
death numbers of the citizens, and raised large sums of money by
extraordinary taxes.

The AlcmffionidiB, vAio had lived in exile ever since the third
and final restoration of Pisistratus to Athens, now began to form
schemes to expel the tyrant, Clisthenes, the son of Megacles,
who v.as the head of the family, secured the Delphian oracle by
pecuniaiy presents to the Pythia, or priestess. Henceforth, when-
ever the Spartans came to consult the oracle, the answer of the
priestess was always the same, ''Athens must be liberated." This
order was so often repeated, tliat the Spartans at last resolved to
obey. Cleomenes, king of Sj^arta, defeated the Thessoliau allies
of Hippias ; and the tyrant, unable to meet his enemies in the field,

36 IIISTOUY OF GREECE. Chap. V.

took refuge in the Acropolis. Here he miglit liavc maintained
himself in safety, had not his children been made prisoners as they
were being secretly carried out of the country. To procure thcii
restoration, he consented to quit Attica in the space of five days.
lie sailed to Asia, and took up his residence at SigCnim in the
Troad, which his father had wrested from the Mytilenreans in war.

Ilippias was expelled in u.c. 510, four years after the assassina-
tion of Ilipparchus. These four years had been a time of snft'er-
ing and oppression for the Athenians, and had effaced from their
minds all recollection of the former mild rule of Pisistratus and
his sons. Hence the expulsion of the family was hailed with de-
light. The memory of Ilarmodius and Aristogiton was cherished
witli the fondest reverence ; and the Athenians of a later age,
overlooking the four years which had elapsed from their death to
the overthrow of tlie despotism, represented them as the liberators
of their country and the first martyi's for its liberty. Their statues
were erected in the market-place soon after the expulsion of Hip-
pia? ', their descendants enjoyed immunity from all taxes and
public burdens ; and their deed of vengeance formed the favourite
subject of drinking-songs.

The Lacedaemonians quitted Athens soon after Hippias luul
sailed away, leaving the Athenians to settle their own afiairs.
Clisthenes, to whom Athens was mainly indebted for its liberation
from the despotism, aspired to be the political leader of the state,
but he was opposed by Isagoras, the leader of tlie party of the no-
bles. By the Solonian constitution, the whole political power
was vested in tlie hands of the nobles; and Clisthenes soon found
that it was hopeless to contend against his rival under the existing
order of things. For this reason he resolved to introduce an im-
portant change in tlie constitution, and to give to the people an
equal share in tlie government.

The reforms of Clisthenes gave birth to the Athenian democrncy,
wliicli can hardly be said to have existed Itefore this time. His
first and most im])ortant measure Avas a redistribution of the whole
population of Attica into ten new tril)cs. He abolished the fonr
ancient Ionic tribes, and enrolled in the ten new tribes all the free
inhabitants of Attica, including both resident aliens and even
cmnncipatcd slaves. He divided tlio tribes into a certain numbot
of cantons or townships, called (Ittni, which at a later time were
174 in number. Every Athenian citizen was obliged to be en-
rolled in ademus, each of whicli, like a jjarisli in England, admin-
istered its own atralrs. It had its pidilic meetings, it levied rates,
and was under the siq)erinteiuleiice of an ofiicer called Jh iiuirc/ms.

The establishment of the ten new tribes led to a change in tho

B.C. 51a REFORMS OF CLISTIIENES. 37

number of the Senate. It had previously consisted of 400 mem-
bers, but it was noAV enlarged to 500, fifty being selected from each
of the ten new tribes. The Ecclesia, or formal assembly of the
citizens, was now summoned at certain fixed periods ; and Clis-
thencs transferred the government of the state, which had hithen
to been in the hands of the archons, to the senate and the ecclesia.
He also increased the judicial as Avell as the political pov/er of the
people ; and enacted tliat all public crimes should be tried by the
whole body of citizens above thirty years of age, specially convoked
and sworn for the purpose. Tlie assembly thus convened was
called Ilelicva, and its members Ileliasts. Clisthenes also intro-
duced the Ostracism, by which an Athenian citizen might be ban-
ished without special accusation, trial, or defence for ten years,
which term was subsequently reduced to five. It must be recollect-
ed that the force which a Greek government had at its disposal
Was very small ; and tlxat it was comparatively easy for an am-
bitious citizen, supported by a numerous body of partisans, to over-
throw the constitution and make himself despot. The Ostracism
was the means devised by Clisthenes for removing quietly from the
state a powerful party leader before he Could carry into execution
any violent schemes for the subversion of the government. Every
precaution was taken to guard this institution from abuse. The
senate and the ecclesia had first to determine by a special vote
whether the safety of the state required such a step to be taken.
If they decided in the affirmative, a day was fixed for the voting,
and each citizen wrote upon a tile or oyster-shell* tlie name of the
person whom he wished to banish. The votes were then collected,
and if it was found that GOOO had been recorded against any one
person, he was obliged to withdraw from the city within ten days ;
if the number of votes did not amount to GOOO, nothing was done.
The aristocratical party, enraged at these reforms, called in the
assistance of Cleomenes, king of the Lacedaemonians. Athens was
menaced by foreign enemies and distracted by party struggles.
Clisthenes was at first compelled to retire from Athens ; but the
people rose in arms against Cleomenes, expelled the Lacedaemoni-
ans, Avho had taken possession of the city, and recalled Clisthenes.
Thereupon Cleomenes collected a Peloponnesian army in order to
establish Isagoras as a tyrant over the Athenians, and at the same
time he concerted measures with the Thebans and the Chalcidians
of Euboca for a simultaneous attack upon Attica. The Pelopon-
nesian army, commanded by the two kings, Cleomenes and Dem-
arutus, entered Attica, and advanced as far as Eleusis ; but wlien
the allies became aware of the object for which they had been
• O.sfraco/?, whence the name Gstracism.

38 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. V.

summoned, they refused to march fixrtlicr, and strongly protested
aj::ainst the attempt to establish a tyranny at Athens. Their re-
monstrances bein^' seeoiuk'd by Dcniaratiis, CIcomenes found it
necessary to abandon the expedition and return home. At a later
period (b.c. 491) Cleomenes took revenge upon Bemaratus by per-
suading the Spartans to depose him upon tlie ground of illegiti-
macy. The exiled king took refuge at the Persian court.

The unexpected retreat of the Peloponnesian army delivered
the Athenians from tlieir most formidable enemy, and they lost no
time in turning their arms against their other foes. Marching into
Boeotia, they defeated tlic Thcbans, and then crossed over into
Euboca, where they gained a decisive victory over the Chalcidians.
In order to secure their dominion in Euboca, and at the same time
to provide for their poorer citizens, the Athenians distributed the
estates of the Avealthy Chalcidian landowners among 4000 of their
citizens, who settled in the country under the name of Clerudn.

The successes of Athens excited the jealousy of the Spartans,
and they now resolved to make a third attempt to overthrow the
Athenian democracy. They had meantime discovered the decep-
tion which had been practised upon them by the Delphic oracle ;
and they invited Hippias to come from Sigeum to Sparta, in order
to restore him to Athens. The experience of the last campaign
had taught them that they could not calculate upon the co-opera-
tion of their allies without first obtaining their approval of the proj-
ect ; and they therefore summoned deputies from all their allies
to meet at Sparta, in order to determine respecting the restoration
of Hippias. But the proposal Avas received with universal repug-
nance ; and the Spartans found it necessary to abandon their i)roj-
cct. Hippias returned to Sigeum, and afterwards proceeded to
the court of Darius.

Athens had now entered upon her glorious career. The institu-
tions of Clisthenes had given her citizens a personal interest in the
welfare and the grandeur of their country. A spirit of the wann-
est patriotism rapidly sprang up among them ; and the history of
the Persian wars, which followed almost immediately, exhibits a
striking ])roof of the heroic sacrifices which they were prepared to
make for the liberty and independence of their state.

Site of Ephesus,

CHAPTER YI.

THE GREEK COLONIES.

The vast number of the Greek colonies, their wide-spread dif-
fusion over all parts of the Mediterranean, which thus became a
kind of Grecian lake, and their rapid growth in wealth, power,
and intelligence, afford the most striking proofs of the greatness
of this wonderful people. Civil dissensions and a redundant popu-
lation were the chief causes of the origin of most of the Greek col-
onies. They were usually undertaken with the approbation of
the cities from which they issued, and under the management of
leaders appointed by them. But a Greek colony was always con-
sidered politically independent of the mother-city and emancipated
from its control. The only connexion between them was one of
filial aifection and of common religious ties. Almost every co-
lonial Gi'eek city was built upon the sea-coast, and the site usual-
ly selected contained a hill sufficiently lofty to form an acropolis.

The Grecian colonies may be arranged in four groups : 1. Thosa
founded in Asia Minor and the adjoining islands ; 2. Those in the
western parts of the INIediterranean, in Italy, Sicily, Gaul, and
Spain ; 3. Those in Africa ; 4. Those in Epirus, JMaccdonia, and
Thrace.

1. The earliest Greek colonies were those founded on the western
shores of Asia Minor. They were divided into three great mass-

HISTORY OF GREECE.

Chap. VI.

cs, each bearing the name of tliat Paction of tlie Greek race with
which they claimed afiinit}'. Tiie AloVic cities covered the nortli-
cm part of the coast, togetlier with the islands of Lesbos and
Tencdos ; the lonians occupied tlie centre, with the islands of
Chios and Samos ; and the Dorians the southern portion, with the

'-12 A ti ■r.^

ALCEDON.

^^'

^-^ C^"^ c

'-;^;

'fi.

&'^j

■ n

Map of the chief Greek (Jolouiod in Adiii Minor.

B.C. 735-600. THE GREEK COLONIES.

islands of Rhodes and Cos. Most of these colonies were found-
ed in consequence of the chanpjes in the population of Greece
which attended tlie conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians.
The Ionic cities wei-e early distinguished by a spirit of commercial
enterprise, and soon rose superior in Avealth and in po;ver to their
^li^olian and Dorian neighbours. Among the Ionic cities them-
selves IMiletus and Ephesus were the most flourishing. Grecian
literature took its rise in the ^olic and Ionic cities of Asia Minor.
Homer was probably a native of Smyrna. Lyric poetry flourish-
ed in the island of Lesbos, where Sappho and Alcaus were born.
The Ionic cities were also the seats of the earliest schools of Gre-
cian philosophy. Thales, who founded the Ionic school of phi-
losophy, was a native of Miletus. Halicarnassus was one of the
most important of the Doric cities, of which Herodotus was a na-
tive, though he wrote in the Ionic dialect.

2. The earliest Grecian settlement in Italy was Cumtc in Cam-
pania, situated near Cape Misennm, on the Tyrrhenian Sea. It is
said to have been a joint colony from the ^olic Cyme in Asia and
from Chalcis in Euboea, and to have been founded, according to
the common chronology, in B.C. 1050. Cumre was for a long time
the most flourishing city in Campania ; and it v/as not till its de-
cline in the fifth century before the Christian era that Capua rose
into importance.

ftlap of the chief Greek Colonies in Sicily.

42 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VT.

The earliest Grecian settlement in Sicily was founded in n.c.
735. The extraordinary fertilit}' of the land soon attracted nu-
merous colonists from various parts of Greece, and there arose on
the coasts of Sicily a succession of flourishing cities. Of these,
Syracuse and Agrigentum, both Dorian colonies, became the most
I)Owerful. The former was founded by the Corinthians in B.C. 734,
and at the time of its greatest prosperity contained a population
of 500,000 souls, and was surrounded by walls twenty- two milec
in circuit. Its greatness, however, belongs to a later period of
Grecian history.

The Grecian colonies in southern Italy began to be planted at
nearly the same time as in Sicily. They eventually lined the
whole southern coast, as far as Cuma? on the one sea and Tarcn-
tum on the other. They even surpassed those in Sicily in number
and importance ; and so numerous and flourishing did they be-
come, that the south of Italy received the name of Magna Gra?cia.
Of these, two of the earliest and most prosperous were Sybaris and
Croton, both situated upon the Gulf of Tarentum, and both of
Acha'an origin. Sybaris was planted in n.c. 720, and Croton in
B.C. 710. For two centuries they seem to have lived in harmony,
and we know scarcely anything of their history till their fatal con-
test in B.C. 510, Avhich ended in the ruin of Sybaris. During the
whole of tliis period they were two of the most flourishing cities
in all Ilellas. Sybaris in particular attained to an extraordinaiy
degree of wealth, and its inhabitants were so notorious for their
luxury, effeminacy, and debauchery, that their name has become
proverbial for a voluptuary in ancient and modern times. Croton
was the chief scat of the Pythagorean philosophy. Pythagoras
was a native of Samos, but emigrated to Croton, where he met
with the most wonderful success in the propagation of his views.
He established a kind of religious brotherhood, closely united by
a sacred vow. They believed in the transmigration of souls, and
their whole training was designed to make them temperate and
self-denying. TIic doctrines of Pythagoras spread through many
of the other cities of Magna Gnvcia.

Of the numerous other Greek settlements in the south of Italy,
those of Locri, Rhcgium, and Tarentum are the most important.
Locri was founded by the Locrians from the mother-country in
B.C. GS3. The laws of this city were drawn uj) by one of its
citizens, named Zaleucus, and so averse were the Locrians to any
change in them, that whoever proposed a new law had to appear
in the public assembly witli a rope round his neck, which was
immediately tightened if he failed to convince his fellow-citizens
of the necessity of the alteration. Rhegiuui, situated on the fc^traits

B.C. 735-GOO.

THE GREEK COLONIES.

of Messina, opposite Sicily, was colonized by the Chalcidians, but
received a large body of Messenians, who settled here at the close
of the Messenian war. Anaxilas, tyrant of Khegiuni about b.c.
500, was of Messenian descent. He seized the Sicilian Zancle on
the opposite coast, and changed its name into Messana, which it
still bears. Tarentum was a colony from Sparta, and was founded
about B.C. 708. After the destruction of Sybaris it was the most
powerful and flourishing city in Magna Grgecia, and continued to
enjoy great prosperity till its subjugation by the Romans. Al-
tliough of Spartan origin, it did not maintain Spartan habits, and
its citizens were noted at a later time for their love of luxury and
pleasure.

Q TARENTUM.

Map of the chief Greek Colonies in Southern It»''

44 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VJ:

Tho Grecian settlements in the distant countries of Ganl and
Spain were not numerous. Tlie most celeljratcd was Massalia, tlio
modern Marseilles, founded by the Ionic IMioctvans in iJ.c. GOO.

3. The northern coast of Africa, between the territories of
Carthage and Egypt, was also occui)ied by Greek colonists. The
city of Cyrene was founded about n.c. OIK). It was a colony from
the island of Thera in tlic vEgean, which was itself a colony from
Sparta. The situation of Cyrene was well chosen. It stood on
the edge of a range of hills, at the distance of ten miles from the
Mediterranean, of which it commanded a fine view. These hills
descended by a succession of terraces to the ])ort of the town, call-
ed A})oIlonia. The climate Avas most salubrious, and the soil was
distinguished by extraordinary fertility. AVith these advantages
Cyrene rapidly grew iu wealth and ]JOwer; and its greatness is
attested by the immense remains which still mark its desolate site.
Cyrene jdanted several colonies in the adjoining district, of which
Barca, founded about n.c. 500, was the most important.

4. There were several Grecian colonies situated on the eastern
side of the Ionian Sen, in Epirus and its immediate neighbour-
hood. Of these tlie island of Corcyra, now called Corfu, was tho
most wealthy and powerful. It was founded by the Corinthians
about u.c. 700, and in consequence of its commercial activity it
soon became a formidable rival to the mother-city. Hence a war
broke out between these two states at an early period ; and the
most ancient naval battle on record was tlie one fought between
their fleets iu n.c. 00k The dissensions between the mother-city
and her colony arc frequently mentioned in Grecian history, and
were one of the immediate causes of the Peloj)onnesian war. Not-
withstanding their quarrels, they joined in planting four Grecian
colonies upon the same line of coast — Leucas, Anactorium, Apol-
lonia, and Epidamnus.

Tiic colonies in Macedonia and Thrace were very numerous,
and extended all along the coast of the JEgean, of the Hellespont,
of the I'ropontis, and of the Euxine, from the borders of Thessaly
to the mouth of the Danube. Of these we can only glance at the
most imi)ortant. The colonies on the coast of jNlacedonia were
chiefly founded by Chalcis and Erctria in Eubcca ; and the penin-
sula of Chalcidice, with its three projecting headlands, was covered
with their settlements, and derived its name from the former city.
The CJorinthians likewise i)lanted a few c()h)nies on this coast, of
which Potidica, on tlic luirrow isthmus of I'allcne, most deserves
mention.

Of the colonies in Thrace, tlic most flourishing were Selymbria
au'l nvzantium, l)i)th founded by the Mogarians, who ajipcar a«an
o.uK'rprisiug maritime ]>eo])le at an early period.

Tomb of Cyrus.

CHAPTER VII.

THE PERSIAN WARS. — FR03I THE IONIC REVOLT TO THE BATTLE
OF MARATHON, B.C. 500-430.

The Grecian cities on the coast of Asia Minor were the neigh-
bours of an Asiatic power which finally reduced thein to subjec-
tion. This was the kingdom of Lydia, of which Sardis vras the
capital. Croesus, the last and most powerful of the Lydian kings,
who ascended the throne b.c. 5G0, conquered in succession all the
Grecian cities on the coast. His rule, however, was not opprers-
ire, and he permitted the cities to regulate their own affairs.
He spoke the Greek language, welcomed Greek guests, and rev-
erenced the Greek oracles, which he enriched with the most mu-
nificent offerings. He extended his dominions in Asia Minor ns
far as the River Halys, and he formed a close alliance v/ith Asty-
ages, king of the Medes, who were then the ruling race in Asia
Everything seemed to betoken Tininternipted prosperity, when a
people hitherto almost unknown suddenly became masters of the
whole of western Asia.

i6 HISTORY OF GliEECE. Chap. VII

The Persians were of the same race as the Modes, and spoke a
dialect of tlic same hinj^iiagc. They inhabited the mountaiiiou
region soiitli of JNIedia, which shjpcs gradually down to the low
gi-ounds on the coast of the Persian Gulf Wliile the Mcdes be-
came enervated by the corrii]iting influences to which they were
exposed, the Persians preserved in tlicir native mountains their
simple and M'arlike habits. They Avere a brave and hardy nation,
clothed in skins, drinking only water, and ignorant of the com-
monest luxuries of life. Cyrus led tliesc lierce warriors from
their mountain fastnesses, defeated the Medes in battle, took Asty-
agcs prisoner, and deprived him of his throne. The other nations
included in the Median em]>irc submitted to the conqueror, and
the sovereignty of Upper Asia tlius i)assed from the INIedes to the
Persians. The accession of Cyrus to the empire is ])laced in J5.c.
559. A few years afterwards Cyrus turned his arms against the
Lydians, took Sardis, and deprived Croesus of his throne (n.c. 54G).
The fall of Crasus was followed by the subjection of the Greek
cities in Asia to the Persian yoke. They offered a brave but inef-
fectual resistance, and were taken one after the other by Harpagus,
the Persian general. Even the islnnds of Lesbos and Chios sent
in their submission to Ilnrjiagus, although the Persians then jios-
sessed no fleet to force them to obedience. Samos, on the other
hand, maintained its independence, and appears soon afterwards
one of the most powerful of the Grecian states.

During the reign of Cambyses (n.c. 529-521), the son and suc-
cessor of Cynis, the Greek cities of Asia remained obedient to their
Persian governors. It was during tliis reign that Polycrates, ty-
rant of Samos, became the master of the Grecian seas. The am-
bition and good fortune of tliis enterprising tyrant were alike re-
markable, lie possessed a hnndred ships of war, with which he
conquered several of the islands ; and he aspired to nothing less
than the dominion of Ionia, as well as of the islands in tlie ^Egean.
The LacedaBmunians, who had invaded the island at the invitaiiin
of the Samian exiles, for the purpose of overthrowing his govcm-
ment, were obliged to retire, after besieging his city in vain for
fjrty days. Everything Avhich ho nndcrtook seemed to prosper;
but his uninterruj>ted good fortune at length excited the alarm of
his ally Amasis, the king of Egypt. According to the tale related
by Herodotus, the Egyptian king, convinced that such amazing
good fortune would sooner or later incur the envy of the gods,
wrote to I'olycratcs, advising him to tlirow away one of iiis most
Valual)le jiosscssions, and thus inllict some injury nj)on himself.
'J'hinking tlic advice to be good, Polycrates threw into the sea a
favourite ring of matchless price and beauty; but, unfortunately, it

B.C. 559-510. CYRUS, CAMBYSES, DARIUS. 4)

was found a few days afterwards in the belly of a fine fish which a
fisherman had sent him as a present. Amasis now foresaw that
the ruin of Polycrates was inevitable, and sent a herald to Samos to
renounce his alliance. The gloomy anticipations of the Egyptian
monarch proved well founded. In the midst of all his prosperity
Polycrates fell by a most ignominious fate. Oroetes, the satrap
of Sardis, had for some unknown cause conceived a deadly hatred
against the Samian despot. By a canning stratagem the satrap
allured him to the main land, where he was immediately arrested
and hanged upon a cross (b.c. 522).

The reign of Darius, the third king of Persia (b.c. 521-485), is
memorable in Grecian history. In his invasion of Scythia, his
fleet, which was furnished by the Asiatic Greeks, was ordered to
sail up the Danube and throw a bridge of boats across the river.
The king himself, with his land forces, marched through Thrace ;
and, crossing the bridge, placed it under the care of the Greeks,
telling them that, if he did not return within sixty days, they might
break it down and sail home. He then left them, and penetrated
into the Scythian territory. The sixty days had already passed
away, and there was yet no sign of the Persian army ; but shortly
afterwards the Greeks were astonished by the appearance of a body
of Scythians, who informed them that Darius was in full retreat,
pursued by the whole Scythian nation, and that his only hope of
safety depended upon that bridge. They virged the Greeks to
seize this opportunity of destroying the Persian army, and of re-
covering their own liberty, by breaking down the bridge. Their
exhortations were warmly seconded by the Athenian Mihiadcs, the
tyrant of the Thraeian Chersonesus, and the future conqueror of
Marathon. The other rulers of the Ionian cities were at first dis-
posed to follow his suggestion ; but as soon as Histiajus of Miletus
reminded them that their sovereignt}' depended upon the support
of the Persian king, and that his ruin would involve their ov>'n,
they changed their minds and resolved to await the Persians. Aft-
er enduring great privations and sufferings, Darius and his army
at length reached the Danube and crossed the bridge in safety.
Thus the selfishness of these Grecian despots threw away the most
favourable opportunity that ever presented itself of delivering their
native cities from the Persian voke. To reward the services of
Histireus, Darius' gave him the town of Myrcinus, near the Stry^
mon. Darius, on his return to Asia, left Megabazus in Europe
with an army of 80,000 men to complete the subjugation of Thrace
and of the Greek cities upon the Hellespont. Magabazus not only
subdued the Thracians, but crossed the Strymon, conquered tho
Pajonians, and penetrated as far as the frontiers of ^lacedonia.

48 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VI L

lie then sent heralds into the latter country to demand earth and
water, tlie customary symbols of submission. These were im-
mediately granted by Amyntas, tlie reigninf^ monarcli (n.c. />10);
and thus the Persian dominions were extended to the borders
of Thessaly. Megabazus, on his return to Savdis, where Darius
awaited him, informed the Persian monarcli that llistireus was
collectinf:^ tlie elements of a power wliich mipht hereafter jirove
formidable to the Persian sovereignty, since Myrcinus commanded
the navigation of the Strymon, and consequently the commerce
Avith tbe interior of Thrace. Darius, perceiving that the appre-
licnsions of his general were not without foundation, summoned
llisti;\?as to his presence, and, under the j)retext tliat he could not
bear to be deprived of the corajiany of his friend, carried him with
the rest of the court toSusa. This apparently trivial circumstance
was attended with important consequences to the Persian empire
and to tlie wliole Grecian race.

Por tlie next few years everything remained quiet in the Greek
cities of Asia ; but about n.c. 502 a revolution in Naxos, one of the
islands in the T^^gean Sea, first disturbed the general repose, and
occasioned the war between Greece and Asia. The avistocratical
exiles, Avho liad been driven out of Naxos by a risiug of the ]»cople,
applied for aid to Aristagoras, the tyrant of IMilctus and the son-
in-Uiw of Ilistiajus. Aristagoras readily promised his assistance,
knowing that, if they were restored by his means, he should be-
come master of the island. He obtained the co-operation of Arta-
phcrnes, tlie satrap of western Asia, by holding out to liim the
prosj)eet of annexing not only Naxos, but all the islands of tlic
JKpcan Sea, to the Persian empire. He oilcred at the same time
to defray the expense of the armament. Arta[)hernes jdaced at
his disposal a fleet of 200 ships, under the command of Mei:ab:ites,
a Persian of high rank ; but Aristagoras having affronted the Per-
sian admiral, the latter revenged himself by i)rivately informing
the Naxians of the object of the expedition, which had hitherto
been kept a secret. When the Persian fleet reached Naxos they
cxijeiienccd a vigorous resistance ; and at the end of four months
they were compelled to al)andou the enterprise and return to
Miletus. Aristagoras was now threatened with utter ruin. Ihiv^
ing deceived Arta]»hernes, and incurred the enmity of Mcgabates,
lie could expect no favour from the Persian govcnimcnt, and might
be called upon at any moment to defray the ex]icnscs of the arm-
ament. In those dilliculties he began to think of exciting a re-
volt of his countrymen ; and while revolving the jirojcct he re-
ceived u message from his father-in-law, Histiieus, urging him to
tliis very step. Afraid of trusting any one with so dangerous a

B.C. 499. BURNING OF SARDIS. 4d

message, Histiasus had shaved the head of a trusty slave, branded
upon it the necessary words, and as soon as the hair liad grown
again sent liim off to Miletus. His only motive for urging the
lonians to revolt was the desire of escaping from captivity at Susa,
thinking that Darius would set him at liberty in order to put down
an insurrection of his countrymen. The message from Histiaeua
fixed the wavering resolution of Aristagoras. He forthwith call-
ed together the leading citizens of Miletus, laid before them the
project of revolt, and asked them for advice. They all approved
of the scheme with the exception of Hecatajus, one of the earliest
Greek historians. Aristagoras laid down the supreme power in
Miletus, and nominally resigned to the people the management of
their own affairs. A democratical form of government was estab-
lished in the other Greek cities of Asia, which thereupon openly
revolted fi-om Persia (b.c. 500).

Aristagoras now resolved to cross over to Greece, in order to so-
licit assistance. The Spartans, to whom lie first applied, refused
to take any part in the war; but at Athens he met with a very
different reception. The Athenians sympathized with the lonians
as their kinsmen and colonists, and were incensed against the sa-
trap Artaphemcs, Avho had recently commanded them to recall
Hippias. Accordingly, tlicy voted to send a squadron of twenty
ships to the assistance of the lonians ; and in the following year
(i?.c. 499) this fleet, accompanied by five ships from Eretria in
Euboea, crossed the JEgean. The troops landed at Ephesus, and,
being re-enforced by a strong body of lonians, marched npon Sar-
dis. Artaphernes was taken vmprepared; and not having suflS-
cient troops to man the Avails, he retired into the citadel, leaving
the town a prey to the invaders. Accordingly, they entered it im-
©pposed ; and v/hile engaged in pillage, one of the soldiers set fire
to a house. As most of the houses were built of wickerwork and
thatclied with straw, the flames rapidly spread, and in a short time
the whole city was in flames. The Greeks, on their return to the
coast, were overtaken by a large Persian force and defeated with
great slaughter. The Athenians hastened on board their ships
and sailed home.

When Darius heard of the burning of Sardis, he burst into a
paroxysm of rage. It was against the obscure strangers who had
dared to burn one of his capitals that his wrath was chiefly direct-
ed. "The Athenians!" he exclaimed, "■who am t/tei/f' Upon
being informed, he took his bow, shot an arrow high into the air,
saying, "Grant me, Jove, to take vengeance upon the Athenians!"
And he charged one of his attendants to remind him tlirice every
day at dinner, " Sire, remember the Athenians." Mean<^imc tho

60 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VIL

insurrection spread to the Greek cities in Cyprus, as well as to
those on the Hellespont and the Propontis, and seemed to prom-
'ise permanent independence to the Asiatic Greeks; but they were
no match for the whole power of the Persian empire, which was
soon brought against them. Cyprus was subdued, and siege laid
to the cities upon the coast of Asia. Aristagoras now began to
despair, and basely deserted his countrymen, whom he had led
into peril. Collecting a large body of Milesians, he set sail for
the Thracian coast, where he was slain under the walls of a town
to which he had laid siege. Soon after his departure, his father-
in-law, Ilistiajus, came down to the coast. The artful Greek not
only succeeded in removing the suspicions which Darius first en-
tertained respecting him, but he persuaded the king to send him
into Ionia, in order to assist the Persian generals in suppressing
the rebellion. Artaphernes, liowcver, was not so easily deceived
as his master, and plainly accused Jlistiitus of treacher\' when the
latter arrived at Sardis. "I will tell you how the facts stand,"
said Artaphernes to Ilistia^us; "it was you who made the shoe,
and Aristagoras has put it on." Finding himself unsafe at Sar-
dis, he escaped to tlic island of Chios; but he was regarded with
6usi)icion by all parties. At length he obtained eight galleys from
Lesbos, with which he sailed towards Byzantium, and carried on
piracies as well against the Grecian as the barbarian vessels.
This unprincipled adventurer met with a traitor's death. Having
land -d on the coast of Mysia, he was sur})riscd by a Persian force
and made prisoner. Being carried to Sardis, Artajdiernes at once
caused him to be crucified, and sent his head to Darius, who or-
dered it to be honourably buried, condemning the ignominious ex-
ecution of the man who had once saved the life of the Great King.
In the sixth year of tlie revolt (ii.c. 41)r>), when several Grecian
cities had already been taken by the I'ersians, Artai>hernes laid
siege to Miletus by sea and by land. A naval engagement took
place at Lade, a small island off Miletus, which decided the fate
of ihe war. The Samians deserted at the commencement of the
battle, and the Ionian fleet was completely defeated. Miletus
was soon aftenvards taken, and was treated with signal severity.
Most of the males were slain ; and the few who escaped the sword
were carried with tlic women and children into captivity (n.c.
41)4). The other Greek cities in Asia and the neighbouring isl-
ands were treated witli the same cruelty. The islands of Ciiios,
Lesbos, and Tenedos were swejit of their inhabitants ; and the Per-
sian fleet sailed up to the Hellespont and Propontis, earning with
it lire and sword. Tlie Athenian Miltiadcs only esca])ed falling
into the power of the Persians by a rajiid Higlit to Athens.

B.C. 490. INVASION OF GREECE. 51

The subiufi:ation of Ionia was now complete. Tbis vas the
third time that the Asiatic Greeks had been conquered by a -foreign
power ; first by the Lydian Croesus ; secondly by the generals of
Cyrus; and lastly by those of Darius. It was from the last that
they suffered most, and they never fully recovered their former
prosperity.

Darius was now at liberty to take A'engeance upon the Atheni-
ans. He appointed Mardonius to succeed Arta])hernes as satrap
in western Asia, and ht placed under his command a large arma-
ment, with injunctions to bring to Susa those Athenians and Ere-
trians who had insulted the authority of the Great King. Mar-
donius, after crossing the Hellespont, commenced his march
through Tlirace and Macedonia, subduing, as he Avent along, the
tribes which had not yet submitted to the Persian power. He
ordered the fleet to double the promontory of Mount Athos, and
join the land forces at the head of the Gulf of The.vma ; but one
of the hurricanes which frequently blow off this dangerous coast
overtook the Persian fleet, destroyed 300 vessels, and drowned or
dashed upon the rocks 20,000 men. Meantime the land forces
of Mardonius had suffered so much from an attack made upon
them by a Thracian tribe, that he could not proceed farther. He
led his army back across the Hellespont, and returned to the Per-
sian court covered with shame and grief (b.c. 492).

The failure of this expedition did not shake the resolution of
Darius. He began to make preparations for another attempt on a
still larger scale, and meantime sent heralds to most of the Grecian
states to demand from each earth and water as the symbol of sub-
mission. Such terror had the Persians inspired by their recent
conquest of Ionia, that a large number of the Grecian cities sJ
once complied with the demand ; but the Athenians cast the her-
ald into a deep pit, and the Spartans threw him into a well, bid-
ding him take earth and water from thence.

In the spring of b.c. 490 a large army and fleet were assembled
in Cilicia, and the command was given to Datis, a Median, and
Artaphernes, son of the satrap of Sardis of that name. "Warned
by the recent disaster of Mardonius in doubling the promontory
of Mount Athos, they resolved to sail straight across the ^gean
to Euboea, subduing on their way the Cyclades. These islands
yielded a ready submission ; and it was not till Datis and Arta-
phernes reached Euboea that they encountered any resistance.
Eretria defended itself gallantly for six days, and repulsed the
Persians with loss ; but on the seventh the gates were opened to
the besiegers by the treacheiy of two of its leading citizens. The
city was ray.*^'^' to tb " ground, and the inhabitants were put iu

52 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VII.

chains. From Eretria the Persians crossed over to Attica, and
landed on the ever memorable i)lain of Maratlion, a spot ^vhich
had been pointed out to them by the despot Ilippias, who accom-
panied the array.

As soon as the news of the fall of Eretria reached Alliens, a
courier had been sent to Sparta to solicit assistance. This was
j)romised ; but tlie superstition of the Spartans ju-eventcd tliom
from setting out immediately, since it wanted a few days to the full
moon, and it was contrary to their religious customs to commence
a march during this interval. Meantime the Athenians had
marched to Marathon", and Avere encamped upon the mountains
wliich surrounded tlie plain. They were commanded, according
to the regular custom, by ten generals, one for each tribe, and by
the Rolemarch, or third Archon, wl d down to this time continued
to be a colleague of tlie generals. Among tlicse the most distin-
guished was Mihiades, who, though but lately a tyrant in tlie Cher-
Bonesus, had shown such energy and ability, that the Athenians
had elected him one of their commanders ui)on the approach of
the Persian fleet. Upon learning the answer which the courier
brought from S])arta, the ten generals were divided in oj.inion.
Five of them were opposed to an immediate engagement with the
overwhelming number of Persians, and urged the importance of
waiting for the arrival of the Lacedaemonian succours. Miltiades
and the remaining four contended that not a moment should be
lost in fighting the I'ersians, not only in order to aA'ail themselves
of the present enthusiasm of the jjcoj-le, but still more to prevent
treachery from spreading among their ranks. Callimachus, the
Polemarch, yielded to the arguments of Miltiades, and ffave his
vote for the battle. The ten generals commanded their army in
rotation, eacli for one day ; but tlicy now agreed to surrender to
Miltiades their days of command, in order to invest the whole
power in a single person. While the Athenians were preparing
for battle, they received unexpected assistance from the little town
of I'latica, in Bfcotia. Grateful to Ihc Athenians for the assist-
ance whicli tlicy had rendered ihem against the 'JMu-bans, the
whole force of I'lataja, amounting to 1000 heavy-armed men,
marched to the assistance of their allies and joined them at Mar-
athon. The Athenian army only numbered 10,000 liopiitcs, or
hcavr-armed soldiers: there were no archers or cavalry, iiiid only
Fomo slaves as light-armed attciuhints. Of the number of the
Persian army we have no trustworthy account, but the lowest esti-
mate makes it consist of 1 10,000 men.

Tne ]>lain of Marathon lies on the eastern const of Attica, at
the distance of twentv-two miles from Athens bv the shortest road.

B.C. 490.

BATTLE OF MARATHON.

It is in the form of a crescent, the hon:s of which consist of two
promontories running into the sea, and forming a semicircular
buy. This plain is about six miles in lengtb, and in its widest or
central part about two in breadth. On the day of battle the Per-
sian army was diawn up along the plain about a mile from the
sea, and their fleet was ranged behind them on the beach. The
Athenians occupied the rising ground aboA'C the plain, and ex-
tended from one side of the plain to the other. This arrangement

Plan of the Battle of Marathon.

was necessary in order to protect their flanks by the mountains on
each side, and to prevent the cavalry from passing round to atf-ack
them in rear. But so large a breadth of ground could net be oc-
cupied with so small a number of men without weakening some
portion of the line. Miltiades, therefore, drew up the troops in
the centre in shallow files, and resolved to rely for success upon
the stronger and deeper masses of his wings. The right wing,
which was the post of honour in a Grecian aiTny, was commanded
by the Polemarch Callimachus ; the lioplites were arranged in the

54 mSTOIlY OF GREECE. Chap. VH

order of iheir tribes, so that the members of the same tribe fought
by each other's side ; and at the extreme left stood tlie rhitneans.

Miltiadcs, anxious to come to close quarters as speedily as pos-
fiible, ordered his soldiers to advance at a running step over the
mile of ground which separated them from the foe. Both the
Athenian wings were successful, and drove the enemy before tliera
towards the shore and the marshes. But the Athenian centre was
broken by the Persians, and compelled to take to flight. Mil-
tiades thereupon recalled his wings from pursuit, and charged the
Persian centre. The latter could not withstand this combined at-
tack. The rout(^ now became general along the Avliole Persian
line ; and they fled to their ships, pursued by the Athenians.

The Persians lost G400 men in this memorable engagement •.
of the Athenians only 192 fell. The aged tyrant Ilippias is said
to have perished in the battle, and tlic brave Polemarch Calli-
machus Avas also one of the slain. The Persians embarked and
sailed away to Asia. Their departure was hailed at Athens with
one unanimous burst of heartfelt joy. Marathon became a magic
word at Athens. The Athenian people in succeeding ages al-
ways looked back u])on this day as the most glorious in their an-
nals, and never tired of hearing its praises sounded by their ora-
tors and poets. And they had reason to be proud of it. It was
the first time that the Greeks had e\ev defeated the Persians in
the field. It Avas the exploit of the Athenians alone. It had saA'cd
not only Athens, but all Greece. If tlie Persians had conquered
at Marathon, Greece must, in all likelihood, have become a Per-
sian province ; the destinies or ihe Avorld Avould have been clianged ;
and oriental despotism might still have brooded OA'er the faircsi
countries of Europe.

The one hundred and ninety-tAvo Athenians Avho had perished
in the battle Avcre buried on the field, and over their remains a
tumulus or mound Avas erected, Avhieh may still be seen about half
a mile from the sea.

Shortly after the battle Miltiadcs requested of the Athcniano a
fleet of seventy ships, Avithout telling them the object of his expe-
dition, but only promising to enrich the state. Such unbounded
confidence did the Athenians repose in the hero of Maratlion,
tiiat they at once comjdied Avith his demand. This confidence
INIiltiades abused. In order to gratify a ])rivate animosity against
one of the leading citizens of Paros, he sailed to this island und
laid siege to the town. The citizens rej)elled all his attacks;
and having rcceiAcd a dangerous injury on his thigh, he Avas com-
pelled to raise the siege r^nd return to Atiiens. Loud Avas the in-
dignation against Miltiadcs on his return. lie was accused by

B.C. 483. BANISHMENT OF ARISTIDES. 65

Xanthippvas, the father of Pericles, of having deceived the people,
and was brought to trial. His wound had already begun to show
symptoms of gangrene. He was carried into court on a couch,
and there lay before the assembled judges, while his friends plead-
ed on his behalf. They could offer no excuse for his recent con-
duct, but they reminded the Athenians of the sen'ices he had ren-
dered, and begged them to spare the victor of Marathon. The
judges were not insensible to this appeal ; and instead of con-
demning him to death, as the accuser had demanded, they com-
muted the penalty to a fine of fifty talents. Miltiades was unable
immediately to raise this sum, and died soon afterwards of his
wound. The fine was subsequently paid by his son Cimon. The
melancholy end of Miltiades must not blind us to his offence. He
had grossly abused the public confidence, and deserA^ed his punish-
ment. The Athenians did not forget his services at Marathon,
and it was their gratitude towards him which alone saved hira
from death.

Soon after the battle of Marathon a war broke out between
Athens and iEgina. This war is of great importance in Grecian
history, since to it the Athenians were indebted for their na^y,
which enabled them to save Greece at Salamis as they had already
done at Marathon. ^Egina was one of the chief maritime powers
in Greece ; and accordingly Themistocles urged the Athenians to
build and equip a large and powerful fleet, without which it Avas
impossible for them to humble their riA-al. There Avas at this time
a large surplus in the public treasury, arising from the produce of
the sih'er-mines at Laurium. It had been recently proposed to
distribute this surplus among the Athenian citizens ; but Themis-
tocles persuaded them to sacrifice their priA-ate advantage to the
public good, and to appropriate this money to building a fleet of
200 ships.

The tAvo leading citizens of Athens at this period AA'ere Themis-
tocles and Aristides. These two eminent men formed a striking
conti-ast to each other. Themistocles possessed abilities of the
most extraordinary kind ; but they Avere marred by a Avant of
honesty. Aristides Avas inferior to Themistocles in ability, but
Avas incomparably superior to him in honesty and integrity. His
uprightness and justice were so uniA'crsally acknowledged that he
received the surname of the "Just." Themistocles AA-as the leader
of the democratical, and Aristides of the conserA'ati\'e party at
Athens. After three or four A-ears of bitter riA^alrv, the two chiefs
appealed to the ostracism, and Aristides Avas banished (n.c. 483).
We arc told that an unlettered countryman gaA^e his vote against
Ai'istides at the ostracism because, he Avas tired of hearing him al-
)fvays called the Just.

Greek Soldier. (From an ancient VajJC.)

CIIAl^TER Ylll.

THE PERSIAN AVARS. — THE BATTLES OF TIIFRMOrYL^, SALAMI3,
AND PLAT^A, 15. C. 4S0-479.

The defeat of the rersiaiis at Jfarathon sciTcd only to increase
the resentment of Darius. lie now resolved to collect the wholft
forces of his emi)irc, and to lead them in person aj^ainst Athens.
For three years busy preparations were made throu<;hout his vast
dominions. In the fourth year his attention was distracted by a
revolt of the Egyptians ; and before he could reduce them to sub-
jection he was surjjrised l)y death, after a reijjjn of 37 years (ii.c.
48r>). Xerxes, the son and successor of Darius, had received the
education of an eastern despot, and been surrounded with slave*
from his cradle. In person he was the tallest and handsomest
man amidst the vast hosts which he led npainst Greece ; but there
was nothin<; in his mind to corrcsjjond to this fair exterior. His
character was marked by f:iint-hearted timidity and childish vanity.
Xerxes had not inherited his father's animosity against Greece ;
])ut he was surrounded by men who urged liim to continue the en-
terprise. Foremost among these was Mardonius, who was eager

B.C. 480. INVASION OF XERXES. 57

to retrieve his reputation, and to obtain the conquered country as
a satrapy for himself. After subduing Egypt (b.c. 484), Xerxes
began to make preparations for the invasion of Greece. For four
years the din of preparation sounded throughout Asia. Troops
were collected from every quarter of the Persian empire, and were
ordered to assemble in Cappadocia. As many as forty-six dif-
ferent nations composed the land-force, of vaiuous complexions,
languages, dresses, and arms. Meantime Xerxes ordered a bridge
to be thrown across the Hellespont, that his army might march
from Asia into Europe ; and he likewise gave directions that a
canal should be cut through the isthmus of Mount Athos, in order
to avoid the necessity of doubling this dangerous promontory,
Avhere the fleet of Mardonius had suffered shipwreck. The mak-
ing of this canal, which was about a mile and a half long, employ-
ed a number of men for tlirce years.

In the spring of b.c. 480 Xerxes set out from Sardis with his
vast host. Upon reaching Abydos on the Hellespont, the araiy
crossed over to Europe by the bridge of boats. Xerxes surveyed
the s?ene from a marble throne. His heart swelled v.'ithin him at
the sight of such a vast assemblage of hiiman beings ; but his feel-
ings of pride and pleasure soon gave way to sadness, and he burst
into tears at the reflection that in a hundred years not one of
them would be alive. Xerxes continued his march through Eu-
rope along the coast of Thrace. Upon arriving at the spacious
plain of Doriscus, Avhich is travei'sed by the liiver Hebrus, he re-
solved to number his forces. He found that the Avhole armament,
both military and naval, consisted of 2,317,610 men. In his
march from Doriscus to Thermopylie ho received a still further
accession of strength; and accordingly, when he reached Ther-
mopylae, the land and sea forces amounted to 2,G4],G10 fighting
men. The attendants are said to have been more in number than
the fighting men ; but if they were only equal, the number of per-
sons who accompanied Xerxes to Thermopylae reaches the astound-
ing figure of 5,283,220! This number is quite incredible; but,
though the exact number of the invading anny cannot be determ-
ined, we may safely conclude, from all the circumstances of the
case, that it was the largest ever assembled at any period of history.

From Doriscus Xerxes continued his march along the coast
through Tiirace and Macedonia. The principal cities through
which he passed had to furnish a day's meal for the immense host,
and for this purpose had made preparations many months before-
hand. The cost of feeding such a multitude brought many cities
to the brink of ruin. At Acanthus his fleet sailed through the
isthmus of Athos, and, after doubling the promontories of Sithonia

68 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VIII.

and Pallene, joined him at the city of Thcrma, better known by its
later name of Thessalonica. Thence he continued his march
tluough tlic soutliern part of Macedonia andTliessaly, meeting with
no opposition till he reached the celebrated pass of Thermoj)yla?.

The mighty prejjarations of Xerxes had been no secret in Greece ;
and during the preceding winter a congress of the Grecian states
liad Ixicn summoned by the Spartans and Athenians to meet at the
isthmus of Corintli. But so great was the terror inspired by the
countless hosts of Xerxes, that many of the Grecian states at once
tendered their submission to him, and others refused to take any
])art in the congress. The only i)Cople north of the istlimus of
Corinth who remained faithful to the cause of Grecian liberty
•were the Athenians and Phocians, and tlie inliabitants of the small
Boeotian towns of Plataia and Thespiaj. The other people in
northern Greece were either partisans of the Persians, like the
Thebans, or were unwilling to make any great sacrifices for tlic
j)reservation of their independence. In Pchijionnesus, the power-
ful city of Argos and the Acluvans stood aloof. From the more
distant members of the Hellenic race no assistance was obtained.
(Jelon, the ruler of Syracuse, oflbred to send a ])owerfiil armament,
])rovided the command of the allied forces was intrusted to him ;
but the envoys did not venture to accept a jiroposal which would
have placed both Sparta and Athens under the control of a Sicil-
ian tyrant.

The desertion of the cause of Grecian independence by so many
of the Greeks did not shake the resolution of Sparta and of Athens.
The Athenians, csjjecially, set a noble cxamjile of an enlarged
patriotism. They became reconciled to the JEginetans, and thus
gained for the common cause the powerful navy of their riA'al.
They readily granted to the Sjiartans the sujjreme command of the
forces by sea as well as by land, although they furnished two thirds
of the vessels of the entire lleet. Their illustrious citizen Themis-
tocles was the soul of the congress. He sought to enkindle in
the other Greeks some portion of the ardour and energy which ho
had succeeded in breathing into the Athenians.

The Greeks determined to make a stand at the ]iass of Ther-
mojtyla.', which forms the entrance from nortliern into southern
Greece. This pass lies betw'een INfount QCta and the sea. It is
tibout a mile in length. At each of its extremities the mountains
a])])roach so near the sea as to leave barely room for the passage
of a single carriage. The northern, or, to speak more j)roperly,
tlie western Gate, was close to tlie town of Anthela, where the
Amjjhictyonic council held its autumnal meetings; while the south-
ern, or the eastern Gate, was near the Locrian town of Alpeiu

B.C. 480.

THE PASS OF TIIERMOPYLJE.

These narrow entrances were called PyliC, or the Gates, The
space between the gates was wider and more open, and was dis-
tiiiguislied by its hot springs, from which tlie pass derived the
name of ThermopyhTj. or the " Hot-Gates." The island of Euboea
is here separated f»-om the main land by a narrow strait, which in
one part is only two miles and a half in breadth ; and according-
ly it is easy, by defending this part of the sea with a fleet, to pre-
vent an enemy from landing troops at tlie southern end of the pass.

Plan of Themiopylie.

The Grecian fleet, under tlie command of the Spartan Eury-
l)iadcs, took up its station off that portion of the northern coast of
Euboea which faces Magnesia and the entrance to the Thessalian
Gulf, and which was called Artemisium, from a neighbouring tem-
)de of Artemis (Diana). It was, liowcA'er, only a small land-force
that was sent to the defence of Thermopyla;. When the arrival
of Xerxes at Therma became known, the Greeks were i;pon the
point of celebrating the Olympic games, and the festival of the
Carnean Apollo, which was observed with great solemnity at Si)arta
and in other Doric states. The Peloponnesians tlierefore sent
forward only 300 Spartans and 3000 hoplites from other Pelopon-
nesian states, tinder the command of the Spartan king Leonidas,
a force which they thought would be sufiicient to maintain the pass
till the festivals were over. In his march northwards Leonidas
received additions from the Thespians, Phocians, and Locrians, so
that he had under his command at Thermopylae about 7000 men.

Meanwhile Xerxes had arrived within sight of Therino])yla;.

60 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VIIL

He had heard that a handful of desperate men, commanded hy a
Spartan, had determined to dispute his passapje, but he refused to
believe the news. He was still more astonished when a horseman,
whom he had sent to reconnoitre, brought back word that he had
seen several Spartans outside the wall in front of the pass, some
amusing themselves with gymnastic exercises, and others combing
tlieir long hair. In great perj)lexity, he sent for the exiled Sj)artaQ
king Demaratus, who had accomjjanied him from Persia, and ask-
ed him the meaning of such madness. Demaratus replied that the
Spartans would defend the pass to the death, and tliat it was their
practice to dress their heads with peculiar care when they were
going to battle. Later writers relate that Xerxes sent to them to
deliver up their anns, Leonidas desired him "to come and take
them." One of tlie Spartans being told that " the Persian host
was so prodigious that their arrows would conceal the sun" —
"So much the better" (he replied), "we shall then fight in the
shade."

At length, upon the fifth day, Xerxes oi'dercd a chosen body of
Modes to advance against the presumi)tuous foes and bring them
into liis presence. But their superior numbers were of no avail in
such a narrow space, and they were kept at bay by the long spears
and steady ranks of the Greeks. After the combat had lasted a
long time with heavy loss to the Ivledes, Xerxes ordered his ten
thousand "Immortals," the flower of the Persian army, to ad-
vance. But they were as unsuccessful as the Modes. Xerxes be-
held tlie repulse of his troops from a lofty throne which had been
provided for him, and v.as seen to leap thrice from his scat in an
agony of fear or rage.

On the following day the attack was renewed, but with no bet-
ter success ; and Xerxes was beginning to despair of forcing his
way through the ])ass, when a IMalian, of the name of Ki)hialtes,
betrayed to the Persian king tlmt there was an unfrequented ]iath
across Blount CFAa, ascending on the northern side of tlie mountain,
and descending on the southern side near the termination of the
pass. Overjoyed at this discovery, a strong detachment of Per-
sians was ordered to follow the traitor. Meantime Leonidas and
his troo])S had received amjjle notice of the imi>ending danger.
During the niglit deserters from the enemy had brought him the
news ; and their intelligence was confirmed by his own scouts on
the hills. His resolution was at once taken. As a Spartan, he
was bound to conquer or to die in the ])Ost assigned to him ; and
he was the more ready to sacrifice his life, since jvn oracle luid de-
clared that cither Spnrta itself or a Spartan king must jjcrish by
the Persian arms. His three hundred comrades were fully cqu»'

B.C. 480. BATTLE OF ARTEMISIUM. 61

to the same heroism wliich actuated their king; and the seA'en
liundred Thespians resolved to share the fate of this gallant band.
He allowed the rest of the allies to retire, Avith the exception of
four hundred Bceotians, Avhom he retained as hostages. Xerxes
delayed his attack till the middle of the day, when it was expected
that the detachment sent across the mountain would arrive at the
rear of the pass. But Leonidas and his comrades, only anxious
to sell their lives as dearly as possible, did not wait to receive the
attack of the Persians, but advanced into the open space in front
of the pass, and charged the enemy with desperate valour. Kum-
bers of the Persians were slain ; many Avere driA'en into the neigh-
bouring sea ; and others again Av^ere trampled to death by the vast
hosts behind them. As long as the Greeks could maintain their
ranks they repelled every attack ; but Avhen their spears Avero
broken, and they had only their SAVords left, the enemy began to
press in betAveen them. Leonidas AA'as one of tlie first that fell,
and around his body the battle raged fiercer than CA'er. The Per-
sians made the greatest efforts to obtain possession of it; but four
times they Avere driven back by the Greeks Avith great slaughter.
At length, thinned in numbers, and exhausted by fatigue and
Avounds, this noble band retired AA-ithin the pass, and seated them-
selves on a hillock. MeauAvhile the Persian detachment, AA'hich
had been sent across the mountains, began to enter the pass from
tlie south. The Spartan heroes Avere noAv surrounded on every
side, overwhelmed Avith a shower of missiles, and killed to a man.
On the hillock, Avhere the Greeks made their last stand, a mar-
ble lion Avas set up in honour of Leonidas. Another monument,
erected near the spot, contained the memorable inscription :

" Go, tell the Spartans, thou that passest by,
That here obedient to their laws v/e lie."

While Leonidas had been fighting at Thermopylsie, the Greek
fleet had also been engaged Avitli the Persians at Artemisium.
The Persian fleet set sail from the Gulf of Therma, and arrived
in one day at almost the soutlicrn corner of Magnesia. In this
position they Avere overtaken In' a sudden hurricane, Avhich blew
upon the shore with irresistible fury. For three days and tliree
nights the tempest raged Avithout intermission ; and Avhen calm at
length returned, the shore Avas seen strcAved for many miles Avith
Avrecks and corpses. At least four hundred ships of Avar Avere de-
stroyed, together Avith a countless number of transports, stores, and
treasures. The Greek fleet had been seized Avith a panic terror
at the approach of the Persians, and retreated to Chalcis, in the
narroAvest part of the Euboean Straits ; but upon liearing of the
disaster of the Persian fleet, they took courage, ond sailed back

C2 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VHL

with the utmost speed to their former station at Artemisium.
Being now encouraj^cd to attack the enemy, they gained some
success. On the following night another terrific storm burst upon
the Persians. All night long it blew upon the Thessalian coast
at Ajjlictre, where the Persian sliips were stationed, thus causing
little inconvenience to the Greeks on tlie opposite shore. Not-
withstanding these losses, the Persian fleet still had a vast superi-
ority of numbers, and determined to offer battle to the Greeks.
Quitting the Thessalian coast, they sailed towards Artemisium in
the form of a crescent. The Greeks kept near the shore, to pre-
vent the Persians from bringing their whole fleet into action. The
battle raged furiously the whole day, and each side fought with
determined valour. Both parties suflered severely ; and though
tlie Persians lost a greater number of ships and men, yet so many
of the Greek vessels were disabled that they found it would be
impossible to renew the combat. Under these circumstances, the
Greek commanders saw that it would be necessary to retreat ; and
their determination was hastened by the news which they now re-
ceived, that Leonidas and his companions had fallen, and that
Xerxes was master of the pass of Thermopyhx;. Having sailed
through the Eubaan Strait, the fleet doubled the promontory of
Sunium, and did not stop till it reached the island of Salamis.

Meanwhile the Peloponnesians had abandoned Attica and the
adjoining states to their fate, whilst they strained every nen-e to
secure themselves by fortifying the isthmus of Corinth. The
Athenians, relying ujion the march of the Peloponnesian army into
Baotia, had taken no measures for the security of their families
and property, and beheld with terror and dismay the barbarian
host in full march towards their city. In six days it was calcu-
lated Xerxes would be at Athens — a short space to remove the
population of a whole city ; but fear and necessity work wonders.
Before the six days had elapsed, all who were willing to abandon
their homes had been safely transported, some to -^gina, and oth-
ers to Trcc/.cn in Peloponnesus ; but many could not be induced
to proceed farther tlian Salamis. It was necessary fur Themisto-
cles to use all his art and all his eloquence on this occasion. Tiin
oracle at Delphi had tohl the Athenians that " the divine Salamis
would make women childless"' — yet, " when all was lost, a wooden
wall sliould still shelter the Athenians." Thomistoclcs told his
countrymen that these words clearly indicated a lleet and a naval
victory as the only means of safety. Some, however, gave to the
words another meaning ; and a few, especially among the aged and
the i>oor, resolved to shut tlu'niselves up in the Acropolis, and to
fortify ifs accessible or wcstt-ni front with barricades of tinilwr.

B.C. 480. BATTLE OF SAL AMIS. 63

On his march towards Athens, Xerxes sent a detachment of his
army to take and plunder Delphi. But this attem})t proved un-
successful. The god of the most i-enowned oracle of the Grecian
world vindicated at once the majesty of his sanctuary and the
truth of his predictions. As the Persians climbed the rugged
path at the foot of Mount Parnassus, leading np to the shrine,
thunder was heard to roll, and two crags, suddenly detaching them-
selves from the mountain, rolled down upon the Persians, and
spread dismay and destruction in their ranks. Seized with a sud-
den panic, they turned and Hed, pursued, as they said, by two war-
riors of superhuman size and prowess, who had assisted the Del-
phians in defending their temple.

On arriving before Athens, Xerxes found the Acropolis occupied
by a handful of desperate citizens, who made a brave resistance ;
but they were overpowered and put to the sword. The temples
and houses on the Acropolis were pillaged a,nd burnt ; and Xerxes
thus became undisputed master of Athens.

About the same time the Persian fleet arrived in the Bay of
Phalerum. Its strength is not accurately known, but it must have
exceeded 1000 vessels. The combined Grecian fleet at Salamis
consisted of 336 ships, of which 200 were Athenian.

At this critical juncture dissension reigned in the Grecian fleet.
In the council of war Avhich had been summoned by Eurybiades,
the Spartan commander, Themistocles urged the assembled chief?
to remain at Salamis, and give battle to the Persians in the nar-
row straits, where the superior numbers of the Peisians would be
of less consequence. The Peioponnesian commanders, on the
other hand, were anxious that the fleet should be removed to the
isthmus of Corinth, and thus be put in communication with their
land-forces. The council came to a vote in favour of retreat; but
Themistocles prevailed upon Eurybiades to convene another as-
sembly upon the following day. When the council met, the Peio-
ponnesian commanders loudly expressed their dissatisfaction at
seeing a debate re-opened which they had deemed concluded.
Adimantus, the Corinthian admiral, broke out into open rebukes
and menaces. " Themistocles," he exclaimed, "those who rise
at the public games before the signal are whipped." "True," re-
plied Themistocles; "but they who lag behind it never win a
crown." Another incident in this discussion has been immortal'
ized by Plutarch. Eurybiades, incensed I y the language of The-
mistocles, lifted up his stick to strike him, whereupon the Atheninu
exclaimed, "Strike, but hear me !'' Themistocles repeated his ar-
guments and entreaties ; and at length threatened that he and the
Athenians would sail away to Italy and there found a new city, if

64 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VIII.

the Peloponncsians still determined to retreat. Eurybiades now
P&ve way and issued orders for the fleet to remain and light at
Salamis ; but the Peloponnesians obeyed the order with reluct-
ance. A third council was summoned ; and Thcmistocles, per-
ceiving that the decision of the assembly would be against him,
determined to effect his object by stratagem. He secretly de-
spatched a trusty slave with a message to Xerxes, representing the
dissensions which prevailed in the Grecian fleet, and how easy a
matter it would be to surround and vanquish an armament both
small and disunited. Xerxes readily adop'ted the suggestion, and
ordered his captains to close up the Straits of Salamis at both
ends during the night. On the council assembling in the morn-
ing, Aristidcs arrived with the news that the Grecian fleet wa«
completely surrounded by that of the Persians, and that retreat
was no longer ])ossible. As tlie veil of night rolled gradually
away, the Persian fleet was discovered stretching as far as the eye
could reach along the coast of Attica. The Grecian fleet, being
concentrated in the harbour of Salamis, was thus surrounded by
the Persians. Xerxes had caused a lofty throne to be erected
upon one of the projecting declivities of Mount JEgaleos, oj>posito
the harbour of Salamis, whence he could survey the combat, and
stimulate by his presence the courage of his men.

As a battle vvas now inevitable, the Grecian commanders lost
no time in making preparations for the encounter. The Greek
seamen eml)arkcd with alacrity, encouraging one another to deliv-
er their country, their wives, and children, and the temples of their
gods, from the grasp of the barbarians. History has j)reservcd to
us but few details of the engagement. The I'ersian fleet, with tlic
exception of some of the Ionic contingents, fought with courage.
But the very numbers on wliich they so confidently relied proved
one of the chief causes of their defeat. Too crowded cither to ad-
vance or to retreat, tlieir oars broken or impeded by collision with
one another, their fleet lay like an inert lifeless mass u]>uu the wa-
ter, and fell an easy ])rey to the Greeks. A single incident will
illustrate tlie terror and confusion which reigned among the Per-
•ians. Artemisia, queen of Ilalicarnassus in Caria, distinguished
herself in it by deeds of daring bravery. At length she turned
and fled, pursued by an Atheniiin galley. Fidl in her course lay
Uic vessel ofaCariau jirincc. Instead of avoiding, siie struck and
Hunk it, sending her countrynuin and all his crew to the bottom.
Tlie captain of the Athenian galley, believing from this net that
dhe was a deserter from the Persian cause, sullered her to escape.
Xerxes, wlio froTu his lofty throne l)cheld the feat of tlie Ilalicar-
fia«)siiiu queen, but who imagined that the sunken chip belonged

B.O. 480

KETREAT OF XERXES.

to the G'-eeks, was filled with admiration at her courage, and ex-
claimed, " ]My men are become women, my women men !"

Plan of the Battle of Salami?.

Two hundred of the Persian ships were destroyed and sunk,
when night put an end to the engagement. But, notwithstanding
this loss, the fleet was still formidable by its numbers. The Greeks
themselves did not regard the victory as decisive, and prepared to
renew the combat. But the pusillanimity of Xerxes relieved them
from all further anxiety. He became alarmed for his own per-
sonal safetv, and his whole care was now centred on securing his
retreat by land. The best troops were disembarked from the
ships, and marched towards the Hellespont, in order to secure the
bridge, whilst the fleet itself was ordered to make for Asia. These
dispositions of Xerxes were prompted by Mardonius. He repre=
seated to his master that the defeat, after all, was but slight; that,
having attained one of the great objects of the expedition by the
capture of Athens, he might now retire with honour, and even
with glory ; and that for the rest he (Mardonius) would undertake
to complete the conquest of Greece with 300,000 men. While
the Persian fleet sailed towards Asia, Xerxes set out on his home-
wai'd march. In Thessaly Mardonius selected the 300,000 men
with \vhoni he ]irnposed to conclude the war ; but a-^ autumn was

QG HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. VIH

now approacliinp;, he resolved to postpone all further operations
till the s])ring.

After forty-five days' march from Attica, Xerxes again reached
the shores of the Hellespont, with a force greatly diminished by
famine and pestilence. On the Hellespont he found his fleet, but
the bridge had been Avashed away by storms. Landed on the
shores of Asia, the Persian army at length obtained abundance
of provisions, and contracted new maladies by the sudden change
from privation to excess. Thus terminated this mighty but un-
successful expedition.

Greece owed its salvation to one man — Themistocles. This was
virtually admitted by the leaders of the other Grecian states when
they assembled to assign the prizes of Avisdom and conduct. Ui)on
the altar of Poseidon, at the isthmus of Corinth, each chief de-
posited a ticket inscribed with two names, of those whom he con-
sidered entitled to the first and second ])rizes. Put in this adjudi-
cation vanity and self-love defeated their own objects. Each com-
mander had put down his own name for the first prize ; for the
second, a great majority preponderated in favour of Themistocles.
From the Spartans, also, Themistocles received the honours due to
his merit. A crown of olive was conferred ui)on him, together with
one of the most splendid chariots which the city could produce.

On the very same day on which the Persians were defeated at
Salamis the Sicilian Greeks also obtained a victory over the Car-
thaginians. There is reason to believe that the invasion of Sicily
by the Carthaginians was concerted with Xerxes, and that the
simultaneous attack on two distinct Grecian peo]>les, by two im-
inense armaments, was not merely the result of chance. Gelon,
the powerful ruler of Syracuse, defeated Ilamilcar, the Carthagin-
ian general, with the loss, it is said, of 150,000 men.

In the spring of ij.c. 47'J Mardonius prei)ared to open the cam-
paign. He was not without Iiojjcs of inducing the Athenians to
join the Persian alliance, and he desi)atched Alexander, king of
Maccdon, to conciliate the Athenians, now ])arlially re-established
in their dilapidated city. His oilers on the ])art of the I'crsians
were of the most seductive kind ; but the Athenians dismissed
him with a positive refusal, whilst to the Lacedicmonians they pro-
tested that no temjjtations, however great, should ever induce them
to desert the common cause of Greece and freedom. In return
for this disinterested conduct, all they asked was tliat a Pelopon-
nesian army slioidil be sent into lUcotia for the defence of tho
Attic frontier: a request which the Sjiartan envoys promised to
fullil. No sooner, however, had they returned to their own coun-
try than this promise was c(jmpletely forgotten.

B.C. 479. BATTLE OF PLATiEA. 67

When Mardonius was informed that the Athenians had rejected
his proposal, he immediately marched against Athens, accompa-
nied by all his Grecian allies ; and in May or June, b.c. 479, about
ten m.onths after the retreat of Xerxes, the Persians again occupied
that city. With feelings of bitter indignation against their faith-
less allies, the Athenians saw themselves once more compelled to
remove to Salamis. Mardonius took advantage of his situation
to endeavour once more to win them to his alliance. Through a
Hellespontine Greek, the same favourable conditions were again
offered to them, but were again refused. One voice alone, that of
the senator Lycidas, broke the unanimity of the assembly. But
his opposition cost him his life. He and his family were stoned
to death by the excited populace. In this desperate condition, the
Athenians sent ambassadors to the Spartans to remonstrate against
their breach of faith, and to intimate that necessity might at length
compel them to listen to the proposals of the enemy. The Spar-
tans became alarmed. That very night 5000 citizens, each at-
tended by seven Helots, were despatched to the frontiers ; and these
were shortly followed by 5000 Lacedaemonian Perioeci, each attend-
ed by one light-armed Helot. Never before had the Spartans sent
so large a force into the field. Their example was followed by
other Peloponnesian cities ; and the Athenian envoys returned to
Salamis with the joyful news that a large army was preparing to
march against the enemy under the command of Pausanias, who
acted as regent for the infant son of Leonidas.

Mardonius, on learning the approach of the Lacedaemonians,
abandoned Attica and crossed into Bceotia. He finally took up a
position on the left bank of the Asopus, and not far from the town
of Plataja. Here he caused a camp to be constructed of ten fur-
longs square, and fortified with barricades and towers. Mean-
while the Grecian army continued to receive re-enforcements from
the different states, and by the time it reached Boeotia it fonned a
grand total of about 110,000 men. After several days' manoeuvring
a general battle took place near Plattca. The light-ai'med undis-
ciplined Persians, whose bodies were unprotected by armour, main-
tained a A'ery unequal combat against the serried ranks, the long
spears, and the mailed bodies of the Spartan phalanx. Mardonius,
at the head of his body-gnard of 1000 picked men, and conspicu-
ous by his white charger, was among the foremost in the fight till
struck down by the hand of a Spartan. The fall of their general
was the signal for flight to the Persians, already wearied and dis-
heartened by the fruitless contest ; nor did they once stop till
they had again crossed the Asopus and reached their fortified
camp. The glory of haWng defeated the Persians at Plata;a rests

68 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. Chap. VIII.

with the Lacedaemonians, since the Atlienians were cnp;aped in an-
other part of the field with the Thebans. After rcjjulsing the The-
bans, the Athenians joined the Lacedaemonians, who had jjursued
the Persians as far as their fortified camp. L'pon the arrival of
the Athenians the barricades were stormed and carried, after a gal-
lant resistance on the part of the Persians. The camp became a
scene of the most horrible carnage. The Persian loss was immense,
while that of the Greeks seems not to have exceeded 1300 or 1400
men.

It remained to bury the dead and divide the booty ; and so great
was the task, that ten days were consumed in it. The booty was
ample and magnificent. Gold and silver coined, as well as in jdate
and trinkets, rich vests and carpets, ornamented arms, horses, cam-
els— in a word, all the magnificence of Eastern luxury. The fail-
ure of the Persian expedition Mas completed by the destruction of
their navul armament. Leotyohides, the kSpartan admiral, having
sailed across the JEgean, found the Persian Hect at !Mycale, a prom-
ontory of Asia Minor near Miletus. Their former reverses seem
completely to have discouraged the Persians from hazarding an-
other naval engagement. The ships were hauled ashore and sur-
rounded witli a rampart, whilst an army of G0,000 Persians lined
the coast for tlieir defence. The Greeks landed on the veiy day
on which the battle of Platsea was fought. A supernatural pre-
sentiment of that decisive victory, conveyed by a herald's staff,
whic'i floated over thc^gcan from the shores of Greece, is said to
have pervaded the Grecian ranks at Mycale as they marched to tlic
attack. The Persians did not long resist : they turned their backs
and fled to their fortifications, pursued by the Greeks, who entered
them almost simultaneously. A large number of the Persians per-
ished ; and the victory was rendered still more decisive by the
burning of the fleet.

The Grecian fleet now sailed towards the Hellespont with the
view of destroying the bridge ; but, hearing that it no longer ex-
isted, Lcotychidcs de])arted homewards with the l*cloponnesian
vessels. Xantliij)pus, however, the Athenian commander, seized
the oj'portunity to recover from the Persians the Thracian Cher-
sonese, which had long been an Athenian possession ; and pro-
ceeded to blockade Sestos, the key of the strait. This city sur-
rendered in the autumn, after a i)rotractcd siege, whereu])on the
Athenians returned lionie, carrying with tlicui the cables of the
bridge across the Hellespont, which were afterwards preserved in
the Acro])olis as a trojdiy.

1^0

The Partlienon iu its jDresent state.

CHAPTER IX.

FROM THE EXD OF THE PERSIAN WARS TO THE BEGINNING OF
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR, B.C. 479-431.

The Atlienians, on their return to Attica, after the defeat of
the Persians, found their city ruined and their country desolate.
The)^ began to rebuild their city on a larger scale than before,
and to fortify it with a wall. Those allies to whom the increas-
ing maritime power of Athens was an object of suspicion, and
especially the iEginetans, to v/hom it was more particularly for-
midable, beheld her rising fortifications Avith dismay. They en-
deavoured to inspire the Lacedicmonians Avith their fears, and
urged them to arrest the work. But, though Sparta shared the
jealousy of the allies, she could not, v.'ith any decency, interfere bj
force to prevent a friendly city from exercising a right inherent in
all independent states. She assumed, therefore, the hypocritical
garb of an adviser and counsellor. Concealing her jealousy under
the pretence of zeal for the comm.on interests of Greece, she rep-
resented to the Athenians that, in the event of another Persian
invasion, fortified towns Avould serve the enemy for camps and
strongholds, as Thebes had done in the last war; and proposed
that the Athenians should not only desist from completing their

70 HISTORY OF GREECE. Ciup. IX.

own fortifications, but help to demolish those which already ex.
isted in other towns.

Tlic object of the proposal was too transparent to deceive so
acute a statesman as Themistocles. Athens was not yet, however,
in a condition to incur the danger of openly rejecting it ; and he
therefore advised the Athenians to dismiss the S])artan envoys with
tlie assurance that they would send ambassadors to Sparta to ex-
plain their views. He then caused liimself to be appointed one
of these ambassadors ; and setting off straightway for Sparta, di-
rected his colleagues to linger behind as long as possible. At
Sparta, the absence of his colleagues, at which he affected to be
surprised, afforded him an excuse for not demanding an audience
of the cphors. During the interval thus gained, the whole popu-
lation of Athens, of both sexes and every age, worked day and
nii;ht at tlic walls, whicli, when the other ambassadors at length
arrived at Sparta, had attained a height sufficient to afford a tol-
erable dcfencG. Meanwhile the suspicions of the Spartans had
been more than once aroused by messages from the ^ginctans re-
specting the progress of the walls. Themistocles, however, posi-
tively denied their statements; and urged the Spartans to send
messengers of their own to Athens in order to learn the true state
of affairs, at the same time instructing the Athenians to detain
them as hostages for the safety of himself and colleagues. When
there was no longer any motive for concealment, Themistocles
openly avowed tlie progress of tlic works, and his intention of se-
curing the independence of Alliens, and enabling her to act for
herself The walls being now too far advanced to be easily taken,
the Spartans found themselves compelled to acquiesce, and the
works were completed without furtlicr hindrance.

Having thus secured the city from all danger of an immediate
attack, Themistocles pursued his favourite project of rendering
Athens the greatest maritime and commercial j)ower of Greece.
He erected a town round the harbour of Piraius, distant between
four and five miles from Athens, and enclosed it with a wall as
large in extent as the city itself, but of vastly greater lieight and
thickness. Meanwhile an event occurred which secured more
iirmly than ever the maritime supremacy of Athens, by transferring
to her the command of the allied fleet.

In the year after the battle of I'lat.Ta a fleet had been fitted out
and ])laccd under the coiuniand of the Si'artaa regent, I'ausanias,
in order to carry on the war against the Persians. After deliver-
ing most of the Grecian towns in Cy})rus from the I'ersians, this
armament sailed uj) the Bosporus and laid siege to By/Jintium,
which was garrisoned by a large Persian force. The town sur-

B.C. 478. CONFEDERACY OF DELOS. 71

rendered after a protracted siege : but it was during this expedition
that the conduct of the Spartan commander struck a fatal blow at
the interests of his country.

The immense booty, as well as the renown, which Pausanias had
acquired at Plataa, had filled him with pride and ambition. Aft-
er the capture of Byzantium he despatched a letter to Xerxes, of-
fering to marry the king's daughter, and to bring Sparta and the
rest of Greece under his dominion. Xerxes was highly delighted
with this letter, and sent a reply in which he urged Pausanias to
pursue his project night and day, and promised to supply him with
all the money and troops that might be needful for its execution.
But the childish vanity of Pausanias betrayed his plot before it
was ripe for execution. Elated by the confidence of Xerxes, and
by the money Avith which he was lavishly supplied, he acted as if
he had already married the Great King's daughter. He assumed
the Persian dress ; he made a progress through Thrace, attended
by Persian and Egyptian guards ; and copied, in the luxury of his
table and the dissoluteness of his manners, the example of his
adopted countr}'. Above all, he offended the allies by his haughty
reserve and imperiousness. His designs were now too manifest to
escape attention. His proceedings reached the cars of the Spar-
tans, who sent out Dorcis to supersede him. Disgusted by the in-
solence of Pausanias, the lonians serving in the combined Grecian
fleet addressed themselves to Aristides, whose manners formed a
striking contrast to those of the Spartan leader, and begged him to
assume the command. This request was made precisely at the
time when Pausanias was recalled ; and accordingly, when Dorcis
arrived, he found Aristides in command of the combined fleet
(B.C. 478).

This event was not a mere empty question about a point of
honour. It was a real revolution, terminated by a solemn league,
of which Athens was to be the head. Aristides took the lead in
the matter, for which his proverbial justice and probity eminently
qualified him. The league obtained the name of "the Confed-
eracy of Delos," from its being arranged that deputies of the allies
belonging to it should meet periodically for deliberation in the
temple of Apollo and Artemis (Diana) in that island. Each state
was assessed in a certain contribution, either of money or ships, as
proposed by the Athenians and ratified by the synod. The assess-
ment was intrusted to Aristides, whose impartiality was universal-
ly applauded. Of the details, however, we only know tliat the
first assessment amounted to 4G0 talents (about £10G,0C0 sterling),
that certain officers called Hellenotamia; were appointed by the
Athenians to collect and administer the contributions, and that
Delos was the treasury.

72 HISTORY OF GEEECE. Chap. IX.

Such was the origin of the Confederacy of Dclos. Soon after
its formation Aristides Avas succeeded in tlie command of the com-
bined fleet by Cimon, the son of jNliltiades.

Fausanias, on his return to Sparta, seems to have been acquit-
ted of any definite charges ; but he continued his corresjjondence
with Persia, and an accident at length afforded convincing proofs
of his guilt. A favourite slave, to whom he had intrusted a letter
to the Persian satrap at Sardis, observed with dismay that none
of the messengers employed in tliis service had ever returned.
Moved by these fears, he broke tlie seal and read the letter, and
finding his suspicions of the fate that awaited him confirmed, he
carried the document to the ephors. But in ancient states the
testimony of a slave was always regarded with suspicion. The
cjjhors refused to believe the evidence offered to tlicm unless con-
firmed l)y their own ears. For this purpose they directed him to
plant himself as a supiiliant in a sacred grove near Cape Ta^narus,
in a hut behind which two of their body might conceal themselves.
Pausanias, as they had expected, anxious at tlie step taken by his
slave, hastened to the spot to question him about it. The con-
versation which ensued, and which Avas overheard by the ejjhors,
rendered the guilt of Pausanias no longer doubtful. They now
determined to arrest him on his return to Sparta. They met him
in the street near the temple of Athena Chalcicecus (of the Brazen
House), when Pausanias, either alarmed by his guilty conscience,
or put on his guard l)y a secret signal from one of the ephors,
turned and fled to the temple, Avhcre he took refuge in a small
chamber belonging to the building. From this sanctuary it was
unlawful to drag him ; but the ephors caused the doors to be built
np and the roof to be removed, and his own motlier is said to have
placed the flrst stone at the doors. When at the point of deatli
from stan-ation, he was carried from the sanctuary before he pol-
luted it Avith his corpse. Such Avas the end of the A'ictor of Plataa.
After his death ])roofs Averc discoA'cred among his papers that The-
mistocles Avas im])licated in his guilt. But, in order to folloAv the
fortunes of the Athenian statesman, it is necessary to take a glanee
at the internal history of Athens.

Th.e ancient riA-alry between Tlicmistocles and Aristides had
f)3en in a good degree extinguished by the danger Avhicli threat-
ened their common country during the Persian vars. Aristides
had since abandoned his former ]irejudiccs, and Avas Avilliiig to
conform to many of the democratical innoA'ations of his rival.
The effect of this was to produce, soon after their return to Atlica,
a still further modilication of the constitution of Clisthcnos. The
Thctcs, the lowest of the four classes of Athenian citizens, Avcro

B.C. 471. BANISHMENT OF THEMISTOCLES. 73

declared eligible for the magistracy, from -uhich they had beeq
excluded by the laws of Solon. Tims not only the archonship,
but consequently the Council of Areopagus, was thrown open to
them ; and, strange to say, this reform was proposed by Aristides
himself.

Nevertheless, party spirit still ran high at Athens. Cimon and
Alcmajon were violent opponents of Themistoclcs, and of their
party Aristides was still the head. The popularity of Aristides
was never greater than at the present time, owing not only to the
more libor^^l spirit which he exhibited, but also to his great services
in establishing the Confederacy of Delos. Themistoclcs had of-
fended the Athenians by his ostentation and vanity. He was con-
tinually boasting of his services to the state ; but, worse than all
this, his conduct was stained with jiositive guilt. Whilst, at the
head of an Athenian squadron, he was sailing among the Greek
islands for the ostensible purpose of executing justice, there is lit-
tle room to doubt that he corrupted its very source by accepting
large sums of money from the cities Avhich he visited. Party spirit
at length reached such a height that it was found necessary to re-
sort to ostracism, and Themistoclcs was condemned to a temporary
banishment (b.c. 471). He retired to Argos, where he was resid-
ing when the Spartans called upon the Athenians to prosecute
their great statesman before a synod of the allies assembled at
Sparta, on the ground of treasonable correspondence with Persia.
Accordingly, joint envoys Avere sent from Athens and Sparta to ar-
rest him (b.c. 4G6). Themistocles avoided the impending danger
by flying from Argos to Coi'cyra. The Corcyrseans, howcA^er, not
daring to shelter him, he passed OA'er to the continent ; where,
being still pursued, he was forced to seek refuge at the court of Ad-
metus, king of the Molossians, though the latter Avas his personal
enemy. Fortunately, Admetus happened to be from home. The
forlorn condition of Themistoclcs excited the compassion of the
Avife of the Molossian king, Avho placed her child in his arms, and
bade him seat himself on the hearth as a suppliant. As soon as
the king arriA-ed, Themistocles explained his peril, and adjured
him by the sacred laAvs of hospitality not to take vengeance upon a
fallen foe. Admetus accepted his appeal, and raised him from the
hearth ; he refused to deliA-er him up to his pursuers, and at last
only dismissed him on his OAvn expressed desire to proceed to Per-
sia. After many perils, Themistocles succeeded in reaching in
safety the coast of Asia. Artaxerxes, the son of Xerxes, was noAV
upon the throne of Persia, and to him Themistocles hastened to
announce himself. The king AA-as delighted at his arriv-al, and
treated him Avith the greatest distinction. In a year's time, The-

n HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IX.

mistocles, having acquired a sufficient knowlcdfjc of the Persian
languaf^jc to be able to converse in it, entertained Artaxerxes with
magnificent schemes for the subjugation of Greece. Artaxerxes
loaded liim with presents, gave him a Persian wife, and appointed
Magnesia, a town not far from the Ionian coast, as his place of res-
idence. After living there some time he was carried off by dis-
ease at the age of sixty-five, without having realized, or apparent-
ly attempted, any of those ])lans witli which he had dazzled the
Persian monarch. Rumour ascribed his death to ]toison, which he
took of his own accord, from a consciousness of his inability to ])cr-
form his promises ; but this report, wliich was cun-ent in the time
of Thucydides, is rejected by that historian.

Aristides died about four years after the banishment of Themis-
toclcs. The common accounts of his poverty arc probably exag-
gerated, and seem to have been founded on the circumstances of
a public funeral, and of handsome donations made to his tliree
children by the state. But, whatever his pi'operty may have been,
it is at least certain that he did not acquire or increase it by un-
lawful means ; and not even calumny has ventured to assail his
well-earned title of t/ie Just.

On the death of Aristides, Cimon became the undisputed leader
of the conservative party at Athens. Cimon was generous, affable,
magnificent ; and, notwithstanding his political views, of exceed-
ingly popular manners. lie had inherited the military genius of
his father, and was undoubtedly the greatest commander of his
time. He employed the vast wealth acquired in his expeditions in
adorning Athens and gratifying his fellow-citizens. It has been
already mentioned that he succeeded Aristides in the command
of the allied fleet. His first exploits were the cnpture of Eion on
the Strymon, and the reduction of the island of 8cyros (n.c. 47G).
A few years afterwards we find the first symptoms of discontent
among the members of the Confederacy of Dclos. Naxos, one of
the confederate islands, and the largest of the Cyclades, rcA'olted
in n.c. 4GG, probably from a feeling of the growing oi)p'rcssiveness
of the Athenian headship. It was immediately invested by the
coniederate fleet, reduced, and made tributary to Athens. This
was another step towards dominion gained by the Athenians, whoso
pretensions were assisted by tlie im])ruden(e of the allies. !Many
of the smaller states belonging to the confederacy, wearied with
perpetual liostilities, commuted for a money ]>ayment tlie shijjg
wliich they were bound to su])ply ; and thus, by dei)riving them-
selves of a navy, lost the only means by which they could assert
tlicir independence.

The same year was marked by a mcmoviable action against tho

B.C. 464. THIRD MESSENIAN WAR. 75

Persians. Cimon, at the head of 200 Atlieuian triremes, and
100 furnished by the allies, proceeded to the coast of Asia Minor.
The Persians had assembled a large fleet and army at the mouth
of the River Eurymedon in PamjDhylia. After speedily defeating
the fleet, Cimon landed his men and marclied against the Persian
army, which was drawn np on the shore to protect the fleet. The
land-force fought with bravery, but was at length put to the rout.

The island of Thasos was the next member of the confederacy
against which the Athenians directed their arms. After a siego
of more than two years that island surrendered, "svhen its fortifica-
tions were razed, and it was condemned to pay tribute (b.c. 4G3).

The expedition to Thasos was attended with a circumstance
which first gives token of the coming hostilities between Sparta
and Athens. At an early period of the blockade the Thasians
secretly applied to the Laccdiemonians to make a diversion in
t!ieir favour by invading Attica; and though the Laceda;monians
w>,i-e still ostensibly allied with Athens, they were base enough to
comply with this request. Their treachery, however, was prevent-
ed by a terrible calamity which befcl themselves. In the year
B.C. 4u4 their capital was visited by an eartliquake, which laid it
in ruins and killed 20,000 of the citizens. But this was only part
of the calamity. The earthquake was immediately followed by a
revolt of the Helots, who were always ready to avail themselves
of the weakness of their tyrants. Being joined by the JSIessenians,
they fortified themselves in Mount Ithome in Messenia. Hence
this revolt is sometimes called the Third Hfessenian War (b.c.
4G4). After two or three years spent in a vain attempt to dis-
lodge them from this position, the Lacedaimonians found them-
selves obliged to call in the assistance of their allies, and, among
the rest, of the Athenians. It was with great difticulty that Cimon
persuaded the Athenians to comply with this reqiiest ; but he was
at length despatched to Laconia with a force of 4000 hoplites.
The aid of the Athenians had been requested by the Lacedaemo-
nians on account of their acknowledged superiority in the art of
attacking fortified places. As, however, Cimon did not succeed
in dislodging the Helots from Ithome, the^iiacedaimonians, proba-
bly from a consciousness of their own treachery in the affair of
Thasos, suspected that the Athenians wsrc playing them false^
and abruptly dismissed them, saying that they had no longer any
occasion for their services. This rude dismissal gave great oftence
at Athens, and annihilated for a time the political influence of
Cimon. Tiie democratical party h.ad from the first opposed the
expedition ; and it afforded them a great trium])h to be able to
point to Cimon returning not only unsuccessful, but insulted.

76 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IX

Tliat party was now led by rericles. A sort of hcrcLlitary feud
existed between I'ericles and Cinion ; for it was Xanthijipus, the
father of Tcricles, wlio had impeached Mihiades, the father of Ci-
mon. The character of Tericles was almost the reverse of Ci-
mou's. Although the leader of the ])Opular party, his manners
were reserved. He a]ipcared but little in society, and only in pub-
lic upon great occasions. His mind had received the highest ])ol-
ish whicli that period was capable of giving. He constantly con
versed with Anaxagoras, Protagoras, Zeno, and other eminent ] lii-
losophers. To oratoiy in particular he had devoted much atten-
tion, as an indispensable instrument for swaying the public assem-
blies of Athens.

Tcricles seized the occasion ])rcscntcd by the ill success of Ci-
mon both to ruin that leader and to strike a fatal blow at the aris-
tocratic party. lie deprived the Areopagus of its chief functions,
and left it a mere shadow of its former influence and j^ower. He
rendered the election to magistracies dependent simjsly ujjon lot,
so that every citizen, however poor, had an equal ci-.aiice of ob-
taining the honours of tlie state. Other changes which accom-
].anied this revolution — for such it must be called — were the insti-
tution of paid dicostcrics or jury-courts, and the almost entire ab-
rogation of the judicial power of the Senate of Eive Hundred. It
cannot bo su])posed tluit such fundamental changes were efl'ectcd
without violent party strife. The poet ^^schylus, in the tragedy
of the Euvicnides, in vain exerted all the powers of his genius in
support of the aristocratical party and of the tottering Areopagus ;
his exertions on this occasion resulted onl}' in his own flight from
Athens. The same fate attended Cimon himself; and he was
condemned by ostracism (n.c. 4('.l) to a ten years' banishment.
Nay, partv violence even went the length of assassination. Ephi-
altcs, who had taken the lead in the attacks upon the Areopagus,
fell beneath the dagger of a Ba^otian, hired by the conservativo
party to despatch him.

It was from tliis period (r..r. 4G1) that the long administration
fcf I'ericles may l)c said to liavc commenced. The cllccts of his
accession to power soon became visible in the foreign relations of
Athens, rericles had succeeded to the political principles of
Themistoclcs, and his aim was to render Athens the leading pow-
er of Greece. The Confederacy of Dclos had already secured her
maritime ascendency; Pericles directed his policy to the extension
of her influence in continental Greece. She fonned an alliance
witli the Thessalians, Argos, and ISIcgara. The possession of ile-
gura was of great iinjiortance, as it enabled the Athenians to ar-
rest the progress of an invading army from I'cloitonucsus. .^gina.

B.C. 418. rPiEDOMINANCE OF ATUEXS. 77

so lonir th3 maritime rival of Athens, was subdued and made trih .
utarr. The Athenian^! marched v.ath ra})id steps to the dominion
of Greece. Shortly afterwards the battle of CEnopliyta (b.c. 45G),
in which the Athenians defeated the Boeotians, gave Athens tho
command of Thebes, and of all the other Ba^otian towns. From
the Gulf of Corinth to the Straits of Thermopykia Athenian influ-
ence was now predominant. Daring these events the Athenians
had continued to prosecute the war against Persia. In the yei.f
B.C. 460 they sent a powerful fleet to Egypt to assist Inarus, win
had revolted against Persia ; but this expedition proved a com-
plete failure, for at the end of six years the revolt was put down
by the Persians, and the Atlienian fleet destroyed (b.c. 455). At
a later period (b.c. 449), Cimon, Avho had been recalled from ex-
ile, sailed to Cyprus with a fleet of 209 ships. He undertook the
siege of Citium in that island, but died during the progi-ess of
it, either from disease or from the eflects of a wound. Shortly
afterwards a pacification was concluded with Persia, which is some-
times, but erroneously, called " the peace of Cimon." It is stated
that by this compact the Persian monarch agreed not to tax or
molest the Greek colonies on the coast of Asia Minor, nor to send
any vessels of war Avestward of Phaselis in Lycia, or within tho
Cyanean rocks at the junction of the Euxine with the Tliracian
Bosporus; the Athenians on their side undertaking to leave the
Persians in undisputed possession of Cyprus and Egypt. During
the progress of these events, the states which formed the Confed-
eracy of Delos, with the exception of Chios, Lesbos, and Samos,
had gradually become, instead of the active allies of Athens, her
disarmed and passive tributaries. Even the custody of the fund
had been transferred from Delos to Athens. The purpose for
which the confederacy had been originally organized disappeared
with the Persian peace ; yet what may now be called Imperial
Athens continued, for her own ends, to exercise her prerogatives
as head of the league. Her alliances, as we have seen, had like-
wise been extended in continental Greece, where they embraced
Megara, Boeotia, Phocis, Locris ; together with Troezen and Achaia
in Peloponnesus. Such was the position of Athens in the year
448 B.C., the period of her greatest power and prosperity. From
this time her empire began to decline ; while Sparta, and other
watchful and jealous enemies, stood ever ready to strike a blow.

In the following year (b.c. 447) a revolution in Boeotia deprived
Athens of her ascendency in that country. With an overweening
contempt of their enemies, a small band of 1000 Athenian lioplites,
chiefly composed of youthful volunteers belonging lo the best Athe-
nian families, together with a few auxiliaries, marched imder the

78 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. IX,

command of Tolmides to put down tlic revolt, in direct ojiposition
to the advica of Pericles, who adjurcil them to w:iit and collect a
more numerous force. The enterprise proved disastrous in the
extreme. Tolmides was defeated and slain near Ciiaeronca; a
large number of the lio])litcs also fell in the engagement, whilst a
still larger number were taken ])risoners. This last circumstance
proved fatal to the interests of Athens in Baotia. In order to re-
cover these prisoners she agreed to evacuate Bocotia, and to penniv
the re-establishment of the aristocracies which she had formerly
overthrown. But the Athenian reverses did not end here. Tho
expulsion of the i)artisans of Athens from the government of Pho-
cis and Locris, and the revolt of Euboca and Megara, were an-
nounced in quick succession. Tlie youthful Pleistoanax, king of
Sparta, actually penetrated, with an army of Lacedaemonians and
Peloponnesian allies, as far as the neighbourhood of Eleusis; and
the capital itself, it is said, was saved only by Pericles having
bribed the Spartan monarch. Pericles reconquered Eubwa ; but
this was the only possession which the Athenians succeeded in re-
covering. Their emjare on land had vanished more speedily than
it b.ad been acquired; and they were therefore induced to CdU-
clude, at the beginning of n.c. 44"), a Tiiikty Yeaks' Truce with
Sparta and her allies, by which they consented to abandon all tho
acquisitions which they had made in Peloponnesus, and to leave
Megara to be included among the Peloponnesian allies of 8j)arta.
From the Thirty Years' Truce to the commencement of the I'e-
loponncsian war, (aw political events of any importance occurred.
During these fourteen years (n.c. 445-431) Pericles continued to
enjoy the sole direction of affairs. His views were of the most lofty
kind. Athens was to become the capital of Greece, and the centre
of art and refinement. In her external aiii>earance tlie city was to
be rendered worthy of the high position to which she aspired, by
the beauty and splendour of her public buildings, by her works of
art in sculpture, architecture, and painting, and by the i)omp and
magnificence of her religious festivals. All these objects Athens
was enabled to attain in an incredibly short si)ace of time, through
tlie genius and energy of her citizens, and the vast resources at her
command. No state lias ever exhibited so much intellectual ac-
tivity and so great a progress in art as was disjdaycd by Athens in
the ])eriod wliicli clajjsed between the 'i'hirty Years' Truce and the
breaking out of the I'elopunnesiau war. bhe was the seat and
centre of Grecian literature. The three great tragic poets of
Greece were natives of Attica. Jl^^schylus, the earliest of the
throe, had recently died in Sicily ; but St)])h()clcs was now at the
full height of his reputation, and Eurijiidcs was rapidly rising into
notice. Aristoiiliaiies, the greatest of the comic p()"ts, was Jilso

B.C. 440. PERICLES. 79

born in Attica, and exliibited plays soon after tho beginning of the
Feloponncsiau war. Herodotus, the Father of History, though a
native of Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, resided some time at Athens,
and accompanied a colony which the Athenians sent to Thurii in
Italy. Thucydides, the greatest of Greek historians, was an Athe-
Hian, and was a young man at this period.

Colonization, for wliich the genius and inclination of the Athe-
nians had always been suited, was another method adopted by Per-
icles for extending the influence and empire of Athens. The set-
tlements made under his auspices were of two kinds, ClerucJdes^
and regular colonies. The former mode was exclusively Athe-
nian. It consisted in the allotment of land in conquered or sub-
ject countries to certain bodies of Athenians, who continued to
retain all their original rights of citizenship. This circumstance,
as well as the convenience of entering upon land already in a state
of cultivation, instead of having to reclaim it from the rude condi-
tion of nature, seems to have rendered sut*a a mode of settlement
much preferred by the Athenians. The earliest instance which we
find of it is in the year b.c. 50G, when four thousand Athenians
entered upon the domains of the Chalcidian knights (see p. 38).
But it was under Pericles that this system was most extensively
adopted. During his administration 1000 Athenian citizens were
settled in the Thracian Chersonese, 500 in Naxos, and 250 in
Andros. The islands of Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, as well as
a large tract in the north of Euboea, were also completely occupied
by Athenian proprietors.

The most important colonies settled by Pericles were those of
Thurii and Amphipolis. Since the destruction of Sj^baris by the
Crotoniates in b.c. 509, the former inhabitants had lived dispersed
in the adjoining territory along the Gulf of Tarentum. • In b.c.
443 Pericles sent out a colonv to found Thurii, near the site of
the ancient Sybaris. The colony of Amphipolis was founded some
years later (r..c. 437), under the conduct of Agnon.

But Pericles, notwithstanding his influence and power, had still
many bitter and active enemies, who assailed him through his
private connections, and even endeavoured to wound his honour
by a charge of peculation. Pericles, after divorcing a wife with
wliom lie had lived unhappily, took his mistress Aspasia to his
house, and dwelt with her till his death on terms of the greatest
affection. She was distinguished not only for her beauty, but also
for her learning and accomplishments. Her intimacy with An-
axagoras, the celebrated Ionic philosopher, was made a handle for
wounding Pericles in his tenderest relations. Paganism, notwith-
standing its license, was capable of producing bigots ; and even at
Athens the man who ventured to dispute the exist-^* oe of a hund-

60 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. Chap. IX.

red gods ■with morals and passions somewhat worse than those of
ordinar}' human nature, did so at the risk of his life. Anaxag-
oras was indicted for impiety. Aspasia was included in the same
charge, and dragged before the courts of justice. Anaxagoraa
prudently fled from Athens, and thus probably avoided a fate which,
in conseqiicnce of a simihir accusation, afterwards overtook Socra-
tes. Pericles himself pleaded the cause of Aspasia. lie was in-
deed indirectly implicated in tlie indictment ; but he felt no con-
cci'n except for his beloved Aspasia, and on this occasion the cold
and somewhat haughty statesman, whom the most violent storms
of the assembly could not deprive of his self-possession, was for
once seen to wcej). His appeal to the jury was successful, but an-
other trial still awaited him. An indictment was preferred against
his friend, the great scul[)tor Phidias, for the embezzlement of the
gold intended to adorn the celebrated ivory statue of Athena; and,
according to some, Pericles himself was included in the charge of
peculation. Whetlier Pericles was ever actually tried on this ac-
cusation is uncertain ; but, at all events, if he Avas, there can be no
doubt that he was honourably acquitted. The gold employed in
the statue had been fixed in such a manner that it could be de-
tached and weighed, and Pericles challenged his accusers to tlic
proof. But Phidias did not escape so fortunately. There were
other circumstances which rendered him unpopular, and amongst
them the fact that he had introduced portraits both of himself and
Pericles in the sculjitiircs which adorned the fiieze of the Parthe-
non. Phidias died in prison before tlie day of trial.

The Athenian emi)ire, since the conclusion of the Thirty Years'
Truce, had again become exclusively maritime. Yet even among
the subjects and allies united with Athens by the Confederacy of
Delos, her sway was borne with growing discontent. One of the
chief causes of this dissatisfaction was the amount of the tribute
exacted by the Athenians, as well as their misapplication of the
proceeds. In the time of Aristides and Cimon, when an active war
was carrying on against the IVrsians, the sum annually collected
amounted to 4G() talents. In the time of Pericles, although that
ivar had been brought to a close, the tribute had nevertheless in-
creased to the annunl sum of 000 talents. Another grievance was
the transference to Athens of all lawsuits, at least of all public
suits; for on this subject we ;ire unable to drav/ the line distinct-
ly. In criminal cases, at all events, the allies seem to have been
deprived of the jjower to inflict cajjital punishment. Besides all
these caiises of complaint, the allies hail often to endure the op-
pressions and exactions of the Athenian oflicers, both military and
naval, as well as of the rich and powerful Athenian citizens settled
imonc lliem

B.C. 43D. CORCYRA AND CORINllI. «1

In B.C. 440, Samos, one of tho tlirco independent allies already
mentioned, revolted from Athens; but even this island was no match
for the Athenian power. Pericles, who sailed against the Samians
in person, defeated their fleet in several engagements, and forced
the city to capitulate. The Samians were compelled to raze tlieir
fortifications, to surrender their fleet, to give hostages for their fu-
ture conduct, and to pay the expenses of the war.

The triumphs and the power of Athens were regarded with fear
and jealousy by her rivals ; and the quarrel between Corinth and
Corcyra ligiited the spark which Avas to produce the conflagration.
On tlie coast of Illyria, near the site of the modern Durazzo, the
Corcyrasans had founded the city of Epidamnus. Corcyra (now
Corfu) was itself a colony of Corinth ; and though long at enmity
with its mother country, was forced, according to the time-hallow-
ed custom of the Greeks in such matters, to select the founder of
Epidamnus from the Corinthians. Accordingly, Corinth became
the metropolis of Epidamnus as well as of Corcyra. At the time
of which we speak, the Epidamnians, being hard pressed by the
Illyrians, led by soriie oligarchical exiles of their own city, applied
to Corcyra for assistance, which the Corcyrtcans, being connected
with the Epidamnian oligarchy, refused. The Epidamnians then
sought help from the Corinthians, who undertook to assist them.
The Corcyrajans, highly resenting this interference, attacked the
Corinthian fleet off Cape Actium, and gained a signal victory (n.c.
435).

Deeply humbled by this defeat, the Corinthians spent the two
following years in active preparations for retrieving it. The Cor-
cyraeans, who had not enrolled themselves either in the Lacedae-
monian or Athenian alliance, and therefore stood alone, were great-
ly alarmed at these preparations. They now resolved to remedy this
deficiency ; and, as Corinth belonged to the Lacedaemonian alli-
ance, the Corcyrasans had no option, and were obliged to apply to
Athens. The majority of the Athenians were ready to comply with
their request; but, in order to avoid an open infringement of tho
Thirty Years' Truce, it was resolved to conclude only a dcfensivo
alliance with Corcyra — that is, to defend the Corcyrrcans in case
their territories were actually invaded by the Corinthians, but be-
yond that not to lend them any active assistance. A small Athe-
niaii squadron of only 10 triremes was despatched to the assistance
of the Corcyra?ans. Soon after their arri^-al a battle ensued off the
coast of Epirus, betvv'een tho Corinthian and Corcyraean fleets. Aft-
er a hard-fought day, victory finally declared in favour of the Co-
rinthians. The Athenians now abandoned tlieir neutrality, and did
all in their power to save tlie flying Corcvrasans from their pur-

82 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. Chap. IX

suors. This action took place early in the niorninp; and the Co-
rhithians prepared to renew the attack in the afternoon, when thev
saw in the distance 20 Athenian vessels, which they believed to bo
tlie advanced guard of a still larger fleet. They accordingly sail-
ed away to the coast of Epirus ; but, finding that the Athenians
did not mean to undertake offensive operations against them, they
departed homewards with their whole fleet. These events took
place in the year B.C. 432.

The Corinthians were naturally incensed at the conduct of
Athens, and it is not surprising that they should have watched
for an opportunity of revenge. This was soon afforded them by tlici
enmity of the Macedonian prince Perdiccas towards the Athenians.
lie incited her tributaries upon the coast of Macedonia to revolt,
including Potida^a, a town seated on tlie isthmus of Pallene, Poti.
d:ea, though now a tributary of Athens, was originally a colony of
the Corinthians, and received from them certain annual magistrates.
Being urged as well by the Corinthians as by Perdiccas, the l^oti-
da;ans openly raised the standard of revolt (b.c. 432). A powerful
Athenian annament was despatched to the coast of Macedonia and
laid siege to Potidaca.

Meanwhile the Lacedaemonians, iirged on all sides by the com-
plaints of their allies against Athens, summoned a general meet-
ing of the Peloponnesian confederacy at Sparta. The Corinthians
took tlie most prominent part in the debate ; but other members of
the confederacy had also heavy grievances to allege against Athens.
Foremost among these were the JNIegarians, who complained that
their commerce had been ruined by a recent decree of the Athe-
nians which excluded them from eveiy port within the Athenian
jurisdiction. It was generally felt that the time had now arrived
for cliecking the power of Athens. Influenced by these feelings,
the Lacedaemonians decided upon war; and the congress passed a
resolution to the same effect, thus binding the whole Peloponne-
Bian confederacy to the same policy. This important res(dution
was adopted towards the close of v..c. 432, or early in the following
year. Lefore any actual declaration of war, hostilities were begun
in the spring of u.c. 431 by a treacherous attack of the Thebans
upon Plataa. Though Baotians by descent, the Plata'ans did not
belong to the Ba^otian league, but had long been in close alliance
with the Atlicnicans, Hence they were regarded with liatred and
jealousy by the Thebans, whicli sentiments were also shared l)y a
small oligarchical faction in Plata-a itself. The Platrean oligarcha
secretly admitted a body of 300 Thebans into the town at night ;
but the attempt proved a faihu'c ; the citizens flew to arms; and in
tlie morning all the Thebans were cither blaiu or taken i)riscncrii

11 II

't.

Temple uf >.'iko Aptc. us (the Wingless V^ictoiy), on the Aci'opolis at Atlicna.

CHAPTER X.

ATHENS IN THE TIME OF PERICLES.

At the commencement of the Peloponncsian war Athens was
at the height of its glory under the brilliant administration of Peri-
cles. We may therefore here pause to take a brief survey of the
city and of its most important buildings. Athens is situated about
thi'ee miles from the sea-coast, in the central plain of Attica. In
this plain rise several eminences. Of these the most prominent
Is a lofty insulated mountain, with a conical peaked summit, now
called the hill of St. George, and which bore in ancient times the
name of Lycabettus. This mountain, which Avas not included
within the ancient walls, lies to the north-east of Athens, and
forms the most striking feature in the environs of the city. It is
to Athens what Vesuvius is to Naples, or Arthur's Seat to Edin-
burgh. South-west of Lycabettus there are four hills of moderate
height, all of which formed part of the city. Of these the nearest
to Lycabettus, and at the distance of a mile from the latter, Avas
the Acropolis, or citadel of Atliens, a square craggy rock rising
abruptly about 150 feet, with a flat summit of about 1000 feet long
from east to west, by 500 feet broad from north to south. Im-
mediately west of the Acropolis is a second hill of irregular form,
the Areopagus. To the south-west there rises a third liill. the

HISTORY OF GREECE.

Chap. X.

Pmjx, on which the assemblies of the citizens were held ; and to
the south of the latter is a fourth hill, known as the Museum.
On the eastern and western sides of the city there run two small
streams, which are nearly exhausted before they reach the sea, by
the heats of summer and by the channels for artificial irrigation.

I'l:in of Athens.

1. Pnyx Eoclcsia.

v. Tlieseum.

3. Tlieutro of Dionysus.

4. Odcuni of Poricloa.
6. Tt-iuiilo of the Olympinn
Zeus.

That on the east is the Ilissus, which flowed through the southern
quarter of the city : that on the west is the Cci)hissus. South of
the city was seen the Saronic Gulf, Avith the liarbours of Athens.

Athens is said to have derived its name from the ])rominencc
piven to the worship of Athena by its king Erechlheus. The in-
habitants were previously called Cranai and Cecropida), from Ce-
crops, who, according to tradition, was the original founder of the
city. This at lirst occupied only the hill or rock wliich afterwards
became the Armjjo/is ; but gradually the buildings began to spread
over the ground at the southern foot of thi-s hill. It Avas not till
the time of Tisistratus and his sons (n.c. r>(j()-r)14) that the city
began to assume any degree of splendour. The most remarkable
building of these dcsjjots was the gigantic tcm]»le of the Olymjiian

CUAP. X.

CITY OF ATHENS.

Zeus, which, however, was not finished till many centuries later.
In B.C. 500 the theatre of Dionysus was commenced on the soiith-
eastern slope of the Acropolis, but was not completed till b.g. 340 ;
though it must have been used for the representation of plays long
before that period.

Ruins of the Temple of the Olympian Zeus.

Xerxes reduced the ancient city almost to a heap of ashes.
After the departure of the Persians, its reconstruction on a much
larger scale was commenced under the superintendence of The-
mistocles, whose first care was to provide for its safety by the erec-
tion of walls. The Acropolis now formed the centre of the city,
round which the new walls described an irregular circle of about
60 stadia or 7i miles in circumference. The space thus inclosed
formed the Asty, or city, properly so called. But the views of
Themistocles were not confined to the mere defence of Athens :
he contemplated making her a great naval power, and for this
purpose adequate docks and arsenals Avere required. Previously
the Athenians had used as their only harbour the open roadstead

88 HISTORY OF GREECE. Ci'ap. X.

of Phalcrum on the eastern side of the Phalcric bay, where the
Bea-shore is nearest to Athens. But Themistocles transferred the
naval station of the Athenians to tlie peninsula of Pirajus, Avhicli
is distant about 4^ miles from Athens, and contains three natural
harbours — a large one on the western side, called simply Pinrns,
or The Ilarbo7tr, and two smaller ones on the eastern side, called
respectively Zca and Mtmyckia, the latter being nearest to the
city. It was not till the administration of Pericles that the walls
were built which connected Athens with her ports. These were
at first the outer or northern Long Wall, Avhich ran from Atliens to
PiraBus, and the Phaleric wall qonnecting the city with Phalerum.
These were commenced in r-.c. 4o7, and finished in the following
year. It was soon found, however, that the space thus inclosed
Avas too vast to be easily defended; and as the port of Phalcrum
was small and insignificant in comparison with the Piraus, and
soon ceased to be used by the Athenian ships of war, its Avail was
abandoned and probably alloAved to fall into decay. Its place
Avas snpi)lied by another Long Wall, Avhich Avas built parallel to
the first at a distance of only 550 feet, thus rendering both capa-
ble of being defended by the same body of men. Tlieir height in
all probability Avas not less than GO feet. In process of time the
space betAA-een the two Long Walls Avas occupied on each side by
houses.

It will be seen from the preceding description that Athens, in
its larger accci)tation, and including its port, consisted of tAvo cir-
cular cities, the Asty and Piroms, each of about Ih miles in cir-
cumference, and joined together by a broad street of betAveen four
and five miles long.

Such Avas the outAvard and material form of that city, Avhich
during the i)eriod between the Persian and Peloponnesian Avars
reached the highest pitch of military, artistic, and literary glory.
The latter portion of tliis period, or that comprised under the as-
cendency of Pericles, cxliibits Athenian art in its highest state of
perfection, and is therefore by Avay of excellence commonly desig-
nated as the age of Pericles. The great sculptor of tliis period —
perhaps the greatest the Avorld has ever seen — Avas Pliidias, to
whom Pericles intrusted the superintendence of all the Avorks ex-
ecuted in his administration.

The first public monuments tliat arose after the Persian Avars
were erected under the auspices of Cimon, Avho Avas, like Pericles,
a lover and patron of the arts. The principal of these AN'ere the
small Ionic tem])li; of Niko Apteros (Wingless Victory), and the
Theseum, or Temple of Theseus. The temple of Nike Apteros
was only 27 feet in length by 18 in breadth, and Avas expected on

Chap. X.

MONUMENTS OF CIMON.

the Acropolis in commemoration of Cimon's victory at the Eurym-
cdon. A view of it is given at the beginning of this chapter,
and its position on the Acropolis, on one side of the Propylaa, is
seen in the drawings on p. 91, as well as on the Frontispiece of
the work.

The Theseum restored.

The Theseum is situated on a height to the north of the Areop-
agus, and was built to receive the bones of Theseus, which Cimon
brought from Scyros in B.C. 469. It was probably finished about
4G5, and is the best preserved of all the monuments of ancient
Athens. It was at once a tomb and temple, and possessed the
privileges of an asylum. It is of the Doric order, 104 feet in
lengtli by 45 feet broad, and surrounded with columns.

But it was the Acropolis which was the chief centre of the
architectural splendour of Athens. After the Persian wars the
'Acropolis had ceased to be inhabited, and was appropriated to the
worship of Athena and to the other guardian deities of the city.
It was covered with the temples of gods and heroes ; and thus ft3
platform presented not only a sanctuary, but a museum, contain-
iri'r the finest productions of the architect and the sculptor, in which
the whiteness of the marble was relieved by brilliant colours, and
rendered still more dazzling by the transparent clearness of tho

HISTORY OF GREECE.

Chap. X.

Athenir.n atmosphere. It was surrounded with walls, and the
surface seems to have been divided into terraces communicating
«vith one another by steps. The only approach to it was from the
Agora on its western side. At tlie top of a magnificent flight of
marble steps, 70 feet broad, stood tlie Propykta, constructed under

1. Parthenon.

2. Erechilicuin.

Plan of the Acropolis.

3. Propyla-ft.

4. Tuii;i)le of Nike Apteros.
5. Statue of Athena Promacbus-

the auspices of Pericles, and which served as a suitable entrance
to the exquisite woiks within. The Proi)ylKa were themselves
one of the masterjneces of Athenian art. They were cntii*ely of
rentelic marble, and covered tlie whole of the western end of the
Acropolis, having a breadth of 1C8 feet. Tiic central ])ortion of
.;hem consisted of two porticoes, of which the western one faced
I;he city, and the eastern one the interior of the Acropolis, each
consisting of a front of six fluted Doric columns. This central
part of the building was 58 feet in breadth, but the remaining
breadth of the rock at this point was covered by two wings, which
projected 2G feet in front of the western portico. Each of these
wings was in the form of a Doric temple. The northern one, or
that on the left of a i)crson ascending the Acropolis, was called the
I'inacotlicca, from its walls being covered witli paintings. The
southern wing consisted only of a ])orch or oi)en gallery. Im-
mediately before its western front stood the little temple of Niko
Apteros already mentioned.

On ])assing through tlu; rropyhva all the glories of the Acropolis
became visible. The chiut'ljuihling waa the I'artlienon (/. €., llouio

Chap. X. THE TROrYLiEA— THE PARTHENON.

of the Virgin), the most perfect production of Grecian architecture.
It derived its name from its being the temple of Athena I'arthenos,
or Athena the Virgin, the invincible goddess of war. It was also
called Ilecatompedon, from its breadth of 100 feet. It was built
under the administration of Pericles, and was completed in B.C.
438. The Parthenon stood on the highest part of the Acropolis,
near its centre, and probably occupied the site of an earlier temple
destroyed by the Persians. It was entirely of Pentelic marble, on
a rustic basement of ordinaiy limestone, and its architecture, which
was of the Doric order, Avas of the purest kind. Its dimensions
were about 228 feet in length, 101 feet in breadth, and 66 feet in
height to the top of the pediment. It consisted of a cella, sur-
rounded by a peristyle. The cella was divided into two chambers
of unequal size, the eastern one of which Avas about 98 feet long,
and the western one about 43 feet. The ceiling of both these
chambers was supported by rows of columns. The Avhole build-
ing Avas adorned Avith the most exquisite sculptures, executed by

The Propylsea restored.

A. Pinncotlieca.

B. Temple of Nike Apteros.

C. Pedestal of Agrippa.

I). Road lending to the central entrance.

E. Central entrance.

F. Hall corresponding to the Pinscotheca.

rarious artists tmdcr the direction of Phidias. These consisted
of, 1. The sculptures in the tympana of the pediments (/. e., the
inner portion of the triangular gable ends of the roof above the
two porticoes), each of which Avas filled with about 24 colossal
figures. The group in the eastern or principal front represented
the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus, and the Avcstern the

HISTORY OF GREECE.

Chap. X.

contest bc:;wccn Athena and Poseidon (Neptune) for the land of
Attica. 2. Tlie metopes between the ti-i^lyi)hs in tlie frieze of
the entablature (/. c, the upper of the two portions into Avhich tlie
space between the columns and the roof is divided) were filled
with sculptures in high relief, representing a variety of subjects
relating to Atliena herself, or to the indigenous heroes of Attica.
Each tablet was 4 feet 3 inches square. Those on the south side
related to the battle of the Athenians with the Centaurs. One of
the metopes is tigured below. 3. The frieze which ran along out-
side the wall of the cclla, and within the external columns which
surround the building, at the same height and parallel with the

\,.MM^i-^

The Partheuou restored.

metopes, was sculptured with a representation of the Panathenaic
festival in very low relief. This frieze was 3 feet 4 inches in
height, and 520 feet in length. A smiill portion of the frieze is
also figured below. A large number of the slabs of the frieze, to-
gether with sixteen metopes from the south side, and several of
the statues of the pediments, were brought to England by Lord
Elgin, of wliom they were purchased by the nation and deposited
in the Britir^Ii Museum.

]>ut the chief wonder of the Parthenon Avas the colossal statue
of the Virgin Goddess executed by Phidias himsalf, which stood
in the eastern or princij)Ml chamber of the cclla. It was of the
sort called r/in/s( /rj)/uiiiliii<', a i<ind of work said to have been in-
rented by Phidias, in wliich ivory was substituted for nutrble in

Chap. X.

THE ERECIITIIEUM.

thoso parts which were imcovcred, while the place of the real
drapery was supplied with robes and other ornaments of solid
gold. Its height, including the base, was nearly forty feet. It
represented the goddess standing, clotlied with a tunic reaching
to the ankles, with a spear iu her left hand, and an image of Vic-
tory in her right.

The Acropolis was adorned witli another colossal figure of
Athena, in bronze, also the work of Phidias. It stood in the open
air, nearly opposite the Propylaia, and was one of the first objects
seen after passing through the gates of the latter. With its
pedestal it must have stood about 70 feet high, and consequently
towered above the roof of the Parthenon, so that the point of its
spear and the crest of its helmet were visible off the promontory of
Sunium to ships approaching Athens. It was called the "Athena
Promachus," because it represented the goddess armed, and in the
very attitude of battle.

Centaur, from the Metopes of t'ae Partlienou.

The only other monument on the summit of the Acropolis which
it is necessary to describe is the Erechtheum, or temple of Erech-
theus. The traditions resj^ecting Erechtheus vary, but according
to one set of them he was identical with the god Poseidon. He
was worshipped in his temple under the name of Poseidon Erech-

HISTORY OF GREECE.

ClIAl>. X.

thcns, and from the earliest times was associated with Athena as
one of the two protecting deities of Athens. The original Ercch.
tlieum was burnt by the Persians, bnt the new temple was erected
on the ancient site. This could not have been otherwise ; for on
this spot was the sacred olive-tree which Athena evoked from the
earth in her contest with Poseidon, and also the well of salt water
which Poseidon jjroduced by a stroke of his trident, the impression
of which was seen upon the rock. The building was also called the
temple of Athena Polias, because it contained a separate sanctuary
of the goddess, as well as her most ancient statue. The building

From the Frieze of the Parthcuou. 1 unuthcuiiic I'rocecrfiun.

of the new Erectheum was not commenced till the Parthenon and
Propylica were finished, and probably not before the year preceding
the breaking out of the Peloponnesian war. Its progress was rtd
doubt delayed by tliat event, and it was probably not completed
before o93 n.c. When finished it presented one of the finest models
of the Ionic order, as the Parthenon was of the Doric. It stood to
the north of the latter buildin;^, and close to the northern wall of
the Acropolis. The form of the Erechtlieum differs from every
known exani])le of a Grecian temple. Usually a Grecian tcm])lo
v/as an ublou;^ fi.i^urc with a portico at each extremity. The
Erechtlieum, on the contrary, though oblong in shape, and having
a portico at the eastern or ])rincipal front, had none at its western
end, where, however, a portico i)r()jectcd north and south from either
side, thus forming a kind of transept. This irregularity seems to
have l>cen chielly owing to the necessity of ])rcscrving the different
sanctuaries and religious objects belonging to the ancient tcmi)lc.
A view of it is given opposite. The roof of the southern portico,
Bs shown in the view, was suitported by six Caryatides.

Ciup. X.

THE DIONYSIAC THEATRE.

9;?

The Erechtheum rostored.

Such were tlie principal objects w^hlch adorned the Acropolis at
the time of which Ave are now speaking. Their general appearance
will be best gathered from the engraving on the Frontispiece.

Before quitting the city of Athens, there are two or three other
objects of interest Avliich must be briefly described. First, the
Dionysiac theatre, which occupied the slope at the southeastern
extremity of tlie Acropolis. The middle of it was excavated out
of the rock, and the rows of scats ascended in curves one above
another, the diameter increasing with the height. It was no doubt
sufficiently large to accommodate the whole body of Athenian citi-
zens, as well as the strangers who flocked to Athens during the
Dionysiac festival, but its dimensions cannot now be accurately
ascertained. It had no roof, but the spectators were probably pro-
tected from the sun by an awning, and from their elevated seats
they had a distinct vi<ew of the sea, and of the peaked hills of
Salamis in the horizon. Above them rose the Parthenon and the
other buildings of the Acropolis, so that they sat under the shadow
of the ancestral gods of the country.

DO HISTOllY OF GREECE. Chap. X.

The Arcoi)af:^ns, or Hill of Arcs (Mars), was a rocky height op-
posite the western end of the Acropolis, from which it was sep-
arated only by some hollow ground. It derived its name from the
tradition that Ares (Mars) was brought to trial here before the &»-
Bcnibled gods, by I'oseidon (Neptune), for murdering Halirrhothiug,
the son of the latter. It was here tiiat the Council of Areopagus
met, frequently called the tapper Council, to distinguish it from
the Council of Five Hundred, which assembled in the valley below.
The Areopagites sat as judges in the open air, and two blocks of
Btone are still to be seen, jn'obably those which were occujtied
respectively by the accuser and the accused. The Areopagus was
the spot where the Apostle Paul preached to the men of Athens.

The Pnyx, or place for holding the public assemblies of the
Athenians, stood on the side of a low rocky hill, at the distance of
about a quarter of a mile from the Areopagus. Projecting from
the hill, and hewn out of it, still stands a solid rectangular block,
called the Bema or pulpit, from whence the orators addressed tho
multitude in the arena before them. The position of the Bema
commanded a view of the Propyla^a and the other magnificent
edifices of the Acropolis, while beneath it was the city itself,
studded witli monuments of Athenian glor}-. The Athenian or-
ators frequently roused the national feelings of their audience by
pointing to the Propyltea and to the other splendid buildings be-
fore them. Between the Pnyx on the west, the Areojiagus on the
north, and the Acroj)olis on the east, and closely adjoining the
base of these hills, stood the Agora (or market-i)lacc). In a direc-
tion from northwest to southeast a street called the Ceramlcus r.an
diagonally through the Agora, entering it through the valley be-
tween the Pnyx and the Areopagus. The street was named after
a district of tlie city, which was divided into two parts, the Inner
and the Outer Ceramicus. The former lay within the city walls,
and included the Agora. The Outer Ceramicus, which formed a
handsome suburb on the northwest of the city, was the burial-place
of all persons honoured with a jiublic funeral. Through it ran tie
road to the gymnasium and gardens of the Academy, which were
situated about a mile from the walls. The Academy was the
place where Plato and his disciples taught. On each side of this
road were monuments to illustrious Athenians, especially those
rtho had fallen in battle.

ICast of the city, and outside the walls, was the LycC'um, a gym-
nasium dedicated to AjjcIIo Lyceus, and celebrated as tho place iu
^hich Aristotle taught.

ACPACIA
Pericles and Aspasia.

CHAPTER XI.

gSIE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. — FIRST TERIOD, FROM THE COMMENCE.
MENT OF THE WAR TO THE PEACE OF NICIAS, B.C. 431-421.

War was now fairly kindled. All Greece looked on in sus-
pense as its two leading cities were about to engage in a strife of
which no man could foresee the end; but the youth, with which
both Athens and Peloponnesus then abounded, having had no ex-
perience of the bitter calamities of Avar, rushed into it with ardour.
It was a war of principles and races. Athens Avas a champion of
democracy, Sparta of aristocracy; Athens represented the Ionic
tribes, Sparta the Dorian ; the former were fond of novelty, the
latter were conservative and stationary ; Athens had the command
of the 9ea, Sparta was stronger upon land. On the side of Sparta
was ranged the whole of Peloponnesus, except Argos and Achaia,
together with the Megarians, Boeotians, Phocians, Opuntian Lo-
crians, Ambraciots, Leucadians, and Anactorians. The allies of
Athens, with the exception of the Thessalians, Acarnanians, Mes-
senians at Naupactus, and Platasans, were all insular, and con-
sisted of the Chians, Lesbians, Corcyraans, and Zacjnthians, and
shortly afterwards of the Cephallenians. To these must be added
her tributary towns on the coasts of Thrace and Asia Minor, togeth-
er with all the islands north of Crete, except Melos and Thera.

T^c Peloponnesians commenced the war by an invasion of At-

IlISTOKY OF GKE'ECE. Chai-. XI

Kv.^/ with a large army, uiulor tlic command of tlic Spartan king
Archidamus (b.c. 431). rericlos had instructed the inliabitants
of Attica to secure themselves and their ])roperty within the wall*
of Athens. They obeyed his injunctions with reluctance, for tlio
Attic population had from the earliest times been strongly attach-
ed to a rural life. But tlie circumstances admitted of no alteriia-
tive. Archidamus advanced as far as AcliaruiU, a flourishing At-
tic borough situated only about seven miles from Athens. Hero
he encamped on a rising ground within sight of the metropolis,
and began to lay waste the country around, expecting probably by
that means to ])rovoke tlie Athenians to battle. But in this he
was disappointed. Notwithstanding the murmurs and clamours
of the citizens, Pericles remained firm, and steadily refused to ven-
ture an engagement in the open field. The Peloponncsians re-
tired from Attica after still further ravaging the country; and the
Atlienians retaliated by making descents upon various parts of tlie
coasts of Peloponnesus,- and ravaging the territory of .Megara.

Such were the results of the first campaign. From the method
in whicli the war was conducted it had become pretty evident that
it would prove of long duration ; and the Athenians now proceed-
ed to i)rovide for this contingency. It was agreed that a reserve
fund of 1000 talents should be set apart, whicli was not to be
touched in any other case than an attack upon Athens by sea.
Any citizen who proposed to make a dilFerent use of the fund in-
curred thercl)y the juinishment of death. Vrith the same view it
was resolved to reserve every year 100 of their best triremes, fully
manned and equipped.

Towards the winter Pericles delivered, from a lofty platform
erected in the Ceramicus, the funeral oration of those who had
fallen in tlie war. This sjiecch, or, at all events, the substance of
ir, has been preserved by Tliucydidcs, wlio may possibly have heard
it pronounced. It is a valuable monument of eloquence and pa-
triotism, and particularly interesting for the sketch which it con-
tains of the Athenian manners as well as of the Athenian consti-
tution.
i^t> In the following year (n.c. 430) the Peloponncsians, under Ar-
chidamus, renewed their invasion of Attica. At the same time
the Athenians were attacked by a more insidious and a more for-
midable enemy. The plague broke out in the crowded city.
This terrible disorder, which was supposed to liave originated in
JEthiuj)ia, Irid already desolated Asia, and many of the countries
mound the INIediterranean. A great proportion of those who wcro
seized perished in from seven to nine days. It frequently attack-
ed the mental faculties, and left even thoso who recovered from it

B.C. 430. THE PLAGUE AT ATHENS. 101

so entirely deprived of memory that they couhl recognize neither
themselves nor others. The disorder being new, the physicians
could find no remedy in the resources of their art. Despair now
began to take possession of the Athenians. Some suspected that
the Feloponnesians had poisoned the v.-ells ; others attributed the
pestilence to the anger of Apollo. A dreadfid state of moral dis-
solution followed. The sick -were seized with unconquerable de-
spondency ; whilst a great part of the population who had hith-
erto escaped the disorder, expecting soon to be attacked in turn,
abandoned themselves to all manner of excess, debauchery, and
crime. The numbers carried off by the pestilence can hardly be
estimated at less than a fourth of the whole population.

Oppressed at once by war and pestilence, their lands desolated,
their homes filled with mourning, it is not surprising that the
Athenians were seized with rage and despair, or that they vented
their anger on Pericles, whom they deemed the author of their
misfortune. But that statesman still adhered to his plans with
unshaken firmness. Though the Lacedemonians were in Attica,
though the plague had already seized on Athens, he was vigorously
pushing his scheme of offensive operations. A foreign expedition
might not only divert the popular mind, but would prove beneficial
by relieving the crowded city of part of its population ; and ac-
cordingly a fleet was fitted out, of which Pericles himself took the
command, and wliich committed devastations upon various parts
of the Peloponnesian coast. But, upon returning from this expe-
dition, Pericles found the public feeling more exasperated than be-
fore. Envoys had even been despatched to Sparta to sue for peace,
but had been dismissed without a hearing ; a disappointment which
had rendered the populace still more furious. Pericles now found
it necessary to call a i^ubiic assembly in order to vindicate his con-
duct, and to encourage the desponding citizens to persevere. But,
though he succeeded in persuading them to prosecute the war with
vigour, they still continued to nourish their feelings of hatred
against the great statesman. His political enemies, of whom Cleon
was the chief, took advantage of this state of the public mind to
bring against him a charge of peculation. The main object of this
accusation was to incapacitate him for the office of Strategus, or
general.* He was brought before the dicastery on this charge,
and sentenced to pay a considerable fine ; but eventually a strong'
reaction occurred in his favour. He was re-elected general, and
apparently regained all the influence he had ever possessed.

* Tlie Strategi, or Generals, were ten in number, elected annually, and vreve
intnir^tcd not only with the command in military expedition?, but with the su-
perintendence of all warlike preparations, and with the regulation of all mattara
VI any way connected with the wav department of the state.

102 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XL

But he was not destined long to enjo}' this return of popularity.
His life was now closing in, and its end wa« clouded by a long
train of domestic misfortunes. The epidemic deprived him not
only of many personal and political friends, but also of several near
relations, amongst whom were his sister and his two legitimate
sons, Xanthippus and Paralus. Tlie death of tlie latter was a se-
vere blow to him. During the funeral ceremonies, as he placed a
garland on the body of his favourite son, he was completely OA'cr-
powered by his feelings and wept aloud. His ancient house was
now left witliout an heir. By Aspasia, however, he had an ille-
gitimate son who bore his own name, and whom the Athenians
now legitimized, and thus alleviated, as far as lay in their power,,
the misfortunes of their great leader.

After this period it was with difficulty that Pericles was per-
suaded by his friends to take any active part in jniblic affairs ; nor
did he survive more than a twelvemonth. An attack of the pre-
vailing epidemic was succeeded by a low and lingering fever, which
nndermined both his strength of body and vigour of intellect. As
Pericles lay ai)i)arently unconscious on his death-bed, the friends
who stood around it Avcre engaged in recalling his exploits. The
dying man interrupted them by remarking, "What you praise in
me is partly the result of good fortune, and, at all events, common
to me Avith many otlier commanders. What I chiefly pride my-
self upon you have not noticed — no Athenian ever wore mourning
through me."

The enormous influence which Pericles exei'cised for so long a
period OAcr an ingenious but fickle people like the Athenians is
an unquestionable proof of his intellectual superiority. This hold
on the public atfection is to be attributed to a great extent to his
extraordinary eloquence. Cicero regards him as the first example
of an almost perfect orator, at once delighting the Athenians with
his copiousness and gi'ace, and overawing them by the force and
cogency of his diction and arguments. He seems, indeed, to hava
fiingiilarly combined tlie ])Owcr of pcrsunsion with that more rapid
and abrupt style of oratory which takes an audience by storm and
defies all resistance. As the accom]dished man of genius and the
liberal patron of literature and art, Pericles is worthy of the high-
est admiration. By the.^e qualities he has justly given name to
the most brilliant intellectual epoch that tlic world has ever seen.
But on tliis ])oint we have already touched, and shall have occa-
sion to refer hereafter in the sketch of Grecian literature.
, V^ In the third year of the war (n.c. 420) Archidamus directed his
whole force against the ill-fated town of Plata\a. The siege that
ensued is one of the most memorable in the ann.nlsj of Grecian

B.C. 429. SIEGE OF PLATiEA. 103

warfare. Platrca was but a small city, and its garrison consisted
of only 400 citizens and 80 Athenians, togetlier with 110 women
to manage thciv household aflairs. Yet this small force set at de-
fiance the whole army of the Feloponnesians. The latter, being re-
pulsed in all their attemjjts to take the place by storm, resolved to
turn the siege into a blockade, and reduce the city by famine. The
Platajans endured a blockade of two years, during which the Athe-
nians attempted nothing for their relief. In the second year, how-
ever, about half the garrison effected their escape ; but the rest
wore obliged to surrender shortly afterwards (n.c. 427). The whole
garrison, consisting of 200 Platieans ami 25 Athenians, were now
'arraigned before five judges sent from Sparta. Their indictment
was framed in a way which precluded the possibility of escape.
They were simply asked "Whether, during the present war, they
had rendered any assistance to the Lacedemonians and their al'
lies?" Each man was called up separately before the judgment-
seat, and the same question having been put to him, and, of course,
answered in the negative, he was immediately led away to execu-
tion. The town of Plataa was transferred to the Thebans, who,
a few months afterwards, levelled all the private buildings to the
ground. Thus was Plataea blotted out from the map of Greece uji'T'
(B.C. 427). In recording the fall of Plata3a we have anticipated
the order of chronology.

Tne most important event in the fourth year of the war(B.c Ji^^
428) was the revolt of Mytilene, the capital of Lesbos, and of the
greater part of that island. The Athenians sent out a fleet which
blockaded Mytilene both by sea and land. The Peloponnesians
promised their assistance ; but, from various causes, their fleet was
unable to reach the place. Meanwhile the provisions of the town
were exhausted, and it was therefore resolved, as a last desperate
expedient, to make a sally, and endeavour to raise the blockade.
With this view even the men of the lower classes were armed with
the full armour of the hoplites. But this step produced a very dif-
ferent result from what had been expected or intended. The great
mass of the Mytileneans regarded their own oligarchical govern-
ment with suspicion, and now threatened that, unless tlieir de-
mands were complied with, they would surrender the city to the
Athenians. In this des])erate emergency the Mytilenean govern-
ment perceived that their only chance of safety lay in anticipating
the people in this step. They accordingly opened a negotiation
M'ith Paches, the Athenian commander, and a ca])itulation was
agreed upon by which the city was to be surrendered, and the fate
of its inhabitants to be decided by ilie Athenian Assembly.

At Athens the disposal of the prisoners caused great debate. I*

104 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XI.

was on this occasion that the leather-seller Clcon first comes prom<
inently fonvard in Athenian .aihiirs. Jf we may trust tlie jtictiire
drawn by tlic comic i)oet Aristoi)liancs, Cleon was a perfect model
of a low-born demagogue ; a noisy brawler, insolent in his gestures,
corrupt and venal in liis princijiles. INIuch allowance must no doubt
be made for comic license and exaggeration in this portrait, but
even a caricature must have some grounds of truth for its basis.
It was this man who took the lead in the debate respecting tlia
disposal of the Mytileneans, and made the savage and liorrible pro-
posal to put to death the ichole male population of Mytilenc of
military age, and to sell the women and children into slaA'cry.
This motion he succeeded in carrying, and a trireme was imme-
diately despatched to Mytilene, conveying orders to Paelics to
carry the bloody decree into execution. This barbarous decree
made no discrimination between the innocent and the guilty ; and
on the morrow so general a feeling prevailed of the horrible in-
justice tliat had been committed, that the magistrates acceded to
the i)rayer of the Mytilcnean envo3's and called a fresh assembly.
Notwithstanding the violent opposition of Cleon, the majority of
the assembly reversed their former decree, and resolved that the
Mytileneans already in custody should be put upon their trial, but
that tlie remainder of the population should be spared. A sec-
ond trireme was immediately des])atched to ]\lytilenc, with orders
to Paches to arrest the execution. The utmost diligence was need-
ful. Tlie former trireme had a start of four-and-twenty hours,
and nothing but exertions almost superhuman would enable the
second to reacli Mytilene early enougli to avert the tragical catas-
trophe. The oarsmen were allowed bv turns only short intervals
of rest, and took their food, consisting of barley-meal steeped in
wine and oil, as they sat at the oar. llai)])ily the weather proved
favourable ; and the crew, wlio had been jiromiscd large rewards
in case they arrived in time, exerted themselves to deliver the re-
prieve, whilst the crew of tlie preceding vessel had conveyed the
order for execution with slowness and reluctance. Yet even so
the countermand came only just in time. The mandate avus al-
ready in the hands of Paches, wlio was taking measures for its
execution. Tlui fortifications of Mytilene were razed, and her
fleet delivered up to the Athenians.
i^y The fate of the Platjcans and INlytileneans affords a fearful illus-
» tration of the manners of the age ; but these horrors soon found a
])arallel in Corcyra. A fearful struggle took place in this island
between the aristocratical and ileniociaiical parties. The peojilc
at length obtained the nnistcry, and the vengeance which they
took on their opponents was fearful. The most sacred sanctuarie*

B.C. 428.

CONQUEST OF MYTILENE.

105

alForded no protection ; the nearest ties of blood and kindred were
sacrificed to civil hatred. In one case a father slew even his own
son. These scenes of horror lasted for seven days, during which
death in every conceivable form was busily at work.

The seventh year of the war (b.c. 425) Avas marked by an im-t| x^y
portant event. An Athenian fleet was detained by bad weather
at Pylus in Messenia, on the modern Bay of Navavino. Deraoss-

Buy of Pylus.

£.. Island of Spbacteria. B. Pylus. C. The modern Navariiio. D D. Day of Pyllfc

E. Promontory of Coryphasiuin.

thenes, an active Atlienian officer, wlio was on board the fleet,
thought it an eligible spot on which to establish some of the Mes-
Bsnians from Naupactus, since it was a strong position, from which
they might annoy the Lacedaemonians, and excite revolt among
their Ilelot kinsmen. As the bad Aveather continued for some
time, the soldiers on board amused themselves, under the direo-

iOG HISTORY OF GiyiECE. Chap. XI

tions of Demosthenes, in constmctinfc a sort of rude fortification.
The nature of the j^round was favourable for the work, and in iivo
or six days a wall was thrown up sulhcient for the purposes of de-
fence. Demosthenes imdcrtook to garrison the place; and five
ships and 200 hoplites Avere left behind with him.

This insult to the Lacedaemonian territory caused great alarm
and indignation at Sparta. The rdoponnesian fleet was ordered
to Pylus ; and tlie Lacedicmonian commander, on arriving with
the fleet, immediately occupied the small uninhabited and densely
wooded island of Sphacteria, which, with the exception of two
narrow channels on the north and south, almost blocked uj* the
entrance of the biiy. Between the island and the main land was
a spacious basin, in which the fleet took iip its station. The Lace-
d:vmonians lost no time in attacking the fortress; but, notwith-
standing their repeated attempts, they were unable to effect a land-
ing.

Whilst they were preparing far another assault, they were sur-
prised by the appearance of the Athenian fleet. They had strange-
ly neglected to secure the entrances into the bay; and, when the
Athenian ships came sailing through both the undefended chan-
nels, many of their ti'iremes were still moored, and part of their
crews ashore. The battle which ensued was despernte. Both
sides fouglit with extraordinary valour ; but victory at length de-
clared for the Athenians. Five Peloponncsian ships were cap-
tured ; the rest were saved only by running them ashore, whero
they were protected by the Lacedaemonian army.

Tlie Athenians, thus masters of the sea, were enabled to blocks
ade the island of Sphacteria, in whicli the flower of the Lacedae-
monian army was shut up, many of them native Spartans of the
highest families. In so grave an emergency messengers were sent
to S])arta for advice. The Ej)hors themselves immediately re-
paired to the spot ; and so desponding was their view of the mat-
ter, that they saw no issue from it but a i)cace. They therefore
proposed and obtained an armistice for the purpose of o])ening ne-
gotiations at Athens. But the Athenians, at the instigation of
Clcon, insisted upon the most extravagant demands, and hostili-
ties were accordingly resumed. They were not, however, attend-
ed with any decisive result. The blockade of Si)hactcria began to
grow tedious and harassing. The force upon it continually re-
ceived sui)plics of ])rovisions cither from swimmers, who towed
skins fllh'd with linseed and po]i])v-secd mixed with honey, or
from Helots, who, induced by the jaoniise of large rewanls, eluded
the blockading squadron during the dark and stormy nights, and
landed cargoes on the back of the island. The summer, more

B.C. 425. BLOCKADE OF SPIIACTERIA. 10^

over, was fast ^yearing away, and the storms of winter oight prob-
ably necessitate tlio ruisinj^ of tlie blockade altogether. Undet
these circumstances, Demosthenes began to contemplate a descent
upon the island ; with which view he sent a message to Athens to
explain the unfavourable state of the blockade, and to request
furtlier assistance.

These tidings were very distasteful to the Athenians, who had
looked upon Sphacteria as their certain prey. They began to rcr
gret having let slip the favourable opportunity for making a peace,
and to vent their displeasure upon Cleon, the director of their
conduct on that occasion. But Cleon put on a face of brass. He
abused the Strategi. His political opponent, Nicias, was then one
of those officers, a man of quiet disposition and moderate abilities,
but thoroughly honest and incorruptible. Him Cleon now singled
out for his vituperation, and, pointing at him with his finger, ex-
claimed, "It would be easy enough to take the island if our gen-
erals were men. If /were general, I would do it at once !" This
burst of the tanner made the assembly laugh. He was saluted
with cries of "Why don't you go, then?" and Nicias, thinking
probably to catch his opponent in his own trap, seconded the voice
of the assembly by offering to place at his disposal whatever force
he might deem necessary for the enterprise. Cleon at first en-
deavoured to avoid the dangerous honour thus thrust upon him.
But the more he drew back the louder were the assemblv in call-
ing upon him to accept the office ; and as Nicias seriously repeat-
ed his proposition, he adopted with a good grace Avhat there was
no longer any possibility of evading, and asserted that he would
take Sphacteria within twenty days, and either kill all the Lace-
demonians upon it, or bring them prisoners to Athens.

Never did -general set out upon an enterprise under circum-
stances more singular ; but, what was still more extraordinary,
fortune enabled him to make his promise good. In fact, as we
have seen, Demosthenes had already resolved on attacking the isl-
and ; and when Cleon arrived at Pylus he found everything pre-
pared for the assault. Accident fiivoured the enterprise. A fire
kindled by some Athenian sailors, who had landed for the purpose
of cooking their dinner, caught and destroyed the woods with
which the island was overgrown, and thus" deprived the Lacedae-
monians of one of their principal defences. Nevertheless, such
was the awe inspired by the reputation of the Spartan arms, that
Demosthenes considered it necessary to land about 10,000 soldiers
of different descriptions, although the Lacedaimonian force con-
sisted of only about 420 men. But this small force for a long
while kept their assailants at bay; till some Messenians, stealing

-I

108 HISTORY OF GKEECE. Chap. XI.

round by tho sea-shore, over crags and clifts which the Lnccdae-
nioniaiis had deemed impracticable, suddenly appeared on the high
ground which overhung their rear. Tliey now began to give way,
and would soon have been all slain ; but Clcon and Demosthenes,
being anxious to carry them prisoners to Athens, sent a herald to
summon them to surrender. The latter, in token of compliance,
dropped their shields, and waved their hands above their heads.
They requested, however, permission to communicate with their
countrymen on the main land ; who, after two or three communi-
cations, sent them a final message — "to take counsel for them-
selves, but to do nothing disgraceful." The survivors then sur-
rendered. They were 2i)2 in number, 120 of whom were native
Spartans belonging to the first families. By this surrender the
prestige of the Spartan arms was in a great degree destroyed.
The Spartans were not, indeed, deemed invincible ; but their pre-
vious tbats, especially at Thermopylae, had inspired the notion that
they would rather die tlian yield — an opinion which could now no
longer be entertained.

Cleon had thus performed his promise. On the day after the
victory he and Demosthenes started Avith tlie prisoners for Athens,
where they arrived within 20 days from the time of Cleon's de-
parture. Altogether, the alfair was one of the most fiivourable for
the Athenians that had occurred during the war. The prisoners
would serve not only for a guarantee against future invasions,
which might be averted by threatening to put them to death, but
also as a means for extorting advantageous conditions whenever
a peace should be concluded. Nay, the victory itself was of con-
siderable importance, since it enabled the Atlienians to place Ty-
lus in a better posture of defence, and, by garrisoning it with Mcs-
senians from Naupactus, to create a strongliokl whence Laconia
might be oveiTun and ravaged at i)leasure. The Laceda;moniaus
themselves were so sensible of these things, that they sent repeat-
ed messages to Athens to jiroijose a peace, but which the Athe-
nians altogether disregarded.

The eightli year of the war (u.c. 424) opened witli brilliant pros-
pects for the Atlienians. Elate with their continued good fortune,
they aimed at nothing less tlian the recovery of all the posses-
sions which they had lield before tlie Thirty Years' Truce. For
this purpose tliey iilauned an expedition against Bieotia. But
tlieir good fortune had now reached its culminating i)oint. They
were defeated by the J5<cotians with great loss at the battle of De-
lium, whiclx was the greatest and most decisive engagement fought
during the first period of the war. An interesting feature of the
battle is that both Socrates and his pupil Alcibiades were engaged

B.C. 424. BATTLE 01^^ DELIUil. 103

in it, the former among the lioplites, the latter in the cavalry.
Socrates distinguished himself by his bravery, and was one of
those who, instead of throwing down their arms, kept together in
a compact body, and repulsed the attacks of the pursuing horse. -
His retreat was also protected by Alcibiades.

This disastrous battle was speedily followed by the overthrow of
tlie Athenian empire in Thrace. At the request of Perdiccas, king
of Macedonia, and of the Chalcidian towns, Avho had sued for help
against the Athenians, Brasidas was sent by the Lacedasmonian
government into Macedonia, at tlie head of a small body of troops.
On his arrival in ]Macedonia he proclaimed that he was come to
deliver the Grecian cities from the tyrannous yoke of Athens. His
bravery, his kind and conciliating demeanour, his probity, moder-
ation, and good faith, soon gained him the respect and love of the
allies of Athens in that quarter. Acanthus and Stagirus hastened
to open their gates to him ; and early in the ensuing winter, by
means of forced marches, he suddenly and unexpectedly appeared
before the important Athenian colony of Amphipolis on the Stry-
mon. In that town the Athenian party sent a message for assist-
ance to Thucydides, the historian, wiio was then general in those
parts. Thucydides hastened with seven ships from Thasos, and
succeeded in securing Eion at the mouth of the Strymon ; but
Amphipolis, which lay a little higher up the river, allured by the
favourable terms ofiered, had already surrendered to Brasidas.
For his want of vigilance on this occasion, Thucydides was, on the
motion, of Cleon, sentenced to banishment, and spent the follow-
ing twenty years of his life in exile. Torone, Scione, and other
towns also revolted from Athens.

In the following year (b.c. 422) Cleon was sent to Macedonia
to recover the Athenian de])endencies, and especially Amphipolis.
He encamped on a rising ground on the eastern side of the town.
Having deserted the peaceful art of dressing hides for the more
hazardous trade of war, in which he was almost totally inexperi-
enced, and having now no Demosthenes to direct his movements,
Cleon was thrown completely otf his guard by a ver}'- ordinaiy
stratagem on the part of Brasidas, who contrived to give the town
quite a deserted and peaceful appearance. Cleon suffered his
troops to fall into disorder, till he was suddenly surprised by the
astounding news that Brasidas was preparing for a sally. Cleon
at once resolved to retreat. But his skill was equal to his valour.
He conducted his retreat in the most disorderly manner. His left
wing had already filed off, and his centre, with straggling ranks,
was in the act of follov.'ing, when Brasidas ordered the gates of the
town to be flung open, and, rushing out at the head of only 150

no HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XL

chosen soldiers, chavgeJ the retreating cohimns in flank. Thet
were immediately routed ; but Brasidas received a mortal wound,
and was carried off the field. Though his men were forming on
the hill, Cleon fled as f.ist as lie could on tlie approach of the en*
cmy, but was pursued and slain by a Thracian peltast. In spite,
however, of the disgraceful fliglit of their general, the right wing
maintained their ground for a considerable time, till some cavalry
and peltasts issuing from Amphipolis attacked them in flank and
rear, and compelled them to ily. On assembling again at Eion it
was found tliat half the Athenian liojjlites had been slain. Brasidas
was carried into Amphi])olis, and lived long enough to receive the
tidings of his victory. He was interred within the walls with great
military pomp, in the centre of what thenceforth became the chief
agora ; he was proclaimed oecist, or founder of the town ; and was
worshipped as a hero with annual games and sacrifices.

By the death of Brasidas and Cleon tlie two chief obstacles to a
peace were removed ; for the former loved war for the sake of its glo-
ry, the latter for the handle which it afforded for agitation and for
attacking his political opponents. The Atlienian Nicias, and the
Spartan king l*leistoanax, zealously forwarded the negotiations,
and in the spring of the year B.C. 421 a peace for 50 years, com-
monly called the Peace of Nicias, was concluded on the basis of
a mutual restitution of prisoners and places captured during the
war.

Vie^v of the Fort Euryulus at Synvcu^o.

CIIAl'TER XII.

THE TELOPONNESIAN WAR. SECOND PERIOD, PROM THE PEACE

OF NICIAS TO THE DEFEAT OF THE ATHENIANS IN SICILY, B.C.

421-413.

Several of the allies of Spavta were dissatisfied -with the peace
which she had concluded ; and soon afterwards some of them de-
termined to revive the ancient pretensions of Argos, and to make
her the head of a new confederacy, which should include all Greece,
with the exception of Sparta and Athens. The movement was
begun by the Corinthians, and the league was soon joined by the
Eleans, the Mantineans, and the Chalcidians.

Between Sparta and Athens themselves matters v/ere far from
being on a satisfactory footing. Sparta confessed her inability to
coifipel the Boeotians and Corinthians to accede to the peace, or
even to restore tlie town of Amphipolis. Athens consequently
refused to evacuate Tylus, though she removed the Helots and
Messenians from it. In the negotiations which ensued respecting
the surrender of Pylus, Alcibiades took a prominent part. Thig
extraordinary man had already obtained immense influence at
Athens. Young, rich, handsome, profligate, and clever, Alcibia-
des was the very model of an Athenian man of fashion. In lin-
eage he was a striking contrast to the plebeian orators of the day.
He traced his paternal descent fi'om Ajax, whilst on his mother's
side he claimed relationship Avith tlie Alcmaionida), and conse-
quently with Pericles. On the death of his father Clinias, Per-

112 IIISTOllY OF GREECE. Chap. XII.

icles had become his guardian. From early youth the conduct
of Alcibiadcs was marked ])y violence, recklessness, and vanity.
He delij^hted in astonishir.<; the more sol)er portion of the citizens
by his capricious and extravaj^ant feats. He was utterly destitute
of morality, wliether public or private. But his vices were partly
redeemed by some brilliant qualities. He possessed both boldness
of design and vigour of action ; and, though scarcely more than
thirty at the time of which we are now sjieaking, he had already
on several occasions distinguished himself by his bravery. His
more serious studies were made subservient to the purposes cf his
ambition, for wliich some skill as an orator was necessary. In
order to attain it, he frequented the schools of the sophists, and
exercised himself in the dialectics of Prodicus, Protagoras, and,
jtbove all, of Socrates.

Such was the man who now opposed the application of th«
Lacedaimonian ambassadors. Their reception had been so favour-
able, that Alcibiades, alarmed at the prospect of their success, le-
sorted to a trick in order to defeat it. He called upon the Lacc-
diXimonian envoys, one of whom happened to be his personal friend;
and he advised them not to tell the Assembly that they were fur-
nislied with full powers, as in that case the people would bully
them into extravagant concessions, but rather to say that they
were merely come to discuss and report. lie promised, if they
did so, to s])eak in their favour, and induce the Assembly to grant
the restitution of Pylus, to which he himself had hitherto been
the chief obstacle. Accordingly, on the next day, when the am-
bassadors were introduced into the Assembly, Alcibiades, assuming
his blandest tone and most winning smile, asked them on what
footing they came, and what were their powers. In re])ly to these
questions, the ambassadors, who only a day or two before had told
Nicias and the Senate that they were come as plenipotentiaries,
now publicly declared, in the face of the Assembly, that they were
not authorized to conclude, but only to negotiate and discuss. At
this announcement, those who had heard their previous declara-
tion could scarcely believe their ears. A universal burst of indig-
nation broke forth at this exlubition of Spartan duplicity; whilsr,
to wind up the scene, Alcibiades, ailocting to be more surprised than
any, distinguished himself by being the loudest and bitterest in his
invectives against the perfidy of the Lacedicmonians.

Sliortly afterwards Alcibiades ])rocured the completion of a
treaty of alliance for 100 years with Argos, Elis, and Mantinca
(u.c. -ILM)). 'J'luis were the Orccian slates involved in a com-
plicity of separate and often apparently opposite alliances. It was
evident that allies so heterogeneous could not long hohl together,'
nevertheless, nominally at least, peace was at first observed.

B.C. 416. CAPTURE OF MELOS. 113

In the July which followed the treaty with Argos, the Olympic
games, which recurred every fourth year, were to be celebrated.
The Athenians had been shut out by the war from the two previ-
ous celebrations ; and curiosity was excited throughout Greece to
see what figure Athens would make at this great ran-Hellenic
festival. War, it was surmised, mnst have exhausted her re-
sources, and would thus prevent her from appearing Mith becom-
ing splendour. But from this reproach she was rescued by the
wealth and vanity, if not by the pa,triotism, of Alcibiades. By his
care, the Athenian deputies exhibited the richest display of gold-
en ewers, censers, and other plate to be used in the public sacri-
fice and procession ; whilst for the games he entered in his own
name no fewer than the unheard-of number of seven four-horsed
chariots, of which one gained the first, and another the second
prize. Alcibiades was consequently twice crowned with the olive,
and twice proclaimed victor by the herald.

The growing ambition and success of Alcibiades prompted him
to carry his schemes against Sparta into the very heart of Pelo-
ponnesus, without, hoAvever, openly violating the peace.

The Lacedaemonians now found it necessary to act with more
vigour; and accordingly, in B.C. 418, they assembled a very large
army, under the command of the Spartan king, Agis. A decisive
battle was fought near Mantinea, in which Agis gained a brilliant
victory over the Argives and their allies. This battle and that
of Delium were the two most important engagements that had yet
been fought in the Peloponnesian war. Although the Athenians
had fought on the side of the Argives at Mantinea, the peace be-
tween Sparta and Athens continued to be nominally observed.

In B.C. 410 the Athenians attacked and conquered Melos, which
island and Thera were the onl}- islands in the ^gcan not sulycct
to the Athenian supremacy. The Melians having rejected all the
Athenian overtures for a voluntary submission, their capital was
blockaded by sea and land, and after a siege of some months sur-
rendered. On the proposal, as it appears, of Alcibiades, all the
adult males were put to death, the women and children sold into
slavery, and the island colonized afresh by 500 Athenians. This
horrible proceeding was the more indefensible, as the Athenians,
having attacked the Melians in full peace, could not pretend that
they were justified by the custom of war in slaying the prisoners.
It was the crowning act of insolence and cruelty displayed during
their empire, which from this period began rapidly to decline.

The event destined to produce that catastrophe — the interven-
tion of the Athenians in the affairs of Sicily — was already in prog-
ress. A quarrel had broken out between Egcsta and Selinus, both

114 • HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XII.

wliich cities were seated near the western extremity of Sicily ; and
Selinus, having obtained the aid of Syracuse, was pressing very
hard upon the Egestajans. Tlie latter appealed to the interests
of the Atlienians rather than to their sympathies. They repre-
sented how great a blow it would be to Athens if the Dorians be-
came predominant in Sicily, and joined the Peloi)onncsian con-
federacy ; and they undertook, if the Athenians would send an
aiTnament to their assistance, to ])rovide the necessary funds for
the prosecution of the war. Their most powerful advocate was
Alcibiades, whoso ambitious views ai'c said to have extended even
to the conquest of Carthage. The quieter and more prudent Nic-
ias and his party threw their weight into the opposite scale. But
the Athenian assembly, dazzled by the idea of so splendid an en-
terprise, decided on despatching a large fleet under I^icias, Alci-
biades, and Lamachus, witli the design of assisting Egesta, and of
establishing the influence of Athens throughout Sicily, by what-
ever means might be found practicable.

For the next three months tlie preparations for the undertak-
ing were pressed on witli the greatest ardour. Young and old,
ric'.i and poor, all vied with one another to obtain a share in the
expedition. Five years of comparative peace had accumulated
a fresli supply both of men and money, and the merchants of
Athens embarked in the enterprise as in a trading expedition. It
was only a few of the wisest heads that escaped the genei'al fcA-er
of excitement. Tlic expedition was on the ])oint of sailing, when
a sudden and mysterious event converted all these exulting feel-
ings into gloomy foreboding.

At every door in Athens, at (he corners of streets, in the market-
place, before temples, gymnasia, and other ])ublic i»laces, stood
llcrraixi, or statues of the god Hermes, consisting of a bust of tliat
deity surmounting a quadrangular i)illiir of marble about the heiglit
of tlie liuman figure. AVlien the Athenians rose one morning to-
wards the end of jNIay, 415 n.c, it was found that all these figures
(lad been mutilated during the night, and rcducetl by unknown
hands t(j a shai)clcss mass. Tiic act inspired political as well as
religious alarm. It seemed to indicate a widespread consj»iracy,
for so sudden and general a mutilation must have been the work
of many hands. 'J'lio sacrilege might only be a ])reliminary at-
tempt of some ])owerfnl citizen to seize the despotism, and suspi-
cion pointed its finger at Alcibiades. Active measures were taken
and large rewards offered for the discovery of tlie perpetrators.
A public board was ai)pointcd to examine witnesses, which did
not, indeed, succeed in rTu iting any facts bearing on the actual
subject of inquiry, but which obtained evidence respciting similar

B.C. 415. CONDEMNATION OF ALCIBIADES. 115

acts of impiety committed at previous times in di-unken frolics.
In these Alcibiadcs luinself -was implicated ; and though the fieei
\va?J on the very eve of departure, a citizen rose in the assembly
and accused Alcihiades of having profaned the Eleusinian mys-
teries by giving a rei)rescntation of them in a private house, pro-
ducing in evidence the testimony of a slave. Alcibiadcs denied
the accusation, and implored the people to have it investigated at
once. His enemies, however, had sufficient influence to get the
inquiry postponed till his return ; thus keeping the charge hang-
ing over his head, and gaining time to poison the public mind
against him.

The Athenian fleet, consisting of 100 triremes, and having on
board 1500 chosen Athenian hoplites, as well as auxiliaries, at
length set sail, and proceeded to Corcyra, where it was joined by
the otiier allies in the m.onth of July, 415 B.C. Upon arriving at
llhegium the generals received the discouraging news that Egesta
was unable to contribute more than thirty talents. A council of
war was now held ; and it was finally resolved to gain as many al-
lies as they could among the Greek cities in Sicily, and, having
thus ascertained what assistance they could rely upon, to attack
Syracuse and Selinus.

Naxos joined the Athenians, and shortly afterwards they ob-
tained possession by surprise of the important city of Catana, which
was now made the head-quarters of the armament. Here an un-
welcome message greeted Alcibiadcs. After his departure from
Athens, Thessalus, the son of Cimon, preferred an indictment
against him in consequence of his profanation of the Eleusinian
mysteries. The Salaminian, or state trireme was despatched to
Sicily, carrying the decree of the assembly for Alcibiadcs to come
home and take his trial. Tlie commander of the Salaniinia was,
however, instructed not to seize his pci'son, but to allow him to
sail in his own trireme. Alcibiadcs availed himself of this priv-
ilege to effect his escape. AVhcn the ships arrived at Thurii, in
Italy, he absconded, and contrived to elude the search that was
made after him. Nevertheless, tliougli absent, he was arraigned
at Athens, and condemned to death ; his property was confiscated ;
and the Eumolpidai, who presided over the celebration of the Elcti-
sinian mysteries, pronounced upon him the ciu'ses of the gods. On
iiearing of his sentence, Alcibiadcs is said to have exclaimed, ".I
will show them that I am still alive."

Tliree months had now been frittered away in Sicily, during
which tl'.e Athenians had done little or nothing, if we excc])t the
acquisition of Naxos and Catana. Nicias now resolved to make
au attempt upon Syracuse. By a false message that the Catanicans

116 HISTORY OF GREECE. Ciiap.XIL

were ready to assist in expellinj]; the Athenians, he induced the
Syracusans to proceed thither in great force, and he availed him-
self of their absence to sail with his whole fleet into the Great Har-
bour of Syracuse, where he landed near the mouth of the Anapus.
The Syracusans, when they found that they had been deceived at
Catana, marched back and ollbred Zs'icias battle in his new posi-
tion. The latter accepted it, and gained the victory ; after which
he retired to Catana, and subsequently to Naxos into winter quar-
ters.

The Syracusans employed the winter in preparations for defence.
They also desi)atched envoys to Corinth and Sjjarta to solicit as-
sistance, in the hitter of which towns they found an nnexpected
advocate. Alcibiades, having crossed from Thurii to Cyllenc' in
Peloponnesus, received a special invitation to proceed to Sjiarta.
Here he revealed all tlie jilans of Athens, and exhorted the Lace-
daemonians to frustrate them. For this pnrpose he advised them
to send an army into Sicily under the command of a Si)artan gen-
eral, and, by way of causing a diversion, to establish a fortified
post at Decelea in the Attic territory. The Spartans fell in with
these views, and resolved to send a force to the assistance of Syr-
acuse in the spring, under the command of Gylii)pus.

Nicias, having received re-enforcements from Athens, recom
menced hostilities as soon as the season allowed of it, and i-csolved
on b'\sicging Syracuse. That town consisted of two i)arts — tlic
inner and the outer city. The former of these — the original set-
tlement— was comprised in the island of Ortygia*, the latter, after-
wards known by the name of Achradina, covered the high ground
of the ])eninsuhi nortli of Ortygia, and M'as completely sci»aratc
from the inner city. The island of Ortygia, to which the modern
city is now confined, is of an oblong shape, about two miles in cir-
cumference, lying between the Great Harbour on the west and the
Little Harbour on the cast, and separated from the nmin land by
a narrow channel. The Great Harbour is a splendid bay, about
five miles in circumference, and the Little Harbour v>as spacious
enough to receive a large iieet of ships of war. The outer city
was surrounded on the north and cast by the sea, and by sea-walls
which rendered an assault on that side almost iin[)racticable. On
the land side it was defended by a wall, and partly also by the
nature of the ground, which in some ]>arts was very steej). West
and northwest of the wall of the outer city stood two unfortilied
suburbs, which were, at a later jjcriod, included within the walli«of
Syracuse under the names of Tyche and Neapolis. Between these
two suburl)s tlio ground rose in a gentle acclivity to the summit of
the ranges of hills callvil Kpii)ola!.

B.C. 415.

ATHENIANS IN SICILY.

It was from the high ground in Epipolce that Syracuse was most
exposed to attack. Nicias landed at Leon, a place upon the Bay
of Tliapsus, at the distance of only six or seven stadia from Epipolce,

M:ip of Syiacuwe.

took possession of Epipolro, and erected on the summit a fort called
Labdalum. Then coming farther down the hill towards Syracuse,
he built another fort of a circular form and of considerable size at a
place called Sykc'. From the latter point he commenced his line
of circumvallation, one wall extending southwards from Syke to
the Great Harbour, and the other wall running northwards to the
outer sea. The Athenians succeeded in completing the circum-
vallation towards the south, but in one of their many engagements
with the Syracusans they lost the gallant Lamachus. At the same
time, the Athenian fleet entered the Great Harbour, where it was
henceforth permanently established. The northern wall was nevcj

118 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIL

completed, and through the passaf:je tints left open the bcsicc^ed con«
tiiiued to obtain provisions. Nicias, avIio, hy the death of Luniachus,
had become sole commander, seemed now on the point of succeed-
infc. The Syracusans were so sensible of their inferiority in tho
field that they no longer ventured to show themselves outside tho
walls. They began to contem})late surrender, and even sent mes-
sages to Nicias to treat of the terms. This caused the Athenian
commander to indulge in a false confidence of success, and conse-
quent apathy ; and tlie army having lost the active and energetic
Lamachus, operations were no longer carried on with the requisite
activity.

It was in this state of affairs tliat the Spartan commander,
Gylippus, passed over into Italy with a little squadron of four
ships, with the view merely of preserving the Greek cities in that
country, supposing tliat Syracuse, and, with her, the other Greek
cities in Sicily, Avorc irretrievably lost. At Tarcntum he learned
to his great surprise and satisfaction that the Athenian Avail of
circumA-allation at Syracuse had not yet been completed on the
northern side, lie now sailed through the Straits of Mcssana,
which were left completely unguarded, and arrived safely at
Ilimcra on the nortli coast of Sicily. Here he announced liim-
self as the forerunner of larger succours, and began to levy an
army, which the magic of the Spartan name soon enabled him to
effect ; and in a few days he was in a condition to march towards
Svracuse Avith about 3000 men. The Syracusans now dismissed
all thoughts of surrender, and went out boldly to meet Gylipi)U?,
Avho marched into Syracuse over tlie heights of Epipohc, which
the supineness of Nicias had left nnguarded. Upon arriving in
the city, Gylippus sent a message to the Athenians allowing them
a fiA'e days' truce to collect their effects and evacuate the island.
Nicias returned no answer to this insulting proposal ; but the
operations of Gylippus soon showed that the tide of affairs Avas
really turned. His first exploit AA'as to capture the Athenian fort
at Labdalum, Avhich made him master of Ei)ipola}. He next com-
menced constructing a counter-wall to intersect tbe Athenian linos
on the northern side. Tliis turn of affairs induced those Sicilian
cities which had hitherto hesitated to embrace the side of Syracuse.
Gylipi)us was also re-enforced by the arriA'al of thirty triremes from
Corinth, Leucas, and Ambracia. Nicias now felt that the attcm])t
to blockade Syracuse Avith his present force Avas lK)])elcss. Ho
therefore resolved to occu])y the headland of Plemmyrium, tho
southernmost point of the entrance to the Great Harbour, Avhich
would be a conA'cnient station for Avatcliing the enemy, as well as
for facilitating the introduction of lupplies. Here he accordingly

B.C. 413. ATIIENIiVXS IN SICILY. 119

erected three forts and formed a naval station. Some slight af-
fairs occurred, in which the balance of advantage was in favour of
the Syracusans. By their change of station the Athenians were
now a besieged rather than a besiegiijg force. Their triremes
were becoming leaky, and tlieir soldiers and sailors were constantly
deserting. Kicias himself had fallen into a bad state of health ;
and in this discouraging posture of atuiirs lie wrote to Athens re-
questing to be recalled, and insisting strongly on the necessity of
sending re-enforcements.

The Athenians refused to recall Nicias, but they determined en
sending a large re-enforcement to Sicily under the joint command
of Demosthenes and Eurymedon. The news of these fresh and
extensive preparations incited the Lacedaemonians to more vigor-
ous action. The peace, if such it can be called, was now openly
broken ; and in the spring of 413 B.C., the Lacedamionians, under
King Agis, invaded Attica itself, and, following the advice of Al-
cibiades, established themselves permanently at Decelea, a place
situated on the ridge of Mount Barnes, about 14 miles north of
Athens, and commanding the Athenian plain. The city was thus
placed in a state of siege. Scarcity began to be felt within tlic
walls ; the revenues were falling off, whilst on the other hand ex-
penses were increasing.

Meanwhile in Sicily the Syracusans had gained such confidence
that they even ventured on a naval engagement with the Athe-
nians. In the first battle the Athenians were victorious, but the
second battle, which lasted two days, ended in their defeat. They
were now obliged to haul up their ships in the innermost part of
the Great Harbour, under the lines of their fortified camp. A
still more serious disaster than tlie loss of the battle was the loss
of their naval reputation. It was evident that the Athenians had
ceased to be invincible on 'he sea ; and the Syracusans no longer
despaired of overcoming them on their own element.

Such was the state of affairs when, to the astonishment of the
Syracusans, a fresh Athenian fleet of 75 triremes, under Demos-
thenes and Eurymedon, entered the Great Harbour with all the
pom.p and circumstance of war. It had on board a force of 5000
lioplites, of Avhom about a quarter were Athenians, and a great
number of light-armed troops. The active and enterprising char-
acter of Demosthenes led him to adopt more vigorous measures
than those which had been hitherto pursued. He saw at once
that whilst Epipolre remained in the possession of the Syracusans
there Avas no hope of taking their city, and he therefore directed
all liis efforts to the recapture of that position. But his attempts
were unavailing. He was defeated not only in an open assault

120 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XH

upon the Syracusan wall, but in a noctumal attempt to carry ix
by surprise. These reverses were aggravated by the breaking out
of sickness among the troops. Demostliencs now proposed to re-
turn home and assist in expelling the Lacedemonians from At-
tica, instead of pursuing an enterprise which seemed to be ho])eN
less. But Nicias, who feared to return to Athens with the Btigm:^
of failure, refused to give his consent to this step. Demosthenes
then urged Nicias at least to sail immediately out of the Great
Harbour, and take up their position cither at Thapsus or Catana,
where they could obtain abundant supplies of provisions, and would
have an open sea for the manoeuvres of their fleet. But even to
this pi'oposal Nicias would not consent ; and the army and navy
remained in their former position. Soon afterwards, however,
Gylippus received such large re-enforcements, that Nicias found
it necessary to adopt the advice of his colleague. Preparations
were secretly made for their departure ; the enemy appear to have
had no suspicion of their intention, and tljcy wei^e on the point of
quitting their ill-fated quarters on the following morning, when, on
the very night before (27th Aug., 413 n.c.), an eclipse of the moon
took place. Tlie soothsayers Avho were consulted said that the
army must wait thrice nine days, a full circle of the moon, before
it could quit its present position ; and the devout and superstitious
Nicias forthwith resolved to abide by this decision.

Meanwhile the intention of the Athenians became known to the
Syracusans, who determined to strike a blow before their enemy
escaped. They accordingly attacked the Athenian station both
by sea and land. On land the attack of Gylippus M-as repulsed ;
but at sea the Athenian fleet was completely defeated, and Eurym-
cdon, wlio commanded the right division, was slain. The spir-
its of the Syracusans rose with their victories ; and though they
would formerly have been content with the mere retreat of the
Atlienians, they now resolved on effecting their utter destruction.
With this view they blocked up the entrance of the Great Harbour
with a line of vessels moored across it. All hope seemed now to
be cut off from the Athenians, unless they could succeed in forc-
ing this line and thus effecting their escape. The Athenian fleet
Btill numbered 110 triremes, which Nicias furnished with grap-
pling irons, in order to bring the enemy to close quarters, and
tlien caused a large proportion of ins land-forces to embark.

Never, perhaps, was a battle fought under circumstances of such
intense interest, or witnessed by so many spectators vitally con-
cerned in tlie result. Tlic basin of the Great Harbour, about 5
miles in circumference, in which nearly 200 shij)s, cacli witli crewa
of more than 200 men, were about to engage, was lined with spec-

B.C. 413. FIGHT IN THE GREAT HAEBOUR. 121

tators. The Syracusan fleet was the first to leave the shore, A
considerahlc portion was detained to guard the harrier at the mouth
of the liarbour. Hither the first and most impetuous attack of
the Athenians was directed, who sought to break through the nar-
row opening which had been left for the passage of merchant ves-
sels. Their onset was repulsed, and the battle then became gen-
eral. Tlie shouts of the combatants, and the crash of the iron
heads of the vessels as they were driven together, resounded over
the water, and were answered on shore by the cheers or wailings
of the spectators as their friends were victorious or vanquished.
For a long time the battle was maintained with heroic courage and
dubious result. At length, as the Athenian vessels began to yield
and make back towards the shore, a universal shriek of horror and
despair arose from the Athenian army, whilst shouts of joy and
victory were raised from the pursuing vessels, and were echoed
back from the Syracusans on land. As the Athenian vessels near-
ed the shore tlieir crews leaped out, and made for the camp, whilst
the boldest of the land army rushed forward to protect the ships
from being seized by the enemy. The Athenians succeeded in sav-
ing only GO ships, or about half their fleet. The Syracusan fleet,
hovv'ever, had been reduced to 50 ships ; and on the same after-
noon Nicias and Demosthenes, as a last hope of escape, exhorted
their men to make another attempt to break the enemy's line, and
force their way out of the harbour. But the courage of the crews
was so completely damped that they positively refused to re-em-
bark.

The Athenian army still numbered 40,000 men ; and, as all
chance of escape by sea was now hopeless, it was resolved to re-
treat by land to some friendly city, and there defend themselves
against the attacks of the Syracusans. As the soldiers turned to
quit that fatal encampment, the sense of their own woes Avas for a
moment suspended by the sight of their unburied comrades, who
seemed to reproach them with the neglect of a sacred duty ; but
still more by the Availings and entreaties of the Avoundcd, who
clung around their knees, and implored not to be abandoned to
certain destruction. Amid this scene of universal woe and dejec-
tion, a fresh and imwonted spirit of energy and heroism seemed to
be infused into Nicias. Though suffering under an incurable com-
plaint, he was everywhere seen marshalling his troops, and en-
couraging them by his exhortations. The march was directed to-
wards the territory of the Sicels, in the interior of the island. The
army Avas formed into a hollow square, with the baggage in the
middle; Nicias leading the van, and Demosthenes bringing up the
rear. The road ascended by a sort of ravine over a steep hill call-

122 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIL

cd the Acrpp.an cliff, on which the Symcusans liad fortified them-
selves. After spcndiii.ijj two days in Ajiin attempts to force this po-
sition, Nicias and Demosthenes resolved durinj:; the night to strike
off to the left towards the sea. Bnt they were overtaken, snrround-
ed by superior forces, and compelled to surrender at discretion.
Out of the 40,000 who started from the camj), only 10,000, at the
utmost, were left at the end of the sixth day's march ; the rest had
either deserted or been slain. The prisoners were sent to work in
the stone-quarries of Achradina and Ei)ij)ohc. Here they were
crowded together without any shelter, and with scarcely jirovisions
enougli to sustain life. The numerous bodies of those who died
were left to putrefy where they had fallen, till at length the place
became such an intolerable centre of stench and infection that, at
the end of seventy days, the Syracusans, for their own comfort and
safety, were obliged to remove the survivors, who were sold as
slaves. Nicias and Demosthenes Avcrc condemned to death, in
s])ite of all the clforts of Gylipi)us and Hcrmocrates to save them.

Such was the end of two of the largest and best-a])pointed arma-
ments that had ever gone forth from Athens. Nicias, as we have
seen, was from the first opposed to the expedition in which they
were cmjdoyed, as ]iregnant with the most dangerous consequences
to Atliens ; and, though it must bo admitted that in this resjiect
his views were sound, it can not, at the same time, bo concealed
that his own want of energy, and his incompetence as a general,
Avere the chief causes of the failure of the undertaking. His mis-
takes involved the fall of Demosthenes, an officer of far greater
resolution and ability than himself, and who, had his counsels
been followed, would in all probability have conducted the enter-
prise to a safe termination, though there was no longer room to
Iiopc for success.

:'^i.'^ -,<:

View of the Theatre at Ephesu.?.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE rELO->ON>-ESIAN AVAR. — THIRD PERIOD, FROM THE SICILIAN
EXPEDITION TO THE END OF THE WAR, B.C. 413-401.

The destruction of tlic Sicilian armament was a fatal blow to
the power of Athens. It is astonishing that she was able to pro-
tract the war so long with diminished strength and resources.
Her situation inspired her enemies with new vigour; states hith-
erto neutral declared against her; her subject-allies prepared to
throw off the yoke ; even the Persian satraps and the court of
Susa bestirred themselves against her. The first blow to her em-
pire was struck by the wealthy and populous island of Chios.
This again was the work of Alcibiades, the implacable enemy of
his native land, at whose advice a Lacedaemonian fleet was sent to
the assistance of the Chians. Their example was followed by all
the other Athenian allies in Asia, with the exception of £\amos,
in which the democratical party gained the npper hand. In the
midst of this general defection the Athenians did not give way to
despair. Pericles had set apart a reserve of 1000 talents to meet
the contingency of an actual invasion. This still remained un-
touched ; and now, by a unanimous vote, the penalty of death,
whicli forbade its appropriation to any other purpose, was abolish-

121 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIIL

ed, and the fund applied in fitting out a fleet against Chios. Sa
mos became tlie head-quarters of the fleet, and the base of theij

operations during the remainder of the war.

After a time the tide of success began to turn in favour of the
Athenians. They recovered Lesbos and Chu-omenje, defeated tlic
Chians, and laid waste their territory. They also gained a victory
over the Peloponnesians at Miletus; while the Peloponnesian
fleet had lost the assistance of Tissapherncs, the Persian satrap,
through the intrigues of Alcibiadcs. In the course of a few
months Alcibiadcs had completely forfeited the confidence of the
Lacoilajmonians. The Spartan king Agis, whose wife he had se-
duced, was his personal enemy ; and after the defeat of the Pelo-
ponnesians at Miletus, Agis denounced him as a traitor, and per-
suaded tlic new Ephors to send out instructions to put him to
death. Of this, however, he was informed time enough to make
his escape to Tis.^aijhernes at ]\Iagncsia. Here he ingratiated
himself into the confidence of the satrap, and persuaded him that
it was not for tlie interest' of Persia that either of the Grecian par-
ties should be successful, but rather that they should wear each
other out in their mutual struggles, when Persia would in the end
succeed in expelling both. This advice was adopted by the sa-
trap ; and in order to carry it into execution, steps were taken to
secure the inactivity of the Peloponnesian armament, which, if
vigorously employed, was powerful enough to i)ut a speedy end to
the war. In order to secure his return to Athens, Alcibiadcs now
endeavoured to persuade Tissaidierncs that it was more for the
Persian interest to conclude a league with Athens than with Spar-
ta ; but the only part of his advice which the satrap seems to have
sincerely adoi)ted was that of ])laying olF one party against the
otlier. About this, however, Alcibiadcs did not at all concern
himself. It was enough for his views, which had merely the self-
fish aim of his own restoration to Athens, if he could make it ap>
pear that he possessed suflicient influence with Tissapherncs to
procure his assistance for the Athenians. He therefore began to
communicate with the Athenian generals at Samos, and held out
tlie hope of a Persian alliance as the jiricc of his restoration to his
country. Put as he both hated and feared the Athenian democ-
racy, he cou])led his oft'er with the condition that a revolution
fihould be efrected at Athens, and an oligarchy established. The
Athenian generals greedily caught at the i)roposal ; and though
the great mass of the soldiery were violently ojtposed to it, they
were silenced, if not satisfied, when told that Athens could be
saved only by means of Persia. The oligarchical conspirators
formed t'.icmselves into a confcderacv, and Pisandcr was sent to

B.C. 412. REVOLUTION AT ATHENS. 125

Athens to lay the proposal before the Athenian assembh^ It n:ct,
as it might be supposed, with the most determined opposition.
The single but unanswerable reply of Pisander was, the necessities
of the republic ; and at length a reluctant vote for a change of
constitution was extorted from the people. Pisander and ten
others were, despatched to treat with Alcibiades and Tissapherncs.

Upon their arrival in Ionia they informed Alcibiades that meas:
ures had been taken for establishing an oligarchical form of gov-r
ernment at Athens, and requii'cd him to fuiiil his part of the en^-
gagement by procuring the aid and alliance of Persia. But Alci^
blades knew that he liad undertaken ^\hat he could not perform,
and he now resolved to escape from the dilemma by one of his
habitual artifices. He received the Athenian deputation in the
presence of Tissapherncs himself, and made such extravagant de-.
mands on behalf of the satrap that Pisander and his colleagues
indignantly broke off the conference.

Notwithstanding the conduct of Alcibiades, the oligarchical con-
spirators proceeded with the revolution at Athens, in which they
bad gone too far to recede. Pisander, with five of the envoys,
returned to Athens to complete the work they had begun.

Pisander proposed in the asserabl}", and carried a resolution,
that a committee of ten should be appointed to prepare a new con-
stitution, which was to be submitted to the approbation of the peo-
ple. But when the day appointed for that purpose arrived, the
assembly was not convened in the Pnyx, biit in the temple of
Poseidon at Colonus, a village ujjwavds of a mile from Athens.
Here the conspirators could plant their own partisans, and were
less liable to be overawed by su])crior numbers. Pisander obtained
the assent of the meeting to the following revolutionary changes :
1. The abolition of all the existing magistracies; 2. The cessa-
tion of all payments for the discharge of civil functions; 3. The
appointment of a committee of five persons, who were to name
ninety-five more ; each of the hundred thus constituted to choose
three persons ; the body of Four Hundred thus formed to be an
irresponsible government, holding its sittings in the senate-house.
The four hundred were to convene a select body of five thousand
citizens whenever they thought proper. Nobody knew who these
^ive thousand were, but tliey answered tAvo purposes, namely, to
give an air of greater popularity to the government, as well as to
overawe the people by an exaggerated notion of its strength.

Thus perished the Athenian democracy, after an existence of
nearly a century since its establishment by Clisthenes. The revo-
lution was begun from despair of the foi-eign relations of Athens,
and from the hope of assistance from Persia ; but it was earned

12G HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIII.

out tlirou^li tlic macliiiiations of the conspirators after that delu-
sion had ceased.

At Samos the Atlienian army refused to rcco>:nize the new gov-
ernment. At tlie instance of Thrasybuliis jiihI Tlirasyllns, a meet-
inj; was called in which tlie soldiers ]dedgcd themselves to main-
tain the democracy, to continue tlie war against Peloponnesus,
and to put down the usurpers at Athens. The soldiers, laying
aside for a wliilc their military character, constituted themselves
into an assembly of the ])eo])le, deposed several of their officers,
and appointed others whom they could better trust. Thrasybiilus
])ro])Osed t!ie recall of Alcibiades, notwithstanding his connection
with the oligarchical conspiracy, because it was believed that he
was now able and willing to aid the democratic cause with the
gold and forces of Persia. After considerable o])])osition, the ]»ro-
posal w;is agreed to ; Alcibiades was brought to Samos and intro-
duced to the asscmbh', where, by his magnificent ])romiscs and ex-
travagant boasts respecting his influence with Tissa])liernes, he
once more succeeded in deceiving the Athenians. The accom-
])lislied traitor was elected one of the generals, and, in jnn'suancc
of his artful jxdicy, began to ])ass backwards and forwards between
Samos and Magnesia, with the view of inspiring botli the satrap
and tlie Athenians with a reciprocal idea of his iniiuencc Avitli
cither, and of instilling distrust of Tissa])hernes into the minds of
tlie Peloponncsians.

At the first news of tlie re-estab;ishment of democracy at Samos,
distrust and discord had broken out among the Four Hundred.
Antiphon and Phrynichus, at the head of the extreme section of
the oligarchical party, were for admitting a Lacedicmonian garri-
son. Jjiit others, discontented with their share of ])Owcr, began to
air,'ct more i)oi)ular sentiments, anujug wlu)m were Thcramencs
aTid Aristocrates. Menntiiuc Eid)tt!a, su])ported by the Laccdic-
monians and Ikcotians, revolted from Athens. The loss of this
island seemed a death-blow. The Laccdicmonians might now
easily l)l()cka(h! the jiorts of Athens and starve licr into surrender,
whilst tlie i)artisans of the Four Hundred would doubtless co-ojt-
erate with tlio enemy. But from tliis ftitc they were saved by tho
characteristic slowness of the Lacedicmonians, who confined them-
selves to secnring the conquest of Kubcoa. 'J'lins left unmolested,
the Athenians convened an assembly in tlic Pnyx. "\^)tcs were
jiassed for deiK)sing the Fonr HiindriHl, :ind jihicing the govern-
ment in tlie hands of the 5000, of wliom every citizen who could
furnish a jianoply might be a member. In short, the old consti-
tution was restored, except that the fraiuhise was restricted to
rAH){) citizens, and ]>aymcnt for the discharge of civil f^iinclions

B.C. 411. NAVAL VICTORY AT CYNOSSEMA. 127

abolislietl. In subsequent assemblies, the Archons, the Senate,
and other institutions were revived ; and a vote was passed to re-
call Alcibiades and some of his friends. The number of the 5000
was never exactly observed, and was soon enlarged into universal
citizenship. Thus the Four Hundred were overthrown after a
reign of four months, B.C. 411.

While these things were going on at Athens, the war was pros-
ecuted with vigour on the coast of Asia Minor. Mindarus, Avho
now commanded the Peloponnesian fleet, disgusted at length by
the often-broken promises of Tissapherncs, and the scanty and ir-
regular pay which he furnished, set sail from Miletus and proceed-
ed to the Hellespont, with the intention of assisting the satrap
Pharnabazus, and of effecting, if possible, the revolt of the Athe-
nian dependencies in that quarter. Hither he was pursued by the
Athenian fleet imder Thrasyllus. In a few days an engagement
ensued (in August, 411 b.c), in the famous straits between Scstos
and Abydos, in which the Athenians, though with a smaller force,
gained the victory, and erected a trophy on the jjromontory of Cy-
nossema, near the tomb and chapel of the Trojan queen llccuba.
The Athenians followed up their victory by the reduction of C\ z-
icus, which had revolted from tlicm. A month or two afterwards
another obstinate engagement took place between the Peloponne-
sian and Athenian fleets near Abydos, which lasted a whole day,
and was at length decided in faA'Our of the Athenians by the arrival
of Alcibiades with his squadron of eighteen ships from Samos.

Shortly after this battle, Tissapl) ernes arrived at the Hellespont
with the view of conciliating the offended Peloponnesians. He
was not only jealous of the assistance which the latter were now
rendering to Pharnabazus, but it is also evident that his temporiz-
ing policy had displeased the Persian court. This appears from
his conduct on the present occasion, as well as from the subse-
quent appointment of Cyrus to the supreme command on the Asi-
atic coast, as we shall presently have to relate. AVhen Alcibiades,
who imagined that Tissapherncs was still favourable to tlie Athe-
nian cause, Avaited on him with the customary presents, he was ar-
rested by order of the satrap, and sent in custody to Sardis. At the
end of a month, however, he contrived to escape to Clazomcna%
and again joined tbe Athenian fleet early in the spring of 410 n.c.
Mindarus, with the assistance of Pharnabazus on the land side,
was now engaged in the siege of Cyzicus, which the Athenian ad-
mirals determined to relieve. Here a battle ensued, in which Min-
darus was slain, the Lacedaemonians and Persians routed, and al-
most the whole Peloponnesian fleet captured. The severity of this
blow was pictured in the laconic epistle in which Ilip)iocrates, the

128 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIII.

second in command,* announced it to the Ephors: "Our good
luck is gone ; Mindarus is slain ; the men are starving ; mc know
not what to do."

The results of this victory were most important. Pcrinthus and
Sclymbria, as well as Cyzicus, were recovered ; and the Athenians,
once moi'e masters of the Propontis, fortified the town of Chrysop-
olis, over against Byzantium, at the entrance of the Bosporus; re-
established their toll of ten per cent, on all vessels passing from
the Euxine; and left a squadron to guard the strait and collect
the dues. So great was the discouragement of the Lacodaimoniana
at the loss of their fleet, that the Ephor Endius proceeded to Atliens
to treat for peace on the basis of both parties standing just as they
wore. The Athenian assembly was at this time led by the dem-
agogue Cleophon, a lamp-maker, known to us by the later com-
edies of Aristophanes. Cleophon appears to have been a man of
considerable ability ; but the late victories had inspired him with
too sanguine hopes, and he advised the Athenians to reject the
terms proposed by Endius. Atliens thus threw away the golden
opi)ortunity of recruiting her shattered forces, of which she stood
so much in need ; and to this unfortunate advice must be ascribed
the calamities which subsequently overtook her.

The possession of the Bosporus reopened to the Athenians the
trade of the Euxine. From his lofty fortress at Dccclea the Sjiar-
tan king Agis could descry tlie corn-sliips from the Euxine sailing
into thii harbour of tlie Pirajus, and felt how fruitless it was to oc-
cupy the fields of Attica whilst such abundant supplies of provis-
ions were continually finding their way to the city.

In n.c. 403 tlie important towns of Chalcedon, Sclymbria, and
Byzantium fell into tlie hands of the Atlienians, thus leaving them
undisputed masters of the Propontis.

These great achievements of Alcibiades naturally paved the way
for his return to Athens. In the spring of 407 u.c. he proceeded
witli tlic fieet to Samos, and from thence sailed to Piraius. Hi*
reception was far more favourable than he had ventured to antici-
pate. Tlie whole i)opulatit)n of Athens flocked down to Pirajus to
welcome him, and escorted him to the city. He seemed to be in
the present juncture the only man capable of restoring the gran-
deur and tlie empire of Atlu'iis: he was accordingly named gen-
eral with unliniited powers, and a force of lUO triremes, laOO lio])-
lites, and 150 cavalry i)laced at his disposal. Before his departuro
he took an opportunity to atone for the impiety of which he had
been suspected. Although his armament was in perfect readiness,

* (Jailed Kj)u(nhus or "Fooretary" in the Laredtrmdnian fleet. The com
wiandor of tlm Ik'ut had the title of yararchtis.

B.C. 407, PROCEEDINGS OF LYSANDER. 129

he delayed its sailinf^ till after the celebration of the Eleusiniau
mysteries at the beginning of September. For seven years the cus-
tomary procession across the Thriasian plain had been suspended,
owing to the occupation of Dccelea by the enemy, -which compel-
led the sacred troop to proceed by sea. Alcibiades now escorted
them on their progress and return -with his forces, and thus suc-
ceeded in reconciling himself with the oftended goddesses and
witli their holy priests, the Euniolpidrc.

Meanwhile a great change had been going on in the state of
affairs in the East. We have already seen that the Great King
was displeased with the vacillating policy of Tissaphernes, and
had determined to adopt .more energetic measures against the
Athenians. During the absence of Alcibiades, Cyrus, the young-
er son of Dai'ius, a prince of a bold and enterprising spirit, and
animated with a lively hatred of Athens, had arrived at the coast
for the purpose of carrying out the altered policy of the Persian
court ; and with that view he had been invested with the satrapies
of Lydia, the Greater Phrygia, and Cappadocia. The arrival of
Cyrus opens the last phase of the Peloponnesian war. Another
event, in the highest degree unfavourable to the Athenian cause,
was the accession of Lysander, as JS^avarcIws, to the command of
the Peloponnesian fleet. Lysander Avas the third of the remark-
able men whom Sparta produced during the war. In ability, en-
ergy, and success he may be compared with Brasidas and Gylip-
pns, though immeasurably inferior to the former in every moral
quality. He was born of poor parents, and was by descent one
of those Lacedixjmonians who could never enjoy the full rights of
Spartan citizenship. Ilis ambition was boundless, and he was
wholly unscrupulous about the means which he employed to grat-
ify it. In pursuit of his objects he hesitated at neither deceit, nor
perjury, nor cruelty, and he is reported to have laid it down as
one of his maxims in life to avail himself of the fox's skin where
the lion's failed,

Lysander had taken up his station at Ephesus, with the Lace-
da3monian fleet of 70 triremes ; and when Cyrus arrived at Sardis,
in the spring of 407 B.C., he hastened to pay his court to the
young prince, and was received with every mark of favour, A vig-
orous line of action was resolved on, Cvrus at once offered 300
talents, and affirmed that, if more were needed, he was prepared
even to coin into money the very throne of gold and silver on
which ho sat. In a banquet whicli ensued Cyrus drank to the
health of Lysander, and desired him to name any wish which he
could gratify, Lysander immediately requested an addition of
an obolus to thq* daily pay of the seamen. Cyrus was surprised

130 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIIl

at so disinterested a demand, and from tliat day conceived a high
degree of respect and confidence for tlie Si)artan commander.
Lysander, on Lis i-eturn to Epliesus, employed himself in refitting
his fleet, and in organizing clubs in the Si)artan interest in the
cities of Asia.

Alcibiades set sail from Athens in Sej)tembcr. Being ill pro-
vided with funds for carrying on the war, he was driven to make
predatory excursions for the purpose of raising money. During
his absence he intrusted the bulk of the fleet at Samos to his
pilot Antioclius, witli strict injunctions not to venture on an ac-
tion. Notwithstanding these orders, however, Antioclms sailed out
and brought the Feloponnesiau fleet to an engagement offNotium,
in which the Athenians were defeated with the loss of 15 ships,
and Antioclius himself was slain. Among the Athenian aniia-
nicnt itself great dissatisfaction wa.^ growing up against Alcibia-
des. Though at the head of a sjdcadid force, he had in three
months' time accomplished literally notliing. His debaucheries
and dissolute conduct on shore were charged against him, as well
as his selecting for confidential jjosts not the men best fitted for
tlicm, but those who, like Antioclius, were tlie boon comjianions
and the chosen associates of his revels. These accusations for-
warded to Athens, and fomented by his secret enemies, soon pro-
duced an entire revulsion in the public feeling towards Alcibiades.
The Athenians voted that he should be dismissed from his com'-
mand, and they ai)pointcd in his place ten new generals, with Co-
con at their head.

The year of Lysander's command expired about the same time
ns the appointment of Conon to the Athenian fleet. Through the
intrigues of Lysander, his successor Callicratidas was received with
dissatisfaction both by the Laceda:monian seamen and by Cyrus.
Loud com})laints were raised of the impolicy of an annual change
of commanders. Lvsander threw all sorts of difficulties in the
way of his successor, to whom he handed over an empty chest,
having first repaid to Cyrus all the money in his possession under
the pretence that it was a private loan. The straightfonvard con-
duct of Callicratidas, however, who summoiicd the Lacedaemonian
commanders, and, after a dignified remonstrance, ] plainly put the
question whether he should return h.ome or remain, silenced all
opposition. But he was sorely embarrassed for funds. Cyrus
treated him with haughtiness; and when he waited on that ininco
Bt Sardis, he was dismissed not only without money, but even with-
out an audience. Callicratidas, however, had too much energy to
be daunted by such obstacles. Sailing with his fleet from Ephesua
*o Miletus, he laid before the assembly of that city, in a spirited

B.C. 40G. BATTLE OF ARGINUSiE. 131

address, all the ills they had suffered at the hands of the Persians,
and exhorted them to bestir themselves and dispense with the
Persian alliance. Hie .succeeded in persuading the Milesians to
make him a large grant of money, whilst the, leading men even
came forward with private subscriptions. By means of this as-
sistance he Avas enabled to add 50 triremes to the 90 delivered to
him by Lysander; and the Cliians further, provided him with ten
days' pay for the seamen.

The fleet of Callicratidas was now double that of Conon. The
latter was compelled to run before the superior force of Callicrat-
idas. Both fleets entered the harbour of Mytilene at the same
time, where a battle ensued, in which Conon lost 30 ships, but he
eaved the remaining forty by hauling them ashore under the walls
of the town. Callicratidas then blockaded Mytilene both by sea
and land ; but Conon contrived to despatch a trireme to Athens
witli the news of his desperate position.

As soon as the Athenians received intelligence of the blockade
of Mytilene, vast cflbrts were made for its relief; and we learn
with surprise that in thirty days a fleet of 110 triremes was equip-
ped and despatched from Pirrcus. • The armrimcnt assembled at
iSamos, where it was re-enforced by scattered Athenian ships, and
by contingents from the allies, to the extent of 40 vessels. The
whole fleet of 150 sail then proceeded to the small islands of Ar-
ginusre, near the coast of Asia, and facing Malea, the southeastern
cape of Lesbos. Callicratidas, wlio went out to meet them, took
up his station at the latter point, leaving a squadron of 50 ships to
maintain the blockade of Mytilene. He had thus only 120 ships
to oppose to the 150 of the Athenians, and his pilot advised him
to retire before the superior force of the enemy. But Callicratidas
replied that he would not disgrace himself by flight, and that if
he should perish Sparta would not feel his loss. The battle was
long and obstinate. All order was speedily lost, and the ships
fought singly with one another. In one of these contests, Calli-
cratidas, who stood on the prow of his vessel ready to board the
enemy, Avas thrown overboard by the shock of the vessels as they
met, and perished. At length victory began to decliire for the
Athenians. The Lacedaemonians, after losing 77 vessels, retreat-
ed with the remainder to Chios and Phoceea. The loss of the
Athenians was 25 vessels.

The battle of Arginusa3 led to a deplorable event, which has for
ever sullied the pages of Athenian history. At least a dozen Athe-
nian vessels were left floating about in a disabled condition after
the battle ; but, owing to a violent storm that ensued, no attempt
was made to rescue the survivors, or to collect the bodies of the

132 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIH.

dead for burial. Eight of tlie ten generals -were summoned home
to answer for tliis conduct ; Conon, by his situation at Mytilene,
was of course exculpated, and Archcstratus had died. Six of the
generals obeyed the summons, and were denounced to the Assem-
bly by Theraracnes, formerly one of the Four Hundred, for neglect
of duty. The generals replied that they had commissioned Thcram-
cncs himself and Thrasybulus, each of whom commanded a tri-
reme in the engagement, to undertake the duty, and had assigned
48 ships to them for that purpose. This, however, was denied by
Theramencs. There arc discre])ancics in the evidence, and we have
no materials for deciding positively which statement was true ; but
probability inclines to the side of the generals. Public feeling,
however, ran very strongly against them, and was increased by an
incident wliich occurred during their trial. After a day's debate,
tiic question was adjourned; and in the interval the festival of the
Ajtatiiria was celebrated, in which, according to annual custom,
the fiimilics met together according to their families and phratries.
Those who had perislied at Arginusie were naturally missed on
such an occasion ; and the usuallv cheerful charai-tcr of the fcsti-
val was deformed and rendered melancholy by the relatives of the
deceased appearing in black clothes and with shaven heads. The
passions of the people were violently roused. At the next meet-
ing of the Assembly, Callixenus, a senator, proposed that the peo-
ple should at once proceed to pass its verdict on the generals,
though they had been only partially heard in their defence ; and,
moreover, that they should all be included in one sentence, though
it was contrary to a rule of Attic law, known as the psephisma of
Canonus, to indict citizens otherwise than individually. The
Frytanes, or senators of the presiding tribe, at first refused to juit
the question to the Assembly in this illciral way ; but their opi)0-
sition was at length overawed by clamour and violence. There
was, however, one honourable exception. The philosopher Socra-
tes, who was one of the Frytanes, refused to withdraw his protest.
But his opposition was disregarded, and the proposal of Callixenus
was carried. The generals were condemned, delivered over to
the Eleven for execution, and compelled to drink the fatal hem-
lock. Among them was Fericlcs. the son of the celebrated states-
man.

In the following ycar(n.c. 40.'), tlirough llic infiuonce of Cyrus
and the other allies of Sjiarta, Lysaudcr again obtained the com-
mand of the Feloi)onnesian fleet, though nominally under Aracus
as admiral ; since it was contrary to Spartan usage that the same
man should be twice NacarrJtus. His return to i)ower was' mark-
ed by more vigorous measures. He sailed to the Hellespont, and

B.C. 405. CAPTURE OF THE ATHENIAN FLEET. 133

laid siege to Lampsacus. The Athenian fleet arrived too late to
save the town, but they proceeded up the strait and took post at
^gospotarai, or the " Goat's Kiver;" a place which had nothing
to recommend it except its vicinity to Lampsacus, from which it
was separated by a channel somewhat less than two miles broad.
It was a mere desolate beach, Avithout houses or inhabitants, so
that all the supplies had to be fetched from Scstos, or from the
surrounding country, and the seamen were compelled to leave
their sliips in order to obtain their meals. Under these circum-
stances, the Athenians were very desirous of bringing Lysander to
an engagement. But tlie Spartan commander, who was in a strong
position, and abundantly furnished with provisions, was in no hur-
ry to run any risks. In vain did the Athenians sail over several
days in succession to ofter him battle ; they always found his ships
ready manned, and drawn up in too strong a position to warrant
an attack ; nor could they by all their manoeuvres succeed in en-
ticing him out to combat. This cowardice, as they deemed it, on
the part of tlie Lacedaemonians, begat a corresponding negligence
on theirs ; discipline was neglected, and the men allov.ed to strag-
gle almost at will. It was in vain that Alcibiades, who, since his
dismissal, resided in a fortress in that neighbourhood, remonstrated
Avith the Athenian generals on the exposed nature of the station
they had chosen, and advised them to [iroceed to Scstos. His coun-
sels were received Avitli taunts and insults. At length, on the fifth
day, Lysander, having watched an opportunity when the Athenian
seamen had gone on shore and were dispersed over the country,
rowed swiftly across the strait with all his ships. He found the
Athenian licet, with the exception of 10 or 12 A'cssels, totally un-
prepared, and he captured nearly the whole of it, without having
occasion to strike a single blow. Of the 180 ships which composed
the fleet, only the trireme of Conon himself, the Paralus, and 8 or
1 0 otlier vessels, succeeded in escaping. Conon was afraid to re-
turn to Athens after so signal a disaster, and took refuge with
EA-agoras, prince of Salamis in Cyprus.

By this momentous A^ictory (September, B.C. 405) the Pelopon-
iissian Avar Avas virtually brought to an end. Lysandei', secure
of an easy triumph, Avas in no haste to gather it by force. Tiie
command of the Euxine enabled him to control the supplies of
Athens, and sooner or later, a fcAV Aveeks of famine must decide
her fall. He noAv sailed forth to take possession of the Athenian
toAvns, Avhifh fell one after another into his jJOAver as soon as ho.
appeared before them. About November he arrived at iP^gina,
with an ovenvhelming fleet of 150 triremes, and proceeded to dcA--
asfjvta Salamis and blockade Piraeus. At the same time the Avhole

131

HISTORY OF GREECE.

Chap. XIIL

Pcloponnesian army was marched into Attica, and encamped in
the precincts of the Acadcmus, at the very gates of Athens. Fam-
ine soon began to be felt "within the walls, and at the end of tlirec
months it became so dreadful that the Athenians saw themselves
compelled to submit to the terms of the conqueror. These terms
were : That the long walls and the fortifications of Pineus should
be demolished ; that the Athenians should give up all their for-
eign possessions, and conline themselves to their own territory ;
that they should surrender all their ships of war ; that they should
readmit all their exiles ; and that they should become allies of
Sparta.

It was about the niMdlc or end of March, b.C; 404, that Lysander
sailed into Pirajus, and took formal possession of Athens ; tlie war,
in singular conformity with the prophecies current at the begin-
ning of it, having lasted for a period of thrice nine, or 27 years.
The insolence of the victors added another blow to the feelings
of the conquered. The work of destruction, at which Lysander
presided, was converted into a sort of festival. Female flute-play-
ers and wreathed dancers inaugurated the demolition of the strong
and pryud bulwarks of Athens; and as the massive walls fell piece
by piece, exclamations arose from the ranks of the Peloponnesians
tkat freadom had at length begun to dawn upon Greece.

Bust of Socriites.

CHAPTER XIV.

"t^E THIRTY TYRANTS, AND THE DEATH OF BOCEATES,

B.C. 404-399.

The fall of Athens brought back a host of exiles, all of tbcra
'^'^. enemies of her democratical constitution. Of these the mosS
t'istinguished was Critias, a man of wealth and family, the uncle
of Plato, and once the intimate friend of Socrates, distinguished
both for his literary and political talents, but of unmeasured am-
bition and unscrupulous conscience. Critias and his companions
soon found a party with which they could co-operate ; and, sup-
ported by Lysander, they proposed in the Assembly that a com-
mittee of thirty should be named to draw ixp laws for the future
government of the city, and to undertake its temporary adminis-
tration. Among the most prominent of the thirty names were
those of Ci'itias and Theramenes. The proposal was of course
carried. Lysander himself addressed the Assembly, and contempt-
uously told them that they had better take thought for their per-
sonal safety, which now lay at his mercy, than for their political
constitution. The committee thus appointed soon obtained the
title of the Thirty Tyrants, the name by which they have become
known in all subsequent time. After naming an entirely new
Senate, and appointing fresh magistrates, they proceeded to ex-
terminate their most obnoxious opponents. But Critias, and tho
more violent party among them, still called for more blood ; and,
with the view of obtaining it, procured a Spartan garrison, under
the harmost Callibius, to be installed in the Acropolis. Besides

13G HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIV.

this force they htul an ovfranized band of assassins at their disposal
Blood now llowcd on all sides. I\Iany of the leading men of
Athens fell, others took to flight.

Thus the reign of terror was completely established. In tho
bosom of the Thirty, however, there was a party, headed by Tlieram-
enes, who disapproved of these proceedings. But his modera-
tion cost him his life. One day, as he entered the Senate-house,
Critias rose and denounced him as a public enemy, and ordered
him to be carried olr to instant death. Upon hearing these words
Theramenes sprang for refuge to the altar in the Senate-house ;
but he was dragged away by Satyrus, the cruel and unscrupulous
licad of the "Eleven," a body of oflicers who carried into execu-
tion the penal sentence of the law. Jjcing conveyed to prison, he
was compelled to drink the fatal hemlock. The constanc}' of his
end might have adorned a better life. After swallowing the draught,
he jerked on the floor a drop which remained in the cup, according
to the custom of the game called cottabos, exclaiming, ''This to
the health of the ;/ent/e Critias!"

Alcibiadcs had been included by the Thirty in the list of exiles ;
but the fate which now overtook him seems to have sprung from the
fears of the Lacedaemonians, or j)crliaps from the personal hatred
of Agis. After the battle of -ZEgospotami, BharnaljazAis permitted
tlie Athenian exile to live in Phrygia, and assigned him a revenue
for liis maintenance. But a despatch came out from Sparta to
Lysander, directing that Alcibiadcs should be put to death. Ly-
sandcr commimicated the order toPharnabazus, who arranged for
carrying it into execution. The house of Alcibiadcs Avas surround-
ed with a band of assassins, and set on fire. He rushed out with
drawn sword upon his assailants, who shrank from the attack, but
who slew him from a distance with their javelins and arrows.
Timandra, a female with whom he lived, j)erformed towards liis
body the last ofliccs of duty and iiifcction. Thus jierishcd miser-
ably, in the vigour of his age, one of the most remarkable, but not
one of the greatest, characters in Grecian history. A\'ith (lualities
which, jnoperly applied, might liavc rendered him the greatest
benefactor of Athens, ho contrived to attain the infamous distinc-
tion of being that citizen who had inilictcd upon her the most
signal amount of damage.

Meantime an altered state of feeling was sjjringingup in Greece.
Athens had ceased to be an object of fear or jealousy, and those
feelings began now to be dirocti'd towards Sj>arta. livsauderhad
risen to a height of unparnlleled power. He was in a manner
idolized. I'octs showered their praises on him, and even nltai'S
were, raised in his honour by the Asiatic Greeks. In the name of

B.C. 404. THE THIRTY DEPOSED. 137

Spfirta lie exercised almost uncontrolled authority in the cities ]\(\
had reduced, including Athens itself. But it was soon discovered
that, instead of the freedom promised by the Spartans, only an-
other empire had been established, whilst Lysander was even
meditating to extort from the subject cities a yearly tribute of one
thousand talents. And all these oppressions were rendered still
more intolerable by the overweening pride and harshness of Ly-
Sanders demeanour.

Even in Sparta itself the conduct of Lysander was beginning to
inspire disgust and jealousy. Pausanlas, son of Plistoanax, who
was now king with Agis, as well as the new Ephors appointed in
September, u.c. 404, disapproved of his proceedings. The Thebans
and Corinthians themselves Avere beginning to sympathize with
Athens, and to regard the Thirty as mere instruments for support-
ing the Spartan dominion ; whilst Sparta, in her turn, looked upon
them as the tools of Lysander's ambition. IMany of the Athenian
exiles had found refuge in Bceotia ; and one of them, Thrasybulus,
with the aid of Ismenias and other Theban citizens, starting from
Thebes at the head of a small band of exiles, seized the fortress
of Phyle, in the passes of Mount Parnes and on the direct road to
Athens. The Thirty marched out to attack Thrasybulus at the
head of the Lacedoemonian garrisoH and a strong Athenian force,
but their attack was repulsed with considerable loss.

Sliortly afterwards Thrasybulus marched from Phyle to Piraeus,
which was now an open town, and seized upon it without opposi-
tion. When the whole foi'ce of the Thirty, including the Lacedae-
monians, marched on the following day to attack him, he retired to
the hill of Munychia, the citadel of Pirraus, the only approach to
which was by a steep ascent. Here he drew up his hoplites in
files of ten deep, j^osting behind them his slingers and dartmen.
He exhorted his men to stand patiently till the enemy came within
reach of the missiles. At the first discharge the assailing column
seemed to waver ; and Thrasybulus, taking advantage of their
confusion, charged do^\^l the hill, and completely routed them,
killing seventy, among Avhom was Critias himself. The loss of
their leader had thrown the majority into the hands of the party
formerly led by Theramenes, who resolved to depose the Thirty
and constitute a new oligarchy of Ten. Some of the Thirty weie
re-elected into this body ; but the more violent colleagues of
Critias were deposed, and retired for safety to Eleusis. The new
government of the Ten sent to Sparta to solicit further aid ; and
a similar application was made at the same time from the section
of the Thirty at Eleusis. Their request was complied with ; and
Lysander once more entered Athens at the head of a Lacedai-

138 HISTOKY OF GKEECE. Chap. XIV.

monian force, rortunatcly, however, the jealousy oftlie Lacciloc-
monians towards Lysander led tlicm at this critical juncture to
Bupersedc him in the command. King Pausanias was appointed
to conduct an army into Attica, and when he encamped in the
Academus he was joined by Lysander and his forces. It was
known at Athens that the views of Pausanias were unfavourablo
to the proceedings of Lysander ; and the presence of the Spartan
king elicited a vehement reaction against the oligarchy, which
fear had hitherto suppressed. All parties sent envoys to Sparta.
'I he Ephors and the Lacedaemonian Assembly referred the ques-
tion to a committee of fifteen, of whom Pausanias was one. The
decision of this board was : That the exiles in Piraus should be
readmitted to Athens, and that there should be an amnesty for all
that had passed, except as regarded the Thirty and the Ten.

When these terms were settled and sworn to, the Peloponne-
sians quitted Attica ; and Thrasybulus and tlie exiles, marching in
solemn procession from Pirajus to Athens, ascended to the Acrop-
olis and offered up a solemn sacrifice and thanksgiving. An as-
sembly of the I'eople was then held, and, after Thrasybulus had
addressed an animated reproof to the oligarchical party, the de-
mocracy was unanimously restored. This imjiortant counter-
revolution took i)lace in the spring of 403 B.C. The archons, the
senate of 500, the public assembly, and the dicasteries, seem to
have been reconstituted in the same form as before the capture of
the city.

Thus was terminated, after a sway of eight months, tlie despot-
ism of the Thirty. The year which contained their rule was not
named after the archon, but was termed "the vear of anarchv."
Tlic first archon drawn after their fall was Euclides, who gave his
name to a year ever afterwards memorable among the Athenians,

For the next few years the only memorable event in the history
of Athens is the death of Socrates. This celebrated ]ihilosophcr
Was l>orn in llic year 40S n.r., in the immediate neighbourhciod
Df Athens. His father, Soi)hroniscus, was a sculptor, and Socrates
was brought up to, and for some time ]iractised, the same profes-
Rion. He was married to Xanthippi^, by whom he had three tons ;
but her bad tcm))cr lias rendered her name jiroverbial for a con-
jugal scold. His iihysical constitution was healthy, robust, and
wonderfully enduring. Indillcrent alike to heat and cokl, the
same scanty and homely clothing sufficed him both in summer
and winter; and even in the camjiaign of Potidaa, amidst the
snoAvs of a Thracian \\ inter, he went barefooted. But, though tlnis
gifted with strength of body and of miiul, he was far from being
endoweil with jiersonal beuuty. His thick lijs, Hut nose, and

B.C. 399, CONDEMNATION OF SOCRATES. 133

prominent eyes gave him the appearance of a Silenus or satyr,
lie served with credit as a hoplite at FoticJiisa (b.c. 432); Dcliiim
(b.c. 424), and Amphipolis (i;.c. 422); but it was not till late in
life, in the year 40G b.c, that he filled any political office. He
was one of the Prytancs when, after the battle of ArginusiC, Callix-
cnus submitted his proposition respecting the six generals to the
public Assembly, and his refusal on that occasion to put an uncon-
stitutional question to the vote has been already recorded. lis
had a strong persuasion that he was intrusted with a divine mis-
sion, and he believed himself to be attended by a daimon, or
genius, whose admonitions he frequently heard, not, however, in
the way of excitement, but of restraint. He never wrote anything,
but he made oral instruction the great business of his life. Early
in the morning he frequented the public walks, the gymnasia, and
the schools ; whence he adjourned to the market-place at its most
crowded hours, and thus spent the Avhole day in conversing with
young and old, rich and poor — with all, in short, who felt any desire
for his instructions.

That a reformer and destroyer, like Socrates, of ancient preju-
dices and fallacies which passed current under the name of wisdom
should have raised up a host of enemies is only what might be ex-
pected ; but in his case this feeling was increased by the manner in
which he fulfilled his mission. The oracle of Delphi, in response
to a question put by his friend Chterephon, had affirmed that no
man was wiser than Socrates. No one was more perplexed at
this declaration than Socrates himself, since he was conscious of
possessing no wisdom at all. However, he determined to test the
accuracy of the priestess, for, though he had little wisdom, others
might have still less. He therefore selected an eminent politician
who enjoyed a high reputation for wdsdom, and soon elicited, by
Ills scrutinizing method of cross-examination, that this statesman's
reputed wisdom was no wisdom at all. But of this he could not
convince the subject of his examination ; whence Socrates con-
cluded that he was wiser than this politician, inasmuch as he was
conscious of his own ignorance, and therefore exempt from the
error of believing himself wise when in reality he was not so.
The same experiment was tried with the same result on various
classes of men — on poets, mechanics, and especially on the rhetors
and sophists, the chief of all the pretenders to wisdom.

The first indication of the uni)opularity which he had incuried
is the attack made upon him by Aristophanes in the "Clouds" in
the year 423 n.c. That attack, however, seems to have evaporated
with the laugh, and for many years Socrates continued his teach-
ing without molestation. It was not till b.c. 399 that the indict-

no HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIV.

merit ^'as preferred against him whicli cost him liis life. In that
year, Melctus, a leather-seller, seconded by Anytiis, a poet, and
Lycon, a rhetor, accused him of impiety in not worshijiping the
gods of the city, and in introducing new deities, and also of being
a corrupter of youth. With respect to the latter charge, his former
intimacy with Alcibiades and Critias may have weighed against
him. Socrates made no preparations for his defence, and seems,
indeed, not to have desired an acquittal. But, although lie ad-
dressed the dicasts in a bold and uncompromising tone, he was
condemned only by a small majority of five or six in a court com-
posed of between five and six hundred dicasts. After the verdict
Avas pronounced, he was entitled, according to the practice of tlie
Athenian courts, to make some counter-pro]iosition in jtlace of tbe
penalty of death, which the accusers had demanded, and if he had
done so with any show of submission, it is probable that the sen-
tence Avould have been mitigated. But his tone after the verdict
was higher than before. Instead of a fine, he asserted that ho
ought to be maintained in the PrytanCum at the public expense,
as a public benefactor. This seems to have enraged the dicasts,
and he was condemned to death.

It happened that the vessel which proceeded to Delos on the
annual deputation to the festival had sailed the day before his
condemnation, and during its absence it was unlawful to put any
one to death. Socrates was thus kept in prison during thirty days,
till the return of the vessel. lie spentthe interval in j)hilosophica]
conversations with his friends. Crito, one of these, arranged a
scheme for his escape by bribing the jailer ; but Socrates, as
might be expected from the tone of liis defence, resolutely refused
to save his life by a breach of the law. His last discourse, on the
day of his death, turned on the immortality of the soul. Witli a
firm and cheerful countenance he drank the cup of hemlock amidst
his sorrowing and weeping friends. His last words were addressed
to Crito: "Crito, we owe a cock to JEsculajaus ; discharge the
debt, and by no means omit it."

Thus perished the greatest and most original of the Grecian
philosojihers, whose nnins])ired wisdom made tlie nearest approach
to tlie divine morality of the Gosi)el. His teaching forms an epoch
in tlie history of jihilosophy. From his school sjirang Plato, the
founder of tlic Academic ])hilosop]iy ; Euclides, tlie founder of the
Megaric school ; Aristipi)us, tlie founder of the Cyrcnaic school,*
and many other jihilosophers of eminence.

Iluins of Sardi.=.

CHAPTER XV.

THE EXPEDITION OF THE GREEKS UNDER CYRUS, AND RETREAT
OF THE TEN THOUSAND, B.C. 401-400.

The assistance which Cyrus l;ad rendered to the Lacedemo-
nians in the Peloponnesiau war led to a remarkable episode in
Grecian history. This was the celebrated expedition of Cyrus
against his brother Artaxerxes, in v.hich the superiority of Gre-
cian to Asiatic soldiers was so strikingly shown.

The death of Darius Xothus, king of Persia, took place b.c. 404,
shortly before the battle of JEgospotami. Cyrus, who was present
at his father's death, was charged by Tissaphernes with plotting
against his elder brother Artaxerxes, who succeeded to the throne.
The accusation was believed by Artaxerxes, who seized his brother,
and would have put him to death but for the intercession of their
mother, Parysatis, who persuaded him not only to spare Cyrus.
but to confirm him in his former government. Cyrus returned to

142 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XV.

Sarflis burniiif^ v/ith revenge, and fully resolved to make an effort
to dethrone his brother.

From his intercourse with the Greeks Cyrus had become aware
of their superiority to the Asiatics, and of their usefulness in such
an enterprise as he now contemplated. The peace which followed
the capture of Athens seemed favourable to his ])rojects. Many
Greeks, bred up in the practice of war during the long struggle be-
tween that city and Sparta, were now deprived of their employ-
ment, whilst many more had been driven into exile by the estab-
lishment of the Spartan oligai'chies in the various conquered cities.
Under the pretence of a private war with the satrap Tissapher-
nes, Cyrus enlisted large numbers of them in his service. The
Greek in whom he placed most confidence was Clearchus, a Lace-
daemonian, and formerly harmost of Byzantium, who had been
condemned to death by the Spartan authorities for disobedience to
their orders.

It w.as not, however, till the beginning of the year n.c. 401 that
the enterprise of Cyrus was ripe for execution. The Greek levies
were then withdrawn from tlic various town in which they were dis-
tributed, and concentrated in Sardis, to the number of about 8000;
and in JNIarch or April of this year Cyrus marched from Sardis
with them, and with an army of 100,000 Asiatics. The object of
the expedition was proclaimed to bo an attack upon the mount-
ain-freebooters of Pisidia ; its real destination was a secret to every
one except Cyrus himself and Clearchus. iVmong the Greek sol-
diers was Xenophon, an Athenian knight, to whom we owe a nar-
rative of the expedition. He went as a volunteer, at the invita-
tion of his friend Proxcnus, a Boeotian, and one of the generals of
Cyrus.

The march of Cyrus was directed through Lydia and Phrygia.
After passing Colosstv; he arrived at CcUcna?, where he was join-
ed by more Greek troops, the number of whom now amounted to
11,000 hoplites and 2000 peltasts. The line of march, which had
been hitlierto straight upon Pisidia, was now directed northwards.
Cyrus passed in succession the Phrygian towns of Pclta\ Ceramon
Agora, the Plain of Cayster, Tliymbrium, Tyria'um, and Iconium,
the last city in Phrygia. Thence he jn-oceeded through Lycaonia
to Dana, and crossed RIount Taurus into Cilicia.

On arriving at Tarsus, a city on the coast of Cilicia, the Greeks
plainly saw that they had been deceived, and that the cxi)edition
was designed against the Persian king. Seized with alarm at tho
^ospcct of so long a marcli, they sent a deputation to Cyrus to ask
iim what his real intentions were. Cyrus rcidied that his design
was to march against his enemy, Abrocomas, satrap of Syria, who

^%^='. ^ ^v^ ,i,n.*''yii=^^- « (7 '/ill ***„ "*.

144 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. Chap. XV.

was encamped on tlic banks of tlie Euijliratcs. The Greeks,
tliougli they still susi)CcteJ a delusion, contented themselves with
this answer in tlie faec of their present diiliculties, especially as
Cyrus ])romiscd to raise tlieir pay from one Daric to one Daric
and a half a month. The whole army then marched forwards
to Issus, the last town in Cilicia, situated on the gulf of the Fame
name. Here they met the fleet, which brought them a re-enforce-
mcnt of 1100 Greek soldiers, thus raising the Grecian force to
about 14,000 men.

Abrocomas, who commanded for the Great King in Syria and
rhasnicia, alarmed at the rapid })rogress of Cyrus, fled before him
with all his army, reported as 300,000 strong, abandoning the im-
pregnable pass situated one days' march from Issus, and known
as the Gates of Cilicia and Syria. JMarching in safety through
this j)ass, the army next reached Myriandrus, a seaport of I'ha'ni-
cia. From this ])lacc Cyrus struck oil" into the interior, over INIount
Amanus. Twelve days' march brought him to Thapsacus on the
Euphrates, where for the first time he formally notified to the
army that he was marching to Ijabylon against his brother Arta-
xerxcs. The water liap])encd to be very low, scarcely reaching to
the breast ; and Abrocomas made no attemjit to dis]uite the pas-
sage. Tlic army now entered upon the desert, where the Greeks
were struck with the novel sights which met their view, and at
once amused and exhausted themselves in the chase of the wild
ass and the antelope, or in the vain pursuit of the scudding ostrith.
After several days of toilsome march the army at length reached
Pylas, the entrance into the cultivated plains of Babylonia, where
they halted a few days to refresh themselves.

Soon after leaving that jilace symptoms became perceptible of
a vast liostile force moving in their front. The exaggerated re-
ports of deserters stated it at 1,200,000 men; its real strength
was about 1)00,000. In a characteristic address, Cyrus exhorted
the Greeks to take no heed of the multitiule of their enemies;
they would find in them, he aftirmed, nothing but numbers and
noise, and, if they could bring themselves to despise these, they
would soon find of what wortiiless stuft' the natives were com-
posed. Tlie army then marched cautiously fonvards, in order of
];attle, along the left bank of the Eu])hratcs. They soon came
npon a Imge trench, 30 feet broad and 18 deep, which Artaxcrxes
had caused to be dug across the i)lain for a length of about -i'J En-
glish miles, reaching from the Eu]>hratcs to the wall of l^Icdia.
Between it and the river was left only a narrow passage about 20
feet broad ; yet Cyrus and his army fouiul with surprise that this
pass was left entirely undefended. This circumstance inspired

B.C. 401. BATTLE OF CUNAXA. i45

them with a contempt of the -enemy, and induced them to proceed
in careless array ; but on the next day but one after passing the
trench, on arriving at a place called Cunaxa, they were surprised
with the intelligence that Artaxcrxes was approaching with all his
forces. Cyrus immediately drew up his army in order of battle.
The Greeks were posted on the right, whilst Cyrus himself, sur-
rounded by a picked body-guard of GOO Persian cuirassiers, took up
his station in the centre. When the enemy was about half a m.ilc
distant, the Greeks charged them Avitli the usual war-shout. The
Persians did not await their onset, but turned and fled. Tissa-
phernes and his cavalry alone offered any resistance ; the remain-
der of the Persian left was routed without a blow. As Cyrus
was contemplating the easy victory of the Greeks, his followers
surrounded him, and already saluted him with the title of king.
But the centre and richt of Artaxerxes still remained unbroken :
and that monarch, unaware of the defeat of his left wing, ordered
the right to wheel and encompass the army of Cyrus. No sooner
did Cyrus perceive this movement than with his body-guard he
impetuously charged the enemy's centre, where Artaxerxes him-
self stood, surrounded with GOOO horse. The latter were routed
and dispersed, and were followed so eagerly by the guards of Cy-
rus, that he was left almost alone with the select few called his
"Table Companions." In this situation he caught sight of his
brother Artaxerxes, whose person As^as revealed by the flight of his
troops, when, maddened at once by rage and ambition, he shouted
out, "I see the man !" and rushed at him with his handful of com-
panions. Hurling his javelin at his brother, he wounded him in
the breast, but was himself speedily overborne by superior num-
bers and slain on the spot.

Meanwhile Clearchus had pursued the flying enemy upwards
of tliree miles ; but, hearing that the king's troops were victorious
on the left and centre, he retraced his steps, again routing the Per-
sians who endeavoured to intercept him. When tlie Greeks re-
gained their camp they found that it had been completely plun-
dered, and were consequently obliged to go supperless to rest. It
was not till the following day that they learned the deatli of Cy-
rus ; tidings which converted their triumph into sorrow and dis-
may. They were desirous that Ariasus, who now commanded the
army of Cyrus, should lay claim to the Persian crown, and offered
to support his pretensions ; but Ariaeus answered that the Persian
gi'andees would not tolerate such a claim ; that he intended im-
mediately to retreat ; and that, if tlie Greeks wished to accompany
him, they must join him during the following night. This was
accordingly done ; when oaths of reciprocal fidelity were inter-

14G HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XV.

changed between the Grecian generals and Ariffius, and sanctified
by a solemn sacrifice.

On the following day a message arrived from the Peisian kin^,
with a proposal to treat for ])eacc on equal terms. Clearclius v.i-
fectod to treat the offer with great iiidilference, and made it en
opportunity for procuring i)rovisions. '-Tell your kiug," said he
to the envoys, "tiiat we must first figlit ; for we have had no
breakfast, nor Avill any man i)resume to talk to the Greeks about a
truce without first providing for tliem a breakfast." This was
agreed to, and guides were sent to conduct the Greeks to some ^
villages where they might obtain food. Here they received a visit
from Tissaphernes, who pretended much friendship towards them,
and said that he liad come from the Great King to inquire the
reason of their expedition. Clearchus replied — what was indeed
true of the greater part of tlie army — that they had not come
hither with any design to attack the king, but had been enticed
forwards by Cyrus under false pretences ; that their only desire at
present was to return home ; but that, if any obstacle was oflcrcd,
they were prepared to rei)cl hostilities. In a day or two Tissa-
phernes returned, and witii some parade stated that he had with
great difficulty obtained permission /o sai'e the Greek army; that
he was ready to conduct them in person into Greece ; and to sup-
ply them with provisions, for which, however, they were to ] ay.
An agreement was accordingly entered into to tliis cficct, and
after many days' delay they commenced tlie liomeward march.
After marching three days they passed through the wall of INIedia,
which was 100 feet high and 20 feet broad. Two days more
brought tliem to the Tigris, whicli they crossed on the following
morning by a bridge of l)0ats. They then marched northward,
arriving in four days at the River riiyscus and a large city calh-d
Opis. Six days' further march through a deserted ])art of Media
brought them to some villages belonging to Queen Parvsatis, which,
out of enmity to her as the patron of Cyrus, Tissajtherncs aban-
doned to be plundered by the Greeks. From thence they jno-
ceedjCd in five days to tlie River Zabatns, or Greater Zab, having
previously crossed the Lesser Zab, which Xenojtlion neglects to
mention. In the first of these five days they saw on the oj)])osite
Fide of the Tigris a large city called Cajua?, the inhabitants of whic'i
brought over provisions to theni. At the Gi-eater Zab they halted
three days. Mistrust, and even slight hostilities, had ]>ecn already
manifested between the Greeks and Persians, but they now be-
came so serious that Clearchus demanded an interview with Tissn-
jdiernes. The latter ]irotestcd tlu^ groatcsf fidelity and friend-
ship towards the Greeks, and jjromisod to delivor to the Greek

B.C. 401. RETREAT OF THE GREEKS. 147

generals, on the following day, the calumnifitors who had set tlio
two armies at variance. But when Clearchus, with four otlier
generals, acconi]mnied by some lochages, or captains, and 200 sol-
diers, entered the Persian camp according to appointment, tho
captains and soldiers were immediately cnt down ; whilst the fire
generals were seized, put into irons, and sent to the Persian court.
After a short imprisonment, four of them were beheaded ; tlia
fifth, Menon, who pretended that he had betrayed his colleagues
into the hands of Tissaphcrnes, was at first spared ; but after a
year's detention was put to death with tortures.

Apprehension and dismay reigned among the Greeks. Tlieif
situation was, indeed, appalling. They were considerably mor#
than a thousand miles from home, in a hostile and unknown coun*
try, hemmed in on nil sides by impassable rivers and motmtains,
without generals, without guides, without provisions. Xenophoif
was the lirst to rouse the captains to the necessity for taking im--
mediate precautions. Though young, he possessed as an Atheniai?
citizen some claim to distinction ; and his animated address show-
ed him fitted for command. He was saluted general on the spot;
and in a subsequent assembly was, with four others, formally elect*
cd to that office.

The Greeks, having first destroyed theh' superfluous baggage,
crossed the Greater Zab, and pursued their march on the othe!
bank. They passed by tho ruined cities of Larissa and Mespila
on the Tigris, in the neighbourhood of the ancient Nineveh. The
march from INIespila to the mountainous country of the Carduchi
occupied several days, in which the Greeks suffered much from
the attacks of the enemy.

Their future route was now a matter of serious pei'plexity. On
rieir left lay the Tigris, so deep that they could not fathom it with
their spears ; while in their front rose the steep and lofty mountains
of the Carduchi, which came so near the river as hardly to leave
a passage for its waters. As all other roads seemed barred, they
formed the resolution of striking into these mountains, on the far-
ther side of v/liich lay Armenia, where both the Tigris and the
Euphrates might be forded near their sources. After a difficult
and dangerous march of seven days, during which their sufferings
v/ere far greater than any they had experienced from the Persians,
the army at length emerged into Armenia. It was now the month
of Decembei", and Armenia was cold and exposed, being a table-
land raised high above the level of the sea. Whilst halting near
Bomc well-supplied villages, the Greeks were overtaken by two
deep falls of snow, which almost buried them in their open biv-
ouacs. Hence a five days' march brought them to the eastern

148 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XV.

branch of the Euphrates. Crossing the river, they proceeded on
the other side of it over plains covered with a deep snow, and in
the face of a biting north wind. Here many of the slaves and
beasts of burthen, and even a few of the soldiers, fell victims to
the cold. Some had their feet frostbitten ; some were blinded
by the snow ; whilst others, exhausted Avith cold and hunger, sunk
down and died. On tlie eighth day they proceeded on their way,
ascending the banks of the Phasis, not the celebrated river of that
name, but probably the one usually called Araxes.

From thence they fought their way throngli the countiy of the
Taochi and Chalybes. They next reached the coiintry of the
Scythini, in w'hose territory they found abundance in a large and
populous city called Gymnias. The chief of this place having
engaged to conduct them within sight of the Euxine, they pro-
ceeded for five days under his guidance ; when, after ascending a
mountain, the sea suddenly burst on the view of the vanguard.
The men proclaimed their joy by loud shouts of "The sea! the
sea !" The rest of the army hurried to the summit, and gave vent
to their joy and exultation in tears and mutual embraces. A few
days' march through the country of the IMacroncs and Colchians
at length brought them to the objects for which they fiad so often
pined, and which many at one time had never hoped to see again
— a Grecian city and the sea. By the inhabitants of Trapezus, or
Trebizond, on the Euxine, where they had now arrived, they were
hospitably received, and, being cantoned in some Colchian villages
near the town, refreshed themselves after the hardships they had
undergone by a repose of thirty days.

The most difficult part of the return of the Ten Thousand was
now accomplished, and it is unnecessary to trace the remainder of
their route. After many adventures they succeeded in reaching
Byzantium, and tliey subsequently engaged to serve the Lacedaj-
monians in a war wliich Sparta liad just declared against the
satraps Tissaphernes and riiarnabazus.

In the spring of n.c oO!>, Thimbron, the Lacedaemonian com-
mander, arrived at Pergamus, and the remainder of the Ten ThoxK
sand Greeks became incorporated with his army. Xenophon now
returned to Atliens, wlicre he must have arrived shortly after the
execution of his master Socrates. Disgusted probably by that
event, lie rejoined his old comrades in Asia, and subsequently re-
turned to Greece aloni,^ with Agcsilaus.

A Greek \Viimor.

CHAPTER XVI.

THE SUPREMACY OF SPARTA, B.C. 40i-371.

After the fall of Athens Sparta stood without a rival in Grofcse.
In the various cities which had belonged to the Athenian empirG
Lysander established an oligarchical Council of Ten, called a
Decarchy or Decemvirate, subject to the control of a Spartan Har-
inost or governor. The Decarchies, however, remained only a short
time in power, since the Spartan government regarded them with
jealousy as the partisans of Lysander ; but harmosts continued
to be placed in every state subject to their empire. The govern-
ment of the harmosts was corrupt and oppressive ; no justice could
be obtained against them by an appeal to the Spartan authorities
at home ; and the Grecian cities soon had cause to regret the mild--
er and more equitable sway of Athens.

On the death of Agis in b.c. 398, his half-brother Agesilaug
was appointed king, to the exclusion of Leotychides, the son of
Agis. This was mainly effected by the powerful influence of Ly-
sander, who erroneously considered Agesilaus to be of a yielding
and manageable disposition, and hoped by a skilful use of those
qualities to extend his own influence, and under the name of an-
other to be in reality king himself.

Agesilaus was now forty years of age, and esteemed a model of

/50 HISTORY OF GREECE. Cuap. XVI.

those viitncs more peculiarly deemed Spartan. lie was obedient
to the constituted authorities, emulous to excel, courageous, ener-
getic, capable of bearing all sorts of hardsliip and fatigue, simj.'le
and frugal in his mode of life. To these severer qualities he added
the po])uhxr attractions of an agreeable countenance and jileasing
address... His personal defects at first stood in the way of his pro-
motion. He was not only low in stature, but also lame of one
leg ; and thorc was an ancient oracle which warned tlie Spartans
to beware of " a lame reign." The ingenuity of Lysander, assist-
ed probably by the popuhir qualities of Agesilaus, contrived to
overcome this objection by interpreting a lame reign to mean not
any bodily defect in the king, but the reign of one who was not a
genuine descendant of Hercules. Once possessed of power, -Age-
silaus sujjplicd any defect in biis title by the prudence and j^olicy
of his conduct ; and, by the marked deference which lie })aid both
to the Ephors and the senators, he succeeded in gaining fur him-
self more real power than had been enjoyed by any of his prede-
cessors.

The affairs of Asia Minor soon began to draw the attention of
Agesilaus to that quarter. • The assistance lent to Cyrus by the
Spartans was no secret at the Persian court ; and Tissajjlierncs,
who liad been rewarded for his fidelity with the satrapy of Cyrus
in addition to his own, no sooner returned to his government than
he attacked the Ionian cities, then under the protection of 8j arta.
A considerable Lacedtcmonian force under Thimbron was de-
spatched to their assistance, ami which, as related in the preceding
chapter, was joined by the remnant of the Greeks who had served
under Cyrus. Thimbron, however, ])roved so inefticicnt a com-
mander, that he Avas suspended at the end of 3'Ji.> or beginning of
398 B.C., and Dercyllidas appointed in his place. But, though at
first successful against Tharnabazus in ^olis, Dercyllidas was sub-
sequently surprised in Caria in such an unfavourable position that
he would have sutfered severely but for the timidity of Tissai)her-
nes, Avho was afraid to venture u])ou an action. Under these cir-
cumstances an armistice was agreed to for the purpose of treating
for a peace (397 u.c).

Pharnabazus availed himself of this armistice to make active
pre]iarati(<ns for a renewal of the war. He obtained large rc-cn-
forcements of Tcrsian troo])S, and began to organize a fleet in
X'hocnicia and Cilicia. This was intiustcd to the Athenian ad-
miral Conon, of whom wc now first hear again after a lapse of
seven years since his defeat at-i'I'^gosi)otami. After that ilisastrous
battle Conon fled with nine triremes to Cyprus, where he was no^f
liring under the protection of Evagoras, prince of Salamis.

B.C. 397. WAR IN ASIA MINOR. 151

It was tho news of these extensive preparations that induced
AgesiUius, on the suggestion of Lysander, to volunteer his services
against the Persians. He proposed to take with him only 30 full
Spartan citizens, or peers, to act as a sort of council, together with
2000 Neodamodes, or enfranchised Helots, and GOOO liojnites of
the allies. Lysander intended to be the leader of the 30 Spartans,
and expected through them to be the virtual commander of tbo
expedition of which Agesilaus was nominally the head.

Since the time of Agamemnon no Grecian -king had led an
army into Asia ; and Agesilaus studiously availed himself of tho
j)restige of that precedent in order to attract recruits to his stand-
ard. The Spartan kings claimed to inherit the sceptre of Aga-
memnon ; and, to render the parallel more complete, Agesilaus pro-
ceeded with a division of his fleet to Aulis, intending there to im-
itate the memorable sacrifice of the Homeric hero. But as he had
neglected to ask the permission of the Thebans, and conducted the
sacrifice and solemnities by means of his own prophets and min-
isters, and in a manner at variance with the usual rites of the
temple, the Thebans were offended, and expelled him by armed
force — an insult which he never forgave.

It was in 396 b.c. that Agesilaus arrived at Ephesus, and took
the command in Asia. He demanded of the Persians the com-
plete independence of the Greek cities in Asia ; and, in order that
there might be time to communicate with the Persian court, the
armistice was renewed for three months. During this interval of
repose, Lysander, by his arrogance and pretensions, offended both
Agesilaus and the Thirty Spartans. Agesilaus, determined to up-
hold his dignity, subjected Lysander to so many humiliations that
he was at last fain to request his dismissal from Ephesus, and was
accordingly sent to the Hellespont, Avhere he did good service to
the Spartan interests.

Meanwhile Ti3sa])hernes, having received large re-enforcements,
uent a message to Agesilaus before the armistice had expired, or-
dering him to quit Asia. Agesilaus immediately made prepara-
tions as if he would attack Tissaphernes in Caria ; but, having
thus put the enemy on a false scent, he suddenly turned nortli-
wards into Phrygia, the satrapy of Pharnabazus, and marched
without opposition to the neighbourhood of Dascylium, the res-
idence of the satrap himself. Here, however, lie was repulsed by
the Persian cavalry. He now proceeded into winter quarters at
Ephesus, where he employed himself in orgaiiizing a body of cav-
alry to compete with the Persians. During the winter the arm"
was brought into excellent condition ; and Agesilaus gaA^e out ear-
ly in the spring of SOd b.c. that he should march direct upon Sar-

152 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XVI.

dis. Tissaphcrncs, suspectinpj another feint, now dispersed his
cavalry in the plain of the Maiander. But this time Agcsilaus
marched as he had announced, and in three days arrived unop-
posed on the banks of the Tactolus, before the Persian cavalry
could be recalled. When they at last came up, the ncwly-raiscd
Grecian horse, assisted by the peltasts, and some of the younger
and more active hoi)lites, soon succeeded in putting them to flight.
Many of the Persians were drowned in the Pactolus, and their
camp, containing much booty and several camels, was taken,

Agesilaus now puslied his ravages up to the very gates of Sar-
dis, the residence of Tissaphenics. But tlie career of that timid
and treacherous satrap was drawing to a close. The queen-moth-
er, Par}'satis, who had succeeded in regaining her influence over
Artaxerxes, caused an order to be sent down from Susa for his ex-
ecution ; in pursuance of wh-ich he was seized in a bath at Colos-
sx, and beheaded. Tithraustcs, who had been intrusted with the
execution of this order, succeeded Tissaphcrncs in the satrapy, and
immediately reopened negotiations with Agcsilaus. An armistice
of six months was concluded ; and meanwhile Tithraustcs, by a
subsidy of 30 talents, induced Agcsilaus to move out of his satrapy
into that of Pharnabazus.

During this march into Phrygia Agcsilaus received a new com-
mission from home, appointing him the head of the naval as well
as of the land force — two commands never before united in a sin-
gle Spartan. lie named his brothc.r-in-law, Pisander, commander
of the fleet. But in the following year (n.c. 394), whilst he was
preparing an expedition on a grand scale into the interior of Asia
Minor, he was suddenly recalled home to avert the dangers which
threatenccl his native country.

The jealousy and ill-will with which the newly-acquired empire
of the Spartans was regarded by the other Grecian states had not
escaped the notice of the Persians ; and Avhen Tithraustcs suc-
ceeded to the satrapy of Tissaphemes, he resolved to avail liimself
of this feeling by exciting a war against Sparta in the heart of
Greece itself. With this view he despatched one Timocrates, a
Rhodian, to the leading Grecian cities which appeared liostile t«
Sparta, carrying with him a sum of 50 talents to be distributed
among the chief men in each, for tlie purpose of bringing them
over to tl^e views of Persia. Timocrates was successful in Thebes,
Corinth, and Argos ; but he appears not to have visited Athens.

Hostilities were at first confined (o Sparta and Thebes. A quar-
rel having arisen between the Opuntian Locrians and thcPhocians
regarding a strip of border hind, the former ])eoj)lc appealed to the
Thebans, who invaded I'hocis. The Phocians, on their side, in-

B.C. 394. DEATH OF LYSANDEU. 153

voked the aid of the Lacedaemonians, who, ehxted at the prosper'
ous state of their affairs in Asia, and moreover desirous of aveng-
ing the affronts they had received from the Thebans, readily list-
ened to the appeal, Lysander, who took an active part in pro-
moting the war, was directed to attack the town of Haliartiis ; and
it was arranged that King Pausanias sliould join him on a fixed
day under the walls of that town, with the main body of the Lace-
daemonians and their Peloponnesian allies.

Notliing could more strikingly denote the altered state of feel-
ing in Greece than the request for assistance which the Thebans,
thus menaced, made to their ancient enemies and rivals the
Athenians. Nor were the Athenians backward in responding to
the appeal. Lysander arrived at Haliartus before Pausanias.
Here, in a sally made by the citizens, opportunely supported by
the unexpected arrival of a body of Thebans, the army of Lysander
was routed, and himself slain. His troops disbanded and dispersed
themselves in the night-time. Thus, when Pausanias at last came
up, he found no army to unite with ; and as an imposing Athenian
force had arrived, he now, with the advice of his council, took the
humiliating step — always deemed a confession of inferiority — of
requesting a truce in order to bury the dead who had fallen in the
preceding battle. Even this, however, the Thebans would not
grant except on the condition that the Lacedemonians should im-
mediately quit thel'' territory. With these terms Pausanias was
forced to comply; and, after duly interring the bodies of Lysander
and his fallen comrades, the Lacedaemonians dejectedly pursued
their homeward march. Pausanias, afraid to face the public in-
dignation of the Spartans, took refuge in the temple of Athena
Alea at Tegea ; and being condemned to death in his absence,
only escaped that fate by remaining in the sanctuary. He was
succeeded by his son Agesipolis.

The enemies of Sparta took fresh courage from this disaster to
her arms. Athens, Corinth, and Argos now formed with Thebes
a solemn alliance against her. The league was soon joined by
the Euboeans, the Acarnanians, and other Grecian states. In the
spring of 394: B.C. the allies assembled at Corinth, and the war,
which had been hitherto regarded as merely Boeotian, was now
called the Corinthian, by which name it is known in history.
This threatening aspect of affairs determined the Ephors to*recall
Agesilaus, as already related.

The allies were soon in a condition to take the field with a force
of 24,000 hoplites, of whom one fourth were Athenians, together
with a considerable body of light troops and cavalry. The Lace-
daemonians had also made the most active preparations. In the

154 HISTORY OF GREECE. Cjiap. XVL

neiglibourhood of Corintli a battle was foiipht, in which tlie Lace-
d:omonians gained tlic victorv, though tlieir allied troops were ])ut
to the rout. This battle, called tlic battle of Corinth, was fought
in July, 394: ]5.c.

Agesilaus, who had relinquished with a heavy heart his project-
ed expedition into Asia, was now on his homeward march. By
the promise of rewaids he had persuaded the bravest and most
efficient soldiers in his army to accompany him, amongst wliom
were many of the Ten Thousand, with Xenophon at their licad.
The route of Agesilaus was much the same as the one furmerly
traversed by Xerxes, and the camels whicli accompanied the army
gave it somewhat of an Oriental aspect. At Amphipolis he re-
ceived the news of the victory of Corinth ; but his heart was so
full of schemes against Persia, that the feeling Avhich it awakened
in his bosom was rather one of regret that so many Greeks had
fallen, whose united cilbrts might have emancipated Asia Minor,
than of joy at the success of his countrymen. Having forced his
way through a desultory, opposition olfered by the Thessalian
cavalry, he crossed Mount Othrys, and marched unopposed the
rest of the way through the Straits of Thcrmo])yla3 to the fron-
tiers of Phocis and Baotia. Here tlie evil tidings reached him
of the defeat and death of his brother-in-law Pisander, in a great
sea-fight olf Cnidus in Caria (August, 394 B.C.). Conon, with the
assistance of Pharnabazus, had succeeded in raising a powerful
liect, i)artly Pha>nician and ])aitly Grecian, with which he cither
destroyed or captured more than half of the Laccdivmonian fleet.
Agesilaus, fearing the impression which such sad news might pro-
duce iipon his men, gave out tliat the Lacedamionian fleet had
gained a victory ; and, having oftercd sacriticc as if for a victory,
he ordered an advance.

Agesilaus soon came up with the confederate army, which had
prepared to opi)Ose him in the i)lain of CoronCa. The Thcbans
succeeded in driving in the Orchomenians, who formed the left
wing of the army of Agesilaus, and penetrated as far as the baggage
in tl)c rear. But on the remainder of the line Agesilaus was vic-
torious, and the Thcbans now saw themselves cut oil' from their
companions, who had retreated and taken up a position on Blount
Helicon. Facing about and forming in deep and comj)act order,
the Thcbans sought to rejoin the main body, but they v>-erc op-
posed by Agesilaus and his troops. The shock of the conflicting
masses which ensued was one of the most tciTible recorded in tho
flnnals of Grecian warfare. The shields of the foremost ranka
%cve shattered, and their spears broken, so that daggers became
the only available arm. Agesilaus, w^^o was in the front rankiv

Ti-
er

•s
a
a-

B.C. 394. BATTLE OF CORONEA. 157

unequal by his size and strength to sustain so furious an onset,
was flung down, trodden on, and covered with wounds ; but the
devoted courage of the 50 Spartans forming his body-guard reocued
him from death. The Thebans finally forced their way through,
but not v/ithout severe loss. The victory of Agesilaus was no?
very decisive ; but the Thebans tacitly acknowledged their defeat
by soliciting the customary truce for the burial of their dead,

Agesilaus, on his arrival at Sparta, was received with the most
lively demonstrations of gi'atitude and esteem, and became hence-
forward the sole director of Spartan policy.

Thus, in less than two months, the Lacedaimonians had fouglit
two battles on land and one at sea ; namely, those of Corinth, Cor-
onea, and Cnidus. But, though they had been victorious in the
land engagements, they were so little decisive as to lead to no im-
portant result, whilst their defeat at Cnidus produced the most
disastrous consequences. It was followed by the loss of nearly all
their maritime empire, even faster than they had acquired it after
the battle of ^Egospotami ; for, as Conon and Pharnabazus sailed
with their victorious fleet from island to island and from port to
port, their approach was everywhere the signal for the flight or
expulsion of the Spartan hai'mosts.

In the spring of the following year (b.c. 393) Conon and Phar-
nabazus sailed to the isthmus of Corinth, then occupied as a cen-
tral post by the allies. The appearance of a Persian fleet in the
Saronic Gulf was a strange sight to Grecian eyes, and one which
might have served as a severe comment on tlie effect of their sui-
cidal wars. Conon dexterously availed himself of the hatred of
Pharnabazus towards Sparta to procure a boon for his native city.
As the satrap was on the point of proceeding homewards, Conon
obtained leave to employ the seamen in rebuilding the fortifica-
tions of Pirajus and the long walls of Athens. Pharnabazus also
granted a large sum for the same purpose ; and Conon had thus
the gioiy of appearing like a second Themistocles, the deliverer
find restorer of his country. Before the end of autumn the walls
were rebuilt. Having thus, as it were, founded Athens a second
time, Conon sailed to the islands to lay again the foundations of
an Athenian maritime empire.

During the remainder of this and the whole of the followmg
year (b.c. 392) the war was carried on in the Corinthian terri-
tory.

One of the most important events at this time was the destmc-
tion of a whole Lacedicmonian mora, or battalion, by the light-
armed mercenaries of the Athenian Iphicrates. For the preced-
ing two years Iphicrates had commanded a body of mercenaries.

158 IIISTOKY OF GREECE, Chap. XVL

consistinf^ of pcltasts,* wlio had been first organized liy Conon
after rebuililing the walls of Athens. For tliis force Iphicratcs
introduced those improved arms and tactics which form an cjiocli
in the Grecian art of war. His oljcct was to combine, as far as
possible, the peculiar advantages of the hoplitcs and light-armed
troops. He substituted a linen corslet for the coat of mail worn
by the hojjlites, and lessened the shield, while he rendered the
light javelin and short sword of the peltasts more effective by
lengthening them both one half. These troops soon proved very
effective. After gaining several victories he ventured to make a
sally from Corinth, and attacked a Laccdremonian mora in liank
and rear. So many f^U under the darts and arrows of the peltasts
tliat tho Lacedaemonian captain called a halt, and ordered the
youngest and most active of his hoplitcs to rush funvard and drive
olFtho assailants. But their heavy arms rendered tliom quite im-
cqual to such a mode of fighting; nor did the Lacedaemonian cav-
alry, which now came up, but which acted with very little vigour
and courage, produce any better effect. At length the Lacedaemo-
nians succeeded in reaching an eminence, where they endeavoured
to make a stand ; but at this moment Callias arrived Avith some
Athenian hoplitcs from Corinth, whereupon the already disheart-
ened Lacedaimonians fled and broke in confusion, pursued by the
pcltasts, Avho committed such havoc, chasing and killing some of
tlicm even in the sea, that but very few of the whole body succeed-
ed in clFiJcting their escape.

Tiic maritime v,ar was prosecuted with vigour. Thrasybulus,
and after his death Ii)lHcrates, were successful upon the coast of
Asia Minor, and made the Athenians agtiin masters of the Helles-
pont. Under these circumstances, the Laceda;monians resolved to
si)arc no eiforts to regain the good will of the Persians. Antal-
cidas, the Lacedaemonian commander on the Asiatic coast, entered
into negotiations with Tiribazus, who had succeeded Tithraustes in
the satrapy of Jonia, in order to bring about a general ])eace imder
the mediation of Persia. Conducted ])y Tiriba/.us, Antalcidas re-
paired to the Persian court, and prevailed on tlie Persian monarch
both to adoi)t tiie peace, and to declare war against those who
sliould reject it. Antalcidas and Tiribazus returned to the coast.s
of Asia Minor not only armed with these powers, but provided
with an amjile force to carry them into execution. In addition
to tho entire fleet of Persia, Dionysius of Syracuse had jilaccd 20
triremes at tlic service of the Lacedaemonians; and Antalcidas
now sailed witli a large fleet to the llellesjiont, where Iphicratcs
and the Athenians were still jiredominant. The overwhelming
• So culled from the poUn,(ir kind of Hhieltl which they carried.

B.C. 387. PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS. 159

force of Antalcidas, the largest that liacl been seen in the Helles-
pont since the battle of ^gospotami, rendered all resistance hope-
less. The sujjplies of corn from the Euxine no longer found thcif
way to Athens ; and the Athenians, depressed at once botli. hv
what they felt and by what they anticipated, began to long for
peace. As without the assistance of Athens it seemed hopelesa
for the other allies to struggle against Sparta, all Greece was in^
clined to listen to an accommodation.

Under these circumstances deputies from the Grecian statea
were summoned to meet Tiribazus ; Avho, after exhibiting to them
the royal seal of Persia, read to them the follov/ing terms of a
peace: "King Artaxerxes thinks it just that the cities in Asia
und the islands of Clazomenaj and Cyprus should belong to him.
IIo also thinks it just to leave all the other Grecian cities, both
small and great, independent — except Lemnos, Imbros, and Scy-
ros, which arc to belong to Athens, as of old. Should any jiarties
refuse to accept this peace, I will make war upon them, along with
those who are of the same mind, both by land and sea, with ships
and with money." All the Grecian states accepted these terms.

This disgraceful peace, called the Peace of A>.talcidas, vaxs
concluded in the year b.c. 387. By it Greece seemed prostrated
at the feet of the barbarians ; for its very terms, engraven on stone
and set up in the sanctuaries of Greece, recognized the Persian king
as the arbiter of her destinies. Although Athens cannot be en-
tirely exonerated from the blame of this transaction, the chief
guilt rests upon Sparta, whose designs were far deeper and more
hypocritical than they appeared. Under the specious pretext of
securing the independence of tiie Grecian cities, her only object
was to break up the confederacies under Athens and Thebes, and,
with the assistance of Persia, to pave the way for her own absolute
dominion in Greece.

No sooner was the peace of Antalcidas concluded than Sparta,
directed by Agesilaus, the ever-active enemy of Thebes, exerted
all her power to weaken that city. She began by proclaiming the
independence of the various Boeotian cities, and by organizing in
each a local oligarchy, adverse to Thebes and favourable to herself, '
Lacedaemonian garrisons were placed in Orchomenus and Thespiaj,
and Platsea was restored in order to annoy and weaken Thebes.
Shortly aftei'wards the Lacedaimonians obtained possession of
Thebes itself by an act of shameful treachery. They had de-
clared war against Olynthus, a town situated at the nead of tliQ
Toronaic Gulf, in the peninsula of the jNIacedonian Chalcidic^, the
head of a powerful confederation, which included several of th(
adjacent Grecian cities. The Thebans had entered into an alii

ICO HISTORY OF GHEECE. Chap. XVL

ance •w'th Olynthus, and had forbidden any of their citizens to join
the LacediL'inunian anny destined to act against it ; but tliey were
not strong enough to prevent its marching through their territory.
Phccbidas, who was conducting a Lacedaemonian force against
Olynthus, halted on his way through Bccotia not far from Thebes,
where ho was visited by Leontiades, one of the polemarchs of the
city, and two or three other leaders of the Lacedaemonian party in
Thebes. It happened that the festival of the Thesmophoria was on
the point of being celebrated, during which the Cadmea, or The-
ban Acropolis, was given up for the exclusive use of the women.
The Oj^porlunity seemed favourable for a surprise; and Leontiades
and Phoebidas concerted a jjlot to seize it. Whilst the festival
was celebrating, rhabidas pretended to resume his march, but
only made a circuit round the city walls; whilst Leontiades,
stealing out of the senate, mounted his horse, and, joining the Lac-
edaemonian troops, conducted them towards the Cadmea. It was
a sultrv summer's afternoon, so that the verv streets were desert-
ed ; and Phccbidas, without encountering any opposition, seized
the citadel and all the women in it, to serve as hostages for the
quiet submission of the Thebans (n.c. 382). This treacherous act
during a period of profound peace awakened the liveliest indigna-
tion throughout Greece. Sparta herself could not venture to justi-
fy it openly, and Phabidas was made the scape-goat of her ati'cct-
ed displeasure. As a sort of atonement to the violated feeling of
Greece, he was censured, fined, and dismissed. But that this was
a mere farce is evident from the fact of his subsequent restoration
to command ; and, however indignant the Lacedaemonians alfect-
cd to appear at the act of Pha^bidas, they took care to reap the
fruits of it by retaining their garrison in the Cadmea.

The once haughty Thebes was no\y enrolled a member of tho
Lacedaemonian alliance, and furnished her contingent — the grate-
ful olfering of the new Theban government — for the war which
Sparta was prosecuting with redoubled vigour against Olynthus-
This city was taken by the Lacediemonians in n.c, 379 ; tlie Olyn-
thian confederacy was dissolved ; the Grecian cities belonging to
it were compelled to join the Lacedainonian alliance; whilst tho
maritime towns of IVIaccdonia were reduced under the dominion
of Amyntas, the king of Macedon.

Tiie power of Sjiarta on land had now attained its greatest
height. Iler inii)0))ularity in Greece was commensurate with tho
extent of her harshly administered dominion. She was leagued
on all sides with the enemies of Grecian freedom — with the Pei*-
sians, with Amyntas of Macedon, and with Dionysius of Syracuse.
Hilt she had now reached the turning-point of her fortunes, and

B.C. 879, LIBERATION OF THEBES. 161

her successes, wliicli had been earned without scruple, -were soon
to bo followed by misfortunes and disgrace. The first blow came
from Thebes, where she had perpetrated her most signal injustice.

That city had been for three years in the hands of Leontiades
and tlie Spartan party. During this time great discontent had
grown lip among the resident citizens ; and there was also the
party of exasperated exiles, who had taken refuge at Athens.
Among these exiles was Felopidas, a young man of birth and for-
tune, who had already distinguished himself by his disinterested
])atriotism and ardent character. He now took the lead in the
plans formed for the liberation of his country, and was the heart
and soul of the enterprise. His warm and generous heart was
irresistibly attracted by everything great and noble, and hence he
was led to form a close and intimate friendship with Epaminon-
das, who was several years older than himself, and of a still loftier
character. Their fiiendsliip is said to have originated in a cam-
paign in which they served together, Avhen, Pelopidas having fall-
en in battle apparently dead, Epaminondas protected his body at
the imminent risk of his own life. Pelopidas afterv/ards endeaA*-
oured to persuade Epaminondas to share liis riches with him ; and
when he did not succeed, he resolved to live on the same frugal
fare as his great friend. A secret correspondence was opened
with his friends at Thebes, the chief of whom were Phyllidas, sec-
retary to the polemarchs, anu Charon. The dominant faction,
besides the advantage of the actual possession of power, was sup-
l)orced by a garrison of 1500 Lacedaemonians. The enterprise,
therefore, was one of considerable difficulty and danger. In the
execution of it Phyllidas took a leading part. It was arranged
that he should give a supper to Archias and Philippus, the two
polemarchs, and after they had partaken freely of Avine the con-
spirators were to be introduced, disguised as women, and to com-
plete their work by the assassination of the polemarchs. On the
day before tlic banquet, Pelopidas, with six other exiles, arrived
at Thebes from Athens, and, straggling through the gates towards
dusk in the disguise of rustics and huntsmen, arrived safely at the
house of Charon, where they remained concealed till the appoint-
ed hour. While the polemarchs were at table, a messenger ar-
rived from Athens with a letter for Archias, in Avliich the whole
plot was accurately detailed. The messenger, in accordance with
his instructions, informed Archias that the letter related to mat-
ters of great importance. But the polemarch, completely en-
grossed by the pleasures of the table, thrust the letter under the
pillow of his couch, exclaiming, " Serious matters to-morrow."

The hour of their fate was nov/ ripe. The conspirators, disguised

1C2 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. CiiAr. XVI.

^vith veils, and in the ample folds of female attire, were ushcrciS
into the room. For men in the state of the revellers the decep-
tion was com})lcte ; but -when they attempted to lift the veils from
tlie -women, tlieir passion was rewarded ))y the mortal tlirust of a
dagger. After thus slaying the two polemarchs, the conspirators
went to the house of Leontiades, Avhom tliey also desjjatched.

The ncAvs of tlie revolution soon spread abroad, rroclamations
were issued announcing that Thebes was free, and calling upon aU
citizens* who valued their liberty to muster in the market-jjlace.
As soon as day dawned, and the citizens became aware that they
were summoned to vindicate their liberty, their joy and enthusiasm
Avere unbounded. For the first time since the seizure of their cit-
adel they met in public assembly ; the conspirators, being intro-
duced, were crowned by the })riests with wreaths, and thanked in
the name of their country's gods ; Avhilst the assembly, with grate-
ful acclamation, unanimously nominated Fclopidas, Charon, and
Mellon as the first restored Bccotarchs.

Meanwhile the remainder of the Theban exiles, accompanied
by a body of Athenian volunteers, assembled on the frontiers of
Bceotia ; and, at the first news of the success of the cons})iracy,
hastened to Thebes to complete the revolution. The Thebans,
under their new Boeotarchs, were already mounting to the assault
of the Cadniea, when the Lacedaemonians capitulated, and were
allowed to march out with the honours of war. The Athenians
formed an alliance with the Thebans, and declared war agai\ist
Sparta.

From this time must bo dated the a!ra of a new political com-
bination in Greece. Athens strained every nerve to organize a
fresh confederacy. Thebes did not scruple to enrol herself as one
of its earliest members. The basis on which the confederacy was
formed closely resembled that of Delos. The cities comjjosing it
were to be independent, and to send de])utics to a congress at
Athens, for the purpose of raising a common fund for tlie sujtport
of a naval force. Care was taken to banish all recollections con-
nected with the former unpopularity of the Athenian empire.
The name of the tribute was no longer p/ioros, but si/niaris, or
''contribution." The confederacy, which ultimately numbered
70 cities, was chiefly organized through the exertions of Chabrias,
and of Timotheus the son of Conon. Nor were the Thebans les?
zealous, amongst v.-hom the Spartan government had left a lively
feeling of antipathy. The milirary force was put in the 1)cst
training, and the famous "Sacred Band" was now for the first
time instituted, 'i'his l)and was a regiment of oOO hoplitcs. It
was supported at the jjublic cxjicnsc, and kept constantly under

B.C. 378. ALLIANCE OF ATHENS AND THEBES. 1G3

arms. It was composed of young and chosen citizens of the best
families, and organized in such a manner that each man had at
his side a dear and intimate friend. Its special duty was the de-
fence of the Cadmea.

The Thebans had always been excellent soldiers ; but their
good fortune now gave them the greatest general that Greece had
liitherto seen. Epaminondas, who now appears conspicuously in
public life, deserves the reputation not merely of a Theban,. but of
a Grecian hero. Sprung from a poor but ancient family, Epami-
nondas possessed all the best qualities of his nation without that
heaviness, either of body or of mind, which characterized and de-
teriorated the Theban people. By the study of philosophy and
by other intellectual pursuits his mind was enlarged beyond the
sphere of vulgar superstition, and emancipated from that timorous
interpretation of nature which caused even some of the leading
men of those days to behold a portent in the most ordinary phe-
nomenon. A still rarer accomplishment for a Theban was that
of eloquence, which he possessed in no ordinary degree. These
intellectual qualities were matched with moral virtues worthy tc
consort with them. Though eloquent, he was discreet ; though
poor, he was neither avaricious nor corrupt ; though naturally firm
and courageous, he was averse to cruelty, violence, and blood-
shed ; though a patriot, he was a stranger to personal ambition,
and scorned the little arts by which popularity is too often court-
ed. Pelopidas, as we have already said, was his bosom friend.
It was natural, therefore, that, Avhen Pelopidas was named Bceo-
tarch, Epaminondas should be prominently employed in organiz-
ing the means of war; but it was not till some years later that his
military genius shone forth in its full lustre.

The Spartans were resolved to avenge the repulse they had re-
ceived; and in the summer of b.c. 378 Agesilaus marched with a
large army into Bocotia. He was unable, however, to effect any-
thing decisive, and subsequent invasions were attended with the
like result. The Athenians created a diversion in their favour by
a maritime war, and thus for two years Boeotia was free from
Spartan invasion. Thebes employed this time in extending her
domanion over the neighbouring cities. One of her most import-
ant successes during this period was the victory gained by Pelopi-
das over a Lacedemonian force near Tegyra, a village dependent
upon Orchomeuus (n.c. 375). Pelopidas had with him only the
Saci-ed Baud and a small body of cavalry when he fell in with the
Laced;cmonians, who were nearly twice as numerous, lie did
lot, however, shrink from the conflict on this account ; and when
one of Ms men, running up to him, exclaimod, "Wo are fallen

1G4 HISTORY OF GKEECE. Ciiat. XVI.

into the midst of the enemy," he replied, "Why so, more than thc^
into the midst of us?" In the battle which ensued the two Spar-
tan commanders fell at the first cliarge, and their men were put
°o the rout. So signal a victory inspired tlie Thebans witli new
confidence and vigour, as it showed that Sparta was not invincible
even in a pitched battle, and with the advantage of numbers on
her side. By the year 374 b.c. the Thebans had succeeded in ex-
pelling the Lacedaemonians from Boeotia, and revived the Bccotin-l
confederacy. They also destroyed the restored city of Plattca,
and obliged its inhabitants once more to seek refuge at Athens.

The successes of the Thebans revived the jealousy and distrust
of Athens. Prompted by these feelings, the Athenians opened
negotiations for a peace Avith Sjjarta ; a resolution which was also
adopted by tlie majority of the allies.

A congress was accordingly opened in Sparta in the spring of 371
B.C. The Athenians were represented by Callias and two other
envoys; the Thebans by Epaminondas, then one of the polemarchs.
The terms of a peace were agreed upon, by which the independ-
ence of the various Grecian cities was to be recognized ; and the
Spartan harmosts and garrisons everywhere dismissed. Sparta
ratified the treaty for herself and her allies ; but Athens took the
oaths only for herself, and was followed separately by her allies.
As Epaminondas refused to sign exce})t in the name of the Ba'o-
tian confederation, Agcsilaus directed the name of the Thebans to
be struck out of the treaty, and proclaimed tlicm excluded from
it.

The peace concluded between Sparta, Athens, and their repre-
sentative allies was called the Peace or Callias. The result
with regard to Thebes and Sparta will appear in the following
chapter.

03rea3, Greaves. (From the yEginetan Marbles.>

CHAPTER XVII.

THE SUPREMACY OF THEBES, B.C. 371-861.

In pursuance of the treaty, the Lacedtfimonians withdrew theii
harmosts and garrisons, whilst the Athenians recalled their fleet
from the Ionian Sea. Only one feeling prevailed at Sparta — a
desire to crush Thebes. This city Avas regarded as doomed to
destruction ; and it was not for a moment imagined that, single-
handed, she would be able to resist the might of Sparta. At the
time when the peace Avas concluded Cleombrotus happened to be
in Phocis at the head of a Lacedaemonian army, and he now re-
ceived orders to invade Bceotia without delay. The Thebans, on
their side, were equally determined on resistance. The two armies
met on the memorable plain of Leuctra, near Thespise. The forces
on each side are not accurately known, but it seems probable that
the Thebans were outnumbered by the Lacedemonians. The
military genius of Epaminondas, howcA^er, com.pensated any in-
feriority of numbers by novelty of tactics. Up to this time Grecian
battles had been uniformly conducted by a general attack in line.
Epaminondas noAV first adopted the manceuvre, used with such
success by Napoleon in modern times, of concentrating heavy
masses on a given point of the enemy's array. HaA'ing formed
his left Aving into a dense column of 50 deep, so that its depth AA-as
greater than its front, he directed it against the Lacedaemonian
right, containing the best troops in their army, draAvn up 12 deep,
and led by Cleombrotus in person. The shock Avas terrible.
Cleombrotus himself was mortally Avounded in the onset, and Avith
difficulty carried off by his comrades. Numbers of his officers, as
Avell as of his men, Avere slain, and the Avhole Aving Avas broken and

IGG HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XVII

driven back to their camp. The loss of the Tliebans was small
compared with that of tlic Lacedaemonians. Out of 700 Spartans
in tlie army of the latter, 400 liad fallen ; and their kin<jj al.-o bad
been slain, an event which had not occurred since the fatal day of
Thermopylae.

The victory of Leuctra was gained within three weeks after the
exclusion of the Tliebans from the peace of Callias. Tbe cflcct
»of it throughout Greece was electrical. It was everywhere felt
tliat a new military ])ower had arisen — that the prestige of the old
Spartan discipline and tactics had departed. Yet at Sparta itself,
though the reverse was the greatest that her arms had ever sus-
tained, the news of it Avas received with an assnmption of indiffer-
ence cliaracteristic of the peoj)le. The E])hors forbade the chorus
of men, who were celebrating in the theatre the festival of the
Gyrr.nopaedia, to be interrui)ted. They contented themselves Avith
directing the names of the slain to be communicated to their rela-
tives, and Avith issuing an order forbidding the Avomen to Avail and
mourn. Those Avhose friends had fallen appeared abroad on the
morrow Avith joyful countenances, Avhilst the relatives of the sur-
vivors seemed overAvhelmed Avith grief and shame.

Immediately after the battle the Thebons had sent to Jason of
riierae in Thcssaly to solicit his aid against the Lacedaemonians.
This despot Avas one of the most remarkable men of the period,
lie Avas Tagus, or Generalissimo, of all Thcssaly ; and Macedonia
was partially dependent on him. He Avas a man of boundless am-
bition, and meditated nothing less than extending his dominion
OA'cr tlie Avhole of Greece, for Avhich his central situation seemed
to ofler many facilities. Upon receiving the invitation of the
Thebans, Jason immediately resolved to join them. When he
arriA^d the Thebans Avere anxious that he should unite Avitli them
in an attack upon the Lacedicmonian camp ; but Jason dissuaded
them from the entcqirise, advising them not to drive the Lacedae-
monians to des])air, and otiering his mediation. He accordingly
succeeded in effecting a truce, by Avhich the Lacedaemonians Avere
alloAved to depart from Boeotia immolested.

According to Si)artan custom, tlie surviA-ors of a defeat Averc
Jookcd ujjon as dograck'd men, and su])jcctcd to the ]icnalties of
civil infamy. No allowance Avas made for circumstances. J5ut
those Avho had fled at Leuctra Avcre three hundred in number ; an
attempt to enforce against them the usual penalties might prove
not only inconvenient, but even dangerous; and on the prt)posal
of Agesilaus, they Avere, for this ocfasion, susjx'ndcd. The loss
of material jiower Avliich Sj)arta sustained by the defeat Avas great.
The ascendency she had hitherto enjoyed in jiarts iu)rth of th«

B.C. 370. EPAMINOXDAS INVADES LACONIA. 107

Corinthian Gulf fell from her at once, and was divided between
Jason of rheviii and the Thcbans. Jason was shortly afterwards
assassinated. His deatli Avas felt as a relief by Greece, and es-
pecially by Thebes. He Avas succeeded by his two brothers,
Polvphron and Polydorus ; but they possessed neither his ability
nor his power.

The Athenians stood aloof from the contending parties. They
had not received the news of the battle of Leuctra with any pleas-.'
ure, for they now dreaded Thebes more than Sparta. But, instead
of helping the latter, they endeavoured to prevent either from ob-
taining the supremacy in Greece, and for this purpose called upon
the other states to form a new alliance upon the terms of the
peace of Antalcidas. Most of the Peloponnesian states joined this
new league. Thus even the Peloponnesian cities became inde-
pendent of Sparta. But this was not all. Never did any state
fall with greater rapidity. She not only lost the dominion over
states which she had exercised for centuries, but two new political
powers sprang up in the peninsula which threatened her own in-
dependence.

In the following year (b.c. 370) Epaminondas marched into
Laconia, and threatened Sparta itself. The city, which was whol-
ly unfortified, was filled with confusion and alarm. The women,
who had never yet seen the face of an enemy, gave vent to their
fears in wailing and lamentation. Agesilaus, however, was un-
dismayed, and saved the state by his vigilance and energy. He
repulsed the cavalry of Epaminondas as they advanced towards
Sparta ; and so vigorous were his measures of defence, that the
Theban general abandoned all further attempt upon the city, and
proceeded southwards as far as Helos and Gythium on the coast,
the latter the port and arsenal of Sparta. After laying waste with
fire and sword the valley of the Eurotas, he retraced his steps to
the frontiers of Arcadia.

Epaminondas now proceeded to caiTy out the two objects for
which his march had been undertaken, namely, the consolidation
of the Arcadian confederation, and the establishment of the Mes-
senians as an independent community. In the prosecution of the
former of these designs the mutual jealousy of the various Arca-
dian cities rendered it necessary that a new one should be found-
ed, which should be regarded as the capital of the confederation.
Consequently, a new city Avas built on the banks of the Helisson,
called Megalopolis, and peopled by the inhabitants of forty dis-
tinci Arcadian tOAvnships. Here a synod of deputies from the
towns composing the confederation, called the "Ten Thousand,"
was to meet periodically for the despatch of business. Epami-

1G8 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. Chap. XVII.

nondas next proceeded to re-establish the INIesscnian state. Th«
Messenians had formerly lived under a dynasty of their own
kings ; but fur the last three centuries their land liad been in tlic
possession of the Lacedaemonians, and they had been fugitives
upon the face of the earth. The restoration of these exiles, dis-
persed in various Hellenic colonies, to their former rights, would
plant a bitterly hostile neighbour on the very borders of Laconia,
Epaminondas accordingly o])cned communications with them, and
nunibcrs of them flocked to his standard during his march into
Peloponnesus, He now founded the town of Messcne. Its cita-
del was placed on the summit of Mount Ithome, which had three
centuries before been so bravely defended by the Messenians against
the Spartans. The strength of its fortifications was long after-
wards a subject of admiration. The territory attached to the new
city extended southwards to the Messenian Gulf, and northwards
to the borders of Arcadia, comprising some of the most fertile land
in Peloponnesus.

So low had Sparta sunk, that slie was fain to send envoys to beg
the assistance of the Athenians. This request was acceded to ;
and shortly afterwards an alliance was formed between the two
states, in which Sparta waived all her claims to superiority and
headshi]). Inuring tl;e next two yenrs the Thebans continued
steadily to increase their power and inHuence in Greece, tliough
no great battle was fought. In B.C. 3G8 Pelopidas conducted a
Theban force into Thessaly and Macedonia. In Thessaly lie com-
pelled Alexander, who, by the minder of his two brothers, had
become despot of Pherie and Tagus of Thessaly, to relinquish his
designs against the independence of Larissa and other Thessalian
cities, and to solicit peace. In ^Macedonia he formed an nllianco
Avith the regent Ptolemy ; and amongst the hostages given for the
observance of this treaty was the youthful Philii>, son of Amyntas,
aftenvards the celebrated King of Macedon, who remained for
some vears at Thebes.

In the following year Pelopidas and Ismenias proceeded on an
embassy to Persia. Ever since the peace of Antalcidas the Great
King had become the recognized mediator between the states of
Greece, and his fiat seemed indis])ensable to stamp the claims of
that city which ])retcnded to the headship. The recent achieve-
ments of Thebes might entitle lier to asjjire to that ])osition ; and,
at all events, the alterations which she had produced in the in-
ternal state of Greece, by the establishment of INIcgaloiiolis and
Messcne, seemed to require for their stability the sanction of a
t'ersian rescri])t. This was obtained without dilliculty, as Thebes
WHS now the strongest state in Greece, and it was evidently easier

B.C. 3GL DEATH OF PELOPIDAS. IGD

to exercise Persian ascendency there by her means than through
a weaker power. The Persian rescript pronounced the independ-
ence of Messcue and Am^jhipolis ; the Athenians were directed to
lay up their ships of war in ordinary ; and Thebes was declared
the head of Greece.

It was, in all probability, during a mission undertaken by Pelop-
idas and Ismenias for the purpose of procuring the acknowledg-
ment of the rescript in Thessaly and the northern parts of Greece
that they Avere seized and imprisoned by Alexander of Phenc.
The Thebans immediately despatched an army of 8000 hoplites
and COO cavalry to recover or avenge their favourite citizen. Un-
fortunately, however, they were no longer commanded by Epami-
nondas. Their present commanders were utterly incompetent.
Tliey were beaten and forced to retreat, and the army was in such
danger from the active pursuit of tlie Thessalians and Athenians
that its destruction seemed inevitable. Luckily, however, Ejiami-
nondas was serving as a hoplite in the ranks. By the unanimous
voice of the troops he was now called to the command, and suc-
ceeded in conducting the army safely back to Thebes. Here the
unsuccessful Boeotarchs were disgraced ; Epaminondas was re-
stored to the command, and placed at the head of a second The-
ban army destined to attempt the release of Pelopidas. Directed
by his superior skill, the enterprise proved successful, and Pelopi-
das (B.C. 367) returned in safety to Thebes.

In B.C. 3S-1: Pelopidas again marched into Thessaly against
Alexander of Phera;. Strong complaints of the tyranny of that
despot arrived at Thebes, and Pelopidas, who probably also burned
to avenge his private wrongs, prevailed upon the Thebans to send
him into Thessaly to punish the tyrant. The battle was fought
on the hills of Cynoscephalaj ; the troops of Alexander were rout-
ed ; and Pelopidas, observing his hated enemy endeavouring to
rally them, was seized with such a transport of rage that, regard- -
less of his duties as a general, he rushed impetuously fonvards
and challenged him to single combat. Alexander shrank back
within the ranks of his guards, followed impetuously by Pelopidas,
who was soon slain, fighting with desperate bravery. Although
the army of Alexander was defeated with severe loss, the news of
the death of Pelopidas deprived the Thebans and their Thessa-
lian allies of all the joy which they would otherwise have felt at
their victorv.

Meantime a war had been carried on between Elis and Arcadia
which had led to disunion among the Arcadians themselves. The
Mantineans supported the Eleans, who were also assisted by the
Spartans ; whilst the rest of the Arcadians, and especially the Te-

170 HISTORY OF GUEECE. CiiAr. XVII

Rcans, favoured Thebes. In n.c. 3G2 Epaminondas marched into
reloponiicsus to support the Thcban party in Arcadia. The Spar-
tans sent a ])nwcrful force to the assistance of the I\rantiiieans, in
whose territory the hostile armies met. In the battle -which en-
sued Epaminondas formed his Boeotian troops into a column of
extraordinary depth, with which lie bore down all before them.
The Mantineans and Lacedaemonians turned and fled, and the rest
followed their example. The day was won ; but Ejiaminondas,
who fought in the foremost ranks, fell pierced with a mortal
wound. His fall occasioned such consternation among his troops,
that, although the enemy were in full flight, ihey did not know
how to use their advantage, and remained rooted to the spot.
Epaminondas Avas carried elf the field with the spear-head still
fixed in his breast. Having satisfied himself that his shield was
safe, and that the victory was gained, he inquired for lolaidas and
Daiphantus, whom he intended to succeed him in the command.
Being informed that both were slain, "then," he observed, "you
must make peace." After that he ordered the spear-head to be
withdrawn, v.hcn the gush of blood which followed soon tenni-
nated his life. Thus died this truly great man ; and never was
there one whose title to that epithet has been less disputed. An-
tiquity is unanimous in his praise, and some of the first men of
Greece subsequently took him for their model. With him the
commanding influence of Thebes began and ended. IHs last ad-
vice was adopted, and peace was concluded probably before the
Theban army quitted Peloponnesus. Its basis was a recognition
cf the status quo — to IcaA'C everything as it was, to acknowledge
the Arcadian constitution and the independence of Messcnt'.
S])arta alone refused to join it on account of the last article, but
she was not supported by her allies.

Agesilaus had lived to see tlie empire of. Sparta extinguished
by her hated rival. Thus curiously had the ])ropliecy been ful-
filled which warned Sparta of the evils awaiting her under a "lame
sovereignty." But Agesilaus had not yet abandoned all hope,
and he now directed his views towards the east as the quarter
from which S]iartnn power might still be resuscitated. At i'uQ
age of 80 the indomitable old man i)roceeded with a force of 1000
ho])lites to assist Tachos, king of Egypt, in his revolt against .Ver-
Bia. He died at Gyrene on his return to Greece. His body wai
embalmed in wax, and sjjleudidly buried iu Sparta.

Coin of Syracuse.

CHAPTER XVIII.

BISTORT OF THE SICILIAN CREEKS TRO^VI THE DESTRUCTION" CS
THE ATHENIAN ARMAMENT TO THE DEATH OF TIJIOLEON.

The affairs of the Sicilian Greeks, an important branch of tho
Hellenic race, deserve a passing notice. A few years after the
destruction of the Athenian armament, Dionysius made himself
master of Syracuse, and openly seized upon the supreme powef
(B.C. 405). His reign as tyrant or despot Avas long and prosper-
ous. After conquering the Carthaginians, who more than once in-
vaded Sicily, he extended his dominion over a great part of ths
island, and over a considerable portion of Magna Grrecia. He
raised Syracuse to be one of the chief Grecian states, second in in-
fluence, if indeed second, to Sparta alone. Under his sway Syr-
acusc was strengthened and embellished with new fortifications,
docks, arsenals, and other public buildings, and became superior
even to Athens in extent and population.

Dionysius was a warm friend of literature, and was anxious to

172 HISTORY OF GREECE. CiiAr.XVill.

gain distinction hy his literary compositions. In the midst of his
political and military cares ho devoted himself assiduously to po-
etry, and not only caused his poems to l)e publicly recited at tho
Olympic games, but repeatedly contended for the prize of tragedy
at Athens. In accordance with the same spirit we find him seek-
ing the society of men distinguished in literature and philosoj)hy.
Plato, who visited Sicily about the year 389 from a curiosity to seo
Mount iEtna, was introduced to Dionysius by Dion. The high
moral tone of IMato's conversation did not, howevei, prove so at-
tractive to Dionysius as it had done to Dion ; and the philosopher
was not only dismissed with aversion and dislike, but even, it seems,
through the machinations of Dionysius, seiz^ed, bound, and sold for
a slave in the island of JEgina. He was, however, repurchased by
Anniceris of Cyrone, and sent back to Atliens.

Dionysius died in n.c. 3G7, and was succeeded by his eldest son,
commonly called tlie younger Dionysius, who was about 25 years
of ago at the time of his father's death. At first he listened to the
counsels of Dion, who liad always enjoyed the respect and confi-
dence of his father. At the advice of Dion he invited Tlato to
Syracuse, where the ])hilosopher was received with the greatest
honour. His illustrious pupil immediately began to take lessons
in geometry ; superfluous dishes disappeared from the royal table ;
and Dionysius even betrayed some symptoms of a wish to mitigate
the former rigours of the despotism. But now the old courtiers
took the alarm. It was wliispered to Dionysius that the whole was
a deep-laid scheme on the part of Dion for the purpose of effect-
ing a revolution and placing his own ne])hews on tlie throne.*
Tiiese accusations liad tlie desired effect on the mind of Dionysius,
who shortly afterwards expelled Dion from Sicily. Plato with
difficulty obtained permission to return to Greece (u.c. 3(50).
Dionysius now gave way to his vices without restraint, and be-
came an object of contempt to the Syracusans. Dion saw that
the time had come for avenging his own wrongs as well as those
of his country. Collecting a small force, he sailed to Sicily, and
suddenly ajipeared befoi'e the gates of Syracuse during the absence
of Dionysius on an expedition to the coasts of Italy. The inhab-
itants, filled with joy, welcomed Dion as their deliverer; and Di-
onysius on his return from Italy found liimself compelled to quit
Syracuse (n.c. 35(5), leaving Dion undisputed master of the city.
The latter was now in a condition to carry out all those exalted

• TliR older Diony^^ill■^ Imil mniTied two wivos nt tlie pamo time: one of thc?e
was H Locniiii woiiiiin luinicJ Dori.-i; the other, Aristoniache, wiis a Syracu:<!in,
and the sister of Dion. Tlie ydiinger Dionysiud w&s \m elilc^t son by Doris; but
he aUo had cliildren hy Arii«tonmcliP.

B.C. 344. TIMOLEON INVADES SICILY. 173

notions of political life which he had sought to instil into the
mind of Dionysius. lie seems to have contemplated some polit-
ical changes ; but his immediate and practical acts Avcre tjranni-
cal, and were rendered still more unpopular by his OA-erbearing
manners. His unpopularity continued to increase, till at length
one of his bosom friends — the Athenian Callip])us — seized the op-
portunity to mount to power by liis murder, and caused him to be
assassinated in his own house. This event took place in 353, about
three years after the expulsion of the Dionysian dynasty. Callip-
pus contrived to retain the sovereign power only a twelvemonth,
A period of anarchy followed, during which Dionysius made him-
self master of the city by treachery, about b.c. o-lG. Dionysius,
however, was not able to re-establish himself firmly in his former
power. Most of the other cities of Sicily had shaken off the yoke
of SyrsK^use, and were governed by petty despots. Meantime the
Carthaginians prepared to take advantage of tlie distracted condi-
tion of Sicily. In the extremity of their sufferings, several of the
Syracusan exiles appealed for aid to Corinth, their mother-city.
The application was granted, and Timolcon was appointed to com-
mand an expedition destined for the relief of Syracuse.

Timoleon was distinguished for gentleness as well as for courage,
but towards traitors and despots his hatred was intense. He had
once saved the life of his elder brother Timophanes in battle at the
imminent peril of his own ; but when Timophanes, aA'ailing himself
of his situation as commander of the garrison in the Acrocorinthus,
endeavoured to enslave his country, Timoleon did not hesitate to
consent to his death. Twice before had Timoleon pleaded with
his brother, beseeching him not to destroy the liberties of his coun-
try ; but when Timophanes turned a deaf ear to these appeals,
Timoleon connived at the action of his friends, who put him to
death, whilst he himself, bathed in a flood of tears, stood a little
way aloof. The great body of the citizens regarded tlie conduct
of Timoleon with love and admiration. In the mind of Timoleon,
hov/ever, their approving verdict was fiir more than outweighed by
the reproaches and execrations of his mother. For many years
nothing could prevail upon him to return to public life. He buried
himself in the country far from the haunts of men, till a chance
voice in the Corinthian assembly nominated him as the leader of
the expedition against Dionysius.

Kouscd by the natui-e of the cause and the exhortations of his
friends, Timoleon accepted the post thus offered to him. His suc-
cess exceeded his hopes. As soon as he a])pearcd before Syracuse,
Dionysius, who appears to have abandoned all hope of ultimate
success, surrendered the citadel into his hands on condition of be-

174 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. Chap. XVIIl

ing allowed to depai't in safety to Corinth (b.c. 343). Dionysiua
passed the remainder of his life at Corinth, -wliere he is said to have
disjjlayed some remnants of liis former luxury by the fastidious
taste which he showed in the choice of his viands, unguents, dress,
and furniture ; whilst his literary inclinations manifested them-
selves in teaching the public singers and actors, and in opening a
school for boys.

Timoleon also expelled the other tyrants from the Sicilian cities,
and gained a great victory over the Carthaginians at the Kiver Cri-
mesus (or Criraissus). lie restored a rei)ublican constitution to
Syracuse ; and liis first public act was to destroy the impregnable
fortifications of the citadel of Ortygia, the stronghold of the elder
and tlie younger Dionysius. All the rewards which Timoleon re-
ceived for his great services Avere a house in Syracuse, and some
landed property in the neighbourhood of the city. He now sent for
liis family from Corintli, and became a Syracusan citizen, lie con-
tinued, however, to retain, thougli in a private station, the greatest
influence in the state. During the latter ])art of his life, though
}ie was totally deprived of sight, yet, Avhen important aflfairs were
discussed in the assembly, it was customary to send for Timoleon,
who was drawn in a car into the middle of the tlieatre amid the
shouts and afTectionfttc greetings of tlie assembled citizens. "When
the tumult of his reception had subsided he listened patiently to
the debate. The opinion which he pronounced was usually ratified
by the vote of the assembly ; and he then left the theatre amidst
the same cheers which had greeted his arrival. In this liapi)y and
lionoured condition he breathed his last in r,.c. 33(>, a few years aft-
er the battle of Criiuesus. lie was splendidly iri'^.erred at the ])ub-
lie cost, whilst the tears of tlie whole Syracusaw ivipjij^it^^ji follow-
ed him to the grave.

I'illtO.

Demosthenes.
CHAPTER XrX.

PHILIP or MACEDON, B.C. S59-33G.

The internal dissensions of Greece produced their natural fruits;
and we shall have now to relate the downfall of lier indci^endencQ
and her subjugation by a foreign power. This power was Mace-
donia, an obscure state to the north of Thessaly, hitherto OA'cr-
looked and despised, and considered as altogether barbarous, and
without the pale of Grecian civilization. But, though the Mace-
donians were not Greeks, their sovereigns claimed to be descend-
ed from an Hellenic race, namely, that of Temenus of Argos ; and
it is said that Alexander I. proved his Argive descent previously
to contending at the Olympic games. Perdiccas is commonly re-
garded as the founder of the monarchy ; of the history of which,
however, little is known till the reign of Amyntas I., his fifth suc-
cessor, Avho was contemporary with the Pisistratidaj at Athens.
Under Amyntas, who submitted to the satrap Megabyzus, Mace-
donia became subject to Persia, and remained so till after the bat-
tle of Plataja. The reigns of the succeeding sovereigns present
little that is remarkable, with the exception of that of Archelaus
(n.c. 413). This monarch transfen'ed his residence from JEgod to
Pella, Avhich thus became the capital. He entertained many lit-
erary men at his court, such as Euripides, who ended his days at
Pclla. Archelaus Avas assassinated in B.C. 399, and the crown de-
volved upon Amyntas II., a representative of the ancient line.
Amyntas left three sons, the youngest being the celebi'ated Philip,
of whom we have now to speak.

It has been already mentioned that the youthful Philip was one
of the hostages delivered to the Thebans as security for the peace
etfectcd by Pelopidas. His residence at Thebes gave him somo
tincture of Grecian philosophy and literature ; but the most im-
portant lesson which he learned at that citj' v/as the art of war.

17G HISTORY OF GREECE. Ciiap.XTS:.

with all the improved tactics introduced by Epaniinondas. Philip
succeeded to the tlirone at the age of 23 (u.c, 35'J), and displayed
ftt the beginning of his reign his extraordinary energy and abilities.
After defeating the Illyrians he cstablislied a standing army, in
which discipline was preserved by the severest punishments. lie
introduced the far-famed Macedonian phalanx, which was IG men
deep, armed with long projecting spears.

Philip's views were first turned towards the eastern frontiers of
his dominions, where his interests clashed with those of the Athe-
nians. A few years before the Athenians had made various un-
availing attempts to obtain possession of Amphipolis, once the
jewel of their empire, but which they had never recovered since
its capture by Brasidas in the eighth year of the Peloponncsian
war. Its situation at the mouth of the Strymon rendered it also
valuable to Macedonia, not only as a commercial port, but as open-
ing a passage into Thrace. The Olynthians Avere likewise anxious
to enrol Amphipolis as a member of their confederacy, and ac-
cordingly proposed to the Athenians to form an alliance for the
purpose of defending Amphipolis against their mutual enemy. An
alliance between these two powerful states would have proved an
insurmountable obstacle to Philijj's views, and it was therefore
absolutely necessary to prevent this coalition. Here we have the
first instance of Philip's skill and dujjlicity in negotiation. By
secretly promising the Athenians that he would put Ami)liipolis
into their hands if they would give him possession of Pydna, lie
induced tliem to reject the overtures of the Olynthians; and by
ceding to the latter the town of Antlicmus, he bought otf their op-
position. He now laid siege to Amphipolis, which, being thus
left unaided, fell into his hands (b.c. 358). He then forthwith
marched against Pydna, which surrendered to him ; but on tho
ground tliat it was not the Atlienians who had ])ut him in pos*
session of this town, he refused to give up Amphipolis to them.

Pliilip had now just reason to dread the enmity of the Athe-
nians, and accordingly it was his policy to court the favour of the
Olyutliians, and to prevent tlienr from renewing their negotiations
with the Atlienians. In order to separate them more cflectually,
he assisted the Olynthians in rccoA-ering Potidica, which had for-
merly belonged to their confederacy, but was now in the hands of
tlie Athenians. On tlie capture of the town he handed it over to
the Olynthians. Plutarch relates that the capture of l'otida\'i wns
accompanied with three other fortunate events in tlie life of Pliilip,
namely, the prize gained by his chariot at the Olympic games, a
victory of his general Parmenio over the Illyrians, and the birth
of his son Alexander. These events happened in n.c. 356.

B.C. 357. SOCIAL AND SACRED WAES. 177

Pliilip now crossed tho Strymon, on the left bank of which lay
Pangajus, a range of mountains abounding in gold-mines. lie
conquered the district, and founded there a new town called Phi-
lippi, on the site of the ancient Thracian town of Crenides. By
improved methods of Avorking the mines he made them yield an
annual revenue of 1000 talents, nearly £250,000.

Meanwhile Athens was engaged in a war Avith her allies, which
has been called the Social War, and which Avas, perhaps, the
reason why she was obliged to look quietly on whilst Philip was
thus aggrandizing himself at her expense. This Avar broke out
in B.C. 357. The chief causes of it seem to have been the contri-
butions levied upon the allies by the Athenian generals. The
Avar lasted three years ; and as Artaxerxes, the Persian king,
threatened to support the allies Avith a fleet of 300 ships, the
Athenians Avere obliged to consent to a disadA^antageous peace,
which secured the independence of the more important allies (b.
C. 355).

Another Avar, AA^hich had been raging during the same time,
tended still further to exhaust the Grecian states, and thus paA'o
the Avay for Philip's progress to the supremacy. This Avas the
Saci'ed War, Avhich broke out betAvcen Thebes and Phocis in the
same year as the Social War (n.c. 357). An ill-feeling had long
subsisted between those two countries. The Thebans noAV aA'ailed
themseh-es of the influence Avliich they possessed in the Amphicty-
onic council to take A'cngeance upon the Phocians, and accord-
ingly induced this body to impose a heavy fine upon the latter
people, because they had cultivated a portion of the Cirrhaan
plain, Avhich had been consecrated to the Delphian god, and Avas
to lie Avaste for ever. The Phocians pleaded that the payment of
the fine Avould ruin them ; but, instead of listening to their rcmon'
strances, the Amphictyons doubled the amount, and threatened,
in case of their continued refusal, to reduce them to the condition
of serfs. Thus driven to desperation, the Phocians resolved to
comijlcte the sacrilege Avith Avhich they had been branded, by
seizing the very temple of Delphi itself. The leader and coun-
sellor of this enterprise Avas Philomelus, aa'Iio, Avith a force of no
more than 2000 men, surprised and took Delphi. At first, hoAv-
evcr, he carefully abstained from touching the sacred treasure ;
but, being hard,])ressed by the Thebans and their allies, he thrcAv
olr tlie scruples Avhich he had hitherto assumed, and announced
that the sacred treasures should be conA'erted into a fund for the
payment of mercenaries. On the death of Philomelus, Avho fell
in battle, the command Avas assumed by his brother Onomarchus,
who carried on the Avar Avith vigour and success. But he Avas

173 HISTORY OF GREECE. Ciim>. XIX.

checked in liis career by riiilip, v/lio liad previously been cxtend-
in;2; his dominion over Tlicssaly, nnd Avho now assumed the char-
acter of a chamijion of tlie Delpliic god, and made his soldiers
wear wreaths of laurel i)lucked in the groves of Tempc. He pen-
etrated into Thessaly, and encountered the Phocians near the
gulf of Pngasa:. In the battle which ensued, Onomarchus Avas
slain, and his army totally defeated (i;.c. 352). This victory made
Philip master of Thessaly. lie now directed his march south-
wards with the view of subduing the Phocians ; but, upon reaching
TliermopyliC, he found the pass guarded by a strong Athenian
force, and was compelled, or considered it more prudent, to re-
treat.

After his return from Thessaly Philip's views were directed to-
wards Thrace and tlie Chersonese. It was at this juncture that De-
mosthenes stepped forwards as the proclaimed opponent of Pliilij),
and delivered the first of those celebrated orations which from
their subject have been called "the Phili])pics." This most fa-
mous of all the Grecian orators was born in n.c. 382-381. Having
lost his father at the early age of seven, his guardians abused their
trust, and defrauded him of the greater part of his paternal inlicr-
itance. This misfortune, however, i)roved one of the causes which
tended to make him an orator. Demosthenes, as he advanced to-
wards manhood, perceived with indignation the conduct of his
guardians, for which he resolved to make them answerable when
the proper opportunity sliould arrive, by accusing them himself.
His first attempt to speak in public proved a faihire, and he retired
from the bcma amidst the hootings and laughter of the citizens.
The more judicious and candid among his auditors perceived,
however, marks of genius in his speech, and rightly attributed hia
failure to timidity and want of due i)reparation. Euuomus, an
aged citizen, who met him wandering about the Pira'us in a stato
of dejection at his ill-success, bade him take courage and jiersevcrc.
Dcmusthenes now withdrew awhile from public life, and devoted
himself perseveringly to remedy his defects. They were such as
might be lessened, if not removed, by practice, and consisted chief'
ly of a weak voice, imi)erfect articulation, and ungraceful and iu'
appropriate action. He derived much assistance from JSatyrus tli3
actor, who exercised him' in reciting })assages from So])hoclcs and
Euripides. He studied the best rhetorical treatises and orations,
and is said to have copied the work of Thucydides with his own
hand no fewer than eight times. He shut himself up for two or
tlu'ee months together in a subterranean chauiber in order to i>rac-
ticc composition and declamation. His ])erscvcrance was crowned
vrith success ; and he who ou the Hrst attempt had descended fronj

B.C. 352. DEMOSTHENES— FIRST PKILIPPIC. 179

tlie bcma amid the ridicule of the crowd, became at last the most
perfect orator the world has ever seen.

Demosthenes had established himself as a public speaker before
the period which we have now reached ; but it is chiefly in con-
nexion with Philip that Ave are to view him as a statesman as well
as an orator. Philip had shown his ambition by the conquest of
Thessaly, and by the part he had taken in the Sacred War ; and
Demosthenes now began to regard him as the enemy of the liber-
ties of Athens and of Greece. In his first "Philippic" Demosthe-
nes tried to rouse his countrj-men to energetic measures against
this formidable enemy; but his warnings and exhortations produced
little effect, for the Athenians were no longer distinguished by the
same spirit of enterprise which had characterized them in the day:?
of their supremacy. No important step was taken to curb the
growing power of Philip ; and it was the danger of Olynthus which
first induced the Athenians to prosecute the war with a little mora
energy. In 350 B.C., Philip having c«ptured a town in Chalcidicc,
Olynthus began to tremble for her own safety, and sent envoys to
Athens to crave assistance. Olynthus was still at the head of
thirty-two Greek towns, and the confederacy was a sort of coun-
terpoise to the power of Philip. It was on this occasion that De-
mosthenes delivered his three Olynthiac orations, in which he
warmly advocated an alliance v/ith Olynthus.

Demosthenes was opposed by a strong party, vAih which Phocion
commonly acted. Phocion is one of the most singular and origi-
nal characters in Grecian histoiy. He viewed the multitude and
their altairs with a scorn which he was at no pains to disguise ; re-
ceiving their anger with indifference, and their praises with con-
tempt. His known probity also gave him weight with the assembly-
He was the only statesman of whom Demosthenes stood in awe ;
who was accustomed to say, when Phocion rose, "Here comes tho
pruner of my periods." But Phocion's desponding views, and his.
mistrust of the Athenian people, made him an ill statesman at a
period which demanded the most active patriotism. He doubtless
injured his country by contributing to check the more enlarged
and patriotic views of Demosthenes ; and though his own conduct
was pure and disinterested, he unintentionally threw his weight
on the side of those who, like Demades and others, were actuated
by the basest motives. This division of opinion rendered the op-
erations of the Athenians for the aid of the Olynthians languid
and desultory. Town after town of the confederacy fell before
Philip ; and in 347 Olynthus itself Avas taken. The whole of the
Chalcidian peninsula thus became a Macedonian fvfovince.

The prospects of Athens now became alarming. Her possession*

180 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XIX

in the Chersonese were threatened, as well as the freedom of the
Greek towns upon the IIelles])ont.* Tlie Athenians had supported
the Phocians in the Sacred War, and were thus at war with Thebes.
In order to resist Philip, the attention of the Athenians was now
directed towards a reconciliation with Thebes, especially since the
trea,sures of Delphi were nearly exhausted, and, on the other hand,
the war was becoraing every year more and more burthensome to
tlie Thebans. Nor did it seem inii)rol)able that a peace niiglit be
concluded not only between those two cities, but amonp the Grecian
states j^enerally. It seems to have been this aspect of affairs that
induced Philip to make several indirect overtures to the Athenians
in the summer of B.C. 317. In sjjite of subsidies from Delphi the
Avar had been very onerous to them, and they received these ad-
vances with joy, and eventually agreed to the terms of a j)eacc.
Having thus gained over the Athenians, Philip marched through
Thermopylaj and entered Phocis, which surrendered uncondition-
ally at his approach. He then occupied Delphi, where he assem-
bled the Am])hietyons to pronounce sentence upon those who had
been concerned in the sacrilege committed there. The council de-
creed tliat all the cities of Phocis, cxce])t Abre, should be destroy-
ed, and their inliabitants scattered into villages containing not
more than lifty houses each. Sparta was deprived of her share in
the Amphictyonic privileges; the two votes in the council possess-
ed by tlic Phocians were transferred to the kings of Macedonia;
and Philip Avas to share with the Thebans and Thessalians the
honor of presiding at the Pythian games (u.c. MG).

The result of the Sacred "War rendered IMncedon the leading
state in Greece. Philip at once acquired by it military glory, a
reputation for piety, and an accession of power. His ambitious
designs were now too i)lain to be mistaken. The eyes of the blind-
est among the Athenians wex'c at last o]iened; the promoters of
the peace which had been concluded with I'hilip incurred the ha-
tred anel sus])icion of the jieojilc, whilst, on the other hand, De-
mosthenes rose higher than ever in public favour.

I'hilip was now busy with preparations for the vast ))rojects which
he contemplated, and which embraced an attack upon the Athenian
colonies, as well as upon the Persian empire. For this i)uri>ose he
hail organized a consideiable naval force as well as an army, and
in the sjjring of 312 u.c. he set out on an exi)edition against Thrace.
His jirogress soon ajjpeared to menace the Chersonese and the
Athenian possessions in that quarter, and at length the Athenian
troojts under Diopithes came into actual collision with tlie Mace-
donians. In the folh)wing year Philij) began to attack the Greek
eities north of the IIellcs])ont. He fu'st besieged and capture^

B.C. 338. BATTLE OF CII^RONEA. 181

Selymbria on the Propontis, and then turned his arms against
Perinthus and Byzantium. This roused the Athenians to more
vigorous action. War was formally declared against Philip, and
a fleet equipijcd for the immediate relief of Byzantium. I'hilif
v/as forced to raise the siege not only of that town, but of Perin-
thus also, and finally to evacuate the Chersonesus altogether
For these acceptable services the grateful Byzantians erected a
colossal statue in honor of Athens.

After this check Philip undertook an expedition against tho
Thracians ; but meantime his partisans procured for him an op-
portunity of marching again into the very heart of Greece.

Amphissa, a Locrian town, having been declared by the Am-
p'h"ctyonic council guilty of sacrilege, Philip was appointed by tlic
council as their general to inflict punishment on the inhabitants of
the guilty town. Accordingly, he marched southwards early in
r.c. 338 ; but, instead of proceeding in the direction of Amphissa,
he suddenly seized Elatea, the chief town in the eastern part of
Phocis, thus showing clearly enough that his real design was
against Boeotia and Attica. Intelligence of this event reached
Athens at night, and caused extraordinary alarm. In the follow-
ing morning Demosthenes pressed upon the assembly the neces-
sity for making the most vigorous preparations for defence, and
especially recommended them to send an embassy to Thebes, in
order to persiiade the Thebans to unite with them against the
common enemy.

The details of the war that iEbllowed are exceedingly obscure.
Philip appears to have again opened negotiations with the Thebans,
which failed ; and we then find the combined Theban and Athcniai'i
armies marching out to meet the Macedonians. The decisive bat-
tie was fought on the 7th of August, in the plain of Chteronea in
Bceotia, near the frontier of Phocis (b.c. 338). In the Macedonian
army was Philip's son, the youthful Alexander, who was intrusted
with the command of one of the wings ; and it was a charge made
by him on the Theban sacred band that decided the fortune of the
day. The sacred band Avas cut to pieces, without flinching from
the ground Avhich it occupied, and the remainder of the combined
army was completely routed. Demosthenes, who was serving as a
foot-soldier in the Athenian ranks, has been absurdly reproached
with cowardice because he participated in the general flight.

The battle of Chceronea crushed the liberties of Greece, and
made it, in reality, a province of the Macedonian monarchy. To
Athens herself the blow was almost as fatal as that of ^"Egospotami.
But the manner in which Philip used his victory excited universal
sui-prise. He dismissed the Athenian prisoners without random,

182 HISTORY OF GREECE. • Chap. XIX.

and voluntarily offered a peace on terms more advantageous than
the Athenians themselves would have ventured to })roi)0.sc. Phil-
ij), indeed, seems to have regarded Athens with a sort of love
and respect, as the centre of art and refinement, for his treatment
of the Thebans was very different, and marked by great harshness
and severity. They were compelled to recall their exiles, iu
whose hands the government was ])laced, whilst a Macedonian
arrison was established in the Cadmea.

A congress of the Grecian states was now summoned at Cor-
inth, in which war was declared against Persia, and Philip was
ai))iointcd generalissimo of the expedition.

In the si)ring of n.c. 3oG Philip sent some forces into Asia, under
the command of Attains, Parmenio, and Amyntas, which were
designed to engage the Greek cities of Asia in tlie expedition. Put,
before quitting Macedonia, Philip determined to j'rovide for the
safety of his dominions by celebrating the marriage of his daughter
with Alexander of Epirus. It was solemnized at ^Egrc, the ancient
capital of Macedonia, with much jjomp, including banquets, and
musical and theatrical entertainments. The day after the nuptials
was dedicated to theatrical entertainments. The festival was
opened witli a procession of the images of the twelve Olyrajjian
deities, with which was associated that of Philip himself. TliQ.
monarch took part in the procession, dressed in Avhite robes, and
crowned with a chaplet. Whilst thus proceeding through the city,
a youth suddenly rushed out of tlie crowd, and, drawing a long
sword which he had concealed under his clothes, i)lunged it into
Pliili])'s side, who fell dead upon the s])Ot. The assassin was ]»ur-
sued by some of the royal guards, and, having stumbled in his flight,
was despatched before he could reach the place where horses had
been provided for his escape. His name was Pausanias. He Avas
a youth of noble birth, and we arc told that his motive for taking
Philip's life was that tlic king had refused to jjunish an outrage
which Attains had committed against him.

Thus fell I'liilip of Macedon, in the twenty-fourth year of his
reign and forty-seventh of his age (n.c. 330). AVhcn we rcHcct
upon his achievements, and how, partly by i)o]icy and jiarily by
arms, lie converted his originally poor and distracted kingdom into
the mistress of Greece, we must acknowledge him to have been an
extraordinary, if not a great man, In the better sense of that tenn.
His views and his ambition were certainly as large as those of his
son Alexander, but he was in-evented by a jtreuniture death from
carrying them out ; nor would Alexander liimself have been able
to perform his great achievements had not Philip handed down to
him all tlie means and instruments which they required.

Coin of Alexander the Great.
CHAPTER XX.

ALEXANDER THE GREAT, B.C. 336-323.

Alexander, at the time of his father's death, was in his twen-
tieth year, having been born in b.c. 356. His early education
was entrusted to Leonidas, a kinsman of his mother, a man of se-
vere and parsimonious character, who trained him with Spartan
simplicity and hardiliood ; whilst Lysimachus, a sort of under-
governor,. early inspired the young prince with ambitious notions,
by teaching him to love and emulate the heroes of the Hiad. Ac-
cording to the traditions of his family, the blood of Achilles actu-
ally ran in the veins of Alexander;* and Lysimachus noui'ished
the feeling which that circumstance was calculated to awaken by
giving him the name of that hero, whilst he called Philip Peleus,
and himself Phoenix. But the most striking feature in Alexan-
der's education was, that he had Aristotle for his teacher, and
that thus the greatest conqueror of the material world received
the instructions of him who has exercised the most extensive em-
pire over the human intellect. It was probably at about the age
of thirteen that he first received the lessons of Aristotle, and they
can hardly have continued more than three years, for Alexander
soon left the schools for the employments of active life. At the
age of sixteen we find him regent of Macedonia during Philip's
absence ; and at eighteen we have seen him filling a prominent
military post at the battle of Chajronca.

On succeeding to the throne Alexander announced his inten-
tion of prosecuting his fatiier s expedition into Asia ; but it was
first necessary for him to settle the affairs of Greece, where the
news of Philip's assassination, and the accession of so young a
prince, had excited in several states a hope of shaking off the

* His mother Olympias was the daughter of Neoptolcmus, king of Epirus, Avh«
elairaed descent from Pyn'hus, the son of Achines.

184 IIISTOIIY OF GllEECE. Chap. XX,

Macedonian yoke. Athens was tlie centre of these movements.
Demosthenes, altlioii^li in niovirnin;; for the recent loss of an only
daughter, now came abroad dressed in Avliite, and crowned with a
chaplet, in which attire lie was seen sacrificing at one of the jnib-
lic altars. He also moved a decree that rhilij/s death should be
celebrated by a public thanksgiving, and that religious honours
should be paid to the memory of Tausanias. At tlic same time
he made vigorous preparations for action. He despatched en-
voys to the principal Grecian states for the purpose of inciting
tliem against JNIacedon. Sparta, and the whole Peloponnesus,
with tlic exception of Megalopolis and Messenia, seemed inclined
to shake olT their compulsory alliance. Even the Thebans rose
against tlie dominant oligarchy, although the Cadmea was in the
hands of the Macedonians.

The activity of Alexander disconcerted all these movements.
Having marched through Thcssaly, he assembled the Amjthicty-
onic council atThermopyhc, Avho conferred ujxm him the command
with which they had invested his father during the Sacred War.
He then advanced rapidly upon Thebes, and thus prevented the
meditated revolution. The Athenians sent ambassadors to depre-
cate his wrath, who were graciously accepted. He then convened
a general congress at Corinth, where he was appointed general-
issimo for the Persian war in place of his father. ^Most of the phi-
losophers and persons of note near Corinth came to congratulate
him on this occasion ; but Diogenes of Sinope, who was then liv-
ing in one of the suburbs of Corinth, did not make his appear-
ance. Alexander, thcrefure, resolved to jjay a visit to the eccen-
tric cynic, whom he found basking in the sun. On tlie approach
of Alexander Avith a numerous retinue, Diogenes raised himself
lip a little, and the monarch affably inquired how he could serve
him? "Py standing out of my sunsliine," replied the churlish
philosopher. Alexander was struck with surprise at a behaviour
to wliich he was so little accustomed ; but, whilst his courtiers
were ridiculing the manners of the cynic, he turned to them and
said, "Were I not Alexander, I should like to be Diogenes."

The result of the Congix'ss might l)e considered a settlement
of tlie affairs of Greece. Alexander then returned to IMaccdonia
in the hope of being able to begin his Persian expedition in the
spring of 0.0.335; but reports of disturbances among the Thra-
cians and Triballians diverted his attention to that quarter. Ho
therefore crossed Mount Ihtmus (the I'alkan) and marched into
the territory of the Triballians, defeated their forces, and j)ursued
them to the Danube, whicli he crossed. After acquiring n largo
booty he regained the banks of the Danube, and thence marched

B.C. 335. CAPTURE OF THEBES. 185

against the Illyrians and Tanlantians, wliom he speedily reduced
to obedience.

During Alexander's absence on these expeditions no tidings were
heard of him for a considerable time, and a report of his death was
industriously spread in Southern Greece. The Thcbans rose and
besieged the Macedonian garrison in the Cadiuea, at the same time
inviting other states to declare their independence. Demosthenes
was active in aiding the movement. He persuaded the Athenians
to furnish the Thebans -with subsidies, and to assure them of their
Bup])ort and alliance.. But the rapidity of Alexander again crushed
the insurrection in the bud. Before the Thebans discovered that
the rei)ort of his death was false he had already arrived at On-
chestus in Ba:;otia, Alexander was willing to afford them an o])por-
tunity for repentance, and marched slowly to the foot of the Cad-
mea. But the leaders of the insurrection, believing themselves
irretrievably compromised, replied with taunts to Alexander's pro-
posals for peace, and excited the people to the most desperate re-
sistance. An engagement was prematurely brought on by one of
the generals of Alexander, in which some of the Macedonian troops
Avere put to the rout ; but Alexander, coming up with the phalanx,
whilst the Thebans were in the disorder of pursuit, drove them back
in turn, and entered the gates along with them, when a fearful
massacre ensued, committed principally by the Thracians in Al-
exander's service. Six thousand Thebans are said to have been
slain, and thirty thousand were made prisoners. The doom of the
conquered city was referred to the allies, who decreed her destruc-
tion. The grounds of the verdict bear the impress of a tyrannical
hypocrisy. They rested on the conduct of the Thebans during the
Persian war, on their treatment of Plata^a, and on their enmity to
Athens. The inhabitants were sold as slaves, and all the houses,
except that of Pindar, were levelled with the ground. The Cadmea
was preserved to be occupied by a Macedonian garrison. Thebes
seems to have been thiis harshly treated as an example to the rest
of Greece, for towards the otlier states, which were now eager to
4nake their excuses and submission, Alexander showed much for-
bearance and lenity. The conduct of the Athenians exhibits them
deeply sunk in degradation. When they heard of the chastisement
inflicted uijon Thebes, they immediately voted, on the motion of
Demosthenes, that ambassadors should be sent to congratulate
Alexander on his safe return from his northern expeditions, and on
his recent success. Alexander, in reply, Avrote a letter, demanding
that eight or ten of the leading Athenian orators sliould be deliv-
ered up to him. At the head of the list was Demosthenes. In
<Ms dileroma, Phocion, who did not wish to speak upon such a

18G HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XX

<]uestion, was loudly called upon by the people for his opinion ;
when he rose and said that tlie persons uhom Alexander demanded
had brouirht the state into sucli a niiseralilc jdiglit that tliey de-
served to be svuTcndercd, and that, for his own jiart, he should be
very happy to die for the commonwealth. At the same time, he
advised them to try the effect of intercession with Alexander ; and
it was at last only by his own personal apjilication to that monarch,
with whom he was a great favourite, that the orators were spared.
According to another account, however, the wrath of Alexander
was appeased by the orator Dcmadcs, who received from the Athe-
nians a reward ot five talents for his services. It was at this time
tliat Alexander is said to have sent a i)resent of 100 talents to
riiocion. But Phocion asked the persons who brought the money
"why ho should be selected for such a bounty?" "Because,"
they replied, "Alexander considers you the only just and honest
man." "Then," said Thocion, "let him suffer me to lie what I
seem, and to retain that character." And when the envoys went
to his house and beheld the frugality with which he lived, tliey
perceived that the man who refused such a gift was wealthier than
he who offered it.

Having thus i)ut the affairs of Greece on a satisfactory footing,
Alexander marched for the Ilellcspont in the spring of li.c. 334,
leaving Antipater regent of JSIacedonia in his absence, with a force
of 12,000 foot and 1500 horse. Alexander's own army consisted
of only about 30,000 foot and .5000 horse. Of the infantry about
12,000 were Macedonians, and these composed the pitli of the cel-
ebrated Macedonian phalanx. Such was the force with which he
proposed to attack the immense but ill-cemcntcd empire of Persia,
which, like the empires of Turkey or Austria in modern times,
consisted of various nations and races with different religions and
manners, and speaking different languages ; the only bond of
union being the dominant military ])Owcr of the ruling nation,
which itself formed only a small numerical portion of the empire.
The remote provinces, like those of Asia Minor, were administer-
ed by satraps and military governors who enjoyed an almost inde-
pendent autliority. Before Alexander de]>artcd he distributed
most of the crown property among his friends, and when Ferdic"
cas asked him what he had reserved for himself, he replied, "My
hopes."

A march of sixteen days brought Alexan<lcr to Sestos, where
a large licet and a number of transports liad been collected for
the embarkation of bis army. He steered with his own hand the
vessel in which he sailed towards the very spot where the Aduvana
were said to have landed when proceeding to the Trojan war.

C. 334. BATTLE OF THE GRANICUS. 18?

He wn,s, as v/e have said, a great admirer of Homer, a copy of
. whose Avoiks he always carried with him ; and on landing on the
Asiatic coast he made it his first business to visit the plain of
Troy. Ho then proceeded to Sigeum, where he crowned with a
garland the pillar said to mark the tumulus of his niytliical ances-
tor Achilles, and, according to custom, ran round it naked with
his friends.

Alexander then marched northwards along the coast of the PrO"
pontis. The satraps of Lydia and Ionia, together with other Per-
sian generals, were encamped on the Eiver Granicus, with a force
of 20,000 Greek mercenaries, and about an equal number of na-
tive cavalry, with which they prepared to dispute the passage of
the river. A Rhodian, named Memnon, had the chief command.
The veteran general Parmenio advised Alexander to delay the
attack till tlie following morning; to Mliich he rejdied that it
would be a bad omen at the beginning of his expedition, if, after
])assing the Hellespont, he should be stopped by a paltry stream.
Thereupon he directed his cavalry to cross the river, and followed
himself at the head of the phalanx. The passage, however, was
by no means easy. The stream was in many parts so deep as to
be hardly fordable, and the opposite bank was steep and rugged.
The cavalry had great difficulty in maintaining their ground^ till
Alexander came up to their relief. He immediately charged into
the thickest of the fray, and exposed himself so much that his life
was often in imminent danger, and on one occasion was saved
only by the interposition of his friend Clitus. Having routed tlie
Persians, he next attacked the Greek mercenaries, 2000 of whom
were made prisoners, and the rest nearly all cut to pieces. In
this engagement he killed two Persian" officers with his own
hand.

Alexander now marched southwards towards Sardis, which sur-
rendered before he came within sight of its walls. Having left a
garrison in tluit city, he arrived after a four days' march before
Epliesus, which likewise capitulated on liis approach. Magnesia,
Tralles, and Miletus next fell into his hands, the last after a short
3iege. Halicarnassus m.ade more resistance. It was obliged to be
regularly approached ; but at length i\Iemnon, finding it no longer
tenable, set fire to it in the night, and crossed over to Cos. Al-
exander caused it to be razed to the ground, and pursued his
march along the southern coast of Asia Minor, with the view of
seizing those towns which might afiord shelter to a Persian fleet.
The v/intcr was now approaching, and Alexander sent a consider-
able part of his army under Parmenio into winter-quarters at Sardis.
^e also sent back to Macedonia such officers and soldiers as had

1138 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XX.

been recently married, on condition that thcr shonld return in the
spring with what re-cnforccinents they could raise ; and with the
same view he despatched an officer to recruit in the Pelo])onnesus.
IVIcanwhile he liimself, with a chosen body, proceeded along the
coasts of Lycia and I'amphylia, having instructed Parmenio to
rejoin him in Phrygia in the spriug with the main body. After he
had crossed the Xanthus most of the Lycian towns tendered their
submission. ,0n the borders of Lycia and Pamphylia, Mount Cli-
max, a branch of the Taurus range, runs abruptly into the sea, leav-
ing only a narrow passage at its foot, which is frequently over-
flowed. This was the case at the time of Alexander's approach. He
therefore sent his main body by a long and difficult road across
the mountains to Perge ; but he himself, who loved danger for its
own sake, proceeded with a chosen band along the shore, wading
throua;h water that was breast-liigh for ncarlv a whole dav. Tlicn
forcing liis way northwards through the barbarous tribes which
inhabited the mountains of Pisidia, he encamped in the neighbour-
hood of Gordium in Phrygia. Here he was rejoined by Parmenio
and by the new levies from Greece. Gordium had been the capital
of the early Phrygian kings, and in it was preserved with super-
stitious veneration the chariot or wa?,on in which the celebrated
JNiidas, the son of Gordins, together with his parents, had entered
the town, and, in conformity with an oracle, had been elevated to
the monarchy. An ancient prophecy promised the sovereignty of
Asia to him who should untie the knot of bark which fastened the
yoke of the wagon to the ])ole. Alexander rcjjaired to the Acrop-
olis, where the wagon was ])reservcd, to attempt this adventure.
Wlicther he undid the knot by drawing out a peg, or cut it through
with his sword, is a matter of doubt ; but that he had fulfdlcd the
prediction was ])laccd beyond dispute tliat very night by a great
storm of thunder and lightning.

In the sjjring of 333 Alexander pursued his march eastwards,
and on arriving at Ancyra received the submission of the Paphla-
ponians. He then advanced through Cappadocia without resist-
ance ; and forcing his way througli the passes of jNIount Taurus
(the Pjila- CUicu'.:), he descended into the jdains of Cilicia. Hcnco
he pushed on rapidly to Tarsus, which he found abandoned by tho
enemy. Whilst still heated with the march, Alexander plunged
into the clear but cold stream of the Cvdnus, which runs bv the
town. The result Avas a fever, Avhich soon became so violent as
to tlireaten his life. An Acaruanian physician, named Piiilip, who
accompanied him, prcscri])cd a remedy ; but, at the same time,
Alexander received a letter informing him tluit IMiilip had been
bribed by Darius, tlic Persian king, to poison him. He had, liow-

B.C. 833. BATTLE OF ISSUS. 189

ever, too much confidence in the trusty Philip to believe the accu-
sation, and handed him the letter .whilst he drank the draught.
Either the medicine, or Alexander's youthful constitution, at length
triumphed over the disorder. After remaining some time at Tarsus,
he continued his march along the coast to Mallus, where he first
received certain tidings of the great Persian army, commanded by
Darius in person. It is said to have consisted of 600,000 fighting
men, besides all that train of attendants which usually accompanied
the march of a Persian monarch. Alexander found Darius en-
camped near Issus, on the right bank of the little river Pintirus.
The Persian king could hardly have been caught in a more unfa-
vourable position, since the narrow and rugged plain between
Mount Amanus and the sea afforded no scope for the evolutions
of large bodies, and thus entirely deprived him of the advantage
of his numerical superiority. Alexander occupied the pass be-
tween Syria and Cilicia at midnight, and at daybreak began to de-
scend into the plain of the Pinarus, ordering his troops to deploy
into line as the ground expanded, and thus to arrive in battle-array
before the Persians. Darius had thrown 80,000 cavalry and 20,000
infantry across the river, to check the advance of the Macedonians ;
whilst on the right bank w'cre drawn up his choicest Persian troops
to the number of G0,000, together with 30,000 Greek mercenaries,
who formed the centre, and on whom he chiefly relied. These, it
appears, were all that the breadth of the plain allowed to be drawn
up in line. The remainder of tlie vast host were posted in separate
bodies in the farther parts of the plain, and were tmable to take
any share in the combat. Darius placed himself in the centre of
the line in a magnificent state chariot. The banks of the Pinarus
w^ere in many parts steep, and where they were level Darius had
caused them to be intrenc.hed. As Alexander advanced, the Per-
sian cavalry which had been thrown across the river were recalled ;
but the 20,000 infantry had been driven into the mountains, wher(i
Alexander held them in check with a small body of horse. The
left wing of the JMacedonians, under the command of Parmeiiio,
was ordered to ke^p near tlie sea, to prevent being outflanked.
The right wing was led by Alexander in person, who rushed im-
petuously into the water, and was soon engaged in close combat
with the Persians. The latter were immediately routed ; but what
chiefly decided the fortune of the day Avas the timidity of Darius
himself, who, on beholding the defeat of his left wing, immediately
took to flight. His example was followed by his whole army.
One hundred thousand Persians are said to have been left upon the
field. On reaching the hills Darius threw aside his royal robes,
Ixis bow and shield, and, mounting a fleet courser was soon out

190 HISTORY OF GREECE. CiiAr. XX.

of reach of pursuit. The rersian camp became the spoil of tlio
Macedonians; but the tent of Darius, together with his cliariot,
robes, and arms, -was reserved for Alexander himself. It was now
that the Macedonian king first had ocular proof of the nature of
Eastern royalty. One compartment of the tent of Darius had
been fitted up as a bath, Avhich steamed with the richest odours,
whilst another presented a magnificent i)avilion, containing a ta-
ble richly spread for the banquet of Darius. But from an adjoin-
ing tent issued the wail of female voices, Avhcre Sisygambis the
mother, and Statira the wife of Darius, were lamenting the sup-
posed death of the Persian monarch. Alexander sent to assure
them of his safety, and ordered them to be treated with the most
delicate and respectful attention.

Such was the memorable battle of Issus, fought in November,
B.C. 338. A large treasure which Parmenio was sent forward with
a detachment to seize, fell into the hands of the Macedonians at
Damascus. Another favourable result of the victory was that it
suppressed some attempts at revolt from the Macedonian power,
whicli, Avith the su]>j)ort of Persia, had been manifested in Greece.
But, in order to put a complete stop to all such intrigues, which
chiefly depended on the assistance of a Persian fleet, Alexander
resolved to seize Phanicia and Egypt, and thus to strike at the
root of the Persian maritime power.

Meanwhile, Darius, attended by a body of only 4000 fugitives,
had crossed the Euphrates at Thapsacus. Before lie had set out
from Babylon the whole forces of the empire had been summoned ;
but he had not thought it worth while to wait for what he deemed
a mcrelv useless encumbrance ; and the more distant levies, whicli
comprised some of the best troojjs of the cmi)irc, were still hasten-
ing towards Babylon. In a short time, tlierefore, he would be at
the head of a still more numerous host than that which had fought
at Issus ; yet he thought it safer to open negotiations with Alex-
ander than to trust to the chance of arms. "With this view he
sent a letter to Alexander, who was now at IMarathus in Phoenicia,
proposing to become his friend and ally; but Alexander rejected
all his overtures, and told him that he must in future be addressed,
not in the language of an equal, but of a subject.

As Alexander advanced southwards, all the towns of Phoenicia
hastened to open their gates ; the inhabitants of Sidon even hailed
him as their deliverer. Tyre also sent to tender her submission,
but coupled Avith reservations by no means accei)table to a youth-
ful conqueror in the fidl tide of success. Alexander affected to
receive their olV.'r as an unconditional surrender, and told then:
that he Avould visit their cifv and vW'cr sacrifices to Melcart, a

B.C. 332. SIEGE OF TYRE. 191

Tyrian dci'iV, Avho was considered as identical with the Grcf ian
Hercules. This bronglit the matter to an issue. The Tyrians
now intbrmcd hira tliat they could not admit any foreigners within
their walls, and that, if he wished to sacrifice to Melcart, he
would find another and more ancient shrine in Old Tyre, on the
main land. Alexander indignantly dismissed the Tyrian ambas-
sadors, and announced his intention of laying siege to theit
city. The Tyrians probably deemed it impregnable. It was hf
nature a place of great strength, and had been rendered still
stronger by art. The island on which it stood was b.alf a mile
distant from the main land ; and though the cliannel was shallow
near the coast, it dcei)cned to three fathoms near the island. The
shores of the island were rocky and precipitous, and the walls rose
from the cliffs to the height of 150 feet in solid masonry. As
Alexander possessed no ships, the only method by which he could
i^pproach the town was by constructing a causeway, the materials
for which were collected from the forests of Libanus and the ruins
of Old Tyre. After overcoming many difficulties, the mole was at
length pushed to the foot of the v/alls ; and as soon as Alexander
had effected a practicable breach, he ordered a general assault
both bv land and sea. The breacli was stormed under the imme-
diate inspection of Alexander himself; and though the Tyrians
made a desperate resistance, they were at length overpowered,
when the city became one wide scene of indiscriminate carnage
and plunder. The siege had lasted seven months, and the Mace-
donians were so exasperated by the difficulties and dangers they
had undergone that they granted no quarter. Eight thousand of
the citizens arc said to have been massacred ; and the remainder,
with the exception of the king and some cf the principal men,
who had taken refuge in tlic temple of Melcart, were sold into
slavery to the number of 30,000. Tyre was taken in the month
of July in 332.

Whilst Alexander was engaged in the siege of Tyre, Darius
made him further and more advantageous proposals. He now of-
fered 10,000 talents as the ransom of his family, together Avith all
the provinces west of the Euphrates, and his daughter Barsine in
marriage, as the conditions of a peace. When these offers were
submitted to the council, Parmenio was not unnaturally stiuck
with their magnificence, and observed that, were he Alexander, he
would accept them. " And so would I," replied the king, " were
I Parmenio." Darius therefore prepared himself for a desperate
resistance.

After the fall of Tvrc, Alexander marched with his army towards
Egypt, whilst his fleet proceeded along the coast, Gaza, a strong

192 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XX

fortress on the sca-shorc, obstinately held out, antl delayed his prog,
ress three or four months. After tlic cajiture of this city Alex-
ander met his fleet at Pelusium, and ordered it to sail up the Nil»
as far as Memphis, whither he himself marehed with liis army
across the desert. lie conciliated the affection of the E<iy])tinng
by the respect with which he treated tlieir national superstitions,
whilst the Persians, by an opi)osite line of conduct, had incurred
their deadliest hatred. He then sailed down the western branch
of the Nile, and at its mouth traced the ])lan of the new city cf
Alexandria, which for many centuries continued to be not only the
grand emporium of Europe, Africa, and India, but also tlie i)rin-
cipal centre of intellectual life. Being now on the confines of
Libya, Alexander resolved to visit the celebrated oracle of Zeus
(Jupiter) Amnion, which lay in the bosom of the Libyan wilder-
ness. The conqueror was received by the priests with all the hon-
ours of sacred pomp. He consulted the oracle in secret, and is
said never to have disclosed the answer which he received ; though
that it was an answer that contented him ai)i)eared from the mag-
nificence of the offerings which he made to the god. Some say
that Amnion saluted him as the son of Zeus.

Alexander returned to Phcenicia in the spring of 331 . He then
directed his march throu;^!! Samaria, and arrived at Tha])sacus on
the Euphrates about the end of August. After crossing the river
he struck to the northeast through a fertile and well-supplied
country. On his march he was told that Darius was jjosted Avitli
an immense force on the left bank of the Tigris, but on arriving
at that river he found nobody to dispute his })assage. He then
proceeded southwards along its banks, and after four days' march
fell in with a few squadrons of the enemy's cavalry. From some
of these who were made prisoners Alexander learned that Darius
was encamped with his host on one of the extensive ])lains between
th>3 Tigris and the mountains of Kurdistan, near a village calletl
Gaugamrda (the Camel's IIous',;), 'J'he town of ArbGla, after which
the battle that ensued is commonly named, lay at about twenty
miles distance, and there Darius had deposited his baggage and
treasure. That monarch had been easily persuaded that his for-
mer defeat was owing solely to the nature of the ground; and,
therefore, he now selected a wide plain for an engagement, where
there was abundant room for his multitudinous infantry, and for
the evolutions of his horsemen and charioteers. Alexander, after
giving his army a few days' rest, sot out to meet the enemy soon
after midnight, in ordin- that he might come up with them about
daybreak. On ascending some sand-hills, the whole array of the
Persians suddenly burst upon the view of the Macedonians, at the

B.C. 331, BATTLE OF ARBELA, 193

distance of three or four miles. Durins, as usual, occupied the
centre, surrounded by his body-guard and chosen troops. In front
of the royal position ■were ranged the war-chariots and elephants,
And on either side the Greek mercenaries, to the number, it is said,
of 50,000. Alexander spent the first day in surveying the ground
and preparing for the attack ; he also addressed his troops, point-
ing out to them that the prize of victory would not be a mere prov-
ince, but the dominion of all Asia. Yet so great was the tranquil-
lity with which he contemplated the result, that at daybreak on the
following morning, when the ofRccrs came to receive his final in-
structions, they found him in a deep slumber. His army, which
consisted only of -1:0,000 foot and 7000 horse, was draAvn up in the
order which he usually observed, namel}', with the phalanx in the
centre in six divisions, and the Macedonian cavalry on the right,
Avhcre Alexander himself took his station. The Persians, fearful
of being sui'prised, had stood under arms the whole night, so that
the morning found them exhausted and dispirited. Some of them,
however, fought with considerable bravery ; but when Alexander
had succeeded in breaking their line by an impetuous charge, Da-
rius mounted a fleet horse and took to flight, as at Issus, though
the fortune of the day was yet far from having been decided. At
length, however, the rout became general. Whilst daylight lasted
Alexander pursued the flying enemy as far as the' banks of the
Lycus, or Greater Zab, were thousands of the Persians perished
in the attempt to pass the river. After resting his men a few
hours, Alexander continued the pursuit at midnight in the hope
of overtaking DariuB at Arbela. The Persian monarch, however,
had continued his flight without stopping; but the whole of the
royal baggage and treasure was captured.

Finding any further pusuit of Darius hopeless, Alexander now
directed his march towards Babylon. At a little distance from
the city the greater part of t'.ie population came out to meet him,
headed by their priests and magistrates, tendering their submis-
sion, and bearing with them magnificent presents. Alexander
then made his triumphant entry into Babylon, riding in a chariot
at the head of his army. The streets Avere strewed with flowers,
incense smoked on either hand on silver altars, and the priests
celebrated his entry with hymns. Nor was this the mere display
of a compulsory obedience. Under the Persian sway the Chaldaan
religion had been oppressed and persecuted; the temple of Beliis
had been destroyed and still lay in ruins ; and both priests and
people consequently rejoiced at the downfall of a dynasty from
which they had suffered so much wrong. Alexander observed
'■'ere the same poli*^" conduct AvhicK he had adopted in Eg)7)t.

191 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. X:S

He caused tlio ruined temples to be restored, and proposed to offev
personally, but under the direction of the priests, a sacrifice to
Belus. Alexander contemjjlated making Babylon the capital of
his future empire, llis army was rewarded Avi»,h a large donativo
from the Persian treasury ; and after being allowed to indulge for
some time in the luxury of Babylon, was again put in motion,
towards the middle of November, for Susa. It was there that tlio
Persian treasures were chiefly accumulated, and Alexander had
despatched one of his generals to take possession of the city im-
mediately after the battle of Arbela. It was surrendered without
a blow by the satrap Abulites. The treasure found there amount-
ed to 40,000 talents in gold and silver bullion, and 9000 in gold
Darics. But among all tliese riches the interest of the Greeks
must have been excited in a lively manner by the discovery of tho
spoils carried off from Greece by Xerxes. Among them were the
bronze statues of Ilarmodius and Aristogiton, which Alexander
now sent back to Athens, and which were long afterwards pre-
served in the Ceramlcus.

At Susa Alexander received re-enforcements of about 15,000
men from Greece. He then directed his march soutlieastwards
towards Pcrscpolis. His road lay through the mountainous ter-
ritory of tlie Uxians, who refused him a passage unless lie ])aid
the usual tribute whicli they were in the habit of extorting even
from the Persian kings. But Alexander routed them with great
slaughter. He then advanced rapidly to Pcrscpolis, whose mag-
nificent ruins still attest its ancient splendoin-. It Avas the real
capital of the Persian kings, though they generally resided at Susa
during tlic winter, and at Ecbatuna in summer. The treasure
found tlicre exceeded that both of Babylon and Susa, and is said to
liave amounted to 120,000 talents, or nearly £30,000,000 sterling.
It was here that Alexander is related to have committed an act of
senseless folly, by firing with his own hantl the ancient and mag-
nificent palace of tho Persian kings, of which the most charitable
version is that he committed the act when heated with wine at tho
instigation of Thais, an Athenian courtesan. By some writers,
howevc", the story is altogether disbelieved, and tlie real destruc-
tion of Pcrscpolis referred to the INIohammedan epoch. AVhilst at
Pcrso]jolis, Alexander visited the tomb of Cyrus, the founder of
the Persian monarchy, which was situated at a little distance, at a
city callc 1 Pasargada;.

Thus, in between tlirce and four years after crossing the Helles-
pont, Alexander had cstalilishcil himself on the J'ersian throne'.
But Darius was not yet in his i)ower. After the battle of Arbela
tiuit monarch had fled to Ecbatina. It was not till about foul

B.C. 330. DEATH OF DARIUS. 195

months after the battle of Arbela, and consequently early in 330,
that Alexander quitted Persepolis to resume the pursuit of Darius.
On approaching^ Ecbatana he learned that the Persian monarch
had already fled with the little army which still adhered to him.
Alexander, with his main body, then pursued Darius through Media
by forced marches, and reached Rhaga?, a distance of three hundred
miles from Ecbatana, in eleven days. Such was the rapidity of
the march that many men and horses died of fatigue. At Rhagse
he' heard that Darius had already passed the defile called the
"Caspian Gates," leading into the Bactrian provinces; and, as
that pass was fifty miles distant, urgent pursuit was evidently use-
less. He therefore allowed his troops five days' rest, and then re-
suuKid his march. Soon after passing the Gates he learned that
Darius had been seized and loaded with chains by his own satrap
Bessus, who entertained the design of establishing himself in
Bactria as an independent sovereign. This intelligence stimulated
Alexander to make still further haste with part of his cavalry and
a chosen body of foot. On the fourth day he succeeded in over-
taking the fugitives with his cavalry, having been obliged to leave
the infantry behind, with directions to follow more at leisure. The
enemy, Avho did not know his real strength, were struck with con-
sternation at his appearance, and fled precipitately. Bessus and
his adherents now endeavoured to persuade Darius to fly Avith
them, and provided a fleet horse for that purpose. But the Per-
sian monarch, who had already experienced the generosity of
Alexander in the treatment of his captive family, preferred to fall
into his hands, wliereupon the conspirators mortally wounded him
in the chariot in which th.ey kept him confined, and then took to
flight. Darius expired before Alexander could come up, who
threw his own cloak over the body. He then ordered him to bo
magnificently buried in the tomb of his ancestors, and provided
for the, fitting education of his children.

The next three years were employed by Alexander in subduing
Ilyrcania, Drangiana, Bactria, and Sogdiana, and the other north-
ern provinces of the Persian empire. In these distant regions ho
founded several cities, one of which in Aria, called after him
(Alexandria Ariorum), is still, under the name of Herat, one of
the chief cities in central Asia. Alexander's stay in Prophthasia.
the capital of Drangiana, was signalized by a supposed conspiracy
against his life, formed by Philotas, the son of Parmenio. Alex-
ander had long entertained suspicions of Philutas. But the im
eiediate subject of accusation against him was that he had not re-
vealed a conspiracy which was reported to be forming against Al-
sxander's life, and which he had deemed too contemiDtiblc to notice.

196 HISTORY OF GREECE. CiiAr. XX.

lie was consequently suspected of beinpf implicated in it ; and on
beins put to the torture, he not only confessed his own guilt in his
agonies, but also implicated his father. PhilGtas was executed,
and an order was sent to Ecbatana, where Parmenio then was,
directing that veteran general to be i)ut to death. A letter, pur-
porting to be from his son, was handed to him ; and whilst the old
man was engaged in reading it, Polydamus, his intimate friend,
together with some others of Alexander's ])rincipal officers, fell
upon and slew him. His head was carried to Alexander.

Meantime Bessus had assumed tlic royal dignity in Bactria,
but upon Alexander's approach he fled across the Oxus into Sog-
diana. Early in the summer of 329 Alexander followed him
across the Oxus, and shortly afterwards Bessus was betrayed by
two of his own officers into the Iiands of Alexander. Bessus was
carried to Zariaspa, the capital of Bactria, where he was brought
before a Persian court, and put to death in a cruel and barbarous
manner.

Alexander even crossed the River Jaxartes (Sir), and defeated
the Scythians. Sogdiana alone of the northern provinces oifered
any serious resistance to his arms. Accordingly, in 328, he again
crossed the Oxus. He divided his army into five bodies, ordering
them to scour the country in ditforent directions. With the troops
under his own command he marched against the fortress called the
Sogdian Rock, seated on an isolated hill, so precijntous as to be
deemed inaccessible, and so well supplied with pi'ovisions as to
defy a blockade. The summons to surrender was treated with
derision hy the commander, who inquired whether the ^Maccdo-
nians had wings. But a small body of JNlacedonians having suc-
ceeded in scaling some heights which overhung ihc fortress, the
garrison became so alarmed that they immediately surrendered.
To this jdace a Bactrian named Oxyartes, an adherent of Bessus,
had sent his daugliters for safety. One of them, named Roxfina,
was of surpassing beauty, and Alexander made her the partner of
his throne (n.c. 328).

At Maracanda (now Sama7'cand) he appointed his friend Clitus
Batrap of Bactria. On the eve of the parting of the two friends
A-lexander celebrated a festival in honour of the Dioscuri (Castor
ftud Pollux), though the day was sacred to Dionysus (Bacchus).
The ban(iuct was attended by several jiarasites and literary flat-
terers, who magniiit'd the ])raiscs of Alexander with extravagant
and nauseous flattery. Clitus, Avliom wine had released from all
n-udent reserve, sternly rebuked their fulsome adulation ; and, as
the conversation turned on the c()nq)arative merits of the cxjjloits
of Alexander and his father Philip, he did ^ot hesitate to prefer

B.C. 327. INVASION OV IXDIA. 19?

the exploits of the latter. Ho reminded Alexander of his former
services, and, stretchin;^ fortii his hand, exclaimed, " It Avas this
hand, Alexander, vvliicli saved your life at the battle of the Granl-
cus !" The king, who was also flushed with wine, was so enraged
by these remarks that lie rushed at Clitus with the intention of
killing him on the spot, but he was held back by his friends, whilst
Clitus was at the same time hurried out of the room. Alexander,
however, was no sooner released than, snatching a spear, he sprang
to the door, and meeting Clitus, who was returning in equal fury
to brave his anger, ran him through the body. But when the deed
was done he M-as seized with repentance and remorse. He flung
himself on his couch, and remained for three whole days in an
agony of grief, refusing all sustenance, and calling on the names
of Clitus and of his sister Lanicc', who had been his nurse. It was
not till his bodily strength began to fail through protracted absti-
nence that he at last became more composed, and consented to
listen to the consolations of his friends, and the words of the sooth-
sayers, who ascribed the murder of Clitus to a temporary frenzy
Avith which Dionysus had visited him as a punishment for neglect-
ing the celebration of his festival.

After reducing Sogdiana, Alexander returned into Bactria in
327, and began to prepare for his projected expedition into India.
Whilst he was thus employed, a plot was formed against his life
by the royal pages, incited by Hermolaus, one of their number,
who had been punished with stripes for anticipating the king
during a hunting party in slaying a wild boar. Hermolaus and
his associates, among whom was Callisthenes, a pupil of Aristotle,
were first tortured, and then put to death. It seems certain that
a conspiracy existed, but no less certain that the growing pride
and haughtiness of Alexander Avere gradually alienating from him
the hearts of his followers.

Alexander did not leave Bactria till late in the spring. He
crossed the Indus by a bridge of beats near Taxila, the present
Attock, Avhere the river is about 1000 feet broad, and very deep.
He now found himself in the district at present called the Penj~<ib
(or the Five Pavers). Taxiles, the sovereign of the district, at once
surrendered Taxila, his capital, and joined the Macedonian force
with 5000 men. Hence Alexander proceeded Avith little resistance
to the Eiver Hydaspes {Behut or Jebim). On the opposite bank,
Torus, a pov:erful Indian king, prepared to dispute his progress
Avith a numerous and Avell-appointed force. Alexander, however,
by a skilful stratagem, conveyed his army safely across the river.
An obstinate battle then ensued. In the army of Porus Avere many
elephants, the sight and smell of Avhich frightened the horses of

198 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XX.

Alexander's cavalrv. But these iinwieldv animals ultimately
proved as dangerous to the Indians as to the Greeks ; for wlieu
driven into a narrow space they became unmanageable, and cre-
ated great confusion in the ranks of Porus. By a few vigorous
charges the Indians were completely routed, with the loss of
12,000 slain and 9000 prisoners. Among the latter Avas Torus
himself, who was conducted into the jiresence of Alexander. The
courage whicli he liad disj)laycd in the battle had excited the ad-
miration of the JNlacedonian king. Mounted on an enormous
elephant, he retreated leisurely when the day was lost, and long
rejected every summons to surrender, till at length, overcome by
tliirst and fatigue, he permitted liimself to be taken. Even in this
situation Porus still retained his majestic bearing, the effect of
wliich was increased by the extraordinary lieight of his stature.
On Alexander s inquiring how he wished to be treated, he replied,
"Like a king." " And have you no other request ?" asked Alex-
ander. "No," answered Porus; "everything is comprehended
in the word king." Struck by his magnanimity, Alexander not
only restored him to his dominions, but also considerably enlarged
them ; seeking by these means to retain him as an obedient and
faitlifal vassal.

Alexander rested a month on the banks of the Ilydaspcs, where
he celebrated his victory by games and sacriliccs, and founded two
towns, one of whicli he named Nicaja, and tiie other Buccplulla, in
honour of his gallant charger Bucephalus, which is said to have
died there. He then overran the whole of the Penj-ab as far as
the Hypliusis (Gharnt), its soutliern boundary. Upon reaching
this river, the army, worn out by fatigues and dangers, positively
refused to proceed any fjirther, although Alexander passionately
desired to attack a monarcli still more powerful than Porus, whose
dominions lay beyond the Ilyphasis. All his attempts to induce
his soldiers to proceed proving ineffectual, he returned to the Hy-
daspes, where he ordered ])art of his army to descend the river on
the opposite banks, whilst he himself, at the head of 8000 men,
embarked on board a fleet of about 2000 vessels, which he Imd
ordered to be pre])ared with the view of sailing down the Indus to
hi mouth.

The army bcgaii to move in November, 827. The navigation
lasted several months, but was accomplished Avithout any serious
opposition, excei)t from the tribe of tlie Malli, avIio arc conjectured
to have occuj)ied the site of the present Moollan. At the .storming
of their town the life of Alexander was exposed to imminent dan-
ger. He was the first to scale the walls of the citadel, and was
followed by four ollicers; but before a lifth man could mount, tlio

B.C. 325. MUTINY OF ALEXANDER'S AKMY. 199

ladder broke, and Alexander was left exposed on the wall to the
missiles of the enemy. Leaping down into the citadel among tne
enemy, he placed his back to tlie wall, where he succeeded in keep-
ing the enemy at bay, and slew two of.their chiefs who had ventured
within reach of his sword ; but an arrow which pierced his corslet
brought him to the ground, fainting Vv'ith loss of blood. Two of
his followers, who had jumped down after him, now stood over and
defended him ; till at length, more soldiers having scaled the walls
and opened one of the gates, sufficient numbers poured in not only
to rescue their monarch, but to capture the citadel, when every
living being within the place was put to the sword. Upon arriv-
ing at the mouth of the Indus, Nearchus, with the fleet, -was direct-
ed to explore tlie Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the mouths
of the Tigris and Euphrateg, with the view of establishing a mari-
fime communication between India and Persia. Alexander him-
self proceeded with his army, in the autumn of 32G, through the
burning deserts of Gedrosia towards Persepolis, marching himself
on foot, and sharing the privations and fatigues of the meanest
soldier. In these regions the A'cry atmosphere seems to be com-
posed of a line dust, Avhicli, on the slightest Avind, penetrates into
the mouth and nose, whiLt the soil affords r.o firm footing to
the traveller. The march through this inhospitable region lasted
CO days, during which numbers of the soldiers perished from fa-
tigue or disease. At length they emerged into the fertile province
of Carmania. Whilst in this country Alexander Avas rejoined by
Nearchus, who had aiTived with his fleet at Ilarmozia (Onimz),
but who subsequently prosecuted his voyage to the head of the
Persian Gulf.

Upon reaching Susa (n.c. 325) Alexander allowed his soldiers
to repose from their fatigues, and amused them with a series of
brilliant festivities. It was here tiiat he adopted various measures
with the view of consolidating his empire. One of the most im-
portant Avas to form the Greeks and Persians into one people by
means of intermarriages. He himself celebrated his nuptials AA'ith
Statira, the eldest daughter of Darius, and bestOAved the hand of
her sister, Drypetis, on Hephastion. Other marriages Avere made
between Alexander's officers and Asiatic AA-omen, to the number, it
is said, of about a hundred, Avhilst no fcAA-er than 10,000 of the
common soldiers followed their example and took natiA-e AviA-es.
As another means of amalgamating the Europeans and Asiatics,
he caused numbers of the latter to be admitted into the army, and
to be armed and trained in the Macedonian fashion. But these
innoA'ations Avero regarded Avith a jealous eye by most of the Mac-
edonian A'cterans ; and this feeling AA'as increased by the conduct

200 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XX,

of Alexander himself, who assumed every day more and more of
the state and manners of an Eastern despot. Their long-stifle J
dissatisfaction broke out into open mutiny and rebellion at a re-
view which took place at Opis on the Tigris. But the mutiny
was quelled by the decisive conduct of Alexander. lie immedi-
ately ordered thirteen of the ringleaders to be seized and executed,
and then, addressing the remainder, pointed out to them how, by
his own and his father's exertions, they had been raised from tho
condition of scattered herdsmen to be the masters of Greece and
the lords of Asia; and that, whilst he had abandoned to them the
richest and most valuable fruits of his conquest, he had reserved
nothing but the diadem for himself, as the mark of his superior
labours and more imminent perils. lie then secluded liimsolf
for two whole days, during which his INIaccdonian guard was ex-
changed for a Persian one, whilst nobles of the same nation wero
appointed to the most confidential ])osts about his jjerson. Over-
come by these marks of alienation ou tlic part of their sovereign,
the Macedonians now supplicated with tears to be restored to
favour. A solemn reconciliation was etfectcd, and 10,000 veterans
were dismissed to their homes under the conduct of Craterus.
That general was also appointed to the government of ^laccdonia
in place of Antipatcr, who was ordered to repair to Asia with fresh
re-enforcements.

Soon after these occurrences Alexander proceeded to Ecbatana,
where during the autumn he solemnized the festival of Dionysus
with extraordinary splendour. But his enjoyment was suddenly
converted into bitterness by the death of his friend Ilephrcstion,
who was curried off l)y a fever. Tliis event threw Alexander into
a deep melancholy, from which he never entirely recovered. Tho
memory of Hephajstion was honoured by extravagant marks of
public mourning, and his body was conveyed to Babylon, to bs
there interred with the utmost magnificence.

Alexander entered Babylon in the spring of 324, notwithstand-
ing the warnings of the priests of Belus, who predicted some serious
evil to him if he entered the city at that time. Babvlon was now
to witness the consummation of his triumphs and of his life. Am-
bassadors from all ])arts of Greece, from Libya, Italy, and ])r()bably
from still more distant regions, were waiting to salute him, and
to do homage to him as the con(]ueror of Asia; the fleet under
Nearchus had arrived after its long and enterprising voyage ;
whilst for the reception of this navy, which seemed to turn the in-
land capital of liis cni])irc into a port, a magnificent harbour wa»
in jiroccss of construction. The mind of Alexander was still oc-
cupied with plans of comiucct and ambition; his next design waa

B.C. 323. DEATH OF ALEXANDER. 201

the subjugation of Arabia, uliich, however, was to be only tho
stepping-stone to the conquest of the whole known world. lie
despatched three expeditions to survey the coast of Arabia ; or-
dered a fleet to Le built to explore the Caspian Sea ; and en-
gaged himself in surveying the course of the Euphrates, and in
devising improvements of its navigation. The period for com-
mencing tlic Arabian campaign had already arrived ; solemn sac-
rifices were otlered up for its success, and grand banquets Avero
given previous to departui'C. At these carousals Alexander dranh
deep; and at the termination of the one given by his favourite,
Medius, he was seized with imequivocal symptoms of fever. For
some days, however, he neglected the disorder, and continued to
occupy himself Avith the necessary preparations for the march.
But in eleven days the malady had gained a fatal strength, and
terminated his life on the 28th of June, b.c. 323, at the early age
(f 32. "Whilst he lay speechless on his deatli-bed his favourite
tvi;.!p3 were admitted to sec him, but he could offer them r.o other
token of recognition tlian by stretching out his hand.

Few of the great characters of history have been so differently
judged as Alexander. Of the magnitude of his exploits, indeed,
and of the justice with which, according to the iisual sentiments
of mankind, they confer upon him the title of "Great," there can
be but one opinion. His military renown, however, consists more
in the seemingly extravagant boldness of his enterprises than in
the real power of the foes whom he overcame. The resistance he
met with was not greater than that which a European army ex-
periences in the present day from one composed of Asiatics ; and
the empire of the East was decided by the two battles of Issus and
Arbela. His chief difficulties were the geographical difficulties
of distance, climate, and tlie nature of the ground traversed. But
this is no proof that he was incompetent to meet a foe more
worthy of his military skill ; and his proceedings in Greece before
liis departure show the reverse. His motives, it must be allowed,
seem rather to have sj)rung from the love of personal glory and
the excitement of conquest than from any wish to benefit his sub-
jects. Yet, on the whole, his achievements, though they imdoubt-
edly occasioned great partial misery, must be regarded as beneficial
to the liuman race. By his conquests the two continents were put
into closer communication with one another; and both, but par-
ticularly Asia, Avere the gainers. The language, the arts, and the
literature of Greece Avere introduced into the East ; and, after the
death of Alexander, Greek kingdoms Avere formed in the Avestera
parts of Asia, Avhich continued to exist for many generations.

Coin of M;ice !o!ii;i.

CIIArTER XXI,

PROM -mb OKATTI OF ALKXANDEJl TIII5 GREAT TO TIIK COXQUESt
OF GREECE V.Y THE ROMANS, K.C. 320-1 2G.

The vast empire of Alcxaiulcr tiic Great was divided, at his
deatli, amon^jj his ucnerals ; but, before relatiiij^j tlicir history, it is
necessary to take a brief retrospective Rbince at tlie atiiiirs of Greece.
Tlirce years after Alexander liad quitted Europe the Spartans
made a vij:;orous effort to throw off the Macedonian yoke. They
were joined by most of the Feloponnesian states ; but, though they
met with some success at first, they were finally defeated with great
slaughter by Antipater near Megalopolis. Agis fell in this battle,
and the chains of Greece were riveted more firmly than ever. Tliis
victory, and the successes of Alexander in the East, encouraged
the Macedonian party in Athens to take active measures against
Demosthenes ; nnd iEschincs revived an old charge against him
which had lain dormant for several years, k^oon after the battle
of Chajronea, Ctesiphon had ]m)posed that Demosthenes should be
presented with a golden crown in the theatre during the gi'catDi-
onysiac festival, on account of the services he had confeiTcd npon
his country. For pro])Osing this decree JEschincs indicted Ctesi-
])hon; but, though the latter was the nominal defendant, it waa
Demosthenes who was really put npon his trial. Tiic case was de-
cided in 330 iJ.c, and has been immortalized by the memorable and
still extant speeches of iEschines "Against Ctesiphon," and of De-
mosthenes " On the Crown." JEschines. who did not obtain a fifth
]>art of the votes, and consequently became hinifself liable to a pen-
alty, was so chagrined at his defeat that lie retired to llJiodes.
•^ In 15. c. 32.") Ilarpillus arrived in Athens. He had been left by
Alexander at Ecbatana in charge of the royal treasures, and aj^pears
also to have lield the important satrajty of Babylon. During the
absence of Alexander in India he gave himself up to the most cx«

B.C. 325. CONDEMNATION OF DEMOSTHENES. 203

travagant luxiiiy and profusion, squandering the treasures intrust-
ed to him, at the same time that lie alienated the people subject
to his rule by his lustful excesses and extortions. He had prob-
ably thought that Alexander would never return from the remote
regions of the East into which he had penetrated ; but when he at
length learnt that the king was on his march back to Susa, and had
visited with unsparing rigour those of his officers who had been
guilty of any excesses during his absence, he at once saw that his
only resource was in flight. Collecting together all the treasures
which he could, and assembling a body of GOOO mercenaries, he
hastened to the coast of Asia, and from thence crossed over to At-
tica. At first the Athenians refused to receive him ; but bribes
administered to some of the principal orators induced them to alter
their determination. Such a step Avas tantamount to an act of hos-
tility against iMacedonia itself; and accordingly Antipater called
upon the Athenians to deliver up llarpalus, and to bring to trial
those who had accepted his bribes. The Athenians did not ven-
ture to disobey these demands. Harpalus was put into confine-
ment, but succeeded in making his escape from prison. Demos-
thenes was among the orators who Avere brought to trial for cor-
ruption. He was declared to be guilty, and was condemned to pay
a fine of uO talents. Not being able to raise that sum, he Avas thrown
into prison; but he contrived to make his escape, and went into exile.
There are, however, good grounds for doubting his guilt ; and it is
more probable that he fell a victim to the implacable hatred of the
Macedonian party. Upon quitting Athens, Demosthenes resided
chiefly at JEgina orTroezen, in sight of his native land, and when-
ever he looked towards her shores it was obsen^ed that he shed
tears.

Wlien the news of Alexander's death reached Athens, the anti-
Macedonian party, which, since the exile of Demosthenes, was led
by Hyperides, carried all before it. The people in a decree de-
clared their determination to support the liberty of Greece. En-
voys were despatched to all the Grecian states to announce the de~
tennination of Athens, and to exhort them to struggle with her for
their independence. This call was responded to in the Pelopon-
nesus only by the smaller states, whilst Sparta, Arcadia, and
Achaia kept aloof. In northern Greece the confederacy was join-
ed by most of the states except the Boeotians ; and Leosthenes was
appointed commander-in-chief of the allied forces.

The allied army assembled In the neighbourhood of Thermop-
ylce. Antipater now advanced from the north, and offered battle
in the vale of the Spercheus ; but, being deserted by his Thessalian
^^valry, who went over to his opponents during the heat of the er»-

204 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXI

gagement, he was obliged to retreat, and threw liimself into Lamia,
a strong fortress on the Malian Gulf. Lcostliencs, desirous to tin-
ish tlie war at a blow, pressed the siege Avith the utmost vigour ;
but his assaults were repulsed, and he was compelled to resort to
the slower method of a blockade. From this town the contest be-
tween Antipater and the allied Greeks has been called the Lamiau
i War.

The novelty of a victory over the Macedonian arms was received
with boundless exultation at Athens, and this feeling was raised to
a still higher pitch by the arrival of an embassy from Antipater td
sue for peace. But the Athenians were so elated with their good
fortune, tliat tliey would listen to no terms but the nnconditional
surrender of Antijjater. Meantime Demosthenes, tliough still an
exile, exerted liimself in various parts of the Peloponnesus in
counteracting the envoys of Antipater, and in endeavouring to
gain adherents to the cause of Athens and the allies. The Athe-
nians, in return, invited Demosthenes back to his native country,
and a shi;) was sent to convey him to Pirajus, where he was re-
ceived with extraordinary honours.

Meanwhile Leonnatus, governor of the Ilellespontine Phrygia,
had appeared on the theatre of war with an army of 20,000 foot
and 2500 horse. Leosthenes had been slain at Lamia by a sally
of the besieged ; and Antiphilus, on whom the command of the
allied army devolved, hastened to offer battle to Leonnatus before
he could arrive at Lamia. The hostile armies met in one of tho
plains of Thessaly, where Leonnatus was killed and his troops de-
feated. Anti]iater, as soon as the blockade of Lamia was raised,
had i)ursued Antiphilus, and on the day afcer the battle he cllect-
cd a junction with the beaten army of Leonnatus.

Shortly afterwards Antipater was still further re-enforced by
the arrival of Craterus with a considerable force from Asia ; and
boing now at the head of an army which outnumbered the forces
of the allies, he marched against them, and gained a decisive vic-
tory over them near Crannon in Thessaly, on the 7th of August,
B.C. 322. The allies were now compelled to sue for peace ; but
Antipater refused to treat with them except as se})arate states,
forcseeiug that by this means many would be detached from the con-
fjderacv. The result answered his expectations. One bv one the
various states submitted, till at length all had laid down their
arms. Athens, the original instigator of the insurrection, now lay
at the mercy of the con([ueror. As Antipater advanced, Phocion
used all the influence which he possessed with the Macedonians
in favour of his countrymen ; but he could obtain no other termii
tlian an unconditional surrender. On ,< sccoml luission Phocioa

B.C. 322. THE LAMIAN WAR. 205

received the final demands of Antij)atcr, which were, that the
Athenians should deliver up a certain number of their orators,
among whom were Demosthenes and Ilyperidcs ; that their polit-
ical franchise should be limited by a property qualification ; that
they should receive a Macedonian garrison in Munychia; and that
they should defray the expenses of the war. Such was the result
of the Lamian war, which riveted the Macedonian fetters more
firmly than ever.

After the return of the envoys bringing the ultimatum of An-
tipater, the sycophant Demades procured a decree for the death of
the denounced orators. Demosthenes, and tlie other persons com-
promised, made their escape from Athens before the Macedonian
garrison arrived, ^gina was their first place of refuge, but they
soon parted in different directions. Hyperides fled to the temple
of Demeter (Ceres) at Ilermione in Peloponnesus, Avhilst Demos-
thenes took refuge in that of Poseidon (Nei)tune) in the isle of
Calaurca, near Tra'zen. But the satellites of Antipater, under the
guidance of a Thurian named Archias, who had formerly been an
actor, tore them from their sanctuaries. Hyperides Avas carried to
Athens, and it is said that Antijjater took the brutal and cowardly
revenge of ordering his tongue to be cut out, and his remains to be
thrown to the dogs. Demosthenes contrived at last to escape the
insults of the tyrannical conqueror. Archias at first endeavoured
to entice him from his sanctuary by the blandest promises. But
Demosthenes, forewarned, it is said, by a dream, fixing his eyes
intently on him, exclaimed, "Your acting, Archias, never touched
me formerly, nor do your promises now." And when Archias be-
gan to employ threats, "Good," said Demosthenes; "now you
speak as from the IMacedonian tripod ; before you were only play-
ing a part. But wait awhile, and let me write ray last directions
to my fixmily." So, taking his writing materials, he put the reed
into his mouth, and bit it for some time, as was his custom when
composing; after which he covered his head with his garment and
reclined against a pillar. The guards who accompanied Archias,
imagining this to be a mere trick, laughed and called him coward,
whilst Archias began to renew his false persuasions. Demosthenes,
feeling the poison work — for such it was that he had concealed iu
the reed — now bade him lead on. "You may now," said he,
"enact the part of Creon, and cast me out nnburied ; but at least,
O gracious Poseidon, I have not polluted thy temple by my death,
which Antipater and his Macedonians would not have scrupled
at." But whilst he was endeavouring to walk out, he fell down
by the altar and expired.

The history of Alexander's successors is mark'^d from first to

20G HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXL

last by dissensions, crimes, and unscrupulous ambition. It is only
necessary for the purpose of the present work to mention very
briefly the most important events.

Alexander, on his death-bed, is said to have given his signet-ring
to Perdiccas, but he had left no k'gitimate heir to his throne,
though his wife R^xana was pregnant. On the day after Alex-
ander's death a military council was assembled, in which Perdiccas
assumed a leading part; and in which, after much debate, an ar-
rangement was at length cife'cted on the following basis: That
lihilip Arrhidicus, a young man of weak intellect, the half-brother
of Alexander (being the son of Philip by a Thessaliau woman
named Philinna), should bo declared king, rescning, however, to
the child of Roxana, if a son should be born, a share in the sov-
ereignty: that the government of Macedonia and Greece should
be divided between Antipater and Craterus : that Ptolemy should
preside over Egypt and the adjacent countries : that ^Yjitigunua
should have Phrygia Proper, Lycia, and Pam])hylia: that the
Ilellespontine Phrygia sliould be assigned to Lconnutus : that
Eumones should have the satrapy of Pai)hlagonia and Cappadocia,
which countries, however, still remained to be subdued: and that
Thrace should be committed to Lysimachus. Perdiccas reserved
for himself the command of tlie horse-guards, the post before held
by Ilephajstion, in virtue of wliic'i he became the guardian of Philip
ArrhidiBus, the nomiual sovereign. It was not for some time after
these arrangements had been completed that the last rites were
paid to Alexander's remains. They were conveyed to Alexandria,
and de])Osited in a cemetery which afterw.ards became the burial-
place of the Ptolemies. Nothing could exceed the magnificence
of the funeral car, which was adorned with ornaments of mass»vc
gold, and was so heavy that it was more than a year in being con-
veyed from Babylon to Syrin, tliough drawn by 81 mules. In due
time Roxana was delivered of a sou, to whom the name of Alex-
ander was given, and who was declared the partner of Arrhidanis
in the empire. Roxana had ])reviously inveigled Statira and her
sister Drypetis to Babylon, where she caused them to be secretly
assassinated.

perdiccas ])ossessed more power than any of Alexander's gen-
erals, and he now aspired to the INIacedonian throne. Ilis designs,
however, were not unknown to Antigonus and I'tolemy ; and when
he attempted to bring Antigonus to trial for some oifence in tlie
government of his satrapy, that general made liis escape to Mace-
donia, where he revealed to Antipater the full extent of the am-
bitious schemes of Perdiccas, and thus at once induced Antij)ater
and Craterus to unite in a league with him and Ptolemy, and

B.C. 318. DEATH OL^ ANTIPATER. 207

openly declare war aj:;^ainst the rep;ent. Thus assailed on all sides,
Fcrdiccas resolved to direct his arms in the first instance ajjainst
Ptolemy. In the spring of b.c. 321 he accordingly set out on his
march against Egypt, at the head of a formidable army, and ac-
companied by Pliilip Arrhidoius, and Koxana and her infant son.
He advanced without opposition as far as Pelusium, bnt he found
the banks of tlie Nile strongly fortilicd and guarded by Ptolemy,
and was repulsed in repeated attempts to force the passage of the
river; in the last of which, near Memphis, he lost great numbera
of men by the depth and rapidity of the current. Perdiccas had
never been popular with the soldiery, and these disasters com-
pletely alienated their affections. A conspiracy was formed against ,
him, and some of his chief officers murdered him in his tent, -

The death of Perdiccas was followed by a fresh distribution of
the provinces of the empire. At a meeting of the generals held
at Triparadisus in Syria, towards tlie end of the year 321 B.C.,
Antipater was declared regent, retaining the government of Mace-
donia and Greece; Ptolemy Avas continued'in the government of
Egypt ; Seleucus received the satrapy of Babylon ; whilst Antig-
onus not only retained, his old province, but Avas rcAvarded with
that of Susiana.

Antipater did not long survive these CA^ents. He died in the
year 318, at the adA'anced age of 80, leaving Polysperchon, one of
Alexander's oldest generals, regent ; much to the snrprise and
mortification of his son Cassander, Avho received onlv the second-
ary dignity of Chiliarch, or commander of the cavalry. Cassander
Avas now bent on obtaining the regency ; but, seeing no hope of
success in Macedonia, he Avent OA'cr to Asia to solicit the assist-
ance of Antigonus.

Polysi)erchon, on his side, sought to conciliate the friendship of
tiic Grecian states by proclaiming tliera all free and independent,
and by abolishing the oligarchies Avhich had been set up by Antij)-
ater. In order to enforce these measures, Polysperchon prepared
to march into Greece, Avhilst his son Alexander AA^as despatched
beforehand Avith an army tOAvards Athens, to compel the Mace-
donian garrison under the command of Nicanor to evacuate Mu-
nychia. Nicanor, hoAvever, refused to mov^e Avithout orders from
Cassander, Avhose general he declared himself to be. Phocion
Avas suspected of intriguing in faA'our of Nicanor, and, being ac-
cused of treason, fled to Alexander, now encamped before the Avails
of Athens. Alexander sent Phocion to his father, Avho sent him
back to Athens in chains, to be tried by the Athenian people.
The theatre, where his trial Avas to take place, AA-as soon full to
overflowing. Phocion Avas assailed on '^verv side bv the clamour.*'

208 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXL

of his enemies, which prevented his defence from being heard,
and he Avas condemned to deatli by a show of hands. To the
hxst rhocion maintained his calm and dif^nilied, but somewhat
contemptuous bearing. When some wretched man spat upon liim
as he passed to tlie prison, "Will no one," said he, "check this
fellow's indecency?" To one who asked him whether he had any
message to leave for his son Thocus, he answered, " Only that lie
bear no grudge against the Athenians." And when the hemlock
which had been i)rcpared was found insufficient for all the con-
demned, and the jailer would not furnish more unless he was paid
for it, "Give the man his money," said Phocion to one of his
friends, "since at Athens one cannot even die for nothing." lie
died in B.C. 317, at the age of 85. Tlic Athenians afterwards re-
pented of their conduct towards Phocion. His bones, which had
been cast out on the frontiers of iMegara, were brought back to
Athens, and .a bronze statue was erected to his memory.

Whilst Alexander was negotiating with Kicanor about the sur-
render of ^lunychia, Cassander arrived in the Pincns with a con-
siderable army, with which Antigonus had supplied him. Poly-
sperchon was obliged to retire from Athens, and Cassander estab-
lished an oligarcliical government in the city under the presidency
of Demetrius of Phalerus.

Altliough Polyspcrchon was supported by Olympias, the mother
of Alexander the Great, he proved no matcli for Cassander, who
became master of Macedonia after the fall of Pydna in B.C. 310.
In this city Olympias had taken refuge together with Roxana and
her son ; buf, after a blockade of some months, it was obliged to
surrender. 01ymi)ias had stii)ulated that her life should be sj»ared,
but Cassander soon afterwards caused her to be murdered, and
kept Roxana and her son in custody in the citadel of Amphipolis.
Shortly afterwards Cassander began the restoration of Tliebcs
(is.c. 315), in the twentieth year after its destruction by Alexan-
der, a measure highly popular with the Greeks.

A new war now broke out i» the East. Antigonus had become
the most powerful of Alexander's successors. He had con(piered
Eumenes, who had long delied his arms, and he now began to
dispose of the })rovinces as he thouglit fit. llis increasing ])()wer
and ambitious jjroji'cts led to a general coalition against him,
consisting of Ptolemy, Seleucus, Cassander, and Lysimachus, tho
governor of Thrace. The war began in the year 315, and wtM
carried on with great vehemence and alternate success in Syiia,
Phienicia, Asia Minor, and (irecce. After four years all parties
became exhausted with the struggle, and ])cace was accordingly
concluded in 311, on condition that the Greek cities should be free.

B.C. 307. EXPEDITION OF DEMETRIUS. 209

that Cassandcr should retain his authority in Europe till Alexan-
der came of ago, that Ptolemy and Lysimachus should keep pos-
session of E.c:ypt and Thrace respectively, and that Antigonus
should liave the government of all Asia. This liollow peace, which
had been merely patched up for the convenience of the parties con-
cerned, was not of long duration. It seems to have been the im-
mediate cause of another of those crimes which disgrace the his-
tory of Alexander's successors. His son, Alexander, who had now
attained the age of sixteen, Avas still shut up with his mother Rox'
ana in Amphipolis ; and his partisans, with injudicious zeal, loud-
ly expressed their wish that he should be released and placed upon
the throne. In order to avert this event, Cassandcr contrived the
secret murder both of the mother and the son.

This abominable act, however, does not appear to h?.ve caused
a breach of the peace. Ptolemy was the first to break it (b.c.
310), under the pretext that Antigonus, by keeping his gaiTisons in
the Greek cities of Asia and the islands, had not respected that
article of the treaty which guaranteed Grecian freedom. After
the war had lasted three years Antigonus resolved to make a rig-
orous effort to wrest Greece from the hands of Cassandcr and
Ptolemy, who held all tiie principal towns in it. Accordingly, in
the summer of 307 B.C. he despatched his son Demetrius from
Ephesus to Athens, Avith a fleet of 250 sail, and 5000 talents in
money. Demetrius, who afterwards obtained the name of " Poli-
orcetes," or "Besieger of Cities," Avas a young man of ardent tem-
perament and great abilities. Upon arriving at the Pira;us he
immediately ])roclaimed the object of his expedition to be the lib-
eration of Athens and the expulsion of the Macedonian garrison.
Supported by the Macedonians, Demetrius the Phalerean had now
ruled Athens for a period of more than ten years. Of mean birth,
Demetrius the Phalerean owed his elevation entirelv to his talents
and perseverance. His skill as an orator raised him to distinc-
iion among his countrymen ; and his politics, which led him to
embrace the party of Phocion, recommended him to Cassandcr
and the Macedonians. lie cultivated many branches of literature,
and was at once an historian, a philosopher, and a poet ; but nons
of his works have come down to us. The Athenians heard with
pleasure the proclamations of the son of Antigonus ; his name-
sake, the Plialerean, was obliged to surrender the city to him, and
to close his political career by retiring to Thebes. The Macedo-
nian garrison in Munychia offered a slight resistance, which was
soon overcome. Demetrius Poliorcctcs then formally announced
to the Athenian assembly the restoration of their ancient consti-
tution, and promised them a large donative of corn and ehip-tim-

210 HISTORY OF GREECE. Cuap. XXL

bsr. This munificence was repaid by the Athenians -with the basest
and most abject flattery. Both Demetrius and his father were dei-
fied, and two new tribes, those of Antif:r<>ni:is and Demctrias, were
added to the existing ten which derived their names from the an-
cient licrocs of Attica.

Demetrius roliorcGtcs did not, however, remain h^ng at Athens.
Early in 300 u.c. he was recalled by his father, and, sailing to Cy-
prus, undertook the siege of Salamis. Ptolemy hastened to its
relief with UO vessels and 10,000 troops. The battle that ensued
was one of the most memorable in the annals of ancient naval
warfare, more particularly on account of the vast size of the ves-
sels engaged. Ptolemy was completely defeated ; and so import,
ant was the victory deemed ])y Antigonus, that on the strength
of it he assumed the title of king, wliich lie also conferred upon
his son. This example was followed by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and
"iysimachus.

D;jmctrius now undertook an expedition against Rhodes, Avhich
■iiad refused its aid in the attack upon Ptolemy. It was from the
memorable siege of Rhodes that Demetrius obtained his name of
"Poliorcetes." After in vain attempting to take the town from
the sea-side, by means of floating batteries, from which stones of
enormous weight were hurled from engines with incredible force
against the walls, ho determined to alter his ])]an and invest it on
the land-side. With the assistance of Epimachus, an Athenian
engmeer, he constructed a machine whidi, in anticipation of its
effect, was called IIelei)ulis, or "the city-taker." This was a square
wooden tower, 150 feet high, and divided into nine stories, filled
with armed men, who discliarged missiles through apertures in
the sides. When armed and jtrcpared for attack, it required the
strength of 2300 men to set this enormous machine in motion.
But, though it was assisted by tlie operation of two battering-rams,
each 150 feet long, and propelled by the labour of 1000 men, the
Rhodiaus were so active in re])airing the broaclies made in their
walls, that, after a year spent in the vain attempt to take the town,
Demetrius was forced to retire and grant the Rhodiaus peace.

In 301 15. c. the struggle between Antigonus and his rivals was
broug'at to a close by tiie battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, iu which An-
tigonus was killed, and his army completely defeated. He had
attained the age of 81 at the time of his death. A third partition
of the empire of Alexander was now made. Seleucus and Lysim-
achus shared between them the possessions of Antigonus. Ly-
simachus seems to have had the greater ])art of Asia Minor, whilst
the whole country from the coast of Syria to the Eu|)hratcs, as
well as a part of Phrygia and Ca])padocia, fell t'^ the share of So-

B.C. '294. CONQUESTS OF DEMETRIUS— rYRRHUS. 211

Icucus. Tlic Litter founded on the Orontes a new capital of his
empire, which he named Antioch, after his father Antiochus, and
which long continued to be one of tlie most important Greek cities
in Asia. The ftill of Antigonus secured Cassander in the posses-
sion of Greece.

Demetrius was now a fugitive, but in tlie foilovring year he was
agreeably surprised by receiving an euibassy from Seleucus, by
which that monarch solicited his daughter Stratonlce' in marriage.
Demetrius gladly granted the i^equest, and found himself so much
strengthened by this alliance, that in the spring of the year 29G he
was in a condition to attack Athens, which he captured after a long
siege, and drove out the bloodthirsty tyrant Lachares, who had been
established there by Cassander.

Meanwhile Cassander had died shortly before the siege of Athens,
and was succeeded on the throne of IMacedon by his eldest son,
Philip IV.* But that young prince died in 295, and the succes-
sion was disputed between his two brothers, Antipater and Alex-
ander. Demetrius availed himself of the distracted state of Mac-
edonia to make himself master of that country (b.c. 294). He
reigned over Macedonia, and the greater part of Greece, about
seven years. He aimed at recovering the whole of his father's do-
minions in Asia ; but, before he was ready to take the field, his ad-
versaries, alarmed at his preparations, determined to forestall him.
In the spring of B.c. 287 Ptolemy sent a powerful fleet against
Greece, while Pyrrhus on the one side, and Lysimachus on the
other, simultaneously invaded Macedonia. Demetrius had com-
pletely alienated his own subjects by his proud and haughty bear-
ing, and by his lavish expenditure on his own luxuries ; Avhile

C Jill of Demetrius Pl llorcetes.

Pyrrhus, by his generosity, afnibility, and daring courage, had be-
come the hero of the Macedonians, who looked upon him as a sec-
ond Alexander. The appearance of Pyn-hus was the signal for
revolt: the Macedonian troops flocked to his standard, andDeme-
* Philip Arrhiilseii:^ i.< callel Phiiip III,

212

niSTORY OF GllEECE.

CiiAr. XXL

'trius was compelled to fly. Pvrrhns now {isccnded the throne of
Macedonia, but his reign was of brief duration ; and at the end

I of seven montlis he was in turn driven out by Lysiniai-lius. De-
metrius made several attempts to regain his jtower in Greece, and
then S3t sail for Asia, where he successively endeavoured to estab-
lish himself in the territories of Lysimaehus, and of his son-in-law
Seleucus. Falling at length into the hands of the latter, he waa
kept in a kind of magnificent captivity in a royal residence in
Syria, where, in 283, at the early age of 55, his checkered career
was brought to a close, partly by chagrin, and i)artly by the sensual
indulgences v.ith which he endeavoured to divert it.

Lysimaehus, Seleucus, and Ptolemy now divided the empire of

': Alexander between them. In Egyj)! the aged Ptolemy had abdi-
cated in 285 in fovour of his son by Berenice, afterwards known as
Ptolemy Philadelphus, and to the exclusion of his eldest son, Ptol-
emy Ceraunus, by his wife Eurydicc. Ptolemy Ceraunus quitted
Egypt in disgust, and fled to the court of Lysimaehus ; and Arsi-
noe, the wife of Lysimaehus, jealous of her stepson Agathocles, the

(Join of Ptolemy I., Soter.

heir-apparent to the throne, and desirous of securing the succes-
sion for her own children, conspired with Ptolemy Ceraunus against
the life of Agathocles. She even procured the consent of Lysim-
aehus to his murder ; and, after some vain attempts to make away
with him by i)oison, he was ilung into prison, where Ptolemy Ce-
raunus desi)atdioil him with his own hand. Lysandra, the mother
of Agathocles, Hod with the rest of her family to Seleucus, to de-
mand from him protection and vengeance ; and Seleucus, induced
by the hojjes of success inspired by the discontent and dissen-
sions which so foul an act had excited among the subjects of Ly-
simaehus, espoused her cause. The hostilities which ensued be-
tween him and Lysimnclius were brought to a termination by tiie
j battle of Corupedion, fought near Sardis in 2S1, in whlcli Lysim-
aehus was defeated and slain. By this victory, INIacedonia, and
the whole of Alexander's cmi)irc, with the cxecptiou of Egyi)t,

B.C. 280. ASSASSINATION OF SELEUCUS.

213

southern Syria, Cyprus, and part of Phoenicia, fell under the scep-
tre of Selcucus.

Coin of Selcucus.

Tliat monarch, wlio had not beheld his native land since he
first joined the expedition of Alexander, now crossed the Helles-
pont to take possession of Macedonia. Ptolemy Ceraunus, who,
after the battle of Corupedion, liad thrown himself on the mercy
of Seleucus, and had been received with forgiveness and favour,
accompanied him on his journey. The murder of Agathocles had
not been committed by Ptolemy merely to oblige Arsinod. Ho
had even then designs upon the supreme power, which he now com-
pleted by another crime. As Seleucus stopped to sacrifice at a
celebrated altar near Lysimachia in Thrace, Ptolemy treacherous-
ly assassinated him by stabbing him in the back (280). After
this base and cowardly act, Ptolemy Ceraunus, who gave himself
out as the avenger of Lysimachus, was, by one of those moA^emcnts
wholly inexplicable to our modern notions, saluted king by the
army; but the Asiatic dominions of Seleucus fell to his son Anti-
ochus, surnamed Soter. The crime of Ptolemy, however, was
speedily overtaken by a just punishment. In the very same year
his kingdom of Macedonia and Thrace was invaded by an im-
mense host of Celts, and Ptolemy fell at the head of the forces
which he led against them. A second invasion of the same bar-
barians compelled the Greeks to raise a force for their defence,
which was intrusted to the command of the Athenian Callippus
(b.c. 279). On this occasion the Celts, attracted by the report of
treasures whicli were now perhaps little more than an empty name,
penetrated as fiir southwards as Delphi, with the view of plunder-
ing the temple. The god, it is said, vindicated his sanctuary on
this occasion in the same supernatural manner as when it was at-
tacked by the Persians : it is at all events certain that the Celts
were repulsed with great loss, including that of their leader Bren-
nus. NcA-ertheless, some of their tribes succeeded in establishing:
themselves near tlie Danube ; others settled on the sea-coast of

214 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXI

Thrace ; M'hilst a third portion passed over into Asia, and garo
their name to tlie country called Galatia.

After the death of I'tuleniy ("crainuis, IMacedonia fell for somo
timo into a state of anarchy and confusion, and the crown wfts dis-
puted by several potentates. At length, in 278, Antigonus Gonatas,
son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, succeeded in establishing himself on
the tiirone of Macedonia ; and, with tlie exceptioii of two or tb.rec
years (274:-272) during which he was temporarily expelled by
Pyrrhus, he continued to retain possession of it till his death in
239, The struggle between Antigonus and Pyrrhus was brought
to a close at Argos in 272. Pyrrhus had marched into the Pelo-
ponnesus with a large force in order to make war upon Sparta, but
with the collateral design of reducing the ])laccs wliifh still held
out for Antigonus. Pyrrhus, having failed in an attempt to tako
Sparta, marched against Argos, where Antigonns also arrived
witli his forces. Both armies entered the city by oi)posite gates;
and in a battle which ensued in the streets, I'yrrhusAvas struck from
his horse by a tile hurled by a woman from a house-top, and was
then despatched by some soldiers of Antigonus. Such was the
inglorious end of one of the bravest and most warlike monarchs
of antiqu'.ty, whoso character for moral virtue, though it would
not stand the test of modern scrutin}', shone out consj)icuously in
comparison with that of contemporary sovereigns.

Anhgonus Gonatas now made himself master of the greater part
of Peloponnesus, which he governed by means of t}Tants Avhom he
established in various cities.

While all Greece, with the exception of Sparta, seemed hope-
lessly prostrate at the feet of Macedonia, a new political power,
which sheds a lustre on the declining period of Grecian history,
arose in a small province in Peloponnesus, of which the very name
has been hitherto rarely mentioned since the Heroic Age. In
Achaiiv a narrow slip of country npon the shores of the Corinth-
ian Gulf, a league, chiefly for religions purposes, had existed from
a very early period among the twelve chief cities of the province.
This league, however, had never possessed much ])olitical import-
ance, and it had been suppressed by the Macedonians. At tlie
time of which we are speaking Antigonns Gonatas was in jiosses-
sion of all the cities formerly belonging to the league, citlicr by
means of his garrisons or of the tyrants who were subservient to
him. It was, however, this very opi)ression that led to a revival of
the league. The Aclucan towns, now only ten in number, as two
had boen destroyed l)y earthquakes, began gradually to coalesce
again ; but Aratus of Sicyon, one of the most remarkable char-
^ actors of thi^ period of Grecian historv. was the man who, about

B.C. 251. THE ACII^EiVN LEAGUE. 215

the year 251 p.c, first called the new league into active political
existence. He had long lived in exile at Argos, whilst his native
city groaned under the dominion of a succession of tyrants. Hav-
ing collected a band of exiles, he surprised Sicyon in the night
time, and drove out the last and most unpopular of these tyrants.
Instead of seizing the tyranny for himself, as he might easily have
done, Aratus consulted only the advantage of his country, and
with this view united Sicyon Avith the Acbiean league. The ac •
cession of so important a town does not appear to have altered the
constitution of the confederacy. The league was governed by a
Strategus, or general, whose functions were both military and civ-
il ; a Grammateus, or secretary ; and a council of ten Demmrgi.
The sovereignty, hovv-ever, resided in the general assembly, which
met tmce a year in a sacred grove near iEgium. It was composed
of every Achiean who had attained the age of tliirty, and possessed
the right of electing the officers of the league, and of deciding all
questions of war, peace, foreign alliances, and the like. In the
year 245 B.C. Aratus was elected Strategus of the league, and again
in 243. In the latter of these years he succeeded in wresting
Corinth from the Macedonians by another nocturnal surprise,
and uniting it to the league. The confederacy now spread with
wonderful rapidity. It was soon joined by Troczen, Epidaiu'us,
Hermione, and other cities ; and ultimately embraced Athens,
Megara, -/Egina, Salamis, and the whole Peloponnesus, with the
exception of Sparta, Elis, and some of the Arcadian towns.

Sparta, it is true, still continued to retain her independence, but
without a shadow of her former greatness and power. The ])rimi-
tivc simplicity of Spartan manners had been completely destroyed
by the collection of wealth into a few hands, and by the consequent
progress of luxury. The number of Spartan citizens had been re-
duced to 700 ; but even of these there were not above a hundred
who possessed a sufficient quantity of land to maintain themselves
in independence. The young king, Agis IV., Avho succeeded to
the crown in 244, attempted to revive the ancient Spartan virtue
by restoring the institutions of Lycurgus, by cancelling all debts,
and by making a new distribution of lands ; and with this Aiew he
relinquished all his own property, as well as that of his family, for
the public good. But Agis perished in this attempt, and was put
to death as a traitor to liis order. A few years afterwards, how-
ever, Cleomenes, the son of Lconidas, succeeded in effecting the
reforms which had been contemplated by Agis, as well as several
others which regarded military discipline. The effect of these
new measures soon became visible in the increased success of the
Spartan arms. Aratus was so hard pressed that he was comi^ellcd

216 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXL

to solicit the assistance of the Macedonians. Both Antiponus
Gonatas and Iiis son Demetrius If, — who liad reip^ned in Mace-
donia from 239 to 229 u.f. — were now dead, and the government
was administered by Anti^onus D.Json, as guardian of Philip, the
youthful son of Demetrius II. Antigonus Duson was the grandson
of Demetrius Poliorcetes, and the nephew of Antigonus Gonatas.
The Macedonians comi)elled liim to accept the crown ; but he re-
mained faithful to his trust as guardian of Philip, whoRC mother
he married ; and though he had children of his own by her, yet
Phili]) succeeded him on his death.* It was to Antigonus Duson
that Aratus applied for assistance ; and though Cleomcnes main-
tained his ground for some time, he was finally defeated by An-
tigonus Duson in the Hital battle of Sellasia in Laconia (n.c. 221).
The army of Cleomenes was almost totally annihilated; he him-
self was obliged to fly to Egypt; and Sparta, which for many
centuries had remained unconquercd, fell into the hands of the
victor.

In the following year Antigonus was succeeded by Philip V.,
the son of Demetrius II., who was then about sixteen or seventeen
years of age. His youth encouraged the JEtolians to make preda-
tory incursions into the Peloponnesus. That people were a species
of freebooters, and the terror of their neighbours ; yet they were
united, like the Acluvans, in a confederacy or league. The -^tolian
League was a confederation of tribes instead of cities, like the
Aclnvan. The diet or council of the league, called the Pana;tol-
icum, assembled every autumn, generally at Thermon, to elect the
strategus and other officers ; but the details of its affairs were con-
ducted by a committee called Apoc'efi, who seem to have formed
a sort of permanent c<nuicil. The iEtolians had availed them-
selves of the disorganized state of Greece consequent upon the
death of Alexander to extend their power, and had gradually
made themselves masters of Locris, Pliocis, Eoeotia, together witli

* The yiiccession of ^I:iceiloni;in king--^ fnini Alcxnnder the Great to tho c»
tipction of the monarchy will be seen from the following tublo :

Philip III. Arrhidieus .n2.^-•{lC

( ;,iss;m(ler niC-'JOG

I'hilip IV 2.)G-2'. «

1 )(iiietriua I. Toliorcetes 'J'.)4-'J8T

ryrrhuH gS7-2SG

Ljviiiiiichus '.'SiUL.SO

I'toleiiiy Conuiini.s iiiitl other.s 2S0-'i7T

AntigoniiH fJonatas 277-2.19

DcnietriuH II 2.T.»-229

Antigonus Doson 229-220

I'liilip V 220-17.>^

I'erdcu.- 17S-1(J7

B.C. 220.

THE iETOLIAN LEAGUE.

217

portions of Acarnania, Thessaly, and Epirus. Thus both the Am-
phictyonic Council and the oracle of Delplii were in their power.
They had early wrested Naupactus from the Achreans, and had
subsequently acquired several Peloponnesian cities.

Coin of Philip V., king of Macedonia.

Such was the condition of the ^tolians at the time of Philip's
accession. Soon after that event we find them, under the leader-
ship of Dorimachus, engaged in a series of freebooting expeditions
in Messenia, and other parts of Peloponnesus. Aratus marched to
the assistance of the Messenians at the head of the Achaean forces,
but was totally defeated in a battle near Caphvffi. The Achajans
now saw no hope of safety except through the assistance of Philip.
That young monarch was ambitious and enterprising, possessing
considerable military ability and much political sagacity. He
readily listened to the application of the Achasans, and in 220 en-
tered into an alliance with them. The war which ensued between
ihz ^tolians on the one side, and the Achreans, assisted by Phil-
ip, on the other, and which lasted about three years, has been call-
ed the Social War. Philip gained several victories over the
^tolians, but he concluded a treaty of peace with them in 217,
because he was anxious to turn his arms against another and more
formidable power.

The great struggle now going on between Rome and Carthage
attracted the attention of the whole civilized world. It was evi-
dent that Greece, distracted by intestine quarrels, must be soon
swallowed up by whichever of those great states might prove suc-
cessful ; and of the two, the ambition of the Romans, who had al-
ready gained a footing on the eastern shores of the Adriatic, was
by far the more formidable to Greece. After the conclusion of tho
peace with the vEtolians, Philip prepared a large fleet, which ho
employed to watch the movements of the Romans, and in the fol-
lowing year (216) he concluded a treaty with Hannibal, which,
among other clauses, provided that the Romans should not be al-
lowed to retain their conq uests on the eastern side of the Adriatic.

£18 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXI

He even meditated an invasion of Italy, and, with tliat view, en-
deavoured to make liimself master of Apollonia and Oricnm. But,
though he succeeded in taking the hitter city, tlic Romans sur-
prised his camp whilst he was hesieging Apollonia, and compelled
liim to Lurn his ships and retire. Mcanwliile l^hilip had acted in
a most arbitrary manner in the affairs of Greece ; and when Ara-
tus remonstrated with him resj)ecting his proceedings, he got rid
of his former friend and counsellor by means of a slow and secret
poison (n.c. 213).

In Ji.c. 209, the Aclucans, being hard pressed by the JEtolians,
were again induced to call in tlic aid of Philip. The spirit of the
Acluxjans was at this time revived by Philopocmen, one of the few
noble characters of the period, and who has been styled by Plu-
tarch " the last of the Greeks." He was a native of Megalopolis
in Arcadia, and in 208 was elected Strategus of the league. In
both these posts Philopocmen made gi'cat alterations and improve-
ments in the arras and discipline of the Achajan forces, which ho
assimilated to those of the Macedonian phalanx. These reforms,
as well as the public spirit Avith which he had inspired the Achi\}-
ans, were attended with the most beneficial results. In 207Phil-
opcemen gained at Mantinea a signal victory over the Lacedaemo-
nians, who had joined the Roman alliance ; 4000 of them were left
upon the field, and among them Machanidas, who had made him-
self tyrant of Sparta. This decisive battle, combined with the
withdrawal of the liomans, who, being desirous of turning tlicir
undivided attention towards Carthage, had made peace witli Philip
(205), secured for a few years the tranquillity of Greece. It also
raised the fame of Philopocmen to its highest point ; and in the
next Nemcan festival, being a second time general of tlie league,
he was hailed by the assembled Greeks as the liberator of their
country.

Upon the conclusion of the second Punic war the Romans re-
newed their enteri)rises in Greece, and declared war against Philip
(n.c. 200). For some time the war lingered on without any de-
cided success on either side ; but in 198 the consul T. Quiuctiui
Flamininus succeeded in gaining over the Achaean league to the
Roman alliance; and as the JEtolians liad previously deserted
; I'hilip, both those powers fought fur a sliort time on the same side.
In 197 the struggle was brought to a terniination by the battle of
Cynoscephahc, near Scotussa, in Thessaly, which decided the fate
of the Macedonian monarchy. Philip was obliged to sue for
p^ace, and in the following year (19(1) a treaty was ratified by
which the IMaccdunians were conij>ellod to renounce their suprem-
acy, to withdraw their garrisons from the Grecian towns, to sur-

B.C. 189. BATTLE OF CYNOSCEPIIALiE. 219

render their fleet, and to pay 1000 talents for the expenses of the
war. At the ensuing Istlimian games Fhimininus solemnly pro-
claimed the freedom of the Greeks, and was received by them with
overwliclming joy and gratitude.

The iEtolians, dissatisfied with these arrangements, persuaded
Antiochus III., king of Syria, to enter into a leagiie against the
Romans. He passed over into Greece with a wholly inadequate
force, and Avas defeated by the Eomans at Thermopyla? (b.c. 191).
The ^tolians were now compelled to make head against the Ro-
mans by themselves. After some inftectual attempts at resist-
ance they were reduced to sue for peace, Avhich they at length ob-
tained, but on the most humiliating conditions (b.c. 189). Tiiey
were required to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome, to renounce
all the conquests tiiey had recently made, to pay an indemnity of
500 talents, and to engage in future to aid the Romans in their
Avars. The power of the JEtolian league was thus for ever crush'
ed, though it seems to have existed, in name at least, till a much
later period.

The Acha3an league still subsisted, though destined before long
to experience the same fate as its rival. At first, indeed, it en-
joyed the protection of the Romans, and even acquired an exten-
sion of members through their influence, but this protectorate in-
volved a state of almost absolute dependence. Philopoemen also
had succeeded, in tlie year 192, in adding Sparta to the league,
v/hich now embraced the whole of Reloponnesus. But Sparta hav-
ing displayed symptoms of insubordination, Philopoemen marched
against it in 188, and captured the city; when he put to death
eighty of the leading men, razed the walls and fortifications, abol-
ished the institutions of Lycurgus, and compelled the citizens to
adopt the democratic constitution of the Achaans. Meanwliile
the Romans regarded with satisfaction tlie internal dissensions of
Greece, which they foresaw would only render her an easier prey,
and neglected to answer the appeals of the Spartans for protec-
tion. In 183 tlie Messcnians, under the leadership of Dinocratcs,
having revolted fiom the league, Philopoemen, who had now at-
tained the age of 70, led an expedition against them ; but, having
fallen from his horse in a skirmish of cavalry, he was captured,
and conveyed with many circumstances of ignominy to Messene,
Avhere, after a sort of mock trial, he was executed. His fate was
avenged by Lycortas, the commander of the Achaean cavalry, the
father of the historian Polybius.

In B.C. 179 Philip died, and was succeeded by his son Perseus,
the last monarch of Macedonia. The latter years of the reign of
Philip had been spent in preparations for a renewal of the war.

220

HISTORY OF GREECE.

Chap. XXL

which lie foresaw to be inevitable ; yet a period of seven years
elapsed after the accession of Terseus before the mutual enmity
of the two powers broke out into oj)en hostilities. The war was
waged three years without any decisive result, but was brought
to a conclusion in 1G8 by the consul L. iEmilius Paulus, who de-
feated Perseus with great loss near I'ydna. Perseus was carried
to Rome to adorn the triumph of Taulus (1G7), and was permitted
to spend the remainder of his life in a sort of honourable captivity
at Alba. Such was the end of the Macedonian empire, which was
now divided into four districts, each under the jurisdiction of an
oligarchical council.

Cuin of PcrKCUS, king of Macedonia.

The Roman commissioners deputed to arrange the affairs of
Macedonia did not confine their attention to that province, but
evinced their design of bringing all Greece under the l\oman
SNvay, In these views they were assisted by various despots and
traitors in different Grecian cities, and especially by Callicrates, a
man of great influence among the Acha\ans, and who for many
years lent himself as the base tool of tlie Romans to cff'ect the en-
slavement of his country. After the fall of Macedonia, Callicrates
denounced more than a thousand leading Achaans who had fa-
voured the cause of Perseus. These, among whom was Polybiua
the historian, were api)fehended and sent to Rome for trial. A
still harder fate Avas experienced by JEtolia, Pa^otia, Acarnania.
and Epirus. In the last-named country, esi)ecially, no fewer tlutji
seventy of the i)rincipal towns were abandoned by Paulus to his
soldiers for pillage, and 150,000 persons are said to have been
sold into slavery.

A quarrel between the AcluTans and Sparta afforded the Romans
a pretence for crushing the small remains of Grecian inde]iend-
cnce by the destruction of the Acluvan league.

The Spartans, feeling themselves incompetent to resist the
Achajans, appealed to the Romans for assistance; and in 147 two
Roman commissioners were sent to Greece to settle the disputes

B.C. UG. GREECE A ROMAN PROVINCE. 22^

between the two states. These commissioners decided tliat not
only S^rnvta, but Corinth, and all the other cities, except those of
Achaia, should be restored to their independence. This decision
occasioned serious riots at Corinth, the most important city of the
league. All the Spartans in the town were seized, and even the
Roman commissioners narrowly eccaped violence. On their return
to Rome a fresh embassy Avas dtcpatched to demand satisfaction
for these outrages. But the violent and impolitic conduct of Cri-
tolaiis, then Strategus of the league, rendered all attempts at ac-
commodation fruitless, and after the return of the ambassadors
the Senate declared war against the league. The cowardice and
incompetence of Critolaiis as a general were only equalled by his
previous insolence. On the approach of the Romans under Metel-
lus from ISIacedonia he did not even venture to make a stand at
Thermopylae ; and being overtaken by them near Scarphea in
Locris, he was totally defeated, and never again heard of. Diteus,
who succeeded him as Strategus, displayed rather more energy and
courage. But a fresh Roman forc3 under Mummius having landed
on the isthmus, Direus was overthrown in a battle near Corinth,
and that city was immediately evacuated not only by the troops
of the league, but also by the greater part of the inhabitants. On
entering it Mummius put the few males who remained to the sword ;
sold the women and children as slaves ; and having carried away
all its treasures, consigned it to the flames (b.c. 146). Corinth
was filled with masterpieces of ancient art ; but Mummius was so
insensible to their surpassing excellence as to stipulate with those
who contracted to convey them to Italy, that, if any were lost in
the passage, they should be replaced by others of equal value !
Mummius then employed himself in chastising and regulating the
whole of Greece ; and ten commissioners were sent from Rome to
settle its futui'e condition. The whole country, to the borders of
Macedonia and Epirus, was formed into a Roman province, under
the name of Aciiaia, derived from that confederacy which had
made the last struggle for its political existence.

Lyre, with seven strings. From a coin of ChalciB.
CHAPTER XXII.

gKETCn OF THE IIISTOllY OF GIIEKIC LITERATURE FROM THE
JiARLIEST TniES TO THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT.

The Greeks possessed two large collections of epic poetry. The
one comprised poems relating to the great events and enterprises
of the Heroic Age, and characterized by a certain poetical unity;
the other included works tamer in character and more desultory
in their mode of treatment, containing the genealogies of men and
gods, narratives of the exploits of separate heroes, and descriptions
of the ordinary jmrsuits of life. The poems of the former clr.ss
passed under the name of Homer, while those of the latter were
in the same general way ascribed to Hcsiod. The former were
the productions of the Ionic and JEolic minstrels in Asia Minor,
among wliom Homer stood pre-eminent, and eclipsed the bright-
ness of the rest : the latter were the comjiositions of a school of
bards in the neighbourhood of INIount Helicon in Bccotia, among
whom, in like manner, Hesiod enjoyed the greatest celebrity. Tlie
jiocms of both schools were comp'osed in tlie hexameter metre and
in a similar dialect, but they differed widely in almost every other
fjaturc.

Of the Homeric poems the Iliad and the Odyssey were the most
distinguished and have alone come down to us. The subject of
tlie Iliad was the cxjiloits of Achilles and of the other Grecian
jierocs before Ilium or Troy ; that of the Odyssey was the wander-
ings and adventures of Odysseus or Ulysses after the cajiture of
Trey on his return to his native island. Throughout the flourish-
ing period of Greek literature these unrivalled works were uni-

Chap. XXII. POEMS OF HOMER. 22S

versally regarded as the productions of a single mind ; but thcK

was very little agreement respecting the place of the poet's hirtU

the details of his life, or the times in which he

lived. Seven cities laid claim to Homer's birth,

and most of them had legends to tell respecting

his romantic parentage, his alleged blindness,

and his life of an itinerant bard acquainted with

poverty and sorrow. It cannot he disputed that

he was an Asiatic Greek ; but this is the only

fact in his life which can be regarded as certain.

Several of the best writers of antiquity supposed

him to have been a native of tlie island of Chios ;

but most modern scholars believe Smyrna to

have been his birthplace. His most probable

date is about b.c. 850. Homer.

The mode in which these poems were preserved has occasioned
great controversy in modern times. Even if they were committed
to writing by the poet himself, and were handed down to posterity
in this manner, it is certain that they were rarely read. We must
endeavour to realize the difference between ancient Greece and
our own times. During the most flourishing period of Athenian
literature manuscripts were indifferently written, without division
into parts, and without marks of punctuation. They were scarce
and costly, could be obtained only by the wealthy, and read only
by those who had had considerable literary training. Under these
circumstances the Greeks could never become a reading people ;
and thus the great mass even of the Athenians became acquainted
with the productions of the leading poets of Greece only by hear-
ing them recited at their solemn festivals and on other public oc-
casions. This was more strikingly the case at an earlier period.
The Iliad and the Odyssey were not read by individuals in private,
but were sung or recited at festivals or to assembled companies.
The bard originally sung his own lays to the accompaniment of \u»
lyre. He was succeeded by a body of professional reciters, called
lihapaodists, who rehearsed the poems of others, and who appear
at early times to have had exclusive possession of the Homeric
poems. But in the seventh century before the Christian era lit-
eraiy culture began to prevail among the Greeks, and men of edu-
cation and wealth were naturally desirous of obtaining copies of
fno great poet of the nation. From this cause copies came to bo
circulated among the Greeks ; but most of them contained only
separate portions of the poems, or single rhapsodes, as they were
called. Pisistratus, the tyrant or despot of Athens, is said to have
been the first person who collected and arranged the poems in

224 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. Chap. XXII.

their present form, in order that they miglit be recited at the gic;4
1'anathcna.ic festival at Alliens.

Tlirce works liavc come down to us bearing the name of Ilcsiod
— the " Works and Days," the "Tlieo^ony," and a dcscri]»tion of
the "Shield of Hercules." Many ancient critics believed the
"Works and Days" to be the only {genuine work of llesiod, and
their o])inion has been ado]>ted l)y most modern scholars. Wc
learn from this Mork that llesiod was a native of Ascra, a village
at tlie foot of iSIount Helicon, to which his father had migrated
from the iEolian Cyme in Asia Minor. He further tells us that
he gained the ])rize at Chalcis in a poetical contest, and that ho
was robbed of a fair fb^-e of his heritage by the unrighteous de-
cision of judges wl;o hai~ ?en Ijribed by his brother Perscs. The
latter became afterwards i« luced in circumstances, and api)licd to
his brother for relief; and it is to him that Hesiod addresses his
didactic poem of the "Works and Days," in which he lays down
various moral and social maxims for tlie regulation of his conduct
and his life. It contains an interesting re])resentation of the feel-
ings, habits, and superstitions of tlie rural pojnilation of Greece
in the earlier ages. Respecting the date of llesiod nothing cer-
tain can be affirmed. Modern Avriters usually suppose him to
have flourished two or three generations later than Homer.

The commencement of Greek lyric })oetry as a cultivated species
of composition dates from the middle of the seventh century be-
fore the Ciiristian era. No important event cither in the public
or private life of a Greek could dispense with this accomjianiment ;
and the lyric song was equally needed to solemnize the worshi])
of the gods, to cheer the march of battle, or to enliven the festive
board. The lyric poetry, "with the exception of that of Pindar, has
almost entirely perished, and all that wc i)Ossess of it consists of a
few songs and isolated fragments.

The great satirist Auciiii.ociius was one of the earliest and
most celebrated of all the lyric poets. He Avas a native of the
island of I'aros, and flourished about the year 700 u.c. His fame
rests chiefly on his terrible satires, com])osed in the Iambic mctrC;
in which he gave vent to the bitterness of a disa])])ointed man.

TviiTiEUS and Alc.man were the two great lyric jjoets of iSparta,
though neither of them was a native of Lnecdiemon. The person-
al history of Tyrtajus, and his warlike songs, which roused the
fainting courage of the 8i)artans during the second IMessenian war,
have already been mentioned (p. 2r>). vMcman was origiimlly a
Lydian slave in a Spartan family, and Avas einnncipated by iiis
master. He lived shortly after the seconil Messenian Avar. His
poems partake of the characicr of this period, Avhit'U Avas one of

CiiAP. XXII. ARION—ALCiEUS— SAPPHO. 225

repose and enjoyment after tlie fatigues and perils of war. Many
of bis songs celebrate the pleasures of good eating and drinking ;
but the more important were intended to be sung by a chorus at
the public festivals of Sparta.

Ariox was a native of Metbymna in Lesbos, and lived some
time at the court of Pcriandcr, tyrant of Corinth, who began to
reign n.c. G25. Nothing is known of his life beyond the beauti-
ful story of his escape from the sailors with whom he sailed from
Sicily to Corinth. On one occasion, thus runs the story, Ai-ion
went to Sicily to take part in a musical contest. He won the
prize, and, laden with presents, he embarked in a Corinthian ship
to return to his friend Periander. The rude sailors coveted his
treasure, and meditated his murder. After imploring them in
vain to spare his life, he obtained ])ermission to play for the last
time on his beloved lyi'e. In festal attire, he placed himself on
the prow of the vessel, invoked the gods in inspired strains, and
then threw himself into the sea. But many song-loving dolphins
had assembled round the vessel, and one of them now took the
bard on its back, and carried him to Tajnarum, from whence ho
returned to Corinth in safety, and related his adventure to Peri-
ander. Upon the arrival of the Corinthian vessel, Periander in-
quired of the sailors after Arion, who replied that he had remain-
ed behind at Tarentum ; but when Arion, at the bidding of Peri-
ander, came forward, the sailors owned their guilt, and were pun-
ished according to their desert. The great improvement in Ij'rio
poetry ascribed to Arion is the invention of the Dithyramb. This
was a choral song and dance in honour of the god Dionysus, and
is of great interest in tlie history of poetry, since it was the germ
from Avhich sprung at a later time the magniticent productions of
the tragic Muse at Athens.

Alc^us and Sappho were both natives of Mytilcne, in the isl'
and of Lesbos, and flourished n.c. GlO-aSO. Their songs wer?
composed for a single voice, and not for the chorus, and they wcro
each tlie inventor of a new metre, which boars their name, and is
familiar to us by the well-known odes of Horace. Their poetry
was the Avarm outpouring of the writers' inmost feelings, and pre-
sents the lyric poetry of the iEtolians at its highest point.

Alcajus took an active part in the civil dissensions of his native
state, and warmly espoused the cause of the aristocratical party,
to which he belonged by birth. When the nobles were driven
into exile, he endeavoured to cheer their spirits by a number of
most animated odes, full of invectives against the popular party
and its leaders.

Of the events of Sappho's life wc have scarcely any informa-

22G

IIISTOIIY OF GREECE.

CuAP. XXIL

tion ; and the common story that, bcinff in love with Pliaon, and
finding her love unrequited, she leaped down from the Leucadian
rock, seems to have been an invention of later times.

Anacreon was a native of tlie Ionian city of Tcos. He spent
part of his life at Samos, under the patronage of Polycrates ; and
after the death of this despot he went to Athens at the invitation
of IIi])parchus. The universal tradition of antiquity represents
Anacreon as a consummate voluptuary, and his jtocms prove the
truth of the tradition. His death was worthy of his life, if we
may believe the account that lie was choked by a grape-stone.

(SiMONiDES, of the island of Ceos, was born u.c. 55G, and reach-
ed a great age. lie lived many years at Athens, both at the court
of Ilipparchus, together with Anacreon, and subsequently under
the democracy during the Persian wars. The struggles of Greece
for her independence furnished him Avith a noble subject for his
muse. He carried away the ])rize from ^schylus with an elegy
upon the warriors who had fallen at the battle of Marathon. Sub-
sequently we find him celebrating the heroes of ThermopA-la, Ar-
temisium, Salamis, and Plativa. He was uj)wards of SO Avhen his
long poetical career at Athens was closed Avith the Auctory Avhicli
he gained Avith the dithyrambic chorus in B.C. 477, making the
5Gth prize that he had carried off. Shortly after this event he
repaired to Syracuse at the invitation of Hiero. Here he spent
tlie remaining ten years of his life, not only entertaining Hiero
witli his poetry, but instructing him by his Avisdom ; for Simoni-
des Avas a philosopher as Avell as a poet, and is reckoned amongst
the sojilii.sts.

PixDAK, though the contemporary of Simonides, Avas considera-
bly his junior. He Avas born either at, or in
the neighbourhood of Thebes inBa^otia, about
the year 522 n.c. Later Avritcrs tell us that
his future glory as a poet Avas miraculously
foreshadowed by a swarm of bees which rested
tipon his lips Avliile he Avas asleep, and that
this miracle first led him to compose poetry.
He commenced his professional career at an
early ago, and soon acquired so great a repu-
tation, that lie Avas em])loyed by various states
and princes of the Hellenic race to conqiose
choral songs. He Avas courted especially by
Alexander, king of Macedonia, and by Hiero,
despot of Syracuse. The praises which he bestowed ujjou Alex-
ander are said to have been the chief reixson Avhich led his de-
scendant, Alexander the Great, to spare the house of the poet

riuJiir.

Chap. XXII. PINDAR— HERODOTUS. 221

when he destroyed the rest of Thebes. The estimation in which
Pindar was held is also shown by the honours conferred upon him
by the free states of Greece. Although a Theban, he was always
a great favourite with the Athenians, whom he frequently praised
in his poems, and who testified their gratitude by making him
their public guest, and by giving him 10,000 drachmas. The only
poems of Pindar which have come down to us entire are his Epi-
nicia or triumphal odes, composed in commemoration of victories
gained in the great public games. But these were only a small
portion of his works. He also wrote hymns, paeans, dithyrambs,
odes for processions, songs of maidens, mimic dancing-songs, drink-
ing-songs, dirges, and encomia, or panegyrics on jirinces.

The Greeks had arrived at a high pitch of civilization beforo
they can be said to have possessed a History. The
first essays in literary prose cannot be placed earlier
than the sixth century before the Christian era ;
but the first writer who desei*ves the name of an
historian is Hekodotcs, hence called the Father
of History. Herodotus Avas born in the Dorian
colony of Halicarnassus in Caria, in the year 484
B.C., and accordingly about the time of the Persian
expeditions into Greece. He resided some years
in Samos, and also undertook extensive travels, of
which he speaks in his work. There was scarcely
a town in Greece or on the coasts of Asia Minor
with which he was not acquainted; he had ex- Herodotus,
plored Thrace and the coasts of the Black Sea ; in Egypt he had
penetrated as fiir south as Elephantine ; and in Asia he had visited
the cities of Babylon, Ecbatana, and Susa. The latter part of his
life was spent at Thurii, a colony founded by the Athenians in
Italy in B.C. 443. According to a well-known story in Lucian,
Herodotus, when he had completed his work, recited it publicly at
the great Olympic festival, as the best means of procuring for it
that celebrity to which he felt that it was entitled. The effect is
described as immediate and complete. The delighted audience
at once assigned the names of the nine Muses to the nine books
into which it is divided. A still later author (Suidas) adds, that
Thucydides, then a boy, was present at the festival with his father
Olorus, and was so aiFected by the recital as to shed tears ; upon
which Herodotus congratulated Olorus on having a son who pos-
sessed so early such a zeal for knowledge. But there are many
objections to the probability of these tales.

Herodotus interwove into his history all the varied and exten-
sive knowledge acquired in his travels, and by his own personal

228 HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXII.

researches. But tlic real subject of tlic work is the conflict be-
tween the Greek race, in the widest sense of tlie term, and in-
cluding the Greeks of Asia Minor, witli the Asiatics. Thus the
liistorian had a vast e])ic subject presented to liira, whicli was
brought to a natural and glorious termination by the defeat of the
Tcrsians in their attenii)ts u])on Greece. The work concludes
with the reduction of Scstos by the Athenians, u.c. 478. Herod-
otus wrote in the Ionic dialect, and his style is marked by an
case and simplicity Avhich lend it an indescribable charm.

TiiucYDiDES, the greatest of the Greek historians, was an Athe-
nian, and was born in the year 471 B.C. His fam-
ily was connected with that of JMiltiades and
Cimon. He possessed gold mines in Thrace,
and enjoyed great influence in that country.
He commanded an Athenian squadron of seven
ships at Thasos, in 424 u.c, at the time when
Brasidas was besieging Amphipolis ; and having
■*f-fy^ — ^1 failed to relieve that city in time, lie went into
\ a voluntary exile, in order probably to avoid

j the punisliment of death. He appears to have

I s])cnt 20 veavs in banishment, principally in the
J Pel

goYKY^iAHc ( Peloponnesus, or in places under the dominion
Tliucydiucj. or influence of Sparta. He perhaps returned to
Athens in u.c. 403, the date of its liberation by Thrasybulus. Ac-
cording to the unanimous testimony of antiquity, he met with a
violent end, and it seems probable that he was assiissinatcd at
Athens, since it cannot be doubted that his tomb existed there.
From the beginning of the Peloponncsian war he had designed to
write its history, and ho employed himself in collecting material.^
for that purpose during its continuance; but it is most likely tliat
the work was not actually composed till after the conclusion of the
war, and that he was engaged upon it at the time of his death.
The first book of his History is introductory, and contains a ra]tid
sketch of Grecian history from the remotest times to the breaking
out of the war. The remaining seven books are filled with tlie
details of the war, related according to the division into summers
and winters, into which all canqiaigns naturally fall ; and the work
breaks offabruptly in the middle of tlie 2Ist year of the war(u.c.
411). The materials of Tliucydidcs were collected with the most
s(rui)u/ous care ; the events are related with the strictest impar-
tiality ; and the work ])robably offers a more exact account of a long
and eventful period than any other contemjiorary history, whether
ancient or modfirn, of an ('(jually long and important ana. 'J'lie
^lylc of Tliucydidcs is U^icf and sententious, and whether in moral

Chap. XXII. THUCYDIDES— XENOPHON. 229

or political reasoning, or in description, gains wonderful force from
its condensation. But this characteristic is sometimes carried to
a faulty extent, so as to render his style harsli, and liis meaning
obscure.

Xenophox, the son of Gryllus, was also an Athenian, and was
probably born about B.C. 444. He was a pupil of Socrates, who
saved his life at the battle of Delium (b.c. 424). His accompany-
ing Cyrus the younger in his expedition against his brother Arta-
xerxes, king of Persia, formed a striking episode in his life, and has
been recorded by himself in his Anabasis. He seems to have been
still in Asia at the time of the death of Socrates in 399 b.c, and
was probably banished from Athens soon after that period, in con-
sequence of his close connexion vrith the Lacedaemonians. lie
accompanied Agesilaus, the Spartan king, on the return of the
latter from Asia to Greece ; and he fought along with the Lace-
diximonians against his own countr}"men at the battle of Coronea
in odl B.C. After this battle he went with Agesilaus to Sparta,
and soon afterwards settled at Scillus in Elis, near Olympia. He
is said to have lived to more than 90 years of age, and he men-
tions an event which occurred as late as 357 b.c.

Probably all the works of Xenophon are still extant. The
Anabasis is the work on which his fame as a historian chiefly
rests. It is written in a simple and agreeable style, and conveys
much curious and striking information. The Ilellenica is a con-
tinuation of the history of Thucydides, and comprehends in seven
books a space of about 48 years ; namely, from the time when
Thucydides breaks off, b.c. 411, to the battle of Mantinea in 3G2.
The subject is treated in a very dry and uninteresting style ; and
his evident partiality to Sparta, and dislike of Athens, have fre-
quently warped his judgment, and must cause his statements to be
received with some suspicion. The Cyropadia, one of the most
pleasing and popular of his works, professes to be a histor}^ of
Cyrus, the founder of the Persian monarchy, but is, in reality, a
kind of political romance, and possesses no authority whatever as
an historical work. The design of the author seems to have been
to draw a picture of a perfect state ; and though the scene is laid
in Persia, the materials of the work are derived from his own
philosophical notions and the usages of Sparta, engrafted on tho
popularly current stories respecting Cyrus. Xenophon displays in
this work his dislike of democratic institutions like those of Athens,
and his preference for an aristocracy, or even a monarchy. Xeno-
phon v/as also the author of several minor works ; but the only
other treatise which we need mention is the Memorabilia of Socra-
tes, in four books, intended as a defence of his master against tho

230 IIISTOKY OF GREECE. Chap. XXII.

charges which occasioned his death, and which undoubtedly con-
tains a genuine picture of Socrates and his philosophy. The gen-
ius of Xenophon was not of the highest order ; it was practical
rather than speculative ; but he is distinguished for his good sense,
his moderate views, his humane temper, and his earnest piety.

The Drama pre-eminently distinguished Athenian literature.
The democracy demanded a literature of a popular kind, the -vi-
vacity of the people a literature that made a lively impression ; and
both these conditions were fulfilled by the drama. But, though
brought to perfection among the Athenians, tragedy and comedy,
in their rude and early origin, were Dorian inventions. Both
arose out of the worship of Dionysus. There was at first but lit-
tle distinction between tlicsc two species of the drama, except that
comedy belonged more to the rural celebration of the Dionysiac
festivals, and tragedy to that in cities. The name of trafjcdi/ was
far from signifying any thing mournful, being derived from the
goat-like appearance of those who, disguised as Satyrs, performed
the old Dionysiac songs and dances. In like manner, comedij was
called after the song of the band of revellers who celebrated the
vintage festivals of Dionysus, and vented the mde merriment in-
spired by the occasion in jibes and extempore witticisms levelled
at the spectators. Tragedy, in its more ]ierfcct form, was the off-
spring of the dithyrambic odes with which that worship was cele-
brated. These were not always of a joyous cast. Some of them
expressed the sufferings of Dionysus ; and it was from this more
mournful species of dithyramb that tragedy, properly so called,
arose. The dithyrambic odes formed a kind of lyrical tragedy,
and Averc sung by a chorus of fifty men, dancing round the altar
of Dionysus. Tiie improvements in the dithyramb were introduced
by Arion at Corinth ; and it was chiefly among the Dorian states
of the Peloponnesus that these choral dithyrambic songs prevailed.
Hence, even in Attic tragedy, the chorus, Avhich was the foundation
of the drama, Avas written in the Doric dialect, thus clearly betray-
ing the source from which the Athenians derived it.

In Attica an important alteration was made in the old tragedy
in the time of Pisistratus, in consequence of which it obtained a
new and dramatic cliaractcr. This innoA'ation is ascribed to Tiiks-
ris, a native of the Attic village of Icaria, n.c. 535. It consisted
in the introduction of an actor for the purpose of giving rest to the
chorus. Thcspis Avas succeeded by Chocrilus and Phrynichus, the
latter of Avhom gained his first prize in the dramatic contests in
511 n.c. The Dorian Pratinas, a native of I'hlins, but Avho ex-
hibited his tragedies at Alliens, introduced an iuiprovcmcnt in
tragedy by separating the Satyric from the tnigic drair" A?

Chap. XXII. ^SCHYLUS. 231

neither the popular taste nor the ancient religious associations
connected with the festivals of Dionysns would have permitted the
chorus of Satyrs to be entirely banished from the tragic representa-
tions, Pratinas avoided this by the invention of what is called the
Satyric drama ; that is, a species of play in which the ordinary
subjects of tragedy were treated in a lively and farcical manner,
and in which the chorus consisted of a band of Satyrs in appropri^
ate dresses and masks. After this period it became customary ta
exhibit dramas in tetralogies, or sets of four; namely, a tragio
trilogy, or series of three tragedies, followed by a Satyric play.
These were often on connected subjects ; and the Satyric drama
at the end served like a merry after-piece to relieve the minds of
the spectators.

The subjects of Greek tragedy were taken, with few exceptions,,
from the national mythology. Hence the plot and story were of
necessity known to the spectators, a circumstance wliich strongly
distinguishes the ancient tragedy from the modern. It must also
be recollected that tho representation of tragedies did not take
place every day, but only after certain fixed intervals, at the festi-
vals of Dionysus, of which they formed one of the greatest attrac-
tions. During the whole day the Athenian public sat in the thea-
tre witnessing tragedy after tragedy ; and a prize was awarded by
judges appointed for the purpose to the poet who produced the
best set of dramas.

Such was the Attic tragedy when it came into the hands of -iEs-
CHYLUS, who, from the great improvements which he introduced,
was regarded by the Athenians as its father or founder, just as
Homer was of Epic poetry, and Herodotus of Histoiy. iEschylus
was born at Eleusis in Attica in B.C. 525, and was thus contem-
porary with Simonides and Pindar. He fought with his brother
Cynajgirus at the battle of Marathon, and also at those of Arte-
misium, Salamis, and Platrea. In b.c. 484 he gained his first tragic
prize. In 4G8 he was defeated in a tragic contest by his younger
rival Sophocles. He died at Gela, in Sicily, in 45G, in the G9th
year of his age. It is unanimously related that an eagle, mistak-
ing the poet's bald head for a stone, let a tortoise fall upon it in or-
dor to break the shell, thus fulfilling an oracle predicting that he
was to die by a blow from heaven. The improvements introduced
into tragedy by -^schylus concerned both its form and composi-
tion, and its manner of representation. In the former his princi-
I)al innovation was the introduction of a second actor; whence
arose the dialogue, properly so called, and the limitation of tho
choral parts, which now became subsidiary. His improvements
in the manner of representing tragedy consisted in the introduc-

233

insTOKY OF GllEECE.

Chap. XXIL

tion of painted scenes, drawn according to the mles of perspective,
lie furnished the actors with more appropriate and more magnili-
cent dresses, invented for them more various and expressive masks,
and raised their stature to the hei'oic size by providing them with
thick-soled cothurni or buskins. iEschyhis excels in represent-
ing the superliuman, in depicting demigods and heroes, and in
tracing tlie irresistible march of fate. Ilis style resembles the
ideas which it clothes ; it is bold, sublime, and full of gorgeous
imagery, but sometimes borders on the turgid.

Sophocles, the ypunger rival and immediate successor of JEs-

chylus in the tragic art, was born at Co-
lonus, a village about a mile from Athens,
in i;.c. 4U5. We have already adverted
to his wresting the tragic prize from iEs-
chylus in 4G8, from which time he seems
to have retained the almost undisjtutcd
l)osscssion of the Athenian stage, nntil a
young but formidable rival arose in the
person of Euripides. The close of liis
life was troubled witli family dissensions,
lophon, his son by an Athenian wife, and
J, . , , therefore his legitimate heir, was jealous

of the affection manifested bv his father
for his grandson Sophocles, the offspring of another son, Ariston,
whom he had had by a Sicyonian woman. Eearing lest his father
sliould bestow a great part of Iiis i)roi)erty upon his favourite, lo-
plion summoned him before the Phratores, or tribesmen, on the
ground tliat his mind was affected. The old man's only rci)ly
was, " If I am Sophocles I am not beside myself; and if I am be-
side myself I am not Sophocles." Tlien taking up liis Oulipiis at
Colunvs, which he had lately written, but had not yet brouglit out,
he read from it a beautiful passage, with wliich the judges were so
Btruck that they at once dismissed the case, lie died shortly after-
wards, in B.C. 40G, in his 90th year. As a poet Sophocles is uni-
versally allowed to have brought the drama to the greatest jjcrfec-
tion of which it is susceptible. His plays stand in the just medium
between tlic sublime but unregulated flights of -/Eschylus, and the
too familiar scenes and rhetorical declamations of Euripides. His
plots are worked up with more skill and care than the plots of cither
of his great rivals. Sophocles added the last imi)rovemcnt to the
form of the dranui by tlie introduction of u third actor; a change
which greatly enlarged the scope of the action. The imiirovement
was so obvious that it was adojjted by -/Eschylus in his later i)lays ;
but the number of three actors seems to have been seldom or ncv
er exceeded.

Chap. XXIT. EURIPIDES— AKISTOPIIANES. 233

Euripides was born in the island of Salamis, in p.c. 480, his
I)arent3 having been among those who fled tliither
at the time of the invasion of Attica by Xerxes.
He studied rhetoric under Prodicus, and physics
under Anaxagoras, and he also lived on intimate
terms with Socrates. In 44 1 he gained his first
prize, and he continued to exhibit plays until
408, tlie date of his Orestes. Soon after this he
repaired to the court of Macedonia, at the invita-
tion of King Archelaiis, where he died two years
afterwards at the age of 74 (b.c. 406). Common
report relates that he was torn to pieces by the unpi

king's dogs, which, according to some accounts, were set u])on him
by two rival poets out of envy. In treating his characters and
subjects Euripides often arbitrarily departed from the received
1 ^gends, and diminished the dignity of tragedy by depriving it of
its ideal character, and by bringing it down to the level of eveiy-
day life. His dialogue was garrulous and colloquial, wanting in
heroic dignity, and frequently frigid through misplaced philosoph-
ical disquisitions. Yet in spite of all these faults Euripides has
many beauties, and is particularly remarkable for pathos, so that
Aristotle calls him " the most tragic of poets."

Comedy received its full development at Athens from Cratinus,
who lived in the age of Pericles. Cratinus, and his younger con-
temporaries, Enpolis and Aristophanes, were the three great poets
of what is called the Old Attic Comedy. The comedies of Cratinus
and Eupolis are lost ; but of Aristophanes, who was the greatest
of the three, we have eleven dramas extant. Aristophanes was
born about 444 b.c. Of his private life we know positively noth-
ing. He exhibited his first comedy in 427, and from that time
till near his death, which probably happened about 380, he was a
frequent contributor to the Attic stage. The Old Attic Comedy
was a powerful vehicle for the expression of opinion ; and most
of the comedies of Aristophanes turned either upon political oc-
currences, or upon some subject which excited the interest of the
Athenian public. Their chief object was to excite laughter by the
boldest and most ludicrous caricature, and, provided tliat end was
attained, the poet seems to have cared but little about the justice
of the picture. Towards the end of the career of Aristophanes
the uni'cstricted license and libellous personality of comedy began
gradually to disappear. The chorus was first curtailed and then
entirely suppressed, and thus made way for what is called the
Middle Comedy, which had no chorus at all. The latter still con-
tinued to be in some degree political ; but persons were no longer

234

IIISTOllY OF GREECE.

Chap. XXII.

introduced upon the stage iinder their real names, and the office
of the chorus -was very much curtailed. It was, in fact, the con-
necting liuk between the Old Comedy and the New, or tlie Com-
edy of Manners. The Neiu Comedy arose after Athens liad become
subject to the Macedonians. Politics were now excluded from the
stage, and the materials of the dramatic poet were derived entirely
from the fictitious adventures of persons in pri^'ate life. The two
most distinguished writers of this scliool were Piiilkmon and
Mi:NANr)p:i{. Philemon was ])robably l)orn about the year 3C(?
15. c, and was cither a Cilician or Syracusan, but came at an earl^

age to Athens. He is considered as the
founder of the New Comedy, which was
soon afterwards brought to perfection
by his younger contemporary ^Icnan-
der. The latter was an Athenian, and
was born in B.C. 342. He was drown-
ed at the age of 52, whilst swimming
in the harbour of Piraeus. He wrote
upwards of 100 comedies, of which only
fragments remain ; and the unanimous
jiraise of posterity awakens our regret
for the loss of one of the most elegant
writers of antiquity. The comedies,
indeed, of Plautus and Terence may
give us a general notion of the New
Comedy of the Greeks, from which they were confessedly drawn ;
but there is good reason to suppose that the works even of the
latter Poman writer fell far short of tlie Avit and elegance of
Menander.

The latter days of literary Athens were chiefly distinguished by
the genius of her Orators anH PhilosopJicrs. There were ten Attic
orators, Avhoso Avorks were collected by the Greek grammarians,
and many of wliose orations have come down to us. Their names
are Anti])lion, Andocidcs, Lysias, Isocrates, Isa^us, iEschines, Ly-
curgus, Demosthenes, Ilyperides, and Dinarchus. ANTinioN, the
earliest of the ten, was born B.C. 480. He opened a school of rhet-
oric, and numbered among his pupils the historian Thucydides.
Antijjhon Avas ])ut to death in 411 n.c. for the part which he took
in establishing tlic oligarcliy of the Four Hundred.

Andocides, who was concerned with Alcibiades in the afiair
of tlie Ilerma;, Avas born at Athens in B.C. 4G7, and died probably
about 301.

Lystas, also born at Athens in 458, Avas much superior to Ando-
cidcs as au orator, but being a vietic^ or resident alien, ho Avas not

Mcuaudcr.

Chap. XXII. iESCIIINES— DEMOSTHENES. 235

allowed to speak in the assemblies or courts of justice, and there-
fore wrote orations for others to deliver.

IsocKATES was boru in 43G, After receiA-ing the instructiona
of some of the most celebrated sophists of the day, he became him-
self a speech-writer and professor of rhetoric ; his weakly consti-
tution and natural timidity preventing him from taking a part in
public life. He made away with him.«elf in 338, after the fatal
battle of Chffironea, in despair, it is siid, of liis country's fato.
He took great pains with his compositions, and is reported to have
spent ten, or, according to others, fifteen years over his Panegyric
oration.

IsiEUS flourished between the end of the Peloponncsian war and
the accession of Philip of Macedon. He opened a school of
rlietoric at Athens, and is said to have numbered Demosthenes
among his pupils. The orations of Isaus were exclusively ju-
dicial, and the whole of the eleven which have come down to us
turn on the subject of inheritances.

iEscniNES Avas born in the year 389, and he was at first a
violent anti-Macedonian ; but after his embassy along with De-
mosthenes and others to Philip's court, he was the constant ad-
vocate of peace. Demosthenes and ^schines now became the
leading speakers on their respective sides, and the heat of political
animosity soon degenerated into personal hatred. In 343 Demos-
thenes charged ^schines with having received bribes from Philip
during a second embassy ; and the speech in which he brought for-
ward this accusation was answered in another by ^schines. The
result of this charge is unknown, but it seems to have detracted
from the popularity of iEschines. We have already adverted to
his impeachment of Ctesiphon, and the celebrated reply of De-
mosthenes in his speech de Corona (p. 202). After the banish-
ment of iEschines on this occasion (b.c. 330), he employed him-
self in teaching rhetoric at llhodes. He died in Sambos in 314.
As an orator he was second onlv to Demosthenes.

Of the life of his great rival, Demosthenes, we have already
given some account (p. 178). The verdict of his contemporaries,
ratified by posterity, has pronounced Demosthenes the greatest
orator that ever lived. The principal element of his success must
be traced in his purity of purpose, which gave to his ai'guments all
the force of conscientious conviction. The effect of his speeches
was still further heightened by a wonderful and almost magic
force of diction. The grace and vivacity of his delivery are at-
tested by the well-known anecdote of JEschines, when he read at
Khodes his speech against Ctesiphon. His audience having ex-
pressed their surprise that he should have been doAio.ted after such

23G HISTORY OF GREECE. Chap. XXH.

an oration: "You would cease to wonder," he remarked, **if ycu
had heard Demosthenes,"

The remaining three Attic orators, viz., Lycurgus, HvrERiDES,
and DiNARCiius, were contemporaries of Demosthenes. Lycurgus
and Uyperides both belonged to the anti-Macedonian party, and
were warm supporters of the policy of Demosthenes. Dinarchus,
who is the least important of the Attic orators, sun-ivcd Demos-
thenes, and Vv'as a friend of Demetrius Phalereus.

The history of Greek J^hilosoj)Iii/, like that of Greek poetry and
histoiy, began in Asia JNIinor. The earliest philosopher of dis-
tinction was TiiALES of ]\Iilctus, wlio was born about n.c. G40, and
died in 550, at the age of 00. He was the founder of the Jotiic
school of philosophy, and to him were traced the first beginnings
of geometry and astronomy. The main doctrine of his philosoj)li-
ical sj'stem was, that water, or fluid substance, was the single orig-
inal clement from which everything came and into Avhich every-
thing returned. Axaxlmakdkr, the successor of Thalcs in the
Ionic school, lived from B.C. GIO to 547. He was distinguished
for his knowledge of astronomy and gcograjdiy, and is said to liavo
been the first to introduce the use of the sun-dial into Greece.
Anaximknes, tlic third in the series of the Ionian philosophers,
lived a little later than Anaximander. He endeavoured, like
Thales, to derive the origin of all material things from a single
element ; and, according to his theory, air was the source of life.

A new path was struck out by Anaxagoras of Clazomena;, the
most illustrious of the Ionic philosophers. He came to Athens in
480 iJ.c., where he continued to teach for thirty years, numbering
among his hearers Pericles, Socrates, and Euripides. He aban-
doned the system of his predecessors, and, instead of regarding
some elementary form of matter as the origin cf all tilings, he
conceived a su})rcme mind or intelligence, distinct from the visi-
ble world, to have imparted form and order tolhe chaos of nature.
Tlicse innovations aftbrded the Athenians a pretext for indicting
Anaxagoras of impiety, though it is probable that his connexion
with Pericles was tlie real cause of that proceeding (see p. SO). It
was only througli the inlluencc and eh)(]uencc of I'cricles that he
was not i)ut to death ; but he was sentenced to pay a fine of fire
talents and quit Athens. The philosojjher retired to Larapsacus,
whore he died at the age of 72.

The scf'ond sclu)ol of Greek ])liilosoi)liy was tlie FJrat'ic, which
derived its name from Elea or Velia, a Greek colony on the west-
ern coast of Southern Italy. It was founded by Xknophanes of
Colojjhon, who fled to Elea on the conquest of his native land by
tlic IVrsiana. He conceived the whole of nature to bo God.

Chap. XXII. PYTHAGORAS— PLATO. 2J)

The tliird scliool of jjliilosopliy was the Pijtliagorean, founded
by PrniAGORAS. He was a imtive of Samos, and was born about
15. c. 580. His father was an opulent merchant, and Pythagoras
himself travelled extensively in the East. He believed in the
transmigration of souls ; and later writers relate that Pythagoras
asseited that his own soul had formerly dwelt in the body of the
Trojan Euphorbus, the son of Panthous, who v.-as slain by Mene-
laus, and that in proof of his assertion he took down, at first sight,
the shield of Euphorbus from the temple of Hera (Juno) at Argos,
where it had been dedicated by Menelaus. Pythagoras was dis-
tinguished by his knowledge of geometry and arithmetic ; and it
was pi-obably from his teaching that the Pythagoreans were led to
regard numbers in some mysterious manner as the basis and es-
sence of all things. He was, however, more of the religious teach-
er than of the philosopher ; and he looked upon himself as a being
destined by the gods to reveal to his disciples a new and a purer
mode of life. He founded at Crotou in. Italy a kind of religious
brotherhood, the members of which were bound together by pecul-
iar rites and observances. Eveiything done and taught in the
fraternity was kept a profound secret from all without the pale.
It appears that the members had some private signs, like Free-
masons, by which they could recognize each other, even if they
had never met before. His doctrines spread rapidly over Magna
Graacia, and clubs of a similar character were established at Sy-
baris, Metapontum, Tarentum, and other cities.

At Athens a new direction was giveu to the study of philosophy
by Socrates, of whom an account has been already given (p. 138-
1-tO). To his teaching either directly or indirectly may be traced
the origin of the four principal Grecian schools : the Academi-
cians, established by Plato ; the Peripatetics, founded by his pupil
Aristotle ; the Epicureans, so named from their master Epicurus ;
and the Stoics, founded by Zeno.

Plato was born at Athens in 429 d.c, the year in which Peri-
cles died. His first literary attempts were in poetiy ; but his at-
tention was soon turned to pliilosophy by the teaching of Socra-
tes, whose lectures he began to frequent at about the age of twen-
ty. From that time till the death of Socrates he appears to have
lived in the closest intimacy with that philosopher. After that
event Plato withdrew to Megara, and subsequently undertook some
extensive travels, in the course of which he visited Gyrene, Egypt,
Sicily, and Magna Griccia. His intercourse with the elder and
the younger Dionysius at Syracuse has been already related (p.
172). His absence from Athens lasted about twelve years; on
his return, being then ujAvrirds of forty, he began io teach in tha

238 mSTOKY OF GREECE. Ciiap. XXLL

pymnasinm of the Academy. His doctrines were too recondite
for tlie popular car, and his lectures were not numerously attend-
ed. 15ut he had a narrower circle of devoted admirers and disci-
ples, consisting of ahout twenty-eight persons, who met in his pri-
rate house, over the vestibule of which was inscribed, '*Let no
one enter who is ignorant of geometry." The most distinguished
of this little band of auditors were Speusippus, his nephew and
successor, and Aristotle. lie died in 347, at the age of 81 or 82,
and bequeathed his garden to his school.

AiasTOTLE was born in 384 u.c, at Stagira, a seaport town of
Chalcidice, whence he is frequently called the Stagirite. At the
age of 17, Aristotle, who had then lost both father and motlier,
repaired to Athens. Plato considered him his best scholar, and
called him "the intellect of his school." Aristotle spent twenty
years at Athens, during the last ten of which he established a
school of his own. In 342 he acce])ted the invitation of Philip of
Macedon to undertake the instruction of his son Alexander. In
335, after Alexander had ascended the throne, Aristotle quitted
Macedonia, to which he never returned. He again took up his
abode at Athens, where the Athenians assigned him the gymna-
sium called the Lyceum ; and, from his habit of delivering his lec-
tures whilst walking up and down in the shady walks of this i)lace,
his school was called the peripatetic. In the morning he lectured
only to a select class of pupils, called esoteric. His afternoon lec-
tures were delivered to a Avider circle, and were therefore called
exoteric. It was during the thirteen years in which he presided
over the Lyceum that he composed the greater jjart of his works,
and prosecuted his researches in natural history, in which he was
most liberally assisted by the munificence of Alexander. The
latter portion of Aristotle's life was unfortunate. He ajipears to
have lost from some unknown cause the friendship of Alexander ;
and, after the death of that monarch, the disturhanccs which en-
sued in Greece proved unfavourable to his peace and security.
Being threatened with a prosecution for impiety, he escaped from
Athens and retired to Chalcis ; but lie was condemned to deatli
in his absence, and dcjjrived of all the rights and honours which
he had previously enjoyed, lie died at Chalcis in 322, in tho
C3d year of his age.

Of all the ])liilosophical systems of antiquity, that of Aristotlo
was best ad:i])ted to tlie ja-actical wants of mankind. It was
founded on a close and accurate observation of human nature and
of the external world ; but, whilst it sought the practical and use-
ful, it did not neglect the beautiful and noble. Ilis works con-
Bistcd of treatises in natural, moral, and i)olitical i)hilosophy, his-

CiiAP. XXII. AKlisTOTLE— EPICURUS— ZENO.

239

tory, rhetoric, criticism, &c. ; indeed, there is scarcely a branch of
knowledge which his vast and comprehensive genius did not em-
brace.

Epicurus was born at Samos in 342, and settled at Athens at
about the age of 35. Here he purchased a garden, where lie es~
tablished his philosophical school. He taught that pleasure is the
highest good ; a tenet, however, which he explained and dignified
by showing tliat it was mental pleasure that he intended. Tlio
ideas of atheism and sensual degradation with which tlie name
of Epicurus has been so frequently coupled are founded on igno-
rance of his real teacliing. But as he denied the immortality of
the soul, and the interference of the gods in human affairs — though
he held their existence — his tenets were very liable to be abused
by those who had not sufficient elevation of mind to love virtue
for its own sake.

Zeno was a native of Citium in the island of Cyprus, and set-
tled at Athens about b.c. 299. Here he opened a school in the
Poecile Stoa, or painted porch, whence the name of his sect. He
inculcated temperance and self-denial, and his practice was in ac-
cordance with his precepts.

AriatoiliS,

INDEX.

ABROCOMAS.

Abkooomas, 144.

Academy, the, DC, 233.

Acaraania, 2.

Achaian league, 214,

Achajans, 5.

Achffius, 5.

Achaia, 3, 13.

, a Roman provinco,

2-21.

Acliarnaj, 100.

Achelous, 2.

Achillea, 7.

Achradina, 122,

Acropolis, Athenian, 65,
80.

Adimantus, G3.

Admetus, 73.

Aeetes, 7.

M'^aleos^ Mt., Xerxes at,
04.

.^geus, G.

^■^ina, described, 55.

iEgospotarai, battle of, 133.

jEgyptus, 5.

./33olians, 4.

.Solus, 4.

.(Eschines accuses Demos-
thenes, 202; retires to
Rhodes, ib. ; account of
his life, 235.

JE ^chylus, account of, 231.

.5<:tolia, 2.

iEfcolian league, 213.

.^tolians reduce 1, 213.

Agamemnon, 5, 7.

Agesilaus becomes King
of >Sparta, 140 ; charac
ter, ib. ; liis expedition
against tlie Persians,
161; attacks Phamaba
zu3, ib. ; routs the Per
Biaus on the Pactolus,
152; recalled,?.').; home-
ward march, 1.54; in-
vades Boeotia, 163; saves
Sparta, IGT ; expedition
to Egypt, 170 ; cicath,i6.
Agesipolis, 153.
Agis, 113, 14>.
-^ -IV., 215,

JlLEXANDER.

Agnon, 79.
Agora, 9.

, Athenian, 90,

Agrigentum, 42,

Alcseus, 225.

Alcibiades, character of,
112; deceives the Spar-
tan ambassadors, ib. ; at
Olympia, 113 ; in Sicily,
114; accused of mutilat-
ing the Henngs, 115 ; ar-
rest and escape of, ib. ;
condemned, ib. ; goes to
Sparta, 110; excites a re-
volt of the Chians, 123 ;
dismissed by the Spar-
tans, 124 ; flies to Tissa
phernes, ib. ; intrigue:
of, ib. ; procedings at
Samos, 120 ; arrested by
Tissaphernes, 127; de-
feats the Peloponnesians
at Cyzicus, ib. ; returns
to Athens, 123 ; dismiss-
ed from the command
of the Athenian fleet,
130; flies to Pharaaba-
zus, murdered, 136.

Alcmsaonideo banished, 31.

Alcman, 224,

Alexander of Pherse, 1G8;
defeated by Pelopidas,
169; subdued, 2?>. ■

Alexander the Great, 132 ;
education, 183 ; acces-
sion, ib. ; overawes the
Thebans and Athenians,
184 ; generalissimo a-
gainst Persia, ib. ; inter-
view v/ith Diogenes, ib. ;
expedition against the
Thracians, &c., ib.; re-
duces the Thebans to
obedience, 185; demands
the Athenian oi'ators,
ib. ; crosses to Asia, 186 ;
forces the passage of the
Granicus, 187: progress
through Asia Minor, ib. ;
cuts the Gordian knot,
183; dangerous illness,
ib. ; defeats the Persians

AMYNTAS.

at Issus, 183 ; march
through Phoenicia, 190;
besieges Tyre 191; an-
swer to Pannenio, ib. ;
proceeds to Egypt, ??*.;
visits the temple of Am-
mon, 192; defeats Dari-
us in the battle of Arbe-
la^ 193 ; enters Babylon,
ib.; seizes Susa, 194;
marches to Persepolis,
ib.; pursues Darius, 195;
invades Hyrcania, ib. ;
enters Bactria, 196 ; de-
feats the Scythians, ib. ;
marries Roxana, ib. ;
kills Clitus, 197 ; plot of
the pages against his
life^ ib. ; crosses the In-
dus, ib. ; vanquishes Po-
ms, 198; marches home-
wards, ib. ; peril among
the Malli, ib. ; arrives at
the Indian Ocean, 199;
march through Gedro-
sia, ib. ; marries Statira,
ib. ; quells a mutiny at
Opis, 200 ; solemnizes
the festival of Dionysus
at Eebatana, ib. ; his
ambitious projects, 200,
201 ; death, 201 ; char-
acter, ib. ; estimate of
his exploits, ib. ; funeral,
20G,

Alexander, son of Alex-
ander the Great, 206,
209.

Alexandria Arionmi, 105.

Alexandria in Egj-pt,
founded, 192; descrip-
tion of, ib.

Alpheus, 3,

Amnion, Jove, 192.

Amphictyonic council, ita
origin and constitution,
11,12.

Amphictyons, decree of
the, at the end of the
sacred war, ISO.

Amphipolis, 79, 176.

Amyntas, 100.

242

•SNDEX.

ANACREON.

Ansicrcon, 226.

Anactorium, 44.

Auaxagoras, 230; charged
with impiety, 80.

Anaxiniaiider, 2iiG.

Aiiaxinienc.^, 23^.

Amlocide.-*, 2C4.

Anicoris, 172.

Antalcidas, peace of, 150.

Antif^onia?, Athenian

tribe, 210.

Antipjnus, 200: coalition
ngainst, 20S; arisuincri
the title of king, 210;
i^hiin, ib.

Antigouu3 Doaon, 210.

Antigonus Gonutas, 214.

Antioch, founded by Sc-
Iciicii.-^, 211.

Antiochu.-', 130.

Antiochus Soter, 213.

Antiochus III., 2r.l.

Antipater defeats the Spar-
tans, 202 ; defeated at
tlic Spercheus, 203, 204;
overthrows tl'.e j^iod
Greeks at Crannon, 204 ;
demands the Athenian
orators, 2('r); dcohired
regent, 207; death, i?;.

Antiplum, orator, 234.

Anytus, 140.

Apaturia, festival of, 132.

ApoUonia, 44.

Aratus,215.

Arbcla, liattle of, 1G3.

Arcadia, 2.

Arcadian confederation,
1G7.

Arclinlaus, 1T5.

Arehias, 101.

Archidanius, 100; besieges
Platiua, 102.

Arc'hilochus, 224.

Archon, Athenian, 20.

Areopagus reformed Tiy
PericleH, 70; hill of, 00.

Arginusa\ battle of, 131.

Arg(>li.=, 3.

Argonauts, 7.

Argos, 3, 5, IS; head of a
now confederacy. 111.

Ari.idne, 0.

ArsG'is, 145.

Arion, 225.

Ari.;tagoras, 4^.

Aris tides, character of, r)5;
organizes tlie confedera-
cy of Delos, 71 ; change
in hia viewa, 72 ; death,
74.

ATHENIANS.

Aristodemua of Messenia,
24.

Aristoracnes ,of Messenia,
25. \-

Aristophanes, account of,
233. , ^

Aristotle, 1S3 ; account of,
23S.

Arsinoi.', 212.

AfEaphenies, 4S, 51.

Artaxei-xes, 74, 141.

Artemisia, her prowess, 04.

Artcmisium, battle of, 02.

Asia Minor, Greek colonies
in, 18.

Aspasia, 70.

Asty, the, 87.

Athena, 2 ; statue of, 02.

Athenians, divided into
four classes, 32 ; assist
tlic lonians, 40 ; war
with yEgin.a, 55; aban-
don Athens, 02 ; consti-
tution more democratic,
72; form an alliance with
Argos, 70; assist Inarus,
77; conquer Bfjcotia, ib. ;
reduce iEgina, ib. ; lose
their power in U(jnotia,
ib. ; despotic power of,
ib. ; make peace Avith
I'crsia, ib. ; conclude n
thirty years' truce with
Sparta, 78; subjugate
Sanios, 81 ; form an alli-
ance with Corcyra, ib. ;
their allies and resources
in the IVloponnesian
war, 00 ; their licet an-
noys the Peloponnesus,
100; their decree against
the Mytileneans, 104;
takePjius, 100; expedi-
tion against Ikeotia, 108;
peace of Nicias, 110; re-
fuse to evacuate I'ylus,
111 ; treaty with Argos,
112; conquer Melos, 113;
massacre the inhabit-
ant«, ib. ; interfere in Si-
cilian affairs, 113; ex-
pedition to Sicily, 115;
send a fresh Ih-et to Sic-
ily, 110; defeated at sea
liy the Syracusnns, 121 ;
retreat from Syracuse,
ib. ; gain a naval virtoiy
at (Jynossema, 127; at
Aliydos, ?7'. ; nt (Jvzicus,
12S; totally defeated at
.Aiijosputami, 133; ally

BOULE.

themselves with Tlielio^,
15;>; fi)rm a league with
Corinth and Argus ji-
gainst Sparta, ih. ; head
of a new confe<leracy,
102; declare war against
Sparta, ib. ; peace with
Sparta, 1G4; form an al-
liance with the Pelopon-
nesian states, 107; send
an embassy to Persia,
108 ; deceived bj' Philip,
170; send a fleet to re-
lieve Byzantium, 181;
their alarm at the ap-
proach of Philip, ih. ;
prostrated by the battle
of Chierunea, ib.

Athens, its origin, 5, C;
early constitution of, 20;
taken by the I'ersians,
03 ; second occupation
of, by the Persians, 07 ;
rebuilding of, 00 ; in.
cipient decline of, 77;
crowded state of, during
the Peloponncsinn wai-,
100; plague at^ 100,101;
invested by the Pclopon-
nesians, 134; surrender
of, ib. • democracy re-
stored at, 138; descrip-
tion of the city, 85; ori-
gin of its name, 80; re-
built, 87: walls, 2fc.; har-
bours, 88; streets, A:c.,
ib. ; long walls rebuilt,
157; captured by Deme-
trius, 211.

Athos, Mount, canal at, 57.

Attic tribes, four, 20; in-
creased to ten, 30.

Attica, 2 ; early history of,
28 ; three factions in, 31.

P,.

Babylon submits to Alex-
ander, 104.

Darbarian., meaning of
the term, 11.

Rarca, 4-L

Helus, temple of, 103,

IJessus, 106; put to death,
. 100.

Hcuotarchs restored, 1C2.

Ha>.otia, description of, 2.

Bosporus, Athenian ioll «l
the, 123.

Uouli., 0.

INDEX.

243

BRASIDAS.

Brasidas, 100 ; his expe-
dition into Thrace, ib. ;
death, 510.

Brennus, 214.

Bucephala, founded by Al-
exander, IDS.

Byzantines, erect a statue
in lionour of Athens, ISl.

Byzantium, 44; taken by
the Athenians, 70, Tl ;
besieged by Pliilip, ISl.

Cadmea, or Theban cita-
del, seized by the Spar-
tans, IGO ; recovered,
102.

Cadmus, 5.

Callias, peace of, 1G4.

Callicrates, 220.

(Jallicratidas, 130.

Callippus, 173.

Callixenus, 132.

Cambunian Mountains, 1.

Cambyses, 46.

Carduchi, 147.

Carthaj^ians invade Sic-
ily, 6(5, 171.

Caiyatides, 94.

Caspian Gates, 195.

Cassander, 208 ; establish-
es an oligarchy at Ath-
ens, ib. ; takes Pydna,
ib. ; kills Koxana and
her son, 2GD.

Catana, surprised by the
Athenians, 115.

Cecropidse, 8(3.

Cecrops, 5.

Celts invade Macedonia,
213.

Cephissus, the, 8G.

Ceramicus, the, 96.

Chabrias, 102.

Chserephon, 139.

Chajronea, second battle
of, 181.

Chalybes, the, 14S.

Charon of Thebes, 161.

Chrj'selephantino statua-
ry-, 92.

Cimon, son of Miltiades,
72; assists the Lacedae-
monians, 75; banished,
7G ; his sentence re-
voked, 77 ; expedition to
Cyprus and death, ib. ;
his patronage of art, SS.

Cirrha^an "plain, 14.

Clearchus, 142, 14").

CRATINU3.

Cleombrotus invades Boo •
otia, 1G5; slain, ib.

Cleomenes, 35, 37.

Cleon, 101 ; character of,
104; his violence, 107;
his expedition against
Sphacteria, ib. ; to
Thrace, 109 ; flight and
death, 110.

CleophoD, 128.

Cleruchi., 38, 79.

Clisthenes, 35; his re-
forms, 36; their effect,
88.

Clitus, saves Alexander's
life, 187 ; killed by Alex-
ander, 197.

Codrus, death of, 28.

(Jolchians, the, 143.

Colonies, Greek, 39; rela-
tion to the mother coun-
try, ib. ; how founded,
ib. ; mostly democratic,
ib'. ; in Asia Minor, 39,
40 ; in Sicily, 42 ; in
Italy, ib. ; in Gaul and
Spain, 44 ; in Africa, ib. ;
in tlie Ionian Sea, ib. ; in
Macedonia and Thrace,
ib. ; profp-ess of, 79.

Comedv, old Attic, 233 ;
new," 234.

Conon, supersedes Alcibi-
ades, 130; defeated by
Callicratidas, 131 ; ac-
cepts the command of
the Persian fleet, 159;
defeats the Spartan fleet
at Cnidus, 154; reduces
tlie Spartan colonies,
157; rebuilds the long
walls of Athens, ib.

Corcj-ra, 44; troubles in,
104.

Corcyrajans, quairel with
Corinth, 8! ; send an em-
bassy to Athens, ib.

Corinth, battle of, 154;
congress at, 184; de-
stroyed by Mummius,
221

Corinthian Gulf, 2.

Corinthian v/ar, 153.

Corinthians assist the Epi-
damnians, 81.

Coronea, battle of, 154.

(yorupedion, battle of, 212.

(Jranai, 86.

Crannon, battle of, 204.

Cratenis, 200.

Cratinui, 233.

DEMETRIUS.

Crete, 3. •

Crimesus, battle of, 174.

Critias, 135; slain, 137.

Crito, 140.

Critolaus, 221.

Croesus, 4"); fall of, 4G.

Croton, 42.

Cumse, 41.

Cyclades, 3.

Cylon, conspiracy of, 30.

Cvnoscephalae, battle of,
169.

Cyrene, 44.

Cyrus, empire of, 4G ; cap-
tures Sardis, ib.

Cyrus the younger, arrives
on the coast, 129; his
expedition against liis
brother Artaxerxe^, 141 ;
march, 142 ; slain, 145.

Cyzicus, 127; recovered by
the Athenians, 128.

Danae, 5.

Damj, 5.

Dauaus, 5.

Darius, 47; Thracian ex-
pedition of, ib. : extorts
the submission of the
Macedonians, 48; death,
5G.

Darius Codomanus, de-
feated by Alexander r.t
Issus, 1S9 ; overthrown
by Alexander at Arbela,
I'.'S ; murdered, 195.

Datis, 51,

Decarchies, Spartan, 145.

Decelea, 119.

Delium, Athenian expedi-
tion against, 108 ; battle
of, ib.

Delos, confederacy o^, 71.

Delphi, temple of, 11 ; or-
acle, 15; tfiken by tha
riiociaus, 177.

Demades, 20.5.

Demaratus, GO.

Demetrias, Athenian tribe,
210.

Demetrius of Phalerus,
203; character of, 209;
retires to Thebes, ib.

Demetrius Poliorcetes, 200;
besieges Salamis, 210;
besieges Bhodcs, ih. ;
takes Athens, 211; king
of MacedoD, ib. ; deatli,
212.

244

INDEX.

DEMIUUGI.

Dcmiurgi, G.

Demosthenes, general , 105,
108.

Dcmorfthcne-', onvtor, ac-
count of, ITS; PhiUppics^
first, 17'J ; Oliinthiacs^
ib. ; fights at Chreronea,
ISl; liid conduct aftei'
rhilip's (Icatli, 1&4; pro-
poses reliyious lionours
for Philip's assassin,
ib. ; exertions to roucc
Greece, 1S5; embassy to
Alexander, ih.\ accused
by iK-ichines — speech on
tlta Crou'i)^ 202 ; con-
demned of corruption,
203 ; recalled from exile,
204; demanded by An-
tipator, 205; e -capes to
Calaurea, ib. ; death, ih. ;
cliaracter as an orator,
235.

Dercyllidas, 150.

TMacrii, 31.

Diajus, 221.

Dicastcries, 76.

Dinarciuis, 230.

Dio^^enes, liis interview
with Alexander, lS-1.

Dion, exiled, 1T2; takes
Syracuse, ib. ; assassin-
ated, 173.

Dionysius the elder, tyrant
of Syracuse, 171 ; dttith
and character, 172.

Dionysius the younger,
172; expelled by Dion,
il>. ; retires to Corinth,
174.

Dionvsn.^, theatre of, at
Athens, 95.

Diopithc.-', ISO.

Dithyramb, invention of
the, 225; the source of
tragedy, ib.

Dorcis, 71.

Dorians, 4; in Telopon-
ncsus, 17 ; migrations of
the, ib. ; three tribea of,
20.

Doris, 2

Doni

Draco, laws of, 30.

^,4.

Ecclesia., the, 37.

Egypt, its inllucnce on

(ircecc, 5.
Elis, .•{,

GORDIAN. I

Epaminondas, IGl ; his'
chaructcr, 1C3; embassy]
to Sp.irta, 1G4; military
genius of, 1G5; defeats
the Spartans at Lcuctra,
IGG ; invades Laconia,
1G7 ; establishes the Ar-
cadian confederation,
and restores tlie Messe-
niiins, 1G7-S; saves the
Theban army, IGO ; res-
cues Telopidas, ib. ; last
invasion of Teloponne-
sus, 170; death of, ib.

Ephesus, 41.

Ephialtcs, GO.

Epliialtes (the friend of
rericles), 7G.

Ephors, 21 ; povv'cr of the,
ib.

Epicurean sect, 237.

Epicurus, 230.

Epidamnus, 44, 81.

Epimenidcs, 31.

Epipohc, 117.

Epirus, 2.

Ercchtheum, 93.

Eubotja, 3; revolt from
Athens, 78; second re-
volt of, 126.

Euclides, archon, 138.

Eumones, 206.

Eunicnidts of iElschylus,
76.

Eumolpidfe, 115.

Eupafridoi.! 6; nature of
their government, 30.

Euphrates, surveyed by
order of Alexander, 201.

Euripides, account of, 233 ;
character as a poet, ib.

I'^urotas, 3.

i'^urybiades, 50.

Eurystheus, 6.

Evagoras, 150.

Flamhiinu.s T. Q., 219.

^'- Four Hundred," conspi-
racy of the, 125; put
down, 127.

IGalatia, 214.
Gaugamela, battle of (u.

Arbcla).
Gelon of Syracuse, 53, 06.
Geomotn\ (>, 29.
(rcru-^a., Spartan, 21.
Gordian knot, tlie, ISS.

iiippARcnus.

GranlcuB, battle of the,
187.

Greece, form of, 1 ; physi-
cal feiitures, 3; reduced
to a Koman province,
221.

Greek language, 11; his-
tory, early, ib.

Greeks, character of the,
3; cause.^ which united
them, 11; disunion of,
on the approach of
Xerxes, 58 ; celebrate
tlie battle of S<ilamis,
04; expedition of tlio
Ten Thousand, 1-12 ; re-
treat of, 1-17; arri%'e at
the ICiixine, 14S ; at By-
zantium, ib.

Gj'lippus an-ivcs in Sicily,
118; captures the fort of
Labdalum, ib.

II.

Ilamilcar, 60.
Hannibal, 217.
Ilarmodius and Aristogl.

ton, conspiracy of, 35.
Ilarmosts, Spartan, 149.
Ilarpagus, 46.
Ilarpalus, 202.
Ilecataius, 40.
Helen, 7.
Helirea, 37.
HcUanodicJO, 13.
Hellas, 1.
Hellen, 4
Hellenes, 1.
HoUenotamia?, 71.
Hellespont, bridge ovct

the, 57.
Helots, condition of, 21;

revolt of, 75.
Ileplirostion, marries D;y-

pctis, 109 ; death, 200.
Ileraclidro, return of the,

17.
Hercules, 0.
Hernia?, mutilated, 114.
Heniiolaus, 197.
Herodotus, 227; account

of his work, ib.
Heroes, 0.
Heroic age, 9; manners of,

ib.
Il&siod, 222.
lliero of Syracuse, 226.
Hipparchus, assassinuteJi

35.

INDEX.

245

HIPPIAS.

Ilippia?, 35; exiiellcd from
Athens, 3G.

llitftiteurt of Miletus, 43;
crucified, 50.

Ilistoiy, rise of, 227.

Homer, 222 ; his identity,
233 ; date, ib.

Homeric poems, their val-
ue, 8, 9 ; preservation
of, 223; arranged by Pi-
sistratus, ib.

Hypcrides, 203, 23G.

llyphasis, the, 198.

Ilissus, S5.

Ion, 5.

Ionia, subjupcated by the

Persians, 51.
lonians, 5; four tribes of,

29; revolt of the, 49;

defection from Sparta,

71.
Ionic mis^ation, IS.
lophon, 232.
Iphicrates, tactics of, 158;

successes of, ib.
Iphitus, 13.
Ipsus, battle of, 210.
Ira, fortress of, 25.
I?seas, 235.
I.sagoras, 36.
le^mcnias, 1G8, 160.
Isocrates, 235.
Issus, battle of, 139.
I.-^thmian games, 14.
Ithome, Mount, 24, 168.

Jason, 7.

Jason of Phera^, IGG; as-
sassinated, 167.

Knights, Athenian, 32.

Lacedaemonians (v. Spar-
ta).

Lachara^i 211.

Lacoaia, 3 ; reduced by the
Spartans, 24; northern
frontier of, 2G.

Lado, battle of, 50.

Lamachus, 114.

liamian war, 204.

Lnrnpsacu?, 133.

Larissa, 147.

MARATHON.

Laurium, silver mines at,
55.

Leonidas, 59; his death,
61.

Leonnatus, 204.

Leontiades, KJO.

Leosthenes, 203.

Leotychides, OS.

Leucas, 44.

Lcuctra, battle of, 165.

Literature, Greek, history
of, 223.

Locrians, 2.

Locris, 2.

Long walls, Athenian, SS;
rebuilt, 157.

Lycabettu.=, S5.

Lyceum, 90.

Lycon, 140.

Lycm'gus (legislator), 19.

Lycurgus (orator), 236.

Lydian monarchy, 45.

Lyric poetry, 224; occa-
sions of, ib. ; develop-
ment of, 236.

Lysander, appointed Xa-
varcfnis-i 129; intrusted
by Cyrus with his sa-
trapy, 132 ; his proceed-
ings after the victory of
j5!^ospotami, 133 ; block-
ades Pirfcus, lb. ; takes
possession of Athens,
134 ; establishes the
Thirty Tyrants, 135 ;
triumph, ib. ; honours,
137 ; re-enters Athens,
ib. ; his ambitious
schemes, 150 ; despatch-
ed to the Hellespont,
151; expedition into Boe-
otia, 153; slain, ib.

Lysias, 234.

Lysimachus, 20G, 210 ;
slain, 212.

J,L

Macedonia, description of,
175.

Macedonian empire, parti-
tion of, 20G; overthrow,
220.

Macedonians, their origin,
175.

IMacrones, the, 148.

Magna Grrocia, 42.

Malli, the, 198.

Mantinea, battle of, 113;
third battle of, 218.

Marathon, battle of, 53. i

NEODAMODES.

Mardonius, 51 ; adroit flat-
tery of, 65; negotiations
with the Athenians, 60 ;
marches against Athens,
67 ; retreats, ib. ; death,
ib.

Massalia, 44.

Medea, 7.

Medes, the, 45.

Medon, first Athenian ar-
chon, 29.

Megabazus, 47, 4S.

Megacles, 30.

Megalopolis founded, 107;
battle of, 202.

Megara revolts frona
Athens, 78; complains
of Athens, 82.

Megaris, 2.

Melcart, 190, 191.

Meletus, 140.

Melos, 113.

Menander, 234.

Menelaus, 7.

Menon, 147.

Mespila, 147.

Messene founded, 1C8.

Messenia, 3.

Messenian war, first, 24;
second, 25; third, 75.

Messenians conquered by
the Spartans, 24; sub-
jugated, 26.

Metellus, 221.

Miletus, fall of, 50.

Miltiades, 52 ; accusation
and death of, 55.

Mindarus, 127.

Minos, 6, 7.

Minotaur, 6.

Morea, 2.

Mummius, 221; his igno-
rance of art, ib.

Munychia, SS.

Museum, 86.

Mycale, battle of, GS.

Mycenas, 5; ruins of, 10.

Mytilcn?, naval engage-
ment at, 131.

Mytileneans, revolt of the,
103; capitulate, ib.

Naxos, Spartan expedition

against, 48.
Neapolis, IIG.
Nearchus, voyage of, 199.
Nemean games, 14.
Neodamodes, 151.

246

INDEX.

NictEJi, f;)undc.l liy Alcx-
andci", l'.>8.

Nicius, 107; concludes a
peace witli S/utii, 110;
appointed coniinander in
Sicily, 114; Ids dilatory
proceed! iif^.s there, 118;
dst'pondiug situation of,
lit); indecision, ib. ; sur-
reHdcr, 122 ; death, ib. ;
character, ib.

Nikv) Aptcros, temple of,
88.

Nineveh, 147.

Nobles, 9.

(Enophyta, battle of, 77.

()lij,'archy, 27.

Oiynipia, 3.

Olympiad, first, 4.

Olympian murdered, 208,

Olympic gauu's, 12.

Olynthiac orations of De-
mosthenes, IT'J.

Oiynthian confederacy dis-
.«olvo;l, IGO.

Olynthus, 159; taken by
the Spartans, 100.

Onomarchus, 177.

Opuntian Locrians, 152.

Orators, Athenian, de-
manded by Alexander,
1S5; ten Attic, 234.

Oratoiy, Greek, rise and
progress of, 234.

Orchomenos, 1G3.

Ortygia, 11(5.

Ostracism, introduced by
(Jlisthcnes, 37.

Oxyaites, 11)6.

Pachcs, ion, 104.

I'.amisus, lUvcr, 3.

Pancratium, 13.

PanirroiH, 177.

pMrali, 31.

Paris, 7.

Parmcnin, 187; put to
death by Alexander, 100.

Parnassus, Mount, 2.

Parthenon, 90.

Parysatis, Queen, 14C, 152.

Pasarga.he, V.)i.

Panlns, L. /ICm., 220.

I'ausaiiias, King of Snarti,
vanity and treason of,
71 ; recftll and impcach-

PERSIAN'S.

ment of, 72; conviction
and death, ib.

Pausanias (second), 137 ;
expedition into J5(jcotia,
ir)3 ; coudenmed to
death, ib.

Pausanias assassinates
Philip, 182.

Pedieis, 31.

Pelasgians, 4.

I'elopidas, cliaracter of,
101 ; gains a victory at
Tegyra, 103 ; subdues
Alexander of I'liera',
108; imprisoned by Alex-
ander, 101); defeats Alex-
ander, ib. ; t-laiu, ib.

Peloponne.sian confede-
racy, meeting of, 82;
decides for Avar against
Athens, ib. ; war, com-
mencement of, ib. ; in-
vasion of Attica, 99 ;
Thucydides' character of
the war, 228.

Peloponnesus, 2.

Pelops, 5.

Peneus, 2.

Penj-ab, the, 197.

Pcntacosiomediumi, 32.

I'entathlum, 13.

Perdiccas, 82,

Perdiccas (Alexander's
general), 200 ; marches
against Ptolemy, 207 ;
assassinated, ib.

Pericles, character of, 70 ;
innovations of, ib. ; his
administration, ib. ; re-
duces Euboja, 78; plans
for adorning Athens, ib. ;
pleads for Aspasia, SO;
funeral oration by, 100 ;
accused of peculation,
101 • death and charac-
ter, 102.

Pericles, age of, character
of art in, 83.

Perinthus, siege of, 181.

Periojci, 20.

Peripatetics, 237.

Perscpolis, taken and
l)urut by Alexander,
194.

Peiveus, 219 ; defeated by
the Romans, 220.

Persians, 4ii; their cniel-
tios towards the Ionic
(ireeks, r>0 ; invade
Gre(!ce, 51 ; demand
ojirth and water from

rnoCIANS.

the Grecian state?, t&. ;
second invasion of
Greece, ib. ; land nt
Marathon, 52; third in-
vasion ot Greece, 57 ;
their number under
Xerxes, ib. ; destruction
of their fleet by a storm,
01 ; their progress, 02 ;
attack Delphi, 03 ; taka
Athens, ib. ; retreat of,
C().

Phalanx, Macedonian, 170.

Phiilerum, SS.

I'hidias accused of pecula.
tioii, SO.

Philemon, 234.

Philip of Macedon, carried
to Thebes as a hostage,
108; education of, 175;
character, 176 ; defeats
the Illyrians, ib. ; takes
Amphipolis and Pydna,
ib. ; takes part in the
sacred war, 178; reduce.-?
Thessaly, ib, ; expedi-
tion into Thrace, ISO;
takes Olynthus, 179 ; oc-
cupies Delphi, ISO;
second expedition into
Thrace, 181; compelled
to evacuate the Cherso-
nese, ib. ; defeats the
Thebans and Athenians
at Cha?ronea, ib. ; his
conduct after the battle,
182; clemency towards
Athens, ib.; appointed
generalissimo against
Persia, ib. ; assassin-
ated, ?7). ; character, ib.

Philip IV., 211.

Philip v., 210; assists the
Aclueans, 217 ; forms an
alliance with Hannibal,
;7). ; flefcnted by the
INmians, 218.

Philip Arrhidanis, 20G,

Philippi founded, 177.

riiili]>j.ic.-^ of Demos-
thenes, 178; fii-pt, 179.

Pliilomehis, 177; slain, ib.

l'hilop(vmen, 218; takes
Sparta, 219; taken and
put to death, il).

Philo.-opliy, trreek, origin
of, 230; Ionic scIuh)! of,
7/'. ; I'.leatic school, 77'. ;
Pythagorean scliool,
237 ; various school;?, ib.

Phociaup, 177.

INDEX.

2^7

PIIOCION.

Phocion, 179; refuses Alex-
ander's presents, ISO ;
accusation and death,
208.

Pliocis, 2.

Phoebidas, IGO.

Phoenicians, 5.

Phrynichus, 126.

Phrynichus (dramatist),
acrount of, 230.

Phyllidas, 101.

J'itiacotheca, 90.

Pindar, account of, 220;
his house sparel by
Alexander, 1S5.

Pindus, Mount, 2.

I'irajua fortified, 70.

Pisa, 3.

I'isandei', 152.

Pir.\=tratu3, u3ui"pation of,
33 ; \vs stratagem, ib. ;
his deatn, 3i ; his char-
acter, 35.

Plague at Athens, 100.

Plat;ca, battle of, 67 ; sur-
prir^ed, 82; besieged by
the Peloponnesians, 102 ;
surrenders, 103; destroy-
ed, ib. ; restored by the
Lacedar-monians, 159 ;
again destroyed by the
Thebaus, 16-i.

Platfoans join the Athe-
nians, 52.

Plato visits Sicily, 172 ;
gold as a slave, ib. ;
Bocond visit to Sicily,
ib.; lifoof, 237; philos-
ophy, ib.

Pleistoanax, 78.

Pnyx, the, 80, 96.

Poccile Stoa., the, 239.

Poetry, Greek, 222.

Polemarch, 29.

Polybius, 219.

Polycrates of Sanios, 46.

Polysperchon, 207; expe-
dition to Peloponnesus,
27;.

Poru?!, 197.

Potidsea, 170.

Pratinas, 230.

Propylaja, 90.

Prytanes, 132.

Ptolemy, 206 ; defeated at
Salamis, 210.

Ptolemy Ceraunus, 212,
213.

Ptolemy Philadelphus, 21 2.

Pydna, 208 ; battle of, 220.

Pylus, 100.

SOCRATES.

Pyrrlius, 211 ; becomes
king of Macedonia, 212.
Pythagoras, 42, 237.
Pythia, 15.
Pythian game?, 14.

Rhapsodists, 223.

Rhegium, 42.

Rhodes, 3 ; siege of, 210.

Romans, direct their at-
tention towards Greece,
218 ; declare v/ar against
Philip v., ib.; proclaim
the freedom of Greece,
219; declare war against
Perseus, 220.

Roxana, man-ied by Alex-
ander, 190 ; murdered,
209.

SacreaP.and, Theban, 162.

Sacred war, iTT.

Salamis, acquired by the
Athenians, 31 ; battle of,
04.

Salamis (in Cyprus), battle
of, 210.

Samos, revolt of, 81; sub-
dued, ib. ; its inriJortaDce
to Athens, 124; revolu-
tions at, 126.

Sappho, 225.

Sardis, 45; burnt, 49.

Scarphea, battle of, 221.

Scione, 109.

Scythini, the, 148.

Seleucus, 207; founds An-
tioch, 211; succeeds to
the greater part of the
Macedonian empire, 213 ;
assassinated, ib.

Sellasia, battle of, 210.

Selymbria, 44.

Sestos, reduced by the
Athenians, OS.

Sicilian expedition, 114;
termination of, 122.

Simonides of Ceos, 226.

Sisygambis, 190.

Slaves, 9.

Social war, 177 ; ill effects
of the, ib. ; second, 217.

Socrates at Delium, 108;
opposes the condemna-
tion of the ten generals,
lo2 ; f^kctch of his life,
138; hid teaching and

SPARTANS.

method, 139 ; wisdom of,
ib. ; unpopularity and
indictment of, ib. ; con-
demned 140 ; refuses to .
escape, ib. ; death, ib.

Sogdiana, fortress of,
taken, 190.

Solon, 30; legi.slation of,
31.

Sophocles, account of, 282 ;
character as a poet, ib.

Sparta, IS; landed prop-
erty in, 23; earthquake
at, 75; allies of in the
Peloponnesian v/ar, 99 ;
league against, li>3 ; con-
gress at, 104 ; rapid fall
of, 107 ; taken by Anti-
gonus Doson, 210; taken
by Philopoemen, 219.

Spartan constitution, 20;
tribes, ib. ; education,
22; women, 23; money,
ib.

Spartans, make war on
Arcadia, 24; alone re-
tain their kings, 27;
overthrow the despots,
28 ; conduct of, iu Ther-
mopylae, 00 ; selfish c2°-.
duct of, 62 ; dismiss the
Athenians, 75 ; oppose
the Athenians in Bceo-
tia, 77; invade Attica,
99 ; send an embassy to
Athens, 100 ; invade Ar-
gos, 113; force the Ar-
gives to an alliance, ib. ;
establish themselves at
Decelea, 119; assist the
Phocians against the
Thebans, 153; defeated
at Ilaliartns, ih. ; pro-
claim the independence
of the Boeotian cities,
1.59 ; garrison Orchome-
nus and Thespia?, ib. ;
assist Amyntas against
the 01}Tithi;ms, 169 ;
lieight of their power,
ib. ; expelled from Boeo-
tia, 164; solicit the aid
of the Athenians, 168;
send an embassy to Per-
sia, ib. ; excluded from
the Amphictyonic coun-
cil, ISO ; attempt to
throw oft' the Macedonian
yoke, 202; their decline
and degradation, 215 ;
call in the Romans, 220.

fii:)eusippu!^, 238.

.Spluicteri.i, Itlockadcd,
I'XJ; captured 103.

^.p(>r!ldei', a.

ijtatira, 1'.10, 109; murder-
ed by Koxiina, 200.

Stoics, 237.

btratcgi, Atlicnian, 101.

Stratouicc, 211.

Su3a, treasures at, 194.

Sybaris, its luxury, 42; de-
stroyed, ?■&.

Sybarites, 79.

isipitaxiii^ tlie, 102.

Syracusans, tb.eir vigorous
defence, IIC.

Syracuse, 42; description
of., IIG; naval battle at,
IIS; enf:ja!:<»ment in the
Great Ilurbour of, 121 ;
constitution of, 171.

SijssiticL, 22.

. riHIDAZUS.

the SpartanH, 1G2; de-
clared licad of Greece I^y
the Tcrsians, 109 ; dc-
ptroyed,lS5; restored by
Cassandcr, 208.

Themistoclcs, propose.^ a
fleet, 55; his character,
ib. ; his advice to fight
at Salami?, 03; his strat-
agem to bring on an en-
gagement, 04 ; his mes-
sage to Xeiice.-:, ib. ; re-
warded by the Spartans,
CO ; his views, 70 ; goes
ambassador to Sparta,
ib. ; corruption of, 73 ;
ostracised, ib. ; flight,
ib. ; reception in Persia,
ib. ; death, 74.

Theramenes. 120, 132, 136;
his fi-- ;■ . >: '■

T" 2; pass of,

iTliei'eum.

*iTnhIft C'oni. ^vuions," tl

?f^ 30.

Zi.UGIT^..
TIsHuphernes, 124, 127,

14«); attacks the Ionian

cities, 150 ; bche::deJ,

152.
Tlthraustes, 152.
Tolmides, 73.
Torone, 109.
Ti-agedy, Greek, oriiin of,

230.
Ti-apezu8,.148.
Trilogies, 231.
Tnparadisus, treaty of,

207.
Trojan expedition, T.
Troy cai)turcd, 8.
Ti/rant., value of ♦'

27.
7^- ly Aioi-

Tyrtwus, k;

','.'yBSi

Uxiauji, UX-, JU'4.

tic* Ot? ,

, tuc Ar-

::iais, 194.

Thales of Iililetus, 23G.

Thasos, reduced, 75.

Tlieban.s, surprise Plat.Tn,
82; expel King Agesi-
laus from Aulis, 151; in-
vade I'hocis, 152 ; form
an alliance with Athens,
15;'.; forced into the
I.ticedamionian alliance,
100 ; rise ()f tlicir as-
ccu'lcncy, 100; defeated
liy Alexander of I'heriv,
109 ; ally themselves
with the Athenians
aL'ainst PliUip, ISl ;
humbledby Philip, 1S2;
rise against the Jlacedo-
nians, 1S5.

Thobes, 2 ; liberated from

"." 73.

■. 150.

\ ■ ■ truce, 78.

J i'yrants at Athens,

llift; i^roscription of the,

130 ; defeated by Thra-

sybulus,137; deposed by

the Spartans, 13S.

Thrasvbulus, 120 ; takes
Phylo, 137; seizes Pi-
rreus, ib. ; defeats the
Thirty, ib.

Thrasyllus, 120.

Thucydides (the historian),
in Thrace, 109; banish-
ed, ?7>. ; account of, 228;
his history, ib.

Thurii, 79.

Timocrates, 152.

Timoleon, character of,
173 ; expedition to Sic-
ily, ib. ; defeats fhn
Carthaginians, 174; be-
comes a Syracusau citi-
zen, ib.

Timotheiis, 102.

Tiribazus, 15S.

recovers

cue Thracian Cherso-
nese, 08.

Xenophanes, 236.

Xenophon, account of, 229;
Iiis works, ib. ; accom-
panies Cynis, 142 ; sa-
luted General of the Ten
Thousand, 147; returns
to Athens, 148;. joind
Agcsilaup, ib.

Xerxes, character of, 50;
subdues Kgypt, ib. ;
marches towan's Gi-eece,
57; reviews hi> troop.-,
ib.; crosses the llclUv-
pont, ib. ; number of b.is
liost, ib. ; takes Athens,
03: his alaiTO nnd re-
treat, 05»^

Xuthus, 4.

ZaleuouH, laws of, 42.
Zca, 88.
Zeno, 239.
Zctigitce.) 32.

THE END.

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