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SMITHSONTAN
MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOL. 110
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“ EVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES,
AND EXPERIMENTS, PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN "'—-§ MITHSON
(PuRticaTIon 3984)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
1949
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8S. A.
ADVERTISEMENT
The Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections series contains, since the
suspension in 1916 of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,
all the publications of the Institution except the Annual Report, the
annual volume describing the Institution’s field work, and occasional
publications of a special nature. As the name of the series implies, its
scope is not limited, and the volumes thus far issued relate to nearly
every branch of science. Papers in the fields of biology, geology,
anthropology, and astrophysics have predominated.
A. WETMORE,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
(iii)
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CONTENTS
Aspot, C. G. Solar variation attending West Indian hurricanes.
7 pp., I fig. Apr. 20, 1948. (Publ. 3916.)
. WEINTRAUB, Rosert L., and Price, Leonarp. Influence of
illumination on reducing sugar content of etiolated barley and
oat seedlings. 3 pp. Mar. 10, 1948. (Publ. 3917.)
. SHOEMAKER, CLARENCE R. The Amphipoda of the Smithsonian-
Roebling expedition to Cuba in 1937. 15 pp., 3 figs. Apr. 30,
1948. (Publ. 3918.)
. Axspot, C. G. 1947-1948 report on the 27.0074-day cycle in
Washington precipitation. 2 pp. Mar. 10, 1948. (Publ. 3919.)
. Avtpricu, L. B., and Assot, C. G. Smithsonian pyrheliometry
and the standard scale of solar radiation. 4 pp. Apr. 15, 1948.
(Publ. 3920.)
. Aspot, C. G. Magnetic storms, solar radiation, and Washington
temperature departures. 12 pp., 2 pls., 4 figs. June 25, 1948.
(Publ. 3940.)
. Ewers, JoHN C. Gustavus Sohon’s portraits of Flathead and
Pend d’Oreille Indians, 1854. 68 pp., 21 pls. and frontispiece.
Nov. 26, 1948. (Publ. 3941.)
. Duett, B., and Duet, G. The behavior of barometric pressure
during and after solar particle invasions and solar ultraviolet
invasions. 34 pp., 21 figs. Aug. 5, 1948. (Publ. 3942.)
. HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F. A new genus and five new species of
American fishes. 15 pp., 6 figs. July 28, 1948. (Publ. 3943.)
. Snopcrass, R. E. The feeding organs of Arachnida, including
mites and ticks. 93 pp., 29 figs. Aug. 18, 1948. (Publ. 3944.)
. Assot, C. G. The Smithsonian standard pyrheliometry. 4 pp.
Aug. 5, 1948. (Publ. 3945.)
. Henperson, E. P., and Perry, S. H. The Drum Mountains,
Utah, meteorite. 7 pp., 5 pls. Sept. 3, 1948. (Publ. 3946.)
. Frevrp, Henry. Contributions to the anthropology of the Soviet
Union. 244 pp., 5 pls. Dec. 22, 1948. (Publ. 3947.)
(v)
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 110, NUMBER 1
Roebling Fund
SOLAR VARIATION ATTENDING WEST
INDIAN HURRICANES
BY
C. G. ABBOT
Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution
(Pusiication 3916)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
APRIL 20, 1948
The Lord Galtimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. As
Roebling Fund
SOLAR VARIATION ATTENDING WEST
INDIAN HURRICANES
By C. G. ABBOT
Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution
West Indian hurricanes rarely occur except in the months June to
November. Table 1 shows the monthly distribution of 69 major hurri-
canes from 1923 to 1946. It seems probable that in these months,
especially in August, September, and October, there is such an un-
stable meteorological condition in those regions that only a slight im-
pulse suffices to precipitate the cataclysm.
TasLe 1.—Distribution of West Indian hurricanes, 1923-1946
OPEIEIEEN Oecd wai oats June July August September October November
OO 3 5 19 25 14 3
Many years ago the late Herbert Janvrin Browne came to me with
a dozen dates of first reports of West Indian hurricanes. He pointed
out that on these dates Smithsonian solar-constant values had been
depressed. I was so sensible of the accidental errors of individual
solar-constant results that I was inclined to regard his observation as
merely a coincidence. However, I prepared a table of sequences of
solar-constant values from Io days before to 10 days after his dates.
The mean value of the 21 columns did indeed show a slight depression
at the date of first report, but so slight that I was disinclined to at-
tribute any significance to it.
Since then the solar-constant values from 1923 to 1946 have all
been carefully gone over and revised to final form. They are now, of
course, several times as numerous as they were then. It has occurred
to me to re-examine this question with the advantage of better and
more extensive data.
With the kind advice of the United States Weather Bureau, I col-
lected 69 dates, partly from the December numbers of Monthly
Weather Review, partly from Tannehill’s “Hurricanes,” when major
West Indian hurricanes occurred in the years 1923 to 1946. Six of
these dates were omitted because of almost complete lack of solar-
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 1
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE.
constant data, or because of very closely overlapping sequences. Cor-
responding to each of the remaining 63 dates I wrote out the values
of the solar-constant as observed at Montezuma, Chile, from 10 days
before to 12 days after the dates when the hurricanes were first re-
ported. On 17 of these remaining dates the 21-day sequences of solar-
constant values, especially in the neighborhood of the hurricane dates,
were so fragmentary that I disregarded them. This left 46 dates to
be considered with more or less complete solar-constant sequences
closely adjacent to the hurricane dates.
I should remark that I used the solar-constant values as observed,
not those marked “preferred” in table 24, volume 6, Annals of the
Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution. I also dis-
regarded all marks of “grade.”’ I have become convinced by several re-
searches that the procedure used to obtain “preferred values” is un-
desirable, and that the “grades” of volume 6 were sometiines assigned
with prejudice against wild values which after all may have been good.
The daily solar-constant values from 1939 to 1946 are as yet unpub-
lished but were made available to me. Mr. Aldrich informs me that
when assigning “grades” to them he and his colleagues were very
careful not to be influenced by the wildness of a value. Hence I felt
justified in rejecting a very few discordant values of low grades in this
later work. I may add that I rejected the solar-constant values of
September 9, 10, and 12, 1930, which fall far out of line, because they
preceded a spell of bad weather from September 11 to 24 when only
2 days of observation at Montezuma occurred in that whole interval,
and these also gave values abnormally low. I also rejected the solar-
constant value of September 25, 1923, because it is very abnormally
high.
Table 2 gives the dates of hurricanes, including the entire 69, of
which the 17 rejected for fragmentary sequences of solar-constant
values are starred, and the 6 omitted as stated above have daggers.
Table 3 gives the values of solar constants for the 46 remaining
hurricanes from Io days before to 12 days after the date of first report.
The number of solar-constant values included in each of the means is
given just above the means themselves. The mean values are plotted
in figure 1. As given in table 3 they should be understood as prefixed
by 1.9 calories.
There appears a gradual descent of the solar constant prior to the
date of reports, amounting to 0.0016 calorie. Then comes a sudden
drop of 0.0031 calorie to a sharp minimum on the actual day of first
reports. After that the solar constant recovers on the third day, but
not quite to its former level.
NO. I SOLAR VARIATION AND HURRICANES—ABBOT 3
Although the depressive effect is very clear in the mean values, not
all the sequences of solar-constant values show a depression on the day
of first report of a hurricane. In fact, of the 46 cases used to form the
means, there are 14 in which on the day of first report of the hurri-
cane the solar constant was observed as high, and in a few cases even
slightly higher than on the days preceding and following. I doubt
if this discrepancy should be attributed to accidental error. Hence we
TABLE 2.—Dates of first report of major West Indian hurricanes, 1923 to 1946
1923: Sept. 24.
1924: Aug. 16, 27; Sept. 14.
1925: Nov. 29*.
1926: July 22; Aug. 217; Sept. 6; Oct. 14.
1928: Sept. 67.
1929: Sept. 22.
1930: Aug. 31.
1931: Sept. 6*, 97.
1932: Aug. II, 30*; Sept. 26*; Oct. 31 *.
1933: June 27; July 25 *; Aug. 17*, 287, 317; Sept. 10, 16; Oct. 1, 26.
1934: June 4; Sept. 5; Oct. 1; Nov. 21.
1935: Aug. 31 *; Sept. 237; Oct. 19, 30 *.
1936: July 27; Aug. 28*; Sept. 8, 24.
1937: Sept. 14, 20.
1938: Aug. 14, 23; Sept. 16.
1939: Oct. 12, 20.
1940: Aug. 5, 30; Sept. II.
1941: Sept. 18, 23 *; Oct. 3.
1942: Aug. 21; Nov. 5.
1943: July 26; Aug. 30; Sept. 11; Oct. 11 *.
1944: July 30; Aug. 16; Sept. 8 *, 19 *; Oct. 13 *.
1945: June 20; Aug. 24; Sept. 11 *; Oct. 2*.
1946: Sept. 12; Oct. 6*.
* Rejected because of fragmentary sequences of solar-constant values.
t+ Omitted because of almost complete lack of solar-constant data.
are not to infer that a depression of the solar constant is always nec-
essary to bring on a hurricane. Nevertheless frequently it appears to
be the impulse which starts the cataclysm.
Lest some critic should suspect that the 17 dates rejected for frag-
mentary solar-constant sequences might have been unfairly rejected,
and, if included, would lead to a different conclusion, I have thought
well to take the mean values for all of the 17 rejected sequences, frag-
mentary though they are. The means are given in table 4 with the
numbers of values entering into each mean. The means of these
values are very divergent, partly because the observations are few,
but more because parts of these sequences lie at different levels of
TIO
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
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6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10
the solar constant. If in any column it happens that fragments of
sequences remain representing periods of prevailingly high solar
constant, and in another column the fragments which remain repre-
sent prevailingly low periods of the solar constant, the two means are
not comparable. Unfortunately the mean at the hurricane day is
among the weakest in table 4, having fewest observations, only 8 out
Ce
MLS |
VAIN
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-10 a
008
002
Fic. 1.—Mean solar-constant values preceding and following first reports of
West Indian hurricanes. Abscissae, days before and after report dates; ordinates,
solar-constant values, to be prefixed by 1.94.
of 17 cases reporting. Despite the paucity and raggedness of these
data, they tend, on the whole, in the same sense as table 3. That is,
the solar constant tends to decrease before the hurricanes, and does
not quite recover to its former average value within 12 days after-
ward.
Although we may wish that stations better even than Montezuma
might have been available, so that solar-constant values could have
been more accurate and more complete, the results of this investiga-
NO. I SOLAR VARIATION AND HURRICANES—ABBOT 7
tion, and of those that I have described in several earlier papers,’ show
that these solar-constant values are useful, that they disclose solar
variations which are correlated with solar and terrestrial events, and
that the variations of solar radiation are of major importance for
meteorology.
Although the present research shows, I think definitely, the im-
portance of solar variation in starting West Indian hurricanes, it can-
not serve as a basis for predicting them for several reasons. First,
the depression of solar radiation is not clearly marked until the be-
ginning of a hurricane is already observed. Second, it appears that
a considerable proportion (though still a small minority) of the hurri-
canes start without the impulse of a fall in solar radiation. Third, no
doubt depressions of solar radiation occur, even in the hurricane sea-
son, when conditions are not ripe for a cataclysm. Finally, even if the
probable formation of a hurricane could at some future time be antici-
pated for a few days by aid of greatly improved solar observations,
there would still be no way to predict where it would start, or whither
it would travel.
What has been accomplished here is, first, to show that changes of
solar radiation are of importance in starting hurricanes; second, to
confirm earlier impressions that Smithsonian solar-constant values,
imperfect and incomplete as they are, still are helpful in the discussion
of meteorological phenomena.
1 Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 94, No. 10, 1935; vol. 95, No. 12, 1936; vol. 95,
No. 15, 1936; vol. ro1, No. 1, 1941; vol. 104, No. 5, 1944; vol. 104, No. 12, 1945;
vol. 104, No. 13, 1945; vol. 107, No. 4, 1947; vol. 107, No. 9, 1947; vol. 107,
No. 10, 1947. See also Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1935, pp. 93-115, and
for 1944, pp. 119-154. Also, of course, vol. 6, Annals, Astrophysical Observatory
of the Smithsonian Institution.
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 110, NUMBER 2
INFLUENCE OF ILLUMINATION ON
REDUCING SUGAR CONTENT OF
ETIOLATED BARLEY AND
OAT SEEDLINGS
BY
ROBERT L. WEINTRAUB
AND
LEONARD PRICE
Division of Radiation and Organisms
Smithsonian Institution
(PusticaTion 3917)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
MARCH 10, 1948
The Lord Waltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
INFLUENCE OF ILLUMINATION ON REDUC-
ING SUGAR CONTENT OF ETIOLATED
BARLEY AND OAT SEEDLINGS
By ROBERT L. WEINTRAUB? anv LEONARD PRICE
Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution
Increased rate of carbon dioxide production following illumination
of etiolated barley seedlings was observed by Weintraub and Johnston
(1944). A possible mechanism for this effect is suggested by the
finding of Parija and Saran (1934) of increased reducing sugar con-
tent caused by brief illumination of starved Aralia leaves, in conjunc-
tion with the numerous reports in the literature of an intimate relation
between respiratory rate and reducing sugar content of plants. In
order to test this possibility experiments have been conducted to ascer-
tain whether changes in the reducing sugar content of etiolated cereal
seedlings are produced by illumination of relatively short duration.
“Seeds” * of barley (varieties Hannchen and Sunrise) and of oats
(variety Markton) were planted on filter-paper-covered porous stone
wicks and allowed to germinate at room temperature in total dark-
ness. At suitable ages, seedlings were exposed to the unfiltered radi-
ation from a frosted tungsten filament lamp for periods of 60 to 200
minutes, at the end of which they were harvested.
For the sugar analyses, the shoots were severed just above the seeds,
cut rapidly into small pieces with scissors, and placed in light-tight
aluminum cans for weighing. Unilluminated plants were similarly
sampled at the same time, the operations being performed in absence
of light. The fresh weights were determined as rapidly as possible
and the tissues transferred quickly to boiling 95-percent ethyl alcohol.
Tests showed that reducing substances were removed completely
after three additional extractions with boiling 8o-percent alcohol ;
this procedure was followed throughout. The alcohol was removed
from the combined extracts on a water bath and replaced by water.
Reducing power was estimated with the copper-iodometric reagent
#50 of Shaffer and Somogyi (1933). In some experiments total
1 Now with the Department of the Army, Camp Detrick, Frederick, Md.
2 Kindly supplied by Merritt N. Pope and T. Ray Stanton of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 2
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
reducing substance was measured after clearing the aqueous solutions
by treatment with neutral lead acetate and potassium oxalate. In
others, only the fermentable reducing substance was determined, from
the difference between analyses before and after treatment of the un-
cleared solutions with various yeasts.* In either case sugar was re-
sponsible for all, or very nearly all, the reducing power found and,
as shown by the fermentation tests, consisted practically entirely of
glucose or fructose, or both.
TasLe 1.—Influence of illumination on reducing sugar content of etiolated
seedlings
Mgm. glucose equivalents
Illumination per gm. fresh weight
Age ‘Intensity Duration Before After
Exp. Species (days) (Gi (ey) (min.) illumination illumination
1...Hordeum vulgare
var. Hannchen 6 20 60 18.0 18.1
2.0* aria
2...Hordeum vulgare
var. Sunrise Z 25 200 19.6 18.7
150 200 19.6 19.0
3...Hordeum vulgare
var. Sunrise oy 25 165 18.5 16.8
4...Hordeum vulgare
var. Sunrise 8 25 195 12.6 12.6
5...Avena sativa
var. Markton 6 25 180 Zie2 21.0
6...Avena sativa
var. Markton 6 20 60 22.4” 2230
7...Avena sativa
var. Markton 7 20 60 23.8 23.8
a Mem. sucrose per gm. tissue.
b Leaf blades only.
In a few experiments sucrose also was estimated from the increase
in reducing power after hydrolysis by invertase.
Table 1 summarizes the results obtained with seedlings such as had
been found previously to exhibit increased carbon dioxide production
after illumination. Each figure represents the average of two or three
lots of plants. The values are expressed in terms of fresh weight of
tissue. Substantially the same relative results were found if calcu-
lated on the basis of dry weight of the extracted tissue.
The data show that, under the experimental conditions employed,
the content of reducing sugar is not increased by illumination. Hence
3 We are indebted to Dr. Lynferd J. Wickerham, of the Northern Regional
Research Laboratory, U.S.D.A., for cultures of yeasts with specific fermentative
ability.
NO. 2 SUGAR CONTENT OF SEEDLINGS—WEINTRAUB AND PRICE 3
the observed stimulation of carbon dioxide evolution by light does not
appear to be attributable to increased sugar content.
These results are not necessarily contradictory to those of Parija
and Saran as the nature and condition of the plant material were quite
different in the two investigations. The sugar content of the detached
Aralia leaves was only about one-hundredth as great as in the week-old
grass seedlings, and it is not unlikely that metabolism follows a dif-
erent path under such a condition of starvation. Oat seedlings grown
in darkness for a longer time (2 to 3 weeks) were found to exhibit a
rapid decline in reducing sugar and in some experiments showed ap-
preciable increases following illumination. This was the case also
with old detached tomato shoots which had been kept in the dark for
a few days. However, as such plants generally have an unhealthy ap-
pearance and show a considerable degree of variability, the signifi-
cance of this finding is not clear and the experiments have not been
pursued.
Summary.—Sugar analyses indicate that the increased rate of car-
bon dioxide production which follows illumination of etiolated barley
seedlings is not due to an increased content of reducing sugar or
sucrose.
LITERATURE CITED
Pariya, P., and Saran, A. B.
1934. The effect of light on the respiration of starved leaves. Ann. Bot.,
vol. 48, pp. 347-354.
Suarrer, P. A., and Somocyr, M.
1933. Copper-iodometric reagents for sugar determination. Journ. Biol.
-Chem., vol. 100, pp. 695-713.
WEINTRAUB, R. L., and Jonnston, E. S.
1944. The influence of light and of carbon dioxide on the respiration of
etiolated barley seedlings. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 104, No. 4.
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 110, NUMBER 3
THE AMPHIPODA OF THE
SMITHSONIAN-ROEBLING EXPEDITION
TO CUBA IN 1937
BY
CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER
Associate in Zoology, Smithsonian Institution
FEE INCRE
(PusiicaTion 3918)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
APRIL 30, 1948
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A.
THE AMPHIPODA OF THE SMITHSONIAN-
ROEBLING EXPEDITION TO CUBA
IN 1937
By CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER
Associate in Zoology, Smithsonian Institution
The amphipods of the Smithsonian-Roebling Expedition were
taken in Corrientes Bay and in the vicinity of the Isle of Pines on
the southwest coast of Cuba, in comparatively shallow waters. Many
of the specimens were collected by means of the submarine electric
light, which was used at a number of stations with considerable suc-
cess. The Gammaridea are represented by 9 families, 10 genera, and
I1 species. The Hyperiidea are represented by 3 families, 6 genera,
and 8 species. Two species, Pontogeneia bartschi and Ceradocus
sheardi, are new to science.
STATIONS AT WHICH AMPHIPODS WERE TAKEN
STATION 30. Bahia Corrientes, Meyers anchorage, April 6, 1937.
Stations 48, 49, and 52. Bahia Corrientes, Corrientes anchorage,
submarine light, April 8, 1937.
Stations 78, 88, and 89. Bahia Corrientes, Corrientes anchorage,
submarine light, April 9, 1937.
STATION 100. Cayos San Felipe, submarine light, April 10, 1937.
STATION 112. Shore collecting, Siguanea Bay, opposite Siguanea
Island, Isle of Pines, April 11, 1937.
STATION 124. Siguanea Bay, dredge, 12 to 26 feet, April 11, 1937.
STATION 169. Lat. 21°57’15” N., Long. 82°32'45” W., April 15,
1937.
Order GAMMARIDEA
Family LYSIANASSIDAE
SHOEMAKERELLA NASUTA (Dana)
Lysianassa nasuta DANA, 1853 and 1855, United States Exploring Expedition,
Crustacea, vol. 13, II, p. 915, pl. 62, fig. 2a-m.
Lysianax cubensis Steppinc, 1897, Trans. Linn. Soc. London, ser. 2, vol. 7,
p. 209, pl. 7B.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 3
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL LEO
Lysianopsis alba PEARSE, 1912, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 43, p. 360, fig. 1.
Lysianopsis alba SHOEMAKER, 1921, Univ. Iowa Stud. Nat. Hist., vol. 9, No. 5,
p. 99.
Lysianassa cubensis SHOEMAKER, 1935, New York Acad. Sci. Scientific Survey
of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, vol. 15, pt. 2, p. 232, fig. I.
Shoemakerella nasuta PirRLot, 1936, 1 Max Weber, Siboga Expeditie, vol. 33¢,
p. 265.
Shoemakerella nasuta Prrtot, 1939, Mem. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belgique,
ad ser., fasc. 15, p. 47.
Station 169, 2 specimens 9.
This species was described by Dana from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
and it has since been recorded from Barbados, Puerto Rico, Cuba,
Tortugas and the coast of Florida, and Albatross station 2369-74
(northeastern part of the Gulf of Mexico). The animal measures
about Io mm. in length.
Family PHOXOCEPHALIDAE
PONTHARPINIA FLORIDANA Shoemaker
Pontharpinia floridana SHOEMAKER, 1933, Amer. Mus. Novit., No. 598, p. 5,
figs. 3, 4.
Station 48, 2 specimens; station 49, 2 specimens; station I12,
2 specimens.
This species was described from off Key Largo, Fla. There are
in the collection of the United States National Museum specimens
from Skull Creek, S. C., and from off Sable Island lighthouse, Ga.
The species measures 6 to 8 mm.
Family LEUCOTHOIDAE
LEUCOTHOE SPINICARPA (Abildgaard)
Gammarus spinicarpa ABILDGAARD, 1789, in O. F. Miiller, Zoologia Danica seu
Animalium Daniae et Norvegiae rariorum ac minus notorum Descriptiones
et Historia, ed. 3, vol. 3, p. 66, pl. 1109, fig. 1.
Leucothoe spinicarpa Sars, 1892, Crust. Norway, vol. 1, p. 283, pl. 100.
Leucothoe spinicarpa STEBBING, 1906, Das Tierreich, Amphipoda I, Gammaridea,
p. 165 (literature).
Station 124, 2 specimens; station 169, I specimen.
This is a cosmopolitan species and has been frequently taken on
the east coast of the United States. It has also been taken in the
Gulf of Mexico and the West Indies. This species measures from
14 to 18 mm. in length.
NO. 3 AMPHIPODA OF CUBA—SHOEMAKER 3
Family SYNOPIIDAE
SYNOPIA ULTRAMARINA Dana
Synopia ultramarina Dana, 1853 and 1855, United States Exploring Expedi-
tion, Crustacea, vol. 13, II, p. 995, pl. 68, fig. 6a-h.
Synopia ultramarina STEBBING, 1906, Das Tierreich, Amphipoda I, Gammaridea,
‘a71.
is schéeleana Bovatitus, 1886, Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Sci. Upsala, ser. 3,
vol. 13, No. 9, p. 16, pl. 2, figs. 22-29.
Synopia ultramarina SHOEMAKER, 1945, Amphipoda of the Bermuda Ocean-
ographic Expedition 1929-1931, p. 195, fig. 8.
Station 30, about 50 specimens; station 48, 3 specimens ; station 49,
I specimen; station 52, 4 specimens; station 78, I specimen; station
89, 15 specimens ; station 112, 18 specimens.
Widely distributed in all tropical and subtropical seas. The species
usually measures from 2 to 5 mm., but specimens may reach 7 mm.
in length.
Family BATEIDAE
CARINOBATEA CUSPIDATA Shoemaker
Carinobatea cuspidata SHOEMAKER, 1926, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 68, p. 21,
figs. 14, 15.
Carinobatea cuspidata SHOEMAKER, 1933, Amer. Mus. Novit., No. 508, p. 11.
Carinobatea cuspidata SHOEMAKER, 1935, New York Acad. Sci. Scientific Survey
of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, vol. 15, pt. 2, p. 235.
Station 78, I specimen; station 89, 6 specimens; station 124, 8
specimens.
This species was described from St. Thomas, Virgin Islands. It
has since been taken at Puerto Rico and the west coast of Florida.
The animal measures about 5 mm. in length.
CARINOBATEA CARINATA Shoemaker
Carinobatea carinata SHOEMAKER, 1926, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 68, p. 24,
fig. 16.
Station 169, I specimen.
This species was described from the west coast of Florida. The
present record from off the Isle of Pines is the second of its occur-
rence. The animal measures about 5 mm. in length.
Family PONTOGENEIIDAE
The difficulties of the family Pontogeneiidae and the confusion
existing among its genera have been discussed by Schellenberg *,
1 Schellenberg, A., Revision der Amphipoden-Familie Pontogeneiidae. Zool.
Anz., Bd. 85, Heft 11/12, pp. 273-282, 1929.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Stephensen ?, Nicholls *, and others. Schellenberg has produced a
key which, as Nicholls remarks, “has made the task of separating
members of the various genera a comparatively simple one.’ The
species which I am here describing, while obviously a member of
the Pontogeneiidae, does not possess a combination of characters
agreeing with any of the genera as keyed by Schellenberg. In the
present species the fourth joint of the second antenna is longer than
the fifth; the carpus of the gnathopods is not elongate; the fourth
coxal plate is very shallowly excavate ; the telson is cleft to base; and
the branchiae are not simple but rather complex.
PONTOGENEIA BARTSCHI new species
FIGURE I
Station 30, about 50 specimens; station 48, about 50 specimens ;
station 49, about 50 specimens; station 52, about 25 specimens; sta-
tion 78, about 50 specimens ; station 88, 5 specimens ; station 89, about
100 specimens; station 100, many thousands of specimens.
Male.—Head with very short rostrum; lateral lobes broadly round-
ing; eye very large and black. Antenna 1 shorter than 2; first joint
nearly twice as long as second, which is twice as long as third; first
peduncular joint bearing only groups of very fine setae on under sur-
face; second peduncular joint bearing calceoli on its under surface;
third peduncular joint is without accessory flagellum, but is expanded
distally on the inner side into a shallow lobe bearing a few calceoli;
flagellum long and slender and composed of many joints, each of
which bears a calceolus and two or three sensory filaments on its under
distal edge. Antenna 2, fourth joint longer than fifth and both with
calceoli on the upper surface; flagellum composed of many joints, each
of which bears a calceolus and two sensory filaments on its upper
distal edge.
Mandible normal, cutting edge rather narrow and armed with short
blunt teeth ; accessory plate small, simple, and armed with short teeth ;
three spines in spine row; molar strong; palp strong, second joint
longer than third and somewhat expanded. Maxilla 1, inner plate
small and bearing 3 distal plumose setae; outer plate bearing 11 spine
teeth; second joint of palp armed distally with 4 slender teeth and
2 Stephensen, K., Crustacea from the Auckland and Campbell Islands. Vidensk.
Medd. Dansk Naturh. Foren., Bd. 83, pp. 315-342, 1927.
8 Nicholls, G. E., Australian Antarctic Expedition 1911-14, Scientific Reports,
Ser. C., Zoology and Botany, vol. 2, pt. 4, Amphipod Gammaridea, pp. 100-122,
1938.
NO. 3 AMPHIPODA OF CUBA—SHOEMAKER 5
Fic. 1—Pontogeneia bartschi new species. Male, a, front end of animal; b, a
few segments of antenna 1, greatly enlarged; c, mandible; d, maxilla 1; ¢, max-
illa 2; f, maxilliped; g, lower lip; h, distal end of gnathopod 1; 1, peraeopod 2
showing side plate and the camplex branchia; j, hind end of animal; &, telson;
1, uropod 3. a
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
4 setae. Maxilla 2, inner lobe narrower than outer and without
oblique row of setae. Maxilliped, inner lobe not reaching to base of
palp and armed distally with three strong teeth, one slender spine
tooth, and several curved setae; outer lobe reaching just beyond the
first joint of palp, armed with a row of submarginal spine teeth
arranged in pairs, and bearing distally several curved spines; palp
rather short and stout, third joint produced distally into a small lobe
at the base of the dactyl. Upper lip with lower margin broadly
rounding. Lower lip with inner lobes scarcely perceptible and mandib-
ular processes short and rather blunt.
Gnathopods rather slender and weak and much alike in size and
shape. Gnathopod 1, fifth joint as long as wide with lower margin
scarcely at all produced ; sixth joint about twice as long as wide, palm
oblique, finely serrulate throughout and defined by a slight angle which
is armed on the outer surface with one long and one short spine and
on the inner surface with two long spines. Seventh joint fitting palm
and bearing about six short setae on inner margin. Gnathopod 2
like 1 except that the fifth joint is produced below into a rather long,
narrow lobe which lies against the base of the sixth joint. Peraeopods
1 and 2 alike in size and shape; fourth joint slightly expanded ;
fourth, fifth, and sixth joints bearing a row of plumose setae on the
hind margin; seventh joint long, curved, and bearing a minute setule
at base of nail. Peraeopods 3 to 5 increasing consecutively in length,
the second joint considerably expanded. The coxal plates are all
shallow and are shaped as shown in figure 1A. Metasome segment
I is rounding below ; segment 2 is quadrate at lower hind corner ; and
lower hind corner of segment 3 is obtuse angled.
Uropods 1 and 2 slender and bearing a few short spines. Uropod
3 extending farther back than 1, rami broad and converging to a
sharp point, their margins armed with spines and plumose setae.
Telson extending beyond peduncle of uropod 3, cleft to its base, the
lobes obliquely rounding distally and unarmed, but upper surface
bearing a few submarginal setules. The branchiae are quite com-
plex and consist of a series of overlapping lobes attached to a broad
lamellar base which is strengthened at one edge by a thickened process
resembling a vertebral column. Length from rostrum to end of
uropod 3 about 6 mm.
Female.—The female closely resembles the male but is slightly
smaller. It differs from the male as follows: the antennae are shorter,
but bear calceoli as in the male; the gnathopods are smaller and
weaker, though they are similar in structure to those of the male;
the first and second peraeopods are without the plumose setae on the
NO. 3 AMPHIPODA OF CUBA—-SHOEMAKER 7
fourth to sixth joints, but bear spines instead. Length of female from
rostrum to end of uropod 3 about 5 mm.
Type.—A male, U.S.N.M. No. 80622, taken by Dr. Paul Bartsch
at station 100, south coast of the west end of the western island of
the Cayos San Felipe, Corrientes Bay, western end of Cuba, April 10,
1937-
Family GAMMARIDAE
CERADOCUS SHEARDI new species
FIGURE 2
Station 169, 12 specimens.
These specimens do not agree with any of the known species of
Ceradocus as set forth in Keith Sheard’s comprehensive paper “The
Genus Ceradocus,” Records of the Australian Museum, vol. 6, No. 3,
1939. I am therefore describing the species as new and naming it
Ceradocus sheardi in honor of Mr. Sheard.
Male——Antenna I about two-thirds the length of the body; first
joint a little shorter than the second, lower margin bearing a distal
spine, one near the center, and two smaller proximal spines ; second
joint without spines; flagellum longer than peduncle; accessory
flagellum of about eight joints. Antenna 2, peduncle about equal in
length to that of antenna 1; flagellum a little longer than the fifth
peduncular joint and consisting of about 16 joints. Mandibular palp
with third joint a little over one-third the length of the second.
Maxilla 1, inner plate normal; outer plate with 9 spine teeth; palp
with 18 slender terminal spines. Maxilla 2 normal. Maxillipeds, inner
plate armed distally with three rather long teeth and several slender,
curved spines, inner margin with a few plumose setae; outer plate
armed on inner margin with about nine slender, curved teeth, and
distally with slender, curved plumose spines and setae; palp with
second joint reaching a little beyond outer plate. Lower lip with
small inner lobes; mandibular processes or lateral lobes slender.
Gnathopod 1, sixth joint a little shorter than fifth ; coxal plate with
lower front corner produced. Gnathopod 2 with sixth joint very
large and strong; palm convex distally and concave at the defining
angle, which bears two stout spines. Peraeopods 1 and 2 very short.
Peraeopods 3 to 5 increasing consecutively in length. Peraeopod 3,
second joint with the lower posterior corner not produced downward
into an angular lobe but narrowly rounding. The second joints of
peraeopods 4 and 5 with the lower posterior corner rounding. Meta-
some segments toothed as shown in figure 2A. The posterior teeth
of the first and second urosome segments do not appear to adhere to
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
a definite pattern. They do not always have a large mediodorsal tooth
nor are they evenly dentate. In the male that I have figured the first
urosome segment possesses a large mediodorsal tooth, but the second
SSS OO
ty
i
i
it
t
i
x
Fic. 2.—Ceradocus sheardi new species. Male, a, entire animal; b, mandible;
c, maxilla 1; d, maxilla 2; ¢, maxilliped; f, lower lip; g, gnathopod 1; h, gnatho-
pod 2; 7, dorsal view of first and second urosome segments; j, telson; k, uropod 3.
segment does not (fig. 21). In most of the specimens the median
tooth of the first urosome segment is larger than some of the adjacent
teeth and in some of the specimens there is no median tooth on the
NO. 3 AMPHIPODA OF CUBA—SHOEMAKER 9
second urosome segment. Between the teeth of the metasome seg-
ments and those of the first urosome segment there is a seta, but be-
tween the teeth of the second urosome segment there are no setae.
Uropod 3 with rami rather broad, outer ramus bearing groups of
stout spines on outer margin and a few spines on distal half of inner
margin ; inner ramus with spines on both margins. Telson not reach-
ing to end of peduncle of uropod 3, deeply cleft, bearing three distal
spines on each lobe, and two plumose setules or hairs on the lateral
margins. Length of male from front of head to end of uropod 3,
I4 mm.
Female——The female does not differ materially from the male;
even the gnathopods being like those of the male. The right and left
gnathopods are alike in both sexes. The length is 14 mm.
Type—A male, U.S.N.M. No. 81564, taken by Dr. Paul Bartsch
at station 169 (21°57’15” N., 82°32’45” W.), April 15, 1937.
In many characters this species agrees with rubromaculatus, but
disagrees in others. The lower posterior corner of the third, fourth,
and fifth peraeopods is not produced angularly downward, but is
evenly rounding. The palm of the second gnathopod is quite different,
as is seen by comparison with Sheard’s figure 2F. The first and
second urosome segments are not evenly dentate. The telson bears
on each lobe three distal spines, the outer one of which is the longest
and the inner one the shortest.
The male which I have figured was taken by the Albatross at station
2365, just north of Yucatan, in 24 fathoms. It has been taken also
on the west coast of Florida, and at Albatross station 2369-74 in the
northeastern part of the Gulf of Mexico, in 26 fathoms.
CERADOCUS sp.
Station 169, I specimen.
This specimen, an ovigerous female measuring about Io mm., re-
sembles Ceradocus chiltoni Sheard in several characters, but differs in
others. The second gnathopods, the right and left of which are alike,
very much resemble those of C. chiltoni, though the sixth joint is pro-
portionally a little longer and narrower. The palm is toothed as shown
by Sheard’s figure 7 A, but the prominent defining angle bears two
stout spines instead of one as shown in his figure. The lower posterior
corner of the second joint of peraeopods 3 to 5 is produced angularly
downward. The teeth of the first and second urosome segments vary
greatly in size, some of them being long and upward-curved. The
10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
telson bears two long and two short spines distally on each lobe. The
third uropods are missing. I refrain from describing and figuring this
species, as there is only the one specimen.
ELASMOPUS POCILLIMANUS (Bate)
Moera pocillimanus BATE, 1862, Cat. Amph. British Mus., p. 191, pl. 34, fig. 7.
Moera levis SmituH, 1873, in A. W. Verrill, Rep. U. S. Fish Comm. [1874],
vol. I, p. 550.
Elasmopus laevis PAULMIER, 1905, Bull. 91, Zoology 12, New York State Mus.,
Albany, p. 162, fig. 32.
Elasmopus laevis Hotmes, 1905, Bull. Bur. Fisheries for 1904, vol. 24, p. 507,
fig.
Elasmopus pocillimanus STEBBING, 1906, Das Tierreich, Amphipoda I, Gam-
maridea, p. 443.
Elasmopus pocillimanus KUNKEL, 1910, Connecticut Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 16,
Ds 50, es ZI.
Elasmopus pocillimanus CHEVREUX, 1911, Mem. Soc. Zool., vol. 23, p. 225, pl.
TOyefieSelanees
Elasmopus levis FOWLER, 1912, Ann. Rep. New Jersey State Mus. [1911],
p. 197, pl. 58.
Elasmopus pocillimanus CHEVREUX and Faces, 1925, Faune de France, 9, Amph.,
p. 246; figs 257.
Elasmopus pocillimanus SHOEMAKER, 1935, New York Acad. Sci. Scientific
Survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, vol. 15, pt. 2, p. 230.
Elasmopus pocillimanus SCHELLENBERG, 1938, Kungl. Svenska Vetensk. Akad.
Handlingar, 3d ser., vol. 16, No. 6, p. 56, fig. 28.
Station 124, 12 specimens; station 169, 3 specimens.
Elasmopus pocillimanus was described from Genoa, Italy, and it
occurs on the east coast of the United States from southern New
England to the Gulf of Mexico. It has also been recorded from Ber-
muda, Puerto Rico, Cape Verde Islands, Annobon Island, West
Africa, and the Gilbert Islands (Schellenberg). The animal measures
about 10 mm. in length.
Note—In 1916 K. H. Barnard (Ann. South African Mus., vol. 15,
pt. 3, p. 200, pl. 27, fig. 15) described a species Elasmopus levis from
South Africa, but S. I. Smith’s species Moera levis, described in 1873,
was transferred to the genus Elasmopus by F. C. Paulmier in 1905.
Barnard’s name thus becomes a homonym and will have to be dis-
carded. I therefore propose the new name Elasmopus barnardi for
Barnard’s species.
NO. 3 AMPHIPODA OF CUBA—-SHOEMAKER Er
Family TALITRIDAE
PARHYALELLA WHELPLEYI (Shoemaker)
Hyalella whelpleyi SHOEMAKER, 1933, Amer. Mus. Novit., No. 508, p. 23, figs.
12, 13.
Station 78, I specimen.
This species was described from Trinidad, British West Indies, and
the present record from Cuba is the second of its occurrence.
Parhyalella whelpleyi may prove to be a synonym of the genotype,
Parhyalella batesoni, described by Kunkel from Bermuda in 1910.
Kunkel’s figures are greatly lacking in detail, and his description does
not mention the characters which I consider specific in P. whelpleyi.
The identity of these two species will have to remain in abeyance until
material can be obtained from Bermuda for comparison. This species
measures about 6 mm. in length.
Family COROPHIIDAE
GRANDIDIERELLA BONNIERI Stebbing
FIGURE 3
Grandidierella bonnieri Steppinc, 1908, Rec. Indian Mus., vol. 2, pt. 2, No. 13,
p. 120, pl. 6.
Grandidierella megnae CHILTON, 1921, Mem. Indian Mus., vol. 5, p. 548, fig. 10b,
e-f (form 1).
Unciolella lunata SCHELLENBERG, 1928, Trans. Zool. Soc. London, vol. 22, pt. 5,
p. 669, fig. 207.
Grandidierella megnae STEPHENSEN, 1933, Zool. Jahrb., Bd. 64, Heft 3/s,
PP. 434, 446.
Grandidierella bonnieri BARNARD, 1935, Rec. Indian Mus., vol. 37, pt. 3, p. 290,
figs. 12d, 13b (literature).
Grandidierella bonnieri SCHELLENBERG, 1938, Zool. Jahrb., Bd. 71, Heft 3, p. 215.
Station 124, I specimen ¢.
This species was described from brackish pools at Port Canning,
Lower Bengal, India, in 1908. Dr. Chas. Chilton recorded it from
Chilka Lake (G. megnae) in 1921. Dr. A. Schellenberg recorded it
from the Suez Canal (Unciolella lunata) in 1928. In 1933 Dr. K.
Stephensen recorded it from the Island of Bonaire (G. megnae) off
the coast of Venezuela. K. H. Barnard recorded it again from the
coast of India in 1935. In 1938 Dr. A. Schellenberg recorded it from
the coast of Brazil. It is now recorded from Cuba, and, as shown by
material in the collections of the United States National Museum, it is
widely distributed in the West Indian and Caribbean regions. The
length of the species from front of head to end of third uropod is 6 to
7 mm.
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Order HYPERIIDEA
Family HYPERIIDAE
HYPERIA BENGALENSIS (Giles)
Lestrigonus bengalensis GILES, 1887, Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, vol. 56, pt. 2,
p. 224, pls. 6, 7.
Hyperia atlantica VossELEr, 1901, Amph. Plankton Exped., I Theil, Hyperiidea I,
p. 67, pl. 6, figs. 5-15.
Hyperia bengalensis Pirtot, 1939, Résult. Camp. Sci. Prince de Monaco, fasc.
102, p. 35 (literature).
Station 30, 14 specimens; station 48, 13 specimens; station 49, 14
Fic. 3—Grandidierella bonniert Stebbing. Male, a, front end of animal;
b, gnathopod 2; c, peraeopod 3; d, peraeopod 5; e, uropod 3. Female, f, gnatho-
pod 1; g, sixth and seventh joints of gnathopod 1, enlarged.
specimens; station 52, 15 specimens; station 78, I specimen; station
89, 6 specimens.
Pirlot (1939, p. 102) has given what he considers to be the syn-
onymy of this species. He includes as synonyms Hyperia promon-
tori, disschystus, schizogeneios, and gebui of Stebbing, gilesi, latis-
NO. 3 AMPHIPODA OF CUBA—SHOEMAKER 13
sima, thoracica, and Themistella steenstrupi of Bovallius, and H.
macrophthalma and hydrocephala of Vosseler. Hyperia promontorii
Stebbing, Themistella steenstrupi Bovallius, and Hyperia atlantica
Vosseler appear to be the male of the same species, which I believe to
be H. bengalensis (Giles). Dana’s figure of Hyperia fabreti (United
States Exploring Expedition, vol. 14, Atlas, pl. 67, fig. 10, 1855) is
probably also a male of H. bengalensis. Hyperia bengalensis, a small
species, the males of which measure about 4 mm., is widely distributed
in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. The present records are
the first for the West Indies. In the present material are several
ovigerous females measuring 3.5 mm.
Family LYCAEIDAE
BRACHYSCELUS CRUSCULUM Bate
Brachyscelus crusculum Bate, 1861, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, vol. 8, p. 7,
pl. 2, figs. 1, 2.
Thamyris mediterranea CLaus, 1887, Die Platysceliden, p. 60, pl. 16, figs. 11-18.
Brachyscelus crusculum Pirtot, 1930, Siboga Expeditie, vol. 33a, pt. I, p. 25
(literature).
Brachyscelus crusculum Prtriot, 1939, Résult. Camp. Sci. Prince de Monaco,
fasc. 102, p. 46.
Brachyscelus crusculum SHOEMAKER, 1945, Zoologica, New York Zool. Soc.,
vol. 30, pt. 4, p. 242.
Station 89, I specimen.
This is a widely distributed species, having been recorded from the
North and South Atlantic, North Pacific, East Indies, Indian Ocean,
and Mediterranean. The present record is the first from the West
Indies. The species measures from Io to 14 mm. in length.
BRACHYSCELUS GLOBICEPS (Claus)
Thamyris globiceps Ciaus, 1879, Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien, vol. 2, p. 182.
Thamyris globiceps CLaus, 1887, Die Platysceliden, p. 59, pl. 16, figs. 1-2, 4-10.
Brachyscelus globiceps STEPHENSEN, 1925, Danish Oceanographic Expedition
1908-1910, vol, 2, D.5, Hyperiidea, pt. 3, p. 176, fig. 6s.
Brachyscelus globiceps SHOEMAKER, 1945, Zoologica, New York Zool. Soc.,
vol. 30, pt. 4, p. 242.
Station 30, 5 specimens.
This species has been recorded from the Mediterranean, North and
South Atlantic, Indian Ocean, and Australia. It has not heretofore
been recorded from the West Indies. The animal measures about 6
mm. in length.
I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I1O
BRACHYSCELUS MACROCEPHALUS Stephensen
Brachyscelus macrocephalus STEPHENSEN, 1925, Danish Ingolf Expedition, vol.
3, D- 177, fig. 66.
Brachyscelus macrocephalus SHOEMAKER, 1945, Zoologica, New York Zool.
Soc., vol. 30, pt. 4, p. 243.
Station 30, I specimen.
This species has been recorded from the Mediterranean and from
Bermuda. The present record is the third of its occurrence. The
species measures 5 or 6 mm. in length.
LYCAEA PULEX Marion
Lycaea pulex Marton, 1874, Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 5, vol. 17, p. 13, pl. 2, fig. 2.
Lycaea pulex SHOEMAKER, 1945, Zoologica, New York Zool. Soc., vol. 30, pt. 4,
p. 243 (literature).
Station 48, 2 specimens.
Lycaea pulex has been recorded from the North and South Atlantic,
North and South Pacific, Indian Ocean, and Mediterranean. The
present record is the first for the West Indies. The species measures
from 4 to 6 mm.
Family PLATYSCELIDAE
AMPHITHYRUS SCULPTURATUS Claus
Amphithyrus sculpturatus CLAus, 1887, Die Platysceliden, p. 41, pl. 7, figs. 1-9.
Amphithyrus orientalis STEBBING, 1888, Challenger Rep., p. 1485, pl. 210, fig. B.
Amphithyrus orientalis SHOEMAKER, 1925, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 52,
p. 58, figs. 25, 26.
Amphithyrus sculpturatus STEPHENSEN, 1925, Danish Oceanographic Expedi-
tion 1908-1910, vol. 2, D.5, Hyperiidea, pt. 3, p. 226.
Amphithyrus sculpturatus SPANDL, 1927, Die Hyperiden der Deutschen Stidpolar-
Expedition 1901-1903, Deutsch. Siidpolar-Exped., vol. 19, Zool. 11, p. 250.
Amphithyrus sculpturatus Pirtot, 1929, Résultats Zoologiques Croisiére at-
lantique de “l’Armauer Hansen,” 1922, fasc. I, p. 158.
Amphithyrus sculpturatus BARNARD, 1937, The John Murray Expedition 1933-
34, Sci. Rep., vol. 4, No. 6, Amphipoda, p. 196.
Station 30, 2 specimens.
This species has been recorded from the Mediterranean, Atlantic
Ocean, Arabian Sea, Pacific Ocean, and the Gulf of California. The
present record is the first for the West Indies. Several specimens of
Amphithyrus similis Claus were taken by Dr. William Beebe at Ber-
muda in*1931, and this species is regarded by Pirlot (1929, p. 158)
as a synonym of A. sculpturatus. The species measures from 4 to 5
mim. in length.
NO. 3 AMPHIPODA OF CUBA—SHOEMAKER 15
PARATYPHIS MACULATUS Claus
Paratyphis maculatus CLaus, 1887, Die Platysceliden, p. 39, pl. 5, figs. 1-9.
Paratyphis maculatus Pirtot, 1939, Résult. Camp. Sci. Prince de Monaco, fasc.
102, p. 56.
Paratyphis maculatus SHOEMAKER, 1945, Zoologica, New York Zool. Soc., vol.
30, pt. 4, P. 259.
Station 30, 8 specimens; station 52, I specimen.
This species has been recorded from the North and South Atlantic,
East Indies, and Gulf of Aden, but it has not heretofore been recorded
from the West Indies. It is a small species measuring from 2 to 4
mm. in length.
TETRATHYRUS FORCIPATUS Claus
Tetrathyrus forcipatus CLaus, 1887, Die Platysceliden, p. 40, pl. 5, figs. 10-18,
pl. 6, figs. 1-3.
Tetrathyrus sancti-josephi SHOEMAKER, 1925, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
vol. 52, p. 54, figs. 22-24.
Tetrathyrus forcipatus SHOEMAKER, 1945, Zoologica, New York Zool. Soc.,
vol. 30, pt. 4, p. 256.
Station 30, I specimen; station 48, 25 specimens; station 49, 7 speci-
mens; station 52, I specimen.
This species has been recorded from the North, tropical, and South
Atlantic, Mediterranean, Red Sea, northern Arabian Sea, East Indies,
New Zealand, and North Pacific. It is a small species measuring 3 to
4.5 mm.
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 110, NUMBER 4
Roebling Fund
1947-1948 REPORT ON THE
27.0074-DAY CYCLE IN WASHINGTON
PRECIPITATION
BY
C. G. ABBOT
Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution
(Pustiication 3919)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
MARCH 10, 1948
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.
+
i
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ee
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Roebling Fund
1947-1948 REPORT ON THE 27.0074-DAY CYCLE IN
WASHINGTON PRECIPITATION
By C. G. ABBOT
Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution
In Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections * I have set forth an ap-
parent cycle of precipitation at Washington, and the outcome from
year to year of yearly predictions based thereon. In 1947, for the
fourteenth consecutive year, the average precipitation for the predicted
favorable days has exceeded the average precipitation on all other days
of the year. The results for 1947 precipitation are given in table I.
TABLE 1.—Statistics of Washington precipitation, 1947
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year
referred” days .. 0.171 0.100 0.030 0.128 0.136 0.284 0.084 0.035 0.150 0.000 0.216 0.058 0.1166
MRS ....... 0.072 0.023 0.048 0.101 0.126 0.112 0.245 0.220 0.097 0.076 0.123 0.037 0.1058
SE os n> seein 2.38 4.29 0.62 1.22 1.08 2.54 0.34 0.16 1.55 0.00 1.75 1.57 1.10
eamcnes ...... 3-72 1.65 1.24 3-37 4.05 5.76 5.35 3.68 3.70 1.31 5.09 1.47 40.39
rmal inches ..... 3-55 3-27 3:75 3-27 3-70 4.13 4.71 4.01 3.24 2.84 2.37 3-32 42.16
recent normal .... 105 50 33 103 109 139 114 g2 114 46 215 44 96
Lines 1 and 2 give the average precipitation in inches per day for
preferred
other —
Lines 4 and 5 give the total precipitation and normal precipitation in
inches, and line 6 the percentage of observed to normal for the months
and year.
“Preferred” days had a higher average precipitation than all other
days in the months January, February, April, May, June, September,
November, and December, and also for the year 1947 as a whole.
Other days had a higher average precipitation than “preferred” days
in the months March, July, August, and October. Of these four ex-
ceptional months, March and October had very low rainfall. The
average ratio, “‘perferred’”/all other, of precipitation per day for 14
consecutive years has exceeded unity. The expectation is 1.42. The
value for 1947 is 1.10, and for the 14 years it is 1.47.
The following table 2 gives the dates for 1948 when the average
daily precipitation is expected to exceed the average for all other days.
In the first column are given in Roman numerals the day numbers
“preferred” and all other days. Line 3 gives the ratio:
1See Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 104, Nos. 3 and 5, 1944; and vol. 107,
No. 3, 1947.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 4
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
within the 27 days of the cycle when higher precipitation is expected.
The remainder of the table gives the actual dates in the different
months which correspond to these Roman numerals, in other words
the “preferred” days for the year 1948. These “preferred” days
should give, on the average, higher precipitation than all other days.
TaBLE 2.—Predicted dates when average precipitation should exceed average
precipitation for all other dates, Washington, 1048
“Preferred”
cycle places Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June
RPh ae 12 8 6 2, 29 26 22
Heese aero 13 9 7 3, 30 27 23
OTT es Attn sere 14 10 8 4 1, 28 24
Nav teetoss 15 II 9 5 2, 29 25
Vib aos 16 12 10 6 3, 30 26
XCM Sa mtoe tenes 23 19 17; 13 10 6
STG em sresrciete 24 20 18 14 II 7
ERE Vr ores nrvs ine 20 22 20 16 13 9
SNOW seT cede vere,Shetecs 1, 28 24 22 18 15 Il
SOV ALT e Aa Jo cee 2, 29 25 23 19 16 12
EXT Oy ae Se 6 2, 29 27 23 20 16
DOXGV Perse 10 6 4, 31 27 24 20
XOXGV Tem 4 A arcterue It 7 5 1, 28 25 21
“Preferred”
cycle places July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
eae er tes 19 15 II 8 4 1, 28
TT PMS fin oe 20 16 12 9 5 2, 29
DT 12 debates 21 17 13 10 6 3, 30
AUWesruperoaesh fact ct 22 18 14 II i 4, 31
AV aie eae 23 19 15 12 8 5
NST eee yes cerens 330 26 22 19 15 12
EXOT eee nastvociene Ami 27 23 20 16 13
SOV Steet ctates 6 2, 29 25 22 18 15
DRE ALilin Bese srersay- 8 4, 31 27 24 20 17
KO V AIT aah tees 9 5 I, 28 25 21 18
PROX TIEN cyoeenraeetr 13 9 5 2, 29 25 21
KOXP AUG aera 17 13 9 6 2, 29 26
PRONG Hn oer ter sre 18 14 10 Ui 3, 30 27
The tabulation on which the cycle of 27.0074 days is based began
January 1, 1924. In the 24 years, 1924 to 1947, there were 8,766
days. To complete 325 cycles of 27.0074 days requires 8,777.4 days.
Hence 11 days of January 1948 are required additional to the 24 years
ending December 31, 1947. Thus I begin table 2 which follows with
January 12, 1948, corresponding to Roman numeral I.
It should be emphasized that this prediction relates only to Wash-
ington, D. C2
2 This paper was finished on January 16, 1948.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 110, NUMBER 5
Roebling Fund
SMITHSONIAN PYRHELIOMETRY AND
THE STANDARD SCALE OF
SOLAR RADIATION
BY
L. B. ALDRICH
AND
C. G. ABBOT
Smithsonian Institution
(Pustication 3920
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
APRIL 15, 1948
The Lord Baftimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. & A.
Roebling Fund
SMITHSONIAN PYRHELIOMETRY AND THE
STANDARD SCALE OF SOLAR RADIATION
By L. B. ALDRICH anp C. G. ABBOT
Smithsonian Institution
Since its beginning in 1890, the Astrophysical Observatory of the
Smithsonian Institution has devoted much time to the development
and improvement of pyrheliometers for the accurate measurement of
total solar radiation. Numerous types have been investigated, and
many thousands of individual measurements and intercomparisons of
various pyrheliometers have been made. The two that have been
most useful and satisfactory for our purposes are the water-flow
pyrheliometer, a standard instrument, and the silver-disk pyrheli-
ometer, a secondary instrument.
During the past 40 years, Andrew Kramer, veteran instrument
maker of the Astrophysical Observatory, has constructed in our
shop nearly 100 silver-disk pyrheliometers. Most of these instru-
ments as completed have been sold or loaned to interested institutions
and are now in use on every continent. The silver-disk instrument
was devised and designed by Dr. Abbot. It is mechanically simple
and rugged and with reasonable care it continues indefinitely to give
reliable readings of solar radiation. Our faith in the permanence of
the constant furnished with each instrument has been supported by
many intercomparisons extending over long periods of time.* Since
it is not practicable to use the silver-disk pyrheliometer as a standard
instrument, the constant of each one is determined by careful com-
parisons against a standard pyrheliometer. One of our silver-disk
instruments, A.P.O. No. 81, has been kept at the Observatory as a
substandard since it was built 40 years ago, and a second one, S.I.
No. 5nis has been similarly used in recent years.
In the years 1910 to 1913, the Observatory conducted an intensive
campaign to produce a standard pyrheliometer, and to establish the
correct standard scale of solar radiation. The water-flow and water-
stir standard pyrheliometers, both devised by Dr. Abbot, were selected
1 See detailed tabulations of these comparisons in volumes 3 to 6 of the Annals
of the Astrophysical Observatory.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 5
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
for this work and many comparisons were made against various silver-
disk instruments.? This campaign established a standard scale of
radiation which we called the “Smithsonian revised pyrheliometry of
1913.” The constants of all silver-disk pyrheliometers have been
based on this scale. In the years 1915, 1916, and 1920 further com-
parisons were made against standard water-flow No. 3 on Mount
Wilson, Calif., these results confirming the adopted scale of 1913.°
In 1932 a marked improvement was made in the standard water-
flow pyrheliometer. This was suggested by V. M. Shulgin * and con-
sisted in the substitution of two identical absorbing chambers instead
of one. The advantages of this change and others of a minor nature
are discussed in our paper “An Improved Water-flow Pyrheliometer
and the Standard Scale of Solar Radiation” (Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., vol. 87, No. 15, 1932). The new pyrheliometer proved free
from the worst difficulty we had experienced with the earlier instru-
ment, namely, irregular drift of the galvanometer zero. The results
now obtained were more concordant and more satisfactory than ever
before. Thirty-seven comparisons between the new water-flow No. 5
and our silver-disk pyrheliometer S.I. No. 5yis showed the scale of
our revised pyrheliometry of 1913 to be too high by 2.5 percent. In
1934 we repeated this work on Mount Wilson.> Forty-two compari-
sons showed the 1913 scale to be 2.3 percent too high.
Since 1934, 13 years have elapsed with no further comparisons
against a water-flow standard. In August 1947 opportunity came to
make further comparisons at Mount Wilson. In preparation for this,
standard water-flow pyrheliometer No. 5 was altered as follows:
New thermoelements of copper-constantan were substituted for the
former nickel-platinum junctions. These and also the special glass
housings for the thermoelements were made by L. B. Clark of this
Institution in such form that the whole assembly could be waxed in
place without the use of rubber tubing. On arrival at Mount Wilson,
however, it was found that seams had opened up in the wax, owing
probably to changes in temperature and jolting in transit from Wash-
ington. After considerable difficulty the wax was remelted and the
whole made watertight.
All the precautions which we took in 1932 and 1934 to insure
greater accuracy were again taken in the present comparisons. In
addition, the following steps were taken:
2 Ann. Astrophys. Obs., vol. 3, pp. 52-72, 1913.
3 Ann. Astrophys. Obs., vol. 4, pp. 92-97, 1922.
4 Monthly Weather Rev., August 1927, p. 361.
5 Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 92, No. 13, 1934.
NO. 5 PYRHELIOMETRY—ALDRICH AND ABBOT 3
1. An eyepiece of improved design was used to read the silver-
disk pyrheliometer. }
2. The rate of the seconds pendulum was carefully adjusted to
indicate exact I-second intervals.
3. A high-sensitivity D’Arsonval galvanometer was used. The
total deflection for uncompensated solar heating was 44 cm. as com-
pared with 10 cm. in the previous work.
4. All current measurements were made with a direct-reading
potentiometer, using a 3-ohm standard resistance and a certified
standard cell. Currents with this arrangement were read to I part
in 5,000.
Comparisons were made on 2 days, August 26 and 27. Excellent
skies prevailed on both days. In all the comparisons, C. G. Abbot
read the silver-disk pyrheliometer and operated the shutter of the
standard pyrheliometer. L. B. Aldrich made the galvanometer and
current measurements.
Two silver-disk instruments, S.I. No. 5yi; and S.I. No. 79 were
used. They had been carried by hand, one by each of the authors,
from Washington, D. C., to Mount Wilson. The adopted constant
of S.I. No. 5yis (Smithsonian scale of 1913), as stated in our previ-
ous papers, is .3715. That of S.I. No. 79, as determined from 32
comparisons against substandard A.P.O. No. 8; in November and
December, 1946, is .3736.
The results of our comparisons are summarized in table 1. With
S.I. No. 5pis, the mean of 18 comparisons against standard No. 5
gives .3626 as the constant of S.I. No. 5nis. Thus the ratio of
Smithsonian revised scale of 1913 to the scale of standard No. 5 is
Aes 1.0245. The mean of 15 comparisons between S.I. No. 79
ad Standard No. 5 gives .3650 as the constant of S.I. No. 79,
and the ratio of the scale of 1913 to that of Standard No. 5 is
3230 = 1 .0235. It is interesting to note that the average deviation
‘ndividual comparisons is only one-half of one percent, and the
probable error of the means one-tenth of one percent.
The mean ratio for all 33 comparisons is 1.0240.
In 1932, 37 comparisons gave a mean ratio of 1.0248. In 1934,
42 values gave 1.0237. Thus the 1932, 1934, and 1947 means agree
within I part in 1,000. We conclude that the scale of Smithsonian
revised pyrheliometry of 1913 is very nearly 2.4 percent too high.
Our silver-disk instruments have remained unchanged.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
TABLE 1.—Swmmary of 1947 comparisons
Calories Corrected Constant
reading of of Deviation
Date water-flow silver-disk silver-disk from
1947 Time No. 5 S.I. No. 5bis S.I. No. 5bis mean
Aug. 26 10" 56™ 1.510 4.154 3035 + 11
II 03 1.502 4.158 3612 — 14
14 1.512 4.178 -3019 — 7
22 1.509 4.170 3019 — 7
29 1.496 4.155 .3600 — 26
36 1.407 4.149 3608 — 18
Aug. 27 10 10 1.520 4.228 3595 — 31
17 1.519 4.135 -3674 + 48
24 1.531 4.249 3003 — 23
31 1.518 4.193 3620 — 6
42 1.528 4.204 3035 + 9
49 1.525 4.193 .3637 EE
56 1.523 4.186 3638 +12
II 04 1.527 4.212 3025 — 1
12 1.563 4.267 3663 + 37
19 1.556 4.276 -3039 + 13
26 1.538 4.268 3604 — 22
33 1.538 4.217 .3647 + 21
Mean, 18 values = .3626
Calories Corrected
by reading Constant Deviation
Date water-flow oO 0 rom
1947 Time No. 5 S.I. No. 79 S.I. No. 79 mean
Aug. 26 am EO 1:373 3.730 3681 +- 31
57 1.379 3-754 .3673 + 23
8 04 1.393 3-794 .3672 + 22
9 37 1.472 4.051 3034 — 16
44 1.488 4.044 .36080 -+ 30
Aug. 27 7 40 1.380 3.812 -3620 — 30
47 1.394 3.867 -3605 Aad
55 1.415 3.852 .3673 + 23
8 06 1.428 3.925 3638 — 12
13 1.441 3.898 .3697 + 47
58 1.470 4.004 3671 + 21
9 05 1.438 3.9902 .3002 — 48
12 1.449 4.011 3012 — 38
25 1.451 3.998 3629 —2I
33 1.477 4.028 .3667 +17
Mean, 15 values = .3650
Average deviation, 33 values, .0022.
Probable error, .0003, or .08 percent.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 110, NUMBER 6
Roebling Fund
MAGNETIC STORMS, SOLAR RADIATION,
AND WASHINGTON TEMPERATURE
DEPARTURES
(WitH Two P ates)
BY
C. G. ABEOT
Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution
(Pusiication 3940)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
JUNE 25, 1948
The Lord Gaktimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
Roebling Fund
MAGNETIC STORMS, SOLAR RADIATION, AND
WASHINGTON TEMPERATURE DEPARTURES
By C. G. ABBOT
Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution
(WitH Two P rates)
Occasionally the earth’s magnetic condition is greatly disturbed.
At such times large sunspot groups are usually visible near the center
of the solar disk. From studies of the aurora, radio transmission,
and other electrical phenomena of the atmosphere, it is concluded
that the earth is being bombarded by showers of electric ions at times
of magnetic storms. These ions appear to emanate most copiously
from sunspots.
For many years the Smithsonian Institution has made daily meas-
urements, whenever possible, of the heat equivalent of the energy
of solar radiation. It lies mainly in the wave-length region from
0.33 to 2.5 microns (thousandths of a millimeter). This embraces
ultraviolet, visible, and infrared rays. The measurements are made
in such a way that the losses caused by the earth’s atmosphere may
be estimated. On each day of observation it is computed what the
intensity of the sun’s heat would be if one could observe at mean
solar distance outside the atmosphere. The values thus obtained are
termed measures of “the solar constant of radiation.” The average
value of the solar constant is about 1.94 calories per square centimeter
per minute. Fluctuations in solar-constant values occur, but the range
of them is small, seldom exceeding 1 percent of the total.
The earth’s atmosphere on a cloudless day diminishes the intensity
of solar heat of the direct sun beam reaching the earth’s surface in
several ways: First, by the scattering exerted by the molecules of
oxygen, nitrogen, and other gases of the atmosphere ; second, by the
scattering and absorption produced by dust particles floating in the
atmosphere, and seen as haze; third, by the absorption of rays of
certain wave lengths by oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, ozone,
and other gases and vapors which produce true absorption of radia-
tion with conversion of radiant energy into heat. About 1880 Lord
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 6
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Rayleigh proved that the scattering by particles (such as molecules
and very small dust particles) which are small compared to the wave
length of light is proportional inversely to the fourth power of the
wave length. Thus it happens that the sky is blue, because the blue
rays, being of shorter wave length than the red or yellow rays, are
much more scattered out of the direct sun beam by the molecules of
the atmospheric gases.
If now, as stated above, the earth is being showered at times of
magnetic storms by multitudes of electric ions, which certainly are
small compared to the wave length of light, the direct sun beam,
shining 93 million miles through these showers, must be weakened
by Rayleigh scattering. The only question is how much. This paper
gives the results of an investigation of that question.
Our first experience of such a phenomenon came to us in the year
1920. About March 20 to 23, 1920, there was an enormous sunspot
group central on the sun’s disk, as shown in plate 1. There was also
a severe magnetic storm on the earth, accompanied by fine auroral
displays. The storm was most severe on March 22 and March 23.
Smithsonian observations of solar radiation made at Calama, Chile,
followed the course shown in the upper curve of figure 1. The
phenomena of central passage of the great sunspot group included a
diminution of the observed values of the solar constant of radiation
of the order of 5 percent, reaching the minimum value on March 23.
Possibly the very low value of March 23 may have been made un-
duly low by experimental error, but the value of March 24, nearly
as low, is of quite as high a grade as most of the Montezuma values
of that year.
Critics may suggest that these low values of the solar constant
were caused, not by Rayleigh scattering from electric ions along the
93-million-mile path of sun rays through space, but rather by a hazing
of the earth’s atmosphere, produced by the adherence of water-vapor
molecules to the ions, after they entered the atmosphere; in other
words, that the solar-constant values were erroneous. This sugges-
tion, however, runs counter to the observations. For though the
lower curve in figure I, which traces the march of values of atmos-
pheric transmission coefficients for green light at wave length 0.511
micron, does show that the atmosphere became less transparent *
during the passage of the sunspot through the central position on the
sun’s disk, that change alone, if it were not countered by other factors
in determining the solar constant—factors also affected by atmos-
1 This change will be accounted for when we consider figure 3 below.
NO. 6 MAGNETIC STORMS—ABBOT 3
pheric conditions—would have tended to raise, not to depress, the
solar-constant values. At that time the solar constant was being deter-
mined at Calama, Chile, by the fundamental, or “long,” method of
Langley. The less transparent the atmosphere the greater would have
been our estimate of the losses it produced in the solar ray, and the
larger the computed solar-constant value outside the atmosphere.
But this tendency is counterbalanced exactly by lower observed
pyrheliometer readings when the atmosphere is less clear. The solar-
: POCO .
mea dt | Vel e fT
BA ee
eee
Gerbil lili
Fic. 1.—Solar constant March-April 1920, upper curve; atmospheric trans-
mission green light, lower curve.
constant values would be too low only if the transparency of the
atmosphere was erroneously observed too high.
Other critics have suggested to me that the observed change of
the solar constant of March 1920 might have been produced errone-
ously by a change of the absorption of solar rays by ozone, assuming
that the solar outburst of electrified ions produces large changes of
the concentration of atmospheric ozone. I reply that all solar-constant
values done by the long method, as in 1920, take account of such
effects because the atmospheric transmission coefficients are neces-
sarily appropriately modified owing to the method of obtaining them.
All solar-constant values done by the short method since 1923 are
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I1IO
specifically corrected for absorption of atmospheric ozone, as ex-
plained in volume 5 of Annals of the Smithsonian Astrophysical
Observatory, pages 124 to 131. Hence this suggestion of critics
applies neither to the work of 1920, nor to the work subsequent to
1923.
In conversation with Dr. Nicholson of Mount Wilson Observa-
tory, in September 1947, I asked him if he knew of other occasions
when great sunspot groups passed centrally through the sun’s disk.
If so, I proposed to see if a similar depression of solar-constant
values occurred. In reply he suggested that sunspots were “like shot-
guns, rather than like rifles,’ when they pepper space with electric
ions. Hence it might well be that whenever a severe magnetic storm
occurs there will be generated a shower of ions embracing our line
of sight and introducing Rayleigh scattering through the 93 million
miles of space between the earth and the sun.
MAGNETIC STORMS, 1923 TO 1946
I undertook to test this hypothesis. The phenomena of March 1920,
are so exceptional that I omitted them in a general tabulation. From
the journal “Terrestrial Magnetism” I found over 70 occasions in
the years 1923 to 1946 when very severe magnetic storms were re-
ported. Not being very familiar with the terms used by the observers
at the magnetic stations, I am not sure that I found all the dates of
severe magnetic storms during this interval. Moreover, the magnetic
observers, if they see this paper, may not regard all the storms I
selected as severe. There was, indeed, some discrepancy between the
estimates of severity from different magnetic stations reporting in
“Terrestrial Magnetism.” Whatever may be the incompleteness or
inexactness of my selection, I feel sure that experts will agree that all
the storms included in table 1, which follows, were strong, if not
always deserving the description severe.
The magnetic storms continued from 2 to to days. It was often
uncertain which day to take as representing the height of the storm,
that is, the day most likely to be the day when the shower of ions was
densest. All the several tabulations of the data which I made showed
clearly a depression of the solar constant at or near the height of the
magnetic storm. Hence I thought it fair to select as zero day that day
during the height of the storm when the solar constant was most
depressed.
SOLAR-CONSTANT OBSERVATIONS
Unfortunately I could not use all the storm dates selected. Our
observations of the solar constant made at Montezuma and at Mount
No. 6 MAGNETIC STORMS—ABBOT 5
St. Katherine are so much more accurate than any others that the
results from other stations must be ignored in a study of small changes
of this kind. That restriction cuts off a great many dates, because the
sequences of solar-constant values, at and near the storm dates, were
often too incomplete to be used. With the utmost liberality of selec-
tion, I could find but 53 storm dates from 1923 to 1946 when solar-
constant sequences observed at Montezuma or St. Katherine were
complete enough to be fairly used in the tabulation. Even among those
sequences retained, many were so imperfect as hardly to deserve em-
ployment. I therefore made two reductions, one employing the whole
group of 53 dates, the other employing 22 of them, when the se-
quences were at least two-thirds complete, and were not broken badly
near the zero dates. However, the mean results of the complete tabu-
lation of 53 and the tabulation of the 22 most satisfactory sequences
are in almost perfect agreement. Hence it may be said that two inde-
pendent tabulations, one of 22 cases, the other of 31 cases, yield prac-
tically identical results as to the influence of severe magnetic storms
on the solar constant.
My solar-constant data, 1923 to 1939, are taken from table 24,
volume 6, Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smith-
sonian Institution. From unpublished daily results, those of 1939
to 1946 were kindly put at my disposal by Director L. B. Aldrich
of the Observatory. In quoting from the Annals I have used the
direct mean values from Montezuma or St. Katherine, and not the
“preferred” values. I have come to distrust the method used to
obtain “preferred” values, and it has not been used in the reductions
of 1939 to 1946. Furthermore I have ignored “grades.” They are
more or less liable to personal bias, and especially to a tendency to
discredit apparently wild values. It is very clear from the present
research, and from another I have made on hurricanes, that some
wild values are caused by cosmic conditions, not by errors of
observation.
EFFECT OF MAGNETIC STORMS ON THE SOLAR CONSTANT
With these explanations given, I now ask attention to table 1. It
enumerates the 53 dates retained.* Corresponding to each one is a
sequence, more or less complete, of solar-constant values from Monte-
zuma or Mount St. Katherine. It extends from 10 days before to 10
days after the date marked zero, when the magnetic storm appeared
to be at its height. The table has 53 more or less complete lines of 21
2 The phenomenon of March 22, 1920, is of so much greater range of severity
that I have treated it separately above, and do not include it in table r.
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
columns. Two additional lines give the number of values per column
and their mean values. To save printing, the first two places of the
solar constant are omitted. The reader must therefore remember that
where, for instance, “32” is printed, 1.932 is to be understood.
Although, as stated above, about 20 storm dates had been omitted,
because the corresponding sequences of solar-constant values were too
Fic. 2.—Depression of solar constant attending severe magnetic storms.
Abscissae, days before and after height of storm; ordinates, solar constant (to
be prefixed by 1.9).
defective, there still remain many very incomplete sequences in the
table. I therefore thought it good, as I have said, to pick out a smaller
number of occasions when the sequences, especially those near zero
day, were nearly full. These selected dates, 22 in number, are indi-
cated by asterisks in the table. Their mean values and the numbers of
observations entering into these means, are given in the last lines of
table I.
NO. 6
MAGNETIC STORMS—ABBOT 7
It is satisfactory to see that the mean results from 53 cases and the
mean results from the preferred 22 cases are nearly identical. Hence
we may infer that the 31 incomplete sequences, printed without
TABLE 1.—Effect of magnetic storms on solar-constant values
60
40
32
53 58
56 —
49
54 46 ..
45 59 +.
Gage) tee
fa th we
Aon SO
50 460) a.
Me OS ag ee) ee
45 ST «. +s 43
<i) SEs 46 ..
MP AG tak ie. OSS live
0. ss GO. 42 on
ou PO" det ns cat
ae aa 47
om) gat 36
GEV, testa ewe
43 46 42
50
40
45
50
48
46
41
53
47
aU
“56
54
29
46
54
58
61
5 POA, PP EOEE 49
te 48
ts 47
37 oe
49
AB oe
39
47
ae
45 -
48
49
62
43
43
Oe eee
eee
Hee eee
54
46
Sor: &
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
-
.
54
aie
Ga:
va 8
ialava? 46
4
3 4 eee
4, 22 cece
7, 27°
Dp F acvcce
eaten eau kite
55 +
eee
One®
>8eS2
47
33 35 35 39 33 34
481 465 450 467 463 455 435
Mean of first 9 = 458
Mean of 53 cases........
19 17 19 17 19 14 15
‘Mean of 22° cases......
Mean of first 9 = 453
47
41
38
37
55
49
i
Z
:
:
*
38
70
35
43
51
34
55
44
50
41
47
47
54
42
47
—10 —9 —8 —7 —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —I
47
54
52
57
45
48
42
46
42
51
44
45 41
30
47
42
at
42
41
43
52
52
59
48
50
47
42
46
40
38
34
63
52
35
42
43
39
40
41
47
48
41
50
46
48
49
45
°
47
29
45
20
49
53
23
52
42
38
37
44
44
34
21
38
34
44
40
44
42
41
43
42
43
39
37
44
59
29
43
37
48
45
41
at
39
42
38
S BEE
8 9
50 40
SI 52
iy ad
eee ee ey OR et ome 4 10
5t 52 52 49 46 43 40
. 41.» 49 37 45
30 26 35 30 28
47 26 29 49
53
. 43
34 33
50
33
51
40
48
24
36
54
65
58
SI
48
43
45
56 45 43
45 55 53
4! 45
54
46
44
45
44
49
52
40
47
55
53
5I
61
46
55
47
59
55
40
53
47
50 ee
57 44
ee 49
5!
44
4
45 63
48
53
21
42
8
54
43
34
45
47
- SB:
ae
52
44
41
32
49
39 42
48 43
49 48
“ 40
45 *
41
53
56
45
ths
ue
42
43
47
38
39 38
a. 41 45
AF ou ese
+» 50 44 33
4l 43 37
50 51 48
33 45
50 50
39 34
53 --
39
51
Ae aca
AO we
> SEBS SR:
42
39
55
53
52
47
37
42
41
50
55
33
49
52
47
40
46
mun:
Ano
51
BBE
aa he
50 42
32
50
48
47
53
34
46
&: &
45
53
50
$:
43
37
43
49
38
43
te
A
at
a:
Oo:
48 51 47
48 51
42 39
+» 39 51
52 vs. ae. SE
47
41
50
38
56 ae Shar he
45 47 51 St 49 SI
46 31 -. 43 35 27
4! ae 56 51
36 50 50
ua 41
51 5
S
52
> &
41
63
44
47
46
39
35
30
3r
49
40
31
46
43 --
ot Ae aC
46 44 41
34 «41 36 36 35 32
454 454 453 391 483 459 445 48 448 446 458 444 439 420
20
454 458 443 451 466 469 439 443 454 457 390 476 444 436 469 455 445 420 436 481 430
18 20 21
Mean of last 9 = 448
20 18 22 17 19 20 17 2 12 38
Mean of last 9 = 447
asterisks in table 1, independently confirm closely the results obtained
from the 22 preferred cases.
It is seen that a very sudden drop of
about 0.0062 calorie, or 4 percent, occurred on zeroth day. There is
a slight, but perhaps not significant, depression of the solar constant
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
as between the means of the first 9 and the last 9 of the solar-constant
values of the sequences.
In order to illustrate the variation in effect of magnetic storms on
solar radiation depending on the magnitude of sunspots and their loca-
tion on the sun’s disk, I ask the reader to compare plate 2 with plate 1.
Plate 2 includes direct photographs of the sun taken at Mount Wilson
on November 28, 1936, and February 3, 1937. On these dates there
was no central sunspot group, as on March 22, 1920. On November
28, 1936, two large sunspot groups were at about 20° solar latitude
both north and south of the center of the sun’s disk and another near
the sun’s limb. On February 3, 1937, there were many small spot
groups upon the disk, and one very large one near the sun’s limb, but
none near the center of the disk. Accordingly we see from the solar-
constant records a very large depression in March 1920 (see fig. 1),
a conspicuous depression in November 1936, and scarcely any de-
pression in February 1937 (see table 1), at the times of severe mag-
netic storms.
MAGNETIC STORMS AND SKY CONDITIONS
Thus the magnitude of the Rayleigh depression of solar radiation
resulting from 93 million miles of ionic shower proves measurable.
Since these ions invade the earth’s atmosphere, we may look for two
meteorological effects. First, the captured ions are likely to act as
centers of condensation of water molecules and dust, and thereby —
increase the haziness and the brightness of the sky. Second, the sur-
face temperatures of the earth might be affected.
From table 24, Annals, volume 6, and unpublished later records, I
collected for 30 magnetic-storm dates the pyranometer measures at
air mass 2.5 of the brightness of the sky near the sun. The mean
values for these dates and the Io days before and 1o days after,
together with the numbers of observations entering into each mean,
are given in table 2 and graphically in figure 3.
It appears that the haziness of the sky increased suddenly on the
storm day,* and sky brightness near the sun averaged 10 percent
higher for the 10 last days of the sequences than for the first 10 days.
As could be expected, the graph, figure 3, is rather irregular. It must
be considered that the principal causes of sky haziness lie in the lower
layers of the atmosphere, and are subject to great fluctuations as dust
and humidity float about in the changing air currents. Hence the
3 This tends to explain the drop in atmospheric transparency shown in
figure I.
No. 6 MAGNETIC STORMS—ABBOT 9
relatively minor effects of the invasion of ions, at times of magnetic
storms, are superposed on large variations of sky brightness due to
other causes.
aie
FOCCCACIALT
CS CCR
FILAL OAS Ay
ie
110
100
Fic. 3.—Increased sky brightness after severe magnetic storms. Abscissae,
days before and after height of storm; ordinates, pyranometer observations of
sky brightness.
Taste 2.—Effect of magnetic storms on sky brightness. Pyranometer observations
Days from zero day..... —10 —9 —8 —7 —6 —5 —4 —3 -—2-—I 0 It 2 3 4 § 6 7 8 9 10
No. of observations...... 19 19 19 21 24 2% 19 24 23 23 23 22 19 24 22 23 23 19 19 2% 19
Mean pyranometer ...... 102 104 124 IOI 112 115 106 105 110 108 118 127 119 114 112 127 120 118 107 121 124
Mean of first 10 = 109 Mean of last 10 = 119
MAGNETIC STORMS AND WASHINGTON TEMPERATURE
It remains to trace the effects of ionic bombardment on temperature
at the earth’s surface. The departures from normal temperatures at
Washington from 9 days before zeroth day to 9 days after have been
tabulated for 73 severe magnetic storms occurring from 1923 to 1946.
In this tabulation no vacancies occurred in the sequences. Hence I
give only the mean results in table 3 and figure 4.
Washington temperature fell sharply, beginning 1 day before the
magnetic storm, and reaching a level on storm day 3° below that of
the mean of temperatures from 9 to 2 days before the storm. After
the storm the temperature rose sharply, but averaged 0.8° lower from
the second to the ninth day after the storm than the mean value
before it.
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
=2 = “3 -3 =o il 3 3 7 9
Fic. 4.—Washington temperatures depressed by severe magnetic storms.
Abscissae, days before and after height of storm; ordinates, degrees centigrade
of departures from normal.
TABLE 3.—Effect of magnetic storms on Washington temperature
Days from zero day. —9 —8 —7 —6 —5 —4 —3 —2 —I O 3.92) 3 4) SCs
Mean departure from
normal temperature. 0°37 0°63 1°25 1°81 1°48 1°70 1°74 2°28 0°47 —1°38 0°93 0°70 0°04 0°29 1°12 1°60 0°07 O°61 «
Mean of first 8= 1°41 Mean of last 8 = 0°64
OTHER CASES OF TEMPERATURE CHANGE CAUSED BY
VARIATION OF SOLAR RADIATION
Simpson, in his classical investigation of the temperature of the
earth’s atmosphere, and its relation to radiation, computed the the-
oretical effect of a rise of 1 percent in the solar constant. For eastern
North America he found that such a rise in radiation would depress
temperatures at the earth’s surface. Clayton, by statistical studies
of actual changes in solar radiation to temperature, had also arrived
at the same result. Indeed his isothermal lines, corresponding to
a rise of I percent in the solar constant, very nearly map out the
extension of Pleistocene glaciation in North America. See, for in-
stance, figure 21, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, volume 77,
No. 6, 1925.
no. 6 MAGNETIC STORMS—ABBOT II
As stated above, I find the opposite trend in temperature at Wash-
ington to that found by Simpson and Clayton. For I find a depression
of temperature following a sudden obscuration of the planet earth,
caused by its bombardment by electric ions. The circumstances, how-
ever, are not parallel. Those authors treated of a relatively permanent
increase of solar radiation. The larger part of the range of the
magnetic storm effect is very short-lived, less than 2 days. Moreover,
there is no change of atmospheric transparency to be assumed in the
investigations of Simpson and Clayton, except as increased earth
temperature presently gives rise to increased atmospheric humidity
and greater cloudiness. The magnetic storm, on the contrary, immedi-
ately diminishes atmospheric transparency. Any change of cloudiness,
which might eventually follow, would doubtless be delayed more than
the 9 days after the storm covered by my tabulation. So it seems
to me there is no unexplained contradiction between these results
and those of Simpson and Clayton.
NUMBER OF IONS IN A SHOWER
One other point of some interest is an inquiry as to the average
density of the shower of electric ions for the 53 cases of severe
magnetic storms covered by table 1. The effect produced was to
diminish the solar constant by 4 percent. Referring to Annals, volume
6, figure 11, page 166, the center of gravity of a solar-constant change
associated with Rayleigh scattering may be set at about wave length
0.40 micron. On very clear days above Montezuma, with air mass
1.0, the solar radiation may be observed as high as 1.65 calories per
: ; 0.2
square centimeter per minute, or ee =I5 percent lower than the
solar constant. If readers think it worth while, they may compute
from Rayleigh’s equations, and the above data, the numbers of par-
ticles involved under the two sets of circumstances. But roughly
estimating, one might say that the 93 million miles of space con-
tained wwe = 0.023 as many particles as would be contained of mole-
cules in the atmosphere above Montezuma, where the barometric
pressure is about 590 mm. mercury. These figures relate, however,
to cases when the great sunspot groups were not central on the sun’s
disk. The great group of March 1920, produced about Io times as
great an effect on the solar constant as the average of the 53 cases
of 1923 to 1946.
Using Humphrey’s estimate of atmospheric densities, Millikan’s
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
figure for the number of molecules per cubic centimeter at sea level,
I compute that the number of molecules in a column of air of 1 square
centimeter cross section above Montezuma is approximately 1.4 x 107°,
If there are 0.023 times as many ions in the ionic showers accompany-
ing average severe magnetic storms, it follows that the average in-
crease of density in ions per cubic centimeter in space between the earth
1.4 X 10° X 0.023
15X10"
times the number of the earth’s inhabitants, approximately. On March
23, 1920, the figure was approximately Io times larger still.
and the sun on such occasions is =2X 10"? on ske
SOLAR PHOTOGRAPH. MARCH 20, 19290 (MT. WILSON)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOE. 110; ‘NO. 6, PE: 2
1, SOLAR PHOTOGRAPH. NOVEMBER 28, 1936 (MT. WILSON)
2, SOLAR PHOTOGRAPH, FEBRUARY 3, 1937 (MT. WILSON)
Ss
>
_ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
~ e VOLUME 110, NUMBER 7
GUSTAVUS SOHON'S PORTRAITS OF
_ FLATHEAD AND PEND D’OREILLE
en INDIANS, 1854
(WitTH 22 PLATEs)
BY
JOHN C. EWERS
Associate Curator of Ethnology
U. S. National Museum
(PUBLICATION 3941)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
NOVEMBER 26, 1948
yy 2
, ©&
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, FRONTISPIECE
-
= Sek on
2 pocorn oat
G. SOHON
Portrait taken in 1863. Courtesy of Dr. Elizabeth Sohon.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 110, NUMBER 7
GUSTAVUS SOHON'S PORTRAITS OF
FLATHEAD AND PEND D‘OREILLE
INDIANS, 1854
(WITH 22 PLATES)
BY
JOHN C. EWERS
Associate Curator of Ethnology
U. S. National Museum
LiPo,
AIncTOM*
(PUBLICATION 3941)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
NOVEMBER 26, 1948
The Lord Waftimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
GUSTAVUS SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF FLAT-
HEAD AND PEND D’OREILLE
INDIANS, 1854
By JOHN C. EWERS
Associate Curator of Ethnology
U. S. National Museum
(WitH 22 PratEs)
GUSTAVUS SOHON, ARTIST, LINGUIST, AND EXPLORER
The Flathead and Pend d’Oreille Indians, who lived in the moun-
tain valleys of what is now the western part of the State of Montana
and crossed the Continental Divide of the Rocky Mountains to hunt
buffalo on the open plains, were not portrayed in the drawings and
paintings of famous American and European artists who visited the
Upper Missouri region in pre-reservation days. However, a private
soldier in the United States Army, who was well acquainted with the
Flathead and Pend d’Oreille tribes in the middle of the nineteenth
century, has left a pictorial record worthy of these remarkable Indians
in a series of realistic pencil portraits of his Indian friends. These
portraits are signed “G. Sohon.”
Gustavus Sohon was born in Tilsit, Germany, December 10, 1825.
His daughter, Dr. Elizabeth Sohon, recalled that he used to speak of
having attended “University,” and Hazard Stevens, who knew him
in 1855, called him “well-educated.” When he came to America at
the age of 17, to avoid compulsory service in the Prussian Army,
which was distasteful to him, he spoke English, French, and German
fluently. Whether Sohon ever had any formal instruction in art is
not known.
Little is known of his life in Brooklyn during the decade following
his arrival in this country. His daughter understood that he had
made some woodcarvings for sale, and a son, the late Henry W.
Sohon, wrote that “he engaged in the photograph business.’”’ How-
ever, upon his enlistment, he gave his occupation as “bookbinder.”
Gustavus Sohon enlisted as a private in the United States Army
in New York City, July 2, 1852, at the age of 26. Routine Army
records describe him at that time as dark-complexioned, hazel-eyed,
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 7
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLT LEG
black-haired, 5 feet 7 inches tall. He was assigned to Company K,
Fourth Infantry Regiment. A few days later his Company was or-
dered to board the steamship Golden West for service on the Pacific
Coast. After a brief stop at Benicia, Calif. Headquarters of the
Military Department of the Pacific, Company K was ordered to the
frontier military post of Fort Dalles on the Columbia River in Ore-
gon Territory. The men arrived at Fort Dalles in September 1852.
Sohon went west at a momentous period in the development of
the Western United States. For several years there had been a
Nation-wide demand for a railroad to connect the growing settlements
of the Pacific slope with the eastern States. However, strong rivalry
existed in the East regarding the location of the route, and the choice
of its eastern terminus. In 1853 Congress authorized the War Depart-
ment “to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a
railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean.” Three
surveying expeditions were organized to explore a northern, a central,
and a southern route. Governor Isaac I. Stevens of Washington Ter-
ritory was placed in charge of the project to explore the northern
route between the forty-seventh and forty-ninth parallels from the
Mississippi River to Puget Sound.
Governor Stevens left St. Paul in early June, 1853, at the head
of an exploring and surveying party moving westward across the
plains to meet a second party, surveying eastward from the Pacific
under his assistant, Capt. George B. McClellan. Stevens also ordered
Lt. Rufus Saxton, Jr., acting assistant quartermaster and commissary
of the expedition, to proceed eastward from the Pacific side and es-
tablish a depot of provisions at the Flathead Indian village of St.
Mary’s west of the Rockies. Lieutenant Saxton, with an escort of
18 soldiers from the Fourth Infantry, left Fort Dalles with the supply
train on July 18, 1853. Gustavus Sohon was one of the enlisted men
assigned to duty with this party. They traveled eastward via the
Columbia River, Lewis’ Fork, Clark’s Fork, Flathead Lake, and up
the Bitterroot Valley to St. Mary’s village on the Bitterroot, then
known as the St. Mary’s River. En route this caravan met a party
of about 100 Pend d’Oreille Indians returning from a buffalo hunt
on the plains east of the Rockies with a large supply of buffalo robes
and dried meat, which they planned to trade to the Indians nearer
the west coast. It was Sohon’s first glimpse of some of the mountain
Indians whom he was later to know well.
Saxton’s party also met the two Messrs. Owen, who had purchased
the property of the Jesuit Mission of St. Mary’s in 1850 and estab-
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 3
lished Fort Owen, a trading post, on its site. Because of continued
hostile raids by Blackfoot Indians from east of the mountains, they
had decided the location was no longer safe, and were on their way
to the Pacific Coast. Upon seeing Saxton’s armed force, they were
encouraged to return to their abandoned post. Saxton’s party reached
Fort Owen on August 28. They found it surrounded by a considerable
village of log cabins. They were surprised to find cattle, chickens,
and growing crops of wheat and potatoes tended by Iroquois Indians.
The Flathead Indians were absent on a buffalo hunt across the
mountains.
By fall Governor Stevens was convinced that the critical problem
confronting his survey was that of determining the most practical and
economical route for the railway over the Rocky and Bitterroot
ranges of mountains. Although the mountain region had been known
to fur traders for several decades, the only mathematical data and
“maps available were those compiled by the explorers Lewis and Clark
in their hasty travels through the area a half century earlier. There
was need for more detailed scientific information. Accordingly,
Stevens decided to leave a small party in the Bitterroot Valley through
the winter of 1853-54 to make precise meteorological observations
and to explore and survey the country between the Rocky and Bitter-
root Mountains from Fort Hall northward to Flathead Lake and
beyond, with particular emphasis upon the examination of the en-
trances to the mountain passes. On October 3, 1853, Stevens ordered
Lt. John Mullan to take charge of these important investigations,
and assigned 15 men to Mullan’s command. Gustavus Sohon was one
of this little group.
Mullan proceeded to erect a group of rude log huts 14 miles south
of Fort Owen on the Bitterroot River. This little settlement, named
Cantonment Stevens, served as a weather station, winter quarters,
and headquarters for the party’s explorations of the intermountain
region.
Gustavus Sohon’s services to Lieutenant Mullan in his explorations
of 1853-54 were invaluable. A gifted linguist, Sohon learned to speak
the Salishan languages of the Flathead and Pend d’Oreille Indians
with remarkable rapidity. He became Lieutenant Mullan’s interpreter
and aided him in gathering important information from the Indians
on the trails, mountain passes, and general geography of the region.
It was probably during this period that Sohon began the compilation
of the Flathead-English vocabulary which is now in the manuscript
collections of the Bureau of American Ethnology. It includes some
1,500 useful words and phrases.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Sohon also accompanied Mullan on his extensive explorations of
the intermountain region from Fort Hall on Snake River in the south
to the Kootenay River on the north. They crossed the Continental
Divide six times and measured the snowfall in the passes. Sohon
made a series of excellent landscape sketches depicting the character
of the country traversed, important landmarks, Cantonment Stevens,
and views of the party on the march which were valuable as a record
of the explorations.
In spring and early summer Sohon drew the remarkable series of
pencil portraits from life of the chiefs and headmen of the Flathead
and Pend d’Oreille tribes which is the subject of this paper. The
dated Pend d’Oreille portraits of April 21 to May 1 were drawn in
the Flathead Lake-Kootenay River region during Lieutenant Mullan’s
northern explorations in the spring of 1854. The portraits of Flathead
and Iroquois living with that tribe, dated May 12 to June, 1854,
probably were drawn in the vicinity of the Flathead village at Tort
Owen in the Bitterroot Valley.
Doubtless Sohon rendered valuable service also as map maker and
barometrical observer. If Sohon had had little experience in this
work before, it is certain that he learned quickly. After a year of field
work in the mountain valleys, Lieutenant Mullan led his little party
westward to make his report to Governor Stevens. They arrived at
Fort Dalles on October 14, 1854.
Governor Stevens was so favorably impressed with the work of
Gustavus Sohon while under Lieutenant Mullan’s command that he
made a special request to Major General Wool, Commander of the
Military Department of the Pacific, to have Sohon transferred to his
command. On March 31, 1855, by authority of Major General Wool,
Private Sohon was ordered to detached duty with Governor Stevens’
expedition.
In the spring of 1855, before setting out on an important expedition
to obtain additional detailed information for the railway survey and
to make the first treaties between the United States and the Indian
tribes of the Upper Columbia River and Northwestern Plains regions,
Governor Stevens paid tribute to Private Sohon:
I also secured the services of a very intelligent, faithful, and appreciative man,
Gustavus Sohon, a private of the Fourth Infantry, who was with Mr. Mullan
the year previous in the Bitter Root valley, and had shown great taste as an
artist, and ability to learn the Indian language, as well as facility in inter-
course with the Indians. . . . Thus in the month of May, 1855, I found myselt
in the Walla-Walla valley, and with the means, by proper care and manage-
ment of time, and a little hard work, to make a good examination of the country.
My secretary, James Doty, esq., assisted me in the topography, and G. Sohon,
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made the barometrical observations. [Report of Explorations, etc., 1860, vol. 12,
pt. I, p. 196.]
Governor Stevens’ son, who accompanied the expedition, wrote
of Sohon as “the artist, barometer-carrier, and observer . . . an in-
telligent German, a clever sketcher, and competent to take instrumental
observations.”’ (Stevens, 1900, vol. 2, p. 68.)
In one of the largest gatherings of Indians in historic times, Gov-
ernor Stevens and General Palmer, as United States Commissioners,
met the Walla Walla, Cayuse, Umatilla, Yakima, and Nez Percé
tribes of the Upper Columbia in late May and early June, 1855. This
“Walla Walla Council” was held on Mill Creek, a tributary of the
Walla Walla River, about 6 miles above the site of the ill-fated Whit-
man Indian Mission. The negotiations resulted in the cession to the
United States of over 60,000 square miles of land, and the setting
aside of three reservations for the Indians involved, one for the Walla
Walla, Cayuse, and Umatilla, one for the “Yakima Nation,” and one
for the Nez Percé. The three separate treaties were signed June 9.
Although Sohon did not serve as an official interpreter at this
Council, he apparently helped to interpret the proceedings to a group
of Salishan-speaking Spokan Indians who attended the sessions. His
“Records of the Walla Walla Council 30th May 1855, translated in
the language of the Spokan Indians by G. Sohon,” a manuscript in
the collections of the Bureau of American Ethnology, is a parallel
English-Spokan text of the opening speech at the Council by General
Palmer.
Sohon’s pencil was active during the period of the Walla Walla
Council. He sketched the impressive parade of some 2,500 Nez Percé
Indians arriving at the Council ground on horseback May 24, the
feast given the chiefs by the Commissioners on the following day, a
general view of the Council in session, and the primitive scalp dance
celebrated by the Nez Percé on the day after the treaties were signed.
He also made pencil portraits of the principal chiefs of the tribes that
took part in the treaties. (The previously published drawings of
Gustavus Sohon at the Walla Walla Council are listed in the Ap-
pendix, p. 68.) A remarkable aspect of this Council was the recording
of the proceedings in the Nez Percé language by a group of young
men who had been taught to read and write their own language by
Presbyterian missionaries. Sohon’s previously unpublished drawing
of these Indian scribes at work appears as plate I.
From the Walla Walla Council ground Governor Stevens’ party of
22 persons, including 2 Indian guides, moved eastward. At a council
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10
ground on the east bank of the Missoula River, 74 miles northwest
of the present city of Missoula, Mont., Governor Stevens met the
leaders of the Flathead, Upper Pend d’Oreille, and Kutenai tribes.
The Council opened July g and ended July 16 in the signing of a
treaty between these tribes and the United States which provided for
the cession of some 25,000 square miles of Indian land. Details of
this complex treaty are discussed in later pages of this paper.
Gustavus Sohon and Ben Kiser, a half-breed Shawnee who lived
with the Flathead, served as the official interpreters at this Flathead
Treaty Council. The Flathead Indians still refer to the treaty site as
“where the trees have no lower limbs.” Sohon’s sketch of the Council
in session (pl. 2), the only pictorial record of the event, shows this
characteristic of the locality.
From this council ground the Stevens party continued eastward to
make a treaty with the Blackfoot Indians and their neighbors. En
route Sohon assisted Governor Stevens in making an examination
of the approaches to Cadotte’s Pass over the Rockies, drew panoramic
sketches of the Rocky Mountain chain as seen from the plains on the
east, and took numerous barometrical observations.
On October 16 Governor Stevens and Alfred Cumming, as United
States Commissioners, met the chiefs of the three Blackfoot tribes,
and the Gros Ventres, Nez Percé, Flathead, and Upper Pend d’Oreille,
at a council ground near the mouth of the Judith River in the present
State of Montana. Next day a treaty was signed. The treaty provided
for no Indian land cessions, but it did define the boundaries of the
hunting grounds of the Blackfoot tribes and of the Indian tribes from
west of the Rockies who hunted buffalo on the plains.
Gustavus Sohon and Ben Kiser served as official Flathead inter-
preters. Sohon also made a sketch of the Council in session and a
series of fine pencil portraits of both the white officials and the leading
chiefs of the Blackfoot tribes who signed this first treaty between the
United States and the Blackfoot. (See Appendix, p. 68, for list of
published drawings made by Sohon at the Blackfoot Council.)
Governor Stevens intended to make treaties with the Spokan,
Colville, and Coeur d’Alene tribes during his return journey to the
west coast. However, on October 29, the day after his party left the
council ground, he was met by a mounted courier from the west
bearing the alarming report that some of the tribes with whom he
had recently treated at Walla Walla had broken out in open war.
The dispatches warned Stevens not to attempt to return through the
country of the hostile Indians, but he obtained additional arms and
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NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 7
ammunition from Fort Benton and pressed on as quickly and as
quietly as possible. The party crossed the Coeur d’Alene range of
mountains in deep snow in late November, passed through the country
of the hostiles, and reached Fort Dalles safely by the end of the year
1855.
Private Sohon remained on detached duty under Governor Stevens’
command until April of 1856. During that period he may have worked
over his sketches and assisted in the preparation of maps and meteor-
ological data obtained in the previous years. When Governor Stevens’
reports of his explorations and surveys of the northern railway route
were published in 1860, the greater part of the colored lithographs
used as illustrations were reproduced from original drawings by John
Mix Stanley, the official artist of the expedition, who returned east
in 1854. However, this publication also contains Io illustrations
after Gustavus Sohon’s sketches, and 2 others redrawn by Stanley
from Sohon’s original work. The Sohon illustrations were a portion
of those made during his service under Lieutenant Mullan in the
valley in 1853-54, and with Governor Stevens’ treaty-making expe-
dition of 1855. (They are listed in the Appendix, p. 67.)
On April 19, 1856, Private Sohon was ordered to detached duty
at Fort Steilacooms, Washington Territory. Six months later he
was transferred to duty in the office of Captain Cram, of the Topo-
graphical Engineers, at the Headquarters of the Department of the
Pacific, Benicia, Calif., where he served as a draughtsman in the
preparation of maps of the western portion of the United States for
the remainder of his period of military service. Private Sohon was
honorably discharged from the Army at the expiration of his 5-year
enlistment, at Fort Walla Walla, July 2, 1857.
The small-scale map, reproduced as plate 3, was drawn on tracing
cloth by Gustavus Sohon in 1857. Although its original purpose is
not known, it serves to indicate the knowledge of the country between
Fort Benton on the Missouri River and Fort Walla Walla on the
Columbia at that time. It also portrays the area in which Sohon
traveled and made extensive detailed explorations and surveys during
the decade 1853-62.
In March 1854 Lieutenant Mullan had been successful in taking
a wagon train over the Rockies by way of Mullan Pass from Fort
Benton to the Bitterroot Valley. Thus he suggested the possibility
of a wagon road over the Northern Rockies. In 1855 Congress
appropriated $30,000 for the construction of a military wagon road
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
across the mountains from Fort Benton to Fort Walla Walla. Con-
tinued Indian unrest in the Northwest prevented work on the project.
In 1858 Isaac I. Stevens was influential in obtaining an additional
Congressional appropriation for this work and in the assignment of
Lt. John Mullan to the position of officer in charge of the project.
Lieutenant Mullan organized a party to explore and survey the
route at The Dalles, May 15, 1858. He employed Gustavus Sohon as
civilian ‘‘Guide and Interpreter” to the party. They had moved east-
ward but a few miles when Lieutenant Mullan received word of the
defeat of Colonel Steptoe’s force by Spokan Indians on the Pelouse
River, directly in the path of Mullan’s proposed route. Realizing the
impossibility of continuing the road survey, Lieutenant Mullan re-
turned to The Dalles and disbanded his party with the exception of
topographer Kolecki, guide Sohon, and a few men to care for his
stock. He then offered the services of the remainder of his party to
General Clarke, who assigned Mullan to the staff of Colonel Wright
as topographical officer. Lieutenant Mullan also commanded the
group of 33 loyal Nez Percé Indian guides and scouts attached to
Colonel Wright’s command. Wright marched against the hostile
Indians at the head of a force of 680 soldiers. In the two battles of
Four Lakes on September 1 and Spokan Plains on September 5 he
decisively defeated the enemy force of Coeur d’Alene, Spokan, and
Pelouse Indians.
Sohon made a sketch of the Battle of Spokan Plains on September
5, 1858 (pl. 4). It portrays the essential character of the battle.
The retreating Indians had set fire to the prairie grass and under
cover of the smoke, surrounded the soldiers on three sides. Colonel
Wright promptly ordered the pack train to close up and surrounded
it with a line of fighting men. The soldiers possessed improved long-
range rifles which they used with deadly effect to beat back the
sporadic attacks of the Indians who were armed only with short-
range Hudson’s Bay muskets, bows and arrows, and lances.
Mullan’s men remained with Colonel Wright through the three
peace councils with the hostiles in late September. Later Lieutenant
Mullan returned to Washington to obtain further appropriations for
the wagon road project.
In May 1859 Lieutenant Mullan again organized his party at The
Dalles. In June he ordered Sohon to move forward in search of a
possible route across the Bitterroot Mountains south of the Coeur
d’Alene River-St. Regis Borgia River crossing. In his published
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NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 9
report Mullan explained his choice of Sohon for this important
mission :
Mr. Sohon’s early connexion with my explorations in 1853 and 1854, his
knowledge of the Indian language, his familiarity with the general scope of the
country to be traversed, and the influence he had always so beneficially exerted
over the Indians, all pointed him out as the proper person to explore the new
and dangerous route. [Mullan, 1863, p. 11.]
Sohon found the Coeur d’Alene unwilling to furnish guides for
the exploration of the mountain area south of the Coeur d’Alene
River, and strongly opposed to the location of a wagon road in that
region. He returned to Mullan’s camp July 7, after an absence of more
than a month alone in the country of Indians who, if not in open war,
were still unfriendly to whites.
Abandoning hope of crossing to the south, Mullan pushed the
road survey forward vigorously via the Coeur d’Alene Mission, and
Coeur d’Alene River-St. Regis Borgia River crossing of the moun-
tains, and down the valley of the St. Regis Borgia. Sohon, in charge
of the small advance party, marked out the route and determined
the location of the mountain pass over the Coeur d’Alene to be followed
by the wagon road. The party wintered in a group of log huts on
the St. Regis Borgia River, which they called Cantonment Jordan.
On July 1, 1860, while working in the area immediately west of
the Rockies, Lieutenant Mullan received word that Major Blake
with a command of 300 recruits en route to Fort Walla Walla had
arrived at Fort Benton by steamboat and awaited Mullan’s arrival
for guidance over the mountains by the new road. Gustavus Sohon
was transferred to Major Blake as guide and interpreter for his
command. But before leaving Fort Benton, Sohon made a quick
pencil sketch of the locality as seen from the east. The wagons in the
right foreground probably are those used by Major Blake in crossing
the mountains (pl. 5).
Gustavus Sohon guided the first wagon party to cross the moun-
tains from Fort Benton to Fort Walla Walla, the first wagons to
reach the Columbia River from east of the Continental Divide by
a route north of the South Pass, in the present State of Wyoming.
Major Blake’s party left Fort Benton August 7, 1860, and arrived
at Fort Walla Walla without mishap on October 4, spending 48 days
in traveling and 11 resting along the way. This successful journey,
which was made possible by Sohon’s experienced guidance, convinced
Lieutenant Mullan of the practicality of the wagon road.
Lieutenant Mullan and Sohon were again in the field in 1861.
Starting once more from Walla Walla, they made extensive improve-
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I1IO
ments in the road, laying out new sections over better terrain or
shortening the distances to be traveled, decreasing the number of
necessary river crossings. When a new section of road was to be
laid out, Sohon moved ahead with a small party to mark out the
road and make detailed observations on the features of the country.
The party wintered at Cantonment Wright at the junction of the
Hell Gate and Big Blackfoot Rivers. In June 1862 Sohon was in
charge of the main party which followed Lieutenant Mullan’s advance
party west. Lieutenant Mullan disbanded his expedition at Walla
Walla in late August, 1862.
After more than 4 years of work, the wagon road was completed.
It was the first road to connect the head of navigation on the Missouri
with the head of navigation on the Columbia. Some 624 miles long,
and from 25 to 30 feet wide, it could be traveled by lumbering wagons
in 57 days, by pack animals in 35 days. Although originally intended
as a military road to transport men and supplies to the posts of the
far northwest, it was used primarily as a highway for travelers and
settlers, and for the transport of freight to and from the northwest.
“The Mullan Road,” as it was commonly called, rendered important
service to the settlement of the far northwest in the days before the
railroads reached that section.
Mr. Sohon journeyed to Washington with Captain Mullan after
the field season of 1862. In Washington he probably assisted Mullan
in the preparation of data, maps, and illustrations for his official
report on the project. The “Report on the Construction of a Military
Road from Fort Walla Walla to Fort Benton” was published in 1863.
It is illustrated by 10 colored lithographic reproductions of original
drawings by Gustavus Sohon, all of which are erroneously labeled
“C, Sohon.” (A list of these illustrations appears in the Appendix,
pp. 67-68.) Three of the large folding maps at the end of this report
credit Gustavus Sohon as one of the civil engineers who contributed
material to their compilation. On the two maps which show the location
of the pass between the Coeur d’Alene and St. Regis Borgia Rivers,
the name “Sohon Pass” is given to the location. Lieutenant Mullan
named the pass in honor of Gustavus Sohon who made the first
topographical map of it. Father De Smet crossed this pass in 1863,
and referred to it as “Sohon Pass.” (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905,
vol. 3, p. 795.) However, when the railway was built over the
Coeur d’Alene Mountains in 1889, it crossed the summit by another
pass of nearly equal altitude, 14 miles northeast of Sohon Pass. The
name Lookout Pass is now applied to the one followed by both the
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS Il
railway and Highway No. 10 over the Coeur d’Alenes. During the
1890’s the name St. Regis Pass appears to have replaced Sohon
Pass on maps of the region.
Gustavus Sohon married Juliana Groh, April 29, 1863. Shortly
thereafter he took his bride to San Francisco, Calif., where he estab-
lished a “Photographic and Ambrotype Gallery,” at 683 Market
Street. Among his sitters was the famous Jesuit priest, Father
De Smet, founder of the St. Mary’s Mission to the Flathead Indians.
An original Sohon negative of this subject is now in the collections
of the Montana State Historical Society. In 1865 or 1866 Sohon
gave up his photographic business and returned to Washington.
He retained his residence in Washington for the rest of his life,
operating a shoe business and devoting much of his time to his
growing family. Mr. Sohon was the father of eight children, five of
whom lived to adulthood. His three sons attained distinction in the
professions of law, medicine, and chemical research. Henry W. Sohon
was a President of the Bar Association of the District of Columbia.
Dr. Frederick Sohon accompanied Robert Peary as physician on
three Arctic expeditions. Dr. Michael Druck Sohon isolated the
chemical phenalthalein while at Johns Hopkins University. The only
surviving child of Gustavus Sohon, Dr. Elizabeth Sohon, is a prac-
ticing physician in the city of Washington. Prof. Frederick W.
Sohon, S.J., a grandson, is director of the world-famous Seismological
Laboratory of Georgetown University.
Mr. Sohon never revisited the Northwest and the scenes of his
decade of exploration between 1853-62. Nevertheless, his personal
correspondence and the considerable number of copies of Government
documents pertaining to relations with the Indians of the Northwest
among his personal papers show that he retained an active interest
in the welfare of the tribes he had known so well. His daughter
recalls that members of the Flathead Indian delegation to Washington
under Chief Charlot in 1884 paid a visit to Mr. Sohon at his home.
The only time she saw her father smoke was when the pipe was
passed around at the beginning of that meeting of old friends.
Gustavus Sohon died in Washington, D. C., September 3, 1903,
at 78 years of age. He was buried in Mount Olivet Cemetery.
Three years before Mr. Sohon’s death, Hazard Stevens’ life of his
father, Isaac I. Stevens, was published. The majority of the illus-
trations in this two-volume work are halftone reproductions of 22
original pencil portraits and 8 scenes drawn by Private Sohon during
his service under Governor Stevens in the treaty-making operations
12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
in the spring, summer, and fall of 1855. Hazard Stevens wrote of
these illustrations:
The portraits of Indian chiefs were made by Gustavus Sohon, a private soldier
of the 4th infantry, an intelligent and well educated German, who had great skill
in making expressive likenesses. He also made the views of the councils and
expedition. These portraits with many others taken by the same artist, were
intended by Governor Stevens to be used to illustrate a complete account of his
treaty operations. [Stevens, 1900, vol. 2, p. xx.]
Isaac I. Stevens was prevented from writing a history of his treaty
operations by the pressure of public duties and later by his untimely
death in battle in the Civil War.
Mr. Sohon’s illustrations published in Hazard Stevens’ book are
listed in the Appendix, p. 68. They include portraits of the prominent
Indian chiefs at both the Walla Walla and Blackfoot Treaty Councils.
None of the prominent leaders of the Flathead and Pend d’Oreille
tribes who participated in the Flathead and Blackfoot Treaties are
portrayed.
In 1883 a collection of portraits of Northwestern Indians was given
to the United States National Museum by Willard Jewell. It included
nine pencil portraits of prominent Flathead leaders, eight portraits
of chiefs and headmen of the Upper Pend d’Oreille, and three portraits
of prominent Iroquois living with these tribes in the middle of the
nineteenth century. The portraits were drawn by Gustavus Sohon
while serving under Lieutenant Mullan the year before the Flathead
Treaty. These may have been some of the “many other” portraits
by Sohon, referred to by Hazard Stevens, which Isaac I. Stevens
had intended to use in his proposed book on his treaty operations.
Each portrait is on a separate piece of thin drawing board measuring
about 74X10 inches. Each portrait bears a caption in Sohon’s hand-
writing giving significant information on the subject of the sketch.
These portraits are reproduced for the first time in this publication.
In 1947 Mr. Sohon’s daughter, Dr. Elizabeth Sohon, presented
to the United States National Museum 25 original drawings by her
father, which were among his personal effects in her possession. Most
of these drawings are scenes in the Indian country of the Northwest
drawn in the years 1854-60. Several appear to have been the original
field sketches in pencil which were copied at a later date in more
finished form for some of Mr. Sohon’s published illustrations. Others
represent subjects that were never published. These drawings vary
greatly in size; they probably were made on whatever paper was
handy at the time of sketching. Some are on thin tracing paper in
light pencil. The paper has deteriorated and the pencil lines now are
.
[
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 13
barely visible. A selection of these drawings, comprising those that
have been identified and are sufficiently clear to be reproduced, has
been employed in the illustration of this paper. In their present
condition these drawings have scientific value, but do not constitute
a fair representation of Mr. Sohon’s artistic ability.’
THE FLATHEAD INDIANS
They called themselves the Salish. However, the people of this tribe
have been known to white men for more than a century as the Flat-
head Indians. The origin of this name is uncertain. The neighboring
Pend d’Oreille have a tradition that the Flathead practiced artificial
head deformation when they arrived in the Bitterroot Valley from
the west, at an undetermined time centuries ago. Yet the modern
Flathead deny that their ancestors deformed their heads. (Turney-
High, 1937, p. 12.) Some writers have used the term ‘‘Flatheads”
loosely to designate the entire group of small Salishan tribes of the
Upper Columbia River drainage. In 1851 Anson Dart, Superinten-
dent of Indian Affairs for Oregon Territory, explained the application
of the name to these tribes thus: “These Indians received the name
Flat Heads from the fact that their heads were not sharpened by
pressure on the forehead, as the Chinooks.” (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind.
Aff., 1851, p. 478.) This suggests that the “Flatheads” were so named
to designate people whose heads remained in the natural condition,
flat on top, to distinguish them from the tribes of the Lower Columbia,
whose custom it was to deform the heads of infants by artificial
pressure in cradling.
1 Although Gustavus Sohon’s drawings comprise the most extensive and
authoritative pictorial series on the Indians of the Northwestern Plateau in pre-
reservation days; although he possessed remarkable talent; and although some
52 of his drawings have been published, his name does not appear in any of the
standard biographies of American artists. Louise Rasmussen's “Artists of the
Explorations Overland, 1840-1860,” devotes three short sentences to Sohon.
This biographical sketch has been prepared on the basis of the published Gov-
ernment reports on the Pacific Railway Explorations and Surveys and the Mili-
tary Wagon Road, on material in Hazard Steven's life of his father, on informa-
tion in the files of War Department and State Department Archives in the Na-
tional Archives, on a typed biographical sketch written by his son, the late
Henry W. Sohon, in 1918, which is now in the William Andrews Clark Me-
morial Library, Los Angeles, and information graciously supplied by his
daughter, Dr. Elizabeth Sohon, of Washington, D. C.
For valuable biographical information on the subjects of Sohon’s Indian
portraits, the writer is indebted to Pierre Pichette, Martina Siwahsah, and
Baptiste Finley, Indians of the Flathead Reservation, Montana, interviewed in
September 1947.
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
From the time of their traditional migration from the west until
their final settlement on the Flathead Reservation in 1891, the true
home of the Flathead tribe was the Bitterroot Valley, between the
Rocky and Bitterroot Mountains in the southwestern part of the
present State of Montana. This was beautiful wooded country, well
stocked with deer, elk, bear, beaver, and wild fowl. Fish were
plentiful in the streams. The fertile land yielded an abundance of
edible wild roots and berries. The valley received its name from the
bitterroot plant (Lewisia rediviva) which was especially plentiful
there. By hunting, fishing, and collecting, the primitive Flathead
gained ample subsistence in their valley home in pre-horse days.
The Flathead are believed to have obtained their first horses from
Shoshonean tribes to the south during the first quarter of the eight-
eenth century. (Haines, 1938, p. 435.) After horses became numerous
among them, the tribe made periodic journeys over the Rockies to
hunt buffalo on the plains of the Upper Missouri. Regular seasonal
migrations were customary in early historic times. In spring and
summer the Flathead resided in the Bitterroot Valley, subsisting
primarily on roots (of which the bitterroot and camas were most
important), berries, small game, and fish. In June and July the men
crossed the mountains on horseback for a brief summer hunt to obtain
meat and buffalo hides for lodges. At the close of the berry season,
in September or October, the whole tribe moved to the plains about
the upper tributaries of the Missouri River to hunt buffalo. Usually
they did not return to the valley until the next March or April, in
time to dig the bitterroot. Fully half the year was spent on this
long winter hunt.
The neighbors of the Flathead on the plains in the middle of the
eighteeenth century were the Pend d’Oreille and Kutenai on the north,
and the Shoshoni on the north, east, and south. These friendly tribes
recognized the right of the Flathead to hunt buffalo on a portion of
the plains. It was as plains buffalo hunters that the Blackfoot Indians
first met these people. Doubtless this accounts for the fact that the
Flathead are regarded as a plains tribe in the traditions of the Black-
foot. (Thompson, 1916, pp. 327-328; Wissler, 1910, p. 17.)
In the latter half of the eighteenth century the powerful Blackfoot
tribes, with the Piegan in the lead, pushed southwestward through
present-day Alberta toward the Rockies and the northern tributaries
of the Missouri River. Armed with deadly firearms, obtained from
white traders on the Saskatchewan, and mounted on swift horses
stolen from their southern and western enemies, these aggressive
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NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 15
intruders could not be repulsed by the bows and arrows, lances, and
war clubs of the Flathead and their neighbors. The Blackfoot invasion
gained momentum after a disastrous smallpox epidemic in 1781
greatly reduced the numbers of their enemies. The establishment
of trading posts in their own country later in that decade also gave
them a more plentiful supply of firearms and ammunition. By the
close of the century the Blackfoot tribes dominated the western plains
north of the Missouri. They forced the Kutenai, Pend d’Oreille,
and Flathead to seek safety west of the Rockies, and pushed the
Shoshoni southward and westward. The Blackfoot tried to deny the
western tribes access to the buffalo plains by guarding the eastern
exits from the most commonly used mountain passes. Occasionally
they sent strong war parties over the Rockies to steal horses from
the western tribes and to harass them in their own country. (Ferris,
1940, pp. 90-92; Thompson, 1916, pp. 304, 327-344; Teit, 1930,
pp. 316-321.)
The’ Flathead and their neighbors insisted on their prior right to
hunt buffalo on the plains in the present Montana. These tribes
were too small to risk individual combat with the powerful Blackfoot.
So they joined forces and crossed the mountains cautiously farther
south on shorter hunting excursions. The expeditions of the period
included the Nez Percé as well as the Flathead and neighboring
Salishan tribes. In spite of their precautions these parties sometimes
suffered heavy losses from attacks by the better-armed Blackfoot.
On these excursions the allied western tribes also met the Crow
Indians, who had advanced westward across the plains of the Yellow-
stone River valley and taken over much of the territory previously
held by the Shoshoni. Prior to 1805 the western allies traded horses
and horn bows to the Crows for materials which the latter had
obtained from the Mandan and Hidatsa villages farther east. Through
these Crow middlemen the westerners obtained some articles of
European manufacture, including a few brass kettles, which they
cut into small pieces to ornament their hair and clothing. As yet
the Flathead received no firearms. (Larocque, 1910, pp. 71-72.)
The first white men known to have met the Flathead were the
members of the party of American explorers under Captains Lewis
and Clark on their way overland to the Pacific. On September 4, 1805,
this expedition encountered a Flathead village in what later became
known as Ross’s Hole, near the present town of Sula, Ravalli County,
Mont. The explorers found the Flathead dressed in animal skins,
living in skin-covered lodges, and subsisting at the time on roots
and berries. Although interchange of ideas was complicated by the
3
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Ito
fact that all conversation had to pass through six different languages,
the Flathead managed to impress the explorers with their friendliness
and hospitality by exchanging presents, willingly sharing their food,
and trading horses to the whites. The expedition spent 2 days with
the Indians, at the conclusion of which the Flathead set out for the
Three Forks of the Missouri to join their western allies on the
winter buffalo hunt. Lewis and Clark estimated the size of the Indian
village at 33 lodges (Sergeant Ordway reckoned 40), in which lived
about 400 persons, of whom 80 were men. Capt. Clark said these
Indians called themselves “Eoote-lash-Schute.” Later Indian accounts
of the meeting leave no doubt that they were the Flathead. (Thwaites,
1904-5, vol. 3, pp. 52-55; Ordway, 1916, pp. 281-282; Wheeler, 1904,
vol. 2, p. 65; Ronan, 1890, p. 41; Report of Explorations, etc., 1860,
Vol. i, p: 325.)
Lewis and Clark estimated that the people of this village possessed
over 500 horses of fine quality, an average of more than 15 horses
to the lodge. Later accounts substantiate the fact that the Flathead
were richer in horses than were the Indians of the Plains. (Irving,
1851, p. 117; Bradley, 1923, p. 256.) Flathead horses were sturdy,
long-winded animals. A Blackfoot brave told Governor Stevens in
1853 that he “stole the first Flathead horse he came across—it was
sure to be a good one.” (Report of Explorations, etc., 1860, vol. 1,
p. 148.) The theft of horses furnished a primary motive for Blackfoot
raids on Flathead camps throughout the greater part of the nineteenth
century.
When David Thompson of the Northwest Company crossed the
Rockies and opened direct trade with the Flathead and Pend d’Oreille
tribes in the fall of 1809, he found these Indians armed only with
stone-pointed lances and arrows which broke harmlessly against the
thick buffalo-hide shields of their Blackfoot enemies. These Indians
clamored for firearms, ammunition, and iron arrowheads in exchange
for beaver pelts. Little else interested them. (Thompson, 1916,
p. 411.) During the following winter Thompson traded the Flathead
more than 20 guns and several hundred iron arrowheads. Next
summer the Indians were eager to try their new weapons against
their old enemies. In July a party of about 150 Flathead and allied
tribesmen crossed the Rockies by way of Marias Pass, determined
to hunt boldly. The Piegan did attack them shortly after they reached
the plains. The hardy Flathead successfully repulsed the attackers,
with heavy losses to the Piegan. With the improved weapons the
Flathead scored their first victory over the stronger Blackfoot.
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 17
Thompson credited the western Indians with being deadlier marks-
men with their new weapons than were the Piegan. He believed this
was due to the fact that they had learned to fire at smaller game from a
distance, while the Blackfoot were accustomed to shoot buffalo at
short range. (Ibid., p. 411.)
Next year the Piegan, chastened by this defeat at the hands of their
formerly impotent foes, sued for peace with the Flathead. It was a
tempting offer to this small tribe that had suffered severe losses
through decades of warfare with the Blackfoot. However, after long
deliberation, the courageous Flathead leaders refused the peace offer.
They knew that the Piegan could not speak for their Blood, North
Blackfoot, and Gros Ventres allies, who remained hostile. (Ibid., pp.
547-551-)
Within a few years the Flathead became well armed. The 168
Flathead men and boys who came to trade at the Hudson’s Bay
Company post at Horse Prairie in the fall of 1824 possessed 180
guns. (Ross, 1913, p. 387.) The Flathead were grateful to the traders
whose guns and ammunition they believed had saved their little tribe
from possible extermination at the hands of the merciless Blackfoot.
On the other hand, the traders were very much impressed with the
character and integrity of the Flathead as compared with the Indian
tribes they had known east of the Rockies and on the Pacific Coast.
In the accounts of hard-boiled traders, the Flathead were extrava-
gantly praised for their friendliness, frankness, honesty, truthfulness,
industry, courage, obedience to their chiefs, cleanliness, and chastity
of their women. (Cox, 1832, pp. 102, 122; Ferris, 1940, pp. 88,
325-326; Henry and Thompson, 1897, vol. 2, p. 710.) Yet the traders
recognized that the Flathead had one serious failing, they were bold
and inveterate gamblers. (Ferris, 1940, pp. 94-96; Thompson, 1916,
Pp. 411, 551; Wyeth, 1899, p. 193.)
Because of their admiration for the Flathead, many of the traders
offered to aid them in their unequal struggle with the more numerous
Blackfoot. Some traders, like Finan McDonald, accompanied the Flat-
head to the buffalo plains and fought beside them against their Indian
enemies. (Cox, 1832, pp. 167-168.) Others sought to effect a peace
between the warring tribes. Ross Cox, in 1813, tried to induce the
Flathead to abandon their dangerous expeditions to the plains. He
argued that their lands west of the mountains were well supplied
with smaller game which could support them. But “they replied
that their fathers had always hunted on the buffalo grounds; that
they were accustomed to do the same thing from their infancy; and
they would not now abandon a practice which had existed for several
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
generations.” (Ibid., p. 121.) In the winter of 1832 Captain Bonne-
ville tried to make peace between the western Indians and the Black-
foot. The Flathead, Nez Percé, and other western allies called a
council to discuss the matter. In the end these Indians rejected
Bonneville’s proposal, on the logical grounds that a state of open
warfare, during which everyone was constantly alerted, was preferable
to the false security of peace with an enemy they could not trust.
(Irving, 1851, pp. 121-122.)
While the Blackfoot waged a relentless war against American
traders on the plains, the Flathead were uniformly friendly to both
British and American traders. Through the fur trade their material
culture was enriched with both utilitarian objects and luxuries—
weapons and ammunition, metal tools, and household utensils; glass
beads and garments of cloth. Aside from encouraging the Flathead
to hunt valuable fur-bearing animals for the trade, and attempting
to bring peace to the tribe, the fur traders were content to let the
Indians live their own lives.
The appearance of Iroquois Indians among the Flathead was a by-
product of the fur trade. Some time prior to 1825 a number of
Iroquois men, who had been encouraged to leave their homes in the
St. Lawrence Valley to hunt and trap for the fur companies in the
far West, settled among the friendly Flathead. These Iroquois had
received religious instruction from Catholic priests in the East, prob-
ably at the Jesuit Mission of Caughnawaga. They introduced among
the Flathead some of the elements of Catholic worship as they recalled
them, which were combined with elements of primitive Flathead
religious ceremonials. The fur traders Wyeth and Bonneville reported
the curious blend of Christian and native religious practices which
they observed among the Flathead in 1833 and 1834. At that time
the Flathead offered daily prayers and observed the cardinal holidays
of the Roman Catholic Church. They considered Sunday a day of
rest on which hunting, fishing, trading, and moving camp were for-
bidden, unless hunger or extreme danger from enemies prevailed.
Each Sunday morning the people assembled to hear the moral teach-
ings of their religious leader. The service was interspersed with
singing and dancing in a great circle after the fashion of the older,
native prophet dance. (Wyeth, 1899, pp. 193-194, 195, 196, 203;
Irving, 1851, pp. 389-390; Spier, 1935, pp. 30-39.) However, these
services consumed only a portion of their day of rest. The remainder
of the day was celebrated as a secular holiday, in which the Indians
indulged their love for gambling. Horse racing, the hand game, and
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NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 19
other games involving wagers were played with fervor and keen de-
light. (Irving, 1851, p. 392.)
The Iroquois living with the Flathead encouraged them to sponsor
a series of deputations to St. Louis during the 1830’s, in quest of the
“black robes,” Catholic priests who could bring them the full benefits
of Christianity.
In response to these persistent requests, Jesuit officials selected
Father Pierre Jean De Smet, a Belgian priest, with 2 years’ exper-
ience in missionary work among Indians, to visit the Flathead and
determine the feasibility of missionary work among this far western
tribe. He journeyed from St. Louis to Green River (in present
Wyoming), where a Flathead delegation met him on June 30, 1840.
They guided him to the main Flathead-Pend d’Oreille camp at
Pierre’s Hole. He found the Flathead hospitable and inclined to
embrace the black robes’ religion. De Smet baptized nearly 600 of
the Indians, including the aged chiefs of both the Flathead and Upper
Pend d’Oreille tribes. He assured them that a resident missionary
would be sent them the following spring, and returned to St. Louis,
enthusiastic over the prospects of a permanent Flathead Indian
Mission.
Next spring Father De Smet headed the little party entrusted
with the inauguration of the first Catholic Mission in the great
Northwest. It included two other priests, Fathers Nicholas Point
and Gregory Mengarini, and three lay brothers. In the fall of 1841,
they established St. Mary’s Mission in the Bitterroot Valley.
For 5 years St. Mary’s Mission appeared to prosper. Father
De Smet was not content merely to convert the pagan Flathead to
Christianity. He initiated a series of fundamental changes in Flathead
culture which he believed was necessary to improve the economic
and social condition of the tribe.
The primitive Flathead had been accustomed to regard supernatural
assistance as a powerful war medicine. Many warriors were attracted
to Christianity as a source of stronger war medicine than they pre-
viously had possessed. A series of decisive victories of Flathead
warriors over much larger enemy forces, following their conversion,
convinced even their enemies that “the medicine of the Blackrobes
was stronger than theirs.” (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 2,
p. 589.) De Smet admired the courage of the Flathead, but he could
not reconcile their interpretation of spiritual power as war power
with the Christian ideal of universal peace. Like the fur traders before
him, Father De Smet viewed the traditional Flathead-Blackfoot war-
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
fare as the greatest threat to the security and progress of the Indians.
Primarily to prevent conflict on the buffalo plains, and secondarily
to inculcate a “love of labor,’ which he deemed essential, among the
Flathead, he attempted to “create among them a greater taste for
agriculture than for hunting.” He realized this would require “much
time and patience.” (Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 329, 366.)
To initiate this economic revolution, Father De Smet obtained
seeds from Fort Colville and showed the Flathead hunters how to
plant, cultivate, and harvest crops of wheat, oats, and potatoes. He
also introduced cattle, hogs, and chickens from the western settle-
ments. In 1845 the missionaries set up a flour mill to process their
wheat, and a saw mill to provide lumber for permanent houses. A
dozen small houses were built around the Mission as a further incen-
tive to the Flathead to adopt a sedentary life.
De Smet recognized that until such time as the Flathead became
experienced farmers, it would be necessary for them to continue their
seasonal buffalo hunts. For a period a priest was sent with the
hunting camp, but it soon became evident that serious religious in-
struction was impossible amid the savage excitement of the buffalo
chase. Furthermore, the presence of a priest in the Flathead camp
proved embarrassing on those occasions when battles with Blackfoot
or Crow war parties on the hunting grounds could not be avoided.
So the experiment of sending a priest with the hunting camp was
abandoned. (Palladino, 1894, pp. 52-53.)
The changes wrought by Father De Smet in Flathead social life
were profound. He aimed to eliminate those primitive Flathead
social practices which appeared to be out of harmony with Christian
morality.
Polygamy had been traditional with the Flathead. It was usual
for a successful warrior and hunter to take more than one wife. A
good hunter could provide more hides than a single woman could
process. Several wives, therefore, were an economic asset to the
ambitious Indian during the period of the fur trade. Furthermore,
polygamy helped to provide for the excess of women in the tribe caused
by heavy war casualties among vigorous, adult males. Father De Smet
refused to recognize such multiple unions. He called upon each man
to select one woman with whom he should appear before the priest
for Christian marriage. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1,
Pp. 332.)
Flathead addiction to gambling was interpreted by Father De Smet
as contrary to God’s commandment, “Ye shall not covet anything
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 21
that is your neighbors.” All their traditional gambling games, in
which the Flathead had spent much of their leisure time, were abol-
ished. (Ibid., vol. 1, p. 227.)
In premissionary times the Flathead punished individual law-
breakers by flogging. The traditional symbol of authority of a Flathead
chief was a stout whip possessing fire-hardened rawhide lashes, which
he applied vigorously to the bare back of each offender. It was cus-
tomary for the guilty party to take his punishment manfully, without
resentment against the chief. This was a cruel but effective method
of enforcing tribal law. Father De Smet, impressed by the brutality
of the chiefly flogging, discouraged this practice. (Ibid., vol. 4, pp.
1225-1226.)
Fathers De Smet and Point accompanied the Flathead to the plains
in the late summer of 1846. In September of that year De Smet
succeeded in arranging a peaceful meeting between the Flathead and
the Blackfoot. At the Piegan camp he was able to establish, by
common consent among the leaders of these tribes, what he believed
would be a lasting peace between these traditional enemies. He left
Father Point to spend the winter with the Piegan and to begin
missionary work among them, while he himself traveled down the
Missouri to St. Louis. When he left the Flathead in the fall of 1846,
Father De Smet was confident that the Mission, which he had founded
among them, was flourishing. Yet 4 years later the Indians and
missionaries had become so estranged that it was necessary to
discontinue the Mission.
Many reasons have been given for the temporary abandonment of
St. Mary’s Mission in the writings of the missionaries. Father
De Smet was accused of having made promises to the Indians which
the missionaries who remained at St. Mary’s could not fulfill. This
De Smet vigorously denied. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4,
p. 1480; Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, pp. 377-378.) Fathers Ravalli
and Mengarini, who remained at the Mission through the 4 years
after De Smet’s departure, also stressed the point that the best
Indians of the tribe had died since the Mission was founded, leaving
a predominance of undisciplined individuals whose minds were pois-
oned against the missionaries by both white men and Indians who
were either immoral characters or prejudiced against the missionaries
and their work. (Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, pp. 379-382; Palladino,
1894, p. 50.) Finally, the continued absence of the Flathead from
the Bitterroot Valley for long periods on their buffalo hunts, left the
Mission unprotected against Blackfoot attacks which endangered the
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I1O
lives and property of the missionaries and their faithful assistants.
By the fall of 1850 Catholic officials reluctantly recognized that the
possibility of effective work among the Flathead had become so
remote that further maintenance of St. Mary’s Mission was not
justified. On November 5, 1850, the Mission property was sold to
John Owen, an American trader, who founded there a trading post,
Fort Owen.
Contemporary accounts of the missionaries indicate that the Flat-
head change of heart became evident almost immediately after they
left Father De Smet in the Blackfoot country in the fall of 1846.
The Flathead are said to have given themselves up to obscenity and
excesses of the flesh while still on the plains. When they returned
to the Bitterroot Valley, the Indians greeted the missionaries coldly,
pitched their lodges at some distance from the Mission, and were
reluctant even to sell the missionaries dry meat of poor quality. (Ra-
valli in Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, pp. 376-377.) Throughout much
of the remaining period of the existence of the Mission, the Flathead
avoided the Mission and were indifferent or hostile to the efforts
of the missionaries on their behalf. They indulged their passion for
gambling and “indecent”? dancing, and refused to sell provisions
to the Mission. (Ravalli im Garraghan, vol. 2, p. 380; Accolti mm same,
vol. 2, p. 383.) They no longer took their sick to the missionaries,
but entrusted them to the treatment of native medicine men. Because
the punishment of the whip had been abolished, some of their once
influential chiefs, who deplored the actions of their people, were
unable to exercise their traditional authority over their tribesmen.
(Accolti in Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 382.)
In sum, these actions of the Flathead majority constituted a blood-
less revolt against the planned socio-economic program inaugurated
by Father De Smet. After 5 years of trial, they were unable to
assimilate the alien, and to them meaningless, traits of European
culture introduced by the missionaries as substitutes for their time-
honored primitive customs. The contemporary accounts of the mis-
sionaries suggest that during the early period of their revolt against
the austere moral code imposed by the Mission, the Flathead may
have indulged in excesses that would not have been tolerated by their
own leaders in premissionary days. However, for the most part, the
Flathead reverted to their traditional pattern of existence.
Gambling was again popular. Polygamy was no longer forbidden.
Their agricultural efforts were virtually abandoned. Four years after
the sale of Mission property, George Gibbs observed that the Flathead
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 23
“live altogether by the hunt, and do not manifest any disposition
to agricultural pursuits or fixed residence. .... They have at the
station a village of log houses, but notwithstanding generally prefer
their own lodges.” (Report of Explorations, etc., 1860, vol. 1, pp. 415-
416.)
In 1855 Governor Stevens found many of the Flathead still un-
friendly toward Indian Missions. After the conclusion of the Flat-
head Treaty on July 16, 1855, he wrote to the Commissioner of
Indian Affairs: “Much difficulty was experienced in bringing the
Tribes onto the Reservation in consequence of the dislike of the
Flatheads for Mission Establishments.” (Partoll, 1938a, p. 312.)
Gradually Flathead opposition subsided. In 1866, at the Indians’
own request, the Catholic Mission of St. Mary’s was reestablished
among the Flathead.
Like most intertribal peace treaties of the pre-reservation period,
Father De Smet’s Flathead-Blackfoot treaty of 1846 was short-lived.
Within a few months the aggressive Blackfoot were harassing the Flat-
head again, both on the plains and in the Bitterroot Valley. Flathead
losses again mounted. When the members of the Pacific Railway
Survey parties visited the Flathead in 1853, they found Blackfoot
aggression was still the greatest threat to Flathead tribal welfare.
Governor Stevens estimated Flathead population at 60 lodges and 350
people, but many of the lodges were said to have been inhabited by
widows and their daughters. (Report of Explorations, etc., 1860,
vol. 1, p. 150.) Dr. Suckley reported that “but few pure Flatheads
(are) left, the race having been almost exterminated by the Blackfeet.
The mass of the nation now consists of Kalispelms, Spokanes, Nez
Perces, and Iroquois who have come among them, together with their
descendants.” (Ibid., p. 295.)
As were the traders and missionaries before him, Governor Stevens
was attracted by the fine qualities of the Flathead. Doubtless he
was familiar with the writings of some of the earlier fur traders and
of Father De Smet. Before he had met the Flathead, he wrote of
them as “the best Indians of the mountains or the plains—honest,
brave, docile—they need only encouragement to become good citi-
zens.” (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1853, p. 463.) He employed
the authority of his office and his personal persuasive powers in an
effort to bring about Flathead-Blackfoot peace. In 1853 he exacted
promises from a number of the Blackfoot chiefs to cease their attacks
on the Flathead. The Flathead leaders agreed to fight only in self-
defense. However, the Blackfoot chiefs were powerless to restrain
4
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
their ambitious young braves. When Stevens returned to the Flathead
in the summer of 1855, he was told how Blackfoot warriors had
continued to steal large numbers of horses from Flathead camps and
to kill peaceful Flathead on hunting excursions. The Flathead com-
plained bitterly that they had suffered serious losses since 1853, but
had kept their promise not to retaliate.
The Blackfoot Treaty of 1855, signed by both Blackfoot and
Flathead leaders, designated a portion of the plains south of the
Musselshell River as a proper buffalo-hunting ground for the Flat-
head and their allies from west of the Rockies. The treaty also pledged
all the signatory tribes to intertribal peace. This treaty failed also
to end warfare in the area. The chiefs who signed it could not enforce
it among their own warriors. John Owen stated in 1860, ‘Since
the treaty of ’55 the Blackfeet have made frequent predatory Excur-
sions to the different Camps from (on) this side and have run off
many horses.” (Owen, 1927, vol. 2, p. 215.) Sporadic clashes
between Blackfoot and Flathead continued until the end of buffalo
days nearly three decades after the treaty.
When Governor Stevens called the Flathead Treaty Council in the
summer of 1855, the Indians hoped he would present a plan to halt
Blackfoot depredations. Instead he told them of the Government’s
desire to place the Flathead, Pend d’Oreille, and that portion of the
Kutenai living in the United States upon a single reservation com-
prising a small portion of the land claimed by those tribes west of
the Rockies. The Indians were disappointed. Nevertheless, after
Governor Stevens explained to them the many benefits offered by
the Government in exchange for the cession of their lands outside
the reservation boundaries, the majority of the chiefs appeared to
accept the joint reservation proposal. Trouble arose when it came
to the selection of a reservation site. The Flathead leaders refused
to consider any location other than their ancestral home, their beloved
Bitterroot Valley. The Upper Pend d’Oreille were unwilling to leave
their homeland farther north about the newly established Catholic
Mission of St. Ignatius. Negotiations appeared to have bogged down
completely when Victor, the Flathead head chief, suggested a com-
promise, which Stevens accepted, and embodied in the formal treaty,
signed by leaders of these tribes, and Governor Stevens as United
States Commissioner, July 16, 1855. Article XI of this treaty read:
It is moreover, provided that the Bitter Root Valley, above the Loo-lo fork
shall be carefully surveyed and examined, and if it shall prove, in the judgment
of the President, to be better adapted to the wants of the Flathead tribe than
the general reservation provided for in this treaty, then such shall be set apart
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 25
as a separate reservation for the said tribe. No portion of the Bitter Root Valley,
above the Loo-lo fork, shall be opened to settlement until such examination is
had and the decision of the President made known.
Governor Stevens immediately instructed R. H. Lansdale, Indian
Agent, to make an examination of both localities. There exists in the
National Archives, Department of the Interior, Office of Indian Af-
fairs, correspondence, a manuscript report from Lansdale to Stevens,
dated October 2, 1855, in which he expressed the opinion that the
northern (Jocko) site was preferable to the Bitterroot Valley one.
In reaching this opinion he considered the natural fertility and re-
sources of the two areas. However, he acknowledged that the ex-
istence of the St. Ignatius Mission in the northern area weighed
heavily in his choice of that location. This report was premature.
It was made 34 years before the Flathead Treaty was ratified by the
Senate, April 18, 1859, and therefore had no legal status as the
official Government survey specified in the treaty.
Meanwhile, as they waited for action to be taken on their treaty,
the friendly Flathead were disillusioned and embittered by the fact
that the Blackfoot Treaty, made 3 months later than theirs, was
ratified in 6 months, and the Blackfoot tribes began to receive an-
nuities and other benefits provided by that treaty. It appeared to the
Flathead that the Government was following a policy of rewarding
enemies and neglecting old friends. (Agent Lansdale, in Ann. Rep.
Comm. Ind. Aff., 1857, p. 378.)
After the ratification of their treaty the Government made no
effort to force the removal of the Flathead from the Bitterroot Valley.
They were a small, friendly, well-behaved tribe, and they were still
unwilling to move. In the wake of the Montana gold rush of the
early ’60’s, white settlers moved into the Bitterroot Valley. Their
settlements grew in area and numbers until the lands occupied by the
Indians were virtually surrounded. Still the Flathead clung tena-
ciously to their land. Some Indians raised food crops for market
as well as for their own consumption. But, as late as 1876, three
and one-half decades after Father De Smet first showed them how
to till the soil, the Flathead Agent reported, “a majority still derive
their sustenance from hunting, fishing, root-gathering.” (Ann. Rep.
Comm. Ind. Aff., 1876, p. 88.) Until the extermination of the buffalo
on the southern Montana plains in 1879-80, the Flathead continued
their periodic buffalo-hunting excursions over the Rockies.
On November 14, 1871, President Grant issued an Executive
Order declaring that all Indians residing in the Bitterroot Valley
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
should remove as soon as practicable to the Jocko Reservation. The
next summer James A. Garfield met the principal Flathead chiefs to
expedite the movement. They insisted that Article XI of the 1855
treaty had never been carried into effect, that the Bitterroot Valley
had never been “carefully surveyed and examined,” and that the
white settlements that had been made in the valley since the treaty
had been illegal. They considered that the Government’s failure to
comply with Article XI, was an admission that the valley should
remain the proper home of the Flathead. Nevertheless, Garfield
convinced Arlee, second chief of the Flathead, that it was to the
best interest of the tribe to remove to the Jocko Reservation. He
prepared a formal agreement of removal which bore the names and
marks of the three principal Flathead chiefs. Although Head Chief
Charlot’s signature appeared on this document, Garfield acknowl-
edged that Charlot did not sign it. (Ibid., 1872, pp. 110, 115.)
In 1874 Arlee and a few of his followers removed to the Jocko
Reservation. He became recognized by the Government as head
chief of the tribe, and he and his followers received the Government’s
benefits. (Ibid., 1888, p. 156.) From time to time small numbers
of Flathead left the Bitterroot Valley and followed Arlee to the
Reservation. The majority of the tribe remained with Charlot until
several years after the extermination of the buffalo on the plains.
_ Not until October 1891 did Charlot lead the remnant of his loyal,
poverty-stricken followers, numbering less than 200 souls, from their
beloved Bitterroot Valley onto the Jocko Reservation. (Palladino,
1894, p. 59.)
Once on the Reservation, this disillusioned, conservative leader
continued to oppose Government-sponsored innovations in Indian
life. Charlot opposed the Indian court of offenses, the Indian police
force paid by the Government, the adoption of civilized dress, and
threatened to take the children of his band from school if their hair
was cut. (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1892, p. 292.)
The history of Flathead culture in the pre-reservation period (i.e.,
prior to 1891), is significant as a case history in American Indian
acculturation. Because the Flathead were consistently friendly toward
the whites, because they placed high value on a number of traits of
character which white men identified as Christian virtues, because
they showed an early interest in the Christian religion, the fur traders,
missionaries, and early Government officials believed this tribe aspired
to a civilization after the European pattern. No other western tribe
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 27
appeared to offer such potentialities for rapid conversion to the white
man’s way of life. Yet Flathead history is one of obstinate resistance
to acculturation. Their well-meaning white friends apparently failed
to understand that the Flathead cherished certain primitive practices
as traditional rights. Stubbornly they clung to their insistence on
their right to hunt buffalo on the plains, despite the deadly opposition
of the more powerful Blackfoot, and the kindly advice of their white
friends, until the buffalo were gone. Persistently they asserted their
right to remain in their beloved Bitterroot Valley homeland until
their own poverty forced them to leave it. With equal courage they
resisted efforts to introduce among them alien economic and social
practices which were antithetic to their own cultural experience. No
trait was more markedly characteristic of the primitive Flathead
than was their independence. As a people they passionately desired
to live their own lives and to make their own decisions.
Probably no one expressed more concisely the simple objectives
of primitive Flathead life than did Father Mengarini, for many years
their missionary, who wrote: “Generally the prayers of our Indians
consisted in asking to live a long time, to kill plenty of animals and
enemies, and to steal the greatest number of (the enemies’) horses
possible.” (Mengarini, 1871-1872, p. 87.)
GUSTAVUS SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF FLATHEAD INDIAN
LEADERS
The series of nine pencil portraits of Flathead leaders, drawn by
Gustavus Sohon in the Bitterroot Valley in the spring of 1854, in-
cludes the likenesses of the majority of the responsible leaders of
that remarkable little tribe in the middle of the nineteenth century.
Most of these men were born before their tribe met white men. All
were well known to the Catholic missionaries who founded St. Mary’s
Mission, and many of them were mentioned prominently in the writ-
ings of Father De Smet and his colleagues. They comprised the ma-
jority of the Flathead leaders who negotiated the tribe’s first and only
treaty with the United States a year after Sohon drew these portraits.
Many of them also signed the important Blackfoot Treaty of 1855.
In the following biographical sketches of the subjects of Mr.
Sohon’s portraits, the artist’s own brief but informative characteriza-
tions, written in his own hand on the same sheets as the portraits,
are printed in smaller type beneath the name of the subject.
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Victor, THE PRINCIPAL FLATHEAD CHIEF (PLATE 8)
Victor—
Head Chief of the Flatheads—
Victor has been confused by some writers with a contemporary of
the same Christian name who was head chief of the Lower Pend
d’Oreille. Father Palladino said that the Indians called the Flathead
Victor “Mitt to” and the Pend d’Oreille one “Pitol” to distinguish
them. (Palladino, 1894, p. 63.) Pierre Pichette translated Victor’s
Indian name “Easy to Get a Herd of Horses.” (See also Teit, 1930,
Pp. 377-)
Victor said that he had been quite a good-sized boy when Lewis
and Clark passed through the Flathead country in 1805 on their way
to the Pacific. His father, Three Eagles, is said to have been a chief
of the Flathead camp met by Lewis and Clark. (Owen, 1927, vol. 2,
p. 42; Wheeler, 1904, vol. 2, p. 65.)
Victor’s early years were molded by traditional Flathead religious
beliefs. Pierre Pichette said that in his youth Victor obtained rabbit
power by protecting a rabbit which was chased by a hawk. Some
years later while stealing horses from the Crow, Victor was thrown
from a stolen horse in the midst of the enemy encampment. He ran
and hid in some brush near the camp. Although the Crow searched
for him all through the next day they could not find him. The fol-
lowing evening Victor escaped. His rabbit pas is credited with
having saved him.
Victor was a minor leader of the Flathead when Father De Smet
and his colleagues founded St. Mary’s Mission. He was among the
first Indians to accept Christianity and became the leader of the men’s
society organized by the priests. Agnes, his wife, led the women’s
society. Father De Smet credited Victor’s leadership in the Catholic
society as an important factor in his choice by the tribe as head chief,
after the death of the octogenarian, Big Face, in late 1841 or early
1842. De Smet said Victor obtained tribal leadership “for no other
reason’ than ’’for the noble qualities, both of heart and head, which
they all thought he possessed.”
In the summer of 1846 Victor led the Flathead buffalo hunt to
the plains, during which his people, augmented by 30 lodges of Nez
Percé and a dozen friendly Blackfoot, scored a signal victory in a
battle with the Crow. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 2,
Pp. 576-577.)
Later that fall Victor took a prominent part in Father De Smet’s
negotiation of a peace between the Flathead and Blackfoot at the
ABIHD GVSHLV14 TWdIONIdd ‘YOLDIA
i SOF 0S /
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 29
Piegan camp. De Smet was impressed by Victor’s oratory at the
meeting of the head men of the tribes in the priest’s lodge:
Victor, head chief of the Flatheads, by the simplicity and smoothness of his
conversation gains the good will of his hearers entirely. He begins by telling
some of his warlike adventures; but as is easy to see, much less with the inten-
tion of exalting himself than to show forth the protection that the true God
always grants to those who devote themselves to his service. [Ibid., p. 592.]
Among the many causes of the disaffection of the Flathead that
led to the closure of St. Mary’s Mission in 1850, Father Accolti men-
tioned the loss of influence of the chiefs following the abolishment of
the punishment of the whip. (Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 382.) In
the face of rising dissatisfaction with his leadership, Victor clung to
his decision not to use the whip. Victor’s close identification with the
missionaries and his known piety also served to make him a target
for abuse by the dissatisfied element. He deplored his people’s change
of heart, but seemed powerless to prevent it. Father Accolti wrote
in the fall of 1852 that Victor had become only a nominal chief,
especially since he had permitted a rival to strike him in the face
without retaliating. (Ibid., p. 387.)
Governor Stevens visited Victor at Fort Owen in early October,
1853. He briefly recorded his impressions of the Flathead chief:
“He appears to be simple-minded, but rather wanting in energy, which
might, however, be developed in an emergency.” (Report of Explora-
tions, etc., 1860, vol. 12, pt. I, p. 123.) Apparently that emergency
was at hand the next time these two met, at the Flathead Treaty
Council in the summer of 1855. When he visited Stevens 2 days
before the formal Council opened, Victor complained of the failure
of the Blackfoot to keep the peace promised by their chiefs 2 years
earlier. He informed Stevens that 12 Flathead hunters had been
killed by the Blackfoot and many horses stolen since the Blackfoot
chiefs agreed to a peace. He mentioned that the Blackfoot had stolen
horses seven times that spring. ““Now I listen and hear what you wish
me to do. Were it not for you I would have had my revenge ere this.”
(Partoll, 1938a, p. 286.)
It must have been a shock to Victor to find, after the Council
opened, that Governor Stevens talked of land cessions and the place-
ment of the Indians on a reservation, rather than of a solution to the
pressing problem of Blackfoot depredations. Nevertheless, he re-
tained his faith in Stevens’ good intentions. “I believe you wish to
assist me to help my children here so that they may have plenty to
eat, and so that they may save their souls.”” Although Victor claimed
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I1O
as his land the Flathead River country to the north occupied by the
Upper Pend d’Oreille, as well as the Bitterroot Valley, he insisted
that it was not a large tract. “There is a very little land here: I
cannot offer you a large piece.” (Ibid., p. 289.)
Victor was willing for all the tribes to go on one reservation but
would not consider moving to the Flathead Valley. Alexander, the
Upper Pend d’Oreille chief, preferred the northern location. In an
effort to break the deadlock, Stevens expressed an opinion that the
Bitterroot Valley was the better site because its climate was milder,
it was nearer to camas and bitterroot, and more convenient for
buffalo. But he could not convince Alexander. Hoping that time for
private discussion might provide a solution to the problem, Governor
Stevens declared the next day a holiday on which he feasted the
Indians.
When the Council reconvened, Stevens believed majority sentiment
favored the northern location. Therefore, he again described the
treaty provisions and proposed a reservation within an area bounded
by the Jocko River, Flathead Lake, Flathead River, and the moun-
tains. He called on Victor to sign the treaty. Victor refused.
Then the Flathead chief, Ambrose, revealed that on the preceding
day Alexander had approached Victor with an offer to move to the
Bitterroot Valley, but Victor had refused to answer the Pend d’Oreille
chief. After hearing this, Stevens lost patience with Victor and
spoke sharply: “Does Victor want to treat? Why did he not say to
Alexander yesterday, come to my place? or is not Victor a chief? Is
he as one of his people has called him, an old woman? dumb as a
dog? If Victor is a chief let him speak now.”
Probably angry and somewhat confused, Victor replied that he
had not understood Alexander’s offer, that he recalled Governor
Stevens had himself chosen the Bitterroot Valley as the better loca-
tion. Then the lesser Flathead chiefs sought to explain Victor’s
silence of the previous day, stressing the variety of opinion among
the Flathead, Victor’s habitual thoughtfulness and slowness of speech.
Probably Red Wolf stated the matter precisely when he said, “I know
that if Alexander should come to the valley, his people would not
follow him.” Doubtless Victor had no more faith in the practicality
of Alexander’s offer. While the others continued to talk, Victor quietly
walked out of the Council.
Governor Stevens decided to give Victor more time to consider.
Next day, Saturday, Victor sent word that he had not made up his
mind. The Council was postponed until Monday. (Ibid., pp. 301-308.)
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 31
Victor faced probably the most difficult problem of his life. He
had agreed to the one reservation proposal. He knew, on the one
hand, that Alexander’s people were loath to leave the Mission and
might not follow their chief if he agreed to move to the Bitterroot
Valley. On the other hand, Victor knew that his own people were
divided in their opinion. Moise, the Flathead second chief, was op-
posed to any land cession whatever. Bear Track, the powerful medi-
cine man, refused to leave the Bitterroot Valley. Many of his people
were still hostile to Missions and might refuse to follow him if he
agreed to move to a reservation near St. Ignatius. His own position
as chief was not strong. Should he make an unpopular decision, that
position might be lost. Not only his own future but that of his tribe
was at stake. Victor refused to be stampeded or shamed into a
decision.
When the Council reopened on July 16, Victor offered a masterful
compromise. He proposed that Governor Stevens send “this word to
the Great Father our Chief—come and look at our country ; perhaps
you will choose that place if you look at it. When you look at Alex-
ander’s place and say this land is good, and say, come Victor—then
I would go. If you think this above is good land, then Victor will
say come here Alexander: then our children will be content. That
is the way we will make the treaty, my father.” (Ibid., p. 309.)
Although the Pend d’Oreille would not accept this proposal, Governor
Stevens accepted it as applicable to the Flathead only. The com-
promise was embodied in the Flathead Treaty as Article XI.
Victor emerged from the Council with greatly increased prestige.
By the terms of the treaty he had been made head chief of the Flat-
head Nation, comprising all the tribes party to the treaty. His com-
promise, which permitted the Flathead to remain in their beloved
homeland until and unless a careful survey showed that the northern
locality was better land, was popular with his people.
During the remainder of the period in which the Flathead were
without a Mission, Victor made periodic visits to the Pend d’Oreille
Mission to fulfill his religious obligations. A number of his tribesmen
went with him. When St. Mary’s Mission was reestablished in the
fall of 1866, it was in answer to the request of Victor, whose faith
had never faltered.
For the rest of his days Victor made his home in the Bitterroot
Valley, and his people did not desert him for the reservation to the
north. He opposed every effort of the Government to get him to go
on the reservation, even after white settlers took up land in his valley.
5
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL:, 110
In 1872, after Victor’s death, James A. Garfield stated that Victor
had permitted, even invited, the first white settlers to live in the valley.
(Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1872, p. 110.) But by 1868 Victor
complained to Major Owen of the white men who had located in the
valley in defiance of the 1855 Treaty, which Victor said had set the
area aside for the Flathead tribe. (Owen, 1927, vol. 2, p. 121.)
The Flathead Agent’s report of 1869 describes the Flathead as:
. .. the wealthiest, most industrious and frugal of these confederated tribes.
Many of them rely wholly on the products of their farms for subsistence, but
the majority live and subsist in the fall and winter in the buffalo country. [Ann.
Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 18609, p. 297.]
Victor himself was unable to adjust to the life of a sedentary farmer.
In the years following the treaty he continued to lead his people to
the plains for buffalo in the tradition of prewhite contact days. Scat-
tered references in Major Owen’s Journal refer to Victor’s leader-
ship of the summer hunt of 1856; the winter hunt of 1860-61, which
occupied 7 months; the winter hunt of 1861-62, during which the
tribe was absent from the valley for g months and many horses and
some men were lost (presumably as a result of enemy action) ; and
the summer hunts of 1865, 1867, and 1869. (Owen, 1927, vol. 1,
pp. 136, 234, 253, 330; vol. 2, pp. 67, 138.)
In 1858 Victor was too ill to accompany the winter hunting party.
He remained behind with three lodges of his people and was fed at
Government expense. In mid-August, 1859, he was still an invalid,
and Owen feared he would never recover his health. But he did.
In the winter of 1867 Owen remarked at the amazing vitality of the
old chief, whose hair was still black as coal and who could jump on
a horse with as much agility as the youngest of his people. (Ibid.,
vol. I, pp. 184-185, 193; vol. 2, p. 42.)
Victor died of sickness while on the summer hunt near the Three
Buttes in 1870. He is said to be buried in the cemetery of St. Mary’s
Mission at Stevensville, in the Bitterroot Valley.
George E. Ford, the Flathead Agent, paid tribute to Victor in his
report of September 1, 1870:
Affairs are particularly critical just now, as the confederated nation is with-
out a chief. The Indians had full confidence in Victor and would cheerfully act
according to his advice, but I know of no one in the nation that is capable of
filling his place with equal ability. [Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1870, p. 195.]
Father De Smet’s tribute to Victor stressed his piety. Captain
Mullan remembered Victor’s mildness and gentleness, bravery, gen-
erosity, and his many kindnesses to the members of his exploring
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 9
Mit: Gad LEAK SG Ro
Boles Pip Sa Nee
hee Ter mee HS Btrele Canis ae iste
/
MOISE, SECOND CHIEF OF THE FLATHEAD
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 33
expeditions. Mullan suggested that the Indian Department should
erect a monument to Victor’s memory “to commemorate his worth
and acts, and at the same time to teach all Indians that their good
deeds never die.” A portrait of Victor, as a “representative of the
religious element,” was sought for a proposed new volume of Thomas
L. McKenney’s “History of the Indian Tribes of North America.”
(Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, pp. 1337-1341.) The little
town of Victor, on the Bitterroot River, 12 miles north of Hamilton,
Mont., bears the name of this noted chief.
Victor was head chief of the Flathead for nearly three decades
during a particularly trying period in the history of that tribe. Al-
though at times his leadership may have suffered from want of firm-
ness in dealing with dissident elements, his sincere goodness, quiet
courage, patience, and dogged determination won him wide respect
in his later years. Victor’s compromise offered at the Flathead Treaty
Council was a statesmanlike action. His insistence on the right of
his tribe to remain in the Bitterroot Valley won him the approval of
his own people and the respect of Government officials. For 21 years
after his death, his son and successor, Charlot, held stubbornly to
Victor’s policy of refusing to leave the Bitterroot Valley for the
established reservation. Until the decade of the eighties this policy
expressed the will of the majority of the members of the tribe.
Morse, SEcoND CHIEF OF THE FLATHEAD (PLATE 9)
Steit-tish-lutse-so or the Crawling Mountain
Known among the Americans as Moise
2nd chief of the Flatheads, a talented and worthy Indian
Moise (French for Moses) received his Christian name on baptism
by Father De Smet at St. Mary’s Mission on Easter, 1846. De Smet
said that he was surnamed “Bravest of the Brave.” (Chittenden and
Richardson, 1905, vol. 1, p. 305; vol. 2, p. 472.)
Moise told Lieutenant Mullan that he had been present in the Flat-
head camp in Ross’ Hole when Lewis and Clark visited it in the fall of
1805. He said the explorers took what the Indians knew as the South-
ern Nez Percés’ trail, following the Bitterroot River to its fork, after
they left the Flathead village. (Report of Explorations, etc., 1860,
vol. I, p. 325.)
Moise headed the Flathead delegation that went to meet Father
De Smet at Fort Hall in 1841. He sent ahead his finest horse as a
gift to the priest. After their meeting De Smet described Moise as
“the handsomest Indian warrior of my acquaintance” who was “dis-
34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
tinguished by his superior skill in horsemanship, and by a large red
scarf, which he wore after the fashion of the Marshals of France.”
(Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. I, p. 305.)
Moise remained a great favorite of Father De Smet, who called
him his “adopted Indian brother” whose “exemplary conduct took
pace with his renowned bravery and he was generally looked up to
with esteem.”’ As an example of Moise’s moral refinement, De Smet
recalled that on one occasion he and Moise had called upon a chief
who had just flogged a visiting Nez Percé youth. Moise stripped
off his buffalo robe, exposed his bare back, and called upon the chief
to give him 25 lashes. When Father De Smet interposed, Moise ex-
plained, “Father, the Nez Percé here present was whipped because
he talked foolishly to a girl. My thoughts are sometimes bewildering
and vexing and I have prayed to drive them from my mind and
heart.” De Smet prevented the carrying out of this self-imposed
punishment. (Ibid., vol. 4, pp. 1225-1226.)
De Smet told of Moise’s calmness in encouraging his men before
their successful battle with the Crow Indians east of the Rockies in
the summer of 1846. “My friends,” said Moise, “if it be the will of
God, we shall conquer—if it be not his will, let us humbly submit to
whatever it shall please his goodness to send us. Some of us must
expect to fall in this contest: if there be any who are unprepared to
die, let him retire; in the meantime let us keep Him constantly in
mind.” (Ibid., vol. 2, p. 576.)
In 1857 Father Menetrey named Moise among the four Flathead
leaders who had never failed to follow the teachings of the mis-
sionaries after the closing of St. Mary’s Mission. (Garraghan, 1938,
vol. 2, p. 388.) Moise was one of the Flathead chiefs who journeyed
to St. Ignatius to fulfill his religious duties in that year. (Chit-
tenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, p. 1240.) After his visit to the
Flathead in 1859 De Smet termed Moise one of the greatest chief-
tains of the tribe, in whom real piety and true valor at war were
united. (Ibid., vol. 2, p. 766.)
At the Flathead Treaty Council, Moise remained silent until he
was asked to sign the treaty. He refused to sign. Then he launched
a bitter denunciation of the treaty. He claimed the Flathead leaders
would not have come to the council at all if Lieutenant Mullan had
not assured them there would be “no talk of land,” and that its pur-
pose would be to offer help to the Flathead in their struggle against
the Blackfoot. He refused to consider cession of any Flathead land.
He had no faith in Governor Stevens’ promise to make peace with
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 35
the Blackfoot. Although Moise was the only Flathead leader to ex-
press these ideas at the Council, and the only one to refuse to sign
the treaty, it is possible he voiced the sentiments of a large segment
of Flathead opinion. In the course of his remarks Moise also re-
vealed his independence of Victor. When asked directly if Victor,
who had already signed the treaty, was not his head chief, Moise
replied bluntly, “Yes, but I never listen to him.” (Partoll, 1938a,
p- 311.)
Although Moise attended the Blackfoot Treaty Council that fall,
and signed the treaty, he took no speaking part in the proceedings.
Scattered references to Moise’s activities in the years following the
treaties appear in Major Owen’s Journal. In early April, 1857, Moise
sought Owen’s assistance to dissuade some of the young warriors
from going to war against the Bannock and Shoshoni. During Vic-
tor’s prolonged illness in 1858 Moise and Ambrose led the Flathead
on their winter buffalo hunt. In March 1861 Moise brought up the
rear of the Flathead camp on its return from hunting on the plains.
In the winter hunt of 1862-63 he was a leader. On May 18, 1865,
Moise started out with Victor and the Flathead party for the sum-
mer hunt east of the mountains but changed his mind and returned
the next day in order to care for his growing crops. This is the only
indication that any Flathead chief of the period was sufficiently in-
terested in farming to permit it to interfere with his going to hunt
buffalo. Apparently, even in this case, Moise had some difficulty
reaching a decision in favor of tending his crops. (Owen, 1927,
vol. I, pp. 160, 190, 234, 277, 330.)
Moise died in March 1868, following a tedious year of sickness.
Modern Flathead believe that he was buried in the Bitterroot Valley.
At the time of his death Moise must have been over 70 years of age.
Ambrose became his successor as second chief of the tribe. (Ibid.,
vol. 2, p. 95.) Moise, the headquarters of the National Bison Range,
near Dixon, Mont., was named after Antoine Moise, a son, who was
also a prominent Flathead leader.
Moise was a leader who combined the Christian virtues with the
tough qualities necessary for survival on the northwestern Indian
frontier in his time. He was honest, God-fearing, brave in war, and
both independent and frankly outspoken in council. Later events
proved that in his distrust of the possibility for a lasting peace with
the Blackfoot, Moise possessed a keen and realistic insight into the
military problems of the region.
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
AMBROSE, SUCCESSOR TO MoISE AS FLATHEAD SECOND CHIEF (PLATE 10)
Ambrose (in baptism)
Shil-che-lum-e-la, or Five Crows
A chief of the Flatheads, mentioned many times in the “Oregon Missions,” for
his bravery and generosity.
Father De Smet wrote Ambrose’s Indian name “Sechelmeld.”
(Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1, p. 320.) Father Palladino
considered ‘““Amelo or Ambrose” one of the notable men of the Flat-
head tribe. (Palladino, 1894, p. 63.) He is remembered by the mod-
ern Flathead by the names ‘““Amelo” and “Five Crows.”
In a battle with the Blackfoot in 1840 Ambrose counted coup by
permitting an armed Blackfoot, who had mistaken him for one of
his own tribe, to ride double with him, then wresting the enemy
warrior’s gun from him and killing him. (Chittenden and Richardson,
1905, vol. 1, p. 320. The editors state that Ambrose’s own drawing
of this action is among Father De Smet’s papers.)
The Catholic missionaries considered Ambrose one of the Flathead
leaders who remained loyal to their cause after the abandonment of
the Mission. (Menetrey in Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 388; Chit-
tenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 2, p. 766.) Twice in 1857 he
accompanied Victor to St. Ignatius to fulfill his religious obligations.
Father Hoeken credited Ambrose with having played an influential
part in a notable amelioration in the whole Flathead Nation in that
year. Ambrose had “convened several assemblages, in order to ar-
range and pay off old debts, to repair wrongs, etc.” (Chittenden and
Richardson, vol. 4, p. 1240.)
During the Flathead Treaty Council, Ambrose revealed that Victor
had refused Alexander’s offer to move onto a reservation in the Bit-
terroot Valley, which resulted in Governor Stevens’ relentless attack
upon Victor. Ambrose quickly came to Victor’s defense and at-
tempted to restore calm to the proceedings by remarking, “I say to
the white chief, don’t get angry, maybe it will come out all right.
Maybe all the people have a great many minds. Maybe they will
come all right. See my chiefs are now holding down their heads
thinking.” (Partoll, 1938a, p. 305.)
Ambrose signed both the Flathead and Blackfoot Treaties. A year
after he signed the Blackfoot “treaty of peace,” his son, Louis, was
killed by the Gros Ventres, a party to that treaty. (Chittenden and
Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, p. 1248.)
Through the late fifties and sixties Ambrose continued to go on
buffalo hunts with his tribe. During Victor’s illness in 1858 he shared
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 10
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ADOLPHE, A FLATHEAD CHIEF
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 37
with Moise the leadership of the Flathead hunting camp. Again in
1863 Ambrose and Moise led the Flathead hunting camp on the Mus-
selshell River. After the death of Moise, in the spring of 1868, Am-
brose succeeded to the office of second chief of the Flathead. (Owen,
1927, vol. I, pp. 190, 277; vol. 2, p. IOI.)
The date of Ambrose’s death is not recorded. However, we may
assume that he died sometime between the end of March 1869 (when
he was last mentioned by Owen, 1927, vol. 2, p. 133), and August
1872, at which time Arlee was recognized as second chief of the
Flathead. (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1873, p. 251.)
As a leader, Ambrose exhibited admirable qualities of faith, cour-
age, honesty, patience, and common sense. He showed remarkable
coolness in battle and at the Flathead Treaty Council. His words of
caution, offered at a crucial point in the Council proceedings, when
tempers were aroused, helped to prevent a complete breakdown in
negotiations.
ADOLPHE, A FLATHEAD CHIEF (PLATE IT)
Adolphe (in baptism)
A chief among the Flatheads, noted for his independence and good sense. Not
much liked because he never fails to reprimand any of his tribe who may
deserve it.
Pierre Pichette said Adolphe’s Indian name was “Wears his Hair
in Small Twists,” and that he was said to have used one of these
twists to spank children who misbehaved. Adolphe’s peculiar hair-
dress is well illustrated in Sohon’s portrait.
Martina Siwahsah remembered Adolphe as a powerful medicine
man. She said she was present on a winter hunt on the plains when
the snow was so deep the horses were dying of starvation. One
evening the people heard someone singing. It was Adolphe making
his medicine to bring a chinook. In the morning the chinook struck,
and before evening the snow was all gone.
Peter Ronan said that Adolphe used to lead the Flathead against
their enemies as their war chief. In a battle with the Gros Ventres
about the year 1840 Adolphe and Arlee led the Flathead to a decisive
victory. About half the Gros Ventres force, estimated at 100 warriors,
were killed. (Ronan, 1890, pp. 76-78.)
The missionaries considered Adolphe one of the Flathead leaders
who retained their faith and loyalty after the closure of St. Mary’s
Mission in 1850. (Menetrey im Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 338:
Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 2, p. 766.) He journeyed to
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
St. Ignatius with Victor in 1857, to fulfill his religious obligations.
(Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, p. 1240.)
Governor Stevens mentioned Adolphe among the principal men
of the tribe whom he met on his first visit to the Flathead at Fort
Owen, October 1, 1853. (Report of Explorations, etc., 1860, vol. 12,
pt. I, p. 125.) Adolphe signed both the Flathead and Blackfoot
Treaties of 1855, but took no other part in the proceedings. “Adolphus
Kwiikweschape, or Red Feather, chief of the Flatheads” was one of
the group of chiefs of the mountain tribes who accompanied Father
De Smet to Fort Vancouver in the spring of 1859 to renew the treaty
of peace with the Commanding General and Superintendent of Indian
Affairs. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 2, p. 766.)
When James A. Garfield, Commissioner for the Removal of the
Flathead tribe of Indians from the Bitterroot Valley to the Jocko
Reservation, met the chiefs of the tribe near Fort Owen in 1872,
Adolphe, as third chief of the Flathead, was one of the tribal repre-
sentatives. On August 27, 1872, he signed the agreement drawn up
by Garfield providing for the removal of the Flathead to the reserva-
tion. Nevertheless, he joined with head chief Charlot in refusing to
leave the Bitterroot Valley. Three years later Agent Medery removed
Adolphe’s name from the Government payroll, because he had “failed
in every particular” to comply with the provisions of the agreement.
(Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1872, pp. 109, 114-115; 1875, p. 305.)
Adolphe marshaled and led the young warriors at the council held
at the Flathead Agency September 2, 1882, to negotiate a right-of-
way for the Northern Pacific Railway. Apparently before that date
he had removed from the Bitterroot Valley to the reservation. Adolphe
died at the Agency in 1887, at an assumed age of 78 years. (Ronan,
1890, p. 76.)
INSULA, A FLATHEAD CHIEF (PLATE 12)
Insula—or Red Feather
Michelle (in baptism)
A Flathead chief; according to Father De Smet “a great and brave warrior.”
He is noted for his piety, and officiates at the burial of the dead. He is quite
an old man, nearly seventy.
Michael Insula (sometimes rendered Ensyla or Insala), Red
Feather, was also known as ‘“‘The Little Chief,” because of his small
stature. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, p. 1231.) Pierre
Pichette thought Insula was not a name of Flathead origin. Accord-
ing to Duncan McDonald, he was half Nez Percé and half Flathead,
and lived part time with the Flathead and the remainder of the time
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 12
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NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 39
with the Pend d’Oreille. (Owen, 1927, vol. 1, p. 236, footnote.)
De Smet stated (1841) that the Nez Percé had offered Insula the
position of head chief of their tribe. He refused the honor saying,
“By the will of the Great Master of Life I was born among the Flat-
heads, and if such be his will, among the Flatheads I am determined
to die.” (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1, p. 323.)
In the summer of 1835 Insula journeyed to the Green River ren-
dezvous of the fur traders, where in company with a group of Nez
Percé, he met the Protestant missionaries, Rev. Samuel Parker and
Dr. Marcus Whitman. The Reverend Parker recorded his conversa-
tion thus:
Next rose Insala, the most influential chief among the Flathead nation, and
said, “he had heard that a man near to God was coming to visit them, and he,
with some of his people, together with some white men, went out three days’
journey to meet him, but failed of finding the caravan. A war party of Crow
Indians came upon them in the night, and after a short battle, though no lives
were lost, they took away some of their horses, and one from him which he
greatly loved, but now he forgets all, his heart is made so glad to see a man
close to God.” [Parker, 1844, pp. 81-82.]
Many years later Father Palladino explained that Insula was not
satisfied with the appearance or the message of Parker and Whitman.
He observed that they wore neither black gowns nor crosses, that they
married, and did not have the great prayer, and that therefore these
were not the priests of whom the Iroquois had told him. Conse-
quently, he did not encourage them to go to the Flathead country.
(Palladino, 1894, pp. 16-17.)
Insula was a great favorite of the Catholic missionaries. He was
one of the party of 30 warriors who accompanied Father De Smet
as far as Fort Alexander on the Yellowstone in the country of the
enemy Crow Indians on De Smet’s return eastward in 1840. (Chit-
tenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1, pp. 266-267.) In 1841 De Smet
termed Insula “the most influential of the Flathead chiefs,” who “as a
Christian or a warrior, might stand a comparison with the most
renowned character of ancient chivalry.” (Ibid., p. 324.)
Father Adrian Hoeken also had a marked personal regard for
Insula. In the fall of 1855 he wrote De Smet of Insula’s great bra-
very, tender piety, and gentle manners, and added that he had “pre-
served all his first fervor of devotion.” Again in the spring of 1857
he wrote of Insula as “always equally good, equally happy, a fervent
Christian, who is daily advancing in virtue and in perfection.” He
added that Insula had taught his young son, Louis Michael, to call
the priest papa. (Ibid., vol. 4, p. 1245.)
6
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Father Hoeken wrote that Insula “is well known and much beloved
by the whites, who have occasion to deal with him, as a man of sound
judgment, strict integrity, and one on whose fidelity they can im-
plicitly rely.” The priest called Insula “a keen discerner of the char-
acters of men” who “loved to speak of those white men who were
distinguished for their fine qualities.” Insula adopted Col. Robert
Campbell of St. Louis and Maj. Thomas Fitzpatrick as brothers.
Colonel Campbell reciprocated by sending him a fine present in the
spring of 1857. (Ibid., pp. 1232, 1245.)
Of Insula’s numerous deeds of heroism, Father De Smet cited but
two, both of which occurred before 1841. On one occasion Insula
“sustained the assaults of a whole village” of the enemy. On another,
a party of Bannock, estimated at 200, who had visited Insula’s camp
and observed the small number of the Flathead, returned to attack
the Flathead the next night. Advised of their intentions, Insula as-
sembled his warriors to meet the attack. The small Flathead force
killed nine of the enemy before Insula, in the heat of the pursuit,
recalled that it was Sunday and ordered his warriors back to camp
for prayer. (Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 322-324, 365-360.)
According to Duncan McDonald, Insula was killed by Cree and
Assiniboine on Milk River in October 1860. At that time the old man
was living with the Kutenai and Pend d’Oreille. (Owen, 1927, vol. 1,
p. 236, footnote.)
Little Insula appears to have possessed the most appealing per-
sonality among the Flathead leaders of his time. Not only was he
very popular with the Indians of his own and friendly tribes, but he
also proved adept at winning and holding the friendship of influential
white men. Apparently he found subtle flattery, such as teaching his
son to call the priest papa and adopting important white men as
brothers, helpful in cementing these friendships. An ardent Catholic
and a courageous warrior, he epitomized the missionaries’ ideal of
the Christian soldier.
BEAR TRACK, FLATHEAD CHIEF AND MEDICINE MAN (PLATE 13)
Soey-te-sum-’hi or Bear Track.
A Chief, and one of the very few pure Flathead Indians in the tribe. He is
said to be a very brave and daring man, and is certainly one of the best looking
men in the tribe, decision is written in every line of his countenance.
Bear Track spoke at the Flathead Treaty Council on July 13, 1855,
after Victor’s refusal to accept Alexander’s offer to move to the
Bitterroot Valley. He made no reference to Victor’s action. He ex-
pressed his own willingness to make a treaty but emphasized the pov-
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 13
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BEAR TRACK, FLATHEAD CHIEF AND MEDICINE MAN
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 41
erty of his people and his opinion that the area around St. Ignatius
Mission was not large enough for the proposed reservation. Bear
Track signed both the Flathead and Blackfoot Treaties. (Partoll,
1938a, p. 306.)
Bear Track was famous as a medicine man. He was the maternal
grandfather of Martina Siwahsah, who recalled some of Bear Track’s
remarkable feats. One spring the Indians were camped north of
Hamilton in the Bitterroot Valley. A man and his wife went out
hunting in the mountains. While his wife remained in the hunting
camp, the man went on alone after game. She waited 3 days, but he
did not return. Then she went back to the tribe and told Bear Track
of her husband’s disappearance. He sang, made his medicine, and
said, “All I can see is the horse your husband was riding tied to a
tree. I don’t see the rider.” He described the locality where he saw
the horse. Men went to that place. They found the horse tied where
Bear Track had indicated and the dead body of the hunter nearby.
Apparently he had made a fire, gone to sleep, and a log rolled over
and killed him.
Another time the people were hunting buffalo and could find none,
Bear Track told the people to erect a long tent. He made his medicine,
then told the people, “My power I received from a white buffalo calf.
The buffalo are coming, and that calf will be in the lead.” Next day
a herd of buffalo appeared led by a white calf.
Teit also has reported Bear Track’s power to find lost people and
to bring the buffalo when they could not be found. He also stated
that Bear Track had the power to foresee the approach of parties of
enemy horse thieves and to warn his people in advance, as well as
the power to foretell the results of battles. (Teit, 1930, pp. 384-385.)
Turney-High found that no Flathead shamans were more highly re-
spected than those who possessed such powers. (Turney-High, 1937,
p. 29.)
Probably Bear Track was the most successful and most famous
medicine man of his day among the Flathead. That he is not men-
tioned in the voluminous correspondence of the missionaries is under-
standable. It is unlikely that this medicine man of the traditional
school looked with much favor upon the “magic” of the whites.
Nevertheless, Martina Siwahsah said Bear Track was baptized and
given the Christian name of “Alexander.”
She said that Bear Track was married four times. He fathered 10
children. He lived to be a very old man, became blind, and died of
sickness during the 1880's. Teit dated Bear Track’s death about 1880,
at over 9o years of age. (Teit, 1930, p. 384.)
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
PELCHIMO, A FLATHEAD CHIEF (PLATE 14)
Koilt-koi-imp-ty (Indian name)
Spoken of by Father De Smet as “Pelchimo”, (by which name he is generally
known,) as a good and brave Indian. He is a great favorite of all the whites
who know him, for his honesty and good sense.
The modern Flathead remember him by both his Indian name and
by the name “Palchina.” They could not translate his Indian name
exactly, because it is an obsolete form, referring to a blanket with
some black on it.
Pelchimo was a brother of one of the Indians of the ill-fated third
deputation (1837), the members of which were killed by the Sioux
while en route to St. Louis to seek a priest. (Chittenden and Richard-
son, 1905, vol. I, p. 292; Palladino, 1894, p. 30.) As “Palchinah”
he signed the Blackfoot Treaty in the fall of 1855. His name does
not appear among the signers of the Flathead Treaty.
Pelchimo was one of the heroes in the battle with the Blackfoot in
1840, in which Ambrose also distinguished himself. In this battle the
Flathead, though greatly outnumbered, withstood their opponents for
5 days and finally forced them to retreat, leaving many killed and
wounded on the battlefield. The Flathead lost but a single man, who
died of wounds received in the battle. Pelchimo won honors in this
fight by saving the Flathead horses from capture by the enemy.
(Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1, pp. 319-320.)
Pelchimo was a great friend of Major Owen. Owen frequently
referred to him as “Palchina” in his Journals. In 1851 he accom-
panied Owen to Fort Loring on Snake River. They traveled together
to The Dalles in the spring of 1855, and to Fort Benton in the sum-
mer of 1858. (Owen, 1927, vol. 1, p. 28-35.)
Owen considered Palchina the best veterinary in the region, and
employed him to doctor his own favorite horses. He also had Palchina
break his horses and permitted him to use the horses during the sum-
mer buffalo hunt in return for “getting them gentle.” (Ibid., pp.
127-128.)
On April 4, 1863, Owen received a report that 70 horses had been
stolen from Palchina’s camp while en route home from the buffalo
hunt on the plains. Two days later he was informed that Palchina had
been killed by the party of Bannock horse thieves from whom Palchina
sought to recover his stolen property. On hearing of Palchina’s death,
Owen paid high tribute to the man’s character as one of the best
Indians, brave when danger called, inoffensive but firm and exacting
in his rights. (Ibid., pp. 278-279.)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 14
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The written record appears to emphasize Pelchimo’s prowess in
the traditional men’s occupations of the Flathead. He was a courage-
ous fighter, a clever hunter, and a skilled trainer of horses. His
talents as a horse doctor must have given him considerable prestige
as a medicine man among the conservative members of his tribe. He
was not mentioned by the missionaries among the Flathead leaders
who remained staunchly loyal to their cause after the closure of
St. Mary’s Mission in 1850. Nevertheless, Sohon’s testimony as to
his good character is confirmed by the writings of Father De Smet
and Major Owen.
THUNDER, A FLATHEAD LEADER (PLATE 15, LEFT)
Til-til-la or Thunder
Said to be one of the bravest of the Flathead Indians.
Father Palladino considered “Phidel Teltella, or Thunder,” one of
the notable men of the Flathead tribe. (Palladino, 1894, p. 63.) As
“Thunder” he signed both the Flathead and Blackfoot Treaties in
1855, but he took no speaking part in the proceedings.
When disease in epidemic proportions raged in the Flathead camp
in the summer of 1856, “Fidelis Teltilla” asked Father Menetrey to
see his son who was dangerously ill. In the next year he accompanied
Victor to St. Ignatius Mission to fulfill his religious duties. (Chit-
tenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, pp. 1239-1240.) Doubtless, the
name “Fidelis” was given him by the missionaries in reference to
his steadfastness in the Christian faith.
The modern Flathead say that Thunder died in the Bitterroot Valley
before 1891.
PacHA, A FLATHEAD LEADER (PLATE 15, RIGHT)
Pacha
One of the chief men of the Flatheads—He is quite an old man.
(Indian Name) Quill-Quill-che-koil-pent.
Very little is known about this man. He was one of the principal
men of the Flathead who met Governor Stevens at Fort Owen in
the fall of 1853, on Stevens’ first visit to the tribe. (Report of Ex-
plorations, etc., 1860, vol. 12, pt. 2, p. 125.) He may have been the
Indian who signed the Flathead Treaty under the name of ‘“Pah-soh.”
Doubtless he died within a few years after the treaty.
He was not remembered by any of the elderly Flathead questioned
by the writer in 1947. They translated his Indian name, “Red Plume.”
44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
THE UPPER PEND D’OREILLE INDIANS
The Pend d’Oreille or Kalispel Indians lived in the region north
and northwest of the Flathead in pre-reservation days. The name
Pend d’Oreille (“Hanging Ears”) was said to have been given them
by early nineteenth-century fur traders because many of these Indians
wore large shell ear ornaments at that time. Pend d’Oreille territory
extended from the western base of ‘the Rockies about Flathead Lake
westward beyond Pend d’Oreille Lake into the northeastern portion
of the present State of Washington. In the middle of the nineteenth
century two major divisions of the tribe were recognized, the Upper
Pend d’Oreille of the Flathead Lake region, and the Lower Pend
d’Oreille in the neighborhood of Pend d’Oreille Lake. At that time
the distinction was political as well as geographical. Each division
possessed its own head chief and subchiefs. However, both groups
spoke the same dialect of the Salishan language. It may be assumed
that they were formerly one tribe. Teit obtained traditions from the
Upper Pend d’Oreille to the effect that the Flathead Lake region was
the traditional tribal homeland, and that the Lower Division was an
offshoot of the Upper Pend d’Oreille. However, Dr. Suckley and
Governor Stevens of the Pacific Railway Survey a half century earlier
(1855) assumed that the Upper Pend d’Oreille division “had been
formed at a comparatively recent period.” (Teit, 1930, pp. 296, 303,
311; Report of Explorations, etc., 1860, vol. 1, pp. 149, 294.) The
native name, Kalispel (meaning camas), was applied to the Pend
d’Oreille in general by early fur traders. Some more recent writers
have limited its application to the Lower Pend d’Oreille.
The Pend d’Oreille were more numerous than their Flathead neigh-
bors. Anson Dart estimated Lower Pend d’Oreille population at 520,
and that of the Upper Pend d’Oreille at 480, in 1851. In Major
Owen’s census of 1861 the Upper Pend d’Oreille totaled 184 families
of 895 souls ; the Flathead go families of 548 souls. (Ann. Rep. Comm.
Ind. Aff., 1851, p. 478; Owen, 1927, vol. 2, p. 262.)
The Pend d’Oreille were mentioned less frequently by early nine-
teenth-century traders than were the Flathead. However, their his-
tory prior to 1840 paralleled that of the Flathead in general outline.
Presumably they lived by hunting, fishing, and collecting in the area
immediately west of the Rockies in pre-horse times. After they ob-
tained horses, they crossed the mountains on seasonal buffalo-hunting
excursions. Usually they hunted north of the Flathead, between the
Rockies and the Sweetgrass Hills on the present International Bound-
ary. (Partoll, 1937, p. 7.) They were driven off the plains by the
es
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 45
southwestward push of the Blackfoot prior to 1800. In 1811 an aged
Kalispel told David Thompson that he had been a young warrior when
his tribe first encountered an enemy war party with firearms. It was
a Piegan force in possession of two guns. When they fired the new
weapons, the Pend d’Oreille were so frightened they ran and hid in
the mountains. But the Piegan sent strong war parties after them
to kill men, women, and children, and to steal their horses. He ac-
knowledged that his people had no adequate defense against the Black-
foot until Thompson traded them guns, which enabled them to regain
much of their territory and to hunt buffalo on the plains again.
(Thompson, 1916, p. 463.) The fact that the Pend d’Oreille were
relatively rich in good horses prompted numerous Blackfoot raids on
their camps through the first eight decades of the nineteenth century.
The Pend d’Oreille were hospitable to the Iroquois and their sim-
plified Christian teachings. Some of the Iroquois married into the
tribe. Many of the Upper Pend d’Oreille were baptized by Father
De Smet and his colleagues at the Flathead Mission of St. Mary’s
prior to 1846. However, the first Catholic Mission to the Pend
d’Oreille was established among the Lower Division, on the right bank
of the Columbia River about 40 miles below Lake Pend d’Oreille, in
1845. This Mission was named St. Ignatius. The location proved
unsatisfactory because of the severe winters and short growing season
in that area. In the fall of 1854 it was moved to a more suitable site
south of Flathead Lake, on what became known as Mission Creek,
in the territory of the Upper Pend d’Oreille.
Father Adrian Hoeken, the first missionary to the Upper Pend
d’Oreille, was very popular with the Indians. Loyalty to the Mission
was an important factor in the refusal of the Upper Pend d’Oreille
to accept a reservation in the Flathead country of the Bitterroot
Valley some 75 miles south of their Mission. St. Ignatius Mission
was situated within the area of the 1,300,000-acre Jocko Reservation
established by the Treaty of 1855.
The Indians gathered about that Mission were a mixed group. Liv-
ing with the Upper Pend d’Oreille in 1857 were some Iroquois, Nez
Percé, Spokan, Kutenai, Coeur d’Alene, Kettle Falls Indians, Flat-
head, and Lower Pend d’Oreille, a few friendly Blackfoot, French
half-breeds, and even several “creoles from the Creek Nation.” (Chit-
tenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, pp. 1246-1247.) Father Hoeken
and his colleagues encouraged the Upper Pend d’Oreille and these
other Indians living with them to raise crops in the fertile soil of the
46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
reservation by furnishing seeds, instruction, and as many agricultural
tools as their limited means permitted. The Indian Agent’s report for
1857 stated that they had made “very marked progress in cultivating
the soil” in the 3 years since the Mission was established. Apparently
some families found farming much to their liking. However, the
Agents’ reports during the two succeeding decades emphasized the
preference of the majority for traditional economic pursuits. The
1865 Report stated that the Pend d’Oreille had made less progress in
agriculture than had the Flathead. In 1869 the Agent wrote: “The
greater portion of the Pend d’Oreille tribe and Kootenays still depend
upon the chase for subsistence. The buffalo hunt, their main depen-
dence, becomes each year less reliable.” Yet in 1875 the Agent re-
ported: “The greater number .... make regular annual excur-
sions to the east side of the Rocky Mountains on their accustomed buf-
falo hunts.” (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1857, p. 379; 1865, p. 247;
1869, p. 295; 1875, p. 304.) As long as buffalo could be found on
the plains beyond the mountains the majority of the Pend d’Oreille
preferred the blood-quickening excitement of running buffalo to the
quiet, steady toil of tilling the soil.
The Indians’ addiction to the seminomadic life also hampered the
efforts of the missionaries to educate their children. A mission day
school was established. But when Indian families moved camp to
hunt, fish, gather roots or berries, they took their children with them.
This continual interruption of their schooling for extended periods of
time resulted in haphazard educational progress on the part of the
children. (Ibid., 1865, p. 241.)
In their devotion to the traditional hunting economy, the majority
of the Upper Pend d’Oreille, like the Flathead, postponed the prob-
lem of adjustment to an agricultural economy until after the buffalo
were gone. In two other important respects, however, the cultural
conflicts of the Upper Pend d’Oreille were more easily resolved
than were those of the Flathead. The former never became estranged
from their Mission, as had the Flathead in the late forties and fifties.
St. Ignatius Mission has been in continuous existence since 1854.
Also the Upper Pend d’Oreille were spared the frustration which
the prolonged, unsuccessful struggle to retain their homeland brought
to the Flathead. When Chief Charlot led his loyal little band of Flat-
head from the Bitterroot Valley onto the Jocko Reservation in 1891,
the Upper Pend d’Oreille possessed nearly two generations of experi-
ence as reservation Indians.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 16
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ALEXANDER, HEAD CHIEF OF THE UPPER PEND D’OREILLE
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 47
GUSTAVUS SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF UPPER PEND D’OREILLE
LEADERS
The eight pencil portraits of Upper Pend d’Oreille leaders drawn
by Gustavus Sohon in the spring of 1854 include likenesses of the
three most important chiefs of the tribe during the period 1848-1890.
These three, Alexander, Big Canoe, and Michelle, were signers of
both the Flathead and Blackfoot Treaties of 1855. Bonaparte, a
minor chief, is also included. The remaining four portraits of Choits-
Kan, Pierre Nu-ah-ute-se, Louis Ramo, and Broken Leg (Kou-
sheene), represent men of less standing in the tribe about whom no
additional biographical information is available. Their portraits are
not reproduced in this paper.
ALEXANDER, HEAD CHIEF OF THE Upper PEND D’OREILLE (PLATE 16)
Alexander (English Name)
Tum-cle-hot-cut-se (Indian name)
Alexander the principal chief of the Pends-d-oreilles is not a Pend-d-Oreille
proper but descended on the father’s side from the Snake Indians and on the
mother’s from the Pends-d-Oreilles. He was made “First Chief” by the Pends-
d-oreilles themselves and by the Jesuit Priests in 1848. He is noted for his
high-toned, sterling and noble traits of character. He is a brave man. When a
party of his tribe had stolen horses from Fort Benton on the Missouri in 1853,
he started with only five of his men and carried them back, passing through
the whole camp of the Blackfeet Indians, then most deadly enemies. He still
rules the Pends-d-oreille tribe of Indians and is 45 years old.
Flathead Reservation Indians have translated Alexander’s Indian
name as “No Horses.”
In addition to the return of the stolen horses, cited by Sohon above,
other known exploits of Alexander testify to his courage. As a young
man he volunteered to go alone to a trading post in the country of
the hostile Crow Indians to obtain powder and lead which was badly
needed by his tribe. Again, in the spring of 1856, after he had ac-
companied Major Owen to Fort Benton to obtain ammunition for
his people, Alexander and two of his men set out alone on the return
trip through the country of their Blackfoot enemies, killed nine buf-
falo on the plains, and rejoined Owen at the eastern base of the
Rockies. (Ronan, 1890, pp. 73-76; Owen, 1927, vol. I, pp. 118-121.)
Alexander succeeded Joseph as chief of his tribe. (Ronan, 1890,
p. 73.) At the Flathead Treaty Council, he claimed to be chief of
the Lower Pend d’Oreille as well. Governor Stevens promptly de-
nied Alexander’s claim to leadership of the Lower Pend d’Oreille or
his right to speak for that group at the Council. (Partoll, 1938a, pp.
299-300. )
7
48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
In the Flathead Treaty Council, Alexander clashed with Victor, the
Flathead head chief, over the location of the reservation for the com-
bined Flathead-Pend d’Oreille-Kutenai tribes. He readily agreed to
Governor Stevens’ proposal to place these tribes on one reservation,
but he strongly favored the northern or Flathead Valley location. He
argued that wild fruits and berries were plentiful there, that his crops
grew well there, that it was a larger area than the Bitterroot Valley,
and that the Kutenai and Lower Pend d’Oreille as well as his own
people would prefer the northern location. When it became apparent
that Victor would not accept this proposal, Alexander magnanimously
went to Victor and offered to move to the Bitterroot Valley. But
when Victor did not accept this offer immediately, Alexander with-
drew it. Later Alexander offered to acknowledge Victor as his chief
if Victor would accept the northern reservation. Again Victor was
deaf to Alexander’s proposal. Subsequently, Alexander refused Vic-
tor’s compromise proposal to abide by the Government’s decision as
to the better location following a survey of the resources of both
areas. He no longer would consider any reservation site but the
northern one.
The Treaty, as finally drawn up and signed, secured to the Upper
Pend d’Oreille their right to residence on a reservation in their tradi-
tional homeland. The Flathead Treaty, which was to plague Victor
the rest of his life, was a complete victory of Alexander.
At the Blackfoot Treaty Council in October 1855 Alexander did
not hesitate to express his dissatisfaction with both the location and
the small size of the area proposed by the Commissioners as a buffalo-
hunting ground for the western tribes. They had set aside a relatively
limited tract east of the Rockies, west of the Crow territory, and south
of the Musselshell River, as a common hunting ground in which the
Blackfoot and the tribes from west of the mountains might hunt, but
in which none of the tribes might establish permanent villages. Alex-
ander vigorously championed the right of his people to hunt on the
plains of present Montana, in the area the Commissioners wished to
reserve to the Blackfoot. Alexander based his argument soundly on
the traditional use of the area by his people, saying
A long time ago our people, our ancestors belonged in this country. The
country around the Three Buttes. We had many people on this side of the
mountains....A long time ago our people used to hunt about the Three
Buttes and the Blackfeet lived far north. When my Father was living he told
me that was an old road for our people.
Alexander demanded to know why his people could not continue
to cross the Rockies by the northern passes (referring probably to
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 49
- the Cut Bank and Marias passes). Although Little Dog, a prominent
Piegan chief, was impressed by Alexander’s argument, the Commis-
sioners remained firm in their decision that the country north of the
Musselshell should be reserved for the Blackfoot tribes. The Treaty
as written and signed by Alexander as well as the other Pend d’Oreille
chiefs, gave the western Indians no right to hunt in the area reserved
for the Blackfoot. (Partoll, 1937, pp. 7-10.)
Nevertheless, Alexander continued to hunt there. In 1860 he led
his people on their winter hunt over the Rockies and across the plains
of the Blackfoot country until they discovered buffalo on Milk River.
After the people had thanked God for the prospect of a successful
hunt, and secured their best horses for the morrow’s chase, they re-
tired for the night. While they slept, a large war party of Assiniboine
and Cree Indians on foot surrounded the camp. An hour before
dawn they launched a surprise attack, killed 20 of the Pend d’Oreille
and wounded 25 more (5 of whom later died of their wounds). The
enemy stole 290 Pend d’Oreille horses and forced the defeated camp
to abandon most of their equipment, provisions, and clothing on the
battlefield. Alexander led his beaten people on the 400-mile retreat
homeward across the plains. Women with their children on their
backs were forced to make the entire journey on foot. Major Owen
met the party on its return to the Jocko Reservation. He found
Alexander thirsting for revenge. Not only had his people suffered a
humiliating defeat, but Alexander’s son, a promising young man of
20 years of age, had been among those killed. Alexander had seen
his son’s scalped and multilated body. He longed to return to the
sleeping place of his son and people and to avenge their loss. (Owen,
1927, vol. 2, pp. 234-235, 239, 262.)
Alexander was deeply concerned with the problem of disciplining
his people. In his first recorded speech at the Flathead Treaty Council
he spoke frankly of his difficulties in managing his unruly young people.
He believed that good example alone would not “make them go
straight.” Yet he feared the severity of the white man’s laws. (Par-
toll, 1938a, pp. 289-290.) When Alexander accompanied Father De
Smet to Fort Vancouver in the spring of 1859, he showed little inter-
est in the white man’s mechanical inventions and industrial plants he
saw in the principal towns of Oregon and Washington. He was much
interested in the Portland prison and the severe methods of punish-
ment of criminals he observed there. Immediately on his return to
the reservation, Alexander assembled his people. He told them of the
wonders of the white man’s civilization, placing particular emphasis
50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
upon the white man’s severe methods of criminal punishment, and
concluded:
We have neither chains nor prisons, and for want of them, no doubt, a great
number of us are wicked and have deaf ears. As chief, I am determined to do
my duty; I shall take a whip to punish the wicked; let all those who have been
guilty of any misdemeanor present themselves. I am ready.
The outcome of the affair was as follows:
The known guilty parties were called upon by name, many presented them-
selves of their own accord, and all received a proportionate correction. The
whole affair terminated in a general rejoicing and feast. [Chittenden and
Richardson, 1905, vol. 2, pp. 767-768.]
Alexander was a close friend of the Jesuit Missionaries. He often
accompanied Father De Smet on his travels in the Rocky Mountain
region. Father Hoeken credited Alexander with having selected the
site for St. Ignatius Mission on its removal eastward in the fall of
1854. At the Flathead Treaty Council, Alexander declared, “The
priest instructs me and this people here. I am very well content with
the priest.” At one point in the controversy over the location of the
reservation, Alexander stated that he would agree to leave the area
around the Mission and go on a reservation in the Bitterroot Valley
if Governor Stevens would say that he could not go to heaven at his
own place. His strong attachment to the Mission influenced his ulti-
mate refusal to accept the southern reservation proposed by Governor
Stevens. (Ibid., vol. 4, p. 1232; Partoll, 1938a, pp. 290, 300.)
Alexander died about the year 1868. (Teit, 1930, p. 377.) Thus
he served as head chief of the Upper Pend d’Oreille for two decades.
His leadership was courageous, aggressive, strict, and apparently just.
There is no record of Alexander’s position ever having been seriously
challenged by a rival leader of the tribe. His chieftaincy was marked
by continued friendship with the whites and sporadic warfare with the
plains tribes. Alexander was an economic conservative. At the time
of his death the Upper Pend d’Oreille still made periodic hunting
excursions to the plains for buffalo.
MICHELLE, SUCCESSOR TO ALEXANDER AS UPPER PEND D’OrEILLE HEAD CHIEF
(PLATE 17)
Whe-whitth-schay (Indian name)
Michelle (English name)
Is noted for his upright and manly conduct, he was well thought of among
the Jesuit Priests who gave him the name Michelle. He is remarkable for
his generosity, which is the significance of his name.
Michelle’s Indian name means “Plenty of Grizzly Bear.’’ He was
a minor chief of the tribe when Alexander died, and was elected head
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL, 110, NO. 7, PL. 17
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MICHELLE, SUCCESSOR TO ALEXANDER AS UPPER PEND D'OREILLE
HEAD CHIEF
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 51
chief after two others, André and Pierre, declined the office. (Teit,
1930, p. 377.) He was probably one of the Michelles who signed the
Flathead Treaty and possibly the Michelle who signed the Blackfoot
Treaty in 1855. He took no speaking part in either Council. As
Pend d’Oreille head chief he represented the tribe in the Council
to negotiate for the right-of-way of the Northern Pacific Railway on
the reservation, September 2, 1882, and at the meeting with members
of the subcommittee of the United States Senate appointed to visit
the Indian tribes of northern Montana on September 7, 1882. (Ronan,
1890, pp. 54, 76.)
In his Annual Report of September 1874 Peter Whaley, the Flat-
head Agent, recommended that Michelle should be replaced by André,
second chief of the tribe. The Agent pointed out that on their buffalo
hunts east of the mountains the Pend d’Oreille were in the habit of
stealing horses from friends and foes alike and refused to return
the animals to their proper owners. Michelle, who at the time was
physically unable to accompany his people on their hunts, was power-
less to prevent the thefts or to compel restitution. André, on the
other hand, had the confidence of his people and was the real leader
of the tribe. (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff., 1874, pp. 262-263.)
The new Flathead Agent in 1875 reported that André was “chief in
all but drawing a salary from the government.” (Ibid., 1875, p. 304.)
Agent Peter Ronan investigated the cause of the dissension in 1877.
He found Michelle a “good-meaning” man who had to a large extent
lost contact with his people. Michelle lived at the Agency while his
people were located near St. Ignatius Mission some 20 miles away.
When decisions needed to be made, André, who lived with the tribe,
generally made them. If a case was later taken to Michelle, he
generally reversed André’s decision, causing further dissatisfaction.
Michelle seemed well aware of the fact that he had lost contact with
his people and considered moving back to live among them in order
to regain his lost influence. (Ibid., 1877, p. 136.)
Michelle’s popularity was not increased by his severe punishments.
He whipped female adulterers, common among his people, so severely
as to cause the deaths of some women. Agent Medery found it neces-
sary to prevail upon Michelle to resort to milder punishment. (Ibid.,
1876, p. 89.)
In spite of the dissatisfaction of many of his people, the opposition
of André, and the recommendation of at least one Agent that he be
deposed, Michelle continued in the position of head chief. He won
the respect of Agent Ronan during the Nez Percé War of 1877.
52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Fearing that the Agency Indians might join their old allies, Ronan
prepared to remove his wife and children from danger. Michelle went
to the Agent and pledged that his warriors would protect Ronan’s
family from harm. The Pend d’Oreille remained friendly. (Clark,
1885, Pp. 301.)
A few years earlier, Michelle’s friendship for the whites had been
put to a severe test. His son had been accused of the murder of
a white miner. Although the son swore his innocence, Michelle
told him he could not be saved, or his death avenged, except by war
with the whites, and asked the young man to sacrifice his life for the
good of his people. The youth was hung by enraged whites. (Ibid.)
Michelle helped to set an example for his people in agriculture.
In 1885 he had 160 acres under fence, producing 250 bushels of wheat
and oats. In the spring of 1887 he purchased young fruit trees for
his land 16 miles north of the Mission. (Ann. Rep. Comm. Ind. Aff.,
1885, p. 127; 1887, p. 138.)
Michelle died at his home, near the present town of Ronan, about
1890. He is said to have been buried in the cemetery at St. Ignatius
Mission.
Although he possessed admirable personal qualities, as a leader of
his people Michelle proved a rather ineffective successor to the active
and aggressive Alexander.
Bic CANOE, SECOND CHIEF OF THE UPPER PEND D’ORrEILLE (Pate 18, LEFr)
In-er-cult-say
Known as the “Big Canoe.”
Full-blooded Pend d’Oreille, second chiei—Rather a dark Indian, about 55 or
60 years old.
Big Canoe is said to have been born in 1799. (Handbook of Amer-
ican Indians, etc., 1910, pt. I, p. 146.) At the Flathead Treaty Council,
he made a point of the fact that his aunt told him he was “pure
Pend d’ Oreille.” (Partoll, 1938a, p. 293.) Pierre Pichette translates
his Indian name, “Rotted Under the Belt,” which probably refers
to a rotten scalp carried under the belt as a trophy.
Peter Ronan stated that Big Canoe “was considered by the Indians
to be one of the greatest war chiefs the tribe of the Pend d’Orielle
ever had,” and that “stories of battles led by him against Indian foes
would fill a volume.” (Ronan, 1890, p. 73.) Unfortunately, none of
those deeds have been recorded in the literature.
At the Flathead Treaty Council in 1855 Big Canoe delivered a
lengthy speech. He could not understand why discussion at the
Council involved the problem of Indian land. To his mind no real
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NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 53
land problem existed. The whites and Indians could live peaceably
side by side. He pointed with pride to the fact that his people had
never spilt blood of the white man. Why then should there be a
treaty? He attributed the continued friendship between his people
and the whites to the fact that white traders had furnished guns
and ammunition to repel their powerful enemies, and for this his
people continued to be grateful. However, he resented the fact that
the whites also traded these things to the Blackfoot who used their
weapons against whites as well as Indians. He referred to Governor
Stevens’ promise to put an end to Blackfoot depredations. He pointed
out that since the Blackfoot promised peace in 1853, they had broken
it many times. They had stolen one of his horses the previous winter,
and his own daughter had been set afoot when they stole two horses
that very spring. He had kept his promise not to retaliate against
the Blackfoot, not because he was afraid of them, but because the
white man had asked him to keep the peace. To Big Canoe this matter
of Blackfoot hostility was the only important problem for discussion
at the Council.
Governor Stevens made no direct reply to Big Canoe. He guided
the discussion back to the subject of the choice of a reservation for
the Indians. Big Canoe remained silent through the remainder of
the Council. At its conclusion he signed the Treaty. (Partoll, 1938a,
Pp. 291-294.)
At the Blackfoot Treaty Council, Big Canoe spoke briefly in support
of Alexander’s claim of the right of the Pend d’Oreille to hunt buffalo
on the plains north of the Musselshell. He spoke bluntly, “I am glad
now we are together. I thought our roads would be all over this
country. Now you tell us different. Supposing we do stick together,
and do make a peace. .... Now you tell me not to step over that
way. I had a mind to go there.” Later he concurred in the expressed
desire for peace of the Piegan chief, Lame Bull, saying “Don’t let your
war parties hide from me. Let them come to our camps as friends.”
(Ibid., 1937, p. 8.)
Big Canoe was a strong character. Although a war leader, he had
a sincere desire for peace. To his mind peace seemed to promise
unrestricted freedom of movement. He could not reconcile his idea
of peaceful relationships with the whites and other Indians with the
talk of separate tribal hunting grounds and restricted reservations
that was current at the Councils.
Big Canoe died at the Flathead Agency in 1882 at the advanced
age of 83. He was buried in the Indian Cemetery at St. Ignatius
Mission (Ronan, 1890, p. 72).
54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
BonAPARTE, A PEND D’OREILLE Cuter (PLATE 18, RIGHT)
Bonaparte (English name)
Kols-seese-Kol-lay (Indian name)
Bonaparte a Pend-d-oreille chief is noted for his generosity and benevolence
to his tribe and especially to those who are poor or needy. He is rich in horses
and cattle and a person is never known to be in need without his assisting
him and relieving his wants. He is a man of thirty-five years of age.
Pierre Pichette said that Bonaparte’s Indian name was an obsolete
form which he was unable to translate. Apparently he was a minor
chief in 1855, for his name is not signed to either the Flathead or
Blackfoot Treaties.
Major Owen, in May 1856, told of a half-breed named Bonaparte
who attempted to arrange a horse race between his prized mount and
a Nez Percé race horse. However, Bonaparte’s horse, which he had
obtained from the Spokan country 2 years before in exchange for
six horses, bore such a reputation for speed that its owner could get
no other Indians to race against it. (Owen, 1927, vol. 1, pp. 125-1206.)
Indians living on the Flathead Reservation today say that Bonaparte
died in the 1870’s.
THE IROQUOIS AMONG THE FLATHEAD AND PEND D’OREILLE
The fact that there were Christian Iroquois living in the camps of
the primitive Flathead and Pend d’Oreille before the middle of the
nineteenth century has whetted the curiosity and imagination of
students of Indian history. These Mohawk Iroquois were living more
than 2,000 airline miles from their native villages in the vicinity of
Montreal, Quebec. When and why did they make the long trek
westward through the lakes and forests, across the plains and the
great Continental Divide?
The first Iroquois to travel into the northwestern wilderness beyond
the eastern forest belt were sturdy Mohawk canoeman employed by
the fur traders who outfitted and marketed their furs in Montreal.
By the late years of the eighteenth century these traders had estab-
lished posts on the Saskatchewan River and its tributaries as far west
as the present Province of Alberta, in the shadow of the Rockies.
As early as 1798 or 1799 a second wave of Iroquois moved west-
ward. In company with a large number of Nepissings and Algon-
quians, a group of Iroquois men (and a very few women) followed
the canoes of the fur traders to the headwaters of the Saskatchewan
to hunt and trap independently. The number of Iroquois in this
migration has been estimated at from 40 to more than 100. On the
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 55
western plains they met the Blackfoot, Gros Ventres, Sarsi, and
Cree, aboriginal inhabitants of the region. The partially accultur-
ated Iroquois who had been instructed in the Catholic religion at
Caughnawaga Mission near Montreal felt themselves superior to the
barbaric plains Indians, which so enraged the latter that the Blackfoot
or Gros Ventres attacked the Iroquois and killed about a score of
them. Friendly Cree advised the Iroquois that it would not be safe
to try to revenge this defeat. (Mackenzie, 1903, vol. 2, p. 345;
Thompson, 1916, pp. 311-317.)
One small colony of Iroquois, reputed to have been descendants
of two brothers of this migration, still remains in Alberta, under the
name of Michel’s Band. This band, now under the jurisdiction of the
Edmonton Agency, numbered 104 persons in 1944. (Gibbons, 1904,
pp. 125-126; Census of the Indians in Canada, 1945, p. 3.) The
remainder of the original group scattered after their disastrous battle
with the plains tribes. Perhaps many of them returned to the East.
In February 1810 David Thompson, at Saleesh House (near present
Thompson’s Falls, Mont.), west of the Rockies, employed six Iroquois
“who had come this far to trap Beaver” to assist him in collecting
birchbark for canoes. (Thompson, 1916, p. 418.) Thus it is certain
that some Iroquois, possibly remnants of the large group of the 1798-99
migration, reached the country of the Flathead and Pend d’Oreille
by the end of the first decade of the nineteenth century, only 5 years
after the pioneer explorers Lewis and Clark. Some of the members
of that early migration may have settled eventually among the
friendly Flathead.
However, the group of Iroquois who were primarily responsible
for giving the primitive Flathead and Pend d’Oreille their first notions
of Christianity have been credited to another and somewhat later
migration. Father Palladino stated that they comprised a group of
24 Iroquois under the leadership of Ignace Lamoose, who wandered
westward until they reached the land of the Flathead, where they
were hospitably received and decided to remain. (Palladino, 1894,
pp. 9-10; Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. I, p. 20.) This
explanation sounds reasonable only if we may assume that members
of the party were encouraged, and perhaps even guided, by Iroquois
who had been among the Flathead before that time and had returned
east with flattering descriptions of the country and its people.
The date of this migration is uncertain. Father Palladino placed it
between 1812 and 1820; Father De Smet, 1816, and Father Mengarini,
as late as 1828. (Palladino, 1894, p. 9; Chittenden and Richardson,
1905, vol. 1, p. 29; Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 238, footnote. )
8
56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
The Iroquois Ignace Lamoose, also known as Old Ignace or Big
Ignace to distinguish him from a younger Ignace of the party, was
the individual primarily responsible for introducing Christian religious
practices among the Flathead. Father Palladino termed him the
‘Apostle to the Flathead.” He it was who taught them to say the
Lord’s Prayer, make the sign of the Cross, baptize their children,
and observe Sunday as a day of rest. (Palladino, 1894, pp. 9-10;
Mengarini in Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, footnotes pp. 238 and 241.)
He it was, also, who urged the Flathead to send deputations to
St. Louis to seek a Catholic missionary to the tribe. He personally
led two of the four deputations which traveled from the Northwest
toward St. Louis in the 1830’s.
Much has been written about the so-called “first deputation” of
1831, but it has never been determined satisfactorily whether the
four Indians of that party who appeared in St. Louis in October
1831 were Nez Percé or Flathead, or contained one or more Indians
of both tribes. There is also some question whether the deputation
was motivated by religious or secular desires. It is certain that
publicity resulting from the appearance of these Indians from the
distant Northwest in St. Louis attributed their journey to a desire
to obtain “The White man’s Book of Heaven,” and that this publicity
led to the establishment of the first Indian Missions in the Northwest
by Protestants between 1834 and 1836. These Missions were located
among the tribes of the old Oregon country far to the west of the
Flathead. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1, pp. 21-27; Gar-
raghan, 1938, vol. 2, pp. 237-238, 242-246.)
There is less uncertainty regarding the membership and motives of
the other three deputations. All three were incited by Iroquois
living among the Flathead. Two deputations were composed entirely
of Iroquois; the third was led by one. Active Flathead participation
was limited to the third deputation.
The second deputation was a family affair. After the Flathead chief,
Michael Insula, determined that the missionaries who were sent west
in 1835 were not Catholics but Protestants, he returned home and
told his people of the disappointment. In the summer of 1835 Old
Ignace and his two sons set out for the east. They reached St. Louis
safely in the fall. The sons of Old Ignace were instructed and
baptized by the Jesuits there. On baptism December 2, 1835, they
were given the Christian names of Charles and Francis. Their
father told Catholic officials of the western Indians’ desire for a priest.
He received a promise that a black robe would be sent to the Flathead
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 57
if circumstances permitted. Old Ignace and his sons returned home
the following spring. (Palladino, 1894, p. 19; Chittenden and Rich-
ardson, 1905, vol. 1, pp. 28-29; Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 246.)
In 1837 a third deputation consisting of three Flathead, a Nez
Percé, and Old Ignace as leader started for St. Louis. At Fort
Laramie they joined a party of white men traveling eastward from
Oregon. At Ash Hollow on the North Platte they were attacked
by a party of Sioux. The whites were ordered to stand aside as the
Sioux did not intend to molest them. Old Ignace who was dressed
as a white man, was mistaken for one, and ordered to stand with the
whites, but he refused to abandon his Indian companions. The Sioux
then attacked the five Indians and killed them. It is possible that
the Sioux mistook the Indians for Shoshoni, traditional enemies of
their tribe. Thus no member of this deputation lived to reach St.
Louis. (Palladino, 1894, p. 20; Chittenden and Richardson, 1905,
vol. 1, p. 29; Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, pp. 247-248.)
In the summer of 1839 two Iroquois, Pierre Gaucher and Young
Ignace, volunteered to make the long trip to St. Louis in quest of
a priest. Apparently they traveled down the Yellowstone and Missouri
Rivers by canoe. In St. Louis, Bishop Rosati gave them assurance
that a priest would be sent to their people the following spring.
Pierre Gaucher set out for home alone, while Young Ignace waited
at Westport to accompany Father De Smet westward in the spring.
(Palladino, 1894, pp. 21-24; Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1,
pp. 29-30; Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, pp. 248-250.)
Bishop Rosati was told by the Iroquois of this last deputation that
only 4 of the 24 Iroquois who formerly emigrated from Canada to the
Flathead country were still living in 1839. It is probable the Indians
meant that only that number remained among the Flathead, and
that in addition to others who had died since the migration, some
of the Iroquois had moved on to other locations. Father Garraghan
stated that a group of Catholic Iroquois emigrated from the Rocky
Mountain region to the site of Kansas City and that among the first
Catholic baptisms in the history of that city, February 23, 1834, two
were recorded as “Iroquois-Flatheads.” (Palladino, 1894, p. 28;
Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 239, footnote.)
GUSTAVUS SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF IROQUOIS LIVING
AMONG THE FLATHEAD
Mr. Sohon’s three portraits of Iroquois living among the Flathead
were drawn in the late spring of 1854, probably in the vicinity of
58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Fort Owen in the Bitterroot Valley. Sohon’s own captions on these
drawings make no mention of the religious activities of these subjects.
However, the historic significance of these portraits lies primarily
in the fact that the men depicted played important roles in the
extension of Christian Missions to the tribes of the northern Rockies.
Certainly two, and probably all, of these Iroquois were members
of Indian deputations to St. Louis during the 1830’s in quest of a
priest. These are the only known portraits of these men.
Iroquois PETER (PLATE IQ)
Pierre Kar-so-wa-ta
An Iroquois who came to this country thirty years ago, and settled here. He
is the most industrious indian in the valley, cultivates a small farm raising wheat,
oats, potatoes, etc. and owns a large band of cattle; he speaks the mountain
french and english, besides several Indian languages.
Pierre Pichette said that “Kar-so-wa-ta”’ was not a Salishan name.
Charles A. Cooke, a student of Iroquois personal names, believes
this may be the Iroquois name, Gah-sa-wé-ta, meaning Lime or Chalk.
An Iroquois from St. Regis, who bore that name, was said to have
been in the northwest in 1818.
Of the four Iroquois said to have been living among the Flathead
in 1839, only one Pierre or Peter has been identified. He was the
Pierre Gaucher (or Gauche) of the 1839 deputation. This is probably
a portrait of that man.
Pierre Gaucher (Left-Handed Peter) was one of the two young
Iroquois who volunteered to make the long journey to St. Louis in
1839 to obtain a priest for the Flathead. Apparently they journeyed
down the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, through hostile Indian
country, in the company of fur traders returning to St. Louis. Father
De Smet met them on September 18, when they passed St. Joseph
Mission at Council Bluffs. He stated that these Indians had been “for
twenty-three years among the nation called the Flatheads and Pierced
Noses” (Nez Percé), and that “the sole object of these good Iroquois
was to obtain a priest to come and finish what they had so happily
commenced.” He gave them letters of recommendation to the Father
Superior in’ St. Louis. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1,
pp. 29-30; Palladino, 1894, p. 21.)
In St. Louis Peter and his companion, Ignace, were hospitably
received by the Catholic officials who were favorably impressed by
their piety and character. They found that both of the Iroquois
spoke French and that one of them carried a little book printed in
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110, NO. 7, PL. 19
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NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 59
his own language, from which the Iroquois sang a number of sacred
songs. Bishop Rosati recorded in his diary that these Iroquois had
reached the Flathead country in 1816 (which tallies with De Smet’s
statement above). (Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 238, footnote; pp.
248-250. )
After receiving assurances that a priest would be sent to the Flat-
head the following spring, Peter set out alone for home. He traveled
through the winter and arrived in the Flathead camp the next spring,
where he conveyed the welcome information that a black robe was
coming. (Palladino, 1894, p. 24.)
Peter the Iroquois has been credited with the baptism of a dying
Flathead girl on the site later occupied by the St. Mary’s Mission.
Before her death this girl called out, “Listen to the Black Robes when
they come; they have the true prayer; do all they tell you. They
will come and on this very spot where I die, will build the house
of prayer.” In later years the Flathead regarded her statement as
prophetic. (Palladino, 1894, pp. 35-36; Chittenden and Richardson,
1905, vol. I, p. 293.)
Father Mengarini named Peter, Big Ignace, and Little Ignace as
the three Iroquois most influential in giving the Flathead their first
knowledge of Christianity. (Garraghan, 1938, vol. 2, p. 238, footnote. )
However, little is known of Peter’s religious activities after the
founding of St. Mary’s Mission to the Flathead. He was not men-
tioned in the writings of the missionaries during the remainder of his
lifetime.
At the time of the Pacific Railway Survey, Peter was the most
successful and conscientious farmer in the Flathead country. Lieu-
tenant Mullan stated that when he left Cantonment Stevens to explore
southward to Fort Hall, October 14, 1853, Pierre the Iroquois was
the only Indian at St. Mary’s village. Apparently all the Flathead
were hunting buffalo east of the Rockies. (Report of Explorations,
etc., 1860, vol. I, p. 319.)
Governor Stevens’ estimate of Flathead population in 1853, at 60
lodges and 350 people, was based directly on a statement by Peter.
(Ibid., pp. 150, 295.)
When the question of the relative fertility of the Bitterroot Valley
and the region around St. Ignatius Mission was raised during the
Flathead Treaty Council, Governor Stevens called upon Peter, as the
most experienced farmer in the region, to render an opinion. Peter
frankly replied that he did not know which area was better for
farming. (Partoll, 1938a, p. 297.)
60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10
In the latter part of May, 1856, Iroquois Peter was killed in a fall
from his horse while he and his wife were hunting elk. Major Owen
reported his death and stated that he was an old trapper who had
been a long time in the country. (Owen, 1927, vol. 1, pp. 127, 129.)
Father Hoeken stated that the family of Iroquois Peter was settled
at St. Ignatius Mission among the Upper Pend d’Oreille in the
spring of 1857. He acknowledged that “the death of this venerable
old man is a great loss to the mission.” (Chittenden and Richardson,
1905, vol. 4, p. 1246.)
Apparently this migrated Mohawk, descendant of a traditionally
horticultural people, set an excellent example to the Flathead in
agriculture and herding after seeds and livestock were brought to
the Bitterroot Valley by Father De Smet in the early forties. His
example was not heeded by the majority of the Flathead. Probably
much of the agricultural progress attributed to the Flathead by
visitors to the Bitterroot Valley in the middle of the nineteenth
century was, in fact, the fruit of the individual effort of Iroquois
Peter.
Iroquois AENEAS (PLATE 20)
Iroquois—“Aeneas’”—
Came to this country with Pierre, but has not the industry or forethought of
his “comrade” Pierre. He is poor but an honest and reliable man.
The name “Aeneas” is readily recognized by present-day Indians
on the Flathead Reservation as an American attempt to render the
Flathead pronunciation of the French name “Ignace.” Baptiste Finley,
a 76-year-old mixed-blood living on that reservation, said that the
Iroquois, Ignace, was his maternal grandfather. Baptiste volunteered
the information that this man, known as “Ignace Chapped Lips” to
the Flathead, was the Iroquois who went to St. Louis with the party
that was successful in obtaining a priest for the tribe, and that he
returned with the first priest. Sohon’s “Aeneas,” therefore, was the
“Young Ignace” or “Petit Ignace” who was one of Ignace Lamoose’s
most influential helpers in giving the Flathead their first knowledge
of Christianity ; who accompanied Pierre to St. Louis in 1839 to seek
a priest; who spent the winter of 1839-40 in Wesport waiting for
the priest ; and who accompanied Father De Smet on his first journey
over the Rockies to the country of the Flathead. (Garraghan, 1938,
vol. 2, p. 238, footnote; Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 1,
PP. 29-30.)
Young Ignace was one of the party who journeyed to Fort Hall
to meet Father De Smet on his return to the West in the spring of
———
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NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 61
1841. “Iroquois Ignatius” also accompanied the priest on his visit
to the Crow Indians in the summer of 1842. (Chittenden and Richard-
son, 1905, vol. I, p. 399.)
Aeneas rendered valuable service to Lieutenant Mullan’s exploration
of the intermountain region in the winter of 1853-54. Mullan reported:
I learned, through an old Iroquis Indian, called Aeneas, now resident in the
Bitter Root Valley, whose wanderings amid the mountains had often thrown
him with parties travelling with wagons at the southward, thereby rendering
him capable of judging of the requisites of a wagon road, that a line could be
had through a gorge-like pass in the Coeur d’Alene mountains. Our later ex-
plorations proved this to be Sohon’s Pass. [Mullan, 1863, p. 5.]
In March 1854 Lieutenant Mullan sent one of his topographers,
with Aeneas as a guide, to make a special examination of the locality
Aeneas had recommended. Snow prevented their reaching the pass.
Five years later Gustavus Sohon made the first scientific exploration
of this pass that for many years bore his name. (Ibid.)
Aeneas outlived his more ambitious comrade, Peter. Father Hoeken
wrote from St. Ignatius Mission in the spring of 1857, “‘old Ignatius
is settled here.” (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 4, p. 1246.)
Baptiste Finley said that Aeneas had two children, both of whom
are now dead, and that Aeneas himself died about 1880, and was buried
in the old Indian cemetery near Arlee.
The record indicates the Aeneas was of a more restless disposition
than his friend and fellow tribesman, Peter. He was a wanderer
whose knowledge of geography proved valuable to the Government
explorers.
CHARLES LAMOOSE, SON OF OLp IGNACE (PLATE 21)
Lamuh (Indian name)
Charles (in baptism)
Charles Lamoose—+ Iroquois and 4 Pend-d’oreille speaks English and French
and lives with the Flatheads.
Charles Lamoose was the eldest son of Old Ignace Lamoose, the
Iroquois whom Palladino termed “the Apostle to the Flatheads.” As
a boy he accompanied his father and younger brother on the long
and perilous journey to St. Louis to seek a priest for the Flathead.
He was baptized Charles by Father Helias in St. Louis on De-
cember 2, 1835. His brother received the name of Francis Xavier.
Father Helias gave Charles’ age as 14, his brother’s as 10, He also
stated that the boys were able to speak a little French, were handsome,
very intelligent, and that their mother was a Flathead. (Garraghan,
1938, vol. 2, pp. 246-247.)
62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Charles and his brother were of the party of 10 lodges of Flathead
who went to meet Father De Smet on his return to the West in July
1841. (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. I, p. 30.)
Unless this man was the “Charles” who accompanied Father
De Smet on many of his travels in the northwest as interpreter, his
name was not mentioned in the later literature. Baptiste Finley said
Charles Lamoose died in the Bitterroot Valley prior to 1891. His
brother Francis Lamoose, also known as Francis Saxa, lived to old
age among the Flathead and was a well-known and respected in-
formant on Flathead cultural history.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SOHON PORTRAITS
The white man’s penetration of the northwestern interior of our
country came late. It advanced rapidly. The period of transition
from first exploration to extensive white settlement, which in some
sections of the country required centuries, was a matter of decades
in the Northwest. The explorer, the fur trader, the missionary, the
Indian agent, the gold seeker, and the farmer-settler, met and left
their impress on the lives and customs of the Indians of the Northwest
in a little more than a half century. Indians born into a Stone Age
aboriginal culture lived to witness the extermination of the buffalo,
the filling up of their land with settlers, and their confinement on
reservations.
In the face of this rapid extension of white civilization, the relatively
small native tribes of the Northwest struggled to retain their political,
social, and economic independence. Two of those tribes were the
Flathead and the Upper Pend d’Oreille. Major responsibility for
working out an adjustment to the changed conditions of life and
solving the many knotty problems posed by the extension of the white
man’s culture to their country was assumed by the elected chiefs
of these tribes. Although these leaders differed markedly in their
opinions of what was best for their people, they acted with such
courage, sincerity, and friendliness as to win the admiration and
respect of the white men with whom they dealt. Probably no group
of Indian leaders in American history have been so extravagantly
praised by the whites as were the Flathead and Pend d’Oreille chiefs
of the middle of the nineteenth century. Mr. Sohon’s portraits depict
the majority of those chiefs as they appeared in the year of 1854.
His portraits have given form and substance to some of the strongest
Indian characters in western history.
The appearance of the subjects of Sohon’s portraits illustrates the
Indians’ selective adaptation of traits of the white man’s culture.
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 63
The long forelock, falling over the center of the forehead to the nose,
was apparently an aboriginal style of hairdress among the Indians of
many tribes. George Catlin and Karl Bodmer depicted it in many
of their portraits and scenes among the tribes of the Northern Plains
in the 1830’s. (Wissler, 1910, p. 152.) Sohon illustrated it in his
portraits of Cayuse, Nez Percé, and Blackfoot leaders in 1855. The
style became obsolete among the Flathead before 1891. The peculiar
visored trade caps, worn by many of Sohon’s subjects, were a style
of headgear which was in great favor among the Flathead in the
mid-nineteenth century. These caps were shown in less detail in the
scenes of Flathead life drawn by Father Nicholas Point a decade
earlier. (De Smet, 1847, plates facing pp. 119 and 15:.) They were
also worn by Cayuse and Spokan Indians sketched by Sohon in 1855.
A similar cap was worn by a Red River half-breed drawn by
Frank B. Mayer in 1851. (Mayer, 1932, p. 58.) The origin of these
caps is not known. This distribution suggests that they may have
been obtained from Hudson’s Bay Company traders. Victor’s tall
hat and Iroquois Peter’s unusual cap of gray trade cloth are other
examples of nonaboriginal headgear in use at the time. The shirts
with attached, turned-over collars, and buttons at the neck certainly
show white influence. Catholic influence appears in the crucifixes
worn by some of these Indians The only articles of traditional cloth-
ing illustrated in the portraits are the buffalo robes worn as outer
garments by Moise and Alexander.
Hazard Stevens, who was present at the Walla Walla and Blackfoot
Treaty Councils of 1855, when Sohon drew a number of Indian
portraits, observed that Gustavus Sohon “had great skill in making
expressive likenesses.” Presumably the Flathead, Pend d’Oreille,
and Iroquois portraits, sketched from life by Mr. Sohon a year earlier,
possess that same quality. With the single exception of the unsigned
portrait of Big Canoe, which appears so labored and crude as hardly
to be the work of the same artist, Sohon’s pencil technique is charac-
terized by clean, sure lines, and a very realistic three-dimensional
quality. His portraits of Flathead leaders show the prevalence of
“good-looking” men in that tribe which was noted in the observations
of Dr. Suckley of the Pacific Railway Survey. (Report of Explora-
tions, etc., 1860, vol. 1, p. 292.) His Iroquois portraits show the
characteristic long-facedness of those people. At his best, in the por-
traits of the Flathead leader, Pelchimo, and the three Iroquois, Sohon’s
portraits deserve to rank with the finest works of white artists who
visited the western Indian country in pre-reservation days.
9
64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANNUAL REporTS, COMMISSIONER OF INDIAN AFFAIRS.
1850-1892. Washington, D. C.
BrADLeEy, JAMES H.
1923. Characteristics, habits and customs of the Blackfeet Indians. Mon-
tana Hist. Soc. Contr., No. 9. Helena.
CENSUS OF THE INDIANS IN CANADA.
1945. Canada Department of Mines and Resources, Indian Affairs Branch.
Ottawa.
CHITTENDEN, H. M., and RicuHarpson, A. T. (editors).
1905. Life, letters and travels of Father Pierre Jean De Smet. 4 vols.
New York.
CLARK, Wi.eP:
1885. The Indian sign language. Philadelphia.
Cox, Ross.
1832. Adventures on the Columbia River. New York.
De SMET, PIERRE JEAN, S. J.
1847. Oregon Missions and travels over the Rocky Mountains in 1845-6.
New York.
Ferris, W. A.
1940. Life in the Rocky Mountains. Edited by Paul C. Phillips. Denver,
Colo.
GARRAGHAN, GILBERT J., S. J.
1938. The Jesuits of the Middle United States. 2 vols. New York.
GIBBONS, JAMES.
1904. Iroquois in the North West Territories. Ann. Archeol. Rep. 1903,
App. to Rep. Minister of Education, Ontario, pp. 125-126. Toronto.
HAINES, FRANCIS.
1938. The northward spread of horses among the Plains Indians. Amer.
Anthrop., n.s., vol. 40, pp. 429-437.
HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INpIANS NortH oF MEXICO.
1907, 1910. Edited by F. W. Hodge. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bul. 30, two parts
(pt. I, 1907; pt. 2, 1910). Washington, D. C.
Henry, ALEXANDER, AND THOMPSON, DaAviD.
1897. New light on the early history of the greater Northwest. 3 vols.
Edited by Elliott Coues. New York.
IrvING, WASHINGTON.
1851. The adventures of Captain Bonneville, U.S.A. New York.
LarocguE, FRANCOIS.
1910. Journal of Larocque from the Assiniboine to the Yellowstone, 1805.
Publ. Canadian Archives, No. 3. Ottawa.
MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER.
1903. Voyages from Montreal on the River St. Lawrence through the Con-
tinent of North America. . . . 1789 and 1793. 2 vols. New York.
Mayer, FRANK B.
1932. With pen and pencil on the frontier in 1851. St. Paul, Minn.
MENGARINI, Grecory, S. J.
1871-1872. Indians of Oregon. Journ. Anthrop. Inst. New York, vol. 1,
pp. 81-88.
NO. 7 SOHON’S PORTRAITS OF INDIANS—EWERS 65
MutLtan, Capt. JoHNn, U.S.A.
1863. Report on the construction of a military road from Fort Walla Walla
to Fort Benton. Washington, D. C.
Orpway, Sct. Joun.
1916. Sergeant Ordway’s journal. Edited by Milo Quaife. Wisconsin Hist.
Soc. Coll., vol. 22. Madison.
OweEN, JoHN.
1927. Journal and letters of Major John Owen, 1850-1871. 2 vols. Edited
by Paul C. Phillips. Montana Hist. Soc. Helena.
PATEADINO, L. B.,.S:,J.
1894. Indian and White in the Northwest. Baltimore.
PARKER, SAMUEL.
1844. Journal of an exploring tour beyond the Rocky Mountains. Ithaca,
NG ¥3
PartoLt, ALBERT J. (editor).
1937. The Blackfoot Indian Peace Council. Historical Reprints, Sources of
Northwest History, No. 3, Montana State Univ. Missoula.
1938a. The Flathead Indian Peace Council of 1855. Pacific Northwest
Quart., vol. 29, No. 3.
1938b. Mengarini’s narrative of the Rockies. Historical Reprints, Sources
of Northwest History, No. 25, Montana State Univ. Missoula.
RASMUSSEN, LOUISE.
1942. Artists of the explorations overland, 1840-1860. Oregon Hist. Soc.
Quart., vol. 43, No. 1, pp. 56-62. March.
Report OF EXPLORATIONS AND SURVEYS TO ASCERTAIN THE Most PRACTICABLE
AND EcoNoMICAL ROUTE FOR A RAILROAD FROM THE MISSISSIPPI
RIVER TO THE PaciFIC OCEAN... . 1853-55.
1860. 12 vols. Washington, D. C.
RONAN, PETER.
1890. Historical sketch of the Flathead Indian Nation from the year 1813
to 1890. Helena, Mont.
Ross, ALEXANDER.
1913. Journal of Alexander Ross—Snake country expedition, 1824.
Edited by T. C. Elliott. Oregon Hist. Soc. Quart., vol. 14, No. 4.
December.
SCHAEFFER, CLAUDE.
1937. The first Jesuit Mission to the Flathead, 1840-1850. Pacific North-
west Quart., vol. 28, pp. 227-250. July.
Spier, LEstie.
1935. The Prophet Dance of the Northwest and its derivatives. Gen. Ser.
in Anthrop., No. 1. Menasha, Wis.
STEVENS, HAZARD.
1900. The life of Isaac Ingalls Stevens. 2 vols. Boston.
Teit, JAMES A.
1930. Salishan tribes of the western plateau. Edited by Franz Boas. 45th
Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Washington, D. C.
Tompson, Davin.
1916. David Thompson's narrative of his explorations in western America,
1784-1812. Edited by J. B. Tyrrell. Champlain Soc. Publ., No. 12.
Toronto.
66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLT ITO
Tuwaltes, REUBEN Gorn (editor).
1904-1905. Original journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. 8 vols.
New York.
TurRNEY-HicH, Harry H.
1937. The Flathead Indians of Montana. Mem. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc.,
vol. 48. Menasha, Wis.
WHEELER, OLIN D.
1904. The trail of Lewis and Clark, 1804-1904. 2 vols. New York.
WISSLER, CLARK.
1910. Material culture of the Blackfoot Indians. Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus.
Nat. Hist., vol. 5, pt. 1. New York.
Wyeth, N. J.
1899. The correspondence and journals of Captain Nathaniel J. Wyeth,
1831-6. Edited by F. G. Young. Sources of the History of Oregon,
vol. 1. Eugene, Oreg.
APPENDIX
A LIST OF PREVIOUSLY PUBLISHED DRAWINGS
BY GUSTAVUS SOHON
Cotorep LITHOGRAPHS AFTER SOHON DRAWINGS PUBLISHED IN “REPORT OF
EXPLORATIONS AND SuRVEYS TO ASCERTAIN THE Most PRACTICABLE AND
EconomMIcaAL Route ror A RAILROAD FROM THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO THE
Pactric OcEAN, MADE UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR,
IN 1853-5,” vol. 12, book 1. Washington, D. C., 1860. (Processed by
“Sarony, Major & Knapp, Liths., 449 Broadway, N. Y.”)
Fort Vancouver, W. T. (Following p. 154.)
Hot Spring Mound, in the “Deer Lodge” Prairie of the Rocky
Mountains. (Facing p. 172.)
Crossing the Hellgate River May 5, 1854. (Facing p. 179.)
Entrance to the Bitter Root Mountains, by the Lou Lou Fork.
(Facing p. 180.)
Cantonment Stevens, Looking Westward. (Facing p. 181.)
Great Falls of the Missouri River. (Facing p. 183.)
Main Chain of the Rocky Mountains, as Seen from the East—
Extending from a Point North of the Marias Pass to near the
Little Blackfoot Pass. (Panorama labled “Stanley, Del. after
Sohon.”) (Following p. 184.)
Kamas Prairie of the Pend d’Oreilles, in the Rocky Mountains,
Looking Southward. (Following p. 184.)
View of the Clark’s Fork and the Ridge of Mountains, South of
the Flathead Lake, Looking Eastward. (Following p. 184.)
Source of the Peluse. (Labeled “Stanley, Del. after Sohon.”)
(Facing p. 200.)
Big Blackfoot Valley. (Facing p. 214.)
Crossing the Hellgate River, Jan. 6, 1854. (Following p. 244.)
Cotorep LITHOGRAPHS AFTER SOHON DRAWINGS PUBLISHED IN “REPORT ON THE
CONSTRUCTION OF A MiLitAry RoAp From Fort WALLA WALLA TO Fort
Benton,” sy Capt. Joun Muttan, U.S.A. Wasurincton, D. C. 1863.
(Processed by “Bowen & Co. Lith. Philada.”)
Military Post & City of Walla Walla, W. T. in 1862. (First
frontispiece. )
Fort Benton—Head of Steam Navigation on the Missouri River.
(Second frontispiece. )
Cantonment Stevens—Capt. Mullan’s Winter Quarters 1853-4.
(Facing p. 2.)
Coeur d’Alene Mission in the Rocky Mountains. (Facing p. 16.)
67
68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Paloose Falls in Washington Territory. (Facing p. 28.)
Cantonment Wright—Capt. Mullan’s Winter Quarters in 1861-2.
(Facing p. 32.)
Upper Falls of the Missouri River. (Facing p. 48.)
Mode of Crossing Rivers by the Flathead and other Indians. (Facing
. 50.)
Pend d’Oreille Mission in the Rocky Mountains in 1862. (Facing
Pp. 52.)
Great Falls of the Missouri, 2500 miles from St. Louis. (Facing
p. 54.)
HALFTONE REPRODUCTIONS OF SOHON DRAWINGS PUBLISHED IN “THE LIFE
oF IsAac INGALLS STEVENS,’ By His Son HAzarp STEVENS. Two vols.
Houghton, Mifflin and Company, Boston and New York, 1900.
Low Horn, Piegan Chief. (Facing p. 374, vol. 1.)
The Arrival of the Nez Perces. (Facing p. 34, vol. 2.)
Feasting the Chiefs. (Facing p. 36, vol. 2.)
Kam-i-ah-kan, Head Chief of the Yakimas. (Facing p. 38, vol. 2.)
Spotted Eagle, a chief of the Nez Perces. (Facing p. 40, vol. 2.)
Walla Walla Council. (Facing p. 42, vol. 2.)
Pu-pu-mox-mox: Yellow Serpent, Head Chief of the Walla Wallas.
(Facing p. 46, vol. 2.)
We-ah-te-na-tee-ma-ny: Young Chief, Head Chief of the Cuyuses.
(Facing p. 50, vol. 2.)
She-ca-yah: Five Crows, Cuyuse Chief. (Facing p. 52, vol. 2.)
Looking Glass, War Chief of the Nez Perces. (Facing p. 54, vol. 2.)
Hal-hal-tlos-sot: The Lawyer, Head Chief of the Nez Perces.
(Facing p. 58, vol. 2.)
The Scalp Dance. (Facing p. 60, vol. 2.)
Ow-hi, a Chief of the Yakimas. (Facing p. 64, vol. 2.)
The Flathead Council. (Facing p. 112, vol. 2.)
Blackfoot Chiefs—Star Robe, The Rider, Heavy Shield, Lame Bull.
(Four individual portraits.) (Facing p. 114, vol. 2.)
Tat-tu-ye. The Fox, Chief of the Blood Indians. (Facing p. 116,
vol. 25)
Mek-ya-py, Red Dye, Piegan Warrior (Facing p. 116, vol. 2.)
Commissioner Cumming and Interpreters. James Bird, Delaware
Jim, Colonel Alfred Cumming, William Craig, Alexander
Culberston. (Five individual portraits.) (Facing p. 118, vol. 2.)
Crossing the Bitter Roots in Midwinter. (Facing p. 126, vol. 2.)
Coeur d’Alene Mission. (Facing p. 128, vol. 2.)
Spokane Garry, Head Chief of the Spokanes. (Facing p. 140, vol. 2.)
Ume-how-lish, War Chief of the Cuyuses. (Facing p. 148, vol. 2.)
\ i. oan i 1,
y
he
y) ,
‘
*
. ~~ 7 ys : ie ‘
a he we a - ; ‘ ? » re ao
Ve a oe ff, ei a? na 4A a ot
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. ' ~ a > _ \ ¢ ts. es, bs . d ? = 5 wae * "yf why
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o
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Roebling Fund
BEHAVIOR OF BAROMETRIC PRESSURE
DURING AND AFTER SOLAR PARTICLE
i . ENVISION AND SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET
Pye INVASIONS
BY
B. DUELL anp G. DUELL
eal sakes
i ed etre co ihe
a2
a
ae
7
“
ie -3
, -
ain
hy
"A eet
- po re
fs -
Taare
« 7 ?
(Pustication 3942)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
; PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
+ | AUGUST 5, 1948
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 119. NUMBER 8
Roebling Fund
THE BEHAVIOR OF BAROMETRIC PRESSURE
DURING AND AFTER SOLAR PARTICLE
INVASIONS AND SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET
INVASIONS
BY
B. DUELL ann G. DUELL
(PusiicaTion 3942)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
AUGUST 5, 1948
Tbe Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A.
Roebling Fund
THE BEHAVIOR OF BAROMETRIC PRESSURE
DURING AND AFTER SOLAR PARTICLE
INVASIONS AND SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET
INVASIONS*
By B. DUELL anp G. DUELL
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
A convincing proof that there exists an influence on the large-scale
weather course, exerted by certain radiation invasions that are con-
nected with increased sun activity, would be of theoretical interest
for the geophysicist and also of practical importance for the meteor-
ologist who is in charge of the daily weather forecast. In a great
number of statistical investigations an attempt has been made to
furnish that proof. In these statistics monthly and annual mean
values of single meteorological elements have been correlated with
corresponding mean values of the relative sunspot numbers and
sometimes of the solar constant. Less frequently daily values of the
quoted elements have been correlated with each other, e.g., by C. G.
Abbot (1), H. Arctowski, (2), H. H. Clayton (3), E. Hunting-
ton (4), V. M. Rubashev (5), and others. Only rarely has an attempt
been made to use other character numbers for the kind and intensity
of the eruptive sun activity, although such data, e.g., the profile
numbers for prominences, details about photospheric faculae, calcium
flocculi, bright and dark hydrogen flocculi, bright chromospheric
eruptions and characteristic brightenings of the solar corona, have
been available for quite a number of years. Also the different kinds
of geomagnetic character figures, systematic observations of the au-
rora borealis, and certain direct ionospheric multifrequency-recording
data, by which different disturbed states of the D-, E-, F,-, and F,-
layers are characterized, have been largely disregarded, when the pos-
sibility of solar influences on the troposphere was examined statisti-
cally.
1 Paper read before a joint meeting of the American Physical Society and the
American Meteorological Society on May 1, 1947, at Washington, D. C.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 8
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
METHODS
The investigations, of which we shall describe on the following
pages only a few results, are characterized by a strict distinction and
completely separate statistical treatment of those different kinds of
solar-radiation eruptions which are known to influence the ionosphere.
All computations were made exclusively on the basis of daily values
of the solar, ionospheric, and meteorological elements. The method
used throughout the whole work was the so-called ‘“‘superposed-epoch”
method. The application of this method takes place as follows: At
first a certain number of well-defined key dates are selected from
a series of observations, as long as possible, of that element (e.g.,
geomagnetic activity), which is regarded hypothetically as controlling
another element. Then a mean value “n” is obtained by averaging
arithmetically all those values of the element, assumed as controlled
(e.g., sea-level air pressure), which belong to these key days. The
same process is repeated for several days which precede the key days
“n—1,” “n—2,” etc.) and for several days which follow the key
days (“n+1,” “n+2,” etc). In such a way there is obtained the
typical average behavior—free from the accidents of the individual
case—of the chosen meteorological element, before, during, and after
the time of the solar or ionospheric event which is assumed to control
this element. From this description it can be seen that the “super-
posed-epoch” method is a simplified correlation method which has
the advantage that it is applicable to the most widely varying forms
of correlations without modification. Random variations are elimi-
nated automatically by this method, if the number of key days is
sufficiently high. A criterion of reality consists in dividing the whole
statistics in parts of equal size, e.g., even years and odd years,
summer and winter, and comparing the resulting average curves of
these parts with each other. The selection of the key days is often
done by taking the five highest and the five lowest values of every
month.
I. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOLAR PARTICLE INVASIONS AND
SEA-LEVEL PRESSURE
A. ORIGIN oF ParTICLE INVASIONS AND OF I[ONOSPHERIC STORMS
The particle invasions are generated by eruptive processes in the
so-called M-regions of the sun (J. Bartels (6) ). They are not closely
connected with sunspots, photospheric faculae, bright chromospheric
flocculi or plages, or bright chromospheric eruptions or solar flares.
The earth is affected by these invasions only if the place of the M-
no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 3
regions is situated in the vicinity of that point where the line con-
necting the center of the sun with the center of the earth crosses the
sun’s surface. The radiation emitted from these regions, causes a
characteristic brightening of certain coronal emission lines, especially
5303 and 5694 A. The intensity of these lines can be measured with
the coronograph if the M-regions are situated at the east or west
limb of the sun. With the assistance of such intensity measurements
of the mentioned corona lines, it will not be impossible to forecast
particle invasions and accordingly also ionospheric storms, for the life
duration of these M-regions amounts to several weeks, and sometimes
even months (J. Bartels (6), M. Waldmeier (7) ), the velocity of the
solar particles can be determined with the aid of special methods,
and the rotation velocity for the respective solar zones is known.
An ionospheric storm is particularly characterized by a considerable
decrease of the equivalent electron density in the so-called F-layer.
Frequently the behavior of the F-layer during an ionospheric storm
has been compared with an expansion, because at the same time there
can be observed an essential increase in height of the layer, and tem-
porarily there appear diffuse reflections from heights which exceed
the normal height by several hundred percent. In fact, very often
the “fixed-frequency” height records give the impression that the
whole F-layer is blown asunder. Frequently the occurrence of iono-
spheric storms is connected with the appearance of irregular geo-
magnetic disturbances or “magnetic storms” at approximately the
same time.
B. STATISTICAL RESULTS
As direct observations of the frequency and intensity of ionospheric
storms were not available for the period 1906-1937, covered by this
part of our investigation, we had to use instead of these missing
data the rather reliable figures of the geomagnetic activity. Fitted
for our purpose were the international character figures for terrestrial
magnetic conditions which are averaged from the observations of
about 50 observatories and regularly published by the International
Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, Section of Terrestrial Magnetism
and Electricity. The use of 5 particularly disturbed and 5 particularly
quiet days in each month, selected by the Royal Meteorological Insti-
tute of the Netherlands (in De Bilt), can be justified by the advantage
that, after dividing the whole statistics arbitrarily into periods of
equal length, each part contains an equal number of key days. Such
a subdivision has been accomplished by considering separately: years
with high sun activity, where the annual mean of the relative sun-
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
spot number is >40, and years with low sun activity, where the an-
nual mean of the relative sunspot numbers is 40; the years with even
and the years with odd numbers ; and, finally, the different seasons. In
the pursuit of similar geophysical investigations, e.g., those performed
by J. M. Stagg (8), we divided the year in three parts, as follows:
winter (November, December, January, and February), spring+
autumn (March, April, September, and October), and summer (May,
June, July, and August).
The sea-level pressure data used in that part of the investigation
were observed during an uninterrupted series of 11,688 single days.
The beginning on January 1, 1906, and the end on December 31, 1937,
of that series were established by the fact that for the time before
January I, 1906, there were not available sufficiently reliable geo-
magnetic character numbers, and for the time after December 31,
1937, there were not yet published daily mean values of sea-level
pressure for the stations that we used.
As a very detailed elaboration of the data from Potsdam (Ger-
many) and Stykkisholm (Iceland) had revealed that a conspicuous
relationship between ionospheric storms and sea-level pressure could
be demonstrated only for the years with low sun activity, when r
is 40, and even then only during the winter months, the studies were
confined to the 16 years with low sun activity (1910-1914, 1920-1924,
and 1930-1935) and to the winter months November, December, Jan-
uary, and February. In addition to the above-mentioned, the data
of eight further stations were investigated. These places (De Bilt,
Karlsruhe, Vienna, Breslau, Konigsberg, Warsaw, Lemberg, and
Kiev), as well as Potsdam, are all situated within the zone 45° to 55°
N. latitude and 5° to 30° E. longitude. Computed by means of the
superposed-epoch method, figure 1 shows for these stations the aver-
age behavior of sea-level pressure as related to all those days (320)
when the ionosphere was particularly disturbed, and to all those days
(320) when the ionosphere was particularly undisturbed. Besides
this, the curves demonstrate the average behavior of sea-level pressure
on those 3 days which precede the key days, and on those 11 days
which follow the key days. It can be seen from figure 1 that at all
stations the sea-level pressure is lower than normal after the days
when the ionosphere is particularly disturbed, with a minimum value
3 days after, and higher than normal after the days when the iono-
sphere is particularly undisturbed, with maximum value 3 to 4 days
after. The different behavior of sea-level pressure after ionospheric
storms and after ionospheric calms is especially clearly demonstrated
by means of difference curves, “disturbed minus undisturbed,” which
no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 5
are shown in figure 2. The maximum difference on the third to fourth
day after the key dates amounts to 2.6 to 3.2 mb., varying according
to the geographical position of the station. Additional evidence for
the reality of the relationship is found if these statistics are subdi-
vided arbitrarily according to even and odd years or according to
other points of view. Curves representing these completely indepen-
dent arrangements of the different parts are extremely similar. This
is true for all stations which were examined. For want of space,
however, only one example is presented in figure 3.
The Average Behaviour of Sea- Level pubis as related to oll mp
( 320) those Doys when the lonosphere was particularly
Vienna ’ Disturbed: (—=)ond to al! (320 ) those Days when the
was particularly Undisturbed (
OES
Wintermonths of the 16 Yeors with low
Sun- Activity (r440) of the Period
1906 - 1937
: ; - “Koenigsberg
le
'
. '
an ; ' ot” ” 1015
We! ‘ - ; “a 1014
‘ ‘ i \
1021 ' : ‘ ose e 1013
' =, Lemberg , Kiev
‘ Pero
102! ' - ee ,
wo19 Fs :
ee Warsaw ‘
wie 7 ' :
wiry a
Ou SSE Lig OQ Lr t1titiitit ui Ch lll
3 -1 “el «3 05 47 09 oil 3 -l “ol #3 «5 e7 09 oll -3 -j “ol 3 05S of bo aa
Before Doys After Before Ooys After Before Doys r
BiG.
To find out more about the kind of relationship between the state
of the ionosphere and the behavior of sea-level pressure, the number
of stations to be included in this investigation was increased to 26.
As far as the respective data were available for such a long series
of years, the stations were selected in such a manner that the final
results could be represented synoptically. The following stations
could be used for that purpose: (from N. to S.) Vardoe, Haparanda,
Stykkisholm, Trondhjem, Lerwick, Oslo, Leningrad, Stockholm, Mos-
cow, Copenhagen, Kénigsberg, Potsdam, Valentia, De Bilt, Warsaw,
Breslau, Kiev, Lemberg, Karlsruhe, Brest, Vienna, Bucharest,
LaCoruna, Marseille, Sofia, and Rome. Figure 4 shows the average
normal sea-level pressure distribution (mb.) over Europe during the
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
winter months November, December, January, February in the 16
years with low sun activity, when r is =40. The pressure is low with
997.7 mb. over Iceland-Jan Mayen, and high over Rumania with
1021.7 mb., as well as over Spain with 1019.8 mb. Pressure gra-
dients run from SE. and S. to NW. Let us consider now all those 320
The Average Behaviour of Sea-Level Pressure
as related to all (320) those Days when the lonosphere wos
porticularly Disturbed and to all (320) those Days when the
lonosphere was particularly Undisturbed , demonstrated
+3, by Means of Difference - Curves ("Disturbed minus
| \ ‘Undisturbed" )
Wintermonths of the 16 Years with low
+! ‘Sun - Activity (r£40 ) of the Period
1906 — 1937
° \ ‘ IN
45° - 55°N.L.
De Bilt
5° WELL.
Karlsruhe
8° 26'E.L.
Potsdam
13°4' EL.
Vienna
16°22'E.L.
Breslau
17°5' EL.
Koenigsberg
20°30'E.L.
Warsaw
mb aie2' EL.
+, Lemberg
24°! EL.
°
ah Kiev
30°30'E.L
3 -1Uel +3 +5 +7 +9 Gil
Before Days After
Eich)
days when the ionosphere was particularly disturbed, during the win-
ter months, in the years with low sun activity. In figure 5, a synoptical
representation is given of the average departures of the sea-level
pressure field from the long-period means, 1 day before these dis-
turbed days. There are no considerable sea-level pressure differences
on this map. The maximum pressure difference within this pressure
field amounts only to 1.2 mb. Figure 6 shows the same conditions
no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE-—-DUELL AND DUELL 7
for the disturbed days themselves. On this map, too, no significant
pressure differences are discernible. The picture is dominated by
-a zero isoline, which covers nearly the whole European continent.
The greatest pressure difference within this pressure field is only 1.6
mb. Quite another picture is demonstrated by figure 7, which shows
the same conditions as the preceding figures, but for the first day
after the disturbed days.
The Average Behaviour of Sea-Level Pressure
as reloted to all (320) those Days when the lonosphere wos
porticularly Disturbed and to all (320) those Days when the
lonosphere was particularly Undisturbed,; demonstrated
by Means of Difference - Curves (“Disturbed minus
. "
Undisturbed ) Wintermonths of the 16 Yeors with low
Sun-Activity (r £40) of the Period
mb 1906 - 1937
: -2 ‘
7! ¢ ; it
° 4
; Even Years
~ Nia
‘ mb
-3 =: +!
oe >
-I
All Years
-3
; -4
Odd Years
i Kiev
-3 as On ae tat 49 «ll
Before Bays After
Fic. 3.
A considerable gradient with a maximum pressure difference of
3-7 mb. has been built up over the North Atlantic, in the direction
NW. to SE. There is a plus-area over Iceland of +2.1 mb. and a
minus-area over the Gulf of Bothnia of —1.6 mb. The direction of
this additional gradient is such that the normal average gradient,
as computed from long-period means (see fig. 4), is flattened by
it. In figure 8 we see the average additional sea-level pressure field
2 days after ionospheric storms. The pressure gradient, directed from
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
NW. to SE., has become still more steep and has reached the rela-
tively high value of 5.0 mb. The anomalous plus area of +2.5 mb.
is situated over Iceland and the Strait of Denmark as before. The
area with positive departures = 2.0 mb. is covered with little crosses.
The minus area of —2.5 mb. has shifted a little toward the SE., and is
now situated over the Baltic States. The area with negative departures
= 2.0 mb. is cross-hatched with horizontal lines. The beginning of a
flattening of this ionosphere-controlled sea-level pressure field can
Se
Vee
Ac
Average Absolute Sea-Level Pressure-
Distribution (mb) during the Wintermonths of the 16 Years with
low Sun—Activity (ré40 ) of the Period 1906 to 1937
("Long-Period Means" )
Fic. 4.
be recognized as early as 3 days after the ionospheric storms in figure
g. The plus-area (with +2.0 mb.) has shifted somewhat toward E.,
and the minus-area, with extreme values diminished to —1.7 mb.,
has broken up into two parts, during displacement toward the S.
The greatest pressure difference is only just 3.7 mb.
Figure 10, representing the situation 4 days after the ionospheric
storms, and figure 11, showing these conditions 5 days after, dem-
onstrate how the flattening of the additional pressure field progresses
slowly but steadily, with maximum gradients of 3.3 and 3.1 mb.
From figure 12, 6 days after, it can be seen that the plus-area with
no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 9
+1.8 mb. has shifted somewhat toward the S., and is now situated
over the middle part of Scandinavia. Remaining parts of the minus-
area (with—0.9 and—o.7 mb.) are only just slightly discernible. The
maximum gradient has been reduced to 2.7 mb. Figure 13, 7 days
after, begins to show an approach to the neutral initial state. Any
noteworthy gradient can no longer be recognized there. The greatest
difference between positive and negative departures of the pressure
+10 105 12 mb
PHL ENT | T\ ie Sah
BL || (Fay see
ia L | #| '
AS <\
Be er
Average Departures of
Sea-Level Pressure-Field from Long- Period Meons (in mb ) os
related to all( 320) those Days when the lonosphere was
particularly Disturbed.
One Day Before
Wintermonths of the 16 Yeors with low Sun—Activity (r440) of the Period 1906-19357
Fic. 5.
from the normal distribution amounts to 1.8 mb. Finally, in figure 14,
8 days after, gradients no longer exist—only a completely irregular
and insignificant distribution of very flat positive and negative pressure
anomalies. The maximum difference between them is not greater
than 1.4 mb. This is nearly the same value as on the days before
the disturbed days, at the beginning of the whole development. In
just the same manner as there, the picture is dominated by a zero
isoline, which, in the form of an unbroken curve, covers a great part
of Europe. Figure 15 represents the average behavior of the max-
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
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no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 15
imum gradients of the additional sea-level pressure field after iono-
spheric storms in a very condensed form. As can be seen from the
upper curve, the greatest increase of the gradient, from 1.6 to 3.7 mb.,
takes place as early as the first day after the ionospheric storms.
However, the absolute peak of 5.0 mb. is reached only on the second
day after the disturbed days. Then occurs a decrease of 1.3 mb. to
the “third day after,” and from that time a gradual decrease until,
on the “eighth day after,” the low value of 1.4 mb. is reached. The
lower curve of the same figure shows the interdiurnal variation of
the gradient, and accordingly has its peak, with + 2.1 mb., on the first
day after the ionospheric storms.
As has been emphasized above, this relatively clear relationship
between the invasions of solar particles and the behavior of sea-level
pressure can be demonstrated only for the winter months and, even
then, only for the years with low sun activity. This fact cannot yet
be explained in a really satisfactory manner. However, we shall enter
briefly into this question when we discuss the manner in which
solar-activity influences are transmitted to the troposphere. Here
attention can only be called to the fact that other authors, working
with similar statistics and subdividing these, also obtained very dif-
ferent results for the different seasons as well as for the years with
high and with low sun activity. Some few examples will make this
evident: A. Peppler (9) found, by using monthly mean values, that
there has been a positive correlation since 1906 between the relative
sunspot numbers and the course of sea-level pressure anomalies over
the Atlantic in the zone between 60° and 70° N. latitude, and a
negative correlation when the zone between 25°and 35° N. latitude
was considered. When subdividing his statistics according to the
different seasons, he found that relationship well developed during
the winter, but could not discover it during the summer and autumn.
J. M. Stagg (8) found that in Lerwick on days with geomagnetic
disturbances, the forenoon maximum of the diurnal variation of sea-
level pressure was lower, and the afternoon maximum was higher,
than on days without geomagnetic disturbances. This relationship
was likewise particularly evident in the years with low sun activity.
O. Krogness (10) has found that a 27-day period, caused by the sun
rotation in some meteorological elements in the northern part of
Norway, could be observed regularly in the years with low sun
activity.
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
C. ATTEMPT AT A PHYSICAL EXPLANATION OF THE OBSERVED RELATIONSHIP
In the following chapter will be described an attempt at a schematic
description of the manner in which the influence of short- and long-
duration eruptions of those solar particles which leave the sun is
transmitted to the troposphere. We are convinced that this expla-
nation is incomplete and will go through important modifications in
the future.
The places of formation of these eruptions of electrically charged
and uncharged solar particles (negatrons, protons, neutrons, alpha
particles, as well as Na-, Ca-, Mg-, and other atoms) which leave the
sun, the so-called M-regions, are situated within the “king zones”
(between 40° N. latitude and 4o° S. latitude). Some of the best-
known solar phenomena that attend this kind of eruption are: (1) a
considerable strenghtening of certain corona lines, especially 5303 and
5694 A., and (2) certain kinds of prominences. The effects of these
particles are partly localized, both on the dark and sunlit earth
hemispheres. The best known of the consecutive geophysical reac-
tions to these particle invasions are “ionosphere storms,” auroras,
geomagnetic storms, disturbances of the electric earth-current sys-
tem, and a special kind of irregular, long-duration fading of short
radio waves. Being absorbed, the particles deliver to the high
Se wacetrs he mv? : evan
atmosphere their kinetic energy —>—, which—because of their high
Chee 3 :
velocity: v~2xX LO; eae —is not inconsiderable. The main resulting
consequences are: A pressure effect in the direction of the shocks;
ionization ; excitation of the emission of visible light-, ultraviolet-,
and X-ray-photons ; dissociation, especially of the molecular oxygen ;
production of chemical compounds in form of condensation nuclei ;
and heating of the absorbing layer. Moreover, an electrical polariza-
tion of the high atmospheric layers may be expected, because of the
segregation by the geomagnetic field of those portions of the particles
with positive and negative electric charges, and because of the dif-
ferent heights of the absorbent layers for the positive protons and
alpha particles, and the negative electrons, according to their different
mass and velocity.
As to the magnitude of the shock-pressure effect that may be ex-
pected, no details have hitherto been known. The dissociation of the
oxygen molecules must be accompanied by a considerable increase
in pressure, provided there is available a sufficiently great amount of
molecular oxygen. This condition may be fulfilled much less in sum-
no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE-—-DUELL AND DUELL 17
mer and in years with high sun activity, and also after many ultra-
violet invasions, than in winter and in years with low sun activity.
Perhaps that is one of the reasons for the fact that an influence of
the particle invasions on sea-level pressure could be demonstrated only
for winter and for years with low sun activity. The heating of those
layers which absorb the particles is likewise not inconsiderable, as
has been shown by theoretical considerations and by computations of
H. Petersen (11). R. M. Deeley (12) regards this heating as a suffi-
cient cause for the decreases of sea-level pressure which he observed
in Arctic regions during the culmination of solar-activity centers.
An electric polarization of the high atmospheric layers, the prob-
ability of which has been stressed by several authors, could be im-
portant for several reasons. In the first place electroconvective proc-
esses, i.e., “ion winds,” could follow such polarization. It has been
proved experimentally by V. F. Hess (13) that these ion winds are
connected with relatively strong dynamic effects. In the second place,
a penetration into the troposphere of the lines of equal force origi-
nating in the ionospheric-electric field is possible under certain cir-
cumstances (J. Scholz (14)). In that case the colloidal stability of
clouds, and therefore the size of droplets and the precipitation
tendency, may be influenced (A. Schmauss and A. Wigand (15)).
Furthermore, there is a possibility that certain chemical compounds,
and consequently condensation nuclei, are produced by electric
discharges between the polarized layers. However, such chemical
compounds may be produced also during the ordinary bombardment
by solar particles of the oxygen-nitrogen mixture, especially in the
presence of water vapor or hydrogen. Such particles, e.g., protons,
are furnished by the solar particle invasions themselves. This possi-
bility of formation of ammonium nitrate and ammonium nitrite-con-
densation nuclei by solar particles, especially by electrons, has been
emphasized particularly by P. Lenard (16). Industrial processes in
the course of which ammonia is produced by the action of electrons
upon a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen are known (Buch-Ander-
sen (17)).
The numerous observations of a coincidence between the appear-
ance of intensive auroras and the sudden formation of cirrus
clouds (H. Fritz (18), H. J. Klein (19), E. Thienemann (20),
A. Paulsen (21) ) likewise seem to point to the origin of condensation
nuclei during particle invasions. Further support for that hypothesis
was given by G. Archenhold (22), who could demonstrate that there
is a certain probability for the geomagnetic character figure being
higher on days with sun halos than it would be on ordinary days.
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
To explain that relationship, Archenhold points to the possibility that
solar neutrons, because of their special qualities, penetrate much deeper
into the earth atmosphere than do the solar alpha particles, protons,
and negatrons. Only in those layers which contain a sufficient amount
of water vapor, e.g., in the cirrus level, would they undergo a con-
siderable retardation, and even absorption. A necessary provision
for the occurrence of condensation phenomena would in all such cases
be the presence of an atmospheric layer saturated with water vapor
and relatively free from other condensation nuclei. As has been
shown on different occasions, these conditions occur not infrequently
(A. Schmauss and A. Wigand (15)). Even then, if the neutron
hypothesis could not stand the test, there would be a possibility of
explaining the presence of solar-produced condensation nuclei in the
upper troposphere. According to the investigations of H. Peter-
sen (23), E. Palmén (24), and A. Refsdal (25), a drop of the
tropopause produces a cyclonal circulation. This flow may continue
up to the high stratosphere and may suck down air from there in the
center of the cyclone. This is possible because the kinematic viscosity
of air in the tropopause level is very small, according to Chapman
and Milne, and only in heights of about 60 km. again reaches the
sea-level value. In that scheme there is considered the important
fact discovered by Palmén in 1932 that the upward movement of
the air in the cyclone and the downward movement in the anticyclone
are confined to the lower and middle troposphere, and that the vertical
movements in the upper troposphere and in the stratosphere have the
opposite direction.
The assumption of a separate existence of the troposphere, inde-
pendent of the stratosphere, had been definitely destroyed by these
findings. A down-transportation of condensation nuclei might be
possible in such a way, and the question now arises, to what extent
could an additional supply of condensation nuclei act upon the tropo-
spheric processes? As is known, the liberated condensation heat
inheres into the water droplets themselves, and, as the expansion of
fluids compared with that of gases is extremely small, the temper-
ature increase becomes evident only when the energy has been trans-
mitted to the surrounding air. This energy transfer is performed
much faster if a certain amount of water vapor condenses into many
small rather than into a few large droplets. In such a way, according
to C. Braak (26), a greater number of nuclei can accelerate the
transformation of condensation heat into intensified convection.
A local turbidity of the stratosphere, produced by nuclei, can
become important even without any condensation phenomena, because
no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE-—-DUELL AND DUELL 19
it may give rise to regionally intensified heat emission of the strato-
sphere, which, according to G. Stueve (27), may cause the develop-
ment of independent islands of high air pressure. According to
S. P. Chromow (28), transformations of the large-scale weather
situation may be produced by such processes.
Figure 16 gives a concentrated summary of the different hy-
potheses which have been postulated to explain the effect of solar par-
ticles invasions upon the stratospheric-tropospheric circulation and
large-scale weather situation. An evaluation of such effects should
never be undertaken without regarding the fact that the result of
these influences will always, in a high measure, depend on the initial
state of the troposphere and on the amount of potential energy
which is available for release by ionospheric-stratospheric processes.
It is quite possible that the effect of a particle invasion at one time
will remain without any consequences, and on another occasion, when
all involved factors stand in an optimal proportion to each other,
will give rise to a complete change in the large-scale weather situation.
Furthermore, it is probable that the occurrence frequency and the kind
of succession of such particle invasions, and, in addition, the inter-
fering appearance of ultraviolet invasions, will be of decisive
importance for the efficiency of each single particle invasion.
II. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET
INVASIONS AND SEA-LEVEL PRESSURE
A. OriGtIn oF SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET INVASIONS
Solar ultraviolet invasions occur during bright chromospheric
eruptions. These appear generally in connection with certain sunspot
groups, at the outer margin of the penumbrae. The number and
intensity of the eruptions depend closely on the type and phase of
development of the sunspot groups. The international indices for
the intensity (“1,” “2,” and “3”) correspond to an average life
duration of 20, 40, and 60 minutes and to average areas of 1.2 10",
3.8x 10, and 10.2x 10% fractions (~1:3:9) of the apparent sun
disk. The brightness generally increases with the size of the eruption.
The wave radiation of these eruptions consists chiefly of the emission
lines of hydrogen, helium, and calcium. It has been possible to con-
clude from the results of prominence research and ionosphere research
that the intensity of this ultraviolet radiation per unit of the eruption
area is about 10° times as strong as that ultraviolet intensity which
has been computed on the basis of Planck’s radiation formula for
the same spectral range and for an undisturbed sun. By these proc-
IIo
VOL.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
20
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no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—DUELL AND DUELL 21
esses alone the total ultraviolet radiation of the whole sun surface is
raised by several hundred percent. The total radiation of the sun
in the whole spectral range is raised only by several percent. How-
ever, even these few additional percent are not included in the direct
measurements involved in the “solar constant,” generally measured
on high mountains, because this part of the ultraviolet has already
been absorbed in the ionosphere and stratosphere. They are but im-
perfectly allowed for by estimates of unmeasured ultraviolet wave-
length response. Bright chromospheric eruptions are not observed in
heliographic latitudes higher than 40°.
B. STATISTICAL RESULTS
All chromospheric eruption data used for our statistics have been
collected by the sun-control service established by the International
Astronomical Union with the help of spectrohelioscopes and spectro-
heliographs, and have been published, after a detailed examination
and compilation by L. d’Azambuja (Meudon), in the Bulletin for
Character Figures of Solar Phenomena of the Eidgenoessische Stern-
warte in Ziirich (Switzerland).
As key dates, there have been selected all those days of the period
January 1, 1936, to December 31, 1941, on which (between ogoo and
1500 G.M.T.) bright chromospheric eruptions of the intensity “2-3”
and “3” had been observed, provided they were not preceded on the
previous 5 days by equally strong eruptions. The limitation to 6 years
was made necessary by the fact that there do not exist sufficiently
complete eruption observations for the time before 1936, and that for
the time after 1941, no such data had been published at the beginning
of our investigation.
Figure 17 shows the average behavior of sea-level pressure (1300
G.M.T.) at the stations Hamburg, Frankfurt a.M., and Vienna on
all 51 days with strong ultraviolet invasions as defined above, and
also on 1 preceding and 11 following days. The applied method, al-
ready described in detail, is the same as for figures 1 to 15. At all these
stations a very distinct maximum of sea-level pressure appears 4 to 6
days after the ultraviolet invasions. Surprising is the fact that this
maximum, and even the other part of the curve course, has almost
the same form in the summer months April to September as in the
winter months October to March. The amplitudes of these curves are
at all three stations greater in the winter (3.4 mb. in Hamburg, 4.0 mb.
in Frankfurt a.M., and 3.0 mb. in Vienna) than in the summer
(2.6 mb. in Hamburg, 2.6 mb. in Frankfurt, and 1.7 mb. in Vienna).
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
The great similarity between the summer curves and the winter
curves represents a criterion of reality which should not be under-
estimated, because the summer and winter months are completely
independent of each other in these statistics where only daily values
were used to investigate short-term impulselike solar influences. Fig-
ure 18 shows the average behavior of the maximum, interdiurnal in-
creases in sea-level pressure, occurring within the preceding 24 hours
over the area 45° to 60° N. latitude and 10° W. longitude to 20°
E. longitude on all days with very intense ultraviolet invasions, and
moreover on I preceding and 8 following days. The respective mete-
The Average Behaviour of Sea-Level Pressure (1300 cmt )
as related to all (5!) very Intense Ultraviolet Radiation - Invasions (eetween
©0900 AND 1500 GMT) which were not preceded on the previous 5 Days by equally
strong Invasions. 1936 — 1941
Hamburg Frankfurt a.M. Vienna
mb mb ( NOT RED. TO SEA-LEVEL ) mb
1018 t 100: ' 1017
iz ; lost — 1016 Summer
RN on x (APRIL TO SEPTENBER ?
1016 |’ ¥ / \ 1004I- 1015 a
\ ;
ise Nar IONG ss IOOSen mans A WH 1095 1014 a 1017
. ee , , [is
AN 1015 4 1004 if a
: “4 gi = LAM Seasons
1015 - tw £ / 4014 1095 1003 : : i
oat | 1002 10\8 | 1014
ol nN 1003} — 1017 \ °
Tiler Aas 3 Winter
wolzb , | fj 1002 1016 : ( OKJOBER TO wARCH)
is Net . :
ton , * 1015 '
| |
Rees ie eee ee ere Ceres ech coal oxal foot ef lees hee ee eee eee eet eee eae
-I 0.) 3 45 «7 69 oll -l i +3 #5 +7 +9 el -I oO. +3 +45 47 +9 +I!
Before Ooys After Bofore Doys After Before Days After
Hiei.
orological data were taken out of the daily isallobaric maps, published
in the Taeglicher Wetterbericht by the Deutsche Seewarte in Ham-
burg. For this representation a subdivision was undertaken, not only
in summer and winter, but also in years with increasing sun activity
(1936-1938), and in years with decreasing sun activity (1939-1941).
Even here the great similarity of the curves with each other is strik-
ing, and the more important because the groups of years and seasons
are again completely independent of each other. The maximum inter-
diurnal increase in sea-level pressure over the middle and western
part of Europe takes place, on the average, 2 to 4 days after very
intense ultraviolet invasions. One day after the invasion the maxi-
mum pressure rise has a particularly low value; this, in similar
no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 23
measure, is repeated only 7 days after the invasion. The amplitude
of the sea-level pressure reaction is also here greater in winter
(5.3 mb.) than in summer (2.8 mb.).
With the aid of the data of the absolute topography of the 500-mb.
surface, which are likewise published in the Taeglicher Wetterbericht
of the Deutsche Seewarte for an area between 45° and 60° N. lat-
itude and 5° W. longitude and 25° E. longitude, an attempt has
been made to answer the question, ‘““Does the pressure at a height
of approximately 5,000 m. react to strong ultraviolet invasions, and
The Average Behaviour of Maximum Interdiurnal Increases in Sea-Level
Pressure over the Area 45°NLto GO°NLand 10° WL.to 20°EL, as related to all
(51) very Intense Ultraviolet Radiation- Invasions (setween 0900 Ano 1500 GMT )
which were not preceded on the previous 5 Days by equally strong Invasions.
mb mb
8 | s s, u
4 1 Summer 10 1936-1938
mb (APRIL TO SEPTEMBER) mb
10. «=: 1936 - 1941 og "
° All Seasons ° a
a '936- 1941 9
mb 1936-194]
7 6
7
Winter 1939-1941
(OCTOBER To MARCH }
1936 — 1941
SaaS
-! 0 ol 43 45 47 49
Before Doys After
if so, how?” This special investigation has been made by the same
method and with the same key days of the years 1936 to 1941 as the
other statistics, demonstrated in the figures 17 and 18. In figure 19
some of the results of this investigation are shown. The three maps
on the left-hand side of the figure represent the average change
of the absolute topography of the 500-mb. surface in dkm. which
has taken place on all the days with very intense ultraviolet invasions
since the immediately preceding day, above for the summer months
April to September, in the middle for all seasons, and below for the
winter months October to March. The distribution of the isallohypses,
or lines of equal change of height, on these maps is rather irregular ;
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
The Average Behaviour of the Absolute Topography of the
500 mb- Surface as related to all (51) very Intense Ultraviolet
Radiation - Invasions (between 0900 and 1500 GMT ) which were not preceded on
C
A /
©. o.
4 4, H
¢
¢
4
y
re fl o.,
] ;
Onl Ws Het /
At
rye ek
()
:
Ze
\
i
‘a YEN Sct
BNR
Pe eat | | PIMA
Average Change in dkm from the Average Change in dkm from the Preceding Day
Preceding Day to the |nyasion - Day| ‘2 the Day which follows the Invasior
Fic. 19.
no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 25
the zero line is most dominating. The greatest differences between
the maximum lifting and the maximum sinking are accordingly
relatively small and amount to 2.7 dkm. in summer, 3.1 dkm. in
winter, and to only 1.3 dkm. for all seasons together. One day after
the ultraviolet invasions the picture has changed fundamentally, as
can be seen from the right-hand side of figure 19. Here is shown
the average change of the absolute topography of the 500-mb. surface
in dkm. which has taken place 1 day after all very intense ultraviolet
invasions since the day which preceded these invasions. The dis-
tribution of the isallohypses is by no means more irregular. There
has developed a strongly marked area of sinking over western Europe
and a rather distinct area of lifting over northern Europe. The
location of the lifting area is the same in the winter and summer,
whereas the sinking area is situated somewhat more southward in
winter and somewhat more northward in summer, compared with
the average over all seasons. The differences between maximum
lifting and maximum sinking are relatively great, and amount to 6.9
dkm. in summer, 8.2 dkm, in winter, and 6.9 dkm. for all seasons.
That means that there occurs in the course of 24 hours, and in the
average of 6 years, an increase of the differences by 4.2 dkm. in
summer, 5.1 dkm. in winter, and 5.6 dkm. in the average for all
seasons. However, more comparative study is necessary before any
definite conclusions can be drawn from these results.
Reliable data about bright chromospheric eruptions are available for
only a few years. However, for future work, to be done on a very
broad basis, it might be desirable to extend such investigations to
years which lie farther in the past. For that reason we investigated
the possibility of using, instead of bright chromospheric eruptions,
other observational data from the sun, e.g., data which could likewise,
even if in a more or less simplified manner, represent such increased
sun activity as is connected with ultraviolet eruptions. On the basis of
investigations which have been made by W. M. Goodall (29) in this
connection, and by T. Duell and B. Duell (30), the calcium flocculi
of the whole sun disk were finally taken on approval as a substitute
for direct observations of eruptions. In these statistics we pro-
ceeded not from the controlling element, i.e., sun activity, but from
the hypothetically subordinated meteorological element. The reason
for this was, that in the case of the calcium flocculi it is occasionally
very difficult to select a certain number of distinct and well-defined
extreme values, e.g., the five highest figures in every month, because
of the occurrence of many character numbers of equal value. As
key days all 101 days of the years 1936-1941 were selected on
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
which interdiurnal decreases in sea-level pressure = 5 mb. had been
observed in Frankfurt a.M., and furthermore all 121 days, on
which interdiurnal increases in sea-level pressure = 5 mb. had been
observed at the same station. For these so selected key days, as
well as for I1 preceding and 6 following days, average calcium
flocculi character numbers have been computed by means of the
superposed-epoch method. Moreover, a subdivision of these statistics
has been made according to different seasons and to years with in-
creasing and decreasing sun activity. The results are represented in
“ The Average Behaviour of the Character- Figures of
<7 Calcium - Flocculi ( wore sun-pisc) related to all (IOI) those
Doys when the Interdiurnal Decrease of Sea-level
Pressure (oaiy MEAN) in Frankfurta.M.was 2 5mb (==)
and to all (121) those Days when the Interdiurnal
i Increase of Sea-Level Pressure in Frankfurta.M. wos
\ = Smb fmm)
1335
é All Seasons
™ 1936 - (938
320) J!
oP wa Re L
vas All Seasons oe
Summer 1936-1941 , Winter 1936-1941
1 ‘\
vf April to September ) Nv ee 1941 October to! March )
'
« . '
All Seasons
O qamerr ew ee eee e-
Oar ae
Sore
!
eae - 1941
Wh <9 <7 -5 3 <2 ob 03 +5 o7/-l! -9 -7 <5 -3 <1 “ol 03 #5 +7/-il -9 -7' y 3 -! O,; 3 +5 07
Before Oays After Before Ooys After Before V Doys After
Fic. 20.
figure 20. The similarity between the winter and the summer curves
is again striking; the same is on the whole true for the years with
increasing and decreasing sun activity, although even here the tabu-
lations are completely independent of each other. Besides, the op-
posite course of those calcium curves which were computed for the
pressure decreases, and of those calcium curves which were computed
for the pressure increases, is rather remarkable. As to the sea-level
pressure increases, it can be stated that 3 to 5 days before these
increases the calcium flocculi character number likewise increases
distinctly, after having been particularly low 6 days before the key
dates. This finding is compatible with our previous statement that
the sea-level pressure in Frankfurt a.M. shows a maximum 4 to 6
days after intense ultraviolet invasions. The assumption made hereby,
no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 27
namely, that the number of calcium flocculi increases during and
shortly after bright chromospheric eruptions, agrees with our present
knowledge of solar physics. Analogous to the behavior of the calcium
numbers before pressure increases, 3 to 5 days before sea-level
pressure decreases the calcium flocculi character numbers likewise
decrease, after having been on the average particularly high 6 days
before the key dates. On the whole it can be seen from figure 20
that it is not quite hopeless to use certain other solar indices instead
of direct observations of ultraviolet eruptions, if reliable observa-
tional data about the bright chromospheric eruptions are not available.
One fact results rather clearly from figures 17 to 20, namely, that
in contrast to the solar particle invasions, the influence of the solar
ultraviolet invasions upon sea-level pressure seems to exist not only
in winter and in years with low sun activity, but also in summer and
in years with high sun activity.
C. ATTEMPT AT A PHYSICAL EXPLANATION OF THE OBSERVED
RELATIONSHIP
In the following chapter an attempt will be made to give a
schematic description of the manner in which the influence of short-
duration eruptions of extreme short-wave ultraviolet solar radiation
is transmitted to the troposphere. As some of the physical possibil-
ities which must be considered in that connection have already been
mentioned, when the possible effects of particle invasions were dis-
cussed, the discussion can be confined here to a few facts of special
interest. Even on this occasion it cannot be stressed too strongly that
our description is rather hypothetical and doubtless will undergo
modifications if further light is thrown on these problems by other
investigators.
The origin of these ultraviolet eruptions is confined almost exclu-
sively to a solar zone which lies between 40° N. latitude and 40°
S. latitude. There they appear mostly in the near vicinity of sunspot
groups which are found in a certain phase of development: Nr. IV
and V of the Brunner classification (31). Attendant solar phenomena
are the bright chromospheric eruptions which are observable by means
of a spectrohelioscope or a spectroheliograph, because of the simul-
taneous excitement of lines in the visible part of the spectrum, and
furthermore certain kinds of prominences. Known geophysical con-
secutive reactions are: the “Bay-disturbances” of the earth-magnetic
elements and of the electric earth current; an abnormal D-layer,
the appearance of which is connected with a short-duration “fade-out”
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
of short radio waves, known as “‘Moegel-Dellinger effect’; and,
finally, an increase in the number and intensity of a certain kind of
static in the range of very long radio waves (A~10,000 m.), and
likewise a considerable reinforcement of the so-called “solar noise”
in the range of ultrashort- and decimeter-waves. The influence of
these ultraviolet invasions is possible only on the sunlit earth
hemisphere.
During the absorption of ultraviolet photons in the high atmos-
pheric layers, their energy produces ionization, dissociation, especially
of the molecular oxygen, heating and formation of certain chemical
compounds, partly in the form of condensation nuclei. Furthermore
there can be expected, according to L. Vegard (32), an electric
polarization of the ionosphere during the ultraviolet irradiation be-
cause of the photoelectric expulsion of high-energy negatrons which
move upward and reach considerable heights. Possible effects of such
a strong ionospheric-electric field on unstable tropospheric situations
have been discussed already in part I of this paper.
The heating of the absorbing gases and the dissociation of the
molecular oxygen lead to a momentary pressure rise in the absorbing
layer. Details about the amount of that pressure rise are not yet
known.
The formation of certain chemical compounds, especially of Os,
H.O., NH:, N2Os, NHsNO,, and NH,NOs, by ultraviolet irra-
diation of the high atmosphere, has been emphasized for many years
by P. Lenard and C. Ramsauer (33). The importance of such chem-
ical compounds for the condensation of water vapor has been dis-
cussed before Lenard by E. Pringal (34), E. Barkow (35), F.
Richarz (36), and later also by W. Bieber (37). The relationship
between high sun activity and the radius of the circumsolar shine,
which has been treated in detail by J. Maurer (38) and C. Dorno
(39), points likewise to atmospheric-turbidity phenomena which are
produced by an intensified ultraviolet irradiation. It may be assumed
also that the statistical accumulation of sun halos 2 days after intense
chromospheric eruptions, which has been stated by G. Archenhold
(22), is due to the additional production of condensation nuclei dur-
ing ultraviolet invasions. The possibility of a down-sucking of the
solar-produced condensation nuclei over cyclones in state of develop-
ment (Palmén, Refsdal) and certain thermodynamic consequences
have already been discussed on the occasion of examining the effects
of solar particles. The same is true for the regionally intensified
no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—DUELL AND DUELL 29
infrared emission of the stratosphere which would follow a local
turbidity, produced by nuclei. :
A very essential difference between the dissociating and nuclei-
producing effect of solar particle invasions on the one side, and the
allegedly same effect of solar ultraviolet invasions on the other side,
might be that the solar ultraviolet photons penetrate much deeper
into the earth atmosphere than the solar particles. This fact is of
great importance in the question of solar effects on the stratospheric
ozone layer. As early as 1943 F. Moeller (40) pointed out that
a reasonable explanation for the relationship between changes of
solar ultraviolet radiation and variations of sea-level pressure would
be possible by making the following assumptions: The effective
infrared emission of the atmospheric carbon dioxide in the spectral
range between 13 and 16y, which is of importance for the changes in
the temperature of the stratosphere and consequently also for changes
of sea-level pressure, is highly dependent on the amount of strato-
spheric ozone which likewise has a strong absorption band between
13 and 16p, and therefore screens off more or less the emission of
the lower CO,. The assumption that the amount of stratospheric
ozone is influenced by variations of solar ultraviolet radiation is
not unreasonable, and is strongly supported by theoretical con-
siderations of B. Haurwitz (41), published in 1946. Haurwitz,
too, stresses the important role which must be ascribed to the stra-
tospheric ozone in the case of a relationship between solar ultraviolet
radiation and sea-level pressure. After respective computations he
comes to the conclusion that the likelihood of appreciable pressure
variations at the ground produced by solar activity can be asserted
and that such pressure variations must be accompanied by substan-
tial motions of the air in the troposphere. Nevertheless he notes that
the atmosphere will respond differently to the same solar impulse,
depending on its initial state. Also O. R. Wulf (42) emphasizes
in recent publications that the heating of the high atmosphere by
solar ultraviolet radiation, which is absorbed by the oxygen and
ozone, together with the emission processes of the stratospheric ozone,
carbon dioxide, and perhaps even of the water vapor and the oxides
of nitrogen, represent probably the most important causes for the
development of meridional pressure gradients.
A brief summary of the different hypotheses which could possibly
explain the effect of solar ultraviolet invasions on the stratospheric
and tropospheric circulation and large-scale weather situation, is
presented in figure 21.
IIo
VOL.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
30
se, OL
“pasdajas 2q vod ydiym ABbsau
~29YI09M 3/09S-9Hj0) ayy UO PUD UO!JOINIsID Dsaydsodosj-Iisaydsojosys ayy UO BdUaN|ju! AsOJOdWay
@ jOIjUdJOD DisaydsOdos, PUD-OjOJjS JO JUNOWO |yy OF UOIJJOdOId UI ‘UOIjONY4IS
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no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—-DUELL AND DUELL 31
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, it must be emphasized that the results described
in this paper are by no means so unequivocal that their immediate
application to short- or middle-term weather forecasting would be
possible. Before rules for the forecaster can be worked out, there is
need of further investigations, performed on a very broad scale.
Essential improvements of that working basis seem to be possible.
For instance, to characterize the occurrence and intensity of iono-
spheric storms, direct data, provided by means of the impulse-echo
method, should be used, instead of the geomagnetic character numbers
for such statistics. Also the occurrence frequency and intensity of
ultraviolet invasions could possibly be better characterized by sys-
tematically recorded data concerning the appearance of an abnormal
D-layer on the sunlit earth hemisphere, than by direct observations
of the bright chromospheric eruptions. The reason for this is that
a really reliable international sun-control service, observing the chro-
mosphere without any interruptions, does not yet exist. Furthermore,
it will prove of particular importance to subdivide such statistics
into several groups, which correspond to the different thermodynamic
initial states of the troposphere over the considered area at the time
of the solar-ionospheric impulses. Probably only by means of such
a refined analysis will the different reactions of the troposphere to
certain solar-ionospheric impulses of equal size be clarified to such
a degree that the forecaster can derive advantages from this research.
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1945. Solar variation and weather. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for
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(2) Arctowsk!, H.
1917. Sunspots, magnetic storms and rainfall. Month. Weather Rev.,
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1940. Researches on temperature changes from day to day and solar
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1925. Solar radiation and weather. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 77,
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RuBASHEV, V. M.
1940. Impulses of solar activity and temperature in the free atmos-
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BaArtTELs, J.
1932. Terrestrial-magnetic activity and its relation to solar phenom-
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WaALDMEIER, M.
1939. Untersuchungen an der gruenen Koronalinie 5303 A. Zeitschr.
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STAcGy J, M:
1931. Atmospheric pressure and the state of the earth’s magnetism.
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PEppLeER, A.
1931. Energieschwankungen der nordatlantischen Zirkulation und
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KroGness, O.
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PETERSEN, H.
1927. Ueber die Temperatur in den hoeheren Schichten der At-
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Deretey, R. M.
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Hess, V. F.
1919. Ueber den Ionenwind. Wiener Ber. (Math.-Naturw. KI.), Abt.
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ScuHorz, J.
1935. Polarlichtuntersuchungen auf Franz-Josephs-Land. Gerland’s
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ScuMauss, A., AND WIGAND, A.
1929. Die Atmosphaere als Kolloid. F. Vieweg u. S., Braunschweig,
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LENARD, P.
1911. Ueber die Strahlen der Nordlichter und deren Absorption in
der Erdatmosphaere. Meteorol. Zeitschr., vol. 28, Heft 11,
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Kern, H. J. (cited by E. Hoppe).
1885. Ueber die Theorien des Nordlichts. Das Wetter, vol. 1, pp.
121-124, 149-152.
| no. 8 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE—DUELL AND DUELL 33
1885. Ueber die Theorien des Nordlichts. Das Wetter, vol. 1, pp.
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(21) PAULSEN, A.
1895. Wolkenbildung durch das Nordlicht. Meteorol. Zeitschr.,
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(22) ARCHENHOLD, G.
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(24) Patmén, E.
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| (20) THIENEMANN, E. (cited by E. Hoppe).
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(29) Goopatt, W. M.
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NE eee
34
(33)
(34)
(35)
(36)
(37)
(38)
(39)
(40)
(41)
(42)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 110
LENARD, P., AND RAMSAUER, C.
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1909. Idem. Meteorol. Zeitschr., vol. 26, pp. 133-135.
Barkow, E.
1907. Versuche itber Entstehung von Nebel bei Wasserdampf und
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Naturwiss. Rundschau, vol. 22, p. 521.
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1909. Ueber den wesentlichen Einfluss von Spuren nitroser Gase auf
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1914. Kondensationskerne der Erdatmosphaere. Die blaue Farbe des
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1915. Ringerscheinungen und Sonnenfleckentaetigkeit. | Meteorol.
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Mor ter, F.
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roy Sie Ble wifey
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pp. 185-107.
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 110, NUMBER 9
A NEW GENUS AND FIVE NEW
SPECIES OF AMERICAN FISHES
BY
SAMUEL F. HILDEBRAND
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(PusticaTion 3943)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
JULY 28, 1948
The Lord Galtimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.
A NEW GENUS AND FIVE NEW SPECIES OF
AMERICAN FISHES
By SAMUEL F. HILDEBRAND
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
The’ new forms herein described were discovered more or less
incidentally during the past several years while working with various
groups of tropical and subtropical fishes. It seems advisable to pub-
lish the descriptions now, as some of the names are desired for
inclusion in a general work.
The types of the new species are all in the National Museum, and
their catalog numbers are given in the accounts of the species. The
writer is indebted to Dr. Alexander Wetmore, Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution, and to Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, head curator
of zoology, and Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of fishes, in the
National Museum, for laboratory space and for the use of the speci-
mens needed in the studies that led to the discovery of the new genus
and the new species described in these pages.
Family TORPEDINIDAE
NARCINE SCHMITTI, new species
FIGURE I
Disk somewhat narrower than long, its anterior outline moderately
broadly rounded, with tip of snout projecting very slightly, its width
2.3 in total length; its length 2.0; length anterior to axil of pectoral
2.1; length anterior to vent 1.95; length posterior to vent 2.1; tail
robust, not strongly depressed, its width at axil of ventrals 5.15 in
length anterior to vent; its depth at same place 5.7; depth of its
peduncle 4.65 in snout; tail with a rather feeble lateral dermal fold,
beginning behind first dorsal; snout rather short, its length anterior
to eye 3.85 in length anterior to vent, its preoral length 3.6; eye and
spiracle about equal in size, the former 5.6 in snout anterior to eye;
space between spiracles 1.8; mouth small, its width 1.85 in snout;
teeth rounded, each tooth with a rather prominent, pointed posterior
cusp; the two dorsal fins of about the same size and shape, the base
of the second one 1.75 in snout, and its height 1.15; space between
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 9
E j = ” = *STLIJsOUu pu a our SULMOU [OFT + 10 yas yo yINo yo ‘puvysy sierng anyy oe
o1z yysusy [e}0} “(rho 6 oe WwW N S: n) 3d} ay} WOLy ‘satads Mou ‘1472uUYIS au1I4DN—T “DIT
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VOL.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
NO. 9 AMERICAN FISHES—-HILDEBRAND 3
dorsal fins 3.7; upper part of caudal fin with a rather acute angle,
lower part rounded, the rest of margin nearly straight; ventral with
nearly straight distal margin, its outer margin 3.7 in length anterior
to vent; clasper fully a third longer than adjacent part of ventral,
3.2 in length anterior to vent.
Color brownish above, with many indistinct dark spots; plain pale
underneath.
The description offered herewith is based on the holotype, the only
specimen known, a male 212 mm. long, taken by Waldo L. Schmitt,
for whom this species is named, at White Friars Island, off the mouth
of the Gulf of California, dredged in 5 to 10 fathoms, on March 3,
1934 (U.S.N.M. No. 94044).
This species is related to N. entemedor Jordan and Starks and
N. vermiculatus Breder. From the first it differs prominently in the
much more robust tail, which is deeper and less strongly depressed,
and from the second (of which I have seen no specimens) it seems
to differ, according to the published accounts, in having smaller
spiracles, which are about equal in size to the eyes, and not notably
larger as in vermiculatus. It differs from both species in color, as the
upper surface is marked with indistinct dark spots, whereas adults of
entemedor are of a uniform gray, and vermiculatus has pale markings.
This species, like vermiculatus, seems to become sexually mature
at a smaller size than entemedor, as the claspers in the 212-mm., male
are much longer than the adjacent parts of the ventrals, and apparently
fully mature. In a male entemedor 215 mm. long they are equal in
length to the adjacent parts of the ventrals, and are thin, flexible, and
apparently immature.
Family CLUPEIDAE
ILISHA APAPAE, new species
FIGURE 2
Head 4.0; depth 3.25; D. 15; A. 48; P. 14; scales mostly missing,
about 60; ventral scutes 26.
Body rather elongate, strongly compressed, its greatest thickness
scarcely a third of its depth; dorsal outline in advance of dorsal fin
nearly straight; ventral outline strongly convex ; chest and abdomen
compressed, armed with 20 moderately strong keels in advance of
ventral fins and 6 behind them; head fairly large; margin of opercle
moderately concave in advance of pectoral, its posterior margin con-
vex ; snout shorter than eye, without a definite median notch, 4.45 in
ee hs ete
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
why i
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, taken in Amazon River somewhere
Drawing by Mrs. Ann S. Green.
52550), total length 200 mm.
ated only where present.)
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NO. Q AMERICAN FISHES—-HILDEBRAND 5
head; eye large 2.9; interorbital narrow 10; mouth rather oblique;
mandible projecting strongly, almost entering dorsal profile, 1.75 in
head ; maxillary narrowly rounded posteriorly, reaching below anterior
margin of pupil, 1.85 in head; a soft ligament present between pre-
maxillary and maxillary ; teeth all small to minute, several in a single
series on anterior part of mandible, a series on premaxillary and on
margin of maxillary, bands of granular teeth on palatines, pterygoids,
and tongue; gill rakers at angle of frst arch scarcely half length of
eye, 19 on lower limb of first arch; scales from middle of side below
base of dorsal fin scarcely deeper than long, not very closely imbri-
cated, with 4 or 5 vertical striae, only the posterior one complete, the
margins nearly smooth; dorsal fin high anteriorly, the longest rays
reaching far beyond the tip of the last one if deflexed, only a little
shorter than head, origin of fin nearer margin of snout than base of
caudal by a distance equal to length of snout and eye; caudal dam-
aged, forked, the lower lobe evidently the larger ; anal fin long, scarcely
elevated anteriorly, its margin nearly straight, origin of fin under
last ray of dorsal and equidistant from posterior margin of eye and
base of caudal, base of fin 2.4 in standard length; ventral fins long
(for an Jlisha), inserted rather less than an eye’s diameter in advance
of vertical from origin of dorsal, and notably nearer origin of anal
than base of pectoral, 2.3 in head; pectoral fin large, reaching well
beyond base of ventral, 4.3 in standard length, with a free axillary
process only about a third the length of fin.
Color of the type, an old preserved specimen, grayish above, yellow-
ish to silvery on sides; upper surface of snout and tip of mandible
dark brown; a brownish area behind eye; fins all with dusky punctu-
lations, few and scattered on ventral fins, most numerous on dorsal
and caudal and on upper rays of pectoral.
This species is represented in the collection of the National Museum
by a single specimen, the holotype (No. 52550), the only one known.
It has a total length of about 200 mm. (length to base of caudal 160
mm.), and was taken in the Amazon River somewhere between Para
and Manaos, Brazil.
This species differs from other local forms in having a ligament
between the maxillary and premaxillary, where the other tropical
Atlantic species of the genus have a bone bearing fine teeth along its
margin. The body in apapae is elongate, as in altamazonica, another
local species, but it apparently has larger scales, which are mostly lost,
fewer dorsal and more numerous anal rays. Furthermore, apapae
has more gill rakers than altamazonica, but fewer than the other
American species of this genus. It is nearest furthit from the Pacific
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
coast of tropical America, which also has a ligament between the
maxillary and premaxillary, but furthi has more ventral scutes (34
to 37), and the ventral fins are inserted farther forward, being equi-
distant from the base of the pectoral and origin of the anal in furthii,
whereas they are inserted notably nearer the origin of the anal than
the base of the pectoral in apapae.
The name, apapae, is from apapa, used in Brazilian publications as
a name for fresh-water herrings.
NEOOPISTHOPTERUS, new genus
Genotype.—Odontognathus tropicus Hildebrand, U. S. Nat. Mus.
Bull. 189, p. 94, fig. 19, 1946, Puerto Pizarro, Pert, and Balboa,
Canal Zone.
This genus belongs to that group of small herrings with a strongly
compressed body, a long anal fin which begins in advance of the
dorsal fin, and in which the ventral fins are missing. Consequently,
the relationship of this genus is with Opisthopterus and Odontogna-
thus. From these genera it differs importantly in the structure and
relative position of the maxillary and premaxillary. In the two old
genera mentioned these two elements are separated by a short tooth-
less membranous section (hitherto undescribed). The margin of
the upper jaw, nevertheless, is continuous (uninterrupted). In the
new genus the margin is discontinuous (interrupted), as the maxillary
definitely overlaps the premaxillary, that is, it extends over the distal
end of the premaxillary (fig. 4). Opisthopterus and this new genus
agree in having a relatively short maxillary, which does not seem to
be produced into a long narrow process as in Odontognathus (at least
there is no indication in the rather small specimens, up to 66 mm. in
standard length, of Neoopisthopterus at hand, that this element will
become produced with age and growth). Furthermore, in Opis-
thopterus and the new genus the margins of the ventral scutes are
entire (smooth), whereas the margins of the posterior ones in
Odontognathus are sharply serrate. The teeth in Neoopisthopterus
are all small to minute, and are present on the jaws, palatines, ptery-
goids, and tongue, but missing on the vomer. Vertebrae about 46
or 47.
The anal fin in the two known species of this genus is shorter than
in the related genera, being composed of 39 to 48 rays, whereas the
species of the genus Opisthopterus have about 56 to 65 rays, and
those of Odontognathus about 58 to 78.
The close relationship betwen this new genus and Opisthopterus
suggested the name, Neoopisthopterus, that is, a new Opisthopterus.
a
NO. Q AMERICAN FISHES—HILDEBRAND 7
This genus to date is represented by two species, N. tropicus, the
type species of this genus, known from Panama and northern Peru,
and by the new species herein described from Cuba.
NEOOPISTHOPTERUS CUBANUS, new species
FIGURES 3 AND 4
Head 4.25 to 4.6 (4.25); depth 4.75 to 5.8 (5.1); D. 13 or 14
(13); A. 39 to 43 (41); P. 13; scales lost, about 43 pockets ; ventral
scutes 23 to 28 (26) ; vertebrae 47 (counted in one specimen).
Body moderately elongate, not excessively compressed, its greatest
thickness between a third and fourth of its depth; dorsal outline of
head straight to slightly convex; ventral outline anteriorly rather
strongly convex ; chest and abdomen compressed, armed with 23 to
28 (26) scutes; head short, not much longer than deep, its depth at
vertical from slight cross groove at occiput 5.2 to 5.8 (5.8) in standard
length; margin of opercle rounded, without an indentation in front
of pectoral; snout about as long as eye, 3.3 to 4.2 (4.2) in head;
eye 3.4 to 4.1 (3.4) ; interorbital 7.3 to 9.0 (7.4) ; mouth moderately
oblique; mandible projecting slightly, 1.6 to 1.8 (1.75) in head;
maxillary rather narrowly rounded posteriorly, reaching to or some-
what beyond vertical from posterior margin of pupil, 1.55 to 1.8 (1.6)
in head; teeth all small to minute, apparently in a narrow band on
anterior part of lower jaw, those on premaxillary and maxillary in a
single series, the row interrupted at point of overlapping of maxillary
and premaxillary, very small teeth on palatines, pterygoids, and median
line of tongue; gill rakers slender, about as long as pupil at angle,
17 to 19 (18) on lower limb of first arch; scales nearly all missing,
rather large, very thin, with smooth margins, and without evident
striations ; dorsal fin small, somewhat elevated anteriorly, its margin
convex, origin of fin rather more than an eye’s diameter behind origin
of anal and about equidistant from margin of opercle and base of
caudal ; caudal fin forked, the lower lobe slightly the longer, scarcely
as long as head ; anal fin moderately long, its origin about equidistant
from posterior margin of eye and base of caudal, its base 2.55 to 3.0
(2.55) in standard length; pectoral fins injured, apparently fairly
large.
Color of preserved specimens pale; side with a whitish band (no
doubt silvery in life), about half as broad as eye; upper surface of
head posteriorly brownish with rather large dusky dots; margin of
snout medianly and anterior part of mandible with dusky dots ; median
VOL. IIO
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
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NO. 9 AMERICAN FISHES—HILDEBRAND 9
line of back also with scattered dusky points; these also present on
base of caudal, forming a cross line and extending on caudal lobes;
base of anal with a row of dark dots, the fin also with dusky dots
chiefly near margin.
This species is represented in the collection of the National Museum
by the type (No. 143569), a specimen 50 mm. long (41 mm. to base
of caudal), and five paratypes 43 to 47 mm. long (35 to 38 mm. to
base of caudal), all collected in the vicinity of Havana, Cuba, by
Luis Howell Rivero, who sent them to the writer with a collection of
Fic. 4.—Neoopisthopterus cubanus, new species. From the type (U.S.N.M.
No. 143569. Note overlapping of maxillary and premaxillary. Drawing by
Mrs. Ann S. Green.
anchovies (Engraulidae). These small fish apparently are not fully
mature. The proportions and enumerations enclosed in parentheses
in each instance apply to the type.
This species is very close to Odontognathus tropicus Hildebrand
(U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 189, p. 94, fig. 19, 1946), which was described
from specimens collected in the Gulf of Guayaquil, Puerto Pizarro,
Peru, and at Balboa, Canal Zone. It was learned from a comparison
of the type material of O. tropicus with the specimens herein described
as N. cubanus that the two species are congeneric. Because tropicus
is represented by larger and more mature specimens than cudanus,
Io SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
the former was selected as the genotype. A comparison of the type
material of the two species, in fact, has revealed only minor differ-
ences, which are shown in the following parallel comparison :
N. cubanus N. tropicus
Anal fin rather short, with 39 to 43. Anal fin somewhat longer, with 43 to
rays, its base 2.55 to 3.0 in standard 48 rays, its base 2.25 to 2.8 in stand-
length, origin of fin usually equidis- ard length, origin of fin usually equi-
tant from anterior margin of eye and distant from posterior margin of eye
base of caudal. and base of caudal.
Dorsal fin rather short, with 13 or Dorsal fin slightly longer, with 14 to
14 rays, its origin slightly more than 16 rays, its origin scarcely an eye’s
an eye’s diameter behind origin of diameter behind origin of anal, and
anal, and about equidistant from about equidistant from posterior
margin of opercle and base of caudal. margin of eye and base of caudal.
Gill rakers 17 to 19 on lower limb of | Gill rakers 18 to 21 on lower limb of
first arch. first arch.
This, then, is another instance of the rather common occurrence of
“twin” species in the tropical Atlantic and Pacific. Such closely re-
lated species generally have been found on the opposite coasts of
Panama. However, as the West Indian (Cuban in this instance) and
the Atlantic Panamanian faunas are largely identical, cubanus may
be expected on the Atlantic coast of Panama and the neighboring
countries.
Family SYNODONTIDAE
SYNODUS CINEREUS, new species
FIGURE 5
Trachinocephalus myops BEAN (not of Schneider), Fishes in “The Bahama
Islands,” Geogr. Soc. of Baltimore, 1905, p. 207, Bahama Islands.
Head 4.0, 3.9; depth about 6.1, 7.2 (not accurate because of distor-
tion) ; D..12, 11; Az 0, 973 BP. 12,13; seales 57, Go) beforesdoncar
20, 21.
Body about as broad as deep at insertion of ventral fins, caudal
peduncle deeper than broad, 4.1, 4.5 in head; head nearly as broad as
deep, its upper surface posterior to interorbital with bony ridges;
upper anterior rim of eye with coarse serrae ; snout broader than long,
5.0, 5.6 in head; eye 4.3, 5.6; interorbital concave, 15, 9.7 in head;
mouth large, premaxillary extending far beyond eye, 1.75, 1.7 in head ;
mandible rounded, without fleshy knob, included in upper jaw; lateral
1 The last double ray of the dorsal and of the anal was counted as one.
te ee Le
NO. 9
AMERICAN FISHES—HILDEBRAND
MELE]
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Ko i a:
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EE
<=
No. 53079), total length 128 mm., from the
g by Mrs. Nancy D. Patton.
type (U.S.N.M.
From the
Bahamas. Drawin
Fic. 5.—Synodus cinereus, new species.
II
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
line slightly decurved, not forming a keel on caudal peduncle ; scales
firm, 3 complete rows between lateral line and base of dorsal, those on
lower part of cheek and opercle very elongate, in about 8 longitudinal
rows; dorsal fin with a nearly straight margin, the anterior rays not
reaching beyond tips of the posterior ones if deflexed, longest ray
1.65, 1.75 in head, origin of fin somewhat nearer adipose than tip of
snout, its distance from tip of snout 2.35, 2.3 in length; adipose very
small, over middle of anal; caudal short (somewhat frayed) ; anal
small, its origin a little more than half as far from base of caudal as
base of ventral, its base 8.7, 9.6 in length, 2.15, 2.5 in head; ventral
inserted well in advance of dorsal, the inner ray more than twice as
long as the outer one, the longest ray about as long as head, 4.3, 4.3
in length; pectoral inserted well below lateral line, scarcely reaching
more than halfway to vertical from origin of dorsal, 2.4, 2.4 in head. |
Color ash gray above, pale silvery below; back with about 16
brownish cross bars, some of them more or less double, more distinct
in the smaller than in the larger specimen; top and side of head with
irregular brownish markings; no shoulder spot; dorsal with indica-
tions of pearly gray spots, other fins plain.
This apparently new species is represented in the National Museum
by two specimens, 72 and 128 mm. in total length, 61 and 108 mm.
to base of caudal. These specimens are from the Bahama Islands, and
are the ones listed as Trachinocephalus myops by Bean (see reference
above). The larger one (No. 53079), which has been designated
as the type, was taken in Clarence Harbor, and the smaller one at a
little island near Nassau. The proportions and enumerations given
last in each instance apply to the type.
This apparently new form differs from S. intermedius (Agassiz)
and S. poeyi Jordan, two other local species, in having 57 to 60 scales
in a lateral series and 20 or 21 in advance of dorsal, instead of 43 to
52, and 14 to 16 as in the other species. It also differs in the shorter
pectoral fin, which reaches only a little more than half way to verticai
from origin of dorsal instead of reaching nearly or quite to that point
as in intermedius and poey. It differs further from intermedius in
having only 9 instead of 11 or I2 anal rays, and its base is less than
half the length of the head instead of notably longer than half the
head. From poeyi it differs further in the shorter mandible, which
does not end ina fleshy knob, and is included in the upper jaw, instead
of ending in a fleshy knob and projecting prominently beyond the
upper jaw. It differs from S. synodus (Linnaeus) in having only
3 complete rows of scales between the lateral line and the base of the
NO. 9 AMERICAN FISHES—HILDEBRAND 13
dorsal, instead of 4 complete rows, and it has 20 or 21 scales on the
back in advance of the dorsal where synodus has only 15 or 16.
S. cinereus differs prominently from S. saurus (Linnaeus) in hav-
ing only 9 rays in the anal instead of I1 or 12, as well as in the absence
of a tentacle behind anterior nostril, which is prominent in saurus. It
is readily distinguishable from S. nicholsi Breder, also from the
Bahamas, by the much smaller head, which is contained only 2.9 times
in the standard length of nicholsi, and by the included lower jaw,
which projects in nicholsi.
The name cinereus was suggested by the ash-gray color of the upper
parts of the specimens.
Family SERRANIDAE
DIPLECTRUM MEXICANUM, new species
Ficure 6
Head 2.9; depth 3.2; D. X, 12; A. III, 7; P. 17; scales 6-53.
Body rather deep (for a Diplectrum), fairly compressed, its greatest
thickness only a little greater than half its depth ; dorsal profile anterior
to occiput only slightly convex; caudal peduncle rather strongly
compressed, 2.55 in head; snout pointed, 4.6; eye large, 3.6; inter-
orbital 8.9; preorbital very narrow, narrower than pupil; mouth
large, oblique; lower jaw projecting moderately, its tip well below
general dorsal outline of head; maxillary extending below posterior
margin of pupil, 2.2 in head; teeth in each jaw in a narrow band,
some of the outer ones in each jaw enlarged, villiform teeth on
vomer and palatines; angle of preopercle somewhat produced, with
IO or II somewhat enlarged spines, the middle ones not especially
large, nor notably more divergent, the vertical limb rather strongly
serrate, the horizontal limb mostly smooth; gill rakers rather robust,
those at angle about half length of eye, 12 on lower (including rudi-
ments), and 8 on upper limb, of first arch; scales firm, strongly
ctenoid, in 6 oblique rows on cheek, larger on opercle, 4 in an oblique
series below base of opercular spine; dorsal spines slender, rather
high, fourth and fifth spines of about equal length, not quite twice
the length of the ninth spine, and a little longer than the highest soft
rays, 2.0 in head ; caudal forked, the upper lobe longer than the lower ;
anal spines small, graduated, the second scarcely stronger than the
third, 5.3 in head; ventral inserted slightly in advance of base of
pectoral, with a slender spine contained 2.4 in head; pectoral reaching
well beyond tip of ventral, about to vertical from vent, with a rather
symmetrically rounded margin, 1.3 in head, 3.75 in length.
—Se
VOL. IIO
CELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
MIS
SMITHSONIAN
14
————
‘uowWeg ‘q AsueN ‘sayy Aq Suimerq ‘elusOpeED jo Jnr)
WOIZ “WU ZZI YIBuay 1e}0} ‘(ISO “ON “W'N'S'() 244} 94} Wor ‘satoods Mou “mnuDrIxam wn14I3)¢1q—9 “OIA
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oes
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NO. 9 AMERICAN FISHES—HILDEBRAND 15
Color brown above lateral line, pale brownish to pale silvery below ;
back posteriorly with slight indications of narrow cross stripes; a
dark blotch on opercle, and another one at base of caudal; fins plain
translucent, the anal and ventrals a little paler than the other fins.
This apparently new species is represented in the collections of the
National Museum by the holotype (No. 46518), 125 mm. (94 mm.
to base of caudal) long, the only specimen known, which was taken
in the Gulf of California, at 30°18’ N., 113°05’ W., by the Albatross,
on April 24, 1889.
The deep body, the almost straight gently elevated dorsal profile
of the head, the large scales, rather small number of gill rakers, the
long slender dorsal spines, and the short anal spines distinguish this
species from the others of the genus of the Pacific Coast.
This species was named mexicanum because the type was taken in
Mexican water.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
OP Nase! VOLUME 110, NUMBER 10
THE FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA,
_. INCLUDING MITES AND TICKS
BY
2 _ R. E. SNODGRASS
Collaborator, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine
U. S. Department of Agriculture
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"PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
ee AUGUST 18, 1948
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 110, NUMBER 10
THE FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA,
INCLUDING MITES AND TICKS
BY
R. E. SNODGRASS
Collaborator, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine
. S. Department of Agriculture
(PuBLIcATION 3944)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
AUGUST 18, 1948
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
,
THE FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA,
INCLUDING MITES AND TICKS
By R. E. SNODGRASS
Collaborator, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine
U. S. Department of Agriculture
CONTENTS
Pace
Iie, Sm ahi cs sulin wane aS che nals cil eae ee eee I
I. General discussion of arachnid structure............00eceeeceeeees 3
DeUrERIR ONES RANIe CHS EDISLOMTIC, dine na dae Sicscuanadeductscvadseusen 5
LCS A A caw sine de ease bebe euta Reh ee inremmeNwEe 6
Ee PERTN CIN CNS ICOSs iiy'se caedesv vac cond ¥quksucovewclaseup’ 8
Pees NTT GEE TE OCCOLSL CAVIEY sco uaccctveorcncebteasswonae 14
The sucking organ, or so-called pharynx.............e+eeeeeeees 15
Comparison of Arachnida and XNiphosurida.............0000000es 16
SRST MEY CSN AETPONTGOT «5 oc cage Cd vaveVacenvkvasbevakspview aie 18
St. the Palpicradi, or Microthelyphonida..............ccccscsessenes 19
TERN. efi sah Ver d kate vensedhecdaenGnbesekanesdbleen 22
INE ae dis nds eh ewin dee Utesch veKewe Weenetuasbaciyteauhe 26
5s os cach dei udonanhiaaha hikes sa seawhe tow ae wns 31
VI. The Chelonethida, or Pseudoscorpionida............0cceeceeeeeees 33
EMMONS iua's cul i bawdecvnct«¢s0usdeddaqnesribecevetsunme 30
ee Phalanvida, Or Opiliones. .......ccceccsvnsbencnsencesnecsesve 43
IIIS Sith Plo) oe sida ad al we eka eb sabaGaeaweee ead SI
TE . cccid Launsédwvdebepewatuns sudvhsceubee cobs omens 61
MM codecs sWaws'en sn obaeo edad nsebanteeeesas awakes 65
ER ere cigs naheindcethews ewitenshteaee ene tems 67
CE eS chan ce napaasens «nadethnauibeeanakuaea 67
SE CRG dmekdertedcrvcveatartcaressetyaltvsnenhesaees 69
PRCAIRO BEML ATPARIAIS, occ vc cccccccecccacecccesdcnsscdceseeces 71
EORTC. oon du wpdvasdddeusiaevateseversetavctebsueseuss 8o
Abbreviations used on the figures....... 0.0.0. 0cce eee ee ee eeeeeeaee 86
ee a acne ve ¢cheaduiien divnca tes wemenshsehe Geen 88
INTRODUCTION
Inasmuch as feeding is the function of prime importance with all
animals, it seems strange that no animals were originally endowed
with organs of feeding other than an intake opening into the alimen-
tary tract and a sucking device for the ingestion of nutrient material.
Primitive animals, therefore, swallowed water or mud and depended
for their subsistence on what organic matter might be therein con-
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 10
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. LIO
tained ; and many modern animals still feed in this manner. It was left
to evolution to produce accessory mouth structures for grasping, tear-
ing, crushing, or chewing that would enable their possessors to get
food in more concentrated form from plants or from the bodies of
other animals. Since such organs are entirely different in the different
groups in which they occur, it is clear that they have been independ-
ently developed. Thus we find in the polychaete worms a pair of
eversible pharyngeal hooks serving as jaws, in the mollusks a rasping
apparatus, in the sea urchins a complex apparatus with a set of
movable prongs surrounding the mouth, in the mandibulate arthropods
a pair of jaws fashioned from the bases of a pair of legs, and in the
vertebrates jaws derived from gill arches.
The arachnids come from an ancestral line that never acquired
organs for mastication, and even today they have no true jaws. The
ancient trilobites probably were mud eaters; though they had plenty
of legs, the legs were not structurally differentiated for special pur-
poses, as in modern arthropods. The leg bases, it is true, were pro-
vided with strong, spiny mesal processes, but the latter did not meet
along the midline of the body, and could have had little use as feeding
organs other than perhaps that of stirring up the mud from which
the animals obtained their food. Likewise, true jaws have not been
developed in the Xiphosurida, though the first appendages of these
animals have taken the form of a pair of pincers, the chelicerae,
which serve for grasping and are said to be used for putting food
into the mouth, and the coxae of the next five pairs of appendages
are provided with large, spinous lobes, more highly developed than
those of the trilobites, but still not adapted for efficient mastication
of food. The mandibulate arthropods, however, have finally produced
from the coxae of the second postoral appendages a pair of strong
biting and chewing jaws.
Chelicerae are characteristic appendages of the Xiphosurida and
the Arachnida. It is probable, therefore, but not a necessary assump-
tion, that the arachnids and the xiphosurids inherited their chelicerae
from some common progenitor. However, in the possession of che-
licerae and legs, the primitive arachnids were well equipped for
predatism and for terrestrial life; but, being without masticatory
organs, they were forced to subsist on the liquids they could obtain
from their prey. A liquid diet requires an ingestion pump, and,
with all arachnids, a highly developed sucking apparatus constitutes
the essential part of the feeding mechanism. Further structural
evolution related to the feeding function of the Arachnida, therefore,
should logically be in the direction of furnishing an efficient means
;
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA—-SNODGRASS 3
of conveying liquids to the mouth from the prey held and crushed
in the chelicerae. A comparative study of the external arachnid
feeding organs shows, in fact, that the mouth parts are elaborations
of structures associated with the oral aperture to form a preoral
food receptacle and conduit to the sucking pump. That such accessory
feeding organs are not primitive becomes evident when we find that
in each arachnid order a different kind of structure has been evolved.
The several orders of the Arachnida, therefore, with respect to the
feeding apparatus, have no serial relation to one another.
The entomologist who takes up a study of Arachnida obviously
must readjust much of his anatomical outlook. Because insects and
spiders are closely associated in nature, the study of arachnids has
been a sort of sideline for entomologists ; for which reason, probably,
we find in the language of arachnology various terms that have been
carried over from entomology, and, as might be expected, often
applied to parts that have no homology with organs of insects. Par-
ticularly is this true with respect to the feeding organs. It is a part
of the object of the present paper to eliminate entomological terms
that have no proper application to arachnid anatomy. The vertebrate
zoologist, of course, might justly contend that entomologists have
no right to the many vertebrate terms that are given to insect struc-
tures. However, conceding that names may be legitimately borrowed,
they should be applied consistently at least within any one phylum;
otherwise definitions become conglomerations, and morphology is
handicapped by a meaningless terminology.
I. GENERAL DISCUSSION OF ARACHNID STRUCTURE
The fundamental structure of an arachnid is best understood from
embryonic development. The young arachnid embryo (fig. 1 A, B),
as the embryos of other arthropods, consists of a segmented or
partly segmented body and a large head lobe (HL), which may be
deeply cleft into lateral halves. Behind the cephalic lobe are the
true somites, beginning with the somite of the chelicerae (A, /),
which is followed by that of the pedipalps (//), and the four leg-
bearing somites (J/J-V J). The embryonic head lobe of the arthropods
always bears the labrum, the eyes, and the antennae if the latter are
present, but the arachnids in common with the xiphosurids lack an-
tennae, though these appendages were well developed in the trilobites.
With development of the arachnid embryo, the labrum remains as a
preoral, or supraoral, lobe of the head, but the ocular region extends
posteriorly on the dorsum (C, D, HL) and becomes the eye-bearing
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
region of the back in the adult united with the tergal plates of follow-
ing segments in the dorsum of the prosoma. The chelicerae become
secondarily preoral, and in most cases the pedipalps take positions
at the sides of the mouth.
7 \ !
/ 1 \ \ t
pro 1s Pap 11 yeas
Fic. 1.—The prosomatic segmentation and appendages of Arachnida.
A, young embryo of Euscorpius italicus (Hbst.), extended in a plane, showing
cephalic lobe (HL) and postoral somites with appendage rudiments (from
Laurie, 1890). B, embryo of Agelena labyrinthica L. (from Balfour, 1880).
C, young embryo of Pediculopsis graminum (Reuter) in the egg just before
reversion, lateral (from Reuter, 1909). D, embryo of Huscorpius italicus
(Hbst.), longitudinal section through germ band to one side of median plane,
showing cephalic lobe (HL) extended posteriorly on dorsal surface (from
Laurie, 1890). E, diagram of the approximate prosomatic segmentation of an
adult arachnid ; the primitive cephalic lobe (HL, stippled) forms the eye-bearing
part of the back, the epistome (pst), and the labrum (Lm), and is invaded on
the sides by the primarily postoral chelicerae (Chl) ; the pedipalp coxae (Pdp)
turned forward and united mesally with the epistome.
Chl, chelicera; Epst, epistome; HL, cephalic lobe of embryo; J-l’J, postoral
somites of prosoma; J/S, sternum of pedipalp somite; rL-4L, legs; Lm, labrum;
Mth, mouth; Pdp, pedipalp; PrC, preoral food cavity.
The prosomatic segmentation of an adult arachnid, visualized from
the known facts of anatomy and embryogeny, must be approximately
as shown diagrammatically at E of figure 1. The part of the prosoma
derived from the cephalic lobe of the embryo (HL, stippled) certainly
includes the labrum (Lm), an epistomal region (Epst) differentiated
at the base of the labrum, and the eye-bearing region of the back; it
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA——-SNODGRASS 5
therefore includes also the narrow median strip of the anterior body
wall connecting the epistome with the carapace between the cheliceral
bases. The somite of the chelicerae is postoral in the early embryo
(A, B, /), but the chelicerae in their preoral transposition invade the
anterior part of the primary cephalic region (E, Chl), while the
sternal part of the cheliceral somite, except possibly in Palpigradi,
becomes so reduced that it is not recognizable in the adult structure.
The appendages of the second postoral somite, the so-called pedipalps
(A, B, Pdp), retain the primitive position in the Palpigradi, but in
the other arachnid orders they move forward to the sides of the mouth
(E, Pdp), and generally their dorsal walls unite with the epistome
(Epst). Either the sternal plate of the pedipalp somite (J/S) or
some other structure forms a lower lip projecting in front of the
mouth, and there is thus enclosed, between the pedipalp coxae on the
sides and the labrum (Lim) above, a preoral cavity (PrC) for the
reception of food.
The simple basic structure of the anterior part of an arachnid is
well shown in a medium sagittal section, such as is represented dia-
grammatically at D of figure 2. The eye region of the dorsum, the
intercheliceral space, the epistome (pst), and the labrum (Lm)
represent the cephalic lobe of the embryo. From the anterior margin
of the back or carapace (Cp), the membranous front wall of the
body (a-e) is reflected downward or obliquely backward, and bears
the chelicerae (Chil) in their secondarily acquired supraoral position.
Below the chelicerae the epistome (pst) extends forward, and sup-
ports the labrum (Lim). The labrum is a free lobe, but the epistome
lies between the pedipalp coxae and is generally united with their
dorsal surfaces (A). Beneath the base of the labrum is the mouth
(D, Mth). Projecting below the mouth is a lower lip, which may be
the deutosternum (//S), as shown in the diagram, or some other
structure replacing the latter. Between the labrum and the lower lip,
however the latter may be formed, is the preoral food cavity (PrC)
enclosed laterally by the pedipalp coxae. The mouth leads directly
into the sucking organ known as the pharynx (D, Phy), the dorsal
dilator muscles of which (d/d) are seen in the section to take their
origins on the epistome (£pst). Modifications of these features occur
in each of the arachnid orders, and are carried farthest in the Acarina,
but they are clearly all derived from a simple basic structure.
The labrum and the epistome.—A labrum is a part of the standard
equipment of all arthropods from trilobites to insects, and there is
no apparent reason for calling the preoral lobe of an arachnid any-
thing else than labrum. Yet we find the organ described under such
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10
various names as “epipharynx,” “camerostome,” “rostrum,” “lingula,”
“tonguelike process,” and “styletlike process.’ The arachnid labrum
is variable in size and shape in different groups, but it is always present
as a lobe of some form projecting above and beyond the mouth at
its base (fig. 2 A, Lm).
Proximal to the labrum, and supporting the latter, there is in most
arachnids a distinct median plate (fig. 2 A, Epst) below the chelicerae.
This plate has been regarded as a basal part of the labrum, or rec-
ognized as an individual structure under a variety of names, such
as “clypeus,” “epipharynx,” “intermaxillary jugum,” “subcheliceral
plate.” Since the plate in question is usually well separated from the
labrum, and is postoral in position, it is evidently a part of the head
wall; it corresponds with the epistome (clypeus) of mandibulate
arthropods, and hence may be so named in the arachnids.
The arachnid epistome is not always distinctly separated from the
labrum, and it may be more or less invaginated into the anterior body
wall beneath the chelicerae, but it is to be identified by one or both
of two characteristic relations to other structures. First, the plate
is usually united with the pedipalp coxae, forming a bridge between
their dorsal surfaces (fig. 2A, Epst) ; and second, it always gives
origin, either directly or by means of a basal apodeme, to the dorsal
dilator muscles (D, did) of the pharynx (Phy). In the xiphosurid
Limulus also an epistomal plate (fig. 2 C, Epst) may be distinguished
from the labrum (Lm) ; it here supports the chelicerae (Chl), and,
while it is not united with the pedipalp coxae (J/C x), it sends out a
long arm on each side close to the coxal margin.
The chelicerae——The chelicerae, being the first postoral appendages
of the arachnid, must represent the corresponding appendages of the
mandibulate arthropods, and these appendages are the second antennae
of Crustacea, or their homologues, the vestigial premandibular ap-
pendages transiently present in some insect embryos. The homology
of the arachnid chelicerae with the crustacean second antennae is
accepted by Stérmer (1944) as obvious from the facts of compara-
tive anatomy, and is fully confirmed by the origin of the cheliceral
nerves from the tritocerebral lobes of the brain, as shown by Holm-
gren (1920) and by Hanstrém (1928). The similar position of the
arachnid chelicerae and the crustacean second antennae on the head
is at once evident on comparison of a facial view of an arachnid
(fig. 2A) with that of an amphipod (E), and in the phalangid
Leiobunum (fig. 16 A), as in the amphipod Talorchestia (fig. 2 E),
a median bar (f) connects the epistome with the dorsal wall of the
head. The chelicerae of the Chelicerata, therefore, are not the an-
99 66
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACIINIDA—SNODGRASS 7
Prstm 7 . mor
Ss’ PrC Mth __ Ills
Is
Fic. 2—Cephalic structures of Arachnida, Xiphosurida, and an amphipod
crustacean.
A, anterior view of an arachnid, diagrammatic, the under lip represented as
the pedipalp sternum (//S) as in Araneida. B, the same with chelicerae removed
and the mouth parts sectioned transversely behind the palps, exposing the pharynx
and its muscles. C, Limulus polyphemus L., the mouth region, anterior, with
eat chelicera and base of right pedipalp. D, diagrammatic longitudinal section
oft A, showing the preoral cavity (PrC), pharynx (Phy), and dorsal pharyngeal
muscles (did) arising on the epistome (Epst). E, Talorchestia longicornis Say,
amphipod crustacean, anterior view of head showing second antennae (2Ant)
in position of chelicerae of an arachnid (A, Chl). I, Trochosa embryo, longi-
tudinal section of anterior end, showing position of frontal ganglion (FrG)
(from Holmgren, 1920, somewhat simplified).
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
tennules of mandibulate arthropods (fig. 2 E, rAnt), as they were
formerly thought to be, nor are they the mandibles, as some arach-
nologists still persist in calling them. Functionally, the chelicerae
might be said to be the “jaws” of the arachnid, but their action is
remote from the mouth and consists of grasping, holding, tearing,
crushing, or piercing.
Some students of arachnid embryogeny, as Laurie (1890) and
McClendon (1904), say the definitive preoral position of the che-
licerae results from a posterior displacement of the mouth, while
Reuter (1909) says that as the mouth moves caudad there is a simul-
taneous forward movement of the chelicerae. Since the mouth and
the labrum retain their primitive positions at the anterior pole of
the animal, the result, however produced, is the same as if the
chelicerae had migrated anteriorly and dorsally around the mouth.
In most cases the chelicerae come to lie entirely above the level of
the epistome (fig. 2A), and so close together that they reduce the
area of the primary embryonic head lobe between them to a narrow
vertical strip.
The chelicerae have the same essential structure and musculature
in both the Xiphosurida (fig. 3 A) and the Arachnida (C). They
are composed of three segments in Limulus (A), Palpigradi, Scor-
pionida (B), Phalangida (C), and many Acarina; they are two-
segmented in Solpugida (F), Pedipalpida, Chelonethida, Araneida
(G), and some Acarina. The uniformly simple structure of the che-
licerae precludes the possibility of determining the homology of the
cheliceral segments with the segments of a leg. The terminal segment
is the “movable finger,” which, except in Araneida (G), is usually
opposed by an immovable process. The movable finger may be dorsal
on the supporting segment, or it may be ventral, and in some forms
lateral. The cheliceral pincer resembles the chela of a chelate pedipalp,
but the movable finger of the chelicera has always both an opening
and a closing muscle (fig. 3 A, D, E, F, G), while the movable finger
of a pedipalp chela has only a closing muscle (fig. 5 E). When the
chelicera is three-segmented (fig. 3 A, C), the middle segment is
strongly musculated from the basal segment. The extrinsic muscles
of the chelicerae arise on the dorsum of the prosoma (fig. 3 C), there
being no cheliceral muscles corresponding with the ventral muscles
of the other appendages.
The pedipalps and the legs——vThe pedipalps are the second postoral
appendages of the Arachnida; they are thus the homologues of the ©
mandibles of mandibulate arthropods; but arachnologists commonly —
call them the ‘‘maxillae,” or at least they give this term to the coxae, |
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA-——-SNODGRASS 9
which usually are closely associated with the mouth. Though Hansen
and Sérensen (1904), therefore, are morphologically correct in des-
ignating the pedipalp coxae “mandibles,” the term is not appropriate
in a functional sense, inasmuch as the pedipalp coxae do not form
true jaws in any arachnid. Arachnology has the term pedipalp for
the second pair of segmental appendages, and, though the latter are
Fic. 3.—Structure and musculature of the chelicerae.
A, Limulus polyphemus L., Xiphosurida, left chelicera of a young specimen,
lateral. B, Pandinus sp., Scorpionida, chelicera. C, Leiobunum sp., Phalangida,
left chelicera and muscles, lateral. D, same, distal segments of chelicera, showing
both muscles of movable finger. E, Centruroides sp., Scorpionida, movable
finger of chelicera and its muscles. F, two-segmented chelicera of a solpugid.
G, two-segmented chelicera of a spider, Eurypelma hentsi Chamb., lacking a
fixed finger.
not always palpiform, there would seem to be no good reason for
calling them either maxillae or mandibles.
The coxae of the pedipalps in most of the arachnids are directed
horizontally forward at the sides of the mouth (fig. 2A, //Cr),
and, as already noted, their dorsal surfaces are usually united with
the epistome (Epst), which thus forms an intercoxal bridge. The
lines of union are generally distinct grooves (B, ecs), which are
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
commonly inflected to form internal ridges or platelike epistomo-
coxal apodemes (B, ecAp). The coxal bases themselves may be pro-
duced into coxal apodemes (fig. 9 B, cAp) having lateral positions
relative to the median epistomal apodeme (eAp) when the latter is
present in the same species. Only in the Palpigradi do the pedipalps
retain a postoral status and have no relation to the mouth (fig. 6 D,
Pdp). It is of interest to note that in the mandibulate arthropods
the mandibles have a relation to the epistome very similar to that of
the pedipalp coxae to the epistome in the arachnids. In the pterygote
insects with biting jaws, and the decapod crustaceans, for example,
the mandibles have an anterior articulation on the epistome (clypeus),
while the decapod jaw, in addition, has a long hinge line on the
epistomal margin.
The telopodite of the pedipalp appendages may differ little from
that of the legs, or it may be modified in various ways. Its adaptation
in the male spider to form a sperm-carrying organ, having nothing to
do with feeding, need not be considered here; but in the Scorpionida,
Chelonethida, and some of the Pedipalpida the pedipalp is chelate,
and with these arachnids the chelae become important adjuncts to the
feeding function, since they serve for catching, holding, and crushing
the prey. To understand the nature of the pedipalp chela it will be
necessary to study the structure and musculature of the distal segments
of an ordinary walking leg.
The simplest structure of the end segment of an arthropod limb
is seen in the legs of malacostracan Crustacea in which the appendage
terminates with a clawlike segment, called the dactylopodite, movable
by levator and depressor muscles arising in the segment proximal
to it, which is the propodite, or tarsus. The legs of Limulus have a
similar structure (fig. 4 F) though here the dactylopodite, or pre-
tarsus (Ptar), forms the movable finger of a chela. Among the
Arachnida a simple, clawlike end segment of the leg occurs in some
of the Phalangida, as in Leiobunum (B, Ptar) ; but more commonly
the pretarsus of the walking legs bears a pair of lateral claws, or
ungues (A, Un), while the median claw is reduced to a toothlike
dactyl (Dac) on the short base of the segment. Whatever the struc-
ture of the pretarsus may be, however, two tendons are always at-
tached to its base (A, B, /vt, dpt), one giving insertion to a levator
(extensor) muscle, the other to a depressor (flexor) muscle. Even
though the claws be greatly reduced or entirely absent, and the pre-
tarsus become indistinguishable from the end of the tarsus, the two
pretarsal tendons and their muscles may be retained, as in the slender
first legs of Thelyphonidae. The levator muscle of the pretarsus in
NO. IO FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA—-SNODGRASS Il
if) > Ptar
Fic. 4.—Segmentation and musculature of the arachnid leg, and pretarsus of
Limulus.
A, Mastigoproctus giganteus (H. Lucas), Pedipalpida, end of a leg, pretarsus
with a median claw (Dac) and two lateral claws (Un). B, Letobunum sp.,
Phalangida, end of pedipalp tarsus, with simple clawlike pretarsus. C, Pandinus
sp., Scorpionida, distal segments of leg showing distribution of pretarsal
muscles. D, Centruroides sp., Scorpionida, base of tarsus, showing presence of
only a single tarsal muscle, a depressor (dptar), arising in tibia. E, Atemnus
politus (Simon), Chelonethida, fourth leg and muscles, only one muscle (dptaer)
on base of tarsus (from Chamberlin, 1931). F, Limulus polyphemus L..,
Xiphosurida, chela of a leg, both muscles of pretarsus arising in tarsus.
Dac, dactyl (median claw); dpptar, depressor muscle of pretarsus; dpi, de-
pressor tendon of pretarsus; dptar, depressor of tarsus; dpth, depressor of
tibia; Fm, femur; /vptar, levator of pretarsus; /vt, levator tendon of pretarsus ;
lutb, levator of tibia; Pat, patella; Ptar, pretarsus; Tar, tarsus, 17 ar, 2Tar, first
<n second tarsal subsegments; 7), tibia; Tr, trochanter; Un, unguis (lateral
claw).
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
some arachnids arises in the tarsus (fig. 4 E, luptar), in others it
takes its origin in the tibia (C). The larger and stronger depressor
muscle has no connection in the tarsus, but a branch of it arises in
the tibia, and one or several branches in the patella (C, dpptar),
unless a patella is absent, in which case the upper part of the muscle
arises in the femur (F, dpptar).
The tarsus of an arachnid leg may be a simple segment (fig. 4 E,
Tar), or it may be divided into two or more subsegments, or tarso-
meres (C, 1Tar, 2Tar). No muscles are ever present between tarso-
meres. It is important to note, furthermore, that the tarsus itself
has only one muscle, a depressor, which arises in the tibia (D, E,
dptar). The character of the distal musculature of the leg, therefore,
will serve to identify the pretarsus, the tarsus, and the tibia when
the identity of these segments is not otherwise clear.
The chelate arachnid pedipalp (fig. 5 D) has only six segments,
of which the last is the movable finger of the chela, and might there-
fore appear to be a clawlike pretarsus. A study of the musculature,
however, shows that the finger is movable by only one muscle, and
that one a depressor (E, G, dptar), which thus corresponds with the
single muscle of the tarsus of a leg (fig. 4D, E, dptar). In the
nonchelate pedipalp of one of the amblypygous Pedipalpida, Tri-
thyreus (fig. 5 A), it is shown by Borner (1904) that the small pre-
tarsus (Ptar) has the usual pretarsal musculature (luptar, dpptar).
In the Thelyphonidae of the same order the pedipalp is chelate (C)
and there is no distinct pretarsus, but attached within the apex of the
movable finger Borner finds the tendon of a depressor muscle, from
which fact he logically contends that the movable finger is the tarsus
and pretarsus combined. According to Barrows (1925) two tendons
are attached in the pedipalp finger in Mastigoproctus (B), one giving
insertion to a small muscle arising in the proximal segment (Tb),
the other to a muscle from the next segment (Pat). Some over-
hardened specimens of Mastigoproctus examined by the writer appear
to confirm Barrow’s statement. By comparison with a leg, therefore,
the movable finger of the pedipalp chela is the combined tarsus and
pretarsus (B-G), and the proximal segment, or “hand,” containing
the single depressor muscle of the finger, is the tibia (Tb), while
the segment supporting the chela is the patella (Pat). Both Borner
and Barrows regard the basal segment of the chela as a proximal
segment of the tarsus, but this interpretation is clearly not in accord
with the musculature, since the single muscle of the finger is evi-
dently the tarsal muscle of a leg, and tarsal subsegments are never
interconnected by muscles.
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA——-SNODGRASS 13
Fic. 5—Segmentation of the chelate pedipalp.
A, Trithyreus cambridgi (Thor), Pedipalpida- Osea Schizopeltidia, pedi-
lp and muscles (from Borner, 1904, but “tibia” and “first tarsal segment” of
Orner here interpreted as patella and tibia respectively). B, Mastigoproctus
Spetipaly. (H. Lucas), Pedipalpida- Uropygi- Holopeltidia, distal segments of
pedipalp (from Barrows, 1 1925, but “tibia” and “metatarsus” of Barrows here
a as — and tibia). C, same, patella and chela of pedipalp. D,
Pandinus sp., Scorpionida, pedipalp. E, Centruroides sp., Scorpionida, chela,
showing depressor muscle of tarsus in basal segment. F, same, showing muscle
from patella to base of movable finger. G, Dasychernes inquilinus Chamb.,
Chelonethida, pedipalp (from Chamberlin, 1931, but “tibia” of Chamberlin
interpreted as the patella).
| Lettering as on figure 4.
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
In the scorpion (fig. 5 E) the basal segment of the chela (Tb)
contains a great mass of depressor muscles (dptar) of the movable
finger, divided into three distinct bundles of fibers, two of which are
lateral and one ventral. Above the ventral muscle runs a strong
median tendon (F), attached distally on the base of the finger,
and giving insertion proximally to a large, dense, fusiform muscle
(dpptar?) in the patella (Pat). Functionally this muscle is an ef-
fective depressor of the finger, but its origin in the patella suggests
that it represents the patellar branch of the depressor of the pretarsus
in the scorpion leg (fig. 4C, dpptar). A similar muscle is shown
by Chamberlin (1931) to be present in the pedipalp of the pseudo-
scorpion (fig. 5 G, dpptar?).
The mouth and the preoral cavity—The mouth of an arthropod
embryo lies between the base of the labrum and the venter of the
first postoral somite. Though a labrum is almost always present and
overhangs the mouth, the sternal region of the postoral somite is
seldom to be identified in the adult structure.
In the arachnid order Palpigradi the mouth is on the end of a
snoutlike cone projecting from between the bases of the chelicerae
(fig. 6 B, D), and the pedipalps are entirely postoral in position (D,
Pdp). The mouth cone is formed by a dorsal plate, clearly the labrum
(Lm), and a similar ventral plate. The ventral plate cannot possibly
be referred to the segment of the postoral pedipalps, and is therefore
most reasonably regarded by Borner (1902) as the sternum of the
cheliceral segment (JS), retained in the Palpigradi, but lost, or not
recognizable as such, in any other arachnid.
Among the other arachnid orders there is nearly always present
an under-lip structure, but it never corresponds with the suboral
plate of the Palpigradi. In the Araneida the functional under lip is
the projecting sternum of the pedipalp segment; in the Phalangida
it is the sternum of the first leg segment; in the Scorpionida it is
formed by coxal lobes of the first and second legs; in the Thely-
phonidae and Ricinulei it is the united coxae of the pedipalps; in
most of the Acarina it is a long lobe, known as the hypostome, pro-
duced from the united pedipalp coxae. In these orders the pedipalp
coxae are turned forward at the sides of the mouth so that there is
enclosed a preoral cavity between the labrum above, an under lip
below, and the pedipalp coxae on the sides.
That the external feeding organs of the Arachnida constitute a
“beak,” or are derived from such a structure, seems to be an idea
prevalent with many writers. Bernard (1895, p. 391), for example,
in discussing what he calls the “beak” of the Solpugida, says: “The
NO, IO FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACIITNIDA——-SNODGRASS 15
possession of this organ in such diverse Arachnids as Galeodes,
Chernes, and Thelyphonus, and the easy deduction of the mouth-
parts of Spiders, Scorpio and Phrynus, from such an organ, render it
almost certain that a beak was present in the original Arachnid.”
Pocock (1902), on the other hand, rejects this idea. He shows that
the so-called ‘“‘beaks” in the different arachnid orders do not have
the same composition, and he points out “that there is no difficulty
in regarding all these various kinds of ‘beaks’ as specialized organs
resulting from the presence of a camarastome or labrum, and the need
for a lower lip or suboral gutter to prevent the loss of nutritive fluids
and to guide them into the alimentary canal.’”’ The labrum over-
hanging the mouth, Pocock contends, is the primary structure asso-
ciated with the oral aperture, since a labrum in some form is found
in all the arachnids. The lower lip, on the other hand, is a secondary
structure, as is shown by the different ways in which it is formed (as
above enumerated). The association of the pedipalp coxae with the
upper and lower lips then completes whatever may be called a “beak,”
or “rostrum,” but clearly the structure thus composed is a secondary
formation adaptive to the liquid-feeding habits of the arachnids.
The intercoxal antechamber of the mouth is an important part of
the arachnid feeding apparatus, and becomes variously modified in
the several orders; it serves for the reception of food from the
chelicerae, and as a mixing bowl with those arachnids that practice
extraoral digestion. This preoral food chamber, however, is not a
“buccal cavity,” “buccal canal,” or “Mundhohle,” as it is commonly
called, since a buccal cavity, in any proper anatomical sense, should
be within the mouth and not outside of it. The arachnid food recep-
tacle is a preoral cavity, so termed by Pavlovsky and Zarin (1926),
or the “Mundvorraum” of some German writers. It is entirely com-
parable to the preoral food cavity of an insect between the enclosing
mouth parts.
The sucking organ, or so-called pharynx —The mouth of the
arachnid (fig. 2D, Mth), lying at the inner end of the preoral cavity
beneath the base of the labrum, opens directly into the sucking appa-
ratus known as the pharynx (Phy). This organ varies much in size
and shape in the different arachnid orders, but it is always provided
with dilator muscles, and usually with constrictor muscles, and thus
is capable of a sucking action. The dilators include dorsal and lateral
or ventrolateral groups of fibers converging on the pharyngeal walls
(fig. 2 B, Phy). The dorsal dilators (D, ddl) always take their origins
on the epistomal plate (Epst) or on a basal apodeme of the epistome ;
the lateral dilators arise on apodemal inflections hetween the epistome
10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
and the pedipalp coxae (B, ecAp), on apodemes of the coxae, or on
the coxal walls.
The sucking organ of the arachnids, with its dorsal dilator muscles
arising on the epistome, is suggestive of the sucking pump of liquid-
feeding insects, with its dilator muscles arising on the clypeus. Fur-
thermore, the organ in each case is anterior to the frontal ganglion
and its brain connectives. The frontal ganglion of the arachnid lies
on the dorsal surface of the oesophagus (fig. 2 F, FrG@), but since
the oesophagus (Oe) penetrates the central nerve mass, the ganglion,
as shown by Holmgren (1920) and by Hanstrom (1928), is buried
within the surrounding tritocerebral lobes of the brain (F,/G).
The usual sucking organ of the insects, with dilator muscles from
the clypeus, is not the pharynx ; it is a derivative of the preoral food
cavity, while the true pharynx is a part of the stomodaeum and lies
behind the frontal ganglion. The sucking organ of the arachnids
is usually said to be the first part of the stomodaeum, and is therefore
called the pharynx. According to Wagner (1894), however, the suck-
ing apparatus as developed in Jvodes is a secondary invagination added
to the primary stomodaeal invagination, “ein neues Theil des Stomo-
deums, welcher die Anlage fur den Saugapparat bildet,” the walls
of which become hardened and give attachment to the dilator muscles.
The primary stomodaeal invagination, Wagner says, forms the narrow
oesophagus. There is therefore reason to believe that the so-called
pharynx of the arachnids is a secondary derivative of the preoral
cavity, as is the preoral cibarial sucking pump of the insects. Though
the arachnid organ is usually well differentiated in structure from the
functional preoral cavity, it is in some cases, as in the Thelyphonidae
and Araneida, practically continuous with the latter, and in the Chelone-
thida most of the dilator muscles arising on the epistome are inserted
on the dorsal wall of the preoral cavity. To avoid confusion with
current nomenclature, however, we may continue to call the sucking
organ of the arachnids the “pharynx.”
The oesophagus is always a narrow tube, which, after leaving the
pharynx, traverses the central nerve mass on its way back to the
mesenteron. Just before entering the latter it usually enlarges to form
a small second, proventricular sucking organ, the so-called “stomach
pump,” or “Saugmagen.”
Comparison of Arachnida and Xiphosurida-——-A comparison of the
arachnids with the xiphosurids shows that there is little in common
between the two groups with respect to the feeding organs or the
method of feeding. In the Xiphosurida the coxae of the first five
pairs of postcheliceral appendages have large spiny mesal lobes op-
NO. IO FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA——SNODGRASS 17
posed to each other from opposite sides in such a manner as to enclose
a triangular space between them with the mouth at its apex. The
coxal spines converge forward toward the oral aperture. The food of
the xiphosurids consists principally of worms and small mollusks.
The prey is said by Lockwood (1870) to be grasped by the leg pincers
and brought beneath the body, where it is lodged between the coxae.
The coxae then close against it from the sides and with their spines
push it forward to the mouth, into which it is inserted by the legs.
Lockwood says the food is rasped and comminuted by the coxal spines,
but Schlottke (1935) observes that when Limulus is fed pieces of
fish, the pieces are gulped down entire, though he admits that shell-
fish may be crushed by the coxae. In any case, the ingested food 1s
ground up in a strong proventricular gizzard before it is passed into
the stomach.
By contrast with the xiphosurids the Arachnida are essentially
liquid-feeders. The prey is caught by the chelicerae, or the pedipalps
if these appendages are chelate, crushed or lacerated, and held in
the chelicerae while the exuding body liquids are sucked out. The
arachnids have no chewing organs. The pedipalp coxae, or also the
coxae of the first legs, may have lobes functionally associated with
the mouth, but they are not masticatory in function, nor do they
resemble the coxal lobes of Limulus. In the Palpigradi there are no
such lobes, and the pedipalps are entirely postoral. If, therefore, the
palpigrade mouth structure represents a primitive condition among
the Arachnida, as it appears to do, the arachnid feeding apparatus
has been evolved quite independently, and has no relation to the
feeding organs of modern Xiphosurida. All the arachnids have an
efficient sucking pump for the ingestion of liquids, but they have no
grinding organ such as the gizzard of Limulus. In general, only
food in liquid form can pass the arachnid ingestion apparatus, since
usually the entrance is guarded by straining fringes of hairs, and the
oesophagus is a very slender tube from the pharynx to the stomach ;
blood corpuscles and spores, however, may be carried in suspension,
and in the phalangiids, it is said, even hard fragments of the food are
to be found in the stomach. With some of the arachnids, particularly
the Araneida, the availability of the tissues of the prey is increased
by the practice of extraoral digestion. The arachnids possess salivary
glands, and large excretory organs, the so-called “Malpighian vessels,”
discharging through the anus ; the xiphosurids have no salivary glands,
and no excretory organs connected with the alimentary canal.
Considering the differences above enumerated between the Arach-
nida and the Xiphosurida, it is evident that the two groups represent
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
separate lines of evolution within the Chelicerata, and that the arach-
nids have not been derived from any Limulus-like progenitor. The
xiphosurids, on the other hand, show unmistakable affinities to the
trilobites, whose habits of living must have been similar to those of
Limulus.
The stomach and digestion—The greater part of the food tract
of the arachnids is formed from the mesenteron, including the stomach
proper, the anterior part of the intestine, and the excretory vessels
known as “Malpighian tubules” that open with the intestine into a
terminal proctodaeal cloaca. The stomach consists of a central canal
and of radiating diverticula, which latter may be few and sacklike,
or numerous and tubular. The earlier workers on the digestive pro-
cesses of Arachnida, including Plateau (1877) and Bertkau (1884),
regarded the stomach diverticula as digestive glands, but it was shown
by Bernard (1893) and Berlese (1897) that the diverticula constitute
the digestive region of the stomach. These writers, furthermore,
claimed that digestion with the Arachnida takes place intracellularly
in the epithelium of the diverticula, and their contention has been
substantiated by the more detailed studies of later investigators, in-
cluding Oetcke (1912), Roesler (1934), Schlottke (1934), Bader
(1938), and Frank (1938). Pavlovsky and Zarin (1926) showed
that the digestive enzymes in the scorpion, including amylase, lipase,
and proteinases, are formed only in the stomach diverticula.
The epithelium of the stomach diverticula consists of two distinct
kinds of functionally active cells; namely, secretory cells, or “ferment”
cells, and digestive cells. Prior to feeding, the secretory cells are filled
with globules of secretion products ; the digestive cells are practically
devoid of inclusions. After feeding, the secretory cells discharge their
contents into the lumina of the diverticula, while the digestive cells
soon begin to show loose masses of material in their cytoplasm,
which later condense into dark-staining globules. In a starved animal,
secretion products are again formed in the secretory cells, but the
globules of the digestive cells gradually disappear. From these his-
tological phenomena it is deduced that the globules formed in the
digestive cells are masses of ingested food material, which is finally
digested in the cells and absorbed. Confirmatory evidence is seen in
the fact that granules of excretory matter accumulate in the distal
parts of these cells, which in most cases are discharged into the
stomach lumen by constriction and separation of the ends of the cells.
In those Acarina that have no intestinal outlet from the stomach, the
excretory granules remain in the epithelial cells.
Different investigators are not entirely in accord as to the part
}
NO, 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA-—-SNODGRASS Ig
played in digestion by the secretion of the secretory cells. Ocetcke
(1912) believed that the tissues of the prey are first dissolved by
secretion of the salivary glands, and that the liquefied food is then
taken into the digestive cells, where it is digested by the digestive
secretion absorbed from the secretory cells. According to Roesler
(1934), Schlottke (1934), Frank (1938), and Bader (1938), however,
a preliminary digestion by enzymes from the secretory cells takes
place in the lumina of the diverticula, after which the process is com-
pleted within the digestive cells (presumably by enzymes formed in
the latter). It thus appears that only the final phase of digestion is
intracellular.
The digestive processes of Limulus, as described by Schlottke
(1935), are similar to those of the Arachnida. After the food has
been ground up in the proventricular gizzard it is passed into the
central lumen of the stomach, where it is deluged with digestive fluid
from the many-branched diverticula, containing protease, carboxy-
polypeptidase, amylase, and lipase. In a state of “predigestion” the
liquefied food is then forced into the end branches of the diverticula
and absorbed by the digestive cells, within which a dipeptidase com-
pletes the process of digestion. Similarly in the Pycnogonida Schlottke
(1933a) has shown that digestion takes place intracellularly in the
absorptive cells of the stomach diverticula. The ingested food of the
pycnogonids, however, Schlottke says, contains no particles and no
recognizable fragments of the tissues of the prey, a fact suggesting
that the secretion cells of the stomach, which become active before
feeding, must play some part in the liquefaction of the food, since the
filtering apparatus of the stomodaeum could hardly be supposed to
reduce the food to a liquid condition by mechanical action.
Some arachnids, particularly the Araneida, are well known to
practice extraoral digestion. The solvent fluid discharged from the
mouth has been generally supposed to be a product of the salivary
glands, but the amount of the liquid exuded from the mouth is
often so great that it would seem more probable, as contended by
Kastner (see Gerhardt and Kastner, 1937), that it comes from the
stomach diverticula.
II]. THE PALPIGRADI, OR MICROTHELYPHONIDA
The members of this order, comprising about 20 known species,
are minute creatures, mostly tropical or subtropical in distribution,
with species in the Mediterranean region of Europe, and in Texas
and California of the United States. The pedipalps of these arachnids
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL, IIO
(fig. 6A) are leglike and have no association with the mouth; the
first legs are long and slender; the relatively large, segmented ab-
domen terminates in a multiarticulate flagellum. The name Palpigradi
approximately expresses the fact that the palps are leglike and used
for walking; the name Microthelyphonida implies a resemblance to
the Thelyphonidae of the Order Pedipalpida in the possession of a
jointed tail, but otherwise there is no likeness between the two groups.
Though the second name antedates the other by a matter of two years,
the first is preferable for brevity and significance.
Chl
Fic. 6.—Palpigradi.
A, Koenenia mirabilis Grassi (from Hansen and Sorensen, 1897). B, same,
anterior end of body with mouth cone and detached left chelicera (from Hansen
and Sorensen, 1897). C, Prokoenenia wheeleri (Rucker), median section through
mouth cone and prosoma (outline from Rucker, 1901). D, Koenenia mirabilis
Grassi, prosoma and bases of appendages, ventral (from Borner, 1901).
The structure of the palpigrades is known principally from the
work of Hansen and Sorensen (1897), Borner (1901, 1902), Wheeler
(1900), and Rucker (1901, 1903). The last two writers record
also something of the habits of Prokoenenia (Koenenia) wheeleri
(Rucker). Wheeler suggested that this species, found in Texas, feeds
on the eggs of Campodea and Japyx, with which it is associated in
nature under stones where there is a sufficient degree of moisture;
Rucker (1903) says that the alimentary canal contains nothing but
material resembling yolk particles, and is “admirably constructed for
such an illegitimate practice as egg-sucking.”
With respect to the feeding organs the Palpigradi are the simplest
of the arachnids. The relatively large, three-segmented chelicerae (fig.
6B, Chl) arise at the base of a snoutlike cone bearing the mouth
NO, 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA——-SNODGRASS 21
(Mth), and are thus but little preoral in position. The leglike second
appendages, corresponding with the pedipalps of other arachnids, lie
entirely behind the mouth (D, Pdp), and are connected with a large
ventral plate (J/+J//S) that would appear to be a combination of
the deutosternum and the tritosternum, since it bears both the second
and the third pairs of appendages. The pedipalps are said by Rucker
(1901) to be used in common with the posterior three pairs of legs
as locomotor organs, while the long slender first legs are held aloft
and waved about in the manner of palps. The pedipalp coxae, having
no association with the mouth, are in no way involved in the function
of feeding.
The snoutlike cone that bears the mouth of the palpigrades (fig.
6B, Mth) has no duplicate in any other arachnid order. The part
above the transverse mouth slit is evidently the labrum (im), or
labrum and epistome. The suboral part (/S) is interpreted by Borner
(1902) as the prosternum, that is, the sternum of the cheliceral seg-
ment ; there is, in fact, no other structure to which it might be referred,
and the close association of the chelicerae with the base of the cone
is entirely in harmony with this view. If, therefore, the mouth of the
palpigrades lies between the labrum and the sternum of the first post-
oral somite, we see here an embryonic condition retained in no other
modern adult arthropod. The complete dissociation of the pedipalps
from the mouth, Kastner (1932b) says, is known otherwise than in
the Palpigradi only in the Jurassic fossil arachnid Sternarthron of
Haase (1890). Haase, himself, regarded the likeness of Sternarthron
to the living Palpigrada as so close that he included it in this order.
The mouth cone of the Palpigradi suggests the proboscis of the
Pycnogonida, which projects below the chelicerae and between the
pedipalps, but the pedipalps arise, as in the Palpigradi, from a sternal
plate behind the base of the proboscis. The pycnogonid proboscis,
however, has an elaborate innervation from a number of apical
ganglia that are connected dorsally with the brain by a single nerve
trunk, and ventrally with the suboesophageal ganglion by two nerve
trunks (see Wirén, 1918, and Hanstrém, 1928). If the apical ganglia,
as Hanstrém contends, represent the frontal ganglion, this gang-
lionic complex of the pycnogonids has quite a different relation to
the stomodaeum within the proboscis than has the frontal ganglion
of the arachnids. Moreover, the innervation of the lower half of the
pycnogonid proboscis from the pedipalp centers of the suboesoph-
ageal ganglion does not conform with the idea that this part of the
organ represents the sternum of the cheliceral segment. It seems prob-
able, therefore, that the pycnogonid proboscis is a structure independ-
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
ently developed, and unrelated to the mouth cone of the Palpigradi.
If the mouth structure of the Palpigradi really is primitive for the
arachnids, then there can be no direct relationship of the Arachnida
to the Xiphosurida, and the coxal lobes of the higher arachnids must
have been developed quite independently of those of the xiphosurids.
The mouth of Prokoenenia wheeleri, Rucker (1901) says, “leads
into a strongly-chitinized pharynx (fig. 6 C, Phy). This in turn runs
into a very delicate oesophagus (Oe) which penetrates the cephalo-
thoracic nerve mass, only to dilate immediately into a pouch-like
sucking stomach” (Pvent). The pharynx is shown in one of Rucker’s
figures to have dilator muscles arising dorsally on the upper wall of
the mouth cone, and ventrally on the lower wall. According to Borner
(1902), the walls of the pharynx contain a dorsal plate, which is the
under surface of the labrum, and a ventral plate, which is the upper
surface of the suboral prosternum. The “pharynx” of the Palpigradi
would thus appear to be a specialized preoral cavity; yet Kastner
(1932b) ascribes it to the stomodaeum (Vorder-Darm).
II. THE SOLPUGIDA
Most conspicuous of the feeding organs of the solpugids are the
huge, two-segmented chelicerae (fig. 7 C), directed straight forward
from the anterior section of the body (A), which latter appears to
be constructed particularly for their support, though it carries also
the pedipalps and the first pair of legs. The solpugids are said to
employ principally the last three pairs of legs for locomotion, the
first legs being often used as accessories to the palps for catching and
holding the prey. The coxae of the pedipalps and those of the first
legs are firmly united on each side (B, J/Cx, IIJCx), and the two
pairs are supported on a single T-shaped sternal plate, which would
appear to represent the deutosternum and the tritosternum combined.
The narrow, deeply channeled anterior part of the plate (J7S) lies
between the pedipalp coxae; the posterior part is a transverse bar
(IIIS) behind the first leg coxae. The following three sterna are
individual plates, though each is divided by a median groove that
forms an internal ridge. That these plates are sterna and not the coxae
of the legs is shown by the presence of large apodemal structures
arising from them, and by the fact that the legs have a full comple-
ment of segments, including two trochanters.
The pedipalps arise entirely behind the mouth region (fig. 7 B),
as they do in the Palpigradi, but in the solpugids their large coxae
diverge forward beneath the chelicerae (B), and each is produced
NO, 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA-—SNODGRASS 23
Fic. 7—Solpugida (unidentified species ).
A, prosoma and appendages, dorsal. B, anterior part of same, ventral. C, left
chelicera, mesal. D, cross section of posterior part of pharynx, with muscles.
E, mouth region and bases of pedipalps, dorsal. F, epistome and labrum detached
from pedipalp coxae, exposing epistomocoxal apodeme (ec4p) of left side.
G, median longitudinal section through epistome, labrum, and pharynx. H,
mouth region, ventral. I, cross section through epistome, pedipalp coxae, and
anterior part of pharynx.
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
into a thick, blunt process (EF, cap) projecting mesad of the trochanter
(Tr). The coxal processes, however, would appear to have no par-
ticular function in connection with feeding. The dorsal surfaces of
the coxae (E, J/Cx) are mostly membranous, but mesally where they
join the epistome (Epst) each is strongly sclerotized in continuity
with the upper surface of the anterior coxal process.
The telopodite of each pedipalp (fig. 7 B, Pdp) includes five thick,
cylindrical, hairy segments, and an eversible adhesive end organ
(Ptar). The end organ is an invaginated sack eversible from between
two outer, hairless lips, the structure and mechanism of which has
been fully described by Sorensen (1914), by Barrows (1925), and
by Kastner (1933b). With each organ are associated the tendons of
two muscles, one attached on the inner end of the sack, the other on
the lower lip of the outer opening. The everted sack, supposedly
forced out by blood pressure, assumes the shape of a stalked, cuplike
pad ; the muscles effect its retraction. These end organs of the pedi-
palps are evidently the pretarsi, the sacks being probably, as Sorensen
says, the homologues of the plantulae, or empodia, of the walking
legs. The everted pads are said to be adhesive organs which enable
the solpugids to climb on smooth vertical surfaces, and Heymons
(1901) asserts that they are used also for catching small insects,
which adhere to their exposed surfaces.
Between the dorsal surfaces of the pedipalp coxae is a large,
strongly convex epistomo-labral plate (fig. 7 E, Epst, Lm), the labral
part of which projects as a free lobe between the divergent coxal
processes (cxp). The labrum of the solpugid is not separated from
the unusually long epistome (E, F), and some writers have regarded
the whole plate as the labrum. However, since the proximal part of
the plate (Epst) is united laterally with the mesal sclerites in the
dorsal walls of the pedipalp coxae (FE, //C4), and gives origin to the
dilator muscles of the pharynx (G, I, did, dll), this part has the
distinctive features of an epistomal plate. Along the lines of union
with the coxal sclerites (E, F, ecs) are inflected a pair of large, plate-
like epistomo-coxal apodemes (E, F, ecAp) that extend proximal to
the base of the epistome.
The relatively small labrum (fig. 7 E, Li) projects as a free lobe
from the end of the epistome, and conceals the mouth below its base
(G). On its under surface the labrum bears two large, flat, closely
adjacent brushes of long thick hairs beset with many small, delicate
barbules, and united by transverse bars (F, G, H.), so that each brush
forms a fine-meshed sieve. Since these labral brushes guard the
mouth behind them (H, Mth), they appear to constitute a filtering
NO. IO FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA-——-SNODGRASS 25
apparatus for straining out particles of food too large to be swallowed.
The mouth of the solpugid (fig. 7 H, Mth) lies above the edge of
a membranous ventral area in front of the tapering anterior end of
the narrow deutosternum (//.S). Diverging at the sides of the mouth
from this membranous area is a pair of large, flat, soft lobes (ml)
with long apical setae, and each lobe bears a slender, finely hairy
flagellum. These mouth lobes are characteristic features of the sol-
pugids. Laterally each lobe lies adjacent to the free margin of the
epistomal plate (F). The two mouth lobes, together with the labrum
and the setal brushes, guard the entrance to the mouth, but they can
hardly be said to form a preoral cavity. The gutterlike deutosternum
(B, H, I, I7S) is deeply buried between the mesal surfaces of the
pedipalp coxae (I, /7C2), and its tapering anterior end (H) runs out
into a shallow median groove that goes forward to the lower margin
of the mouth. Possibly this sternal channel also has something to do
with the oral conduction of food liquids.
The unusually large size of the epistomo-labral plate of the solpugids
gave the earlier writers on these arachnids the idea that the solpugid
mouth parts constitute a “beak.” Bernard (1895), for example, says,
“the beak is a marked feature of the Galeodidae’’; he contended,
furthermore, that a beak is a primitive arachnid structure, best pre-
served in the Solpugida, but variously reduced in the higher orders.
Borner (1902) refers to the Solpugida and the Palpigradi as the only
arachnids in which the mouth opening is situated on a cone, or so-
called rostrum. What these writers call a beak, Police (1928) terms
the “bucco-pharyngeal apparatus.” The present writer sees no reason
for regarding the mouth-bearing part of the solpugid as a “beak” or
“rostrum” in any true sense. Only the labrum projects as a free lobe
dorsally, with the mouth beneath its base as in other arachnids, and
the ventral mouth lobes are special features of the solpugids. Police
(1928) contends that the mouth lobes of the solpugids are homo-
logues of the lobes of the pedipalp coxae in Phalangida and Araneida,
which interpretation he says follows from Heymons’ (1905) obser-
vation on their development. Heymons, however, says merely that the
lobes develop mesad of the coxal processes of the pedipalps ; there ts
little to suggest that they have any homology with coxal lobes of other
arachnids.
The pharynx of the solpugids is an elongate sack (fig. 7G, Phy)
with soft walls devoid of sclerotic plates. In cross section it is tri-
angular, but the walls are inflected between the angles, forming a
three-pointed star (I, Phy). Posteriorly the lower lobe becomes much
longer than the upper lobes (D). Dorsal dilator muscles of the
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
pharynx arise along the entire length of the epistome (G, did) ; lateral
dilators arise anteriorly on the epistome (I, dil), but posteriorly they
spread to the epistomo-coxal apodemes. Constrictor fibers attached on
the three pharyngeal ridges (D) alternate with the dilator fibers.
The solpugids are known to be voracious feeders on all kinds of
insects, and it is well attested that larger species will attack, kill,
and devour small vertebrates. It is recorded by Hutton (1843) that
an Indian species of Galeodes 24 to 23 inches long kills and eats small
lizards; Heymons (1901) says of Galeodes caspius that this species
in captivity will eat small toads and lizards 2 to 3 cm. in length, and
that a female in the open was seen feeding on a snake that had been
killed by a railway train. The huge chelicerae are able to crush even
the hardest beetles. In the case of large prey, Heymons observes,
the solpugid first bites a hole in the body, and then tears out the soft
inner parts until there is nothing left but the empty body wall. Smaller
and weaker insects are directly chewed to a pulp in the chelicerae and
the hard parts discarded. The fluid extracted from the prey pre-
sumably flows down between the chelicerae to the labrum, where it is
filtered through the sieve brushes to keep large particles from reaching
the mouth. The food is not known to be subjected to extraoral
digestion,
The solpugids have often been accused of being venomous, but
the chelicerae contain no poison glands, and the bite of a solpugid
has been shown experimentally to be nonpoisonous, though admittedly
the chelicerae might carry infective matter.
IV. THE PEDIPALPIDA
The name of this order is derived evidently from the fact that the
“first legs” are long, slender, palplike appendages, in some forms so
attenuated as to be almost filamentous, and have a sensory function.
The so-called pedipalps, on the other hand, are strong prehensile
organs and may be chelate. In one of the two principal groups of the
pedipalpids, the Amblyphygi, the abdomen is broad and rounded ; in
the other, the Uropygi, it is more elongate and bears a caudal flagellum,
- which is either short (Schizopeltidia), or long and multiarticulate
(Holopeltidia). The mouth parts are characteristically different in
the two major groups.
With respect to the feeding organs the Amblyphygi are distinctly
more generalized than the Uropygi. In each group the pedipalp
coxae are extended forward far beyond the mouth; in the Uropygi
they are united to form a preoral food trough, in the Amblypygi
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA-——-SNODGRASS 27
they are free from each other except at their bases (fig. 8 A, //C#) and
the distal ends form a pair of large hairy processes (cxp). The
labrum of the Amblypygi is a very small lobe overhanging the mouth
(A, B, Lm). There is no distinct epistome, but a large, median epis-
tomal apodeme is present (B, eAp) between a pair of lateral apodemes
produced from the bases of the pedipalp coxae (A, B, cAp). The
oral aperture beneath the labrum (B, Mth) opens directly into a
simple, tubular pharynx (Phy), which in cross section is triangular
and resembles the pharynx of the Solpugida. Dorsal dilator muscles
of the pharynx arise on the epistomal apodeme, lateral dilators take
their origins on the coxal apodemes (A, Phy). Because of the inde-
pendence of the pedipalp coxae, and the small size of the labrum,
Chl Cp
. -
odo
Cx Mth
Fic. 8.—Pedipalpida-Amblypygi.
A, Titanodamon johnstoni (Poc.), Phrynidae, showing separation of pedipalp
coxae, well-developed coxal processes (crp), relatively small labrum (Lm), and
simple pharynx (Phy) (from Pocock, 1902). B, Phrynichus bacillifer (Gerst),
Phrynidae, longitudinal section through anterior end of body a little to left of
median plane (from Borner, 1904).
the Amblypygi have no distinct preoral food cavity; the Uropygi, on
the other hand, have a highly specialized prepharyngeal food passage
between the large, thick labrum above and the trough of the united
pedipalp coxae below.
The Uropygi include the “whip-tailed scorpions” (Thelyphonidae),
well known from the East Indian Thelyphonus and the American
Mastigoproctus. The following description of the mouth parts is
based on M. giganteus (H. Lucas) of the southern United States.
The membranous anterior wall of the body of Mastigoproctus is
set far back under a long, overhanging part of the carapace, the lower
surface of which is strongly sclerotic and bears a median keel, Beneath
this projection of the carapace, at the sides of the keel, arise the
relatively short, two-segmented chelicera, the movable fingers of which
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
are dorsal in the Pedipalpida (figs. 8B, 9 C). Below the chelicerae
is a broad horizontal surface formed of a median epistomal plate
(fig. 9 B, Epst) flanked by the large dorsal plates of the pedipalp
coxae (dplcx).The epistomal plate is divided by a median groove,
and from its end projects the elongate, tapering, hairy labrum (Lim)
between the setigerous mesal surfaces of the anterior processes of
the pedipalp coxae (cxp). At the base of the epistome there extends
into the body cavity a strong apodemal arm (B, D, eAp), which, as
shown by its muscle connections, is clearly the epistomal apodeme
of other arachnids, though in the Thelyphonidae, as noted also by
Pocock (1902), it is not connected with the base of the epistomal plate
(‘‘clypeus” of Pocock), but arises from the body wall just above the
epistome.
The pedipalp coxae present ventrally broad, flat surfaces (fig. 9 A,
IICx) in contact with each other for most of their length, there being
no evident remnant of the deutosternum between them. Anteriorly,
however, the coxae are produced into a pair of thick, widely divergent,
triangular processes projecting mesad of the trochanters. The dorsal
surface of each coxa, as above noted, contains a large plate (B, dplcx)
united mesally with the epistome, and continuous anteriorly into the
coxal lobe (cxp). Laterally the coxal plate bears the dorsal articu-
lation of the trochanter (77), but behind the trochanter it is separated
from the sclerotic lateroventral coxal wall by a membranous gap, and
its posterior mesal angle is produced into a tapering apodemal process
(B, D, E, cAp). The united parts of the pedipalp coxae of Mastigo-
proctus extend beyond the tip of the labrum (B), and form under
the latter a deep trough (PrC), the lateral walls of which are mem-
branous and densely clothed with hairs converging downward beneath
the labrum. The cavity thus enclosed is the anterior, open part of a
preoral food passage leading back to the sucking organ. The posterior
part of this passage has a highly specialized type of structure not
known in any other group of arachnids.
The ingestion apparatus of the Thelyphonidae has been described
by several writers, including Bernard (1893), Borner (1901, 1904),
and Kastner (1932a), but it is most clearly portrayed by Pocock
(1902). At the inner end of the open cavity between the labrum
and the trough of the united pedipalp coxae is a semicircular slit
concave dorsally. From this slit there continues posteriorly a semi-
cylindrical crevicelike passage (fig. 9G, PrC) between a ventrally
convex dorsal plate, or lamina dorsalis (lmd), and a dorsally concave
ventral plate, or lamina ventralis (mv). The dorsal plate is the under
wall of the labrum (Lm), the ventral plate is a continuation from
NO. IO FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA—SNODGRASS 209
Fic. 9.—Pedipalpida-Uropygi-Thelyphonidae, Mastigoproctus giganteus
(H. Lucas).
A, anterior part of body, with pedipalps and bases of first two pairs of legs,
ventral. B, mouth region, dorsal, as seen by removal of chelicerae. C, chelicera.
D, lower wall of preoral cavity and pharynx, with muscles of labrum and phar-
ynx, exposed by removal of left side of left pedipalp coxa. E, ventral walls of
pedipalp coxae removed, exposing dorsal coxal walls, and ventral walls of
preoral cavity and pharynx, with pharyngeal muscles. F, lamina dorsalis of
preoral cavity and pharynx. G, cross section through anterior part of labrum
and preoral cavity. H, section through middle of labrum and preoral cavity.
I, section of pharynx.
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
the floor of the trough of the united coxae. The dorsal wall of the
labrum (Lm) is a mass of spongy but dense tissue, so thick that it
reduces the haemocoele of the labrum to a narrow slit (/Hcl) con-
centric with the lumen of the food passage (PrC) below it. Pocock
(1902) says the cavity of the labrum (“camarastome”’) “is filled
for the most part with muscles which pass from its roof to its floor,”
but he evidently was mistaken as to the nature of the tissue in the
labrum, and he must have missed the narrow haemocoele in its lower
part. An anterior bundle of muscle fibers from the epistomal apodeme
(D, lbrmcl), however, does attach to the posterior end of the thick
dorsal wall of the labrum and merges into its spongy tissue. Behind
the base of the labrum, the lamina dorsalis and the lamina ventralis
are united along their upper edges (H), so that the food passage
between them (PrC) becomes a closed cavity.
When this structure is seen from the side (fig. 9 D) or from below
(E), the lamina ventralis of the food passage appears as a large,
strongly convex, ovate body (/mv) firmly suspended from the median
edges of the dorsal plates of the pedipalp coxae (E, dplcx). The
wide posterior end of the lamina ventralis narrows into a long, free,
tapering arm (Phy), which is the ventral wall of the sucking part of
the ingestion apparatus, and is therefore the ventral plate of the
pharynx. The lamina dorsalis (F) has a form similar to that of the
lamina ventralis upon which it is closely superposed. Its anterior
margin bears a fringe of long hairs guarding the slitlike opening of
the food passage above mentioned; its posterior part tapers into the
dorsal plate of the pharynx. The two plates of the pharyngeal region
are connected by infolded lateral membranes (1) allowing of expan-
sion and contraction. Dorsal dilator muscles of the pharynx (D, I,
did) arise on the epistomal apodeme (D, eA) ; lateral dilators (dll)
arise on the basal apodemes of the pedipalp coxae (D, E, cAp). In-
asmuch as the pharyngeal plates of Mastigoproctus are directly con-
tinuous from the dorsal and ventral plates of the prepharyngeal food
passage, the so-called pharynx is differentiated from the latter only
by its expansible lumen and the possession of dilator muscles.
No functional explanation can readily be given for this curious
ingestion apparatus of the Thelyphonidae. In a preserved specimen
the dorsal and ventral plates of the prepharyngeal section are in close
apposition, and there appears to be here no mechanism for expansion.
Certainly nothing but liquid could be sucked through the passage, and
the fringe of hairs at the entrance on the lamina dorsalis must effec-
tively keep out food particles. The thelyphonids feed on insects and
other terrestrial arthropods. They are said to seize and crush their
NO. IO FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA—SNODGRASS 31
prey with the pedipalp chelae, and to further lacerate it with the
chelicerae. The exuding juices, caught in the open trough of the
pedipalp coxae, must be sucked in by the action of the pharynx. No
evidence of extraoral digestion by these arachnids has been observed.
V. THE RICINULEI
The small and rare arachnids of this order include 12 known living
species from Africa, Central America, and South America, and ex-
tinct Palaeozoic species from Europe and North America. The living
forms, according to Ewing (1929), belong to two genera; one,
Ricinoides Ewing (formerly Cryptostemma) is represented by six
species in Africa, the other, Cryptocellus Westwood, includes six
American species. The structure of the feeding organs of the Ricinulei
is known only from the work of Hansen and Sorensen (1904), the
scarcity of specimens in collections making them too valuable for
anatomical purposes.
A distinctive feature of the Ricinulei is the presence of a large
hoodlike lobe, the cucullus, movably hinged to the anterior margin of
the carapace, which ordinarily (fig. 10 B, Cuc) conceals the chelicerae
and the mouth region below it (A). The under surface of the cucullus
bears a median ridge separating lateral concavities that fit over the
chelicerae, which structure, as noted by Hansen and Sorensen (1904),
suggests that the ricinuleid cucullus represents the anterior part of
the carapace of the Thelyphonidae that overhangs and conceals the
chelicerae. The chelicerae of the Ricinulei (D) are two-segmented
as in the Pedipalpida. The small, chelate pedipalps (A, B, Pdp)
have a ventral position, and their coxae are completely united to form
a trough below the mouth. The pedipalp segmentation (I) is simple
compared with that of the legs (B), there being two trochanteral
segments (17Tr, 2Tr) as in the legs, but the tibia is a long slender
segment (Tb), and the tarsus (Tar) forms the small movable finger
of the chela. In the legs (B) a patella intervenes between the femur
and the short tibia, while the tarsus is divided into a long basal sub-
segment and five short distal subsegments.
The mouth region of the Ricinulei (fig. 10C) resembles that of
the Thelyphonidae (fig. 9 B) in that the floor of the preoral cavity
(PrC) is formed by the united pedipalp coxae. In the ricinuleid,
however, there are no free coxal processes since the coxae are here
entirely united in a broad, troughlike under lip (fig. 10C, Hst),
which would appear to be quite comparable to the hypostome of
Acarina (fig. 26 A, B, Hst). Projecting over the proximal part of the
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
coxal trough is the rounded labrum (C, Lm), which is supported on a
large epistomal plate (Epst) united laterally with the dorsal walls of
the adjoining parts of the pedipalp coxae. The epistome and the
labrum together are regarded by Hansen and Sorensen as “pars
basalis” and ‘“‘pars apicalis” of the labrum, but these writers note the
Tar
Fic. 10.—Ricinulei.
A, Ricinoides crassipalpe (H. & S.), ventral, with cucullus (Cuc) turned
forward exposing the chelicerae (outline from Hansen and Sorensen, 1904).
B, R. westermanm (Guérin), cucullus closed over labrum and chelicerae (from
Karsch, 1893). C, R. crassipalpe (H. & S.), mouth region, dorsal, showing
pedipalp coxae completely united in a broad under lip (Hst); x-x, line of in-
vagination of basal parts of coxae and epistome (from Hansen and Sorensen,
1904). D, R. karschit (H. & S.), chelicera (from Hansen and Sorensen, 1904).
E, R. sjéstedtti (H. & S.), segmentation of the pedipalp (outline from Hansen
and Sorensen, 1904).
distinctive features of the two parts, and that the “‘pars basalis” gives
attachment to the dilator muscles of the sucking pump. The basal
parts of the coxae and the greater part of the epistome are said to
be invaginated into the body cavity proximal to the line +-x of the
figure.
The internal part of the ingestion apparatus of the Ricinulei is not
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA——SNODGRASS 33
fully or clearly described by Hansen and Sorensen from the single
specimen at their disposal. A transverse “crest,” concave dorsally, is
said to be suspended from the united pedipalp coxae (‘‘mandibles’’)
and epistome, which is perforated by the oesophagus. From this we
may suspect that there is here a structure resembling that in the
Thelyphonidae. Muscles of the oesophagus and pharynx, according
to Hansen and Sorensen, arise on the epistome (‘‘pars basalis’”’), and
also “muscles attached to the base of the pars apicalis.” The last
suggest the epistomal muscles inserted into the base of the labrum in
Mastigoproctus (fig. 9 D, lbrmel).
VI. THE CHELONETHIDA, OR PSEUDOSCORPIONIDA
The external anatomy of the pseudoscorpions, together with the
respiratory system and the reproductive organs, has been described
in great detail by Chamberlin (1931), and full accounts of the
external and internal structure are given in the comprehensive works
of Kastner (1927), Beier (1932), and Roewer (1936). The struc-
ture of the chelonethid feeding apparatus was correctly known to
Croneberg (1888), and the external mouth parts are well portrayed
by Pocock (1902). The information here given is taken mostly from
these sources.
The conspicuous feature of the pseudoscorpions is the great relative
size of the chelate pedipalps (fig. 11 A). The chelicerae (Chl) are
small, two-segmented, and project straight forward from beneath the
edge of the carapace. Below the chelicerae is a group of structures
that constitute the mouth parts, including the labrum (Lm) above,
a narrow under lip (/pg) below, and anterior processes of the pedipalp
coxae (JJCx) on the sides. The coxae of the pedipalps, as those of
the legs, are almost contiguous along the midventral line of the body,
being separated only by a narrow membranous space in which are no
remnants of segmental sternal plates. The coxae themselves thus
replace the sterna and become the actual ventral exoskeleton of the
prosoma.
The chelonethid chelicerae (fig. 11 B, E) have an unusually
elaborate structure, because, as Chamberlin (1931) points out, they
are used for several specific purposes besides that of holding the prey
during feeding. The pincers serve for carrying sand grains or other
material used in nest-building, the movable finger gives exit to a silk-
producing gland, and bears usually a spinneret near its apex; the
chelicerae, furthermore, serve as cleaning organs, in adaptation to
which function the fingers are equipped with membranous folds,
34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
called serrulae, and finally they are the seat of important sense
organs. The serrulae have different forms in different species (fig.
11 B, E, Ser), but characteristically the structures so called are thin
folds or more or less free appendages either indented along the outer
margin (C, Ser), or incised to form a comblike organ (E). The
---Pdp
on
ohn. (y KON
ees
a os
au
Fic. 11.—Chelonethida.
A, a pseudoscorpion (probably Chelanops sp.), female, prosoma and append-
ages, ventral. B, same, right chela, dorsal. C, same, details of cheliceral
fingers, more enlarged. D, Atemnus sp., venom glands of pedipalp chela, with
duct opening near apex of movable finger (from Chamberlin, 1931). E,
Chthonius sp., chelicera, showing silk gland with duct opening through spinneret
on movable finger (from Barrows, 1925).
cheliceral silk gland, shown contained within the chelicera at E
of figure 11 (SIkGld), generally extends into the body cavity. There
may be a single duct opening through a simple papilliform spinneret
on the convex side of the movable finger (E, Spm), or there may be
several ducts opening separately through the prongs of a branched
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA—SNODGRASS 35
spinneret (B, C, Spn) known as the “galea.” The spun silk is used
for the making of cocoonlike nests in which the animal encloses
itself for moulting, brood purposes, or for hibernation. The silk
glands, therefore, are best developed in the immature stages and in
the adult female; the glands of the adult male become reduced, and
in some cases they appear to be absent.
The female pseudoscorpion deposits her eggs in a gelatinous brood
sack attached around the genital aperture on the under side of the
abdomen, and the young after hatching undergo their development
here, fed on an albuminous substance discharged from the ovaries of
the mother, until they are fully formed young pseudoscorpions. Some
species carry the eggs and the young about with them in the open,
but with most species the female encloses herself in a silken cocoon
until the young are able to live independently. The remarkable
metamorphosis that the young pseudoscorpion undergoes during its
development is described by Barrois (1896), and an interesting ac-
count of the construction of the brood cocoon is given by Kew (1914).
The chela of the chelonethid pedipalp, as already shown (p. 14,
fig. 5G), has the same general structure as the chela of a scorpion
(fig. 5E, F) but it possesses the unique feature of containing in
most species one or two glands supposed to secrete a venomous liquid.
According to Chamberlin the glands may be present in both the mov-
able and the fixed finger, in the movable finger only, or in the fixed
finger only; in four families, however, they are absent. Each gland
(fig. 11 D, VGld) consists of several elongate sacks with a common
duct (Det) opening through a pore (Pr) ona subapical, toothlike
process on the convex side of the finger containing the gland.
The coxae of the pedipalps are free from each other, and are
connected only at their bases with the narrow membranous ventral
wall of the body between them (fig. 12B, //Cx). Anteriorly the
coxae are produced into a pair of thick processes (cxp), normally
embracing the labrum (figs. 11 A, 12 A). Though these coxal exten-
sions are called “manducatory” processes, they have no chewing func-
tion, and serve merely to form the lateral walls of the preoral food
chamber. A flat dorsal appendage arising from the base of each lobe
in most species, and a thin ventral flange (fig. 12 A, /s, li) are known
respectively as the lamina superior and the lamina inferior.
The labrum projects between the coxal processes of the pedipalps
as a free lobe of varying width in different species (fig. 12 A, B, Lim).
The dorsal surface of the labrum is continued proximally into an epi-
stomal plate (A, Epst), which is mostly invaginated into the anterior
body wall below the bases of the chelicerae, and thus becomes prac-
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Fic. 12——Chelonethida.
A, Apochthonius intermedius Chamb., mouth parts, dorsal; li, /s, appendicular
lobes of pedipalp coxae (from Chamberlin, 1931). B, Garypus sp., mouth parts,
ventral, pedipalp coxae spread apart showing lophognath (/pg) in groove of
taphrognath (tpg) (from Pocock, 1902). C, Garypus sin Chamb., cross section
through anterior part of carapace and bases of pedipalps, showing relation of
lophognath (/pg) to taphrognath (tpg) (from Chamberlin, 1931). D, same,
section of taphrognath and lophognath more enlarged. E, same, cross section
of pharynx (from Chamberlin, 1931). F, diagram of chelonethid ingestion
apparatus based on Croneberg (1888) and Chamberlin (1931); a, connection
of lophognath with pedipalp coxa, b, cut edge along b in C
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA—-SNODGRASS 37
tically an apodemal structure. The chelonethid epistome is termed
by Chamberlin the “intermaxillary jugum’’ because its distal part is
united with the pedipalp coxae, which are commonly called “maxillae” ;
but on its under surface are attached the usual dorsal muscles of the
ingestion apparatus (I), showing that the plate in question is that
here termed the epistome in other arachnids. The epistome is similarly
invaginated or overgrown in the Ricinulei and some Acarina, and in
the last order is known as the “subcheliceral plate.”
The under surface of the labrum is continued posteriorly as the
dorsal wall of the preoral food passage, and is produced into an elon-
gate lobe (fig. 12 B, tpg) enclosed between the mesal surfaces of the
pedipalp coxae (which latter, as shown at B, are spread apart). The
under surface of the lobe is deeply channeled lengthwise, and receives
the narrow under lip (/pg), which carries a high, crestlike ridge on
its upper surface, as seen in cross section at D. Chamberlin (1931)
likens these two structures to a pair of jaws lying one above the other.
The upper grooved “jaw” he terms the taphrognath, the lower crested
“jaw” the lophognath.
The so-called lophognath, or under lip, is a laterally compressed,
tapering, median lobe projecting forward from the venter of the
prosoma between the bases of the pedipalp coxae (fig. 12 B, lpg),
and would thus appear to be a sternal structure, as said by Pocock
(1902). Chamberlin shows that the lophognath is attached by two
basal arms to the pedipalp coxae, but its form and structure do not
suggest that the lophognath itself is of coxal origin.
The relation of the taphrognath and the lophognath to each other
is shown diagrammatically at F of figure 12, in which the lophognath
(lpg) is partly exposed by being pulled down from the groove of the
taphrognath (tpg). The opposing surfaces of the taphrognath and
the lophognath are shown by Chamberlin to be corrugated by nu-
merous fine, closely set, transverse ridges, fringed with minute spines
directed inward. The exposed lateral surfaces of the two lobes are
also ridged, but on these areas the ridges are somewhat farther apart.
On the crest of the taphrognath are inserted the fibers of a large flat
muscle (C, F, did) having its origin on the under surface of the
invaginated epistome (Epst).
At their inner ends the taphrognath and the lophognath are united
by a union of the lips of the former with the sides of the latter (fig.
12F). There is thus formed here the true oral aperture, which opens
immediately into a relatively small, pear-shaped pharyngeal sack
(Phy). This organ shows in cross section (FE) the usual structure of
the arachnid pharynx; the concave dorsal, ventral, and lateral walls
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10O
give a four-rayed figure. Constrictor muscles attached on the points
of the folds are shown by Croneberg (1888) to surround the pharynx ;
lateral constrictor muscles are said to be present by Chamberlin
(1931), though they are not shown in his figure (E). Lateral dilator
muscles (dll) inserted on the side walls of the pharynx have their
origins on the lateral walls of the pedipalp coxae. Chamberlin makes
no mention of dorsal dilators, but Croneberg specifically says that a
group of fibers from the epistome (“basal part of the rostrum”) goes
to the pharynx, as is shown in the diagram at F. The distribution of
most of the epistomal muscles on the preoral under surface of the
labrum is an unusual condition found only in the Chelonethida, but
it can be correlated with that in the Solpugida, in which a few of the
anterior fibers extend into the labrum (fig. 7 G), and is suggestive of
that in Mastigoproctus in which a large bundle of epistomal fibers
goes to the posterior end of the labrum (fig. 9 D, lbrmcl).
The chelonethid ingestion apparatus has no duplicate among other
arachnids, and no other even approaches it in structure. The taphro-
gnath might be likened to the lamina dorsalis of the food passage in
Thelyphonidae, but the lophognath is not comparable to the lamina
ventralis, and the sacklike chelonethid pharynx is quite distinct from
the preoral part of the feeding apparatus. The principal sucking
organ of the chelonethids would appear to be the preoral structure
formed of the taphrognath and the lophognath, rather than the rela-
tively small pharynx. A lifting of the taphrognath from the lopho-
gnath by a contraction of its dorsal muscles (fig. 12 ) would draw
the liquid food into the taphrognathic channel, where, by a reversal of
the action, it would be impelled back to the mouth to be sucked into
the pharynx. The food-conducting channel from the prey, however,
as Chamberlin notes, must be formed by the approximated laminae
of the pedipalp coxae and the distal part of the labrum (A).
The Chelonethida are said to catch and kill their victims with the
pedipalp chelae, from which the prey is given to the chelicerae to be
held while feeding. Chamberlin (1931), in describing the feeding of
Chelifer fuscipes Banks on a small lepidopterous larva, says the active
caterpillar, grasped and tightly held in the chela, becomes motionless
in 30 seconds, and is then drawn up to the mouth parts and seized
by the chelicerae. In a few minutes the larva becomes much shrunken,
when a new hold is taken by the chelicerae and feeding resumed at
another point of attack. Schlottke (1933b), observing the feeding
of Chelifer cancroides L. on meal worms, notes that the sucking of
the larval juices is preceded by an inflation of the larva with a secre-
tion from the mouth of the chelonethid, which evidently liquefies the
NO, 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARKRACH NIDA——SNODGRASS 39
tissues of the prey. During feeding the soft-skinned larva thus
alternately expands and contracts according to whether it is being
injected with the solvent liquid or exhausted by suction. Though
Chelifer is classed by Chamberlin as a genus having a venom gland
in each finger of the chelae, Schlottke says no poisonous effect was
to be observed on the captured prey.
VII. THE SCORPIONIDA
With the scorpions more parts of the animal’s anatomy have been
brought into the service of the feeding function than in any other
arachnid. There is present the usual association of the chelicerae,
the labrum, and the pedipalp coxae, but the under lip of the scorpion
is composed of endite lobes from the coxae of both the first and the
second pairs of legs, the pedipalps bear strong chelae, and, in addition
to these structures, the postabdominal tail with its sting plays an
important role in the feeding process by the subduing of prey caught
and held in the pedipalp chelae.
The relatively small, three-segmented chelicerae of the scorpion
project straight forward from beneath the overhanging edge of the
carapace (fig. 13 A). They are turned on their sides so that the
movable finger of each appendage has a lateral position. In Centru-
roides this finger is deeply cleft into two points (B, C), which clasp
the immovable finger when the pincer is closed. The pedipalp chelae
of the scorpion have been sufficiently described in the General Discus-
sion (p. 14, fig. 5 D, E, F), in which the identity of the segments
composing the chela was deduced from a comparison with the struc-
ture and musculature of the legs; the “hand” of the chela is the
tibia, the movable finger is the tarsus, with possibly the tip derived
from the pretarsus.
Conspicuous at the anterior end of the scorpion’s body is a large,
open, quadrate cavity (fig. 13D, PrC) between the flat mesal sur-
faces of the pedipalp coxae (J/Cx), covered above by the flattened
chelicerae (Chl), and closed below by the closely appressed endite
lobes of the coxae of the first and second legs (///Endt, IV Endt).
This cavity is evidently a receiving chamber for food material crushed
by the pedipalp chelae and further comminuted by the chelicerae.
Concealed within it is the labrum, and below the latter the mouth,
both being fully exposed on removal of the chelicerae and the pedipalps
(E). The labrum (Lm) is a large, soft, laterally compressed lobe
with a rounded dorsal wall terminating in a fringe of long hairs (G,
Lm), below which the anterior labral wall recedes to the short ventral
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
/
Chl Pre exp llEndt
\ i jf a
SS
SSA
/_ dla iv Phy
hy
. 4
WEnde fs \
IVEndt Mth IVCx
Fic. 13—Scorpionida.
A, Chactas vanbenedeni Gervais, female. B, Centruroides sp., chelicera. C,
same, movable finger of chelicera, mesal surface. D, same, anterior part of body,
ventral, showing mouth parts and large preoral food cavity (PrC). E, same,
anterior end of body with chelicerae and pedipalps removed, exposing the mouth
(Mth) at base of coxal endites forming a basinlike under lip. F, Pandinus sp.,
right first leg, ventral, showing large coxal endite. G, Centruroides sp., longi-
tudinal section through anterior end of body and labrum, with right chelicera
and base of right pedipalp in place.
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA-——-SNODGRASS 4!
surface overhanging the mouth and the inner end of the preoral food
cavity. The mouth (E, G, Mth) is a small unguarded aperture be-
neath the base of the labrum. From below the mouth there projects
forward the broad, basinlike floor of the preoral cavity (E) formed
of the endite lobes of the first leg coxae (J//Endt). Between the
mesal edges of these coxal lobes is a groove, which is closed below
by the closely applied endites of the second leg coxae (D, JV Endt),
and proximally runs into the mouth (E, Mth). The pedipalp coxae
are entirely separated from each other, and there is no recognizable
remnant of the pedipalp sternum in the scorpion. The broad, flat,
mesal surfaces of the coxae are mostly membranous (G, J//C#), and
form the lateral walls of the preoral food cavity (D, PrC). An-
teriorly the coxae are produced into short coxal processes (cxp)
mesad of the trochanters. The coxal bases are connected by two thick
bundles of transverse muscle fibers, which pass through the labrum
(G, tmcl). These muscles occur in other arachnids, and are labral
muscles ; in the scorpion they appear to be operative on the pedipalp
coxae by reason of a union of the base of the labrum with the coxal
walls.
The lobes of the first and second leg coxae (fig. 13 D, ///Endt,
IVEndt) that form the lower lip of the scorpion, or floor of the
preoral cavity, are here termed endites because they arise from the
bases of the coxae (F) and not from their distal ends as do the coxal
processes (c1p) of the pedipalp coxae. Coxal lobes of the same nature
occur also in the Phalangida.
There is no prominent epistomal plate in the scorpion, but at the
base of the dorsal wall of the labrum is a strong, irregular scleroti-
zation (fig. 13 G, Epst), which clearly represents the epistome, since
on it are attached the dorsal dilators of the pharynx (dld), and from
it is given off a pair of apodemal arms (eAp).
The pharynx of the scorpion is a small, pear-shaped sack enlarging
upward and posteriorly from its narrowed entrance at the mouth
(fig. 13 G, Phy). It is somewhat compressed laterally, rounded at
the inner end; the slender oesophagus (Oe) departs from the lower
wall at the end of a ventral channel from the mouth. The dorsal wall
of the sack is deeply infolded and the trough of the invagination is
strengthened by an elastic rod. Dilator muscles attached on the con-
cave dorsal wall (did) arise on the epistomal sclerotization (E pst)
at the base of the labrum, and lateral dilators take their origins on
the epistomal apodemes (eAp). Compressor muscles cover the lateral
walls of the pharynx.
The sting of the scorpion appears to be an appendage of the last
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
abdominal segment (fig. 14 B), and not the terminal segment itself.
The end segment, or telson, of an arthropod contains the anus; in
the scorpion the anus lies before the base of the sting in the end of
the sting-supporting segment (A, An). The scorpion sting in its
relation to the end of the abdomen is comparable with the flagellum
of the Thelyphonidae and the tail spine of Limulus. The base of the
sting is articulated on the end of the supporting segment in such a
manner that its principal movement is in a vertical plane, but because
io
Fic. 14.—The sting of a scorpion.
A, Pandinus sp., end of last postabdominal segment, with the sting, ventral,
showing the anus (Am) in last segment at base of sting. B, Centruroides sp.,
last two postabdominal segments and the sting, lateral. C, same, the sting with
its muscles arising in the last segment. D, same, cross section through base of
sting, showing the venom glands and enclosing muscles. E, same, terminal part
of sting, showing aperture of left venom duct. F, same, right half of base of
sting, mesal view, showing muscles covering right gland, and duct.
of the amplitude of the articular membrane it is capable also of
lateral movements. On its base are attached four long muscles, two
dorsal, and one on each side (C). The dorsal muscles are widely
divergent but both are inserted on a strong dorsal process of the
sting base. The lateral muscles are attached below the articular points
of the sting, and are hence depressors, but probably, acting as antag-
onists, they produce also lateral movements of the sting; each lateral
muscle separates into two distinct bundles of fibers. The segments of
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA-——-SNODGRASS 43
the postabdomen are likewise strongly musculated, each being provided
with a single wide dorsal muscle with an axial tendon, a lateral muscle
on each side, and in addition a large median ventral muscle.
The venom of the scorpion is produced in two sacklike glands
contained within the swollen basal part of the sting (fig. 14 D, Gld).
The glands have individual ducts opening separately near the point
of the sting through two lateral pores (E, Pr), from which grooves
extend to the tip. Each gland is closely invested along the entire length
of its mesal and dorsal surfaces by a thick muscular sheath made up
of several layers of semicircular fibers (D, F, mels), attached dorsally
on the upper part of the lateral wall of the containing capsule, and
ventrally on the lower wall. Contraction of the muscles evidently
compresses the gland sacks against the rigid capsular walls.
The scorpion is certainly not a primitive arachnid, though an an-
cient one. /f, therefore, the scorpions have any relationship to the
extinct Eurypterida, the theory of Versluys and Demoll (1920), in-
sofar as it derives the eurypterids from primitive scorpions, would
appear to be more reasonable than the reverse. That the Xiphosurida
have a scorpion ancestry, however, is difficult to believe, considering
their primitive method of feeding and their evident relation to the
trilobites.
VIII. THE PHALANGIDA, OR OPILIONES
The Phalangida are characterized by the presence of lobes arising
from the bases of the coxae of the pedipalps and the first two pairs
of legs. Because of their position on the coxal bases these lobes of
the phalangiids are analogous to the lobes on the second and third
leg coxae of the scorpions, which, as explained in the last section,
are here termed endites to distinguish them from the distal processes
of the pedipalp coxae in other arachnids. The pedipalp endites of
the Phalangida are always closely associated with the mouth, and have
the appearance of a pair of jaws; they may be prehensile, but they
have no masticatory function, and hence are not appropriately termed
“manducatory” lobes. The first leg endites in the Phalangiidae re-
semble the pedipalp endites and are likewise associated with the mouth,
but the endites of the second legs never have a direct relation to
feeding. In the Cyphophthalmi and the Laniatores the coxal endites,
whether hard or soft in texture, are immovably fixed on the coxae,
but in the Palpatores they are flexibly attached to the coxae, and
become independently movable because some of the body muscles of
the coxae are attached on their bases. A labrum is always present,
44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
supported on an epistomal plate between the pedipalp coxae. An
under lip, when present, is formed by the projecting sternum of
the first-leg segment.
The mouth parts of the Cyphophthalmi, of which a general com-
parative account is given by Hansen and Sorensen (1904), are of
more simple structure than those of the other two suborders of the
Phalangida. The following description of the parts in Holosiro
acaroides Ewing is made from specimens furnished by Dr. I. M.
Newell of the University of Oregon.
The chelicerae of Holosiro (fig. 15 C) are relatively long, and are
three-segmented, with the movable finger of the chela articulated
laterally on the second segment. The pedipalp telopodites (I, Pdp)
are slender, smaller than the legs, but the coxae (J7C x) are large, and
each bears a large endite (J/Endt) projecting ventrally and mesally.
On removing the appendage, the endite is seen to be a solid extension
from the inner face of the coxa (A, B, Endt) ending with a soft
ventral lobe. The convex outer surface of the lobe (A) is clothed
with small setae, the flat or slightly concave inner surface (B) is
finely and closely striated. The two apposed pedipalp endites present
ventrally rounded padlike surfaces (1, //Endt) separated by a narrow
cleft that leads up to the mouth. Though coxal muscles of the pedi-
palps are attached on the endites, the latter are so firmly fixed on the
coxae that they have no independent movement.
The mouth of the Cyphophthalmids is entirely concealed beneath
the bases of the chelicerae and between the pedipalp endites. Above
the mouth is a U-shaped epistomal plate (fig. 15 D, Epst) supporting
the labrum (Lm). In the specimens of Holosiro examined, the labrum
was broken in dissection, but Hansen and Sorensen (1904) describe
the organ in other cyphophthalmids as a thin, laterally compressed
plate projecting downward and forward from the “clypeus” between
the pedipalp coxae. The ‘‘clypeus” of these writers is the epistome.
The ventral surface of the prosoma of Holosiro (fig. 151) is
occupied entirely by the large coxal segments of the legs, the long
axes of which radiate on each side from a point in front of the genital
opening. The coxae of the first legs (JC) are thus turned forward
so that they embrace the pedipalp coxae (J/Cx). Each first-leg coxa
is traversed anteroposteriorly across its middle by a strong ridge (cxr)
that runs out in a small point on the anterior coxal margin, and forms
the lower edge of a broad, slightly concave surface on the inner side
of the coxa (E, F, 1), which bears at its mesal end a soft, rounded,
lobular endite (Endt) with a small, hairy papilla behind the pedipalp
endite. Between the two opposed mesal surfaces of the first-leg coxae
NO, IO FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA-——SNODGRASS 45
is a widely open space, the so-called stomotheca, in which are contained
the endites of the pedipalps and the first legs (1). Posteriorly the
stomotheca is closed by the approximated inner ends of the second-
leg coxae (J/VCx), on which are rounded elevations of an endite
Cx
WEndt
Fic. 15.—Phalangida-Cyphophthalmi, Holosiro acaroides Ewing.
A, base of left pedipalp, lateral. B, base of right pedipalp, mesal. C, left
chelicera, lateral. D, epistome and part of labrum, dorsal. E, base of right first
leg, ventral. F, same, mesal. G, base of right second leg, posterior. H, details
of mesal ends of coxae of right first and second legs more enlarged, ventral.
I, bases of prosomatic appendages, except chelicerae, showing mouth parts,
ventral. (All figures except H same enlargement.)
nature (JV Endt) that somewhat overlap the inner ends of the first-
leg coxae. When the coxae of the second legs are detached and
viewed from behind (G) the endites are seen to be distinct lobes,
though their surfaces are hard and not membranous.
46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Since there are no sternal plates on the prosoma of the Cyphoph-
thalmi, there is no under-lip structure closing the stomotheca below,
such as the sternum of the first-leg segment in Phalangiidae. When
the chelicerae are deflexed, however, their chelae are turned pos-
teriorly, upside down, close against the endites of the pedipalps and
the first legs ; in this position the pincers fit neatly between the ridges
of the first-leg coxae, and completely cover the stomotheca from
below. During feeding, therefore, prey held in the chelicerae could
thus be applied directly to the cleft between the pedipalp endites,
through which the exuding juices might be drawn up to the mouth.
The suborder Palpatores, or Plagiostethi, includes the familiar
long-legged phalangiids of the family Phalangiidae. The first full
description of one of these arachnids goes back to Tulk (1843), who
gives a detailed account of the external and internal structure of
Phalangium opilio L. Tulk cites earlier writers but says their work is
either superficial or lacking in detail. Among more recent papers those
by Police (1927), and by Kastner (1933a) on the feeding organs of
Opilio and Phalangium are the most important. Since Police critically
reviews the work of others before his time, and gives numerous quo-
tations from their descriptions, the student historically interested is
referred to his paper. The following account of the phalangiid mouth
parts as developed in the family Phalangiidae is based on a species
of Letobunum.
A front view of the body of a phalangiid (fig. 16B) presents a
most unusual appearance for an arachnid because of the number of
structures that are associated with the mouth, but which entirely
conceal it. Uppermost is the slender, tapering labrum (Lm) projecting
as a free lobe from an epistomal plate (Epst) between the pedipalp
coxae (//Cx). Immediately below the labrum and converging beneath
it are the large, soft, endites of the pedipalp coxae (J/Endt), each
with a pair of accessory lobules on its base ; and beneath these endites
are the thick, padlike endites of the first pair of legs (J//Endt).
Below all these structures, projecting like a broad under lip, is the
sternal plate of the first leg segment (/J7S), which forms the floor
of the preoral cavity. Finally, projecting beneath the sternum are
seen the small, hairy endites of the second-leg coxae (JV Endt).
The chelicerae of Leiobunum, as in all the Phalangida, are three-
segmented (fig. 16 A, Chl). The basal segments extend forward from
the anterior body wall above the epistome, the distal segments with
the relatively small pincers hang downward at the sides of the labrum.
The base of each chelicera is produced into the body as a large
apodemal extension from the lateral and ventral walls of the proximal
NO, I0 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA——-SNODGRASS 47
NEndt Mth /
IEndt IIS IVEndt IVs
Fic. 16.—Phalangida-Palpatores, Leiobunum sp.
A, anterior end of body with chelicerae and pedipalps. B, anterior end of
body, chelicerae removed, turned dorsally to show mouth parts. C, labrum and
epistome, with epistomocoxal apodemes, left side. D, mouth parts, anterodorsal
view, chelicerae and telopodites of pedipalps removed. E, base of right pedipalp,
with coxal endite and muscles, mesal view ; c, “pseudotracheal” canal. F, left
pedipalp, lateral. G, bases of first and second legs, with coxal endites and
corresponding sterna. H, longitudinal section of anterior end of body, showing
mouth parts of right side, mouth, and pharynx with its muscles.
48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
segment, on which are inserted levator and depressor muscles arising
on the carapace laterad of the eyes (H). Between the cheliceral
bases a strong sclerotic bar (A, f) in the anterior body wall connects
the epistome with the anterior edge of the carapace.
The pedipalp coxae are elongate dorsoventrally (fig. 16 D, JIJCx),
as are the coxae of the legs (B). They are implanted in the mem-
branous anterior wall of the body laterad of the chelicerae, and their
upper ends, which reach almost to the level of the dorsal edges of
the cheliceral bases (B, Chl), are weakly articulated on the anterior
margin of the carapace. Mesally the dorsal walls of the pedipalp
coxae are united with the lateral margins of the epistome (Epst),
and along the line of union on each side (ecs) is inflected a broad,
platelike epistomo-coxal apodeme (figs. 16C, 17C, ecAp). There
is no median epistomal apodeme in Leiobunum. The musculature of
the pedipalp coxa is the same as that of a leg in that it comprises
dorsal muscles arising on the carapace (fig. 16 EF, 1), and ventral
muscles (2, 3) arising on the corresponding anterior arm of the
endosternum (Endst). Each group of muscles includes mesal and
lateral fibers representing the promotors and remotors of a leg. One
of the ventral muscles of the pedipalp (3), being inserted on the base
of the coxal endite, gives this flexible lobe an independent movement.
The long muscles of the pedipalp trochanter (4) take their origins on
the coxal lamella of the epistomo-coxal apodeme.
The endites of the pedipalps are broad, soft lobes, each with a pair
of small lobules projecting anteriorly from its base (fig. 16 B, F).
The flat mesal surfaces of these endites (E) are in apposition before
the mouth (B, /7Endt). Each contains in its posterior part a slender,
curved, deeply sunken groove (FE, c) that runs up into the mouth.
The groove is known as a “‘pseudotrachea” because of its finely ribbed
walls, which give it the appearance of a trachea open along the outer
side. The endites of the first legs (G, 1L) are thick, soft, padlike
lobes (B, H, J//Endt) lying below the level of the mouth (H, Mth).
Ventrally they come together under the pedipalp lobes where their
extended margins overlap to form a gutterlike channel leading back
toward the pharyngeal entrance (B). The small endites of the second
legs (G, 2L) project beneath the pedipalp sternum (B, H, JV Endt),
and are too far removed from the mouth to have any direct relation
to feeding, but they probably have a sensory function. According to
Police (1927) each of the four endites associated with the mouth
contains a pyriform, sacklike gland, the glands of the pedipalps
opening on the dorsal margins of the mesal surfaces of the endites,
NO, 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA——-SNODGRASS 49
those of the first legs opening centrally on the inner surfaces. The
nature of the secretion of these glands is not determined.
The mouth entrance of Phalangium opilio L. is described by
Kastner (1933a, 1935) as a short funnel with its walls thrown out-
ward in six radiating folds. The same region is termed the “buccal
atrium” by Police (1927), who shows its structure in two cross
sections (fig. 17 A, B). Both writers find that this region is provided
with dorsal (anterior) muscles (A, did) arising within the labrum,
and ventral (posterior) muscles (d/v) arising on the epistomo-coxal
apodemes. Police notes that the mouth atrium, therefore, can be
dilated only in a vertical plane. Kastner says the mouth can be closed
by the first circular muscles of the pharynx immediately behind it,
and he regards the strong transverse muscle in the base of the labrum
Fic. 17.—Phalangida-Phalangiidae, Phalangium opilio (Latr.).
A, cross section of labrum and mouth region, showing ‘“‘pseudotracheal” canals
(c) in walls of the latter (from Police, 1927). B, section through same parts
farther back, showing transverse muscles of labrum (from Police, 1927).
cross section through epistome, epistomocoxal apodemes (ecAp), and pharynx,
showing groove (g) in dorsal wall of pharynx (from Kastner, 1933a).
(B, tmcl) as being also a closer of the mouth funnel, though, as
Police points out, it would appear that this last muscle merely com-
presses the labrum. The six folds of the mouth, two dorsal, two
lateral, and two ventral, are continued into similar folds of the walls
of the pharynx (C, Phy). The pseudotracheal canals of the pedipalp
endites (fig. 16 E, ¢) open into the lumina of the lateral mouth folds
(fig. 17 A, B, c).
The pharynx of Phalangium opilio is said by Kastner to rise
vertically from the mouth and then to turn abrubtly backward in a
narrowed horizontal part; in Police’s figure of the same species the
distinction between the two parts is much less accentuated. The
pharynx of Leiobunum (fig. 16H, Phy) is only slightly curved up-
ward ; it runs posteriorly between the large epistomo-coxal apodemes
50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
(ecAp) parallel to the epistome (Epst), and is continued into the
narrow oesophagus (Oe). On the crest of each of the six radial
folds of the pharyngeal wall is inserted a row of dilator muscles (fig.
17 C). The dorsal muscles (did) have their origins on the epistome
(Epst) ; the lateral and ventral muscles (dil, div) arise on the epi-
stomal lamellae of the epistomo-coxal apodemes (ecAp). Circular
compressor fibers (cpr) alternating with the dilator muscles surround
the entire length of the pharynx.
The dorsal wall of the pharynx of Phalangium opilio is shown by
Kastner to be traversed by a narrow median groove with sclerotic
walls (fig. 17C, g). By contraction of the mouth region, Kastner
says, the anterior end of the pharyngeal groove is brought into contact
with the inner ends of the pseudotracheal canals of the pedipalp
endites. The canal system, therefore, evidently has some unified
function, though what this function may be is not known. It is of
interest to note that a dorsal pharyngeal canal is present also in the
Araneida (fig. 19 C, dc).
The oesophagus is a narrow tube (fig. 16H, Oe) going direct
from the end of the pharynx to the ventriculus (Vent). Just before
joining the stomach the oesophagus is slightly enlarged, but apparently
does not form here a sucking apparatus. According to Kastner the
oesophagus lacks dilator muscles, and the circular muscles end where
the tube enters the nerve mass.
In their feeding habits the phalangiids appear to be exceptional
among the Arachnida in that they ingest fragments of their food as
well as liquid. Hansen and Sorensen (1904) say that “the middle
and anal divisions of the alimentary canal may be quite filled with
more or less digested portions of food, fragments of animals which
are easily recognized by the broken pieces of chitine which are con-
tained in them; but such are never found in the diverticula.” These
writers did not mention any particular species. Police (1927) says
that sections of Phalangium opilio show in the stomach only soft
material, though this may contain fragments of viscera and tracheae.
Tulk (1843) gives a rather fanciful description of the working of the
mouth parts during feeding, in which the oral endites are conceived
to be jaws for crushing the prey and extracting the juices, while a
further crushing function is attributed to the pharynx. The pharynx,
however, has no internal armature such as Tulk describes, and the
oral endites, though independently movable on the supporting coxae,
are too soft in texture to be masticatory organs. Though pieces of
the internal organs of the prey may be taken into the stomach by the
phalangiids, such fragments, according to Frank (1938), are dissolved
NO. IO FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA——SNODGRASS 5!
in the stomach, and the final digestive processes take place intra-
cellularly within the stomach diverticula as with other arachnids.
Kastner (1925), in describing the observed manner of feeding by
Platybunus corniger Herm. on a spider, says the captured prey is held
in the chelicerae, and the abdomen first torn open. Then, while one
of the pincers holds the cut edge, the other reaches into the opening
and pulls out pieces of the entrails and brings them to the mouth parts.
The fragments are seized by the coxal endites of the pedipalps and
first legs, which open and close alternately and pass the food on to
the mouth. After the meal, Kastner observes, both the chelicerae and
the pedipalps, which latter have assisted in the act of feeding, are
cleaned by drawing them through the oral lobes.
IX. THE ARANEIDA
The spiders possess several features in the feeding apparatus by
which they differ from the other arachnids. The two-segmented
chelicerae have usually no process opposing the fanglike terminal
segment, which closes against the basal segment. In all families ex-
cept the Uloboridae the chelicerae contain poison glands. The pedi-
palp coxae, except in Liphistiidae and most of the Mygalomorphae,
have large distal processes usually forming strong but immovable
jawlike lobes. The lower lip, or floor of the preoral food cavity, is
formed by the sternum of the pedipalp segment, which may be either
free between the pedipalp coxae, or united with the sternal plate of
the legs. The dorsal and ventral walls of the pharynx are more or less
sclerotized, forming a strong dorsal plate and a more weakly developed
ventral plate, the two connected laterally by membranes. The dorsal
plate is traversed by a median channel running forward from the
orifice of the oesophagus. The proventriculus is a strongly developed
pumping organ, the so-called “stomach pump,” and may be of more
importance in the sucking function than the pharynx itself.
The cheliceral poison gland is a sacklike organ (figs. 19 A, 20 F)
with a duct traversing the fang to open on the convex side of the
latter near the point (fig. 19 A, VPr). In the Mygalomorphae the
gland is contained entirely or mostly within the basal segment of the
chelicera ; in other groups it may project into the body cavity as far
as the prosomatic nerve mass or beyond it. The gland is covered by
a layer of muscle fibers; the fibers are said by Millot (1931) to be
generally arranged spirally along the length of the sack, but to present
variations and irregularities. In Latrodectus mactans, the highly
venomous “black widow” spider, the muscles, as shown by Reese
(1944), run longitudinally on the gland (fig. 20 F).
52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Glands contained in the pedipalp coxae and opening into the preoral
food cavity are said to be present in all members of the Araneida;
they are known as the salivary glands, or “maxillary” glands. Accord-
ing to Petrunkevitch (1933) these glands are unicellular in Hypo-
chilus, but in all other genera they are multicellular sacklike organs,
the number in each coxa varying with the species. In Liphistius and
the Mygalomorphae the glands, as shown by Bertkau (1885) in
Atypus, are distributed along the entire length of the coxa, and open
irregularly on the upper surface near the inner edge. In other spiders
the glands open on a small oval or circular area on the inner face of
each coxa, known as the “sieve plate’ because of its perforation by
the duct orifices. A gland, or pair of glands, is present also in the
labrum. The structure of the labral gland in Atypus piceus Sultzer
is described in detail by Bertkau (1885), who says the gland opens on
the outer surface of the labrum. According to Petrunkevitch (1933)
there is apparently a pair of labral glands (“rostral glands’’) in all
spiders, but in some they are so closely united as to appear to be a
single organ. The two ducts discharge into a wide, slitlike atrium that
opens to the exterior.
In the feeding of the spiders, extraoral digestion plays an important
part. A powerful digestive fluid from the stomach is discharged on
the prey and completely liquefies the soft tissues. So copious and
effective is this exuded digestive fluid that some spiders are able to
consume even small vertebrates, which they kill by the venomous bite
of the chelicerae. In recording observations of the feeding of Palystes
natalius (Karsch), a South African member of the Heteropodidae,
on a small lizard, Warren (1923) says: ‘All the ordinary tissues,
including tendons and cartilages, were rapidly softened, and the body
became plastic, while the bones were completely disarticulated. The
voluntary muscles and all the softer tissues dissolved with great
rapidity when the out-flowing and in-flowing currents of digestive
fluid gained access to them. After a period of about two and a half
hours the body (about 14 in. long) of the lizard had been reduced to
a small, blackish, rounded and somewhat dry mass about + in. in
diameter. This mass the spider allowed to drop to the ground.”
Abraham (1923) records the feeding of a species of Thalassius,
family Pisauridae, on live fish, small frogs, and tadpoles. He describes
the catching of fish in an aquarium by the spider, which holds to a rock
by its long hind legs and plunges into the water to seize its victim.
Baerg (1938) says of a large species of Dugesiella (Aviculariidae)
that in captivity it will feed on recently killed animals, “accepting
NO, I0 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA—SNODGRASS 53
besides various large insects, also crayfish, small lizards, small snakes,
and even small fish.”
A detailed account of observations on the feeding act of spiders
is given by Kastner (see Gerhardt and Kastner, 1937, pp. 447-449).
Some species, particularly those that feed on hard-shelled insects,
such as beetles, merely suck out the dissolved tissues through a wound
in the prey. Others, including most spiders, thrust the cheliceral
claws into the body of the prey and tear the entrails to give the in-
jected digestive fluid better access to the tissues; finally they crush
and knead the prey in order to get the last juice from the mangled
body. The digestive fluid is said by Kastner to be expelled repeatedly
as a large drop of clear liquid that fills the preoral cavity of the
spider and flows into the wound of the prey, and is then sucked back.
The mechanical treatment of the prey, according to Kastner, is done
entirely with the chelicerae, not with the jawlike lobes of the pedipalp
coxae. The latter serve merely as the lateral walls of the space between
the labrum above and the pedipalp sternum below, which is the food
conduit from the prey to the mouth. During feeding, Kastner ob-
serves, a rapid extension and contraction of the labrum within the
food conduit evidently exerts a preoral sucking action on the food
liquid. The hard, insoluble parts of the prey, prevented from entering
the mouth by the bristles of the coxae and sternum, accumulate in a
mass on the lower lip and are finally dislodged by the pedipalps.
Earlier writers assumed the source of the exuded digestive liquid
to be the glands of the pedipalp coxae, or so-called “maxillary” glands,
but others have contended that the liquid is too copious to be produced
in these relatively small glands, and must come from the stomach.
Bertkau (1885) demonstrated experimentally that the secretion of
the pedipalp glands does have a solvent effect on the muscles of a fly,
but only after 24 hours was the muscle tissue reduced to a pulp, while
a live spider dissolves the tissues of a fly often in a few hours.
Kastner (see Gerhardt and Kastner, 1937, pp. 448-450) has shown
from observation on a transparent Theridium species that during
feeding there takes place a heaving and fluctuating movement of the
alimentary mass in the abdomen, and that when a drop of fluid is
discharged from the mouth the small end branches of the stomach
diverticula contract and expand, suggesting that by this action the
digestive juice is being expelled. From quantitative analyses of the
digestive enzymes of Avicularia, Schlottke (1936) demonstrated that
no proteinase of sufficient strength to accomplish extraoral digestion
is produced in any part of the spider anterior to the stomach. The
stomach diverticula, according to Schlottke’s results, secrete a strong
54. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
trypsinlike proteinase, an aminopolypeptidase, a carboxypolypeptidase,
and a dipeptidase of varying strength. Lipase is strongly present, and
amylase in some cases, but probably a part of the amylase comes from
the prey. Since the several ferments are not found in the same
amount in all individuals, it is evident that the diverticula do not
secrete a uniform digestive liquid.
The Mygalomorphae (Orthognatha) differ from the other spiders,
with respect to the feeding organs, in that the basal segments of the
chelicerae are directed straight forward from the body, and that the
pedipalp coxae, except in Atypidae, have only small, inconspicuous
anterior processes instead of the large jawlike lobes present in most
other spiders. As an example of the mouth-part structure in this
group a species of Eurypelma, one of the “tarantulas” so called in
America, is here described.
The pedipalps of Eurypelma hentzi Chamb. are smaller than the
legs ; in the female each appendage has six normal segments (fig. 18 C)
and a small, clawlike pretarsus (D, Ptar). The single elongate tarsal
segment is padded on the ventral surface with a thick, velvety coating
of small soft hairs (G, Tar), which distally form two apical lobelike
tufts. The pretarsal claw arises from a padlike surface on the end of
the tarsus (D), but is ordinarily almost concealed by the overhanging
hairs, only its tip being visible in the notch between the apical tufts
(G, Ptar). The claw is provided with the usual two pretarsal muscles,
a levator, arising in the tarsus, and a depressor, arising in the tibia
and patella with its fibers inserted on a long ventral tendon of the
claw. In the male, the pedipalp ends with a sperm-carrying organ
(fig. 18 E, Ptar), which clearly is a modified and specialized pretarsal
segment, since, as Barrows (1925) has shown, two muscles are at-
tached on its base, a levator (lvptar) arising in the tarsus, and a
depressor (dpptar) in the tibia. The legs differ from the pedipalps in
having two subsegments in the tarsus, and a pair of pretarsal claws.
The pedipalp coxae lie horizontally in the plane of the leg coxae,
but they diverge anteriorly from the suboral sternum between their
bases. Their mesal faces adjoin the epistome, but are connected with
the latter only by membranous conjunctivae. In Eurypelma and most
of the other Mygalomorphae the pedipalp coxae have small anterior
processes at the inner sides of the trochanteral bases (fig. 18 C, F,
cxp), but in Atypidae (H) these coxal processes are large, thick
lobes (cxp) projecting beneath the chelicerae.
The huge chelicerae of Eurypelma (fig. 18 A, Chl) project forward
but sag somewhat downward from the receding anterior wall of the
body, which seems scarce able to support them. The fangs turn back-
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA-—-SNODGRASS 55
Fic. 18.—Araneida-Mygalomorphae.
A, Eurypelma hentsi Chamb., female, prosoma, with pedipalps and legs re-
moved. B, same, epistome and labrum, anterior. C, same, left pedipalp, mesal.
D, same, pretarsal claw of pedipalp exposed on end of partly denuded tarsus.
E, Eurypelma californica Ausser, male, tarsus and pretarsus of pedipalp, with
muscles (from Barrows, 1925). F, Eurypelma hentzi Chamb., female, basal
part of left pedipalp. G, same, terminal segments of pedipalp, ventral. H,
Atypus bicolor Lucas, prosoma and bases of appendages, ventral, showing large
coxal processes of pedipalp coxae.
56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
ward below the large basal segments. The venom gland of each
appendage is an elongate, cylindrical sack (fig. 19 A) lying in the
upper part of the basal segment. It is covered by a layer of flat,
strongly striated muscle fibers, which go obliquely upward and pos-
teriorly on each side, and their ends overlap along the midventral
and middorsal lines. The duct traverses the fang to open by a pore
(V Pr) near the tip on the convex surface.
Beneath the chelicerae, the labrum (fig. 18 A, Lm) projects from
the anterior wall of the prosoma in the form of a large, soft lobe
with two small lobules on the angle between its short dorsal surface
and the long, receding anterior surface. The sides are compressed
(B) but expanded below to form before the mouth an upper lip
fitting snugly into the concavity of the under-lip sternum (A, J/S).
From the base of the dorsal surface of the labrum there is reflected
upward in the body wall beneath the chelicerae a small, transverse
epistomal plate (B, Epst) with prolonged lateral angles. The sternum
of the pedipalp segment (A, JJS), which, as in all the Araneida,
constitutes the under wall of the preoral cavity, is a small plate
detached from the large sternal plate of the leg segments. As just
noted, its concave upper surface receives the expanded lower end of
the labrum.
Between the under surface of the labrum and the pedipalp sternum
is the short preoral food cavity (fig. 19 B, PrC), which leads directly
through the mouth (Mth) into the lumen of the pharynx (Phy).
The pharynx slopes steeply upward behind the labrum and epistome,
and the oesophagus (Oe) dips downward from its inner end. The
walls of the pharynx are formed of an inwardly convex dorsal plate
(dpl) and a concave ventral plate (vpl) united along their edges by
membranous conjunctivae. The strongly sclerotic dorsal plate (C)
is continued from the under surface of the labrum (Lm), the larger
but weaker ventral plate (E) from the upper surface of the deuto-
sternum (//S). The dorsal plate (C) presents a high, rounded
median lobe, flanked by two narrow lateral lobes. The middle lobe
is deeply incised at its inner end, but a median arm is continued
through the emargination. Traversing the middle lobe from the
end of the arm almost to the labrum is a median channel (C, D, dc)
with strongly sclerotic walls. At its upper (posterior) end the channel
is widely open before the mouth of the oesophagus, but along the arm
of the plate it is nearly closed by lateral folds of membrane, and then
becomes again an open groove that tapers to a narrow slit ending
shortly behind the labrum. On the dorsal plate of the pharynx is
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA—-SNODGRASS 57
attached a large dilator muscle (B), the fibers of which spread from
their origins on the epistome (pst).
The relatively weak, concave ventral plate of the pharynx (fig.
19 E) is longer than the dorsal plate because the edge of the pedipalp
sternum (J/S) extends beyond the labrum. The median part of this
plate, or ventral wall of the pharynx, is but weakly sclerotized except
for a strong bar, deeply forked at the upper end, that traverses its
middle. On the inner end of the ventral plate is inserted a pair of
large muscles from the prosomatic carapace (B).
VGld.
ater gt
i?
iH} hy
We
Fic. 19.—Araneida-Mygalomorphae, Eurypelma hentsi Chamb.
A, cheliceral fang and venom gland. B, longitudinal section through mouth
region and pharynx. C, dorsal plate of pharynx and lower end ot labrum,
ventral. D, cross section of dorsal plate of pharynx. E, ventral plate of pharynx
and distal end of pedipalp sternum, dorsal.
The mouth parts of the Dipneumonomorphae (Labidognatha), or
ordinary spiders, differ from those of the Mygalomorphae principally
in that the chelicerae hang downward from the anterior edge of the
prosoma (fig. 20B), and that the pedipalp coxae have large lobes
at the sides of the mouth which give the appearance of a pair of
strong jaws (C, D, cxp). These coxal lobes of the spiders have no
independent movement, since they are solidly affixed to the coxae.
In appearance they suggest the coxal endites of the Phalangida, but
inasmuch as they arise from the distal ends of the coxae, and in
some forms, as in Dysdera crocata C. Koch (G), they are no different
from the large coxal processes of the mygalomorph Atypus (fig.
18H), it is clear that they are merely special developments of the
58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
usual anterior coxal processes, such as those typical of the Mygalo-
morphae (fig. 18 C, F, cxp).
The labrum of the dipneumone spiders is a supraoral lobe of
Fic. 20.—Araneida-Dipneumonomorphae.
A, Heteropoda venatoria L., Sparassidae, prosoma, with chelicerae, pedipalps,
and bases of legs, ventral. B, Metargiope trifasciata (Forsk.), Argiopidae,
female, anterior end of body. C, same, mouth region and pedipalps, anterior,
showing preoral cavity (PrC) enclosed by labrum, coxal processes of pedipalps,
and pedipalp sternum. D, Heteropoda venatoria L., epistome, labrum, and bases
of pedipalps, anterior. E, Metargiope trifasciata (Forsk.), cheliceral fang and
muscles. F, Latrodectus mactans Fab., Theridiidae, female, chelicerae with
poison glands and ducts. G, Dysdera crocata C. Koch, female, Dysderidae,
anterior part of ventral surface of body, with bases of pedipalps and first legs,
showing large coxal processes embracing the suboral pedipalp sternum.
variable form and size (fig. 20 C, D; fig. 21 B, Lm) suspended from
the epistome (fig. 20D, Epst), which is united laterally with the
pedipalp coxae (Cr). Between the labrum and the under lip formed
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA—SNODGRASS 59
of the pedipalp sternum is a short preoral cavity (fig. 20 C; fig. 21 B,
PrC) closed laterally by the lobes of the pedipalp coxae. The mouth
at the inner end of the preoral cavity opens directly into the pharynx.
The pharynx rises steeply from the mouth behind the labrum and
epistome (fig. 21 A, Phy). In a cross section of the pharynx of
Fic. 21.—Araneida-Dipneumonomorphae.
A, Agelena naevia Walck., diagrammatic longitudinal section of the prosoma,
showing muscles of the stomodaeum (from Brown, 1939). B, Dysdera crocata
C. Koch, labrum, pedipalp sternum, and pharynx, left side. C, Heteropoda
venatoria L., labrum and dorsal plate of pharynx, ventral. D, same, oesophagus
and proventricular pump, muscles removed. E, same, cross sections of pharynx,
oesophagus, and proventricular pump. F, Tegenaria domestica (Cl.), longi-
tudinal section of piece of dorsal plate of pharynx, showing transverse ridges,
greatly magnified (from Bartels, 1930). G, Agelena naevia Walck., cross
section of proventricular pump, with muscles (from Brown, 1939).
Heteropoda venatoria (E, Phy), the organ is seen to be much flattened
dorsoventrally. In its dorsal (anterior) wall is a well-developed
plate (C) traversed by a median channel (dc) ; the opposite wall is
weak except for a sclerotized band along each lateral margin, which
is connected by membrane with the dorsal plate. The channel of the
60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
dorsal plate is widely open at its inner end before the oesophageal
aperture (C), but beyond this point the lips are in such close apposi-
tion that the channel becomes practically a closed tube (E, dc), except
that it opens again where it approaches the mouth (C). On each side
of the median channel the surface of the plate is crossed by numerous
fine ridges.
A longitudinal section of the dorsal pharyngeal plate of Tegenaria
domestica (Cl.) (fig. 21 F), as given by Bartels (1930), shows that
the surface ridges are high, thin folds of the cuticle, most of them
forked along their free edges, between which are deep grooves. The
grooves, Bartels believed, open mesally into the dorsal channel, though
he was not able to demonstrate the apertures. In experiments on
spiders allowed to drink water containing a suspension of India ink
or carmine particles, he found the granules massed in the grooves
and along the edges of the median channel, but very few in the channel
itself, while only some of the smallest particles had gone into the
stomach with the water. From these experiments Bartels concluded
that the ridges of the pharyngeal plate constitute a filtering apparatus
for the retention of undissolved material in the predigested food,
while the liquid part enters the oesophagus by way of the grooves
and the dorsal channel of the pharynx. The main lumen of the
pharynx, according to Bartels, serves for the discharge of the diges-
tive juices that first liquefy the soft tissues of the prey. However,
inasmuch as with other arachnids the food is ingested through the
pharynx lumen, it might be supposed that the dorsal channel of the
Araneida serves as the conduit for the exuded digestive liquid; the
very fact that the grooves of the dorsal plate become so readily
clogged would seem to disqualify them as food conduits. A dorsal
channel of the pharynx is present, however, also in the Phalangiidae,
which are not known to practice extraoral digestion.
The musculature of the araneid pharynx includes the usual dilators
arising on the epistome (fig. 21 A), and muscles attached on its upper
end. It is shown by Brown (1939) that in Agelena naevia (A) there
are two pairs of long dorsal muscles from the carapace, and a pair
of ventral muscles from the pedipalp sternum, all attached on the
upper end of the pharynx. The first dorsal muscle Brown calls a
dilator of the pharynx, the second a retractor ; the ventral muscle he
terms a retractor of the “labium.” Within the labrum are two trans-
verse muscles (tmcls) as in most other arachnids.
The oesophagus curves downward and again upward from the
pharynx (fig. 21 A, B, D), and expands to form a proventricular
pump (A, D, PvP) before reaching the stomach. The oesophagus
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA—-SNODGRASS OI
of Heteropoda venatoria is laterally compressed (fig. 21 E, Oe) ; its
dorsal wall is sclerotized and its ventral wall membranous (D). The
proventriculus is Y-shaped in section (E, PvP), with the membranous
lower wall of the stem inflected. A section of the proventricular
pump of Agelena naevia (G), as figured by Brown (1939), shows
strong sets of dilator muscles arising dorsally (d/ld) on an apodeme
(Ap) of the carapace, and lateroventrally (dll) on the endosternum
(Endst) ; compressor muscles (cpr) unite the dorsal and ventral
folds of the proventricular wall.
X. THE ACARINA
The distinctive feature relating to the feeding apparatus of the
Acarina is the presence of a discrete head structure carrying the
mouth parts, known as the capitulum, capitellum, or gnathosoma.
The first term is adopted here as being more generally used than the
others. The capitulum projects in front of the part of the animal
that bears the eyes, when eyes are present, and hence does not include
the entire head region derived from the cephalic lobe of the embryo
(fig. 1 E, HL). The acarine capitulum is simply a special development
of the part of the cephalon that lies before the carapace in other arach-
nids, together with the chelicerae and the pedipalp coxae. The capitu-
lum is more or less retracted into a recession of the body behind
it, within which it is attached by a flexible conjunctiva that allows of
retraction and protraction. The socketlike cavity that receives the
base of the capitulum is commonly called the “camerostome,” but
the etymological significance of the term in this connection is not clear.
The essential thing that differentiates the capitulum of the Acarina
(fig. 22 A) from the head of a spider or other arachnid (fig. 2 A)
is the sclerotization of the cephalic wall above the bases of the che-
licerae to form a dorsal fold or plate (fig. 22 A, Tect) projecting
from beneath the anterior edge of the dorsum of the body (D).
This plate, termed “rostrum” and “epistome,” may more appropriately
be named the tectum (tectum capituli), since it forms the dorsal wall,
or “roof,” of the capitulum. Laterally the tectum is fused with the
dorsally extended basal angles of the pedipalp coxae (//Cx), which
are united with each other ventrally, so that there is thus formed a
continuously sclerotized ring, the basis capituli. The coxae bear the
palps (Plp), and their dorsal surfaces, as in other arachnids, are
united mesally with a subcheliceral epistomal plate (Epst), which
bears the labrum (Lm) overhanging the mouth. The ventral wall of
the capitulum is produced beneath the mouth and the labrum as a
62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
median lobe (Hst) known as the hypostome. The hypostome appears
to be formed by the union of anterior coxal processes, and is thus
quite comparable to the similarly formed under lip of the Ricinulei
(fig. 10C). The hypostome is the floor of the preoral cavity, and
Tect.
Fic. 22.—Acarina, structure of the capitulum.
A, diagrammatic anterior view of the capitulum, with chelicerae cut off at
bases, showing lower lip, or hypostome (Hst), formed of united coxal processes
(compare with A of figure 2). B, diagrammatic longitudinal section of anterior
end of body (compare with D of figure 2). C, diagram of a primitive ixodid
coxa according to Schulze (1935), showing parts that may enter into the forma-
tion of the capitulum: a, area porosa; au, auricle; c, coxa; /, coxal process; pc,
processus cymatii; s, sella; ¢, trochanter. D, E, composition of the capitulum,
dorsal and ventral, according to Schulze (1935): ch, chelicera; J], sternum;
k, part of primary cephalic lobe; sc, subcoxa; sch, cheliceral sheath; , hypo-
pharynx ; other lettering as on C.
its concave or grooved upper surface, more or less covered by the
labrum, is the preoral food canal of the Acarina.
A lengthwise sectional view of the acarine capitulum (fig. 22 B)
shows the tectum (Tect) as the outer wall of a fold (b-c-d) extended
over the chelicerae, which latter thus appear to be sunken into a pouch
of the head wall above the epistome. By comparison with a corre-
NO, 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA——-SNODGRASS 63
sponding section of any other arachnid it will be seen that the anterior
cephalic wall in the Acarina, instead of going direct from the edge
of the carapace to the base of the epistome, as in the spider (fig. 2 D,
a-e), makes a complex folding (fig. 22 B, a-b-c-d-e) between the same
two points. The mouth (Mth) between the base of the labrum and
the base of the hypostome leads directly into the pharynx (Phy),
which, as in other arachnids (fig. 2D), has dorsal dilator muscles
arising on the epistome (pst).
To this simple basic structure of the capitulum there are added in
the different groups of Acarina various secondary modifications,
which may include the following: (1) a retraction of the capitulum
into the anterior end of the body; (2) elongation, invagination, or
other modifications of the chelicerae; (3) formation of membranous
cheliceral sheaths; (4) invagination of the epistome; (5) reduction
of the labrum; (6) elongation of the hypostome; (7) development
of appendicular lobes on the pedipalp coxae associated with the hypo-
stome ; (8) reduction of the palps.
The exact composition of the acarine capitulum is perhaps more
complex than that indicated above. However, Wagner (1894), in
describing the embryonic development of Jxodes calcaratus Bir.,
ascribes the major part of the capitulum to the pedipalp coxae. The
coxae, he says, are at first simple, but later a lobe grows out from
each ; then the coxae take a longitudinal position and their basal parts
gradually grow upward around the bases of the chelicerae to form the
capitular walls, while the lobes unite in an unpaired under-lip process
(the hypostome). Reuter (1909) is more complete in his account of
the development of the capitulum in Pediculopsis graminum (Reut.).
The rudiments of the chelicerae and pedipalps, he says, undergo very
great changes in the transformations by which these appendages, to-
gether with the cephalic lobe, are converted into the gnathosoma. The
chelicerae undergo a considerable reduction and are transposed to a
preoral position. The pedipalps are also reduced in their distal parts,
but their basal parts embrace the chelicerae laterally, while ventrally
they unite medially with each other, thus forming the lateral and
ventral walls of the gnathosoma. The upper wall of this headlike
structure, however, is derived from an unpaired projecting anterior
part of the cephalic lobe, which unites laterally with the dorsal parts
of the pedipalp coxae. The primary head lobe (Kopflappen), Reuter
says, grows out between the proximal upper parts of the pedipalp
coxae, and thus covers the cheliceral rudiments dorsally. “Dann
verschmelzen die proximalen Teile der Pedipalpen unten median mit
einander, oben mit den primaren Kopflappen, wodurch ein vorn die
64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Mundoffnung enthaltendes, ringsum geschlossenes Gebilde entsteht.”
The simple structure of the capitulum in adult Notostigmata (fig.
23 A), as described by With (1904), is quite in accord with Reuter’s
account of the development in Pediculopsis.
Analyzing the capitular structure on a basis of comparative anatomy,
Schulze (1932, 1935) contends that various elements besides the
pedipalp coxae and the cephalic lobe enter into its composition. First,
from a general study of the leg coxae of Ixodidae, Schulze deduces a
concept of a primitive ixodid coxa (fig. 22 C) having an anterior
process (1) projecting mesad of the trochanter (¢), and an auricular
lobe (aw) on the outer angle. Along the anterior margin of the coxa
a pleural fold, the “cymatium,” is partly united with the coxa, but
distally projects as a “‘processus cymatii” (pc) at the base of the
anterior lobe. On the part of the cymatium adnate on the coxa is a
porous area (@) of sense organs like those on the areae porosae of
the capitulum. A small accessory fold (s) lies above the cymatial
process.
The composition of the capitulum according to Schulze (fig. 22 D,
FE) is as follows: The pedipalp coxae (‘“Maxillae”) form the major
part of the basis capituli (Collare, or Kragen), but the trochanters
must usually be included, since in certain ticks they appear as distinct
basal segments of the palps (fig. 26 E, t). On the dorsal surface of
the capitulum (fig. 22D) the areae porosae (a) are derived from
dorsomesal extensions of the porous areas of the coxal cymatia (C, a)
united along the midline of the capitulum (D), while the small tri-
angle (k) between their divergent anterior ends is formed from the
primary cephalic lobe. On the ventral surface (E), the coxae (c, c)
are united with each other proximally, but they embrace distally a plate
(1I) representing the deutosternum, which bears characteristically
a pair of setae, and tapers distally in an “Unterlippe”’ (w) that forms
the median basal part of the hypostome (“Clava”). The lateral
toothed parts of the hypostome (/) are the anterior lobes of the
primitive coxae (C, /) united with each other distally and with the —
sternal tongue between their bases. At the base of each coxal lobe
of the hypostome appears the processes cymati (E, pc), and laterad
of this is a saddlelike piece, the “sella” (s), representing the small fold
above the cymatium of the primitive coxa (C, s). Finally, a sub-
coxal component is present as an invaginated extension from the base
of the capitulum (D, E, sc). Schulze concludes with a tribute to the
ingenuity of Nature, in that so many diverse parts can be brought
together to form a unified structure for a specific purpose. We can
NO, 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA——-SNODGRASS 65
say only that it may be so, but that developmental evidence would be
more convincing.
The mouth parts of the Acarina differ structurally from those of
other Arachnida in no essential respect, as Borner (1902) has clearly
shown. Recent writers, however, make no effort to correlate the
acarine structure with that of arachnids in general, and their special
terminologies become highly confusing ; but, as Borner has said, since
the mouth parts of the Acarina agree perfectly with those of other
Arachnida, there is no need for the introduction of special terms for
structures that already have generally applicable names. The review
of the works of other writers that follows will show that the structural
facts are fairly well known in several important acarine groups. The
present writer has made no extensive study of the feeding organs of
the Acarina, and, therefore, will attempt merely to bring the various
published accounts together under a uniform terminology based on a
concept of structural unity between the Acarina and other Arachnida.
The terms used in the following descriptions may hence seem strange
to acarologists, but few will deny the desirability of nomenclatural
reform,
The only features of the acarine mouth parts that cannot be homolo-
gized with structures generally present in other Arachnida are the
variously developed appendicular lobes or processes often associated
with the distal part of the hypostome ; lobes that are at least analogous
with them, however, occur in the Chelonethida (fig. 12 A). These
accessory hypostomal processes of the Acarina afford useful characters
for specific descriptions, but each taxonomic writer usually has names
of his own for them, or no names at all, and no attempt will be made
here to invent a uniform terminology. The structures in question are
evidently secondary lateral outgrowths of the coxal processes that are
united in the hypostome; they are hence not “maxillary” processes,
though in their various designations the maxillary idea seems to
predominate. The structures might be called simply Aypostomal proc-
esses. Usually, when present, there is a pair of them on each side,
one member of which is lateral, the other mesal.
Notostigmata.—The capitulum and the mouth parts in this arachnid
group, as described by With (1904), while in no sense primitive, show
unquestionably an early stage in the evolution of the acarine capitulum.
The tectum, termed “rostrum” by With, is a mere fold of the dorsal
integument over the bases of the chelicerae (fig. 23 A, E, Tect), but
it is united laterally with the high basal angles of the pedipalp coxae
(A, 1/Cx), and thus forms the dorsal wall of a primitive capitulum.
From beneath the tectum project the large, fully exposed, three-
66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
segmented chelicerae (Chl), which are but little invaginated at their
bases. The chelicerae are typically arachnoid in form (D), and evi-
dently are raptorial in function. Below the chelicerae is an elongate
median plate (C, Epst) united laterally with the coxae and terminating
in a free lobe that overhangs the mouth. With calls this entire plate
“labrum,” but he says it consists of a distal and a proximal part.
Fic. 23.—Acarina-Notostigmata, Opiliacarus segmentatus With (from
With, 1904).
A, capitulum, left side: m, p, coxal lobes associated with the hypostome; Tec,
tectum, or dorsal wall of capitulum. B, telopodite (palp) of pedipalp. C, dorsal
surface of anterior part of capitulum below the chelicerae, showing apical lobes
of coxae (m, p) and long epistomal plate (Epst) united laterally with the coxae.
D, left chelicera, mesal. E, longitudinal section of capitulum and anterior end
of body. F, transverse section of capitulum through pharynx, anterior to the
tectum (E, Tec).
Since the proximal part is united with the pedipalp coxae and gives
insertion to the dorsal muscles of the pharynx (E, F) it is clearly
the epistome (C, E, F, Epst) ; the free apical lobe is the labrum (C,
E, Lm).
The smooth, rounded under surface of the capitulum is extended
forward beneath the labrum and ends in a pair of suboral lobes (A)
that constitute the hypostome (A, E, Hst). At each side of the
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA——-SNODGRASS 67
hypostome is a pair of appendicular processes. In Opiliacarus seg-
mentatus, as described by With, the outer process of each pair (A, m)
is a toothed lobe articulated on the coxa, and is termed by With the
“maxillary lobe’; the inner one (/) is a thin lamella distinguished
as the “maxillary plate.” The palps of the notostigmatid pedipalps
are four-segmented beyond the coxa, and each bears a pair of pretarsal
claws.
Proximal to the capitulum there projects from the ventral surface
of the body a median bifid process (fig. 23 E, t), which is apparently
a secondary development on the sternal region of the first-leg segment.
Some writers term this structure the “labium,” but the similar ap-
pendage in Gamasides was designated a “Bauchtaster” by Kramer
(1876), who showed it has nothing to do with feeding, but probably
has some function in connection with mating, since the genital orifice
lies immediately behind it.
Oribatoidea.—In the scheme of acarine classification the sarcopti-
form mites are not related to the Notostigmata, but the sectional figure
by Berlese (1897) of the capitulum of a species described as Oribates
globulus, probably Euzetes seminulum (O. F. Miller), given here at
A of figure 24, shows a remarkably generalized condition of the
mouth parts in combination with a well-developed capitulum. The
tectum (Tect) is long and completely covers the retracted chelicerae
(Chl). The short, two-segmented chelicerae, however, are typical
chelate appendages, and, as shown in the figure, are merely invaginated
beneath the tectum, so that each is contained in a pocket of the head
wall inflected dorsally from the distal margin of the tectum, and
ventrally from the base of the epistome (Epst). The epistome and
the labrum (Lm) are together termed “labrum” by Berlese, but the
epistomal region is clearly identified as such by the attachment on it
of the dorsal pharyngeal muscles (d/d), while the labrum is the free
terminal lobe (Lm) projecting over the mouth. The ventral wall of
the capitulum projects beyond the mouth (Mth), forming a short
under-lip structure, or hypostome (Hst), with a median suboral lobe
and a pair of lateral lobes. The pharynx (Phy) is of the usual struc-
ture. If this is a true picture of the oribatid structure, the latter is
typically arachnoid except for the presence of the long dorsal wall
of the capitulum, which covers the chelicerae, and this feature is
merely an exaggeration of the structure in the Notostigmata.
Holothyroidea.—In this group, as in the Parasitiformes, the che-
licerae are elongate, deeply invaginated, and each is invested in a
specific tubular sheath. The capitulum of Holothyrus brauert (fig.
24 B), as described and figured by Thon (1906), is covered dorsally
68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
a AI; Wine
ce SI
Lr Mth Phy |
i AN
Fic. 24—Acarina-Oribatoidea, Holothyroidea, Gamasides.
A, Eusetes seminulum (O. F. Miller), Oribatoidea, longitudinal section of
capitulum (from Berlese, 1897). B, Holothyrus brauveri Thon, Holothyroidea,
longitudinal section of capitulum and anterior end of body (from Thon, 1906).
C, Poecilochirus carabi Cn., Gamasides, diagrammatic representation from
sagittal section of capitulum of male nymph by Winkler (1886). D, Holothyrus
braueri Thon, Holothyroidea, capitulum, with palps and chelicerae (from Thon,
1906). E, same, cross section of anterior part of capitulum (from Thon, 1906).
F, same, cross section of posterior part of capitulum (from Thon, 1906).
NO, 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA—-SNODGRASS 69
by a long duplicature of the prosomatic dorsum (D). The chelicerae
(Chl), in the retracted state, are invaginated far into the body from
between the tectum (7ect) above and the epistome (/pst) below.
According to Thon the chelicerae are five-segmented, but since he says
only two joints are articulations, it is evident that they are really
three-segmented. The anterior parts of the cheliceral sheaths (aChS)
are double tubular folds. The fold forming each outer sheath is ex-
tended dorsally from the tectum (Tect) and ventrally from the base
of the epistome (Epst) to the end of the cheliceral shaft, where it
is invaginated into itself to form the inner sheath more closely in-
vesting the chelicera and attached to the latter on the end of the basal
segment. Thon describes also posterior cheliceral sheaths (B, pChS)
reflected dorsally from the inner part of the tectum and ventrally from
the epistome ; but a posterior ensheathment of this kind is difficult to
understand morphologically, and Thon, himself, says it probably
results from some secondary modification.
The long epistomal plate of Holothyrus (fig. 24 B, Epst), called
“labrum” by Thon, underlies the cheliceral sheaths and gives attach-
ment to the dorsal muscles of the pharynx (E, F, Phy) ; laterally it
is united with the mesal walls of the pedipalp coxae (E, I/Cx).
Distally the epistome bears a small spiny lobe (B, Lim) overhanging
the mouth (Mth). The interior of the lobe is filled with radiating
columns of fibrous tissue, and the organ is provided with a pair of
depressor muscles arising on the epistome. This movable, spine-
covered lobe evidently has a rasping function, and for this reason
Thon calls it the “Radularorgan” ; there can be no question, however,
that it is the labrum in an unusual form.
The lower wall of the capitulum of Holothyrus (fig. 24D) has a
three-lobed appearance owing to lengthwise indentations along the
sides (E, F). Anteriorly the coxal cavity is divided into three com-
partments by partitions (E, /) inflected from the margins of the
epistome to the coxal grooves, but posteriorly the partitions are absent
(F). The distal end, or hypostomal region, of the ventral wall of the
capitulum (D, Hst) bears a pair of broad median lobes and a pair of
small lateral processes suggestive of the four apical appendages in the
Notostigmata. The relatively long palps (D, Plp) are five-segmented
but appear to lack pretarsal claws.
Gamasides—The capitulum is said by Winkler (1886) to be well
developed in all Parasitidae, but ventrally the segment of the first legs
closely adjoins the capitulum (fig. 25 A, B) and projects with it from
the anterior cavity of the body. A bifid ventral process (f) arises
from the tritosternal region as in Notostigmata. The chelicerae are
FO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. ILO
long, three-segmented, and chelate (fig. 24 C, Chl). Each chelicera
is invested in a membranous sheath (ChS) inflected from the distal
end of the tectum and the inner end of the epistome, and then re-
flected forward in a fold that again turns back within itself to the
distal end of the basal segment of the contained chelicera.
The diagram here given (fig. 24 C) is a free translation of the es-
sential structure in Winkler’s sectional figure of a male nymph of
Poecilochirus carabi Cn. Below the chelicerae are the epistome
(Epst), termed the “intermaxillary Chitingertist’” by Winkler, and
the elongate labrum (Lm). The labrum (“Zunge”), Winkler says,
is movable up and down, and also retractile by muscles inserted on
its base, and is pressed like a wedge into a groove of the hypostome.
Fic. 25.—Acarina-Gamasides.
A, Parasitus crassipes (L.), female, capitulum and first body segment, ventral
(from Winkler, 1886). B, same, male (from Winkler, 1886). C, Laelaps
echidninus Berl., capitulum, ventral (from Stanley, 1931) ; m, p, coxal processes
associated with the hypostome.
The under surface of the capitulum is prolonged beyond the mouth
into a hypostomal under-lip structure (fig. 24 C, Hst). In Parasitus
crassipes (L.) figured by Winkler (fig. 25 A, B) the hypostome pre-
sents a median lobe fringed with long hairs, which is much longer in
the male (B) than in the female (A), and bears on each side a slender
process (p) and a small lateral lobe supporting a knifelike or scalpel-
shaped process (m). These hypostomal details, Winkler says, show
much variation in different species.
NO, 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA-—-SNODGRASS 71
The paper by Steding (1924) on Halarachne otariae Sted., a species
found in the nasal cavity of the California otter, does not give much
concise information on the mouth parts, and the figures are some-
what sketchy, but the structure evidently is not essentially different
from that of other Gamasides. The chelicerae are said to be enclosed
in sheaths, but the sheath connections are not shown in a sectional
view of the head. A subcheliceral epistomal plate is clearly depicted
in a cross section, giving attachment to the dorsal muscles of the
pharynx. The term “Oberlippe” evidently refers to the tectum, since
Steding says it is a prolongation of the dorsal edge of the body, but
the true labrum is seen in a sectional figure as a lobe projecting over
the mouth from the epistome.
The description of the mouth parts of Laelaps echidninus Berl.
given by Stanley (1931) presents some details more clearly than the
earlier papers on Gamasides, but in certain respects it is difficult to
understand, and the terminology is confusing. The chelicerae are
called ‘‘mandibles,” the dorsal wall of the capitulum (tectum capituli)
is said to be prolonged in a long, flaplike “‘epistome” ; the large labrum,
with its ventral surface continuous into the dorsal wall of the pharynx,
is termed the “lingula,” and a long dorsal lobe of the labrum is named
the vomer. The under surface of the vomer is described as being
grooved and fitting over a dorsal ridge of the “lingula.””. —The vomer
is a structure not described by other writers. The chelicerae are said to
be enclosed in sheaths, but the connection of the sheaths with sur-
rounding parts are not clearly shown. The long hypostome is split
into two tapering lobes (fig. 281, Hst), and from the coxal area at
each side of it arise two slender, sharp-pointed processes. The lateral
process (a) Stanley calls the ‘“‘stylus,” the mesal process (b) the
“maxilla” ; the two processes on each side are loosely locked together
by a ridge on the “stylus” received into a groove of the “maxilla.”
Ixodidae and Argasidae.—The ticks have a well-developed capitulum
with strongly sclerotic walls (fig. 26 A-D) ; a wide basal extension
(lined in the figures) fits into the so-called “‘camerostome,” and is
mostly covered in the retracted position of the head (C). On the
exposed dorsal surface proximal to the palps in the female are two
areae porosae (A, ap), presumably sensory. Between the palps the
capitular wall is prolonged into the dorsal walls of tubular sheaths
(Chs) enclosing the chelicerae. The ventral wall of the capitulum
(B, C) is extended between the palps to form the large hypostome
(B, Hst), which may be parallel-sided or somewhat spoon-shaped, and
is generally armed below with strong retrorse teeth. The cheliceral
sheaths with the contained chelicerae, and the hypostome constitute
72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
a veritable rostrum, from the end of which project the movable,
laterally toothed digits of the chelicerae. The upper concave surface
of the hypostome has a median gutterlike groove (fig. 28 J, K, hg)
that leads back to the mouth and is the floor of the food conduit
within the rostrum.
The palps are freely movable on the capitulum. Each consists
typically of four segments (fig. 26 A, B), of which the first is a small
basal ring, the second and third are long and broad, while the fourth
is a small hairy pad or papilla set in a membranous area on the mesal
side of the end of the third segment (B, C, G, H). In Dermacentor,
however, the apparent basal segment of the palp (C) is immovably
united with the second segment, and in Boophilus (G) a basal seg-
ment is not distinguishable from the second. In the females of certain
species of Endopalpiger from New Guinea and Australia, Schulze
(1935) has shown that the basal segments of the palps are produced
into large lobes embracing the rostrum (FE, f¢, t). These segments
Schulze regards as the trochanters of the pedipalps, which in other
species and in the males of these same species are supposed to be in-
corporated in the capitulum, the long third segment of each palp,
being interpreted as the usual second and third segments united. A
smaller lobe arising from the base of the palp in Jvodes auritulus
Newm. (I, /), however, is regarded by Schulze as pertaining to a
secondarily separated proximal ring of the first segment. Superficially,
it is not clear that this lobe and the supposed trochanters of Endo-
palpiger are not equivalent structures, and it seems strange that free
trochanters should be retained only in the females of a few species.
The chelicerae of the ticks are long shafts deeply buried in the
capitulum, or even projecting beyond the capitulum into the body,
and each is enclosed in a membranous sleevelike sheath. Distally each
chelicera bears a free, strongly toothed segment, or digit, movable
by a pair of antagonistic muscles arising in the shaft, and therefore
representing the movable finger of a typical chelicera. The digit
consists of two principal parts (fig. 26 J, K.) ; one is a rigid prolonga-
tion (a) from the base of the segment, with a pair of outwardly
directed teeth at its apex; the other (b) is a broad lateral lobe with
two large teeth, flexibly attached to the side of the fixed process. In
Ixodes (1) there is a third, dorsal process, but in some other genera
as in Amblyomma (J) and Dermacentor (K, L), a large, thin mem-
branous fold (c) arises dorsally from the base of the digit and covers
the toothed processes. Finally, the end of the cheliceral shaft is pro-
duced into a hoodlike protective lobe (i) on the mesal side of the
digit. The digits move in a transverse plane on the ends of the shafts,
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA—SNODGRASS 73
Fic. 26—Acarina-I xodidae.
A, Ixodes ricinus scapularis Say, capitulum, dorsal. B, same, capitulum,
ventral. C, Dermacentor variabilis (Say), capitulum and first legs, ventral, and
papilla of host's skin from which the rostrum of the tick was extracted. D,
Boophilus annulatus microplus (Can.), capitulum, dorsal; his, outline of skin
of host ensheathing the rostrum. E, /xodes (Endopalpiger) tasmani victoriae
Schulze, female, capitulum, dorsal, showing large basal lobes (¢, ¢) of palps
(from Schulze, 1935). F, Ixodes auritulus Newm., female, palp with basal lobe
(1) (from Schulze, 1935). G, Boophilus annulatus microplus (Can.), palp.
H, same, apical segment of palp. I, /rodes ricinus scapularis Say, end of left
chelicera, dorsal. J, Amblyomma maculatum Koch, right cheliceral digit, dorsal.
K, Dermacentor variabilis (Say), end of right chelicera, ventral. L, same, digit
of right chelicera, dorsal.
a, main shaft of cheliceral digit; b, toothed lateral lobe of digit; c, mem-
branous dorsal lobe of digit; /, protective extension (hood) from shaft of
chelicera.
74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. II0
so that the cutting action of their teeth is in a lateral direction. The
shafts are protractile and retractile within the sheaths. On their
bases are inserted the usual cheliceral muscles, which here serve as
retractors ; protraction is said to be produced by a bulblike compression
of the body effected by the dorsoventral somatic muscles.
The exact method by which a tick “bites” perhaps needs more study
than has been given to it. Sharif (1928) observes that the palps of a
feeding tick are pressed against the skin of the host, and that the
initial incision must be the work of the chelicerae, which cut the skin
to admit the blunt tip of the hypostome and enable the latter to be
pushed into the wound. According to Cooley and Kohls (1944) the
hypostome in the argasid genus Antricola has only very small teeth,
while the chelicerae are large and effective cutting organs. The mouth
parts of these ticks, therefore, are “adapted for quick feeding and
not for clinging to the host.” In preserved specimens of Dermacentor,
Amblyomma, and Boophilus that have been detached with a piece of
the host’s skin, the rostrum of the tick is ensheathed to its base in a
conical or sleevelike papilla extended from the flat surface of the
integument, and the sides of the papilla are clasped by the concave
mesal surfaces of the palps. Figure 26 C shows a papilla from which
the rostrum of the tick below has been removed, and at D the line hs
indicates the position of the papilla ensheathing the rostrum. If the
papilla results from the forcible detachment of the tick, the teeth
of the hypostome should be holding at its distal end; on the contrary,
the hypostome in all cases is completely enclosed with its toothed
extremity at the bottom of the tube. In these specimens, therefore,
it would appear that the skin of the host has grown out around the
rostrum of the tick. Portman and Dalke (1945) report finding
numerous larvae, nymphs, and adults of Amblyomma americanum
buried in the skin of a fox, presumably as a result of local swellings
of the host tissue that had engulfed the parasites.
The ticks are said to have a keen sense of odor perception. In the
Ixodidae the organs of smell, known as Haller’s organs, are groups
of innervated hairs in cavities on the tarsi of the first pair of legs.
When these legs are amputated, according to Totze (1933), the tick
gives no reaction to odor, but will feed through a moist, warm, arti-
ficial membrane on blood or most any kind of liquid, such as chemical
solutions, even strong-tasting substances, showing that it has no
gustatory sense. Presumably, then, the ticks recognize an animal as
its proper source of food by a sense of smell, and the combination of
warmth and moisture from the skin gives the stimulus for feeding.
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA——-SNODGRASS
in
“
/
The cheliceral sheaths are double-walled tubular folds of the
capitular integument extended individually around the shafts of the
chelicerae. In figure 27 the sheaths are represented diagrammatically
as they are shown by Douglas (1943) in Dermacentor andersoni.
The outer wall of each fold, or outer sheath (oChS), is produced
forward from the dorsal wall of the capitulum above (Tect), and
from the base of the labrum (Lim) below to the end of the cheliceral
shaft ; it is then invaginated into itself to form an inner sheath (iChS)
closely investing the chelicera. In Dermacentor variabilis the che-
liceral sheaths appear to be the same as in D. andersoni, but in Argas
Tect
oChS iChS
et 9 Epst (inv)
ao
oa ore
Cx
Fic. 27.—Acarina, diagram of the structure of the capitulum in longitudinal
section.
Chl, chelicera; did, dorsal dilator muscles of pharynx; d/v, ventral dilators ot
pharynx; Epst, epistome, invaginated; fc, food canal; ‘Hst, hypostome ; 1ICx,
pedipalp coxa; iChS, inner cheliceral sheath; Lm, labrum (“styletlike process”) ;
Mth, mouth; ‘oChS, outer cheliceral sheath ; Oe, oesophagus; Phy, pharynx :
SlDet, salivary duct; Slv, salivarium; Tec, tectum (dorsal wall of capitulum).
persicus, described by Robinson and Davidson (1913, ’14), and in
Ornithodoros coriaceus, described by True (1932), the lower wall of
each inner sheath tube is said to be united for a part of its length with
the upper surface of the subcheliceral plate (fig. 28 A, Epst).
The subcheliceral plate of the ticks is clearly the epistome (fig. 27,
Epst), since it supports the labrum (Lm) at its distal end, and gives
attachment on its ventral surface to the dorsal dilator muscles of the
pharynx (did). Inasmuch, however, as the ventral folds of the che-
liceral sheaths arise at the base of the labrum in the Argasidae (fig.
28 A) it is evident that in these ticks the epistome is entirely invagi-
nated. Christophers (1906), in fact, describes the epistome of
Ornithodoros as an endoskeletal plate arising from a transverse bar
70 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
at the base of the labrum, composed of two strong lateral arms
blended medially to form a long horizontal plate projecting freely
into the body cavity. The subcheliceral plate of Argas persicus is
said by Robinson and Davidson to be thin medially, but strengthened
along the sides by marginal thickenings (fig. 28 L, Epst). The plate
serves the dual purpose of furnishing a smooth surface on which the
chelicerae slide, and of giving attachment ventrally to the dorsal di-
lator muscles of the pharynx (did). The descriptions of Ixodes rici-
nus by Samson (1909), and of Dermacentor andersoni by Douglas
(1943) are not specific concerning the nature of the epistome.
Douglas makes the obscure statement that the buccal cavity “is
formed in the subcheliceral plate,” but in his figure A on plate 15
he shows dorsal muscles of the pharynx attached on subcheliceral
sclerites, which must be the thickened lateral parts of an epistomal
plate. True (1932) represents the subcheliceral plate of Ornithodoros
coriaceus as given by Robinson and Davidson for Argas persicus.
From the end of the subcheliceral plate, or epistome, there projects
over the mouth a small lobe (fig. 27, Lim), which is inserted into the
widened proximal end of the gutter of the hypostome. Samson (1909)
refers to this structure in Ivodes ricinus as a thin plate, shown in
sectional view as a short flap extending over the mouth ; Christophers
(1906) observed it in Ornithodoros savignyi, but mentions it only
as a small tongue protecting the pharyngeal orifice; Robinson and
Davidson (1913, 14) describe the same thing in Argas persicus as a
“tongue-like process,’ and show it in section as a tapering lobe (fig.
28 A, Lm) projecting over the mouth. Later writers have noted what
appears to be a slender rod extending forward from the apex of the
lobe, and have termed the whole structure the “‘styletlike process,” or
“tonguelike process” (fig. 28 E, Lin). Much has been written con-
cerning the nature of this organ. Sen (1935) contended that the
“stylet”’ is an open tube, the lumen of which is continuous into that
of the pharynx, and that the mouth of the ticks is therefore a minute
orifice at the apex of the stylet. Douglas (1943) accepts this inter-
pretation, and represents the pharynx of Dermacentor as opening
through the narrow tip of the stylet. Bertram (1939) and Arthur
(1946), however, have shown that the stylet is an imperforate process
projecting above the mouth, and normally lying over the gutter of
the hypostome (fig. 28 J, Lm).
In Ixodes, Dermacentor, and Amblyomma the so-called “stylet” is
long and slender; when pulled away from the hypostome there is
usually to be seen attached to each side of it a narrow, very delicate
membrane with an irregular and apparently broken margin (fig. 28 B,
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACII NIDA—-SNODGRASS
“I
a |
_ChS
Fic. 28.—Acarina-Ixodidae, Argasidae, Laelaptidae.
A, Argas persicus (Oken), longitudinal section of capitulum (from Robinson
and Davidson, 1913, '14). B, C, Dermacentor variabilis (Say), examples of
the labrum as obtained by dissection (margins of apical blade broken). D, same,
pharynx and labrum, dorsal. E, Jxrodes ricinus L., pharynx and labrum, dorsal
(from Arthur, 1946). F, Ornithodoros tholosani (L. and M.), labrum (“tongue-
like process”) (from Bertram, 1939). G, Dermacentor variabilis (Say),
labrum, lateral. H, Dermacentor andersoni Stiles, anterior wing plates of
pharynx with muscles, and section of oral aperture, posterior (from Douglas,
1943). I, Laelaps echidninus Berl., basal half of rostrum, ventral, showing
arrangement of the mouth parts (from part of figure by Stanley, 1931): a, 6,
lateral processes of the rostrum. J, /xodes ricinus L., transverse section of
mouth parts and palps (from Arthur, 1946). K, Argas persicus (Oken), trans-
verse section of capitulum at base of hypostome (from Robinson and Davidson,
1913, 14). L, same, transverse section of capitulum through pharynx (from
Robinson and Davidson, 1913, ‘14).
78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10
C). The filamentous axial “‘stylet,” in fact, is the midrib of a long, thin
blade that covers at least the proximal two-thirds of the hypostomal
gutter, the edges of which become torn by removal from the hypo-
stome. Whether the marginal membranes are attached to the hypo-
stome, or are merely closely adherent to it, the writer has not been
able to determine by dissection ; but Robinson and Davidson in their
figure of a transverse section of the capitulum of Argas persicus (fig.
28 K) show the “stylet” (Lm) with wide lateral expansions lying
free above the hypostomal gutter (ig), and the organ of Ornithodoros
is very clearly depicted by Bertram as a flat tapering blade (F) lying
over the proximal part of the gutter of the hypostome.
Considering the relations of the “styletlike process” of the ticks to
the epistome behind it and to the mouth below it, there can be no
question that the organ so called is the labrum (fig. 27, Lm) ; it corre-
sponds exactly with the labrum of other arachnids, and in form is
suggestive of the labrum of a phalangiid (fig. 16D, H, Lm). Borner
(1902) notes that the labrum of the Ixodidae is much reduced. The
ixodid labrum, however, though small in size, is differentiated into
a conical basal lobe, and a thin bladelike distal extension. The basal
lobe overhangs the mouth; the apical blade, which varies in length in
different species, lies over the gutter of the hypostome. The covered
part of the hypostomal gutter is thus converted into a closed canal
that leads back to the mouth, and this canal, as Bertram has shown,
must be the food conduit (fig. 27, fc). Bertram (1939) gives a long
discussion of the “tongue-like process” in Ornithodoros, in which he
discards the impossible suggestion of Sen that the process corresponds
with the hypopharynx of insects; it is difficult to see how he missed
the obvious fact that the organ is the labrum.
A comparison of the mouth parts of the Ixodides with those of
Gamasides in which the tapering labrum reaches to the end of the
hypostome (fig. 24 C) will show the identity of structure in the two
groups. The relation of the parts in the proboscis of Laelaps
echidninus is clearly seen in the figure by Stanley (fig. 28 1), who says
that a groove on the ventral surface of the “lingula” (labrum) ex-
tends into the mouth of the pharynx and probably aids in the flow of
blood from the wound.
In longitudinal sections of the capitulum of Ixodides the labrum,
of course, looks like a stylet, and in dissections the marginal mem-
branes of the apical blade are sometimes lost entirely, so that the
axial filament appears to be a slender rod projecting from the apex
of the basal lobe, as it is usually shown in illustrations (fig. 28 E).
Moreover, the end of the organ is often broken, and may be split,
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA—SNODGRASS 79
which fact possibly explains Douglas’ statement that the “
Dermacentor andersoni is “tripartite and quite short.”
Above the basal lobe of the labrum is a flat pocket (figs. 27, 28 A,
Slv) covered dorsally by the lower walls of the cheliceral sheaths.
Into the inner end of this pocket open the ducts of the salivary glands
(fig. 27, SIDct). The supralabial pocket thus serves as a salivarium,
or receptacle for the saliva ejected from the ducts. Christophers
(1906), however, regarded it as the “mouth cavity,” and Nuttall,
Cooper, and Robinson (1908) called it the “buccal cavity,” which
terminology has been followed by more recent writers. It is clear,
however, that the space in question has no relation to the mouth or
to the intake of food; it is appropriately named by Samson (1909) the
“Speichelhohle.” The closure of the food canal of the hypostome by
the labrum must exclude the saliva from direct entrance into the
mouth ; its only access to the food stream, then, would appear to be
at the open distal part of the hypostomal gutter.
The flow of saliva from the salivarial pocket, according to Bertram
(1939), is regulated by movements of the labrum (‘“‘tongue-like
process”). The lumen of this organ in Ornithodoros, Bertram says,
is a closed chamber, presumably filled with liquid, the posterior end
of which extends into the pharynx against the anterior part of the
dorsal wall of the latter, and therefore reacts to changes of pressure
within the pharynx. The decreased pressure of the expanding pharynx
contracts the labral chamber and deflates the labrum; conversely,
contraction of the pharynx dilates the labrum. The alternate expan-
sion and contraction of the labrum is thus supposed to exert a sucking
action on the saliva entering the salivarium from the salivary ducts.
A similar mechanism has not been observed by other writers.
The pharynx of the ticks presents no special features in its general
structure. It is an elongate sack (fig. 28 A, Phy) surrounded by a
thick layer of constrictor muscle fibers, within which the walls, when
contracted, are thrown into three radial folds (L, Phy). Dilator
muscles arise dorsally (d/d) on the thickened lateral margins of the
subcheliceral epistomal plate (pst), and ventrolaterally (div) on the
lower walls of the capitulum. In Dermacentor variabilis two winglike
plates diverge laterally and posteriorly from the anterior end of the
pharynx at the base of the labrum (fig. 28D). The similar plates
of D. andersoni are shown by Douglas (1943) to give attachment on
their concave dorsal surfaces to flat muscles (H) inserted medially
in the base of the labrum (‘‘stylet”). The under surface of the labrum
is produced into a toothlike process that fits into a groove of the lower
wall of the entrance to the pharynx. This structure Douglas regards
stylet” of
8o SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
as a pharyngeal valve, since contraction of the plate muscles would
constrict the V-shaped oral aperture. The wing plates of the valve
are said by Douglas to be extensions of the pharyngeal wall; the
operative muscles, therefore, are evidently the anteriormost fibers
of the dorsal constrictors of the pharynx.
Trombidiformes.—Among the trombidiform mites the chelicerae
become progressively adapted for piercing by a transformation of
the movable digits into hooks or stylets. In the larvae of the chiggers
(Trombiculidae), which are parasitic on vertebrate animals, the cheli-
ceral digits are hook-shaped with the points turned upward; they are
used for cutting into the skin of the host, but the mite does not
otherwise penetrate the skin. André (1927) says the chigger grasps
the surface of the host with its palps, and then pushes the cheliceral
hooks into the skin. From the puncture of the feeding chigger a tube-
like structure extends into the flesh, which was formerly thought to
be a sucking organ of the mite, and was named the “‘stylostome.”’ Its
formation, however, as described by André, is due to the injection of
a digestive liquid by the chigger, which diffuses through the host tissue,
producing the wall of the tube and an edematous condition surround-
ing the latter, especially at the inner end. Ewing (1944) says the host
tissue in immediate contact with the injected fluid “is liquefied, and
the adjoining tissue becomes toughened. As the predigested liquefied
tissue (not blood) is sucked up by the mite and more digestive fluid
is injected into the cavity thus produced there is formed a sclerotized
tube which may be as long as the total length of the mite itself.”
The water mites (Hydracnidae), which feed on the larvae of
aquatic insects, have long, straight, styletlike cheliceral digits. The
feeding and digestion of these mites has been fully described by
Bader (1938), who says the mites seize the prey with the palps and
tear a hole in the skin with the chelicerae. For from Io to 20 minutes
the mite then quietly holds on to the victim, during which time the
congested salivary glands discharge their secretion into the body of
the prey and the tissues of the latter are thereby dissolved. Sucking
now begins and continues until the mite is replete or the prey is
empty of its contents. An Anopheles larva, Bader says, can be sucked
dry by three individuals of Hygrobates longipalpus, leaving nothing
but the empty skin. After the preliminary digestion by the salivary
secretion, the final digestion of the food, as in other Arachnida, ac-
cording to Bader takes place intracellularly in the digestive cells of
the capacious stomach and its large diverticula. Since these mites
have no posterior opening to the alimentary canal, the waste products
of digestion accumulate in the stomach cells.
NO. 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA—SNODGRASS SI
Specialization of the feeding organs for piercing is carried farthest
in the Tetranychidae, the members of which family, known as spider
mites, are plant feeders. The movable digits of the chelicerae of
the tetranychid mites are drawn out into long, slender stylets with
recurved bases attached on the proximal segments of the chelicerae
in such a manner that they are individually protractile and retractile.
' The basal segments of the chelicerae, however, are united with each
other to form for the stylets a common support, which is itself pro-
tractile and retractile beneath an anterior fold of the dorsum of the
body. The epistome and the hypostome compose a conical rostrum
containing the mouth and the pharynx. The dorsal surface of the
epistome is deeply grooved to form a channel in which the cheliceral
stylets slide back and forth. The pharynx is cup-shaped, with the
dorsal wall invaginated in the form of a plunger, activated by
muscles arising on the epistome. Two pairs of silk glands open by a
common duct into the distal end of the epistomal groove, and the
duct of an unimpaired salivary gland transverses the united cheliceral
segments to open beneath them anteriorly. Closely associated with
the chelicerae are the two spiracular apertures of the tracheal system,
which lie medially in the infolded membrane just behind the united
parts of the cheliceral bases. From each spiracle a long, finely ribbed,
external groove, known as a “peritreme,’’ extends posteriorly and
laterally in the dorsal integument; inwardly the spiracles open into a
pair of vertical respiratory tubes with thick sclerotic walls supported
below on an apodeme of the epistome. From the lower ends of these
tubes a large tracheal trunk is given off on each side, from which
issue bundles of finer tracheae distributed anteriorly and posteriorly
throughout the body.
The feeding organs of Tetranychus telarius (L.) have been de-
scribed in detail by Becker (1935) and by Blauvelt (1945), but the
terminology used by these writers is likely to give the uninformed
student the impression that the feeding organs of the tetranychids
have little relation to those of other Acarina, as indeed the unusual
features of these mites themselves would seem at first sight to suggest.
However, it is not difficult to fit the descriptions of Becker and
Blauvelt into an interpretation entirely in accord with that given here
of the acarine feeding organs in general.
A dorsal view of the forward part of the body of Tetranychus
(fig. 29 A) shows anteriorly, projecting from beneath a flexible
fold (df) of the back, what appears to be a broad, heart-shaped plate
(Stphr) with a rounded outline in front and a deeply notched margin
behind. This structure is commonly called the “mandibular plate,”
82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
since on its under surface are attached the recurved bases of the
cheliceral stylets (Sty); but for this same reason there can be no
question that it represents the united basal segments of the chelicerae,
as said by Becker (1935) and by Vitzthum (1940-'43, p. 809), and
Fic. 29.—Acarina-Trombidiformes-Tetranychidae, Tetranychus.
A, dorsal view of capitulum and anterior part of body, showing the united
cheliceral bases, or stylophore (Stphr), partly retracted beneath a marginal fold
of the dorsum (df) covering the spiracles (Sp) and the infolded anterior ends
of the peritremes (Ptr). B, diagrammatic interpretation of structure of feeding
organs of Tetranychus telarius (L.) based on a lengthwise sectional figure by
Blauvelt (1945, fig. 51), with parts somewhat separated for clarity of identifica-
tion with corresponding parts of other Acarina. C, cross section of rostrum
behind palps (from Blauvelt, 1945). D, cross section through stylet groove of
epistome over the pharynx (from Blauvelt, 1945). E, piece of a pseudotracheal
peritreme (from Blauvelt, 1945).
therefore might be termed more appropriately the “cheliceral plate,”
except for the fact that it is not a plate at all, but a thick lobe con-
taining an extension of the haemocoele. The word siylophore (Stphr)
suggests itself as a practical name. The rounded anterior surface
of the stylophore is abruptly declivous (fig. 29 B) and bears ventrally
NO, 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACH NIDA—-SNODGRASS 83
a pair of small thin processes (fd) that possibly represent the im-
movable cheliceral digits.
The cheliceral stylets (fig. 29 B, Sty) are attached apparently in
deep anterior inflections or pockets of the under surface of the
stylophore (but the structure of the under surface of the stylophore
as drawn in the diagram is somewhat conjectural). Each stylet has
a flat pear-shaped base (StB) from which the strong but slender
shaft extends first posteriorly and then loops downward and forward.
On a projection of the stylet base, apparently dorsal to the articulation
on the stylophore, is attached a group of muscle fibers (mel), which,
Blauvelt says, produce an up-and-down movement of the tip of the
stylet. However, inasmuch as the stylets are closely held in the
groove of the epistome (D, Sty), a downward rotation of their bases
should cause a protraction of the shafts. Muscles antagonistic to
the stylet protractors have not been observed, and it is possible that
retraction results automatically from the elasticity of the stylets or of
their basal connections. On the other hand, the principal movements
of the stylets must be brought about by the protraction and retraction
of the stylophore. The movements of the latter, according to Blauvelt,
are produced by muscles from the dorsum of the body attached on
the posterior lobes, and muscles attached distally in the stylophore that
arise posteriorly on the vertical respiratory tubes. Both of these sets of
muscles, however, would appear to be retractors, and it may therefore
be supposed that, as in some other Acarina, protraction of the cheli-
cerae is effected by a bulblike compression of the body.
The stylophore is capable of complete retraction beneath the
marginal fold of the dorsum that ordinarily covers its basal half.
This fold (fig. 29 A, B, df), projecting as it does over the cheliceral
bases, possibly represents the tectum, or dorsal wall of the capitulum
in other Acarina; if not, the tetranychid capitulum is incomplete
dorsally, and is composed only of the coxal elements and the epi-
stomal plate that unites their dorsal surfaces below the chelicerae,
and forms the upper wall of the rostrum (B, Epst).
The rostrum (termed “hypostome” by Becker) projects as a short
wide cone from between the bases of the palps (fig. 29 A, Rst). Its
dorsal, or epistomal, wall is shown by Becker and by Blauvelt to
form a trough (C, Epst) in which the stylophore (“mandibular
plate”) slides backward and forward. Along the bottom of the trough
is a deep, thick-walled canal (C, D, StGr) that contains the shafts
of the cheliceral stylets (D, Sty) and evidently serves to hold them
in place during their functional activity. The common duct of the
two pairs of silk glands runs beneath the stylet canal (C, D, S/kDect)
84. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
and, as already noted, opens into the distal end of the latter. If this
duct represents the paired ducts of the salivary glands of the ticks
that discharge above the base of the labrum (fig. 27, SIDct), the
short apical part of the dorsal wall of the tetranychid rostrum pro-
jecting over the mouth may be referred to the labrum (fig. 29 B, Lm).
The hypostomal wall of the rostrum (Hst) is a simple ventral
prolongation of the coxal region of the capitulum and has no appen-
dicular accessories.
The mouth lies within the tip of the rostrum (fig. 29 B, Mth) and
opens directly into the pharynx (Phy). The form of the tetranychid
pharynx is unusual for a sucking apparatus, but is one characteristic
of the salivary ejection pump of insects. By comparison with the
tubular pharynx of other arachnids the cup-shaped sucking organ
of Tetranychus is so short that the inflected dorsal wall takes the
form of a thick conical plug with the dilator muscles (d/d) from the
epistome convergent upon its center. The oesophagus (Oe) proceeds
in the usual manner from the posterior end of the pump chamber.
The respiratory system is an interesting feature of the tetranychid
organization. Just why the spiracles should be in a place so incon-
venient as the infolded membrane at the base of the united chelicerae
is not clear (fig. 29 A, B, Sp), except that they are here by inheritance
from prostigmatic ancestors. The so-called “peritremes” (A, Ptr),
as above noted, are open channels of the integument that extend
posteriorly and outward on the dorsal surface of the body from the
spiracles. Their closely ribbed walls (EK) give these channels a re-
semblance to tracheae, and, in fact, they might with better reason be
termed pseudotracheae than are the similar canals on the mouth lobes
of phalangiids and the labella of some Diptera that have to do with
feeding and not with respiration. Blauvelt observes that the long,
slitlike peritremes of Tetranychus give the spiracles access to the
outer air at all usual positions of the chelicerae. It is evident that as
they are pulled into the fold of integument over the cheliceral bases
by the retraction of the latter, the indrawn parts of the canals are
converted into closed tubes while the outer parts are still open to
the air. When the cheliceral bases (stylophore) are fully retracted,
however, Blauvelt says, the peritremes are completely shut off from
the air, and this fact he points out ‘may explain in part the high
degree of resistance of this mite to certain toxic gases such as hydro-
cyanic acid gas and nicotine vapor.’ The vertical respiratory tubes
into which the spiracles open (fig. 29 B, Afr) are said to be en-
closed in a common, strongly sclerotic wall, their ventral ends are
supported on a median apodeme of the epistome (eAp), and the
NO, 10 FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA-——SNODGRASS 85
tubes give attachment to retractor muscles of the chelicerae. These
facts would suggest that the spiracular tubes are elongate atrial
chambers, or secondary invaginations of the integument, rather than
true tracheal trunks. From the lower end of each tube a large tracheal
trunk (Tra) arises laterally, turns posteriorly, and gives off bundles
of finer tracheae that aerate the entire body.
ABBREVIATIONS USED ON THE FIGURES
(Other lettering explained in the legends.)
aChS, anterior cheliceral sheath.
An, anus.
Ant, antenna (rAnt, 2Ant, first and
second antenna).
Ap, apodeme.
Atr, spiracular atrium.
Br, brain.
cAp, coxal apodeme.
Chl, chelicera.
ChIB, cheliceral base.
chlF, cheliceral foramen.
ChS, cheliceral sheath.
Cp, carapace.
cpr, compressor muscle.
Ct, cuticle.
Cuc, cucullus.
Cx, coxa (IICx-VICx, coxae of pedi-
palps and legs).
cxp, coxal process of pedipalp.
cxr, coxal ridge.
D, back of the body, dorsum.
Dac, dactyl, median claw of pretarsus.
dc, dorsal channel of pharynx.
Det, duct.
df, fold of dorsum over bases of cheli-
cerae.
did, dorsal dilator muscles of pharynx.
dil, lateral dilator muscles of pharynx.
dlv, ventral dilator muscles of pharynx.
dpl, dorsal plate of pharynx.
dplcx, dorsal plate of pedipalp coxa.
dpptar, depressor muscle of pretarsus.
dpt, depressor tendon.
dptar, depressor muscle of tarsus.
dptb, depressor muscle of tibia.
eAp, epistomal apodeme.
ecAp, epistomocoxal apodeme.
ecs, epistomocoxal sulcus.
Endst, endosternum.
86
Endt, coxal endite (JJEndt, IIIEndt,
IV Endt, coxal endites of pedi-
palps, first legs, and second legs).
Epst, epistome (clypeus, subcheliceral
plate).
Epth, epithelium.
f, median frontal bar.
fc, food canal.
fd, immovable finger (fixed digit) of
chelicera.
Fm, femur.
FrG, frontal ganglion.
G, ganglion (JG, tritocerebral gan-
glion, JJG, IIIG, ganglia of pedi-
palps and first legs).
GC, genital chamber.
Gld, gland.
GO, genital opening.
HL, head lobe of embryo.
hs, piece of skin of host drawn out in
a papilla around the rostrum of
ticks.
Fst, hypostome.
I-VI, postoral somites (J, cheliceral
somite).
iChS, inner cheliceral sheath.
L, leg (1L-4L, first to fourth legs).
lbrmcl, labral muscle.
/Hcl, labral haemocoele.
li, lamina inferior of pedipalp coxa.
Lm, labrum (“lingula,”’ “styletlike
process’’).
Imd, lamina dorsalis of preoral cavity.
Imv, lamina ventralis of preoral cavity.
lpg, lophognath.
ls, lamina superior of pedipalp coxa.
luptar, levator muscle of pretarsus. °
lvt, levator tendon.
NO. 10
lvtar, levator muscle of tarsus.
lvtb, levator muscle of tibia.
mel, muscle.
Md, mandible.
Ment, mesenteron.
ml, mouth lobe of Solpugida.
Mth, mouth.
oChS, outer cheliceral sheath.
Oe, oesophagus.
Pat, patella.
pChS, posterior cheliceral sheath.
Per, protocerebrum.
Pdp, pedipalp (appendage of segment
IT).
pdpF, foramen of pedipalp.
Phy, pharynx.
Pip, palp (telopodite of the pedipalp).
PrC, preoral food cavity.
Prstm, prestomum.
Ptar, pretarsus.
Ptr, “peritreme,” pseudotracheal
groove leading to spiracle.
Pvent, proventriculus.
PvP, proventricular pump.
Rst, rostrum.
S, sternum (/S-/VS, sterna of first
four segments).
FEEDING ORGANS OF ARACHNIDA——-SNODGRASS 87
Ser, serula.
SGO, silk gland opening.
SlDet, salivary duct.
SIGIds, salivary glands.
SlkDet, silk gland duct.
SoeG, suboesophageal ganglion.
Sp, spiracle.
Spn, spinneret.
StGr, stylet groove.
Stphr, stylophore.
Sty, stylet.
t, tendon.
Tar, tarsus (1Tar, 2Tar, first and
second tarsal subsegments, or tar-
someres ).
Tb, tibia.
Yect, tectum capituli (“rostrum,” “epi-
stome”).
tmcl, transverse muscle.
tpg, taphrognath.
Tr, trochanter (17r, 2Tr, first and
second trochanters).
Tra, trachea.
Un, unguis, lateral claw of pretarsus.
l’Gld, venom gland.
vpl, ventral plate of pharynx.
I’Pr, venom pore.
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 110, NUMBER 11
Roebling Ff und
THE SMITHSONIAN STANDARD
ea RE LIOME TRY
BY
C. G. ABBOT
Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution
SHE INCRE
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CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
AUGUST 5, 1948
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
Roebling Fund
THE SMITHSONIAN STANDARD
PYRHELIOMETRY
By C. G. ABBOT
Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution
Since 1910 nearly a hundred copies of the silver-disk pyrheliometer
have been prepared at the Smithsonian Institution. They are in use
in many countries. Observers, even those using other types of pyr-
heliometer, often express their results in terms of “the Smithsonian
standard scale’ which is carried to them by these silver-disk instru-
ments, standardized against the water-flow pyrheliometer. Aldrich
and Abbot, in 1947, made a painstaking comparison at Mount Wilson
between two silver-disk instruments and the water-flow pyrheliometer.
They obtained within one part in a thousand the same result as in
1934 and earlier.’ Various observers have investigated old silver-disk
instruments and find no evidence that there has been a change of their
sensitiveness since IQIO.
So the question of the standard scale depends on the adequacy of
the water-flow pyrheliometer as a standard. Originally this instrument
comprised a single deep test-tube-like blackened chamber of metal
with hollow walls. In these walls, in the extreme rear wall, and in
the walls of a hollow cone not quite at the rear, on which all the sun’s
rays fell directly, a current of water constantly flowed to carry off
the solar heat as fast as absorbed. An electrical thermometer, meticu-
lously calibrated by means of an extremely delicate standard mercury
thermometer, registered the rise of temperature between the entrance
and the exit of the stream of water. A carefully gaged diaphragm
admitted the solar rays to the chamber. Other diaphragms of slightly
larger diameter, along the vestibule and within the chamber, served
the double purpose of opposing air currents, and of obstructing the
entrance or the escape of stray light. The rate of flow of the water
was determined by frequent weighings.
As all of the entering beam of sunlight fell upon the hollow black-
ened cone near the extreme rear of the chamber, over 95 percent of
1 Aldrich, L. B., and Abbot, C. G., Smithsonian pyrheliometry and the
standard scale of solar radiation. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 110, No. 5, 1948.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 11
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
the rays would be immediately absorbed on that cone and would give
up their heat there into the flowing water. The remaining 5 percent or
less would be scattered over an entire hemisphere, of which nearly
the whole solid angle was included in the blackened walls of the
chamber. Over 95 percent of the trifling amount of radiation scattered
from the cone, impinging upon these walls, would be absorbed on
them, and this heat also would be communicated to the flowing water.
Only the measured aperture, through which solar rays entered,
was open to free escape of the scattered rays. As this aperture
subtended but 0.012 hemisphere as viewed from the hollow cone, less
than 0.012 of 5 percent of the ‘troduced solar radiation could freely
escape. So, theoretically, the chamber was fully 99.94 percent “black.”
Lest some unforeseen error should lurk in the device, two coils
of insulated wire were wound upon the cone. One coil was wound
in shellac directly upon the rear wall of the cone, being behind the
water stream within the cone, but in front of the water stream in
the extreme back wall of the chamber. This coil was more favorably
situated than solar heating to convey electrically produced heat to
the flowing water. The other ‘nsulated coil was of several millimeters
thickness, was doughnut-shaped, and was stuck on with shellac to the
front rim of the hollow cone, outside the area covered by the beam
of sunlight. This coil was very unfavorably situated to give up
electrically produced heat to the flowing water, since it must first
give its heat to the air, and then to the walls of the chamber.
I have been describing Standard Pyrheliometer No. 3. On pages
61 and 63 of Annals of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory,
volume 3, 1913, there are given 24 tests, half with each of the two
heating coils, where electrically introduced heat was measured by
absorption in the flowing water. The results of 12 tests at Wash-
ington, April 18, 22, and 23, 1910, showed no certain difference as
between the two coils, and gave a mean result of 99.85 percent heat
found. The results of 12 tests at Mount Wilson, October 10 and IT,
1911, also equally divided between the two coils, gave 100.66 percent
heat found. These results come to well within their probable error
at exactly 100 percent heat found. They therefore indicate that heat
introduced in the chamber, no matter whether more or less favorably
for measurement than solar heat, is completely absorbed and accu-
rately measured by the instrument. This, as we shall see later, is
a critically important result.
Not content with this method of fixing the standard scale of pyr-
heliometry, we constructed another instrument of the hollow-chamber
type. It was called the water-stir pyrheliometer, because, instead
»
NO. II STANDARD PYRHELIOMETRY—ABBOT 3
of carrying off absorbed heat in a flowing stream of water, the
chamber was immersed in a water bath whose rate of rise of tempera-
ture, and cooling corrections, were observed after the methods of
exact calorimetry. In this instrument only one insulated coil of wire
was introduced, but it was wound in part within the wall of the sides
of the chamber. Thus it had almost identically the same facility to
give up its heat to the water as did the solar rays. Tests of electrical
heating with this instrument were made on October 24 and 26, 1912,
and recorded on page 67 of Annals, volume 3. Six tests gave 100.05
percent of heat found, and the results are even more consistent than
the excellent ones with the water-flow pyrheliometer. Silver-disk
pyrheliometer APO 8);s, which we have ever since used as secondary
standard, was compared on a number of occasions from IgI0 to 1912,
some at Washington, others at Mount Wilson, and with both the
water-flow and the water-stir standards. The results are given at
the bottom of page 70, Annals, volume 3. They give the following
independent determinations of the constant for APO 8yj,: 0.3798,
0.3791, 0.3809, 0.3786, 0.3792, 0.3770, 0.3772.
Many years later the silver-disk pyrheliometers were altered to
have longer vestibules so as to reduce the angular area of sky near
the sun to which they were exposed. The water-flow standard pyr-
heliometer was also changed. A Russian, V. M. Shulgin, made the
valuable suggestion that by using two chambers rather than one in the
water-flow pyrheliometer, with the water stream divided just at the
entrance of their walls, inequalities in rate of water flow would be
the same in both. Hence if the solar heating in one chamber was
continually being balanced by electrical heating in the other, the
inequalities of flow of water would cease to produce fluctuations in
the readings. In 1932 we introduced Shulgin’s method, and, depending
on the results of 1910 to 19012, to the effect that solar heating and elec-
trical heating are equally efficiently absorbed, all subsequent standard-
izations of pyrheliometers by Smithsonian observers are based on the
use of the standard water-flow pyrheliometer as an electrical compen-
Sation instrument. That is, we no longer measure the water-flow rate,
or the rise of temperature of the water, but we balance solar heat in
one chamber against electrical heat in the other, and reverse chambers
as respects heating again and again. I repeat, we now absolutely
depend on the experiments I have quoted, of the years 1910 to 1912,
which prove that in our pyrheliometer electrical heat and solar heat
are both fully absorbed in the water stream.
Prior to the adoption of VY. M. Shulgin’s suggestion of using two
chambers in the water-flow pyrheliometer, we found great difficulty
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
in producing a constant water stream. Air bubbles were carried
along, and local fluctuations in temperature occurred owing to air
currents affecting the short rubber tubes which had to be introduced
to allow free movement. These irregularities, both of mechanical
and heat natures, caused accidental differences of successive measure-
ments so appreciable that great numbers of comparisons with silver-
disk pyrheliometers had to be made to obtain accurate results. What
with this source of error, and the effect of sky radiation from near
the sun, which was minimized by using the longer vestibules of the
silver-disk pyrheliometers after the year 1925, we found that the
earlier determinations of the constants of silver-disk pyrheliometers
were too high by 2.3 percent. This correction we published in the
year 1934.” Nevertheless, so as not to upset the world’s system of
pyrheliometry, and the comparability over a long term of years of
Smithsonian solar-constant results contained in volumes 2 to 6 of
Annals of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, while we admit
that the 1913 scale of pyrheliometry is 2.3 percent too high, we and
those who follow us still use the Smithsonian scale of 1913.
The variability of the brightness of the sky may still slightly affect
silver-disk pyrheliometry. However, as stated at pages 53 to 55,
Annals, volume 6, we now eliminate variations of sky brightness as a
source of error in solar-constant measurements.
2 Abbot, C. G., and Aldrich, L. B., The standard scale of solar radiation.
Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 92, No. 13, 1934.
ee
mt _ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
ett, VOLUME 110, NUMBER 12
THE
DRUM MOUNTAINS, UTAH,
METEORITE
(Wir Five Piates)
BY
E. P. HENDERSON
Associate Curator, Division of Mineralogy and Petrology
AND
S. H. PERRY
Associate in Mineralogy
U. S. National Museum
Lae
VP sO8
Bs THSONOR,
INTE
(PusiicatTion 3946)
>
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
‘ SEPTEMBER 3, 1948
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 110, NUMBER 12
Arie |
DRUM MOUNTAINS, UTAH,
Me PeORTTE
(WirH Five PLATEs)
BY
E. P. HENDERSON
Associate Curator, Division of Mineralogy and Petrology
AND
Sn bh. BERRY
Associate in Mineralogy
U. S. National Museum
(PusticaTion 3946)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
SEPTEMBER 3, 1948
The Lord Waltimore Mress
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A,
THE DRUM MOUNTAINS, UTAH, METEORITE
By E. P. HENDERSON
Associate Curator, Division of Mineralogy and Petrology
AND
ols eee
Associate in Mineralogy
U. S. National Museum
(With Five Plates)
On September 24, 1944, two Japanese men, Yoshio Nishimoto and
Akio Ujihara, temporarily stationed at the Topaz Relocation Center,
Utah, were prospecting for rocks suitable for their class in lapidary
arts. The area under investigation was about 16 miles west of Topaz
in the Drum Mountains (latitude 39°30’ N., longitude 112°54’ W.).
This district had been prospected several times with varying degrees
of success, but fortunately these men were unusually persistent. Their
trail happened to pass near a large rock protruding above ground
about 2 feet. They noticed that it had a different appearance from
other rocks scattered about ; it was dark brown in color and had holes
in it; it would “not chip with a hammer.” As a result the men sus-
pected that they had found something out of the ordinary, and Mr.
Nishimoto sent a specimen of the rock to the Smithsonian Institution,
with a letter of explanation describing the find.
The specimen was small and very much battered, but the descrip-
tion and sketch of the mass that accompanied it indicated clearly that
a new and large meteorite had very likely been found. Tests made
on the sample furnished proved that it was an octahedral meteorite.
A quick search of our records failed to show any known fall from
near Topaz, Utah; hence the specimen at once became of particular
interest to us. The U. S. Geological Survey was asked to furnish a
trained geologist to make a field investigation. They kindly consented
and detailed Arthur E. Granger, then stationed in their Salt Lake
City office, to make the study. The following is his report:
The meteorite and the area surrounding it were examined on October 8, 1944.
The specimen was found in an area of low hills lying between the Drum
Mountains and the Little Drum Mountains. No section corners were found,
but from other observations the location of the specimen was determined to be
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 12
Za SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
in Township 15 South, Range 10 West and approximately Section 29, Millard
County, Utah, and, according to authorities at the Topaz camp, on public
domain.
The country rock is entirely basic or basaltic lavas and there was no evidence
of a crater near the meteorite. The meteorite was not a recent fall, although
it had undoubtedly remained on the surface since its fall and the area around
it had been somewhat modified by erosion. From the amount of surface oxida-
tion and relation of the specimen to the surrounding area I should guess that
it fell within the last hundred years.
There was enough of this iron projecting above ground to make it
conspicuous once attention was attracted to it, and the fact that when
struck with a hammer it gave a clear-toned ring perhaps prompted
the finders to make investigation as to its nature.
Shortly after Mr. Nishimoto received a letter from the National
Museum identifying the specimen as a meteorite, it was moved from
its resting place in the field to the Relocation Center, where it was dis-
played for several days prior to shipment to Washington. The moving
of such a heavy object required the assistance of several companions at
the camp as well as the use of equipment kindly lent by the camp
authorities.
DESCRIPTION OF THE METEORITE
The Drum Mountains iron weighs 1,164 pounds (529 kg.) and
has approximately the following dimensions: 2 feet long, 1.5 feet
high, and from 1.5 to 2 feet wide. Its greatest perimeter is approxi-
mately 7 feet and its shortest about 5 feet. It is an irregular, rounded
mass with few projecting points. The surface of the mass that was
exposed above ground has been etched by wind-blown sand and dust.
A delicate parallel grating of minor ridges, due to the unequal resis-
tance to the dust abrasion of the different component alloys making
up the meteorite, is a noteworthy feature of this iron. The surface
is well covered with broad, shallow depressions popularly known as
“thumb marks.’ However, there are other depressions that are
deeper and that appear to have a different origin than these shallow
thumb marks, which are assumed to have originated during flight.
There are a number of these deeper depressions scattered over the
surface on all sides of the meteorite. They are so irregular that ac-
curate measurements of their size are difficult to make, but the relative
dimensions of a number of them are given in table 1.
The interior of these deeper cavities is usually evenly rounded and
rather smooth, with a surface texture slightly different from the rest
of the meteorite. Perhaps this is entirely due to the lack of any
abrasion by the wind-blown dust, or to the fact that on the protected
NO. I2 DRUM MOUNTAINS METEORITE—-HENDERSON AND PERRY 3
surfaces within the depression a slightly thicker film of oxide has
accumulated. The side walls of these depressions are in most cases
spherical in form, and frequently the openings have less of a diameter
than the width of the cavity when measured about halfway down
toward the bottom.
That portion of the Drum Mountains specimen that was buried
in the ground has a very different appearance from the rest of the
meteorite. The oxide coating is more scaly and appears about like
the rust on a weathered artificial iron. The oxide coating over the
TABLE 1.—Approximate dimensions of the cavities in Drum Mountains
meteorite
Diameter Depth
Inches Inches Diameter/depth
1.25 1.5 0.83
1.0 1.25 0.8
1.0 0.5 2.00
1.25 0.75 1.66
1.25 1.00 1.25
1.0 1.5 0.66
2.5 2.0 1.25
1.25 0.75 1.66
1.0 1.5 0.66
rest of the meteorite is firm, rather smooth, and does not appear to
have been so intensively weathered as that on the bottom of the speci-
men, perhaps because there the wind-blown material has cut much of
the oxide film away. The shallow depressions or “thumb marks” so
characteristic of the upper surface of this specimen are less con-
spicuous on the under side.
One large cavity which has a sharp rim around its opening was
found to contain many layers of concentric iron-oxide scales; in
fact this depression was almost entirely filled with scales when the
meteorite was received. This cavity was so located on the specimen,
as it stood in the field, that it would not have accumulated water from
surface rains. Any moisture that did enter would do so by condensa-
tion or by capillary creep, against the metal. It appears that this
depression was being deepened and enlarged by corrosion from
moisture condensed within it. These concentric scales of iron oxide
cut across the internal structure of the meteorite making a rosette of
scales. (See pl. 1, fig. 2.)
Unfortunately, the scales from this cavity were cleaned out and
mixed into one sample. It would have been desirable to have made
some tests upon the composition of the various layers to see how the
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
nickel content differed. The following quotation from J. S. March,
“Alloys of Iron and Nickel,” p. 512, seems worthy of repeating:
In 1916 Stead1 reported that the scales of nickel steels consist of several
layers and that the nickel content of the layers differed widely. For example
the outermost layer of scale on a 25% nickel steel consisted mainly of iron
oxide, whereas the innermost layer included particles of metal containing 76%
nickel. These findings were amply verified by Pfiel2 who found the scale on
iron and steel to consist of three layers, on a 2.75% nickel steel the outermost
layer of scales contained no nickel, the middle layer 0.16% and the innermost
layer 7.07%.
March further states (p. 511):
Once a continuous film is formed further oxidation must proceed by dif-
fusion of oxygen through the oxide layer. Cracking and peeling of films in
service are often to be ascribed to bending or cycles of heating and cooling.
But the absence of such stresses, cracking may result when the metal surface
is converted to oxide, volume changes leave the film in a state of compression,
and it can be shown that these stresses result in cracking when the thickness
of the film exceeds a limiting value.
This explanation seems to account for the structure shown by the
scales in this cavity.
The surface appearance of these scales resembles that of the bottom
of the meteorite. Any water falling on the exposed surface would
drain off easily, and that accumulating in the upturned depression
would rather rapidly evaporate. Moisture evaporating from the
ground would condense and be retained on the under surface of the
specimen or in an inverted depression; hence these parts have been
exposed to many more hours of hydrous alteration. Some of these
deep holes did not show any excessive accumulation of iron oxide.
There is one cavity in the large piece removed for sectioning which
extended through three of the slices. The iron oxide that had formed
around the surface of this hole was not of equal thickness all around
the cavity. This oxide also cuts across the internal pattern of the
meteorite.
The 22-pound specimen removed for sectioning was found to con-
tain few small troilite inclusions ; hence we do not attribute these deep
holes to the burning out or weathering out of troilite. The depth of
these depressions suggests that they may have been in existence prior
to the time the meteorite entered our atmosphere.
A sample of scaly material was analyzed. Several other pieces of
scale were polished and found to contain small inclusions of metallic
iron.
J. E. Stead, Journ. Iron and Steel Inst., vol. 94, pp. 243-248, 1916.
L. B. Pfiel, Journ. Iron and Steel Inst., vol. 119, pp. 501-560, 1929.
1
2
NO. I2 DRUM MOUNTAINS METEORITE—HENDERSON AND PERRY 5
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF DRUM MOUNTAINS METEORITE
A slice about three-eighths of an inch thick was polished and etched
to develop the structure of the iron and reveal any inclusions. The
sample used in the analysis was selected by cutting out all inclusions
or unusual structural features so as to obtain a characteristic sample
of the meteorite.
TABLE 2.—Composition of Drum Mountains meteorite
E. P. Henderson, analyst
Fresh Oxide
meteorite scales
EP te cd wh oe Wa 90.70 Not determined
UMM Oats cist an’ 6 a 8.59 5.42
eee 0.58 0.51
Pensa rde See Reo cds tie trace Not determined
ayer ek ees teed none Not determined
EUISOL) oot a ee vviae'ald 0.01 Not determined
ESC Seales cackve les ak 5.26
99.88
Sp.g., 7.857.
Mol. ratio= eens =10.47.
Ni+ Co
The Drum Mountains iron is a medium octahedrite, with bands
averaging about I mm. in width but with occasional wider or nar-
rower bands. The octahedral structure is highly developed, though
somewhat irregular.
Taenite is abundant, with many thickened or wedge-shaped lamellae
having darkened cores due to incomplete transformation. A number
of Reichenbach lamellae up to 2 or 3 cm. in length are noticeable. A
few nodular troilite inclusions were observed and also a number of
small irregular inclusions. Schreibersite appears in irregular bodies
of various shapes, some of considerable size, but no rhabdites or
fine phosphide particles were observed. Although the analysis shows
no sulfur and only traces of phosphorus, the sample chosen for
analysis being carefully selected to avoid them, both troilite and
schreibersite are fairly abundant in the meteorites.
Plessite fields are numerous and show a great variety of structure.
Some very light fields are composed of a reticulated pattern of kama-
cite grains with droplets of taenite along grain boundaries. In some
fields the scattered taenite particles are imperfectly spheroidized. In
contrast with these “light” types are many “dense’’ fields composed
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
of an imperfectly transformed gamma-alpha mixture, appearing black
and unresolved except at high magnifications, the dark interiors often
being traversed or even filled with oriented lamellae of kamacite.
At the edge of one slice a zone of heat alteration was observed,
the normal structure being obliterated by secondary granulation.
This meteorite must have struck the earth with considerable force,
but neither the surrounding area nor the specimen itself showed any
indication of where or how this energy was dissipated. The prob-
lem of how much kinetic energy this mass would have had as
it struck the earth, assuming the meteorite as falling from a height
of 10 miles and starting with o velocity, was presented to L. B. Al-
drich, Director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. His
reply is as follows:
The magnitude of the air resistance in the fall of your meteorite from 10 miles
up is very uncertain. If we assume no air resistance, the 10-mile fall would take
57 seconds and its velocity on reaching the earth would be 1,840 feet per second.
Its kinetic energy would be 61 million foot-pounds, or 84 million joules. These
are computed from the well-known formulae:
V=V, + at
S = Vit + tat?
Kinetic Energy = 4 MV?
where V = velocity, t=time, s—distance, M=—=mass, and a=acceleration
due to gravity.
Actually, of course, the kinetic energy on reaching the earth would be ap-
preciably less because of air resistance. A. F. Zahm some years ago, using 4-inch
spheres as projectiles, experimentally determined air resistances for velocities
up to 1,000 feet per second. Applying his values to the meteorite I compute
that it would take approximately 70 seconds to fall and its kinetic energy would
be about 18 million foot-pounds.
Two uncertain factors enter, however: (1) Air at 10 miles altitude is much
less dense than lower down. Thus the computed value is too small. (2) The
meteorite is not a sphere, but a rough, irregular mass. This would make the
computed K.E. too much. My guess is that the meteorite’s K.E. would be per-
haps in the order of 20 million foot-pounds.
We know the meteorite started much higher than 10 miles up and
that it had an initial velocity much greater than zero assumed for this
problem. However, before the mass hit the earth it had attained its
maximum velocity and in fact must have been slightly retarded. Yet
when this 1,164-pound iron was found it was resting almost entirely
on the surface of the ground. True, it may have come to rest after
striking elsewhere, but no crater was found in that vicinity.
There is only one place where the meteorite exhibits any distorted
metal that may mark the place on the sample which came in contact
with the ground at the moment of impact. One would certainly think
NO. I2 DRUM MOUNTAINS METEORITE—HENDERSON AND PERRY 7
that a meteorite of this weight falling upon hard rock would be con-
spicuously scarred, but it is not so in this case. There is always the
possibility that it fell at a place where there was considerable accumu-
lation of sand or soil and perhaps the ground at that point may also
have been further protected by a rather deep snowdrift.
The Drum Mountains iron is the eighth largest individual meteorite
reported from within the United States. The following table lists the
individuals preserved in collections which exceed the Drum Mountains
in weight.
List of individual meteorites from the United States which exceed
Drum Mountains in weight
Weight
Name State of origin Kg.
SEMEN Beso di aii g disses diiws anes <eadn CILERON “.4.a:b.0 oxchbea 0ond 14,175
PURIST cte oe clef sos. ues Mitra old ve PALSIZOMAs yo pis klusee lined cate etal 1,503
SEEMS ATV OU Mao Sete ds cee co a hei Nevadart ots vee cenee eae canine 1,450
AL eae a Calor. ok sca vcore ae 1,167
I Mi toe nee 502 cor. s weno Georgia < oc59s sae hones eee eee 800
EI a EAS 2 vs cre sis ca ce oe 743
eye ies seca ec sss kx ces ATIZONA we coir anlar we ey ene 688
Seema Motntains * ..... 6... cee. s cece Rita he ketene ede eweneet 529
* All weights except these were taken from Frederick C. Leonard and Dorothy H.
Alley’s listing in Pop. Astron., vol. 55, No. 9, pp. 497-502, 1947.
This 22-pound portion of Drum Mountains meteorite was sectioned
into 10 slices. This cutting was done on an endless band saw using a
th-inch band of soft iron (18-gage) onto which the carborundum
is washed with a small stream of water. The two wheels of this saw
are 36 inches in diameter and make 100 revolutions per minute. The
cutting band is traveling at the rate of 941.6 feet per minute. Mr.
Reberholt in charge of the Mineralogy Laboratory of the Museum
made a record of the time required to cut all the slices and the quan-
tity of the carborundum used. The Io slices required 291 hours of
cutting time and $61.60 worth of carborundum. These figures may be
of some interest to those who wish to know something about the cut-
ting costs of an iron meteorite. The figures are basic, so by multiply-
ing the cutting time by a wage that such an operator would receive,
adding a factor for power, depreciation of machinery, final polishing,
etching, etc., it becomes clear why large slices of meteoritic iron are
very expensive specimens.
1 GENERAL VIEW OF THE DRUM MOUNTAINS METEORITE IN PLACE
A CAVITY WITH CONCENTRIK
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLES LO; NO 2s Pieae2
1. Octahedrite. The black veins are fractures filled with what is believed to be fused
oxide forced into the fractures during flight. The hole is a deep surface depression with
weathered oxide irregularly distributed around the rim. About 4 natural size.
: *
- 6“ e \ sans
2 2a Net, FT 7
. . ~y é
ea
2. An irregular body of taenite with a core of dense untransformed gamma-alpha aggregate
showing an acicular structure with some orientation. The taenite outside of the dark core
is mostly clear and fully transformed, but where it adjoins the surrounding kamacite it is
gray at many points because of supersaturation with respect to kamacite. The taenite
area encloses short needles (lamellae) of kamacite, and (at right) a large body of kamacite.
Picral 30 seconds X 65.
|
WCHL, ano (Nols WA, Ib. ‘]
|
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
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_ SMITHSONI AN’ MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 110, NUMBER 13
(Env oF VoLtuMeE)
/
* F J
—* . ms te
% CONTRIBUTIONS
TO THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF
THE SOVIET UNION
, ~s Tso (Wits Five Pvates)
COMPILED BY,
HENRY FIELD
+.
VPsOO Ne
erat pes
on Oe
(Pusiication 3947)
, CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
DECEMBER 22, 1948
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 110, NUMBER 13
(ENp oF VoLUME)
CONTRIBUTIONS
PO THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF
THE SOVIET UNION
(Wit Five PLates)
CoMPILED BY
HENRY FIELD
Al THsOP Se
HSONG
NTVvt we
ETS x ont
(Pusiication 3947)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
DECEMBER 22, 1948
‘The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8 A.
CONTENTS
SC tis bake wow Jy bch ksi Dow sa nat 40 baled bade» ebdeelaah anes v
I. All-Union Conference on Archeology............secsecceees sevveucs I
PIEOUTES A1Y SIETODGIONY « « ven vénc sc ceperacceavéesbetaceedacaene 7
Ai, Ancient peoples and their origin..........cecesceceucsccecses 7
Penner races and their history. os ...scnpsemescvebecseucves 12
C. Variations in the structure of human bodies.............00000 17
as aS cide a bs. vv ave Wy ont aia Wone Wx ew eke e ene Cena 2
a aa OU a irta'a ns oh o'4.5 X08 hae 0 Nid da gu ae eee 20
Primitive Mousterian and Clactonian sites............00ceeeeeee 21
Black Sea Littoral: Abkhazia and Crimea.................- 21
RS i Ca bh s Bila dtu viaie's CS arses gine Meee eee e 23
Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic sites..................005: 29
Rem MRINE AES COE EUE ERE Fea bw ux 0 Cdl ein's aerate ewe en ee 29
UREA aE ac clk ah ec ats 6 wns iow Gia te Meee 37
PREMIER ON ERE 15.59, lei y sic... ave Was whiten dneilam ak ae ee 46
a sete o's das 4s VU ves +a hale vx edo Pane Ue te ae Wick 46
EAVES TIN TOCHGANCASUS: «ks 3 555 oo ccae Ucliene Reaeoe eee eee 50
Peeeirenenmerine Cancass.' 15.0.5 svar eeitawadd veeniae 52
Pa Ce er IES eS... 5s + ond iv eaten ads toes wehbe 53
RN ANCE ing 55. i nailed 0.tih apininhido (0G Ab dineaabaplbie einen 64
SEIBCEMANCH ALCHCOLORICA 4.05000 0c vacesedsnpnen ren scionsonienbeces 66
MBER Ms ce 1 oY cha De state's ned Kelty aepebinanete ns Oe 66
MER aTS NMR re gy hal arg’ cas FEL Wie ain isiniaeetined aun Sle alee ee ae 67
OADTGEE oe 5 en nn se OE OREO ER oof POS mre ee. 67
aera Te asic 5 0k ai gine: begs Nass amas’ nh gle lly SE REE AGS ee 75
en ng ne oe ae cay wit ides inna enee 78
a tide ie Se cals ies ats ee teeta 7
POINTE Oe aac n tics» oc ee ae cis eee Taree Oko ica ares teense aie 85
See CE eyo fc. lt Doves cubes ti eu seacmnedbalevaerantt 85
PN Ee ir nit dp das 2a benvdankae sie qualbein seks 87
Novo-Akkermanovka cemetery .........ssssecscseesssssees 87
Pe ERIE AIOLOTY © . os cache vbineasswasaveotedepates vash &8
EE can ob an on dtrdnwes s denna deen Ghent tuscan dae a &S8
Previous research in the Upper Volga region...............- O4
Reet AIT Etch al, iiw divine wndln oat eclee tus auenend wa dawiiake ee 95
TORRID oo boat eink s since dabekesls ame Puede 95
ee So td de in wih cnebedaebalie unter enaee 106
Cs Ti BOOS ee eee ik dh danas vane tieaeanan 110
Siberia ..... PR Conc a wasunwenesbchsvessi3s unenbbudelcen heen 110
Khakass A. S. Mey do packiweckesincuncabGdwettbokeeeeuacee 110
SE MNCEUSTIOR AGHMTODOIOBICR ... cc ence ccndsdavetenssaccccsactscocests 113
CLS. Mec dpcivuchbadudesncsstecttWe 68denpee shale 113
Anthropology of the western Pamirs...........ccecceeeeeeeeeees 116
Iranian tribes of the western Pamirs ba'scees stu dukes Gedabe Sale 119
Mountain Tajiks ......... nadedmocd&hi\ qhbstiaks cibodduatahekete 125
iv CONTENTS
Pace
Peoples) iof ‘Uzbekistan. ana. cle certo eee enone ee 161
Reasons for supposing nomads dolichocephalic............... 168
Comparison with historical, ethnological, and philological data. 173
Linguistic and anthropological characteristics of Turkomans.. 174
Uzbeks: of Khwatazmirn: Gus ace een ee eee 183
Kazalkhs of thevAlltaissc2eracs eho eetere Sa eee 184
Pigmentation: 02 .t/.ysis2. 00a oes oa et ee eek ee ane eee 185
Beard «development 1.) ssa one oes eee oe eee eee 187
Head fOr: Seorcata cs eae Re a ED AE ee a 188
Browfidges: sos2acaceas ees eee ee eee 188
Racial form oo. tie one cae eee ee ee eee 189
INOSE) te 2are iba hee Wake Gisele aeiece Ueda ale Bat eee Deer 189
Lei ps rete sie a ettsiteblsl Cae iid oo ee ee ee eee 190
Fars) scolar techs ih ARO OES SING ee hace ee 190
Summary’ SoCs ee ea oe eee ee 190
Western ‘Kazakhs: sacnide) ck haere sadatlan teehee eee eee 195
Pigmentation: $2 Abe Serntls Sa oes nee aio ee pei oie Pee Ere 197
Startins sata eases Slat oire Pilea ats saantcs Alt ata Rie 199
Cephalic index. fao0 Jrob dlr Sao nd as eee ee 200
Flead ‘breadthy e's See ke oe he ea eee 200
Bactal ind sx cts faesc cates eee eae cle OEE 201
Nasal! indexes nc das ches too eth lge oe oe oon ee eee 201
Conclusions? scl can cree ce ere aes ae tee eee el ee eee 203
Turkomans of Khwarazm and the North Caucasus............... 204
A-study of the: Turkish peoples, 1924-1634. /22252. 2h ose eee 207
Paleoanthropology of the Lower Volga area.............c0..+00 213
Craniology of the Tatars of the Golden Horde.......1.......... 216
Conclusions: 2h 4g egac snail Sa eere al a a eee 220
Grantology tof the Kalmyks-os.-scenioeece ooo eee eeeEeEe 222
The Wich GNani)scranialstypesssaseceecoee en eee eee ete 226
Twortypesvor y akuticrania.icnes seek ee eee en eee eee 227
Craniology of the Orochis of the Maritime area............-ce0. 228
Craniology. of thes Alleuts j.cs5 sts ce oisin Sas st eisihte ee eee 230
Gonelusions) pecs aot te eee ee ee eee 234 |
Origin of thei Mofigol: s24.1 coke dada cee ee a ee ee 235 a
Origin of the Eskimos, ee Pea ee eee eae Te 236 |
@bservations oni thetibiasens sas a acer eee eee ere 237
Head tonmiandsenrowthiineutenoaie cient nies 237
Avstudy/on blood sroups im the Gancasuse+ sete een ere reteeeree 238
Isoagelutination of the Turkomans.s s...05... cose s oe see
The Tardenoisian skeleton from Fatma-Koba, Crimea............
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Puate t.. Akhshtyr cave,) Abkhazia\....:6.). Suncuc sch eutes othe eae eee
PLATE 2: Mzymta ‘Gorge, Ablshazialwyos.inenice cicielearee pieces ee ieeeaere ent
Priate 3. Dr. and Mrs. S. N. Zamiatnin and Dr. A. E. Jessen outside
Akhshtyr cave,. Abkhazia). 5, 1525 /2.)h/ tals Ho. Sle meainne sleet
PEATE 4. Gross) section of Akhshtyn cave, Abkhazialyso mines ceienecien
Puiate 5. Dr. M. E. Masson and Dr. L. V. Oshanin examining skulls
from )Khwarazm, Uzbekistan... .c)sie'e oie ois sre ieravain el steerer
PREFACE
This study, which includes a compilation of anthropological data
based on Soviet published and unpublished materials, has been divided
into two sections, one dealing with archeology, the other with physical
anthropology.
The majority of the archeological publications from which sum-
maries have been translated were given to me while a guest of the
Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. during June—July, 1945, in
Moscow and Leningrad. The occasion was the Jubilee Session cele-
brating the 220th anniversary of the founding of the Academy by
Peter the Great.
I was the bearer of official greetings from the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, the Archaeological Institute of America, the American Anthro-
pological Association, the Library of Congress, the National Archives,
and the National Geographic Society. Ata full session of the Praesid-
ium of the Academy of Sciences in Moscow I was invited to address
the Academy and to present these greetings from the United States,
which were officially accepted and warmly reciprocated by President
Vladimir Komarov. For an account of this trip the reader is referred
to “Anthropology in the Soviet Union, 1945” in the American Anthro-
pologist, vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 375-396, 1946.
Chapter III was translated by Mrs. John F. Normano, the Asia
Institute, New York City. Chapters IV and V are based on sum-
maries translated by Eugene V. Prostov prior to 1941. Some sections
in chapter IV have been translated from French summaries during
1946 by Mrs. David Huxley, to whom a footnote reference is given.
A special introduction to chapter IV, with a list of abbreviations
(pp. 114-115), has been included.
_ While every effort has been made to express clearly and concisely
the results obtained by the Soviet archeologists and anthropologists
whose work has been translated and summarized, this has proved to
be an exceptionally difficult task.
Among other special problems was the fact that work was begun on
this publication 10 years ago and during the war years remained
untouched. In addition, my collaborator, Eugene V. Prostov, has
been on Government service abroad since 1946. However, he has
checked the text, particularly the spellings of proper names, but with-
out his customary library and reference works at hand. Hence,
some discrepancies and inconsistencies, will appear. Dr. Sergei
v
v1 PREFACE
Yakobson, Consultant in the Library of Congress, very kindly stand-
ardized some of the spellings in order to follow the Library of Con-
gress system of Russian transliteration. Some place names follow
the spelling approved by the Board on Geographical Names. We
noted, but could not correct or change, differences in terminology ;
we have kept as close to the original as possible. In some cases we
have made minor additions to elucidate the text either in footnotes
with initials or in brackets.
Since we have often taken considerable editorial license with the
text in the selection and rearrangement of the materials, we decided
to place the name of the author in the first footnote of each article.
On the other hand, there should never be any question as to the
authorship of any statement.
This publication should be considered as complementary to our
previous publications on the U.S.S.R. (see chapter IV, footnotes
I, 2), to my “Contributions to the Anthropology of Iran,” and in
particular to my forthcoming “Contributions to the Anthropology of
the Caucasus,” wherein will appear my anthropometric data on the
North Osetes and Yezidis as well as Soviet comparative data on
Ciscaucasia and Transcaucasia.
No bibliography has been compiled because, for the sake of con-
venience, references have been listed in the footnotes.
In the preparation of this material for publication, I have had
some editorial assistance from Miss Morelza Morrow. As already
mentioned, Mrs. John F. Normano and Mrs. David Huxley trans-
lated part of the material. The greater part of the text was typed by
Miss Elizabeth Beverly in Thomasville, Ga. Miss Betsy King Ross,
who very kindly assisted in the final stages of preparation, also typed
part of the manuscript. We wish to acknowledge with gratitude all
this assistance. We also wish to thank Dr. T. Dale Stewart, curator
of physical anthropology of the United States National Museum, for
making helpful suggestions regarding certain portions of the manu-
script. My wife generously assisted in the compilation of the statis-
tical tables and in proofreading the copy.
Weare grateful to Soviet anthropologists, who have contributed so
much to our knowledge of ancient and modern man from the Ukraine
to Siberia and from the Far North to Central Asia.
We received information in 1939 and in 1945 that anthropometric
surveys were in progress in European Russia, in the Caucasus,
Turkestan, Central Asia, and Siberia, and hope that at some not too
distant date we may be able to make the new results available to the |
PREFACE vii
student of Asiatic racial problems, who is either unfamiliar with the
Russian language or does not have access to this important Soviet
literature.
n Henry Frevp
October 28, 1946.
Cuernavaca, Mexico.
Na Winey Wat Aaesee aaah re til)
REG!) donk abies, Bh
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF
THE SOVIET UNION
CoMPILED By HENRY FIELD
(Wir Five Prates)
I. ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON ARCHEOLOGY?
This Conference, called by the Academy of Sciences, was held in
Moscow during 1945. Represented at the Conference by a total of
156 delegates were the Marr Institute, the Academies of Sciences of
the various Union Republics, branches of the U.S.S.R. Academy of
Sciences, Peoples Commissariats of Education of the Union and
Autonomous Republics, universities, teachers’ colleges, central, terri-
torial, regional, and municipal museums, the Commission on the
Preservation of Ancient Monuments, and other scientific bodies.
The Conference was opened by V. Volgin, Vice President of the
Academy of Sciences and chairman of the committee on organiza-
tion. In his opening speech Academician Volgin reminded the dele-
gates that the Marr Institute—the leading center of Soviet arch-
eology—had recently celebrated its twentieth anniversary. l*ounded
as the Russian Academy of the History of Material Culture, it suc-
ceeded the Committee on Archeology which had been in existence
since 1859.
“We no longer support the teachings of former archeologists that
the ancient history of our country was represented by separate
‘archeological civilizations.’ We regard it rather as a harmonious and
logically connected chain of consecutive stages in the development of
humanity from the Stone Age to the Middle Ages.”
The problem of the origin of the Slavs and their relations with
neighboring tribes is now presented from a new angle. Archeolo-
gists have traced the first stages in the formation of the Slavonic tribes
to the beginning of our era. Scientists of today base their conclusions
on material found in strata dating back to the Bronze Age and
Neolithic civilizations. More and more light is being shed upon the
unification of the Slavonic tribes in the first thousand years of our
1From VOKS Bulletin, 1946. This has been condensed and edited to conform
to our style. (H. F.)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 110, NO. 13
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
era, a factor which exerted a tremendous influence upon the history
of Eastern and Central Europe.
Academician B. Grekov delivered a report on the achievements of
archeological investigations in the U.S.S.R. He pointed out that
interest in ancient cultural remains has long existed in Russia. As
early as 1804 a scientific society called the Society of History and
Russian Antiquities was founded in Moscow. As stated at the time,
this Society was interested, among other things, in collecting an-
tiquities, medals, coins, and other objects shedding light on various
events in Russian history.
Pre-Revolutionary archeologists excavated much material con-
nected with the ancient history of the peoples of Russia. The remains
of Hellenic civilization in the northern regions of the Black Sea coast,
objects excavated from Scythian burial mounds, and other materials
cleared up many previously unexplored periods of Russian history.
It was mostly due to the efforts of archeologists that a new field of
study was opened to historians—the study of the Scythians who in-
habited the territory of the present U.S.S.R. before the Slavs. Parallel
with these investigations, archeologists unearthed the monuments of
ancient Slavs in the Caucasus and Siberia.
In order to clarify previous observations and conclusions, the
archeologists established firm ties with paleoanthropology, paleo-
zoology, geology, soil science, philology, and history. At the present
time archeology no longer stands apart from the general aims of
history, but is itself a historical science solving the same problems
and pursuing the same aims in its own specific field.
In recent years the number of sites investigated by archeologists
has greatly increased. At the present time there is not a single region
or nationality in the U.S.S.R. which has not been the object of study.
Significant achievements have been made in the study of the Stone
Age. Hundreds of Paleolithic sites have been discovered and in-
vestigated, including those at Kostenki-Borshevo, Gagarino, Timo-
novka, and Malta and Buret in Siberia. Parallel with these studies,
archeologists have charted the various periods in the Russian Paleo-
lithic age, establishing the characteristics of its three main provinces—
Asia, Europe Proper, and the regions of the Caspian Sea. These
discoveries contributed much that was new to the existing conception
of forms of Paleolithic tools and implements and of the art and mode
of life of the people of that period.
Thorough investigations of a number of regions (the central part
of European Russia, the Karelian-Finnish S.S.R., the Urals, and the
Baikal area) made it possible to distinguish between the various
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 3
Neolithic civilizations and determine their chronological sequence.
The new discoveries made in the course of these investigations, par-
ticularly the rock drawings in Karelia, the Gorbunovo turf pit, the
Olen-Ostrov burial mound, and others, shed light on the religious
conceptions of the Neolithic period, an aspect heretofore little studied.
Extensive investigations of the early Bronze Age have also been
made. Excavations along the Dniester and the southern part of the
Bug Rivers and at Usatovo near Odessa demonstrated the existence
of various stages in the development of Tripolje culture and proved
its prevalence in the whole Dnieper and Danube basin during the
period from 3000-1000 B.C, Distinctions were established between
the Bronze Age cultures in the northern and southern Caucasus, the
Shengavit and Angbek cultures attributed to the early Bronze
Age, the Kuban burial mounds and Eilar and the excavations at
Trialeti,? all of which contained remains of highly developed Bronze
Age cultures. Excavations at Urartu brought to light considerable
material on the history of ancient Armenia. Investigations carried out
in the Black Sea regions and in the Ukraine established the chronology
of three main cultures—those characterized by pit, catacomb, and hut
dwellings. The origin of each of these three types was clearly defined,
and investigations were made of settlements of this period for the
first time. It was established that the final stage in the development of
Bronze Age culture was that of the Cimmerians, who inhabited this
region previous to the coming of the Scythians. In the Volga region
investigations established the existence of two cultures—that of
Poltava (the beginning of the Bronze Age) and of Khvalinsk (the
end of the Bronze Age). Investigations in Siberia established three
stages of the Bronze Age as represented in the Afanasiev, Andronovo,
and Karasuk cultures. A new culture—the Abashev—was discovered
in the Chuvash Republic and adjacent regions.
The study of the Scytho-Sarmatian culture is of great significance
for a knowledge of the population in the pre-Slavonic era and for
determining the ethnogeny of Slavonic tribes. New excavations were
carried out on the ancient sites of Kamensk, Sharapovsk, and Nemi-
rov, as well as on the right bank of the Bug River and the western
coast of the Black Sea. Excavations were also made of Scytho-
Sarmatian burial mounds in the Kuban, the southern regions of the
Dnieper, and in other localities.
Soviet archeologists continued the excavations begun in the ancient
2See Kuftin, B. A., and Field, Henry, Prehistoric culture sequence in Trans-
caucasia, Southwestern Journ. Anthrop., vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 340-360, 1946, and
Microfilm No. 2310, pp. 1-126, in American Documentation Institute.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
cities of the Black Sea region—Olbia,* Chersonesus, Phanagoria, and
Kharabs [Charax?]. Excavations were also begun at other sites.
A more profound comprehension of the Scythian problem, as
Academician Grekov pointed out, prepared the ground for a revision
of views concerning the origin of the Slavs, particularly of the eastern
branch. New investigations have confirmed the ethnogenetic chart
outlined by Academician Nikolai Marr confirming the local origin
of the eastern Slavs whose roots go back to the tribes of the Tripolje
culture, to the Bronze Age civilization in the steppe regions, to the
Scythians, and finally to the epoch of field burials. Agricultural tribes
of Scythians along the middle course of the Dnieper as well as tribes
from the upper reaches of the Dnieper, whose culture has been studied
only in the past few years, are now accepted as component factors
of the Slavonic ethnogeny.
One of the most important subjects of archeological research has
been that of the Antae and their culture. Investigations of this prob-
lem can confirm the existence of definite connections between Antean
culture and that of the preceding burial-field stage of culture and can
also show the more original nature of Antean culture and its higher
stage of development. Evidence pointing to this is found in their
field agriculture, livestock breeding, skilled arts and crafts, and large
settlements of an urban type. Beyond question the center of Antean
culture lay in the middle reaches of the Dnieper, in the regions later
inhabited by the Polians. Grekov considers it to be an established fact
that the culture of Kiev Russ is a successor of Antean culture.
In this connection Academician Grekov dwelt on the researches
of Soviet archeologists concerning Russian culture and in particular
ancient Russian cities. The first stage in these researches was devoted
to revealing the prehistory of these cities, going far back into the pre-
feudal period. The most important of these ancient cities were those
which preceded modern Kiev, the settlements of the eighth and ninth
centuries on the ancient site of Riurik near Novgorod, the cultural
strata of the fifth and sixth centuries underlying the Pskov Kremlin,
and the ancient strata of Staraia Ladoga dating back to the seventh
and eighth centuries.
Taken in conjunction with the collections obtained by pre-Revolu-
tionary expeditions, the many handicraft objects found in recent
excavations enable archeologists to have a detailed picture of the
evolution of urban crafts, their connection with and influence upon
rural crafts, the progress and differentiation of technical methods,
8 See Minns, Ellis H., Thirty years of work at Olbia, Journ. Hellenic Studies,
vol. 45, pp. 109-112, 1945.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 5
and the labor skills involved in each particular craft. A study of the
cast forms, for example, and of craftsmen’s marks, throws light on the
social position of the latter, their organizations, and similar matters.
Materials relating to various periods of the Bronze Age have been
unearthed at Shengavit settlement, at Shresh-Blur, and in Eilar.
Particular interest attaches to the findings made by the expedition
of the Georgian Academy of Sciences in the Trialeti burial mounds.
Excavations of a tomb near Mtskheta, just north of Tbilisi {formerly
Tiflis], furnished valuable material relating to the ancient Georgian
kingdom. New finds, which shed light on the later Urartu epoch,
have been unearthed on the hill of Kamir-Blur by expeditions of the
Armenian Academy of Sciences. Extensive research has been carried
on in Azerbaidzhan concerning cyclopean edifices. Investigations of
medieval cities in Armenia and Georgia have been launched on a large
scale. All these and many other excavations have produced material
on the ancient history of the peoples inhabiting the Caucasus and
Transcaucasia and their relations with ancient eastern states.
Excavations in Central Asia have unearthed Kelte-Minar and later
Tazabagiab cultures which indicate historical connections between
the population of ancient Khwarazm (Khoresm) and the north (the
Afanasiev and Andronovo cultures), and the east (the Anau culture).
Expeditions in Shakhrasiab, Urgench, and Khwarazm, and the ex-
cavations of ancient Taraz, all of which unearthed material on a later
period in the history of Central Asia, have proved the existence of
cultural relations between the ancient population of Central Asia and
the Near East.
Prior to 25 years ago only 3 Paleolithic sites were known in Siberia,
whereas more than 60 are known today. This has made it possible
to establish the various periods in Siberian Paleolithic cultures, and
of Neolithic settlements in the lower reaches of the Amur, on the
shores of Lake Baikal, on the Angara, the Yenisei, and the Ilim
Rivers. A study of the Bronze Age established the first appearance
of livestock breeding, agriculture, and the smelting of metal. Three
stages of Siberian Bronze Age culture have been established—the
Afanasiev, the Andronovo, and the Karasuk. The dissemination of
northern Chinese bronze as far west as the present cities of Molotov
and Gorki raises the question of the role of cultural relations with the
Far East as well as with the Near East, in forming a cultural unity
among the peoples inhabiting the territory of the U.S.S.R. in ancient
times. Remains corresponding to Scytho-Sarmatian culture in the
southern regions of European Russia have been discovered in Siberia.
In archeological research concerning the peoples of the Volga and
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Ural regions, particular attention has been paid to the so-called
Ananino culture, which is a connecting link between the Bronze Age
and the formation of now existing nationalities of these districts.
During the Soviet period large-scale investigations have been begun
to elucidate the early history of the Udmurts, the Komis, the Bashkirs,
and the Mordovian tribes.
Special attention has been given to a study of the Bulgar and
Khazar cultures. It is now possible to reconstruct a picture of the
life in the Bulgar cities of the Volga region (Bulgari, Suvara, and
others) both in ancient times and in the period of the Golden Horde.
A systematic study of the material relating to the Khazars has made
it possible to elucidate a number of obscure aspects of Russian-Khazar
relations in the history of the Slavonic-Russian colonization of the
southeast.
Without the efforts of archeologists the early pages of the history
of the Bulgars, the Khazars, the eastern Slavs, and the even earlier
Scythian and Greek colonies on the north coast of the Black Sea, and
of ancient Armenia and Georgia would still remain unknown.
Academician Meshchaninov delivered a report on the planning of
archeological expeditions in the U.S.S.R. Many of the archeo-
logical investigations, both theoretical and field researches outlined
for the 1945-1949 period, are closely linked with key problems con-
cerning the history of Soviet peoples which have been singled out
for attention in the last few years. In most cases plans for large-scale
excavations provide for the cooperation of several scientific institutes.
The plan also provides for systematic researches covering several
years and extensive regions. In liberated cities where reconstruction
will be carried out on a large scale, appropriate archeological work
is being planned as well as measures for preserving the most im-
portant monuments of the past.
One of the tasks confronting Soviet archeologists is that of restor-
ing the collections of many of the museums plundered by the Nazis
and the restoration of many treasures of Soviet art and architecture
damaged during the German occupation.
Academician Grabar made a report on new legislation concerning
the preservation and study of archeological monuments.
II. RECENT WORK IN ANTHROPOLOGY?
A. ANCIENT PEOPLES AND THEIR ORIGIN
The discovery of the fossil skeleton of a child in Teshik-Tash cave
in the mountains of Central Asia represents one of the most important
anthropological finds of recent years.
Southern Bukhara lies in the Hissar Mountains. Teshik-Tash
grotto is located in the Zautolos-Sai Canyon of the Beissen-Tad
Mountains, belongmg to the Hissar Range. This grotto (7 x 20 x
7 m.) stands at an altitude of 1,600 m. above sea level. The central
area of the grotto represents a fossil-bearing layer containing animal
bones, worked stone, and carbonized materials superimposed on a
porous layer of clay. Underneath the clay lies another fossiliferous
stratum. Altogether there are five strata with a total thickness of
about 1.5 m., of which 40 cm. contain fossils.
In 1938 A. P. Okladnikov discovered the remains of a human
skeleton ? at the base of the first layer at a depth of 25.0 cm. The
skull lay in a depression in the non-fossil-bearing layer. The horns
of mountain goats arranged in pairs were found in the immediate
vicinity. Heaps of charcoal and the remains of fires were found in
several places in the fossiliferous stratum. Okladnikov concludes
that ritual burials took place here. The alternation of fossiliferous and
sterile strata indicates beyond doubt that Teshik-Tash was not per-
manently inhabited. However, it is evident from the thickness of the
non-fossil-bearing strata that the intervals between the use of the
grotto were very long. j
The geological study of the canyon and grotto yields little for the
determination of the epoch to which the fossil-bearing strata of Teshik-
Tash belong, but in any case there is nothing to preclude the supposi-
tion that they belong to the Pleistocene period.
1 This chapter, by V. V. Bunak, of the Research Institute for Anthropology,
University of Moscow, has been edited to conform to our style. Some passages
have been condensed; some footnotes have been added. This article appeared in
VOKS Bulletin, Moscow, Nos. 9-10, pp. 22-20, 1945. See also Franz Weiden-
reich, The Paleolithic child from the Teshik-Tash cave in southern Uzbekistan
(Central Asia), Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 151-163,
1945, and Henry Field, Anthropology in the Soviet Union, 1945, Amer. Anthrop.,
vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 375-396, July-September, 1946.
2For illustrations of the Teshik-Tash skulls and reconstructions by M. M.
Gerasimov, see Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop., n.s., vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 121-123, 1946.
7
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10
The fossil-bearing strata contain many fragments of bones. Accord-
ing to V. I. Gromoy, the following types of mammals are represented :
Siberian goat (Capra sibirica), horse (Equus caballus), wild boar
(Sus scrofa), leopard (Felis pardus), marmot (Marmotta sp.).
The remains of mountain goats are the most numerous. In general,
the composition of the fauna is similar to that of the present day.
According to Gromov’s supposition, orographic, climatic, and faunal
conditions in this part of Central Asia have changed little since the
end of the Pleistocene period.
Stone implements were mainly of local siliceous limestone; some
were of quartz or quartzite. One implement was made of limestone.
The first fossil-bearing stratum contains many so-called “cores,”
most notable of which are long, massive, oval implements with broad
sides and thick round ends fashioned by chipping with a sharp instru-
ment. Flatter scrapers of various forms and sharp-pointed tools of
primitive type have also been discovered. Chips and flat pieces of
stone for making implements are in abundance. There is a complete
absence of objects made of bone and horn. According to Okladnikov
Teshik-Tash stone technology corresponds to Mousterian culture
in Europe. He also notes the similarity between the typology of
Teshik-Tash and the Middle Paleolithic of Palestine and southern
Kurdistan in Iraq.
The remains of the human skeleton were brought to the Anthro-
pological Museum of the Moscow State University. Part of the
femur, the tibia, the humerus, and both clavicles were in a fair state
of preservation. The skull was smashed into more than 150 frag-
ments, but all of them were well preserved and it was possible to restore
almost completely the cranium and face. This reconstruction * was
made by the sculptor and anthropologist, M. M. Gerasimov. Research
on the skeleton was conducted by G. F. Debets, M. Gremiatskii (the
skull), N. A. Sinelnikov (bones of skeleton), V. V. Bunak (endo-
cranial cast), and others. The results of this work are set forth in a
comprehensive monograph now in press.
The preliminary examination revealed that the Teshik-Tash skele-
ton was that of an 8- or g-year-old child, probably a boy.
The cranial capacity is large, but the vault of the skull is compara-
tively low, with an angular occiput, prominent superciliary ridges,
and massive bones. The chin is little developed. The teeth are large.
The endocranial cast reveals, among others, the following character-
istics: a sloping frontal region; a wide fissure between the lobes;
3] had an opportunity to examine the skull and the reconstruction on June 16,
LOAG HEU CEI amr)
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY——FIELD 9
impressions of convolutions as far as the frontal protuberances; and
a central frontal furrow with a horizontal posterior protuberance.
These characteristics do not identify the skeleton with any variation
of modern man even at the lowest stage of his development, but relate
the Teshik-Tash skull to the type of fossil man belonging to the
end of the Pleistocene period, the Middle Paleolithic, or, broadly,
“Neanderthaloid.”
This conclusion is beyond doubt, but from the modern point of
view it is insufficient. Middle Paleolithic includes many different
human types, such as the typical European Neanderthal, fossil remains
from Ngandong in Java and from various places in Africa and Pales-
tine. The question arises as to which of these types the Teshik-Tash
skeleton most resembles. The extreme youth of the Teshik-Tash
cranium renders it difficult to draw a final conclusion, since there is
insufficient comparative material for that age. Comparative research
in new data, especially the Palestine discoveries, will probably render
it possible to clear up this interesting question. Nevertheless, even
now the Teshik-Tash discovery is of great interest. First of all, it
greatly extends the area in which Middle Paleolithic man existed.
All previously found human remains were discovered at comparatively
short distances from the sea. The Teshik-Tash skeleton is the first
reliable proof of the penetration of Middle Paleolithic man into the
interior of the Asiatic continent. Proof that man lived in high
mountainous regions is also of great importance. The Teshik-Tash
skeleton provides valuable material for the investigation of the varia-
tions of the ““Neanderthaloid” type and for the study of age peculiari-
ties of ancient man.
A valuable monograph by G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii entitled ‘The
Hand of Paleolithic Man” was published in 1941 just before World
War II. It treats of another most important find of fossil man—the
skeleton of a hand found in the Kiik-Koba grotto in the Crimea. Con-
siderable literature has been written about this discovery, but a
comparative anthropological study of the skeleton, the skull of which
is unfortunately missing, required many years of persevering work.
The published monograph treats only of the bones of the hand and is
a work of exceptional value as the author is the first to have collected
exhaustive material about the structural peculiarities of this important
part of the skeleton of modern man, fossil man, and of various groups
of Cercopithecus monkeys.
As the result of measurements and reconstruction, Bonch-Osmo-
lovskii notes the following peculiarities of the skeleton of the hand
of the Kiik-Koba man: relative elongation of the fourth and fifth
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
fingers; very broad carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges, especially
the extreme phalanges, which give the hand a peculiar, flattened form ;
the flatness of certain joints which extend more horizontally giving
rise to the conclusion that the Kiik-Koba man was little able to bend
his fingers palmward but better able to move them sidewise. The
position of the thumb is most peculiar as the joint of the first meta-
carpal bone is very slightly developed. Bonch-Osmolovskii believes
that the ability of this fossil man to move his thumb toward the palm
was greatly restricted. The general impression gained is of a wide,
flat, pawlike hand. The Kiik-Koba hand is the first to have been studied
in such detail and so systematically, but Bonch-Osmolovskii concludes
that many of the above-mentioned features are inherent to some degree
in skeletons of the European Neanderthal man. At the same time,
Bonch-Osmolovskii proves convincingly that the above-described
structural type of hand is not similar to that of anthropoid apes
but, on the contrary, has developed away from them in the opposite
direction.
In general, the Kiik-Koba man had a human hand and could make
various stone implements.
Regarding the pawlike hand as the original form in the evolution
of man, partially repeated in the individual development of modern
man, Bonch-Osmolovskii concludes primitive man’s locomotion was
not like that of modern anthropoid apes.
The latter are clearly a side branch. The distant ancestors of man
were adapted to a different type of locomotion, were less specifically
tree forms, and according to the structure of the hand were closer
to the modern group of ground monkeys of the Pavian type. This
conclusion is supported by interesting facts concerning the type of
locomotion of the various Primates, the development of the grasping
ability in a child, and other data.
Naturally, Bonch-Osmolovskii’s conclusions cannot be regarded
as proved beyond doubt, especially those giving general character-
istics of the hand of fossil man. The necessary data for this are lack-
ing. The problem of the relation between various forms of Middle
Paleolithic man and the modern type remains unsolved. However,
Bonch-Osmolovskii’s hypothesis that anthropoid apes and their specific
type of grasping hand are the result of a new branch developing in
a definite direction within the species is shared by many modern
authorities. It is quite possible that the hand structure of Miocene
Primates (to which both human and anthropoid branches trace their
origin) not only lacked the distinctive features of anthropoid apes
but was closer to the modern semiground types of Primates. In
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD Il
developing this view, Bonch-Osmolovskii contributed new material of
outstanding importance for studying the evolution of man.
The wide dispersal of Neoanthropus at the end of the Pleistocene
period and the disappearance of the ancient form (Paleoanthropus)
is testified to by many discoveries in various parts of the world.
What were the factors which ensured the predominance of Neoan-
thropus? This problem has been discussed in a number of works,
some published and some still in press. The views developed by
P. P. Efimenko deserve first mention here. In one of the chapters
of his book, “Primitive Society,” Efimenko observed during 1938 the
significance of strict endogamy (intertribal marriage) which existed
in the small hordes of the Mousterian epoch for the fixation of the
specific features of the Neanderthal type. The appearance of the
new type was conditioned by the formation of broader social groups,
the beginnings of the gens organization. This view deserves atten-
tion although Efimenko treated the Neanderthal features in a very
narrow manner, perceiving in them only signs of degeneration.
Actually, it is not degeneration one should perceive but rather
specialization.
S. P. Tolstov and A. Boriskovskii stress the great part played in the
evolution of man by the development of hunting and technology in
the Middle Paleolithic period. Indeed, collective hunting is a most
important stimulus to the development of new forms of intercourse
among humans, their uniting in large groups, the invention of call
signals, the creation of new tools, the acquisition of new materials
(horn and bone), and radical alterations in diet.
An interesting view was expressed by G. G. Roginskii, who noted
that the small Neanderthal groups themselves presented obstacles
to their further development. Unless he was restrained by social
motives or self-control, the club-bearing and stone-armed Neanderthal
man represented a considerable threat to his fellows in various con-
flicts for the female and for food.
The development of these two means of restraint are most typical
of Neoanthropus. They are closely connected with the development
of the brain, especially the frontal region, the formation of which
marks the last stage in the physical evolution of man.
A study of the endocranial casts of Neanderthal man stresses the
importance of other elements of cranial structure. One of the most
striking features of Paleoanthropus is the very slanting frontal region,
the high temporal ridge resulting in the feeble development of the
lower parietal region (i.e., the region with which conscious speech is
connected). Considering that the general brain cavity of Neanderthal
12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
man was no smaller than that of modern man, then Bunak’s con-
clusion that a certain reconstruction of the cranium and the develop-
ment of speech are the most outstanding characteristics of the later
stages in the development of man is readily understood. This view
is in complete accord with the teaching of Academician Marr on the
development of speech and leads one to believe that Neanderthal man
possessed only slight powers of speech.
B. MODERN RACES AND THEIR HISTORY
The anthropological study of the numerous nationalities of the
Soviet Union provides a key to the solution of many cardinal prob-
lems of race formation and race systematization.
In recent years anthropological knowledge of Siberia and the Far
East has been increased by extensive research as, for example, the
Okhotsk Sea coast by M. G. Levin; the Amur River region by D. A.
Zolotarev ; among the Nentsi Samoyeds of northwestern Siberia by
S. A. Shluger; the Keshms, a small group on the upper banks of the
Yenisei River, by G. F. Debets; the Hants and the Mansi or Ostiaks
and the Voguls of the lower Ob River by T. A. Trofimova and N. N.
Cheboksarov ; and the Selkups of the lower Ob by G. F. Debets. The
material thus obtained has greatly enriched and rendered more exact
existing information about racial types in Asia. It is becoming evident
that the most characteristic type for the Asiatic continent, the so-called
Mongoloid type, is far from homogeneous. Within this category
exist many variations which are either local types or relics of ancient
racial formations.
The dolichocephalic or mesocephalic Asiatic anthropological types
are widely scattered throughout Siberia and the Far East. Variations
are to be found at present among the Trans-Baikal Tungus, in places
along the Amur River among the Golds, and on the Okhotsk Sea
coast. It is necessary to investigate the relation of this undoubtedly
more ancient anthropological type of Central and Eastern Siberia,
the so-called Ural type. At present these two variations possess certain
features in common, but at the same time there are essential differences
in the form of the face and nose, as well as in other respects. The
latest research shows that racial characteristics commonly attributed
to Asiatic races—coarse hair, heavy upper eyelids with the Mongolian
fold, flat faces, and others—do not prevail among the native popu-
lation of Siberia.
If, in respect to southern Siberians, especially Turki groups, one
may assume the blending of European elements in the formation of
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 13
their type, such an assumption is out of the question regarding the
more northern Siberian groups. Among the latter, in some districts
there is a definite aquiline nose somewhat resembling that of the North
American Indian. Is this type the result of actual genetical relations,
however remote? Is this Siberian aquiline nose peculiar to an inde-
pendent group? Is the aquiline nose merely a secondary trait which
arose through the convergent development of separate, isolated
groups? These problems may be solved within the next few years.
Much new anthropological information has been obtained about
the peoples of Central Asia, especially through the craniological study
of medieval and older ethnic groups by V. V. Ginzburg, L. V.
Oshanin, and others. More and more facts indicate that the dolicho-
cephalic element of European appearance is widespread in Central
Asia and that modern anthropological variations, among which the
brachycephalic element is prevalent, are of later formation.
In the Caucasus anthropological research has been conducted for
several years, as a result of which a great deal of comparative
material * has been obtained. Most of this extensive country has been
investigated by districts, with the exception of certain regions in
Daghestan and in the most mountainous regions of Georgia. The
drawing of anthropological maps of the Caucasus is one of the few
experiments made in anthropological analysis by districts based upon
systematic observations made by groups of research workers. A
summary of these data will be published in a special collection about
the Caucasus, now being prepared for press by the Institute of
Anthropology and Ethnography (IAE) of the Academy of Sciences.
New materials have corrected and complemented former views con-
cerning anthropological types in the Caucasus. The existence of the
mesocephalic, long-faced type with a straight nose, dark hair, often
with blue or gray eyes, has been established in the northwestern
Caucasus. This type is to be found among the Cherkess (Circassian) -
Kabardinian peoples in the Kuban region and is clearly a variation
of the so-called Pontic race. Morphological and historical data estab-
lished the unity of the Kuban variation of the Pontic race with lower
Danube types in Bulgaria, ancient types in present-day southern
Russia, and others. In ancient times the above-described type was
very widespread and predominated in what is now western Georgia.
In southeastern Transcaucasia there is another, also mesocephalic
type, but it differs from the first in several respects. This type is to be
found among Azerbaidzhanis, among a small group called the Tats
4Cf. my forthcoming Contributions to the Anthropology of the Caucasus.
(H. F.)
I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
(remnants of the ancient Iranian inhabitants of this region), the
Talyshes, the Kurds, and others. The Transcaucasian mesocephalic
type, together with the mesocephalic variation prevalent among the
Transcaspian Turkmenians, comprise a special group, the Caspian
race, which is also a branch of the great Mediterranean race. Some
groups in northern Iran® also belong to the Caspian type. A third
racial type, Pontozagros or Armenoid, is found in the central Trans-
caucasian highlands. This type is composed of several elements,
some of more ancient origin than others. The region through which
the Pontozagros type is distributed includes districts of southern
Daghestan.
The three above-described racial types are also widespread outside
the Caucasus. A fourth type, called the Caucasian race proper, is
specific for the Caucasus. This type is similar to the Armenoid, but
is characterized by a narrower head and a slightly different form of
face and nose. This type is found in Georgia and partially in the
central Terek region in North Caucasus. The results of the anthro-
pological analysis of the population of the Caucasus fully accord with
the latest data of archeology, linguistics, and ethnography, and make
it possible to trace the history of modern ethnic types.
In recent years the racial analysis of the population in the European
part of the Soviet Union has also advanced considerably.
A series of Neolithic skulls found in the Olonets Lake on Oleni
Island and described by E. Zhirov is of great importance in the study
of the anthropology of the Far North. This series includes a slightly
brachycephalic element which is similar to the Lopar type, but which
differs from the latter by virtue of certain Mongoloid features. The
great age of this variation in northern Europe is beyond doubt. The
connection between this element and the northern forest Neolithic
peoples is also evident. The Neolithic brachycephals of the north
should occupy a place of their own. There are no data that justify
identifying them with the western European Neolithic brachycephalic
types of Borreby in Denmark, and Grenelle * in France.
A volume of the works of the Institute of Anthropology of the
Moscow State University published in 1941 contains a number of
essays on the anthropology of various Finnish peoples (articles
by G. F. Debets, R. I. Zenkevich, and M. Gremiatskii). As has been
observed by previous investigators, anthropologically the Finnish
5 See also Henry Field, Contributions to the anthropology of Iran, Field
Museum of Natural History, Chicago, 1939.
6 This supposedly Neolithic skull, found near Paris in 1870, resembles the
Azilian brachycephals of Ofnet in Bavaria. (H. F.)
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 15
peoples are not homogeneous. Baltic racial types are clearly dis-
tinguished among the Ladoga Finns, for example, among the small
groups of Veps, while the Volga Mari (Cheremis) are a variation of
the Ural type, and the Udmurts (Votiaks) contain elements close to
the Lopar type. In the opinion of the above-mentioned authors it is
to be expected that certain Finnish groups contain the neutral proto-
Asiatic anthropological element or even more definitely Mongoloid
elements. Such an anthropological type is outlined in craniological
material belonging to the Iron Age, for example, the skull from Lugov.
In addition to ordinary anthropological investigation, certain other
studies of elementary genetic features were conducted among the
Finnish tribes—blood groups, reaction in a phenylthio-carbamide
solution and especially to color sensitivity. The groups investigated
proved very similar in these respects.
Work on the craniology of ancient Slavic tribes is being system-
atically conducted by T. A. Trofimova, who records differences among
the southern Slav group of Severyans and the more northern Krivichi
and Vyatichi. The former belong to the dolichocephalic variation, a
Pontic form. Trofimova believes that among the latter, together with
other elements, there are Asiatic or proto-Asiatic elements.
Several volumes by G. F. Debets treating of the craniology of the
population of Russia in the epoch preceding the present one have
been prepared for press. Debets has entitled his book “The Paleo-
anthropology of the U.S.S.R.,” but he includes in it osteological
materials belonging not only to the Stone Age or to the prehistoric
period in general, but to all later ages up to the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries. Debets has collected a quantity of craniological
material preserved in central and local museums, all of which has
been carefully checked in respect to dates and classified according to
epochs and territories. This comprehensive summary gives a good
picture of the craniological types and their alterations beginning with
the Neolithic period until modern times through wide sections of
Eastern Europe, Siberia, and Central Asia.
These data contain the solution of many anthropological problems
in the U.S.S.R. Debets devotes much attention to the local trans-
formation of craniological types, which occurred in many territories,
and takes into consideration, at the same time, the change of types
which took place as a result of the immigration of separate groups of
the ancient population.
In addition to materials about Eastern Europe, the above-mentioned
volume of the works of the Institute of Anthropology contains articles
by N. N. Cheboksarov on racial types in modern Germany. Based
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
upon the careful study of all the factual material in literature, this
work is a most complete and systematic summary greatly superior
to anything on this subject heretofore printed. Cheboksarov’s work
corrects many widespread views concerning the racial composition
of the population of Germany. While reaffirming the formerly ex-
pressed view concerning the limited distribution of the North Euro-
pean racial type proper and the preponderance of Baltic and Central
European types in northern Germany, Debets points out that the
Alpine type is also not the main element of which the present popu-
lation of southern Germany is composed. This type spreads over a
very small region. At the same time the existence of a peculiar com-
plex of distinctive features, which Debets classifies with the Atlantic
racial form described by Deniker, has been established in the upper
Rhine zone.
The great advance in the modern theory of race formation and race
analysis as compared with previous views is evident from the above
review. The human race is not something unchangeable. In the course
of ages the various distinctive features of human groups alter; the
size of the population within which marriages among members take
place grows or diminishes. As a result, the concentration of various
hereditary features varies and under certain conditions changes take
place in the average size of the group. At the same time changes
in external conditions influence one and the same tendency. The
influence of intergroup marriage, as well as group isolation, should
be added to these two general factors of racial differentiation.
Considering these facts it would be incorrect to draw a line for
racial types based on the absolute existence of one or another trait,
or even of several traits. Observing the changes of features within a
certain territory one can see that these changes are very gradual;
for example, the region with the highest cephalic index is surrounded
by a zone where this index is slightly lower, and so forth. The region
where a certain feature is most clear is evidently that region where
certain hereditary traits are most concentrated, or as it is usually
called, the “center of distribution.” The entire zone within which
the trait alters in one direction (plus or minus) comprises the region
of the distribution of one type, despite differences in magnitude. The
boundaries of the type are located where the alteration is in the
opposite direction, i.e., where, instead of finding a reduction of the
average index, it begins to increase.
However, for races the combination of several features in a given
territory is always characteristic, as for example, blue eyes, wide
heads and tallness. The boundaries of the distribution of the racial
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 17
type are located where the given combination of features is replaced
by another, for example, an increase in height when considered accord-
ing to territory is accompanied by a darkening of eye color. The race,
as a systematic category, is far from being the only taxonomic cate-
gory. It is necessary to distinguish great races, simple races, sub-
races, and local races. In such a consecutive subdivision the dynamic
essence of the category “‘race’” is revealed. A most important cri-
terion in determining the race or subrace is the alteration of features
according to territory. Those races which by anthropological analysis
have been reconstructed in the modern epoch reflect groups that arose
in the distant past. Evidently the types of great races arose in the
_ Neolithic period. Outlines of the most primitive forms of some races
are found in the Metal Age.
Such are the general views in the study of the race as a historical
and dynamic category developed in the above-mentioned works as
well as in a number of special investigations (concerning alterations in
the length of the body, in the form of the skull, the general conditions
of the alteration of the average index in population, the correlation of
ethnic and somatic types, etc.).
Among the latest works on general problems in the study of races
it is necessary to mention a series of mathematical investigations con-
ducted by M. V. Ignatev, concerning the significance of cross-breed-
ing, isolation, the conditions of the distribution of newly arising traits.
G. G. Roginskii investigated the distribution of blood groups from the
same viewpoint.
In the study of the geographical distribution of variations of ridge
patterns of the fingers, N. V. Volotskoi used the “delta index” which
expresses the total number of so-called deltas [triradii] per 1o fingers.
Plotting the magnitudes of this index on world geographical maps
revealed most important and more or less constant differences in
racial groups.
C. VARIATIONS IN THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN BODIES
The physical types of ancient and modern man is one of the main
subjects of study in physical anthropology. However, no less im-
portant for this science is wide research in the variation of structure
and the laws determining these variations. Only on the basis of a
knowledge of ontogenetic alteration, the laws of correspondence and
growth of parts of the body, and comparative anatomy can correct
racial analyses be made and the earlier stages of the evolution of man
be explained.
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
With the increase in anthropological knowledge, the number of
concrete morphological problems grows. Much attention is paid not
only to research in the variations of the structure of the skull and
individual bones of the skeleton but also to the brain convolutions,
the skin and hair, the bones and cartilage, the nose, eyelids, lips,
muscles, internal organs, and outer forms of the body, and in the
proportion of its parts.
In recent years a number of works in comparative anatomical
research, the study of topographical and functional correlations, onto-
genetic alterations and the laws of growth have been published.
In the period from birth to approximately 20 years of age, the
growth of individual organs and parts of the body differs in respect
to speed and length of time. For the organism in general the growth
of the total size of the body, its length, weight, and chest measurement,
is most characteristic. These measurements determine the size of the
body surface and its volume. Available data establish a definite rela-
tion between the increase of the total size of the body and its separate
parts.
As is known, during the growth period there are 3 to 4 years during
which the annual increase in the total size of the body is very great.
Some experts regard this so-called puberty phase in boys as extending
from the ages of 11 to 15 and others from 12 to 17. An analysis of
charts seems to indicate that puberty comes between 13 and 17 years
for boys and 13 and 16 for girls. In comparing such widely differing
groups in respect to body size as the Japanese and Americans, it is
seen that variations in the above-mentioned periods are no more than
4 to 6 months.
At the same time another important circumstance becomes evident :
a sharp increase in growth during puberty is characteristic for only
one type. If growth is very intensive preceding puberty then the
intensity of growth during the period of sexual maturing is hardly
noticeable. On this basis it was possible to distinguish several types
of growth and to find basic magnitudes according to which it is
possible to establish the type of growth of the child in a comparatively
short period of observation.
There is little relationship between the type of growth and the final
size of the body. Both short and tall persons may grow according
to the accelerated as well as the gradual type. At the same time it
becomes clear that between the final size and the magnitude of the
body at one or another age there is a relation which varies within
comparatively narrow limits. In addition to being of great interest for
understanding the formative process of an organism, the establishment
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 19
of these laws is most important for the correct estimation of the
physical development of the child by the school doctor. In this respect
theoretical anthropological research is closely connected with applied
anthropometry.
Research in the physical development of various groups of children
is most important and has become the subject of numerous theses
written by medical workers. The anthropometric study of the sizes
and proportions of bodies was necessary for the standardization of
sizes for army clothing. A most important role was played by
anthropometric work in controlling methods of physical therapy in
treating wounds.
itt PAE EOLMIHIG Sites
INTRODUCTION 2
The material® based on data available during 1938 has been
arranged chronologically from the Clactonian and Primitive Mousterian
to the Epipaleolithic, and is divided geographically * into the Euro-
1 This excellent study was translated by Mrs. John F. Normano, The Asia
Institute, 7 East 7oth St., New York City. The text was then edited and con-
densed. Diacritical marks were omitted. Eugene V. Prostov checked the spell-
ings and made some minor revisions in order to conform to our previously
published articles. Under each site the bibliographical references have been
omitted because the majority of these Russian publications are not available in
United States libraries. However, the entire text in Russian has been placed
on Microfilm No. 2414, pp. 1-38, in the American Documentation Institute,
1719 N St., NW., Washington 6, D. C., where a copy may be purchased. Since
this list must be considered as separate and usually unrelated items, the names of
the excavators have been retained. This volume was given to me by S. P.
Tolstov, Director, Ethnological Institute, Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R.,
Moscow, while I was a guest of the Jubilee Sessions of the Academy in Moscow
and Leningrad during June-July, 1945. See Anthropology in the Soviet Union,
1945, Amer. Anthrop., vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 375-396, 1946; especially bibliography
in footnote 57. There are many references to these Paleolithic sites in our
published articles (see p. 66, footnotes 1, 2).
2 Throughout the text the use of the metric system has been retained and all
heights are given as above sea level unless otherwise specified. The abbreviation
IAE has been used for the Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography, Academy
of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., Leningrad. Some technical descriptions have been
included from A. J. H. Goodwin, Method in Prehistory, the South African
Archaeological Society Handbook, No. 1, Cape Town, 1945, and from M. C.
Burkitt, Prehistory, Cambridge University, 1925. (H. F.)
2From P. P. Efimenko and N. A. Beregovaia, Paleolithic Sités in the
U.S.S.R., Materialy i Issledovaniia po Arkheologii SSSR, No. 2, pp. 254-290,
Moscow and Leningrad, 1941.
4 According to Prostov, for the convenience of readers having access to other
than Soviet maps, the names of various administrative subdivisions of the
U.S.S.R. have been given in the nonadjectival form of the name of the city
after which the subdivision was named. This is followed by the designation in
Russian for the type subdivision. This latter, for which there is no exact
English equivalent, is given in italics, as follows:
Raion (Aimak in Central Asia and Buriat Mongolia), a rural subdivision cor-
responding to a United States county.
Okrug, a larger subdivision currently used for several special areas.
Oblast, a major administrative subdivision (province) of a republic.
Krai, a major administrative subdivision in a sparsely populated border area
(territory) of the R.S.F.S.R.
20
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 2I
pean part of the R.S.F.S.R., the Ukraine, Bielorussian S.S.R., the
Crimea and Caucasus, and the Asiatic part of the U.S.S.R.
The monuments of the so-called Arctic Paleolithic represent a
special group. In view of the numerous Epipaleolithic finds, only
the better-known and more thoroughly investigated sites have been
included. However, a few well-known sites of doubtful age have not
been omitted.
PRIMITIVE MOUSTERIAN AND CLACTONIAN SITES
Brack SEA LitroraL: ABKHAZIA® AND CRIMEA ®
1. Anastasevka.—Flints of Mousterian type were found on the
right bank of Kodor River near this village. A number of flints were
collected on exposed areas associated with ferruginous manganese
concretions. In addition, on the surface of the fourth terrace occurred
older flints of [Ashtuklf type with a different patina. This material
was obtained during 1932 by an IAE* expedition.
2. Apiancha.—Single flints of I[Ashtukh type were found on the
upper platform of Apiancha Mountain between its two summits at
600 m. above sea level. The flints are distinguished by smooth facets,
a deep patina and a brilliant surface. This material was obtained
during 1935 by an IAE expedition.
3. Atap—A few characteristic flint implements, including a hand
ax, of Acheulian or Primitive Mousterian type were found on the
surface of the terrace near this village. On a lower terrace were
flints of Upper Paleolithic type. This site was discovered during 1935
on an IAE expedition.
4. Byrts——Single flint flakes of IAshtukh type were collected on
the platform of Byrts Mountain near Sukhumi about 450 m. above
sea level. The first finds were made during 1934 by L. N. Solovev.
5. Gali—On this site the IAE expedition found an Acheulian hand
ax reutilized as a nucleus in Mousterian times.
6. Gvard.—Flaked flints, similar to the most ancient group from
TAshtukh, were found in a Karstian declivity on the outskirts of the
village (450 m.) on the slopes of Gvard Mountain. The first series
was obtained during 1934 by L. N. Solovev.
7. Kolkhida.—Flints of Clactonian and Primitive Mousterian
type were found on the top and on the slopes of the hill, representing
5 Nos 1-14.
® No. 15.
* Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography, Academy of Sciences of the
U\S.S.R., Leningrad.
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10
the 180-m. terrace at this village near Novye Gagry. These surface
flints originated in a lower horizon associated with iron manganese
concretions. While the material assembled by the IAE expedition
during 1935 is not large, its value lies in the uniformity of the series.
Some of the flints bear traces of utilization.
8. Kiurdere-—On the surface of an ancient terrace flints of
Primitive Mousterian (Acheulian) type were found by S. N. Zamiat-
nin during 1934 at Kiurdere near Psyrtskhi on the left bank of the
Shitskhuara River, near its exit from the gorge. A hand ax and tools
made from crude flakes were found not only on the surface of this
terrace, but also in the ancient alluvium along the slope of the neigh-
boring limestone ridge.
9g. Okum.—See No. 48.
10. Sukhumt.—Flints of [Ashtukh (Primitive Mousterian or Acheu-
lian) type can be found within the city limits, on the banks of the
Sukhumka River, which cuts through the fourth terrace at [Ashtukh
site, as well as in the nearby surrounding area on the top of Cher-
niavskii Mountain and in the Ostroumov gorge. These discoveries
were made during 1935 by an IAE expedition.
11. Tabachnaia.—During 1936 on the surface of the 100- to I10-m.
terrace at the Zonal Tobacco Experimental Station near Sukhumi,
L. N.-Solovev found flint flakes of Primitive Mousterian type and a
hand ax as well as some flints of Upper Paleolithic appearance.
12. Tekh.—In the valley on the road from Tsebelda to Tekh, at
350-400 m. above sea level on the surface of the clayey loam, L. N.
Solovev found during 1936 flints of Primitive Mousterian type. Some
tools and laminae of Upper Paleolithic appearance were collected.
13. Chuburiskhindzhi—A few crude flakes and implements, in-
cluding one hand ax, of dark pink and gray Turon flint were collected
on the right bank of a stream along the road 12 kilometers southeast
of Gali near Satandzhio Mountain. These specimens, contempo-
raneous with the surviving vestiges of the old fifth terrace, showed
signs of utilization and were deeply patined. Ridges between facets
were worn smooth. This site was located during 1935 by an IAE
expedition.
14. [Ashtukh—Flints of Acheulian or Primitive Mousterian type
were found on the surface of the fourth terrace (100 m.) near Nizhnii
TAshtukh, 3 kilometers north of Sukhumi, in the gorge between Byrts
and JAshtukh Mountains. The flints, including discoidal nuclei,
massive flakes and implements manufactured from them, as well as
hand axes, lay on the large platform, often on the surface, sometimes
among pebbles under the diluvial clay. Typologically later flints of
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 23
Mousterian and Upper Paleolithic appearance were also found, but
are linked stratigraphically with the upper levels of the clayey loam.
The first collection was made during 1934 by S. N. Zamiatnin.
15. Kitk-Koba.—Remains of Primitive Mousterian type were found
in the lower stratum above bedrock in this cave, situated on the right
bank of the Zuia River near Kipchak, which lies about 25 kilometers
east of Simferopol. Here were excavated by G. A. Bonch-Osmo-
lovskii during 1924-1926 numerous flint implements and flakes asso-
ciated with remains of Cervus elaphus, Equus, Bos, Saiga, Sus scrofa,
etc.
MOUSTERIAN SITES 8
16. Kodak.—This site, located on the high right bank of the Dnieper
10 kilometers southeast of Dnepropetrovsk, was discovered during
1932 through the accidental finds of several flints associated with
Pleistocene fauna. Further investigations were conducted during
1934-1935. These finds lay in the bottom of the deep ravine of
Nizhniaia Sazhavka, which cuts the loess bank of the Dnieper, at a
distance of 1 kilometer from the river. The stratigraphy consists of
20.0 m. of loess with several horizons of buried topsoil, ancient
diluvium from ravines, red-brown clays, variegated clays, and granite
bedrock. Nearer to the mouth of the ravine the alluvium of the
gulleys is replaced by stratified sands containing fresh-water Mollusca
typical of stagnant and slow-flowing waters. Mousterian remains
were found in the base of the stratified gray-greenish sands (ravine
alluvium) overlain by loess. Below, the sands were mixed with gravel.
The cultural stratum was evidently partly washed away. The flints,
together with crushed bones, lay in the lower part of the stratum
among the pebbles and gravel. Above were also found animal bones.
The fauna is represented by Elephas trogontherit, Rhinoceros tricho-
rhinus, Bison priscus, Equus equus, Cervus megaceros, Rangifer
tarandus, Felis spelaca, Ursus arctos, etc.
The several dozen tools were mainly of dark-brown flint, but some
were of quartz and compact sandstone. There were: biface points,
a discoidal nucleus used as a carinate scraper, scraping tools, broad
laminae, etc. Incisions could be seen on the phalanges of the large
8 The geographical distribution of these sites is as follows: The middle course
of the Dnieper (No. 16), the basin of the Desna (Nos. 17-18), northern Donets
(Nos. 19-21), the Crimea (Nos. 22-28), the coast of the Sea of Azov (No. 29),
Kuban (No. 30), Kuma (No. 31), the northern part of the Caucasian coast
(Nos. 32-36), Abkhazia (Nos. 37-54), Mingrelia (No. 55), and Uzbekistan
(No. 56).
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. FEO
deer ; they resembled those found on the “small anvils” of the Mous-
terian period.®
17. Chulatovo III.—Rolled flints of Mousterian type were found
during 1938 eroded from the bank of the Desna River near Chulatovo
near Novgorod-Seversk.
18. Svetilovicht (Bielorussia).—Accidental finds on the second
terrace above the flood plain of rolled and patined points of Mous-
terian type were made during 1929 by P. N. Chaikovskii, a teacher
who studied the region, on the right bank of the Baseda River in the
ravine of Kamennaia Gora near Svetilovichi. These implements
were described in 1937 by K. M. Polikarpovich.
19. Derkul—This Mousterian station, largely destroyed by the
river, stands near Kolesnikovo farm on the right bank of the Derkul
River, a left tributary of the northern Donets River, above its mouth.
The Paleolithic remains lie in a stratum of finely rounded flint gravel.
This stratum divides two layers of sandy alluvium, of which the lower
one, covering the surface of the marl, represents the remnants of
the ancient third above the flood-plain terrace of the Derkul River.
The only bone found was that of a large mammal. The tools were
mainly of quartzite. This site was discovered during 1924 by P. P.
Efimenko and studied by him during 1924-1926 and 1930.
20. Kamenskaia—Bones of mammoth and other animals were
reported but unconfirmed from the ancient gravel deposits near the
Cossack village of Kamenskaia, in the Donets region, near the con-
fluence of the Rychnitsa River with the Northern Donets. The dis-
covery of a discoidal nucleus was reported.
21. Krasnyt IAr—Many large flint flakes and implements of
Mousterian type, including points, scrapers, etc., were collected during
1925-1926 by S. A. Loktiushev close to the Northern Donets River,
15 kilometers southeast of Voroshilovgrad [formerly Lugansk]. This
station is about 1 kilometer southeast of Krasnyi IAr farm, on the
right bank of the river.
22. Adzhi-Koba.—This cave of the corridor type, located on the
western slope of Korabi-[Aila in the mountainous region of the
Crimea, was investigated by G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii during 1932-
9Cf. at La Quina, Charente district of France, discovered by the late
Dr. Henri-Martin and reported from Teshik-Tash near Tashkent. (H. F.)
The use of a bone rest or anvil was common in Europe even before the Middle
Paleolithic when many large splinters of bone are found to bear indentations
and scratches caused by “rest percussion.” The bone was used in much the same
way that we might use a bench, to steady and support the artifact while fine
percussion or pressure was used. (A. J. H. G.)
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 25
1933. It contains two horizons: the upper of the Late Paleolithic
type of Siuren I with northern deer; and the lower of Mousterian
type with saiga antelope, northern deer, rhinoceros, wild donkey,
Arctic fox, polecat, etc.
23. Volchii Grot—This Mousterian cave situated on the right
bank of the Beshtirek River at Mazanka near Simferopol, was dis-
covered and investigated by Merezhkovskii during 1880. He found,
mixed with ashes and charcoal, a Mousterian point, a small hand ax,
and remains of mammoth, wild horse, Bos, giant deer, and saiga
antelope in the yellow Quaternary stratum. During 1938 O. N.
Bader discovered here a rich Mousterian deposit.
24. Kiik-Koba.°—The upper cultural horizon of this cave (see
also No. 15) lies in the stratum of yellow clay mixed with crushed
rock and is divided from the lower horizon, containing the Lower
Mousterian inventory, by a sterile band. The majority of the imple-
ments were points (some biface) and scrapers. The fauna included
the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, wild horse, wild donkey, primitive
Bos, wild boar, cave bear, hyena, fox, rodents, and birds. Some of
the bones bore traces of incisions, suggesting use as small anvils ¥
or for pressure flaking. This was the site of the destroyed burial
containing Neanderthal remains.**
25. Kosh-Koba.—tTraces of an apparently Mousterian cave, 25
kilometers from Simferopol on the right bank of the Zuia River next
to Kiik-Koba. During 1923 G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii found two
large hearths, a few flints, and many animal bones, partly split, in-
cluding mammoth, rhinoceros, cave hyena, giant deer, bison, saiga
antelope, horse, wild donkey, fox, marmot, etc.
26. Chagorak-Koba.—This Middle Paleolithic cave near Kainaut
in the Karasubazar region in the Crimea was discovered by O. N.
Bader during. 1935 and studied by him during 1936-1937. The
fauna, including the woolly rhinoceros, wild horse, saiga, and cave
hyena, was found in the Quaternary stratum during 1936. In the
following year in the same stratum several flint implements of Mous-
terian type were unearthed.
27. Chokurcha—An Upper Mousterian cave in the valley of Malyi
10 On July 2, 1945, the Director of the Ethnological Institute of the Academy
of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., asked me to transmit to the Chicago Natural
History Museum, formerly Field Museum of Natural History, a cast of the
Kiik-Koba skeleton. Although since 1942 no longer curator of physical anthro-
pology, I forwarded it to Chicago. (H. F.)
11 See footnote 9.
12 One wrist had been found.
3
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Salgir stream near Chokurcha, 2 kilometers northeast of Simferopol,
was discovered and investigated by S. I. Zabnin during 1927 and
excavated in 1928 and in the following yeats. The cultural remains
of the Quaternary period occur in the yellow clayey loam containing
crushed rock, which extends to the rocky bottom of the cave and
continues all along the slope where it attains about 4.0 m. in thickness.
More than nine thin cultural levels with traces of hearths were re-
corded in this alluvial deposit. On the slope in front of the cave was
found an accumulation of split mammoth bones, associated with a
considerable thickness of the cultural stratum. The flint inventory
consisted of a large quantity of unifaced and bifaced tools. A few
bone awls were found. Included in the fauna were the mammoth,
cave hyena, cave bear, rhinoceros, saiga antelope, Bos, Cervus, and
fox.
28. Shaitan-Koba.—A Late Mousterian cave located on the right
slope of Bodrak Valley, near a tributary of the Alma River, at Tau-
Bodrak near Simferopol. This cave, discovered by S. N. Bibikov
during 1928, was investigated by G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii during
1929-1930. The cultural remains occur in the Quaternary gravels,
in the limestone stratum of the rock shelter and also on the scree
slopes. Large flint tools of local dark flint were found together with
typical Mousterian implements; the inventory included prismatic
laminae, scrapers, burins, etc. The fauna included mammoth, cave
lion, cave hyena, wild horse, saiga, Arctic fox, rodents, etc.
29. Bessergenovka.—During 1933 V. I. Gromov and V. A.
Khokhlovkina found Mousterian flakes beneath the Rissian loess near
Taganrog on an ancient terrace on the coast of the Sea of Azov.
30. Ilskaia—This Upper Mousterian site lies near the Cossack
village of Ilskaia on the left slope going to the valley of the Ilia River.
The cultural deposit, 0.5 m. in thickness, extended over a wide area
in the upper part of the second terrace, 15.0 m. above the Ilia River.
The fauna included a considerable quantity of bones of the primitive
Bos. The simplest implements were made of bone. Discovered by
Baron Joseph de Baye during 1898, investigated by S. N. Zamiatnin
in 1925, 1926, and 1928, and by V. A. Gorodtsov in 1936 and 1937.
31. Podkumskaia—A calvarium and other fragmental human
bones were found in 1918 at Piatigorsk during sewer construction.
These remains were described by M. Gremiatskii. The possibility
of assigning these remains to the Mousterian period or to any part
of the Paleolithic is now seriously challenged.
32. Akhshtyr cave——Four kilometers from Golitsyno in the Adler —
Raion on the right bank of the Mzymta River, Mousterian flints were
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 27
found during 1936 by S. N. Zamiatnin, who continued excavation
during the following 2 years. (See pls. 1-4.)
33. Navalishino cave——Located in the Adler Raion near Navali-
shino, on the Kudepsta River, the lower part of this cave belongs to
the Mousterian period. The characteristic flint inventory and
numerous cave bear remains were found by S. N. Zamiatnin during
1936.
34. Khosta (“The White Rocks”).—Mousterian flints were found
during 1936 in gullies on the precipitous banks of a ravine about
5 kilometers from Khosta near the paved highway to Vorontsov.
35. Natsmen.—Further downstream of the Khosta River than the
site of No. 34 and on the opposite bank, on the southern slope of
Akhum Mountain in the territory of the Kolkhoz “Natsmen,” there
was found during 1935 another site with implements and flakes of
Mousterian type.
36. Pauk.—Crude flints of Mousterian type were found on the
plowed surface of the ancient 100-m. terrace in the region of Tuapse,
behind Kadoshinskii Cape on the territory of the rest camp near
Pauk Mountain.
37. Anastasevka.—Here were found Mousterian flints. (See No. 1.)
38. Akhbiuk.—Traces of an Upper Mousterian site were identified
on the surface of the 80-m. terrace near Akhbiuk Mountain, 6 kilo-
meters north of Sukhumi. Discovered by L. N. Solovev during 1935,
this open-air station was investigated by an IAE expedition.
39. Achigvari.—Typical Mousterian flakes were collected on the
surface of the 30-m. terrace.
40. Bsyb.—Mousterian flints were found on the right bank of the
Bzyb River near Kilometer 16 of the paved highway.
41. Bogoveshta—A few characteristic Mousterian flint implements
were collected during 1936 on the surface of the third terrace and
along the Pshap River higher on the slope near this village.
42. Gali—Typically Mousterian and Upper Paleolithic flints were
found on the surface of the diluvial loam, which covers the ancient
80- to 100-m. terrace. The first discoveries were made by L. N.
Solovev during 1935. (See No. 5.)
43. Ilori—Several Mousterian flakes were collected by L. N.
Solovev during 1935 in the yellow loam of the 16-m. terrace.
44. Kelasuri—Upper Mousterian implements were found during
1935 by an IAE expedition on the surface of the third terrace and
partly also in the slope of the fourth terrace, on the left bank of the
Kelasuri River. This site lies on the estate of the All-Union Insti-
tute of Sub-Tropical Cultures.
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
45. Lemsa.—On the slopes of the ravine about 300 m. above sea
level Mousterian flints were found in a cave and on the edge of the
plateau.
46. Lechkop—Mousterian flints were collected on the surface of
this terrace near Sukhumi by the [AE expedition during 1935. The
same type of implements were also found nearby by L. N. Solovev
during 1936 on the 10- to 12-m. terrace. :
47. Mokva.—Some characteristic Mousterian flints, including dis-
coidal nuclei, were found on the 10- to 12-m. terrace, 2 kilometers
from the upper terrace.
48. Okum.—A large series of Mousterian flints were found on the
tea plantations of the State farm ‘“Chai-Gruzia’’ near Achigvary
on the surface of the 80-m. terrace above the left bank of the Okum
River. Among the implements was one finely worked hand ax. The
surface of these flint implements bore a characteristic luster and some
had traces of iron manganese concretions, which confirms their
original location in the ancient horizon. Higher on the same slope
typologically older flints were collected. This material was collected
by the 1935 IAE expedition.
49. Ochemchiri.—Characteristic Upper Mousterian flints were
found at the edge of the third (35-m.) terrace, 1 kilometer from
Ochemchiri on the paved highway along the Sukhumi River. Lying
partly in situ in the loam with iron manganese concretions, the flints
appeared dark red with a brilliant, dark-brown patina. The first
finds were made by L. N. Solovev. During 1934-1935 this site was
explored by an IAE expedition with the participation of two geologists,
G. F. Mirchink and V. I. Gromov.
50. Tabachnaia.—Mousterian flints were found near here. (See
No. 11.)
51. Tskhiri—Some Mousterian flints were found by the 1935 IAE
expedition on the surface of the 30-m. terrace.
52. Esheri—A few Mousterian flints were collected on the sur-
face of the eroded 80-m. terrace in a stratum of pebbles near this
village by an [AE expedition during 1935.
53. [Agish—A few Mousterian flints were collected by the 1936
expedition from IAE on the elevated plateau 450-500 m. above sea
level.
54. LAshtukh.—Mousterian flints were found here. (See No. 14.)
55. Rukhi I—On the low ground, which is flooded by the Rukhi
River in the spring, about 6 kilometers from Zugdidi, A. N. Kalan-
dadze discovered during 1936 typologically Mousterian flakes.
56. Teshik-Tash—tThis cave, situated on the northwestern slope
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY——FIELD 29
of the Baisun-tau Mountains at 1,500 m., lies 18 kilometers from
Baisun in the Turgan-Darya Valley of southern Uzbekistan. Here
were discovered five Mousterian strata. The flint inventory consisted
of discoidal nuclei, typical triangular flakes, crude chopping tools,
scrapers, and small bone anvils.** The fauna included Capra sibirica
and, less often, horse, boar, leopard, marmot, and a rodent (pish-
chukha). The skeleton of a Neanderthaloid child ** was found here
by A. P. Okladnikov during 1938. This represents the first Paleo-
lithic site discovered in Central Asia.
UPPER PALEOLITHIC AND EPIPALEOLITHIC SITES
EvurorpEAN Part OF THE R.S.F.S.R.15
57. Anosovka.—An Upper Paleolithic site was located near Kos-
tenki in the Gremiachenskii Raion of the Voronezh Oblast. Finds
were made by the Kostenki expedition during 1936. The cultural
stratum is stained deeply by red ocher. The animal bones include
many fragments of antlers.
58. Borshevo I (Kuznetsov Log).—Located on the northern
border of this village in the Gremiachenskii Raion of the Voronezh
Oblast on the bank of the Don, the cultural remains and bones of
animals, mostly mammoth, lay not very deep in the diluvial deposit
along the slope of the gully. The flint inventory is characterized by
flint points with lateral flakes removed, which date this site in either
the Aurignacian or Solutrean period. Discovered by A. A. Spitsyn
during 1905, it was investigated by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1922 and by
P. P. Efimenko in 1923 and 1925.
59. Borshevo II.—The lower and middle horizons of this site lie
on the right bank of the Don near Borshevo, Gremiachenskii Raton
of the Voronezh Oblast. These two horizons, containing mammoth
bones (especially numerous in the lower horizon), belong to the
13 See footnote 9.
14On June 16, 1945, in the Anthropological Laboratory of the University of
Moscow I had the privilege of examining the reconstructed Teshik-Tash skull,
which will be published during 1948 by Bunak and Okladnikoy. For photo-
graphs of this skull and reconstructions by M. M. Gerasimov, see Henry Field,
Illustrations of the Teshik-Tash Skull, Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop., vol. 4,
No. 1, pp. 121-123, 1946.
18In the European part of the R.S.F.S.R. will be described the following
Stations: the Don (Nos. 57-70), the Oka (Nos. 71-79), the basin of the Desna
(Nos. 80-85), the Seim (No. 86), the Upper Dnieper (No. 87), the Upper Volga
(No. 88), the Middle Volga (Nos. 89-94), the basin of the Kama (No. 95),
the southern Urals (Nos. 96-99), and the Sea of Azov coast (No. 100).
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Magdalenian period. This site was first located during 1922 by P. A.
Nikitin. The excavations were made by P. P. Efimenko in 1923, 1925,
and 1929, and by P. I. Boriskovskii in 1906,
60. Borshevo IJ —The upper horizon corresponding to the stratum
of buried soil belongs to the end of the Magdalenian or to the Early
Azilian period. No mammoth bones were found. This cultural stratum
slopes gradually down to the side of the mouth of the Borshevo gully
and finally goes under the level of the Don River. (See No. 59.)
61. Borshevo III.—At the mouth of Vishunov ravine, which cuts
the high Cretaceous right bank of the Don between Kuznetsov gully
and Borshevo ravine, at the time of first excavations made by P. P.
Efimenko during 1923, on the terrace of the bank was discovered the
accumulation of mammoth bones. Excavation by P. I. Boriskovskii
in 1936 also yielded the bones of Bos and other animals, and isolated
flints.
62. Gagarino.—This Aurignacian-Solutrean site, on the left bank
of the Don, higher than the mouth of the Sosna River, near Gagarino
in the Voronezh Oblast, is located on the northern slope of the ravine,
which leads to the Don Valley. The cultural remains lie directly
under the black earth (chernozem) in the upper part of the brown
loess. Limestone blocks indicated the walls of the shallow dugouts.
Among faunal remains mammoth bones were the most numerous,
but there were also represented the woolly rhinoceros, northern deer,
bison, Arctic fox, and rodents. The flint inventory is characterized
by the presence of points with lateral flakes removed (cf. No. 58).
In addition to bone tools, S. N. Zamiatnin found, during 1927 and
1929, female figurines made from the tusk of a mammoth.
63. Kostenki I—This Lower Solutrean site near Kostenki in the
Gremiachenskii Raion of the Voronezh Oblast stands on the right
bank of the Don about 30 kilometers south of Voronezh. Here were
found the remains of a large encampment, forming an oval plateau
covered with traces of habitation, with the line of hearths following
its longitudinal axis. This area was occupied by numerous pits used
as storerooms. Around this surface construction were found con-
siderably larger pits or storerooms and three dugouts. In addition
to a large series of flint implements and animals bones, there were
also art objects including 42 female figurines (mainly in fragments),
many sculptures of animals, complete figures, heads, etc. Represented
in the fauna were a quantity of mammoth bones, as well as the horse,
Arctic fox, cave lion, bear, wolf, and hare. Only single finds of musk
ox and northern deer came to light. The cultural stratum lies under
the fertile black earth (chernozem) in the upper part of the diluvial
/NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY——-FIELD 31
loess-argillaceous soil. At the base of this clay were discovered,
during 1931, traces of an older settlement attributed to the beginning
of the Upper Paleolithic. Here were found mammoth, horse, and
saiga antelope. The excavations at Kostenki I were made by P. P.
Efimenko during 1931-1936. The first account of these Paleolithic
dwellings was mentioned by I. S. Poliakov in 1879 and by A. I.
Kelsiev in 1881. Some excavations were made by S. A. Krukovskii
in 1915, by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1922, and by P. P. Efimenko in 1923.
Two nearby sites, similar to the above-described dwellings, were
found later by Efimenko.
64. Kostenki I] —This Lower Magdalenian site on the right bank
of the Don is located at the mouth of Anosov gully, where it merges
with the Don Valley. The cultural remains consist of a rich accumu-
lation of mammoth bones with traces of hearths. The fauna also
included single examples of the horse, hare, Arctic fox, and bear.
The implements, mainly made from flint boulders, consisted for the
most part of crude burins. The crudest type of bone tools were also
found. This site was discovered and investigated by P. P. Efimenko
during 1923 and by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1927.
65. Kostenki III—A Lower Magdalenian station on the bank of
the Don near the mouth of Chekalin gully; apparently this location
was mentioned by Omelin in 1769. The cultural stratum of yellowish
loam, about 2.0 m. deep, lies in a narrow depression in the escarpment.
In addition to the mammoth, the fauna is represented by a few bones
of the horse, Arctic fox, and hare. The flint tools, of Cretaceous and
boulder flint, are small, with primitive chisels prevailing. Rare finds
of crude bone implements were made. This site was investigated by
P. P. Efimenko during 1925 and by S. N. Zamiatnin during 1927.
66. Kostenki IV.—This Lower Magdalenian site stands on the
right bank of the Don at the mouth of Aleksandrovskii (Biriuchii)
gully. Located at the merging point of the gully and the low terrace,
which is partly covered with water in the spring, the cultural stratum
lies in the clay at a depth of 1.5 m. In the fauna the mammoth pre-
dominated, but there were also represented the horse, hare, and Arctic
fox. The flint inventory was more diverse than at Kostenki II and
Kostenki III]. A few simple bone implements were excavated.
Kostenki IV was discovered and investigated by S. N. Zamiatnin
in 1927 and by A. N. Rogachev in 1927 and 1928. Rogachev dis-
covered two large, elongated above-ground dwellings. The interior,
slightly below the surface of the ground, was filled with refuse. Each
building had more than 10 hearths in one line and consisted of four
or five round houses 5-7 m. in diameter, closely adjacent and merging
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
with each other. Part were dugouts with the floor 0.6 m. deep. The
general planning of this settlement is slightly similar to that of
Kostenki I.
67. Kostenki V.—This station lies deeper in Pokrovskii gully than
Kostenki I, which faces it on the right side of the gully. In the side
fork of the guily (the first from the mouth) are two Upper Paleo-
lithic sites, discovered by Efimenko during 1928. The first, located
in the lower part of the side gully near the brook, yielded a great
accumulation of mammoth bones and some flint implements. Since
the cultural stratum lies beneath the loess and Cretaceous crushed
pebbles, this monument should be attributed to the early phase of the
Upper Paleolithic. The second Upper Paleolithic site lies higher, on
the ascent of the elevation on Mirkina Mountain.
68. Streletskaia—Traces of an Upper Paleolithic site at the mouth
of Aleksandrovskii gully near Kostenki in Voronezh Oblast were
found on the right side of the gully opposite Kostenki 1V on the low
terrace at the foot of the bank. Zamiatnin discovered here during
1927 typologically Upper Paleolithic flints and bones of mammoth.
Excavations made by P. P. Efimenko corroborated the discovery of
this site, which was presumably eroded, the result of being only
slightly above the waters of the Don.
69. Telmanskaia Stoianka.—Situated in the fork of two gullies
before they reach the Don Valley, this site is located on Kolkhoz
“Telman.” Discovered by A. N. Rogachev in 1936 and investigated
by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1937, the main excavation revealed a circular
dwelling of dugout type with the hearth near its entrance. The flint
inventory combines the typical Lower Solutrean implements (laurel-
leaf points) and Mousterian forms. In the fauna the mammoth pre-
dominated. Many implements were manufactured from bones.
70. Shubnoe—An accumulation of Quaternary animal bones were
excavated near this village in Voronezh Oblast about 15 kilometers
west of Ostrorozhsk. In addition to many bones of the mammoth and
horse, there were fewer of Bos primigenius and rhinoceros and a few
of Cervus elaphus and Cervus megaceros. At the outlets to the ravine
were solitary unretouched flints. This station was discovered by S. N.
Zamiatnin in 1925 and investigated by him in 1933.
71. Gremiachee——This Epipaleolithic *® site stands on the right
bank of the Oka River opposite the mouth of its tributary, the
Zhizdra. Discovered and investigated by N. I. Bulychev at the end
of the 1890’s, this station is situated on the sandy hill at the level of
the flood plain. The finds lay in the upper stratum of the loamy
16 Attributed to the so-called “Sviderskian Phase” of the Epipaleolithic period.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 33
alluvium. The flint tools were made from knife-shaped laminae.
Three arrowheads with handles were found, but no animal bones or
bone implements.
72. Elin Bor.—This Epipaleolithic *° site stands on the left bank
of the Oka River near Elina, 25 kilometers farther upstream from
Murom. Discovered in 1878 by P. P. Kudriavtsev,’’ P. I. Boris-
kovskii in 1934 investigated the remains of the site on the sandy hill
I kilometer south of the village. The flint inventory *° consisted
mainly of elongated laminae, nuclei, scrapers, chisels, arrowheads,
and many flakes. No bone implement or animal bones were found.
73. Karacharovo.—A Lower Magdalenian station on the left bank
of the Oka, about 3 kilometers upstream from Murom, was found
near this village. Discovered by A. S. Uvarov during 1877, Kara-
charovo was investigated by him together with I. S. Poliakov and
V. B. Antonovich during 1877-1878. Situated on the left slope of
the Karacharovo ravine near its mouth, the Paleolithic remains lay
in the lower part of the loesslike loam at a depth of 1.0-1.5 m. The
cultural stratum, with a disorderly accumulation of animal bones,
covers the surface of about 1.5 sq. m. While mammoth remains
predominated, bones of Rhinoceros, Bos, and Cervus were also exca-
vated. The flint implements were made from boulders.
74. Meltinovo—Fragments of bones of fossil animals and some
flint flakes were found in the valley of the Dolets, upstream from
Belev, along the Oka River, near Meltinovo. The Paleolithic age
of the flints has not been determined.
75. Okskaia—kK. Lisitsyn described an Upper Paleolithic station
in the alluvial deposit of the spring-flooded terrace of the Oka River.
The cultural stratum comprises broken and charred bones of Bos,
Sus, etc., fish vertebrae, and fresh-water Mollusca. It may well be
that this site should be attributed to a later era.
76. Stenino—Mammoth bones and flint implements were found
in the vicinity of Kozelsk, along Trostianka brook, part of the basin
of the Zhizdra River. According to N. I. Krishtafovich the fauna
included mammoth, rhinoceros, elk, and deer. The flint and bone tools
were not described. The first report was in 1900 from I. Chetyrkin.
77. Skhodnia—Part of a human calvarium was found during 1936
at a depth of 4.0 m. in the valley of the Skhodnia River, a left
tributary of the Moskva River, 12 kilometers north of Moscow during
the construction of the Volga-Moscow Canal. According to G. F.
Mirchink, this find belongs to the end of the Wiirmian or to the
beginning of the following era.
17 He collected surface specimens from local sand dunes during 1878-1894.
34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
78. [Asakovo—A quantity of Quaternary animal bones were
found near Troitsa-Pelenitsa on the ancient terrace on the right bank
of the Oka River at IAsakovo Station on the Moscow-Kazan Rail-
road. Discovered by P. P. Efimenko in 1922, this station was in-
vestigated in 1934 by P. I. Boriskovskii, who also found here in an
untouched stratum several worked flints of Upper Paleolithic type.
79. [Asnikolskoe.—Bones of Cervus megaceros, horse, and some
other animals were found near the efflux of the small riven Aksen, a
tributary of the Mostia, on the watershed between the Oka and the
Don. The bones were in the alluvial clay beneath a stratum of peat.
The so-called flint and bone implements are of doubtful human
manufacture.
80. Timonovka—On the right bank of the Desna River near
Briansk this Magdalenian site is situated on the side of the ravine
which slopes down to the Desna. The finds consist of many flint and
bone implements. The fauna is represented by the mammoth, northern
deer, Arctic fox, etc. This site was excavated by M. V. Voevodskii in
1926 and by V. A. Gorodtsov from 1928 to 1933. The latter found
the remains of houses.
81. Suponevo.—This former Magdalenian station stands on the
right bank of the Desna, 4 kilometers south of Briansk. Situated on
the second terrace above flood plain one can find traces of some kind
of constructions and an accumulation of mammoth bones. The fauna
included mammoth, rhinoceros, northern deer, bison, horse, Arctic
fox, etc. Suponevo was investigated during 1926-1928 by P. P.
Efimenko, B. S. Zhukov, and others.
82. Eliseevichi—On the right bank of the Sudost River, a right
tributary of the Desna near this village in the Pochep Raton, a Lower
Magdalenian station was located. The cultural remains lay in the loess,
covering the second terrace of the Sudost River. They consist of
dwellings, an accumulation of mammoth skulls and tusks, tablets
covered with carvings, and a female figurine of ivory. The fauna
consisted almost exclusively of mammoth. The excavations were
conducted by K. M. Polikarpovich in 1930, 1935, and 1936.
83. Kurovo.—On the right bank of the Sudost River stands this
Upper Paleolithic station which was excavated by K. M. Polikarpo-
vich in 1930. The fauna included mammoth, rhinoceros, horse, ete.
84. Novye Bobovichi—In 1927 traces of an Upper Paleolithic
station with worked flints and an accumulation of mammoth bones
was found on the right bank of the Iput River, left tributary of the
Sozh in the vicinity of Novozybkov.
85. IUdinovo.—This Upper Paleolithic site stands on the right
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 35
bank of the Sudost River, 14 kilometers north of Pogar, on the terrace
above the spring floods on Kolkhoz “Pervomaiski.” Preliminary
excavations were made by K. M. Polikarpovich during 1934. Flint
implements and mammoth bones were found in two places 200 m.
away from both sides of the ravine.
86. Suchkino—Traces of an Upper Paleolithic station on the left
bank of the Seim River near Suchkino, 8 kilometers east of Rylsk,
were investigated by S. N. Zamiatnin during 1930. The fauna con-
sisted of mammoth, and the flints were insignificant, mainly flakes.
87. Gamkovo.—A large quantity of mammoth bones and rhinoceros
were found under the loess in fluvioglacial deposits covering the Riss
moraine, 17 kilometers southwest of Smolensk on the watershed of
the Ufinia River, the left tributary of the Dnieper. Only one worked
flint came to light. This station has been investigated several times
since 1910; small excavations were made in 1933 by K. M. Polikarpo-
vich and G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii.
88. Skniatino—This Upper Paleolithic station is located on the
dunes of the left bank of the Nerlia River near its confluence with the
Volga. The large flint inventory is Azilian-Tardenoisian (Sviderskian
Phase) in character. In 1937 P. N. Tretiakov, basing his study on
pollen analysis, found it possible to attribute this site to the boreal
phase.
89. Kuibyshev—Mammoth bones were discovered during October
1926, while laying a sewer pipe on the Voznesenskii Spusk on the
bank of the Volga. Investigation of this site by M. G. Matkin and
A. I. Terenozhkin showed that bones lay at a depth of 3.2 m. under
the fertile soil and the reddish-brown clay in a stratum of yellow sand
above another arenaceous layer mixed with limestone pebbles. Near
the mammoth bones were several small flint flakes.
90. Mulinov Ostrov.—Fossil bones were found on this island on
the left bank of the Volga opposite the gorodishche between Tetiushi
and Ulianovsk. Together with the remains of mammoth, Siberian
rhinoceros, northern deer, elk, and bison there was found a human
mandible. The Paleolithic character of the finds has not been
established.
gi. Postnikov Ovrag.—This Azilian (or even later) station stands
at the mouth of the Postnikov ravine, on the northern outskirts of
Kuibyshev, near the Postnikov site with the microlithic inventory.
P. P. Efimenko and M. G. Matkin discovered on the slope of the bank
a cultural stratum comprising microlithic flints and bone implements,
including needles, together with faunal remains as yet not investigated.
92. Undory.—Fossil bones were found in a sand bar near the right
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
bank of the Volga on the island near Undory between Tetiushi and
Ulianovsk. Together with the bones of mammoth and other animals
there were also found two human calvaria, with the dark coloring
characteristic of Pleistocene fauna. The age of these finds remains
uncertain.
93. Khriashchevskaia Kosa.——Fossil bones were found on the left
bank of the Volga near Sengilei, farther downstream than this village.
Since the end of the 1870’s bones of mammoth, Siberian rhinoceros,
primitive Bos, European bison, northern deer, elk, horse, and camel
have been found here. According to P. A. Ososkov this accumulation
of bones is the result of human activity since the long bones are often
split and bear traces of utilization. In addition, there was found the
frontal part of a human skull, which is, however, less deeply colored
than the animal bones. The Paleolithic character of the finds remains
tentative.
94. [Ablonov Protok—Among bones found on the left bank of
the Volga on the eroded sandy crest between the [Ablonov channel
and the Sobachia Prorva channel near Tetiushi were those of mam-
moth, Siberian rhinoceros, horse, elk, noble deer, bison (zubr), and
camel. Here also was found a human humerus, covered with the same
almost black and brilliant patina as the animal bones. No Paleolithic
flints were found.
95. Ostrov.—tThe first find of the Upper Paleolithic period in the
Kama basin was made during September 1938 by M. V. Talitskii on
the Chusovaia River near Ostrov and Gladenovo. The cultural
stratum, 10.0 cm. thick, lies at a depth of 11.0 m. between the deposits
covered by spring floods. The fauna included mammoth and northern
deer, and apparently also the Siberian rhinoceros. The material con-
sisted of flakes of flint, slate, and rock crystal, as well as knife-shaped
laminae and small scrapers. Apparently it is here that occurred the
accidental find of a mammoth rib fragment with the engraving in
Paleolithic style, which first indicated the existence of this site.
96. Buranovskaia Peshchera.——This cave is located 8 kilometers
north of Ust-Katav on the bank of the Yuryuzan River in the Chelia-
binsk Oblast. The cultural stratum, containing the crushed bones of
animals, was discovered during 1938 at a depth of 2.0 m. in a yellow
clay deposit by S. N. Bibikov. The fauna included Bos, horse,
northern deer, Arctic fox, wolf, bear, rodents, birds, and fish. A few
worked flints were found. This Upper Paleolithic station represents
a temporary hunting camp.
97. Kliuchevaia Peshchera.—This cave, situated near No. 96, lies
farther downstream on the Yuryuzan in the territory of the Bashkir
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 37
A.S.S.R. The cultural stratum can be clearly seen. The fauna con-
sisted of Siberian rhinoceros, European bison, northern deer, Arctic
fox, and other forms. The few worked flints and flakes were of dark
Cretaceous flint unknown in this vicinity and only occurring about
120-150 kilometers distant. This Upper Paleolithic site, a type of
hunting camp remote from permanent habitation, was excavated by
S. N. Bibikov during 1938.
98. Ust-Katav.—During 1937 S. N. Bibikov found a considerable
quantity of Pleistocene bones, including mammoth, in this cave near
Ust-Katav railroad station in the southern Urals.
99. /delbaieva.—Traces of this Upper Paleolithic site were found
on the Guberla River northeast of Orsk in the Orenburg Oblast. In
addition to flint implements, a large quantity of bones of two species
of extinct Bos, horse, wolf, elk, northern deer, and dog were found.
100. Lakedemonovka.—Upper Paleolithic flints were found by
V. A. Khokhlovkina during 1935 in the loess on the northern coast
of the Sea of Azov.
UKRAINE 18
101. Amvrosievka.—Of special interest was this Upper Paleolithic
site, apparently Magdalenian, near Amvrosievka, Donets region, in
the upper part of the Kazennaia ravine, on the right bank of the
Krinka River and 2 kilometers distant. Discovered during 1935, this
site was investigated in 1936 by the Museum of the Study of the
Region in Stalino. Many worked flints were found on the gully
slopes over an area of 6 hectares. The finds resemble the flint in-
ventory of Kostenki II and III, Eliseevichi, and the Magdalenian
sites along the left bank of the Dniester. The predominant tools were
burins. There were also a large quantity of nuclei, indicating that
this was an atelier. The finds were not concentrated on some par-
ticular level, but could be found from the surface to a depth of 1.25 m.
into the loesslike loam. Probably to some later period belong the
large campfire and the accumulation of cultural remains, mainly bones
of the European bison (Bison priscus), no less than 300 animals
being scattered over 40 square meters of the excavation. Flint in-
ventories here differ from those mentioned above in the absence of
18 The following sites have been listed: Donbas (No. 101), northern Donets
(Nos. 102-108), the middle Dnieper (Nos. 109-124), the basin of Desna (Nos.
125-138), the basin of Sula (Nos. 139-143), Seim (No. 144), the basin of
Pripet (Nos. 145-147), the neighborhood of Odessa (No. 148), southern Bug
(No. 149), Dniester (Nos. 150-164), and the neighborhood of Melitopol (No.
165).
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
burins. Bone points, spindle-shaped, similar to those from Veselogore
were also found.
102. Afrikanova Melnitsa—Traces of an apparently Upper Paleo-
lithic site were found near Rogalik-I[Akimovskaia at the confluence
of the Evsug River and the northern Donets. This site is located on
the slope of the high right bank of the Evsug near the mill. The
worked flints do not lie deep. According to S. A. Loktiushev, the
finds consist of objects similar to those found in Krinichnaia ravine,
including burins, scrapers, and knife-shaped laminae.
103. Beregovaia.—In the vicinity of Rogalik farm (see No. 106)
in the midstream of Evsug River near its confluence with the Donets
north of Voroshilovgrad [formerly Lugansk], several flint imple-
ments, including two small round scrapers, were found. This station
apparently represents the same period [Azilian] as that of Rogalik-
TAkimovskaia. (See No. 106.)
104. Veselogore-—On a sand bar on the right bank of the Donets,
15 kilometers from Voroshilovgrad, near this village was found
accidentally a bone javelin-head of Magdalenian type associated with
the bones of mammoth, rhinoceros, Bos, horse, etc.
105. Krinichnaia Balka.—This Upper Paleolithic station, investi-
gated in 1936, stands on the slope of the high right bank of the river
Evsug near its confluence with the northern Donets. At a point
360 m. southwest of the station of Rogalik-[Akimovskaia (No. 106)
were found during 1936 burins, scrapers, knife-shaped laminae, nuclei,
and other implements of Rogalil type.
106. Rogalik-IAkimovskaia.—This typologically Azilian site near
Rogalik farm lies on the high right bank of the Evsug River at its
confluence with the northern Donets, 35 kilometers northeast of
Voroshilovgrad [formerly Lugansk]. This station, discovered in
1926 by S. A. Loktiushev, was investigated in 1927, 1928, 1933, and
1936. The cultural remains, located on the right slope of the IAki-
movskaia ravine, lie mainly in sandy loam with a slight admixture
of humus, at a depth of 1.86 m. The animal bones were mainly Equus,
and there were some marine Mollusca. Among the flint tools, which
resemble closely those found in the upper horizon of Borshevo II,
were such true geometric forms as trapezoids.
107. Sheishinova Balka——During 1936 traces of this Upper Paleo-
lithic site were found at the confluence of the Evsug with the northern
Donets in Sheishinova ravine near Rogalik farm. The flint imple-
ments, from a depth of 0.25-0.60 m., were similar to those from
Rogalik-[Akimovskaia (No. 106).
108. Shchurovka—Mammoth bones and several worked flints,
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 39
including angle burins and flakes, were found along the northern
Donets near the village of Shchurov Rog, north of Izium. Collected
by A. S. Fedorovskii and N. V. Sibilev in 1923, the finds were de-
posited partly in Kharkov and partly in Izium Museum.
109. Bairachnaia—During 1935 in Bairachnaia ravine near Yam-
burg, Dnepropetrovsk Oblast, there were found typologically Paleo-
lithic flints and an accumulation of Early Quaternary animal bones
in a sandy clay deposit of the type of ancient ravine formations.
110. Burty—The remains of an Upper Paleolithic station with
flints and bones of fossil animals were found in Burty ravine near
Studenitsa in the neighborhood of Kanev, in a stratum of ancient
ravine alluvium.
111. Dubovaia Balka.—This Upper Paleolithic site, which yielded
eight cultural levels, the lower strata of which may be attributed to
the Magdalenian period, stands on the left bank of the Dnieper, south
of the mouth of the Ploskaia Osokorivka River, opposite Lake Du-
bovoe in the Dnieper rapids, known as Nenasytets and Volnichskii.
Discovered during 1931 by the Dnieprostroi Archeological Expedi-
tion and investigated the following years, this station is situated on
the left slope of Dubovaia ravine. The cultural remains lay partly in
diluvial loesslike clay and partly in the stratified alluvial sands of
the second terrace above the flood plain of the Dnieper. Some of the
eight cultural levels contained only hearths and animal bones. The
fifth stratum was the richest. The bones of Bos were in the large
majority, although Equus and Lupus were represented. There were
also many bones of Lepus. No mammoth bones were found. Among
flint implements points predominated. There were also bone tools
and shell ornaments.
112. Kaistrova Balka I—This Upper Paleolithic site on the left
bank of the Dnieper, south of the mouth of the Ploskaia Osokorivka
River, west of Dubovaia Balka (No. 111), in the vicinity of Dnie-
proges [formerly Dnieprostroi], was discovered and investigated
during 1931 by the Dnieprostroi Archeological Expedition. The
cultural remains, in the loess of the second terrace above the flood level
were partly destroyed by the small gully merging with the ravine.
The fauna includes the European bison and horse. The flint inventory
is represented mainly by burins and scrapers. The material remains
unpublished.
113. Kaistrova Balka II—This is another Upper Paleolithic site
in the same vicinity. The cultural remains lie in two adjoining
spots in the loess on the right slope of Kaistrova Balka, higher than
Kaistrova Balka I at the edge of the gully. The fauna includes the
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
European bison and horse. The flint inventory is represented mainly
by burins and scrapers. Two bones awls were also found. The
material has not been published.
114. Kaistrova Balka II].—Insignificant traces of a cultural stratum
in the loesslike clay occur on the left slope of the Kaistrova Balka,
slightly higher than Kaistrova Balka II. Traces of the European
bison constituted the only faunal material found.
115. Kaistrova Balka IV.—A deposit with an accumulation of
flints was found on the left slope of Kaistrova Balka. This stratum
was stained red by infiltrations of iron oxides.
116. Kirillovskaia—A Lower Magdalenian site was discovered
in 1893 by V. V. Khvoiko on Kirillovskaia Street in Kiev. The lower
horizon of several strata yielded an accumulation of large campfires
and of bones and tusks of mammoth. This horizon lies on the surface
of the clays at the base of the ancient terrace beneath 22.0 m. of post-
glacial deposits. In addition to mammoth, woolly rhinoceros was
occasionally found. Among the few flint implements manufactured
from flakes, burins of accidental forms predominated. Khvoiko found
in the same horizon the fragment of a mammoth tusk covered with
stylized designs. This site was studied from 1893 to 1900.
117. Kuirillovskaia (upper horizon).—Discovered by V. V. Khvoiko
in 1897, this Upper Magdalenian station was investigated by him in
1897 and 1899. The cultural stratum, containing ashes and a few
charred animal bones, lay at the base of grayish-green sands, at a
depth of 11-16 m. The fauna included lion, wolverine, wolf, and
doubtful finds of hyena and mammoth. The flint inventory consisted
of many flakes and tools.
118. Kovalskaia Balka (Krivoi Rog).—A quantity of flint imple-
ments and flakes, as well as mammoth bones, were found about 3
kilometers from Krivoi Rog near the confluence of the Saksagan
with the Ingul in Kovalskaia ravine 1.0-1.50 m. into the reddish clay.
Discovered by A. N. Pol, this site has not been investigated system-
atically. The gully is filled with the refuse from the neighboring mine.
119. Maiorka—This Upper Paleolithic (Magdalenian) station
stands on the right bank of the Dnieper, farther downstream than
Yamburg and Voloskoe, near Maiorka ravine. Found and investi-
gated by I. F. Levitskii during 1932, the cultural remains lay under
the thick loess at two points: at the mouth of Maiorka ravine at a
depth of 3.6 m.; and higher than its mouth, at a depth of 2.5 m. on
the bank of the Dnieper, together with the bones of Bos. A few
implements were unearthed.
120. Osokorivka.—This Upper Paleolithic site on the left bank
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 4!I
of the Dnieper, near the Dnieper Dam, is situated at the mouth of
Ploskaia Osokorivka ravine on the second loess terrace. Several
cultural horizons were discovered in 1931 and investigated by I. F.
Levitskii during 1932. The lower stratum lies at a depth of 5.6 m. at
the base of the alluvio-diluvial deposits and apparently belongs to the
Magdalenian period. The three upper horizons, at a depth of 3.5 m.
in the alluvio-diluvial deposit and 2.0-2.5 m. in the loesslike clay,
are probably Azilian. The fauna included bison, horse, mammoth,
rhinoceros, beaver, etc. The flint inventory has not been published.
Some indications of the dwellings were found.
121. Protasov IAr—Traces of the Upper Paleolithic site were
found near the railroad station in Kiev. The finds were made at the
beginning of the 1890's during construction work 16.0 m. under the
loess. No further studies have been made.
122. Selishche——In 1900 Paleolithic flint implements and associated
fauna were discovered by N. I. Krishtafovich near Kanev, on the
right bank of the Dnieper. The flints and fauna lay under conditions
similar to those at Kirillovskaia (No. 116), where they were found
under the thick loess and sand deposits overlying moraine clays.
123. Skalka.—In 1922 bones of mammoth and one flint tablet were
found near Skalka gorodishche in the Kremenchug district.
124. Yamburg—This Upper Paleolithic site stands on the right
bank of the Dnieper at the mouth of the Sura River. Discovered and
investigated by I. F. Levitskii in 1932, it is situated on the third
terrace, common for both the Dnieper and Sura Rivers. The first
horizon of the cultural remains lies in the loess clay at a depth of
1.5 m. Levitskii identified nine horizons, which are attributed to the
Upper Magdalenian period.
125. Voronezh.—This Paleolithic site was found near Glukhov
in the Chernigov region. The flints, collected some years ago by
Abramov, are deposited in the Hermitage Museum, Leningrad.
126. Degtiarevo—An accumulation of split mammoth bones was
discovered in this village in the Novgorod-Seversk district while fenc-
ing the church.
127. Mesin.—This Paleolithic site, which stands on the right bank
of the Desna River downstream from Novgorod-Seversk, belongs
presumably to the end of the Solutrean period. It is situated on the
left slope of the Mezin ravine not far from its merging with the Desna
Valley. In spite of long years of excavation the character of the
habitation remains unclear. As a result of excavations during 1909
a dwelling in the form of shallow dugouts may have existed. Flint
and bone implements were richly represented. Included in the fauna
4
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
were mammoth, rhinoceros, northern deer, horse, Arctic fox, wolver-
ine, and others. Of especial interest were the shells originating near
the Black Sea. Mezin was discovered by F. K. Volkov in 1908, in-
vestigated by P. P. Efimenko in 1909, by L. E. Chikalenko in 1912-
1914, by B. G. Krizhanovskii in 1916, and by M. IA. Rudinskii in
1930.
128. Novgorod-Seversk.—This Upper Paleolithic site lies on the
bank of the Desna River. The cultural deposits, partly beneath
crumbled limestone, were mainly destroyed by quarrying. Many
remains of the Pleistocene fauna, including mammoth, northern deer,
Arctic fox, and lemming were excavated, associated with flints and
worked bones. Among important objects were three gigantoliths,
pickax-shaped tools, 0.45 m. long and weighing about 8.0 kilograms,
of dark, Cretaceous flint. Found and excavated by I. G. Pidoplichka
during April 1936, this site was also investigated in collaboration
with M. V. Voevodskii and P. I. Boriskovskii during 1937-1938.
129. Pushkari I—This site, attributed to an early phase of the
Upper Paleolithic, stands on the right bank of the Desna River, 20
kilometers north of Novgorod-Seversk. Discovered by P. I. Boris-
kovskii in 1932, it was partly investigated by him in 1933 and during
1937-1938. The cultural stratum, at a depth of 1.0 m., yielded many
flints including points, scrapers, large retouched laminae, and other
forms. The faunal remains, including mammoth, Arctic fox, and
wolf, were badly preserved.
130-134. Pushkari II-VI.—Near this village I. G. Pidoplichka and
M. V. Voevodskii discovered several more Upper Paleolithic sites.
135. Pushkari VII (Pokrovshchina).—This station, presumably
belonging to the end of the Upper Paleolithic, was discovered and
investigated during 1938 by M. V. Voevodskii. It is situated near
Pushkari, 315 kilometers from the bank of Desna River. The cultural
stratum, comprising the accumulation of flints as rounded boulders,
flakes, and some finished tools, lay 1.6 m. above the bottom of the
gully.
136. Chulatovo I—Discovered and investigated by I. G. Pidop-
lichka during 1935, this Upper Paleolithic site stands on the right
bank of the Desna, 8 kilometers south of Novgorod-Seversk. Quarry-
ing for chalk in the Kreidianyi Maidan destroyed the greater part of
the site. The cultural stratum stands 25.0 m. above river level. The
fauna was represented by the mammoth, northern deer, horse, Arctic
fox, wolverine, and lemming. Part of a human calvarium with traces
of sawing 1° were found associated with many flint implements typical
19 Cf. similar marks on Le Placard calvarium. (H. F.)
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 43
for the Lower Magdalenian of eastern Europe; these included mainly
chisels, some scrapers, and fragments of bone implements.
137. Chulatovo II (Rabochii Rog).—This Upper Magdalenian
site, I kilometer from Chulatovo I, had been partly destroyed by
erosion. The cultural stratum was 3.5 m. deep. Some localities
showed the manufacturing process of bone tools. The majority of
the stone implements were burins, although some nuclei were found.
Among the fauna were the mammoth and northern deer. This site,
discovered during 1936, was investigated by M. V. Voevodskii in
1937 and 1938.
138. Ukhnova.—In the Novgorod-Seversk district near this village
were found bones of mammoth and some flint flakes.
139. Vazovka.—A chance find of the lower jaw of a mammoth
and Paleolithic flint implements, eroded from the ancient clay deposits
in the ravine, occurred near this village on the Sula River in the
vicinity of Lubny in the Poltava region.
140. Gai—Bones of fossil animals together with crude flint flakes
were discovered near Gai farm, Romny district. The finds were
deposited in Romny Museum.
141. Gontsy—This Magdalenian site was located on the right bank
of the Udai River near this village. Discovered and first excavated
by F. I. Kaminskii in 1873, it was investigated by the staff of Poltava
Museum during 1914-1915, and by I. F. Levitskii together with
A. IA. Briusov and I. G. Pidoplichka in 1935. The Paleolithic remains
lay under 3.0-3.5 m. of loess on the edge of the sandy clay alluvium,
of which the terrace consists. Mammoth bones were probably asso-
ciated with the dugouts. In addition, there were alsa northern deer,
hare, etc. The flint implements were small, mainly burins and
scrapers. A few bone implements, including a perforated needle,
were unearthed.
142. Zhuravka.—Standing on the left bank of the Udai River, a
right tributary of the Sula, not far from Priluki, was this Azilian
station on the alluvio-diluvial deposits of the second loess horizon
of the lower terrace. Characteristic were the many bones of rodents
(Marmota bobak Miill., Citellus rufescens K., etc.) and of the flint
inventory of Epipaleolithic type. More ancient horizons of the same
terrace yielded bones of mammoth. Zhuravka was investigated by an
expedition from the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences [A.N.U., later
U.A.N.] during 1927-1929.
143. Sergeevka—During 1921 bones of mammoth and a flint
lamina were collected in a ravine on the right bank of the Khorol,
tributary of the Psel River.
44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
144. Shapovalovka——Bones of mammoth and some small flint
laminae were found in the basin of the Seim River by N. D. Zubok-
Mokievskii during 1879 on the shore of the lake in a steep escarpment,
at the depth of 2.0 m.
145. Dovginichi—In 1929 I. F. Levitskii found traces of this
Upper Paleolithic station on the left bank of the Uzh River, a right
tributary of the Pripet, near Ovruch.
146. Iskorost—This Upper Paleolithic station stands near the
rocky bank of the Uzh River at a depth of 0.5-9.8 m. During the
excavations by V. V. Khvoiko in 1911, there were discovered beneath
the burial mounds a series of campfires, many worked flints, and a
few bones. Khvoiko accumulated here a large number of nuclei and
their flakes. This material has not been published.
147. Kolodegnoe.—During 1924 I. F. Levitskii reported the acci-
dental finding of bones of horse, mammoth, and other forms in a
quarry along the Slucha River at the mouth of its tributary, the
Tiukhterevka. The confirmatory excavations by S. Gamchenko in
1926 produced no positive results. The engraved bones published
by Levitskii remain of doubtful character.
148. Nerubaiskoe—Quaternary bones, including mammoth, rhi-
noceros, cave bear, deer, Bos, antelope, camel, and horse, were found
near Odessa. N. I. Krishtafovich states that during his visit in 1904
he did not discover any worked flints.
149. Semenki.—This Upper Paleolithic site stands on the right
bank of the southern Bug River near this village in Bratslav district.
During 1931 K. M. Polikarpovich found flint implements and animal
bones, among them the northern deer and the horse. The fauna has
not yet been completely determined.
150. Bagovitsy—An Upper Paleolithic site was located near
Kamenets-Podolsk on the bank of the Dniester. The surface finds
have not yet been described.
151. Vrublevtsy—tThis station, situated not far from the Dniester
along the Ternovaia River near Kamenets-Podolsk, was first identified
in 1881 by V. B. Antonovich. Typologically Lower Magdalenian
flints were excavated from the diluvial clay during 1927.
152. Kalius—During 1927 typologically Magdalenian flints were
found near this village on the left bank of the Dniester on the plateau
near the Kalius River.
153, 154. Kitai-Gorod I and II—Traces of the Upper Paleolithic
sites were found on the right bank of the Ternovaia River, a left
tributary of the Dniester, near Kamenets-Podolsk. The material has
not been fully described.
No. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 45
155, 156. Kolachkovtsy I and II.—Traces of these two Upper
Paleolithic sites were found on the right bank of the Studenitsa, a
left tributary of the Dniester. The material, which was obtained during
1928, has not been described.
157. Krivchik—A quantity of flint implements were collected at
the entrance to the caves situated on the bank of the Dniester near
Krivchik at the mouth of the Schusenka River. No further data are
available.
158. Kusheleva.—Traces of a site were located on the Ushitsa
River, a left tributary of the Dniester near Bolshaia Kuzheleva. No
further data are available.
159. Nagoriany.—Large stone implements crudely fashioned by
percussion flaking were found in this cave situated on the left bank
of the Dniester near the Ledava River. The material has not been
described.
160. Near the caves situated not far from the Dniester on the left
bank of the Smotrich River between Nechin and Zaluch were found
stone tools. The material has not been described.
161. Ozarintsy—Several flints and one fragment of mammoth
bone with a representation of this animal on it were found during
1912 near this village in the neighborhood of Kamenets-Podolsk in
the talweg of the Borshchevetski IAr ravine. The Paleolithic origin
of the finds remains doubtful.
162. Sokol—Traces of this Paleolithic site were found on the
left bank of the Dniester near this village in the neighborhood of
Kamenets-Podolsk. The material has not been described.
163. Studenitsa—This Magdalenian site is situated on the Belaia
Gora overlooking the Dniester near the juncture of the Studenitsa
River. Paleolithic flints were collected here, on the slopes of this
mountain and in its cave, as early as 1883 by V. B. Antonovich. A
considerable number of worked flints were found here during 1927.
164. Ushitsa—During 1927 a few typologically Magdalenian flints
were found on the surface at this site on the plateau between the
Dniester and Ushitsa Rivers.
165. Kamennyi Kurgan.—This sandy hill stands on the right bank
of the Molochnaia River near Terpene in the Melitopol district,
Dnepropetrovsk region. Many engravings were found on the grotto
walls formed of sandstone plates. According to O. N. Bader, some
of them belong to the Epipaleolithic and even to the Upper Paleo-
lithic periods.
46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
TERRITORY OF THE B.S.S.R. 2°
166. Berdyzh—This Solutrean site stands in Kolodezhki ravine
on the right bank of the Sozh River near this village in the Checherskii
district. The cultural remains lie in the sands at a depth of 5.0-6.0 m.
The large quantity of mammoth bones were mainly unearthed. In
addition, the fauna was represented by the horse, Bos, cave bear,
Arctic fox, etc. These excavations were conducted during 1926-
1929. The site was discovered by K. M. Polikarpovich and investi-
gated by him, by S. N. Zamiatnin, and others. In 1929 there was
discovered a pit, 3.0 m. long and 1.5 m. deep, filled with the remains
of a dugout. Considerable excavations were made by Polikarpovich
during 1938.
167. Kleievichi.—This site stands on the right bank of the Beseda
River, a left tributary of the Sozh, near this village in the Kostiukovich
district. The finds included a small quantity of mammoth and horse
bones together with flints (possibly of natural origin) in the sands
of the upper terrace, at about the spring high-level mark. Studies
were made here by K. M. Polikarpovich in 1919, 1930, and 1934.
168. IUrovichi—This Upper Paleolithic site stands on the left
bank of the Pripet on the second terrace above the spring high-level
mark at the mouth of the ravine near this small town. A few worked
flints associated with mammoth and horse bones were found in sands
lying about 25.0 m. above the river level.
CrIMEA 21
169. Adzhi-Koba.—The upper horizon of this cave contained flints
of Upper Paleolithic type (see No. 22) similar to those from Siuren
I. Above lay a stratum containing implements of microlithic type,
excavated by A. S. Moiseev.
170. At-Bash.—This Tardenoisian site lies beneath the rock called
At-Bash on the Ai-Petri [Aila about 200 m. above sea level on the
IAila precipice facing the sea near Siemiz. Investigated during 1927
by B. S. Zhukov and O. N. Bader, the cultural stratum, mostly eroded,
lay at a depth of 40-60 cm. below the surface. In the center stood a
hearth, surrounded by stone plates 2.5 m. in diameter. The inventory
included flints of Tardenoisian type and single bones of deer and boar.
The excavators also found fragments of slightly fired pottery, which
possibly has no real connection with the Tardenoisian stratum.
20 The following areas have been listed: Sozh Valley (Nos. 166, 167), and
Pripet Valley (No. 168).
21 Nos. 169-188.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 47
171. Balin-Kosh.—This Tardenoisian site in located in the Ai-Petri
IAila near Bedene-Khyr Mountain and the Balin-Kosh area. Micro-
lithic flint implements were found here by E. I. Visniovskaia and
others. T. F. Gelakh found pebbles with an engraved pattern, re-
sembling the painted pebbles (galets coloriés) of Mas d’Azil in the
Ariége District of France.
172. Buran-Kaia.—This cave containing Azilian flints, animal
bones, and shells of edible mollusks, stands on the right bank of the
Borulcha River near Kainaut, in the Karasubazar Raion. Discovered
by O. N. Bader in 1935, Buran-Kaia was investigated by him during
1936.
173. Dzhelau-Bash.—This open-air Tardenoisian site, in the area
known as Dzhelau-Bash or Damchi-Kaia on the Chatyr-Dagh, was
discovered and investigated by O. N. Bader in 1930. There were two
cultural horizons: in the lower were found geometric microliths ; in the
upper, microliths with pottery.
174. Zamil-Koba I.—This cave, containing Azilian-Tardenoisian
remains, was discovered during 1935 near Cherkez-Kermen by D. A.
Krainov. The finds were in the lower cultural stratum.
175. Zamil-Koba II.—This cave with Tardenoisian remains stands
next to Zamil-Koba I. It was discovered and investigated by D. A.
Krainoy in 1937. The flints were excavated from the lower cultural
stratum.
176. Kachinskii.—This rock shelter with Upper Paleolithic remains
stands above the Kacha River near Pychkhi village close to Bakhchi-
sarai. Discovered by K. S. Merezhkovskii in 1879, it was investigated
by him during 1879-1880. He found stone tools and some child’s
bones. According to G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii this is a Magdalenian
site.
177. Kizil-Koba.—This Tardenoisian atelier site stands on the
slope of the Dolgorukov IAila near Kizil-Koba village close to Sim-
feropol. During 1879-1880 K. S. Merezhkovskii found a large quantity
of flint tools, nuclei, and flakes in the dark brown clay directly beneath
the humus, relatively near to the natural location of the flint.
178. Kukrek.—This Tardenoisian open-air station stands on the
right bank of the Zuia River, 5 kilometers south of Kiik-Koba (see
No. 24). Discovered by G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii in 1926, Kukrek
was investigated by him during 1926-1927. The lower stratum of the
site, which lay at a depth of 1.5 m. beneath the diluvial strata of clay
and gravel, yielded prismatic nuclei, round scrapers, burins, and a
quantity of microliths. The upper stratum, at a depth of 0.5 m., was
poor in finds but contained typical trapezoids and segments. There
48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
were few remnants of bones and hearths. The fauna included wolf,
wild boar, deer, and hare. The flora of the site was characterized by
the presence of Quercus.
179. Murzak-Koba.—This Tardenoisian cave, situated on the left
bank of the Chernaia River in Boklu-dere gorge near Balaclava, was
discovered and investigated by S. N. Bibikov and E. V. Zhirov in
1936. The cultural deposits yielded the characteristic flint inventory
and bone tools including awls, a needle, and a double-barbed harpoon.
Among fauna were deer, roe deer, wild boar, bear, fox, domesticated
dog, badger, hare, fish bones, and a large quantity of snails (/Telix
vulgaris). In addition, here was also found the double burial ?? of the
Tardenoisian period. Excavations by S. N. Bibikov during 1938
revealed Upper Paleolithic strata near bedrock.
180. Siuren I—A rock shelter, possibly Aurignacian, stands on
the right bank of the Belbek River, higher than Biiuk-Siuren, 13
kilometers southwest of Bakhchisarai. Here there were three cultural
horizons with flint implements, similar to those of Aurignacian sites.
In addition, especially in the lower stratum, were found Mousterian
tools including small axes, points, scrapers, and some bone imple-
ments. The fauna included the mammoth, cave hyena, northern deer,
Arctic fox, white hare, rodents, northern birds (white grouse), and
remains of fish. A study of the charcoal shows the boreal character
of the vegetation. This site, discovered by K. S. Merezhkovskii in
1879, was investigated by him during 1879-1880, and later by G. A.
Bonch-Osmolovskii in 1926-1929.
181. Siuren II.—This Late Azilian (Sviderskian Phase) rock
shelter stands next to Siuren I. Discovered by K. S. Merezhkovski1
in 1879, it was investigated by him during 1879-1880 and later G. A.
Bonch-Osmolovskii in 1924 and 1926. The cultural stratum lies at a
depth of 0.75 m. between limestone fragments. Near the entrance
this stratum becomes about 4.0 m. deeper. The typical flint inventory
includes well-preserved arrowheads of leaf-shaped form. The fauna
has a contemporary character but with some Pleistocene species in-
cluding cave lion and large deer. Here were also the first finds of
the domesticated dog. A study of the charcoal from the hearth stratum
revealed only aspen.
182. Fatma-Koba.—This Azilian-Tardenoisian rock shelter stands
on the right bank of the Kubalar-Su in the Baidar Valley of the
Balaclava district near Urkust. Discovered by S. A. Trusov and
22 A cast of one of the skulls is in the Chicago Natural History Museum.
This was received during 1945 as a gift from IAE, Leningrad, where the original
is on exhibition. See footnote 10. (H. F.)
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 49
S. N. Bibikov in 1927, it was investigated by G. A. Bonch-Osmo-
lovskii in 1927. The lower cultural stratum belongs to the Azilian,
the upper strata to the Tardenoisian period. In the latter were dis-
covered the burials. The fauna, which was similar in all horizons,
included wild boar, deer, wild donkey, horse, saiga, wolf, fox, hare,
badger, cave lion, lynx, domesticated dog, and rodents. In the Tarde-
noisian levels maple and rowanberry were identified.
183. Chatyr-Dagh.—tTraces of Paleolithic occupation were found
in the cave of the Chatyr-Dagh, discovered by K. S. Merezhkovskii
in 1879 and investigated by him during 1879-1880. In Bin-bash-Koba
cave in the stratum of red clay were found remnants of hearths, bone
breccia, and flint and bone implements. In Suuk-Koba cave in the
same kind of stratum at a depth of about 1.50 m. were discovered
traces of a hearth, crushed bones, and stone tools of Siurenian type.
The caves of Chatyr-Dagh were investigated in 1930 by O. N. Bader,
who excavated about 3.0 m. of the cultural deposits.
184. Cherkez-Kermen.—Two Azilian caves were discovered near
this village by K. S. Merezhkovskii in 1880. The finds included stone
and bone implements, and the bone of a dolphin. It is probable that
these caves are contemporaneous with Zamil-Koba I and II.
185. Shan-Koba.—This Azilian-Tardenoisian rock shelter, on the
right slope of Kubaral-dere ravine near Urkust in the Baidar Valley,
found by S. A. Trusov and S. N. Bibikov in 1927, was investigated
by G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii during 1927-1928 and by Bibikov in
1935-1936. There were found altogether six cultural horizons, five
Epipaleolithic with traces of hearths, microlithic flints, bone com-
pressors and needles, borers and points, implements with inserts, and
a large quantity of shells of Helix vulgaris. The second and third
cultural strata belong to the Tardenoisian or Azilian transition period.
The fauna included deer, horse, boar, beaver, hare, wolf, fox, lynx,
dog, etc. Represented in the flora were birch, mountain-ash, buck-
thorn, and juniper in the lower strata, and maple and buckthorn in the
upper levels.
186. Shpan-Koba—This Tardenoisian rock shelter near Tau-
Kipchak was discovered and investigated in 1925 by G. A. Bonch-
Osmolovskii and by O. N. Bader a decade later.
187. IUsuf-Koba I—During 1936 E. V. Zhirov discovered a
Tardenoisian rock shelter on the eastern slope of Cape Lang near
Biiuk-Muskomia in the Balaclava district. The cultural stratum
yielded crushed animal bones and an accumulation of the shells of
Helix vulgaris.
188. [Aila—Many Epipaleolithic stations were found on the slopes
50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
of the IAila Plateau, beginning with Chatyr-Dagh and as far as Point
Liaspi. One of these sites, Kizil-Koba on the Dolgorukov IAila, was
discovered and investigated in 1879 by K. S. Merezhkovskii. In 1913
N. N. Klepnin and N. I. Dubrovskii discovered on the IAila three
Tardenoisian sites. Later A. S. Moiseev discovered about 30 more
sites. The systematic investigations of the Ai-Petri [Aila and Chatyr-
Dagh, begun in 1927, were conducted by B. S. Zhukov, O. N. Bader,
E. I. Visniovskaia, and others. S. I. Zabnin and Visniovskaia also
discovered several sites. In the Feodosia region investigations were
conducted by P. P. Zablotskii, N. S. Barsamov, and Bader. Also
examined were the sites of Kizil-Koba by Merezhkovskii, At-Bash by
Zhukov and Bader, Balin-Kosh by Zhukov, Bader, Gelakh, and others,
and the sites of the Chatyr-Dagh, Dzhelau-Bash, Uzun-Koba,
Kenavuz-Koba, and others by Bader. Microlithic flint implements
were found at all these sites, but other finds, such as a stone lamp and
pebbles with incisions, occurred at only a single site.
CAVES IN THE CAUCASUS 23
189. Bartashvili Peshchera.—This Upper Paleolithic cave near
Kutaisi, not far from Virchow cave, was discovered and investigated
by the expedition led by P. P. Schmidt and L. Kozlovskii in 1914.
The results remain unpublished.
190. Bnele-Klde—This Upper Paleolithic cave on the Kvirila
River near Chiaturi was discovered by S. A. Krukovskii in 1918 and
investigated by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1934.
191. Virchow Peshchera.—This Upper Paleolithic cave near Motsa-
meti close to Kutaisi was discovered and investigated by the expedition
led by P. P. Schmidt and L. Kozlovskii in 1914 and by G. K. Nioradze
in 1936. The flint inventory is characterized by the nuclei-shaped
tools and by the large quantity of small laminae with blunt edges,
resembling geometric microliths. Represented in the fauna were the
strongly mineralized bones of the cave bear,
192. Gvardzhilas-Klde—This Azilian cave, which stands on the
left bank of the Kvirila River near Rgani close to Chiaturi, was dis-
covered and investigated by S. A. Krukovskii during 1916-1917.
Among the many stone tools were a large quantity of geometric
microliths, small crudely fashioned axes, and articles made of bone
and horn including a harpoon of Azilian type. In the fauna were
Ursus arctos, Ursus spelaeus, Bison bonasus, and Bos taurus.
193. Darkvetii—Traces of an Upper Paleolithic site were found
23 Imeretia (Nos. 189-199), Abkhazia (No. 200), and Adler Raion (No. 201).
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 51
by S. N. Zamiatnin during 1936 in this cave near Darkveti railroad
station on the right bank of the Kvirila River.
194. Devis-Khvreli—This Upper Paleolithic cave, located on the
right bank of the Chkherimela River in Khandebi quarry between
the Dzeruly railroad station and Kharaguly, was discovered by G. K.
Nioradze in 1926 and investigated by him during 1926-1928. Many
flint flakes and implements were unearthed. Bone tools, mainly awls
and compressors, were present but were not numerous. According
to V. I. Gromov and M. V. Pavlova, the fauna consisted of wild boar,
wild goat, and bear, all of which were presumably the main objects
of the chase. A fragment of a human mandible and two molars were
excavated.
195. Mgvimevi.—Flint implements and other traces of a cultural
stratum of the Upper Paleolithic period were discovered by S. N.
Zamiatnin in 1934 near Mgvimevi, 1 kilometer north of Chiaturi on
the right bank of the Kvirila River. A row of linear geometric signs
was recorded on the surface of the rock along the edge of Rock Shelter
No. 5.
196. Taro-Klde—This Aurignacian cave site near Shukrut on the
upper course of the Kvirila in the neighborhood of Chiaturi was dis-
covered and investigated by S. A. Krukovskii in 1918. The cultural
deposits consist of a flint inventory of Upper Paleolithic type mixed
with Mousterian forms and also of a large quantity of bone points.
197. Uvarova Peshchera—This Upper Paleolithic cave, which
stands on the left bank of the Krasnaia River (Tskhali-Tsiteli) near
Kutaisi and not far from Virchow cave, was investigated in 1914 by
an expedition led by P. P. Schmidt and L. Kozlovskii.
198. Khergulis-Klde—This Aurignacian cave is located at Vachevi
near Chiaturi on the right bank of the Kvirila. The finds consisted
of tools of Upper Paleolithic type and a quantity of surviving Mous-
terian forms, which, however, were characterized by the perfection
of their retouch. The fauna included bear, wild horse, and Bos.
199. Tsirkhvali—rTraces of an Upper Paleolithic site resembling
Gvardzhilas-Klde (No. 192) were found in this cave near Tsirkhvali
and the Kvirila River not far from Chiaturi. Tsirkhvali was dis-
covered by S. N. Zamiatnin in 1934.
200. Planta—During 1936 L. N. Solovev found this cave near the
confluence of the Amtkel and Kodor Rivers. On the scree slopes and
above bedrock were flint implements and flakes of Tardenoisian type,
including many geometric forms, associated with animal bones.
201. Navalishenskaia Peshchera—The upper part of this cave in
the Adler Raion (see No. 33) yielded Upper Paleolithic remains.
52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Open-Air SITES IN THE CAUCASUS 24
202. Dafnari—Several Upper Paleolithic implements were found
by A. N. Kalandadze in 1926 on the top of the uplands next to the
outlet of the red Turonian flint, near this village 3 kilometers from
Lapchkhuti.
203. Lua.—Traces of an Upper Paleolithic site were located dur-
ing 1936 by A. N. Kalandadze on the ancient terrace of the Ingur
River, 1.5 kilometers from the Zugdidi-Dzhvari highway. Near the
cemetery, at a depth of 0.8-to1.2 m., were flint nuclei, scrapers, burins,
and laminae. The site was destroyed during the construction of this
highway.
204. Odishi—This Upper Paleolithic site, which lies in this village
in the Zugdidi Raion, was discovered by A. N. Kalandadze during
1936. A large quantity of flint implements including scrapers, burins,
nuclei, laminae, and geometric blades were found. In addition, some
Neolithic implements such as arrowheads and grinding stones were
unearthed in the unplowed part of the small plateau which goes down
to the valley of the Dzhumi River. On the Zugdidi-Odishi highway
in the vicinity of the Odishi Cooperative were found a few patinated
flint tools.
205. Rukhi IJ.—Traces of an Upper Paleolithic site were dis-
covered by A. N. Kalandadze in 1936 near the school of this village,
6 kilometers from Zugdidi. The nuclear burins, elaborate scrapers,
laminae with incisions, knife-shaped tablets, and three points covered
with milky patina were accumulated on the surface.
206. Supsa-Shroma.—tTraces of this Paleolithic site were dis-
covered by A. N. Kalandadze on the Supsa-Shroma Highway in
1936. Here were found flakes and laminae; in front of the school near
Dzharbenadze on the slope near the highway were two scrapers and
laminae. At Motsviari on the right bank of the Sefa River flakes
were collected.
207. Kheti—F lint tools were found on the slopes of Urta Moun-
tain by A. N. Kalandadze in 1936. Animal bones, fragments of a
human calvarium, and several flint flakes were found on the small
elevation. A large, deeply patined flake was collected at the foot of
this slope opposite the former Latariia Estate. More to the west, in
the escarpment of the brook in situ were two laminae. Traces of the
Upper Paleolithic site can also be found on the left bank of the Munchii
River, where the slope of Urta Mountain merges with the Kolkhida
Valley near the railroad.
24 Mingrelia (Nos. 202-208), Abkhazia (Nos. 209-214), and Sochi Raion
(Nos. 215-216).
,
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 53
208. Entseri—Traces of this Upper Paleolithic station were dis-
_ covered by A. N. Kalandadze in 1936 on the left bank of the Ingur
River in this village. The inventory included flint laminae, nuclei,
scrapers, and multifacetted burins.
209. Atap.—Upper Paleolithic flints were collected near this village.
(See No. 3.)
210. Gali.—Typologically Upper Paleolithic flints were found on
the 80-m. terrace. (See No. 5.)
211. Zakharovka.—On the elevation over the ravine of the Amtkel
River on the surface of the moraine were found Upper Paleolithic
‘flints.
212. Tabachnaia.—Flints of Upper Paleolithic type were obtained
at the Zonal Tobacco Station on the surface of the 100-m. terrace near
Sukhumi. (See No. 11.)
213. Tsebelda—Flints of Upper Paleolithic type were collected
on the elevation near Tsebelda. (See No. 12.)
214. [Ashtukh—Upper Paleolithic flints were found near Suk-
humi. (See No. 14.)
215. Abazinka—Upper Paleolithic flints were collected on the
left bank along the Matsesta River, 6 kilometers upstream from Old
Matsesta.
216. Semenovka.—Upper Paleolithic implements were found on
the street and estates of this village which stands beside the Matsesta
River.
AsIATIC Part oF THE R.S.F.S.R.25
217. Nizhne-Yeniseiskaia—Among the collections made by Sergeev
and Markov in 1933 on the right bank of the Biia River, about 12
kilometers from Biisk, were found on the dunes a quartzite piéce
écaillée and a crude chip of Upper Paleolithic type.
218. Srostki—Traces of this Paleolithic site, as expressed in the
finds of crudely fashioned stone tools, mainly quartzite, were dis-
covered in several neighboring locations on the side of the 50-m.
terrace on the right bank of the Katun River, 36 kilometers from
Biisk. The cultural remains lay at a depth of 1.10 m. in the loesslike
sandy loam. The finds consisted of nuclei and tools made of small
25 Western Siberia (Nos. 217-220), the basin of the Upper Yenisei (Nos. 221-
255), thé basin of the Angara (Nos. 256-277), the basin of the Lena (No. 278),
Buriat-Mongolia (Nos. 279-290), Khabarovsk Krai (No. 291), and the
Primorski [Maritime] Krai (No. 292).
See also Henry Field and Eugene Prostov, Results of Soviet Investigations
in Siberia, 1940-1941. Amer. Anthrop., vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 388-406, 1942.
54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
flakes resembling those from the Yenisei site (No. 217). The fauna,
which was not rich, included horse and possibly deer.
219. Tomsk.—A temporary hunting site of the Upper Paleolithic
period was discovered and investigated by N. F. Kashchenko in 1896
on the right bank of the Tom River in Tomsk. He found a skeleton
of a young mammoth and traces of campfires and flint flakes 3.5 m.
deep in the loesslike clay.
220. Fominskoe.—Traces of this site were found in 1911 by M. D.
Kopytov on the right bank of the Ob River near this village in the
vicinity of Biisk. Later finds were deposited in the Biisk Museum.
The cultural remains, consisting of rather crudely fashioned points
and massive flakes of quartzite similar to those found in Srostki,
originated in the lowest terrace only 5.0 m. above river level.
221. Ateshka.—F lakes and a scraper of Paleolithic type as well as
teeth and fragments of animal bones were found by G. Merhart in
1920 south of this village in the Novoselovo Raion on the slope of the
first terrace above the Yenisei River.
222. Anash (Krasnoiarsk Krai).—Several crude stone tools, re-
touched flakes, and fragmentary bones of mammoth and deer were
collected on the surface of the reddish-brown clay in the sandy ravine.
These finds were made by G. P. Sosnovskii and M. P. Griaznov in
1923 near this village in the Krasnoiarsk region on the right bank of
the Yenisei, 170 kilometers farther downstream than Minusinsk.
223. Afontova Gora I—This Magdalenian site, at the foot of
Afontova Mountain on the left bank of the Yenisei near Krasnoiarsk,
stands on the slope behind the railroad station. During the prepara-
tions for the construction of two brick barns, I. T. Savenkov in 1894
found in the loess clay crushed bones of fossil animals including
northern deer, mammoth, Bos, horse, and dog, stone and bone tools,
and tusks of mammoths.
224. Afontova II.—This Paleolithic site near Krasnoiarsk, below
the former [Udin Estate, was discovered during 1912. Systematic
excavations were conducted by N. K. Auerbakh, V. I. Gromov, and
G. P. Sosnovskii during 1923-1925. The cultural strata lay in the
deposits of the 15- to 16-m. terrace of the Yenisei. The upper level
lay in the sandy loess at a depth of 1.0-3.5 m., the lower stratum in
the loessy clay and sandy soil 12.0 m. beneath the surface. Remains
of dugouts were found in the lower horizon. The fauna consisted
mainly of northern deer, Arctic fox, hare, mammoth, and dog. There
were neither mammoth nor Arctic fox remains in the upper level.
Together with the numerous stone tools were found bone implements
-
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 55
and also ornaments. In the lower level in trench No. 5 were dis-
covered five human bones.
225. Afontova IJI].—This Paleolithic site, which stands near
Krasnoiarsk in the neighborhood of the oil reservoirs, was discovered
by I. T. Savenkov in 1914 and investigated by him with the assistance
of N. K. Auerbakh in 1925 and 1930. The upper horizon lay at a
depth of 0.9-1.5 m. beneath the present surface in the yellow loessy
clay soil; the lower horizon, poorer in finds, lay at a depth of 2.0-3.2 m.
The fauna of the lower horizon included mammoth, hare, horse,
northern deer, and Arctic fox; the upper horizon yielded only the
northern deer and Bos. Both horizons contained stone and bone
implements.
226. Afontova IV (Ivanikhin Log).—Near Krasnoiarsk on the
upper part of the slope of Afontova Mountain between Afontova II
and Afontova III stands this site, discovered by I. T. Savenkov. The
strata were similar to the upper horizon of Afontova II. Among
fauna were Bos and the northern deer.
227. Achinsk.—In 1914, during railroad construction, split mam-
moth bones and charcoal, as well as stone implements, were found
in the loessy loam near this town.
228. Bateni I.—This Paleolithic site stands on the left bank of the
Yenisei River, 150 kilometers downstream from Minusinsk, on the
left bank of the Tashtyk River near its mouth. The cultural stratum,
discovered in 1925, lay at a depth of 1.0 m. in the loessy loam of the
spring-flooded terrace of the Yenisei. Stone and bone implements were
found. In the fauna were the northern deer and Bos primigenius.
229. Bateni I].—The cultural stratum of this Paleolithic site near
this village lay in the loessy clay above the spring-flooded terrace of
the Yenisei. Stone and bone tools were unearthed. Included in the
fauna were Bos primigenius, saiga, deer, elk, mammoth, wolf, hare,
and Equus hemionus.
230. Bateni IIJ—This Paleolithic site, 1.5 kilometers north of
this village at IArki, was discovered by I. T. Savenkov during the
1890's. Stone implements were also found here by G. Merhart, G. P.
Sosnovskii, and others.
231. Batoi.—At this place, 35 kilometers north of Krasnoiarsk,
were found the skull of Cervus elaphus, bearing traces of human
workmanship, and one stone implement.
232. Biriusa—This group of Paleolithic sites on the bank of the
Yenisei, at the mouth of the Biriusa River, 50 kilometers upstream
from Krasnoiarsk, was discovered by A. P. Elenov in 1890 and was
investigated by him in 1891 and by N. K. Auerbakh and V. I. Gromov
56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10
in 1926 and 1927. In 1928 these sites were examined by G. F. Mir-
chink and V. I. Gromov in connection with the study of the terraces
of the Yenisei. Biriusa I consisted of three Paleolithic strata lying
on the spring-flooded terrace in 2.0 m. of yellow-grayish clay and
sand. In the stratum representing the transition from the Paleolithic
to the Early Neolithic were found stone implements including nuclei
and flakes, and crushed bones of such animals as the large Bos, north-
ern deer, horse, noble deer, mountain sheep, wolf, and hare. The
upper horizon consisted of an accumulation of large stones and ashes.
Here were found stone tools, as well as implements made of bone,
such as needles and points. Included in the fauna were the northern
deer, Bos, hare, mountain sheep, roe deer, and horse.
233. Bugach.—This site stands on the left bank of the Kacha River,
a left tributary of the Yenisei near its confluence with the Bugach
River, 1 kilometer northeast of Krasnoiarsk. Bugach was discovered
by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1919 and investigated by him in 1923. The
cultural stratum with hearths, flint implements, and flakes was fouund
at a depth of 1.0 m. in the loessy clay on the first terrace, which is
flooded during the spring high water. The fauna included the Arctic
fox, northern deer, hare, and other forms.
234. Buzunova.—This group of Paleolithic sites is located on the
terrace situated above spring high water on the right bank of the
Yenisei, 55 kilometers downstream from Minusinsk. The cultural
remains were discovered during 1920 at two points, one above the
other below Buzunova. The stone tools and flakes and the fragments
of a bone tip were found by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1923 in the hearth
level at a depth of 5.5 m. in loessy clay on the right side of the con-
fluence with the river gully. V. I. Gromov and N. K. Auerbakh
accumulated new surface material in 1925 from the site above
Buzunova.
235. Voennyt Gorodok.—This Paleolithic site on the left bank of
the Yenisei, 4 kilometers downstream from Krasnoiarsk near the
second Korovii Log, was discovered in 1911 by A. IA. Tugarinov
and A. P. Ermolaev and investigated by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1919 and
1923 and by V. I. Gromov in 1928. The cultural stratum lies in the
loessy clay sand deposits at depths of 2.0 and 4.0-6.0 m. Associated
with the stone tools and flakes were implements made of horn and
bone. Represented in the fauna were mammoth, northern deer, Arctic
fox, wolf, and horse.
236. Dolgova.—Stone implements were found in 1885 by I. T.
Savenkov at this new settlement near the Chernaia Sopka. Bones of
Rr — Ee
.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 57
mammoth, rhinoceros, and other animals were found in the clay near
the mill.
237. Zykovo.—A fragment of an antler of the northern deer, with
incisions, was found by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1925 near Zykovo railroad
station. He also found charcoal and animal bones in the loess of the
ravine behind Puzyrevo.
238. Izykh.—I. T. Savenkov found a Paleolithic scraper on the
dunes at the southeastern slope of Izykh Mountain on the right bank
of the Abakan River.
239. Kacha—tThis Paleolithic site, near the factory in the valley
of the Kacha River, a right tributary of the Yenisei, was discovered
by V. I. Gromov and N. K. Auerbakh in 1928.
240. Kliuch Gremiachit.—tTraces of this site were located at the
efflux of Gremiachii brook on the left bank of the Yenisei, 1.5 kilo-
meters from the railroad bridge over the Yenisei. G. P. Sosnovskii
found here in 1919 traces of charcoal, a stone scraper, a fragment of
mammoth tusk, and bones of the northern deer and split tubular
bones of animals in the loess at a depth of 1.25 m.
241. Kokorevo I (Zabochka).—This site on the left bank of the
Yenisei stands approximately 500 paces farther upstream than Koko-
revo in the northern part of the Minusinsk Valley. Discovered by
G. P. Sosnovskii and investigated by him in 1925 and 1928, the
cultural stratum lies from 2.6 to 4.15 m. deep in the loesslike sandy
loam, which covers the lowest terrace. Here were found four hearths
surrounded by stones with the accumulation of cultural remains con-
sisting of stone tools and flakes, a few fragments of bone implements,
and crushed bones of such animals as the horse, noble deer, Bos,
mountain sheep, wolf, and others. The charcoal found in the hearths
originated from larch, fir, willow, pine, and birch.
242. Kokorevo II (Telezhnyi Log).—This site, located on the left
bank of the Yenisei near Kokorevo in the Telezhnyi ravine, was in-
vestigated by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1925 and 1928. The cultural
stratum was discovered at a depth of 6.2 m. beneath a deposit of
buried soil and loessy clay sand covering the lowest terrace. The
finds consisted of stone tools, fragments of a few bone implements,
charcoal (larch, willow, birch), and of split bones of animals including
the mammoth, Arctic fox, northern deer, horse, wolf, hare, and
marmot.
243. Kokorevo III.—This site, north of Kokorevo in the Kamennyi
Log at its merging point with the Telezhnyi Log, was investigated by
G. P. Sosnovskii in 1925 and 1928. The cultural stratum lies at a
depth of about 1.6 m. in the clay sands of the ancient ravine on the
5
58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
slope of the 40- to 50-meter terrace. The Paleolithic remains formed
small, separate accumulations around the hearth. Among the finds
were quartzite tools; crushed bones of northern deer, horse, hare,
and wolf; and small pieces of charcoal from larch and fir.
244. Kokorevo IV .—This site, situated 2 kilometers farther down-
stream than Kokorevo in the Kipirnyi Log, was investigated by
G. P. Sosnovskii in 1925 and 1928. The Paleolithic remains were
in the loesslike sandy loam of the lowest terrace above flood level at
a depth of 1.5-2.1 m. In addition to tools there were excavated the
bones of animals, including the northern deer, noble deer, bison, and
Equus hemionus.
245. Korkino.—A stone tool and a bone awl were found at the
bottom of the ravine, the last one at Korkino on the left bank of the
Yenisei River.
246. Krasnoiarsk—During the construction of a brewery, bones
of fossil animals with traces of human workmanship and typologically
Paleolithic stone tools came to light. Similar discoveries were also
made in another part of the city.
247. Kubekovo.—Quaternary animals bones, Paleolithic stone tools,
and a deer antler with traces of human workmanship were found by
N. K. Auerbakh and V. I. Gromov in Lankov Log and in the other
ravines near Kubekovo on the left bank of the Yenisei, 23 kilometers
upstream from Krasnoiarsk.
248. Ladeikii—Traces of this Upper Paleolithic site were found
near this village on the right bank of the Yenisei, 8 kilometers farther
downstream from Krasnoiarsk, under the dunes and the pockets of
loess among the pebbles. I. T. Savenkov found here in 1883 bones of
a large Bos and tools of Paleolithic type at the edge of the lowest
terrace. The excavations were continued by Baron Joseph de Baye
in 1896, by G. Merhart in 1920, and by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1923.
249. Lepeshkina (Irdzha).—A group of Upper Paleolithic sites
were located on the right bank of the Yenisei near this village, oppo-
site Bateni pier. The first site, which was discovered by G. Merhart
in 1920, comprised the material on the slope of Irdzha Mountain, the
elevation surrounding the river valley. In 1923 G. P. Sosnovskii dis-
covered in the deposits of eolian sands three hearths surrounded by
bones of animals, including bison, stone tools and flakes. The second
surface site, yielding stone tools, was found by Sosnovskii in 1923
on the bank of the Yenisei Canal upstream from the village. V. I.
Gromov and G. F. Mirchink discovered a thick cultural stratum in
1927 near Lepeshkina.
250. Pereselenchesku Punkt.—This Paleolithic site stands on the
; NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 59
right bank of the Yenisei near the canal opposite Krasnoiarsk. The
first finds here were made by Baron Joseph de Baye in 1896. The
site was investigated by S. M. Sergeev in 1912 and G. P. Sosnovskii
in 1923 and 1926. The cultural remains were discovered in the loess
of the lowest terrace, where they had the character of patches. It is
possible that these are the remains of dugouts. Included in the fauna
were northern deer, horse, bison, cave lion, roe deer, rodents, and
birds. Together with the stone tools and flakes were found bone tools,
fragments of shells, and pieces of coloring matter.
251. Tes.—Crude stone implements were found by I. T. Savenkov
in 1885 on the dunes near this village on the Tuba River.
252. Usunzhul—aAn antler of northern deer with traces of human
workmanship, a scraper, and Quaternary animal bones including
mammoth and rhinoceros were found in the auriferous gravel of the
Uzunzhul River. ‘
253. Ulazy.—Traces of this site farther upstream than Ulazy on
the right bank of the Yenisei were investigated by G. P. Sosnovskii
in 1923 and 1925. On the exposed clay sections he discovered bones
of Bos, northern deer, and other animals, together with Paleolithic
flakes and nuclei.
254. Chasgol—I. T. Savenko found in the auriferous gravel of
the Chasgol River at a depth of 4.0 m. a knife-shaped flake of green-
stone.
255. [Anova.—A typologically Paleolithic stone implement was
found by G. P. Sosnovskii in 1925 on the slope of the ravine. This
discovery was made at a depth of 1.0 m. in the loess on the left bank
of the Yenisei, 1.5 kilometers from this village and 5 kilometers from
Novoselovo. In another part of this same ravine were found the
jaw of a mammoth and flint flakes.
256. Badai I.—The remains of a site of the end of the Upper Paleo-
lithic period were found on the left bank of the Belaia, a tributary of
the Angara, near this village on the plowed land along the 40-m.
terrace. The site is located in Gluboki ravine near the factory. M. M.
Gerasimov accumulated here a large quantity of typical implements,
mainly scrapers, small laminae and nuclei.
257. Badai II.—This site, which was destroyed by plowing, lay on
the right bank of the Belaia River opposite this village.
258. Buret (Sukhaia Pad).—This Paleolithic site on the right
bank of the Angara near Nizhniaia Buret was discovered by A. P.
Okladnikov in 1936. Buret is situated on the slope of the second
(15- to 20-m.) terrace above spring high water at the mouth of
Sukhaia ravine in the loesslike loam. Among the bones identified were
60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I10
mammoth, Equus hemionus, and northern deer. Together with flint
tools were found some sculptures, including the figure of a woman
carved from mammoth ivory. This site was excavated by Okladnikov
during 1936-1937. The character of finds confirms that the site
belongs to the group of more ancient Upper Paleolithic sites of the
Angara, i.e., the Malta type.
259. Verkholenskaia Gora.—On this mountain near the Angara
River and 3 kilometers from Irkutsk were found four Paleolithic
stations: Zharnikova Pad, Goriunova Pad, Ubiennykh Pad, and Ush-
kanka Pad. The first, known under the name of Verkholenskaia Gora,
is situated on the southwestern slope of the elevation between the
Zharnikova and the Ubiennykh Pad. The cultural stratum was found
by M. P. Ovchinnikov as early as 1897. The stone and bone tools and
other remains of habitation lay at a depth of 1.5 m. in the loesslike
loam. The fauna consisted of northern and noble deer, elk, Equus
hemionus, Bos, dog, and wolf. The large-horned deer, rhinoceros,
and mammoth, found by Ovchinnikov, originated apparently in the
lower horizon. This site was investigated at different times from
1919-1928.
260. Glazkovo.—In 1897 M. P. Ovchinnikov found stone (flinty
schist) tools similar to those from Verkholenskaia Gora, and Quater-
nary animal bones with traces of human workmanship in the loess on
the left bank of the Angara in the suburb of Glazkovo opposite
Irkutsk.
261. Zaitsevo (Kosoi Vzvoz).—This Upper Paleolithic site, which
stands on the left bank of the Angara near Usole at the mouth of the
Belaia River, was discovered by A. P. Okladnikov in 1934. The in-
ventory consisted of large scraperlike tools of the same type as those
found on Verkholenskaia Gora.
262. Zvezdochka.—According to A. P. Okladnikov, remains appar-
ently belonging to the Paleolithic period were discovered on the left
bank of the Angara, opposite Irkutsk, on the piece of land called
“Zvezdochka” near the ferry.
263. Irkutsk.?°—Paleolithic remains are known from three sites
within the city. The first is located on one of the hills along the
Ushakovka River. Here in 1871, during construction of the Military
Hospital, were found implements made from the tusk of a mammoth
(including one with ornamentation), a perforated deer incisor, frag-
ments and points of spherosiderite, and bones of mammoth, rhinoceros,
northern deer, horse, Bos, and other animals. The second site, located
26 In this area the work of the late B. E. Petri is conspicuously absent. (H. F.)
NO. I3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 61
by M. P. Ovchinnikov, lay not far distant on the bank of the
Ushakovka River in the suburb Rabochaia Sloboda. The third, ac-
cording to A. P. Okladnikov, is in Pshenichnaia ravine.
264. Kaiskaia Gora—M. M. Gerasimov discovered during 1924-
1925 Paleolithic traces in the lower part of the loesslike sandy loam
on the side of Kaiskaia Mountain at the juncture of the Irkut and
Angara Rivers. The finds consisted of roughly fashioned stone tools
and flakes, traces of charcoal, and crushed bones of animals, including
horse, mammoth, Bos, northern deer, elk, rhinoceros, and birds, espe-
cially small birds of prey.
265. Kamenolomnya.—Here were found traces of an Upper Paleo-
lithic workshop near the old quarry on the right bank of the Belaia
opposite Malta.
266. Kamen.—Traces of a large Upper Paleolithic site (Badai
type) were found on the plowed ground at the edge of the 40-m.
terrace on the left bank of the Belaia near Malta. M. M. Gerasimov
collected crude nuclei, laminae, and a large quantity of tools, mainly
scrapers.
267. Kova.—tTraces of this Paleolithic station were discovered on
the Kova River, a left tributary of the Angara, by this village. The
investigation conducted by A. P. Okladnikov in 1937 discovered at
a depth of 0.6 m. the remains of campfires and mammoth bones in
the loesslike loam.
268. Malta (Lower Horizon).—This Paleolithic site stands on
the left bank of the Belaia, a left tributary of the Angara, 85 kilo-
meters west of Irkutsk. Led there by local inhabitants, M. M.
Gerasimov investigated Malta in 1928 and 1930, 1932, 1934, and 1937.
In 1932 S. N. Zamiatnin also worked there, and G. P. Sosnovskii in
1934. The lower horizon, 35.0-75.0 cm. thick, lay in the loesslike
sandy loam on the 18-m. terrace. Here were found traces of the sur-
face dwellings and hearths of stone plates. Below the cultural stratum
a child’s burial was found. Together with numerous stone tools were
about 600 bone implements, one-quarter of them ornamented. There
were also 20 female figurines made from mammoth tusks, sculptures
of birds, etc. The fauna were mainly northern deer; less frequently
Arctic fox, rhinoceros, and mammoth; and accidental remains of
horse, bison, birds of prey, and other forms. This site belongs to the
most ancient monuments of the Upper Paleolithic in eastern Siberia.
269. Malta (Upper Horizon).—M. M. Gerasimov discovered this
stratum during his excavations in 1932 in the upper part of the loess-
like sandy loam 9.45 m. beneath the surface and 0.5 m. above the
first cultural horizon (No. 268). Here were found limestone laminae,
62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
fragments of bones of animals, flint flakes, and about 30 large tools
of Badai type.
270. Maltinka—tTraces of an Upper Paleolithic station were
located at the edge of the 40-m. terrace near this village, on the right
bank of the Belaia, near the second pond between the Maltinka and
Belaia. The finds occurred on a 300-m. stretch of plowed land.
271. Mondy.—Typologically Paleolithic stone tools were found by
Chastokhin in 1887 on the left bank of the Oka River, a left tributary
of the Angara River.
272. Mozgovaia.—Traces of this Paleolithic site were found during
1937 by A. P. Okladnikov on the 1o00-m. terrace on the left bank of
the Mozgovaia River, a right tributary of the Angara, along its lower
course. This find is of particular significance, because it is the first
Paleolithic station reported in this area which lies about 1,800 kilo-
meters from Irkutsk.
273. Podostrozhnoe.—This Upper Paleolithic station, discovered
by A. P. Okladnikov in 1936, stands on the right bank of Angara on
the second terrace above spring flood level. The finds in the loesslike
loam consisted of tools made from antlers of the Siberian stag and
some stone scrapers.
274. Ust-Belaia—tThis Paleolithic site lies at the edge of the second
terrace at the delta of the Belaia. The cultural deposit lies more than
1.0 m. deep under the Neolithic strata. M. M. Gerasimov in 1936
and 1937 found six large campfires and faunal remains consisting
of the deer, elk, beaver, and possibly wolf. The stone inventory is
similar to that of Badai (No. 256), mainly large but also some small
scrapers, small nuclei and laminae, and two flat bone harpoons.
275. Ushakovka.—Stone implements of Paleolithic type were col-
lected by M. P. Ovchinnikov in 1893 on the right bank of the Usha-
kovka River behind the suburb Rabochaia Sloboda in Irkutsk.
276. Ushkanka.—This Paleolithic site on the right bank of the
Angara in Ushkanka ravine near Verkholenskaia Gora, was dis-
covered in 1926. The inventory is similar to that found on Verkho-
lenskaia Gora. The fauna included elk and Bos primigenius.
277. Cheremushnik.—Traces of an extensive Upper Paleolithic
site of Badai type (No. 256) were discovered on the plowed land
near Badai on the 60-m. terrace on the left bank of the Belaia. This
site lies in the Cheremushnik area 2 kilometers downstream from
Badai, near the Usolsk Salt Works. M. M. Gerasimov accumulated
here a large quantity of flakes and also of finished tools, mainly large
scrapers.
278. Ponomarevo.—In 1927 A. P. Okladnikov found typologically
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY——FIELD 63
Upper Paleolithic implements on the plowed land along the Biriulka
River, a right tributary of the Lena, on the edge of the 80-m. terrace
near Zalog.
279. Ara-Tszokui—On the right bank of the Selenga, 12 kilo-
meters northwest of Kalinishnaia in the Troitskosavski Okrug, in the
sands near Nur settlement, the Buriat-Mongolian Archeological Ex-
pedition in 1928 found ostrich eggshells and stone tools of Paleolithic
type.
280. Bosoi.—Traces of this Paleolithic site lay 18 kilometers up-
stream from Ust-Orda on the right bank of the Kuda River (Ekgirit-
Bulagat Aimak) on the slope and at the edge of the lowest terrace.
Quartzite and flint scrapers and nuclei lay in the black earth (cher-
nosem) deposits and in the loesslike sandy loam.
281. Dureny.—The material from the sands on the left bank of the
Chikoie River, 25 kilometers east of Troitskosavsk, included stone
tools, ostrich eggshells, and bones of fossil animals.
282. Durungui—Stone implements of Paleolithic type from the
Upper Yenisei and Angara were assembled by S. I. Rudenko in 1923
in the valley of the Onon River at this settlement. Earlier A. K.
Kuznetsov also assembled the same kind of tools in the valleys of the
rivers Onon and Ingoda.
283. Zarubino.—Material from sands in an isolated ravine near
this village lying on the left bank of the Selenga downstream from
Ust-Kiakhta was obtained by the Buriat-Mongolian Archeological
Expedition in 1928 with the participation of G. P. Sosnovskii. They
found stone tools, nuclei, flakes, bones of Equus hemionus, large
deer, mountain sheep, and hare, and ostrich eggshells.
284. Ivashka—Typologically Paleolithic implements were found
in Ivashka ravine opposite Ust-Kiakhta.
285. Mylnikovo.—Stone implements of Paleolithic type were col-
lected along the Chikoie River near this village.
286. Nomokhonovo.—On the right bank of the Selenga, 25 kilo-
meters upstream from Seleginsk in Shirokaia Pad (Mukhor-
khundui), which was filled with dune sand, stone implements and
flakes, and ostrich eggshells were assembled on the exposed places.
287. Nialgi—Stone implements of Paleolithic type were found in
the sand above the mouth of the Dzhida River.
288. Ust-Kiakhta—In exposed sands on the left bank of the Sava
River near this village, stone implements, including nuclei and flakes,
and ostrich eggshells (one perforated) have been found. The first
report was by Mostits in 1894, then by Laptev in 1924, and finally
by Debets in 1928.
64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
289. Khara-Busun.—During 1928-1929 stone implements and
ostrich eggshells were found on the right bank of the Chikoie River
in the sands beside Kudarinskii road about 5 kilometers from Palk-
anova.
290. Kharankhoi.—This site, discovered in 1927 by the Buriat-
Mongolian Expedition in sands on the right bank of the Selenga in
Kharankhoi ravine, about 11 kilometers upstream from Ust-Kiakhta.
Among objects found were stone tools, ostrich eggshells, and bones
of Rhinoceros, Bos, and Equidae.
291. Khabarovsk—M. M. Gerasimov found during 1926-1927
stone implements in the loesslike loam at a depth of 0.75-1.0 m. The
period was not determined.
292. Shkotovo——A Hungarian prisoner-of-war, I. Parkas, dis-
covered a stone tool similar to the Paleolithic implements found in
the Ordos.
ArcTIC PALEOLITHIC 27
293. Anikieva I—During 1937 traces of this site were located on
the eastern coast of the Rybachii Peninsula, 1 kilometer west of the
center of the Tsyp-Navolok settlement at the foot of the southern
end of Anikieva Mountain. This site occupied a considerable part of
the ancient pebble-covered beach about 37.0 m. above sea level.
294. Anikieva II—At 31.0 m. above sea level on the western slope
of Anikieva Mountain traces of prehistoric occupation were scattered
over about 20 square kilometers. The finds were made in 1937.
295. Korabelnaia—In 1935 B. F. Zemliakov and P. N. Tretiakov
discovered traces of this site at 33.0-36.0 m. above sea level on the
surface of the bank of the Korabelnyi brook on the western coast of
Bolshaia Motka Bay. The material consisted of quartz flakes and
crude implements.
296. Log-Navolok.—In 1937 this site was discovered on the north-
ern coast of the Rybachii Peninsula on the crest of the pebbly coastal
bank about 20.0 m. above sea level between Cape Log-Navolok and
Laush-Guba.
297. Morozova.—B. F. Zemliakov and P. N. Tretiakov in 1935 dis-
covered traces of this site on the eastern coast of the Bolshaia Motka
Bay between the valley of the Morozova River and the first brook
to the south. A large quantity of quartz flakes and implements were
found on the shore of a lake 55.0-60.0 m. above sea level.
298. Ozerko.—In 1935 quartz scrapers and nuclei-shaped burins
27 Northern part of the Kola Peninsula (Nos. 293-304).
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 65
were found on the crest of the coastal bank at 42.0 m. above sea level
on the western coast of the Bolshaia Motka Bay at this settlement.
299. Perevalnaia.—Traces of this site were found on the eastern
coast of the Rybachii Peninsula, 1 kilometer south of the southern
outskirt of Tsyp-Navolok settlement on the crest of the coastal bank
36.0-37.0 m. above sea level. A quantity of quartz tools and flakes
(also of horn, flint, and quartzite) were assembled in 1937.
300. Sergeeva.—Traces of this site were located on the eastern
coast of the Rybachii Peninsula between Cape Sergeeva and Tipunova
River on the pebbly bank 27.0 m. above sea level. Large, crude im-
plements of quartzite and better-finished implements of flint, horn,
and quartz were found.
301. Tipunova.—During 1927 large, crude quartzite implements
were found on the eastern coast of the Rybachii Peninsula on the
southern slope of the elevation which divides the valley of the Anikieva
River from the valley of the Tipunova River on the crest of the pebbly
bank 40.0 m. above sea level.
302. Tsyp-Navolok I.—Traces of this site were found on the
western coast of Rybachii Peninsula at the southern outskirts of
Tsyp-Navolok settlement on the left bank of the Anikieva River. The
site is situated on the edge of the 25-m. terrace.
303. Tsyp-Navolok II.—This site, on the southern outskirts of
Tsyp-Navolok settlement, is situated on the end of the 25-m. terrace,
which surrounds the ancient bay.
304. Eina-Guba.—Traces of this site stand on the southern coast
of the Rybachii Peninsula in the vicinity of Eina-Guba settlement on
the crest of the ancient 20-m. terrace.
IV. MISCELLANEA ARCHEOLOGICA
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter some additional archeological data have been aas-
sembled from the Ukraine, Crimea, Black Sea coast, North Caucasus,
South Caucasus, Armenia, Don region, Urals, Volga region, Central
Asia, and Siberia. These miscellaneous notes supplement previously
published material + on this same subject. In addition, supplementary
data have been placed on microfilm.?
14] am grateful to Soviet anthropologists and archeologists who sent through
VOKS from 1934 to 1945 summaries of their results so that these could be made
available in English. For convenience there is appended a list of bibliographical
references on Soviet archeology. (H. F.)
American Anthropologist, vol. 38, pp. 260-290, 1936; vol. 39, pp. 457-490,
1937; vol. 40, pp. 653-679, 1938; vol. 42, pp. 211-235, 1940; vol. 44, pp. 388-406,
1942; vol. 48, pp. 375-306, 1946. American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 41,
pp. 618-620, 1937; vol. 42, pp. 146-147, 295-2098, 1938; vol. 43, pp. 331-332, 507,
1939; vol. 44, pp. 138, 535-536, 1940; vol. 45, pp. 113-115, 299-301, 441-444, 626-
628, 1941; vol. 46, pp. 144-147, 277-281, 423-427, 568-569, 1942; vol. 47, pp. 355,
486-488, 1943; vol. 48, pp. 201-210, 295, 395, 1944; vol. 49, pp. 102-104, 177-179,
377, 423-427, 1945; vol. 50, pp. I9I-192, 307-311, 1946; vol. 51, pp. 201-202, 322-
323, 1947. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 501-
502, 1946. American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, vol. 52,
pp. 138-141, 1936; vol. 53, pp. 123-124, 1937; vol. 55, pp. 109-112, 333-336, 1938;
vol. 56, pp. 322-324, 438-440, 1939; vol. 57, pp. 112, 194-196, 327-320, 1940; vol. 58,
pp. 109-110, 1941. American Review of the Soviet Union, 1945, pp. 37-39; 1946,
pp. 67-75. Antiquity, 1938, pp. 341-345; 1930, PP. 99-101; 1940, pp. 404-426;
1941, pp. 194-196; 1947, pp. 42-45. Ars Islamica, vol. 5, pt. 2, pp. 233-271, 1938;
vol. 6, pt. I, pp. 158-166, 1940; vol. 9, pp. 143-150, 1942; vol. 13, pp. 139-148,
1947. Asia, 1940, pp. 272-277, 327-330; 1941, pp. 243-244, 723-727; 1943, PP. 520-
531; 1946, pp. 120-121. Gazette des Beaux-Arts, vol. 23, pp. 129-134, 1943; vol. 20,
pp. 65-74, 1946; vol. 31, pp. 123-126, 1947. Southwestern Journal of Anthro-
pology, vol. 2, No. 2, p. 239, No. 3, pp. 340-360, 1946; vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 212-229,
1047.
2 The following articles have been recorded on Microfilm No. 1605 in the
American Documentation Institute, c/o Library, U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Washington 25, D. C.: Eneolithic Station at Ochemchiri, Abkhazia, pp.
4-29; Olvia (Olbia) Expedition, pp. 30-42; European Russia: Archaeological
Reconstruction in European Russia, pp. 60-66; Archaeological Investigations in
the Uzbek S.S.R., by B. Grekov and A. [Akubovskii, pp. 89-93; bibliography,
pp. 94-99. There have also been placed on Microfilm No. 2308 Notes on Soviet
Museums and Research Institutions, pp. 1-126, and pls. 1-130: Baku, pp. 3-6;
Yerevan, pp. 6-7; Tbilisi, pp. 7-8; Ordzhonikidze, pp. 8-9; Moscow, pp. 9-18;
Archaeological Reconstruction in European Russia, 1941, pp. 19-25; Excavations
66
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 67
UKRAINE
According to Boriskovskii* the earliest site in the Ukraine is the
Lower Mousterian station at Kodak, on the right bank of the Dnieper,
discovered in 1927 during construction of the dam at Dnepropetrovsk.
Flint flakes were found in association with mammoth, Siberian rhi-
noceros, great-horned deer, reindeer, bison, bear, and lion.
Boriskovskii has given a popular but carefully written presenta-
tion,* attractively illustrated,° of the Paleolithic cultures from the first
large-scale excavations by Khvoiko in 1893 to the latest finds up to
1940 at the famous sites of Mezin, Gontsi, and Pushkari.
Boriskovskii concludes with a description of the Neolithic finds
at Mariupol, where in 1930 were found 124 burials with rich polished-
stone and bone inventories.
CRIMEA
Chersonesus.—Excavations in Chersonesus,® begun in 1827 and
interrupted in 1914, were renewed in 1926. During this era they were
in Central Asia, pp. 26-35; Soviet Types, pp. 36-39; and List of Scientific Insti-
tutions and Branches of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., pp. 40-126.
The plates include: 1-48, exhibits in IAE; 49-05, Lake Onega rock engravings ;
96-101, Minusinsk bronzes ; 102-106, gold treasure from Abakan near Minusinsk ;
107-111, Central Asia; 112-116, reconstructions by M. Gerasimov; 117-118,
leather coat restored in State Historical Museum, Moscow; 119, Zaraut-Sai
rock-shelter paintings; 120-130, exhibits in Museum of Oriental Civilizations,
Moscow; 131-134, anthropometric form used in Museum of Anthropology and
Ethnography; 135, map of Moscow locating museums. Supplementary material
has been placed on the following Microfilms in the American Documentation
Institute: Nos. 2214, 2307, 2310, 2344, 2414, 2415.
See also Lauriston Ward’s Reference List of the Archeology of the Soviet
Union, Harvard University, January 1947. (Mimeographed.)
8 Boriskovskii, P. I., Liudina kamianogo viku na Ukraini [Stone Age man
in the Ukraine]. Institute of Archaeology, Academy of Sciences of the
Ukrainian S.S.R., p. 128, Kiev, 1940. [In Ukrainian.]
4 The book is divided into eight chapters: 1, Glacial period; 2, Earliest human
traces; 3, Transition to the Upper Paleolithic; 4, Mizin; 5, Lower Paleolithic
man near Kiev; 6, Gontsi; 7, End of Lower Paleolithic; 8, Neolithic.
5 This account has some of the charm of Breasted’s “Ancient Times.” The
interest is particularly enhanced by numerous line drawings, some of them
really inspired, of Paleolithic fauna and implements. Illustrations include re-
constructions, on the basis of recent finds of such Quaternary fauna as the
Siberian rhinoceros, cave bear, and cave lion. Of special interest are the
original reconstructions of tools and dwellings. (E. P.)
6 Translated by Mrs. David Huxley from the French summary in Materialy i
Issledovaniia po Arkheologii SSSR, No. 4, pp. 275-278, Moscow and Leningrad,
1941. Minor editorial revisions have been made to conform to our style. (H. F.)
68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
undertaken in a haphazard manner, at several places and without a
coordinated plan. During 1931 the question of excavation sites was
examined, and it was decided that priority should be given to places
which were in the process of destruction from natural causes. It was
known that the most threatened area was the northern shore of the
Chersonesus, where at the lowest points the archeological stratum
was directly encroached upon by the sea. It was here that excava-
tions were started in 1931, with the object of studying the coastal
section of the city. An area of approximately 700 square meters was
uncovered.
The oldest remains were supporting walls, a pear-shaped cistern,
and some wells. In the lowest stratum, close to virgin rock, were
found amphora handles, which bore manufacturing marks of Cher-
sonesus, Rhodes, and Cnidus, as well as fragments of black-glazed
pottery, both local and imported.
This first period of construction covered from the end of the fourth
to the second century B. C.
Dating from the second period were some massive masonry walls
and cisterns, paved with bricks (12-20 cm. thick) bound together
with cement or simply with mortar. The walls of the cisterns were
coated in red parget of the same composition—a mixture of chalk,
sand, and finely crushed pottery, which is very durable. Two cisterns
are remarkable for their small size; they were placed together and
were probably used for the storing of finer grades of fish; the larger
tanks were used for salting anchovies (kamsa). The large number
of tanks illustrated the extensive development of the fishing industry
and the exporting of fish during Roman times.
During the first centuries of our era, one cistern and some of the
wells were covered by a layer of earth. In this layer, red-glazed pottery
of fine workmanship, dating from the first-second centuries B. C.,
was found. At other places in this third stratum, silver and bronze
coins of the first-fourth centuries A. D. were uncovered, as was a
bronze statue of Asclepius, holding in his right hand a rod entwined
by a serpent. These cisterns can be ascribed to the first-fourth cen-
turies A. D.
At the base of the second level, well-built walls rested on rock.
This layer, filled with refuse, was characterized by a white-glazed clay
pottery, decorated with a stamped or painted design, which can be
dated from the ninth-tenth centuries; it appears to be of local manu-
facture. In one section a large quantity of ninth-tenth century coins
were found on the ground and also a gold plaque decorated with
enamel cloisonné of fine workmanship, showing two peacocks with
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 69
a vase between them; this plaque was attributed to the ninth-tenth
centuries. The constructions of this era disintegrated at the end of
the tenth century and were engulfed by a layer of rubble 2 m. deep.
During the following period, a series of buildings were constructed
on this foundation, and belonged to several groups of dwelling houses.
The walls were poorly built of stones held together with mud; the
plan was irregular, the dimensions too small, the furnishings meager,
the floors of earth, and the walls unplastered. During this later period
(twelfth-fifteenth centuries) this district was rebuilt according to a
new plan. Generally, there were inner courtyards; in one courtyard
was a well which served four houses. The Roman cisterns, partly
covered by the second layer, were then sometimes used as cellars.
Within the houses were unearthed working equipment such as fish-
ing tackle and net weights, boats, dragnets for shell fishing, stone-work-
ing and weaving tools, red-glazed pottery decorated with an engraved
design, etc. In one well a glazed bowl was found with an interior de-
sign showing Theodore Stratilat astride a horse killing a dragon.
The buildings of the late period were destroyed by fire, apparently
at the time of the destruction of Chersonesus at the end of the fifteenth
century. The floors were covered by thick debris, including fragments
of coal, soot, charred wood, and burnt walls and objects.
During 1932 excavations were made to the east of the area ex-
plored in 1931; 700 square meters were uncovered.
Architectural remains of the Greek epoch are rare, having been
destroyed at the time of the construction of the basilica. In the clay
near the rock, amphora handles were found which bore the mark of
the Chersonesus astinomes, as were fragments of black-glazed pottery
dating from the third-second century B. C.
Near the western street was a large cistern with a flooring of brick
and mortar and walls coated in red parget. The bottom of the tank
was covered with a layer of salted anchovy, 0.25-1.0 m. thick. The
fish formed a compact brown mass. The type of fish was identifiable
through the spines. After the cistern was no longer used for salting
fish, it had been used as a cesspool. Directly above the fish lay pottery
of the later Roman period and coins from the time of Zenon and
Justinian the First. During the sixth century, when the basilica was
built, it was used as a limekiln; its fourth use was for the storage of
provisions; the fifth, during the ninth-tenth centuries, was a final
conversion into a cesspool. The finding of this cistern with its fish
remains was of great importance, not only for the determination of
construction date, but as an indication of the original purpose of the
large number of similar tanks found throughout the city. It is certain
7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
that they date from the first-fourth centuries. A marble gravestone,
with an epitaph in verse, belongs to the third century.
The basilica, found in the eastern part of the district, dates from
the sixth century. The dimensions were 26.0 m. long and 16.5 m.
wide. It had three naves, with a narthex and pentagonal apse. In
the northern colonnade, three marble bases, and next to them a fan-
light, are still in place. The marble rood screen in the apse is partially
in existence. The side naves had a mosaic floor, whose geometric
design was carried out in white, red, yellow, and black in the north
nave, and three colors (no black) in the south nave.
Architectural details included marble capitals, fanlights, coignes
with carved or polychrome ornamentation. The basilica was destroyed
by approximately the end of the tenth century and was subsequently
covered by a heavy layer of construction rubble.
Some time later a chapel was built on the ruins of the basilica, the
whole being within the apse of the original basilica. Within the chapel,
35 mausoleum tombs were erected, and in the western part, a guard
hut with a stove in the eastern corner.
The tombs were in some degree arranged according to a pattern.
They contained 10, 15, 25, even 35 and 60 skulls, but very few long
bones were found. This shows that when the remains of the dead
were transferred from the cemetery to the mausoleum near the temple,
it was considered sufficient to take only the skull. In tomb No. 6 the
shroud was decorated with bone plates: in the corners are large
lamellae with pictures of griffons, a lion, and a hind; lateral bands
with circles and squares intersect in the center of the design, also
circles made of small squares, lozenges, and triangles, framed with
straight and curved lamellae.
Such a design was found for the first time in Chersonesus and
constitutes a remarkable example of the local medieval art of bone
sculpture. The shroud appears to have belonged to a very wealthy
person. Beads were found in tomb No. 20 together with one string
of paste beads encrusted with colors and another of lignite and a
silver pendant.
Other tombs yielded hollow bronze buttons, decorated bone
roundels, and ninth-tenth century coins. The tombs dated from the
tenth, eleventh, and later centuries.
In the waterfront section of the district, compounds were uncovered
in the first layer which obviously belonged to two houses. Two rooms
had been used as food-storage cellars with wooden floors. In one
cellar were more than 50 assorted clay vases. Such an abundance of
pottery permits the conclusion that at this later date also the art of
NO. I3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 71
pottery making in the Chersonesus had reached an extensive degree
of development. Tiles with varied brands also confirm this. In the
same cellar, two small icons were discovered: one in slate with the
image of St. George bearing a lance and shield; the other in bronze
with the image of Jesus Christ. Both are covered with gilt, are dis-
tinguished by their fine workmanship, and can be ascribed to the
ninth-tenth century. Room VII contained wells with a water level
of 3.60 m. In other rooms were mills, mortars for crushing grain,
fishing tackle, and a quantity of pottery articles. One room had bronze
chains with an imperial orb, belonging to an ecclesiastical lamp.
* On the floors of rooms of this period, there were also traces of a
fire, as in the district excavated in 1931. It is certain that both districts
were burned at the same time that the entire city was destroyed by fire
at the end of the fifteenth century.
During 1933 excavations were continued along the north shore of
the Chersonesus to the east of those undertaken in 1932. Only the top
stratum was removed over an area of about 500 square meters; it
consisted of an accumulation of debris formed from the destruction
of buildings. Their floors were covered with soot, fragments of coal,
burnt articles, and pieces of tile.
The walls were of rough stone (ashlar) bound together with mud,
with wooden beams inserted to connect the walls. The plan of the
buildings was usually irregular, the dimensions small, the floors
earthen, the walls unplastered or sometimes with a clay coating.
The rooms belonged to two houses. In the first there was an oven,
in another two ovens—a small one in the east corner and a large one
in the north. These ovens were built of bricks and pieces of tile,
bound with clay; they were fitted with an arched “front oven”; the
hearth was decorated with squares of baked earth. The roof had an
opening for the chimney ; tiles pierced with a round orifice and chimney
pipes were found. The presence of two ovens in one single room and a
third in another room of the same house indicates that this was a
large bakery, making bread for sale. This type of stove is rare in
houses of the period; normally rooms were heated by simple stone
hearths.
The second house was located in the eastern part of the district.
In room VIII there was a mortar for grain crushing next to a post
with a cavity for a pestle. Similar mortars were found in many rooms
of the same period during the 1931-1932 excavations. Room IX was
used for food storage: on the floor by the walls were a large number
of amphorae containing the remains of fish. Here also were production
tools: 2 iron swing-plows, more than 100 bronze fishhooks, 40 net
72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
weights, and a quantity of metal articles including padlocks, screw
rings, bronze bowls, and others. Room X had a hearth, and on the
floor near the west wall were part of a marble column and a cubed
stone; this was possibly either a smithy or a workshop. Room XII
was a courtyard ; in the east corner was the cesspool sump.
The numerous and varied furnishings (work tools and usual
articles) allow certain conclusions to be drawn as to the occupations
and social organizations of the inhabitants of this dwelling. They
engaged in farming, livestock raising, and fishing. Others were
artisans such as smiths, locksmiths, builders, and weavers.
It was a regime of small undertakings, sufficient in themselves ; trade
had evidently ceased at this period since no imported articles were
found,
The houses date from the last centuries of the city’s existence, or
approximately from the fourteenth-fifteenth centuries.
These observations on the latter part of the medieval period, made
during 3 years of excavation, can be extended to some degree over
the entire city:
1. The economic level of the population during the latter stages of
the city’s existence was very low.
2. By their occupations and their means of existence, the popula-
tions lived mainly in a rural condition through the natural economy
of small, independent, and self-sufficient undertakings.
3. In general, the Chersonesus lost its former importance as a large
trading center and became a small town with but slender economic
connections with its immediate vicinity.
Tiritaka.—Although ancient writers referred to Tiritaka as a city,
the excavations by the Bosphorean Expedition of IIMK in collabora-
tion with the Kerch Archeological Museum under the direction of
V. F. Gaidukevich 7 disclosed that in general planning and many other
essential traits this settlement did not resemble the usual ancient
cities.
Tiritaka was a well-developed industrial settlement. An additional
group of fish-salting cisterns uncovered during 1939 in the southern
part of town evidently belonged to a very extensive establishment.
There is no doubt that during the Roman period Tiritaka was one
of the most important centers for the export of fish. The 1939 excava-
tions in the western part of the site were a continuation of those of
1938 in the course of which a building of the sixth century B. C.
7V. F. Gaidukevich, in Kratkie Soobshcheniia, No. 4, pp. 54-58, summarized
the 1932-1939 excavations.
NO. I3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 73
containing archaic terra cottas and many other interesting finds had
been discovered.
This building was completely excavated, and many service structures
surrounding the building were uncovered. These included a barn or
storeroom, a paved courtyard, a basement with a flight of steps leading
into it, and extensive grain-storage pits lined with stone.
A late Roman dwelling complex discovered in 1939 was buried
under a stratum of debris 3.5 m. thick. The walls were preserved to
the height of 2.0 m. The main building, paved with stone flags, com-
municated with a small courtyard also paved with flags. In the floor
of the main building opposite the entrance a large sunken pythos
with a capacity of several hundred liters was uncovered. This was
probably used for grain storage, since many charred grains of wheat
were found inside the building close to the pythos, as well as several
hand mills. A pit 1.0 m. in diameter and 68 cm. deep filled with ashes,
near the pythos, contained a pottery lamp, a bone needle for weaving
fish nets, an iron hammer, whetstones, and a gray-ware pitcher of
Sarmatian type decorated with a band of intersecting lines formed by
polishing.
The finds from the floor of the building included many pieces and
fragments of molded pottery, several lamps, a round bronze mirror,
clay spindle whorls, fragments of glass vessels, and red lacquer
platters of late Roman type, one of which was stamped with the sign
of a cross, and several bronze coins. Large pointed amphorae of late
Roman type were also unearthed; many had been repaired by means
of lead brackets. The building itself had been destroyed by fire; its
floor was covered by coal and ashes from the burned wooden parts
of the structure. Many of these amphorae had apparently been stored
on the second floor of the building but had fallen down in the course
of the fire. An outside stone stairway parallel with one of the walls
of the building led to the upper story.
The prevalence of burned buildings in Tiritaka, of which several
had been previously discovered, suggests that this city was attacked
and partially destroyed. The finds from the late Roman building in-
cluded also the remains of a charred cable, probably a part of some
sort of fishing gear, and of two dozen net weights manufactured of
stones of varying sizes, each encircled by a shallow notch for attaching
to the rope. A small fish-salting cistern, 1.75 x 1.37, and 1.90 m.
deep, was found in an adjoining outbuilding.
In the lower part of one of the walls of the main structure was
found a clay-covered niche containing the bones of a young pig and
a lamb, covered by sea sand containing long scales of sevriuga, and
6
74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
sherds of amphorae. The niche also contained a clay lamp. Apparently
this niche was connected with some sort of ritual.
A small stone terapan (bench for pressing grapes) was found on a
dais in the courtyard. Many finds connected with viticulture from
previous excavations seem to indicate its important role in the eco-
nomic life of the Bosphorus during the late Hellenistic and Roman
periods when the importation of wines from abroad became curtailed.
A second large winery of the second century B. C., discovered in
1939, had been partially buried by a railroad embankment. Nonethe-
less, the large pressing platform was uncovered, together with a
gutter leading to a cistern. Both the platform and the cistern were
faced with a white cement differing in composition from the Roman
cement of that period. On the basis of this and the earlier discoveries,
it is now possible to reconstruct the evolution of viticultural technique
in Tiritaka from the second century B. C. to the third century A. D.
The 1939 excavations indicated that Tiritaka was sacked during
the fourth century A. D. This destruction occurred as a result of
one of the mass tribal migrations in the northern Black Sea area,
which led to the final dissolution of the Bosphorean State. But
Tiritaka did not disappear altogether at that time, as the finds from
the excavations include many objects of the Early Medieval period.
Thus, in the western part of the site a quantity of pottery of that period
had been found, including a pythos stamped with the name of the
potter and the incised sign of a cross of the type attributed to the
fifth or sixth century A. D. The fisheries continued during this period, ©
although most of the Roman cisterns had become disused. The main
occupation of the local population seems to have been agriculture.
Tiritaka was abandoned during the seventh or eighth century.
Many sherds of archaic pottery were found, including a fragment
of a painted pot. Particularly abundant were the finds from a late
Roman house, and also a quantity of objects from the Bosphorean
house of the third or fourth century A. D.
A stoppered amphora, attributed to the fourth or fifth century A. D.,
found near one of the fish-salting complexes, contained nearly 3.5
kilograms of crude oil. The amphora was of the elongated cylindrical
type with a conical bottom. The neck had been closed by a bunch of
straw which, when permeated with the solidified crude oil, formed a
completely hermetical seal. The liquid was analyzed by R. R.
TAnovskii of the Leningrad Chemico-Technical Institute. The liquid
which was characterized by IAnovskii as “crude oil or a product of
crude oil’ contained several wisps of straw. According to the classical
authors crude oil was used for lighting and also as medicine.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 75
Neapolis——During the latter part of 1945 an expedition under the
leadership of P. Shults was sponsored by the Museum of Fine Arts
in Moscow and the Institute for the History of Material Culture
(IIMK) of the Academy of Sciences of the U-.S.S.R.
Shults began excavations at Neapolis, the Scythian capital, often
mentioned by early writers. The numerous finds indicate that Neapolis
existed from the fourth century B. C. to the fourth century A. D.
This ancient city was encircled by a thick, protective wall of unique
masonry. The excavations revealed the first specimen of monu-
mental Scythian architecture consisting of a large house whose
basement had been hewn out of rock.
The first Scythian winery to be found contained marble goblets
as well as Scythian and Greek pottery of different periods, some of
them bearing Greek inscriptions.
The first Scythian mural painting, showing no evidence of Greek
influence, came to light. The designs resemble those with which the
modern Ukrainians decorate their cottages and household utensils.
The clay roof ornaments and animals found during the excavation
of another site also resemble Russian roof ornaments and Slavic toys.
Scythian handicrafts, in particular pottery, were as fine as other
expressions of art. A complex kiln for pottery making was unearthed.
Archeological surveys were conducted in many parts of the Crimea
with a view to establishing the boundaries on this peninsula of the
Scythian State, which evidently extended along the Black Sea coast
as far as the Danube.
A system of fortifications, consisting of three lines of defense, pro-
tected the Scythians from outside enemies :
1. In the north stood the rampart and moat at Perekop.
2. Along the Salgir River.
3. Along the Alma River at the boundary between the foothills and
the mountains.
Along these lines stretched a chain of fortress towns. On the
western coast there were also Scythian fortifications at intervals of
6 to 8 kilometers. Evidently they protected the Scythians from in-
vasions by sea and at the same time served as ports."
BLACK SEA COAST
Cave excavations.°—During 1936-1937 S. N. Zamiatnin excavated
two caves in the Sochi and Adler Raions of Krasnodar Krai. The
8 Quoted from Nina Militsyna in the Moscow News, February 2, 1046.
® Translated and summarized from S. N. Zamiatnin, Navalishinskaia i
Akhshtyrskaia Peshchery na Chernomorskom Poberezhe Kavkaza, Bulletin de la
‘Commission pour l’Etude du Quaternaire, Nos. 6-7, pp. 100-101, Moscow, 1940.
See also Field and Prostov in Amer. Anthrop. vol. 44, No. 2, p. 213, 1942.
76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
work was concentrated in two areas: in the Kudepsta River gorge
near Navalishino and in the valley of the Mzymta River and the
Akhshtyr Gorge.
Navalishino Cave is situated on the right bank of the Kudepsta
River, within 12 kilometers of the seacoast, at a considerable height
above the river.
The excavations embraced an area of 22 square meters at the en-
trance to the cave. In addition, a small excavation was made deep
inside the main corridor of the cave.
The upper horizons yielded microlithic implements and the bones
of hamster, badger, and slepysh|?]. The occasional remains of the
cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) found here belong to other strata, and
are obviously located in a secondary deposit.
Below that lies a stratum containing Upper Paleolithic finds, while
the faunal remains are mainly those of cave bear. Here were found
also the bones of elk, goat, hamster, fragments of tubular bones of
birds, and also shells of Anodonta and Helix.
The lowest stratum yielded a few typical Mousterian implements.
Among the animals represented were cave bear, wolf, and goat.
The character of the finds indicates that Navalishino Cave was not
occupied by a permanent settlement, but was rather a seasonal,
temporary site.
Akhshtyr Cave (pls. 1-4) is situated on the right bank of the
Mzymta River, opposite Akhshtyr, within 15 kilometers of Adler.
The excavators uncovered an area of 60 square meters. The finds
from the upper stratum included very late pottery and bones of do-
mestic animals.
Below this were found Upper Neolithic pottery and polished im-
plements. In this stratum also belongs a flexed inhumation of a child.
Among faunal remains were wolf, roe, moufflon, and wild pig.
Still lower lies a sterile stratum, below which were found objects
of the later stage of the Upper Paleolithic. The fauna included cave
bear, fox, wildcat, marten, deer, elk, roe, moufflon, goat, and wild pig.
Beneath the Upper Paleolithic level lay the Upper Mousterian
stratum, which yielded a large collection of implements and fauna,
the latter, with the exception of the elk, which was absent, being
identical with that of the Upper Paleolithic.
The Lower Mousterian was also rich in implements, which per-
mitted comparison with those from IIskaia, and the finds from the
upper horizons of Kiik-Koba in the Crimea.
Since the faunal remains were in a very poor state of preservation,
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 77
only the following could be identified: large deer [?], cave bear, and
wild pig.
The underlying strata are devoid of archeological finds and consist
largely of gravel deposited by the floods of the Mzymta River, which
since that time has managed to deepen its valley by 120 m., as demon-
strated by the marks at the bottom of the cave.
Conference on material culture —The material culture of the Black
Sea coast area in ancient times was the subject of a recent conference *°
in Leningrad attended by specialists from archeology, history, and
art research institutes as well as universities in Moscow, Kiev, Odessa,
Kharkov, Voronezh, Krasnodar, Saratov, and Leningrad.
The conference heard and discussed more than 30 reports treating
various aspects of the life, socio-economic structure, religion, art, and
ethnography of the Black Sea coast area at various periods and in
many localities. Most of them were summaries of researches by Soviet
scientists, in particular field investigations carried out just before the
war and during the 1945 season.
Professor Kovalev pointed out that the Black Sea coast area was
a flourishing center of culture in antiquity, and exerted its influence
on Slavonic tribes.
V. Gaidukevich observed that recent researches have shown that
the Greek cities on the Black Sea coast area in ancient times were not
isolated seats of culture and that the local population played an active
part in building up the ancient culture Soviet archeologists designate
as Greco-Scytho-Sarmatian culture. Although the local tribes were
subjected to the influence of Greece, in general they retained their
own original culture.
This thesis was corroborated by results of numerous excavations
reported at the conference, for example, those brought back by the
expedition led by P. Shults last summer to the site of the ancient
Scythian capital, Neapolis.
A prominent place on the agenda was given to reports on studies
of the relations between the local population of the Black Sea coast
steppe areas and the Greek colonies. To understand these relations
properly it is necessary to know something about the period preceding
Greek colonization. This was dealt with in a report by A. Jessen,
who mustered facts indicating intensive development of trade and
cultural ties as far back as the third millennium B. C. among the tribes
living along the Black Sea coast. Archeological data show that articles
from the Near East penetrated through the Caucasus into the Kuban
10 Summarized from the Moscow News, June 8, 1946.
78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
area from the western part of Asia Minor, the Aegean basin, and the
Balkan Peninsula to the right bank of the Dnieper [present-day
Ukraine] as far back as the end of the third and the beginning of the
second millennium B. C. Speakers cited many interesting new data
on the links between Black Sea coast and Greek cities—Attica,
Corinth, and Aeolia—as well as Ionian trade centers.
NORTH CAUCASUS
Adighe A.S.S.R.—A tombstone believed to date back to the first
century of our era was recently acquired by the regional museum in
Krasnodar. This monument was unearthed in a quarry not far from
the place where 2,500 years ago the Greeks founded the town of Sadi
(Cepi) which is thought to have been a summer resort for the wealthy
slave owners from Phanagoria, the second capital of the Bosphoran
Kingdom. It is made of limestone and is in the form of a miniature
chapel supported by columns with a niche in which stands a warrior
wearing a conical helmet, a short coat, and a sword.
SOUTH CAUCASUS
Kuftin’s 14 report is divided into two parts: a description and
analysis of the materials excavated near Igdir on the right bank of
the Araxes River during 1913 by B. F. Petrov and now in the State
Museum of Georgia in Tbilisi [formerly Tiflis] ; and the establishment
in the South Caucasus during the Eneolithic period of a proper focus
of cultural development contemporaneous with the oldest objects
found by Petrov.
The upper stratum of the Igdir monument yielded an unusual
cemetery columbarium with the ashes of the dead in red polished
earthenware pitchers with a round hole pierced in the side. In only
one case was there an inhumation. These vessels were placed, together
with the personal inventory, in the clefts of a tufa cone. This lava
flow covered the ash layers of an ancient settlement, situated to the
south of the cemetery beyond the road from Igdir to Markara.
Since evidence of the custom of cremation had not yet been seen
in the South Caucasus during the pre-Roman epoch, and because of
11 Kuftin, B. A., Urarsku “Kolumbaru” u podotsvli Ararata i Kuro-Arakssku
Eneolit. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R., Tbilisi, 1943. This study was received from
Dr. Kuftin in Leningrad on July 2, 1945, while I was a guest at the Jubilee
Sessions in Moscow and Leningrad celebrating the 220th anniversary of the
Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. The summary in English has been edited
and condensed. See footnote 14. (H. F.)
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 79
the presence of the red ware and iron weapons, and, finally, because
of the finding in the neighborhood of the cemetery of a silver denarius
of Antonius the Pious, the graveyard had been attributed to the
Roman epoch.
An analysis of the inventory by Kuftin and his assistants shows
the fallibility of thus fixing the date. Fragments of a bronze vessel,
found in one of the graves, belonged to the well-known type of bucket
from the Colchian-Koban Bronze Age and also found in the Ukraine
in pre-Scythian barrows.
Kuftin succeeded in connecting the red polished pottery with a
similar type from Toprak-Kala on Lake Van and also from Armavir-
Blur,?? where during 1879 A. S. Uvarov found similar pottery as well
as some bichrome ware ** taken erroneously for late Roman.
Among the beads from the columbarium, which do not reveal any
Hellenic or Roman influence, there are three stamp seals with
zoomorphic figures: one toggle-shaped bead seal from the grave with
the inhumation; and two columnar pendants, in which Kuftin estab-
lishes, because of the similarity of the pictures to the earthenware
stamps from Toprak-Kala and a series of other correspondences, a
type of Urartian seal, little found up to the present, in which is pre-
served in contrast with the stamp cylinder prevalent in other parts of
the Near East, the archaic figure of the stamp seals of Asiatic stock.
Thus, Kuftin came to the conclusion that the cemetery excavated
by Petrov does not date from the Roman but from the Van epoch,
belonging, as it does, not to the native population, of which the types
of tomb and tomb inventory of that time are well known, but evidently
to one which had come from Lake Van. Consequently, it must be
presumed that there long existed in eastern Anatolia the custom of
cremation, a practice not foreign to the early cultures of Mesopotamia
and Syria and practiced later in the Kingdom of Mitani and in the
burial of the Hittite kings.
The proposed attribution of the columbarium to the Urartians ex-
plains the different composition of the necklaces, foreign to the South
Caucasus for this date. For example, instead of carnelian, which was
the usual material for this period, ribbon agate and colorless glass
predominated. In addition, the style of the bronze bracelets with lions’
heads was similar to that found at Zakim associated with a bronze belt,
the ornamentation of which, in its time, was compared with that of a
sword in the Melgunov treasure.
12 This is the town of Argishtichinli of the Urartian inscriptions.
13 This pottery is probably correlated with the types from Mukhanat-Tepe in
Yerevan [formerly Erivan].
80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
By drawing a parallel between this belt and the bronze plate from
Shirak in Yerevan Museum and another belt, found in 1905, at Gushi
on Lake Urmia [Rezaiyeh] together with the bronze bulls’ heads
published by F. Sarre and A. U. Pope as Achemenid and Iranian,
we try to prove the Urartian origin and age of all these monuments.
In this category are also the remarkable bulls’ heads, similar to those
from Toprak-Kala, on chariot poles in the British Museum, and
especially to the Hermitage application to a large bucket or cauldron,
found with a handle in the form of a siren of Urartian type.
On the basis of the definite dating which Kuftin obtained for the
cemetery with cremation, the previously mentioned discovery in one
of the graves of a fragment of a bronze bucket acquires a new signifi-
cance. This gives a more precise date for the flourishing stage of
Koban bronze, which had perhaps been carried back too far, and in
which was developed the most skillful molding of bronze weapons (in
particular of typical axheads and flat celts with lateral projections),
while the territory of Lake Van, poorer in copper ore, had already
passed on completely to weapons of iron.
The inventory of the village, which lies beneath the lava flow to the
south of the columbarium, is of an entirely different character and is
therefore not connected chronologically. The cultural strata consist
of huge layers of ashes, used by the peasants for fertilizing the fields,
and of large heaps of ruined mud brick. These layers yielded many
bones of horned cattle, stone fragments, grain pounders, obsidian
flakes, and sherds. There were no traces of metal or of glass, with the
exception of a group of beaten-copper ingots perhaps originating here.
The pottery, quite distinct from that of the columbarium, had noth-
ing in common with that from South Caucasian graves of the Bronze
Age. It is distinguished by the combination of archaic methods of
modeling, without using the potter’s wheel, with artistic molding and
a fine finish given to the vessels through the use of a slip and elaborate
polishing.
The characteristic features include: hemispherical handles, a broad
cylindrical neck, a lid, the black shiny outer surface of the sherds with
a pink inner surface, and the ornamentation of the neck with a ribbon-
like, geometrically cut belt.
Associated with the fragments of a vessel there were pottery frag-
ments, horseshoe-shaped, with a handle behind; these bear some
analogy to the “horned altars” from Alishar III and through them
with the puzzling Aegean attributes of a goddess on a double ax.
In the absence of any systematic excavation, and because of the
haphazard nature of the collected material (in particular the fragment
SS ae enn ee, - Ge,
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 81
of a bichrome vessel not clearly documented), it is only possible to
assign to its approximate chronological place this new type of Igdir
ash mound by drawing on a wider range of parallel examples on which
more light has been thrown stratigraphically.
The second part of the work, which is devoted to this phase, falls
into three parts:
1. The establishing of the presence of parallel monuments among
the old collections in the State Museum of Georgia.
2. A survey of corresponding materials obtained from Kuftin’s
excavations.
3. An attempt to establish the existence, prior to the third mil-
lennium B. C., of a singular, highly developed Eneolithic phase in the
central part of the Kura-Araxes basin, as a local basis for the develop-
ment of the flourishing cultural focus of the Bronze Age, revealed
by the excavations in Trialeti.™
The accurately documented excavation of an ash grave carried out
by E. G. Pchelina during 1923 in Kiketi near Tbilisi, assigned by
Kuftin to this level, together with the pottery from the Igdir ash
mound, proved to be a key to the understanding of the Eneolithic
objects in the old collections in the Georgian State Museum. This
ash grave, with a burnt earthenware coating, yielded several groups
of earthenware vessels which now appear as one contemporaneous
culture complex. The following vessels were unearthed: (a) a large,
finely polished black vessel with a pink inner surface, ornamented
with large double spiral figures (like eyeglasses) in relief; (b) and
(c) pinkish-brown urns with a slip and miniature handles at the base
of the neck, one with single birdlike (ostrich ?) figures in flat relief
on the neck, the other with a cut angular design on the shoulders;
(d) a tureen, thick-walled, roughly modeled with layers of carbon
in the clay but a glossy-black surface; and (e) a gray vessel painted
red.
Thus, by a comparative analysis of the pottery Kuftin succeeded in
establishing that in the Armavir mound A. S. Uvarov touched not
only the Urartian stratum, unnoticed by him, but also the most ancient
Eneolithic level, both in the settlements and in the graves, also not
understood by him. In addition to the characteristic vessels, the find-
ing of fragments of a horseshoe-shaped stand of the above-mentioned
Igdir type is significant. This seems to be a leading type for the
144 Kuftin, B. A. Prehistoric culture sequence in Transcaucasia, Southwestern
Journ. Anthrop., vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 340-360, 1046, and pp. 1-26 on Microfilm
No. 2310 in American Documentation Institute. The summary in English has
been edited and condensed by Henry Field.
82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
stratum in the South Caucasus with which we are concerned and has
been found near Karakurt in Kars Province of Nakhichevan and in
Shengavit near Yerevan.
In making a stratigraphic study of the horizon with which we are
concerned, some help is afforded by the short account by E. Lalaian
of the excavations during 1904 in Nakhichevan, of the ash mound of
Kul-Tepe with cultural level many meters in depth in which strata
containing painted pottery overlie a deposit with black ware.
To this latter, supposedly, must be assigned three remarkable
vessels polished black, with hemispherical handles, narrow concave
bases and specific ornamentation, bearing witness to the absolutely
original artistic style inherent in this culture. A main characteristic
is the dynamism of the linear movement inside the externally balanced,
closed, curvilinear figures, executed concavely and convexly, and
with spiral tailpieces, adorning only the front of the body of the vessel,
while around the neck runs a cut-out belt of rhythmically recurring
rectilinear geometric elements.
Lalaian did not pay due attention to these vessels nor did he dis-
tinguish a grave with a finely molded scoop and a goblet, of the shape
in question, from the usual Late Bronze and Early Iron Age tombs
discovered by him during 1905-1906 on the west bank of Lake Sevan.
The first substantial material for judging the cultural layer char-
acterized by this ceramic complex is given by Lalaian’s excavations
during 1927 on Eilar mound, where he found a cyclopean fortress
with an inscription of Argishti concerning the conquest of Darani.
In addition, Lalaian excavated during 1913 Shresh-Blur tumulus at
Echmiadzin.
Lalaian assigned the lower cultural strata of these two mounds to
the Neolithic period on the basis of a mistaken interpretation of the
stone querns, flaked pebbles, flint and obsidian flakes, and bone bod-
kins. This was in direct contrast to the rooted prejudice of reckoning
cultural life in the South Caucasus as beginning only from the Late
Bronze Age, immediately before the Urartian expansion.
The pottery from the lower stratum of Eilar is relatively poorly
decorated, i.e., with bosses and hollows forming a kind of facial pattern
on one side of the body of the vessel, like that on the pitcher found
during 1869 in Zaglik. The molding and the shape of the vessels are
especially similar to the Igdir pottery, while at Shresh-Blur and Kul-
Tepe the designs are distinguished by one-sided but complicated
geometric compositions, symmetrically balanced, with the spiral tail-
pieces replaced by isolated concentric circles. This is particularly
clear when comparing them with the ornamentation, carried out in
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 83
relief, of the black polished urn, also Eneolithic, from Frangnots
near Echmiadzin.
The presence in this stratum with similar pottery of “round dwell-
ings with one entrance” of the “tholos” type discovered by Lalaian
at Eilar was confirmed later by excavations at Shengavit, where,
because of the construction of the walls from river boulders and mud
brick, these dwellings come particularly close to the circular buildings
revealed recently in the lower levels at Tell Halaf and at Al Ubaid,
as well as the settlements of Arpachiyah, Kidish Saghir, and Tepe-
Gawra in Upper Mesopotamia.
Lalaian also discovered at Eilar, at the centers of double concentric
rings of stones, numerous holes faced with stone and filled with layers
of ash containing the remains of human bones, and also a singular
hollowed-out stone sarcophagus attributed by him to this same level.
Special significance in establishing the Eneolithic phase in the
South Caucasus belongs to the excavations of the Georgian Depart-
ment for the Preservation of Monuments of Culture, and of the
Georgian Academy of Sciences during 1936-1940 at Trialeti, and of
the Armenian Department for the Preservation of Monuments of
Culture, and of the Armenian Branch of the Academy of Sciences
during 1936-1938 at Shengavit.
The first gave stratigraphic material, already partly published,*®
and established a series of ceramic modifications of the Eneolithic
layer on the site of the cyclopean town of Akhillar near Beshtashen.
This determined the relation of this layer and the usual South Cau-
casian cemeteries with the blackish-gray ware to the flourishing
Trialetian Bronze Age barrow culture with painted pottery and to
the preceding culture of the oldest Trialetian barrows. The second
excavations made it possible to determine that this settlement belonged
to one homogeneous Eneolithic stratum.
The unusual combination in one complex of many types of pottery
occurs in the Kiketi tomb and at Trialeti. Here were found heaps of
potter’s slag and a developed culture emphasized by the skill of the
firing. Portable ceramic hearths of a special form, found in Shengavit
in an unbroken state in the center of circular buildings, are character-
istic of this deposit.
The polished black ware from Shengavit is distinguished by in-
herent details, strictly peculiar to it, both of shape (the barrel-shaped
body and sharply conical narrow lower part of the vessel) and of
18 Kuftin, B. A., Archaeological excavations in Trialeti, vol. 1, pp. 106, 118,
and 168, and About the question of the early stages of bronze culture in the
Territory of Georgia, pp. 13-14, 20-24.
84. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
ornamentation (the characteristic development of the drawing in the
upper rectilinear geometric frieze and the decorative fretting of the
clear-cut outlines of the closed design in relief on the body), so that
it may be connected with the comparatively late stage of the Shengavit
Eneolithic.
In any event in this connection the finding in Shengavit of a fragment
of an oval cup with two bends is significant, being a type well known
from the Kizilvank complex with painted pottery, but with the black
polishing of the outer surface inherent in the Shengavit types. A cup
of this light ware, recalling by its shape a section of a human skull,?°
also came from the excavations by Lalaian on the west bank of Lake
Sevan and was erroneously imputed to a Late Bronze Age tomb.
There was also a fragment of a similar cup in the upper level of the
Eneolithic stratum at Akhillar.
The horseshoe-shaped stands from Shengavit have a special form
with a female anthropomorphic figure in the center, in relation to
which the bends of the horseshoe play the part of embracing arms.
This confirms the connection between these stands and the cult of a
female goddess (in the present case, of the hearth) and at the same
time may be used as an argument for the hypothesis concerning the
origin of the form of the Aegean “horned altars” through the symbolic
simplification of the idol of the goddess with the hands held up in
prayer. Of other figurative motifs in sculpture the attention is arrested
by the sheeplike tailpieces on another kind of horseshoe-shaped stand
from Shengavit, by the massive figure of a bull from Shresh-Blur,
and also by a kind of hearth stand and separate rude sculptures of
animals and man.
The flint inventory from Akhillar and Shengavit included arrows,
knives, sickle-teeth, and especially perforated stone implements. In
addition, a fragment of a wedge-shaped ax and a marble cask-shaped
hammer have particular significance in dating this level. Metal was
very rare and consisted of small fragments of pins and of a copper
awl, rhombic in outline, characteristic of the early stages of copper
production.
The survey of these data, unusual for the South Caucasus, makes
it possible to establish the existence, at the dawn of the knowledge of
metal or at least prior to the third millennium B. C., in the central
part of the Kura-Araxes basin of a cultural layer absolutely homo-
geneous from Karakurt to Nakhichevan and from Tbilisi to Ararat.
This level is characterized by a ceramic production, finely developed
16 Cf, Human calvaria from Paleolithic deposits at Le Placard, France. It is
suggested that these were used as ceremonial drinking vessels. (H. F.)
=
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 85
artistically and yet archaic, with cattle-raising, agricultural settlements
with protective cyclopean walls, circular houses, built with mud bricks,
with high flues raised above the hearths, and traces of the cult of the
domestic fire and of a female goddess.
The development of artistic pottery took place locally, not in the
direction of the application of colored painting (Tell Halaf, Samarra,
Al Ubaid, Elam styles), but along the lines of the refined use of the
still earlier traditions of black polishing and of a gutterlike design of
the pottery. This had a pink inner surface of the type from Sak-
chegozy and proto-Hittite Akhlatlibel near Ankara, with its suspected
western connections on which depend the peculiarities of the South
Caucasian Chalcolithic stage. For example, here developed the spiral
motif, foreign to Mesopotamia; the unusual restriction of the design
to only one side, the front of the vessels, springing perhaps from the
facial urn of western Asia Minor; the presence of earthenware hearth
stands of the Alishar and Aegean “horned altar” type; and finally,
partly the construction of “tholoi,” which are completely absent, for
example, in the corresponding lower layer of Persepolis.
All this taken together changes radically the customary historical
perspective and opens up new possibilities for the understanding of
the early processes of the cultural and ethnic formation of the South
Caucasus. This throws light on the conditions causing the appearance
of the brilliant cultural rise in the Middle Bronze Age, revealed in
Trialeti, and on the proposition made by Kuftin concerning the
aboriginality of Georgian culture in the Caucasus.
ARMENIA
Georg Goyan reports ** from Yerevan that his recent researches
on the history of ancient Armenian drama reveal that in 58 B. C. the
theater was on a high professional level, performing in both Greek
and Armenian, the latter being the official language during the reign
of Tigranes. Plutarch, for example, recorded that Euripides’ “Bac-
chante” was’ presented in Artashat in 58 B. C. in honor of the victory
of the Armenians and Parthians over the Roman legions of Marcus
Crassus. Excavations are now in progress.
DON REGION
Tsymliansk gorodishche.—The Sarkel expedition of IIMK, under
the leadership of Liapushkin,’* resumed work in 1939 after a 3-year
17 From the Moscow News, February 9, 1046.
18 Liapushkin, I. I., in Kratkie Soobshcheniia, No. 4, pp. 58-62.
86 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
interruption on the right bank of the Don River, 8 kilometers below
Tsymlianskaia Cossack settlement. This gorodishche was located on
a platform, 70.0 m. above the river level, formed by the delta of two
ravines. This highly fortified gorodishche, commanding the important
waterway connecting the steppes with the cities beside the Sea of
Azov and the Black Sea and with the Caspian by way of the Volga,
existed from the eighth-tenth centuries.
Three cultural levels were uncovered. The lowest stratum was
well preserved because of a sterile layer (clay floor of a building) ;
the few finds included iron slag, bones of animals, and some hand-
made pottery. Of particular interest were the remains of a dwelling
of the semidugout type, probably a conical structure of yurt type.
The lower part consisted of an oval pit (2.5 x 1.8 m.), plastered with
clay on the walls and the floor, and with a round hearth pit at the
north wall. Hand-made pottery, largely flat-based pots with slightly
convex walls and sharply flaring lips decorated with notches of the
type known from Maiatskaia settlement, was found both inside and
outside the dwelling.
The second period is represented by ruins of brick and mortar
buildings, very similar to those of the left-bank site where stands the
Sarkel gorodishche.
To this period also belong the remains of strong fortress walls,
4.5 m. thick with round towers, built of dressed white limestone.
The finds of the three upper levels are very closely related. The
pottery, almost entirely wheel-made, was represented by the following
types: (a) pots with incised linear and wavy ornament; (b) various
shapes of polished ware of Saltovo type; (c) egg-shaped amphorae ;
and (d) unornamented well-made pots of hard gray clay.
This second period was also characterized by a profusion of iron
objects including arrowheads and spearpoints, bits and stirrups, and
various implements such as knives, fragments of buckets, sickles, axes,
fishhooks, and others. Among personal ornaments were beads, frag-
ments of metallic mirrors, an earring, and several belt buckles. All
pottery and objects from this period have analogies in the finds from
the Saltovo and Maiatskaia sites and burials. The existence of the
second period was terminated by the destruction of the fortifications.
In the third period the building materials from these fortifications
were widely utilized in construction. This destruction could have
occurred during the capture of the Khazar city of Belaia Vezha by
Sviatoslav Igorevich, Prince of Kiev, in the year 965, as recorded
in one of the old Russian chronicles. This identification of the right-
bank site with the Belaia Vezha city had been anticipated by M. I.
Artamanov.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 87
The third period is characterized by yurtlike semidugout dwellings
closely related to those of the first period. Their remains consist of
clay-paved circular or oval shallow pits, occasionally double, 2.5-
3.0 m. in diameter, with a hearth in the middle. Many of the dwellings
contained human skeletons in various positions, showing no signs
of orientation or proper grave inventories. On the other hand, the
finds from many of the dwellings were numerous and variegated.
Iron was widely represented by such objects as fishhooks, chisels,
scythes, plowshares, spades, sickles, and others. Most of these were
found in the dwelling pits which had been filled by bricks, fragments
of mortar, stone, mineral, and fishbones, and potsherds.
The abrupt cessation of the third period probably occurred during
one of the invasions of the steppe tribes at the end of the tenth or at
the beginning of the eleventh century, at which time, after the down-
fall of the Khazar Kaganate, these nomads were undisputed masters
of the South Russian steppes. Some traces of an attempt to repopulate
and even to refortify the gorodishche at some later period were also
found.
These materials are of great importance for the understanding of
the settling of the nomads in the southeastern steppes which had
begun during the ninth century (cf. yurts with agricultural equip-
ment) and also for uncovering the character of the colonizing move-
ment of the Russian Slavic tribes to the southeast, which was begun
with the breaking up of the Khazar Kaganate during the tenth century.
VOLGA REGION
Novo-AKKERMANOVKA CEMETERY
The Archeological Expedition from Orsk, organized by G. Pod-
gactskii 7° for the Marr Academy of the History of Material Culture
and the Museum of Regional Studies at Orenburg, studied during
1936 a Bronze Age cemetery situated 27 kilometers west of Orsk
near the village of Novo-Akkermanovka.
The tombs were indicated on the surface by 19 stone boulders
arranged in a circle and belonging to 13 burials found at a depth of
0.3-1.0 m. In two cases it was possible to determine the limit of the
graves: No. 4 was 0.6 x 1.6 m., and No. 13 was 1.3 x 1.8 m.
The skeletons were lying on the right or left sides with legs and
arms flexed and the skull facing west. Nos. 4 and 8 were double
burials. The unnatural position of skeleton B, which was that of a
19 Podgaetskii, G., in Materialy i Issledovaniia po Arkheologii SSSR, No. 1,
p. 82, Moscow, 1940. Résumé in French.
88 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
woman, placed beside male skeleton A in Burial No. 4 suggests the
idea of immolation in situ.
On the pillow of the deceased had been placed one or two clay
vessels. The remainder of the grave furniture consisted of a small
copper rod, a sculptured shell, phalanges of horses and sheep (No.
13), 16 sheep astragals and 1 shell from No. 4, recalling bone rings
with two openings from Bronze Age burials north of the Black Sea.
In addition, in No. 5 were several horse bones, the remains of food
placed in the grave.
The character of the grave furniture and the form of the vessels
attributed this cemetery to those of Andronovo type whose area
extended during the second half of the second millennium before our
era across the steppes stretching from the Yenisei to the Urals. In
the southern Urals cemeteries of this type present a series of peculiar
traits indicating the impact of Western and Eastern cultures.
KocHERGINO CEMETERY
During 1929-1930 this burial site, situated near Kochergino (Dub-
rovno) on the Nemda River in the Sovetskii District of the Kirov
region, was excavated.?° Five burials were unearthed. Grave No. 3
contained the skeleton of a young man, 25 to 30 years of age, and
No. 5 was that of a child 4 to 6 years old. In graves Nos. 1-2 there
were traces of incineration; No. 4 contained no bones. The un1-
formity of the material provided by the different burials permits no
chronological subdivisions. These burials were made within a 50-
year interval during the period from the ninth to the twelfth century—
in order to be more precise, to the end of the tenth or the beginning
of the eleventh century of our era.
Upper VOLGA
According to Tretiakov, from 1933-1937 extensive archeological
work was carried out in the region of the Upper Volga. As a result,
it became possible to trace a picture of the historical evolution of the
region during the first millennium. The explorations encompassed
both banks of the Volga for a stretch of more than 350 kilometers,
from the mouth of the Dubna (Ivanikovo) to that of the Kotorosli
(IAroslav) and the banks of its affluents, including those of Mologa
and Seksna, whose valleys were explored for a distance of 100-120
kilometers upstream.
20 Talitskii, M., Le Cimetiére de Kocergino, in Materialy i Issledovaniia po
Arkheologii SSSR, No. 1, p. 168, Moscow, 1940. Résumé in French.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 89
These explorations led to the discovery of more than 200 sites of
varying degrees at antiquity. Remains of Epipaleolithic and Neolithic
sites were found, as were gorodishches and selishches of the first
millennium B. C. and the first millennium A. D., and dwelling places
and cemeteries of the second millennium. Large-scale excavations
were carried out on more than 25 of the sites. Several of them were
entirely uncovered.
Before the first millennium B. C.—Tretiakov outlines briefly the
early history of the Upper Volga Valley, remarking on its recent,
postglacial age. He mentions the Epipaleolithic sites of a higher
Sviderskian character, found near Sobolevo and Skniatino. During
the Neolithic period the population was concentrated in three low
plains: (a) near Kalinin; (b) along the lower reaches of the Mologa
and the Seksna; and (c) along the lower reach of the Kostroma. In
all these three areas, numerous Neolithic stations are known, as are
sites of the Bronze Age. Outside of these low plains, other stations
occur on the shores of large lakes as, for example, Nero, Pleshcheeyo,
Galic, and Cuchloma.
At the end of the second and at the beginning of the first millennium
B. C., the inhabitants of the Upper Volga region emigrated from the
low plains to higher ground. This migration was in accordance with
modifications which had occurred in the economic sphere, when there
was a transition from the hunter-fisher economy to that of agri-
culturist-livestock raiser.
The character of the dwelling sites was also soon modified. Instead
of open sites, the population began to construct small fortresses
(gorodishches). All these changes in the culture of the early in-
habitants of the Upper Volga region were connected closely with the
changes that were occurring in the social order, exemplified by the
transition from matriarchy to patriarchy.
The first fortified sites appeared in the Uppér Volga region toward
the middle of the first millennium B. C. The materials found in the
earliest gorodishche were completely in accordance with those of the
earliest Bronze Age sites, thus proving the existence of a genetic link
between the former and the latter. The three earliest gorodishches
were: (a) near the village of Gorodisce, in the suburbs of the city of
Kaliazin ; (b) near the village of Gorodok, downstream from the town
of Myskin; and (c) at the mouth of the Nerlia, upstream from
Kaliazin. Gorodishches dating from the end of the first millennium
B. C. have been found in many places. In this group are the Toporok
gorodishche and one in the outskirts of Borok, etc. Their antiquity
has been determined as a result of the repeated finding of bronze
7
go SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
objects similar to those from cemeteries in the Kama region of the
higher and lower Pianobor types.
The gorodishches of the first millennium B. C. were of limited
size. The dwellings were built on the ground. Among the inventory,
apart from sherds and bone objects, were stone and metal imple-
ments and some ornaments. Remains found in even the oldest goro-
dishche establish the complete ascendance of animal raising over
hunting. The horse and the pig were the principal domestic animals.
Numerous hand mills confirmed the existence of agriculture.
The Upper Volga gorodishche can be somewhat distinguished
from those of the Kostroma section of the Volga by the form of
the dwellings and the pottery. This suggests the existence of two
separate tribal groups. Moreover, exploration in this region has
shown that a considerable length of the Volga, from the mouth of the
Mologa to that of the Kotorosli and the section which lies between
the sites of the two tribal groups, was uninhabited at that time.
At the beginning of the first millennium A, D—Some of the in-
habited sites of the first centuries of our era have been excavated.
An examination of all these sites, together with their chronological
classification, permits the following conclusions to be drawn:
(a) That sites dating from the first centuries A. D. are represented
mainly by the remains of fortified sites (gorodishches). Many sites of
this type are even older (first millennium B. C.).
(b) From the second and third centuries, open sites (selishches)
were found.
(c) Both types were distributed on the banks of the Volga and
its tributaries in compact groups of two to four, which indicates clan
grouping and consequently denotes the existence of clan territories.
Tretiakov brings ethnographic examples to the support of this theory.
Each locality belonged to a definite patriarchal community whose
primitive economy, while multiform, also had a collective character.
The main branches of production were the raising of livestock and
cultivation in clearings. Hunting and fishing were also carried out.
In nearly every gorodishche and sclishche were found traces of iron
founding and copper smelting. Commercial relations were barely
developed at that period, either between localities or more distant,
areas.
Tretiakov again comments on the presence of certain distinctions,
between the population of the Upper Volga and that of the Kostroma,
sector of the Volga.
A fourth-fifth century gorodische on the Sonochta River.—In 1903)
A. A. Spitsyn discovered a gorodishche at the mouth of the Sonochta
\
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD gI
River, which flows into the Volga 20 kilometers downstream from
Rybinsk. This site was destroyed by fire, and it is for this reason
that its archeological strata preserved a rich fund of material as well
as the remains of burnt construction. This site, which covered an
area of more than 2,000 square meters, has been completely excavated.
This gorodishche was built on a small eminence of the Sonochta
alluvial terrace. Its irregular triangular surface was surrounded by
a wooden wall and earthen defense works. In the center there arose
a wooden house (5 x 8 m.) which was apparently a public building.
Around it six dwellings were distributed. These dwellings were
small log cabins (3 x 5.4 x 6 m.) with hearths near the rear walls.
The left side of each house was reserved for the men, and there the
axes, arrows, fishing tackle, harness, and similar articles were kept.
The right side was for the women, and during excavation, pottery
and knives were uncovered.
Near the central house, there was a small building without a hearth
which was used as granary and mill. Hand mills were also found here.
Next to it was a forge which consisted of a solid shed with an
enormous hearth in the center. In addition, a quantity of iron frag-
ments and several dozen iron ingots, which had been smelted with
bellows, were found.
Opposite the main house there was another shed with a small
hearth in one corner. Both this shed and the one already described
were probably surrounded by light wattle walls. This latter shed
was reserved for use by the women, indicated by the finding of
numerous slate distaffs, iron bodkins, a needle, and stones used as
pressing irons.
The last of the buildings was a mortuary which gives a very clear
insight into the funeral practices of the inhabitants. When a member
of the community died, he was cremated elsewhere. The calcified
bones were then collected and deposited in the wooden mortuary
(2.25 x 2.25 m.), which was located opposite the communal house.
Excavations among the ruins brought to light a quantity of calcified
bones of adults and'children, both male and female, and also five iron
axes, knives, arrowheads, and iron and bronze rings and ornaments.
The excellent state of preservation and the richness of the remains,
since only bone objects disintegrated, revealed a graphic picture,
which is probably typical of all the other Upper Volga sites of the
first half of the first millennium. The material found gave a relatively
complete picture of the life and activities of the inhabitants. The
Sonochta gorodishche can be assigned definitely to the fourth-fifth
centuries as a result of finding enameled objects of the same type as
92 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
those from the Riazan cemeteries, and a characteristic clasp in the
form of a crossbow which probably originated in the south of the
Baltic region.
Middle and second half of the first millennium A. D.—Tretiakov
describes several sites contemporary with that on the Sonochta and
others of a later date. Toward the middle of the first millennium, the
open site, without fortification, became the dominant type. Simul-
taneously with the change in form the layout of the sites was modified,
and they were no longer grouped as before.
All this would indicate a social change in the Upper Volga region
after the middle of the first millennium. This was probably connected
with the disintegration of the ancient social order based on the patri-
archal clan. It would appear that it was at this time that the clan
territories began to disappear. The considerable increase, often
threefold or even fourfold, in the area of the sites indicated that by the
sixth-seventh centuries the localities were no longer inhabited by a
single patriarchal community.
Important excavations have been made at: (a) a fourth-fifth cen-
tury site near the Krasnyi-Cholm Rest Home; (b) a fifth-sixth cen-
tury site at the mouth of the Iti River, near Uste; and (c) a sixth-
seventh century site on the outskirts of Kilino.
These excavations have given a more factual picture of the his-
torical progression during the middle and second half of the first
millennium; certain characteristics having already been given above.
At the beginning the inhabitants of every locality worked iron and
copper to make themselves tools and ornaments. After the middle
of the first millennium there were certain localities engaged in mass
production, destined not only for internal use but for purposes of
exchange. For example, the inhabitants of the Sonochta gorodishche
worked iron on a large scale and in the Krasnyi-Cholm selishche
numerous traces of copper working have been found. On the other
hand, the inhabitants of other sites appear to have been consumers.
A second important characteristic of this period was the appearance
of agriculture on previously cultivated land, which replaced the
former system of cultivating only virgin territory. This is indicated
by the increase in the size of the localities and by changes that took
place in the methods of livestock raising which show the use of horse
traction in agriculture. Finally, there were changes even in shape and
size of the implements and tools bearing on agriculture, particularly
in the appearance of very large hand mills. This transition led to
the rise of a type of allotment economy. The development of trade
with neighboring and remoter regions also played a certain role in
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 93
the historical progression. This is shown by numerous imported
articles, such as enameled articles from the middle section of the
Dnieper and articles from the central stretch of the Oka.
The evolution of the funeral rites gives an equal insight into the
decline of the clan society. Instead of the clan burial grounds, of the
type exemplified by the “burial house” of Berezniaki, after the sixth
century A. D., we find funeral monuments in the Upper Volga in the
form of elongated kurgans. These are also found along the Upper
Dnieper and Upper Dvina and, as a result of recent study, are said
to belong to the Slavic Krivichi [Crivici] tribe.
This would indicate that the prehistoric inhabitants of the Upper
Volga, as well as those of the Dnieper region, were the ancestors of
the eastern Slavs.
During the ninth-tenth centuries, instead of elongated kurgans
containing several sepulchers of cremated remains, individual funeral
monuments were found. These round kurgans contained the remains
of a single person with identical cremation procedure.
Inhabitants of the region around Lakes Nero and Pleshcheevo dur-
ing the middle and second half of the first millennium.—The previously
mentioned distinctions between the cultural character of the Upper
Volga region and the neighboring regions of Lake Nero and Lake
Pleshcheevo and the Kostroma sector of the Volga are very clearly
defined in the sites dating from the middle and second half of the
first millennium. The existence at this time of two different tribal
groups is proved by the following:
(a) In the first region, the houses are built on the ground, while
those of the latter are half underground.
(b) In the former region, the dead were cremated ; in the latter they
were interred in the same manner as along the Oka, the central Volga,
and the Kama Rivers.
Beside Lake Nero, along the Kostroma sector of the Volga and
along the upper stretches of the Kliazma, occur several cemeteries
which contain flat tombs. The most important, which dates from the
eighth-tenth centuries, lies near the Sarskoe gorodishche, in the out-
skirts of Diabol.
(c) Certain variations may be noted in the type of pottery, orna-
ments, and other objects.
The inhabitants of the first region belonged to the eastern branch
of the Krivichi; the latter to Merian tribes, related to the eastern
Finnish tribes of the Volga region.
However, the fundamental characteristics of the historical progres-
sion in all these regions were the same. From a detailed analysis of
g4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
the objects in the Sarskoe gorodishche, this was the first town with
artisans. Its existence was a result of the progressive development
of the social division in labor and the increasing separation of the
crafts from agriculture.
PREVIOUS RESEARCH IN THE UPPER VOLGA REGION
Gorodishche near Kaliazin——The gorodishche, located on a head-
land on the left bank of the Upper Volga between two deep ravines, is
protected by two vallums. It covers an area of approximately 1,500
square meters. The site is of interest because its archeological stratum,
which is 3.0 m. deep at certain points, contains the cultural remains
of different epochs dating from the middle of the first millennium
B. C. to the third-fourth centuries A. D. The upper layers of the
gorodishche were unfortunately destroyed by a cemetery that existed
during the twelfth-thirteenth centuries. Small excavations were made
during 1935.
Gorodok gorodishche.—This covers an extensive headland junction
of the Gorodetski stream with the right bank of the Upper Volga.
Its elevation is separated from the plateau by two ditches. The sides
have been heavily eroded by the river. The cultural stratum, which
was 30-40 cm. in depth, was completely excavated during 1936. In
the lower levels, there were objects dating from the middle of the first
millennium B. C.; in the upper levels were articles belonging to the
first centuries of our era.
Viadimuirskie Khutora selishche—tThis site on the right bank of
the Mologa River, about 50 kilometers from its mouth, was located
on the edge of the first terrace, and is today heavily flooded by the
spring waters. The cultural stratum, which lay at a depth of 20-30
cm., was excavated in 1936. Only a few objects were found, mainly
pottery dating from the first centuries A. D.
Krugletsy gorodishche.—During 1933 on theright bank of the Volga
near Ochotin, about 2 kilometers downstream from Myskin, some
traces of this gorodishche, which had been almost entirely destroyed
by the Volga, were found. The 10 square meters remaining were
excavated in 1936. This revealed that the site had been occupied
during the first centuries A. D. Typical pottery and some iron articles
were found.
Grechov gorodishche.—This site was located on a promontory on
the right bank of the Upper Volga, at the mouth of the Grechov,
7 kilometers upstream from Ueglie. Its platform has been almost
entirely destroyed by the river. At the side of the platform, the
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 95
remains of two vallums and a ditch can be seen. All the remaining
part of the platform was excavated in 1935. Traces of a charred
wooden wall surrounding the gorodishche were found, as were holes
from the pillars of buildings built above ground. The cultural stratum,
which was 50-80 cm. deep, yielded articles which dated from the
second-fourth centuries. In the upper level, a large bronze buckle
encrusted with red enamel was found.
Sonochta gorodishche—Excavations during 1934-1935 covered
this entire site. The cultural stratum, which never exceeded 35.0
cm., contained remains of buildings in the form of charred beams,
pits left by supports, broken stone hearths and the remains of a wooden
wall which had surrounded the gorodishche. It was possible to recon-
struct the character of the defense works as a result of the satisfactory
degree of preservation of the wattling which supported them.
Uste selishche—During 1934 this site, located on the right bank
of the Volga at the junction of the Iti, near Uste, 12 kilometers up-
stream from IAroslav, was examined. Built on a small promontory
arising from the flood terrace of the Volga, it had been heavily eroded
by the river, to a point where hardly any trace remained. Excavation
of the remainder uncovered a stratum, 80 cm. in depth, which con-
tained the remains of a wooden house destroyed by fire. The house
had a hearth which had been dug out of the ground. From articles
found, this selishche was attributed to the fifth-sixth centuries A. D.
Kilino selishche-——During 1936 studies were made on the remains
of a site located on the right bank of the Volga near Kilino, about
25 kilometers downstream from Myskin. Built on the bank of the
river barely above the water line, it had been heavily eroded by flood
waters. The cultural stratum, 50-80 cm. deep, yielded but a limited
number of objects dating from the seventh-eighth centuries of our era.
CENTRAL ASIA
Uznex S.S.R., 1937-1039 21
Archeological investigations were carried out mainly by the Uzbek-
istan Committee for the Preservation and Study of Ancient Monu-
ments (UZKOMSTARIS) with the collaboration of the All-Union
and local organizations.
Termes Expedition —This expedition conducted excavations among
the ruins of the Old City of Termez and the ancient site of Airtam,
which is situated 17 kilometers east of Termez, on the right bank of
21 Received by Henry Field from VOKS on February 3, 1941. World War II
delayed publication. Minor editorial revisions have been made.
96 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
the Amu-Darya River. Ancient written sources do not mention this
place, but judging by the facts that the ruins cover an extensive area
and that the artifacts unearthed here are of skilled workmanship,
this must have been a settlement of considerable size. The site com-
prises an elevated portion (250 x 100 m.), bounded on three sides
by D-shaped, clay walls; the fourth side is contiguous with the steep
bank of the Amu-Darya. The ruins of the settlement, also enclosed
by walls, are directly adjacent to this elevated portion of the site.
The excavations were concentrated on the southwestern part of
the elevated portion of the site. Several buildings, belonging to a single
edifice, constructed of large, unburnt bricks were unearthed here.
Those chambers in which a sculptured cornice, fragments of reli-
quaries, and of an alabaster statue of Buddha were found during the
first excavations on the site undoubtedly served for cult purposes.
The adjacent premises, with several hearths and large clay pots
(khumt) for storing food and water, constituted in all probability the
sanctuary kitchen. Two floors, dating from different periods, were
unearthed in this sanctuary. Parts of the walls between the two
floors were covered with a fine layer of alabaster plastering, differing
greatly from the rough clay plaster still preserved above the upper
floor.
Thus, two different periods have been established for this building,
the first of which was dated by a bronze coin of an unnamed ruler,
referring to the first century of our era. Excavations carried on at
a still greater depth beneath the lower floor brought to light cultural
strata attributed to the latest centuries before our era, in which thin-
walled pottery of dark-rose clay coated in red engobé, fired-clay tiles,
one of which is stamped’ with a picture of a deer, were found.
The excavations and the material raised to the surface at Airtam
yielded a large number of fragments of clay vessels; thick-walled
khumi, fired-clay kettles for boiling food, jugs, plates, bowls, saucers,
conical vessels for lampions, and other forms. The prevailing type
was engobé pottery of brown, cream, and red tones, for the most part
without ornament, often superbly burnished and made of a thin mass
of clay; there were also specimens of colored, varnished pottery.
The ornaments found on the pottery fall into five categories:
stamped, molded, burnished, painted, and incised. The majority of
the vessels had been made on a potter’s wheel. In several parts of
this site were unearthed fragments of pottery-firing ovens and a large
mass of clay slag, testifying to the extensive development of local
pottery manufacture.
In addition to a rich collection of pottery fragments, the investiga-
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 97
tions here have furnished a large number of terra cotta figurines of
animals and people, objects of a cult nature, statuettes of marly lime-
stone, and architectural fragments of the same material.
The different periods represented in the cultural strata found on
this site, the lower of which should be referred to the last centuries
before our era and the upper to the first centuries of our era, point
to the fact that Airtam existed for a long period of time.
Excavations were conducted at several points among the ruins of
Old Termez. An ancient Buddhist monastery, consisting of a large
number of artificial caves and of above-ground chambers was found
on the Kara-Tepe elevation. The structures above ground were built
of unburnt brick and partly faced in stone. The floor was also of
the same brick, coated with clay; the walls had an undercoating of
clay covered with alabaster, on which traces of varicolored fresco
paintings were preserved. The walls of one of the excavated premises,
for example, were bordered in red. A picture showing the lower part
of a human figure was still preserved above the border; traces of the
feet encased in red footgear and parts of varicolored garments could
still be discerned. The painting resembles Bamian art in type.
The caves, dug out at different levels in the sandstone layers of
the mounds, were connected by staircases, while caves situated on one
level communicated through corridors. The caves consisted of rec-
tangular chambers (7-12 sq. m. in area) encircled on all sides by
passageways about 3 m. wide and 13-16 m. long. The height of the
corridors and the caves was I.5-2.0 m. Benches were hewn along
the walls of the caves and shallow niches occurred in the walls of the
caves and corridors. Arabic inscriptions were found here and there
on the walls, which bespeak the fact that the Arabs visited and possibly
used these caves for a considerable time after their conquest of
Termez. The excavations brought to light several caves of large
dimensions, probably intended for public purposes, and other smaller
caves evidently for individual use. Coins, pottery, and other finds
discovered in Kara-Tepe date from the last centuries B. C. to the
first centuries A. D.
The investigations of a suburban palace of the Termez rulers of
the eleventh and twelfth centuries consisted in clearing the eastern
facade, which made is possible to establish the plan of this building.
These excavations also unearthed a water reservoir (70 sq. m. in area
and 2.0 m. deep) constructed in the courtyard of this palace complex.
The walls were faced with burnt bricks, which were also used for
the base, where there were three steps in each corner. Earthenware
pipes with a brick trough running parallel, came to light in the north-
98 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
eastern corner. Water apparently flowed into the reservoir both
through pipes and trough.
In clearing the northern lateral pavilion of the palace, alabaster
was found, together with pieces of colored glass, parts of an alabaster
grating, and decorative, oval-shaped glass medallions (5-7 cm. in
diameter and 2-5 mm. in thickness) molded from green or reddish
glass. The pictures in relief on the obverse of these medallions refer
to eight different subjects:
1. An eight-petaled rosette in a double circle, consisting of a center
and a row of closely set pearls.
2. A medallion with a Kufic inscription, with floral ornament
around the letters and at the edges, the faint inscription reading either
“king” or “kingdom.”
3. The figure of an animal shown running to the left, encircled by
an Arabic inscription which reads “for the most high Sultan Abdul
Muzafar Bahram Shah”; this inscription may refer either to the ruler
of Ghazni, Emin Addaula Bahram Shah or Masaud ibn Ibrahim
(1118-1157), or to Bahram Shah, the son of Imad ad-Dinam, ruler of
Termez in 1205.
4. A bird of prey clawing some small animal to pieces.
5. A bird of prey holding an animal in its claws.
6. A lion in a circle.
7. A woman standing beside a horse.
8. A rider mounted on a horse, holding the reins in his right hand,
and with a hunting bird on his left hand; the rider wears a crown
surrounded by a halo.
Several of these depictions—the bird of prey clawing an animal,
the bird holding its prey in its claws, and the rider with a hunting
bird—are akin in subject to the pictures on ancient eastern metalware
found in the vicinity of the Urals.
One of the groups of the Termez Expedition was entrusted with
the task of making preliminary investigations on that part of the site
where piles of metal and ash promised interesting finds. The results
led to the surmise that this was an artisans’ quarter, most probably
that of the metal craftsmen of Old Termez. Situated 550 paces from
the northeastern corner of the citadel, the metalcraftsmen’s quarter
occupied an area of 8 hectares, on which there were traces of build-
ings of unburnt brick, streets, squares, and water reservoirs. Two
streets could be traced, one along the eastern and the other along the
southern boundary of the quarter. The street to the east divided the
quarter from the other section of the site, where the excavations
NO. I3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 99
produced a large amount of clay slag, sherds, and pottery-making
tools, all of which indicated that this was a potters’ quarter.
Excavations in the metallists’ quarter were begun at several differ-
ent levels. The cultural strata reached a thickness of 5.0 m. The
upper layers, at a depth up to 1.5 m., were attributed to the eleventh-
thirteenth centuries of our era, judging by the pottery and other finds,
while the lower strata belonged to the period of the Kushans. Many
more or less regularly formed, palm-shaped pieces of metal weighing
from 500 grams to 5 kilograms have been found both on the surface
and in the excavated portions. Investigations have shown that pieces
of pig iron served as raw material for the metalcraftsmen of Old
Termez. The discovery, in the upper strata, of fragments of crucibles
(which do not relate to iron production), pieces of alloy, and poly-
metallic ores, as well as fragments of copperware, all point to the
existence of copper fashioning as well as forges.
The presence of jewelers’ shops in this quarter has also been proved
by the discovery of special furnaces used in this craft. Several build-
ings were unearthed during the excavations, three of which were
evidently used for trading, since they were open to the street on one
side; their dimensions were 2.0-2.5 square meters. Behind these
premises were located the manufactory buildings, where remains of
furnaces, odds and ends of ironware, etc., were found.
Other rooms connecting with the shops served for living quarters,
not, apparently, for the shop owner and his family, a fact which
would have been inconsistent with the seclusion of family life, but
for the apprentices and workers. Fragments of an arch (tezar), con-
structed of burnt bricks, came to light beneath these trading premises.
Judging by the pottery and other finds, all these buildings belonged
to the eleventh and twelfth centuries of our era. In the lower strata,
about 1.5 m. beneath the surface, were found pottery, coins, and
other articles attributed to the first centuries of our era, and in addi-
tion to these, the very same type of iron moldings as were found in
the upper layers, of similar palmlike shape and of varying weight.
The material obtained here indicates that manufacturing existed
on the site under investigation during a long period lasting from
1,000 to 1,200 years and that pottery making, the jeweler’s craft, glass
and copper work flourished in Termez during the eleventh and twelfth
centuries.
A separate group of the Termez Expedition investigated the ancient
irrigation system along the Surkhan-Darya River within the pre-
cincts of the Termez district. Of the right bank of the river were
found remains of ancient head structures and canals, one of which,
I0O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
taking its start evidently from Salavat, irrigated the territory of Old
Termez. On the left bank, in the middle reaches of the Surkhan-
Darya, traces have been found of very large irrigation canals leading
to the southeast, i.e., to the site of Airtam. These canals carried water
to Airtam, where traces have also been found of an irrigation canal
leading to the north-northwest to join, as it would seem, the canals
which have their source in the Surkhan-Darya. It must be observed
that the pottery collected on the left bank is very similar to that
found in the oldest levels of Old Termez and to the objects from
Airtam. These included thin-walled, engobé pottery, fragments of
gobletlike vessels, painted khumi, etc. The results of the investiga-
tions of this section and at Airtam give reason to affirm that the
irrigation structures on the left bank of the Surkhan-Darya River,
requiring large-scale organized labor for their preservation and upkeep,
fell into a state of disrepair and neglect about the middle of the first
millennium of our era, a fact which brought about a decline in the
life of Airtam and other populated points on the left bank of the river.
Surkhan-Darya Expedition—tThis expedition carried out archeo-
logical investigations in the Baisun district. During 1938 excavations
were made in the Teshik-Tash grotto at a distance of 18 kilometers
northwest of the district center, near Machai. A Paleolithic settle-
ment with artifacts of the classic Mousterian period was unearthed
here. The grave of an 8- or 9-year-old Neanderthaloid child was also
found here. The exceptional scientific interest of this discovery has
already been presented in numerous articles and reports and we shall
dwell on the 1939 work. The expedition made some preliminary
surveys in the vicinity of Baisun, which resulted in the discovery of
new artifacts, including some pertaining to the Stone Age. Two
corridorlike caves were found near Baisun in Kaflan-Dara and Dulta-
Khan, with large accumulations of bones of wild and domesticated
animals. Fragments of ancient vessels were found in one of the caves.
These caves evidently served large beasts of prey as places of refuge,
and the bones are the remains of their quarry.
In the Ob-Angor grotto remains of ancient metalwork shops have
been unearthed including slag and a smelting furnace in the form of a
vessel 2.0 m. in height with openings in the sides for forced draft.
This site also produced fragments of tenth- and eleventh-century
pottery. Two cultural levels were found buried under stones in a cave
situated in the Kurgan-Darya gorge; these strata contained coal-ash
accumulations, remains of animals, and worked flints of Paleolithic
type. Excavations were conducted in an area of 40 sq. km. near
Machai in the Amir-Temir grotto, resulting in the discovery of three
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD IOI
cultural strata. The upper stratum belonged to the later Iron Age,
the middle to the Neolithic, and the lowest to the Paleolithic period.
Typical Mousterian remains have been found in the lower levels,
closely resembling the Teshik-Tash implements—a hand cleaver, a
discoidal nucleus, a scraper, and others. Investigations begun in the
Teshik-Tash cave during 1938 have been finished and, like the pre-
ceding investigations, these brought to the surface typical Mousterian
remains. Of particular interest were the flint points, which resemble
those from the Palestine caves. To the east of Baisun in the gorge
which leads from the mountain river Temir-Ulde, traces have been
found of a Stone Age settlement where evidences of stone implement
making and the bones of wild animals have been established.
Zarafshan Expedition—This expedition engaged in reconnoitering
investigations and excavations to the northwest of Bukhara in the
Kizil-Kum Desert. The plot of land under investigation, about 500
sq. km. in area, abounds in the ruins of ancient settlements, castles,
the remains of ramparts and irrigation channels, and a large amount
of buried material. The ruins of settlements and castles, built of
unburnt brick (pakhs), at the present time give the appearance of
mounds (tepe) of various forms, which have been rendered shapeless
by the action of precipitation, wind, and the shifting sands that have
covered a large part of this locality. Several of these mounds (Besh-
Tepe, Aiak-Tepe, and others), irrigation channels, and the shapeless
remains of clay structures are to be found at the extreme western
point of the investigated area, situated in the desert about 40 km.
from the boundary of the oasis. Here, as in the rest of the investigated
territory, much material was discovered, distinguished, however, by
features pointing to a greater antiquity than that procured from the
sites located closer to the modern boundary of Bukhara Oasis.
In the district of Besh-Tepe and Aiak-Tepe thin-walled pottery was
encountered, finished on a potter’s wheel and made of finely powdered
clay, hard-fired and frequently coated with red engobé, containing
traces of complete or partial burnishing and sometimes with a stamped
ornament. In addition to such pottery, the expedition found bronze
triple-faceted arrowheads of Scythian type.
The mounds situated closer to the oasis (Dingil-Tepe, Katta,
Khudzha-Ishan, Varakhsha, and others) yielded material relating
to the period from the eighth to the twelfth centuries of our era, and
some mounds which are directly adjacent to the oasis were attributed
to the sixteenth-eighteenth centuries.
Excavations were begun on the site of Varakhsha, which was one
of the residences of the country’s rulers, the Bukhar-Khudats, situated
102 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
in the desert 12 km. west of the modern oasis. Excavations were
concentrated on the ruins of a large building located on the western
side of the citadel which was attributed to the fourth and fifth cen-
turies of our era. This building was constructed of large unburnt
bricks. Six rooms were cleared. A number of fragments of stucco
carving, marked by various ornamental motifs and diverse methods
of execution, were found in the piles of building rubbish which filled
one of the rooms. In general, these are carvings in low relief, con-
sisting of geometric and stylized floral ornament, including meanders,
rosettes, palmettes of rhombics and crosses, in a geometric pattern.
There were also some high-relief carvings, which often merged into
sculpture proper. This method was used for depicting different
themes and for realistic treatment, such as birds, fish, fantastic beings,
a winged horse, a bird with a female head and breast, a male torso,
fragments of human figures, trunks of large trees with branches and
carved leaves.
A large room with wide clay benches was unearthed in the central
part of the building. Traces of a unique distemper painting on clay
plaster were found on one of the walls of this room. The wall was
divided into two horizontal parts by a cornice. Above the cornice on
a vivid red-ocherous background were figures of animals shown mov-
ing toward the left: deer, tiger, panther, and horse. The upper part
of the picture has not been preserved. Hunting scenes were depicted
on the portion beneath the cornice: first come the drivers dressed in
short breeches and cloaks, mounted on white elephants; following
them are hunters armed with spears and bows. The elephants are
sumptuously outfitted in colored saddlecloths and harness. One of
the scenes depicts a hunter hurling his lance at a lion who has leapt
at him with fangs bared. In another episode a hunter has loosed his
arrow at a griffin. The lion is painted in orange-yellow and the griffin
in white colors. The contours of the figures are outlined in black and
brown; shadow planes and perspective are lacking but the firm paint-
ing and the bold strokes reveal the touch of an experienced master.
The colors have preserved their freshness, although many portions
of the human figures were obliterated as far back as ancient times.
This building, lavishly decorated in stucco work and paintings, is
identified with the palace of the Bukhar-Khudats, described by Mu-
hammad Narshakhi, a tenth-century historian, who wrote that this
palace, built more than a thousand years before his time, had been
repeatedly demolished and restored.
Simultaneously with the excavations of the palace, the expedition
carried out some trial trenches, the lower strata of which yielded
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 103
pottery and other finds dating approximately to the eve of our era,
resembling the material of Besh-Tepe and Aiak-Tepe. These dis-
coveries, including artificial irrigation structures, give reason to assert
that the territory investigated was a very populous area even before
the beginning of our era, and that on the extreme western portions
of the site ancient culture began to die out near the beginning of our
era, while the more eastern parts which lay higher in regard to the
irrigation systems and closer to the water supply—the Zarafshan
River—continued to exist up to the eighth-twelfth centuries.
The reasons for this decline can be found in the upheavals brought
about by the dissolution of the slave-owning society, the new feudal
aspects of social relations and the resultant neglect of the important
irrigation system, all of which was supplemented by the intensive
advance of the sands of Kizil-Kum on the Bukhara Oasis.
[Angi-IUI Expedition—This expedition continued investigations
at Kaunchi-Tepe and also began excavations of the tumuli located
nearby. This group of barrows, consisting of about 1,000 burials,
spreads over a distance of several kilometers on the watershed between
the Chirchik and Boz-Su Rivers. The barrows are of various sizes,
from 0.4 to 5.0 m. in height and 8 to 30 m. in diameter. Twelve barrows
were cleared, all of which, judging by the grave furniture, refer to
three epochs.
A typical flexed burial was found in one of the cleared barrows,
about 0.5 m. in height and 8.0 m. in diameter. A child’s body was
found at a depth of 0.8 m. in an oval-shaped pit, the head pointing
east-southeast. The skeleton was lying on its right side, arms bent at
the elbows, the wrists placed under the head; traces of violet-colored
paint were found on the soles of the feet. At the head of the skeleton
there was a flat-bottomed, wide-necked vessel, hand-made and very
slightly fired, 12 cm. high, 13.5 cm. in diameter at the neck, and 9 cm.
at the base. The burial ritual and the modeling and form of the vessel
date the barrow in the late Bronze Age. Tumuli of this type are well
known in the southern part of the R.S.F.S.R. and in the Ukraine,
but this was the first example of Uzbekistan.
Another type of burial was represented in one of the barrows,
where a group interment was found. The skeletons were lying a tergo,
arms extended along the body, and legs thrown widely apart. Pottery,
differing both in form and decoration from that found in the first
barrow, was found near the skeletons. Narrow-necked vessels with
a single handle or none at all, flat plates and jugs almost pear-shaped
in form, were discovered here. The jug handles were often fashioned
in the form of cowslips. None of these vessels was made on the
104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
potter’s wheel, but they were all hard-fired. Several of them, for
example, the jugs, were coated on the outside with red engobé. This
type of pottery was often met in large numbers on the Kaunchi-Tepe
site, in those strata which G. V. Grigorev refers to the middle of the
first millennium before our era.
The remaining excavated barrows all refer to a single culture. The
burials were placed in catacombs, the floor of which was from 2.5 to
3.5 m. below the surface. The average dimensions of the catacombs
were: length, 2.5 m.; width, 1.5 m.; and height, 1.5 m.
The catacombs were rectangular with vaulted ceilings. A dromos
from 3.85 to 5.0 m. long, and 1.5 to I.9 m. wide in its upper part,
led down from the surface to the catacombs. At a depth of approxi-
mately 1.5 m., two or three stepped projections from 0.4 to 0.7 m.
wide were found along the main and sometimes along the end walls
of the dromos, which correspondingly diminished in size. An open-
ing at the lower end of the dromos led to the catacombs. This open-
ing was about 0.8 m. high, 1.0 m. wide and about 0.5 m. deep. Some-
times the opening was closed with unburnt bricks. Most of the burials
in the catacombs contained male and female figures. The skeletons
lay stretched out on their backs with the heads pointing north. The
grave furniture included the following weapons:
(a) Straight, double-edged iron swords, with narrow shafts at
the end for wooden hilts, the length of the blade being about 0.8 or
0.9 m., the shaft for the hilt from 0.1 to 0.13 m. long, and the width
of the sword about 4 cm.
(b) Double-edged iron daggers, very massive, from 15 to 20 cm.
long and about 4 cm. wide, the remains of wooden scabbards to be
found on the swords and daggers.
(c) Triple-faceted iron arrows with shafts, and bone facings of
bows.
Lying alongside the female skeletons were found a bronze mirror
with a handle sheath at the side, the bone top of a back-comb deco-
rated with small carved heads, a bronze arbalest-shaped fibula ring,
a bronze bell, bronze wire earrings, a round bead of blue glass, and
other objects.
Among the domestic articles the following may be noted: small
iron knives with thick butts 8 to 10 cm. in size; earthenware pottery
pitchers with a single handle or without handles; and saddle flasks,
flat on one side. The pottery had been fashioned on a potter’s wheel,
hard-fired, and traces of purplish-red paint could be seen on the flasks.
These tumuli were attributed to the third and fourth centuries of
our era.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 105
Ferghana Expedition—tThis expedition was undertaken in 1939
and had as its objective archeological supervision of the construction
site of the Stalin Great Ferghana Canal. Ferghana, the wealth of
which was well known to ancient Chinese writers who knew it under
the name of Davin, had never been investigated. In view of the ex-
tremely sparse archeological data on the Ferghana region, the organi-
zation of work on a large scale promised to be of great interest.
Archeological supervision was established over the entire 270-kilo-
meter course of the canal, which intersects the Ferghana region from
end to end, from Uch-Kurgan to Kani-badam. Numerous trips were
made through the territory lying off the main course of the canal, and
in this way a large part of the region was covered by a compact net-
work of scouting parties. Excavation work during the building of the
canal unearthed several ancient settlements and tribal sites, burials,
and artifacts.
Much material was gathered by the reconnaissance parties. These
finds for the most part precede the Arab conquest. Among the coins,
some hitherto unknown, was a copper coin of the Greek-Bactrian
ruler Heliocles dating to the middle of the second century before our
era. The scientific purport of these coins is especially great in that
they directly coincide with archeological complexes and with definite
geographical points. Among the mass of artifacts of various strata,
the ancient complex is especially striking since it is found on the
entire territory investigated and should be referred to the second half
of the first millennium before our era.
Grain grinders were found in this complex, crude hand-fashioned
pottery, pitcherlike vessels, flat dishes, jugs with handles in the form
of cowslips coated in red engobé, burnished pottery with incised
ornament, stone pestles and mortars. The dense distribution of
archeological remains throughout the investigated territory and the
great extent of the cultural strata of the ancient settlements make
them worthy of particular study. In addition to the sites found directly
on the course of the canal, 92 adjacent sites were registered. An
unbroken cultural stratum stretches for a distance of 8 kilometers from
Lugumbek to the settlement of Tiuiachi.
These facts confirm the evidence of ancient Chinese sources con-
cerning the wealth and highly developed agriculture of Davin, which
characterize it as a region with a large agricultural population, famous
for its splendid horses, wine distilleries, rice and wheat crops, and
numerous cities.
Parties following special routes to the north of the canal into the
sands of Kuduk-Kum, lying in the center of the Ferghana region,
106 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
found numerous remains of ancient settlements, the material from
which can be dated to the end of the first millennium before our era
and the first centuries of our era.
SOGHDIANA
Grigorev *? has summarized the results of excavations since 1936
of a series of Soghdian sites in the Zarafshan Valley. The explora-
tion by Grigorev and J. A. Sukharev in the Samarkand area, which
covered an area of 200 square kilometers between Samarkand and
Zarafshan, disclosed the remains of several dozen ancient settlements.
The sites of the most ancient period are in the form of a square sur-
rounded by buildings, with a high central hill in the middle of the
square. All these settlements were located in a now waterless steppe
on the banks of dry streams. The most extensive excavations were
carried on during 1936-1939 at Tali Barzu, now identified with ancient
Riwdad. At this site six cultural strata, from the second quarter of
the first millennium B. C. to the beginning of the eighth century A. D.,
have been identified.
The earliest stratum, referred to as Tali Barzu I, contained pottery
of the type known from various sites in Iran and Turkestan at the
beginning of the third millennium B. C. This refers mainly to the
stemmed red matte engobé vases from Tepe Hissar and Anau. Other
finds included skewer rests ornamented with ram’s heads and archaic
female figurines dressed in long robes, trousers, high boots, and with
“Scythian” caps (probably bnahita).
Tali Barzu II, attributed to the fifth-sixth centuries B. C., was
connected with the large fortified building occupying the entire area of
the site, or building complex, containing at least 500 rooms. The
outer rooms of the apartment served as the city wall. The corners
were fortified with multiple towers. A citadel with loopholes was in
the center of the complex.
Pottery with ribbon ornament and also with handles depicting
animals appears for the first time. Of particular interest were the
numerous figurines, some dressed in the typical “Scythian” costume,
others in mantles with false sleeves flung over the shoulders (cf.
kuseu in Afghanistan), and finally in the costume of the Medes (cf.
figurines of a king or satrap in crenelated crown and long robe,
reminiscent of the Achemenid kings depicted on the seals in the
De Clercq collection).
The later periods of Tali Barzu were not as rich in finds. Tali
22 Grigorev, G. V., in Kratkie Soobshcheniia, No. 6, pp. 24-34.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 107
Barzu III belongs to the period following Alexander’s conquest, and
includes objects showing Greek influence and Greco-Bactrian coins,
replacing those with Achemenid influence.
Tali Barzu IV, attributed to the period from the first century B. C.
to the second century A. D., is associated with the invasions of the
nomads from western China and Yuechi in the northern part of Cen-
tral Asia. The few finds are of significance because of the lack of any
written sources regarding Soghdiana during this period.
Totally different building techniques were used during recon-
struction of the large Achemenid buildings. Of special interest were
several Buddhist images, an inscribed sherd reported to be the earliest
known sample of Soghdian writing, the effigy of an equestrian deity,
and a hoard of 20 silver coins resembling those attributed to the
reign of Antiochus by Allotte de la Fouye, but with a Soghdian legend
on the obverse and probably struck in Soghdiana at the end of the
first century B. C.
The settlement was destroyed during the period of the Ephthalite
domination, third-fifth centuries A. D., but came back to life during
the Turkish conquest in the sixth century (Tali Barzu V). A thick
city wall was constructed during this period, and a building of very
large slabs of clay was erected upon the central mound. The finds,
characterized by Sasanian types of ornamentation both in metal and
clay, are much better illustrated from two other sites, Kafiz-Kala and
Varakhsh. In the former many coins of Chinese type with square
perforation but with Soghdian inscriptions have also been found. The
latter, in Bukhara Oasis, contained the ruins of a palace decorated
with a magnificent alabaster frieze depicting human beings, plants,
animals, birds, and fishes. Subsequent excavations at Varakhsh have
disclosed a fresco upon the wall of a palace or temple depicting a
procession of animals and a hunting scene ** with an Indian [?]
king hunting elephants and griffins. The type of painting, like that
of the sculpture at Varakhsh, is more closely reminiscent of Indian
than of Persian art.
Tali Barzu VI (end of seventh—beginning of eighth century
A. D.) is contemporaneous with the famous Mount site, discovered
by Freimann. Glazed pottery appears for the first time during this
period of Arabian conquest, and several coins of the Soghdian King
Tarkhun (ante A. D. 710).
Bernshtam ** summarizes the results of recent excavations by the
23Cf. frescoes in a villa near Ctesiphon (Iraq) described by Ammianus
Marcellinus.
24From a report by A. N. Bernshtam in Kratkie Soobshcheniia, No. 6, pp.
34-42.
108 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL Lio
IIMK jointly with the Scientific Committee of the Kirghiz Republic
and the Kazakhstan Branch of the Academy of Sciences in this area
to the west of Chinese Turkestan. This area of the ancient nomads,
home of the animal style, was not mentioned in the documents col-
lected by Sir Aurel Stein and translated by H. Qeichelt, yet it is
known that the main caravan route from the west to Chinese Turk-
estan crossed the Jetty-Su (Seven Rivers) area and that consequently
some important results might be expected here.
The earliest influences from the west described from this area were
those from the Achemenid Empire (sixth-fourth centuries B. C.).
Bronze altars and lamps in the Hermitage Museum found in 1937
near Issyk-Kul, but as yet unpublished, belong to this period.
In the following period (fourth-second centuries B. C.) for a short
time there appear in the art of the nomads of the northern Tien Shan
foothills some elements of Greco-Bactrian art.25 However, these did
not affect permanently the art of the nomads, in which the ancient
“animal style” soon came back into its own. The Greeks did not
penetrate this area, notwithstanding W. Tarn’s claims to the contrary,
and Greek influence was felt only by the way of commercial relations.
During the beginning of the present era new influences from closer
at hand replace those of the more distant areas.
A polished wheel-made ware, totally different from the pottery
of the nomads, appears (cf. Kenkol and Berkkarin burial grounds),
but it is still impossible to decide whether or not it came from Sogh-
diana or from the oases of eastern Turkestan. More significant, how-
ever, are the finds from the various gorodishches of this area.
Soghdian inventories are found in the lowest strata of Taraz
(Dzhambul) and Krasnaia Rechka. The finds include, associated with
pottery and terra cottas, a barbarian imitation of an eastern Roman
solidus of the fourth-fifth centuries. While it is still impossible to date
the finds from these strata, they definitely belong to the period
between the third and fifth centuries. Together with the typical traits
of the Soghdian culture, still retaining a strong influence of Greco-
Bactrian tradition, these objects also reveal the influences of the style
of eastern Turkestan.
In Soghdian tradition were a figurine of Anakhit (forming the
handle of a pot) from Taraz, and an oinochoe of Central Asian type.
A modeling mold for a masculine head had a Grecian profile and a
general resemblance to Gandharan art; the only known analogy to
it are the heads of rulers on Greco-Bactrian coins.
25 Cf. Wusun burials described by M. Voevodskii and M. P. Griaznov, Vestnik
Drevnei Istorii, No. 2, p. 3, 1938.
;
NO. I3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 109
The first agrarian settlements in this area (Krasnaia Rechka site)
are isolated fortified houses of unbaked brick, two or three stories
high, of long parallel apartments (1.5 x 2.0 x 8.0m.) with flat roofs.
These are attributed to the period before the seventh century. At
Krasnaia Rechka these buildings were ruined and upon them were
Zoroastrian burials, of the seventh-eighth centuries. Bernshtam, who
disagrees with the first-century B. C. dating for comparable Soghdian
finds from eastern Turkestan by Sir Aurel Stein, attributes them to
the fifth or sixth century. According to Bernshtam the colonization
activities of Soghdiana were not begun until the period of the third-
fifth centuries (‘“‘the first period of Soghdian colonization in the
Jetty-Su’’). During this period Soghdian colonies were still isolated
culturally and economically in the midst of the Jetty-Su nomads.
From the end of the seventh century the cultural influence of
Soghdiana increased both in volume and significance, in crafts as
well as in fine arts. A Soghdian version of the favorite Sasanian
decorative motif, a dotted circle filled with either a pictorial or orna-
mental subject, is encountered in a series of sites, in Mongolia (Tola),
Kirghizia (Ak Peshin), and Altai (Katanda). One of the examples
combined the Sasanian dotted circle with a Chinese ornamental lotus
in the center. Quite possibly the imitations of Sasanian platters,
obtained by the Saian-Altai Expedition near Yenisei should be
attributed to the Soghdian craftsmen living among the nomads.
Soghdian influences on the pottery of this period from Kazakhstan
and Kirghizia have been described by Bernshtam (Vestnik Drevnei
Istorii, No. 4, 1939).
A contributing factor here may have been a second mass migration
of the Soghdians, particularly from Bukhara, during the seventh
century. To this period belongs the founding of the typical Mawer-
annahran towns with citadel, shahristan and rabat, in the valleys of
the Chu and Talas Rivers in the northern foothills of the Tien Shan.
This movement continued during the Arabian conquest of the Jetty-Su
during the first half of the eighth century.
To this period belongs the spread of Soghdian writing in this area,
and its use for the local Turkish dialect. The oldest examples of
Uigurian writing, in Soghdian characters, are the so-called Turgesh
coins of the eighth century.
During the ninth century Soghdian culture begins to disappear,
and in the Jetty-Su area it become a component part of the culture
of Turkish nomads, after the assimilation of Soghdians by the Turkish
population. According to Muhammad of Kashgar, the Soghdians
adopted the clothes and manners of the Turks, from Balasagun to
{10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Ispindzhab the inhabitants spoke both Soghdian and Turkish, and
there were left no people who spoke only Soghdian.
Summary.—Period I (third-sixth centuries) did not result in the
assimilation of the Soghdians by the local Turkish populations. The
Soghdians engaged in commercial relations with the Turks, but there
was no organic intertwining of the Soghdian culture with that of
the local nomads.
Period II (from the end of the sixth century) is connected with
the emigrations from Bukhara. At the same time this was a period
of assimilation of the Soghdians with the Turkish nomads, resulting
in complete dissolution of Soghdian culture in the culture of the
nomads. This process was completed by the end of the ninth century.
Most recent archeological investigations reveal that the second wave
of colonization was less “pure” than the first.
Together with the Soghdians in this colonization participated
Christian Syrians.¢
Kircuiz S.S.R.27
In Frunze [formerly Pishpek] the Kirghiz Museum of National
Culture is under construction. Designed by V. Variuzhskii in the
shape of a large yurt, the building will be decorated with white
marble, majolica work, wood and marble carvings, and colorful
national ornaments. The exhibits will trace the history of Kirghizia
and will include cultural memorials and works of art. About 3,000
persons will be able to visit the Museum at the same time.
A windowless effect is attained by covering the exterior with a
protruding diagonal latticework into whose diamond-shaped open-
ings panes of glass are set. Thus, with the circular glass cupola
sufficient light filters through into the building.
SIBERIA
Kauaxass A.S.S.R.
During 1940 while a highway was under construction a slice was
cut off a small hill near the Power Collective Farm, 8 kilometers from
Abakan, revealing the ruins of a house. On closer study the find
proved to be the remains of an ancient Chinese house dating back to
the period of the Han Dynasty, approximately the first century B. C.
26 Borisov, A. IA., Syrian inscriptions from Taraz. Izvestia of Kazakhstan
Branch of the Academy of Sciences. [In press.]
27 This summary is based on an article by Nina Riazantseva in the Moscow
News, June 1, 1046.
NO. [3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY——FIELD Ill
Excavations started in 1941 by an expedition sponsored jointly by
the State Museum of History, the Institute of the History of Material
Culture (IIMK), and the Khakass Language and Literature Re-
search Institute, were interrupted by the war. Resumed during 1945
under the supervision of Lydia Evtiukhova, with Sergei Kiselev,
Barbara Levasheva, archeologist of the Minusinsk Museum, and other
scientists participating, the excavations have yielded some interesting
results. Parts of the adobe walls of the building up to 2.0 m. high are
still intact. Under the floor run the flues of a central hot-air heating
system in the form of channels lined and covered with stone slabs.
Although the central heating system serviced the entire building, it
was evidently not always adequate in the rigorous Siberian winter
conditions, for traces of braziers are still visible on the adobe floors of
several of the rooms.
The building was roofed with thick rectangular tiles alternating
with narrow curved strips covering the gaps between, giving an un-
dulating effect.
The strips jutted out beyond the eaves, terminating in circular
ends bearing inscriptions in Chinese. Translated by Academician
Alekseev from stamped impressions made on moist clay, these in-
scriptions read: “To the son of heaven (i.e., the Emperor) 10,000
years of peace, and to her (i.e., the Empress) whom we wish 1,000
autumns of unclouded happiness.”
On the outside the-walls of the buildings were faced with square
bricks decorated with a fir-tree design.
After 2 years of excavations it has at last been possible to recon-
struct the plan of this interesting building. In the center was a large
hall with a floor space of 140 sq. m. from which smaller rooms, 28 to
30 sq. m. in size, opened. On the northern and southern sides the
rooms were laid out in two rows, and on the eastern and western sides,
in one row. Before the building is completely excavated it is hard
to say exactly how many of these rooms there were, but in all prob-
ability there were about 20 of them.
The plan of the house and the character of the ancient Chinese
architecture make it possible to establish that the building was covered
by a triple roof with an extra tier over the tallest part of the building,
above the central hall.
Hollows are still visible within the walls in each room where
columns stood that supported the heavy tile roof.
In the course of excavation, frames from the doors between the
Trooms were discovered. Beside three doors inside the central hall
were found massive bronze handles in the shape of fantastic horned
I1I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
genii—the guardians of the entrance—with human faces but animal
ears and bovine horns, side whiskers and curled whiskers, and mus-
taches. Through the nostrils of the hooked noses passed the ring
which served as the door handle. The facial features of the gargoyles
are of European cast suggesting local workmanship.
Other finds included iron axes, spears, clamps, jade pendants and
a jade saucer, a gold earring, bronze buckles, clasps, fragments of a
pot, and diverse other objects and ornaments.
The plan of the building itself and the finds brought to light among
its ruins indicate that Chinese craftsmen built the structure and that
Chinese undoubtedly lived in it. All that remains to be established
about this building that differs so markedly from all the other dwel-
lings of the time situated on the territory of the Minusinsk basin is
to whom it belonged. It is possible that these are the remains of a
trading post of Chinese merchants who in the Han epoch penetrated
deep into the land of the “northern barbarians.”
There is, however, one detail in the history of ancient Khakassia
mentioned by Chinese chroniclers that evokes special interest in con-
nection with these ruins.
In the year 99 B. C. during the fierce battles that marked the period
of energetic expansion of the Han empire at the end of the second
and beginning of the first century. B. C., Li Hwan-li, a renowned
Chinese general, suffered a defeat in battle against the nomadic tribes
in the north. Surrounded by superior enemy forces he lost some
7,000 in killed and was forced to flee. His grandson Li-Ling, famed
for his skill in archery, came to his assistance with 5,000 infantrymen,
but he also had to retreat after a bloody engagement. Seeing that
further resistance was useless, Li-Ling ordered his men to save
themselves, while he himself surrendered. His captors treated Li-Ling
with the respect due to his rank and gave him land in the “khyagas”
estate inhabited by the ancestors of the present Khakass. He settled
in these parts and eventually married the daughter of the nomad
chieftain.
Up to the ninth century A. D., according to Chinese chronicles,
the Khakass deferred to the descendants of Li-Ling.
Since it is unlikely that the Chinese general would have made his
abode in a local yurt or modest wooden dwelling and since there were
sufficient Chinese laborers to be found among the refugees and war
prisoners, it is quite probable that he built himself a palatial dwelling
in Chinese style.
During 1946 Soviet archeologists continued excavation of the ruins
of the Chinese palace. |
V. MISCELLANEA ANTHROPOLOGICA
INTRODUCTION
This report, which has been delayed by World War II, is based on
results obtained by Soviet physical anthropologists together with
observations recorded in the Soviet Union during September and
October, 1934, by Henry Field, while leader of the Field Museum
Anthropological Expedition to the Near East, financed by Marshall
Field.
At the conclusion of the compilation of anthropometric data in Iraq
and Iran the members of this expedition, then reduced to the leader
and Richard A. Martin, later Curator of Near Eastern Archaeology
at Field Museum of Natural History,’ crossed the Caspian Sea to
enter the Union of Soviet Socialists Republics at Baku on September
13, 1934.
Their journey took them by train to Tbilisi [formerly Tiflis] ; by
automobile over the Georgian Military Highway to Daudzikau
{formerly Vladikavkaz and Ordzhonikidze]; by train to Rostov,
Kharkov, and Dnieproges; by automobile to Dnepropetrovsk; and by
train to Kiev, Moscow, and Leningrad.
In order to add a link to the series of anthropometric data from
Southwestern Asia, in Tbilisi 50 male Yezidis and in Ordzhonikidze
107 males and 50 females from North Osetia were measured, observed,
and photographed. In addition, 20 skulls from a tomb in the Dar-
gavskaia Valley near Koban were measured and photographed. In
the Osetian Museum at Ordzhonikidze 19 deformed skulls from a site
near Nalchik were also examined.
These data, together with photographs by Mr. Martin, will appear
under the title “Contributions to the Anthropology of the Caucasus,”
by Henry Field.
Before the expedition left Chicago, Wallace Murray, Chief of the
Near East Division of the Department of State, had been advised of
the proposed itinerary. As a result Ambassador William H. Bullitt in
Moscow had requested a special entry permit at Baku. The Academy
of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. and the All-Union Society for Cultural
Relations with Foreign Countries (VOKS) were also asked to assist
them in any manner within their power.
During their visit to branches of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences,
1In 1943 changed to Chicago Natural History Museum.
113
II4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
museums, and scientific institutions they were accorded every hos-
pitality and facility for the examination and study of collections as
well as an opportunity to discuss anthropological and archeological
problems with the members of each scientific staff.
After returning to Chicago, Henry Field kept in touch with many
of these Soviet scientists, who have forwarded to him, in Russian or
in English, summaries of their own research work or that of their
colleagues. In collaboration with Eugene Prostov as translator, more
than 50 archeological summaries have been published ? since 1935.
The compilation of summaries of anthropometric data obtained
recently by Soviet physical anthropologists has proved a far harder
task, but perhaps one that is no less valuable to those who study the
ancient and modern racial problems of Asia and their impacts on
America, Europe, and Africa.
Soviet literature in the libraries of Field Museum of Natural His-
tory and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago was
examined by Eugene Prostov, who selected passages for inclusion
and supervised the transliterations and the spelling of place names.
Dr. Alexander Sushko, formerly of the University of Chicago,
generously assisted with the translation of part of Ginzburg’s anthro-
pometric data.
The general arrangement of the articles, each of which must be
treated as a separate entity, will be found in the contents.
Throughout the Soviet Union standardized abbreviations for
scientific institutions have been introduced and for this reason a list
must be appended.
The following abbreviations have been used in this report:
TAZA. ies cit ate thas ative A Min os Antropologicheskii Zhurnal [Anthropological Jour-
nal. Quarterly, edited by M. S. Plisetskii].
GOSSTADISTIRA “sieves. Gosudarstvennoe Statisticheskoe upravlenie, cur-
rently Tsentralnoe Statisticheskoe upravlenie [De-
partment of Statistics].
ACTER eet Nazar Menino mie ces Institut Antropologii i Etnografii [Institute of
Anthropology and Ethnography of the State
Academy of Sciences], Leningrad.
PTE oeterewsterateke ais oyeieietexccose sors Institut Istorii Materialnoi Kultury, Akademiia
Nauk [Historical Institute of Material Culture of
the U.S.S.R., Academy of Sciences, since summer of
1937; formerly GAIMK], Leningrad.
2In the American Anthropologist, American Journal of Archaeology, Ameri-
can Journal of Physical Anthropology, American Journal of Semitic Languages
and Literatures, American Review of the Soviet Union, Antiquity, Ars Islamica,
Asia, Gazette des Beaux-Arts, and Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. For
references see p. 66, footnotes 1 and 2.
NO. 13 ; SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 115
OS Cee Cee Moskovskii Gosudarstvennyi Universitet [State
University], Moscow.
WS OR eee Ukrainska Akademiia Nauk [Ukrainian Academy
of Sciences, formerly VUAN, later ANU], Kiev.
tcl Ses de eines Upravlenie Nauchnykh i Khudozhertvennykh
Upravlenii [Russian S.F.S.R. Bureau of Scientific
and Artistic Institutions of the Commissariat of
Education].
Sees LARIS'\........ Uzbekistankii Komitet po Okhrane Pamiatnikoy
Stariny i Iskusstva [Uzbekistan Committee for the
Preservation of Monuments of Antiquity and Art],
currently known as Uzbekistanskii Komitet po
Okhrane i Izucheniiu Pamiatnikov Materialnoi Kul-
tury [Uzbekistan Committee for the Preservation
and Study of Monuments of Material Culture],
Tashkent.
SREDAZKOMSTARIS ..Sredne Aziatskii Komitet po Okhrane Pamiatnikoy
Stariny i Iskusstva [Central Asiatic Committee for
the Preservation of Monuments of Antiquity and
Art], Tashkent.
Se Vsesoiuznoe Obshchestvo Kulturnykh Snoshenii
[All-Union Society for Cultural Relations with
Foreign Countries], Moscow.
While all scientific research is under the supervision of the Academy
of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., the greater part of all archeological work
is done by IAE, IIMK, UAN, and local governmental bodies for the
Study and Preservation of Ancient Monuments, such as UZKOM-
STARIS and SREDAZKOMSTARIS.
Physical anthropologists are attached to these museums and insti-
tutions. There is assembled under M. Plisetskii, Director of MGU,
an excellent staff including G. F. Debets, V. V. Bunak, and, until
his death in Turkestan during 1937, A. I. IArkho. In the museum
of MGU there are some of the best anthropological exhibits, study
collections, and research facilities.
Throughout this report * the names of physical anthropologists are
given in parentheses to indicate the group with whom they worked,
e.g., Uzbeks (Vishnevskii).
All words in brackets have been inserted by the editors in order to
elucidate the text.
8 Henry Field attended as a guest the Jubilee Session of the 220th Anniversary
of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. from June 15-July 6, 1045, in
Moscow and Leningrad. He accompanied 15 United States scientists on this
mission. During 4 weeks he obtained recent information on Soviet anthropology
116 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE WESTERN PAMIRS
Ginzburg * undertook to edit unpublished anthropological data col-
lected by N. V. Bogoiavlenskii (d. 1930) during his Central Asian
Expedition, 1898-1901, and now in the Moscow University Institute
of Anthropology. This report includes some measurements on 554
adult males from the regions of Matcha, Karategin, Darvaz, and the
western Pamirs (Rushan, Shugnan, Goran, Ishkashim, and Vakhan).
The latter area was formerly part of the Khanate of Bukhara, now a
portion of the Mountainous Badakhshan Autonomous Region.
The population of the western Pamirs belongs to the eastern branch
of the Iranian peoples, and is subdivided into a number of isolated
ethnic groups living in narrow mountain valleys and gorges. In
addition to their native tongues, these people use the Tajik [Tadzhik]
languages. Their material culture is very close to that of the Mountain
Tajiks.
The anthropology of this area was first studied by Maslovskii ®
during 1895-1899. A decade later came Shults,® whose measurements
were discounted by Ginzburg. Then followed Zarubin,’ who pub-
lished only a small part of his data, and Joyce,® who published Sir
Aurel Stein’s figures.
Joyce considers that the Vakhan Tajiks are the “average” type for
this region, and that they are “pure representatives of the Alpine
type.” Ginzburg disagrees with this classification, and points out
that Joyce’s figures do not correspond with other descriptions of the
Alpine type, such as that of Collignon.®
L. V. Oshanin, leader of the expedition from the Uzbek Institute
and archeology which will form the basis for summaries to be published later.
However, when he left in October 1947 to join the University of California
African Expedition, these publications were turned over to Dr. Hallam Movius,
Peabody Museum, Harvard.
4 Ginzburg, V. V., Antropologicheskii sostav naseleniia zapadnogo Pamira
[The anthropological composition of the population of the western Pamirs ac-
cording to N. V. Bogoiavlenskii’s data]. AZH, No. 1, 91-114, 1937.
5 Maslovskii, S., Galcha [Galchas]. AZH, No. 2, pp. 17-32, r9or.
6 Shults, P., Zur Kentniss der arischen Bevolkerung des Pamirs. Orien-
talisches Archiv, Leipzig, vol. 11, 1912, and Landeskundliche Forschungen im
Pamir, Hamburg, 10916.
7 Zarubin, I. I., Materialy i Zametki po etnographii gornykh Tadzhikov, Dolina
Bartanga [Materials and notes on the ethnography of the Mountain Tajiks,
Bartang Valley]. Sbornik, Mus. Anthrop. and Ethnogr. U.S.S.R. Acad. Sci.,
Leningrad, I917.
8 Joyce, T. A., Note on the physical anthropology of the Pamirs and Amu
Darya Basin. Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., vol. 56, London, 1926.
® Collignon, R., Mem. Soc. d’Anthrop., Paris, 1899.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 117
of Experimental Medicine in 1935, published his report subsequent
to Ginzburg’s article.
In his preliminary report Bogoiavlenskii *° distinguishes four an-
thropological types, usually present as a more or less heterogeneous
mixture:
1. The principal type into which the others resolve appears to be
closely akin to the Persian. This type is described as being brachy-
cephalic, of medium to tall stature, with straight or convex nose,
well-developed beard, and intensive pigmentation.
2. The “Semitic” type is relatively short, with a narrow face, thin
lips, a convex nose, and dark pigmentation.
3. This type, which is rarer, is brachycephalic, of medium stature,
with a light reddish beard, a straight nose, and light or mixed eyes.
4. This type is characterized by a still darker pigmentation, thick
lips, and a very broad nose.
Bogoiavlenskii did not find any Armenoids.
He accounts for these various types not through isolation but as a
result of the migration and mixture of various groups, following the
_ theory according to which the Iranian populations were pushed into
the mountains by Turkish and Arab tribes.
According to Bogoiavlenskii the basic anthropological type came
from Iran; the light type from Badakhshan; and dolichocephalic ele-
ments of the southwestern Pamirs are the remains of the Siyakhpush,
who once inhabited this region. The population of central Darvaz
came from the IAkh-Su River, i.e., from western Darvaz. Bogoiav-
lenskii bases his conclusions chiefly on the local traditions. His failure
to find any “Aryan” elements among the inhabitants of the Pamirs
is important.
The following regional variations of physical measurements were
recorded by Bogoiavlenskii :
Stature—Ranges from medium to medium tall with the tallest in
Shugnan (168.7) and the shortest in Darvaz (164.52). The distri-
bution in the Darvaz area agrees with the figures given by Joyce:
lowest in the Vakhio Valley and in the middle section of Piandzh,
increasing southward toward Rushan.
Head length—Medium ; equal in Karategin, Darvaz, and Rushan,
decreasing in Shugnan, becoming less in the southwestern Pamirs.
These figures also agree with those obtained by Joyce.
Head breadth—Medium; lowest in Darvaz. Regional variations
agree with Stein’s measurements, but his figures are slightly lower.
10 Bogoiavlenskii, N. V., Verkhoviak reki Amu Dari [At the headwaters of
the Amu Darya]. Zemlevedenie, 1901.
118 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Head height.—Great. No comparison possible, as various methods
were used in 1901 and 1808.
Cephalic index —Ranges from brachycephalic to hyperbrachyce-
phalic; decreasing from Karategin to Darvaz; approaching mesoce-
phalic in the Piandzh Valley; and increasing southward, from Vanch
to the southwestern Pamirs, where it becomes hyperbrachycephalic.
This also agrees with figures obtained by Joyce.
Three cephalic index groups were distinguished by Ginzburg;
KKarategin and the southwestern Pamirs having the largest percentage
of hyperbrachycephals; in Darvaz, mesocephaly predominates, the
brachycephals being second; in Shugnan and Rushan brachycephals
predominate, and are followed by hyperbrachycephals. Dolichocephals
are numerically strongest in Darvaz and Rushan (Io percent).
Face height-—Greatest in Karategin; decreases in Darvaz.
Face breadth—Medium to narrow; least in Karategin.
Facial index.—Varies within the range of leptoprosopy; broadest
in Darvaz.
Ginzburg distinguishes four typical regional groups:
1. Darvaz.—Short in stature; lowest cephalic index, bordering on
mesocephaly (because of sharp decrease of head breadth) ; low and
relatively broad face; shorter and wider nose.
2. Shugnan.—Tall in stature; high cephalic index; high, fairly
broad face ; long, narrow nose.
3. Southwestern Panurs (Goran, Ishkashim, Vakhan).—Stature
much less than in Shugnan; highest cephalic index; face and nose
long and narrow; pigmentation as in Shugnan.
4. Karategin (and, partly, Matcha).—Stature slightly higher than
Darvaz; cephalic index as great as in Shugnan because of increase
of breadth; high, medium broad face of narrow form; darkest pig-
mentation of eyes and hair.
These groups correspond with Ginzburg’s other data and those
described by Joyce.
Ginzburg does not agree with Joyce’s definition of the Rushan type
as “the pure original type” and considers it to be a transitional stage
between the Mountain Tajiks and the tribes of the western Pamirs.
Bogoiavlenskii also measured some Tajiks and Arabs in the [Akh-
Su Valley.
The Tajiks are tall (168.0), with a higher cephalic index than in
central Darvaz, a narrow face and a narrow, long nose, and intensive
head and beard pigmentation. The Arabs from [Akh-Su Valley have
practically become assimilated with the Tajiks both in language and
in culture. Physically, they are shorter (165.6), with a longer and
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY——-FIELD 119
narrower face, a broader nose, and more intensive dark pigmentation
of the eyes.
Bogoiavlenskii also measured seven Afghans, from the left bank of
Piandzh in the Afghan portion of Darvaz. This group is very close
to the Tajiks from the right bank of the Piandzh, having an average
stature of 160.5 and a cephalic index of 80.0.
Summary.—The population of the western Pamirs is relatively
homogeneous, belonging to the short-headed Europeoid type referred
to by Bogoiavlenskii as the Pamiro-Europeoid type, to which the
Tajiks of Darvaz and Karategin belong.
This anthropological type is characterized by medium stature;
brachycephaly with relatively small absolute skull dimensions ; a rather
long face with a narrow, strongly protruding nose, dark pigmentation
of hair and eyes, and a well-developed beard.
Bogoiavlenskii has found local variations of this type among which
the peoples of Darvaz, who are characterized by a lower cephalic
index bordering on brachy-mesocephaly, are to be found at one ex-
treme, while the Shugnani, who are taller and possess a higher ce-
phalic index bordering on hyperbrachycephaly, occupy the other.
Local variations depend on concentration of genes, the latter being
due to considerable isolation in this district, where but slight contact
exists between adjacent regions.
Anthropological data serve to refute the existence of Nordic race
elements among the population of the Pamirs.
IRANIAN TRIBES OF THE WESTERN PAMIRS
During the summer of 1935 Oshanin ™* of the Medical Institute in
Tashkent obtained anthropometric data on some very small Iranian
tribes inhabiting the sources of the Amu-Darya, i.e., the Piandzh
and its tributaries the IAzgulem, Bartang, Gunt, and Shakhdara.
These Iranian dialects differ so much that the inhabitants of two
adjacent valleys cannot understand each other.
Among the tribes of the western Pamirs, often separated from each
other by inaccessible mountain ridges, Oshanin measured and ex-
amined 231 Shugni of the Shakhdara, Gunt, and Piandzh Valleys,
42 Rushani of the Piandzh Valley, 52 Wakhi from various villages
of Wakhan, 13 Bartangi of the Bartang Valley, and a few Ishkashmi
and Gorani.
Analysis of the anthropometric data reveals that these Iranian
11 Oshanin, L. V., Iranskie plemena zapadnogo Pamira [Iranian tribes of
the western Pamirs], text pp. 1-190, 25 plates, many maps, graphs and tables.
Inst. Exp. Med., Tashkent, 1937.
I20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL, IIO
tribes belong to the same racial group which is characterized by
brachycephalic brunets of medium stature.
This composite type, however, has probably been formed out of
different racial elements. The people of the Pamirs have not lived in
isolation. In order to solve the question of the racial structure of these
tribes it is therefore necessary to compare them with the surrounding
peoples.
During 1923-1934 Oshanin measured and observed 3,317 males
in Central Asia. Among some groups the measurements were ob-
tained by assistants under his supervision. Anthropometric data on
the following peoples and tribes are therefore directly comparable:
100 Kazakhs of Talas, too Kirghiz of the Issyk-Kul region, and 100
Kirghiz of Talas; 1,704 Uzbeks and Tajiks of the Duab; 505 Turko-
man tribesmen of the Transcaspian steppes; 433 Karategin Tajiks;
202 Jews, immigrants from Asia anterior in the tenth century ; and 53
Iranis (Persians), 56 Azerbaijanis, and 83 Baluchis, all immigrants
from adjacent regions of Iran.
Part of the material has been published,’* the remainder being now
in press or in preparation.
Oshanin has identified five racial types in Central Asia:
1. Predominant among the Uzbeks and Tajiks, inhabiting the
plains and foothills between the Amu-Darya and the Syr-Darya
12 Oshanin, L. V., Tysiacheletniaia davnost dolikhotsefalii u turkmen (opyt
obosnovaniia teorii Skifo-Sarmatskogo proiskhozhdeniia turkmenskogo naroda)
[A thousand years of dolichocephaly among the Turkomans; an attempt to
establish the foundations of a theory of a Scytho-Sarmatian origin of the Turko-
man people], SREDAZKOMSTARIS, Izvestia No. 1, Tashkent, 1926; Kirgizy
iuzhnogo poberezhiia Issyk-Kulia [The Kirghiz of the southern shore of the
Issyk-Kul], V. V. Bartoldu [to V. V. Barthold], Festschrift published by the
Society for the Study of Tajikistan and of the Iranian peoples outside its
boundaries, Tashkent, 1927; Uzbeki Khorezma [The Uzbeks of Khwarazm],
pts. I-II, Biu. Sredne Aziatskogo Universiteta [Bull. Centr. Asiatic Univ.],
No. 17 (1927) and No. 18 (1928); Nekotorye dopolneniia k gipoteze
Skifo-Sarmatskogo proiskhozhdeniia turkmen [Some supplementary data to-
ward the hypothesis regarding the Scytho-Sarmatian origin of Turkomans],
SREDAZKOMSTARIS, Izvestia No. 4, Tashkent, 1928; k sravnitelnoi antro-
pologii etnicheskikh grupp prishlykh iz Perednei Azii—Evreev i Arabov, i
etnicheskikh grupp Uzbekistana—Uzbekov i Tadzhikov [Contributions to the
comparative anthropology of the ethnic groups which have come out of
Vorderasien—Jews and Arabs, and of the ethnic groups of Uzbekistan—the
Uzbeks and the Tajiks], in Oshanin, L. V., and IAsevich, Materialy po antro-
pologii Uzbekistana [Materials for the anthropology of Uzbekistan], No. 1,
Tashkent-Samarkand, 1929; Pamirskaia antropologo—fiziologicheskaia eks-
peditsiia UZIEM [Physiological and Anthropological Expedition to the
Pamirs], Bull. UZIEM, No. 4, (5), Tashkent, 1936.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY——-FIELD I2I
basins, this type must certainly be regarded as belonging to the great
European ** race (Homo sapiens indo-europaeus). This group is
characterized by brachycephaly, medium stature, dark color of the
eyes and hair (typical brunets), moderate development of body hair,
and a rather small nose with a straight or sinuous bridge. In accord-
ance with the center of distribution area of this type Oshanin has
called this group “the Central Asiatic Duab” or “Homo sapiens indo-
europaeus, var. oxtano-jaxartensis.”
IArkho,** on the basis of data obtained by him in Central Asia
during 1928-1932, described the same racial type but gives it the
name “Pamiro-Ferghanic” (Homo sapiens indo-europaeus, var.
pamiro-ferghanica). Such an isolation of one and the same type by
two independent investigators confirms the reality of this type.
2. The second European type prevails largely among various Tur-
koman tribes inhabiting the Transcaspian steppes from the Caspian
Sea to Afghanistan and from the Amu-Darya to Khurasan. This
type, characterized by tall stature, dolichocephaly, and dark color of
the eyes and hair, has been called by Oshanin, after the center of the
area it occupies, “the Transcaspian race” (Homo sapiens indo-euro-
paeus, var. transcaspica).
IArkho, while isolating the same racial type on the basis of his own
data, defined its position among the dolichocephalic European races
more accurately, considering it as a variety of the Mediterranean race
and classing it within Fischer’s Oriental race (Homo sapiens indo-
europaeus, var. orientalis Fisch.).
3. The third European type is prevalent in the ethnic groups that
have immigrated into Central Asia from Khurasan and Persian
Azerbaijan, i.e., among the Persians, Iranian by their language, and
the Azerbaijanis, using Turki language. The characteristics of this
type are a medium stature, dolichocephaly, and dark eyes and hair.
From the tall dolichocephals of the Transcaspian steppes it differs
by much more abundant hair and “Assyroid” [of Western Asia]
nasal form. By the morphology of the nose and profusion of the hair
growth this type might be included among the Armenoids of Western
Asia, but it sharply differs from the latter by its well-pronounced
dolichocephaly. IArkho therefore separates it into a distinct type,
terming it “the Khurasan race” or “Homo sapiens indo-europaeus,
var. khurasanica.”
18 Throughout this section Oshanin has used the word “Europeoid” which we
have generally changed to “European.” (H. F.)
44 TArkho, A. I., Antropologicheskii sostay turetskikh narodnostei Azii. AZH,
No. 3, 1933.
9
I22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
4. The fourth European type was brought into Central Asia by
immigrants from Asia Anterior. This is the Armenoid type (Homo
sapiens indo-europaeus, var. armenica). In its purest form this type
occurs among Central Asiatic Jews. The brachycephalic Europeans
of Asia Anterior (Armenoids) are distinguished from those of the
Central Asiatic Duab region by more abundant hair and the typically
“Assyroid” form of the nose.
5. The fifth racial type is represented by typical Mongoloids (Homo
sapiens asiaticus). The Mongoloid type is markedly prevalent among
the Kirghiz and Kazakhs, who live mainly on the steppes and in the
Tien Shan to the north of the Syr-Darya. IArkho, basing his con-
clusions on his own extensive data obtained among Turki tribes of
the Saian-Altai mountain system, distinguishes the following two
varieties among the Mongoloids: the Central Asiatic (Homo sapiens
asiaticus, var. centralis) and the South Siberian (Homo sapiens asi-
aticus var. sibirica meridionalis). According to IArkho the latter
is predominant in Central Asia.
According to Oshanin a comparison between the Iranian tribes of
the western Pamirs and the peoples of Central Asia, Iran, and Asia
Anterior reveals that the former must be reckoned among the typical
Europeans of Central Asia. No Mongoloid features could be traced
among these Iranian tribes.
The European types inhabiting the Pamirs undoubtedly belong to
the brachycephalic Europeans of Central Asia, taking an intermediate
position between the Tajiks and Uzbeks and the Jews, immigrants
from Western Asia. In certain characters, such as abundant hair
and a high, prominent nose, the European types in the Pamirs are
more related to the Armenoids than to the inhabitants of the Duab
region.
As to the racial types distinguished by Risley in the population of
India, the comparison indicates that only the Indo-Afghan race can-
not be excluded from the population of the Pamirs, where it does
constitute a very insignificant admixture. On the other hand the dis-
tribution of the cephalic index in the regions south of the Hindu
Kush suggests that the migration of the brachycephalic Europeans
of the Pamirs to the south was more intensive than the migration of
the Indo-Afghans to the north, across the barrier of the Hindu Kush.
The cephalic index, indeed, among the Chitrali and Mastui reaches
80.26-80.56, while the admixture of dolichocephals to the Iranian
tribes is the most insignificant.
Within the limits of Tibet, there is, according to Risley and Turner, —
only one admixture of Europeans among its Mongoloid population, ©
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 123
namely that of dolichocephals, particularly in the province of Khams.
The population of Tibet did not, therefore, take any part in the forma-
tion of the racial structure of the Iranian tribes in the western Pamirs.
In eastern Turkestan, as a result of Sir Aurel Stein’s investiga-
tions, in addition to a Mongoloid type, there has been recognized a
brachycephalic European type closely related to the peoples dwelling
in the region of the Duab. This same race also inhabits the Ferghana
Valley, which is separated from the western Pamirs by the Altai and
Trans-Altai mountain ridges and by the plateau of the eastern Pamirs,
which are inhabited by the Kirghiz, typical Mongoloids.
Thus, the comparison between the Iranian tribes of the western
Pamirs and the peoples of the surrounding countries proves that this
region was populated from the west, from Iran. The connecting link
was Afghanistan.
On the basis of the scanty historical information, Oshanin states
that the western Pamirs appear to have been populated 1,500 to 2,000
years ago by the Iranians, who from the anthropological point of
view take an intermediate position between the brachycephalic **
Europeans of Central Asia and those of Western Asia.
Oshanin then dwells on certain general anthropological problems
of Central Asia and adjacent countries:
1. The distribution of the Armenoids of Western Asia and their
differentiation into local types. As stated above, the brachycephalic
Europeans of the Pamirs, in certain characters, the most important
being hair growth and nose morphology, take an intermediate position
between the Armenoids and the peoples of the Central Asiatic Duab.
They might possibly be considered as a result of a crossing between
the two types named, but on the other hand this intermediate position
does not necessarily prove the fact of crossing. It is possible, for
example, that the Pamir Europeoids may be but a local variety of the
Armenoid of Western Asia. Nor is another possibility excluded of
their being a certain transitional stage in the racial evolution, and
as our knowledge increases, the number of such intermediary stages
linking the brachycephals of Central Asia with those of Western
Asia may grow.
Studies reveal that among the peoples of Central Asia there occur
certain types undoubtedly maintaining the general Armenoid habitus,
18Qn the basis of my measurements in Iran and those compiled from
numerous sources the basic element on the Iranian plateau is dolichocephalic.
Brachycephaly, however, predominates in the northwestern and northeastern
areas of Iran. Cf. Contributions to the anthropology of Iran, Field Museum
of Natural History, Chicago, 1939. (H. F.)
I24. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
but deviating from the classical Armenoid type. Such are the immi-
grants from Western Asia, the Central Asiatic Jews, who differ by
their general Armenoid traits not only from the brachycephalic Euro-
peoids of Central Asia, the Uzbeks and Tajiks, but also from the
classical Armenoid type in their rounded occiput, rather low and
slightly bulging forehead, and less fleshy nose with its considerably
narrower base.
Among other peoples the specific Western Asiatic characters, such
as abundant body hair and Armenoid features in the structure of the
soft parts of the face, combine with an absolutely non-Armenoid,
dolichocephalic skull. Such are the markedly dolichocephalic Iranis
(Persians) and Azerbaijanis with their abundant hair growth and
typically Armenoid form of nose.
It is only when an anthropometric survey of Western Asia,'® and
more particularly of Iran, has been completed, as well as the excava-
tion of accurately dated crania, that we shall be able to attack the
problem of the origin and differentiation into local types of the whole
racial complex of Western Asia.
2. The second great problem arising in connection with the study
of the Iranian tribes of the Pamirs is the distribution of brachycephalic
and dolichocephalic European types throughout Asia. If the data °
obtained by Oshanin and his colleagues are compared with those from
India, Tibet, and eastern Turkestan, the Hindu Kush appears as a
geographic barrier. To the south there have expanded dolichocephals
represented by the Indo-Afghans, which, according to Turner and
Deniker, penetrated into the province of Khams in Tibet, and even
to Yunan and Szechwan. On the other hand, to the north of the
Pamiro-Altai mountain system there have spread brachycephalic
Europeans represented by the above race of the Central Asiatic Duab.
To judge from Stein’s data, this race has also penetrated deep into
eastern Turkestan where it forms the basis of the population in oases
bordering the desert of Takla-Makan.
In the narrow gorges of the Piandzh, squeezed between the Pamiro-
Altai and the Hindu Kush, the brachycephalic Iranian tribes have
settled. Their position intermediate between the Armenoids and the
peoples of the Duab has already been mentioned.
3. The third problem is that of the Mediterranean race in Asia.
As stated above, to the south of Hindu Kush there has expanded the
Indo-Afghan race, of which typical representatives are Sikhs, investi-
16 See publications by Buxton, Coon, Field, Huzayyin, Shevket Aziz Kansu,
Keith, Krogman, Pittard, Shanklin, and Bertram Thomas.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 125
gated by von Eickstedt.*? IArkho, in his work ** on the Turkomans
of Khwarazm noted a similarity between the Turkomans on the one
hand and the Sikhs of Punjab and the Rifs *° of Morocco on the other.
Oshanin’s tables fully confirm this similarity, and the crania obtained
by Pumpelly at Anau in 1904 and studied by Sergi show that the
Mediterranean racial complex appeared at a very early date in Central
Asia.*° In conclusion, Oshanin states that this appears to be a tall
variety of the Mediterranean race, which is now represented only by
the following separated groups: the Rifs of Morocco, the Kabyls,
certain Beduin tribes, the Turkomans of the Transcaspian steppes,
and the Indo-Afghan race.
According to N. G. Malitskii’s theory, which on the basis of an-
thropological and ethnohistorical data Oshanin developed into a
working hypothesis, the dolichocephalic European type, now common
among the Turkomans of the Transcaspian steppes, was in the past
an element of the Scytho-Sarmatian tribes, or Sacae, of Central Asia.
MOUNTAIN TAJIKS 21
There is no uniformity in the descriptions of the Tajiks, owing to
the subjective approach of the older scholars. Most of the older and
many of the current scholars, basing their conclusions on the Indo-
European theory of the origin of the languages, accept the Tajiks
to be more or less pure descendants of the ‘““Aryans,” who, according
to some of the adherents of that theory, originated in Central Asia.
In the majority of the descriptions there is a tendency to idealize
the Tajik type, to endow it with positive moral and physical characters,
and to contrast it with the other peoples of Central Asia.
Scholars have been attempting to isolate a specific “Tajik.” A
typical exponent of this school was Shishlov, according to whom the
Tajiks are “the most solid basic Iranian type.”’ Shishlov admits that
sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the specific Tajik type from the
Persian variety and even from the Central Asian Jews, at the same
17 von Ejickstedt, E., Rassenelemente der Sikh. Zeitschr. Ethnol., pts. 4-5,
Berlin, 1931.
18TArkho, A. I., Die Alterveranderungen der Rassenmerkmale bei den
Erwachsenen. Anthrop. Anz., vol. 12, pt. 2, 1035.
19 Coon, Carleton, The tribes of the Rif. Harvard African Studies, vol. 9,
Peabody Mus. Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Mass., 1931.
20 Pumpelly, R., Explorations in Turkestan, vol. 2, pp. 445-446, Washington,
1905. Excavation of Anau was recommenced in 1946. (H. F.)
21 Ginzburg, V. V., Gornye Tadzhiki [The Mountain Tajiks: Materials on
the anthropology of the Tajiks of Karategin and Darvaz]. Trudy, IAE, vol. 16,
1937.
IIo
VOL.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
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128 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
time stressing the importance of preserving “this corner-stone [i.e.,
the Tajik type] for our ethnographical constructions.”
Some authors (e.g., Ivanovich) has attempted to identify the Tajiks
with the remains of the Nestorian Christians (who lived in Central
Asia during the sixth century) or with Slavs, remarking that the
Tajiks are blond, have large features, and amiable, frank dispositions.
Other investigators (e.g., Vambery) did not regard the Tajiks as
pure representatives of the “Aryans” or of their Iranian branch.
Vambery states that it is impossible to consider the Tajiks to be a
primary type of the Iranian race; that while their Iranian type is
TABLE 4.—Grouping according to cephalic index
Group Range No. Shugni No. Rushani No. Wakhi
Dolichocephalteeeo ee x-75.9 3 T.29 3 7.14 I 1.92
Mesocephalunt ans. =.oc 76.0-80.9 34 14.71 8 19.04 4 7.09
Brachycephaly 42 .\.). 4. 81.0-85.9 04 40.09 12 25.57 18 34.61
Hyperbrachycephal .. 86.0-x I00 43.31 I9 45.25 29 55.78
otal Ween Wes! nas 231 100.0 42 100.0 52 100.0
readily apparent to the eyes, their facial characters manifest some
alien Turanian traits (broad forehead, wide zygomatic arches, thick
nose, and large mouth). Only the inhabitants of Mountainous
Badakhshan (Faizabadians) have a more truly pronounced Iranian
type.
Danilov does not consider the Tajiks as Iranians. He bases his
conclusions partly on the studies of Korsh, who derived the name of
Tajiks from the Pehlevi word tazi, meaning ‘‘Arab,” and partly on
the brachycephaly of the Tajiks, which Danilov, whose work lay only
among the dolichocephalic population of Persia, did not consider an
Iranian character.
Other investigators considered the Tajiks to be the resultant mix-
ture of several races. Thus, Virskii considers the Galchas to be a
mixed Aryo-Turkish type, preserving certain tribal characters. The
Tajiks, according to Virskii, represent a mixture of the Aryan and
Turkish races with the Persian and the Jewish types.
Grebenkin, who described the Tajiks of the valleys, states that they
do not belong to any established type, but unite in their composition
the characters of all the tribes inhabiting the region. “The Tajiks
of this region are an amalgam of all the surrounding tribes. . . . This
mixture reflects in it the type of Uzbek, Tatar, Hebrew, Gipsy, even
Slavic, Arabic, Persian and Indian.”
129
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130
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOL. IIO
TABLE 6.—Cephalic index of peoples in the Caucasus 1
People Locality
SIIT Si rerts ctersheterateke ove Nakhichevan
WabatSy cece sreselsveccrotenyteieis Azerbaidzhan
Kurds ins camccunyascercts Transcaucasia
Matar Sas sr: cesctrees scree orels Aralych
Azerbaidzhanis ........ Azerbaidzhan
Persiansine one etme nee Azerbaidzhan
Keurds\ ase ce orc cite Transcaucasia
Circassians (Mokoch
ELIDG)® Geese ahi cee 5
HRALATS aides Seer cee Azerbaidzhan
Mezidisctscsaduosm ests . Yerevan district
BALES) carte ee atenoeetore pee baka
ditinkomantisseeeeeeeee -» North Caucasus
AD keSirnee pices Soresier eins Gandzha, Azerbaidzhan
Azerbaidzhanmis 5... Azerbaidzhan
Tatar spaces tis: Atcnoricstase Yerevan
Pay ikg Ree shee: 2 te A Norachaine
Chechiensieen 0-20 oso. es Ingushetia
OSetes: nice ois cea:
Gunlanswe tian.
WieziGismcn attuary sas otis Total in Tbilisi
Osetesmtr ar Geis) feos Terek
KGhevstnsin eee ieee Khevsuretia
N. Abkhazians (Abaze
Crabbe! eae Lee ee
Kuimiyks ain Bie. . beens
[meretiansi cee eeecos
Realms. 20 tac cen sees
Edishkul Nogais .......
Edissan Nogais ........
OSEtESiaye hic eens etpaceercias
Katatchaismeprererciocee
@setesa(tall)) Sane eee
Circassians’... aa Adighe
Oseteswce Vara crests
@setesast. Saris Oe
Azerbaidzhanis ........ Lake Goktcha
INDAZ ES. ci cen ant acto ete ve
Keund Si saisiiere eve oko
MeEZIdISHeR eee ei coneee Lake Van district
Oseteste ete Scene
Gircassianspesaeeeeen ner
Kabardinsmerencrnccener Kuban
@ircassiansmeee meee:
Circassians (Shapsug
ATIDE)* Miva oe dee eee
No.
I51
207
16
19
20
129
302
230
17
14
14
51
130
145
146
16
20
16
300
II
22
554
54
Gxt
76.1
776
77.6
77-96
78.1
78.4
78.5
78.5
78.83
78.900
79.2
79.3
79-3
79.4
80.11
80.11
80.4
80.5
80.5
80.58
80.7
80.7
80.7
80.8
80.9
80.9
80.9
81.0
81.1
81.1
81.3
81.4
81.4
81.5
81.6
81.6
81.6
81.75
81.9
81.9
82.0
82.05
82.1
Observer
Anserov
Various
Ivanovskii
Chantre
Deniker
Deniker
Deniker
Chantre
Chantre
Field
Deniker
TArkho
TArkho
von Erckert
Chantre
Chantre
Chantre
von Erckert
Chantre
Field
Chantre
Chantre
Chantre
Debets and
Trofimova
Chantre
von Erckert
TArkho
TArkho
von Erckert
Chantre
Gilchenko
Deniker
von Erckert
Riskine
Chantre
von Erckert
Chantre
Field
Deniker
von Erckert
Chantre
Kappers
Chantre
+ Note.—In the compilation of the data on the cephalic index among the peoples of the
Caucasus I have used Baschmakoff (1937, pp. 29-31), Rudolf Martin, Gilchenko, IArkho,
and the figures quoted in my “Contributions to the Anthropology of Iran.” (H. F.)
NO. 13
People
SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD
TABLE 6.—Continued
Locality
Circassians (Beslinais
tribe) .
Osetes
Osetes ...
Chechens
Circassians
Abkhazians
Osetes
Mingrelian
Georgians
Kara-Nogais
Embailuk Nogais
Georgians
Tatars (M
Kabardins
Pedi aaiaed «0 200
Imertia
Temergais
Coastal Abkhazia
Terek Valley (7),
Koban (10)
eee eee eee eee
188
Ries 176
ountain) ....
Circassians (Natukhai
tribe)
Kumyks .
Kara-Nogais
Nogais ..
Chechens
Georgians
Osetes
Balkars
Lesghians
Jews
Kumyks .
Karachais
Assyrians
Armenians
Lazes
eee eee ee
eee eee eee
Eastern
Terek region
156
eee utaat s ae% 108
North Osetia
105
Weikien vas vee 314
ee eee eee
Koban necropolis
Khasavyurt region
Daghestan
pees sta s<e 165
2II
Avars
Akhaltsikh
Kakh, Azerbaidzhan
Nukha, Azerbaidzhan
baad oestceds 301
ee
Georgia
Georgia
82.2
82.62
82.7
82.9
83.0
83.0
83.11
83.2
83.2
83.3
83.3
83.5
83.6
83.6
83.8
83.8
84.0
84.0
84.2
84.2
84.3
84.60
84.6
84.6
84.6
84.7
84.8
84.9
85.0
85.0
85.1
85.1
85.1
85.1
85.2
85.3
85.3
85.5
85.6
85.6
85.6
85.8
85.8
85.9
86.0
131
Observer
Chantre
Gilchenko
Deniker
Chantre
Chantre
Chantre
Chantre
Chantre
Dzhavahov
IArkho
IArkho
von Erckert
Deniker
Deniker
Chantre
Deniker
Chantre
Terebinskaia
Levin
von Erckert
Chantre
Field
Levin
Deniker
Chantre
Weissenberg
Chantre
Terebinskaia
Deniker
Chantre
Chantre
Levin
von Erckert
Chantre
von Erckert
Deniker
Debets
IArkho
von Erckert
Deniker
Chantre
Deniker
Deniker
Chantre
Weissenberg
Chantre
132 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
TABLE 6.—Continued
People Locality No. Car: Observer
Azerbaidzhanis ........ Bayazid 86.0 Chantre
eso hianistery see creiteree s 86.2 Deniker
AVATSHA ation ceehiroies 86.4 Chantre
INO Bais) Meee. aieceictleterre 86.4 von Erckert
Mountain Jews ........ Daghestan 86.7 von Erckert
TAZ ES PROP ctevaicre ttetone 6 86.8 Deniker
Mountain Jews ........ Daghestan 87.0 Deniker
WsaZeS er. Sareea se 87.3 Chantre
Lazes (deformed) ..... 87.4 Chantre
TE WSs SRE Bede cetei nets 43 87.5 Pantiukhov
Lesghians (Avars) .... 87.6 von Erckert
Wesshiansipecncseneeen. 87.77. Chantre
ASSY TIAN EF Kid's. «Galion 88.7 Deniker
TABLE 7.—Stature of peoples in the Caucasus
People Locality No. Stature Observer
Ambailuk Nogais ....... 176 §6©162.5 IArkho
TAKS) sevenotas ooo slopes sos Nukha, Azerbaidzhan 301 162.7. JArkho
BIS tanGIG ae sev-corabar si csvatc cick sic Kakh, Azerbaidzhan 201 162.9 Debets
Edishkul Nogais........ 145 163.0 IArkho
Keara=INO@dIS ibs «cic siciste'el= Western 188 163.1 IArkho
Kara=NOgaiSi vcs acieiele Eastern 156 163.3 Terebinskaia
ditsnkcomanSumerrerieleereierels North Caucasus 302. «163.5 + IArkho
IN@gialShceterasesen. aschine’s Khasavyurt region 165 163.8 Terebinskaia
MRUTKS., cs c,ayer eteisis/e heresies Gandzha, Azerbaidzhan 230 164.1 JArkho
EidissanNogaisiecmecticec 146 164.3 IArkho
IG RAIS be rstva cc ators fore Terek region 108 164.6 Levin
Bunkstaacncnich neice cries Nakhichevan I5I 165.1 Anserov
Kets tmnvicShy seyeyatetes21« levexeyotereints 130 165.9 Debets and
Trofimova
Ballkears ise cyocksevedeitec ers 314 166.9 Levin
Karachais) 3 )s:\s:5 s\sieistars oe 21I 167.9 Levin
Kuznetsov mentions that this unity of type of the Tajiks is due to
their Turkization, the degree of which differs in various localities.
The absence of sufficient data on the anthropology of the Tajiks
caused von Eickstedt to group the Tajiks as belonging to the Turanian
type. This is due to his migrationistic theories claiming the origin of
European racial types from the “Turanids” inhabiting Central Asia.
Many authors admit the presence among the Tajiks of two or more
types, obtained as a result of the influence of one or the other ancient
race.
Snesarev points out the great difference between the Mountain
Tajiks (from Karategin and Darvaz) and the Valley Tajiks (from
Kuliab and Baldzhuan). The former have retained the characters
NO. 13
SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD
133
of the original Iranians with occasional admixture of the “blond
Aryan” ; the latter are a variation of the Persians with a strong Arabic
admixture.
TABLE 8.—Head length of peoples in the Caucasus
People Locality No.
RE TUCcueesencsdcsces Nukha, Azerbaidzhan 301
ee Khasavyurt region 165
Raye s as cewrens Kakh, Azerbaidzhan 201
PE SS ae 130
Kara-Nogais ........+0. Eastern 156
a Terek region 108
Embailuk Nogais ....... 176
SEMEMPINOGRIS ccccscccecs Western 188
ETC s cabcnvns canes 314
Edissan Nogais ......... 146
a 211
Edishkul Nogais ........ 145
SE ahdausatwadue .+-eGandzha, Azerbaidzhan 230
eae ei sacl ces ee Nakhichevan I51
SERONTIAUIG occ cccccces ce North Caucasus 302
TABLE 9.—Head breadth of peoples in the
People Locality No.
SERCBOMEL Cul vin o'n Glade oo 6 Nakhichevan I51I
I Was dateera-e 6 ad Gandzha, Azerbaidzhan 230
Edishkul Nogais ........ 145
Edissan Nogais ......... 146
PCMORIAIIE” cncccdsccecs North Caucasus 302
ee eee eee Khasavyurt region 165
DEOUSd Suvcedensccnce Nukha, Azerbaidzhan 301
Embailuk Nogais ....... 176
Kara-Nogais .......se0. Eastern 156
Kara-Nogais ........... Western 188
EE PU dvuecadecedecss Terek region 108
SN re dideecdeniccces Kakh, Azerbaidzhan 201
DRMEET Ceci es subcs ee 314
EO Oni vadweeenecs 211
EE; os0d censessace 130
Head
length Observer
181.9 IArkho
182.2 Terebinskaia
183.9 Debets
184.6 Debets and
Trofimova
184.7. Terebinskaia
185.8 Levin
186.8 IArkho
187.1. IArkho
187.7. Levin
188.8 TArkho
189.1 Levin
189.1 IArkho
189.9 IArkho
190.0 Anserov
192.8 IArkho
Caucasus
Head
breadth Observer
145.0 Anserov
150.4 IArkho
152.7. IArkho
152.8 JIArkho
152.8 IArkho
154.2 Terebinskaia
155.0 IArkho
155.4 IArkho
155.6 Terebinskaia
155.7. IArkho
156.4 Levin
156.6 Debets
159.2 Levin
160.9 Levin
161.8 Debets and
Trofimova
Grebenkin also distinguishes two groups among the Valley Tajiks:
Uzbek blood predominated in one of the groups; and Jewish and
Persian, with a slight admixture of Uzbek, in the second group.
There are no “pure Tajiks” in the valleys of Central Asia.
134 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Ujfalvy distinguishes three types of Tajiks in Turkestan: Autoch-
thonous Iranians; Persian colonists; and descendants of Persian
slaves.
TABLE 10.—Eye color of peoples in the Caucasus
People Locality No. Light Mixed Dark Observer
‘huarkomatiSwee cece North Caucasus 202. 1a 210 770) DArkho
Maks sore bee niet Gandzha, Azerbaidzhan 230 1.5 54.7 43.8 IArkho
‘Burks! y ochegivestas's Nukha, Azerbaidzhan 301 1.0 37.9 61.1 JTArkho
Marks) ead. 3 oicteuistsree Kakh, Azerbaidzhan 201 1.5 32.0 66.5 Debets
SEtnksjhs capaisiere ek Nakhichevan I5t O07 Al.3) - 68:0) Anseroy,
Houriyics aes cereieiicieis 130 68.5 51.2 40.3 Debets
— and
Trofi-
mova
Karachaisieere ree 211 11.0 800 49.0 Levin
Edissan Nogais ... 146 2.1 41.9 56.0 JIArkho
Balkansiant. We). «sc. 314 80 61.0 31.0 Levin
Edishkul Nogais.. 145 07 420 57.8 JTArkho
Embailuk Nogais. . 176 0.0 38.4 61.6 TArkho
Kara-Nogais) 2c. Western 188 2.2 44.3 53.5 IArkho
TABLE I11.—Bizygomatic breadth of peoples in the Caucasus
People Locality No. Biz. br. Observer
AIRES Ayer aincicuerseievore Nakhichevan I5I 136.0 Anserov
sMNtATIS terete ceo orl tree ere Nukha, Azerbaidzhan 301 139.1 IArkho
Turks weeeitas skids <8 Gandzha, Azerbaidzhan 230 139.7. IArkho
AtinkeSre se seks coke Kakh, Azerbaidzhan 201 140.5 Debets
Kara-Nogaish ©. acme ce Eastern 156 142.3 Terebinskaia
Nowaisitits $0.05 .2¢288.00 4 Khasavyurt region 165 143.9 Terebinskaia
INOgalseitadas cs eee ner Terek region 1o8 145.1 Levin
Edissan Nogais .:: <6... 146 145.4 IArkho
cirkomanisn 5rd se North Caucasus 302 145.5 IJArkho
Keumiykstaek bore ci sysecets 130 145.7. Debets and
Trofimova
Edishkul Nogais ........ 145 145.8 IArkho
Balkarsipertece ce site sie ons 314 146.0 Levin
Embailuk Nogais ....... 176 147.4 IArkho
Kara-Nogaiseecasecce te Western 188 147.5 IArkho
Karachaiswarr eee cer 211 147.6 Levin
The groups differ greatly in their physical characteristics. Among
the “Persian slaves” there are no blonds with blue eyes, but they do
occur occasionally among the second group.
Among the autochthonous Iranian group blonds are fairly common,
and brown-haired individuals outnumber brunets. Ujfalvy designates
the autochthonous Tajiks as the Mountain Tajiks, as different from
NO. 13
SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 135
the Persian colonists whom he calls Valley Tajiks, although he admits
that these divisions are not absolute and not always exact.
It is worth remarking that Ujfalvy, who represents the French
TABLE 12.—Cephalic index of peoples in the Volga Region
People Locality
Mishari Tatars ......... Christopol region
[etArS ETOPEE ces ccsces Christopol region
eee
Kriashen Tatars ........ Christopol region
OS A Oe: Cy aaa Birsk region
MREEE ERODES ..25ccescs Elabuga region
RUNES Meet aa v's os 8 es Birsk region
Kriashen Tatars ........ Elabuga region
BGEE OODET onc cccess Kasimov region
i Arsk region
EE Tieng xan een easod Argaiash region
Karagash Tatars ......./ Astrakhan region
Mishari Tatars ......... Narovchatsk region
No.
122
109
112
121
149
146
123
103
196
160
131
158
175
TABLE 13.—Cephalic index of peoples in
People Locality
DEEN Tras osscees esse Crimea
Mountain Tatars ....... Crimea
SE COULD we vesevccs Crimea
Mountain Tatars ....... Crimea
South Coast Tatars..... Crimea
No.
93
180
200
300
200
CL Observer
79.5 Trofimova
and Debets
80.2 Trofimova
and Debets
80.3. Baronov
80.7. Trofimova
and Debets
80.7. Baronov
81.1. Trofimova
and Debets
81.4 Baronov
81.9 Trofimova
and Debets
82.2 Trofimova
and Debets
82.3. Trofimova
and Debets
83.0 Baronov
83.6 Trofimova
and Debets
86.0 Trofimova
the Crimea
Sao Observer
82.9 Adler
84.1 Nasov
84.8 Terebinskaia
84.8 Terebinskaia
85.3. Terebinskaia
Taste 14.—Cephalic index of peoples in the Tannu-Tuva Region
People Locality
a eee Tannu-Tuva
RIE at wcnlukes out Tannu-Tuva
ERED dees peledewcess Tannu-Tuva
ERO AWUd suaid sc'e ves 6 Tannu-Tuva
No.
124
40
67
57
Gods Observer
80.5 IArkho
83.1 Bunak
83.2 Bunak
84.2 Bunak
school, describes the Mountain Tajiks, who, according to him, were
the remnants of true Aryans, as the best-preserved, dark pigmented,
most brachycephalic type. Ujfalvy states that he encountered many
blond Tajiks in the southeastern part of Ferghana Valley, where
136 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
TABLE 15.—Cephalic index of peoples in Siberia
People Locality No. Gol Observer
Belting: ielecseveisteatsocie's enisint Khakass 119 79.2 JArkho
Koibal- sic e eters ection ee Khakass 4I 79.8 IArkho
Shope ett... s on ee cee Khakass 119 80.3. IArkho
Kiasanditory......t.cnieeser Oirot 99 80.3. IArkho
Malkstits): Sergey cicieiere eatereiovert Siberia 440 80.6 Schreiber
Keyzy learners aareeiteereae Khakass 128 80.8 JIArkho
Mel euithy Sass wccsiee caeeer Oirot 56 81.0 JTArkho
Sagatinepenisisn:. spite Khakass 106 82.0 JArkho
Micittmallatraertseieteisieieietoe icine Oirot 125 82.0 IArkho
Heal clita Betis aiceriarctacieiels Khakass 207 82.1 ITArkho
Tubalarigisth.. tiececk Ojirot 203 82.4 IArkho
Aelenigityetst tte crstleteisie ee Oirot 227 84.4 IArkho
ANitaiakazhil eee seen ce Oirot 200 84.5 IArkho
TABLE 16.—Cephalic index of peoples in Soviet Central Asia
People Locality No. Cal, Observer
Iomud Turkomans ...... Khwarazm 107 75.2 IArkho
Chaudyr Turkomans ....Khwarazm 200 77.2 JTArkho
Mangyt Uzbeks ........ Khwarazm 80 80.7. IArkho and
Libman
BarlasiUzbeksieeseetiee ce Turks 100 82.2 Belkina
ialtarWizheksr sc eo .ens Turks 100 83.4 Belkina
Uzbeks} yes see cee Khwarazm 100 83.5 IArkho and
Libman
Kara-Kalpaksieeiee ceric: Ferghana 100 83.8 JTArkho and
Libman
Kar ohiz see seine ew aires Ferghana 292 84.0 JArkho
MWZDERSE 25 seaisie sesiepeeiste Karshi town 200 84.1 Oshanin
Kara-Kalpaks®: sare: are Kara-Kalpak A.S.S.R. 303 84.2 JIArkho and
Libman
Kipchak Uzbeks ........ Ferghana 100 84.4 IArkho
Uzbeks (tribal), sic. st. Ferghana 399 84.7. ITArkho
Astralkhan® rye secretes ate Kazakhstan 105 84.9 Timofeeva
and Debets
Kirghiz bie )slrdeis.d eta eeis Tien Shan 784 85.2 IArkho
Bukhtarmawececerertecier Kazakhstan 482 85.3. Baronov
Uzbeks demeems see Shakhraziab town 200 85.3. Oshanin
Ghuiskigissin testator oreo s Kazakhstan 120 85.4. IArkho
Malaita 8 vntiarnieiehe noes Kazakhstan 466 85.9 Rudenko
Kurama Uzbeks ........ Ferghana 672 85.9 IArkho
WH SUES a he ne aemlaniierere tis 450 87.1 IArkho
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 137
chestnut-haired individuals predominate, and he explains their pres-
ence by the mixture of the local population with the original blond
element, the Usuns [Wusuns], and partly with the blond Galchas.
Kuznetsov discerns three types of Tajiks:
1. Those with an Indo-European outline of the face, with regular
features. Many individuals of this type have prominent ears, nose,
and lips; dark, brown, or black eyes of medium size; and abundant
dark hair on the face.
2. Strongly reminiscent of the Jewish type, thin skin on the face,
large black almond-shaped eyes, aquiline nose; long, wavy, pitch-
black beard.
3. A very rare type with light hair and eyes.
Shishlov agrees that the blond mixture came from the outside, but
in the distant past, which is borne out by its absence among the
modern Persians. The dark type, according to him, is the only typical
Tajik type.
Tsimmerman distinguishes two types among the Tajiks of the
Pskem Valley: ,
1. Tall, pale pink skin on the face, which does not become dark
brown with sunburn; slender waist, broad shoulders, and, probably,
light hair and eyes. (Less numerous.)
2. Not as tall, more darkly pigmented, more rugged build, and
dark hair and eyes. (More numerous.)
Many other authors think that Tajiks belong to a firmly estab-
lished and defined type.
Thus Middendorff (quoted from Shishlov) thinks that the Tajiks
have a completely defined, sharply expressed, independent type, and
does not agree with the opinion that the Valley Tajiks are a mixture
of Persian, Arabic, Uzbek, and even Kirghiz blood.
He describes the Tajiks as very brachycephalic, with dark hair and
eyes, with high and large cranium, rounded domed sinciput, noble,
broad, and high forehead, protruding browridges, elevated glabella,
deep nasal furrow, thick, protruberant, aquiline (“humped”) nose,
European eyes, and very thick, dark or light chestnut or red beard.
Tajiks have large noses, medium-size hands and feet, and thin calves.
Maslovskii thinks that “Tajik” is a collective term. At first this
term may have meant a group of various peoples united by a bond of
religion who later were amalgamated into a new general type, repre-
sented by a clearly defined tribe known as the Tajiks. Maslovskii
does not believe that it is possible to determine by means of anthro-
pological measurements the original elements entering into the compo-
sition of the Tajik people.
10
138 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
He does not agree with the authors who think that only one people,
by mixing with incoming tribes, produced the type known as Tajik,
and that this type is represented by the Mountain Tajiks. Together
with Barthold, Maslovskii thinks that in the mountains are found not
the pure type of Tajiks, but only the various elements, which, mixing
in the valley, produced the current tribe of Tajiks.
Maslovskii discerns five such elements, including the Arab, Jewish,
Slavic, Armenian, and eastern Iranian types. The last group belongs
to the “Alpine” race; according to Maslovskii this group had the
greatest share in forming the Tajik type. Maslovskii’s data exemplify
the metaphysical method of constructing a scheme of the formation
of a type: on one side he admits that it is impossible to discern the
constituent elements of the type; on the other, he finds them in the
mountains, even delineating their geographical boundaries.
1. Arab type—Fan gorge; Samarkand region; Taghana; Hissar
region; IAkh-Su River region. These are Arabs who have partly
embraced Tajik culture.
2. Jewish type —Widely spread. According te Maslovskii, Afghans
belong to this group. Isolated communities of this type are found in
the Zarafshan Mountains, in the Hissar and Karategin. This type is
particularly pure in the upper course of the Zarafshan River, and in the
lower course of the [Azgulem River. A strong admixture of this type
is also found in Rushan and Badakhshan, and, partly, in Shugnan.
On the basis of philological study, Ginzburg considers that it is im-
possible to suspect them of Semitic origin.
3. Slavic type—To this type belong tribes of northern Karategin
and Darvaz, and a group of mountaineers of Vakhan.
4. Armenian type.—On the left bank of the [Agnob River and in
the northern section of Hissar and Karategin.
5. Eastern Iranian type—Right bank of IAgnob, Hissar, and
Karategin, and along the Darvaz River, from Kalai-Khuban to Vanch.
This type forms the basis of the Tajik race.
According to Bogoiavlenskii, representatives of several types are
found in each kishlak (hamlet). In its basic traits, the population is
brachycephalic, and resembles the Persian type. The following are
the characteristics of this dominant type: medium to tall stature,
brachycephalic brown eyes; long, wavy (sometimes slightly curly)
black beard, and a straight (sometimes aquiline) nose.
Another common type, to which belong the majority of some of
the settlements, is the “Semitic type,” which is characterized by fairly
low stature, exceptionally thin lips, brown eyes, aquiline nose, narrow
face, and a slightly curly black beard.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 139
A third rarer type resembles Russian peasants with a light reddish
beard, medium stature, greenish, sometimes light blue, eyes, and a
straight nose.
A fourth type, having a more darkly pigmented body skin, very
wide nose, thick lips, widely set eyes, differs greatly from the first
three types.
T. A. Joyce, who published the materials collected by Sir Aurel
Stein, illustrates the mechanistic approach toward the study of the
variegated characters of the Tajiks. Together with Stein, Joyce
believes that the best-preserved autochthonous type of Tajiks is found
among the inhabitants of Rushan. Under the influence of the other
types (wide- and narrow-nosed Turko-Mongol types) this type has
changed to the north and south of Rushan.
Ginzburg criticizes this because the geographically central location
is taken as the sole reason for considering Rushan as the original
type. This type, according to Ginzburg, is also a result of a definite
set of changes, and cannot be taken as the ancestral type.
Most of the remaining descriptions of Tajiks have been summarized
by Shishlov.
The authors who have studied the Tajiks of various regions point
out the difference between the Plains and Mountain Tajiks. Thus,
according to Ujfalvy the Mountain Tajiks were more brachycephalic
than the Plains Tajiks.”
According to several authors, Mountain Tajiks are more homo-
geneous in type than the Plains Tajiks. Thus, Arendarenko states
that the types of the Karategin and the Darvaz Tajiks are similar.
According to his descriptions, the Tajiks of these regions have swarthy
skin; straight, thick hair, black, red, or chestnut; black and light
brown eyes; regular, expressive faces; broad, steep, or low forehead,
and bold nose.
The variation in the descriptions of Tajiks is due to the fact that
the population of different regions was studied. Sometimes the
descriptions were affected by the tendentiousness of authors, some of
whom (Biddulph and Grebenkin) wanted to represent them as weak,
undeveloped, and lacking in endurance, or those who described them
as strong, broad-shouldered, and sturdy (Pokatilo).
Even some of the older explorers were known to point out the
social, as well as historical and geographical, reasons for the varia-
tions of the types of Tajiks. Thus, Biddulph states that in certain
localities the “higher classes” show best the admixture of “Aryan”
blood.
22 According to Ginzburg this was discovered to be wrong.
140 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
According to Grebenkin, the villagers prevailingly belong to his
first group (with a greater admixture of Uzbek characters). The
author of an anonymous old description of Tajiks states that rich
Tajiks differ greatly from poor Tajiks in type, and that the richer
they are, the greater admixture of Persian and Jewish blood they
seem to have.
Shults points out the considerable difference between the “fine”
type of the members of the noble families, most of whom derive
from ancient military leaders, and the coarse type of the rest of the
population.”
History of anthropological study of the Tajiks—Probably the
earliest measurements are those taken by A. I. Fedchenko in 1869,
who measured 33 individuals, including four Tajiks from Zarafshan
Valley. He also brought out several skulls. These materials were
published by Bogdanov, who gave a detailed characterization of
Turkestan crania, and noted their extreme brachycephaly. The crania
studied by Bogdanov were characterized by exceptional height. It is
interesting to record that at that time European anthropologists
(Topinard and Girard de Rialle) thought that Central Asian Tajiks
were dolichocephalic, probably basing their figures on de Khanikhov’s
materials on the Persian Tajiks. At a later date Topinard studied the
crania brought back by Fedchenko,** and had more correct information
regarding Mountain Tajiks.
Ujfalvy measured 58 Tajiks from Koghistan (upper Zarafshan
Valley) whom he called “Galchas,” 31 Tajiks from Ferghana, 29 from
Samarkand, and Io from Hissar.”*
In 1890 Troll published brief data regarding 148 Central Asians,
including 6 Tajiks.
In 1894 IAvorskii, who was particularly interested in Turkomans,
measured 16 Tajik women. During 1895-1899 Maslovskii measured
583 individuals, of whom 381 were Plains Tajiks (no specified
locality), 42 individuals from I[Agnob and Darvaz, 21 from IAngulem,
and 34 from Matchin. On the basis of his published figures it is im-
possible to justify his division of Tajik tribes into five types.
23 Ginzburg states that such judgments, based on superficial observations, are
typical for the adherents of the Indo-Aryan theory.
24 Cf. Cranes Galtchas. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop., p. 247, Paris, 1878.
25 Ginzburg observes that these materials are too diffuse: great geographical
range and differences of age; his claims regarding the common occurrence of
light elements among the population have not been substantiated; his methods
make it impossible to compare his figures with those obtained by more recent
explorers.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 141
In 1898 and 1go1 N. V. Bogoiavlenskii made two trips along the
upper course of the Amu, together with Bobrinskii and Smirnov.
The object of his trip was the study of the contemporary inhabitants
of the Pamirs with a view to finding out whether they were autoch-
thonous, and, if so, of what race; and, if immigrants, their origin.
Bogoiavlenskii concluded that Tajiks of the Darvaz are of the Persian
(Iranian) race, with a certain admixture of alien blood, and that their
ancestors did not live in the mountains, but came from the valley of
IAkh-Su under the pressure of invaders.
Bogoiavlenskii measured approximately 600 Tajiks from the valleys
of Karategin, Darvaz, and the western Pamirs. Unfortunately, the
death of Bogoiavlenskii prevented the conclusion of his labors on the
publication of these data.*®
The crania from Makshevat caves, brought back by Bogoiavlenskii,
were studied by Zograf, who pointed out their extreme brachycephaly.
In 1912 Blagoveshchenskii published brief anthropometric data on
21 Tajiks (15 from Ferghana, 4 from Karategin and Darvaz, and I
each from Afghanistan and Persia) whom he measured in the Eye
Clinic at Marghellan.
Shults collected anthropological materials in the Pamirs during
IgtI-1912. He thinks that the Tajiks of the western Pamirs belong
to an “Aryan” people who came from the west. According to Shults,
Pamirian Tajiks are slender, of medium-tall structure, with elongated
extremities, small feet and hands, and thin calves. Their faces are
elongated, with prominent noses, deep-set, dark, usually brown, green,
gray, rarely blue, eyes. Their hair is dark or brown, sometimes light.
Skin color is brownish. Yet even a superficial examination discloses
later admixtures of alien blood. Thus, the Afghan type manifests itself
in a broader face ; the Uzbek (‘‘Sart’’) type in their straight noses and
thicker lips ; the Hindu type in the occasional strikingly narrow face ;
the Kirghiz type in high cheek bones. Sometimes the influence of the
Jewish and Russian types was observed.
In one of his papers Shults gives the table of individual measure-
ments of 35 individuals from Khorog, yet there was some confusion
in the publication of the figures, and it is not possible to use them.
Ginzburg’s conclusions are obviously based on subjective observations
and generalizations.
Sir Aurel Stein, who visited the Pamirs in 1915, states briefly that
26 They were studied and systematized by Ginzburg in 1936, with the per-
mission of the State Institute of Anthropology of the Moscow State University ;
the anthropometric data do not correspond with the preliminary conclusions
reached by Bogoiavlenskii.
142 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
the inhabitants of the western Pamirs have best retained their original
ancient type. This is particularly true of Rushan where, because of
the extreme isolation of the region the purest type of Homo alpinus
is represented among the Galchas. To the north of [Angulem and
Vanch the Turkish element begins to be felt, both in the physical type
and in the culture. The material collected by Stein includes 55 indi-
viduals from Vakhan, 34 from Shikashim, 40 from Shugnan, 58 from
Rushan, 20 from IAngulem, 23 from Vanch, 25 from Darvaz, 26
from Karategin, and 16 Plains Tajiks from the oases of Bukhara.
This material was published by T. A. Joyce, who comes to the
conclusion that it is possible to divide the Tajiks from the western
Pamirs into two groups:
1. Northern and northwesterly—IAngulem, Vanch, Darvaz, and
Karategin: characterized by relative dolichocephaly, narrow noses,
euryprosopy, and small stature.
2. Southern and southeasterly —Shugnan, Ishkashim, and Vakhan:
relatively brachycephalic, long-nosed, leptoprosopic, and tall.
The Tajiks from Rushan stand between the two types, forming
the connecting link. This is explained by the fact that they represent
the best-preserved type of the original inhabitant of the region, Homo
alpinus, which was changed to the north and the south under the in-
fluence of the broad-nosed and the narrow-nosed Turko-Mongolian
type. Plains Tajiks are also basically Homo alpinus, transformed
under the influence of a wide-nosed Mongolian type (represented by
the Kirghiz). In using the term “Alpine type” Joyce specifies that it
does not imply the presence of any sort of kinship between the
Pamirians and Alpines, but only a similarity of physical characteristics.
The nasal and facial measurements recorded by Joyce are much
smaller than any other, probably owing to the fact that Stein and
Joyce were not using the standard methods for this measurement.
Joyce’s method of mechanically summarizing the coefficients of racial
similarity in the presence of small samples may lead to erroneous
conclusions.
Several investigators, including Shishlov, Kapusto, and Shirokova-
Divaeva, have studied the physical development. of school children.
Attention is also being paid to the study of blood groups of various
peoples of Central Asia (IAsevich, IArkho, Vishnevskii, Petrov,
and others). Unfortunately much of the material collected has not
been published.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 143
Chronologically, the study of the Tajiks since the Revolution has
progressed as follows:
I. In 1925 V. V. Bunak studied the blood groups of the students
of the various nationalities represented at the Institute of Oriental
Peoples in Moscow. Among these were 25 Tajiks.
2. L. V. Oshanin, in the period between 1925-1927, investigated
433 Tajiks from Karategin employed in seasonal labor in Tashkent.
The materials have not yet been published.
3. In 1926 Oshanin examined 100 Tajiks from Bukhara, and pub-
lished detailed data regarding their racial composition.
According to Oshanin’s conclusions, Tajiks belong to an indepen-
dent “autochthonous” type which he calls Homo sapiens indo-euro-
paeus var. turkestanica centralis, subsp. iranoides brachycephalica,
with the focus of habitation within the Central Asian interfluvial
region (between the basins of the Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya Rivers).
Oshanin believes that this type does not differ from the ethnic groups,
but admits the possibility of local variations.
Constitutionally, the majority of Bukharan Tajiks are asthenic,
and only a small percentage are pycnic, which, according to Oshanin,
points to the paratypical nature of the phenomenon. The general con-
clusion regarding constitutions is that the types found among the
native population are no less real than those of some Europeans.
4. S. Tsimmerman studied, in 1925, 100 Tajiks aged 20 to 8o years,
73 of whom were from Pskem Valley near Tashkent, 19 from Moun-
tainous Bukhara, and 8 from the Samarkand region. Tsimmerman
distinguishes at least two types among the Tajiks, and thinks that the
Tajik type is very near to that of the Uzbeks (having in view “Sarts”
studied by Shishlov in Tashkent). Tsimmerman’s materials were
taken summarily, and it is possible that the types which he dis-
tinguishes came from various districts.
5. In 1926 the Academy of Sciences sent a large expedition into
Central Asia under the leadership of Barthold. B. N. Vishnevskii,
who was in charge of the anthropological work of the expedition,
measured 279 Tajiks aged 16 to 61, from the Pendzhikent region.
Blood groups were studied in addition to other physical characters.
According to Vishnevskii, the Tajiks of the region are, anthropo-
logically speaking, a variegated group. Among them were observed
several Mongolian types. Blue-eyed, fair-skinned individuals were
also found along with the ordinary brunets.
According to Vishnevskii, various types are found among the Tajiks,
while the most prominent type is that of Homo tauricus (O. Reche).
Of the individuals studied, 85 percent were mesosomic, 10 percent
I44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
leptosomic, and 8 percent eurisomic. Unfortunately, the complete
account of Vishnevskii’s study has not yet been published.
In 1926 M. I. Gagaeva-Vishnevskaia collected anthropological
materials on the women of Central Asia, among them 158 Tajiks.
The only published results consist of a brief note by Vishnevskii stating
that 20 percent belong to the leptosomic type, 75 percent to the meso-
somic, 5 percent to eurisomic.
In 1927 G. G. Petrov measured 629 Tajiks from Ura-Tiube and
Shakhristan regions and from Samarkand and vicinity. On the basis
of the blood group distribution he concludes that the Plains Tajiks
have been greatly mixed with the neighboring peoples. Petrov has
also published a paper on the muscular strength of Tajiks from the
vicinity of Ura-Tiube, and some other materials on Tajiks have been
published by him. The bulk of his materials remains unpublished.
A. I. IArkho was in charge of the anthropological work of the
Society for the Study of Soviet Asia, from 1928-1931. In 1929 he
studied 200 Tajiks from Khasan (Ferghana region). He thought
that the Tajiks were Europeoids, and, admitting that the type Homo
sapiens indo-europaeus is not homogeneous in Central Asia, classifies
them as the Pamiro-Ferghan subtype. “This is a brachycephalic type,
with a short skull, straight forehead, hair development above medium,
straight or slightly convex nose. ... It is doubtful whether this
type stands alone in the European groups. It is probable that it is
connected with the short-headed population of Vorderasien and the
non-Armenoid population of the Caucasus.”
IArkho noticed some variations among the tribal and territorial
groups. According to him, the mestization between the Europeoid and
Mongoloid types in Central Asia has progressed to such an extent
that even the most Europeoid and Mongoloid groups are not lacking
characters of the opposite type.
The expeditions led by IArkho have also collected materials bear-
ing on the physical development of the populations of Central Asia.
Very little of this material has been published.
Korovnikov, who in 1928 participated in an expedition for the
study of endemic goiter in the region of the Vanch River, measured
80 individuals who were not greatly afflicted by endocrine disorders.
He recorded data bearing on racial and constitutional characters.
With Oshanin, Korovnikov classifies the Tajiks of the Vanch area as
Homo sapiens indo-europaeus var. brachymorphus (Giuffrida-Rug-
gieri) with pronounced traits of the Iranic type. The eastern Iranian
type of Vanch mountaineers, classed as Alpines, is the connecting
link between the mountaineers of Europe and Asia.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 145
V. K. IAsevich measured in detail 150 Karategin Tajiks (Garm)
and 202 Tajiks from Matcha during an expedition in 1930. This
material, cited after a report of Oshanin at the December 1932 meet-
ing of the anthropological section of the IAE, is not known. We have
also learned that at the end of 1932 IAsevich investigated the blood
groups of 831 Tajiks from Karategin, 1,570 Tajiks from Isfara, and
309 Tajiks from Matcha.
Other yet unpublished anthropological material is known to have
been collected by P. K. Arkhibaev in the Kurgan Tiubin and the
Kuliab regions of the Tajik S.S.R.
Head length (M=182.80) is medium, with regular distribution of
variants, and slight preponderance of greater lengths.
Greatest length is found in Karategin; shortest in southwestern
Darvaz. There is little difference between Plains and Mountain Tajiks
in this respect.
A comparable length is observed among Ferghana (IArkho) and
Angren (IArkho) and Tashkent (Shishlov) Uzbeks; also among
Shakhrasiab and Karshi Uzbeks (Oshanin). The greatest deviation
from this length is found among the Mangyt clan of Uzbeks and the
Uzbeks from Khwarazm (Khoresm). Samarkand and Karshi Arabs
have a similar head length, as well as Central Asian Jews (Oshanin
and Weissenberg). Pamir Kirghiz (Joyce) have a similar length,
probably because of geographical proximity. The Issyk-Kul, Fer-
ghana, and Tien Shan Kirghiz have a much greater length.
Turkomans have a much greater length, and this is their most
pronounced difference from Tajiks. Persians have also greater length.
A similar and, occasionally, greatly exceeding length is found among
Afghans and Hindus (Risley).
Head breadth (M=152.55) is also medium, although greater
breadth is found much more frequently than greater length. Karategin
region gives a greater breadth than Darvaz. Mountain Tajiks’
breadth is less than that of Ferghana Tajiks (IArkho) and Plains
Tajiks (Joyce), with the exception of Karategin and Muminabad
Tajiks. Bukhara and Pskem Valley Tajiks vary within the same
range. Tajiks from western Pamirs also have smaller breadth.
The head breadth of the Tajiks approaches that of Jews, Khwarazm
Uzbeks, Shakhrasiab, and Karshi Uzbeks (Oshanin), Tashkent Uz-
beks (“Sarts”) (Shishlov), and Mangyt clan (IArkho). Ferghana
and Angren Uzbeks (IArkho) have greater breadth. Pamir Kirghiz
have similar breadth, while those of Ferghana, Tien Shan, and Issyk-
Kul have greater breadth. Arabs (Samarkand) have similar or greater
breadth than Mountain Tajiks. Variety of breadth, greater and
146 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
smaller than that of Mountain Tajiks, is found in Afghanistan.
Turkomans, Persians, and Hindus have smaller breadth than Tajiks.
Bregma-tragion diameter (M=127.55) is great; large deviations
occur. This height is greater in Darvaz than in Karategin. It is
similar to the height of Bukhara and Pskem Tajiks, less than that
of Ferghana.
The head height of Karategin Tajiks approaches that of Central
Asian Jews and Shakhrasiab Uzbeks; of southwestern Darvaz, ap-
proaches that of Uzbeks, Kirghiz, and Turkomans (IArkho). Hindus
(Risley) vary within the same range, being occasionally greater.
Tsimmerman’s ?* claim that the Tajiks’ head height stands on the
border between medium and small sizes cannot be accepted, as Bunak’s
scheme is not applicable in Central Asia; according to this scheme,
head height is very high, and not medium, if one compares all the
available figures from Central Asia.
Cephalic index (M=83.5) is brachycephalic with a tendency toward
hyperbrachycephaly ; only a few dolichocephals have been found. The
variations are small, the highest being found in southwestern Darvaz
where the head form approaches hyperbrachycephaly. Lowest is
found in central and eastern Darvaz. The cephalic index of the
Mountain Tajiks equals that of Ferghana, Pendzhikent, and Buk-
haran Tajiks, and with the population of the western Pamirs (except
Ishkashim and Vakhan, where it is higher).
The cephalic index of Mountain Tajiks (Karategin and south-
western Darvaz) approaches that of Kirghiz, Uzbek (except Mangyt)
Jews, and Arabs, and differs greatly from that of Turkomans, Persians,
Hindus, and some Afghan tribes.
This similarity of cephalic index of Tajiks with other Central Asian
peoples (except Turkomans), even with the highly mongolized
Kirghiz, forced Ginzburg to join Oshanin and IArkho in their opinion
that in Central Asia absolute measurements of the head permit a better
differentiation of racial types than the cephalic indices.
Height-length index (M=69.77) agrees with the other characteri-
zations of the extremely high head of Mountain Tajiks. Orthocephal-
ics are few; chamaecephalics are practically absent. .
Occipital deformation was found in 69 percent of cases, in Darvaz
more frequently than in Karategin. This deformation was usually
asymmetrical.?? Asymmetrical deformity is usually due to the in-
fluence of the position of the infant’s head in the cradle.
27 Following Bunak’s method.
28 Ginzburg differentiated the naturally flat occiput from the deformed
“flattened” occiput.
NO. .I3\ SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 147
According to Oshanin, Bukharan Tajiks had a flattened occiput in
20 percent of the cases; deformed occiput in 70 percent of the cases.
A flat occiput is more common among Jews. In the case of Uzbeks,
percentages vary. Among Uzbeks (‘‘Sarts’’) from Tashkent, Shishlov
found 70.3 percent of deformed occiputs; 41.2 percent of cranial
asymmetry. Among Vanch Tajiks Korovnikov found 34.7 percent
occipital deformation.
Within the range of probable error, the correlation between breadth
and length in the entire material (without taking into consideration
the degree of occipital deformation) is so little as to be practically
absent. The correlation calculated for certain groups having varying
degrees of deformation shows that the correlation is positive where
deformation is absent, the correlation is lessened where deformation
is slight, and negative where deformation is strong. The validity of
this observation is proved by the fact that the coefficient of correlation
greatly exceeds its probable error.
Stature —Mountain Tajiks are of medium stature (M=165.83),
with a preponderance of medium-tall and tall individuals.
Considerably lower stature is found in central and eastern Darvaz.
The lowest stature has been observed in Vakhio (eastern portion of
Tavil Darya region) and in the Kalai Khumb region (Piandzh coastal
region).
A comparison of stature disclosed that the Ferghana and Plains
Tajiks have in general greater stature than the Mountain Tajiks.
The stature increases in the western Pamirs, except for Tajiks and
Jews measured in Bukhara by Oshanin.
The stature of other people of Central Asia varies greatly, so that
this measurement is of little value for general diagnostic characteriza-
tion of the group.
The population of central Darvaz, because of their lower stature,
have a smaller trunk length and a correspondingly larger relative
sitting-height index. This is also true of the population along Piandzh
and in the Tavil Darya region.
Bukharan and Pskem Valley Tajiks do not differ from Mountain
Tajiks in their relative sitting-height index. Vanch Tajiks differ
in this respect (probably because of the technique used by Koroy-
nikov). Jews from Bukhara and Kernini have the same index as
Mountain Tajiks, and slightly lower than Bukharan Tajiks.
Uzbeks of Shakhrasiab and Khwarazm have a higher, those of
Tashkent a much lower, relative sitting-height index. While the
variations of this index among the Uzbeks parallel those of Tajiks,
in general the former are slightly more brachyskelic.
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NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD
Taste 19.—Head height
TURKESTAN
People No. Mean
Tera w ony co e.s cc sssces 163 128.0
EE orc ek cae ecesce 100 127.07
SE Seer 200 132.35
Eat hhd cecwa vs cn bcdad SI 129.0
0 A eee 200 129.13
TS alin vanoad seve Geiss 107 132.33
TCR CCN dances sksscccees 29 155.0
EMT Eaa ddd nies ode e vbite 17 155.0
AFGHANISTAN
MM UG GG an ccmsevcces ses 18 153.0
2 And Mountainous Bukhara.
TABLE 20.—Height-length index
TURKESTAN
People No. Mean
I 163 70.82
SRR ED 2 oie cccvescens 100 71.33
Sey iis o's Su catch jue we 200 71.47
a a a SO 200 66.88
a atl wav #06 dS ein 107 68.40
AFGHANISTAN
Ne Usk ueshaane 18 74.43
2And Mountainous Bukhara.
TABLE 21.—Physiognomic height
TURKESTAN
People No. Mean
SPELT CTE eer 200 186.92
et Middle douches ce cp eee 51 186.0
Ta con naka ns oa h.ae 200 184.87
MET MILER eS bance tictadvad sc 107 184.28
IRAN
EE Ria ns eeinesteatecens 50 191.0
AFGHANISTAN
NTE Hd a6 wo wy gene vee 18 198.0
TE tas soctneedn thanks 18 190.0
2And Mountainous Bukhara.
149
Author
Oshanin
TArkho
TAvorskii
IArkho
TArkho
Maslovskii
Maslovskii
Matseevskii
Author
Oshanin
IArkho
IArkho
IArkho
Matseevskii
Author
IArkho
TAvorskii
IArkho
IArkho
Maslovskii
Matscevskii
Poiarkov
I50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS _ VOL. IIO
The Kirghiz are the most brachyskelic people of Central Asia
according to all available literature, and invariably possess higher
relative sitting-height indexes.
Average data for stature and cephalic-index correlations was tabu-
lated for other Central Asian groups, and an apparently reverse
phenomenon was observed—i.e., greater stature was accompanied by
lesser cephalic index. In order to investigate this contradiction, a
small group of brachycephalic peoples was taken (Kirghiz, Uzbek,
Kara-Kalpak, Jews, and Arabs of Central Asia), and the coefficient
of correlation was calculated for the group. This was insignificant
but negative (R= —0.076+0.199), and typical for intertribal correla-
tion of stature and cephalic index pointed out by Pearson.
The positive correlation among the Tajiks seemed to indicate the
intratribal character of the difference, which would seem to strengthen
TABLE 22.—Correlation between stature and cephalic index of Tajiks aged
24 to 50
Deformed occiput Undeformed occiput
. oT =
Region N. R. Mr N. R. Mr
IRAMALCOIM” ceine-siche asteeees ec 74 -+0.0203 0.068 28 —oO.14I 0.081
Central and eastern Darvaz. 111 -+ 0.006 0.095 18 —0.32 0.215
Southwestern Darvaz ...... 129 6+ 0.081 0.031 27 —0.03I 0.19
ME OtAIS' S 3s acts sisters sae 314. +0.004 0.006 143 —0.120 0.071
Ginzburg’s premise that the Tajiks belong to a single group, fairly
homogeneous in character.
An attempt was made to verify this conclusion by calculating the
individual correlation data for the entire group and for the regions.
Cranial deformation was found to be a significant factor. In the
presence of occipital deformation the correlation was found to be
insignificant but invariably positive.
In the presence of undeformed occipita the correlation is negative,
and the coefficient of correlation is fairly sizable. Thus, it is clearly
seen that the cephalic index decreases with the increase of stature,
but that occipital deformation entirely obscures these relationships.
In comparing cephalic index with stature it may be seen that the
decrease of cephalic index progresses until tall medium stature is
reached, but that in the presence of high (170.0 cm.) stature cephalic
index increases both in the case of deformed and undeformed occipita.
The problem of interdependence of cephalic index and stature is
an independently important problem of ontogenetic development, of
particular interest in connection with the study of deformed occipita.
Facial dimensions and indices—Morphological face height (nasion-
gnathion) (M=126.92) is great, but in comparison with the facial
ee
eC
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD I5!I
height of other Central Asian peoples is medium. High faces pre-
dominate. In Karategin face height (M=129.34) is greater than in
Darvaz (M=125.67, 125.35). The comparison of data with the
results obtained by various authorities is difficult and sometimes im-
possible because of techniques employed. Oshanin and IArkho
accepted as nasion the lower end of the eyebrows. Korovnikov mea-
sured from the deepest point of the bridge as did Tsimmerman and
Stein.
According to Stein (Joyce) Darvaz facial height is also less than
in Karategin. In Vanch his measurements agreed with those of
Korovnikov, disclosing a greater height than in Darvaz and com-
parable to facial height in Karategin. Ginzburg and others found,
however, that facial height in Vanch is less than that of Karategin.
It is still more difficult to compare the facial height of Tajiks with
that of other peoples. Uzbeks and Jews have varying facial height,
sometimes greater and sometimes less than that of Tajiks. The same
phenomenon prevails among Turkomans, the Iomuds equaling that
of the Tajiks, the Chaudyrs being greater. Arabs and Kirghiz have
greater facial height than Tajiks.
Morphological face height, while valuable for characterizations of
various groups within a people, is, in many cases, not indicative of
differences between various peoples.
Physiognomic face height (M=182.52) is medium, with a pre-
ponderance of greater sizes. In general, it varies by regions com-
parably to the morphological face heights. It is easier to compare face
height with the figures disclosed by various authors. IArkho’s Fer-
ghana Tajiks have somewhat greater face height than Mountain
Tajiks. Kirghiz have greater face height ; Uzbeks vary, giving smaller
and greater values, although the latter prevail. The Turkomans range
between that of Ferghana and Mountain Tajiks.
The bizygomatic breadth (M=140.66) is medium, compared to
the European facial breadth, but rather low for Central Asia. The
distribution of broader and narrower faces is regular. In Karategin
facial height is greater than in Darvaz. Facial breadth in south-
western Darvaz is somewhat less than in central Darvaz. The methods
of measurements vary greatly. Karategin Tajiks approach IArkho’s
and Maslov’s Ferghana and Plains Tajiks. Pskem Valley and Bu-
kharan Tajiks have narrower faces and are comparable to central
Darvaz Tajiks. Korovnikov’s data from Vanch cannot be utilized
for comparative purposes because of difference of method used. Joyce's
data show greater figures for Karategin than for Darvaz.
Kirghiz have greater facial breadth than Tajiks. Uzbeks and Turko-
152 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
mans vary comparably to Tajiks in Karategin and Darvaz respectively.
Arab facial breadth approaches that of Karategin Tajiks. Smallest
bizygomatic breadth is found in the Jews who are comparable to south-
western Darvaz Tajiks.
Frontal height (M=55.5) is medium, but varies by regions.
The greatest is found in southwestern Darvaz (M=56.21) ; Karate-
gin (M=55.04) has the intermediate place, while lowest frontal
height is found in central and eastern Darvaz (M=53.06).
Minimum frontal diameter (M=107.51) is of average size for
Central Asia, and does not vary greatly in different regions, being
greater in Karategin and lesser in southwestern Darvaz than in central
and eastern Darvaz.
Frontal-zygomatic index varies to a greater degree because of
greater intensivity of the decrease of zygomatic diameter in various
regions.
Tajiks from Ferghana, Turkomans, and Chaudyrs have a similar
index ; Kirghiz and Uzbeks, somewhat greater ; Iomuds, much smaller.
Bigonial breadth is small and varies: Karategin 108.23; central
and eastern Darvaz 107.89; and southwestern Darvaz 106.36.
Ferghana Tajiks and Kirghiz have greater breadth, Uzbeks and
Turkomans the same or greater.
Morphological face index (M=g90.17) is leptoprosopic. There are
more hyperleptoprosopic individuals than mesoprosopic. Eurypro-
sopics were very rare and hypereuryprosopic individuals were prac-
tically absent. Morphological face index does not vary by region,
greatest deviation being in Vanch region, with a lower index pre-
vailing as a result of generally lower morphological height.
Because of variation of method, it is impossible to compare the
morphological face index of the Mountain Tajiks with most of the
other peoples measured. Ferghana (IJArkho), Pendzhikent (Vish-
nevskii), and Bukhara (Oshanin) Tajiks have a similar index as do
the Kirghiz, Uzbeks, and Jews; Turkomans have a slightly higher
index.
Physiognomic face index (M=77.55) is of medium size, with pre-
ponderance of lower values. The variations are not great and, in
general, correspond to those of the morphological face index.
The physiognomic face index of southwestern Darvaz and Surkh
Oba Valley Tajiks is similar to that of Ferghana Tajiks. The index
of Kirghiz, Uzbeks, and Turkomans varies within the same range as
that of Mountain Tajiks.
Thus it may be stated that in Central Asia facial indices are better
suited for the characterization of subdivisions within a group than
{
~~
iia
:
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 153
for comparison of larger groups (“intro-group” rather than “inter-
group”).
Vertical face profile—Straight in the majority of cases (85.62
percent) ; slightly prominent in 13.7 percent of cases; prognathism
rare (1.31 percent), usually among Karategins.
Straight profile most prevalent in southwestern Darvaz (97.48
percent). Because of discrepancy of methods the data cannot be com-
pared with those of other recorders; yet it appears from Oshanin’s
figure that the profile of both Uzbeks and Jews is more prominent than
that of Mountain Tajiks.
General form of face is ovoid in 40.08 percent. Breadth of mouth
medium. Lip thickness medium, 47.27 percent, and thick, 34.42 per-
cent. Chin prominent, 89.76 percent.
TABLE 23.—Position of eyeball
Group Locality Deepest Medium Protuberant Author
Percent Percent Percent
BETIES. . Gb cuss s Darvaz II 40.26 58.49 1.26 Ginzburg
ae «+» Bukhara 5.0 62.0 33.0 Oshanin
Uzbeks:) .2..... Shakhrasiab 4.9 85.0 10.2 Oshanin
EE Piesee ess Bukhara 8.0 65.0 27.0 Oshanin
DR kdecwne . «eShakhrasiab 7.8 70.4 12.8 Oshanin
Thus the face of Mountain Tajiks may be characterized as narrow,
of medium height, with medium or weakly expressed cheek bones,
medium or strong cross section, and straight vertical profile.
In general, Karategin Tajiks have greater absolute dimensions of
face than the Tajiks of Darvaz.
External eye -—Eye opening spindle-shaped in 98.70 percent; rare
cases of almond-Shaped eyes are mostly from Karategin and are more
common among Bukharan Tajiks and still more common among
Bukharan Jews (Oshanin). However, he remarks that this does not
present valid enough difference between Tajiks, Uzbeks, and Jews.
The majority of Kirghiz have almond-shaped eyes. Vanch Tajiks
(Korovnikov) cannot be compared with the present series because
of variations in methods of measurement. Eye width (distance be-
tween inner and outer corners) was medium in 48.27 percent. Narrow
eyes are more common in Karategin; wide eyes in southwestern
Darvaz.
Eyes deep-set, 40.26 percent ; medium (southwestern Darvaz only),
58.49 percent. Protuberant eyeballs observed only in Shuroabad and
Muminabad regions (1.26 percent).
Mongoloid fold of upper eyelid found only in 3.68 percent, and is
II
154 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
usually not strongly expressed. Ginzburg did not record one fully
developed Mongoloid fold among adults (24 to 50). Mongoloid fold
was most frequent in Karategin (Surkh Oba Valley), and most rare
in central and eastern Darvaz.
Mongoloid fold is much more common among nonadult individuals.
In a young group (18 to 23) it was absent in 78.34 percent, weakly
developed in 19.11 percent, strongly expressed and medium in 1.27
percent of cases. In this age group, Mongoloid fold was most com-
monly present in southwestern Darvaz.
Mongoloid fold is as rarely observed among Bukharan Tajiks
(Oshanin), Pendzhikent Tajiks (Vishnevskii), and Ferghana Tajiks
(IArkho). Tsimmerman observed a Mongoloid fold more frequently
in Pskem Valley. However, the ages were not differentiated in com-
parative data.
Mongoloid fold is rarely observed among the Jews; among Turko-
mans (IArkho) percentages vary in groups, and the same is true of
Uzbeks although here it is more clearly expressed than among Tajiks.
The same is true of Kirghiz with the exception of the Issyk-Kul group,
where it was found in the majority of cases. This variation may be
due to difference of recording method.
In contrast to the Mongoloid fold the upper eye fold among Moun-
tain Tajiks was absent in 36.15 percent. It was weakly developed in
25.97 percent, medium in 25.32 percent, and strong in 12.56 percent
of all individuals.
The upper fold is more common in Darvaz than in Karategin; in
southwestern Darvaz it is better expressed than in central and eastern
Darvaz. Comparative study of upper fold discloses that it is some-
what better expressed among Pendzhikent Tajiks (Vishnevskii) to
a degree similar to that observable in southwestern Darvaz. Various
degrees of development of upper fold are found among Uzbeks and
Jews. In general, Jews have less-developed upper fold than the
Tajiks, and much less-developed than the Uzbeks.
Thus, it may be concluded that the Mongoloid traits in the structure
of the eye are but slightly expressed among the Mountain Tajiks, but
that Mongoloid influence is undoubtedly felt. This may be seen
through the study of the younger individuals, and also from the
relatively high percentage of strongly and less strongly expressed
fold of the upper lid. This influence is most strongly felt in south-
western Darvaz, then in Karategin, and, least of all, in central and
eastern Darvaz.
Nose structure—The nose is usually of medium size (54.33 per-
cent). Large noses appear in 39.18 percent, small in 6.49 percent.
NO. 13
SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY——-FIELD
TABLE 24.—Comparative table on upper eyelid
Mongol
People Locality fold
Percent
Ne ee Bukhara 5.2
cakes shire acne vic Pskem Valley 11.0
0 EE eee Pendzhikent 4.3
Oe Ferghana 5.0
CMM ERG ages inde cavece Karategin 5.26
SPU. Slee ties aces ces C. and E. Darvaz 2.26
SEELIG Sire So cicUidievsches S. W. Darvaz 3.14
SE iain dhig oli id's cvbe Khwarazm 25.0
BIRDCES lychee a-s: eee Shakhrasiab 10.1
.. ee Karshi 22.5
er Samarkand 24.2
Peet cere’ Stes e Ferghana 7.1
ed Angren 7.5
Uzbek Kipchaks ........ Ferghana 23.0
Uzbek Mangyt ......... Ferghana 35.4
RES gr ape hac a ac Bukhara 0.0
On Se Shakhrasiab 1.0
EMEC oc Ge cbc ccc ac Samarkand 0.0
Turkomans (Chaudyrs).. 24.6
Turkomans (Iomuds)... 6.6
0 TE ee Issyk-Kul 86.0
PM Ctecwedsactsssue Tien Shan 24.0
ee eee Ferghana 19.4
People
Tajiks..
Tajiks..
Tajiks..
Tajiks.
Uzbeks
Locality
.Karategin
.Darvaz I
.Darvaz II
. Pendzhikent
(tribesmen)
Uzbeks ..Shakhrasiab
Jews ..
Jews ..
. Samarkand
. Shakhrasiab
Kirghiz. .Tien Shan and
Ferghana
No.
171
132
159
279
190
143
101
None
Percent
44.45
41.67
22.64
10.4
1.9
27.5
12.7
78.4
5.0
Upper
fold
Percent
89.6
55.55
58.33
77-36
72.4
08.1
21.6
Light Medium Strong
Percent Percent Percent
20.46 25.73 9.36
35.60 16.67 6.06
23.900 32.08 21.39
25.0 43.9 19.8
10.2 65.0 22.9
44.0 25.5 2.9
31.4 50.8 5.1
17.0 4.6
155
Author
Oshanin
Tsimmerman
Vishnevskii
IArkho
Ginzburg
Ginzburg
Ginzburg
Oshanin
Oshanin
Oshanin
Vishnevskii
IArkho
IArkho
IArkho
IArkho
Oshanin
Oshanin
Vishnevskii
IArkho
TArkho
Oshanin
TArkho
TArkho
TABLE 25.—Comparative table of development of upper eye fold
Author
Ginzburg
Ginzburg
Ginzburg
Vishnevskii
Vishnevskii
Oshanin
Vishnevskii
Oshanin
TArkho
156 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Straight profile is most common (40.47 percent). Wavy nose,
24.03 percent ; convex, 17.75 percent; concave, 11.47 percent; “with
a break,” 6.28 percent. For convenience, these forms have been
grouped in three classes:
1. Concave, 11.47 percent.
2. Straight (straight and “wavy” concavo-convex), 64.50 percent.
3. Convex (convex and “with break”), 25.03 percent.
Concave noses are more common in Darvaz, especially in the cen-
tral and eastern portions, than in Karategin, while convex ones are
more common in Karategin. Concave noses are least common among
Bukharan Tajiks. Pendzhikent Tajiks do not differ from the Mountain
Tajiks from Darvaz. Korovnikov’s Vanch Tajiks have an unusually
large percentage of concave noses (32.5 percent). It is probable that
his figures are affected by age range represented.
Comparison with other data discloses that Uzbeks have nearly the
same distribution of variations. Jews and Arabs have fewer concave
and more convex forms. The Kirghiz of Issyk-Kul have a much
greater percent of concave forms, which cannot be said of Tien Shan
Kirghiz.
The profile of the bony and the cartilaginous structure of the nose
was observed only in southwestern Darvaz. No significant difference
was observed between this character of Tajiks and of other peoples
of Central Asia (IArkho’s data), so that it was found difficult to
utilize them for racial criteria.
General protuberance of the nasal ridge was observed only in
Darvaz. Medium protuberance was observed in the majority of cases.
Strong protuberance was next numerous; least numerous were the
cases of slight protuberance. In central and eastern Darvaz very
prominent noses were more common than in southwestern Darvaz,
with the exception of the Muminabad region.
In Central Asia this is a very typical trait, differentiating the
Mongolized Kirghiz and some other Mongolized tribes much better
than the profile of the bony and cartilaginous structure.
According to Oshanin the Jews have even more prominent nose
ridges than the Tajiks.
The bridge height of Tajiks was usually medium (55.41 percent)
less commonly great (42.21 percent). Low nose bridge was observed
only in 2.38 percent.
Small nasal bridges were much fewer in central and eastern Darvaz
than in all other regions. There were exceptionally few individuals
with high nasal bridges in Vanch.
Mountain Tajiks have the highest nasal bridge in Central Asia
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 157
with the exception of the Jews, who have a still higher percentage.
Bukharan Tajiks, like Mountain Tajiks, have high nasal bridges.
Ferghana Tajiks approach the Uzbeks. Kirghiz, Kara-Kalpaks,
Mangyt Uzbeks, and Chaudyr Turkomans have greater percentages
of individuals with low nasal bridges and smaller percentages of
TABLE 26.—Comparative table of nasal profile
Straight
or Convex
concavo- or
People Locality Concave convex aquiline Author
Percent Percent Percent
SEETE seeds eh bes ces. Pendzhikent 17.7 63.3 23.1 Vishnevskii
A .. Bukhara 5.0 51.0 44.0 Oshanin
SEITE es ve uie c.0.0 60. Pskem Valley 12.0 42.0 46.0 Tsimmerman
a Vanch 32.5 52.5 15.0 Korovnikoy
ese s Soc oe © Ferghana rai ee 19.6 IArkho
TC de eentascces Khwarazm 16.0 58.0 26.0 Oshanin
Ie eis ae wdc Shakhrasiab 13.2 67.3 19.5 Oshanin
Sea ar Karshi 22.5 57-5 20.0 Oshanin
Uzbeks (clansmen).... 20.4 72.9 6.08 Vishnevskii
Uzbeks (clansmen)....Ferghana 7.3 64.9 28.8 IArkho
Uzbeks (clansmen)..../ Angren aa “te 28.1 IArkho
Uzbeks Kipchaks ..... 0.1 62.6 28.3 ITArkho
Uzbeks Mangyts ..... 2.5 95.0 2.5 IArkho
Satan cons ins da} Bukhara 5.0 27.0 68.0 Oshanin
ee ». Shakhrasiab 2.9 32.0 65.0 Oshanin
A Samarkand 7.0 51.2 41.7 Vishnevskii
a Oe a Karshi 3.0 48.0 49.0 Oshanin
Turkomans Chaudyrs.. Khwarazm 8.6 70.7 20.7 IArkho
Turkomans Iomuds ...Khwarazm 2.8 71.1 27.1 IArkho
0 Re Issyk-Kul 48.0 52.0 tue Oshanin
ae Tien Shan 12.2 67.6 20.2 IArkho
SEY To's ss pa dvsape-sts Ferghana 13.0 64.3 22.7 IArkho
Kara-Kalpaks ........ Kara-Kalpak
A.S.S.R. 5.0 82.3 12.7 TArkho
Kara-Kalpaks ........ Ferghana 10.1 60.7 20.2 TArkho
individuals with higher nasal bridges. This observation is also valid
for differentiating the anthropological types of Central Asia. Breadth
of nasal bridge is usually medium (51.51 percent) ; small breadth is
found in 34.85 percent, and great in 13.64 percent of cases. Broad-
bridged individuals were more common in Karategin than in Darvaz.
Comparing the Tajik’s nasal bridge with that of other peoples, we
see that they stand in this respect nearest to Jews. Among Uzbeks
and Arabs there are few individuals with narrow bridges.
158 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE. ETO
TABLE 27.—Comparative table of nasal bridge height
People Locality No. Low Medium High Author
Percent Percent Percent
Maqiksv er sacee erorks Bukhara 100 3.0 68.0 29.0 Oshanin
Draqaks Anes yas rete Ferghana 199 13.1 70.8 16.1 TArkho
Gasiksh. ease) tase. eterene Karategin 171 2.34 50.87 46.78 Ginzburg
Magikcuewislelerys teres Darvaz I 132 2.27. 68.904 28.79 Ginzburg
Maliiikcsiact-s nein ce hese ae Darvaz II 159 2.52 49.06 48.43 Ginzburg
WWZDCKS cocis eters re tees Shakhrasiab 190 7.9 84.2 7.0 Oshanin
Wizbelesmrnenpramnrcterera Karshi 198 14.1 79.3 6.6 Oshanin
Uzbeks Mangyts .... 78 46.1 51.3 2.6 TArkho
Wzbelss. scciet. heat Khiva 100 10.0 80.0 10.0 TArkho
Uzbeks (not clans)..Ferghana 386 10.1 68.4 21.5 TArkho
Uzbeks Kipchaks .... 99 220 Oe 10.1 TArkho
WZBEKS eno 5 gos cts: Posts Angren 82 15.9 70.7 13.4 TArkho
Wizbelcst 2 kala /s onevecee Ae Khwarazm 100 7.0 64.0 29.0 Oshanin
Kara-Kialpaks 2.50... Kara-Kalpak
NOSES Rae 200 43.2 56.5 0.3 TArkho
Kara-Kalpaks ...a2)< 2: Ferghana 9g 28.3 64.7 vet TArkho
Turkomans Chaudyrs.Khwarazm 108 28.3 66.2 5.5 TArkho
Turkomans Iomuds ..Khwarazm 107 ES 68.2 24.3 TArkho
Kingintzao a sons cae Issyk-Kul 100 67.0 27.0 6.0 Oshanin
Karehigge bacon tics. Tien Shan 769 30.0 65.6 4.4 TArkho
IGhgedatias LER eS soem ooes Ferghana 154 26.6 68.8 4.6 TArkho
JEWS Kosta a8 of aanee of Bukhara 100 2.0 36.0 62.0 Oshanin
GWE aeuysretes; soe a eels Shakhrasiab 103 1.0 25.2 73.8 Oshanin
PATA G ee eS ethas «bse snapaieie Karshi 100 2.0 68.0 30.0 Oshanin
TABLE 28.—Comparative table of nasal bridge breadth
People Locality Narrow Medium _ Broad Author
Percent Percent Percent
be Gil ee ey Pee terres Ce Karategin 35.67 46.78 17.54 Ginzburg
Tajiks ares ys.) sue Darvaz I 31.82 53.79 14.4 Ginzburg
Tag ileshinne ss 4. epee Darvaz II 36.48 54.71 8.81 Ginzburg
MAAK Sennen ieee Crees Bukhara 26.0 66.0 8.0 Oshanin
Wzhelks ee eee ae eric Khwarazm 19.0 61.0 20.0 Oshanin
Uzbeks) ronnie ste Shakhrasiab 4.7 88.4 6.9 Oshanin
Wzbelcsiaeeeicr errs Karshi 4.5 83.0 12.5 Oshanin
Jews eae ce eee hie clon Shakhrasiab 33.7 66.3 sae Oshanin
PEWSI eros certo tion Bukhara 34.0 58.0 7.0 Oshanin
Arabs) ys! och camels: meee Karshi 6.0 75.0 19.0 Oshanin
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 159
The nasal tip is most commonly rounded (55.85 percent) ; a sharp
nose is found in 35.72 percent of cases. Angular tip was found in
6.53 percent, blunt tip in 2.82 percent. Rounded tip was slightly less
common in Darvaz than in Karategin. Sharp tip was most common
in southwestern Darvaz. Angular and blunt forms were found most
commonly in central and eastern Darvaz. With regard to the form
of the tip, the Mountain Tajiks stand midway between the Jews
(among whom a sharp form is more common) and Uzbeks (among
whom sharp form is rarer, but rounded and blunt forms are more
common, according to Oshanin).
The inclination of the nasal tip is more commonly horizontal (51.51
percent) or pointing downward (42.21 percent). The deviations from
the horizontal are usually slight. There is no great difference between
regional degrees of nasal inclination. A slightly higher percentage
of raised tips is found only in the Kalai Khumb region along the
Piandzh River and in Vanch. From a comparison of our data with
those obtained by IArkho and Oshanin, it was observed that Mountain
Tajiks differ in this respect from the other groups of Central Asia,
having the highest nasal index (i.e., having the smallest percentage
of raised noses). Shakhrasiab Jews are nearest to them in this respect.
Ferghana Tajiks and Angren Uzbeks are the next nearest. Tien
Shan and Kuram Kirghiz are slightly more snub-nosed.
The inclination of the base of the nose was examined only in south-
western Darvaz; a relatively large percentage of individuals with
upward trend was found in Shuroabad region, and a relatively small
percentage of such individuals occurred in the Muminabad region.
According to IArkho’s figures only Angren Uzbeks are com-
parable to Shuroabad Tajiks in this regard. All other groups, includ-
ing Ferghana Tajiks, give a much lower percentage. Jews (Oshanin)
also give a slightly larger percentage of raised, and lower percentage
of lowered, noses. Bukharan Tajiks give a slightly lesser percent-
age of lowered forms.
The height of nasal wings is most often medium (42.42 percent)
or small (40.02 percent). Great height was observed only in 17.53
percent. A greater percentage of high nasal wings was observed in
Darvaz and lower in Karategin. Particularly great wing height was
observed in Vanch. Smallest wing height was observed in Karategin
and southwestern Darvaz. In comparison with IArkho’s figure,
measurements in Darvaz were very low. Only in Darvaz is wing
height comparable to that of other Central Asian groups, Great wing
height is commonest among Mangyt Uzbeks and Ferghana Kara-
Kalpaks.
160 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Ferghana Tajiks in this respect approach the Tajiks of southwestern
Darvaz. Bukharan Tajiks (Oshanin) have an exceedingly low per-
centage of low wings, and heavy preponderance of medium. High
wings predominate among the Jews.
The flare of alae is usually small (58.02 percent) or low (38.09 per-
cent). Strong flaring was observed in 3.89 percent. The degree of
flaring was found higher in Karategin than in Darvaz.
The percentage of highly flaring wings among Bukharan Tajiks was
like that in Karategin. The Jews approached the percentage observed
in Darvaz. Uzbeks have a much greater percentage of greatly flaring
wings, while the Arabs stand in the middle (Oshanin).
The nasal furrows were usually medium (47.40 percent) or slight
(35.93 percent). Highly developed furrows were found in 16.67
percent. More highly expressed furrows were found in Karategin,
less so in Darvaz. In this respect, the Tajiks of Bukhara and Fer-
ghana approach Mountain Tajiks. Tien Shan Kirghiz and Khiva
Uzbeks are nearer the Karategin Tajiks. Shakhrasiab Jews have
much less pronounced furrows, while Bukharan Jews approach Bu-
kharan Tajiks. Uzbeks generally have much less developed furrows
than Tajiks.
The size of nostrils is: Small 15.40 percent; medium, 56.28 per-
cent; and large, 29.23 percent. Small nostrils are more common in
Karategin than in Darvaz. The largest nostrils are found among the
Jews and the Arabs; Tajiks and Uzbeks are next. The Kirghiz have
a predominance of small nostrils.
Form of nostrils —Oval, 92.64 percent; round, 5.84 percent; and
triangular, 1.52 percent. Higher percentage of oval nostrils in Darvaz
than in Karategin.
The percentage of oval nostrils is higher among the Jews, and
similar to that of Arabs. Among the Uzbeks the rounded form is
slightly more common. The Kirghiz have a slightly greater percentage
of round nostrils than the other groups.
The direction of maximal diameter of nostrils was diagonal, 53.25
percent; sagittal, 42.21 percent; crosswise, 4.55 percent. Sagittal
direction is slightly less common in Darvaz than in Karategin. It is
slightly more common among the Jews. Uzbeks are like Tajiks, hav-
ing smaller percentages of sagittal diameters. Sagittal direction is
still less common among Kirghiz.
Nasal length (nasion-subnasale) is large (M=58.14). Shorter
noses are more common in southwestern Darvaz (except in Mumina-
bad and Tavil Darya regions where the maximum length is observed).
Jews and Uzbeks have comparable nose length, the latter with a
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 161
slightly greater percentage of long noses. Nasal length of Kirghiz
varies by regions, being greater than that of Tajiks in Tien Shan;
equal, in Ferghana; less, in Issyk-Kul and Pamirs.
Nasal breadth (M = 34.40) is medium to small. It is slightly
greater in Karategin, smaller in southwestern Darvaz than in central
and eastern Darvaz. As an exception, widest nostrils have been
observed in Vanch.
Among the Jews, nasal breadth is generally less than in Karategin
and eastern and central Darvaz; it approaches that of southwestern
Darvaz. Uzbeks have similar, or greater, nasal breadth, Turkomans
have greater; the greatest nasal breadth has been observed among
the Kirghiz.
Nasal index is fairly low (M=59.44). Tajiks are mostly leptor-
rhine (65.80 percent) ; hyperleptorrhines are 25.97 percent; mesor-
rhines, 8.01 percent.
The highest nasal indices were found in extreme southwestern
Darvaz, although in general little variation was found between Karate-
gin and Darvaz.
Owing to differences of method, it has not been possible to compare
the data with those obtained by other investigators. However, it is
possible to state that the Kirghiz have the highest, and Jews the
lowest, nasal indices.
Ear measurements (L.=61.07, B=33.20, Index=65.51). Form:
oval, 60.09 percent ; elliptical, 15.42 percent ; pear-shaped, 13.60 per-
cent; triangular and heart-shaped, 7.94 percent. Ear lobe, medium;
adhering lobe more common in southwestern Darvaz.
PEOPLES OF UZBEKISTAN
Oshanin *° observed that in 1923 a large portion of the population
of Khwarazm called themselves “Sarts’’ and considered themselves
distinct from the Uzbeks. Originally this term signified traders or
merchants. At the present time both groups, the Uzbeks and the
“Sarts,” are called Uzbeks.*® While no attempt has been made in this
study to describe the differences of physical type between the Khwar-
azmian ‘‘Uzbeks” and the Tashkent “Sarts,” Oshanin states that the
modern settled Khwarazmians, known as “Uzbeks,” do not differ
29 Oshanin, L. V., Tysiadieletniia davnost dolichotsefalii u turkmen i vosnio-
zhyne puti ee proiskhozhdeniia. Izvestia, SREDAZKOMSTARIS, No. 1,
Pp. 131-132, 1926.
80 The most recent invaders of this area were the Turko-Mongol conquerors
during the sixteenth century.
162 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
from the denizens of Tashkent who were formerly known as “Sarts”
and are now called “Uzbeks.”
The data on 119 Sarts used by Oshanin had been collected and
published by A. P. Shishlov. Both the Khiva Uzbeks and the
“Uzbeks” of Tashkent are in equal degree representatives of the
ancient Indo-European ** type, i.e., of the Iranian physical type which
once inhabited the entire area of Turkestan, and was but sightly
Mongolized by subsequent stratifications, in the course of centuries,
of the Turko-Mongolian tribes. The Uzbeks of Khiva have a some-
what greater admixture of this Mongolian element, yet among them
the traits of the Indo-European type are much more clearly expressed.
Accordingly, both terms “Sart” and “Uzbek” will be used in this
work to denote the Iranian populations of Turkestan in general and
Khwarazm in particular, who had become completely Turkized as to
the language, but have remained until this day but very slightly Mon-
golized as to racial type.
During the study of historical sources Oshanin came across an item
of information of anthropological character, from the tenth century
A. D., which drew attention to the Turkomans.
The entire factual information regarding the Turkomans used in
this work is that of IAvorskii based on a very small series of only
59 males. Consequently, the theories herein proposed are presented
as a provisional working hypothesis subject to change on the basis of
additional data. This hypothesis is based entirely on the cephalic
index.®?. The extreme dolichocephaly of the Turkomans stands out
amid the brachycephaly of all other peoples of Turkestan. The re-
maining Indo-European traits of the Turkomans (stature, nasal
index, pigmentation) are given at the end of this article on the basis
of [Avorskii’s data.
K. L. Inostrantsev, in his work on the pre-Muslim culture of the
Khiva Oasis, quotes Al-Mukkadisi to the effect that the settled
Khwarazmians, whose Indo-European nature has been universally
accepted in the interior of the irrigated Khiva Oasis, had become so
similar to the Turks, who were wandering on the periphery of the
oasis, that when Khwarazmians happened to go to one of the neighbor-
ing Muslim countries (Mawerannahr,** Persia, or Arabia) they were
mistaken for Turks, and as such sold into slavery.
31 In the sense of Homo sapiens indo-europaeus of Giuffrida-Ruggieri.
32 Boas and Fleming notwithstanding, but with the support of Pearson and
Dixon: Ci Veo)
33 By this name the Arabs understood the area between Oxus and Jaxartes,
with the exception of the Khiva Oasis.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 163
From an anthropological point of view this fact of the similarity
between the Aryans and the nomadic Turks is paradoxical. Present-
day settled Khwarazmians, both “Sarts” and “Uzbeks,” are un-
doubtedly less similar to the nomadic Turkish peoples than one could
conclude from the words of Al-Mukkadisi. This is easy to under-
stand since during the four centuries following Sheibani’s conquests
the Uzbeks, who were (originally) a motley conglomeration of Tur-
kish tribes and clans subject to the Golden Horde, wandering in the
Dasht-i-Kipchak (to the west and north of the Aral Sea), having
absorbed the fragments of tribes which were wandering in Maw-
erannahr, managed to become settled, to become mixed with the
ancient Indo-European population of Turkestan, and to lose all degree
of purity of their Mongol traits.
Consequently, the modern population of Khwarazm, whether
“Uzbek” or “Sart,” does not differ in the main from the other popu-
lations of Turkestan which are predominantly Indo-European with a
small admixture of the “Asiatic,” ** Mongoloid element. However,
it would be natural that during a millennium the degree of Mongoliza-
tion of the native Indo-European types should increase ** rather than
decrease.
According to Al-Mukkadisi the measures taken by the Khwaraz-
mian government in order to change the outward appearance of its
subjects, and to make them look less like the nomadic Turks, were,
according to Inostrantsev (p. 304): “Khwarazmian women were
ordered to tie bags filled with sand on both sides of the heads of new-
born babies, in order to make their heads wider.” In another place
Al-Mukkadisi ** states that the Khwarazmians tried to cause the
heads of the newborn to become broader and shorter in order to
distinguish them from the surrounding nomad Turks.
Al-Mukkadisi’s testimony is corroborated by another authority,
Yakut ibn-Abdullah, who wrote, at the beginning of the thirteenth
century, that among the Khwarazmians broad heads and foreheads
were due to the custom of artificial cranial deformation.**
These data regarding brachycephaly also sound paradoxical. The
34 After Giuffrida-Ruggieri.
35 Mongol tribes were the masters; cf. language, conquest, etc.
86 Oshanin admits that he does not know whether Inostrantsev quotes Al-
Mukkadisi verbatim or gives a free rendition of the general sense. (E. P.)
87 Barthold checked the references from Al-Mukkadisi (Arabic text in
Biblioth. Geograph. Araborum) and found the rendition of the sense “correct.”
He thought that Yakut ibn-Abdullah’s reference may have been copied by
Yakut from Al-Mukkadisi.
164 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
modern settled population of Khiva Oasis are in this respect very
closely related to the “Sarts” with a tendency toward subbrachy-
cephaly. Oshanin states that this brachycephaly is not due to the
modern practice of artificial cranial deformation. While occipital
flattening, due to the type of cradle, is found among both “Sarts” and
“Uzbeks,” this type of flattening does not affect the cephalic index
to such a high degree. Flattening had been observed equally among
dolichocephalic and brachycephalic individuals. Consequently, the
brachycephaly of the “Sarts” and “Uzbeks” can be considered to be
innate. Al-Mukkadisi also states that dolichocephaly was acquired
by Khwarazmians from the surrounding Turkish nomads. Thus, the
nomadic Turki tribes of Khwarazm were dolichocephalic. However,
we know that the many peoples united by philologists ** under the
term “Turki” belong to the Mongol group, whose representatives are
distinguished by extreme brachycephaly. Turki nomads of modern
Turkestan, the Kara-Kirghiz *® and the Kirghiz-Karakhs *° are not
exempt from this brachycephaly.
The Turkomans alone are dolichocephalic in predominantly brachy-
cephalic Turkestan.
With which Turki people were the Khwarazmian of the tenth cen-
tury in closest relation and with which modern ethnic group of Tur-
kestan can they be identified by historians and ethnologists ?
N. Veselovskii quotes Arabian travelers and geographers who state
that the Khwarazmians were in close contact with nomadic Turki.
Arabian authors refer to these nomads as “Guzes.”
Yakut writes in his Geographical Dictionary that in the territory
adjoining the Turki the contacts between the nomads and the settled
peoples were so close that a new language “which was neither
Khwarazmian nor Turkish” arose in this area.
Al-Istakhri observed during the thirteenth century: “Khwarazm is
a land distinct from Khurasan and Mawerannahr. On all sides it is
surrounded by plains; at the same time, to the north and the west its
boundaries adjoin the lands [ranges] of the Guzes. The Khwaraz-
mians are in great danger from the Guzes and are perpetually forced
to keep them at bay.”
Al-Masudi states: “Loaded caravans go at all times from Bulgaria
to Khwarazm and back. They always have to defend themselves
from the nomadic Turki tribes through whose lands lies their route.”
Al-Istakhri, describing the wealth of Khwarazm and the prosperity
38 Cf. Fischer’s Turk Tatarische Stamme.
39 The Kirghiz proper. (E. P.)
40 The Kazakhs. (E. P.)
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 165
of its inhabitants, writes: “There are no gold or silves ores here, nor
precious stones. The people are rich solely because of the commerce
with the Turks ... the large city of Al-Dzhurdzhania on the
southern shore of the Dzheikhun River [the Amu] is the main trading
place for the Guzes.”
Oshanin does not believe mestization by marriage would take place
to any marked degree between settled agricultural people and the
nomads. There are no indications that there was mestization with
the Turkish troops inside the oases at that early date, although there
are definite indications of such mestization at a much later date
through captured slaves.
Ethnologists and historians identify the Guzes with the Turkomans
for the followng reasons:
I. This is indicated by such trustworthy traits as the cephalic index.
2. A thousand years ago Turkomans were as dolichocephalic as
they are now.
3. We must conclude that at one time the settled populations of
the Khwarazmian Oasis had a much larger admixture of Turkomans
than it does now. However, we have no factual data to explain this.
Tentative explanations include the fact that during the eleventh
century the Guzes went farther south, to Persia. They started com-
merce in Persian captives from Khurasan, who were better slaves
than the Turkomans and also had farther to go in order to escape.
This custom of recruiting Persian slaves continued after the Turkish
conquest. During the Russian conquest of Khwarazm in 1873,
thousands of Persian slaves were discovered. The descendants of
these slaves still live in Khwarazm and are called kul (slaves).
There are no indications that Turkomans practice artificial cranial
deformation to elongate their heads. The use of the cradle, which was
borrowed by the Turkomans from the Sarts, could only flatten the
occiput and not elongate the head.
In order to exclude the possibility of “secondary” elements, the
Turkomans are compared with their neighbors, the Khurasanians,
who during many centuries were subjected to Turkoman invasions.
They called them “Alaman”; many became slaves of Turkoman
families.
Masalskii states that in the course of only one century, at least one
million Khurasanians were enslaved by the Turkomans. IAvorskii
adds that until the Russian invasion all the field labor in Turkmenistan
was performed by Persian slaves, while Turkomans engaged in no-
madic pursuits. Masalskii also explains the purity of the Indo-Euro-
pean traits among the southern (Teke) Turkomans by mestization
166 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
with the Persians. Consequently no dolichocephalic influence could
have come from Persia, especially since the Turkomans were reported
as dolichocephalic during the tenth century and did not come into
contact with the Khurasanians until the Seljuk period.
The population of the entire area bounded by Khurasan to the
south, the Pamir-Alai and Tien Shan mountain systems to the east,
Jetty-Su on the north, and the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea and the
Kirghiz steppes on the west, can be divided into three groups: **
1. Pure Aryans (Homo sapiens indo-europaeus Giuffrida-Rug-
gieri), Turkestan Tajiks and Khurasanians.
2. Pure Turko-Mongols (Homo sapiens asiaticus (Giuffrida-Rug-
gieri),or E. Fischer’s “Mongolian Race”), Kara-Kirghiz and Kirghiz-
Kazakh. For lack of data and because of numerical unimportance,
such peoples as the Kara-Kalpaks and the Kipchaks have been omitted.
3. Mixed peoples, resulting from mestization of groups 1 and 2,
which we shall call “Eurasian type.” These include the Sarts and
Taranchis of the Jetty-Su region.
For the following four groups some adquate data are available:
1. Turkomans.*?
2. Uzbeks of Khwarazm.**
3. Sarts of Tashkent.**
4. Kara-Kirghiz ** (1.e., Kirghiz) of the southern shores of Issyk-
Kul.
For other groups there exist only averages and percentages of
brachycephaly, for Turkestan, from S. I. Rudenko’s work on the
Bashkirs for Iran, and from Deniker and Roland Dixon.
Let us compare the variational series of the cephalic index of the
Turkomans, the mixed group (Sarts and Uzbeks), and the Mongol
group (Issyk-Kul Kirghiz).
TAvorskii’s group included 59 men aged 15 to 60 measured in
Merv; 51 were of the Teke-tribe, 4 were of the Saryk tribe, 3 Ersari,
and 1 Alieli. No data were available for other groups. Oshanin states
that both the Iomud tribe (Turkomans in Khiva) and the Turko-
mans of Murgab appear to be dolichocephalic.
The mixed group is shown to be between the Mongols and the
41 This is not an attempt to draw a classification for the Turkestan peoples—
such an attempt would not be possible on the basis of the available factual data—
but is merely a descriptive scheme used for the sake of convenience. (L. V. O.)
42 TAvorskii’s material.
43 Oshanin’s data from 1923.
44 A, P. Shishlov’s measurements.
45 Based on 100 males measured by Oshanin in 1924.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 167
Turkomans, the former being entirely brachycephalic, the latter
dolichocephalic.
The Eurasian type, represented by the Uzbeks of Khiva (C.I.
82.21) and the Sarts of Tashkent (C.I. 82.73), resembled the Mon-
golians (C.I 84.84), but differed from the Turkomans (C.I. 75.6).
The Turkomans could not derive their dolichocephaly from ad-
mixture with the Tajiks, who are also known to be typical brachy-
cephals. They do not differ from northern Persians, whom both
Deniker and Dixon class as a dolichocephalic type.
To Oshanin it appears possible that the Kurds are products of
mestization of the Assyroid (Central Asian brachycephalic) race with
the dolichocephalic Iranian nomadic tribes. Tajik brachycephaly
may be linked tentatively to the Homo sapiens indo-europaeus var.
brachycephalicus subvar. pamirensis Giuffrida-Ruggieri.
Furthermore, the Persians carried away by the Turkomans to
Turkmenistan and Khwarazm from the area adjoining the Turkoman
steppes and to the west of Asterabad were the brachycephalic Tajiks.
Consequently their importation resulted in the strengthening of the
brachycephalic element in Khwarazm.
Because of the isolated position of Turkoman dolichocephaly, the
kindred races should be looked for in the more or less distant part of
Turkestan and neighboring lands.
In the purely Aryan period of Turkestan, we find in the first
millennium B. C. irrigated oases with settled agricultural population
forming several organized states, with the warrior nomads occupying
unirrigated areas unsuited to cultivation. It is also recognized that
both the settled and nomadic groups belonged to the Iranian branch
of the Indo-European linguistic family.*®
The ancient anthropological indications permit us to conclude that
both these branches belonged to Homo sapiens indo-europaeus Giuff-
rida-Ruggieri, but to which branch—brachycephalic or dolicho-
cephalic?
The only known craniological material is that from Anau.** Ac-
cording to Dixon, crania from the upper strata belong to the third
millennium or not later than the beginning of the second millennium
B. C. and include both brachycephals and dolichocephals in approxi-
46 Only very scanty anthropological information regarding these peoples ap-
pears, partly in Chinese chronicles, partly in the works of Procopius. (Cf.
Veselovskii, p. 11).
47 See also Field, Henry, Contributions to the anthropology of Iran. Chicago,
1939. Soviet archeologists planned to recommence excavations at Anau during
1946-1948.
168 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
mately equal quantities. It must be remembered that Anau lies far
from the area which was first to become Turkized (Jetty-Su), and
that it is 2,000 years earlier than the first Turkish appearance in
Turkestan. Accordingly, the brachycephaly of Anau cannot be con-
sidered to be related to Turko-Mongols.
Although no information is available regarding the linguistic
affinities of Anau, its material culture is related to the so-called
Tripolje culture. However, by comparing paleoethnological and his-
torical data with the geographic distributions, Oshanin believes it
entirely permissible to attribute dolichocephaly to the nomadic tribes
engaged in agriculture living in irrigated oases. Oshanin gives the
following categories:
1. Long-headed Khwarazmians were mistaken for Guzes (cf. Al-
Mukkadisi) by Iranians. However, brachycephaly was customary
among Iranians. During the period of Al-Mukkadisi there were no
Iranian nomads in Mawerannahr ; Arabs found no nomads there at the
beginning of the eighth century.
2. Settled Iranians of Khwarazm, who in the tenth century were
most probably closely related to the Iranians of Mawerannahr, were
originally brachycephalic and obtained mesocephaly only through
becoming mixed with the Guzes.
3. Both Plains and Mountain Tajiks (the latter not having come
in contact with Turko-Mongols) represent the remains of the ancient
Iranian population and are both brachycephalic (cf. Stein).
A. P. Berezin’s collection of photographs made by Shults in Piandzh
included specimens having Assyroid traits, probably representing
Homo sapiens indo-europaeus var. brachycephalicus subvar. armeni-
ensis. Berezin also found a large admixture of light hair and gray
eyes in the Pamirs.
Surprisingly enough, the Sarts and Uzbeks, who were subjected
to a greater Turkization, were less brachycephalic than the Tajiks.
REASONS FOR SUPPOSING Nomaps DoLICHOCEPHALIC
During the ancient pre-Turkish period we find in Mawerannahr
nomadic tribes bearing such names as Sacae, Massagetae, etc. These
tribes were known to the Greek authors under the general name
Saka or Scythians. The fact that these people used a language of
the Iranian branch *® is now accepted.
48 V. V. Barthold told Oshanin that this cannot be insisted upon in this cate-
gorical form, since the latest investigations of N. Marr indicate the possible
Japhetic affinities of the Scythians.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 169
While we have no craniological data regarding the ancient Scythians
of Turkestan, we have adequate data regarding the Scytho-Sarmatian
tribes of southern European Russia. The idea of connecting Turko-
mans with the Scythians belongs to N. G. Malitskii. Oshanin first
attempted to connect the Turkomans with the Dinlins of the Chinese
chronicles. The information regarding Dinlins is contained in Grum-
Grzhimailo’s work entitled: “On the Blonde Race in Central Asia.”
The possibility of such a connection was suggested by the Turkoman
tradition claiming that the original home of the Turkoman people
was on the coast of Lake Issyk-Kul. According to the Chinese
chronicles, this area was inhabited by the mysterious, apparently Indo-
European people known to them under the name of Wusuns [ Usu-Ni
or Usuns]. Grum-Grzhimailo considers that the Wusuns were the
extreme southwestern branch of the long-headed Dinlin group.
There is a mention of Nshun as a family name of one of the Ar-
menian Turki, who are closely connected with the Turkomans, dis-
covered by Barthold in “The Book of Korkud” in the Dresden
Library. Aristov (p. 417) identifies this name with the word Wusun.
Finally, Thomson *° identifies the Uigurs and the Oguzes °° as one and
the same people. Grum-Grzhimailo considered the Uigurs as definitely
belonging to the Dinlin groups.
Thus, the Scytho-Sarmatian tribes were linguistically, philo-
logically and culturally closely related to the Iranian peoples. Accord-
ing to Herodotus, the Sarmatians were but a branch of the Scythians
and their language was a Scythian dialect. Oshanin places the Scyth-
ians proper between the Boristhenes (Dnieper) to the west and
Tenaissus (Don River) to the east; to the east and near Tenaissus
extended the ranges of the Sarmatians. One of the Sarmatian tribes,
the Alani, reached far east, to the Caspian and Arabian steppes adjoin-
ing Khiva Oasis. According to Strabo (first century B. C.) the
Sarmatians moved farther west, and having occupied the Scythian
lands, gave rise to the mixed Scytho-Sarmatian population of the area.
The craniological material was obtained during the 1870’s by Sa-
mokvasov and Kidalchick from a tumulus near Aksiutenets close to
Romny in Poltava Oblast, Ukraine.
Ten out of eleven crania published by A. P. Bogdanov were ex-
tremely dolichocephalic ; the remaining cranium was extremely brachy-
cephalic and was justly considered to belong to some indeterminate
group.
According to Herodotus, in Sarmatia Proper, to the east of the
49 Inscriptions de l’Orkhon, p. 148, 1896.
50 Another name for the Turkomans.
170 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Don, lived the Osetes,** who use an Iranian language and are con-
sidered to be the remains of Sarmatian tribes. Ivanovskii, who ex-
cavated ancient Osete burials, discovered that 59.9 percent of the
crania were dolichocephalic. Gilchenko supposes that these crania
belong to the forefathers of the Osetes, the Sarmatian tribe called the
Alani. The present brachycephaly of the Osetes, described by Gil-
chenko (C.I. 82.16; 7.0 percent dolichocephalic; 16.0 percent meso-
cephalic), is attributed to subsequent mestization with Caucasian
peoples.
In his work, ‘‘On the Influence of Turki Blood on the Iranian Type
of the Osetes,’ Kharuzin attributes much of this brachycephaly to
mestization with the Turki. Dixon believes that not only the dolicho-
cephaly of the Ukraine and steppes to the north of the Caucasus, but
also the admixture of dolichocephaly to the south of the Caucasian
range, among the Kurds and Osmanli Turks, are due to the migrations
of Scytho-Sarmatian tribes.
The Scytho-Sarmatian world ended at the Caspian and Aralian
steppes only because that was the extent of geographical knowledge
of the ancient authors. We know from other sources relating to
Mawerannahr (Persia) and Asia Minor, that the Sarmatian world
extended much farther east, for example, the nomadic Iranian tribes.
There are no reasons to consider the “Scythians” or “Sacae” wan-
dering over the steppes of Turkestan as distinct from the Scythians
of European Russia.
Thus on the basis of anthropological and paleontological evidence
we can, with an adequate degree of certainty, suppose that the Iranian
tribes which had once wandered in Mawerannahr were dolichocephalic.
From the evidence it is also seen that the sole source of of dolicho-
cephaly among the Turkomans were these nomadic tribes wandering
on the periphery of the irrigated oases.
The information regarding these nomadic peoples ceases at an early
date. We know that as late as the eighth century the Arabs who
occupied Mawerannahr did not find the nomads. It is probable that
part of the nomads went farther south and are possibly represented
by the modern nomadic Iranian tribes ** of Afghanistan, Seistan,
Baluchistan, and Persia. The present small admixture of dolicho-
cephaly was introduced in later years through the nomadic Iranians.
This admixture may have begun as early as the second millennium
51 See Henry Field’s forthcoming work, Contributions to the anthropology of
the Caucasus.
52 Data regarding these tribes were not available to Oshanin. Dixon states
that the settled Afghans (the “Pathans”) were originally pure brachycephals.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 171
B. C. contemporaneously with the invasion of Persia by the same
dolichocephalic element. D. D. Bukinich, who led an expedition into
Afghanistan in 1924, noticed that the Iranian nomadic tribes to
the south of the Hindu Kush were dolichocephalic.
Dixon similarly explains the admixture of dolichocephaly observed
in Baluchistan as an influence of nomadic Iranian tribes upon this
basically brachycephalic people. Oshanin had no data on the cephalic
index of nomadic Baluchis, and none regarding the nomads of Seistan
who the Orientalists, according to Barthold, consider to be direct
descendants of the Sacae (or Scythians) or of the Se people of the
Chinese chronicles, who once wandered through Turkestan.
In modern Persia, there is a great dolichocephalic admixture among
the Kurds. Oshanin thinks this is due to mestization of brachycephalic
Assyroid (Vorderasiatisch) race with the dolichocephalic Iranian
(Scytho-Sarmatian) groups. Dixon (p. 309) states that there is a
strong admixture of dolichocephaly among the nomadic Lurs ™ of
Luristan. The nomadic Bakhtiaris living between Isfahan and Ker-
manshah are brachycephalic, but Dixon suggests that the widely prac-
ticed artificial cranial deformation may be responsible.
It should be very interesting to investigate thoroughly the above-
mentioned nomadic Iranian tribes, since they may prove to be the
last remnant of the Scytho-Sarmatian tribes which had once wandered
in Turkestan.
A portion of the ancient nomads must have settled down and become
mixed with the agricultural population of the oases. Traces of this
Oshanin found in the large deviation toward subbrachycephaly and
mesocephaly, with a few dolichocephals, arising, in the course of
Mendelian bifurcation, among the Sarts and the Uzbeks. That these
Plains Tajiks, who have become entirely Turkized in language, and
have become mestized with Turko-Mongols, are much less short-
headed than the Mountain Tajiks, who escaped mestization with the
Turks, Oshanin is inclined to explain by the admixture of the Scytho-
Sarmatian dolichocephaly among the Plains Tajiks.
Finally, a large section of Scytho-Sarmatian tribes was very early
completely Turkized in language and partly Mongolized in type, yet
they preserved in its purity the dolichocephaly of their ancient original
types. These people are the modern Turkomans.
53 Oshanin does not know if these were Dzhemshids, and if so, whether the
latter are characterized by dolichocephaly. He did not have access to Ujfalvy,
who described tribes to the north and south of the Hindu Kush. (H. F.)
54 Cf. Henry Field, Contributions to the anthropology of Iran. Field Museum
of Natural History, 19309.
172 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
From this point of view, the nearest blood relations of the Turko-
mans are the Osetes. These are the two vestigial lakes remaining
from the Scytho-Sarmatian ocean, which once occupied the large terri-
tory between the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai mountain systems in the
east and the Dnieper steppes in the west.
The connection of the Osetes with the Scytho-Sarmatians is estab-
lished on the basis of philological evidence. The connection of the
Turkomans with the Scytho-Sarmatian group is established only on
the basis of craniological evidence derived from the study of various
ethnic groups inhabiting Turkestan and neighboring steppes.
It may also be remarked that the southern Turkomans, who were
the least mestized with the Turko-Mongols who had come from the
north and northeast, have also preserved in greatest purity the traits
of the ancient Scytho-Sarmatian Indo-European physical type. Thus,
the average height of the “Teke” Turkomans is 1,700 mm., the tallest
in Turkestan; only 20.0 percent were in the short category. Their
nearest neighbors are another Indo-European people, the Tajiks,
with a mean stature of 1,600 mm., including 33.0 percent short indi-
viduals according to Maslovskii.
Mixed Eurasian types occupy an intermediate position as shown by
the following table:
Group Stature Short Observer
Percent
Sartst eed ik. oe Bake 168.0 51.0 Maslovskii,
Blagoveshchenskii,
Poiarkov
Uzbekesniiirs ena esttets 168.0 32.0 Maslovskii, Ujfalvy
Uzbeks: (Khiya’)? ssi... 33 166.71 P Oshanin
Sarts/i(Lashkent)) 3.022: 167.6 ? Shishloy
Purely Asiatic peoples are the shortest, for example, the Kazakhs
with a mean stature of 164.0 according to Ivanovskii, Ivanov, and
Maslovskii.
The Turkomans, who include many individuals with regularly
formed noses, possess a nasal index of 66.6, midway between the
Tashkent Sarts (63.06+0.69 with 81.9 percent leptorrhine) and the
Khiva Uzbeks (68.0+0.57 with 60.0 percent leptorrhine).
While true light-haired individuals are not known, IAvorskii
records 14 of 59 individuals (23.8 percent) having gray eyes, which
is a high percentage for Turkestan, excluding the Mountain Tajiks.
Oshanin wonders if this is not the last remnant of the trait noticed by
Ammianus Marcellinus (XXI, 21 (48) ) among the Alans; “Crinibus
mediocriter flavis.”
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 173
CoMPARISON WITH HisTorICAL, ETHNOLOGICAL, AND PHILOLOGICAL DATA
Data regarding the Turkomans are very scant. The only original
source is the manuscript “Genealogy of Turkomans,” by Abul Ghazi
Bahadur Khan, written in Khiva during 1659-1660, now in the
Tashkent Public Library, translated into Russian by A. Tumanskii.
Abul Ghazi does not doubt that the Turkomans are full-blooded
Turks. He quotes legends stating that they have come from the “lands
of Al-Malik and Issyk-Kul,” i.e., the Jetty-Su.
According to the Genealogy, Turk,®® son of Japheth and grandson
of Noah, settled near Issyk-Kul, having sought a suitable place for
many years. He had started from the shores of Atel (Volga) and
TAik (Ural) where Japheth, son of Noah, had settled after the Flood.
From Issyk-Kul the Turkomans were pushed out by Nainans,
Rhatais, and Kanglas, and proceeded to settle on the lower course
of the Syr-Darya. From there they were forced out by the “Bedjene”
people (identified with the Pechenegs). Then they settled in Mawer-
annahr where they lost their Turkish type and acquired Indo-
European traits.
The Turkomans, who had come to Mawerannahr, were first called Turki by
the Tajiks. After five or six generations, they became changed under the in-
fluence of the earth and the water ... they became short, their eyes became
large, their faces became small and their noses great. When slaves and mer-
chants, from among those who had come into Turkmenistan and settled there,
began appearing in Mawerannahr, the difference was seen between them and the
Turki. These latter were then so called by the Tajiks and to the first Turks they
gave the name “Turkmanend,” meaning “resembling a Turki.” The plain people
who could not pronounce Turkmanend, said Turk (men). ...
Oshanin thinks that except for “becoming short,” the traits enumer-
ated by Abul demonstrate the purity of the Indo-European traits of
the Turkomans, which at once distinguished them from the Turki
tribes. The southern (Mawerannahr) Turkomans were the least
mestized with the Turks. The role played by mestization with the
Persian slaves cannot be determined.
Abul Ghazi treats in his final chapter of the seven legendary women
who once ruled over the Turkomans. Oshanin wonders if this is not
a memory of the ancient matriarchate of the Sarmatians; all ancient
authors connect the legend of the Amazons with the Sarmatians.
According to Seredonin the word ‘“Sarmad’” may have originated
from two Iranian words, “Sai” =king and “Mada” =girl.
Aristov agrees with Abul in considering the Turkomans to be
pure-blooded Turki genetically related to the Kanglas, and coming
55 One of the Scytho-Sarmatians tribes was named Tork.
174 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
from Issyk-Kul. Anthropologically this theory is not satisfactory,
since the Kanglas later became a part of the Kazakh Hordes, the
Kazakhs being extremely brachycephalic. Syr-Darya Kirghiz, who
also contain a Kangla admixture, are also 100 percent brachycephalic
according to Maslovskii.
The tribal names of the Turkomans are of relatively modern origin.
The exception is the “‘Sakar” tribe, the name of which Aristov con-
nects with the Sakarauk or Sacaraul, the Scythian peoples who,
according to the Greek and Roman sources, destroyed the Greco-
Bactrian state. Guttschmidt in his “Geschichte Irans” identified them
with the Kang-gu people mentioned by the Chinese historians. Mod-
ern historians, however, think that the Sakarauks were a nomadic
Iranian Scythian people, while the Kang-gu are identified with the
Kanglas.°® Chinese sources quoted by Bidurin state that in the second
century B. C. the Chinese sent an embassy to Mawerannahr and
Khwarazm to obtain aid against the Huns. About the year 129 B. C.,
the Chinese Ambassador, Djan Tsan, discovered that the lower and
middle course of the Syr-Darya was inhabited by a numerous people
whom the Chinese called Kang-gu, whom Aristov identified with the
Kanglas. This allows at least 800 years for the Turkization of the
Turkomans. Kwarazmians, who now consider themselves pure Turks,
were using an Iranian language as late as the eleventh century. Only
the anthropological analyses of the modern city and country peoples
of the Khiva Oasis disclose their Indo-European racial foundations.
LINGUISTIC AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TURKOMANS
F. E. Korsh, in his classification of Turkish tribes on the basis of
their language, divides all Turkish languages into two groups, southern
and northern. The southern group is subdivided into the eastern,
including mainly the dead languages, Orkhonian of the Yenisei in-
scriptions, Uiguric, Jagatai, and the language of the Polovtsi, and the
western branches. The latter includes the Osmanli, Azerbaidzhan, and
Turkoman languages. V. V. Radlov also groups the last three lan-
guages together as his “southern” group. Korsh suggests the desir-
ability of checking his philological classification with anthropological
data. While in the main the data agree, some discrepancies are
observable on the basis of materials available to Oshanin. The anthro-
pological data on the Osmanli Turks are very scanty and sometimes
contradictory. They are limited to a few measurements of Turkish
56 Oshanin wonders when the Turkomans (Guzes), who used the Turkish
language as early as in the tenth century, were first Turkized as to language.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 175
subjects using the Turkish language and inhabiting the Anatolian
Plateau. They are characterized by more than medium height and
by many (40.0 percent) light-eyed individuals. This admixture is
particularly strong among the Bektashi, Kizilbash, and Aizar tribes,
all of them living in isolation, according to Arutiunov. Dixon is in-
clined to attribute this to the admixture of the invaders from the
north, the Scythians and Cimmerians. On the other hand, these tribes
are not characterized by the dolichocephaly of the Scythians and are,
on the contrary, strongly brachycephalic. This may be due to artificial
cranial deformation which, according to von Luschan in 1g11, is
widely practiced among the Takhtadzhis. On the other hand, the
dolichocephaly in this case may have been absorbed by the brachy-
cephaly characterizing the peoples of the “Vorderasiatische Rasse.”
According to Dixon the most brachycephalic group here is the Turk-
ish city population of the Anatolian Plateau; the villagers occupy an
intermediary position; the largest admixture of long-headed indi-
viduals is found among the nomadic peoples, who Dixon considers to
be the descendants of the Turkoman invaders of the eleventh century.
However, Eliseev’s measurements in 1891, quoted by Dixon in
support of this conclusion, do not bear it out.
Eliseev, remarking on the 20.0-percent admixture of dolichocephaly
among the Anatolian Turks, shows their craniological heterogeneity.
Eliseev states that the greatest percentage of dolichocephaly was found
among the city dwellers (32.6 percent), less among the villagers
(26.0 percent), and least among the nomads (3.5 percent). Eliseev
thought that the Turkomans were typical brachycephals. According
to him, the Turkoman nomads in Anatolia have retained the greatest
purity of the original brachycephalic Turki types; they do not inter-
marry with any other tribes. The villagers, and particularly the city
dwellers, are less rigorous in this respect. They may have obtained
their dolichocephaly from marrying Kurdish and Arabic women."
The question is then raised whether all the Osmanli Turks are
related genetically to the Seljuk-Turkomans, and whether there is
not present among the Turks of the Anatolian Plateau an admixture
of other, later invaders coming, for example, from the north through
the Caucasus ?
The answer to this question cannot be given until it is known
whether all Turkish tribes wandering on the Anatolian Plateau are
57 The opposite phenomenon was to have been expected of the Turkomans
who were originally dolichocephalic . . . the purity of dolichocephaly would be
best preserved among the nomadic tribes; Turkomans settling in cities would
absorb brachycephaly of the “Vorderasiatische Rasse.” (L. V. O.)
176 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
homogeneous both linguistically and anthropologically. The Azer-
baidzhan Turks (“Tatars”) are far better known from the anthro-
pological point of view.
Dixon, who uses Chantre’s data (1892), considers the Azer-
baidzhan Turks to be typical dolichocephals, standing alone among
the brachycephalic peoples of the southwestern and southeastern
littoral of the Caspian. Dixon, who compares the data from Kurdov
(1912), Chantre (1892), and Shchukin (1913), concludes that the
southern types of Caucasian Tatars differ sharply from the northern.
According to Shchukin, the northern group is related to the Nogai
Tatars and to the Kirghiz of the Volga steppes, having a sharply ex-
pressed brachycephaly. Chantre’s and Kurdov’s Tatars to the south
of the Caucasian range are much taller and show clearly the domina-
tion of the dolichocephalic element. Dixon (p. 331) thinks accord-
ingly that the Azerbaidzhan Tatars are closely related, and regards
them as the remains of the dolichocephalic element, originally Indo-
European as to the language, which were later “partly Tatarized” as
to type and completely Turkized as to the language.
This point of view entirely coincides with that of Oshanin, except
that the Azerbaidzhan Tatars should be regarded not as an inde-
pendently Turkized, long-headed Aryan group, but rather as the direct
descendants of the Turkomans.
The coincidence of the anthropological, philological, and historical
data will become still more obvious if we remember Eliseev’s con-
clusion regarding the distribution of dolichocephaly on the Anatolian
Plateau, namely, that it is in general most stable in the southeast,
barely noticeable in the center, and completely lost on the west coast.
Beginning in the eleventh century under the leadership of the Suljuk
Sultans, the Turkomans terminated five centuries of their penetration
of Persia and Asia Minor by conquering Constantinople. Their north-
eastern group, the Turkomans [of Khwarazm], have retained to the
greatest degree the dolichocephaly of the Scytho-Sarmatians. The
intermediate group, the Turks of Azerbaidzhan, have partly lost this
dolichocephaly, and the westernmost group, the Osmanlis, have lost
it to the largest extent, preserving a slight admixture of dolichocephaly
cnly in their easternmost branch. In this process of replacing the
hereditary factors of dolichocephaly by the factors of brachycephaly,
an important role was played by the peoples of the “Vorderasiatische
Rasse.”
It remains to find out to which group of Turkish languages be-
longed the language of the Kanglas, who had completely Turkized the
Scytho-Sarmatian nomads. According to Korsh, the Kirghiz language
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 177
(the Kirghiz having included the remains of the Kanglas tribes)
belongs in the “northern” group of his classification and not the
western (Radlov’s “southern”), which unites in it the Turkomans,
Azerbaidzhans, and Osmanlis. Even in the past, according to Korsh,
the Turkoman language was closer to the Jagatai than to the Kirghiz,
forming a part of the eastern branch of his southern group. Could
this contradiction be eliminated by assuming that the Turkomans
embraced the Jagatai dialect only at a later date, when they settled in
Mawerannahr ?
Polivanov and Korsh demonstrate Iranian elements in the Persian
language. According to Polivanov, these elements are distinct from
the Persian language proper.
Since this hypothesis, namely that the Turkomans are the remains
of the Scytho-Sarmatian peoples, is based on scanty factual materials,
it must be considered as provisional.
V. V. Barthold, who examined this work, agrees with it on the main
points. He objects, however, to the identification (by Aristov) of
the Kanglas with the Kang-gu of the Chinese sources, and states that
there is no evidence for this identification other than that of the
similarity of the two names. According to Barthold, it is not probable
that the Kanglas, like the other Turki tribes, could have come to
Turkestan before the sixth century A. D. The Guzes (Oguzes)
who, according to Barthold, are correctly thought to be the ancestors
of the Turkomans, are Turkish people who had migrated to Turkes-
tan from Mongolia between the sixth and eighth centuries A. D. In
the light of this supplementary data, Oshanin is inclined to think that
the Guzes became sufficiently intermixed with the Scytho-Sarmatian
tribes in the period between the sixth and the tenth centuries to
Turkize them completely in language, at the same time acquiring their
Indo-European racial type. That such a period of time is sufficient
for a loss of an original racial type and for a complete assimilation
with another race is seen from the example of the Khwarazmian
Uzbeks, who belong to the same physical type as the Tashkent Sarts.
In other words they have the anthropological type of the Indo-Euro-
peans (Giuffrida-Ruggieri) with a relatively small admixture of
Mongoloid traits.
Another point of view is represented by V. V. Bunak. Having
examined this manuscript, Bunak writes that the Turkomans, to-
gether with the Kurds, Persian Ajemis (Adzhemis), many Syrians,
Arabs, etc., must be considered to belong to the Mediterranean physical
type. Anthropologically this is proved by the works of Chantre, von
Luschan, and others. According to Bunak’s opinion, it is very prob-
178 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
able that the Scythians belong to one of the branches of the Medi-
terranean race. However, these data, unfamiliar to us because of the
scarcity of the anthropological literature on Turkestan, do not change
the basic tenets. It remains only to state that the dolichocephaly of
the Turkomans is the dolichocephaly of that branch of the Mediter-
ranean race which was once represented by the Scytho-Sarmatians.*®
In the former study Oshanin stated that artificial cranial deforma-
tion is not practiced by the Turkomans. However, new data show
that the Turkomans themselves explain their dolichocephaly, which
is different from the usual head form of their neighbors, by the custom
of binding tightly the heads of their newborn children. Data were
also forthcoming that this custom is still actually practiced. The
Turkomans also state the wearing of tight skullcaps by young children
contributes to their eventual dolichocephaly.
In the spring of 1926 the ethnographical expedition of Madame
N. V. Briulova-Shaskolskaia, studying the Ersari tribe of the Turko-
mans on the Amu-Darya between Khodzhambas and Kelif, was joined
by Maslov and Fokina who had previously collected anthropological
data under Oshanin’s guidance in Tashkent.
According to the data collected by Maslov and Fokina during this
expedition, the Ersari Turkomans were less long-headed than the
Teke Turkomans measured by IAvorskii, yet the Turkomans are
still by far the most long-headed people of Central Asia as may be
seen from the following table.
People No. Cu Author Date
Meke i tugkomatsiery sie steler 50 75.6 I. L. [Avorskii 1891
Ersanibiunkomansiceresiceetes 124 77.0 Shaskolskaia Expedition 1926
Khwarazm Uzbeks ......... 100 82.21 Oshanin 1923
MashicenitesantSqemarieletctele 119 82.73 A. P. Shishlov 1905
Karatesinediayiks:oesiricteret 433 82.77 Central Asian University 1926
Bukharan Central Asian SREDAZKOMSTARIS
Jews, Kermine ........... 195 84.45 Expedition 1926
Issyk-Kul Kirghiz ......... 100 84.84 Oshanin 1924
1 Karategins working in Tashkent.
At the same time it was found out that the Ersari Turkomans
always bind tightly the heads of their young children with a folded
handkerchief in order, as they themselves state, to make the head as
long as possible.
A diagonally folded handkerchief is tied below the occiput in such
88 Oshanin, L. V., Nekotorye dopolnitelnye k gipoteze skifo-sarmatskogo
proiskhozhdeniia Turkmen [Some supplementary data to the hypothesis of the
Scytho-Sarmatian origin of the Turkomans]. Izvestia, No. 3, pp. 85-97, 1928.
NO... 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 179
a way that the most prominent part of the back of the head protrudes
above the knot. Oshanin considers it possible that such a manner of
bandaging may operate to elongate the skull by causing the protrusion
of the occipital region above the bandage. This area of the head of
adult Turkomans protrudes very sharply.
For a final solution of this problem it is necessary to study the
morphology of Turkoman crania. As far as Oshanin was able to
discover, this custom is widespread among other Turkoman people.
The following queries arise as to whether:
1. Dolichocephaly can still be considered a racial (i.e., innate)
trait of Turkomans, regardless of their tendency to elongate children’s
heads by means of artificial cranial deformation.
2. This custom, of ancient origin, has been practiced by the Scytho-
Sarmatian tribes, whom Oshanin is inclined to regard as linguistically
Turkized ancestors of the Turkomans.
3. There are many indications that artificial cranial deformation
was practiced in ancient times by any other ancient peoples of Central
Asia.
No. 1 may be an attempt to perpetuate the ancient dolichocephalic °°
type in spite of mestization with brachycephals. The fact that
Khwarazm in the tenth century acquired dolichocephals through
mixing with the Guzes, shows that the dolichocephaly of the latter was
of a hereditary nature.
K. Z. IAtsuta® describes the artificially deformed crania from
South Russia. Together with naturally dolichocephalic crania,
obviously artificially deformed ** crania (elongated with a very slant-
59 Arabs mentioned the dolichocephaly of the Guzes in the tenth century. In
modern times Basmachi bandits, who included together with the Iomud Turko-
mans some Uzbeks, were asked when captured during the siege of Khiva in
1823, “watermelon or cantaloupe?” If the captive was a “cantaloupe,” i.e., long-
headed, he was considered to be a Turkoman and dealt with accordingly.
69In Ob iskusstvenno deformirovannykh cherepakh na iugovostoke Rossii.
Izvestia Donskogo Gos. Universiteta. [No date.]
61 This “Hippocrates’ macrocephaly” has been attributed by various authors
to practically every people inhabiting the area near the Sea of Azov: Sar-
matians, Cimmerians, Huns, Avars, Armenians, and “Tatars.” Similar crania
have also been found beyond the boundaries of the Scythian and Sarmatian world,
on the Volga near Samara, in many localities of western Europe, and also in
Peru, Mexico, and North America. Consequently, the custom of artificial
dolichocephaly was practiced by many peoples bearing no relation to the Scytho-
Sarmatians. Hippocrates states that the peoples of the Sea of Azov consider
dolichocephaly as a mark of nobility and that they used artificial cranial deforma-
tion to intensify their dolichocephaly. He also implies that dolichocephaly is
inheritable.
180 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
ing forehead and extremely protruding occiput) have been found in
ancient burials in the Crimea,®* in the Don Region, and in the
Caucasus.
Kerch crania are attributed to the period from the fourth to the
second century B. C. Macrocephalic crania are found in the areas
inhabited by Sarmatians, such as Osetia. On the other hand, dolicho-
cephalic crania from Scythian burials and from the ancient burial
grounds of Osetia described by Bogdanov * and A. A. Ivanovskii ®*
do not include artificially deformed crania, so that Scytho-Sarmatian
dolichocephaly was of a racial character.
Data regarding other people practicing artificial cranial deformation
in Central Asia are found in Chinese sources, which refer to another
Scythian people, the Sacae, known to the Chinese sources as Se,®
and to their eastern neighbors, known in the western sources as
Kushes, Kushans, or Tokharians, and to Chinese sources as Yuechi.®*
In the history of the Tang Dynasty (seventh-tenth centuries A. D.)
quoted by Bichurin,® the following is told of the people of Kuchi
(Chinese Kiu-tsi) of the extreme north of eastern Turkestan: “The
head of a [new] born boy is pressed by means of a tree.”
The same thing is told of the people of Kya Sha (Kashgar) : “The
people in general are treacherous and crafty. They also depress the
heads of male infants in order to make them flat. These people are of
tall stature and have blue eyes.” ®
It is, however, impossible to conclude on the basis of these texts
whether the practice was to elongate the heads. Bichurin does not
give any direct indications that artificial cranial deformation was
practiced by the Yuechi. He only states that this custom was wide-
spread in definite areas during definite periods.
However, by analyzing the anthropological composition of the
modern population of eastern Turkestan, we come to the conclusion
that it has absorbed some elements of Homo sapiens indo-europaeus
dolichomorphus Giuffrida-Ruggieri.
Stein found that the Indo-European element °° predominates in the
62 The so-called “Kerch” and “Chersonesus” crania.
63 Poltava burials: IOLEAE, 3, 1880.
64 Osetia: IOLEAF, 21, 18091.
65 Nothing is known regarding their anthropological type.
66 After leaving Jetty-Su they divided into two groups: Little Yuechi, who
settled in eastern Turkestan, and the Great (“Da”) Yuechi, occupying the area
of present Uzbekistan.
67 In Sobranie Svedenii, vol. 3, p. 218.
68 Loc. cit, p. 244.
69 Brachycephalic, hypsicephalic, and leptorrhine, i.e., Dixon’s Alpine type.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 181
areas closest to the Pamirs (Khotan, Polu, Kok IAr, and possibly
in Yarkend and Kashgar). Another Indo-European element still
clearly predominates in the Lob Nor area, and east to the Sa Shu
area, on the boundary of Kansu Province. However, a large ad-
mixture of this dolichocephalic type was found in areas far to the
west of this region. So it is that to the east of Khotan *° Przewalskii
had noticed a large number of blonds among the inhabitants of the
Kerian Mountains.”
Comparing these data, Roland Dixon postulates his hypothesis
according to which the dolichocephalic Indo-Europeoid type had once
been widespread throughout eastern Turkestan, and was only gradu-
ally pushed east by the continuous pressure of brachycephalic Indo-
Europeans from the direction of the Pamirs and Mongols from the
north and northwest.
The Scythians are regarded by several other anthropologists as an
ethnic group carrying with it eastward the elements of Homo sapiens
indo-europaeus dolichomorphus. Thus, Montandon ™ refers to Had-
don’s proto-Nordic race as a possible “historical, geographical, and
somatological link connecting the modern Ainu with other varieties
of Homo sapiens indo-europaeus.” According to him these proto-
Nordics, light-eyed, and above medium stature “aurait été fortement
representé par les anciens Scythes.”
The western branch, Yuechi-Tokharians, were known to Byzantine
historians under the name of “White Huns” or “Ephthalites.” Pro-
copius of Caesarea wrote: “Even though the Ephthalites are a people
of Hunnish stock, they have not become mixed with the Huns known
70In the area where the remnants of the Indo-Scythian Tokharian language
was discovered.
71 Grum-Grzhimailo, G. E., Zapadnaia Mongoliia i Uriankhaiskii Krai, vol 2,
p. 19. Leningrad, 1926.
72In L’Anthropologie, vol. 37, p. 338, 1927, he also refers to the find by A. P.
Mostits of two dolichocephalic crania associated with a Scythian cauldron, in
Trans-Baikalia (Izv. Tr.-Kiakh. Otd. Russ. Geo. Ob., vol. 3, 1895). A dolicho-
cephalic type is also known in Baltistan, southern Tibet. (Cf. A. H. Keane,
A. C. Haddon, and others in Man, Past and Present, p. 167, Cambridge, 1920;
Ujfalvy, Les Aryens du Nord et Sud de I’Hindou-Kouch, p. 319, Paris, 1806).
Ujfalvy, Keane, and Haddon regard these people as the descendants of the
Sacae? The “Balti are not Tibetans or Mongols at all, but descendants of the
historical Sacae, although now of Tibetan speech and Moslem faith.” Rock
paintings in Baltistan resemble Scythian representations of weapons; this was
where a portion of the Sacae, invading India from the north in the year 90 B. C.,
settled down.
182 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
to us. Alone of all Huns they are not of repellent countenance and
have white bodies.”
This testifies to the Indo-European appearance of the Huns. An
attempt to discern the dolichocephaly of the Huns from the effigies
on their coins has not been successful. M. E. Masson states that it is
difficult to attribute certain coins definitely to the Ephthalites. In
addition, the head form of the effigies is hidden by the headgear
depicted.
Conclusions —1. Turkomans practice the custom of binding the
heads of babies and explain by this custom their own dolichocephaly.
2. Whether this achieves the desired effect cannot be answered
definitely until more information regarding the morphology of the
Turkoman skull is forthcoming. According to the preliminary studies
of Fokina and Maslov, the dolichocephaly of the Turkomans is due
mainly to the relatively lesser lateral development of the skull, some-
thing which could hardly take place under the influence of the bandage
as described.
According to Oshanin’s data, the brachycephaly of the Kirghiz is
due to the relatively stronger lateral development of skull, and not
to the smallness of its length as, for example:
Group GRO: G. B. Gil: Observer
lissyia err iki oinizee ct ie 187.0 159.0 84.84 Oshanin
Prsatien uc komatsece erect 188.4 145.0 77.0 Fokina and Maslov
3. Even if it should be proved that artificial cranial elongation of
the Turkomans actually takes place, this still would not mean that
the dolichocephaly of the Turkomans is not inheritable.
4. The racial (inheritable) character of Turkoman dolichocephaly
is clearly indicated by the reference to Al-Mukkadisi.
5. On the basis of historical, philological, and anthropological
data, Oshanin considers that the Turkomans have received their
dolichocephaly through the admixture of the Guze ancestors of the
Turkomans with the Scytho-Sarmatians, whose language they Turk-
ized, but whose physical type they changed but slightly.
6. The custom of intensifying dolichocephaly by means of bandages
was widely used by Scytho-Sarmatian tribes, definitely in Europe
and very probably in Asia down to the boundaries of eastern Tur-
kestan.
7. It is possible that this custom among the Turkomans is a survival
of this widespread custom of their ancestors, the Scytho-Sarmatians.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 183
UZBEKS OF KHWARAZM
Oshanin ** described the anthropological type of the Uzbeks of
Khwarazm in the following manner:
Pigmentation.—On this basis these Uzbeks are not homogeneous.
Among them clearly predominate darkly pigmented individuals.
However, there is a slight admixture of a lighter pigmentation of
skin and eyes.
Hair.—Facial and body hair are of medium development. The
admixture of individuals with a sparse growth of hair is small.
Face.—The predominating forms are oval and elliptical. The face
is of medium height and breadth, with a moderately developed, but
not infrequently narrow and low, forehead, more frequently straight
and flat than convex and sloping.
Stature —Medium with a tendency toward tallness.
Facial index.—This varies from euryprosopy to mesoprosopy.
Cephalic index.—Although the mean is subbrachycephalic, there
is considerable admixture of both brachycephals and dolichocephals.
Nose—Medium size predominates. However, there is a small
group with low, broad noses. On the other hand, persons with high,
narrow noses are frequently encountered. The nasal profile is either
straight or convex; concave noses are rarely found. The nasal index
is leptorrhine with a strong tendency toward mesorrhiny.
Mongolian fold——This feature occurs not infrequently.
Summary.—In general, the Uzbeks of Khwarazm may be character-
ized as representatives of the brachycephalic variety of Homo sapiens
indo-europaeus of Central Asia, with a significant admixture of Type I
(Asiatic type) and a lesser admixture of Type II (dolichocephalic
variety of Homo sapiens indo-europaeus of Central Asia). This is
seen, for example, in the fact that while in all tables of measurements
the Uzbeks of Khwarazm occupy an intermediate position between
the Tashkent Tajiks and the Uzbeks (i.e., Turkized Iranians) on
one side and the Kirghiz on the other, in all basic characters they
stand much closer to the Tajiks. The admixture of the dolichocephalic
variety of Homo sapiens indo-europaeus is expressed in the increased
stature and the decreased cephalic indices of the Uzbeks of Khwarazm.
The undoubted, and fairly significant, admixture of Mongoloid
traits among the Uzbeks of Khwarazm must be attributed to the
preservation of elements of the original Mongoloid Uzbek type which
had become dissolved in the autochthonous Indo-European popula-
tion of Khwarazm.
73 Oshanin, L. V., in Sred. Az. Univ. Bull. No. 17, pp. 97-101. Selected from
summary.
184 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
This point of view is supported by the fact that in comparison
with the Uzbeks of Khwarazm the native population of Tashkent is
much less Mongolized. However, the opposite was to be expected
from both historical and geographical considerations. The admixture
of “Asiatic” inheritable traits among the settled peoples of the oasis
was introduced largely by Uzbeks who settled mainly in Khwarazm
and Mawerannahr ; Tashkent received a relatively smaller admixture
of Uzbeks.
WAZAKHS OF fHk ALTAT
TArkho 74 measured 120 individuals of the Naiman, Kirei, and
Kara-Kirei tribes of the Middle Horde Kazakhs, in the Chuiskaia
steppes of the southeastern Altai. This is one of the easternmost
Kazakh groups. The Chuiskaia steppe is populated by 2,175 Kazakhs
(“Kirghiz”) who are Moslems, 1,500 Telengets (who represent the
ancient Turkish stratum, being an Altaic tribe practicing Shamanism),
a few Russians, Tannu-Tuvans (Soiots), and Mongols. The last two
are Buddhist groups. Because of religious differences, no mestization
is practiced between the Kazakhs and these other peoples.
From the statistical tables the following conclusions have been
drawn:
1. The Kazakhs are a strongly brachycephalic (medium-long),
and broad-headed euryprosopic (long- and broad-faced), leptorrhine
(narrow-nosed) group.
2. These peculiarities differentiate them from many peoples of
Asia and the world.
3. This complex of traits places them close to certain tribes of
Asia, e.g., the Telengets (in Altai), Buriats, Tannu-Tuvans, Torguts,
and possibly the Yakuts.
4. By comparing their morphological peculiarities with those of
other brachycephals of Europe and Asia Anterior it is discovered
that a significant difference is observed not only in the structure of
the facial skeleton, but also in the cranial structure. Thus, the brachy-
cephaly of the Dinaric and Armenoid types (as well as that of some
other Asiatic and North American tribes) is determined, to a great
extent, by the decrease in head length.
5. Comparison of our data with that of other authors does not
show any significant discrepancies. Thus, the analysis of head and
facial measurements of the Kazakhs puts them close to certain other
74TArkho, A. I., Kazaki Russkogo Altaia: Rasovye tipy Altae-Saianskogo
Nagoria. Severnaia Aziia, Nos. 1-2, pp. 76-99, 1930.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 185
Turko-Mongolian tribes. A particularly close resemblance is found
between the Kazakhs and the Buriats.
The following morphological characters were recorded:
PIGMENTATION
The highest percentage of light and mixed eyes was found in the
western part of Tavil-Darya region and in the southern part of Dasht-
i-Dzhum region. The darkest pigmentation was found in the Kalai
Khumb (Piandzh Valley) and the Muminabad regions.
In order to find out whether the blue-eyed Tajiks represented a
special type, Ginzburg measured separately a group of adults having
eyes of this color (Nos. 12, 14-16 on Martin’s scale). It was dis-
covered that in the range of variations of absolute measurements,
head and body proportions and indices, and of the descriptive char-
acters of head and face, the blue-eyed group did not differ from all
other Tajiks. The only difference was a lighter pigmentation of hair
and beard in this group, which consisted of eight subjects. Among
the Tajiks from the other regions the darkest-pigmented eyes were
found among the Bukharan Tajiks.
The Ferghana Tajiks were but slightly more darkly pigmented
than the Mountain Tajiks. Joyce’s materials show that the Tajiks
of Darvaz are more strongly pigmented than the Tajiks from Karate-
gin. The lightest pigmentation was found in the southwestern Pamirs.
While the Jews, measured by Oshanin, have a larger percentage
of mixed eyes than the Tajiks, the former are in general more darkly
pigmented than the latter and have a much larger percentage of the
darker shades of brown eyes.
The pigmentation of the eyes is darker in the younger age groups,
while for the group 24 to 50 years old the commonest shade is No. 4,
followed by No. 3; for the ages 18 to 23 the most common shade is
No. 3, followed by No. 4 (Martin’s scale). The mean shade for the
24- to 50-year-old group was 4.83; for the 18- to 23-year-olds, 3.96.
Turkomans and Kara-Kalpaks are more highly pigmented than the
Mountain Tajiks, and less pigmented than the Bukharan Tajiks. In
general, the Uzbeks are more strongly pigmented than the Tajiks,
but they have a great range of variations. The Kirghiz have a still
greater range of variations. The Ferghana Kirghiz are more highly
pigmented than the Ferghana Tajiks and much more than the Moun-
tain Tajiks. The Kirghiz from the highland areas of the Tien Shan
are pigmented less strongly than even the Mountain Tajiks. Pamirian
Kirghiz as well as Joyce’s Tajiks from the southwestern Pamirs are
13
186 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
still less pigmented. The Issyk-Kul Kirghiz are very strongly pig-
mented.
In general, the Mountain Tajiks are somewhat less strongly pig-
mented than the Plains Tajiks and the majority of other peoples of
Central Asia examined in this study. The percentage of light-eyed
individuals among Mountain Tajiks is almost identical with that in
the other groups.
Eye color
Color No. Percent
DD airs Ste es cen eae balers eet ce wr cA 59 54.62
IMitace Lai wurcree err pret e roreette eae eda ove rorabaget 47 43.53
ESTEE. fercinteker seit ot tae Celaeaia sake, re ars 2 1.85
D. D. Bukinich found a still larger percentage of light and mixed
eyes on the Turgaiskaia steppe. S. I. Rudenko found a smaller ™
percentage of light and mixed eyes (11.0 percent). This definite
admixture of depigmented eyes shows once more the presence in
Asia of traces of the mysterious light-eyed type. In contradistinction
to other investigators, as for example Ivanovskii, we cannot regard
the Kazakhs as a pure darkly pigmented type, but as a dark type with
a definite admixture of a mixed type. Among Samoyeds, Buriats,
and Torguts the mixed eye color is found much more rarely than
among the Kazakhs. The Telengets ** occupy an intermediate place.
Hair color (adults)
Color Fischer’s scale Percent
PBT te seidict reo «ces ohare tomate ree sith 27 67.07
Dark browns ccs scnwce cette eo 4-5 30.61
Terese brows ca cian ae lees ee 6-7 1.32
Hair color (males aged 18 to 23)
Color Fischer’s scale Percent
Black tysrois trots cersnine eats sie sis asrernee oie eye 27 52.04
Wan ks PGOWIi. esticciercoiewsie ec toreyersieioe eras 4-5 46.62
Light (PsOwaa ih ne deainiioa ch aicwe vordecis ete 6-7 2.34
Only one case of lighter hair (No. 10 on Fischer’s scale) was
observed among the adults. Red hair (Nos. 1-3) was not seen.
Black hair (No. 27) was relatively rare in central and eastern
Darvaz, and more frequent in southwestern Darvaz. The Karategin
75 TArkho comments that this may be the result of variation in standards
followed.
76 Cf. [Arkho, AZH, vol. 17, Nos. 3-4.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 187
occupied an intermediary position. Dark brown shades were more
frequently found in central-eastern than in southwestern Darvaz.
Beard color
Color Fischer’s scale Percent
ESOC So seek cel vdeveccewabalec 27 22.61
SEIN Go da dé a dina Uisdbuele Cle danas 4-5 60.14
IRIN 5 niles xin wa jida bis aioe bh Welle 6-7 12.82
Sa bh sion shs uad.acasdebatectice 8-12 3.26
Tega ab vans cwairvncpicephbcucte I-3 1.16
The geographical distribution follows that of hair color. For
example, the Pendzhikent Tajiks are lighter ; the Pskem Valley Tajiks
are still lighter. The Issyk-Kul Kirghiz are pigmented very similarly
to the Mountain Tajiks. The Uzbeks of Khwarazm, especially from
Karshi and Shakhrasiab and the Karshi Jews are all more lightly
pigmented than the Tajiks. In distribution of Nos. 4 and 27, the
Jews are closer to the Tajiks than to the Uzbeks. Beard color is
lighter according to IArkho and Oshanin. However, the beards of
the Uzbeks and the Jews are darker than those of the Tajiks and do
not show as much difference in hair color as among the Tajiks.
In general, the Mountain Tajiks are a light-skinned people, but
have strongly pigmented hair and irides; they have a very small
admixture of low-pigmented elements. The Tajiks from southwestern
Darvaz are more deeply pigmented than the Tajiks from other regions.
BEARD DEVELOPMENT
The distribution of degree of beard growth as recorded on 427
males, aged 24 to 50, was recorded in percentages on the following
scheme:
No. Descriptive category
o0=complete lack of beard.
I = very scanty growth on either chin or cheeks.
2= weak growth on chin and cheeks.
3= medium growth; growth on cheeks merging into growth on chin.
4 = well-developed beard, but not strongly spreading onto neck and cheeks.
= well-developed beard, spreading strongly onto neck and cheeks.
OT OP 0 I 2 3 4 5
Percentage ........ 1.17 5.15 14.72 28.81 41.69 8.43
Although the general development of the beard was fairly strong,
there were 21.0 percent with weak beards. In Darvaz a stronger
beard development than in Karategin was found. Tajiks from Bukhara
(Oshanin) and Ferghana (IArkho) had a weaker beard development
188 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
than the Mountain Tajiks. However, a greater age range was covered
by these authors.
The Uzbeks, with the exception of the Khivans, have a much
weaker beard development. The Kirghiz have still weaker beards.
The beards of Turkomans vary; while the Iomuds have beards as
strongly developed as the Mountain Tajiks, the Chaudyrs show a
weaker degree of development. The beards of Jews and the Arabs
are more strongly developed than those of the Tajiks.
Regarding hair development,” the Darvaz have less growth on
the upper lip. The eyebrows of the Darvaz are stronger than those of
the Karategin. The amount of chest hair is weak, 31.99 percent being
glabrous. The Darvaz had less than the Karategins. Hair on the
back was very little, 78.20 percent being glabrous. Pubic hair was
also scanty, the Darvaz having less than the Karategins. In general,
the body hair was more abundant among the Darvaz. The form of
the beard was recorded as: small waves, 49.80 percent; curly, 38.68
percent ; deep waves, 9.96 percent ; straight, 1.53 percent.
Curly beards were more frequent in central and eastern Darvaz
than in Karategin and southwestern Darvaz, where the deep wave
was more common. Straight hair was found in a few cases, only in
Karategin.
Curly beards were found most frequently in the western part of
the Tavil-Darya region, least frequently in the Muminabad region.
The Uzbeks of Khwarazm have a much greater percentage of straight-
haired beards; among the Issyk-Kul Kirghiz straight beards are in
majority.
Heap Form
Occiput No. Percent
LEE Lee Oe ae eee AS SR IE 51 44.4
ROuNG! cscs ercerecsercieis clcrorsiacaiaiatere o's altos cols 44 37.9
Prominent. .iscisanserelecen sae eeae 12 10.3
Imdeterniimate. 5.6 /e'ece score esi’ sie 0 aver wiaehe 9 7.8
Forehead No. Percent
Strongly sloping £5) cis ae Semeec nes hearts 22 18.33
Mie datarna bapa aieretesorave sxe tsiote vee ta ayn ae artes 76 63.33
Straight) <P scudewiiteedeus ation wit s® 22 18.33
BROWRIDGES
Category No. Percent
Absentvornwealces nest sencc seen sect 13 10.83
Mec tary Aas e ey erckoeretereieie cece crsiamaciers 42 35.00
Strong eee eats a stins cee areie Gioia aie ishereiale 53 44.16
Very marked ay s:ciik atorstataicins etercttiare’ a 12 I0.00
77 The form of the head hair could not be determined because all the heads
were shaved.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 189
In comparison with the Buriats and the Tannu-Tuvans, the Kazakhs
have strongly developed browridges and a slanting forehead. In
addition, we find that the Kazakh group is not homogeneous with
respect to this trait, and suppose that with the basic predominating
“Altaic” type there had been admixed another type, frequently found
among the Buriats and the Tannu-Tuvans.
FaAcIAL Form
Shape No. Percent
Round and round-oval................- 14 12.07
TCT SS Loe ec auedwee teivave vaawa 60 51.72
a EER lt 4 ee 34 29.31
ROM ae wi a ohn ears ae oe eh erate nie mS 5 4.31
IIL St, Naas Gnu caatae neh atanaaen® 3 2.58
Nose
Root No. Percent
So eg RRA resect case tice 24 20.16
ET gw cine cote veves wuts ber tudes 90 75.03
PINs Vail cia on twit dipbAlals JB eg vibbnb eden 5 4.20
This also distinguishes the Kazakhs from the Buriats and the
Tannu-Tuvans, the majority of whom have low nasal roots.
Profile 2 No. Percent
PE cc. as vo cee pcan enaewee we ae 4 3.36
EE 9G ic cw ew ct ceetuteweusaunbbdets 56 47.06
SNE Sou sary dais nandbhvncbn tans anes 59 49.58
Profile ? No. Percent
a Mr ris 5 axibid sian etki es Sin athe © 30 25.51
IE Vad ae ns ron.ao snekbeeee a wnk tee 77 64.70
DEN Co negate cd nenews CAWentarennass 12 10.09
Nasal tip No. Percent
i nhs nns.de Wen tasneeabaen abe 20 16.80
PIRI he. cae Sedna een ae cake 61 51.26
SRPEEE cavbncecancabevswavacascsen 38 31.93
Nostril No. Percent
SEEN Sadan etch sc vavecbhabovsaveuns th 6 5.04
OMMRIURS occ ccvccccbncdvecteseussus 46 38.65
BOWEL jnicene ck cn vcevneeu ned acbetucate ép 63 52.04
REGED cc chcgasdcdbe boven gehhseensn 4 2.36
Height of alae No. Percent
A aie a ddegunktidnsatclapaennteee bas 19 16.24
I Dita ess red nad eon ye nee 72 61.54
US owe dn = ch assmasavcagavens¥énctnds 26 22.22
1 Of bony part of the nose.
2 Of nasal cartilage.
Igo SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
This average Kazakh type of nose, possessing a medium-prominent
nose root, straight or convex profile, slightly drooping tip, oval-trian-
gular form of nostrils, medium slanting, with medium alae with below-
medium flare, differs from Buriat and Tuvan Mongol type of nose,
having a low root, concave-straight profile, tilted tip, rounded-tri-
angular, almost horizontal nostrils and low alae. A strong suspicion is
aroused that this group originated from the mixing of two groups,
one of which had a Mongoloid, the other a Europeoid form of nose.
Lips
The Kazakhs have thinner lips than either the Buriats or the Tannu-
Tuvans.
Ears
The ears protrude markedly in 89 cases (76.07 percent), the
remainder being in the medium category. The lobes do not agree
with the prevailing Mongolian type. For example, 54.16 percent were
tongue-shaped, 25.0 percent horizontally truncated, and 20.84 per-
cent triangular. In general, the ears were usually egg-shaped with a
certain percentage of pear-shaped forms; greatly protruding, with a
well-developed helix, medium-developed anti-helix, and well-expressed
lobes. All these points differ from those of the Mongoloids, and are
specific for the Kazakh type.
SUMMARY
The Mongoloid peoples of North Asia fall into several distinct
groups. More clearly distinguished are the “Ugrian” type described
by Rudenko, having a long, narrow, low skull, and very typical
structure of the soft parts of the face; and the “opposite” type, eury-
cephalic, with a long and broad face, typical for many Turko-Mon-
golian peoples. We shall compare the Kazakhs with the type of other
Turko-Mongolian peoples in an attempt to find out whether these
are formed on the basis of one variety of the Mongol race, or on the
basis of several.
Our Kazakhs, who are very close to Kharuzin’s Kazakhs of the
Bukeevskaia Horde, are to be compared with the Buriats observed
by Talko-Grintsevich, Porotov, the Shendrikovskii and the Tannu-
Tuvans ** measured by [Arkho in Kemchik.
78 TArkho, A. L., Kemchikskie Tannu-Tuvintsy. Severnaia Aziia, Nos. 5-6,
1929.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD IgI
This peculiar combination of traits among the Kazakhs forces us
to answer the query regarding the identicity of Turko-Mongolian
tribes in the negative.
Thus, IArkho finds two basic types, and one mixed type. He
attempts by combining forehead, lips, nose, and face form (Saian,
rounded and round-oval; Altaian, oval and rectangular) to divide
them by morphological characters, and finds five such combinations.
Measurements and indices of 120 Kazakhs* of the Altai
Measurements Range Mean S. D. Cy.
a 145-181 163.00 7.11 4.36
I 175-206 188.20 6.73 3.57
re 149-174 160.70 5.01 3.11
I co cee nesmvewsccce 113-143 127.90 6.30 4.92
Bizygomatic diameter ....... 137-167 151.40 5.67 3.80
Bigonial diameter ........... 103-132 115.60 6.52 5.62
gS 40-68 te) 4.72 8.52
OG 27-46 36.65 2.92 7.95
EE seen cccttunsnee 52-76 64.30 4.41 6.85
CUMEMOEEL oben oecevegens 29-42 35.30 2.48 7.02
Indices
0 ES eee ae 75-98 85.40 3-47 4.06
a went dnoskewa ee 43-74 58.25 5.78 9.92
a | Waid hae Juve d 42-76 55.35 4.94 8.92
1 Age range was 21 to 60.
The supplementary types in the Kazakhs may include, theoretically,
the Ugrian and the Samoyed, as supposed by Aristov. Without any
doubt there should be included the brachycephalic Europeoid type,
which IArkho calls Pamiro-Ferghan, of the Tajiks and which is more
frequently found among the western Kazakhs and the Kirghiz.
' The Mongolian type is called provisionally the “Saianic,” ** indi-
cating by this a complex of descriptive characters distinctive from the
“Altaic.”
A.taic Tyre
Kharuzin pointed out the Europeoidal (Caucasian) character of
this type. The following facts may be adduced in support of this
position :
1. Large admixture of depigmented eyes, especially if we eliminate
the darker Saianic eyes.
2. Slight intensification of tertiary hair covering, i.e., beard.
79 TArkho also describes a “Saianic” variant of the Central Asiatic racial type
among the Tannu-Tuvans from Kemchik.
192 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I19
3. Relatively slight development of upper eye fold and low per-
centage of epicanthic fold.
4. Prominent nose.
Comparative table of descriptive characters
Pigmentation : Kazakhs Tuvans and Buriats
Frat Ce ee Oe ga Dark. Dark.
Reyes ky ee ok ten Dark, with large admix- Dark with small ad-
ture of mixed shades. mixture of mixed
shades.
lain texturey..c..aceeees Coarse medium. Coarse.
Beard squatitity ioe «res ciia Small but with admixture Very small.
of higher quantity of
growth.
Occipitalitormps eee Flattened-rounded. Flattened-rounded.
IMOKeheadi: ss fected Anica Broad, slightly inclined. Broad, rounded,
straight.
Browridges'). ae eckulece omen Strongly expressed. Weakly expressed.
Hiacemfonim: sar, ates Avo come a Oval or long pentagonal. ~ Round, round-oval,
round-pentagonal.
Horizontal profile... .as.% Weak, with large per- Very weak.
centage of medium.
Eyewo pening “sete 2 | ect Narrow, admixture of Narrow.
medium.
Wipperkeyvertold says s)he Medium over entire ex- Medium over entire
tent without reaching extent reaching the
eyelashes. eyelashes.
Epicamthusnce. ehiwsieesicantes Small. Relatively frequent.
INOSEMROOtS =e pis Scere tiesto mic Medium prominent. Flat.
INasalsprofilese sean Straight or convex. Straight or concave.
Aiprelevation’ </-.c+ sos a. ce Horizontal with tendency Horizontal with tend-
to depression. ency to elevation.
Nosteils Form ne ene Tendency to be elongated. Tendency to roundness.
Nasal wvitigs) ps te ciecehteiik Medium. Tendency to low.
Nasal wings, development...Below medium. Weak.
qeany NCIS IES cyis cpateva eae asi Above medium. High.
eap thickness’. oo Mtoe cs Below medium, many thin. Tends to be broad.
Teeth) anomalies .. 22. 0he5 - Frequent. Rare.
Earth Sorin (yet ame Nice ae Egg-shaped or pear- Pear-shaped.
shaped.
rtelisctis: Siuaeae (ah ae stet Well developed. Medium developed.
MODE Martarthentsan zat centres Well developed. Below medium.
Brotrusion save ere. secon ts Great. Great.
ARGUMENTS AGAINST EUROPEOIDAL AFFINITY
1. Broad face. The admixture of narrow faces, according to
TArkho, lowers the facial width proportionately to the extent of the
admixture.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD
Author Homogencity
DIG e tecisccccacese Not homogeneous.
8 -Not homogeneous.
MUMMMIVBRTL occas ccseccaas -More or less homoge-
neous.
EAL A ee ?
Giuffrida-Ruggieri' ....... ?
Bukinich (1924) .......... Not homogeneous.
Breed. (1027))\. 000s e0ses Not homogeneous.
PI OLOOT Do ate os bn ae wl Jot homogeneous.
193
Racial affinity and
composition
Formed by interbreed-
ing of Mongolian
and Caucasian type.
Typical average type
of Kazakh is a prod-
uct of mestization.
Agrees with Kharuzin.
Belongs to the Central
Asian group. of
Ivanovskii’s classifi-
cation.
Belong in Turkish
race; together with
the Ugrian race
from Eurasian racial
group. Turkish race
(Deniker) is distin-
guished from Mongol
race proper.
Belong to Homo
sapiens asiaticus var.
centralis together
with Buriats, Kir-
ghiz, Torguts, etc.
Original, yet closer to
Mongolians.
Belong in Central Asi-
atic group together
with Altaians. Anal-
ysis of distribution
curves shows non-
homogeneity, in stat-
ure and nasal index.
Basic type is Turki
(South Siberian) ;
with this is mixed a
certain percentage of
Mongolian (Central
Asiatic type) and a
small amount of
Europeoidal Pamiro-
Ferghan type.
1He places Tannu-Tuvans in another variety, Homo sapiens asiaticus palearcticus var.
brachymorphus, close to Samoyeds, but with the nasal index close to centralis,
194. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
2. Mandibular breadth.
3. The entire complex of characters typical for Asia.
IArkho does not believe the validity of the data on the nose and
epicanthic fold. There are also insufficient data on pilosity, which
may result from Pamiro-Ferghan admixture since the hairiness
appears to be higher among the western Kazakhs. Depigmentation
may be natural to the Altaic type or may be due to a very ancient
admixture. The structure of the head and face includes the Kazakhs
in the Mongoloid cycle.
The Altai variety of the Mongol race apparently coincides with
Deniker’s Turkish race, “supplementing and expanding its stingy but
neat definitions.”
The following are regarded as specialized traits: great stature;
modeling of skull; prominent nose; structure of lips; ear (reduction
of the helix) ; and probably depigmentation. This indicates that our
Altaic type approaches the Turkish race as characterized by Deniker :
“The Turkish race may be characterized in the following manner:
stature above medium (167.0-168.0) brachycephaly (81.8-87.0) ; face
oblong, oval; eyes non-Mongol, but frequently with an outer eyefold ;
hair covering moderately developed; broad cheek-bones, thick lips,
straight and relatively prominent nose.”
In the future we shall attempt to elucidate the role of the Mongol
race in the formation of other peoples of Altai and Saian, and also
shall give a craniological verification of our positions. The problem
of the historical genesis of this type will be solved by paleoanthropol-
ogists. In this connection much is expected from the study of the
crania collected by S. A. Teplukhov from the ancient graves in the
Minusinsk region.
Since ancient crania of Turkish type have been found as far apart
as Trans-Baikalia (Talko-Grintsevich) and South Russia, the dis-
tribution of this type in Eurasia must have been very wide. A mestiza-
tion resulting in the origin of the Altaic type consequently is not
excluded, but such a mestization may have taken place at a very early
period.
Due to the localization of the described “Altaic” type in the steppe
zone of South Siberia, [Arkho proposes that it be named Homo
sapiens asiaticus var. sibirica meridionalis.
The Saianic type (subvar. saianica) is a local variant of a wider
complex which is best described as “Central Asiatic” (var. centralis).
NO. I3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 195
Thus, in the foundation of the race genesis of our Kazakhs lies a
basic specific type corresponding to Deniker’s Turkish race. In
addition, the following races took part in the formation of the Kazakh
type: Central Asiatic—Mongoloid—and, to a very small degree, the
Europeoid Pamiro-Ferghan complex.
WESTERN KAZAKHS
Rudenko ®° observed that the study of the Kazakhs (Kirghiz-
Kazakhs) is of many-sided interest. The Kazakhs, one of the most
numerous Turkish peoples, have, better than the other Turks, pre-
served their ancient way of life and, most probably, their physical
type.
In analyzing the physical type of the Kazakhs, it may be possible
to determine the basic type of the Turks as well as the foreign ad-
mixtures which entered into their composition.
All earlier measurements were based on very little material, dealing
almost entirely with adult males. Zeland ®t measured 10 male and
10 female Kazakhs and 30 male Kara-Kirghiz of the Semireche (Jetty-
Su) region. Ujfalvy ** measured 11 male Kazakhs and 26 male Kara-
Kirghiz of Ferghana. Matseevskii and Poiarkov ** measured 30 male
Kazakhs in Kuldzha; Tronov ** measured 36 male and 13 female
Kazakhs of the Middle Horde; Kharuzin,*® 157 male Kazakhs of the
Lesser (Bukeevskaia) Horde, Ivanovskii,** 126 male and 30 female
Kazakhs of the Middle Horde.
Thus, we have data regarding 426 male and 53 female Kazakhs
and Kirghiz taken together. Of the investigators mentioned, only
Ivanovskii gives summary data for individual clans, while the clans
of the groups investigated by other authors are not known.
However, we know that the Kazakhs formed an independent people,
consisting of only several tribes by the middle of the fifteenth century.
80 Rudenko, S., Osobennosti zapadnykh Kazakov, in Akademiia Nauk S.S.R.
Materialy osobogo komiteta po issledovaniiu soiuznykh i avtonomnykh respublik,
No. 3, pp. 83-221, 1927.
81 Zeland, N. L., Kirgizy. Zapiski Zap.-Sibir. Otd. Russ. Geog. Ob., vol. 7,
No. 2, Omsk, 1885.
82 Ujfalvy de Mez6-Kovesd, Le Kohistan, le Ferghanah et Kuldja. Paris, 1878.
88 Matseevskii and Poiarkov, Etnograficheskie zametki 0 tuzemtsakh byvshego
Kuldzhinskogo raiona. Omsk, 1883.
84 Tronov, V. D., Materialy po antropologii i etnologii Kirgiz. Zap. Imp.
Russ. Geog. Ob., po Otd. Etnogr., No. 2, St. Petersburg, 1891.
85 Kharuzin, A. N., Kirgizy Bukeevskoi ordy. Trudy Antr. Otd. Imp. Ob.
Liub. Est., Antr. i Etnog. Imp. Mos. Univ., vol. 14.
86 Tvanovskii, A. A., Kirgizy Srednei ordy. Razh., vol. 14, No. 2, 1903.
196 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
At that time, in connection with the breaking up of the Djuchi Ulus
(that is, the domain of the elder son of Genghis Khan, Djuchi Kahn),
when the independent Khanates of the Crimea and Kazan were
formed in the western half of the Ulus, the Kazakh Federation came
into being with the death of Abul Khair Khan in the third quarter
of that century. The first to secede from Abul Khair Khan were the
Sultans Girei and Djannibek, who were joined by some of the clans.
With the death of Abul Khair Khan and the final breaking up of the
eastern half of the Ulus, a portion of the clans forming the Ulus
joined the Kazakhs who had rallied about Sultans Girei and Djanni-
bek. Somewhat later, the Kazakh Federation was joined by the
majority of the Dasht-i-Kipchak clans.
Thus, the Kazakh Federation was formed by various tribes and
clans, whose international administration was in the hands of their
elders and was based on their separate customary law.
On the basis of historical data and from the study of the present-
day composition of Turkish tribes and peoples, Aristov states that the
main tribes forming the Kazakh Federation were:
1. Great Horde: tribes Dulat, Kangly, Kirghiz.
2. Middle Horde: tribes Kirei, Naiman, Argyn, Kipchak.
3. Lesser Horde: tribes Alchin, Baiuly, Jettru.
In all probability, even while still in the Altai, and later, when
coming into Mongolia and into the so-called Kirghiz steppe in the
west, the Turkish tribes intermingled in a greater or lesser degree,
forming complicated tribal and clan federations.
Nevertheless, it is most probable that the study of modern clan
subdivisions of the Kazakhs will uncover their tribal origin. With-
out attempting to treat of the tribal and clan subdivisions of the
Kazakhs in general, Rudenko enumerates such subdivisions of the
Kazakhs among whom he and his colleagues have conducted anthro-
pological investigations.
In 1921, 496 Kazakhs were measured in the Kustanai canton (uezd)
of the Turgai region. These data have not been published. In the
summer of 1924 Rudenko measured 20 male Kazakhs in the Chuiskaia
steppe during the Altai Expedition of the Russian Museum. During
the summer of 1926, 827 Kazakhs of both sexes were measured in the
government of Aktiubinsk and, partly, in the Adaevsk canton, by the
Anthropological Section of the Kazakhstan Expedition of the Academy
of Sciences under the leadership of Rudenko. The following anthro-
pometric data give an idea as to the volume of observations: 233 indi-
viduals were measured in great detail, 496 in less detail, and 594
according to a simplified schedule. The Kustanai canton and Chuiskaia
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 197
steppe groups were measured by Rudenko, the Aktiubinsk and
Adaevsk groups by M. N. Komarova and L. K. Kornilov. Our in-
vestigations have covered in the main the Kazakhs of the Lesser
Horde; the Kazakhs of the Middle Horde were studied only in part.
The Kazakhs of the Naiman tribe, measured in the Chuiskaia
steppe belong to the Middle Horde. The number of individuals
measured is so small that Rudenko postpones any interpretations of
these materials until more substantial investigations of the eastern
Kazakhs have been made. Part of the individuals measured in Kus-
tanai canton belong to the Kipchak tribe, which also belongs to the
Tribal subdivisions of Kazakhs measured
1. Baiuly
0 Serre Akbota, Balykshi, Baipak, Begei, Esenbet, Zhary,
Zhemenei, Isek, Karazhan, Krykmyltyk, Kosulak,
Konanorys, Mugal, Tazike, Turkpenadai, Tobysh,
Turkpen, Shegem.
Alasha.
Baibakty.
Bersh.
OPE Nauruz.
Esentemir.
Las
Tana.
Sherkesh.
Ysyk.
2. Alimuly
Pes Succ nice hts Akbura, Maimbet, Kabak, Karash, Karakesek, Kenzhe,
Mailibai, Nazar, Ryskul, Tleu, Shuren.
ears b s cineianie Ozhirai, Uak.
3. Jetiru
Zhagalbaily ....... Tleu, Shagyr.
Kerdery.
0) eae Aidyr, Kedeikul, Kozhantai, Medet.
BOE, svindtvannseds Kulan
Middle Horde. The Kipchaks are one of the ancient Turkish tribes
of the group in which Rashid-ud-Din (fourteenth century) also
enumerates the Uigurs, Kirghiz, Karlyks, and other tribes. Long
before the Mongol invasions, the Kipchaks were a numerous tribe
wandering on the steppes between the Don, Volga, and the Urals,
and giving their name to the steppe (Dasht-i-Kipchak—“The Kipchak
Plain”). The number of Kipchaks decreased greatly as a result of
great masses of them in the west becoming a part of the Bashkirs,
Nogais, Crimean and Volga Tatars, and of further groups of Kip-
chaks, because of their part as the mainstay of the Juchid domination,
going southwest with the Sheibanid armies to form the principal
198 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
part of the Uzbeks particularly in Ferghana, between Zarafshan and
the Amu, and also in Khiva.
The tribal composition of the Lesser Horde is very heterogeneous,
since the Horde was formed of many fragments of various Turkish
tribes. According to Tevkelev’s Memorandum (1740) the Lesser
Horde for a long time consisted of one tribe, the Alchin, which was
divided into two tribal groups, the Alimulin and the Baiulin; seven
smaller tribes joined the Alchins. These seven tribes formed a union
only at the end of the seventeenth or the beginning of the eighteenth
century, when Khan Tiavka, who died in 1717, united them into one
tribal group of Jettru “seven clans.” Of the tribes forming the Jettru
group, two, the Tabyn and Tama, are also found among the Bashkirs
and the Uzbeks. The investigations covered the Baiuly group (north
in Kustanai canton and south in the Aktiubinsk region) and the
Alimuly and Jettru groups.
The above groups are exogamous within clans, but endogamous
within tribes and tribal subdivisions.
PIGMENTATION
Skin color—Using von Luschan’s scale, the color of the chest on
areas normally covered by clothes: light (Nos. 7-13) and dark skins
(Nos. 5, 6, 14-18, 22-25) were evenly divided.
Eye color—According to Martin’s scale the eyes were predomi-
nantly brown: 85.8 percent men, 96.0 percent women; of that num-
ber, 40.1 percent of the men and 62.8 percent of the women had dark
brown eyes. There was no significant difference between the tribal
groups. More women than men had dark eyes.
Eye color No. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Batuly: crs ieee es 125 I 12 30 43 12 12 3 2 I
Alimaly 6.555 cies at 143 oO 18 47 37 24 2 7 8 oO
JOttElt Meise gosiscietion 36 oO 2 8 II 7 6 I I 0
Dotal accfesiureoeats 304 I 32 04 OI 43 20 II II I
Hair color—tThe hair was dark in the overwhelming majority of
cases; of 448 adult males only 2, and of 402 women only 3, had light
brown hair with dark eyes.
Combined hair and eye color—The dark type having eye color
Nos. 1-5 and dark hair definitely predominates: 90.2 percent of the
men and 96.3 percent of the women. A larger admixture of the mixed
type was found among the southern Baiuly (Aktiubinsk and Adaevsk
regions) and the Jettru men. Comparable results were obtained by
Kharuzin for the male Kazakhs of the Bukeev (“Lesser”) Horde, and
Ivanovskii for the Middle Horde, 97 percent of the dark type for the
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 199
former, 95 percent for the latter. This endows with a still greater
interest the considerations regarding the admixture among the
Kazakhs of the legendary blond race, the Dinlins, found in the Chinese
chronicles.
Aristov * states that the history of the Tang Dynasty written in the
ninth century on the basis of earlier sources, in connection with a
description of the Yenisei Kirghiz, says that “the inhabitants of that
land have become mingled with the Dinlins . . . are generally tall,
with red hair and pink faces and blue (green) eyes. . . .”
According to Aristov, Dinlin admixture may be found among the
Tele, Merkit, Kirei, and a Lesser Horde tribe, the Alchin. Judging by
the name, the Alasha tribe of the Baiuly group must also be of Dinlin
origin. The data on the pigmentation of the Kazakhs at our disposal
do not corroborate the supposition of a blond admixture among the
Kazakhs. Whatever the case, this problem can be more appropriately
examined when we have data regarding the physical type of the eastern
Kazakhs and the Kirghiz, among whom, on the basis of historical
information, the admixture of the Dinlins was much more probable.
STATURE
In the great majority of cases the stature was medium or below
medium (164.0 for men and 151.0 for women). While the individual
range of variation was relatively broad, there was no significant
difference between the means obtained for various tribal groups. A
somewhat greater stature was found for the men of the Jettru group,
which also had women of a somewhat smaller average stature than
the average for the other Kazakh groups. The average stature noted
by Kharuzin for the men of the Lesser Horde was 162.9, i.e., very
close to our figures for the Lesser Horde. Ivanovskii found a mean
stature of 165.1 for the Kazakhs of the Middle Horde, which is some-
what higher than the figure for the Lesser Horde. This may be ex-
plained by a higher percentage of the Jettru group among the former.
Group No. Range Mean Short Medium Tall a
SPOtURY, Pia dccsuse 132 147.0-178.2 163.68 28.8 30.3 24.2 16.7
ol Ae 80 146.6-179.9 163.36 28.7 27.5 30.0 13.8
PUIUEY sss doce’ 14! 146.9-179.4 164.14 25.5 26.2 29.8 18.4
UES Sida anes alan 65 153.7-178.7 165.70 24.6 21.5 29.2 24.6
TCIDCURI civeseeas 48 150.3-175.9 163.62 25.0 27.1 37-5 10.4
Total or mean.. 466 146.9-179.9 164.32 26.8 27.0 28.9 17.2
87 Aristov, N., Opyt vyiasneniia etnicheskogo sostava kirgiz-kazakov Bolshoi
ordy i kara-kirgizov. Zhivaia Starina, Nos. 3-4, 1804. —
200 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
From the distribution curve (bimodal maxima at 162.0 and 166.0
for the men and 148.0 and 152.0 for the women) it is possible to
assume the presence of two elements, differing in stature; the low
element is most sharply pronounced among the southern groups
(Aktiubinsk, Baiuly) and is also found among the Kustanai Baiuly
and the Jettru. The tall element is most clearly present among the
Alimuly, and is also found among the Kustanai Baiuly and the Jettru.
CEPHALIC INDEX
The overwhelming majority are true brachycephals (85.86 for the
men; 86.87 for the women) with a very small percentage of sub-
brachycephals and only an exceptional mesocephal.
Sub-
Group No. Range Mean Meso. brachy. Brachy.
Bemblhy No osuaocoue 128 79.1-95.4 86.35 3.90 12.5 83.60
Batuly: Kes tence 80 75.6-91.3 84.80 6.25 20.00 73.75
Alimuly ice. cae ee I4I 78.0-06.1 86.13 4.26 15.60 80.14
Jetteuit eco es stcre ts 65 78.2-82.2 85.32 4.61 23.08 72.31
Kapchalaaawecste cer 48 79.5-80.1 84.53 4.16 29.17 66.67
Total or mean... 462 75.6-96.1 85.86 4.54 17.96 77.49
Only slight variations were noticed by tribes: the Kipchak males
and their neighbors, the Kustanai Baiulys, are less brachycephalic
than the other tribal groups. Kharuzin gives the average index of
86.28 for the Lesser Horde (brachycephals 82.0 percent; brachy-
cephals and subbrachycephals together 96.0 percent). Ivanovskii’s
Middle Horde Kazakhs (clans Kirei, Naiman, Baidzhigit, and Murun)
had an average of 89.39 (91.0 percent brachycephals and 99.0 percent
brachycephals and subbrachycephals together). However, Rudenko’s
Middle Horde Kazakhs (Kipchak clan) averaged 84.53, while 33.33
percent of individuals were mesocephalic and subbrachycephalic. No
data are available for the Great Horde.
Heap BREADTH
The mean head breadth was 160.46 for males.
Group No. Range Mean
Batty.) JAC icc b Brctersveia elects sisieiatgegscets 129 147-175 160.74
Beatty RS snicud 5 atevtintns essai aiaictere tote ers 80 149-172 150.35
PAD ismnithiy al os ate: dvaia an cvevela, are Biovegare' 5:0: S101 141 143-174 160.62
Jett earrewsievs overe stave aalotoverner eas 65 146-177 161.06
Berpchalet 4) cya icces a cavats wie akeroragate cata ears 48 147-174 159.92
Dotal.of Means. wactioxisee eae 463 143-177 160.46
NO. I3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 201
The tabulation of differences by tribes does not disclose any sizable
difference between groups. The Kazakh groups investigated were
found to be relatively homogeneous both in head form and in absolute
head dimensions.
FacraL INDEX
The majority were euryprosopic (men, 80.80, 74.1 percent ; women
80.77, 77.3 percent). Of men, 18.4 percent, and of women, 16.4 per-
cent, were mesoprosopic. Of men, 7.5 percent, and of women, 6.2
percent were leptoprosopic.
While the number of observations is probably not quite sufficient
for a positive statement, certain differences in the facial indices of
various tribes have been noted. The broadest faces were found among
the Kipchaks and the Kustanai Baiulys; the greatest tendency toward
Face width No. Range Mean
RIE s Bie Wiehe Wu vundn a ckMae Kees s 131 134-160 148.86
ited erase) ep vin hh. dos die chin ate 80 134-165 149.10
es o'hs Zs a» oe une ukax's ae 050 141 128-160 148.84
EE ow wns are.oiia s 0 9g lasik sb 64 138-162 149.44
CR seer havncthekeusae anes 48 138-159 149.58
USEPA 0 C wie di bi ces eS as 464 128-165 148.08
Facial index No. Range Mean Eury. Meso. Lepto.
it Me SO 131 72.9-90.4 81.22 71.0 20.6 8.4
ES Se 80 69.0-92.0 709.66 81.2 10.3 7.5
0S a 140 69.3-90.8 81.12 75.7 19.3 5.0
GEE etaticte cic os unix s 64 70.9-96.0 82.59 59.4 25.0 15.6
MEET, cn'his fees ove 48 68.0-87.5 78.38 87.5 12.5 ne
Total or mean.... 463 68.0-96.0 80.80 74.1 18.4 7.5
leptoprosopy and mesoprosopy was observed among the Jettru. On
the basis of the distribution curve, we can assume among the preva-
lently broad-faced Kazakhs an admixture of some mesoprosopic ele-
ment. Because of the limited character of the data, this may be
definitely shown only in the case of the Aktiubinsk Baiuly (men)
and Alimuly (women) ; the women as a rule are more broad-faced
than the men. Ivanovskii’s observations on facial form on the Middle
Horde were made on the basis of the physiognomic index and not
the anatomical, as were Rudenko’s. Nevertheless, his data do not
contradict those of Rudenko, the great majority of the Middle Horde
Kazakhs being euryprosopic, with a very small percentage in the
leptoprosopic category, and the women being more broad-faced than
the men.
14
202 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
The facial index of the Kazakhs depends on their very great abso-
lute facial breadth (mean for both women and men 148.98). No
significant variation in facial breadth was discovered between the
various tribal groups, with the possible exception of the somewhat
less broad-faced Jettru women.
NASAL INDEX
All Kazakh groups, in spite of their broad faces, are mesorrhine
with a leptorrhine tendency. The average for men is 71.64 (56.1
percent), and for women 71.62 (52.2 percent). Of men, 40.8 percent,
and of women, 44.5 percent were leptorrhine. In the platyrrhine
category there were 3.0 percent males and 3.3 percent females. A
slight tendency toward narrower noses is discernible among the
Alimuly and Jettru groups, both in the mean nasal index and in the
number of leptorrhines.
The distribution curves show the undoubted presence of two ele-
ments among the Kazakhs, one leptorrhine, and the other, predominat-
ing, mesorrhine. The two elements are found in all tribal groups, but
are most clearly discernible in the case of the Aktiubinsk Baiuly and
Alimuly. Nasal indices for the Middle Horde recorded by Ivanovskii
do not differ materially from Rudenko’s groups (71.78; leptorrhine,
54.0 percent; mesorrhine and platyrrhine together, 46.0 percent).
Platyrrhines account for only 8.0 percent of the women (mean 72.25).
The nasal height (nasion-subnasale) is 53.16 for males, 48.38 for
females. No material difference in this respect had been observed
between tribes, with the exception of the Kustanai Baiuly (men and
women) who, having a nasal index similar to the other groups, had
somewhat lesser absolute nasal dimensions.
Nasal length No. Range Mean
Bastyr on, Saini aetven an hens 132 45-63 53.10
Baitang tev etererataton eee 70 45-60 51.73
Ailgmotily, 4 pie Sa pranceers Satchels. ese 140 44-67 53.52
RE RED ML te hoAOe ee Be hte 5 40-66 54.96
Kei pehralcten sete la seuctreyisveduy sisi rah crate reas 48 46-63 52.54
shotalforumecanaeet tee het cient 404 40-67 53.16
Nasal index No. Range Mean Lepto. Meso. Platy.
Banily’ MAYS. eee 132 57.4-90.0 72.30 35.0 61.3 3.0
Baitlya Kegaeen sere 70 55.4-88.9 72.08 36.7 60.8 2s
ATirantaly, vai2 ayers stoke 139 50.0-92.5 70.76 46.0 50.3 3.6
Moet tay, bs cscs, sas egeusisvoye 65 56.3-85.5 70.32 50.7 47.7 1.5
Kapchale (iseveustls of 48 55.9-88.6 72.96 33.3 62.5 4.2
Total or mean.... 463 50.0-92.5 71.64 40.8 56.1 3:0
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 203
ConcLUSIONS
Rudenko’s Kazakh group is characterized by dark and light skin;
dark hair and eyes; medium stature; obvious brachycephaly, eury-
prosopy, and mesorrhiny tending toward leptorrhiny. From the
analysis of the distribution curves, it is seen that two elements are
indicated among both men and women: tall and short; narrow-nosed
and with a nose of medium breadth, the latter group (i.e., the mesor-
rhines) being also characterized by a relatively broader face. .
Only preliminary considerations may be advanced regarding the
racial type and tribal composition of the western Kazakhs. There
are three points of view regarding these problems:
Kharuzin ** writes that they not only. lack ethnological and anthro-
pological unity, but also do not have any numerically strong nucleus
around which other elements could become grouped. According to
him, the Kazakhs are in the process of being dissolved in numerous
Turkish, Mongolian-Turkish, and even other (Usuns or Wusun)
tribes. This conglomerate character of the Kazakhs Kharuzin explains
by geographical conditions, i.e., the steppes.
In another work while denying that the Kazakhs have a strictly
definite type, Kharuzin states that there is an average predominating
type among them, and proceeds to describe it. In addition to this
type, he also states that among the Kazakhs are encountered indi-
viduals leaning toward either the Mongolian or the Caucasian race.
Criticizing Kharuzin’s position, Ivanovskii, who does not think
that the anthropological data indicate a high degree of mestization,
lack of pure type, etc., among the Kazakhs, favors vaguely the idea
of relative homogeneity of the Kazakh type.
Aristov, after examining Kharuzin’s conclusions, supposes that
the predominating type described by Kharuzin among the Kazakhs
must be considered to be a Turkish (Turki) type. The other two
types he is inclined to consider to be the western Dinlin and the
Finno-Ugrian type. At the same time he thinks that the historical,
ethnographical, and philological considerations and data also indicate
traces of the Samoyed type.
Comparing the anthropological traits of the Kazakhs described
above by Rudenko with the corresponding, partly published data
regarding the Uralian, Altaian, and western Mongolian Turks and
with some of the Mongol tribes, it is not difficult to observe that they
are all possessed of common morphological peculiarities, and ap-
88 Kharuzin, A., K vosprosu o proiskhozhdenii Kirghizskogo naroda. Etno-
graficheskoe Obozrenie, 1895, p. 26.
204 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
parently all belong in the same, fairly stable, race. It is very probable
that there exist local and tribal variations of this race, which we shall,
conditionally call the “Central Asiatic race,” owing to incorporation
within themselves of native (sometimes of ancient origin) elements,
to mestization with representatives of other races, and to the vari-
ability of their own race.
Further study is necessary, especially of the Turkish and Mongol
tribes, in order to identify the race that interests us, after which it will
not be difficult to discover the nature of the admixture. In order to
solve the problem of the disappearance of certain racial types, such
as the Dinlins or Wusuns, if the information contained in the Chinese
chronicles is accurate, or even to trace the evolution of the racial type
of the Kazakhs, it is necessary to study the “large families” and other
similar problems.
TURKOMANS OF KHWARAZM AND THE NORTH CAUCASUS
TArkho *° gives the following summary for the Iomuds and the
Chaudyrs of Khwarazm (Khoresm) and the Caucasus:
Iomuds.—Stature: above medium. Eyes: dark, with small ad-
mixture of mixed shades. Beard: growth, more than medium; form of
hair, wavy. Head form: oval. Forehead: medium slanting. Supra-
orbital crest: below medium. Face: oval, with strong horizontal pro-
file. Nose: height of root above medium; strong horizontal profile;
nasal profile straight or convex; cartilage straight; tip slightly ele-
vated ; nostrils slant medium, oval in cross section, medium alae, tip
inclination slight. Lips thin. Ears mainly oval with more than
average protrusion. Helix well-developed; lobe usually attached.
Head very narrow, long, high. Dolichocephalic. Orthocephalic
narrow forehead. Medium face length. Small zygomatic and bigonial
breadths. Leptoprosopic. Nose medium long, medium broad. Leptor-
rhine. Majority of individuals clearly Europeoid.
Chaudyrs of Khwarazm.—Stature: above average. Hair and eyes:
dark. Beard: growth below medium. Head: oval but higher ad-
mixture of spheroidal and sphenoidal forms than among the Iomuds.
Forehead: medium slanting. Supraorbital crest: below medium.
Face: oval, but with definite admixture of pentagonoidal forms. Nose:
root height below medium; horizontal profile medium; profile straight
or convex; cartilage, straight or concave; tip slightly elevated; slant
of nostrils, medium. Epicanthic fold: relatively frequent (20 per-
89TArkho, A. I., Turkmeny Khorezma i Severnogo Kavkaza. AZH, Nos.
I-2, pp. 70-119, 1933.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 205
cent). Upper eye fold: weak. Upper lip: height above medium;
thin, but thicker than that of Iomuds. Ear: more protruding than
that of Iomuds; less pendulous lobe. Compared to Iomuds, Chaudyrs
have less dolichocephaly, greater head breadth and less head height.
They also have wider minimum frontal, zygomatic, and bigonial
diameters and greater face height. The Chaudyrs have a large ad-
mixture of Mongoloid individuals.
Chaudyrs of the Caucasus——This group is still farther removed
from the Iomuds. Stature: lower. Hair: darker. Beard: growth
weaker. Forehead: medium slanting, supraorbital crest. Facial pro-
file: much weaker. Nose: root height below medium; tip elevation
straight. The remaining characteristics do not show a sharp deviation
from other groups. Mongoloid peculiarities of the eye are like those
of Khwarazm Chaudyrs, but epicanthic fold less frequent. Great
upper lip height. Ear: lower percentage of pear-shaped forms;
greater ear protrusion; smaller degree of helix inversion. Still less
head length, but greater head breadth than Iomuds. Mesocephalic
index. Broader minimum frontal, zygomatic, and bigonial diameters.
Greater nose length and breadth than the Iomuds. Very considerable
percentage of individuals of Mongoloid type.
Certain group distinctions are observable among Caucasian Turk-
omans, the most significant being the lesser Mongolization of the
Chaudyr subgroup in comparison with Suiun-Dzjadzhii and the
Ygdyr.
Summary.—Our problem is to discover which of the three Mongol
races of Northern and Central Asia participated in the formation of
the Turkoman racial type: North Asiatic, Central Asiatic, or South
Siberian.
It must be stated that our materials do not furnish a definite answer
to this problem. Obviously the probability of participation of the
North Asiatic °° element is small. Since the greatest degree of Mongo-
loidicity among the Caucasian Turkomans is accompanied by a bizygo-
matic breadth of 145-146 mm., the possibility of a considerable ad-
mixture of the Ural-Altaic subtype is excluded.
The participation of the Paleo-Siberian type (subdolichocephalic,
massive, broad-faced, with strongly slanting forehead and a sharply
marked supraorbital crest) is impossible to deny since geographically
it had been in contact with the long-headed race both in Siberia and
Europe. If such were the case, its traces may more probably be
found in the Caucasus than in Khwarazm, and other Mongoloid ele-
90 Cf. the Ural-Altaic group including the Voguls and Shortsi.
206 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
ments must have taken part in the Turkoman admixture. The first
is seen from the similar development of browridges and the inclination
of the forehead of the lomuds and of the Khwarazmian Chaudyrs.
A Paleo-Siberian admixture among the Chaudyrs would have been
expressed in a greater inclination of the forehead in comparison with
the Iomuds. The browridges of Caucasian Chaudyrs are strongly
expressed and do not contradict the possibility of the presence of a
Paleo-Siberian complex.
On the other hand, this possibility is denied by the slight inclina-
tion of the forehead. The differences in type between the Caucasian
and Khwarazmian Chaudyrs suggest, more or less definitely, the
heterogeneous character of the Mongoloid components. Historical
data indicate contacts of Turkomans and their ancestors, the Guzes,
on one side, with other peoples of Turko-Mongol origin, on the other.
Among these must first be mentioned the Kazakhs, Kalmyks (in the
case of the Caucasian Turkomans) and the “historical Mongoloids”
of Central Asia. Accordingly, it would be appropriate to discover the
relative degree of participation in the formation of the physical type
of the Turkomans of the Central Asian brachycephals, particularly
since the great brachycephaly of the Mongol element among the Tur-
komans is proved through an ordinary comparison of group means.
The Khwarazm Chaudyrs, having in comparison with the Caucasian
Chaudyrs a greater admixture of the Europeoidal type, are neverthe-
less characterized by’a similar height of the nose, a greater percentage
with an epicanthic fold, a similar degree of upper eye fold, and heavier
browridges.
To summarize, the Central Asian type is without doubt represented
among both the Caucasian and the Khwarazmian groups; to a certain
degree, the possibility of participation of the South Siberian type is
stronger in the Caucasus. The differences of the isolated types tend
in three directions : toward the Kazakhs (South Siberian type) ; toward
Tannu-Tuvans (Central Asiatic type) ; and, in the case of the lomud
group, toward the Mediterranean Europeoid complex.
To turn to another phase of the problem, let us examine the so-
called Europeoidal complex. This should also show relationships
to the already known type of Europeoids in Central Asia. The char-
acteristic group, described by Oshanin and IArkho, was conditionally
named the “Pamiro-Ferghanic.” The distinctive traits of this group
are: brachycephaly, more or less straight forehead, relatively dark
pigmentation, and a moderately narrow face (138-142 mm.). How-
ever, among the Turkomans brachycephaly is connected with the
Mongoloid, and not the Europeoid, complex. The Europeoid complex
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 207
of the Turkomans is dolichocephalic, having the smallest cephalic
index (75.0) known in the U.S.S.R.
There are some historical data showing that the dolichocephaly
of the Scytho-Sarmatian tribes, and also of the Turkomans, may
have been caused by a peculiar local method of artificial cranial de-
formation, resulting in the change in the cephalic index. During the
expedition E. G. Libman and D. Iomudskaia studied the use of the
felt headgear put on the heads of the nursing babies and demonstrated
that the use of such a hood could not result in a dolichocephalic change
of the skull, and that the children were naturally dolichocephalic.
In applying the fact of negative interracial correlation of the head
length and breadth discovered by Pearson and Czepurkowski to
Central Asiatic groups, we find that some groups possessing great
head length have, at the same time, a smaller head breadth. The
Turkomans belong in the lower left-hand corner of the correlation
grid, having the greatest length and the smallest breadth. In the
upper right-hand corner belong the Uigurs. According to IArkho
and Debets, the lack of positive correlation between the length and
breadth of a group indicates its mixed character. In this connection
two facts are of interest: (a) great positive correlation of lomuds;
and (b) impairment of correlation of Khwarazmian Chaudyrs. The
first verifies the racial, and not artificial, character of the Turkoman
dolichocephaly. The small size of the index excludes the possibility
of significant participation of any Europeoid brachycephalic type. It
is possible to claim that the Europeoid base of all investigated Turko-
mans is homogeneous. This is explained socially by strict endogamy,
national, tribal, and clannish, of the Khwarazmian Turkomans. In
the Caucasus the Turkomans mix with the Turkish Nogais, Europeoid
Tatars, who apparently have a Europeoid element comparable to that
of Turkomans. Formerly, they used to mix with Kazakhs and
Kalmyks.
A STUDY OF THE TURKISH PEOPLES, 1924-1934
In a posthumous article,"* edited by G. Debets, A. I. [Arkho ** pub-
lished a summary of a systematic anthropometrical survey continued
for 10 years among the Turkish peoples of the Soviet Union.
%TArkho, A. I., Kratkii obzor antropologicheskogo izucheniia Turetskikh
narodnostei SSSR za to let (1924-1934) [A brief review of the anthropological
study of the Turkish peoples of the U.S.S.R. during the 10 years 1924-1934].
AZH, No. 1, pp. 47-64, 1936.
92 TArkho’s death in Turkestan during 1935 came as a great shock to his
colleagues throughout the world, since he was one of the foremost Soviet
physical anthropologists. His work will be quoted in many text books still
208 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
The systematic anthropological study of Turkish peoples in the
U.S.S.R. was begun in 1924, little having been done previously. The
Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. has sponsored the study of the
following peoples:
1. Chuvashes, Uzbeks, by B. Vishnevskii.
2. Tatars of the Crimea, and Nogais of Daghestan, by N. Tere-
binskaia.
3. Yakuts, by Schreiber.
4. Kazakhs, Bashkirs, and Teptiars, by S. I. Rudenko and S.
Baronov.
5. Kirghiz, by R. Mitusova.
6. The Central Asiatic organizations of the Academy sponsored
the study of the Uzbeks, Kirghiz, Kazakhs, and Turkomans by L. V.
Oshanin, in collaboration with V. K. IAsevich.
7. The physical development of children was recorded by Shishlov,
Goncharov, and others; that of adults by A. I. [Arkho, A. Askarov,
and others; while demographic studies were made by D. Iomudskaia,
E. Time, and assistants.
8. The following studies were also conducted:
a. Tatar tribes of European Russia, by G. Debets, T. Trofimova,
and V. Sergeev, all of MGU.
b. Turkish tribes of the Caucasus, the Karachais, and Balkarians,
by V. Levin and V. Bunak, both of MGU.
c. Kumyks and Kazakhs of the Volga area (Povolzhe) by G.
Debets and T. Trofimova.
d. Azerbaidzhan Turks by Debets, IArkho, and N. I. Anserov.
e. Mountain Tatars of the Crimea by IA. Roginskii.
g. The former Society for the Study of the Urals, Siberia, and
the Far East collected and preserved materials on the anthro-
pology and demography of the Shortsi, Teleuts, nationalities of the
Oirot Autonomous Province, Khakass (various groups), Kazakhs,
Kirghiz of Kirghizia and Uzbekistan, Uigurs, Uzbeks (various
groups), Kuramins, Kara-Kalpaks, Turkomans of Turkestan S.S.R.
and of the North Caucasus, Azerbaidzhan Turks, Nogais of Daghestan
(IArkho), Kumyks (A. Grinevich), Karaims (B. Adler), and the
Russo-Turkish mestizos of the Altai and of the Khakass Autono-
mous Province. The craniological research was conducted by Bunak,
Debets, and Trofimova.
10. A MGU Expedition (V. Bunak and A. I. [Arkho, leaders)
was dispatched to Tannu-Tuva [formerly Uriankhai].
unwritten. I had the privilege of meeting him at MGU in September 1934, and
of discussing numerous anthropological problems of the Caucasus, Turkestan,
and Central Asia. (H. F.)
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 209
11. Quantitatively, the materials assembled greatly exceed the
pre-Revolutionary collections. For the first time the Kumandintsis,
Altai-Kirghis, Teleuts, Crimean Tatars, Astrakhan Tatars, Kara-
Kalpaks, Kirghiz, Uzbeks, Kuramins, Tubalars, and Shortsis were
investigated.
12. Among the few Siberian and Tatar groups still to be studied
are the Karagasis, Kalmazhis, and Dolgans.
13. The study of the Turkish peoples was carried out in four fields:
a. Racial composition.
b. Physical development.
c. Mestization.
d. Demographic data.
Racial composition—The theoretical problems of racial analysis
of the Turkish nationalities have been studied mainly by Bunak
(craniological data) and by Oshanin and IArkho. The majority of
the data, particularly those collected by the MGU investigators
(Debets, IArkho, and Trofimova), those of Central Asia (Oshanin)
and of Transcaucasia (Anserov), yielded consistent results.
According to IArkho, it is already possible, through the study of
the data available, to obtain a relatively accurate idea of the basic
anthropological types which were combined to produce the modern
Turkish peoples, although there still remain many unsolved problems.
In attempting to classify the Turks into one of the racial branches
either in a Mongoloid or a Europeoid °° race of the first order, [Arkho
comes to the conclusion that the racial heterogeneity of the Turks has
been entirely proved. If one disregards the more recent admixture
of the Russian elements, some of the Altaic peoples of Siberia and the
Yakuts may be considered to be relatively pure Mongoloids. The
concentration of the Mongoloid influence decreases gradually toward
the west. The western Turks are characterized by feebly expressed
Mongoloid traits and by practically pure European characteristics,
e.g., the Kumyks (Debets); Azerbaidzhan Turks of Nakhichevan,
Nukha, and Gandzha (Anserov, IArkho, and Debets); Karaims
(Adler) ; and the Crimean Tatars from the south coast (Terebinskaia).
A large section of the Turkish language groups is of a racially
hybrid character. They are mixtures of varying composition of the
Mongoloid and European races of the first order, e.g., Uzbeks, Tatars,
®3 Term used by Soviet anthropologists to denote Homo sapiens indo-europaeus
in contradistinction to Homo sapiens asiaticus (Mongoloid) and certain transi-
tional forms such as suburalis and sublappica (sublapponoid). IArkho does not
differentiate between Turks and merely Turkized stocks. (H. F.)
210 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
Bashkirs, etc. Many racial types of the second order entering into
the composition of various Turkish peoples may be successfully dis-
cerned by different methods of racial analysis.
Three Mongoloid races of the second order were discovered by
TArkho in the Altai-Saian highlands: Ural-Altaic, South Siberian,
and Central Asian.
Rudenko states that the Kirghiz and the Kazakhs belong to the
Central Asian stock. They are characterized as possessing in general
South Siberian traits, with a small admixture of the European Pamiro-
Alpine element, which according to Trofimova becomes increasingly
strong in the west.
In Central Asia, Oshanin and IArkho distinguished brachycephalic
Pamiro-Alpine, dolichocephalic Mediterranean,®°* and “Vorderasi-
atische Armenoid” types.
In Transcaucasia the Armenoid influence is also found simul-
taneously with the Pamiro-Alpine and the Mediterranean elements
(Anserov, [Arkho, and Debets).
The admixture of Mongoloid traits, while extremely slight, may
nonetheless be traced, as for example among the Azerbaidzhan Turks
in Gandzha (IArkho) and the Mughal-Turks of Kakh (Debets).
In the North Caucasus, V. Levin has described a special “Ja-
phethic” ®* element, observed also by Debets among the Kumyks.
The Mongoloid elements were found to be concentrated among the
Nogais and the Turkomans (Levin, Terebinskaia, and [Arkho).
In the Crimea, Pamiro-Alpine and Dinaric elements were recorded
by Terebinskaia among the Crimean Tatars.
Among the Tatars of the Middle Volga region (Debets and Tro-
fimova), in addition to a slight Mongoloid admixture (the South
Siberian variant), they were found to possess the Eurasian sublappo-
noid component element described by Bunak and Zenkevich and also
an admixture of the eastern Baltic and the northern types.
The same component elements were encountered among the Bash-
kirs with a far greater prominence of the Mongoloid type.
The unpublished materials on the Chuvash (Vishnevskii) disclose
the presence of distinct traces of the suburalic type of Bunak.
On the basis of all available data it has been possible to discern
94 The identification of a dolichocephalic Mediterranean element in Central
Asia seems to me of great significance since, in addition to the Mediterranean
belt which extends from Morocco to the Pacific Ocean, following a line south
of the Himalayas, there must also have been connecting lines of migration into
Central Asia. (H. F.)
85 TArkho preferred the term “Caucasian proper.”
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 211
not less than three Mongoloid races of the second order, six Euro-
peoid races, and one or two transitional types. IArkho suggested
immediate standardization of these definitions. Wherever craniometric
studies were possible, the results conformed to a remarkable degree
with those obtained on the living.
Provisionally, the zone of the original formation of Turkish lan-
guages appears to have been peopled by both Mongoloids and dolicho-
cephalic Europeans.
On the basis of existing data, the modern Turks may be considered
neither as belonging to a homogeneous race, nor as originating from
a single racial base. This does not contradict the results obtained by
Oshanin and IArkho, substantiated by the paleoanthropological finds
of Debets, showing the contemporaneity of Mongoloid complexes with
definite historical groupings and stratifications of the Turks in Central
Asia and South Russia (e.g., the Polovtsy) as well as the connection
found by Debets between the ancient Turkish elements in the Chu-
vash langauge with the sublapponoid and Mediterranean European
elements.
Physical development.—A regional characterization is complicated
by the lack of data °° and the differences in recording techniques. It
is possible, however, to state that the physical development of the
Turkish tribes varies greatly with the geographic, economic, and social
conditions, all of which have operated for long periods of time to
modify the somatic peculiarities of the inhabitants.
It often happens that racially different groups in a closely similar
environment retain their own peculiar traits, as, for example, the
narrow chests of the Turkomans (Oshanin), while closely related
groups under differing environments show different physical indices.
Among the Chuvashes, Kirghiz, Uzbeks (Libman), and the
Turkomans of North Caucasus ( Vertogradskaia), body temperature,
rate of pulse and respiration, and blood pressure were recorded.
No specific racial peculiarities were disclosed through the study
of blood samples, many of which were collected.
Mestization—Because of the highly mixed character of the Tur-
kish peoples with regard to the races of the first and second orders,
it is possible to utilize the data regarding such tribes for the study
of the problems of mestization.
A special study was undertaken by IArkho during 1924-1925 in
the Oirot and Khakass Autonomous Provinces. Because of the
6 Records of stature, weight, chest circumference, etc., were taken by
members of the former Society for the Study of Soviet Asia and MGU. These
figures are given in table 7, AZH, No. 1, pp. 47-64, 1936.
212 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
insufficiently developed program and the errors of method, the results
are not valid. Nevertheless, the materials collected testify to the
absence of any negative influence of mestization upon the physical
development of the population. The hybrids of Altaians and Kha-
kass with the Russians have the higher physical indices of the
Russians (Belkins and IArkho).
Data regarding the physical development of definitely hybrid
groups (e.g., Uzbeks, Kara-Kalpaks, etc.) demonstrate conclusively
that no decrease of anthropometric indices accompanies mestization.
No materials have yet been published regarding the mechanism
of variability of racial traits in the course of mestization.
Demographic data——The demographic study of the Turkish peoples
was conducted by questioning individual families and economic units.
The following areas were studied under different auspices: The
UNKHU Expedition, the Society for the Study of Soviet Asia, and
the Uzbek Institute of Social Hygiene in the Oirot Autonomous
Province, the Kirghiz S.S.R., Uzbek S.S.R., the Kara-Kalpak A.P.,
the North Caucasus, the Bashkir A.S.S.R., the Karachev A.P., and in
Daghestan; the Institute of Social Hygiene of the R.S.F.S.R. and
the Society for the Study of Soviet Asia in Daghestan; and by the
latter and the Turkoman Institute for Social Hygiene in the Kara-
Kalpak A.P., and the Tatar A.S.S.R.; and the Academy of Sciences
of the U.S.S.R. in the Bashkir, Kazakhstan, and the Yakut A.S.S.R.
In addition, the current official statistical data of the GOSSTATIS-
TIKA were available.
Although the theoretical interpretation of these data is under con-
sideration by Time, Schreiber, and Baronov, the following facts may
now be stated:
a. The presence of a specific demographic structure (age-sex
composition) of many Turkish groups.
b. Relatively high dynamic indices of many groups.
c. Many radical demographic changes, with respect to the longevity,
mortality, marrying age, etc., as a result of improvements in social-
economic conditions.
d. That the peculiarities noted can in no sense be connected with
the racial factors, in so far as the inheritable influences of fertility and
other biodemographic indices are governed by the social-economic
factors.
e. That the gradual numerical decrease of two Turkish peoples,
the Nogais and the Turkomans of North Caucasus, can be explained
by social-economic analysis (IArkho).
f. At the end of the First Five Year Plan the following were the
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 213
unfavorable factors: Early marriages of women resulting in lowered
fertility, high infant and female mortality, lower longevity (in com-
parison with Russians) and general higher mortality of Nogais, Kara-
Kalpaks, Kirghiz, Turkomans, and others. These were doubtless due
to the former low level of social-economic relations, servile status of
women, etc., and are now showing signs of disappearing (IArkho).
The important tables °’ of anthropometric data have been omitted
since the physical anthropologist can have ready access to them should
he so desire.
PALEOANTHROPOLOGY OF THE LOWER VOLGA AREA
In 1930 G. F. Debets ** measured ancient skeletal remains from
various Volga sites preserved in the Museum of the Kuibyshev
[formerly Samara] Society of Archaeology, History and Ethnog-
raphy, the Regional Museum of Saratov, and in the Central Museum
of the Volga-German A.S.S.R. at Engels.
The earliest well-known sites from this area, characterized by a
microlithic industry, belong to a later period than the western stations
yielding geometric forms. Usually associated with these microliths
is pottery of the same type as the Eneolithic sites of the Drevne-
TAmnaia culture.*®
The burials contain flexed, stained skeletons, egg-shaped pottery,
and isolated flint, or, rarely, copper implements. This period is
characterized by the prevalence of hunting and fishing with a slight
development of animal domestication toward the end of the period and
a total absence of agriculture.
According to Debets the crania were not Mongoloid in spite of the
great facial breadth. On the basis of the typical combination of a
low, orthognathous face with low orbits and a highly prominent nose,
Debets considers them to be definitely European. The great per-
centage of slanting foreheads with very strong browridges comparable
97 Tables 1 to 4 include 20 measurements and observations on groups in
Siberia, Central Asia, Caucasus, and Crimea, and the Volga area. The data,
obtained during the past 15 years, are made available here in English for the
first time. See AZH, No. 1, pp. 47-64, 1036.
98 Debets, G. F., Materialy po paleoantropologii SSSR: Nizhnee Povolzhe
[Materials for the paleoanthropology of the U.S.S.R.: Lower Volga area].
AZH, No. 1, pp. 65-81, 1936.
In September 1934 I met G. F. Debets at MGU, where he is the leading
physical anthropologist of the younger generation. He has recorded considerable
anthropometric data among widely scattered groups. His publications are already
extremely valuable. (H. F.)
99 “Culture of the Burying Grounds in Fosses.”
214 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
to Australian crania or [Arkho’s “South Siberian” type is not repre-
sented among modern European races; the Lower Volga series in
this respect may be compared only with the Upper Paleolithic series
from Briinn (Brito) and Predmost in Moravia.
The “Catacomb Burial Period,” succeeding the Drevne-[Amnaia
culture, is characterized by a greater increase in animal domestica-
tion. These burials, almost never found on the left bank of the Volga,
are probably a local form. Only four male crania of this period, from
the Ust-Griaznukha excavations of T. Minaeva near Stalingrad,
were studied. In general, they have both a greater cranial index and
a greater height than the crania of the preceding period associated
with a European facial structure.
Debets mentions that another more numerous group of brachy-
cephalic crania from catacomb burials is known from the Slobodka-
Romanovka tumulus near Odessa, described in 1915 by D. K. Tretia-
kov, who states that “catacomb-building brachycephals are found as
an alien element wedged among the predominantly dolichcephalic
populations.”
The second half of the Bronze Age in the Lower Volga area is
known as “Srubno-Khvalynskaia ”? after P. S. Rykov and V. V.
Holmsten, or “Stage II of gens-society” after A. P. Kruglov and
G. V. Podgaetskii. This culture is characterized by the leading role
of agriculture and the use of domesticated animals.
The skeletal remains differ but slightly from those of the preceding
period. The crania are characterized by straighter foreheads, smaller
browridges, and a somewhat smaller bizygomatic breadth. There was
no apparent connection between the slight change in morphological
characters and local cultural variations so that there was no reason
for supposing that the people of the Srubno-Khvalynskaia culture
came from outside.
Only one female skull from the subsequent period, the so-called
Scythian stage, was available to Debets. This in turn was followed
by the Sarmatian culture (third century B. C—third century A. D.).
Skeletal remains from 17 sites, excavated by Zhuravlev (1), P. D.
Rau (11), and P. S. Rykov (5), were studied by Debets. In 1928
B. Grekov pointed out the similarity between the Volga and the Ural
burials of the Hellenistic period. The later burials, attributed to the
Roman period, are connected with the preceding phase by a series of
minor transitions so that burials from both periods can be considered
as belonging to one “Sarmatian”’ culture, characterized by pastoral
nomadism.
1“TLog-cabin type of burial culture.”
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 215
No anthropometric differences could be observed between Hellenis-
tic and Roman crania. Regionally, however, significant differences
were found between crania from the Volga-German region and the
Astrakhan district. The crania from the former were mesocephalic
and large; from the latter they were brachycephalic and small. While
the general European character of the face is common to the two
periods, the skull differs greatly in breadth and in other characteristics.
Bronze Age dolichocephalic crania were encountered at a much
later period in the Finnish burial grounds of the Middle Volga. This
agrees with the archeological data, which indicate a direct continuity
between the two cultures. The same type of cranium is present in the
“Andronovo” culture burials from the Minusinsk region of western
Siberia. The Sarmatian crania stand much closer to the Andronovo
crania than to those of the Volga Bronze Age. The same type of
cranium was found by M. N. Komarova in burials along the left
tributaries of the Ural River in Kazakhstan.
The brachycephalic Sarmatian crania from the Astrakhan district
differ greatly from those of the Volga Bronze Age. The combination
of brachycephaly with the slanting forehead is nearer to the Mongo-
loid Turkish type on one side, and to the Armenoid skull on the other.
Because of the low facial height and the highly prominent nose, Debets
classified these Sarmatian crania as European; not having sufficient
data to compare them with the proper Armenoid type, he places
them in the Eurasian brachycephalic group, the Pamiro-Alpine. The
Sarmatian brachycephalic crania are also comparable to the round-
headed type of the Catacomb culture, both belonging among Eurasian
brachycephals.
No analysis was possible on the fourth-fifth century Sarmatian
crania, because of the widespread practice of artificial cranial deforma-
tion. Only one late Sarmatian skull, attributed to the seventh-eighth
centuries A. D., was available to Debets. This was of Mongoloid type
with a very high face and a tendency toward dolichocephaly. It is
impossible to state, on the basis of this single specimen, whether the
length of the skull was typical for the given group, as it known that
the dolichocephalic Mongoloids of the Paleo-Siberian type were known
to penetrate into Europe, or whether it was an individual variant or
a case of mestization with some European stock.
During the first half of the present millennium, the Mongoloid South
Siberian type appears in great numbers near the Lower Volga region,
in an almost pure form among the nomads and continuing its existence
among the population of the settlements of the Golden Horde.
Debets gives the following conclusions:
216 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
1. The oldest type is represented by the skeletons of the so-called
Drevne-I[Amnaia culture, attributed to the third millennium B. C.
This type is closely similar to the Upper Paleolithic crania of Western
Europe.
2. The stage of the Catacomb culture, which apparently did not
spread east of the Volga, belongs to the end of the third and to the
beginning of the second millennium B. C. This culture appears to
have penetrated from the west. The typical skull, belonging to the
Eurasian brachycephals, stands most closely to the Dinaric group.
To some degree, this type is also connected with a similar culture in
the Ukraine.
3. The Srubno-Khvalynskaia culture of the late Bronze Age (second
millennium B. C.) in many localities follows directly after the Drevne-
IAmnaia culture; in general, the racial type is close to that of the
preceding period.
4. Crania of the period between the end of the Bronze Age (ninth
century B. C.) and the beginning of the Hellenistic period (third
century B. C.) have not been studied.
5. The prevalent racial type of the Sarmatian culture, during the
Hellenistic and the Roman periods (third century B. C.—third cen-
tury A. D.) came to the Volga area from Kazakhstan ; the crania and
long bones appear to be most closely related to the skeletons of the
Andronovo culture from western Siberia.
6. During the same period there is also found, mainly in the
Astrakhan area, a type belonging to the Eurasian brachycephals,
which may be connected with the type belonging to the Catacomb
culture.
CRANIOLOGY OF THE TATARS OF THE GOLDEN HORDE
Trofimova ? of the Moscow State Museum of Anthropology studied
a series of 35 male crania from two sites of the Golden Horde period
(fourteenth-fifteenth centuries) at Sharinnyi Bugor [hill] and Strelets-
kaia Sloboda settlement, near Astrakhan. These crania, originating
from Vorobievs’ and Lesgaft’s excavations about 1870 are now pre-
served in the Moscow State Museum of Anthropology and in the
Museum of the Anatomical Institute, Kazan. The series of I1 crania
from the Kazan Museum were measured by Debets, the rest by Tro-
fimova. Rudolph Martin’s measurements were used by Trofimova,
2 Trofimova, T. A., Kraniologicheskii ocherk Tatar Zolotoi Ordy [Cranio-
logical outline of the Tatars of the Golden Horde]. AZH, No. 2, pp. 166-192,
1936.
NO. I3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 217
and the range of variation for means as suggested by Bunak was
followed.
This series was brachycephalic (greatest occipital length 176.9;
greatest breadth 145.4), hypsicephalic (height 132.9), and of medium
size, with a medium broad forehead. The skull was often sphenoidal,
although spheroidal and euripentagonoidal forms predominated. The
face was of medium height and breadth; the nose was medium broad
and the orbits of medium height. The slant of the forehead was
medium, the profile orthognathous, with a medium nasal prominence.
In attempting to discover the racial affinities of the series, Tro-
fimova deduced that the facial characteristics were close to the Euro-
pean Armenian (Bunak’s 105 crania) Abkhazian (Trofimova’s 41
crania) and eight “Sarmatians” from Astrakhan (Debets). The
Tatar crania, however, had a less prominent nose and a less-developed
fossa canina, and a relatively large number (28.5 percent) had a fossa
prenasalis type of nasal orifice. No other Mongoloid traits were
present.
In general, the series was considered to belong within the Euro-
peoidal brachycephalic groups, despite the presence of Mongoloid
elements. After examining 24 crania in Moscow Trofimova divided
them into two groups, one showing preponderance of Europeoidal
traits, the other having Mongoloid tendencies. Of the seven crania
classified as Mongoloid, only two were definitely of Mongoloid type;
the others having only certain Mongoloid traits. Several crania of
the European group were of the characteristic European type, the
remainder manifesting a slight Mongoloid admixture.
The cephalic index of the Europeoid group is less than that of the
Mongoloid, while the absolute dimensions of the Mongoloid group
are greater, and the skulls higher. The crania of the Central Asiatic
and the South Siberian types, which may have participated in the
formation of this Tatar group, are also of large absolute dimensions
and relatively low height. On the basis of further analysis, Trofimova
came to the conclusion that the Golden Horde Tatars from Stre-
letskaia Sloboda and Sharinnyi Bugor were a mestized group consist-
ing, basically, of the brachycephalic European and the Mongoloid
types.
In order to determine the component elements of the Golden Horde
Tatars, Trofimova compared them with other brachycephalic crania
of mixed types. For this reason she examined a series of 14 Uzbek
crania from contemporaneous cemeteries of Zolotaia Mulushka near
Samarkand and from Tashkent. Trofimova also examined a series of
41 Abkhazian crania (37 of which had been described in 1879 by
15
218 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
A. A. Tikhomirov and A. P. Bogdanov), and also Bunak’s mea-
surements on Armenians and Croats and Reicher’s measurements on
Danisians.
The Uzbek crania were found to be more dolichocephalic and con-
siderably higher than these Tatars. In general, the main difference
between these two closely related types were the greater cranial,
orbital, and facial heights. Trofimova divided the Uzbek series into
“Europeoidal” and “Mongoloid” groups. IJArkho states that the
Uzbeks are a typical hybrid group resulting from the mixture of the
white and yellow races of the first order. They are typical repre-
sentatives of the Pamiro-Ferghanian racial complex. The Uzbeks
of the nontribal groups have a slight Mongoloid admixture.
According to IArkho the Pamiro-Ferghan complex is character-
ized by “brachycephaly, a short skull, a straight forehead and a straight
or slightly convex nose, an average nasal breadth and an average hair
growth. .. . It is hardly likely that this type belongs in the European
racial cycle; more probably, it is connected with the short-headed
population of Vorderasien and the Caucasus.”
Trofimova assumes, therefore, that the Golden Horde Tatars,
near in type to the Uzbeks, are also a result of the mixture between
the Mongoloid and the brachycephalic European types of the Pamiro-
Ferghan complex.
In order to discover the components of this mestization, Trofimova
also divided the Uzbek group into European (8) and Mongoloid (9)
series of crania.
Trofimova concluded that three component elements were repre-
sented among the Golden Horde crania:
Te HPO peOId yo eicve, vernreie aves, 5 Pamiro—Ferghan group.
2. \Mongoloid tacts ssc ee. a. South Siberian.
b. Central Asiatic.
_ The presence of these elements does not explain the unusual head
length of the European series and the low orbits of the entire group.
These can only be explained by the presence within the group of
another European type, characterized by a long head, and low orbits.
Such a type can only be one of the variants of the Mediterranean race.
The admission of such an element will explain fully the racial com-
position of the Golden Horde Tatars.
Debets also investigated five Golden Horde groups:
1. Davydovka-Augustovka tumuli (Pugachev region): South
Siberian type.
2. Volga-German A.S.S.R. tumuli: South Siberian type.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 219
3. Uvek site: South Siberian type; partly Pamiro-Ferghan, or a
closely related variety of European brachycephalic type.
4. Bukeevskaia steppe: Pamiro-Ferghan of a closely related Euro-
peoidal brachycephalic type with probable Mediterranean admixture.
5. Tiaginka village, near Kherson on the Dnieper: South Siberian.
Trofimova then gives a summary of the pre-Mongol populations of
the Lower Volga:
Earliest known remains are Sarmatian described by P. S. Rykov
and P. D. Rau. Previously considered to be Iranian nomads from
Asia, who began their invasion during the fourth century B. C., the
Sarmatians, according to Marr, Ravdonikas, etc., “were not an ethnic
group, but rather a new stage in the development of society during
the Scythian epoch,” in the regions of the Black Sea steppes (Sauro-
matians) and the Volga. The Sarmatian crania described by Debets ®
are of a brachycephalic type with a medium high face, leptorrhine and
wide prominent nose, definitely European, in spite of the rather great
face breadth. Similar crania were described by Rudenko* from
Prokhorovo tumuli near Orenburg, and by Komarova ® from Bronze
Age sites.
Trofimova also examined seven crania from Chilpek burial ground
near Kara-kol in the Kirghiz A.S.S.R. excavated in 1929 by M. V.
Voevodskii and attributed to the period between the first century B. C.
and the first century A. D. They were compared by Voevodskii with
the “Scythian” crania from Altai, described by Griaznov,® and also
with the nomadic burials from Orenburg steppe excavated by Grekov.
Trofimova found that six of the crania belonged to [Arkho’s Pamiro-
Ferghan type now living in Central Asia; one was close to the Medi-
terranean type; one, while similar to the Pamiro-Ferghan type,
possessed an Armenoid nose and a few similarities with the Medi-
terranean type.
The second series attributed to the Sarmatian period, described
by Debets from the Volga-German A.S.S.R., was of the so-called
Andronovo type.
3 Debets, G., AZH, No. 1, 1936.
4 Rudenko, S. I., Opisanie skeletov iz Prokhorovskikh Kurganov [Description
of skeletons from Prokhorovo tumuli]. Materialy Arkheologii Rossii, No. 37,
1938.
5 Komarova, M. N., Cherepa bronzovoi epokhi iz mogil po levym pritokam
reki Ural [Bronze Age crania from the graves on the left tributaries of the
Ural River], Leningrad, 1927.
6 Griaznov, M. P., Raskopka kniazheskoi mogily na Altae [The excavation
of a prince’s tomb in the Altai] ; Pazyrykskoe kniazheskoe pogrebenie na Altae
[A prince’s burial from Pazyryk, Altai]. Priroda, No. 11, p. 971, 1929.
220 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
When these Sarmatian crania were compared with the European
group of the Golden Horde Tatars, one thousand years later, Tro-
fimova discovered an exceptional degree of similarity between them.
This agrees with the archeological evidence collected by Rykov, who
concludes that the culture of the Sarmatian epoch “grew over into”
the Golden Horde culture in the Lower Volga.
This brachycephalic type is still preserved in Central Asia among
modern inhabitants of Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan.
According to Debets, the dolichocephalic European type, wide-
spread in the steppes of the Ukraine during the Scytho-Sarmatian *
period, is also represented in the Saltovo burials of the eighth and
ninth centuries, variously classified as “Alanic”’ or “Khozarian” ; ®
another type, present in Saltovo,’ were brachycephalic European
crania of Dinaric affinities. It was curious that no Mongoloid crania
were found in this series of “Tatar” burials.
The only Mongoloid South Siberian crania attributed to the Torks
(?) were found in Gorodtsov’s excavations in the Izium and Bakh-
mut regions of the Ukraine. These crania were attributed to the
eleventh century A. D. Debets, who studied this series of 15 crania,
stated that there were 3 European dolichocephalic crania and 4 of the
mixed type.
The only other Mongoloid crania from eastern Europe from any
period are the fourth century A. D. Hun crania from Hungary
described by Bartucz.®
CONCLUSIONS
The Golden Horde Tatars were a strongly mestized group com-
posed of Europeoid and Mongoloid elements. The city-dwellers’
crania from Sharinnyi Hill and Streletskaia Sloboda, as well as those
from Uvek belong mainly to the Pamiro-Ferghan European type.
The Mongoloid element present in the series belongs overwhelmingly
to the South Siberian (Deniker’s “Turkish’’) type. The latter is
typical for the Golden Horde nomad crania from sites in the Pugachev
region and from the Volga-German A.S.S.R., where there appears a
European admixture.
7 Bogdanoy, A. P., O mogilakh skifo sarmatskoi epokhi i o kraniologii skifov
[The tombs of the Scythio-Sarmatian epoch and Scythian craniology]. Antro-
pologicheskaia vystavka, vol. 3, pt. I, p. 263.
8 Debets, G., Cherepa iz Verkhne—Saltovskogo mogilnika [Crania from the
Upper Saltovo burial ground]. Antropologiia, VUAN [now ANU], vol. 4,
Kiev, 1931.
9 Bartucz, Lajos, Uber die anthropologischen Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen
von Moson Szent Janos. SKYTHIKA, vol. 2, Prague, 1929.
NO. I3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 221
The European brachycephalic type of the Lower Volga, of the
foothills of the Urals (“PriUral’e”), western Kazakhstan, and Cen-
tral Asia represents the ancient population of these regions during the
Sarmatian epoch. This type was preserved during the Golden Horde
epoch mainly among the city-dwelling Tatars but still exists among
the Karagash Tatars *° of the Lower Volga region and among various
groups of Central Asia.* It is also probable that IArkho’s Pamiro-
Ferghan type represented among the contemporary Kazakhs ** of the
Altais is also a vestige of this ancient population.
In the light of these materials ** it is possible once more to deduce
that the Mongolian conquest may by no means be regarded as a
significant mass migration, but as merely a military and political
expansion of the Mongolian Empire. According to Barthold **:
“The overwhelming majority of the Mongols returned to Mongolia;
the Mongolians who remained in the conquered land, rapidly lost their
nationality.”
At the time of the partition of the Empire of Genghis Khan among
his heirs, the majority of the Mongolian warriors remained in the
Ugedei Ulus (Mongolia proper) and only 4,000 warriors remained
in the entire territory of Djuchi Ulus including eastern Europe and
the modern territory of Kazakhstan and Khwarazm. Thus, the numer-
ous Mongol troops, mentioned by Plano-Carpini, most probably con-
sisted of subjugated Kipchaks and other eastern European nomadic
tribes. According to Barthold,’* “The formation of the Mongolian
Empire was not accompanied, as in the instance of the German in-
vasion of the Roman provinces, by the migration of the people.”
In the light of the anthropological data it is interesting to note the
10 Based on T. Trofimova’s unpublished data obtained during an MGU Expedi-
tion in 1932.
11 Oshanin, L. V., K sravnitelnoi antropologii etnicheskikh grup prishlykh iz
Perednei Azii [Contribution to the comparative anthropology of ethnic groups
originating in Western Asia]. Materialy antropologii naseleniia Uzbekistana,
No. 1, Tashkent, 19209.
12TArkho, A. I., Kazaki Russkogo Altaia [The Kazakhs of the Russian
Altai]. Severnaia Aziia, Nos. 1/2, p. 76, 1930.
13 TAkubovskii, A., Stolitsa Zolotoi Ordy Sarai Berke [The capital of the
Golden Horde Saiai Berke]. GAIMK, Leningrad, 1932.
14 Barthold, V. V., Istoriia turetsko-monogolskikh narodov [History of the
Turko-Mongolian peoples], p. 17, Tashkent, 1928.
15 Barthold, V. V., Isotoriia kulturnoi zhizni Turkestana [The cultural history
of Turkestan]. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R., Leningrad, 1927, p. 86.
222 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
contemporaneous evidence of the Arabic author Al Umari,'* who
wrote in the beginning of the fourteenth century :
In antiquity this state [the Golden Horde] was the land of the Kipchaks
[Polovtsy] but when it was conquered by Tatars, the Kipchaks became their
subjects. Afterward they [the Tatars] mingled and intermarried with them
[the Kipchaks] and the land prevailed upon their [the Tatars’] natural and
racial qualities, and they all became even as like the Kipchaks as if they were
of the same clan; for the Mongols [Tatars] had settled in the land of the
Kipchaks, intermarried with them, and remained to dwell in their land.
The Mongoloid population of the Golden Horde also had its origin
during the pre-Mongolian period. Thus the presence of South Siberian
and European types, among the Tork subjects of Kiev, and the same
types in Sarkel *” permitted Trofimova to connect the infiltration of
these tribes onto the Caspian-Black Sea steppes with the epoch of
formation of the Pechenegs, and later the Polovetsian (Kipchakian)
feudal-clan unions in Kazakhstan and the eastern European steppes.
The complete absence of the typical Central Asian racial types
among the populations of the Golden Horde, with the possible excep-
tion of Mongoloid admixture in the case of the Sharinnyi Hill crania,
adds probability to this supposition.
Trofimova concludes that the Mongolian conquest, in the course
of which there was formed the new political federation of the Golden
Horde, and which exercised an enormous political and social-eco-
nomic influence upon the conquered areas, apparently did not greatly
change their racial and ethnical composition. The isolated dolicho-
cephalic European elements discovered in the series of the city-
dwellers’ crania from Sharinnyi Hill may belong to either the pre-
Mongolian period, or to the Khazar state with its mixed population.
CRANIOLOGY OF THE KALMYKS
Levin and Trofimova 7° state that the earliest descriptions of single
Kalmyk crania were published in the middle of the eighteenth century
by Fischer, Kamper, and Blumenbakh. A complete bibliography of
16 This is quoted from V. Tizengauzen (W. Tiesenhausen), Sbornik materialov
otnosiashchikhsia k istorii Zolotoi Ordy [Collection of materials for the history
of the Golden Horde], vol. 1, p. 325. St. Petersburg, 1884.
17 Debets, G. F., Chelovecheskie kostiaki iz pogrebenii v Sarkele [Human
skeletons from the Sarkel burials]. [In ms.]
18 Levin, M. G., and Trofimova, T. A., Kalmyki: kraniologicheskii ocherk
[A craniological description of the Kalmyks]. AZH, No. 1, pp. 73-81, 1037.
[English summary.]
NO: I3 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 223
Kalmyk craniology was published by A. A. Ivanovskii,*® who also
described a large series of crania.
Studies on Kalmyk craniology have been published recently by
M. Reicher *° and N. K. Lyzenkov,** but these investigations were
either published as comparative materials (Reicher) or were based
on an insufficient amount of material (Lyzenkov: 5 male crania.)
The present investigation by Levin and Trofimova is based on a
series of 61 crania in the Museum of Anthropology of Moscow First
University.
A large portion of the series is described for the first time; there
are 21 male and 9 female crania from the Kalmyk cemetery near Bodek
settlement in the Manych area, which were brought to the Museum
in 1925 by members of the Kalmyk Expedition from the State Insti-
tute for Social Hygiene. The remainder, already described by Ivan-
ovskii and Reicher, come from the older collections of the Museum
(11 crania collected by Lesgaft from cemeteries of Astrakhan, Ulus
[nomad community] Khoshutovskii, and Zamianskaia Cossack settle-
ment; and 20 crania collected by Walter and others).
The series of 61 contains 43 male and 18 female crania. The
measurements and descriptions used are those of Rudolph Martin;
the sex was determined cranioscopically. The three series were studied
separately and collectively.
The Kalmyk type is described (pp. 76-77) in the following terms:
Of medium length and relatively great breadth; brachycephalic, bor-
dering on mesocephalic; the head not high; the face long and broad
with a medium facial index; orthognathous; the nose long and not
very prominent with a medium nasal index; the orbits high; and the
forehead medium slanting. The browridges, fossa canina, and spina
spinalis are weakly developed.
In general, the series might be regarded as Mongoloid, only seven
skulls having some Europeoid traits (two from Manych, two col-
lected by Walter, two Astrakhan). In attempting to analyze this
Europeoid element, the author dismisses the possibility of a Russian
admixture and agrees with the conclusions of Cheboksarov,** who
19 Mongoly-Turguty Trudy Antropologich. Otd. IOLEAE, vol. 13, 1893.
20 Untersuchungen fiber Schadelform der alpenlandischen und mongolischen
Brachycephalen. Zeitschr. Morphol. und Anthrop., vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 421-562;
vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 1-64, 1913.
21 Materialy k kraniologii Kalmykov [Craniology of the Kalmyks]. AZH,
Nos. I-2, 1033.
22 Cheboksarov, N. N., Kalmyki Zapadnogo ulusa [The Kalmyks of the
western Ulus (subdivision of a horde)]. AZH, No. 1, 1935.
224 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. I1IO
classified the Europeoid element among his group of western Kalmyks
as being of the western Caucasian mesocephalic type [“‘Pontic race”
after Bunak 7°].
A series of Torgut skulls from Jugar investigated earlier by
Reicher were reexamined by Levin and Trofimova. Although the
Torguts were the principal component of the Kalmyks in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries, no traces of Europeoid admixture
were discovered. From this the authors conclude that Europeoid
elements were absent in the composition of the Central Asian immi-
grants. into the Volga region, who formed the chief component ele-
ment of the Kalmyk people.
Thus, the authors conclude that the Kalmyks acquired these
Europeoid elements after their emigration and during the subsequent
periods of formation of the Kalmyk feudal union on the territory of
the Lower Volga and the North Caucasus. The “Pontic” elements
in this area are found since the Scytho-Sarmatian period,‘ later being
present among the Tatars of the Golden Horde and among the
modern Nogais,?* who were close neighbors of the Kalmyks.
The same Europeoid admixture is also found among the western
Circassians.27. There is also some trustworthy historical testimony
regarding intermarriage between the Kalmyks and the Adighe. Thus,
historical and anthropological data agree.
According to Palmov,?* Shcheglov,?® IArkho,®° and Cheboksarov,
the Kalmyk racial type was strongly affected by intermixture with
the Turkomans [of North Caucasus].
Levin and Trofimova examined ITArkho’s conclusions identifying
the Europeoid element among the Turkomans of the Mangyshlak
Peninsula with a dolichocephalic element present in its purest form
among the lomud Turkomans of Central Asia. They came to the con-
23 Bunak, V. V., Crania Armenica. Moscow, 1927.
24 Debets, G., Materials for the paleoanthropology of the Lower Volga. AZH,
No. 1, 1936:
°5 Trofimova, T. A., Craniological description of the Golden Horde Tatars.
AZH, No. 2, 1936.
26 Molkov, A. V., Kalmyki [Kalmyks]. Moscow, 10928.
27 Levin, V. I., Ethnogeographical distribution of certain racial traits amongst
the populations of North Caucasus. AZH, No. 2, 1932.
28 Palmov, N. N., Studies in the history of Volga Kalmyks. 4 vols. Astrakhan,
1926-1929.
29 Shcheglov, I. A., Turkomans and Nogais in the Government of Stavropol.
Stavropol, ISID.
30 TArkho, A: I., Turkomans of Khoresm [Khwarazm] and North Caucasus.
AZH, Nos. 1-2, 1933.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—-FIELD 225
clusion that this Europeoid element was closer to Bunak’s ‘“Pontic”
type than to the more dolichocephalic, narrower-faced Central Asian
Europeoid type.
The interrelation between the mesocephalic (‘“Pontic”’) and the
dolichocephalic variants of the eastern branch of the Mediterranean
race have not yet been determined. IArkho suggested a connection
between the dolichocephalic Turkoman groups and such dolicho-
cephalic Caucasian groups as the Kurds and Azerbaidzhan Turks,
without, however, making an analysis of the relationships. Although
Cheboksarov differentiated between the mesocephalic component of
the western Circassians and the extremely dolichocephalic type com-
mon among the lomud Turkomans, yet he followed IArkho in seeking
only the latter element among the Turkomans of North Caucasus.
This does not explain the absence of the dolichocephalic type among
the Kalmyks, who were fixed with the Turkomans.
After comparing the Mongoloid elements with other Mongoloid
groups, Levin and Trofimova arrived at the following conclusions :
The average for the series agreed with the measurements of Tannu-
Tuvans from Kemchik, measured by Debets;** the Kalmyks pos-
sessed more slanting foreheads, higher orbits, and slightly more promi-
nent, but narrower, noses. These characters are similar to those of
Buriats from Kudinsk, measured by Debets (loc. cit.), and are gen-
erally common for the South Siberian types (e.g., the Kazakhs) who,
however, are extremely brachycephalic and have very large absolute
cranial dimensions. A similarly strong frontal slant was also found by
Roginskii *? among the Lake Baikal Tungus, who are, however,
extremely dolichocephalic and have flat noses.
On individual evaluation of the crania in the Mongoloid portion
of the series, a group of four aberrant crania was isolated (three from
Manych, one from Lesgaft’s collection from Zamianskaia). These
four crania are dolichocephalic, with very high and wide faces, strongly
slanting foreheads, and medium-prominent (for a Mongoloid group)
noses. Without any doubt these four crania belong to the Paleo-
siberian race represented among the Tungus of Lake Baikal, the
Ostiaks, the Voguls, and the Shortsi.
In the absolute dimensions of the skull and the facial and frontal
characters, the Kalmyks are close to the Tungus. In the majority
81 Debets, G., Craniological description of Tannu-Tuvans. Severnaia Aziia,
Nos. 5-6, 1929.
82 Roginskii, [A., Materials for the anthropology of Tungus of the northern
Lake Baikal area. AZH, No. 3, 1934.
226 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
of the relative dimensions of the skull and in the orbital and nasal
measurements the Kalmyks are close to the Voguls.
Thus the Mongoloid components of the series are limited to the
Central Asiatic and the Paleosiberian, in the larger sense of the word.
These differ from Cheboksarov’s series in the presence of the latter
[ Paleosiberian] and in the absence of the South Siberian type. This
difference may be explained by geographic reasons, since the author’s
data are limited to the central portion of the area inhabited by the
Kalmyks, while Cheboksarov studied the populations of the western
regions, where the Kalmyks were strongly mixed with the Nogais
among whom the South Siberian type is strongly represented (cf.
Trofimova, 1936).
The presence of the dolichocephalic Mongoloid element, discovered
by the authors, may be explained historically. The territory of the
formation of the Oirot feudal union in ancient times formed part of
the Great Hun State.** One of the craniological types of the Huns
described by Bartucz ** was found by Roginskii to be very close to
the Paleosiberian type. The relations of the Oirot Union in the later
period with the more northerly regions could also account for the
introduction of the Paleosiberian type among the Kalmyks.
THE ULCHI (NANI) CRANIAL TYPE
Levin *° of the Institute of Anthropology, Moscow University,
examined 16 male and 11 female crania from Ulchi burials near Ukta,
Mongoli, Dudi, and Kolchom settlements in the Amur region. These
crania, presented to the Museum in 1936 by A. M. Zolotarev, form
the only collection from this area. Golds, Udekhe, Oraks, Negidals,
and Amur Giliaks are nowhere represented in Soviet Museums. The
crania were mesocephalic, being short, narrow, and of medium height.
They had medium slanting foreheads, with weakly developed frontal
bosses. The frontoparietal index was low. The occiput of the majority
of the crania was angular.
The face was high and medium broad, with an index of 55.7. The
nose was high and medium broad, with a mesorrhine index. The
glabella was low. The orbits were high and medium broad, the intra-
33 Takinf, Historical survey of the Oirots or Kalmyks from the fifteenth
century until the present time. Journal of the Ministry of the Interior (Russia),
VOls om ptlepsnsa:
84 Bartucz, Lajos, Uber die anthropologischen Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen
von Moson Szent Janos. SK YTHIKA, vol. 2, Prague, 19209.
35 Levin, M. G., Kraniologicheskii tip ulchei (Nani) [Cranial type of the
Ulchi (Nani)]. AZH, No. 1, pp. 82-90, 1937.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 227
orbital distance being relatively great. The face was orthognathous,
with a slight tendency to alveolar prognathism. The development of
the fossa canina was slight.
The series was not homogeneous, there being a wide range of
variations.
Measurements on the living agreed with the craniological data.
The Ulchi (they call themselves ‘“Nani’”) number only 723 indi-
viduals, according to the 1926 census. They live in the region of the
lower Amur River between the regions occupied by the Giliaks and the
Golds. They are described as a complex of clans of different origin,
consisting of the Gold, the Orochi, the Ainu, the Manchu, and the
Giliak.
Both in language and in culture the Ulchi are related to the Gold,
but they have also been influenced by the Orochi and the Giliak, whom
they most resemble craniologically. However, the Ulchi skulls
possessed a lower cephalic index and a more retreating forehead
than skulls of the Orochi and the Gold. Levin states that even Ainu
admixture, if present, would not be sufficient to explain these differ-
ences, and suggests that the long-headed component of the Gold, who
appear to be related to the North Chinese, may also be present in
the Ulchi.
He also advances the hypothesis that this lower cephalic index
among the Ulchi represents a Paleoasiatic admixture, present among
many groups of the Evenks (Tungus). Recapitulating his characteri-
zation of the Pacific Ocean type of the Mongoloid race, which the
Ulchi resemble, Levin states: ‘““This type, scattered widely among the
peoples of the Amur region, seems to be the basis on which the further
formation of both Paleoasiatics and the Tungus-Manchus proceeded.”
TWO TYPES OF YAKUT CRANIA
A. N. [Uzefovich * states that the presence of two anthropological
types among the Yakuts has been recorded by all investigators since
Middendorff.**
According to A. N. Nikiforov the Yakuts begin a description of a
person by stating whether he has a long or a round face. Mainov **
wrote that a “small percentage of the Yakuts have somewhat different
86 TUzefovich, A. N., Dva tipa IAkutskikh cherepov [Two types of Yakut
crania]. AZH, No. 2, pp. 65-78, 1937.
87 Middendorff, A., Puteshestvie na sever i vostok Sibiri [A voyage to the
north and east of Siberia], pt. 2. St. Petersburg, 1869.
88 Mainov, I. I., Naselenie IAkutii [The population of Yakutia]. Leningrad,
1927.
228 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
facial traits from those of their compatriots. The aquiline nose of such
Yakuts makes them somewhat resemble the American Indians.”
Previous to 1Uzefovich’s report, however, only four Yakut crania
had been described (one uncertain Yakut, by Virchow in Crania
Ethnica, 1882; and three by A. I. Kazantsev in Trudy of the East
Siberian Medical Institute, 1935).
TUzefovich (1937, pp. 65-78) studied 34 crania that the Institute
of Anthropology and Ethnography (IAE) of the Academy of
Sciences of the U.S.S.R. had acquired between 1858 and 1928. Six of
the series belonged to Dolgan Yakuts, who are considered to be
Mongol-speaking Tungus and are treated separately.
From his study of the 28 remaining crania [Uzefovich concluded
that two distinct types actually exist among the Yakuts. He tabu-
lated their characteristics as follows:
Type I Type 2
Brachycephalic. Mesocephalic.
Small cranial height. Great cranial height.
Chamaecephalic. Hypsicephalic.
Tapeinocephalic. Metriacephalic.
Broad-faced. Very broad-faced.
Long-faced. Very long-faced.
Mesoprosopic. Leptoprosopic.
Mesenic. Leptenic.
Hypsiconch. Mesoconch.
Mesorrhine. Leptorrhine.
Chamaestaphyline. Orthostaphyline.
Mesognathous. Orthognathous.
The first group reveals a strong likeness to the Tungus of the North
Baikal region described by Roginskii.
The second group is characterized by feebly expressed Mongoloid
characters. IUzefovich states, however, that this weakness of Mongo-
loid traits cannot be attributed to any Europeoid admixture.
He suggests that two types took part in the formation of the Yakuts,
one of which had also played an important role in the development of
the Tungus physical type.
CRANIOLOGY OF THE OROCHIS OF THE MARITIME AREA
M. G. Levin,®® of the Anthropological Institute of the State Uni-
versity in Moscow, remeasured a series of 19 Orochi crania at the
89 Levin, M. G., Materialy po kraniologii Primorskikh Orochei [Materials
for the craniology of the Orochis from the Maritime Area]. AZH, No. 3,
PP. 323-326, 1936.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 229
State Anthropological Museum which Ranchevskii*® described in
1888. The collection was presented by the eastern Siberian branch of
the Russian Geographical society.
The series consisted of nine male and eight female crania. Two
children’s crania were included.
Levin found the series to be relatively homogeneous. The crania
were short, very wide, and of medium height. The cephalic index
was 84.0. The forehead was straight, not broad, and the supraorbital
region was of medium development. The prevailing skull forms were
sphenoidal and broad-pentagonal. Muscular relief was slight. The
occiput was flattened. The face was high, broad, and orthognathous
(F.I. 52.8) ; the nose, medium (N.I. 46.8) and slightly prominent ;
the orbits, medium high. Horizontal and vertical facial profiles, as
judged from the development of fossae caninae, were weak. Nine out
of seventeen crania possessed a prenasalis.
Six crania had asymetrical occipita. Levin was unable to conclude
whether or not the deformation was artificial, that is, a result of the
use of native cradles.
Three crania had “Inca bones.”
After comparing these crania with those of other peoples of north-
eastern Asia such as Giliaks (Trofimova), Tannu-Tuvans and Kem-
chik (Debets), Buriats and Kudiaks (Debets), Ainu (Trofimova),
Tungus and North Baikal (Roginskii), and Aleuts (Tokareva),
Levin concluded that the Orochis belong to the Central Asiatic variant
of the Mongolian race but that they differed from other representatives
of that type, such as the Tannu-Tuvans, in smaller head length,
greater brachycephaly, and smaller cranial capacity. He therefore
classifies them as belonging to the Pacific Ocean variant of the Central
Asiatic type, to which Debets,** following Montandon,* attributed
the Giliaks, the Aleuts, and the Tlinkits. Levin argues that the Aleuts
differ greatly from the Orochis and the Giliaks in such essential char-
acters as frontal, facial, and nasal angles, cranial height, and bizy-
gomatic breadth. The Orochis and the Giliaks differ in growth of
beard, the Sakhalin Giliaks including a heavy bearded type, which
Debets found also among the so-called Amur Orochi.** Debets was
not of the opinion that this characteristic was due to Ainu admixture.
409 Morskoi sbornik, meditsinskoe pribavlenie, 1888.
41 Debets, G. F., Anthropological composition of the population of Baikal area
in the late Neolithic period. AZH, vol. 19, Nos. 1-2, 1930.
42 Montandon, G., Anthropologie paléosibérienne. L’Anthropologie, Nos. 3-6,
1926.
43 Debets, G. F., Ulchi. AZH, No. 1, 10936.
16
230 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
CRANIOLOGY OF THE ALEUTS
Tokareva ** studied the osteological materials from the excavations
of W. I. Jochelson *° in connection with the Kamchatka Expedition of
the Russian Geographic Society, 1908-1910. Jochelson, who excavated
in the Aleutian Islands during 1909 and 1g10, found 78 crania, 19
skeletons, and 617 bones in burial caves on the islands of Attu, Atka,
Umnak, Amaknakh, and Uknadakh, and in burial huts on Unimak
Island. Tokareva is now preparing for publication an extensive
monograph on this material.
Tokareva summarizes the theories regarding the origin of the
Aleuts. The early explorers believed them to be immigrants from
Asia: Steller on the basis of some cultural elements, such as head-
dress; Veniaminov (1840), on Aleut traditions. Schrenk classified
the Aleuts as belonging to his Paleoasiatic group of peoples.
Dall was the first of the modern investigators to express the belief
that the Aleuts came from America. He thought them to be of Eskimo
(“Innuit”) origin, but did not base his conclusions on any anthro-
pological evidence beyond recording the extreme variability of the
Aleut crania, ranging from dolichocephalic to brachycephalic. Jochel-
son, while criticizing Dall’s theories regarding Aleut prehistory,
shared his ideas concerning the American origin of the Aleuts.
According to his conception of the history of the peoples of North
America and Asia, the Paleoasiatic tribes of northeastern Asia (Chuk-
chi, Koriaks, Kamchadals) are an Americanoid branch, closely con-
nected culturally with the tribes of northwestern America.
According to Jochelson all these tribes represent the remains of
an ancient cultural layer, the unity of which was disrupted at a definite
period by the intrusion of a new ethnic group, the Eskimo. Consti-
tuting the apex of the Eskimo wedge, which divided the autochthonous
population into an American and an Asiatic group, were the Aleuts.
According to Tokareva, Jochelson did not give adequate attention
to the racial peculiarities of the Aleuts. Jochelson *® pointed out the
existence of a series of sharp differences between the Aleut and the
Eskimo type (brachycephaly), and suggested that these differences
44 Tokareva, T. IA. (State Museum of Anthropology, Moscow), Materialy po
kraniologii aleutov [Materials for Aleut craniology]. AZH, No. 1, pp. 57-71,
1937.
45 Archaeological investigations in the Aleutian Islands. Carnegie Institution
of Washington, 1925; History, ethnology and anthropology of the Aleut.
Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933.
46 Jochelson, W. I., History, ethnology and anthropology of the Aleut.
Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1933.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 231
could be explained either as a result of mestization with a highly
brachycephalic group (Athabaskan Indian), or in the course of local
development under conditions of isolation.
L. S. Berg also shares Jochelson’s views regarding the American
origin of the Aleuts, without, however, touching upon the anthro-
pological affinities.
Hrdlitka has stated that the Aleuts belong to the Eskimo stock
and has explained their physical differences from the Eskimos, par-
ticularly their brachycephaly, as the result of mestization with the
Athabaskans. He bases this explanation on the postulate of a southerly
migration of Eskimos from Alaska to the Aleutian Islands.
Montandon,*? working with extremely limited material, connects
the Aleuts with the Giliaks, and unites them into the “Aleut-Giliak
type,” a branch of the greater Mongoloid race. Biasutti shares this
view, terming this branch “Aleutian.”
Tokareva selected for investigation 32 male and 22 female crania,
and 5 crania segregated into a special group as not typically Aleutian.
This number of crania may be deemed sufficient for study, since the
total number of Aleuts in 1937 was only about 2,000.
Jochelson attributed these crania to the period prior to the Russian
invasion, i.e., during the middle of the eighteenth century. This
eliminates the possibility of Russian admixture.
The age groups represented were as follows: 28 adult, 1 mature,
and 3 subadult males; and 12 adult, 7 mature, and 3 subadult females.
Measurements were taken according to Rudolf Martin’s technique.
Neither artificial cranial deformation nor pronounced cranial
asymmetry was observed. Three crania were affected by syphilis.
Preliminary examination revealed a group of five crania (three
male, one female, one child) that differ sharply from the rest. As
compared with the rest of the series, these crania have a straight
forehead, a greater head height, a greater facial angle, and a lower
face.
The extremely homogeneous male series of the main group, con-
sisting of the 32 typical crania, has been described. These crania are
medium in size, length (181.0), and breadth (146.57). The head
height is exceptionally small, 127.05 (range 116-139).
A characteristic feature is the slanting forehead (66.2°) with a
medium-developed browridge (1.52) and a well-developed glabella.
The form of the head is subbrachycranial, while the pentagonal out-
line predominates. The bizygomatic breadth is 143.44 (range 137-
47 Montandon, Georges, Craniologie paléosibérienne. L’Anthropologie, 1026.
232 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
153). The upper facial height is medium to high, 72.14 (range 65-
81). The facial index of 51.57 (range 46.5-56.5) is mesoprosopic.
The facial angle of 83.04 (range 76-90) is mesognathous. The facial
form is elliptical, with medium-developed (1.84) fossa canina. The
nasal index of 45.4 (range 35.5-53.4) is mesorrhine with a medium-
developed nasal bone. The orbital height is above medium but tends
toward being mesoconch.
The female crania are of smaller dimensions, both as to size and
facial measurements. They are more brachycephalic, the frontal angle
being smaller. The face is more protruding. The glabella, brow-
ridges, and fossa canina are less developed.
After comparing Aleut measurements with the scheme proposed
by Debets for Mongoloid, Europeoid, and Australoid (after Morant)
races, Tokareva concludes that the Aleuts belong to the Mongoloid
group, having neither Europeoid nor Australoid traits. Tokareva
then compares the Aleuts with the racial groups of the second order,
beginning with the Eskimo.
According to Jochelson,*® the Aleutian langauge originates from a
source common to all Eskimo dialects, and in all probability repre-
sents by itself one of the most ancient Eskimo dialects. The culture
of the Aleuts is very close to that of the Eskimo. According to Toka-
reva there is, however, very little in common between their physical
traits.
According to Jenness *® the Eskimos are characterized by a rela-
tively high skull, considerable dolichocephaly accompanied by a
broad face, an exceptionally narrow nose and large cranial capacity.
In all these traits the Eskimo skulls sharply differ from the average
Aleut cranium.
There exists a much greater degree of similarity when Aleut crania
are compared with those of the Tlinkits of northwestern America.
The two series are very close together in size, bizygomatic breadth,
facial height and index, and frontal angle. The main difference con-
sists in Tlinkit crania having a greater head height and in being more
brachycephalic. In head length and breadth as well as in facial and
orbital indices both Aleut and Tlinkit crania resemble Hrdlicka’s °°
“mixed” group of Alaska.
Tokareva then compares the Aleut measurements with the cranial
48 Jochelson, W. I., Unanganic (Aleutian) language, the language and writing
of the northern peoples, pt. 2, 1934.
49 Jenness, Diamond, The American aborigines, Toronto, 1933.
50 Hrdlicka, Ales, Catalogue of human crania in the United States National
Museum collections. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 63, art. 12, 1924.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 233
measurements of other groups: Lake Baikal Neolithic Type A,"
Tungus,* Tlinkits,°* Chukchi (Hrdli¢ka), Eskimo of Alaska (Hrd-
licka), Giliaks (Trofimova), Ainu,®* Tuvinians,®* and the Telengets
(Bunak).
The Telengets have only the frontal angle and the facial height in
common with the Aleuts. The Tannu-Tuvans, representing the
Central Asian variety, have a much straighter forehead, a higher skull,
a greater degree of brachycephaly, a higher face, a smaller bizygomatic
breadth, and a narrower nose. The Aleuts, therefore, cannot be in-
cluded in either of the two basic Mongoloid races of Siberia.
When the Aleuts are compared with the Giliaks (whom Montandon
considered to belong to one race), it is found that the two types differ
greatly ; that the Giliak skulls are higher, more brachycephalic, possess
straighter noses, greater facial angles, and broader faces than the
Aleuts.
The Chukchis also differ from the Aleuts, having a smaller cephalic
index, greater skull capacity, higher face, higher orbits, and a smaller
bizygomatic breadth.
The Ainu has a straighter forehead, smaller facial height and
breadth, and is more dolichocephalic.
The most amazing fact in connection with the determination of the
racial affinities of the Aleuts was the discovery of their indubitable
similarity in a number of traits with the populations of Lake Baikal
area, particularly with the Tungus described by Roginskii. Both the
Tungus and the Aleuts have exceedingly low skulls. According to
Roginskii “The trans-Baikal Tungus are apparently one of the lowest-
headed groups in the world.”” However, the Aleut skull is still lower
than the Tungus (Tungus, 129.6; Aleuts, 127.75). Both these
groups have great similarity in the frontal angle, in the orbital and
nasal indices, and in the bizygomatic breadth. The facial index of the
Aleuts is but slightly less than that of the Tungus, the latter possessing
a slightly greater facial height.
The only differences between these two groups are the greater head
51 Debets, G., Anthropological composition of the population of Baikal area in
the late Neolithic period. AZH, Nos. 1-2, 1930.
52 Roginskii, IA., Materialy po antropologii tungusov severnogo Pribaikalia
[Materials for the anthropology of the Tungus of the northern Baikal area].
AZH, No. 3, 1934.
53 Fridolin, Amerikanische Schadel, Arch. Anthrop., 1898.
54 Trofimova, K Ainskoi probleme [A contribution to the Ainu problem].
AZH, No. 2, 1932.
55 Debets, G., Kraniologicheskii tip Tannu-Tuvintsey [The craniological type
of the Tannu-Tuvans]. Sovetskaia Aziia, Nos. 5-6, 1930.
234 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
length of the Tungus, resulting in their dolichocephaly, and the
greater facial angle.
A closely comparable type was found by G. F. Debets in the Neo-
lithic sites of the Baikal area.** This is the so-called Neolithic “Type
A” which almost coincides with the contemporary Tungus type of this
region. The similarity to the Aleuts of the “Type A” skulls includes
also the pentagonal form of the skull, of the lower border of the
apertura pyriformis, and of the fossa prenasalis.
The main differences between these Neolithic and Aleut crania are
the same as between the latter and the Tungus, the greater head length
resulting in the accentuated degree of dolichocephaly of the Neolithic
crania.
Trofimova compared the female Aleut skulls with six Asiatic
groups.
CONCLUSIONS
The Aleut series of crania is of an unusually homogeneous character,
disrupted only by the series of five skulls with straight foreheads.
Tokareva omits them on the basis of archeological evidence, con-
cluding that they were very late arrivals (white color of crania present
only in the higher strata at Atka Island).
A homogeneity of the main series then testifies to the absence of
alien admixtures in the population of the Aleutian Islands during
pre-Russian periods.
Tokareva quotes JArkho ** and also Dubinin and Romashek °° in
support of the role of isolation as a factor “conditioning the develop-
ment of the racial type of the Aleuts along a specific path, and stimu-
lating the emergence of their distinguishing somatic characteristics.”
Tokareva, while disagreeing both with the theory of the origin
of Aleuts through mestization as proposed by Hrdlicka and with that
of Montandon about their kinship to the Giliaks, believes that the
Neolithic type is still preserved among the Aleuts, having been
modified as a direct result of island isolation.
The origin of the brachycephaly is due to genetic-automatic
processes.
56 See also Hrdlicka’s “Crania of Siberia.”
57 TArkho, A. I., Ocherednye zadachi sovetskogo rasovedeniia [The problems
before Soviet race science]. AZH, No. 3, 1934.
58 Dubinin and Romashek, Geneticheskoe stroenie vida i ego evoliutsiia [The
genetic structure of the species and its evolution]. Biologicheskii Zhurnal, Nos.
5-6, 1932.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 235
ORIGIN OF THE MONGOL
Roginskii °° begins his study of the origin of the Mongol by giving
a brief review of the literature.
In 1927 Hrdlicka °° expressed the supposition that modern man
originated in the Neanderthal type. Later, Bartucz * pointed out the
remarkable similarity between the skeletal type from the Hun burials
of the fourth and fifth centuries and the dolichocephalic variety of the
Tungus, on the one hand, and Neanderthal man, on the other. More
recently, Weidenreich © stated the opinion that Sinanthropus pos-
sessed certain Mongoloid traits.
In an attempt to solve these problems, Roginskii * studied anthro-
pometric data on the dolichocephalic peoples of Siberia, particularly
the Tungus. In the Anthropological Institute of the University of
Moscow he examined the mandibles and teeth of the Ulchi crania
(cf. M. G. Levin) collected by A. M. Zolotarev in the Amur region
in 1936, and of the Ostiak crania collected by D. T. [Anovich near
Obdorsk in 1911. He also made a study of the geographic localization
of some of the Mongol characters in eastern Asia and of the intra-
group correlations between them. As a result he came to the following
conclusions concerning the origin of the Mongol type.
A comparison of physical characters of modern Mongoloid peoples
in Siberia with those of Homo neanderthalensis revealed such differ-
ences as absence of the torus superciliaris, general weakness of the
supraorbital crest, small dimensions of the molar pulp, and develop-
ment of the chin. On the other hand, modern Mongols were found to
resemble the Neanderthal type in their retreating forehead, very high
mean height index, a slight development of the fossa canina, and large
dimensions of the mandible.
Archeological evidence from the Neolithic and later periods indi-
cates that the geographic area inhabited by the Mongol race was
considerably smaller than it is today.
59 Roginskii, IA., Problema proiskhozhdeniia mongolskogo rasovogo tipa
[The problem of the origin of the Mongol racial type]. AZH, No. 2, pp. 43-64,
1937.
60 Hrdlicka, AleS, in Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1928.
*1 Bartucz, Lajos, Moson Szent Janos, Seminar. Kondakovianum, Prague,
1929.
62 Weidenreich, Franz, Peking Natural History Bulletin, vol. 10, pt. 4, 1936.
63 Roginskii, IA., Materialy po antropologii tungusov severnogo Pribaikalia
{Materials for the anthropology of the Tungus of the northern Baikal area).
AZH, No. 3, 1934.
236 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
ORIGIN OF THE ESKIMO
Basing his opinion on the new evidence from Point Barrow, north-
western Alaska, the Bering Sea region, St. Lawrence Island, and
other sites excavated by Collins, Zolotarev ** accepts Mathiassen’s
views, in preference to those of Birket-Smith, regarding the origin of
the Eskimo. From his study of the archeological materials he arrives
at the following conclusions:
The most ancient proto-Eskimo culture is that of the Bering Sea.
The archeological characteristics of this culture are distinct, although
it is impossible at present to draw any conclusions regarding its social
and economic status.
This culture came to the area of Bering Strait from the west, most
probably progressing along the Arctic coast of Siberia. The art
preserves a strong Paleolithic tradition, but the degree of its material
production does not attain the level of fully developed Neolithic. It
is very tempting to connect this culture with the ancient culture of
the [Amal Peninsula. An assumption to this effect would find support
in the close relation of the Samoyed and the Eskimo languages.
The theory of the Asiatic origin of the Eskimo receives a firm
foundation in this new archeological evidence.
Having reached America during the stage of the “Bering Sea
Culture,” the ancestors of the Eskimo migrated eastward along the
Arctic shore of America. There they formed the Thule culture, out
of which developed the modern cultures of the Central, Polar, and
Greenland Eskimos.
The culture of the contemporary Eskimos of Alaska was formed
from the Bering Sea Culture. Having passed the Punuk stage, it was
possibly affected by influences connected with the reverse movement
of some of the Thule groups.
Examining the anthropological evidence,® Zolotarev draws further
conclusions. The most ancient Eskimo type, homogeneous in the
main, is dolichocephalic, with a high carinate skull. This type ob-
viously came from Asia.
This type was displaced in Alaska in relatively recent times by tall
brachycephals approaching the Paleoasiatic type.
Recognition of the dolichocephal as the most ancient Eskimo type
64 Zolotarev, A. M., K voprosu o proiskhozhdenii Eskimosovy [On the origin
of the Eskimo]. AZH, No. 1, pp. 47-56, 1937.
65 Cf, Hrdlicka, Ales, Anthropological survey in Alaska, 46th Ann. Rep. Bur.
Amer. Ethnol., 1930; and Melanesians and Australians and the peopling of
America, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 94, No. 11, 1935. Also Diamond Jenness,
The American Aborigines. Toronto, 1033.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 237
once more poses the problem of the connection of the Eskimo with
the dolichocephalic populations of the Upper Paleolithic period. Preser-
vation of the Paleolithic tradition in Eskimo art permits the formula-
tion of a hypothesis according to which the ancestors of the Eskimo
were in the van of the northward movement of South Siberian popu-
lations, beginning at the end of the Paleolithic and the beginning of
the Neolithic period.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE TIBIA
Zenkevich,** of the Section on Human Morphology and Genetics
at the Anthropological Institute of the State University of Moscow,
studied 56 tibiae belonging to middle-aged males who died from acci-
dents. Zenkevich established the absence of any correlation between
the form of the bone and its chemical composition. At the same time
the correlation between massiveness, i.e., the ratio of the circumfer-
ence measured in the middle of the shaft to the length of the bone,
and chemical composition was significant. The more massive bones
contained a lesser quantity of inorganic components (especially
calcium) and more water and organic components (especially fat)
than the smaller bones. The more massive bones were somewhat
flatter in cross section.
HEAD FORM AND GROWTH IN UTERO
Madame Shilova,” of the Second Medical Institute in Leningrad,
studied 725 human embryos and fetuses. She recorded a constant
rise in cephalic index during the whole uterine life, there being a slight
fall only after parturition. In 339 of 725 cases (56.2 percent) the
child was brachycephalic (C.I. 80.0-84.9) at birth.
Shilova concludes that during uterine life the cranium passes from
dolichocephalic to brachycephalic, that is, it undergoes the same
changes as have the heads of the human race in general during the
last millennium.
She points out the following details of this change: During the
®6 Zenkevich, R. IL., K voprosu o faktorakh formoobrazovaniia dlinykh kostei
chelovecheskogo skeleta, I. Variatsii formy secheniia bolshoi bertsovoi kosti v
sviazi s udelnym vesom i khimicheskim sostavom kosti [On the factors of
formation of long bones in the human skeleton, I. The variations of the form
of cross section of the tibia and its specific gravity and chemical composition].
AZH, No. 1, pp. 26-46, 1937.
87 Shilova, A. V., Materialy o formie golovy i roste v utrobnoi zhizni
[Materials on the form of the head and growth during uterine life]. AZH,
No. I, pp. 3-25, 1937.
238 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
first 3 months the cephalic index constantly increases, the prevalent
skull form during this period being mesocephalic. From the fourth to
the tenth month the index varies slightly, brachycephaly prevailing.
The index decreases during the tenth month, as a result of parturition.
The fluctuation of cephalic index in different embryos may vary
greatly in point of time. This is true with twins in the majority of
cases.
In no instance does head breadth exceed head length. The curves
of the absolute length and breadth are very similar to the curves of
their absolute growth, by month. Head length increases more than
head breadth up to and including the fifth month, which shows the
greatest difference in increase of any month.
A definite periodicity governs the absolute increase of length and
breadth of head, as well as length of body and leg. Up to the fifth
month there is successively greater increase; from the sixth to the
ninth month the increase fluctuates; the pre-parturient period is
characterized by a sharp rise.
Sex dimorphism is clearly expressed. The cephalic index of girls
in utero is lower than that of boys except during the last 2 months,
when that of girls becomes greater. In general, newborn girls are more
brachycephalic than boys. During the first half of uterine develop-
ment girls surpass boys in their growth. The growth of all their
dimensions is more evenly distributed between the two halves of
uterine life than is that of boys, whose growth is shifted more to the
second half.
A: STUDY OF -BLOOD ‘GROUPS IN THE CAUCASUS ®
Anthropological study of blood groups in Georgia was begun in
1925 by the Hematological Department of the Georgian Bacterio-
logical Institute. The blood groups of all patients in the Hemato-
logical and Wassermann Departments were recorded, together with
data regarding sex, age, and nationality.
One thousand measurements disclosed tentatively the prevalence
of Group I (O) among the Georgians and of Group II (A) among
the Armenians. The extreme western and eastern groups represented
the maximum range of brachycephaly and dark pigmentation. The
highest degree of both was found in the east, the lowest in the west.
68 Semenovskaia, E. M., Izuchenie grup krovi narodov Kavkaza [Study of
blood groups in the Caucasus]. Sovetskaia Etnografiia, Nos. 4-5, pp. 213-215,
1936.
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 239
Group II (A) became proportionately more rare toward the west,
while Group I (O) increased in frequency.”
In 1929 the editorial office of the “Problems of Biology and Path-
ology of Jews” sponsored a study of the blood groups of Georgian
and Persian Jews. The material was collected in Tbilisi and Kutaisi.
Altogether 3,409 examinations were made on various Georgian tribes
and 1,422 on Jews. The four blood groups were normally represented,
while the distribution of percentages was similar for Georgian and
Persian Jews and for Romanian, Balkan, Russian, and Polish Jews.
Blood groups of the Jews did not correspond to blood groups of the
Georgian tribes. This was explained by the absence of interbreeding
between the two peoples, owing to religious handicaps. On the other
hand, Dzhavachishvili *° states that the Georgian Jews are anthropo-
logically a metamorphic Georgian group, who have for many centuries
lived alongside the Georgians and adopted their language.
In 1930 an article ** on the blood groups of Georgians appeared.
On the basis of more than 6,000 examinations, it was discovered
that Group I (O) predominated in the west, while Groups II (A)
and IV (AB) were rarely present. Percentages for Group II (A)
increased strongly to the east, together with those for Group III (B),
owing to the influence of Armenians, 50 percent of whom belong to
Group II (A), and the influence, especially in the east, of Mongoloid
elements. Not all the peoples of the Caucasus have been examined,
owing to the inaccessibility of many of the mountain tribes. A number
of expeditions now in progress are expected to complete the survey.
In 1930 Dr. Ukleba conducted an expedition to Svanetia for the
First Clinical Institute of Georgia, Tbilisi. Five hundred and seven
measurements were taken, and it was discovered, strangely enough,
that percentages for Group I (QO) increased in the more mountainous
regions.
In 1932 Dr. Kvirkelia, a member of an expedition led by Professor
Machavariani, collected materials among the Adzhars, Gurians who
have been Islamized. The distribution of blood groups was found
to be typical for western Georgia, with an increase of Groups II (A)
and III (B) in the regions nearest the Turkish frontier.
69 Cf. AZH, vol. 15, Nos. 3-4.
70 Ost-Rundschau, No. 9, 1930, and Problems of Biology and Pathology of
Jews, No. 3, pt. 1, Leningrad, 1930.
71 Ukrainisches Zentralblatt fir Blutgruppenforschung, vol. 4, pt. 4, 1930.
240 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
Blood groups (from Semenovskaia)*
Peoples Individuals
NZ ATS aie rapier hertyolersiere cee 700
Svanetians ..... ey cl ume 507
Ming reliansuaniecry cine 519
IM enetianSi scecraswecieee 663
Wechkiaim'See ses settee. 20
Guriansgee en ys ait 265
IRachin setter ta ctealeon eres: 183
Kartaliniansp eaaeermeiee. 611
Kakhetiansy meeicraricciorcs 480
Khe VvSUns Meson tere one 2
MOG AS care bear cosrotertetomieten: 7
Thushinsy2e ack es coerce eet 6
Wezohiansiuee secreted steels I
Daghestan mountaineers... I
@hechens yeti semras voce 4
Osetes-sé os comet eke eee 142
Geofgian Jews 25sec. 5. 1239
Rersianwewsserneeuerricnc 127
European (Jews... secs--% 95
NSSYSIAUS: Teleac ccsiee wievetis 6
Armenianstactesenaietiee teter 906
Russiansy (sie cencets es sees 315
(ROLES Bar ere comerce cus abet tsicvens 14
Wilereahabrelins "eooboqsonocec I
Wonnigernca: ho sol oe eure sake 2
Histhonianse eric eter I
Enelisint.2...cattee epee I
Firenchips ep icca cee eyetreicters 2
Germans: acer: 15
Watviansy eee ceili 2
eithivantans ie eter ele 3
Greeksivyucene eects 19
GyPSte Stier sata eperstensorteraie: 2
Ghinese) Aececeseece cere: I
I (O)
51.57
56.21
54-72
50.52
II
51.31
40.43
41.72
36.19
4
3
I
I
2
38.02
26.05
20.49
25.20
I
28.80
31.42
6
ss we UN
13
I
II (A)
36.57
34.91
32.75
35-14
6
36.98
37.70
40.59
42.74
4
2
3
41.14
43.09
47-57
48.42
51.76
38.41
w
Oe NY Ow RH HH HH
VOL. IIO
Tr CB), EVE CAB)
5.71 0.15
6.90 1.97
8.48 4.04
10.86 3.47
3
9.81 1.88
17.48 4.37
51.29 6.38
10.15 4.9
2
2
I
15.49 6.33
19.12 10.73
23.62 8.05
20.01 6.31
2
10.81 8.6
17.79 12.38
3 2
I
I I
I
I
2
* Figures in italics are percentages. Note errata in Khevsur, Komi, and Latvian groups.
On the basis of 3,775 examinations on Georgians, the following
percentages were obtained :
Group
I @)
II (A)
PIS GB)
IV (AB)
Percent
50.32
36.31
10.33
3.02
The formula for the groups was O>A>B. Among the Kakhetians
A>O>B was particularly characteristic. This ratio was also noted
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 241
as present among the Armenians, Osetes, and Georgian Jews. Among
the more easterly groups the percentage of Group III (B) also
increased, and it was particularly high among the western Georgians
and Imeretians. It reached 15 percent in the Shorap region, through
which the high mountain road passed, and among the Rachins, east
Georgian people who were pushed westward.
In spite of the position of the Caucasus between Asia and Europe,
neither the Georgians nor the Armenians were found to belong to the
intermediate serological type, both being generally classed among
the European peoples. A tendency toward the Pacific type was noted
in western Georgia. The Armenians and the Georgian Jews showed
a greater percentage of A than O groups. The Turks alone could be
considered as an intermediary type, owing to the admixture of Mongo-
loid elements.
Blood grouping *? was continued during 1936 by the Tiflis [now
Tbilisi] Branch of the Russian Institute for Blood Transfusion and
by various medical expeditions in Georgia.
ISOAGGLUTINATION OF THE TURKOMANS
Ginzburg ** studied blood samples from 562 Turkomans of various
regions, which he collected during an expedition in 1936 under the
sponsorship of the Anthropological Institute of Moscow State Uni-
versity.
This expedition investigated two of the three large, historically
known groups of Turkomans: the eastern Turkomans, seventeenth-
century settlers along the middle course of the Amu River, in the
Chardzhui and Kerkin regions of the former Khanate of Bukhara,
now forming the eastern portion of the Turkoman S.S.R.; and the
Transcaspian Turkomans of the region between the Caspian Sea and
the Amu. The Transcaspian Turkomans were divided into a central
group, dwelling along the Murgab and Tedzhen Rivers, and a western
group, living near Ashkhabad and farther to the west.
A third large group, located in the former Tashauz region of the
Khanate of Khiva (now the northerly section of the Turkoman
72 During 1936-1938 the Anthropological Section of IAE obtained copies of
individual measurements described in this article. Other materials have been
forwarded from the Central Blood Transfusion Institute, Tbilisi, and from
Dr. V. N. Chuprinin, of that city. At the present time the Anthropological
Section has 16,000 catalog cards of individual blood measurements from the
Caucasus. This collection is increasing rapidly.
78 Ginzburg, V. V., Izogemoaggliutinatsiia u Turkmen [Isoagglutination of
Turkomans]. AZH, No. 2, pp. 79-82, 1937.
242 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
S.S.R.), had been studied by an expedition under the leadership of
TArkho,’* who also collected blood samples.
From his own data and those of the other investigators, Ginzburg
draws the following conclusions:
Group A is predominant over group B in all districts, the general
formula being A>O>B. The ratios of blood groups among Turko-
mans of different tribes and different geographic areas are relatively
similar. Group B increases slightly toward the east, Group A toward
the west. In spite of great tribal and clan isolation and unceasing in-
tertribal feuds supported by the chiefs, contact exists between various
groups. The wide expanse of territory does not, apparently, present
any obstacle to intercourse among separate tribes ; wives are purchased
from other districts, strangers are received into the clans, and slaves
are captured during raids.
It is not possible to determine race from a study of blood groups,
as the direction of variability does not always coincide with that of
physical type. This study is of value, however, for ascertaining the
degree of isolation of given tribes or populations of given territories.
THE TARDENOISIAN SKELETON FROM FATMA-KOBA, CRIMEA 75
In 1927 S. N. Bibikov and S. A. Trusov conducted a preliminary
sounding in the Fatma-Koba rock shelter in Baidar Valley, 3 kilo-
meters northwest of Urkusta, between Sevastopol and Yalta.
There, in a specially dug pit, they discovered the Tardenoisian
skeleton, which G. A. Bonch-Osmolovskii *® excavated during the
same year and reported in a preliminary account of the excavations.
The burial was removed in a block to Leningrad, where it is on
exhibit 7 in the Geological Museum of the Academy of Sciences.
The skull, which had been shattered, was reassembled, and the other-
74 TArkho, A. I., Turkmeny Khorezma i Severnogo Kavkaza [The Turkomans
of Khoresm [Khwarazm] and of North Caucasus]. AZH, Nos. 1-2, 1933.
75 This section is translated and summarized from the article by G. F. Debets,
Tardenuazskii kostiak iz navesa Fatma-Koba v Krymu [Tardenoisian skeleton
from Fatma-Koba rock shelter, Crimea]. AZH, No. 2, pp. 144-165, 1936.
76 Bonch-Osmolovskii, G. A., Itogi izucheniia krymskogo paleolita [Results
of the excavations of the Crimean Paleolithic period]. Trudy, First INQUA
Conference, Fasc. 5, 1934.
77] saw this skeleton on October 17, 1934. My scanty notes do not differ
from Debet’s observations. The artifacts appeared to belong unquestionably to
the transitional period. A monograph has been written on the Fatma-Koba
skeleton, which I examined in Leningrad on July 2, 1946. Mrs. David Huxley
has translated the French summary of the detailed study of the hands of this
skeleton by Bonch-Osmolovskii. (H. F.)
NO. 13 SOVIET ANTHROPOLOGY—FIELD 243
wise well-preserved skeleton has been left in the position in which
it was found, the right side partly embedded in the earth. Only the
left arm and leg bones and the skull could be examined.
The skeleton was flexed; the head pointed south-southeast. It was
covered with large stones. Debets expresses the opinion that the
highly flexed position may indicate that the corpse had been ham-
strung.
The pit, lying under two unbroken strata containing implements
of Upper Tardenoisian type, was dug in another stratum containing
the same type of implements. No artifacts were found, however, in
direct association with the skeleton. In the underlying stratum a
hearth was associated with implements of the Shan-Koba type (Azilian
stage). Debets concludes that the stratum containing the skeleton
and the uppermost cultural deposit belong to about the same period,
a late facies of the Tardenoisian stage.
He suggests that the skeleton was that of a man approximately
40 years of age. The sutures of the skull were open except for a slight
obliteration of the sagittal suture. A few teeth were well worn, but
caries was absent. The enamel remained only on the crown of the
molars and the incisors were approximately half eroded.
Debets records almost 200 measurements on the skull and skeleton.
He states that the Fatma-Koba skeleton has all the characteristics of
Homo sapiens. The full development of a large number of traits dis-
tinguish it from Homo neanderthalensis.
Debets enumerates the following points in which this skeleton
differs from the Neanderthal type: cranial height, slant and convexity
of forehead, development of browridges, occipital projection, slant of
the main portion of the occipital bone, facial height, breadth of the
ascending ramus, size of teeth, condylo-diaphysial angle of the
humerus, bowing of the radius, platyenemic index, bowing of the
femur, popliteal index, retroversion of the tibia, and tibio-femoral
index. The chin and fossa canina were moderately developed. Prog-
nathism was present but within the range of Homo sapiens. The situa-
tion of the radial tuberosity in relation to the volar plane, although
not highly characteristic of man, was also within this range.
In a few points concerning massiveness of bones, that is, in the
index of robusticity and the size of the epiphyses of the long bones,
and in the development of muscular attachments, the Fatma-Koba
skeleton resembled Homo neanderthalensis.
The only cranial trait approaching that of Homo neanderthalensis
was the angle of the plane of the foramen magnum.
On account of its low face, pronounced horizontal profile, high
244 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. IIO
glabella, nasal prominence, and broad nasal bones, slightly narrowed
in the middle, Debets classified the Fatma-Koba skeleton as belonging
to the Europeoid racial group. The proportions of the extremities
also approached those of the contemporary Europeoid, with the ex-
ception of the somewhat greater length of the tibia.
Only a moderate degree of general, but not alveolar, mesognathism
differentiates the Fatma-Koba skull from the Europeoid type. Ac-
cording to Debets, the possession of this Negroid characteristic places
this skull in the category of secondary Europeoids with slight Negroid
affinities.
Debets adds that such tendencies are present in the Grimaldi
crania, Combe-Capelle, skull No. 4 from Predmost, skulls from the
Portuguese kitchen middens of Mugem and Cabeco da Arruda, the
child’s skull from Geniére grotto in the Rhone Valley, the Moniat
skull from Belgium, Ostorf Island (Jutland) crania described by
Schlitz ; 78 Chamblande’s skulls from Switzerland, Silesian crania
described by Reche, crania from Conguel described by Herve,
Verneau’s *® two crania from Caverno del Sanguinetto in northern
Italy, and some modern Italian crania.
These traits, according to Debets, are the vestiges of an ancient
stage of development common to all Eurafrican races.
78 Schlitz, A., Die Steinzeitlichen Schadel des grossherzoglichen Museums
Schwerin. Arch. Anthrop., vol. 7, pts. 2-3, 1908.
79 Verneau, R., Les grottes de Grimaldi, vol. 2, pt. 1. Monaco, 1906.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS Vol. 110, No. 13, Pl. 2
GENERAL VIEW OF MZYMTA GORGE FROM AKHSHTYR CAVE, ABKHAZIA
Mrs. S. N. Zamiatnin in foreground.
VIZVHNGY BSAVYD YALHSHHY SGISLNO N3SS3SrF 3 V 84a ONY NINLVIWYZ 'N 'S SYUW ONY “8
2
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7 wy
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