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SMITHSONIAN 


MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 


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‘* EVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES, 
AND EXPERIMENTS PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN.’’—SMITHSON, 


WASHINGTON: 
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 
1862. 


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COPE N TS: 


Advertisement . A : . ; : 3 C z ; ; 


ARTICLE I. On Recent IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CHEMICAL Arts. By 
Pror. JAMES C. Booto and CAMPBELL MorrFit. 1852. 
Pp. 216. 


ARTICLE II. Extracts rrom THE PRocEEpINGS OF THE BoARD oF RE- 
GENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, IN RELATION 
To THE Execrro-Macyetic TELEGRAPH. (Reprinted 
from Proceedings of the Board of Regents for 1857.) 
Pp. 40. 


ARTICLE III. Caratocur or Portraits or NortH AMERICAN INDIANS, 
WITH SKETCHES OF SCENERY, ETC. PartnrEep By J. M. 
SranuEy. Deposited with the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion. December, 1852. Pp. 76. 


ARTICLE IV. Catatocur or Norta AmericAN Birps, CHIEFLY IN THE 
MusEUM OF THE SMITHSONIAN InstITUTION. By SPEN- 
cer F. Barrp. 1859. First octavo edition. Pp. 24. 


ARTICLE Y. Caratocureor Nort American REPTILES IN THE MusEUM 
OF THE SMITHSONIAN InstituTIoN. Part I. Serpents. 
By 8. F. Bairp and C. Girarp. January, 1853. 
Pp. 172. 


ARTICLE VI. Cueck List or THE Suetts or Norra America. Pre- 
pared for the Smithsonian Institution by Isaac Lra, 
P. P. CARPENTER, W. Stimpson, W. G. Binney, and 
TEMPLE PkimE. June, 1860. Pp. 44. 


PAGE 
vii 


vi CONTENTS. 


ARTICLE VII. Directions ror CoLLEctING, PRESERVING, AND TRANS- 
PORTING SPECIMENS OF NAtuRAL History. Prepared 
for the use of the Smithsonian Institution. Third 
edition. 1859. Pp. 40. 


ARTICLE VIII. Crrcunar To Orricers oF THE Hupson’s BAy CoMPANY. 
1860. Pp. 8. 


ARTICLE IX. Insrrucrions IN REFERENCE To CoLtEcTING NEstTs AND 
Eaes or Norta AMERICAN Birps, pp. 22, and 18 
wood-cuts. CIRCULAR IN REFERENCE TO THE HIStory 
or NortH AMERICAN GRASSHOPPERS, pp. 4. CIRCULAR 
IN REFERENCE TO CotuEctine Nort AMERICAN SHELLS, 
pp. 4. In one pamphlet of 30 pages. 1860. 


ARTICLE X. CIRCULAR IN REFERENCE TO THE DEGREES OF RELATION- 


SHIP AMONG DIFFERENT Nations. By L. H. Morean. 
Pp. 34. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


THE present series, entitled ‘‘Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col- 
lections,”’ is intended to embrace all the publications issued directly 
by the Smithsonian Institution in octavo form; those in quarto con- 
stituting the ‘Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.” The 
quarto series includes memoirs embracing the records of extended 
original investigations and researches resulting in what are be- 
lieved to be new truths, and constituting positive additions to the 
sum of human knowledge. The octavo series is designed to con- 
tain reports on the present state of our knowledge of particular 
branches of science; instructions for collecting and digesting facts 
and materials for research; lists and synopses of species of the 
organic and inorganic world; museum catalogues; reports of ex- 
plorations; aids to bibliographical investigations, etc., generally 
prepared at the express request of the Institution, and at its 
expense. 

The position of a work in one or the other of the two series will 
sometimes depend upon whether the required illustrations can be 
presented more conveniently in the quarto or the octavo form. 

In both the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, and the 
present series, each article is separately paged and indexed, and 
the actual date of its publication is that given on its special title- 
page, and not that of the volume in which it is placed. In many 
cases, works have been published, and largely distributed, years 
before their combination into volumes. 

While due care is taken on the part of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution to insure a proper standard of excellence in its publications, 
it will be readily understood that it cannot hold itself responsible 
for the facts and conclusions of the authors, as it is impossible in 
most cases to verify their statements. 


JOSEPH HENRY, 
Secretary S. I. 


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Smithsontan Report. 


ON 


RECENT IMPROVEMENTS 


IN THE 


CHEMICAL ARTS, 


BY 


PROFESSOR JAMES C. BOOTH, 


AND 


CAMPBELL MORFIT. 





WASHINGTON CITY: 
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 
1852. 





PHILADELPHIA: 
COLLINS, PRINTER, 705 JAYNE STREET. 


PREFACE. 


Tue following Report has been prepared under the 
direction and at the expense of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution, from articles in various Journals of Science and 
the Arts, published during the last few years, in the 
English, French, and German languages; and, among 
these, we acknowledge our indebtedness chiefly to the 
Chemical Gazette, issued in London, and to the excel- 
lent Report on Practical Chemistry, by Dr. Elsner, of 
Berlin. We have freely exercised discrimination in the 
selection of subjects, and have omitted much that we 
found on Applied Chemistry, because novel views need 
in many cases further confirmation to render them re- 
liable in practice, and, if presented too early to the ar- 
tisan, may be productive of more evil than good. We 
have kept in view the benefit of the practical man, the 
manufacturer or maker, and, while we have not avoided 
scientific terms when more convenient, we have gene- 
rally used modes of description intelligible to every one. 

American Patents relating to the Chemical Arts 
have been generally omitted, because they are published 
annually in the Reports of the Patent Office, which 
are widely distributed throughout the United States, 


and therefore accessible to all. 4 


4 PREFACE. 


We have confined ourselves to such foreign improve- 
ments in the Chemical Arts, whether patented or not, 
as we believed the American artisan might avail him- 
self of, frequently offering critical remarks on them, 
and sometimes pointing out where improvements were 
likely to be made. 

We trust that the work will prove useful to that por- 
tion of the public more exclusively interested in the 
arts, and not less acceptable to men of science, as ex- 
hibiting the contemporaneous advancement of science 


and art. 
J. C. B. and C. M. 


PHILADELPHIA, JULY, 1851. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CHEMICAL ARTS..........0scssscccccesccsccssscccncosecs 9 
TABULAR VIEW OF THE CHEMICAL ARTS....... Maaetiossiae sese/sosnideusoressexsioteses 16 
I. CALORICS..... DsGarsariosaaheseeasscsvdonenveleres sltocsids cedecicleseneecenedesctess 17-25 
PACE UMT MAND WURNAGHSS.cctecctcclecatesecscccdsesedescssccsscdcessecccedcocseve 17 
IBUNGORNILC Vesitcsctsaee coucwactsiccdccstccliesssssssitecies soonecsersivecsse cosas 18 

Com SRE cosestlatiomadedesclaaliscewcdcsa aSensted aeoussavecsceeahienssveecsees 18 

REVEL DELaLOLY HUTMAGCE Na. aeeissweneccevectsrvoasecedeestarascsiscesesses 20 

Portables Blast  Murnacelscccseagsedescredcesstslesseusisoenesscuserenpess 20 

2.1 WARMING AND VENTILATION cs cc0sscncsesissscassscvesissdcesssclecdsevecases 21 

SPE VRODEGHIN Maree cc dacsnerccsset dedesctaviccsteccasecdateateseeseeseseaseccesclsas 22 
New Composition for Gunpowder..........ssscsseee sessceececeeeeeees 22 
Gun-cotton, its Danger......0.....0ceresces BWM Ncaisercoteeeecscedasess 22 

PI COMPOSIIONscscrqecsuscaecsataacsekor ee ctocarweccestiacsse 23 

Chancoallfor Gunpowder... siccceossccksccotssossncsocdstcs scceseseciess 24 

Pun Gs Oey OMe reccloeaeatacelesemctisaciecssaiececiasesieeesdcssccesseesesesleselse . 24 
Preventing and Extinguishing Combustion.............000006 cesses 

PUA AB TASC Sreccencsstiiccssine cos seesesencsinne soteesticuisetoaccccesorasgeslcaceess sevee 26-38 
1. VITRIFICATION, OR GLASS-MAKING .......c00csccececs cos eedilenes sees ss 26 
Bohemian, Optical, Colored and Aventurine Glass ............ 26 
Heematinone and Ruby-glass............sssesseee macease Recnetesits 27 

Hydrated (Silicic- Aids... cis0...coresaeieese Gaoecceecs Boscesccacspacsses 28 

Artificial Brilliants and Gems............s.ssee0e Safswasciees Seclenniece 28 

Grinding and Cuttino Glass. 2c. 1ic0...sssecesceurrs saniscriersae soueese 28 

Diamond) Carbon) and Coke... ccsecccstastsaciescsietcacicssecdscsescoos 28 

Silly oninio Gasser racdatcadenscassced stcecace ssesieedstececdceabece sts 28 

2. SEMIVITRIFICATION, OR POTTERY...........c0000. sa ancapineie ssenjecense 29 
Bire-clay, from Husiple Clay iive.c.ccieoesessos ccocveccensocsseasiovaacs 30 

HON COMMIME  arcastssiscesccccuveeesiuesiets clececciscaces odeicsuenslesc Seow cdseiias 30 

HUT SRRTOT RE OTCOLAIN a1: cacasiosocesedciesrtoassqoereonaccwentacessiensves 31 
Aventurine Glaze for Porcelain. ...........cccccccioccessiesescsecs ove 31 
Redebigmentsator se Orcelaitic.s.cs.sssecacssecetcscsettisesersseciavcese 32 
GrayeEnameltor Porcelain: ..ssrasessepvcceescasccarerccocssles ees 33 

Cement for Pottery: andiGlagss cs, .c.cclseduecsesteosyracescescncceisce 33 

SL MAL DROPLASTICN ccpswosaeciicesesacnuacstineeecriret siecle umosovevecscacdeet . 83 
Hiydraniic) Cement,....sscssdcecsenoeticetestaedecrt-csaslsspodacececesponce 34 

Plaster MATGeMe 1,0. sn disla needs Adaeae’ goren ts sa) saepdacentsscceneacs 36 


A2 5 





6 CONTENTS. 
PAGE 
Artificial Siliceous Stone............ Rd oaeeaneulectortecswemeciusmeciser 37 
Asphalt and Mastic......ccsscccscccceneeessnscsenecnsnecses ses ceseenens 387 
Steam Cement..... UL Pcueecyanetsoneciee ee aeedinapenceecusne Messierente 38 
TRE MB TAT UIRIGY: cscoccscstecenerestwaeesccseaeabcdocest eocsdensecisecedenncovenb's 89-90 
Preparation of Carbonic Oxide........s:eseeeccceecneseeseseesseneenaeeese ces 39 
1. PYROMETALLURGY .....<sece sees sea epenic ce heeuatta tea des cWess see onswnotecaitee 40 
TPO ie Oo AS ena RNa e UNE TE RS n epee otomaooeoaes. 40 
Waste Gases of Blast Furnaces .........sccescsccesecceresvecees 40 
Arsenic and Vanadium in Iron-0res......sccesesessees eoeee ces 41 
Alkalimetric Test for Iron-ores.. Reale sWawerescatodes aA 
Limit of Carbon in Cast, Steel, agi Bary mI ONT ss eveessedeces 42 
Reduction of Iron-ores in Retorts.......scccccce cesses coeeeeece 49 
Dar=ironetLom CAst-1 ON secs ereerscisvewesieeetecsecen sicrpesieeee cee 43 
Steel 6 Mo caclduanehods Fae eeeee esses owes mateo ores 44 
Steel from Bar-iron........csecsceceee coeees sienneueseeanclesaclasics cen 4o. 
CODD ET erceroaanesiacateatecsrsesisossenatioonewsspeisprencwssnedtsaderiaanece 45 
Alkalimetric Test for Copper....... ds ecuvaeindoseaindus@alecslssisene 46 
Reduction of Copper-ores........scsccrseseceeees Lueenbeenesieresicn 47 
DCAM esante sbosacapn cateaccne scone wae eee eal ieen eerewe sie LAs d shea alan cuetee sen 49 
Alkalimetric: Dest: for, Lead. ..csccevsaseccscecsctivorswevoesssios wees 240 
Die icesiegcionssaualsjstancsetedt caetaeeaeeee Nee Bc dadlastinatends eeloaeeieicece eas 50 
Zine, Mercury and Arsentc....reeevseeveees ASS ee eboseecleraawasw sexe 51 
Antimony and Bismuth. ..scsccocccccscoeccescecscusccees soccer sesvesee. 53 
SUDET ANG) GOLD. cccodenacccrcicce s teneR shee esae soseo 8s selde eee ecasincevacions 53 
Reduction of Chloride. of Silver... ....cesececccsoccceenenseeiese 55 
Parting. Gold:and Silver. ......cccccseccccnoccisvcccense seesceers ove 56 
Production Of Goldiccsancccvevseviocscoscctstestoah seelescctoccisomess 59 
Poughening: Gold). ..ciiccccscotecsss soasce doscocesscodvesens sevoosess 60 
Phatinoid: Mera lsnsescs Witsoe cveestecetectoccarciedsesecbdsceccrecacscsecseas 61 
INGCHCL ANG COUdliss cecsecvoevseesasdsoterincesbourseee'e Pee eub detlawtens 62 
AOU Sas sesae cscs osccessencamewe vabesreaess edeealoanionociesne cee atisneere 62-68 
Da ble: Of BLONACS 2 sccsccdhekessesets soddcecs closes Usraslacceeccclecnces 63 
German Silver'seised.ceweccsceencsetesscetesiesoslescosece 64 
Soldering iis iicsstecscectscccces sooceveos svooteessesasicsass venseceenercese 69 
2 HYDROMETALBURGY sisacchessicessctcceececceere Masala cclsenietien sei setece 69 
Plating by Gold and Silver........... Rueciess Wosene caution rrcoesouncs 71 
Galvanic Gilding and Silvering ............... Sactesonecneecscsseie as 75 
Platinizing and Coppering........secseeesseeesece Maeecectestseeapetrss 79 
Bronzing iscsccce sococsecsccescecsscoscceevsaes ceases seocsstenvcssceeeoces 82 
Bite hin gers ctiltlciuleauecviev does deveceteasrastiussssosaese Banas sedelecasenees 84 
PhOtOSraphy...ccccsscecceceveee coocevcescveeeeseves Moaulenennsicseiiasaet ens 85 
TVs, CHEBMICSE } iiss ivics setctosncsccaseuceaeee ott ss sdoueetameceleeesmees. eisbee GILSI26 
LS SATINE Ss. cc 0ccasisvosecsvicimamees sed octueuecp steceecentes Beta hoossweeriaeaees 91 
Water and: Solationiccacscccvectunesabecusteseeerinestintedsece ces eee 91 
Sulphur and Sulphuric Acid .......ccecsceeeseeececeeeseceesceceeees 94 


Common Salt, Soda-ash, and Chloride of Lime...........00. 97 


CONTENTS. 7 


PAGE 

Mo tashe tested utOr wo deeacesccs cocscccececsas/stvccslsonccvecciscesscises 101 

SAN NTA Reser eee eaa cast ant adam tcccneccsls seGstiecseeaies seveisessestesavspesscas 102 

2. METALLOSALINES .......0s0c0es Pane tecd toner ceene Ee entataseuewennn socantiers 103 
RUA ETOLS conc vcectace eile caiscccessssivesscdcaversiensnasisecens peascsinseves 103 
Zine-white and White-lead............. Seaet cudscuennsecatecsiuetiacs 105 
PYTISETLLCS ive sbestiecoceniescecesoscsenbere MMA et eaereossen sasscae'ss 109 
GHOST eee eet ere eco ered ec eoces oes seuecedsescecsene Setvane adie se 111 

8. FINE CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS .cscecees coveceses seeeersecese 113 
Tnorganic Compounds.......csceeeesseeesecsen eee sneceeeee seenee seeees 114 
WANK RT OUGS Ss ccou cto caoate sce sceste ce ckesticscsctace seus sdlccesosecalsnsesdacsaee 7, 
PrUSs1G ACiIM de ccdsscscaicacssssecscesocccsiocececicseseseesicocess isaseleseenene 121 
GCHIOLTOLOLIN cores cole ss cies cooinwesecicccs Srecaeceedesanicousuluecslesatseclenstaer 22 

VIE IKGAME SLO maetcerccer cred scdee ces sve deccacteeslsseessisseedecsclancsececsinvercs 127-156 
MES e RETE We MABRI CS: ieecdacisucscseses escees's east ee a cteos alo aettndeeeeer eee 127 
Fibre, Cotton, Hemp, &c....... Bn csusvescucwaneasaevssccenhanseste sn ll2T 
Bleaching’ ......s.ceseccreccseees Ridencieticsars toeiios Saseudsesleseaesnsstern ts 129 
IMGT aE Reon eee certalac Se clecies basscacaces cue cUedseceseceesicvarionne-slase 131 
Dye-stuffs, Madder, &C......ss1e cesses cesses estes cee nneeesene neeseenes 133 
Testing Indigo......sccsesssecnsece cesnesens seseenees seseneeee seneauees ere 138 
Dy@ing....cccsecseeces ceccencreccene seeeences cones eneceans senseauns secees 140 
Color-printing .....cs01sseecsseeceeeee sesenseesaneeee tenessees seeeeseuenes 142 
ANWAR osl cuitceclowanlcctuicwc csenceecalvsmcedecsceclredshleccaississee'ses s'evecsis<s 143 

2. SHEET FABRICS.. ......000. Pee Sele seen lee nteueeuidisa tess ouleeselaneasecies 144 
TANNING......scecssecsvee vossercecees ves sesesceesseescsscs conecweescensenees 145 
@soutchoucscccessdesxcsesocies+<se Fee eee cee sania nase neveloees ceces cree 148 
Guttapercha .......cssccceccceccncreccn cesses ceesceconseececeneceeaeeces ers 150 

Sev AM MATIN Sacacancicies co Cotasiss ccewecclsccitccscsideeitctceceselostecicescheceseasr.ess 152 
AVWATNISH eR acetsecn cccieatcescericcelccocmonsctevecesosciebeecs(sescecesscsoessinen 153 
Warton teetreece ease cetonceecesroscnceeea meas cuceaerestonesablconssssasees 155 

Vile OEIC Se rccsscnsese eae Sshiedties’ Seesacdetes RN t rdtdentcssipensiea 157-171 
TOUS AND. WATS. oseveceiescsciaae seaiouantiseenscistieatentes snes athe siedleteacieds 157 
Chandlery, Wax, SC....sscccseecorsescee cesses cnseennceceseee eee teaens 160 

PAI CSAPONTFIGATION sorses veorecscsiass’cstecissesacatessc’ccslocvecsess cocootensace 162 
Perfumery ........- ceeccecersce cece seccoeceesesconacccessvesee see cneees 162 

8. ILLUMINATION, GAS, &C........0cccccecccccescesen sesces covses soseccoeoces 165 
Burning FIUidS..........ceceeecen eee eescsecenees eeneeetersenees eases cas 170 

ATMS IETEPVE SOS tae oc cone eat ver eatinavos sive ced jneisec ess sedisodieasoctdonetctesinas 172-190 
1. PREPARATION OF STARCH AND SUGAR ....+.ceerecccecoseesceeseoace 172 
Mests for SUGAL........00. secccesececseesscvnsenes sovcarsneces coscecaee 173 
Refining Sugar.............. Ducoval faskeuaNosanaeeesientsne sense cadre 175 

DENG EMEN TALON nsvattreasniscecs sa ccluce ss leusdeetenisascceccsicen tess oslasasae 179 
Alcoholometry ......cc.sececececeesceeeceece sonsecces soeses soeseveor cue 181 

RWANIE Bi ieatecesens cdecotanenceestiecewscmean’ Mee eican a cdcacisscidedaccussiesacen 183 

Sra GUUMATLY. AURIS scutecesosiesbeesacctestaalecetcctecoseees colo s sslacdeslogassacea 184 


Water and Beverages......sssscessscescersersenserseeses sosees covers 184 


8 CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Cooking Meat.........1+cceccsces coe seeses covewees Risdaine sonseeelesecenses 187 
Preservation Of EOOUs:ccecessecesdecsceiseorccccsscossesecierdearjecsems 189 

Vi BLO DE OHINTOS nc, sc tecectermetncietecmenetecubceeecens encltmecnseelenaccs 191-205 
Ripening of Fruit...........scceseessessesee oveseccen ccereneenseenescee seeene 191 
Influence of Mineral Manures.........+0.sesscoccsccscocececos vosveccee 193 
Organic Manures...... Roacuniepais ncecbincehcniecceuseseiessecalscesiscine sis ses silsee 197 

Ashes of Plants............0ece Sestes Re oeesns esate see sisaslacaesetarse scicoceas 200 

Tia GtoMetry.c ccsssssecco cress seccasseasitensimievaeencanesecssicoasescossesiensmes 202 


CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. 


CLASSIFICATION OF THE CHEMICAL ARTS. 


THE arts are those processes by which the products of the 
mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms are modified, in a 
greater or less degree, in order to adapt them to the wants of 
man. These processes are based on either mechanical or 
chemical principles; and while in a large proportion of them 
mechanics are almost exclusively employed, in an equally large 
number mechanical operations are merely subservient to chemi- 
cal action. Hence, a twofold division of the arts is both 
practicable and convenient. The former is designated as 
Mechanical Technology, or Practical Mechanics; the latter, 
Chemical Technology. 

Among the chemical arts, many are conducted on a large 
scale, and are properly termed chemical manufactures; but 
chemical technology is more comprehensive, embracing less 
extended processes, and even a few in which chemistry finds 
a limited application. Thus, the making of alum and glass, 
the reduction of iron ores, the extraction and refining of sugar, 
are all manufactures conducted on avast scale. On the other 
hand, phosphate of soda and chrome yellow are made on a 
limited scale; small quantities of nickel, of tannin, and per- 
fuming oils, are extracted and refined; and yet, as their 
preparation is wholly governed by chemical principles, these 
processes belong to chemical technology. While some writers 
incorrectly limit the subject to chemical manufactures, others 
confine it to the first valuable products obtained. Thus, while 


the preparation of alum and copperas are acknowledged 
9 


10 CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. 


chemical arts and manufactures, their extensive application to 
organic fibre to give permanency to dyes, and the whole art 
of dyeing and calico-printing, would be excluded. This is 
manifestly wrong, if the definition of the arts which we have 
given be correct; and we cannot exclude those arts of a chemi- 
cal nature, which more immediately flow from any one branch 
of manufacture, especially when we consider that such col- 
lateral arts are often necessary to the economy of a particular 
branch of manufacture. 

Emanating from chemistry, chemical technology has been 
usually treated as a branch of that science, and has been cor- 
rectly designated “applied chemistry.”” Its recent expansion, 
however, by the aid of chemistry, allows of its establishment 
as an independent branch of knowledge,—a science, capable 
of a classification, not on the principles of chemical science, 
but evolved from itself, by a comparison of its subjects with 
each other. The main principle which should govern such 
classification is the object in view or the product to be made, 
and, with this, the secondary arts necessarily or usually con- 
nected with it. Thus, the making of soap, being an important 
art, and an extensive manufacture, necessarily includes the 
extraction and purification of oils and fats, while perfumery 
and chandlery seem to follow in its train in a natural order. 
The following is an attempt at such a classification of the 
subjects in chemical technology, and is the result of some 
years’ experience in lectures on the chemical arts, delivered 
by the writer before the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia. 
Doubtless, it will be found imperfect, but it is fair to offer as 
an apology, the difficulty experienced by the chemist in separat- 
ing in his mind the composition and properties of bodies from 
their connection as objects of manufacture, and in break- 
ing down long-cherished associations of purely chemical 
characteristics. 

Chemical affinity may be regarded as the force employed in 
the chemical arts; fuel and water, as the principal agents used 
to modify or direct this force; and the crude productions of 
the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, as the materials 


CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. ie] 


subjected to action. The air performs less important func- 
tions, as a direct agent; but, in conjunction with fuel, it is 
indirectly an indispensable agent, in developing heat by the 
union of its oxygen with the carbon and hydrogen of fuel. 
Fuel is, however, the true agent in this case, practically con- 
sidered, because it can be handled, weighed, and measured, by 
the artisan, and is indispensable in the reduction of metallic 
ores. We therefore regard fuel as the source of heat in the 
arts; and since the larger proportion of the more important 
technical processes are more or less controlled by heat, it must 
be viewed as the principal agent or modifier of affinity. 
Hence the sources and management of heat should be the 
first subject treated of in a classified narration of technical 
processes. It may be followed by its application to the warm- 
ing of buildings, which, in its manifold aspects of economy, 
convenience, safety, and the health of man, embraces the 
forms of apparatus in which it is employed, and the subject 
of ventilation. 

More naturally connected with fuel than with any other 
department of the arts are the means of obtaining and of 
extinguishing fire: the preparation of those mixtures of 
combustibles with condensed forms of oxygen, such as gun- 
powder, and other projectile and destructive agents, together 
with their allied compositions for ornamental displays of fire. 
These may be embraced under the term Pyrotechny. 

The whole of the first subject, included under the term 
Calories, admits of the three subdivisions or groups: Fuel and 
Furnaces, Warming and Ventilation, and Pyrotechny. 

One of the simpler applications of heat to modify mineral sub- 
stances, is the fusion of sand and alkali to glass, which is highly 
plastic when sufficiently heated, and in that state receives the 
form which it retains on cooling. Another application is to the 
semi-fusion or baking of clay-ware, which, having been previ- 
ously plastic by admixture with water, and having then received 
its form, is heated to a point below perfect fusion to give that 
form permanence. Allied to these is another plastic art: the 
making and use of cements and mortars, including plaster- 


12 CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. 


casting, and making artificial stone. All these are embraced 
under the general term of Plastics; of which glass-making is 
Pyroplastics; cements, Hydroplastics; while the art of potting 
partakes of the character of each. 

Another important but more complex application of fire is 
to Metallurgy, wherein fuel is both the source of heat and the 
chief means of reducing ores to the metallic state. It will 
be observed, that, while the fluxing of ores naturally connects 
metallurgy with the pyroplastic arts of glass and pottery, the 
construction of furnaces and moulds indicates its dependence 
upon hydroplastics. Modern chemistry has enriched me- 
tallurgy with a new department, Galvanoplastics, and with a 
variety of processes in which the metallurgic treatment of 
ores is effected by solutions. We may, therefore, conveniently 
divide the subject into Pyrometallurgy and Hydrometallurgy. 
For the present, it is proper to regard Photography as a branch 
of the latter, with which it stands in intimate connection. 

Metallurgy and plastics, having each their branches, in 
which aqueous action plays a conspicuous part, are thus na- 
turally linked with a long series of arts in which water is the 
prime agent in modifying and directing the force, affinity ; 
and the connection is still further established by the fact, that 
the substances acted on are mostly confined to those of the 
preceding classes, alkali, earth, and metal. The arts im the 
present class, having for their chief object the preparation of 
simple chemical compounds, acid, oxide, and salt, and being 
conducted on purely chemical principles, have received the - 
general term of Chemics. Water is the medium of action, 
the solvent for acid and alkali, in which they exert their power- 
ful and contrary effects; the solvent for salts, in which they 
are decomposed and resolved into new and useful compounds. 
The manufacture of sulphuric acid, usually regarded as the 
keystone of the more purely chemical arts, and its use in 
transforming common salt into the alkali soda, introduces a 
series of various connected and derivative arts, conducted on 
a large scale, whose elements are to be found in plastics, and 
which may constitute a convenient division of chemics, called 


CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. 13 


Salines, or the saline arts. While we have seen the arts of 
the preceding class extract the metals from their ores, the 
next division of chemics subjects them to such treatment in 
solution, as to convert them into many useful compounds, such 
as pigments, salts employed in dying tissues, &c. This group 
contitutes the Metallosalines. The making of fine chemicals 
and pharmaceutic preparations is connected intimately with 
the preceding saline arts, being conducted in a similar manner, 
but on a smaller scale, and with greater nicety; it also de- 
pends chiefly on the products of those arts as its means of 
action, and partly on them for materials to be acted on. This 
forms, therefore, the third group of the chemic arts. 

It may have been observed that the arts of the preceding 
classes are chiefly devoted to the preparation of tools whereby 
to work upon, vessels wherein to operate upon, or materials 
wherewith to modify the various crude productions of organic 
and partly inorganic nature, in order'to adapt them to the 
manifold wants of man, whether to minister to his comfort or 
luxury. Clothing, food, and the comforts of life are there- 
fore mainly embraced by the following technical processes. 
The most extended application of the chemical products de- 
rived from the preceding class, is to the ornamenting and 
modification of tissues, which embraces the beautiful and 
varied arts of dyeing and calico-printing, or ornamenting 
Textile fabrics. With these are linked the kindred arts of 
making Sheet-fabrics, paper, leather, &c., as well as working 
in caoutchouc and gutta percha. To modify and ornament 
fibrous, sheet, and solid tissues, varnishes and cements are em- 
ployed, and are classed under the general term Adhesives. 
The principal subjects of this class being the ornamenting of ' 
woven fabrics, it has received the name Calistics, (xaaos, and 
isros, loom.) 

The use of soap for general purposes of cleansing, and 
chiefly of cleansing textile fabrics, follows the preceding in a 
natural sequence, and serves to group a series of arts, rather 
allied by unity of material on which they operate than by unity 


of object in view. They include the extraction and purifica- 
B 


14 CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. 


tion of oils and fats, the preparation of soap, and the various 
articles of the perfumer; and, lastly, [umination, which in- 
cludes chandlery, the manufacture of gas, with the various 
substances and apparatus which afford light, such as burning- 
fluids, lamps, and jets. Oleics is an appropriate term for the 
class. 

After the arts which supply man with clothing and minister 
to other external wants, those which afford him nourishment 
follow, and may be conveniently grouped under the term 
Sitepsics, (soc, food, and io, cook, prepare.) The extraction 
of farinas and sugar, with the refining of the latter, are fol- 
lowed by their modification under the singular process of fer- 
mentation and conversion into alcohol, which, in its turn, is 
readily changed into vinegar during the acetous fermentation. 
The various culinary arts form another convenient group of 
the domestic arts, embracing the preparation and preservation 
of food. We 

The whole series of chemical arts may be closed by chemical 
agriculture, or the art of directing and controlling the growth 
of plants and animals, whence its name Biotechnics, (3ios, life, 
cezvn, art,) in order to render their products, in quantity and 
quality, most suitable to the demands of the arts or the 
more immediate wants of man. To effect this, the influence 
of the air, water, and soil, of mineral substances and ma- 
nures, on the growth and productions of plants, must be 
studied; the composition of their ashes, under different circum- 
stances of growth and product, examined; the influence of food 
and other circumstances on the growth of animals and of 
their parts, such as hair, horn, fat, &c., must be investigated. 
These important observations in organic life constitute a true 
art, as yet in its infancy; and it is of a chemical character, 
so far as it is pursued with a chemical object in view, (the 
quantity and quality of organic product,) and by chemical 
agency, (minute, practical analysis.) We may consider it under 
the several’ heads,—of the chemical changes observed in the 
formation of useful products in plants and animals, including 
the peculiar chemical character of such products; of the in- 


CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. 15 


fluence of mineral and organic manures on the special products 
of plants, and of various conditions on the products of ani- 
mals ; and the examination of the ashes of organized bodies, 
with a view of supplying such as may be required for obtain- 
ing special products. These subjects are most conveniently 
grouped in this manner at the present time; but as the art 
becomes more fully developed, the very different nature of 
plants and animals, and the different influences exerted upon 
each domain of organic life, will cause their separation. 

The following is a tabular view of the arts, classified in ac- 
cordance with the principles above laid down. 


JAMES C. Bootu. 


PHILADELPHIA, 17th March, 1851. 


Tabular View of the Chemical Arts. 


























CLASS. GROUP. PRINCIPAL SUBJECTS. 


Coal, wood, coke, &c. 


- Fueland Furnaces. Reverberatory, blast furnaces, &c. 


I. Calorics. 


. Warming and Ven- 
tilation. 
. Pyrotechny. 


Stoves, hot air, steam, water. 
Matches, gunpowder, fireworks. 


Oo no — 


II. Plastics. 1. Pyroplastics. Glass, enamel. 
2. Pottery. Brick, earthenware, porcelain. 
3. Hydroplastics. Lime, mortar, gypsum. 


III. Metallurgy.} 1. Pyrometallurgy. 


. Hydrometallurgy. 


Reductions of ores by fire. 
Galvanoplastics, photography. 


Doe 


IV. Chemics. 1. Salines. Oil of vitriol, soda, nitre, alum. 
2. Metallosalines. Metallic salts, pigments. 
3. Pharmaceutics. Inorganic, organic. 
V. Calistics. 1. Textile fabrics. Bleaching, dyeing, calico-printing. 
2. Sheet fabrics. | Paper, leather, caoutchouc, gutta 
percha. 
3. Adhesives. Resin, varnish, glue. 


VI. Oleics. 1. Oils and Fats. Extraction and fining, &c. 
2. Saponification. Soap, essences, perfumery. 
3. Dlumination. Chandlery, gas, burning fluids, lamps, 
jets. 
VII. Sitepsics. | 1. Farina, &c. Starch, flour, sugar. 
2. Fermentation. Alcohol, wine, beer, vinegar. 
3. Culinary arts. Preparation and preservation of food. 


VIII. Biotech- | 1. Physiology. 
nics. 2. Manures. 
8. Products. 


Plants and animals, ashes. 
Putrefaction, mineral manures. 
Milk, fat, bone, horn. 


16 


I. CALORICS. 


Tuts general division of the chemical arts receives con- 
sideration from its principal subject, fuel, being the more 
important of the two chief agents employed in these arts to 
modify affinity, to break up existing, or to form new combina- 
tions. We cannot conveniently divide the arts according as 
they are acted upon by fuel or water, for these two prime agents 
are often employed simultaneously in a single process. While, 
therefore, the first classes of the arts are chiefly controlled by 
the action of heat, they are not exclusively so; and, again, 
those which follow, although depending mainly on solution, 
are likewise more or less influenced by temperature. 


1. Fugen AND FURNACES. 


The various kinds of fuel employed in the arts may be most 
conveniently divided into two groups: those consisting chiefly 
of carbon, which burn without flame, and those containing both 
carbon and hydrogen, which burn with flame. The division 
is convenient, since flaming fuel is better adapted to certain 
arts, and flameless fuel to others; and in any particular art 
requiring one of these species, it is rarely a matter of moment 
which one of them is employed, the selection being usually 
one of economy or convenience. The following are the varie- 
ties of fuel: 


Flameless. Flaming. 
Anthracite, Bituminous coal, 
Coke, fa Wood, 

Charcoal. Rosin and Gas. 


To each of these may be added artificial fuels, which may be 
made to burn either with or without flame. 

The furnaces employed in the arts are the boiler furnace, 
or that employed to generate steam in a boiler, in which, 
flaming fuel being generally used, the fire is maintained by a 

B2 2 17 


18 FUEL AND FURNACES. [H. 


simple draft of air; the kiln, as the lime and brick kilns, to 
which flaming fuel is best adapted, and where the body to be 
heated may or may not be brought in contact with the fuel ; 
the crucible furnace, in which a crucible containing the body 
to be melted or acted on is either surrounded by and in con- 
tact with flameless fuel, or in the glass and pottery furnaces, 
being at a distance from the fire, is heated by flame alone ; 
the reverberatory furnace, in which the substance to be acted 
on is placed on a hearth and the flame from the fire place is 
deflected upon it by the low arched cover of the furnace; the 
blast furnace, in which the fuel, metallic ore, and flux being 
mingled in an upright shaft, an intense heat is obtained by 
forcing in a large amount of air by bellows driven by ma- 
chinery. Although these are in general the different kinds 
of furnaces employed, yet their forms are constantly subject 
to variation, according to the special object in view and ac- 
cording to the theoretical notions of the manufacturer. Thus, 
when anthracite is used to generate steam, it is usual to drive 
a larger amount of air upon it by a fan-blast than could be 
supplied by a simple draft. Since the employment of anthra- 
cite in the iron blast-furnace, it has been found more advan- 
tageous to give greater width to the boshes. 

Pungernite.—This new combustible, found by Bulganne 
in the Silurian formation of Russia, burns freely, but yields 
less carburetted hydrogen and heat than coal. Petzold’s 
analysis (Athenzeum, 1850) gives: 


Organic matter ....c....sscsesoeseeeenee 65.5 
Si heniicees ockaminctnueeeachcstecrmnmeccen. 13.6 
Ox irom and aluminas sccosrs excwasecs 2.8 
Carbonatemot SMG is. .< ke wetassicehigston- 17.0 
Carbonate of magnesia ........s+.0+.+. 0.2 
Water cceced ener ick ie snitintesucstsnsaeces 2 

99.8 


Coal.—For a full view of the statistics of coal, we refer to the 
excellent work of Mr. Richard C. Taylor, who points out the 
various deposits of this mineral on the surface of the globe, 


COAL. 19 


and, as far as practicable, their extent and value. For the 
evaporative power of coal, consult the papers of Dr. Fyfe, 
in the Philosophical Magazine, and the extended observations 
on American coals by Prof. W. R. Johnson, printed by order 
of Congress. 

For full analyses of a large number (47) of coals, anthra- 
cite, bituminous, and brown coals, as well of turfs and a few 
woods, we refer to the An. Rep. of Liebig, Kopp, &c., p. 350, 
1847-8. The same work, p. 353, gives the results of practical 
experiments, together with analyses of many English coals (30), 
conducted under the direction of De laBeche and Playfair. 
They determined, 1. The practical evaporative power, the 
number of pounds of water at 212° converted into steam by 
Ifo fuel. The average was 8.695Ib water evaporated, the 
range being from 7 to 10. 2. The practical value after de- 
ducting the coal left inthe ash. 8. The evaporative power 
calculated from the reduction of litharge by Berthier’s pro- 
cess. 4. Weight of the fuel per cubic foot of stowage, from 
direct measurement. 5. Ditto, calculated from specific gra- 
vity. 6. Percentage loss by attrition. 7. Evaporative power, 
calculated from 2 and 4. We refer for these details to the 
paper in the Mechan. Mag. 1849. 

Vaux’s analyses of Engl. Coals, see in Journ. Fr. Inst. (8) 
xvil. 197. 

Whoever witnesses the enormous amount of fine coal thrown 
in heaps near the anthracite mines, regarded as valueless and 
allowed to be washed away by streams, must have regretted 
the waste of a quantity of fuel which will never be recovered. 
Many patents have been issued in England with the view of 
saving fine culm, by mixing it with adhesive combustibles, such 
as coal, tar, &c., and pressing it into blocks. A late patent 
proposes mixing dried and ground spent tan with rosin-oil, 
or melted rosin, and compressing into blocks. (Lond. Journ. 
Sept. 1850.) Another patent (L. J. Oct. 1850) uses, also, 
refuse tan and peat with coal-tar, &e. But all these pro- 
cesses would seem to be ineffectual at our anthracite mines, 
because not sufficiently economical in comparison with the 


20 FUEL AND FURNACES. [ i. 


price of coal. It is to be hoped that a process will yet be 
devised, by which the fine dust and waste may be rendered 
equal in value to the pure anthracite, or even superior to it 
for some purposes where more flame is required. 

The use of plaster and other like cements, to unite fine coal 
into block or masses for fuel, as proposed by Hollands and 
Whittaker, (Lond. Journ. p. 39, 1849,) is objectionable, since 
it does not ‘“‘add fuel to the fire,” but 10 per cent. ashes, in 
addition to the larger amount of ash usually in fine culm. 

Reverberatory Furnace.—The air is often admitted to the 
sides, &c. of a reverberatory, by leaving interstices for it to 
enter. Portions of melted matter dropping down, often choke 
these interstices; to prevent which, A. Dalton proposes making 
the upper part project over the openings. (Lond. Journ. 
xxxvil. Aug.) 

Portable Blast Furnace.—Barron Brothers’ blast furnaces 
require special notice, on account of the economy of time and 
fuel which their use exhibits, although the peculiar method of 
using the blast claimed for them has hitherto been applied 
only to small portable furnaces, used by jewellers, brass- 
founders, &c. This peculiarity consists in having the twyers 
of much larger dimensions than usual, and fitted with a straight 
pipe projecting some inches from the outside of the furnace, 
the size and projection proportioned to the size of the furnace. 
The blast, of moderate tension, issues from a nozzle a little 
less than the diameter of the pipe, into which it does not enter, 
but terminates just outside of it. The blast being urged, en- 
ters the pipe, and drawing in with it a body of surrounding 
air, with which it becomes mingled by the length of the pipe, 
enters the furnace as a broad current of air. The peculiar 
effect of the arrangement is shown by taking out the pipe, 
passing the nozzle into the twyer as in ordinary furnaces, and 
closing the twyer around it with clay. When thus circum- 
stanced, there will not be melted more than from one-half to 
one-fourth of metal in a crucible put in the furnace, as will 
be melted when arranged as above described. The small 
portable blast furnaces are of four different sizes, adapted to 


WARMING AND VENTILATION. Bh 


smaller or larger operations, whereby, as well as on account 
of the form of the furnace and the mode of blast, great 
economy of fuel is attained. They are accompanied by a 
table with cast-iron top, beneath which is a bellows worked by 
the foot, and through which three jets rise which can be 
adapted to the twyers of any of the furnaces. We give this 
detailed description, because our practical acquaintance with 
them in the operations of the laboratory enables us to give a 
most favourable opinion of their excellence; and, having seen 
them in operation in the hands of practical melters, for fusing, 
soldering, &c., we can speak of their general practical value 
in the arts. The enterprising originators of these furnaces 
are about applying the same principles to larger cupola fur- 
naces for melting iron, and to other furnaces, large and small, 
forVarious metallurgic operations. They are made by Barron 
Brothers, No. 6 Platt street, New York. 


2. WARMING AND VENTILATION. 


Little has been added to our stock of knowledge on these 
subjects during the last few years; but, if we were to apply 
what we already know, doubtless general health would be 
greatly benefited. Our public places of assemblage and our 
dwellings are heated to a tropical temperature, by air, the 
dust of which has been subjected to dry distillation by passing 
over a red-hot iron surface, and produced fumes of empyreu- 
matic oils and tarry matters, which we endeavour most se- 
dulously to prevent escaping, by barring up all avenues and 
chinks communicating with the external air, except those 
accidentally produced. In ventilation, there is still less at- 
tempted. It may be that masons and carpenters design to 
leave behind them, when their work is completed, a generally 
diffused system f ventilation, by half-filling the places in 
walls with mortar, and putting in green wood, which shrinks 
and cracks in every direction; but it is hardly necessary to say 
that this fanciful kind of ventilation is not based on very sound 
principles. It is sad to reflect on the badly heated and not 
ventilated school-rooms in the now widely diffused public- 


22 PYROTECHNY. i. 


school system, where some hundred thousand children in the 
United States, breathing a pestilential air, are shrivelled by a 
parching heat, and doubtless lay the foundation of life-shorten- 
ing diseases. The remedy should be applied by the architects ; 
but, since few of them have properly attended to this subject, 
those who engage their services should oblige them to defend 
us from internal inclemency of the weather by suitable ar- 
rangements for heating and ventilation, as well as from exter- 
nal inclemency, in the buildings they construct. Beside the 
essays of Reid on warming and ventilation, there is a small 
work in Weale’s Rudimentary Series, published in 1850, which 
may be consulted. On the warming and ventilation of the 
Lunatic Asylum, Philadelphia, see Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) xix. 270. 


. 
8. PYROTECHNY. 


The discovery of the properties of gun-cotton has led to an 
attempt to find other compositions to replace gunpowder, one 
of which we notice. 

A new Gunpowder.—Augendre has found that a mixture 
of 1 part yellow prussiate of potash, 1 part white sugar, and 2 
parts chlorate of potassa, when separately reduced to a fine 
powder, and then mixed by hand in a wooden mortar, or larger 
quantities, moistened with 2 or 3 per cent. water, and mixed in 
a bronze mortar with a wooden pestle, and then granulated 
and dried in the usual way, will give a gunpowder which is 
readily fired by contact with an incandescent or lighted body. 
The mixed powders will act well without granulation. Its 
advantages are, that it is formed of substances of uniform 
composition, which are unalterable by dry or moist air; the 
powders may be kept separate, and mixed when wanted, and 
the mere mixture acting like the granulated powder ; the force 
is greater than that of common gunpowder. Its disadvantages 
are that it inflames more readily than gunpowder; and it 
oxidizes iron barrels so much that its use must be confined to 
bronze metal. 

Gun-cotton.—According to Marx (Pogg. An. Ixxviii.) the 
average temperature at which gun-cotton explodes is 199°, if 


GUN-COTTON. ps 


suddenly raised, although it may explode at as low as 144°. 
By gradual elevation of the temperature, so as not to exceed 
five degrees per minute, the liability of explosion is considera- 
bly lessened. Care should be taken to pack it in vessels which 
will not convey heat interiorly, since metallic vessels may be- 
come heated to 144° by exposure to the sun’s rays. 

Averos (Comptes Rendus, xxiii.) gives the following as the 
results of his experiments on gun-cotton : 

1. Equal parts of sulphuric and nitric acids, and clean 
cotton. 

2. Time of exposure, 10-15 minutes. 

3. The mixture may be used again. 

4. The cotton should not project above the liquid. 

5. It should be slowly dried, and not exposed to a heat 
above 212°. 

6. The cotton acquires more force by impregnation with 
saltpeter. 

Explosive paper is prepared, according to Pelouze, by dipp- 
ing it for 20 minutes in concentrated nitric acid, washing it 
thoroughly with water, and drying it at a gentle heat. It 
takes fire at 356°, and explodes with great violence, leaving 
no residue. 

Cotton has the formula C,,H,,0,,, and gun-cotton C,,H,,N, 
0,,=C,,H,, 0,,+5NO0,. Hence, 5 eq. water (HO) are re- 
moved from cotton and replaced by 5 eq. nitric acid; or H, are 


removed and replaced by 5NO,, thus, C,, avo, O-. 


1 grm. gun-cotton yields by explosion 588 cub. cent. gas 
(at 32° and 0.76™ pressure), which has the following composi- 
tion by volume: 

17.03 carbonic acid. 

47.45 carbonic oxide. 

20.41 nitric oxide. 
6.75 nitrogen. 


8.36 carburetted hydrogen (CH). 





100.00 


24 PYROTECHNY. [i 


Charcoal.—Violette has applied highly heated steam to 
char wood, for the purpose of making a superior charcoal 
adapted to the manufacture of common gunpowder. The wood 
being enclosed in a cylinder, concentric within another which 
is heated, the steam from a low-pressure boiler is highly heated 
in a tube-coil, in the same fire which heats the cylinder, and 
enters the outer cylinder at one end, from which it enters the 
wood and expels the more aqueous and less combustible vo- 
latile portions. A black or red coal is produced, according to 
the heat and length of exposure to the steam. (Lond. Journ. 
50. 1849, and J. Fr. Inst. (3) xvi. 281.) 

Pure Oxygen.—According to Poggendorff, Chevreul, and 
Vogel, the oxygen made from commercial chlorate of potassa 
always contains chlorine derived from some perchlorate in the 
original salt. After repeated crystallizations the chlorate will 
yield pure oxygen. (Buch. Rep. iii.) 

Preventing and extinguishing Combustion.—To render com- 
bustible substances incapable of combustion, at least incapable 
of spreading fire, is evidently a desideratum, and various sub- 
stances have been proposed at different times to effect this 
result. In most cases they have been solutions, which are 
applied to the surface of wood, &c., and penetrate it but a 
short depth, or not at all. Of these, silicate of potassa (soluble 
glass) has been most preferred. Their action is, however, 
limited to the prevention of inflammation from sparks falling 
on a surface thus prepared. R.A. Smith (Phil. Mag. xxxiv. 
and Amer. Journ. 2d ser. viii. 118) proposes impregnating 
wood, &c. with a solution of sulphate of ammonia, which, if 
heated, is resolved into sulphurous acid, nitrogen, &c., which 
would tend to extinguish commencing combustion. 

The following composition, among others, has been given for 
extinguishing fires: a mixture of 1 part powdered sulphur, 1 
part red ochre, and 6 parts copperas, added to the water of a 
fire engine is said, from experiment, to do five times as much 
execution in extinguishing fire as water alone; it also di- 
minishes the annoyance of smoke and steam. It doubtless 
operates in a large measure from the evolution of sulphurous 


FIRE EXTINGUISHER. 25 


acid, but it is probable that anhydrous sulphuric would also 
be evolved. 

Fire Extinguisher.—Phillips has invented an apparatus 
(Rep. Pat. Iny. Sept. 1850; Chemist, 1850, and Pharm. Jour. 
x.) for extinguishing fires by gases incompatible with com- 
bustion. It consists of an iron cylinder, 2 feet by 8 inches, 
haying at its bottom a shallow chamber filled with water. 
There is also a smaller cylinder, connecting at the side, and 
enclosing a brick composed of nitre, charcoal powder, and saw- 
dust. In the brick is a vial with two compartments,—the 
upper containing oil of vitriol, and the lower a mixture of 
chlorate of potassa and sugar. A plug is fitted into the cover 
of the apparatus in such a position that a sudden blow may 
cause it to crush the vial and thus ignite the contents. An 
instantaneous and forcible issue of carbonic acid and oxide, 
steam and nitrogen follows, and this stream of vapor, directed 
upon the blazing fire, smothers and extinguishes it. 

Experiments have proved that this arrangement is not ef- 
fective in open places, where the current of air is very strong. 
It may, however, be serviceable in confined places, such as the 
hold of a vessel. 


iL, PEASTICS. 


1. VITRIFICATION, OR GLASS-MAKING. 


We offer a few points in relation to glass, plain and colored, 
and introduce, also, the subject of gems, as most allied to 
glass. 

Bohemian Glass.—The glass of which combustion tubes are 
made has been examined by Ronney, and found to consist of : 





Siliei¢ acidsersseccasesceecusee tee eros 73.13 
LUNG: sass eswancenreten cree cote ne womans 10.43 
(ANUIMINIA cose: cs tee noes Cece eae EEE 0.30 
Pesquidxide of Iron... .. 7. sees. och soon 0.15 
Mao nesla oi.4 51. sce one os saree oseeoeeaees 0.26 
Protoxide of manganese.............. 0.46 
Sodas: cious aeuse oan rataestan stains 3.07 
POtaSBansas2sceactesetnd cormnecee nee 11.49 

99.27 


_ Optical Glass.—Maes and Clémandot (Comtes Rendus, 1849), 
having studied the influence of borax in the manufacture of 
glass, have announced that the borosilicates of potassa, with 
lime, soda, or zinc, are eminently suited for optical purposes, 
owing to their remarkable hardness and transparency. 

Colored Glass.—See an excellent essay by Bontemps, on the 
substances used for colored glass, in the Phil. Mag. (3 ser.) 
xxxyv. 439, 

Aventurine Glass.—Wohler and others analyzed this glass, 
which comes from Venice; but Fremy and Clémandot have 
lately imitated it. (Comptes Rendus, Février, 1846.) They 
heated a mixture of 300 pts. powdered crystal glass (glass 


with a less portion of lead than flint-glass), 40 pts. suboxide 
26 : 


RUBY-GLASS. . oe 


of copper, and 80 pts. iron scales (smithy slack), for 12 hours, 
and suffered the fused mass to cool slowly. The oxide of cop- 
per is reduced by the iron, which latter forms a silicate that 
scarcely tinges the glass, while the minute crystals of metallic 
copper, suspended in the glass, impart to it its peculiar ap- 
pearance. | 

Hematinone is the name of a beautiful, red, opake glass, 
employed by the ancients in mosaics. Analysis showing its 
coloring matter to be copper, Pettenkofer asserts that he has 
succeeded in producing it, and that it can be made in quantity. 
A similar glass is not unfrequently obtained in testing copper 
with borax by the blowpipe. 

Ruby-glass.—H. Rose has examined gold-glass and gives 
the following views on it. (Verhandl. d. Berl. Acad. and 
Journ. f. Pract. Chem. xliii. 75.) When colorless gold-glass is 
gently ignited, it become ruby-red, still retaining its trans- 
parency, whether heated in oxygen or carbonic acid. Thered 
glass fuses in the flame of the hydroxygen blowpipe to color- 
less drops, which do not redden again by heat. Splittberger 
thinks that the colorless glass contains peroxide of gold, and 
that this is reduced to protoxide, which precipitates and colors 
the glass red. Rose holds that the peroxide is not contained 
in the glass, because it is a very feeble base, if a base at all, 
and because the reddening may occur in oxygen. But as the 
protoxide is a base, forming salts, some of which are quite fixed 
at a high temperature, (as the purple of Cassius, which Ber- 
zelius regarded as stannate of protoxide of tin and protoxide 
of gold,) Rose assumes a protosilicate of gold in the colorless 
glass, from which heat precipitates the protoxide and gives 
the red color. He compares it to glass colored red by sub- 
oxide of copper, which is colorless after fusion and becomes 
red by reheating, and that this change takes place even when 
the colorless copper-glass is covered on both sides by common 
flint-glass. He further supports his view by the similar atomic 
composition of suboxides of copper and gold. The brownish 
color of gold-glass, too highly heated, he refers to a reduction 
of oxide of gold to the metallic state. 


28 * VITRIFICATION. 7 [ HE. 


It should be mentioned that some chemists hold that the 
red color is due to the precipitation of metallic gold. 

Hydrated Silicie Acid.—Ebelmen’s neutral silicic ether (si- 
licate of oxide of ethyl) is slowly decomposed by the moisture 
of the air, yielding alcohol, and hydrated silicic acid (28i10,, 
3HO), which resembles natural silica, scratches glass, and has 
a spec. grav. of 1.77. By mixing colored tinctures with the 
ether, the silica may be obtained of various colors. 

Artificial Brilliants.—Those from Austrich in Paris, analysed 
by Kéttig (Journ. f. Pract. Chem. xxxiv. 458), consist of 
38.8 silica, 53 oxide of lead, and 8.2 potassa and soda, with 
traces of iron and alumina. They are therefore similar to 
paste (or strass), and exhibit much brilliancy and refraction. 

Artificial Gems.—To make gems, Ebelmen avails himself 
of the two properties of boracic acid, of dissolving metallic 
oxides by fusion, and volatilizing at a higher heat. His pro- 
cess resembles the solution of substances in water and the 
evaporation of that water to obtain crystals. Having made 
a mixture of alumina and magnesia, in the same proportion as 
they exist in spinell, and added 3-1 per cent. bichromate of 
potash, he added to 2 pts. of this mixture 1 pt. fused boracic 
acid, and exposed it in platinum resting in porcelain to the 
heat of the porcelain furnace of Sévres. The product con- 
tained cavities lined with minute, rose-red, octahedral crystals, 
harder than quartz and infusible before the blowpipe. They 
had all the characters of ruby. The constituents of emerald, 
treated in the same way, yielded small hexagonal crystals, 
harder than quartz, and therefore agreeing with true emerald. 

Grinding and Cutting.—For a full account of the emery 
localities of Asia Minor, see J. L. Smith, in Amer. Journ. 2d 
ser. x. 354, &e., and in Lond. Journ. Oct. 1850. 

Diamond Carbon.— For an account of this curious sub- 
stance, see Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) xvii. 47. 

Coke.—According to J. Nasmyth (Ch. Gaz. vi.), common 
coke possesses the property of cutting glass in as clean and 
perfect a manner as the diamond. 

Silvering.—Glass vessels may be beautifully ornamented by 


POTTERY. 29 


coating one surface (the inner, if hollow) with a silvering 
liquid (see Hydrometallurgy), and then cutting or otherwise 
ornamenting the outer surface. (Thomson and Varnish, in 
Lond. Journ. xxxvu. Aug.) 


2. SEMIVITRIFICATION, 


Or the making of brick, earthen-ware, stone-ware, fine 
pottery, and porcelain. The basis of these arts is clay, which 
is often unmixed for brick; consists of finer and coarser clays 
for earthen-ware; of still better for stone-ware; of the best 
clays, quartz, and feldspar, for fine pottery and porcelain. 
The materials for all these wares, except brick, are ground 
fine, made into a slip with water, partially dried to a plastic 
state, in which state they are formed, by pressing, throwing 
and moulding, into the endless varieties of forms which we 
daily witness. <A glaze is given to the surface by covering it 
with red lead, for common ware; with a fusible flux or glass 
containing lead, for the better wares ; and with a glaze chiefly 
composed of feldspar, for porcelain. A very high heat is 
given to common earthen-ware, and a much higher to por- 
celain, sufficient to cause the ware to undergo incipient fusion. 
The subject presents a wide field for improvement by the 
application of chemical principles, although at the present 
time we need more of sound practice in the United States, 
especially in the finer kinds of clay-ware. Our common and 
fire bricks, and common earthen-ware and stone-ware, are al- 
ready of excellept quality, and our black-lead crucibles are 
superior to the German, the best being made at Taunton, 
Mass., and Jersey City, opposite New York. We employ 
pots from both establishments at the United States Mint, and 
melt in them about 2500 oz. gold at once. Although the 
quality is not uniform, they are generally excellent. 

Some attempts have been made to produce fine pottery 
(Faience, Liverpool-ware), but few have met with success: and 
among the latter we may mention the Pottery Company at 


Jersey City, and the Spring Garden Pottery, Philadelphia. 
c2 : 


30 SEMIVITRIFICATION. [ HE. 


Porcelain was made at Jersey City in 1816, and a successful 
establishment was conducted at Philadelphia for some years, 
but closed in 1836. Stone-ware of good quality is made in 
many places, especially in New York, Philadelphia, and Bal- 
timore, but it is not yet equal in quality to the Lambeth-ware 
of London. We believe the location is yet to be found, 
where many potteries can gain a permanent foothold; the 
first essential being bituminous coal; the next, good clays in 
some abundance; and the third, facility of communication by 
water or railroad. The finer qualites of clay and feldspar 
will bear transportation, and may even be obtained on our 
seaboard, from Devonshire, &c., England, at about the same 
cost as they are in the Staffordshire potteries. The most 
likely position for a potting district is in western Pennsylvania, 
or on a few points on the Ohio or Missouri rivers, where the 
first and greatest essential, fuel, is abundant. 

There are few novel points of interest in these arts, which 
we present below. The general principles of painting and 
staining glass and clay-ware are so similar that they may be 
treated, together, although we have separated them for con- 
venience. 

Fire-clay from fusible clay.—Gaffard gives the following 
method of effecting this result. (L’Institut, No. 594, p. 175; 
Berz. Jahresb. 1846, 293.) A good quality of clay, but not 
fire-clay, is mixed to a paste with muriatic acid, and, after 
some time, heated to boiling. The acid is run off, and the 
clay fully washed and dried. Clay, thus treated, was made 
into crucibles, in which bar-iron was fused, without their be- . 
coming softened by the heat. The acid simply extracts a 
large proportion of those bases (lime, iron, &c.) which tend 
to flux the principal part of clay, the silica and alumina; but 
the question of economy will influence the use of this remedy 
for the fusibility of clay, and it is doubtful whether the pro- 
cess will be adopted by manufacturers. 

Porcelain.—An interesting series of experiments has been 
made by Dr. Wiichter in Berlin, in which he ignited various 
mixtures of feldspar and kaolin, and, in connection with Dr. 


PORCELAIN. 3l 


Oschatz, examined the products microscopically. The result 
was a refutation of the usually received opinion that porcelain 
is a mere mixture of fused feldspar and unaltered kaolin, the 
latter of which is the cause of its opacity; for it was shown 
that it consists of a glassy mass, filled with an infinite number 
of minute needle-shaped crystals, which produce the opacity 
of porcelain. 

Wilson’s analysis of Berlin porcelain gave the following 
results : 


PRC Aetans ee ieee ecco ce Senwntadsspaceorase 71.34 
PRUNING So dees lecctavnkcesdacis nies jae teed vlaaiee te 23.76 
ASTM OOL TON sa taveckaateaclecticc wees eeesee se 1.74 
Menu Poser ese eee oto acum ec ctatis 0.57 
IEMESIA dtr ges anaeodecos se scsee cease sae cseae 0.19 
GR eae ee aie sone eater ee deos ck eens 2.00 

99.60 


Couper has published a series of analyses of the materials 
and products of English potteries, in Phil. Mag. (8) xxxi. 435, 
to which we refer for details. 

Yellow Flux for Porcelain Colors.—Salvetat’s analysis of 
such a flux from Sévres, led him to make a similar one of the 
following composition: 88 pts. gray flux, 34 pts. oxide of zine, 
7 pts. hydrated peroxide of iron, and 12 pts. binantimoniate 
of potassa. The zinc is prepared in the dry way, and the 
gray flux consists of 22 pts. sand, 11 pts. fused borax, and 66 
pts. red-lead. The substances are finely powdered, fused 
twice and cast out on an iron plate. It facilitates the fusion 
of colors and gives them body without altering their tone, as 
it is itself very pale. 

Aventurine Glaze for Poesia —Weechter (Liebig’s An- 
nalen, 1849; Amer. Journ. 2d ser. viii. 440, and Chem. Gaz. 
1849) proposes the following enamel for porcelain, in which 
the golden iridescence is produced by a crystalline separation 
of oxide of chromium from the brown ferruginous mass of the 
glaze: 


32 SEMIVITRIFICATION. [ HE. 


Porcelain clay from Halle, washed over and 


GEICO Rc ee coe hese c oa tncts HemRstinete nice woe vss ol 
Dry Quartz Sandee e, oie ceccnetisees.sats cose s- 45 
Gey PSU 26 .c et reese ce. seneaeeeae asa) 14 
Porcelain -culle te icce as va. esse oes Fees, Soieec vee 12 


It is to be mixed thoroughly with 300 pts. of water, and 
then incorporated successively with aqueous solutions of 


Bichromate Of Potassd....ccascc--ssersersiee> 19 
Protosulphate Of IrOn cs. scsssosacceeeccsss =. 100 
NCE tbe Ol, Leal vac acmee venpdosnatheecnisite Galan AT 


Ammonia is now added until the complete separation of the 
iron, and the potassa and ammonia salts then removed by 
washing and decantation. 

Red Pigments for Porcelain.—Salvetat, in his elaborate and 
valuable paper (Ann. de Chem. et de Phys. 1849) upon the 
red pigments used in porcelain painting, gives analyses of 
the celebrated chromatic series known as Pannetier’s. The 
shades which they impart are said to be unequalled for beauty, 
brilliancy, and transparency. 

The series consists of eleven tints, as follows: 


Orange. 
No. 1, or Capucin red. 


No. 2, or blood ge 

No. 3, or flesh 2 

No. 4, or carmine ‘ 

No. 5, or lake ae 

No. 6, or pale violet red. 
NowT, orinony: 6654768 

Nos Scor dark’ .7" © 

No. 9, or very dark violet red. 
Gray. 


The flux is the same for all, and consists of silex, borax, and 
minium. The coloring matter of all but the orange and Nos. 
8, 9, 10, is exclusively peroxide of iron; and the modifica- 
tions of tint are due to a variation of the proportions, and 
particularly to a difference in the intensity of heat employed. 


CEMENT FOR POTTERY AND GLASS. 33 


The orange contains, in addition to oxide of iron and flux, 
some oxide of zinc, with traces of alumina; and Nos. 8, 9, 
and 10 have oxide of manganese as part of their composition. 
The traces of alumina found in some of them do not act any 
important part, as its presence is not necessary in the prepara- 
tion of vitrifiable pigments. 

These tints are not equally permanent. The strength and 
blueness of tone increases with the temperature to which the 
pigment is subjected; the yellow tint predominating at low 
heats. The greatest purity is insured by using coloring mat- 
ter prepared so carefully that every particle has been heated, 
uniformly, to the same temperature. 

Gray Enamel for Porcelain.—Salvetat (Ann. de Chim. et 
de Phys. xxv. 3842) has given a recipe for a new gray color for 
porcelain. It is more durable, and more certain and constant 
in its results, than the usual grays; and, on account of its 
agreeable tone, greater economy, and facility of preparation, 
has been introduced into the works at Sévres, as a substitute 
for iridium gray. It is prepared by mixing together 1 pt. of 
platinum powder with 3 pts. of glass, formed of 1 pt. sand, 3 
pts. minium, and a half part calcined borax. 

Cement for Pottery and Glass.—W ichter describes a fusible 
cement for glass or pottery, which consists of 3 pts. red-lead, 
2 pts. white sand, and 3 pts. crystallized boracic acid. They 
are well mixed in powder, fused in a Hessian crucible, poured 
out on a metallic plate, and ground fine. When used, it is 
mixed with tragacanth paste and applied to the parts to be 
joined, and the piece is then heated in a muffle at a low heat, 
not quite sufficient to melt the enamel. 


3. HyDRopPLASTICs, 


Or making and using mortars, plaster casts, and artificial 
stone. Under this head may also be included lime and lime- 
kilns, hydraulic cements, asphalt pavements, and mastic used 
for coating walls. There is not much of novelty to offer in 
relation to this subject. 

3 


34 HYDROPLASTICS. [ HE. 


C. Morfit gives the composition of a fresh oyster-shell, as 
follows: 


WHEE SERN iis Saad 2.25 
Organic Matter. (c8h.s ie. deaioes warded sds 0.90 
Carbonate of dimiewik S69 Rak orca ine 93.89 


Matters soluble in water : 
Alumina, magnesia, and phosphoric acid 





Withnlanies neha Alia. een Ae ue AL, Ss 0.70 

Chloride of sodium, with traces of sul- 
phates of soda and lime...............0. 2.20 
99.94 


Hydraulic Cement.—According to O. Ostermeier (Jahrb. 
f. Prac. Chem. xiv. 259), when finely powdered marble, lime- 
stone, or chalk, is mixed to a paste with milk of lime, it har- 
dens rapidly, like hydraulic lime, has a feeble alkaline reaction, 
and resists water tolerably well. The mass is plastic and may 
be used to take large or small impressions. It forms a basic 
carbonate of lime, or, rather, a hydrocarbonate, which takes 
up water of crystallization. The analysis of a genuine Roman 
mortar from Pompeii leads to the inference that the Romans 
prepared their mortar from a mixture of caustic and carbonate 
of lime, with the addition of pulverized calcareous spar. 

Kuhlmann’s essay, in the Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. Nov. 
1847, treats of the part performed by potassa and soda in 
hydraulic cement. He observes that most limestones, of what- 
ever geological age, contain these alkalies, whence the fertility 
of a lime soil, and from which we can explain the alkaline 
efflorescence on newly-constructed walls. He states that a 
hydraulic cement is made when powdered chalk is moistened 
with a solution of silicate of potassa (soluble glass); that when 
exposed to the air, it gradually becomes harder than hydraulie 
cement; that there is formed some silicate of lime and car- 
bonate of potassa. When chalk, mixed with water to a dough, 
is brought in contact with a solution of soluble glass (of soda 
or potassa), it becomes so hard in a few days as to scratch 
some marbles, exhibits a close grain, and admits of a fine 


HYDRAULIC CEMENT. 35 


polish. Only 3-4 per cent. of silica, absorbed by the chalk, 
impart these properties. This material is well adapted to 
sculpture and various ornaments. Plaster of Paris (sulphate 
of lime), treated with soluble glass, is similarly silicated, and 
even plaster casts become hard and smooth on the surface. 
But the solution must be very dilute, or otherwise the surface 
cracks and scales off. If the articles to be hardened are to 
be exposed to the weather, the glass must be made with potassa, 
and not with soda, as the latter is more apt to effloresce. (See 
also Journ. Fr. Inst. (8) xvi. 201.) 

The carbonic acid of the air acts an important part in the 
induration of these compounds, by abstracting the alkali of 
the silicate, and thus freeing the silica, which, by contracting, 
promotes the solidification. 

Some of the most important principles in Kuhlmann’s essay 
were published by Fuchs, in his excellent essays on lime and 
mortar (Erdmann’s Journ. of Techn. Chem. vi.); on the pro- 
perties and constituents of hydraulic cements (Polytech. 
Journ. xlix. 271); on soluble glass (Polytech. Journ. xvii. 
465), &e. 

A good essay on the action of carbonic acid in hydraulic 
cements, by Villeneuve, will be found in the Lond. Journ. 
Sept. 1850. 

Prechtel gives the following simple mode of making hy- 
draulic cement. Common burned lime is slacked with a solution 
of copperas, instead of with water, and then mixed with sand. 
(It may also be used without sand.) It hardens readily in the 
alr or under water, and becomes very hard. Experiments 
made with it on a large scale proved very satisfactory. When 
freshly prepared, it has a greenish color, from the segregation 
of protoxide of iron, passing into peroxide, when its color is 
yellowish; and to this oxidation Prechtel ascribes its harden- 
ing property. Sulphate of lime is also formed at the same 
time, and probably a double carbonate. (Polytech. Notizbl. 
1846.) 

A slag, from an iron furnace, which forms, with lime, a hy- 
draulic cement, has been found to consist of : 


36 HYDROPLASTICS. [ HX. 








Jacobi. Grashof. 

SHIGAiG as utenti er na AN as ain 4 40.44 
PA Lunt an as isc! sis ede eames Nepales a tists 15.38 
Time cacao eee DOME e a banicblie.e 33.10 
Protoxide of manganese. 5.80............ 4.40 
ee ATION Ss eeosels ee eee Skanes 1.63 
Potassalsi ums seaeae Da wees lag 20T 
Sulphur yee snjelecemeiensevcten CoO ee atee<. 0.76 
MOM Ole eeranceces SIEGS 


From these results, Elsner has deduced the formula 2(3CaQ, 
$10,+-Al,0,, 8i0,)+3CaO, 28i0,. 

See essays by Elsner on Puzzolan, &c., in Journ. f. Pract. 
Chem. 1844-1845, and on slags of blast-furnaces as hydraulic 
cements, in Verhandl. d. Gewerbv. f. Preussen, 1847. Those 
slags, decomposable by muriatic acid, are chiefly applicable to 
cements. The best method of testing them is to pulverize a 
piece very finely, and pour over it strong muriatic acid. If 
it become gelatinous in a short time, it is adapted to the pur- 
pose. A slag which was proved to be good for making the 
cement, had the composition: Silica, 40.12; alumina, 15.37 ; 
lime, 56.02; protoxide of manganese, 5.80; protoxide of iron, 
1.25; potassa, 2.25; sulphur, 0.70 = 101.51. 

Plaster, or gypsum, may be boiled or deprived of its mois- 
ture by highly-heated steam, as described by Violette. (See 
Lend. Journ. p. 424, 1849.) See the apparatus for charring 
described in the present Report, under Pyrotechny, which is 
varied for adaptation to gypsum. 

Plaster hardened by Salts.—Boiled plaster, when mixed with 
a solution of alum, becomes remarkably hard, as shown by 
Elsner, (Verh. d. Gewerby. in Preussen, 1843.) A solution 
of 1 pt. borax in 9 pts. water has the same effect (Keating.) 
Gay-Lussac observes that raw, unboiled plaster in fine pow- 
der becomes similarly hard when mixed with solutions of car- 
bonate and bicarbonate, sulphate and bisulphate of potassa, 
and even caustic potassa. Soda salts, nitrate and muriate of 
potassa, are ineffective. 


ASPHALT, MASTIC. 3T 


Artificial Marble.—Bouisson’s patent is only for hardening 
plaster casts, by immersing them in a solution of alum, after 
being previously heated to about 84° for several hours. Els- 
ner observes, from his experiments, that previous heating is 
wholly unnecessary. 

Indurated Plaster.—Objects in plaster of Paris may be 
rendered like marble by coating them, one or more times, as 
may be necessary, with a liquid prepared as follows: 2 pts. of 
stearine and 2 pts. of Venitian soap are mixed with 20 to 30 
pts. of cold solution of caustic potassa; and after a half-hours’ 
ebullition, 1 pt. of pearlash is added, and the heat continued 
for a few minutes. Cold ley in sufficient quantity to produce 
perfect fluidity is then stirred in, and the liquid set aside for 
several days under cover. (Archiv. der Pharm. lvi.) 

Artificial Silictous Stone.—Siemen’s patent, taken out for 
this purpose, in Bavaria, in 1845 (Kunst u. Gewerbebl. 1847), 
makes silicious stone in the following manner: 100Ib of caus- 
tic soda in solution is evaporated to 80 quarts, and 1Ib silica 
added for every quart. The solution is effected under a pressure 
of 4-5 atmospheres. This solution, mixed with quartz sand, 
hardens to a stone which strikes fire with steel. For building- 
stone, millstones, &c. 1 pt. of the solution is mixed with 2 
volumes of fine silica, and to the whole are added 10-15 pts. 
sand of different degrees of fineness, and sometimes 5-6 pts. 
coarse sand or gravel in addition. When the stones are air- 
dried, they are kept for several days in an apartment heated 
to 104°. They become quite hard in 5-6 days. 

Asphalt, Mastic.—Asphalt pavements and floors have been 
successfully tried; roofs of an asphalt mastic have also been 
tried, and it is also proposed to employ it as a covering for 
bridges, roads, &e. (Lond. Journ. xxxvi.) The materials 
usually added to asphalt softened by heat are ground asphalt 
rock, limestone, sand, &c. Being put on a pavement or floor, 
in the softened state, the surface may be highly ornamented 
by inserting pieces or pebbles of various stones of different 
colors, producing designs in mosaic work, which, when well 
done, are said to be very durable. The experiment of such 

D 


38 HYDROPLASTICS. [ HE. 


foot-pavements in Philadelphia have not been very successful ; 
probably owing to want of experience in those who constructed 
them, or possibly to some defect in the composition. In some 
instances, the asphalt covering is worn through in the course 
of a few years; in others, especially where exposed to the 
almost constant action of the summer’s sun, the asphalt, be- 
coming slightly softened, has been gradually pushed down the 
slope of the pavement, and appeared like a cascade of lava 
falling over the curbstone. An experiment made by J. C. 
Cresson, at the Philadelphia gas-works, some years since, with 
coal tar boiled down to pitch and thickened with sand, seemed 
to promise success. It was spread on a wooden floor, exposed 
to the weather and’ traversed frequently by carts, and yet 
showed few signs of complete abrasion, although subjected to 
so trying a test. 

A Steam Cement.—An English cement of this kind, ana- 
lyzed by Varrentrapp, consisted of 2 pts. litharge, 1 pt. fine 
sand, and 1 pt. fallen lime. After mixing the powder with 
oil or varnish, it should be used at once, as it soon becomes 
hard. It is used for stopping up joints in steam-engines. 


Ill. METALLURGY. 


METALLURGY embraces those chemical processes by which 
metals are extracted from their ores, as well as those by 
which the crude metal is refined or purified, and may be ex- 
tended to embrace further operations which have in view the 
production of alloys, or other modifications, which still present 
the metallic character. The extension of chemical technology 
has evolved new processes for extracting metals from their 
ores, and for producing metallic surfaces and other effects, 
without the employment of fire, which was an element in for- 
mer metallurgic processes. These processes being chiefly due 
to the employment of chemical agents, or the metals them- 
selves in aqueous solution, a distinct branch of metallurgy has 
arisen, which we term hydrometallurgy, in distinction from 
the more ancient pyrometallurgy. We have thrown the metals 
into groups, dependent on their similar mode of occurrence 
or similar treatment, beginning with iron, which is the most 
important, and which is exclusively obtained by the reduction 
of its oxide. Fuel affords heat for breaking up chemical af- 
finities already existing in the native compounds of the ores, 
and is at the same time the reducing agent for oxides. As 
ores are never found in a pure state, but always accompanied 
by foreign matter, this matter is removed by the addition of a 
flux, which fuses with the foreign matter to a glass or slag 
(cinder), and is then removed from the metal. 

On ancient metallurgy and mining in Britain, see an article 
by J. Phillips, in Phil. Mag. April, 1849, and Amer. Journ. 
(2) viii. 96-102, 258-263. 

Carbonic Oxide.—Filhol gives a convenient and economical 
method of obtaining this gas (Journ. de Pharm. et'de Ch. viii. 
99), which consists in gently warming a mixture of 1 pt. sugar 
or starch with 4 pts. by weight of oil of vitriol, and passing 


the generated gas through milk of lime or potassa, to absorb 
39 


40 PYROMETALLURGY. [ KEE. 


carbonic and sulphurous acid. 20 grm. cane-sugar yield 2 
litres gas, of which about $ is carbonic acid. We give this 
method of obtaining carbonic oxide, on account of its import- 
ance as a reducing agent, in order that experiments may be 
instituted with it. 


1. PYROMETALLURGY, 


Or the operations upon metallic ores by fire. 

Tron.—Wrightson’s examinations of ores and iron from 
Staffordshire, and of the influence of the hot-blast, see in 
Chem. Gaz. vii. and viii. and Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) xvii. 201. 

For one of the most able investigations into the operations 
of the blast furnace, by Bunsen and Playfair, see Journ. Fr. 
Inst. (3) xvii. 268, 838, 3887; xvilil. 24, 186, 218. On the 
manufacture of iron in South Wales, see Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) 
xix. 339. 

Application of the Waste-gases of Blast-furnaces.—The 
masterly investigations of Bunsen on the working of blast- 
furnaces, above cited, have shown, that, under ordinary cir- 
cumstances, 4 of the heat produced is lost. The use of the 
waste-gases, proposed and executed in Germany, has been 
successfully carried out in Pennsylvania and other States, in 
many furnaces, especially where anthracite is employed, and, 
we believe, without serious detriment to the working of the 
furnace ; therefore, with greater economy of fuel, where boil- 
ers and an engine are employed for blowing. Mr.8. Colwell, 
of Philadelphia, succeeded so perfectly in abstracting the 
waste-gases, that, while the furnace was fully charged and 
doing its usual work below, we have stood upon the charge 
with impunity, without feeling the heat or observing the stifling 
sensation of carbonic acid and other gases from the combus- 
tion. It is surprising, therefore, to observe that the experi- 
ments in Wales have turned out unfavorably, as reported in 
the Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) xx. 277, and we think the remarks of 
a collaborator just. 

While on this point, we cannot forbear mentioning the white 


ALKALIMETRIC TEST FOR IRON. 41 


deposit (often abundant) formed on the boilers and in the flues 
from the combustion of the waste-gases. A deposit of this 
kind, from the Conshohocken furnace of Mr. Colwell, was 
analyzed in the laboratory of one of us, by Mr. W. Fisher 
and Mr. J. Colwell, and proved to be almost wholly carbonate 
of potassa. From the Lebanon furnaces of the Messrs. Cole- 
man, Mr. W. Fisher reports that the white deposit was chiefly 
sulphate and muriate of potassa. The quantities deposited 
may admit of their application in the saline arts. 

Vanadium in Iron.—Deck and Wohler (Ch. Gaz. vi. 298), 
who examined the refining slag of Staffordshire, which has the 
reputation of imparting ductility to iron when mixed with it, 
found that it contained silicate of vanadic acid with minute 
portions of molybdenum, chrome, and the usual quantities of 
silicates and of phosphoric acid. 

Arsenic in Iron.—Schafhiiutl has shown the almost constant 
presence of arsenic and phosphorus in cast-iron, steel, and 
bar-iron, and connects their observation with the late discovery 
of both these elements in mineral waters, their ochreous de- 
posits and iron-ores. He attributes the quality of the Dan- 
nemora iron, and of the Low Moor iron (England) to their 
content of arsenic, and the quality of some Russia iron to its 
content of phosphorus. (Journ. f. Pr. Chem. xl. 304.) 

Alkalimetric Test for Iron.—According to Marguerite (Tech- 
nologiste, 1846), the iron is dissolved as protoxide, and con- 
verted into peroxide by a measured quantity of permanganate 
of potassa of known strength, and the total conversion is 
known by the liquid assuming a rose-red tint. The test liquid 
is obtained by fusing a mixture of 1 equiv. chlorate of potassa, 
3 eq. caustic potassa, and 8 eq. binoxide of manganese, ex- 
tracting with a little water, treatment with muriatic acid, until 
a violet-color appears, and then filtering through asbestus. 1 
eq. permanganate of potassa is equal to 10 eq. protoxide of 
iron. The iron test-liquid is prepared by dissolving 1 grm. 
pure iron-wire in 20 cubic centimetres pure muriatic acid, dilut- 
ing with 1 litre water and the permanganate dropped from a 


graduated tube until the liquid assumes a permanent rose-red 
p2 


42 PYROMETALLURGY. [ HHH. 


color. The number of measures used corresponds exactly to 
1 gm. of iron. The iron-ore to be tested is dissolved in mu- 
riatic acid, and any peroxide it may contain is reduced to 
protoxide by adding crystallized sulphite of soda. 

To this test it may be objected that it is difficult to prepare 
the permanganate with any degree of uniformity, and that if 
an excess of sulphate be added, the test-liquid would probably 
not indicate the amount of iron with exactness. 

Carbon in Cast, Steel, and Bar-iron.—Karsten has endea- 
yored to determine the limits in the amount of carbon, which 
separate cast-iron, steel, and bar-iron from each other, pro- 
ceeding on the assumption that their characteristic properties 
are due to their content of carbon. He first determined the 
carbon in a single cast-iron by various methods, from which it 
appears that combustion with a mixture of chlorate of potassa 
and chromate of lead, or separation by chloride of copper or 
chloride of silver, yielded the best results. In the white iron 
from sparry ore, the amount of carbon was 5.586. When iron 
contains as little as 2.3 per cent. carbon, it still exhibits the 
properties of cast-iron, especially its precipitation of graphite 
(making gray iron) when cooled slowly. It is not forgeable 
when containing 2 per cent., and this property seems to begin 
with a percentage of 1.9, when it forms steel. The steel is 
not, however, capable of being welded, and is barely capable 
of it when the proportion is reduced to 1.75. A percentage 
of 1.4 to 1.5 indicates the maximum of combined strength and 
hardness. When the quantity is reduced to 0.5 it is a very 
soft steel, and forms the proper line of demarcation between 
steel and bar-iron. These limits are higher with a purer 
iron, and lower when it contains silicium, phosphorus, and 
sulphur. 

On the protection of iron from oxidation by coating it, see 
Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) xix. 209. 

Reduction of Iron-ores.—Sir F. C. Knowles’ patent for re- 
ducing iron-ores consists in heating pure ores in retorts, and 
passing into them carbohydrogen from the coking of bitumin- 
ous coal, or carbonic oxide from the combustion of coals. The 


BAR MADE FROM CAST-IRON. 43 


ore, when reduced, is transferred to and worked in puddling- 
furnaces. If steel be the object, the iron is suffered to remain 
in the retorts a longer time. Although there is every reason 
to believe that both bar-iron, steel, and cast-iron can be made 
in this manner, yet we may doubt the economical value of the 
project, except on a limited scale, for special purposes, and 
with the best ores. Iron must still be made by the older pro- 
cesses from poorer ores, which are much more abundant than 
the richer. For details of the patent, see Journ. Fr. Instit. 
(3) xx. 65. 

Cast changed to Bar-iron.—Stirling’s processes for the con- 
version of cast into bar-iron are deserving of consideration. 
To a given weight of cast-iron, about 35 to} as much scrap- 
iron is added, most conveniently by putting the scrap-iron into 
the hollows, which it is designed to fill by cast-iron run di- 
rectly from a blast-furnace. The pigs are then puddled as 
usual, taking care that the whole be thoroughly melted. The 
stream of cast-iron may also be run upon the hearth of a re- 
verberatory, containing scrap-iron, heated to a point below 
welding; the heat is raised until both are incorporated, and 
the metal is then run into a puddling-furnace. With better 
qualities of cast-iron, from ;'5 to + of scrap-iron may be used. 
In order to obtain a malleable iron, harder, less fibrous, and 
more granular than usual, 4 or 1 per cent. of tin is added to 
the malleable iron mixtures above described. Bismuth, an- 
timony, and arsenic will produce a similar effect. Such hard 
iron is said to work well, while hot, under the hammer, in the 
squeezer, between the rolls, and in the smithy. Zinc may be 
employed in the form of calamine. About the same quantity 
of copper also gives additional hardness to iron. Black oxide 
of manganese, in the proportion of 3} to 1 per cent. of the 
mixed malleable iron, gives a more steely character to it, 
hardening the iron and facilitating the puddling process. (Rep. 
Pat. Inv. July, 1850.) 

Bar made from Cast-iron.—Prof. Miller’s (Ch. Gaz. vi.) ana- 
lyses show that iron made by cementation contains more 
carbon than good bar-iron, but much less than it did before 


44 PYROMETALLURGY. [ HEE. 


this process. The decrease is not in the (graphitic) carbon 
insoluble in acids, but in the chemically combined portion. 

Steel from Cast-iron.—The conversion of cast-iron into steel 
is desirable, if it can be effected rapidly and economically ; 
for articles might be cast directly from a blast-furnace or a 
cupola, and then steeled to a greater or less depth, without 
altering their form, inasmuch as only a small quantity of carbon, 
a small percentage of the weight, is required to be removed. 
For a large number of purposes, this steeling need not proceed 
to a great depth, especially where toughness of body is not a 
requisite. 

Attempts have been recently made to effect this decarbon- 
ization of cast-iron by burning off a part of the carbon in 
cast-iron, since it is known that the intermediate qualities of 
steel between bar and cast-iron are due to its intermediate 
state of carbonization. Riepe’s process (Lond. Journ. Oct. 
1850) is a modification of the process for decarbonizing cast- 
iron in a puddling-furnace by regulating the heat in the finish- 
ing process, and adding iron towards the latter part of the 
process. He also proposes imbedding cast-iron in clay and 
keeping it at the welding heat of steel, to effect the same pur- 
pose; and still further, the oxidation of castings by atmo- 
spheric air. The process of making malleable castings is also 
based on the same general principle. Such processes, as far 
as we know, can only produce inferior qualities of steel, al- 
though they may possibly produce a material having exactly 
the due quantity of carbon; for as the metal is subjected to a 
comparatively small amount of working, a considerable propor- 
tion of the impurities, silicium, phosphorus, sulphur, metals, &e. 
will remain in the mass and deteriorate the quality of the 
metal. The superior quality of steel is mainly due to a more 
or less perfect removal of injurious constituents, while, at the 
same time, much iron is oxidized and removed. By any of the 
processes yet known, it is impossible to avoid labor and loss 
of iron in making steel, and these seem to be in direct pro- 
portion to the quality of steelto be made. Late examinations ~ 
by Miller of castings rendered malleable by cementation, 


GENERAL DIFFUSION OF COPPER AND ARSENIC. 45 


(Proc. Brit. Assoc. 1849, Amer. Journ. (2) vii. 276, and Journ. 
Fr. Inst. (3) xvii. 71), seemed to prove that not only carbon, but 
even silicium had been extracted. ‘This startling assertion 
needs further investigation; for, should it be confirmed, the 
present modes of making bar-iron and steel may eventually 
give place to, or be modified by, processes of cementation. 

Steel from Bar-iron.—It would be an important addition to 
the metallurgy of iron, if we possessed a rapid, economical, and 
efficient method of partially converting wrought-iron into steel ; 
for iron may be more conveniently forged than cast into 
many forms, and, if they were then steeled externally, or at 
certain required points, would possess a core of tough metal 
with an exterior capable of being hardened. Hence, patents 
have issued and processes been proposed to effect this object; 
but we may conclude that the experiments have not been suc- 
sessful, since they have not come into general use. Charcoal, 
mixed with a little borax, salammoniac and saltpeter, has 
been proposed (Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 26) as a material to imbed 
articles forged of iron. As prussiate of potash has a marked 
effect in converting iron into steel, a bed of charcoal imbued 
with a solution of the prussiate might answer the desired end. 
The greatest difficulty lies in limiting the depth of the trans- 
formation into steel, since the depth seems to depend on the 
length of cementation, so that large and small pieces cannot 
be cemented at the same time in the same bed. 

2. Copper.—This metal, one of the next in value to iron, is 
chiefly furnished by Cornwall, England, where, as in most 
other localities, it occurs in the form of pyrites, or sulphuret 
of iron and copper. ‘The same ore has recently been found 
at Perkiomen, on the Schuylkill River, near Philadelphia, in a 
good vein. The native copper formations at Lake Superior 
are truly gigantic; but if past experience be our guide, they 
will continue to yield profitably during a lengthened period 
of time, only when veins of pyrites shall have usurped the 
deposits of the native metal. 

Copper and Arsenic, their general diffusion.—(Moniteur 
Industriel, 1846,—Dingler’s Journ. ciii.) Walchner finds that 


4G PYROMETALLURGY. [ MEE. 


very small quantities of copper and arsenic are contained in 
all iron-ores, in ochres, ochreous deposits from springs, marls, 
and meteoric masses. It may be proved by dissolving them 
in pure muriatic acid, passing sulphuretted hydrogen through 
the solution to saturation, and suffering the precipitate to settle 
in a stoppered bottle. See also Buchner, Jr., on the content 
of arsenic, copper, and tin in the mineral waters of Bavaria. 
(Gelehrte Anzeigen d. K. B. Acad. d. Wissenschaften, No. 
75,1847 ; Schafhiutl Untersuch. d. Eisenerze, Dingler’s Journ. 
Ixxiv. 303.) : 

Pelouze’s Alkalimetric Test.—This method, both exact and 
rapid, depends upon the perfect precipitation of copper from 
its ammoniacal solution by sulphuret of sodium, and the exact 
point is indicated by the change from a deep-blue to a color- 
less solution. 

One gramme of the substance to be tested is dissolved in 
7-8 cubic centimetres of nitric acid, the solution diluted with 
water, and, after precipitating any silver that may be present 
with muriatic acid, treated with 20-25 cubic centimetres of 
caustic ammonia. <A precipitate of lead or tin may be filtered 
off. 110 grms. of crystallized sulphuret of sodium are then 
dissolved in 1 litre water, and poured into a graduated alkali- 
metric tube. To a boiling solution of 1 grm. pure copper in 
nitric acid, treated with excess of ammonia, this test-liquor is 
added, carefully noting the number of measures required to 
decolorize the solution; suppose, 31 measures. ‘Treat the 
solution of the substance to be tested, in a similar manner, 
and suppose it requires 30 measures to decolorize it. It con- 
tains, in this case, 22 copper, of the quantity employed. 
That is, multiply the quantity of the substance to be tested 
(say 10, 20, or 100 grains) by the number of measures em- 
ployed with pure copper, and divide by those employed for the 
other solution. Then, if 20 grs. had been used, multiply the 
quotient by 5, to bring the result to a percentage, &c. The 
test should always be performed with a boiling solution. The 
precipitate is 5CuS,+CuO. (See the Technologiste, Avril, 
1846.) 


EXTRACTION OF COPPER. AT 


New Method of Reduction from Copper-pyrites.—In Rivot 
- and Philipps’s method, the pyrites is roasted to oxidize the 
greater part of the sulphurets, the roasted ore fused in a re- 
verberatory with silicious matters, lime, and fine coal, to con- 
vert the oxide of copper into a silicate,—and metallic cop- 
per precipitated from the fused mass by dipping in iron rods. 
After 34 hours the slag is said to retain only 0.4—0.6 of one 
per cent. copper, and the iron bars lost 1-6 kilogr. for 12-42 
kilogr. of copper obtained. On this process, Elsner remarks 
that it is the method of precipitation long since adopted with 
lead-ores, and he corrects the chemical explanation. For in 
roasting such pyrites, part of the sulphur passes off as sul- 
phurous acid, and part remains, forming sulphates of the 
oxides of iron and copper, mixed with some unaltered pyrites. 
In the subsequent fusion there is formed protosilicate of iron 
and lime, and copper-stone, or impure sulphuret of copper ; 
from which last, the metallic iron precipitates copper while it 
is converted into sulphuret of iron. (For a detailed account 
of this method, see Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) xvi. 60.) 

Fluxing.—Considerable difficulty being often experienced 
in fluxing refractory copper-ores, many substances have been 
proposed to facilitate their fluxion, such as sulphate or car- 
bonate of baryta, to which a recent patent adds galena. (Lond. 
Journ. Oct. 1850.) 

Extraction of Copper.—Mitchell, Alderson, and Warriner 
have patented a process (Ch. Gaz. vii.) for extracting copper 
from ores by one, or, at most, two roastings and fusions. It 
is applicable to sulphurets alone, or mixed with oxide, car- 
bonate, and sulphate, or with sulphurets of other metals. The 
finely-powdered ore is calcined in a reverberatory furnace, and 
well stirred during the operation in order to promote oxida- 
tion. After cessation of sulphurous acid vapors, the heat is 
to be increased, but not high enough to agglutinate the mass. 
In this way all sulphate of copper, which may have been 
formed, is decomposed. If magnesia is present, the hot ore 
must be raked into water and leeched for the separation of 
magnesia salt. 


48 PYROMETALLURGY. [ HEE. 


The ore is now converted into regulus by fusion with lime 
and old slag, in a metal furnace; if the proportion of copper - 
is less than 25 per cent., a second roasting of the ore is also 
advisable, previous to its treatment in the ‘‘ metal’ furnace. 

The regulus is to be mixed with a quantity of sand equalling 
the amount of contained oxides of copper and iron; also with 
sufficient lime and old slag to promote fluxing. Charcoal— 
say one-tenth of the weight of sand and flux—is also added, 
and heat applied. After fusion, an additional portion of 
coal is well stirred in and the heat increased and continued 
fora short time. By this operation the silicate of copper, at 
first formed, is reduced, while the silicate of iron remains 
untouched. 

It is doubtful whether, in working copper-ores, mixed to 
only 8 per cent., the metal can be extracted by these few 
operations without loss of copper; for, in the ordinary process, 
the sulphur left after roasting serves to collect the metal more 
perfectly from the slag. 

Phosphorus in Copper.—Percy and James (Ch. Gaz. viii.) 
have given the results of a series of essays which go to prove 
that the presence of phosphorus in copper improves its sound- 
ing quality in casting; an effect also produced by small pro- 
portions of arsenic. They found that even as much as 2.4 
per cent. of phosphorus did not impair the tenacity or mallea- 
bility of the copper. It seems also to exert a protective 
influence against the corrosive action of sea-water. 

Coating Iron with Copper.—Pomeroy’s patent (Lond. Journ. 
Oct. 1850) proposes to make sheet-copper similar to sheet- 
tin, by which a stiffness is imparted to the copper, which 1s 
desirable in many processes of the arts. After cleansing the 
surface by acid-water and heat, the sheet-iron is dipped into 
water containing clay suspended in it, and then dried, when it is 
plunged for a moment of time into melted copper. The sheet 
metal may then be rolled. The chemical reason given for the 
use of a clay bath to protect the iron from oxidation, viz. the 
ammonia in the clay neutralizing the acid left on the iron 
from the acid bath,—is erroneous. 


ALKALIMETRIC TEST. 49 


Action of Salt-water upon Copper.—Dr. Percy has deter- 
mined by experiment (Athenzeum 1849, Ch. Gaz. vil.), that 
tle presence of phosphorus and iron in copper, even in the 
proportion of 2.41 of each in the 100 parts, scarcely impairs 
either its tenacity or malleability. Copper, alloyed with a 
little phosphorus, was also found to resist the action of salt- 


water much better than other specimens of copper. 
Grains. 


Electrotype copper, after 9 months’ immersion in sea- 
water, lost persq.inch 1.4 


Selected copper s* s ‘ el 
Copper containing phosphorus 8 ‘¢ 0.0 
Copper from the “ Frolic”’ 5 Pee 1.12 
Dockyard Copper, No. 1 “ 8 1.66 
66 “6 No. 2 3 6c 3.0 
<6 66 No. 3 66 66 9.48 
ce 6c No. 4 6c 6c 9.33 
Muntz’s metal sf ee 0.95 


3. Lead.—Nearly all the lead of commerce is obtained from 
galena, or sulphuret of lead. One of the most extensive 
formations of oxidized lead (carbonate) is in Mine a la Motte, 
Missouri, where millions of pounds of metal have been ex- 
tracted from white-lead. 

The total amount of lead-ore raised in Great Britain, in 
1849, was 78,964 tons, which yielded 54,853 tons of metal; 
of this amount, England produced about three-fourths. The 
average yield of the ores of Great Britain is 69} per cent. 

Shot.—David Smith, of New York, has patented a plan for 
making shot in a comparatively low tower, by forcing or 
drawing an upward current of air through it, so that the 
descending shot will be brought in contact with as much cool- 
ing air in 50 feet as it ordinarily does in descending 150 feet 
or more. 

Alkalimetric Test.—Domonté has described (Technologiste, 
1846) a method of testing lead quantitatively, similar to that 
of Pelouze for copper (see above). The substance to be tested 


is dissolved in nitric acid, the solution, diluted with water, 
E 4 


50 PYROMETALLURGY. [ HEE. 


treated with excess of potassa to redissolve oxide of lead, and 
then with a measured quantity of sulphuret of sodium solu- 
tion, until all the lead is thrown down as sulphuret. The 
solution of sulphuret of sodium employed for the copper-test 
(30 cub. centimetres of which precipitate 1 grm. copper) is 
diluted with 3 times its volume of water for the lead-test. 
Tin, antimony, and arsenic have no influence in this reaction, 
as they are not precipitated by sulphuret of sodium from a 
strongly alkaline solution. Iron, nickel, and cobalt rarely 
occur in galena, and zine is thrown down white after all the 
lead is precipitated. This test does not show the presence of 
bismuth, which precipitates with the lead and is estimated 
with it. 

It may be remarked, that, although iron forms neither a 
frequent nor large constituent of good galena, yet it is fre- 
quently present, in quantity, in less pure ores of lead. But 
still the test may be used. For after solution of the lead in 
potassa, and decantation of the greater part, the residue may 
be diluted and filtered, leaving iron, nickel, and cobalt on the 
filter.—J. C. B. 

A. Tin.—Thus far, mere traces of tin have been found in the 
United States, but its value in the arts leads us to wish that 
it may yet be discovered in workable quantities. It is asso- 
ciated in minute quantity with nearly all the rutile and tungsten 
found in the United States.—J. C. B. 

Kersten has recently analyzed several kinds of tin; No. 1 
from the Altenberg Zwitterstock, and No. 2 Peruvian. 


No. 1. No. 2. 

OPIN A ratestler etoile heen ees DiS cusses 93.50 
[Gad 225 wane autem ee ares See ees 2.76 
Tien: osc doctors ones Os een 0.07 
Tnsoluble in muriatic acid... 1.90 ...... 3.76 
09 Bases 100.09 


In No. 1, the portion soluble in acid was tin, iron, and a 
trace of manganese; the insoluble, bismuth and copper, with 
traces of arsenic, tungsten, and antimony. In No. 2, the 


PURIFICATION OF MERCURY. 51 


soluble was tin, iron, and lead; the insoluble, antimony, with 
traces of copper and arsenic. (Ding. Polytech. J. evil. 25.) 

Tin Plate-—Budy and Lammatsch propose alloying tin 
with ;'g of nickel, previously to coating sheet-iron with the 
alloy. The advantages contemplated are, greater hardness, 
and less fusibility, and the greater cost is said to be com- 
pensated by a saving of one-half of the quantity of tin usually 
employed. (An. Rep. Liebig and Kopp, i. 278. 

5. Zine, Mercury, and Arsenic.—These three metals, being 
volatile, are obtained in a similar manner ; the first two by 
distillation, and the last by sublimation. 

The most important ore of zinc, hitherto worked, being 
calamine, both silicate and carbonate, it is mixed with lime to 
retain the silica and with carbon to reduce the oxide, and the 
mixture distilled in earthenware retorts. Blende, or the sul- 
phuret of zinc, is abundant, but less easily and more rarely 
worked. The celebrated locality of red oxide of zine and 
Franklinite, near Franklin, New Jersey, has attracted much 
attention at different times, and although the attempts to distil 
metal from it have been unsuccessful, it has recently been 
worked with renewed energy in order to manufacture the pig- 
ment zinc-white (see Metallosalines). Besides this locality 
of red zinc-ore, we also have a large formation of calamine 
in Pennsylvania, and it frequently accompanies the lead-ores 
of Illinois, Xe. 

Mercury occurs as a sulphuret, which is mixed with lime 
and distilled. A notable locality of the native cinnabar has 
been opened in California, but the superior attractions of 
gold-washing, or washing for gold, has prevented a fair de- 
velopment of the ore. The analysis of one specimen yielded 
upwards of 60 per cent. mercury, of another more than 30 per 
cent. The last was from an average of many pounds of ore. 
The ore presented a beautiful contrast of the red cinnabar 
with a white quartzose vein, and the cinnabar contained 
hydrated oxide of iron and bitumen.—J. C. B. 

Purification of Mercury.—Ulex’s method of purifying 
commercial quicksilver was formerly employed in Struve’s 


52 PYROMETALLURGY. [ HEN. 


laboratory at Dresden (Archiv. d. Phar. xlvi. and Polytech. 
Centralbl. 1847). 2tb mercury is rubbed for 10 minutes with 
oz. of a solution of perchloride of iron (sp. gr. 1.48) and 
oz. water, the iron solution washed off with water, and the 
mercury dried. If it contain more than 1 per cent. lead, the 
operation should be repeated. fPerchloride of iron has the 
property of minutely dividing mercury, the iron being re- 
duced to protochloride, and some subchloride of mercury being 
formed, which prevents the globules from reuniting. When 
other metals are present, they are more readily chlorinized 
than the mercury, and either washed away in solution or left 
as an insoluble powder. ‘To test the purity of mercury, Ulex 
recommends shaking it in a clean glass tube, when, if impure, 
a black powder appears on the surface of the glass. In this 
manner zp)00 part of lead is shown. Elsner offers as a con- 
venient but more costly method of preparing absolutely pure 
mercury, to warm a solution of corrosive sublimate (chloride 
of mercury) in an iron vessel with iron nails. 

Mercury.—Violette (Comptes Rendus, 1850) has proposed 
a very convenient method of distillmg mercury by high pres- 
sure steam. It consists in placing the amalgam or metal in a 
cast-iron cylinder to which is attached a worm. This latter 
serves as a heater for the water and also as a conduit for the 
generated steam, which, in traversing the interior of the cylin- 
der, heats and volatilizes the contained metal. The vapors 
of metal and water, becoming involved, pass over in a double 
current into the refrigerator, where they are condensed and 
separate into strata. 

This plan has the great advantages of economy as to time, 
fuel, and labor; all danger of concussion is obviated, and as 
there is no escape of vapor, the workmen suffer no injury to 
health, as is the case by the usual process. 

Arsenic is associated with ores of cobalt, nickel, copper, 
&ec., as arseniuret of those metals, and in the preliminary 
operations of roasting, it volatilizes as arsenious acid, and 
condenses in flues and chambers constructed for the purpose. 
It is then mixed with charcoal and sublimed as metal, or with 


yi 
2 
av 
3 


SILVER AND GOLD. 53 


sulphur and sublimed as realgar or red sulphuret of arsenic. 
For its diffusion, see Copper, above. 

6. Antimony and Bismuth.—These metals are obtained by 
eliquation, or by heating their ores when they flow out from 
the gangue. We have not yet found important localities of 
either of these metals, although antimony is inconyeniently 
associated with some Western lead-ores. Bismuth, occurring 
mostly in the native state, is simply subjected to this operation ; 
but antimony, being generally found as sulphuret, is eliquated 
as such, the sulphuret being very fusible. The metal or re- 
gulus of antimony is then obtained by heating the sulphuret 
with iron, alkali, &c. which take up its sulphur. As it is of 
some importance to have it free from arsenic, various processes 
have been devised to effect the separation, with variable success. 

Antimony free from Arsenic.—To effect this separation ac- 
cording to Liebig’s method, Bensch observes that the presence 
of sulphuret of iron is necessary, and gives the proportions : 
100 pts. crude antimony (sulphuret), 42 pts. clean iron filings, 
10 pts. anhydrous glauber’s salt, 2 pts. charcoal, and 2 per 
cent. sulphuret of iron. After fusion, 16 pts. of the regulus, 
containing iron, 1 pt. sulphuret of antimony, and 2 pts. soda 
are kept in fusion an hour, and the regulus, freed from slag, 
is fused first with 14 and then with 1 pt. soda (without sul- 
phuret of antimony), each time for an hour, until the slag has 
a light-yellow color. The passage of the antimony through 
the crucible is prevented by smearing it previously with moist 
soda, and then heating it until the soda fuses and glazes the 
interior. 

T. Silver and Gold.—We place these together, from their 
similar metallurgic treatment, both in the ore and when puri- 
fied for commercial purposes. ‘The methods of purifying are 
partly by fire and partly by acid; the modes of extraction 
from their ores are partly by washing, partly by amalgamation 
with mercury, and recently liquid methods have been proposed. 
Native gold generally contains silver, the greater part of which 
is to be separated, being lost by association with a metal of 


far greater value; and silver, when obtained from its ores, is 
E2 


54 PYROMETALLURGY. [ XaE. 


generally worked for the small fraction of gold it contains. 
Hence, both in extracting and refining, the mixed hydro and 
pyro-metallurgic processes are adopted. 

The processes of separation or parting are by nitric or 
sulphuric acid. In the former case, the gold is melted with 
2 or 3 times its weight of silver, granulated by pouring into 
water, and then treated with pure nitric acid, which extracts 
not only the silver added, but also more or less of that originally 
contained in the gold; for gold has such a covering power that 
acid could not extract the silver originally present, but by 
adding more silver, the gold is so disseminated, that as the 
silver is extracted, the gold is left in a spongy state. For 
parting by sulphuric acid, the gold is melted with more silver 
than for nitric acid, granulated, and then heated with un- 
diluted oil of vitriol in vessels of platinum or iron, whereby 
silver and copper are extracted and the gold untouched. This 
method is especially applicable to silver containing only traces 
of gold. 

The silver dissolved out from gold is recovered either by 
precipitating it in the metallic state by copper, or it is pre- 
cipitated as a chloride by common salt, and the chloride re- 
duced most conveniently and neatly by zine and dilute acid. 

Silver.—An important series of essays on this metal, by 
Malaguti and others, especially with reference to its extraction 
from the ore, has been presented to the “Academie des 
Sciences” of Paris, abstracts of which have appeared in the 
Comptes Rendus, Chemical Gazette, London Journal, &&. We 
refer to them for the details. 

Reduction of Silver from its Ores.—A new method of ef- 
fecting this is to roast the ores with common salt, which forms 
chloride of silver, and to lixiviate the roasted ore with a hot 
solution of common salt, which dissolves out the chloride of 
silver. The solution is precipitated by metallic copper. 

According to another method, the sulphuretted ores are 
carefully roasted in a reverberatory, to change them into sul- 
phates; the sulphates lixiviated by boiling water, and the 
silver precipitated by metallic copper. 


REDUCTION OF CHLORIDE OF SILVER. 55 


Dr. Percy proposes to extract silver from its ores, in the 
wet way, by means of hyposulphite and chloride of lime. 
The details of the mode are given in a paper read before the 
British Association, Aug. 9, 1848. (Ch. Gaz. vii.) 

Solubility of Chloride of Silver.—According to Pierre (Journ. 
de Pharm. (3) xii. 257), 1 pt. chloride of silver is soluble in 
200 pts. strong chlorohydric acid, and in 600 pts. of the 
same acid, diluted with twice its weight of water. 

Reduction of Chloride of Silver.—According to Hornung 
(Journ. de Chim. Médicale, 1847), moist chloride of silver is 
easily reduced by metallic copper and ammonia, very little 
ammonia being required for the purpose. The reduced silver 
is well washed with water and dried. 

Kessler’s method of obtaining chemically pure silver is 
as follows (Le Technologiste, 1847): Silver alloyed with cop- 
per or lead is dissolved in the least possible quantity of pure 
nitric acid, the solution diluted with 20 times as much water, 
and a solution of protacetate of iron added as long as a pre- 
cipitate ensues. The latter is washed first with acetic acid, 
and then with water acidulated by sulphuric acid, until the 
wash-water ceases to show a precipitate with prussiate of 
potash. The precipitation of silver is so complete, that not a 
trace of it can be found by common salt in the filtered liquid. 
The protacetate of iron also precipitates platinum, especially 
by warming the solution. The surface of articles on which 
galvanic copper is to be precipitated, and which is not easily 
rendered conducting by graphite, may be rendered so by im- 
buing it with a solution of nitrate of silver and then treating 
it with protacetate of iron. 

Wittstein (Buch Rep. vol. ii.) has compared the advantages 
of the various processes for reducing chloride of silver, and 
finds that with charcoal to be the safest and most economical. 
2 pts. of chloride are mixed with 1 pt. of moist charcoal, 
the whole pressed into a black-lead crucible, loosely covered 
and heated. Calcination is continued until an half-hour be- 
yond the cessation of hydrochloric vapor. When cold, the 
silver is extracted by nitric acid of 1.20, 3 pts. being required 


56 PYROMETALLURGY. [ HEM. 


for every 2 pts. of chloride. By heating the crucible more 
intensely, the silver will run together, and may be separated 
by mechanical means. The reducing power of the charcoal 
is owing to its content of hydrogen. 

Levol dissolves sugar in potassa lye, and boils chloride of 
silver in it. The chloride is reduced to a gray metallic pow- 
der, while carbonic acid is evolved (Journ. de Chim. Méd.) 

C. Zimmermann employs the following method for large quan= 
tities (Gewerbvereinsbl. der Prov. Preussen, 2 Jahrg. 1847). 
The washed chloride is mixed with water, pieces of bar-iron 
of the size of a finger thrown in, and the whole stirred with 
wood in a stoneware or porcelain vessel. 2tb of iron are re- 
quired for so much chloride as contains 8 marks of fine silver, _ 
and the reduction is completed in 2 hours. ‘The washed and 
dried silver powder is fused in a clay crucible, with a mixture 
of equal parts of potash and dry salt. 

This reduction is performed at the United States Mint, by 
granulated zine and sulphuric acid, on about 10001 of silver 
per day, and presents advantages which the use of iron does 
not. There is not a great difference in the cost between clean 
bar-iron prepared as above, and granulated zine, and, of the 
two, the latter is freer from injurious ingredients. As in 
the precipitation of silver from large parting (quartation) 
operations, the exact quantities of silver cannot readily be 
known; and as an excess of metal will be required to insure 
total and rapid reduction, this excess must be removed either 
by sulphuric acid or by sifting. The latter would be incon- 
venient, and the zinc is dissolved more rapidly than iron would 
be. Moreover, the reduction proceeds more rapidly with zine, 
since it can be readily procured in a state of fine division by 
granulating. In melting the fine silver into toughened bars, 
we use saltpeter and borax. The silver thus obtained, with- 
out attempting to procure it very pure, shows a fineness of 
995-9974, and may be easily refined in the pot to 998 and 
999 thousandths.—J. C. B. 

Farting by Sulphuric Acid.—Pettenkofer’s experiments on 
parting gold by oil of vitriol are of some value. In this 


PARTING BY NITRIC ACID. 5 


« 


process, gold may be extracted from silver, even when it forms 
an exceedingly minute proportion in the latter, by boiling it 
with oil of vitriol in iron or platinum vessels, and a large 
amount of gold has been thus recovered from old silver, since 
the process was first made known. ‘To effect the parting most 
completely, there should be in 16 pts. alloy 3 to 4 pts. gold, 
and at least 10 of silver. Pettenkofer’s experiments were made 
in the refinery at Munich, with Kronenthaler (crown-dollars), 
which contain z5¢500 Of gold. The parting is at first rapid 
until the fineness reaches 958 to 960 thousandths, when long- 
continued boiling (14 times) with great excess of acid raises 
it only to 970-972 thousandths, when it consists of 970 gold, 
28 silver, and 2 platinum. No excess of acid nor repeated 
boiling will raise this spongy gold more than } thousandth 
beyond this. It may, however, be refused with nitre, alloyed 
with silver, and again parted by oil of vitriol. It would ap- 
pear, from his experiments, that the silver is alloyed in the 
metallic state with the spongy gold, and not combined with 
chlorine, phosphorus, nor arsenic; but it powerfully resists 
all attempts to extract it, whether by sulphuric or nitric acid. 
Sulphur may be distilled over it without its forming sul- 
phuret of silver. Treated with boiling sulphuric acid to which 
bichromate of potassa has been added, a considerable amount 
of gold is dissolved, while sesquioxide of chrome is formed ; 
but neither silver nor platinum, which is also present, is at- 
tacked. Pettenkofer thinks that the silver is in a different 
state from its normal condition. The silver may be extracted 
by fusion with bisulphate of potassa or soda. It is probable 
that the great preponderance of gold assimilates the alloyed 
silver to itself, just as silver alloyed with platinum renders 
the latter soluble in nitric acid, and as platinum in gold sub- 
jects the latter to more powerful corrosion by fusion with 
nitre. 

Parting by Nitrie Acid, or Quartation.—Pettenkofer con- 
firms the results of Kandelhardt and Chaudet, that the ancient 
proportion of 5 silver to 1 gold is unnecessary, but that 24 
silver to 1 gold is a far better proportion ; for the gold retains 


58 PYROMETALLURGY. | [ HEE. 


more silver when the former proportion is used, even with the 
use of strong acid and after continued boiling. He found 
further that only 1} silver to 1 gold was really necessary to 
obtain a correct separation. We employ 2 to 1 in the United 
States Mint. 

Pettenkofer further observes that all commercial silver, not 
subjected to chemical separation, contains platinum. ‘To 
prove the presence of platinum in parted gold, it is alloyed 
with 2—23 pts. silver, parted in the usual way by nitric acid, 
precipitated by dilute muriatic acid, filtered, the solution 
evaporated to dryness (at a gentle heat), the residue treated 
with alcohol, and the platinum precipitated from the solution by 
salammoniac. ‘To determine it quantitatively, D’Arcet alloys 
two equal portions of the gold with silver, extracts one with 
nitric and the other with sulphuric acid; the excess of weight 
in the latter over the former is platinum. 

Pettenkofer’s discovery of platinum in the gold and silver 
is of some importance, for it serves to explain in part the 
refining effects of nitre on gold. By this fusion an appreciable 
quantity of gold is taken up by the nitre at the same time, 
although gold alone is slightly affected by it. After treating 
with water the slags resulting from toughening gold by nitre, 
the fine gray sediment contains alumina, silicic acid, potassa, 
oxides of iron, copper, lead, platinum, gold, and metallic gold. 

Cleansing Stlver.—It is said that silver or brass vessels may 
be cleansed by boiling them in water with calcined hartshorn in 
powder (30 grms. to 1 quart water), then drying them by the 
fire, and rubbing them when dry with woollen rags saturated 
with the above liquid and subsequently dried. The polish is 
heightened by further friction with a chamois-skin. 

Gold.—For a full description of the Orange Grove or 
Vaucluse gold mine, in Virginia, see Amer. Journ. 2d ser. vii. 
295, with analyses of the ore by J. C. B. 

California Gold.—Of the following analyses, 1 is by Os- 
wald; 2 by T. H. Henry, of the small flattened grains, spec. 
gray. 15.63; 3 by the same, of a larger piece with irregular 
surface and siliceous gangue, spec. gray. 15.96. 


EXTRACTION OF GOLD FROM ORES. 59 


IBS ie 2. 3. 
Colds: ess «4 SGi 22 86.57: in. 88:75 
DilvObiaesetes sted es. BUT oc AB SSiSce S88 
Coppers wees. —... 0.29... 0.85 
Drier ee hasstitss dates dT cee OSE ee mace: 
Mea 2 aaa wsked 2.0... ——... 1.40 





—<—<—S >; —— 


100.0 99.73 99.88 


California gold has a dark color, from its light coating of 
oxide of iron; but when fused, its light color indicates a large 
percentage of silver. The average fineness of California gold, 
as determined by some thousand assays at the United States 
Mint, Philadelphia, is 885 thousandths, or 884 per cent. pure 
gold, and 115th or 11} per cent. silver, omitting mere traces 
of other metals. For Iridosmin, see below. 

The gold production of Russia in 1847 was about 17? mil- 
lions of dollars, and supposing it to have increased 100 pounds 
per annum, it would amount to 20 millionsin 1850. The pro- 
duce of California may be estimated at 50 millions. These 
numbers being moderate estimates from known returns, the 
quantity of gold from the new sources of this metal in Russia 
and the United States was 70 millions, or more than 300,000 
troy pounds, in 1850. 

Extraction of Gold from Ores.—Allain and Bartenbach’s 
process (Comptes Rendus, 1849) for extracting gold is ap- 
plicable to all pyritous ores, even when the proportion of noble 
metal does not exceed two ten-thousandths. For working ore 
containing this quantity, the expense will be about $40 for 
every pound of gold obtained. 

The ore, after being roasted in the air, is powdered, sieved, 
re-roasted into a red mass, made into paste with sulphuric 
acid of 66°, and again roasted until the entire cessation of 
sulphurous fumes. Sulphur, zinc, and copper are thus largely 
removed. The ore is now reduced to a still finer powder, 
boiled with dilute oil of vitriol, and the undissolved residue 
digested in a mixture of 6 pts. muriatic acid of 21° and 1 pt. 
nitric acid of 36°, diluted with water. Copper and gold are 


60 PYROMETALLURGY. [ WHE. 


then thrown down by iron, the precipitate calcined to oxidize 
the copper, which is to be dissolved out with muriatie or sul- 
phuric acid. 

A better method for pyritous ores is to roast them partially, 
if not already oxidized, and to melt them in a low blast-furnace, 
using a siliceous ore as a flux, if necessary. A large portion 
of oxide of iron will thus be removed, and the gold concen- 
trated in the remaining sulphuret of iron, which could then 
be worked by dilute sulphuric acid.—J. CL B. 

On the use of chloride of lime and hyposulphites, for ex- 
tracting gold from its ores,.see an essay by Percy, in Phil. 
Mag. 3 ser. xxxvi. 1-8. 

Toughening Gold.—W olff proposes, in the Practical Hand- 
book for Jewellers, to fuse the brittle gold in a new crucible, 
and when melted to throw in one or two pieces of sulphur of 
the size of a pea, to shake the crucible a little with the tongs, 
and to cast it rapidly into a heated mould. He also proposes to 
render small pieces malleable by coating them with powdered 
borax, and heating them in the blowpipe flame until the surface 
commences fusion. 

Both of these methods are resorted to at the United States 
Mint, but the choice of either depends upon the nature of the 
accompanying metals that give the gold its brittle character. 
When there is a quantity of iron present, the gold is fused 
with a mixture of sulphur, potash, and soda, which will remove 
it by making the very fusible mixture of sulphurets of iron 
and alkali. If tin, arsenic or antimony be present, a good 
flux is a mixture of borax, soda, and saltpeter, the last for 
oxidizing the foreign metals into their respective acids, the 
soda to give base to those acids, and the borax to collect the 
slag. In both these cases, a sand or clay crucible is preferable 
to a black-lead pot, in which last the graphite acts reducingly. 
Where lead is present, this process may partially effect its 
removal; but it is more completely effected during quartation 
and by washing the fine gold thoroughly with hot water, after 
extracting the silver by nitric acid. Another method of re- 
moving lead would be to fuse the gold with a little saltpeter, 


SOLUTION OF PLATINUM SAND. 61 


borax, and silica, whereby a fusible slag of oxide of lead would 
result, and might be skimmed from the surface of the gold. 
Palladium and platinum, not unfrequently present in California 
gold, are likewise removed by the nitric acid in parting silver 
from gold. Grains of iridosmin have been observed in Ca- 
lifornia gold, in distinct particles, even after three or more 
fusions, and seem to have no tendency whatever to enter into 
an alloy; but, while casting such gold, these particles collect at 
the bottom of the pot, from their greater specific gravity, and, 
by remelting in a small crucible, and carefully casting, they 
may be obtained mixed with a small quantity of gold. The 
latter is dissolved by nitromuriatic acid, and the iridosmin 
obtained pure.—J. CL B. 

8. Platinoid Metals.—Platinum is associated with several 
other metals in the platinum sand which is found in some 
gold-districts. They have not been found as a distinct deposit 
in California, but have been observed in the United States 
Mint in the operations of assaying and parting. These as- 
sociated metals are palladium, rhodium, iridium, and osmium, 
to which we must add the lately discovered metal, ruthenium. 
They have a sufficient resemblance to be classed together, and 
are obtained by a similar hydrometallurgic treatment. The 
grains of iridosmin, alluded to under gold, have been quali- 
tatively examined and found to contain the new metal ruthe- 
nium, as was observed by Claus in relation to the iridosmin 
from other localities. Palladium has been observed, and at 
times in sufficient quantity to render the gold brittle. The 
quantities of platinoid metals found in the California gold are 
small, about 14%b of iridosmin having been obtained from 
about 25 tons of the gold, ;yo00, but the greater part has, of 
course, passed into the coin, the coarser grains only being 
left.—J. C. B. 

Solution of Platinum Sand.—To dissolve it more readily, 
it is fused with 5 times its weight of zine, and the brittle mass 
thus obtained is powdered and sifted. It is digested with 
dilute sulphuric acid to dissolve most of the zine and iron, 
washed with water, and then boiled with nitric acid, which 

F 


62 PYROMETALLURGY. [ BE. 


dissolves iron, copper, lead, and palladium. The finely divided 
platinum in the residue is dissolved by nitromuriatic acid, 
avoiding an excess of muriatic, which would dissolve too much 
iridosmin. The usual method requires 8-10 times its weight 
of nitromuriatic acid. (Hess in Bullet. de l’Acad. de St. 
Petersbourg.) 

Palladium.—According to Schmidt and Johnston, it is ob- 
tained from the gold-ores of Gongo Socco, Brazil, which 
contain gold, silver, palladium, copper, and iron, by dissolving 
in nitric acid, which leaves the gold, precipitating silver from 
the solution by common salt, and precipitating palladium and 
copper from the last filtrate by metallic zinc. These two 
metals are then dissolved in nitric acid and an excess of am- 
monia added, which precipitates the ammonia-palladium salt 
and holds the copper in solution. By igniting the palladium 
salt, metallic spongy palladium is obtained, which is condensed 
by a hydraulic press, and hammered like platinum. 6000 oz. 
of palladium have been thus extracted. On this method we 
would observe that, unless the gold contain a sufficient amount 
of the other metals, these metals cannot be fully extracted. 
Moreover, it is doubtful whether all of the copper would be 
extracted from the palladium salt by ammonia; and if pure 
palladium be required, it would probably be necessary to re- 
peat the solution in nitric acid and separation by ammonia. 

9, Nickel and Cobalt.—These metals being usually found 
together, and each impairing the other’s qualities, they are 
separated chiefly by hydrometallurgic treatment, after con- 
centration by calcination of their ores and fusion. They are 
usually combined with arsenic, but in Mine a la Motte, Mis- 
souri, they are either sulphurets or oxides. They are nowhere: 
abundant. ‘Traces of cobalt, sometimes amounting to 2 and 
3 per cent., may be found in nearly all the ores of manga- 
nese.—J. C. B. 

10. Alloys.—Most metals will fuse together and remain 
united while cooling, and sometimes the compounds offer pro- 
perties intermediate between those of their constituents. Thus 
brass is intermediate in color and toughness between copper 


9 


ALLOYS. 63 


and zine; so gold and silver, or either of these, with copper. 
But, in some instances, the properties of the alloy are different ; 
thus bronze, although intermediate in color between its con- 
stituents, copper and tin, presents an extraordinary combina- 
tion of hardness and toughness. A small quantity of tin, 
lead, or zine renders gold brittle. By alloying metals, there- 
fore, we may obtain bodies which, for all practical purposes, 
are so many new metals. — 

Bronze.—The following table exhibits the composition of 
some ancient and modern bronze and bell-metal, according to 
recent analyses. 


Analyst. 


. Ancient Attic 
bronze 88.46|10.04] 1.50) ... ] ... |... |... | A. Mitscherlich. 
. Athenian bronze, 
of the Roman pe- 
riod G41) 7.05) T6854]! cock |Iiesen diesen lla ccaulmechmid. 
3. Athenian bronze../83.62/10.85| 5.53) ... |... |. |... | Wagner. 
. Coin of a Macedo- 
nian king S95 Tas ee callin caleve: |p eoel in ssen || SLOUSC. 
. Coin of Alexander 
the Great .........|95.96! 3.28] 0.76)... ltrace.|.--» |... | Schmid. 
. Coin of Alexander 
the Great 86.76|10.24| 2.31] ... ltrace.| ... |... | Wagner. 
. Attic coin 87.89|11.58) .... 10. Peet reecu|eeeent lich. 
: ut SSiSLi OS Glie sells CeeteNees ol decmd sel dt: 
. Darmstadt chime, 
B, above first line}73.94/21.67| 1.19/0.17) ... |2.11/trace.| Heyl. 
. Darmstadt chime, 
C, treble clef...... 72.52/21.06) 2.14/0.15) ... 2.66)trace. Heyl. 











See an excellent article on the alloys of copper and tin, in 
Technologiste, and in the Lond. Journ. Oct. 1850. 

Speculum Metal.—(Chinese metallic mirrors.)—Copper 
80.836 + Lead 9.071 + antimony 8.43 = 98.337. It con- 
tained no trace of arsenic, exhibited a brilliant polish, and 
did not tarnish in the air. The presence of antimony is in- 
teresting, as it is not employed for metallic mirrors, and the 
above metals will probably be well adapted to the mirrors of 
telescopes. 


[ BER. 


PYROMETALLURGY. 
f Chinese copper or Packfong, and of German Silver, 


German Silver.—The following table exhibits the composi- 


4 
tion o 


6 







































a lig See 
K ra 8 : 5 o 8 oS 
E = 3 4 ‘3 a : ee 23 = | Analyst. 
3 SN 4 3 A R a i a 
1. Chinese copper or Packfong...... 87.54 sets 11.84 | 0.44 | 1.17 | 0.12 | 0.10 ... || 8.57 | Ounen. 
2. se Ce ease es 85.09 Sie 9.49 | 1.16 | 4.08 | 0.14 | 0.49 we. || 7.84 oc 
3 ass Red No.:1...2.5.;.: 98.49 aoe 1.19 0.01 | 0.14 sa vena |(eSeOL uG 
4, se Us Der Suetiacs 97.79 aie 1.85 0.21 | 0.50 : : 8.93 “ 
5. ce et Oleananuees 82:21 |. 17.56 | 0.71 0.19 | 0.07 ae : 8.70 bs 
6 KC 6 NA ierescse| 02.49-| 80,84 | 0.74 0.40 | 0.07 es 8.45 ie 
2 7 KX Ge oy Dutvesanese 97.12 ate 1.84 setae : 0.80 | Lead.|| 8.58 ts 
a 8 ce Blackish red...... 92.65 Baie 2.11 coo eal BOLLO .. | 0.06 | 5 75 |} 8.70 ee 
eal go: “ Ge NOOAO MC seus c | OAC [ance EAB a om | MOA ee ee) eon) aes 
s 10. English German-silver.............. 61.04 | 19.25 | 20.20 —— ae i ra ..» | Elsner. 
G3 anal: oe Steen Nare cslocene ss 65.24 | 19.52 | 13.00 12.00 2.05 sue) |QURLIYS ne ee 
sy es cc OS daecameseeset d SiO 28.4 Or; ee CO ice aes Sct soe OPAC tes a 
@ | 18. Birminghat Eng. ¢*  i.cccccc0s8ss- 68.34 | 17.01 | 19.138 re Bee aes sae a8 ... | Louyet. 
So 1a “ enter tives 62.40 | 22.15 | 15.05 |]... es ao ee ae Fe “ 
2 as CO saanienee sctneten 62.63 | 26.05 | 10.85 ee wee ad Ree ne a 6 
S Meee See eS eee 
~ 
a0 
= 
> 
3° 
5 
5 
3B 


No. 10 was from Sheffield, England, and characterized by 
its silvery color and its great elasticity; No. 11 was termed 


ALLOYS. 65 


Chinese silver, and No. 12 exhibited a fine silver-color. Els- 
ner ascribes the elasticity to the greater content of copper. 
Nos. 18, 14, and 15, analyzed by Louyet, were used in Bir- 
mingham for articles to be plated. 

Malleable Brass.—Elsner (Newton’s Journ.) has prepared 
malleable brass, by fusing together 60 pts. copper, and 40 
pts. zinc. Great care is requisite in the heating, lest too 
much loss of zinc might ensue, and thus render the process 
unsuccessful. To obviate this difficulty, he advises the better 
plan of substituting a proportional mixture of brass for the 
zinc, and supplying the deficiency of copper. 

This alloy is close-grained, of spec. grav. 8.44 at 50° F., 
very tough and malleable when heated. Its hardness = 4. 

Tungsten and Copper.—Dr. Percy (Ch. Gaz. vi.), who made 
a series of experiments upon the subject, found that tungsten 
does not, as was anticipated from its peculiar nature, impart 
hardness to copper and protect it from oxidation. The essays 
with brass, German silver, and other metals, gave similar 
results. 

Alloy for Bearings of Axles of Locomotives.—An alloy of 
85 lead and 15 antimony is recommended to be cast in a box, 
and then greased in the usual way with soda, tallow, and palm 
oil. The part did not become warm, and the alloy prevented 
the lateral vibrations. 

Alloys for Bearings of Rollers, Turning-lathes, Wagon- 
boxes, §ce.—For heavy works, Tapp recommends 1b copper, 
3% oz. tin, and 44 oz. lead. The copper is first fused, the tin 
next added, and lastly, the lead; and, before casting, the whole 
is well mixed. For smaller machinery with hand-power, the 
best alloy is 73 pts. tin, 18 pts. antimony, and 9 pts. copper. 

Fenton recommends the following alloy as having proved 
serviceable for bearings on English railroads: 80 pts. zine, 
Oo} pts. copper, and 143 pts. tin. It is 40 per cent. cheaper 
than brass, may be fused in iron pots, and is a good alloy for 
cocks. 

See a tabulated view of many alloys, employed in the arts, 


in different proportions, in the Polytech. Notizblatt, 1847, &. 
F2 5 


66 PYROMETALLURGY. [ HEE. 


White, Malleable Alloy.—Parkes gives the two following 
proportions (Rep. of Pat. Inv. July 1845) : 
351b zine, 64tb tin, 1416 iron, 2416 copper. 
50 66 48 66 1 66 3 6é 
The iron and copper are first fused together, the tin then 
added, and lastly the zinc. The flux consists of 1 pt. lime, 
1 pt. fluor spar, and 3 pts. salammoniac. It is cast in sand 
or moulds. Another alloy consists of : 
66 zine, O24 tin, 34 antimony. 
192 66 192 66 22 66 
It is fused with black flux, and, if used for sheathing ships, 
3 to 1 per cent. arsenic should be added. The alloy may be 
rolled cold into thin sheets. 
Alloys for Dentists—The following proportions are re- 
commended : 


Le 2: 3. 4, 5. 
Golds aasipe oss Lh itinte dee shoul as-cast eaO 
SILVER Aes vesuteeseieek aes Ses el elie gic red ae oe nn be oc 
Platimumissavescccronss DN AS Dy ioe ieee aD 
Palladium jess. <2. tas Seni — ee SIS 


The gold and silver are first fused, and the platinum and 
palladium then added. They are fused in small erucibles and 
require a blast. The solder for these alloys is either pure 
gold or an alloy of gold and silver. (Rep. of Pat. Inv. 1845, 
p: 12.) 

Amalgam for Filling Teeth.—Pettenkofer (Ann. der Chem. 
und Pharm. 1849) has described an amalgam used by dentists. 
It is very hard, adhesive, and of a grayish color ; and, owing to 
the very slight difference of density in the soft and hard state, 
it occupies the same space when cool as in the plastic state. 
This latter condition is given by heating the amalgam to 
nearly the boiling point of mercury, and then triturating it, 
for some time, in a mortar. After cooling, it is soft and 
readily worked either with the fingers or tools. In a few 
hours, it becomes intensely hard. The following is the best 
process for'the preparation of this amalgam. Weigh out a 
quantity of pure mercury, dissolve it in aq. s. of hot sul- 


FRAUDULENT GOLD. 67 


phuric acid, and triturate the resulting paste of sulphate with 
pure, finely-divided copper, diffused in water at 140°-158°. 
There must be sufficient copper to form a composition of 70 
pts. mercury and 30 pts. copper, or enough to reduce all the 
mercury salt employed, and to alloy the mercury eliminated. 
After rubbing for some time, the amalgam is to be well 
washed, pressed in a leather bag, and formed into small cakes 
for use. 

Various Alloys.—Stirling forms an alloy of zinc and iron, 
by throwing a quantity of zinc into a cupola after the metal is 
run out and the blast stopped, whereby an alloy is formed with 
the iron still adhering to the sides, fuel, &&. When the alloy 
contains more than 7 per cent. iron, zinc is to be added to it; 
when less than 4 per cent., iron is to be added, the best alloy 
containing from 4 to 7 per cent. iron. This alloy is used for 
other alloys instead of zinc. An alloy of copper and man- 
ganese is made by adding to melted copper from 4 to 2 per 
cent. of black oxide of manganese, or by mixing them before- 
hand and then melting, keeping the metal in either case 
covered with a reducing flux. A gold-colored alloy is pro- 
duced by adding 1 pt. of the zine alloy to 4 pts. of the copper 
alloy: it is very malleable and ductile, and takes a fine polish. 
The addition of } per cent of tin hardens the gold alloy, al- 
though as much as 4 per cent. may be used. To prevent 
heating by friction, lead may be added to the alloy. An 
improved German silver is made by melting 10 pts. copper, 
2 pts. nickel, and 6 pts. of the iron-zine alloy; or 8 pts. cop- 
per, 2 pts. nickel, and 4 pts. of the iron-zinc alloy. A much 
larger proportion of iron-zine renders the metal too hard for 
rolling, but good for some casting. An excess of copper 
spoils the color. The nickel and copper are first melted and 
the zine alloy then introduced under cover of a reducing 
flux. (Rep. Pat. Inv. July, 1850.) 

Fraudulent Gold.—When gold of 12 carats or less, is al- 
loyed with zine instead of silver, it still retains a true golden 
color, and this property has caused its extensive use in the 
manufacture of fraudulent jewelry. (Technologiste, 1847.) 


68 PYROMETALLURGY. [ HWE. 


Peruvian Gold Alloy.—According to How (Journ. Pract. 
Chem. xliii.), the Peruvian gold alloy consists of gold 38.93, 
silver 54.828, copper 5.80. 

11.—A few operations on the metals, connected with the 
preceding subject, are here thrown together. 

Metal Pipes and Tubes.—An improvement consists in the em- 
ployment of machinery for ramming the moulds and cores, and 
a measured quantity of sand being pressed into each portion 
of the flask and between the converging sides of the divided 
core-box, and for forming a core by enveloping a metal rod in 
a coil of wire upon which the sand is compressed. (Lond. 
Journ. xxxvil. Aug.) 

Cleaning Metal Castings.—To cleanse metal castings, they 
are usually thrown into water acidulated by sulphuric or mu- 
riatic acid; but as some metal is removed and the surface left 
rough, the process is objectionable. Thomas and Delisse 
found by their experiments that if several organic substances 
were added to the acid water, the scale of dirt and oxide was 
removed, but the surface of the metal unattacked. Elsner 
found that tar added to the acid water completely cleansed an 
iron casting, while another piece of casting in the usual acid 
water was nearly dissolved. (Technologiste. See also Journ. 
Fr. Inst. (3) xviii. 49.) 

Enameled Iron.—After cleaning the surface to be enameled, 
the enamel is laid on as a paste and burned in under a muffle. 
F. Walton (Lond. Journ. Arts, 1847) uses three successive 
layers, which are as often heated in the muffle. The first coat 
is made by fritting 6 pts. pounded flint-glass, 3 pts. borax, 1 
pt. red lead, and 1 pt. oxide of tin. One part of this frit, 
mixed with 2 pts. calcined and ground bones, is ground fine 
with water, spread over the metallic surface as a thick paste, 
dried, and then heated to redness in the muffle. The second 
coat is made of 32 pts. calcined and ground bones, 16 pts. 
kaolin, 14 pts. Cornish granite, and 8 pts. potash in solution : 
the paste thus made is fritted for 2-3 hours in a reverberatory 
and then powdered. Of this frit 53 pts. are mixed with 16 
pts. coarsely-powdered flint-glass, 53 pts. calcined and ground 


WELDING POWDER. 69 


bones, and 3 pts. ignited and ground flints. The mixture is 
then ground with water, spread over the first coat and burned 
in. The third and last coat (which is similarly treated) con- 
sists of 12 pts. powdered feldspar, 43 pts. kaolin, 18 pts. 
borax, 8 pts. saltpeter, 1} pt. potash, and 14 pt. oxide of tin. 

Soldering Salt (chloride of zinc and ammonium).—Vessels 
may be tinned with this salt without previously cleansing their 
surfaces. It is made by dissolving 11b zinc in muriatic acid, 
adding 22 pts. salammoniac to the solution, and evaporating 
to dryness ; the yield is 2}1b of the double salt. To use it, the 
salt, moistened with water, is brushed on the surface to be 
tinned, a little solder laid on it here and there, and the surface 
heated until the solder fuses, when it flows wherever the salt 
was put, and unites with the metallic surface. (Journ. f. 
Buchdruckerk. 1847, No. vii.) 

.Tinning.—According to Becquerel, well-cleansed vessels of 
iron and copper may be tinned by dipping them into a solution 
of the double salt of chloride of tin and sodium, at a heat of 
160° assisted by contact with zine. 

Soldering Wrought and Cast-iron.—Filings of soft cast-iron 
are melted with calcined borax, the mass pulverized and 
sprinkled on the parts to be united. They are then separately 
heated and welded together on an anvil by gentle blows. 
(Journ. Fr. Inst. (3) xviii. 50.) 

Welding Powder.—To melted borax, ;!, salammoniac is 
added, the mixture poured on an iron plate, and an equal 
weight of quicklime ground up with it. Iron ‘or steel to be 
welded is first heated to redness, the mixture laid on the weld- 
ing surfaces, and the metal again heated, but far below the 
usual welding heat. The pieces unite firmly by hammering. 
(Lond. Builder, 1848.) 


2, HyDROMETALLURGY 


Embraces those processes performed by liquid agents on 
metals, by which they are procured again from combinations 
in the metallic state. .Some of these operations are included 


70 HYDROMETALLURGY. [ WHR. 


in Pyrometallurgy, as they constitute some of the necessary 
steps for extracting metals from their ores and purifying 
them. The present division embraces all other liquid metal- 
lurgic processes, especially the wide-spreading branch of gal- 
vanoplastics, together with etching metals and photography. 

When we say that carbon is the great reducing agent em- 
ployed in metallurgy, we refer to its exclusive use from time 
immemorial in furnaces, both as fuel and a reducing agent; 
but recent experiments have shown its reducing and decompos- 
ing power even in solution. Refer, also, to the third division 
of Chemies for its decomposing power. 

Deoxidation by Carbon in the wet way.—Schonbein has 
ascertained that the persalts of iron and the salts of red oxide 
of mercury may be reduced, by agitating their solutions with 
finely powdered charcoal (as ignited lamp-black) to salts of 
protoxide of iron, and of the black oxide of mercury ye- 
spectively. 

On the reduction of salts of iron to the metallic state, see 
Journ. Fr. Inst. (8) xix. 354, and Chem. Gaz. April, 1850. 

1. Galvanoplastics.—We have a few points to offer on the 
general subject of galvanoplastics, by which metals are pre- 
cipitated in the metallic state by a galvanic arrangement, on 
surfaces previously rendered conductive. These processes, 
chiefly confined to gold and silver, are fast replacing the more 
ancient methods of plating, over which they possess great 
advantages, economy of time and material, convenience, facility 
for obtaining plating of any required thickness, &e. 

Cyanides. Solution of metals in cyanide of potassium.— 
Elsner has described in the Journ. f. Pract. Chemie, vol. xxxvii. 
1846, experiments on the solubility of various metals in 
cyanide of potassium, the general results of which he thus 
gives. He found that the metals employed might be divided 
into two groups: those which do not dissolve, as ‘platinum, tin, 
and mercury, and those which dissolve. The latter are again 
divisible into two groups: those dissolving with the decomposi- 
tion of water, as iron, copper, zine, and nickel; and those 
unattended by the decomposition of water, as gold, silver, and 


PLATING BY GOLD OR SILVER. tt 


cadmium. Solution is effected in both cases by oxygen, but 
in one it is evolved from water, in the other extracted from 
the air. A part of the cyanide of potassium is oxidized to 
potassa (hydrogen escaping when water is decomposed), and 
the cyanogen, set free, unites with the metal; the metallic 
cyanide then forms a double salt with cyanide of potassium. 

Oxide of Gold.—Figuier (Journ. de Pharm. 1847), who 
tested the several methods of preparing this oxide, now so 
extensively used in electro-gilding, has determined the best 
to be as follows. Dissolve 1 pt. gold in 4 pts. aqua regia, 
evaporate to dryness, redissolve in water, add a little aqua 
regia to take up the traces of metallic gold and of proto- 
chloride remaining undissolved. Evaporate again, redissolve 
in water, and mix with pure potassa perfectly free from 
chloride, until it gives an alkaline reaction with turmeric paper. 
Turbidity immediately ensues, when it is mixed with chloride 
of barium ;—aurate of baryta precipitates as a yellow powder. 
When the precipitate begins to assume a whitish appearance, 
the addition of chloride of barium must be discontinued, as 
all the gold oxide has gone down and the alkali commenced 
to act upon the baryta of the chloride. The aurate of baryta 
is then to be washed until the waste-waters cease to be pre- 
cipitated by sulphuric acid. The aurate is then heated to 
boiling, with dilute nitric acid, in order to eliminate the oxide 
of gold. By washing until the water no longer reddens litmus 
paper, the oxide becomes pure, and must be dried between the 
folds of bibulous paper by exposure to air. 

Amalgamated .« Zine.—Stoddard (Silliman’s Journ. 1849) 
has recommended the following method of amalgamating zine 
for cylinders for galvanic batteries. The zinc is heated to 
450—500° and moistened with a solution of double chloride of 
zine and ammonium, and mercury immediately dropped over 
the surface while still moist—the union is complete in a few 
seconds. 

2. Plating by Gold or Stlver.—Both galvanic and other 
methods are here included, as far as they have been recently 
improved. — 


Te HYDROMETALLURGY. [ HEE. 


Plating in the cold.—Stein (Polytec. Centralbl. 1847) 
mixes 1 pt. nitrate of silver and 3 pts. cyanide of potassium, 
adding sufficient water to make a thick paste, and rubs the 
mixture with a woollen rag upon a clean surface of copper, 
bronze, or brass. The process gives a bright silver surface, 
which, however, will not bear violent friction with chalk or 
tripoli. 

Roseleur and Lavaux’s method (Liebig and Kopp’s Rep., 
and Technologiste, 1847) is the use of a bath of 100 pts. of 
sulphite of soda, containing 15 pts. of silver-salt. Neither 
of these processes yields very durable coatings. 

Plating by dipping.—Levol employed solutions of cyanide 
of gold and of silver in cyanide of potassium, and articles of 
copper, bronze, and brass, to be gilt, were dipped into the 
boiling gold solution; but silver could not be gilt in this man- 
ner, and Levol proposed for it a solution of chloride of gold 
in sulphocyanide (rhodanide) of potassium. It was, however, 
shown that silver might be gilt in cyanide of gold and po- 
tassium, by wrapping it with zine or copper wire, and then 
dipping it into the boiling-hot solution. Thus, to gild the 
inner surface of a silver cup, such wire is wound around the 
interior, and the boiling cyanide solution pouredin. The zine 
or copper renders the silver more strongly electronegative. A 
beautiful gilding is obtained by dissolving fine metallic gold in 
a solution of cyanide of potassium, and the metallic gold is 
obtained by precipitating its solution by copperas, or by imbu- 
ing rags with the solution and burning them to ashes. By 
warming the solution of cyanide of potassium with the latter, 
the gold is dissolved, and the solution filtered off from charcoal 
and ashes. Rags imbued with nitrate of silver, and burned, 
may be similarly used for making a solution of cyanide of 
silver and potassium. 

Gilding in Elkington’s Liquid.—Experiments in the Ge- 
werbe-Institut of Berlin lead to the following proportions as 
the best for this liquid. Fine gold is dissolved in a sufficient 
quantity of aqua regia, evaporated to dryness at a gentle heat, 
and dissolved in 13 pts. water; 7 pts. bicarbonate of potassa 


FIRE-GILDING OF IRON AND STEEL. 73 


are added to the solution, which assumes a greenish color and 
becomes a little cloudy. 

Barral (Mémoire sur la Précipitation de Or a)’ Etat Métal- 
lique, Paris, 1846) gives his experiments; among others, the 
following. A bright article of silver, connected by copper 
wire with a piece of copper, which has been ignited and 
quenched in dilute sulphuric acid, is beautifully gilt, of any 
desired thickness, in the liquid. The bright article forms the 
negative, and the dull copper, the positive pole. Brought in 
contact with zine, the silver is gilt more rapidly, and the action 
is strongest when the silver is connected with lead. The me- 
tal serving as positive pole is covered with a strong precipitate 
of pulverulent gold. By connecting copper with zine, or iron 
with lead, the former is powerfully gilt. Bright copper is 
strongly gilt in connection with dull copper (ignited), while the 
latter is covered with a powdery deposit. 

Gilding on Iron and Steel.—Elsner showed, in 1841, that 
steel pens may be heavily gilt, by first removing their blue 
coating by dilute muriatic acid, and then dipping them into a 
solution of chloride of gold rendered alkaline by carbonate of 
soda. Schoppler gives the following method for coating larger 
articles. (Polytech. Notizbl. 1847.) The surface of iron or 
steel, being brightened by the file, and coated with lack-varnish, 
those portions to be gilt are freed from the lacquer, etched 
by dilute sulphuric acid, dried, and dipped into a very dilute 
solution of blue vitriol until they are coated with copper. The 
metal is then dipped into a solution of 100 pts. gold in 13,000 
pts. water, to which 370 pts. carbonate of soda are added. The 
gilding may be polished. 

Fire-gilding of Wrought and Cast-iron, and Steel.—This 
operation, readily performed on bronze and copper by amal- 
gamating their surface, has not been applied to iron, on account 
of the difficulty of amalgamating its surface; but R. Bittger 
has contrived the following good method of effecting it. A 
mixture is made in a porcelain vessel, of 12 pts. mercury, 1 pt. 
zinc, 2 pts. copperas, 12 pts. water, and 1} pt. muriatic acid 
of spec. gray. 1.2. The article of iron or steel to be gilded 

( 


74 HYDROMETALLURGY. [ WHE. 


is introduced into this mixture, which is then heated to boiling, 
and in a short time is again withdrawn, covered by a shining 
coat of mercury. It is now ready to receive the amalgam of 
gold or silver for the purpose of fire-gilding (Pogg. Annal. 
1846). The strongly positive zinc amalgam increases the 
electric tension between the positive iron and negative mer- 
cury, so as to cause their union. 

Gilding Watch-wheels.—Ph. Plantamour prepares an amal- 
gamating fluid for gilding wheels of watches, which, being 
alkaline, cleans and amalgamates the wheels at the same time, 
without injuring the steel pivots. Mercury is dissolved in an 
excess of nitric acid, and ammonia added to the solution until 
the precipitate at first formed is redissolved. The wheels being 
immersed in this solution, the ammonia dissolves fatty matters, 
with other impurities, from the surface, and the brass is 
amalgamated. While still moist, the wheels are covered with 
gold amalgam, put on a drum with holes for inserting the 
pivots, and gently heated over a spirit lamp, so that the qua- 
lity of the steel is not impaired. (Comptes Rendus, xxiv. 784.) 

Stlvering Mirrors.—For Drayton’s original process for sil- 
vering glass surfaces, see Lond. Journ. xxiv., or Journ. Fr. 
Inst. viii. 8 ser. His improvements in the same are in the 
Lond. Journ. for 1849, and Journ. Fr. Inst. 1850. One ounce 
ammonia, 2 oz. nitrate of silver, 3 oz. water, and 3 oz. spirit 
of wine are mixed together, allowed to stand for 3 or 4 hours, 
and then filtered. A quarter-ounce sugar (grape-sugar being 
preferred), dissolved in a half-pint of spirit of wine diluted 
with as much water, is added to each ounce of the filtered 
liquid, and this solution is employed for silvering, the article 
to be silvered being kept at 160°. 

Meurer dissolves 5 grs. lunar caustic (nitrate of silver) in a 
little caustic ammonia, and adds to it a mixture of 1 drop oil 
of cinnamon, 2 drops oil of cloves, and 1-1} drachms of 
absolute alcohol. The mixture becomes gradually cloudy, 
depositing a brown precipitate, which is filtered off, and the 
clear liquid poured upon a clean glass plate, surrounded with 
arim. In the course of a few hours, it is covered with a 


GALVANIC GILDING AND SILVERING. te 


brilliant white coating of metallic silver. Elsner observes that 
it is necessary to let the liquid remain until all the brown sedi- 
ment has separated, in order to avoid spots on the silver surface. 
Tourasse protects the back of the silver with varnish. The 
cost is said to be 4 of that of the amalgamated tin, a very 
thin coating of silver being sufficient. Reichardt dissolves 
1 oz. lunar caustic in 2 oz. water, adds 4 0z. caustic ammonia, 
and 3 oz. strong alcohol containing 30 drops of oil of cassia, 
filters, and lets the whole stand 3-6 days. The liquid is 
poured on a glass plate cleaned by potash. He employs the 
oil of cloves in vapor, by dropping a little into a warmed 
vessel, which is turned a little to spread the oil, and is then 
inverted over the glass plate. The coating is made in } hour. 

Silvering glass by gun-cotton has been effected by Vohl, 
by dissolving the cotton in caustic potassa, adding a little of 
nitrate of silver, and then sufficient ammonia to redissolve the 
oxide of silver, while the whole is kept warm. The whole of 
the silver is precipitated as a brilliant coating on the sides 
of the vessel. Other analagous nitric compounds of sugar, 
manna, and gums produce a like result. (Technologiste, Lond. 
Journ. 1849, and Amer. Journ. (2) viii. 117.) 

Speculums.—T. Fletcher’s patent (Ch. Gaz. vi.) for making 
speculums, is to take a glass which has been silvered as for 
mirrors, and to coat the metallic side with a varnish composed 
of 2 oz. shellac, + oz. lamp-black, and 3 pint absolute alcohol 
as a protective against dampness and the action of acid. As 
the coating becomes dry, it is dusted over with finely-powdered 
plumbago, and the glass is then submitted to the electrotype 
process, by which means a thin coating of metal will be pre- 
cipitated over the whole back. 

Galvanic Gilding and Silvering.—(Communicated to Elsner 
by Mr. Brauns.)—Smee’s battery is best adapted to the pur- 
pose, as itis simple in construction (consisting of platinized sil- 
ver-foil, surrounded by an amalgamated sheet of zinc); requires 
only one liquid (1 pt. sulphuric acid to 8 pts. water); con- 
tinues long in action, and gives off no gas during the operation. 
The cells consist of leaden vessels internally pitched. The 


76 HYDROMETALLURGY. [ WHE. 


silver-foil is thus platinized: } oz. platinum is dissolved in 
nitromuriatic acid, evaporated to dryness, dissolved in 1 qt. 
rain water, 3—4 oz. oil of vitriol added. The silver-foil, having 
been dipped for a few moments in strong nitric acid, is hung 
on the cathode (zinc-pole), and platinum-foil on the anode 
(copper-pole) of a battery; the silver is covered with a gray 
coating of platinum. 

The best silvering liquid is a solution of 1 pt. of the crys- 
tallized double salt, cyanide of silver and potassium, in 10 pts. 
water, to which } cyanide of potassium is added, and the whole 
boiled until it ceases to smell of ammonia. When the double 
salt alone is used, a platinum anode must be used, for a silver 
anode becomes coated with cyanide of silver, and impairs the 
conducting power. But the latter may be employed in the 
above liquid, because the cyanide of potassium dissolves the 
cyanide of silver and keeps the surface of the silver anode 
bright. The exhausted solutions are evaporated to dryness, 
and to the fusing residue a little saltpeter is gradually added 
to destroy cyanide of potassium. 

The gilding liquid is thus prepared. 10 pts. gold are dis- 
solved in nitromuriatic acid, diluted and filtered to remove the 
chloride of silver, 3 pts. common salt added, and the whole 
evaporated to dryness. The residue is dissolved in water, 
precipitated by an excess of ammonia, the yellowish-brown 
precipitate filtered, washed, and dissolved in a sufficient quan- 
tity of cyanide of potassium. An excess of this cyanide is 
then added, and the liquid is diluted with 64 pts. water. To 
destroy the cyanate of potassa, it is boiled until ammonia 
ceases to come off, and then 64 pts. more water are added. 
If the solution be warmed, the gilding is a beautiful matt. 
Exhausted gold solutions are evaporated to dryness and may 
be fused alone, or fused together with silver residues, and the 
silver extracted from the gold by nitric acid. 

Galvanic Gilding.—Extracted from an essay by the Duke 
of Leuchtenberg, in the Bulletin de l’Acad., St. Petersburg, 
1847. He draws attention to the special care required to 
precipitate gold above all other metals, and notices particularly 


GALVANIC GILDING. Te 


the following points. We must know the proportion, 1, of 
gold to the potassa-salts contained in the gold solution ; 2, of 
the gilding surface to the strength of galvanic current, and 
the strength of the gold solution; 8, of the surface of the 
anode to the gilding surface, and to the content of gold in 1 
decilitre-solution; 4, of the surface of the anode and of the 
gilding surface to the strength of the current. 

The gold solution is thus made. 1 pt. gold is dissolved in 
aqua regia and evaporated (at a gentle heat) to dryness, the 
residue treated with an aqueous solution of 1 pt. caustic po- 
tassa, this mixture then with an aqueous solution of 24 pts. 
eyanide of potassium, and 1 pt. caustic potassa, and the whole 
warmed and filtered. 

He found that, for successful gilfing, the above proportion 
between the gold and potassa in the solution should remain 
constant; and if (as when a platinum anode is used) the 
quantity of gold diminishes by precipitation, the force of the 
galvanic current must be increased by adding more cells, and 
increasing the surface of the anode, since this force is di- 
minished in a dilute solution. The finest gilding is obtained 
when 1 decilitre of solution contains from 1 to } gramme of 
gold. A reddish gilding is obtained by diminishing the gal- 
vanic force, such as lessening the number of cells, or the 
surface of the anode, or increasing the gilding surface. 

Leuchtenberg rejects gold and silver anodes, because there 
is not as much of them dissolved as is precipitated on the 
cathode, and because they become coated with cyanides. He 
therefore employs a platinum anode, and determines the con- 
tent of gold in solution, before and after gilding, by chemical 
analysis, in order to ascertain how much gold has been pre- 
cipitated on the cathode. This is done by evaporating a 
decilitre to dryness, moistening with sulphuric acid, heating 
to redness, and extracting by water, when metallic gold 
remains. 

In the galvanoplastic establishment of St. Petersburg, about 
18 tons (363 ctr.) of copper are annually precipitated, 300 


pud of silver, and about 601b gold, thrown down in a month. 
a2 


78 HYDROMETALLURGY. [ HEE. 


The gilding is begun in a solution containing 0.1 gm. gold in 
1 decilitre of liquid, and finished in a solution not yet ex- 
hausted, whereby the beauty of the gilding is heightened. 
When the solutions have been too dilute, they are evaporated 
in an iron kettle to dryness, the residue fused in a crucible, 
and the salts washed out from the metallic gold. Coke-iron 
batteries are employed, and the electric current so regulated, 
that an evolution of gas may be perceptible at the anode, but 
not on the gilding surface. In the latter case, the current is 
diminished by removing some of the cells, by lessening the 
surface of the anode, or increasing that of the cathode (gilding 
surface). 

Elsner justly remarks, on Leuchtenberg’s method of analyz- 
ing the solutions to determine the quantity of gold or silver 
precipitated, that the practical gilder could not execute a fine 
assay of this kind, and that the simple method of weighing 
the gold or silver anode before and after use will give a suffi- 
ciently close determination of the amount of gold expended. 

Matt Gilding agd Silvering.—According to R. Bottger, a 
matt silvering is always obtained in a boiling solution of 
washed chloride of silver, dissolved in cyanide of potassium, 
by a moderate and constant electric current. A matt gilding 
is obtained in a boiling solution of ‘ammonia-oxide of gold 
dissolved in cyanide of potassium, to which a small quantity 
of potassa has been added. The gilding is still finer when 
the articles have been previously matt-silvered. (Polytech. 
Notizbl. by R. Bottger, 1846.) See also Elsner’s experiments 
on matt gilding with yellow prussiate of potash, in Verh. d. 
Gewerbfleisses f. Preussen, 1843. 

Gold and Silver recovered from exhausted Cyanide Solu- 
tions.—To recover gold and silver from solutions of cyanide 
of potassium or yellow prussiate of potash, the solutions are 
evaporated to dryness, heated to redness, and extracted with 
water, when the metallic gold or silver will remain. Another 
method is pursued with a potassa solution of the prussiate. 
A silver solution is heated with muriatic acid under a draft 
(to carry off prussic acid), and the precipitated chloride well 


COPPER PRECIPITATED. 19 


washed. <A gold solution is evaporated to dryness, the dry 
residue mixed with 14 pts. saltpeter, projected portionwise 
into a red-hot crucible, extracted by water after cooling, the 
insoluble residue dissolved in nitromuriatic acid, diluted, and 
the gold precipitated as sulphuret by sulphuretted hydrogen ; 
or after removing nitric acid from the solution by evaporation, 
and then diluting, it may be obtained purer by precipitation 
with copperas. 

See, also, Berlin Gewerbe-Industrie u. Handelsblatt, Bd. 18. 

Platinizing Glass, Porcelain, and Pottery.—Liidersdorff 
gives the following method (Verh. d. Gewerbfl. in Preussen, 
1847). <A solution of platinum in aqua regia is evaporated 
to dryness, at a gentle heat, so that the residue appears 
reddish-yellow, and not brown, and is immediately dissolved 
in an equal weight of strong alcohol. 8 pts. of the solution 
are poured into 5 pts. oil of lavender, forming a clear brown 
liquid, containing platinum as protochloride. This solution is 
brushed upon the article to be platinized, and after drying 
burned in under a muffle. Glass and pottery is heated to low 
redness; porcelain to a bright red-heat. After cooling, the 
articles are rubbed with cotton and prepared chalk. 

3. Various other metals and their compounds, beside the 
precious metals, have been employed for coating articles for 
various purposes, and we offer a few suggestions on these 
points. 

Copper Precipitated.—In the usual method of precipitating 
copper from mine-waters by bars of iron, more iron is dis- 
solved than necessary, as the water generally contains an 
excess of sulphuric acid, all the copper is not precipitated, 
and a portion of oxide of iron is lost from the subsequent 
exposure of the solution. Napier’s improvement consists in 
acidulating the liquid with sulphuric acid, which keeps the 
surface clean for more energetic action, and in previously 
putting in saw-dust or other organic matter, which converts 
the persulphate present into protosulphate, so that all the iron 
is obtained as copperas. 1000 litres of such water are treated 
with 2 kilogr. sulphuric acid, and 2 kilogr. saw-dust (the last 


80 HYDROMETALLURGY. [ HE. 


being removed, when the peroxide is reduced to protoxide), 
and so much iron introduced as is chemically equivalent to the 
copper present in the water. In a few hours all the copper 
is thrown down, and the liquid, passed through a cloth to 
collect the copper, is evaporated to crystallize. (Rep. of Pat. 
Iny. 1845.) 

Iron Coppered.—Reinsch has succeeded in giving to iron 
a durable and polishable coating of copper, by immersing it, 
after previous brightening by friction with cream of tartar 
and charcoal-dust, in a bath of hydrochloric acid diluted with 
3 pts. of water, and containing a small portion of sulphate 
of copper. After being immersed a few minutes, the iron is 
removed, rubbed clean witha cloth, and again immersed. The 
supply of copper must be renewed after each immersion, and 
the immersion repeated until the coating is of the required 
thickness. (Jahrb. Pr. Pharm. xv. and Liebig and Kopp’s Rep.) 

Sulphuret of Copper, a coat for Copper Vessels.—R. Bottger 
describes a bluish-gray coating, which gives a fine appearance 
and protects from the weather. Dissolve 1 pt. of the crys- 
tallized sulphantimoniate of sodium (sulphuret of sodium and 
persulphuret of antimony) in 12 pts. water, heat to boiling, 
and dip the well-cleansed copper vessel for a few moments 
into the boiling solution. When the proper color is obtained, 
the vessel is removed, well washed, and dried by a cloth. 

Coppering Glass, Porcelain, or Clay Vessels.—At the Ex- 
hibition of Manufactures, in Berlin and Paris, in 1844, there 
were vessels of glass, &c. coated with copper galvanically. 
Dr. Mohr published (Dingler’s Journ. Bd. 108, p. 364) a pro- 
cess by which the coppering might be executed. He coated 
the vessel with copal varnish, rendered the surface conductive 
with gold-leaf, brass, or bronze-powder, and precipitated from 
a solution of blue vitriol. The work was well executed, ex- 
cept that, on heating a porcelain vessel thus coated, the copper 
was loosed from it in the form of the vessel. Dr. Elsner pro- 
posed another method (Verh.,d. Gewerbver. f. Preussen, 
_ 1847), which was not subject to the same defect. The surface 
of the vessel was rendered matt or rough, by brushing on it 


GALVANIC COPPERING. 81 


a thick paste of fluor-spar and oil of vitriol, exposing it for 
24 hours to a temperature of 59° to 68°, and then washing it 
off with water. If the surface was not rough enough, the 
operation was repeated. The rough surface was rendered 
conductive by brushing on it well-ignited graphite powder, 
and then coppered by a Daniell’s battery. Liquids were 
boiled in this vessel without loosening the copper coating. By 
coating a capsule with a varnish, bronzing it, precipitating 
copper on it, and then loosening the copper coating by heat, 
this copper vessel may be silvered or gilded, and found useful 
in the laboratory. 

Galvanic Coppering.—For coppering smaller articles of 
iron, zinc, &c., a solution of cyanide of copper, dissolved in 
cyanide of potassium, is employed. The experiments of 
Rammelsberg (Pogg. Annal. vols. xxxvili. and xlii.) prove that 
two chemically distinct compounds exist, one consisting of 
1 equiv. each of cyanide of potassium and cyanide of copper, 
the other of 3 equiv. cyanide of potassium, and 1 equiv. cy- 
anide of copper. The former is difficultly soluble, crystal- 
lizes in needles, and, when treated with cold water, is resolved 
into white insoluble cyanide of copper: the latter is quite 
soluble and crystallizes in rhombs. Both salts are formed in 
the usual way of preparing the coppering liquid, which is 
made by adding cyanide of potassium to a solution of blue 
vitriol or verdigris, until the precipitate redissolves. For 
upon evaporating the solution, the needles crystallize out 
first, and then the more soluble rhombs. 

According ‘to Béttger’s experiments, the soluble salt pro- 
duces the finest coppering, and for ordinary purposes it is only 
necessary to digest copper-ash (a mixture of copper, oxide, 
and suboxide} with a concentrated solution of cyanide of po- 
tassium (1 pt. cyanide to 6 pts. water) for an hour, at the 
_ temperature of 190°, to filter and dilute with an equal volume 
of water. To obtain the soluble salt, pure metallic copper 
(precipitated by zinc) is dissolved in a solution of cyanide of 
potassium. The oxides of copper give rise to the insoluble 
salt. (Polytech. Notizbl. by R. Bottger, 1846.) 

6 


82 HYDROMETALLURGY. [ WER. 


For coppering larger vessels, the cyanide solutions are too 
expensive, and blue vitriol solution, acidulated with sulphuric 
acid, will be all-sufficient.— Elsner. 

Antique Bronze, or Patina.—The following composition is 
said to produce the effect rapidly. 1 pt. salammoniac, 3 pts. 
powdered argal, and 3 pts. common salt, are dissolved in 12 
pts. hot water, and 8 pts. of a solution of nitrate of copper 
added. (The strength of this solution is not given.— Elsner.) 
Newly made articles of bronze are coated several times with 
the above solution. A larger proportion of common salt gives 
a yellowish, and less gives a more bluish tint. (Polytech. 
Notizbl. 1846.) 

C. Hoffmann produces a beautiful chrome-green brown, by 
first touching (not brushing) the surface of the bronze with a 
very dilute solution of nitrate of copper, containing a little 
common salt, brushing it off, then touching it with a solution . 
of 1 pt. binoxalate of potassa, 44 pts. salammoniac, and 944 
pts. vinegar, and again brushing it off. This operation is 
repeated several times. In the course of a week, the article 
has a greenish-brown hue, with a bluish-green tone in the 
depressions, and withstands the weather. 

Elsner proposed a method, some years since, which produced 
an antique, almost identical with that produced naturally, on 
bronzes. The bronze article, with a clean surface, was dipped 
into dilute vinegar, and exposed for several weeks to a moist 
atmosphere of carbonic acid. The operation is economical, 
and easily executed. (Berlin. Gewerbe-Industrie u. Handelsbl. 
xu. 78.) 

Bronzing and Brassing.—Brunnel, Bisson, and Gaugain, 
have given (Newton’s Journ. 1848) a new process for brassing 
articles of iron, steel, lead, zinc, and their alloys with each 
other and with bismuth and antimony, by means of the follow- 
ing bath: 500 pts. carbonate of potassa, 20 pts. chloride of 
copper, 40 pts. sulphate of zinc, 250 pts. nitrate of ammonia. 
For bronzing, the zinc-salt is to be replaced by one of tin. 
The object to be plated, after being brightened by scouring, 
is connected with the negative pole of a Bunsen battery ;—a 


GALVANIC ZINCKING. 83 


brass plate being the positive or decomposing pole. For large 
articles, the number, and not the size of the pairs must be 
increased. A coating of varnish is necessary to protect the 
plated surfaces from oxidation by exposure. 

Salzedes’s method (Ch. Gaz. vi. 227) is similar to the forego- 
ing, but is more expensive, as it requires, in addition, the use 
of cyanide of potassium. 

Lead; its Reduction in the wet way.—Sulphate of lead 
is a large secondary product in dyeing and other technical 
processes, and may be reduced, according to Trommsdorff, in 
the following manner. (Kunst u. Gewerbebl. d. k. Baiern, 
May, 1846, p. 350.) 10 pts. sulphate of lead and 1 pt. com- 
mon salt are mixed with water to a paste, and bars of zinc 
immersed into the liquid. Grayish-black metallic lead is 
separated in a short time, and the solution contains sulphate 
and chloride of zinc. Theleadisvery pure. Bolley observes 
that the lead is left in aspongy state, and may be compressed 
into any required form. 

Tinning and Leading Vessels of Copper or Iron.—Accord- 
ing to Golfier Bessiére, vessels of copper and iron may be 
easily and strongly coated with lead or tin, by employing 
soldering salt (chloride of tin and ammonium) instead of 
salammoniac, during the operation. It thoroughly cleanses 
the surface from rust. 

Iron Leaded.—Parkes (Chem. Gaz. 1848) has given a new 
method for coating iron and steel with lead. The metal is to 
be scoured and dipped into a bath of 9 pts. of lead with 3 pts. 
antimony, or into one of 9 pts. lead, 1 pt. tin, and 1 pt. an- 
timony, the surface of either of which must be covered with 
fused chloride of barium and chloride of sodium, or a mixture 
of both. 

Galvanic Zincking—Kiepe made some experiments on this 
subject, under Dr. Elsner’s direction, which resulted as follows. 
Wrought and cast-iron was readily coated with zinc, with the 
aid of a galvanic battery, by employing a solution of freshly- 
precipitated zine in saturated sulphurous acid water, or a 
solution of the double salt of chloride of zinc and ammonium, 


84 HYDROMETALLURGY. [ HM. 


It is only necessary to use the zincking solution dilute, and 
the electric current proportionally feebler. The zinc coating 
had the thickness of writing paper. The results with hyposul- 
phite of zine were unsatisfactory. 

4. The arts of design may be applied to metallic surfaces by 
etching, and in other ways, a few hints on which, of a chemical 
character, we here present. 

Niello-work.—A metallic plate of iron, copper, &e. is 
covered with an etching ground, the design graved through 
it with a point, and these portions etched out by acid. The 
etching ground being removed, the plate is put into a galvano- 
plastic apparatus, and coated thickly with metal. The whole 
surface is ground down, until the precipitated metal is only 
left in the etched lines. Copper or silver is thus precipitated 
on steel or copper; and several metals may be precipitated on 
the same plate. (Vogel in Polytech. Notizbl. 1847.) 

Etching on Copper and Steel.—To avoid the disagreeable 
nitrous fumes arising from the employment of nitric acid for 
etching, as is ordinarily done, Schwartz and Bohme propose 
for steel, 10 pts. fuming muriatic acid, diluted with 70 pts. 
water, mixed with a boiling solution of 2 pts. chlorate of po- 
tassa in 20 pts. water. The liquid is diluted, before using, 
with 100 to 200 pts. water. For copper, 2 pts. iodine and 5 
pts. iodide of potassium are dissolved in 4 pts. water for a 
strong action, or in 8 pts. water for feebler action. (An. d. 
Ch. u. Pharm. Ixvi. 63.) 

Hingraving upon Silvered or Gilded Copper.—Becquerel 
(Comptes Rendus, xxvi. 153) gives an abstract of Victor's 
method of copying drawings upon metal, glass, or paper; and 
also of Poiterin’s ingenious improvement, by which these 
drawings may be transferred in a few hours to metal plates, 
so that they will furnish impressions. The process in detail 
may be found in the Philosophical Magazine for 1848. 

The drawing or writing, previously subjected to the action 
of iodine vapors, is gently and carefully pressed upon a highly 
polished daguerreotype plate. The black lines, being the only 
portions which are iodized, imprint the silver with a corre- 


PHOTOGRAPHY. 85 


sponding picture, by converting the parts impressed into iodide. 
The plate, thus prepared, is galvanized in a saturated solution 
of sulphate of copper, connected by a strip of platinum with 
the positive pole of a battery of several pairs. In this way, 
the white portions of the picture are metallized, while the 
iodized or black limnings remain untouched. The immersion 
of the plate in the copper solution should only continue some 
minutes ; otherwise the whole of it may become coated. 

After careful washing, solution of hyposulphite of soda is 
applied to dissolve out the iodide of silver. covering the black 
parts, and the plate is then heated until its surface assumes a 
dark-brown shade. This oxidation of the copper protects the 
white portions of the picture, which it covers, from the action 
of the mercury next used to amalgamate the exposed silver. 
The amalgamated plate is overlaid with several layers of gold- 
foil, and then heated to volatilize the mercury. ‘The lines ori- 
ginally engraved by the iodine are thus gilded, and, after the 
loose particles of foil are brushed off, the oxide of copper is 
removed by a solution of nitrate of silver, and both the cop- 
per and silver, beneath, dissolved out by nitric acid. As the 
gilded portions are protected, the etching may be managed to 
any depth. The plate thus engraved furnishes impressions in 
the same manner as wood-cuts. 

The plate must be gilt instead of silvered, if it is to be en- 
graved after the manner of copper-plates. The process is the 
same as above, excepting the omission of overlaying with 
gold-leaf, until the application of the nitric acid, which serves, 
instead of heat, to remove the amalgam, and simultaneously, 
also, the oxide of copper. In this kind of plate, however, 
the depressed portions furnish the black part of the proof. 

5. Photography, the art of obtaining representations of 
objects upon surfaces rendered sensitive to the action of light, 
is already a beautiful art, although but in its infancy. Very 
correct representations of animate and inanimate objects, if 
at rest, are taken upon a polished surface of silver, upon paper, 
and lately upon glass. Some of the salts of silver, as iodide 


and bromide, are usually employed to render the surface sensi- 
H 


86 HYDROMETALLURGY. [ OEE. 


tive. Fewimprovements have been recently made in this art, 
but we hope to see most colors copied by photography, and to 
witness its more direct application to engraving by combination 
with the galvanotype. 

According to Schonbein (Pogg. An. Ixxiii.), starch-paste, 
mixed with freshly-made iodide of lead, so as to give it an 
intense yellow color, is the most susceptible of all substances 
to the influence of light. 

Hyposulphite of Soda.—Faget’s process for making the 
hyposulphite of soda (Journ. de Pharm. 1849) yields a more 
uniform and purer article than that obtained by the usual 
methods. It consists in boiling the neutral sulphite with sul- 
phur, by which means nearly all the soda is converted into 
hyposulphite. The author prepares the neutral sulphite by 
mixing a solution of carbonate of soda with an equal volume 
of the same solution previously saturated with sulphurous acid 
gas. The resulting compound is an alkaline bisulphite, with 
an excess of sulphurous acid held in solution by the water of 
the liquid. After the entire expulsion of this excess of sul- 
phurous acid by boiling, sulphur is added and the heat con- 
tinued. 

Plessy purifies this salt by melting it in its water of 
crystallization, evaporating slightly, and setting aside to cool. 
The hyposulphite crystallizes, and the impurities remain in 
the mother water. 

For the preparation of hyposulphite of soda, see Lond. 
Journ. 1849, p. 129. 

Lodine.—Niepce de St. Victor has discovered two properties 
of the vapor of iodine, which promise an extension of pho- 
tography. The first property is, that it will deposit upon the 
lines of an engraving, whether executed-with printer’s ink, 
Indian ink, ink without gum, or red-lead. Before iodizing, it 
is better to pass the paper through ammonia, then through 
water acidulated with sulphuric, chlorohydric, or nitric acid, 
and dry it. The second property is, its depositing itself upon 
the projecting parts of embossed plates. (See Chevreul’s 
Report on this subject, in Comptes Rendus, xxv. 785.) 


PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER. 87 


Daguerreotype.—According to Belfield Lefévre, and Fou- 
cault, an ordinary iodized silver plate, exposed to bromine vapor, 
until it assumes a dark purple tint, is less susceptible, but 
produces the lightest and darkest parts of the picture in com- 
plete detail. (Phil. Mag. xxx. 213.) 

For various improvements in the Talbotype process, see 
Rep. Pat. Inv. for Aug. 1850. 

Photographie Paper.—Blanquart-Evrard’s method of pre- 
paring this paper is as follows (An. de Chim. et de Phys. xx.) 
To produce the negative picture, the best smooth letter-paper 
is laid for 1 minute upon the surface of a solution of 1 pt. 
nitrate of silver in 30 pts. water, taking care that no air-bubbles 
intervene. It is now removed, suffered to drain off, laid on a 
glass plate and suffered to dry. It is then passed into a 
solution of 25 pts. iodide of potassium, and 1 pt. bromide of 
potassium, in 560 pts. water, so that the surface covered with 
silver-salt is uppermost, and after remaining in it for 13-2 
minutes, it is taken out, washed in a large quantity of water, 
drained, laid on glass and dried. Before putting it into the 
camera,-it is moistened on the first side with a solution of 6 
pts. nitrate of silver, in 11 pts. crystallizable acetic acid, and 
64 pts. water, and, after the action of light, with a saturated 
solution of gallic acid. The negative picture then appears. 

The paper for the positive picture is laid for 2-3 minutes 
upon the surface of a solution of 3 pts. common salt in 10 pts. 
distilled water, carefully dried between blotting-paper, then 
passed for a few minutes through a solution of 1 pt. nitrate 
of silver in 6 pts. water, dried, and protected from light. The 
negative picture and the positive paper are laid together be- 
tween two glass plates, exposed for some 20 minutes to sun- 
light, laid in water for some 15 minutes in a dark room, and 
then passed through a solution of 1 pt. hyposulphite of soda 
in 8 pts. water (containing also a little nitrate of silver). By 
the latter action, the white ground becomes clearer, and the 
red tints pass into a brown and lastly into black. 

Horlsley prepares it thus. Fine paper is passed through a 
solution of 4 grm. common salt or salammoniac in 25 centi- 


88 HYDROMETALLURGY. [ HEE. 


litres water, and dried between blotting-paper. Before use, it 
is brushed over with a solution of 2 grm. nitrate of silver, 0.3 
grm. suberic acid, and 5 grm. caustic ammonia, dried, and put 
into the camera. After the lapse of 5-10 minutes, the paper 
is removed, washed in water containing a few drops of am- 
monia, then passed through a solution of 1 pt. hyposulphite 
of soda in 38 pts. water, dried partly between blotting-paper 
and lastly before a fire. 

Archer (Chemist, 1850, p. 860, 450) has recommended the 
use of pyrogallic acid for developing the latent picture upon 
iodized paper. As disappointment is apt to ensue from the 
rapid decomposition of the acid, it is better to prepare the 
wash extemporaneously, as follows. ‘To a solution of 20 gr. 
nitrate of silver in loz. of strong acetic acid, add 3-4 gr. 
pure pyrogallic acid, immediately before using it. All risk 
of decomposition is thus avoided. The prepared paper is 
placed at once into the camera, where the light produces the 
picture without the necessity of a second washing. As the 
paper is very sensitive, the manipulations must be exact and 
dexterous in order to insure success. Ample directions are 
given in the original essays. 5 

Blanquart-Evrard (Lond. Athenzeum, 1850, 743) has pro- 
posed the employment of fluoride of potassium for imparting 
extreme sensibility to the iodized paper. 

According to the same authority, when the paper is prepared 
by washing it with a liquor formed by mixing the white of two 
eggs with a pint and a half of whey, it is free from all in- 
equalities, and may be kept an indefinite time without being 
injured. <A little Narbonne honey added to the albumen, says 
Niepce de St. Victor, will increase the sensitiveness of the 
plate or paper. 

Crayon Daguerreotype.—Mayall (Lond. Athenzeum, 1850) 
gives the following directions for making the so-called crayou 
photographs: 

“Take a daguerreotype image on a prepared plate, as usual, 
and be careful to mark the end of the plate on which the head 
is produced. Remove the plate from the holder before mercu- 


PHOTOGRAPHY ON GLASS. 89 


rializing, and place it upon a sheet of glass prepared as follows. 
Cut a piece of thin plate-glass to the size of the daguerreotype, 
and affix to one side, with gum, a thin oval piece of blackened 
zinc, so that the centre of the oval shall correspond with the 
centre of the image upon the plate. Having carefully placed 
the glass, thus prepared, with the centre of the zinc disc upon 
the centre of the image, expose the whole to daylight for 20 
seconds. The action of the light will obliterate all traces of the 
image from every part of the plate, except that which is co- 
vered with the blackened zinc. The thickness of the glass will 
also cause the action to be refracted under the edges of the 
zine disc, and will soften into the dark parts. Mercurialize 
the plate as usual; the image will be found with a halo of 
light around it, gradually softening into the black ground, 
that will at once add a new charm to these interesting produc- 
tions. By grinding the glass on which the disc is fixed, and 
by altering the size and shape of the disc, a variety of effects 
may be produced, which every ingenious operator can suggest 
for himself.” 

Photography on Glass.—See Niepce’s communication in 
Comptes Rendus, and an extract from the same in Lond. 
Journ. Oct. 1850. 

Photogenic Glasses.—Ceselli (Athenzeum, 1850) gives the 
following direction for albumizing glass plates, so as to pro- 
duce a perfectly uniform and smooth surface. 

The requisite apparatus consists of a small rectangular box 
supported by three regulating screws. ‘To its base is joined a 
movable plate of metal, which, being heated by a spirit lamp, 
communicates to all parts of the box an equal degree of heat. 
The plate is removed when the water-bath is to be used instead 
of the lamp. The apparatus is protected by a glass covering, 
to guard against heterogeneous bodies falling on the albumen. 
This cover is also movable; and the box being traversed by 
an internal channel, in this, when convenient, a thermometer 
may be introduced. A sliding frame receives the glass that 
is to be coated; this again being placed between two other 


plates of glass. The glasses are secured and their edges 
H2 


90 HYDROMETALLURGY. [ HEE. 


brought to correspond by means of a tightening screw, so that 
the albumen, when either spreading or shrinking, may always 
cover the whole surface of the intermediate plate of glass. 
The frame is furnished on two parallel sides with a small 
groove to receive the albumen—which a small round-edged 
knife, elevated to the proper point by means of two spiral 
pivots cased in the sides of the box, and kept down in a pa- 
rallel direction to the glass by means of a screw, serves to 
remove, thus producing the exact thickness of layer which is 
required. The frame is furnished along one of its sides with 
an indented ridge, to which a wheel provided with an external 
handle corresponds, so that the frame can be made to move 
with such velocity, as the operation may require. 


IV. CHEMICS. 


1. SALINEs, 


Embracing the various alkaline salts, manufactured from 
common salt and potash, together with water, and the more 
important acids. 

1. Water and Solution.—The character of a water, as to its 
fitness or unfitness for manufacturing purposes, is deserving of 
some attention. Thus, water derived from coal-mines is often 
so highly charged with free sulphuric acid, derived from the 
oxidation of pyrites in the coal, as to corrode a steam-boiler 
dangerously and rapidly; and, again, some waters deposit a 
sediment when boiled, which incrusts the interior of a boiler, 
and thus acts injuriously. The deposit generally consists of 
sulphate of lime, and many methods have been contrived to 
prevent its formation. One method is, to add salammoniac to 
the water which supplies the boiler, whereby the pan-stone is 
not formed. 

Incrustations in boilers may be prevented in many cases by 
precipitating lime from solution in the water, kept in a tank, 
previously to its being run into boilers, and either allowing the 
precipitate to settle or running it through a filter of earth and 
sand. 

Testing Water.—Dupasquier proposes to test water for an 
unusual amount of organic matter, by a few drops of chloride 
of gold solution. The usual quantity does not alter the yellow 
tint imparted by the gold even by boiling, but when more than 
usual, it passes through a brownish color to bluish and violet 
(Comptes Rendus, Avril, 1847). To test for bicarbonate of 
lime, he adds a few drops of a tincture of campeachy-wood, 


which changes to violet from the presence of this salt, or of 
91 


92 * SALINES. [iV. 


alkaline carbonates. To decide between these, a little blue- 
vitriol solution, added to the water, gives a bluish precipitate 
when bicarbonate of lime is present; in the same case, 
chloride of calcium gives no precipitate, but gives a milkiness 
or precipitate if alkaline carbonates are in solution. 

Solution. —Salts being obtained and purified from solution, 
we may here allude to a general principle in the purification 
of these and other substances, organic or inorganic, and then 
to the decomposition of salts, &c., by filtration, especially 
filtration through charcoal. After a salt or other substance 
has been obtained from solution by crystallization, it retains 
a portion of other salts, either crystallized with it, or in the 
mother liquor, enclosed in cavities in the crystals. Although 
these impurities may in general be removed by repeated crys- 
tallization, yet the same end may often be attained more 
readily, by washing the crystals with a saturated solution of 
the same substance in a pure state; for being saturated, it 
will dissolve no more of that substance, but will dissolve por- 
tions of others. To effect this, the crystals to be washed 
should be small, either made so by disturbing the liquor during 
crystallization or by crushing. Thus salt, nitre, sugar, &c. 
are obtained pure by washing them respectively with saturated 
solutions of pure salt, nitre, sugar, &c. 

The other point, of decomposition by charcoal, we have 
touched upon at the commencement of hydrometallurgy, 
where it was shown that a metallic oxide could be brought to 
a lower state of oxidation by carbon; but this is probably at- 
tended with the formation of carbonic acid, whereas in the 
instances to be cited, the porosity of the coal separates a 
substance from solution, and sunders a base more or less per- 
fectly from its acid. 

Morfit and Highway, in repeating Lebourdai’s process for 
the preparation of alkaloids by means of animal charcoal, 
found that the bone-black used for decolorizing the solutions, 
always retained a portion of the precipitated alkaloid. They 
extended their investigations to the refuse black of chemical 
factories, and obtained from that which had been used in the 


CARBON. 93 


manufacture of sulphate of morphin, a considerable amount 
of the alkaloid. It therefore follows, that the use of bone- 
black as a decolorizing agent, is attended with loss, unless 
treated finally for the separation of matters which, by pre- 
cipitation, have become incorporated with it. 

Filtration through Bone-black and Charcoal.—The experi- 
ments on the extraction of substances from solution by bone- 
black and charcoal are interesting ; those by Weppen, in An. 
der Chem. u. Pharm. lv. 241; by Chevalier, in Journ. f. Pr. 
Chem. xxxv. 356; by Warrington, in Phil. Mag. xxvii. 269 ; 
by Elsner, in Berl. Gewerbe u. Industrie-Blatt, xx. 295. 

Weppen found that 30 gr. of bone-black, boiled with mu- 
riatic acid, thoroughly washed, dried, and gently ignited, 
extracted the following substances from their solutions: sul- 
phates of copper, zinc, chrome and peroxide of iron, acetates 
of lead and peroxide of iron, nitrates of nickel, cobalt, silver, 
and of both oxides of mercury, tin salt, and tartar emetic. 
One grain of the salt was dissolved in 3 oz. water. A trace 
of the metal remains in solution, which no excess of the black 
can remove, while a basic salt is precipitated on it; but those 
oxides whose salts are soluble in ammonia are wholly pre- 
cipitated. Oxide of lead, dissolved in potassa, is precipitated. 
Arsenious acid in aqueous solution is but slightly thrown 
down: iodine is removed from its solution in water. The 
sulphosalts of antimony and arsenic, dissolved in sulphide of 
ammonium, are separated as metallic sulphides by the black. 
It appears to exert no influence on alkaline and earthy salts. 

Solutions of bitter extracts, as of wormwood, gentian, 
quassia, cascarilla, buck-bean, and colocynth, are rendered 
bitterless when the charcoal is in the proportion of 2:3; Co- 
Jumbo extract, by an equal weight of coal; aloes, by 13 times 
its weight; extract of galls and solution of pure tannin, by 
10 times their weight. Infusion of Peruvian bark is also 
sweetened. Jalap and guaiacum are wholly precipitated from 
their solutions. 

Chevallier found that oxide of lead is easily completely pre- 
cipitated from its acetate and nitrate, but not from its muriate. 


94 SALINES. [rv. 


Warrington found that in decolorizing beer by charcoal, the 
hop-bitter was also removed; and that decoctions of Peruvian 
bark and solutions of sulphate of quinin, and acetates of 
morphin and strychnin, were freed from their bitter. 12 gr. 
bone-black were required for 2 gr. sulphate of quinin dissolved 
in 2o0z. water. Aninfusion of nux vomica was not debitterized 
by animal charcoal. 

Elsner found that salicin was wholly removed from solution 
by filtration through common bone-black, as well as that freed 
from lime by muriatic acid; and that the coal digested with 
alcohol again yielded up its salicin. Strychnin, brucin, qui- 
nin, and cinchonin are removed from their hot aqueous solu- 
tions by bone-black or well-ignited wood-charcoal. A large 
excess of bone-black and charcoal sweetened a concentrated 
decoction of nuxvomica. Solutions of aloes, lupulin, quassia 
are debitterized, and a solution of nitropicric (carbazotic) acid 
by bone-black freed from lime. 

Weppen further observed that a charcoal which has been 
used for precipitating one metal, may still be used for pre- 
cipitating another. Thus, 200 gr. coal, which had been used 
for precipitating a solution of corrosive sublimate, were shaken 
with a solution with 5 gr. blue-vitriol in 24 oz. water, when in 
a short time only a trace of copper was left in the liquid, and 
disappeared altogether upon adding ammonia. After washing 
and drying the coal, it was shaken with a solution of 3 gr. 
copperas, from which it soon removed all traces of iron. 
(Journ. f. Pr. Chem. xxxix. 318.) 

2. Sulphur and Sulphuric Acid.—This most important of 
all acids to the chemist, as the source of all others, is made 
by burning sulphur to sulphurous acid, and oxidizing this to 
sulphuric by nitric acid, or the oxides of nitrogen. Exclusive 
regulations of the Neapolitan government have developed the 
important fact that pyrites (sulphuret of iron) will answer the 
same end as sulphur on a manufacturing scale, and we know 
that pyrites is a very abundant mineral. 

Sulphuric Acid.—Peligot observed, years ago, that sul: 
phurous acid gas, passed through moderately strong nitric 


PURE SULPHURIC ACID. 95 


acid, is oxidized into sulphuric acid, while nitric oxide is 
evolved ; and he proposed to burn sulphur alone without nitre, 
and pass the gas through the first crude acid containing nitric 
acid. Turner’s patent is based on this fact (Rep. Pat.*Iny. 
1845). The lead chamber is made very low (8 ft. high), and 
its horizontal surface increased. The bottom is covered with 
crude acid of 1.5-1.6, containing 8-4 per cent. strong nitric 
acid. The sulphurous acid is drawn into the chamber by 
pumps, and in order to avoid loss, this acid and the nitric 
oxide are passed through three lead vessels, the two first con- 
taining the mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, and the last 
sulphuric acid of 1.7. This process is said to yield 50 per 
cent. more oil of vitriol than the former method. (?) 

Schneider (Comptes Rendus, xxv. 931) has succeeded in 
converting sulphurous into sulphuric acid, by means of pumice- 
stone peculiarly prepared, without the necessity of leaden 
chambers or iron retorts. We do not know how the pumice 
is prepared. A process was patented, many years since, for 
making oil of vitriol from sulphurous acid, by means of pla- 
tinum-sponge, but was not successfully carried out as a manu- 
facturing process. 

Paul Gilbert Pretier has patented a process (Ch. Gaz. vi. 
88) for making fuming sulphuric acid by distilling the bisul- 
phates, as follows: Alkaline sulphates are placed in a stone 
retort, and acidulated by the addition of oil of vitriol. Heat 
being gradually applied, the distillate collected in receivers 
is clear and colorless. 


Pure Sulphuric Acid.—A. A. Hayes (Silliman’s Journ. 
1848) takes the acid of 1.76 at that stage of the process for 
manufacturing the commercial article, when it is ready for 
transferring from the leaden evaporators to the concentrating 
vessels of platinum. This weak acid, while hot, is treated 
with nitrate of potassa, which renders it colorless by destroy- 
ing the coloring matter. It also removes much of the hydro- 
chloric acid, and converts the arsenious and sulphurous into 
arsenic and sulphuric acids. The remaining hyponitric acid 
is expelled by the addition of 3$5 of sulphate of ammonia. 


96 SALINES. [ EV. 


The acid is then concentrated to 1.78, run off into deep, leaden 
vessels, and gradually cooled to 32° F. After repose, the clear 
portion is transvased into shallow pans and cooled down to 0°, 
and‘ left until one-half of its volume has solidified, when the » 
congealed mass is to be separated and washed with pure acid. 
These crystals are freed from adhering portions of sulphates 
and arseniates of iron and lead, by fusion in glass vessels, 
re-crystallization, and washing with pure acid. ‘To obtain a 
strong acid, the crystals must be melted and concentrated in 
a platinum kettle. 

According to Wackenroder (Archiv. d. Pharm. (2) lviii. 28), 
the crystallized hydrate of sulphuric acid SO,2HO, used by 
Hayes as the source of his pure acid, may be readily obtained 
by congealing sulphuric acid, rectified over sulphate of potassa 
at 28.4° F. Very large rhombic crystals form and give, by 
fusion at 71°, a liquid acid of 1.784 at 46°. The acid thus 
prepared resolidifies at 39°. 

Bineau has constructed the following table of composition 
of hydrated sulphuric acid, derived partly from his direct 















































At 32° At 59° At32° | At59° 
A B | AN ct 
C D C D c D | Cc D 

5°] 1.086] 5.1] 4.2} 5.4] 4.511 50° | 1.530) 61.4) 50.1 62.6/51.1 
10 |1.075|10.3} 8.4)10.9] 8.9]|/51 .| 1.546 | 62.9} 51.3 63.9 52.2 | 
PA LT AGS LAF (633/333) 52 1.563 | 64.4] 52.6 65.4) 53.4 
90: | 1:1615).21.2)) 1753)| 22:4.) 18,311,538 1.580 | 65.9| 58.8 66.9 | 54.6 
95 | 1.209 | 27.2 | 22.2 | 28.3} 23.1 || 54 1.597 | 67.4| 55.0 68.4 | 55.8 
30 | 1.262 | 33.6 | 27.4 | 34.8} 28.4 ||} 55 | 1.615) 68.9| 56.2 70.0) 57.1 
33 11.296} 87.6 | 80.7 | 38.9| 31.8 || 56 | 1.634! 70.5) 57.5 71.6) 58.4 | 
35 | 1.320} 40.4 | 33.0 | 41.6 | 34.0 || 57 1.652 | 72.1] 58.8 73.2) 59.7 
36 | 1.882) 41.7 | 84.1. | 48.0} 35.1 || 58 1.671 | 73.6 | 60.1 74.7 | 61.0) 
87 | 1.845 | 48.1 | 35.2 | 44.3 | 86.2 || 59 1.691 |: 75.2 | 61.4 , 76.3 | 62.3 | 
88 | 1.357 | 44.5 | 36.3 | 45.5 | 37.2 || 60 1.711 | 76.9 | 62.8; 78.0 | 63.6 | 
39 | 1.870] 45.9 | 37.5 | 46.9 | 38.3 || 61 1.782 | 78.6 | 64.2 79.8! 65.1 
40 | 1.883] 47.3 | 38.6 | 48.4] 39.5 || 62 | 1.753! 80.4 | 65.7 ee 
41 | 1.397 | 48.7 | 39.7 | 49.9 | 40.7 || 63 1.774 | 82.4| 67.2 83.9 | 68.5 
42 | 1.410} 50.0 | 40.8 | 51.2 | 41.8 || 64 1.796 | 84.6 | 69.0 86.3 | 70.4 | 
43 | 1.424) 51.4] 41.9 | 52.5 | 42.9 || 65 1.819 | 87.4 | 71.3) 89.5 | 73.0; 
44 | 1.488} 52.8 | 43.1 | 54.0 | 44.1 || 65.5 1.830 | 89.1 72.7 | 91.8 | 74.9 
45 | 1.4538 | 54.8 | 44.3 | 55.4} 45.2 || 65.8) 1.837 | 90.4 | 73.8 94.5 | 77.1 
46 | 1.468] 55.7 | 45.5 | 56.9 | 46.4 || 66 1.842 | 91.3 74.5 100 81.6 
47 | 1.488 | 57.1 | 46.6 | 58.2 | 47.5 || 66.2} 1.846 | 92.5| 75.5, «© ‘6 
48 | 1.498] 58.5 | 47.8 | 59.6 | 48.7 || 66.4] 1.852! 95.0! 77.5) « ee 
| 49 1.514] 60.0 | 49.0! 61.1) 50.0 || 66.6] 1.857 | 100 | 81.6. * ec 





SODA-ASH. 97 


determinations of spec. gray. and composition, and partly from 
calculation. The Ist column, A, represents Baumé’s areometric 
degrees ; the 2d, B, contains the specific gravity; the 3d, C, 
the percentage of oil of vitriol, and the 4th, D, the percentage 
of the anhydrous acid. (66° B. corresponds to spec. grav. 
1.842). (An. de Ch. Phys. (3) xxiv. and xxvi.) 

R. A. Tilghman, of Philadelphia, has patented several pro- 
cesses connected with salines, which possess the high merits 
of ingenious invention, simplicity of material and action, and 
the highest prospect of success. One of these processes is 
for obtaining sulphuric acid by the action of steam on the 
sulphates of baryta, strontia, or lime, at a high temperature. 
We refer for minutize to Rep. Pat. Inv. 1847. See also the 
soda manufacture. 

Crystallized Sulphurous Acid.—Pierre (Comptes Rendus, 
1848) obtained sulphurous acid in crystals, by passing the gas, 
previously washed, into water already surcharged with it. The 
temperature must not exceed 32°. In a few hours several 
hundred grains will have deposited. Its formula is SO,,9HO. 
Dépping’s acid, similarly obtained, has the composition (Bul. 
de St. Petersbourg, vii.) SO,,HO. 

3. Common Salt and tts derivative Arts.—Beside its use as 
salt (for preserving animal matter, &c.), common salt is largely 
employed in the preparation of carbonate of soda (soda-ash), 
according to the invaluable process of Leblanc, by which mu- 
riatic acid is obtained at the same time. ‘The soda manufacture 
is therefore most conveniently arranged under these two heads, 
making soda with its derived salts, and muriatic acid with its 
derivative arts. Salt is obtained from solid rock-salt forma- 
tions, by evaporation of salt-springs or brines, or of the 
waters of the ocean. ‘There is a locality of solid salt found 
in the United States, in the south-western part of Virginia ; 
but all the salt used is either imported from Europe or obtained 
from brines. In making soda-ash, the salt is first converted into 
sulphate of soda by sulphuric acid, whereby muriatic acid gas 
is given off, and the salt-cake (dry sulphate of soda), mixed 
with carbon and carbonate of lime, is heated and extracted 

I 7 


98 SALINES. [EV. 


with water. The solution contains soda, and a salt of lime 
remains. 

A. Soda-ash.—Practice has advanced far before theory in 
this manufacture, for we knew but little of the theory of the 
changes effected during the process until within the last few 
years, although the manufacture has become so expanded that 
England produces annually more than 100,000 tons of car- 
bonate of soda. The process has been recently investigated, 
with a practical object in view, by J. Brown (Phil. Mag. 3 
ser. xxxiv.), and, for elucidating the theory, by Bodo Unger 
(Ann. Chem. Pharm. 1xi. lxiii. Ixvii.) The following are two 
analyses by Unger, the first of the crude soda, that is, after 
the mixture of salt-cake, limestone, and carbon have been 
duly heated; the second, of the residue, after the soluble salts 
have been extracted. 


1. Crude Soda. 


Sulphate of Sodas. .i/720. ces seccetaccsase ere 1.99 
Chicride Of sodimm 32:5 Oe see ieee 2.54 
Oarbonadte Ol Boda cles ees ine eaee ds vane oo Zos0t 
Caustic SOGasc vs s2s sa voce ape ves eeleenaacueten 11.12 
Oarbonate- Of (liMEe. vaswenusecea less enestee 12.90 
Oxysulphide of calcium (8CaS,CaQ)..... 34.76 
Sulphide of won: ...003)..<2. se ses seeders oes. 2.45 
Silicate*of magMesias :...) 2s... baee ss we nete 4.74 
Gale Bands ete Aloe oh cea ueaneeaneeee 1.59 
aT a takers Sok ee one ch an roe maaan gy 202 
WV aOR ok eh. EAS Nic OGL Mciae alee 2.10 

99.78 

2. Residue. 

Garbonatevof aime ses aitc sises o's eadeutten 19.56 
Oxysulphide of calcium...............-++0 32.80 
Sulphate of lime..........0.s0..ceece seek ente 3.69 
Hyposulphite of lime.............sseeeesees 4.12 
Hydrate of lime............seseeeseeececesore 4.02 
Bisulphide of calcium. ..........sssseeeeeees 4.67 


Sulphide of calcium...........sseeeeseseeees Boe 


SODA-ASH. 99 





Py dreiven odie, aint cic ssinoaeeeusnlnaescnene 6.67 
Sulphiderah Sods. .dareis es ewbanenseseees Le 
Pera ye ell OO si5ssoictieceg oh acasadaeselecane 3.70 
Silicate Of magnesia. :.:..0.0..5000se0cceen aft Osoih 
Ai reg Les ois se csc a's ole/s Leica bern’ s Qassim morse eae 2.60 
TREE URS Be oe ENG dais bias bain Shot. ds ce alone 3.09 
Vout ae enter OP oie sats ore vicia ie olwisalaaseo us dene 3.45 

100.31 


The results of Brown and Unger agree closely, when we 
consider how such materials are likely to vary in composition 
according to circumstances, but the amount of the carbonate 
of lime should be halved, as Brown proved it to be caustic 
lime, and the half added to the caustic soda, which would bring 
the total amount of carbonate of soda in the first analysis to 
nearly 40 per cent. Brown gives it at 35}. 

The following table, from Brown, shows the composition of 
the different products of the soda manufacture. 














Sulphide of sodium..} 1.31] .... | trace. 


i 2. 3. 4, 5. 6. us 

Carbonate of soda....| 68.91} 71.61] 79.64) 84.00} 84.31] 36.47] 98.12 
Hydrate of soda...... 14.43 | 11.28] 2.71] 1.06] trace.| 0.94] 1.08 

Sulphate of soda..... 7.02) 10.20) 8.64) 8.76} 10.26] .... ee 

Sulphite of soda...... 2.23) 1.11] 1.24] trace. | trace. 

Chloride of sodium...| 3.97] 3.05] 4.138] 8.22) 3.48) 0.42] 0.74 

Soda-alumina...<:...6|. 1402+), .0:92)\>- 1.17") 1.01. 0.68" -...: coe 

Silicate of soda....... 1.08} 1.04) 1.28) 0.98] 0.41 

Insoluble and sand...| 0.81} 0.81] 0.97! 0.71] 0.25] .... 

WISER tats ccesscateceeces ae see eel Ys 62.15 





Analysis No. 1 is the salt obtained by evaporating the ex- 
tract of the crude soda to dryness at 212°, and then heating 
in a calciner, which makes No. 2, soda-ash. Or, the extract 
is evaporated nearly dry, the mother-liquor drained off from 
the crystals; the dried residue, 3, is heated in a furnace, 4. 
By repeated solution, evaporation and calcination of the erys- 
tals, a better kind, 5, is produced, and by crystallizing the 
purer kind, soda, 6 results; and when this is calcined, the 
best product, 7, is obtained. 

R. A. Tilghman applied the decomposing power of steam to 


100 SALINES. [HY. 


the decomposition of salt, starting from the simple equation 
NaCl+HO=Na0+HCl, that is, that water and salt, at a 
high heat, would mutually form caustic soda and chlorohydric 
acid. This decomposition does take place, but he found that 
by the assistance of alumina it was more perfect, the soda 
being retained by the alumina and the acid passing off. The 
soda is extracted by water from the alumina and the latter 
used again. 

Tilghman also prepares Glauber’s salt by heating to redness 
a mixture of common salt and gypsum, and passing steam 
through+it, and then extracting by water. The Glauber’s 
salt, mixed with alumina, is heated to redness, while steam is 
passed over it, and the soda then extracted from the alumina 
by water. (Rep. Pat. Inv. 1847.) 

Testing Bicarbonate of Soda.—Chevalier (Liebig’s Annalen, 
1847) detects the presence of neutral carbonate in bicarbonate 
alkali, by adding starch-sugar to the aqueous solution of the 
latter, and heating. The mixture yellows or browns if any 
neutral carbonate is present. 

The soda obtained from the soda-process is chiefly used for 
fluxing sand to make glass, for decomposing fats to make soap, 
or to neutralize acids. The boracic acid of the Tuscan lakes, 
neutralized by soda, yields the borax of commerce; and phos- 
phoric acid, from bones, yields phosphate of soda, which is 
employed in dyeing and calico-printing. 

B. The muriatie actd obtained as an incidental product in 
making soda-ash, besides its use for dissolving metallic oxides, 
is extensively employed in making bleaching salt. When 
muriatic acid is heated with black oxide of manganese, its 
hydrogen is oxidized to water by the oxygen of the oxide, and 
chlorine gas is set free. When this is passed into lime, chlo- 
ride of lime or bleaching-salt is made, and passed for a long 
time into a solution of potash, the chlorate of potassa is 
formed. 

Chloride of Lime.—According to Méne (Comptes Rendus, 
1347), bleaching-salt may be made pure and expeditiously, by 
satarating slaked lime with water highly charged with chlorine. 


POTASH. 101 


The lime absorbs the chlorine as soon as it comes in contact 
with the solution; the supernatant water is immediately de- 
canted and the application of chlorine liquor repeated, as 
above, several times. By exposure to a gentle heat for a 
short period, the moisture is driven off, and pure chloride of 
lime, remains. 

Chlorate of Potassa.—Calvert’s process (Comptes Rendus, 
1850) is to pass a current of chlorine gas through a hot (122°) 
mixture of 53-6 equivalents of burnt lime and 1 equiv. caustic 
potassain water. Chloride of calcium and chlorate of potassa 
are the products. When the solution is saturated with the 
gas, it is to be filtered, evaporated to dryness, redissolved in 
boiling water, and allowed to cool. The use of lime saves the 
great loss of potassa by other processes, 22 pts. of chlorate 
being obtained from every 10 pts. of potassa employed. 

4. Potash is obtained by lixiviating the ashes of trees, 
evaporating the solution to dryness and calcining the residue. 
When purer, but more carbonated, it is termed pearlash. 

New Source of Potash.—H. Wurtz has suggested a method 
of decomposing green sand, with the view of gaining its potash, 
by fusing it with chloride of calcium. See Amer. Journ. 2d 
ser. x. 526, where many experiments are detailed having the 
same object in view. 

Potash tested for Soda.—Pagenstecher’s method is as fol- 
lows (Mittheil. d. Naturf. Gesellsch. in Bern, No. 65). It is 
based on the fact that a saturated solution of sulphate of 
potassa can dissolve large quantities of sulphate of soda. 
About half an ounce of the potash to be tested is poured over 
with water, treated with sulphuric acid until it has an acid re- 
action, evaporated to dryness, ignited, and weighed. The pow- 
dered saline mass is then treated with 6 times its weight of a 
concentrated solution of sulphate of potassa, stirred, allowed to 
settle, and the clear liquor drawn off from the sediment by a 
siphon. After being again treated with a like quantity of 
the sulphate of potassa solution, the residue is thrown on a 
balanced filter (the funnel covered with a glass plate during 
filtering to ayoid evaporation), and when the last drops have 

42 ® 


102 SALINES. [ iV. 


passed through, it is weighed moist, then dried at 212° and 
again weighed. ‘The difference between the two last weights 
is the water of the solution of sulphate of potassa, which, 
being of a known strength, gives the quantity of sulphate of 
potassa it contained. This must of course be subtracted from 
the weight of the dried residue, and the remainder is the sul- 
phate of potassa made from the pearlash. If the ash were 
free from soda, this weight would equal that of the original 
sulphate evaporated to dryness, but if less, then sulphate of 
soda has been washed out. From this loss (= L) the car- 
bonate of soda in the ash may be thus calculated, 


L.53 
71 (NaO,SO,) : 53 (NaO,CO,)::L: 2orr= i 


Tt must however be observed, that the soda used to adulterate 
potash usually contains a large percentage of sulphate of soda. 

Nitre is formed in artificial beds, or in some cases where 
nitrogenous organic matter is present, together with lime and 
some potash; but potash is usually added to the beds, or the 
extract of the soil, containing nitrate of lime, whereby nitrate 
of potassa is produced. Soda-saltpeter is obtained from At- 
tacama in Peru. Both nitrates are the source of nitric acid. 

Anhydrous Nitric Acid.—Deville (Comptes Rendus, 1849) 
has succeeded in obtaining anhydrous nitric acid by the action 
of absolutely dry chlorine upon nitrate of silver. It erystal- 
lizes in brilliant, colorless, six-sided prisms; melts at 85° F. 
and boils at 113°, and requires to be handled cautiously, owing 
to its tendency to explode. 

5. Alum.—This most important salt to the dyer, calico- 
printer, tanner, and others, is sometimes observed in nature 
in an impure state, but it is generally procured from slates, 
which have originally contained iron pyrites (sulphuret of 
iron). The pyrites by oxidation form sulphuric acid, which 
is more or less transferred to the alumina of the slate; and to 
the extracted sulphate of alumina, sulphate of potassa is added 
and alum generated. As sulphate of iron is obtained inci- 
dentally in making alum, it leads us to the metallic salts and 
pigments, or metallosalines. 

a 





VITRIOLS. 103 


2. METALLOSALINES. 


These embrace the preparation of various metallic salts, 
which are chiefly employed for dyes or making pigments. We 
may most conveniently divide the subject into the vitriols, or 
sulphates of iron, copper, zinc, and manganese, with the pig- 
ments derived from them; the salts and pigments of lead; 
the prussiates; the chromates, and a few others. 

1. Vitriols.—Copperas, green vitriol, or protosulphate of 
iron, is made directly from sulphuric acid and scrap-iron, or 
from calcined pyrites, or is obtained in the kindred and con- 
nected manufacture of alum. These two articles are made on 
an extended scale in the United States, and but little can be 
offered that is new in relation to them. 

Copperas.—It may be freed from lead and copper, and at 
the same time all peroxide of iron reduced to protoxide, by 
boiling its solution with good scrap-iron, nails, &c. until it 
becomes light and green. By evaporating the solution, it 
then yields bluish-green crystals. The precipitate will contain 
the copper, lead, &c. (Encycl. Zeitschr. d. Gewerbehandl. 
1846.) 

Preservation of Copperas.—According to Ruspini (Journ. 
de Chim. Méd. vi.) the protosulphate of iron, when in crystals, 
may be preserved from oxidation, by pressure, desiccation 
between the folds of bibulous paper, and, finally, efflorescence 
in a drying chamber at 86°. It is to be kept in well-stoppered 
bottles. 

Oxidation of Copperas.—According to Wittstein (Buchner’s 
Repert. i.) a solution of 1 pt. protosulphate of iron in 4 pts. 
water, after 11 months’ exposure in a loosely covered vessel, 
deposits 2Fe,0,+350,+8HO, and not 2Fe,0,+80,, as is ge- 
nerally admitted. 

Sulphate of zine, or white vitriol, is made directly from zinc 
and sulphuric acid. Manganese vitriol is made directly from 
black oxide of manganese and oil of vitriol, or it is obtained 
as a residue in making bleaching-salt from manganese, salt, 
and oil of vitriol. Blue vitriol, or sulphate of copper, is made 


104 METALLOSALINES. [ EV. 


by the direct action of oil of vitriol and old sheet-copper, or 
by solution of precipitated hydrate of copper in the acid, or 
by lixiviating roasted copper-pyrites. 

Pure Sulphate of Manganese.—Elsner thus prepares it: 
1 pt. sulphur is well mixed and heated with 5} pts. binoxide 
of manganese, so that sulphurous acid escapes, and protoxide 
of manganese remains. When 2 equiv. of this oxide are 
treated with less than 2 equiv. of oil of vitriol, so that a por- 
tion of the oxide remains uncombined, this portion removes 
all the iron from the sulphate, and gives a good vitriol by 
solution and crystallization. White vitriol may be similarly 
made free from iron. (Elsner, in Hoffmann’s Mittheilungen, &c.) 

It would be better to use a little less sulphur, so as to leave 
a small part of the manganese in its state of binoxide, that 
by peroxidizing the iron the latter may be more effectually 
removed. A good proportion for a good ore (containing but 
little silica) is 1 pt. sulphur, 6 pts. black oxide of manganese, 
and 5 pts. oil of vitriol. The same principle has been applied 
to Epsom salt, by heating the solution with a portion of mag- 
nesia itself. It is also applicable to solutions of nickel and 
cobalt. But in all these cases it is necessary that the iron be 
in the state of sesquioxide, or be brought into this state. 

Borate of Copper, a green Pigment.—16 pts. blue vitriol, 
and 25 pts. borax are separately dissolved in water, the solu- 
tions poured together, and the bluish-green precipitate, washed 
with cold water, is first dried at common temperature and then 
by warmth. The dried precipitate is then heated in a hessian 
crucible to a low red-heat, but not to fusion, and ground. 
Bolley proposes it for oil and porcelain painting (Bolley, 
Schweiz. Gewerbebl. 1847, 28). Dr. Elsner remarks that the 
color varies in different experiments, and that a certain degree 
of heat is requisite to its production. 

Blue Sulphuret of Copper.—Alexander and Walter give the 
following method of preparing it (Buchner’s Repert. d. Pharm. 
1847). Black oxide is prepared by precipitating blue vitriol 
solution by caustic soda or potassa (lime ?), washing it well 
and drying it. A mixture of 2 pts. of this oxide, 2 pts. 


ZINC-WHITE. 105 


flowers of sulphur, and 1 pt. salammoniac, is heated gently 
in a porcelain vessel, over coals, until the sulphur inflames ; 
while burning, the mixture is stirred now and then, covered 
with a loosely-fitting cove, and removed from the fire for a 
few moments. A new portion of sulphur and salammoniac, 
without copper, is added, the cover replaced, and the vessel 
again heated. After some time the cover is removed, when 
much sulphur sublimes. As long as it shows a black and not 
a blue color, sulphur and salammoniac are added, and the 
vessel heated as before. When finished, it is washed with hot 
water, then with a little ammonia if oxide of copper be pre- 
sent, treated with caustic potassa or soda to remove the excess 
of sulphur, and, finally, washed with water, ground, and dried. 
Under a polishing tool it shows a beautiful steel-blue streak, 
and when mixed with size and brushed on paper, a steel-blue 
lustre on a violet-blue ground. In a medium of oil or varnish 
it is violet-blue. 

The following simpler method was contrived in the Gewerbe- 
Institut of Berlin. Metallic copper is precipitated by zine 
from a boiling solution of blue vitriol, and the fine powder 
washed and dried. 51 pts. of this copper, mixed with 3 pts. 
sulphur, are gently heated in a porcelain vessel, so that the 
excess of sulphur sublimes, but does not burn. When the 
heated mixture shows a sandy appearance it is finished, and, 
on cooling, shows a dark-blue color. The excess of sulphur 
is removed by potassa, and the residue well washed. If it 
have not acquired the desired tone, it is again warmed with 
sulphur, &c. It resists chemical action in a remarkable 
manner. 

Winkelblech’s method consists in rubbing together 1 equiv. 
Jac sulphuris and 2 equiv. metallic copper, reduced from the 
oxide by hydrogen. 

Zinc-white.—This pigment, to which attention is now drawn, 
is either the anhydrous oxide of zinc, or a hydrated oxide, or 
a hydrate-carbonate of the metal. It possesses a great degree 
of whiteness, about equal to that of white-lead; a sufficient 
body, and, what is of great importance, is less liable to tar- 


106 METALLOSALINES. LEV. 


nish than white-lead. Another important advantage cannot 
be overlooked: its freedom from the noxious character of 
carbonate of lead on those who employ it. It is less drying 
than white-lead colors, but in ordér to effect this result in a 
shorter time, dry sulphate of zinc (white vitriol) may be added 
to it, or a more drying oil may be employed. It has been too 
lately introduced to decide upon the relative merits of the 
several compounds above named, and it is even doubtful which 
can be produced at the cheapest rate; but it may be safely 
assumed, from its low equivalent (32.6, H=1), that a given 
weight of zinc will produce a much larger amount of white 
pigment than the same weight of lead, with an equiv. = 104. 
On the other hand, the objections to it are, that it has far less 
body (covering power) than white-lead, and that it requires a 
large amount of oil as its vehicle of conveyance to a surface. 

Durability of Zinc-white.—Lassaigne drew attention, in 
1821, to the use of oxide of zinc instead of white-lead as a 
pigment. He has lately stated that an oil-painting, finished 
with oxide of zinc, has remained of a pure white to this day. 
The oil was previously treated with sulphate of zinc to render 
it more drying. 

Oxides of Zinc and Antimony, §c.—It has been an object 
of several patents, of late, to distil ores of zinc and antimony 
in such a manner that the volatilized and oxidized products, 
white oxides of antimony or zinc, shall be separately collected 
and used as pigments. ‘To avoid the cost of first obtaining 
the metallic zinc and then converting it into oxide, the ores 
are heated in furnaces of various construction, but so arranged 
that the products of combustion from the mixed ore and fuel 
are conducted into condensing chambers, where both metal 
and oxide are obtained. Notwithstanding the ingenious con- 
trivances for effecting this result, none have been yet found 
‘faultless. One of the late patents on this subject (Lond. 
Journ. Sept. 1850) subjects copper and other unroasted ores 
to the action of a blast-furnace, so that the non-volatile pro- 
ducts are obtained in the furnace, while the volatile are con- 
densed inchambers. In this manner oxides of zine, antimony, 


LEAD-PIGMENTS. 107 


and arsenic, are obtained from copper and other ores. These 
mingled ores are hardly likely to yield the several products 
sufficiently separate and distinct. 

Rochaz has a good arrangement for making this pigment 
direct from metallic zinc by combustion. (Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 
1.) Fire-clay crucibles are set each in a furnace, so that the 
fire plays around but not above it. The zinc being thrown in 
and brought to ignition, the cover of the crucible is removed 
and a draft of air passes over the crucible, whereby oxide of 
zine is produced, forming abundant white fumes, which are 
earried into a large chamber, divided into compartments. The 
greater part of the oxide settles in these; and to prevent any 
appreciable quantity from passing off, the last compartment 
is provided with hanging bands of hemp or other fabric, which 
may be multiplied without interfering with the draft. He 
proposes to use the Belgian furnace for distilling metallic zine 
from its ores, consisting of a stack of many cylindrical retorts, 
in order to prepare the white oxide from the ore, and varying 
the arrangement so that the air is admitted to the distilling 
metal, whereby it is converted into oxide, and condenses in 
chambers. Several forms of blast-furnace have been proposed, 
but none have been proved sufficiently to speak of their merits. 

The native oxide of zinc of New Jersey has been recently 
employed both for making the metal and zinc-white. The 
former is less likely to be economically produced than the 
latter ; and it is stated that the process for the latter is emi- 
nently successful, as it requires but 2 pts. coal to obtain 1 pt. 
of the pigment. Judging from the experience in Europe, we 
must believe this to be a great miscalculation, for it requires 
some 11 tons fuel to make 1 ton zinc in Belgium and Silesia, 
and in making the oxide of zinc, the formation of metal must 
precede it. 

A case of the peculiar effect of zinc in producing a colic 
among operatives engaged in making it, is reported in the 
Comptes Rendus, and although it appears to be less delete- 
rious than white-lead, yet it shows that its effects on workmen 
must also be guarded against. 


108 METALLOSALINES. [ HV. 


Compounds of Lead.— When metallic lead is calcined on the 
hearth of a reverberatory, to which the air has free access, 
it is converted into litharge, or simple oxide of lead; and 
when litharge is still further heated in a similar manner, it is 
converted into a higher oxide, red-lead or minium, or orange- 
mineral. Litharge, dissolved in vinegar, gives rise to acetate 
or sugar of lead. White-lead is usually made by putting a 
roll of sheet-lead into an earthen pot, containing a little 
vinegar in the bottom, and placing a large number of such 
pots in fermenting matter, manure, tan, &c. The férmenting 
matter evolves heat, steam, and carbonic acid, and the heat 
slowly evaporates the vinegar. This vapor induces the lead 
to oxidize and form acetate of lead, which is decomposed by 
carbonic acid as fast as formed, and the acid transferred to 
the adjoining stratum of metal. In this manner the sheet 
is corroded through, and becomes carbonate of lead, or white- 
lead. Various other processes have been proposed, but the 
old method still retains its place. 

White-lead.—Gannal gives a method of preparing it from 
granulated lead by air and water. (Journ. Fr. Inst. 1847.) 
See a review of the different methods in Journ. Fr. Inst. 1842, 
vol. iii. 3d ser. p. 30. 

Disbrow Rodgers’s process (Ch. Gaz. 1850) for the manu- 
facture of carbonate of lead, consists in exposing thin sheet- 
lead in a steam-heated chamber, to the joint action of acetic 
and aqueous vapors, and of carbonic acid gas, generated from 
fermenting matter contained in vessels beneath. The required 
temperature is 80° F., and the vinegar is volatilized by the 
admission of a current of steam. ‘The chamber must be dark | 
and air-tight, and the fermenting and acid liquors renewed 
six times during the process, at intervals of two days. The 
conversion of the lead is completed in two weeks. See Review, 
as above. 

White-lead Pigment.—According to Patterson (Ch. Gaz. 
vii.), if a warm solution of chloride of lead is mixed with clean 
lime-water, in such proportions that one equivalent of the 
lead-salt may be made to react upon half an equivalent of 


PRUSSIATES. 109 


lime, all the lead is precipitated as PbCl]+PbO,HO, at 212°, 
or PbCl]+PbO when dried between 212° and 350°. The 
great brilliancy and body of this white oxichloride induced 
the inventor to take a patent for its application as a pigment. 

An excellent essay on the effects of preparing this pigment 
on the health of the operative, was made by M. Combes to 
the Academie des Sciences, and appears as a translation in 
the Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 184-193. We may state that in most 
of our establishments in the United States, the corroded 
sheets of lead are ground in water, whereby the greatest evils 
of the former mode of dry grinding are avoided. 

3. Prussiates.— Yellow Prussiate of Potash is usually pre- 
pared by heating common pearlash or potash to fusion in an 
iron vessel, and adding to the melted mass, dried blood, horn- 
shavings, cracklings, &&. The excess of carbon in the animal 
matter probably reduces the potassium, while the nitrogen 
and carbon form cyanogen, which unites with the potassium. 
The formation of cyanogen, or rather of cyanide of potas- 
sium, from the nitrogen of the air, in part at least, was clearly 
shown by Bunsen, in his investigations on the blast-furnace. A 
patent had been taken out in England for making prussiate 
from the air and coal, but the process was not successfully 
carried out. 

Possy and Bossiére (Comptes Rendus, xxvi. 203) have suc- 
ceeded in manufacturing yellow prussiate of potash, upon a 
large scale, by means of the nitrogen of the atmosphere. 
The daily product of their works, at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 
is about 1000 kilogrammes (a ton), at a cost not exceeding 

.2000 frances ($400) for that quantity. The apparatus, as now 
constructed, will resist, for several years, the destructive action 
of the potassa and fire. It consists of a vertical cylinder set in 
refractory brick-work. The interior diameter of the cylinder is 
about 18 inches. The height, heated to bright redness, is about 
10 feet. The cylinder, being heated to bright redness and 
charged with lumps of charcoal impregnated with 30 per cent 
of carbonate of potassa, is kept filled with burned air, which 
is injected, across a heated channel, by means of a forcing- 


110 METALLOSALINES. [EV. 


pump. In this way the treatment is to be continued for 10 
hours, so that the whole mass may be acted upon. As the 
coal becomes cyanuretted, and is drawn off at the bottom, new 
supplies must be added at the top. The heated coal is con- 
ducted along an iron gutter into a reservoir containing pow- 
dered native carbonate of iron diffused in water. The coal 
becomes leeched, and the liquor on evaporation will yield 
crystals of prussiate. 

Coke gives less product than charcoal; and the presence 
of even minute portions of water decomposes the cyanide and 
generates ammonia, thus decreasing the yield of salt. 

Hxplosion with Red Prussiate of Potash.—During the pre- 
paration of red prussiate (ferridcyanide of iron) in a chemical 
work at Berlin, a violent explosion took place, without appa- 
rent cause, which dashed to pieces the wooden vessels in which 
the operation was performed, and shook the walls of the 
building. Fortunately no person was injured. The chlorine 
was generated in cast-iron vessels, from manganese, salt, and 
sulphuric acid. Muriatic acid was also evolved, which set 
prussic acid free from the prussiate solution. Now, an am- 
moniacal salt is produced by the action of chlorine on prussic 
acid; and by the further action of chlorine on ammonia, it is 
probable that the highly explosive chloride of nitrogen was 
produced. (Berlin: Gewerbe-Industrie und Handelsbl. xx. 
_ 141.) 

Cyanide of Potassium.—C. Clemm (Annal. der Chem. u. 
Pharm. 1xi. 250) gives the following details of Liebig’s method, 
which should be observed to obtain a white and not dark-gray 
compound. Yellow prussiate of potash (ferrocyanide of po- 
tassium) is thoroughly dried by calcination. 8 pts. of this 
salt are intimately mixed with 3 pts. of fully dry carbonate of 
potassa in a covered iron crucible, and heated until the fused 
mass at a dull red-heat appears clear, and, when taken out 
in an iron spatula and cooled, appears white. The crucible is 
removed from the fire, gently struck to separate the iron, and 
its fluid contents (after evolution of gas has ceased) poured 
through a cullendered iron ladle (previously heated) into a 


CHROMATES. 111 


warm and deep vessel of silver, iron, porcelain, or stoneware, 
with a smooth inner surface. After cooling, the lower part 
of the fused mass, containing iron, may be cut off by a sharp 
tool. If the heat be carried to full redness, the resulting salt 
will have a gray color, from the separation of carbon 
through it. 

To prepare cyanide for galvanic gilding or silvering, both 
the prussiate and carbonate of potash should be free from 
sulphate, as the consequent formation of sulphuret injures the 
color of both gilding and silvering.— Elsner. 

4. Chromates.—Chrome yellow and other beautiful pigments 
and dyes are obtained from the mineral chromic iron, which 
is, in its purest form, FeO,Cr,O,, which should contain 68 
per cent. of oxide of chrome. Mr. T. Garrett analyzed a 
specimen of the ore from Tyson’s mine, Lancaster county, 
Pennsylvania, containing 63 per cent., which approached nearer _ 
to the formula than any published analysis. The ore at this 
and one or two other places forms solid veins or masses, but 
a great deal is obtained in the form of sand, by washing 
the sandy beds of the small streams flowing from a range of 
serpentine-rock. 

B. Silliman, Jr., first observed that the green coating on 
the ore of T'yson’s mine was a hydrocarbonate of nickel. T. 
Garrett found the same metal in some of the ore where the 
green coating had been carefully removed, and he has since 
proved that it contains a trace of tin. Garrett’s analyses 
were performed in my laboratory, where he is still investigat- 
ing some of the minerals of the chrome localities. —J. C. B. 

Jacquelain’s process (Dingler’s Pol. Journ. cvi. 405) for the 
manufacture of potassa-chromate from the natural chromo- 
ferrite is as follows. The finely-powdered ore is to be inti- 
mately incorporated with chalk, and this mixture exposed in 
strata of 14 inches, for 10 hours, to the heat of a reverbe- 
ratory furnace. Neutral chromate of lime is thus formed, and 
the next step is to convert it into bisalt. This is to be done 
by grinding it, and, while suspended in water, adding a slight 
excess of sulphuric acid. To separate any protosulphate of 


112 METALLOSALINES. [ HV. 


iron that may be present, milk of lime must be poured in and 
the whole left to repose. The clear supernatant liquor will, 
when drawn off, yield bichromate of potassa by double de- 
composition. This mode is said to be more economical, in 
time and expense, than the usual method with nitreeand pot- 
ash, but we must doubt its feasibility. 

Tilghman’s methods (Rep. Pat. Inv. 1847) differ materially 
from the foregoing. One requires the ignition of the chromo- 
ferrite with lime and powdered feldspar. The other proposes 
its mixture with 2 pts. lime and 2 pts. sulphate of potassa, 
and subsequent heating on a reverberatory hearth, in contact 
with aqueous vapor. For the details of the ingenious pro- 
cesses of this chemist, we refer to the original paper. 

A new Metal in Chrome-ore.—Ullgren (Vetensk Acad. 
Forhand. 1850) has given an account of a substance noticed 
in the chrome iron of Roéros, and which he considers a new 
metal. Its oxides bear a near analogy to those of iron. 

Double Chromates.—Schneitzer (Journ. fiir Prac. Chem. 
xxxix.) has announced the existence of two double chromates. 
They are both of a beautiful yellow tint, and crystallizable. 
One, the chromate of potassa and magnesia, made by adding 
calcined magnesia to a strong solution of bichromate of po- 
tassa, heating and evaporating to crystallization, has the com- 
position 2Cr0,,KO,MgO+2Aq. ‘The other, chromate of 
potassa and ne has the formula 2CrO,,KO,CaO+2Aq. 

Oxide of Chrome.—Barian (Berz. Jahresb. 1846, 177) pre- 
pares it by mixing 4 pts. bichromate of potassa with 1 pt. 
starch, igniting it in a hessian crucible, extracting carbonate 
of potassa by water, and again igniting the oxide of chrome. 
If the chrome salt had been free from sulphuric acid, the oxide 
will be a pure green. If it contain this acid, the salt is pu- 
rified by crystallization. To test its presence, 1 pt. of the 
salt is dissolved in water with 5 pts. tartaric acid until car- 
bonic acid ceases to escape, the solution treated with muriatic 
acid, and then tested with chloride of barium. 

Wittstein’s method is to ignite for 3 an hour 19 pts. bi- 
chromate of potassa and 4 pts. sulphur, to powder the mass 


ULTRAMARINE. 113 


after cooling, and extract it with water. It yields 94 pts. 
oxide of chrome. (Dingler’s Journ. civ. 158.) 

5. Some other pigments are prepared, partly by heat, as 
sulphuret of arsenic and ultramarine, and partly from solution, 
as sulphurets of cadmium and of antimony. Of these, we 
shall only notice the ultramarine, which, having been a valued 
pigment found in the mineral kingdom, was analyzed, and its 
composition imitated successfully. It is now made on a large 
scale, and of very different qualities in regard to color or 
durability. 

Ultramarine, Artificial_—Recipes for the preparation of 
this beautiful blue color have been given by C. Brunner (Pogg. 
Annal. Ixvii. 541-561); by Priickner (Journ. f. Prac. Chem. 
xxxill. 207); Dr. Winterfield, in Polytech. Archiv. Mendelsohn, 
6th year, 99, 260, 265, Berlin, 1842. 

Brunner does not think that iron is necessary to produce 
the blue color, while Priickner and Winterfeld hold that iron 
is essential to the beauty of the color. Dr. Elsner, in a neat 
essay (Jour. f. Prac. Chem. xxiv. 385, &c.), showed that the 
color was due to a small content of sulphuret of sodium with 
sulphuret of iron, and that neither of these alone could pro- 
duce it. Rolle, under Dr. E.’s direction, repeated many ex- 
periments, which strengthened his former conclusion that 
sulphuret of sodium and iron, though in minute quantity, are 
absolutely necessary to produce the color. Brunner states 
that the finest color is obtained by putting a thin layer of 
flowers of sulphur over a layer of the unfinished blue, and 
heating gently to volatilize the sulphur, but at the lowest heat 
required to burn it off. This is repeated 5 or 4 times. It 
increases 10-20 per cent. in weight. Elsner tried the effect 
of burning off sulphur repeatedly, but although the color was 
darkened, it did not improve its tone. Others tried it, with 
no more success. 


3. Fine CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. 


A large number of fine preparations are made, on a larger 


or smaller scale, for the use of the chemist and the physician, 
K2 8 


114 FINE CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. [ HV. 


and a few for the artisan. They are alkaline, earthy, and 
metallic compounds, metalloidal compounds, organic acids and 
alkaloids, &. These may be conveniently divided into inor- 
ganic and organic. 

1. Inorganic Bodies.—We find a few observations in re- 
ference to some of the metalloids, &c., which are here inserted. 

Chlorine Preparation.—Over 1 pt. bichromate of potassa 
in a flask, pour 6 pts. muriatic acid of 1.16, and gently heat 
the mixture for a few seconds by a spirit lamp. A rapid ac- 
-tion ensues, resulting in the evolution of chlorine and the 
formation of water, chlorides of chrome and _ potassium. 
(Amer. Journ. c. 491.) 

Quantitative Determination.—Cottereau proposes for this 
purpose a solution of protochloride of tin (of known content) 
colored by sulphate of indigo, to which the chlorine-liquid is 
added until decolorization commences. From the volume of 
the latter employed, the quantity of chlorine is calculated. 
The free chlorine changes protochloride into perchloride of tin. 

Lodine, its Extraction.—Pass sulphurous acid into a mineral 
water, or other liquid, containing iodine, until it has acquired 
a feeble odor of the same; then dissolve it in 1 pt. blue vitriol, 
and, after it, 1 pt. bisulphite of soda; white or rosy subiodide 
of copper will precipitate immediately by boiling, or in a short 
time by standing. If the precipitate be mixed with 2 equiv. 
binoxide of manganese and heated, iodine sublimes. 

Chloride of Jodine.—Heeren recommends the use of chloride 
of iodine in photography instead of bromine compounds, which 
are more subject to alteration, and offers the following method 
of preparing it. 200 gr. dilute sulphuric acid (1 acid to 5 
water) are poured over 100 gy. iodine, and dry chlorine gas 
passed through until the increase of weight is 66 gr. which 
must be accurately ascertained. The chlorine should be pre- 
viously passed over chalk and chloride of calcium to remove 
water and muriatic acid from it; and the end of the tube 
conveying the gas should be about a 4 inch above the surface 
of the liquid. The dark-orange liquid should be kept in a 
well-stoppered bottle, in a dark place. When used, 1 pt. of the 


IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. 115 


liquid is to be diluted with 52 pts. water, and will last for 
months. 

Bromo and Iodohydrie Acids.x—Méne (Comptes Rendus, 
1849) gives the following economical, easy, and safe process 
for making the bromohydric and iodohydric acids, which we 
take from Silliman, ix. 421. 

6 pts. crystallized sulphite of soda are to be moistened with 
1 pt. water, and 3 pts. bromine or iodine then added, and heat 
applied. The gases pass over pure, provided the neck of the 
retort be loosely plugged with asbestos, to intercept bromine 
or iodine vapors. The sulphite aids the bromine or iodine 
in the decomposition of the water, the latter taking the hy- 
drogen, the sulphurous acid the oxygen. 

Lodide of Potassiwum.—Criquelion’s method (Journ. de Chem. 
Med. iv.) is to mix together, thoroughly, 40 pts. calcined 
lime slaked in water, and 14 pts. iron filings. To this mixture 
add, during constant stirring, and portionwise, 94 pts. iodine. 
When the liquid produces only an ochrey stain upon staréhed 
paper, it is to be filtered and washed, and the filtrate pre- 
cipitated by carbonate of potassa. Vilter, wash, and evaporate 
to crystallization. 

According to Wackenroder, a small amount of sulphide 
may be found in iodide of potassium by the evolution of sul- 
phohydrogen with protochloride of tin. 

Lodide of Lead.—Huraut’s experiments (Journ. de Pharm. 
1849) upon the comparative advantages of the several methods 
of preparing iodide of lead, prove that the nitrate of lead 
and iodide of calcium afford the best results, both as to quality 
and quantity. 

On the Nitrites.—Fischer, in a paper upon the nitrites 
(Pogg. Ann. Ixxiv.), gives processes for the preparation of 
several. The potassa nitrite is made by heating the nitrate 
to redness, separating the nitrate by recrystallization, and the 
free potassa by acetic acid and alcohol. 

Magnesian Lemonade.—Massignon prepares citrate of 
magnesia lemonade (Journ. de Pharm. xii.) by making 5 grm. 
carbonate of magnesia into a milk with water, pouring it into a 


116 FINE CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. — [IWV. 


strong bottle, adding 7 grm. of crystallized citric acid, and 
corking quickly and firmly. Flavor may be imparted by 
means of different syrups. 

Chromie Acid.—Traube recommends the following method 
of preparing chromic acid. (An. der Ch. u. Phar. xvi.) To 
heat gently 1 pt. bichromate of potassa, 23 pts. water, and 
32 pts. sulphuric acid, decant the liquid from the sulphate of 
potassa which separates on cooling, and add 4 pts. more of 
sulphuric acid when the acid begins to separate. The liquid 
is heated, water being added to dissolve the crystals, then 
evaporated until a pellicle forms, and set aside to crystallize. 
The acid, dried on brick or biscuit-ware, may be purified by 
carefully fusing it, when sulphuric acid and bichromate of 
potassa form an insoluble salt of oxide of chrome; or by re- 
solution in water, adding oil of vitriol until a precipitate ap- 
pears, evaporation and slow crystallization. 

Qride of Antimony.—Hornung (Journ. de Pharm. 1848) 
gives the following economical process (a modification of Fre- 
derking’s) for preparing the oxide of antimony to be used in 
the manufacture of tartar emetic. Mix together in an iron 
vessel 15 pts. finely-powdered sulphuret of antimony and 
36 pts. sulphuric acid, expose to a gentle heat for 12 to 18 
hours, and stir frequently. The mixture thickens at first, but 
afterwards liquefies upon an increase of the temperature, and 
finally becomes white; sulphur fuses and separates, and sul- 
phurous acid fumes are disengaged. The heat and stirring 
are continued as long as these phenomena continue. When 
the vapor or gas evolved consists only of sulphuric acid, water 
is to be gradually added, and the mass washed for the removal 
of free sulphuric acid. The subsulphate of antimony is to be 
decomposed. with carbonate of soda, and the resulting oxide 
of antimony washed. 13 pts. dry greenish-white oxide, soluble 
in tartaric acid, are thus obtained from 15 pts. sulphuret of 
antimony. 

Sulphantimoniate of Sodium.—Van der Corput prepares 
this (Schlippe’s) salt by intimately mixing together, in powder, 
8 pts. effloresced sulphate of soda, 6 pts. sulphuret of an- 


QUININ. 117 


timony, and 3 pts. vegetable charcoal. This mixture is to be 
heated in a covered crucible, and when the fluid mass ceases 
to foam, it is to be boiled in a capsule with 1 pt«sulphur and 
q. 8. of distilled water. The liquor, filtered and left to repose, 
deposits colorless crystals of 3NaS+SbS,+18HC. (Repert. 
der Pharm. 1848, and Chem. Gaz. vi. 268.) 

Black Sulphuret of Mercury.—Vogler (Journ. de Pharm. 
1848) prepares this salt more readily than by trituration, as 
follows. 4 oz. mercury are mixed with 1 oz. sublimed sulphur, 
washed and sieved, and the whole placed in a capacious glass 
vessel, and shaken for two hours. After this, another ounce 
of sulphur is added at intervals, and the agitation continued 
until every trace of mercury ceases to be visible to the eye. 
Two more ounces of sulphur are then added, and the mix- 
ture again shaken until the entire incorporation of the mer- 
cury with the sulphur, as may be ascertained by the aid of 
a lens. 

2. Organic Bodies.—Some of the most interesting of these, 
to the pharmaceutist, are the alkaloids, and the volatile liquids 
chloroform and collodion. 

Separation of Cinehonin from Quinin.—O. Henry’s process 
(Journ. de Pharm. 1849) for determining the proportion of 
cinchonin in sulphate of quinin is based upon the difference in 
solubility, in cold water, of the acetates of the two alkaloids. 
10 grm. of the mixed sulphates are mixed with 4 grm. acetate 
baryta, triturated with 60 grm. water, slightly acidulated with 
acetic acid, strained and filtered. Two volumes of alcohol of 
30° are added to the filtrate, and then sulphuric acid in ex- 
cess. After filtration, add ammonia, and boil: the cinchonin 
precipitates while the quinin remains in the alcoholic liquid. 

Quinidin.—This new alkaloid, according to F. L. Winck- 
ler (Buch. Rep. xlviii. 385), occurs, with quinin, in one of the 
new barks most resembling Huamalies. It is crystallizable, 
soluble in alcohol, and slightly so in water. Its sulphate is so 
similar in appearance to the sulphate of quinin, that it is diff- 
cultly distinguishable from the former. 

Quinoidin.—After preparing quinin and cinchonin from 


118 FINE CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. [iV. 


Peruvian bark, a resinous mass, quinoidin, remains, which has 
been supposed to be a mixture of resin, &c. with quinin and 
cinchonin, of a modification of these alkaloids. 

Roder (Mittheilungen des Schweizer Apothekervereins, 
i. 31) gives a method by which he obtained upwards of 40 
per cent. of quinin, and 10 per cent. of cinchonin, from dif- 
ferent samples of quinoidin. Of the residue, about 30 per 
cent. was resin. The process is as follows. A solution of a 
4 pt. protochloride of tin, in 2 pts. water, is added to 4 pts. 
alcohol (.865) holding 1 pt. quinoidin: resin precipitates. 
Ammonia is poured into the decanted supernatant liquor, and 
the resulting precipitate drained, washed, dried, and exhausted 
with alcohol. The treatment is repeated with half the quan- 
tity of tin-salt first employed, and the clear liquids again 
precipitated by ammonia. The precipitates, washed, dried, 
and displaced as before, yield a tincture which, when neu- 
tralized with dilute sulphuric acid and evaporated, drops 
crystals of sulphate of quinin. The cinchonin remains in the 
filtrates from the tin and quinin precipitates. 

Winckler (Journ. fiir Pract. Pharm. xy. 281) detects the 
presence of crystallized sulphates of quinin and cinchonin in 
quinoidin, by the use of hyposulphite of soda, which imme- 
diately precipitates hyposulphite of quinin, in a white crys- 
talline form, and hyposulphate of cinchonin as four-sided 
needles, from their solution in hydrochloric acid. Both salts 
disengage sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid upon 
treatment with concentrated sulphuric acid. Dilute sulphuric 
acid converts them into sulphates, with evolution of sulphurous 
acid and elimination of sulphur. ‘The amorphous alkaloids, 
or quinoidin, when saturated with muriatic acid, do not yield 
these precipitates. (Ch. Gaz. vi. 122.) 

The Bark of Adansonia Digitata.—Dr. Duchassaing, a 
physician at Guadaloupe, employs this bark with great success 
in intermittent fevers. (Comptes Rendus, xxvi. and Ch. Gaz. 
vi.) Itis without action upon the nervous system and improves 
the digestive powers. It is used in decoction made by boiling 
1 oz. of bark in a litre of water, and evaporating to one-third ; 


STRYCHNIN. 119 


and this quantity has served to cure even where quinin had 
failed. The bark is abundant in the French colony of Senegal. 

Test for Opium.—Hensler (L’Union Medicale, 1848) pro- 
poses the following test for the presence of minute quantities 
of opium, founded upon the property of porphyroxin of being 
reddened when heated, by dilute muriatic acid. The suspected 
substance is to be mixed with a small portion of potassa and 
shaken with ether. Bibulous paper is to be moistened in this 
solution, and dried after each immersion. Dilute muriatic 
acid is then applied, and the paper exposed to the vapor of 
boiling water. If opium be present, the paper acquires a 
reddish-purple tint. 

Papaverin.—This new alkaloid, discovered by Merck in 
opium, has the formula C,,H,,NO,. It forms crystals insolu- 
ble in water, and more soluble in hot than in cold alcohol, and 
ether. Its salts are crystallizable. It is prepared by adding 
soda to a decoction of opium, treating the precipitate with 
alcohol, and evaporating the strained tincture to dryness. 
The residue is treated with dilute acid, the liquid filtered, and 
ammonia added. ‘The resinous precipitate is then to be dis- 
solved in dilute hydrochloric acid, and acetate of potassa 
added. The resinous precipitate thus thrown down, after 
having been washed with water, is then to be acted on with 
boiling ether, which, on cooling, drops the papaverin in crys- 
tals. (Liebig’s Annalen, 1850.) 

Strychnin.—Molyn (Journ. de Chim. Méd. 3) proposes the 
following method for making pure strychnin. 8 pounds of 
nux vomica are made into paste, with an equal weight of water, 
and left to repose, for 3 weeks, in a temperature of 68°-78°. 
The fermented mass is then pressed and exhausted by three 
several boilings with water, and the expressed liquids united 
and evaporated to 12 quarts. 9 oz. lime are next added, and 
after a repose of 6-8 hours, the mass is‘strained and pressed, 
and the resulting liquid treated with sulphuric acid to remove 
lime, filtered, and evaporated to 2 qts. and subjected to a second 
treatment as before, with 1 oz. lime. The precipitates, after 
the entire expulsion of all liquid by pressure, are to be dried, 


120 FINE CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. [ HV. 


powdered, and digested with alcohol of .935, which removes 
brucin and coloring matter, and then displaced with spirit 
of .838. This tincture, relieved of four-fifths of its alcohol 
by distillation, will drop strychnin in granules, which may be 
rendered perfectly pure by washing in alcohol of .935 and 
recrystallization. 

Thein.—Heijnsius (Scheidk. Onderzoek, and Ch. Gaz. viii.) 
recommends an easy method for preparing thein by sublima- 
tion. For this purpose, damaged tea is placed in an iron pot, 
covered with filtering-paper, and surmounted by a paper 
cylindric cap. Cautious application of heat insures the suc- 
cess of the operation. 

Oenanthin.—A resinous principle, obtained by Gerding 
(Journ. f. Prac. Chem. 1848) from the plant Oenanthe fistulosa. 
Its effect upon the system is very decided and powerful, pro- 
ducing hoarseness and even vomiting, when taken in the dose 
of a half to one grain. 

Cedron.—This remarkable substance is, according to Hooker 
(Lond. Pharm. Journ. x. 344), the cotyledon of the seed of 
the Simaba Cedron, a plant indigenous to Panama, New Gre- 
nada. The seed, as well as the bark and wood, are bitter and 
tonic. So highly is it esteemed by the natives, as an antidote 
for bites of venomous reptiles, and as a specific in intermittents 
and diseases of the stomach generally, that it commands, fre- 
quently, an enormous price. Herran (Comptes Rendus, 1850), 
who administered it in eight cases, attests its efficacy. He 
gave it in doses of 5 or 6 gr., mixed with a spoonful of brandy, 
and at the same time dressed the bitten part with linen saturated 
with some of the spirituous liquor. After repose, the patient 
recovered without any repetition of the dose. A similar treat- 
ment was equally successful in cases of fever, where quinin 
had failed. 

Githagin.—A poisonous principle, obtained by Scharling 
(Central Blatt, 1850) from the seeds of the Aygrostemma 
Githago, or corncockle. It is a starch-like inodorous sub- 
stance, soluble in water and dilute alcohol, and insoluble in 
cther. 


ANHYDROUS PRUSSIC ACID. 121 


Atropin.—Rebourdain (Comptes Rendus, 1850) gives the 
following process for the ready preparation of atropin. Fresh 
belladonna leaves are to be bruised, the juice extracted by 
pressure, heated to 176°-194° F. and filtered. When the 
filtrate has cooled, 4 grm. caustic potassa and 30 grm. chloro- 
form per quart are added, and the whole well shaken together. 
After an hour’s repose, the chloroform, holding in solution the 
atropin, subsides as the lower stratum, and after decantation 
of the supernatant liquid, is to be washed repeatedly with 
water. The chloroform solution is then distilled over a water- 
bath. The residue in the retort, by digestion with dilute sul- 
phuric acid, yields the atropin. This solution, on treatment 
with carbonate of potassa, drops the atropin, which may be 
obtained in acicular crystal by resolution in alcohol and spon- 
taneous evaporation. 

Pyrotartarie Acid.—According to Arppe (Liebig’s Anna- 
len, Ixv.) pyrotartaric acid may be prepared by distilling 
together, in a capacious green-glass retort, a mixture of equal 
parts of powdered crystals of tartaric acid and pumice-stone 
dust. For 21b acid, the time required is 12 hours. The dis- 
tillate is to be mixed with water, the supernatant empyreumatic 
oil separated by the aid of a funnel, and the liquor gently 
evaporated and set aside. The crystajline mass which forms 
is to be pressed between paper, and then spread upon papers 
saturated with alcohol in order to remove the empyreumatic 
and coloring matters. The product amounts to 7 per cent. 
of the acid employed. 

Anhydrous Prussie Acid.—Wohler (Central Blatt, 1850) 
gives the following process for preparing anhydrous prussic 
acid. 10 pts. prussiate of potassa, 7 pts. sulphuric acid, and 
14 pts. water are mixed together in a retort and distilled over 
an open charcoal fire. The neck of the retort should be raised 
to an angle of 45° and occasionally cooled, so as to condense 
and drive back the aqueous vapor, and thus prevent its passing 
over into the drying-tube attached, containing the chloride 
of calcium. Between this latter tube of U shape, there should 


be another vessel containing a small quantit# of chloride of 
L 


122 FINE CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. [ HV. 


calcium or cyanide of potassium, and both must be sur- 
rounded with water of 86° F. By enclosing the condenser 
in a mixture of ice and salt, the acid is made to crystallize. 

Gallic Acid.—This acid may be made by boiling tannin 
with dilute sulphuric acid, until the liquid crystallizes om cool- 
ing. Wetherill (Journ. Pharm. xii. 107) gives 1 pt. sulphuric 
acid (1.84) to 4 pts. water, as the proper strength of the acid ; 
and 500 cubic centimetres of this mixture to 50 grm. dry tan- 
nin, as the best proportions. The product will be upwards of 
40 grm. gallic acid. 

Succinie Acid.—Wackenroder has found that much of the 
commercial acid is adulterated largely with tartaric acid, 
drenched with oil of amber. (Archiv. d. Pharm. 1. 280.) 

Chloroform.—Soubeiran (Comptes Rendus, 1847) proposes 
to prepare pure chloroform for medicinal purposes, by the 
following process. 10 pts. of the best chloride of lime are 
mixed with 60 pts. water, well stirred and transferred to a 
copper still of at least one-third greater capacity than the 
volume of liquid, adding 2 pts. alcohol of 0.85. The apparatus 
being luted tightly is heated by a brisk fire. As soon as 
the mixture reaches 176° a violent intumescence ensues, when 
the fire must be immediately removed, to prevent the liquid 
from running over igo the receiver. This mishap being 
guarded against by careful management of the heat, the dis- 
tillate commences to pass over and continues rapidly. When 
the action becomes slow, the fire must be restirred in order to 
hasten it. When the distillate ceases to taste sweet, the pro- 
cess is terminated. The distillate consists of two strata, one 
dense and yellowish, consisting of chloroform contaminated 
with alcohol and chlorine; the other is a mixture of water, 
alcohol, and chloroform, and, after a day, deposits a portion of 
the latter product. The chloroform is to be decanted, washed 
by agitation with water, the chlorine removed by a dilute so- 
lution of carbonate of soda, and then rectified over chloride 
of calcium in a water-bath. As the operation is more pro- 
ductive the quicker it is effected, the pulverized chloride of 
lime should be mixed with hot water. 


CHLOROFORM. 123 


Soubeiran determines the purity of chloroform by means 
of a test liquid of 40°, or spec. gray. 1.35, made by mixing 
equal parts of concentrated sulphuric acid and distilled water, 
and allowing the whole to cool. One drop of chloroform poured 
into this liquid will sink if it is free from alcohol. 

Bottcher’s process (Polytech. Notizbl. No. i.) is to distil to 
dryness, in an iron retort, equal parts of acetate of soda and 
chloride of lime. A large quantity of dilute acetone and but 
little chloroform passes over. The distillate is then to be 
mixed with chloride of lime and again distilled, and the same 
process repeated a third time, in order to decompose the whole 
of the acetone. The last distillate is to be rectified over 
caustic lime. 

According to Soubeiran and Mialhe (Journ. de Pharm. 1849) 
there are two kinds of chloroform in commerce. One, the 
normal chloroform, prepared by the action of hypochlorite of 
lime upon alcohol; the other made from pyroxylic spirit in- 
stead of alcohol. The latter (methylic chloroform), though 
similar in appearance to the former, is less sweet, has a dif- 
ferent odor, and produces nausea. Its spec. grav. is only 1.415, 
and its boiling point much lower than true chloroform. These 
discrepancies do not proceed from any actual difference in the 
two liquids, but are owing to the presence of a peculiar chlo- 
rinated oil, obtained in both instances, but readily separable 
from the normal chloroform. It is to the presence of this 
oil that the nausea and other ill effects of chloroform in certain 
instances are attributable, and therefore methylic chloroform 
is unfit for inhalation, it being impossible to remove all the 
empyreuma from it. To separate it from normal chloroform, 
the latter must be distilled, and the process stopped before the 
end of the operation, in order to prevent the reproduction of 
the mixture. 

When chloroform is poured upon a doubled sheet of bibu- 
lous paper, one portion soaks through, and another, by its 
rapid evaporation, produces sufficient cold to congeal it into 
crystals. 

Alcohol in Chloroform.—Cattel detects the presence of al. 


124 FINE CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. [ iV. 


cohol in chloroform by adding one or two crystals of chromic 
acid to 2 drachms of the suspected mixture. If it contains 
alcohol, the acid is soon reduced to green oxide. (Journ. de 
Chim. Méd. iv. 257.) 

On the tests and purification of chloroform, by Dr. Grego- 
ry, see Chem. Gaz. viii. 189. The method was afterwards 
shown to be defective, rendering the chloroform liable to 
decomposition. 

Collodion.—Maynard (Silliman’s Journ.) was the first to 
propose an ethereal solution of gun-cotton as a substitute for 
adhesive plaster. The ordinary gun-cotton is, however, some- 
what insoluble in ether. It must therefore be prepared by a 
special method, known as Malgaigne’s (Lond. Med. Gaz. 1848), 
which gives a perfectly soluble product. 

Mix together, in a stone pan, 40 oz. purified nitre in powder, 
with 60 oz. of sulphuric acid of 66°, and stir in 2 oz. of 
finely-carded cotton. After 3 minutes, remove the cotton 
with a glass rod and plunge it into a large volume of water, 
and renew the washing with fresh water until the removal of 
all acidity. Press, dry in a warm room, and pull out the 
wool. 8 oz. of this cotton form, with 125 pts. of rectified 
ether, a ready solution, which must be diluted with 8 pts. of 
rectified alcohol and strained through a linen cloth. 

The liquid is the collodion of the shops, now much used for 
surgical purposes. It is applied either alone with a brush, or 
upon a linen cloth. Its adhesiveness is said to be increased 
by the addition of Venice turpentine. The parts to which it 
is to be applied must be free from all dampness, as water de- 
composes the collodion. 

When containing one grain of morphin to the ounce, it is 
also a very efficient remedy for the toothache. 

As the solvent of ethereal extract of cantharides, it is an 
admirable blistering-plaster. It may be spread on with a 
camel’s hair pencil. The evaporation of the ether leaves a 
dry coating in a few seconds; and as soon as the principle 
of the cantharides begins to act upon the epidermis, the coat- 
ing rises and forms a blister. If opened at the side, the film 


BENZOLE. 125 


of collodion remains unbroken, and by thus protecting the 
sore obviates the necessity of dressing it with ointment. Itis 
a much more active, cleanly, and convenient vesicant than 
the unguent. cantharid. (Lond. Pharm. Journ. 1850.) 

Benzole.—This liquid carbohydrogen, so valuable as an 
economical solvent of caoutchouc, gutta-percha, resins, and 
other difficultly soluble substances, is readily prepared by 
Mansfield’s process (Journ. of Chem. Soe. i., and Chem. Gaz. 
vil.) from coal-tar. 

The light coal-naphtha, obtained in the early stage of the 
distillation of coal-tar, is distilled in a metal retort having its 
head surmounted with a chamber containing cold water, so 
that the liquids less volatile than water may be condensed and 
fall back into the retort or into a separate receiver, while those 
more ethereal pass on in vapor to a condensing vessel kept 
cool with water or ice. The liquid ceases to pass as soon as 
the water in the chamber commences to boil, because all vapor 
volatile below 212° has then been driven over into the con- 
denser. The distillate is rectified by a second distillation as 
above, taking care, this time, that the temperature of the 
water surrounding the head of the still shall not quite reach 
176° F., that being the boiling point of Benzole. The dis- 
tillate obtained before the temperature within the retort has 
risen to 194° F., is a yellowish volatile oil, which at 4° F. 
drops one-half of its bulk in crystals. 

This liquor, by agitation with one-tenth its volume of strong 
nitric acid for the removal of the oxidable substances, and, 
subsequently, after separation from the acid, with one-fourth 
its volume of oil of vitriol, to separate neutral oils, basic, and 
coloring matters, is prepared for the last distillation. All the 
distillate obtained below 194° is to be reserved and washed 
with water, and finally with an alkaline solution. The purifi- 
cation is completed by congealing it at 4° F. and pressing out 
the solid portion, filtering, and drying by means of chloride 
of calcium. 

The volatility of benzole imparts great value to it as the 


solvent of resins for forming varnishes, or artificial cuticles in 
L2 


126 FINE CHEMICALS AND PHARMACEUTICS. [ EV. 


dressing wounds and burns.. Those resins, as copal, &c., which 
do not dissolve in the liquid, yield readily to the vapor. 

Air or coal-gas, surcharged with benzole, yields a flame of 
highly luminous power, and the author has recommended 
(Ch. Gaz. vii. 188) a system of illumination based upon this 
property. 

So also, when mixed in the proportion of one volume to two 
of alcohol or pyroxylic spirit of .840, it forms an admirable 
burning fluid. 

It, moreover, possesses anzesthetic properties. 


V. KALISTICS. 


It embraces the ornamenting and modifying of tissues, 
such as yarns, cloths, horn, ivory, paper, leather, &c., and 
may accordingly be divided into processes performed on tertile 
fabrics, yarn, cloth, and on sheet fabrics, paper, leather, gum- 
elastic ; while a third division embraces the cements and var- 
nishes employed upon those fabrics. 


1. TextTILeE Fasrics 


Includes the preparation of fibre and dyes, the processes 
of dyeing and calico-printing. 

1. Fibrous substances, such as cotton, wool, silk, &c. are 
bleached and dyed of various colors, either in the crude state, 
or as yarn, or woven into cloth. When colored uniformly, 
throughout, they are said to be dyed; when colored topically, 
or according to figures and designs, they are said to be printed. 
The term calico-printing has been applied to topical dyeing, 
but the general term should be color-printing, since the art 
consists in the application of colors to textile fabrics of cotton, 
wool, silk, &c., as well as to wall-paper. 

Flax and Hemp Ketting.—The process of retting, as usually 
practised, is objectionable on many accounts; it requires much 
tyme, the putrefaction disseminates a disagreeable, and, it is 
believed, a miasmatic odor; and it is moreover very liable to 
be carried too far, to the injury of the fibre. Poole’s method 
(Rep. Pat. Iny. 1845) consists in the use of dilute acid to dis- 
solve the material which glues the fibres together. A bundle 
of flax or hemp is saturated with water and exposed to the air 
for 8-9 hours, then again saturated towards evening and ex- 
posed for the night. The following morning it is put into a vat 


containing sulphuric acid diluted with 200 pts. water for hemp 
127 


128 TEXTILE FABRICS. ws 


(with 400 pts. for flax), and, after a time, is removed and put 
ona lattice. The operation is repeated in the course of 5-6 
hours, and oftener, until the retting is complete, which is 
indicated by black spots on the stems. It is then rinsed 
thoroughly in water, passed through a bath of 1 pt. potash 
in 10,000 pts. water, to neutralize any remaining acid, and, 
lastly, rinsed in clean water, and dried. 

Hemp and Linen, with New-Zealand Flax.—New-Zealand 
flax diminishes the value of cordage, &c. made of hemp or 
flax, rendering it less durable. Vincent gives the following 
method of detecting the mixture. (Comptes Rendus, 1847.) 
Hemp fibre, dipped for a few seconds into nitric acid, is 
colored pale-yellow, linen not at all, and New-Zealand flax 
blood-red. A piece of cloth, containing both flax and New- 
Zealand flax, dipped into the acid, showed red striz in the 
woof and none in the chain, which was all common flax. 

To detect Cotton in Linen.—Elsner has published a critical 
review of the various methods proposed to distinguish cotton 
and flaxen fibres (Berlin. Industrie u. Handelsbl. xxiv.), the 
best of which we extract from his report. Stdckhardt ob- 
served that a flaxen fibre, inflamed in a vertical position, and 
then extinguished, appeared to be carbonized at that end in a 
smooth, coherent shape, while cotton, similarly treated, ap- 
peared to be spread out like a brush or tuft. Elsner observes 
that it especially occurs when the flame is violently blown out, 
and that it succeeds with dyed goods, unless dyed by chrome 
yellow. 

The potash test ee in putting the fibre into boiling 
caustic potassa-lye for a couple of minutes, when the flax turns 
deep-yellow and the cotton is scarcely changed. ‘The test ‘is 
not reliable. 

One of the best is the microscopic examination, for when 
flax is magnified 300 times, it appears like long, compact tubes, 
with a narrow channel in the centre, while cotton appears to 
be flattened, ribbon-like cylinders, with a wide channel, and 
mostly in spiral windings. 

The test with oil of vitriol is reliable in an experienced 


BLEACHING. 129 


hand, but every trace of weaver’s gum must have been pre- 
viously removed by boiling with water. The fibres are laid 
on a plate of glass, and oil of vitriol dropped on it. A single 
lens is sufficient.to observe the effect. In a short time the 
cotton fibre is dissolved, the flax unaltered, or only the finest 
fibres attacked. 

The oil test is also a good one, and convenient in execution. 
When flaxen fibres are rubbed up with olive-oil, they appear 
transparent, like oiled paper, while cotton, under similar cir- 
cumstances, remains white and opake. Dyed goods exhibit 
the same, if previously bleached by chloride of lime. 

Elsner’s method consists in putting the fibres for a few 
minutes into a tincture of various red dyes, of which cochineal 
and madder give the most striking results. The tincture is 
made by putting 1 pt. madder, &c. into 20 pts. common alcohol 
for 24 hours. In the cochineal tincture, cotton is colored bright- 
red; flax, violet ;—in madder, cotton becomes, light-yellow ; 
pure flax, yellowish-red. 

It is better to employ several of these tests, the microscopic, 
oil, sulphuric acid, and combustion, rather than to rely upon 
a single test. 

Tanning Cotton and Linen.—English and French fisher- 
men have been long in the habit of tanning their sails, &e. in 
bark liquors, in order to render them more durable. Millet 
states that pieces of linen, treated for 72 hours with an oak- 
bark liquor at 150°, and stretched on frames, remained unal- 
tered in a damp cellar for 10 years; while untanned linen in 
the same place and for the same time had entirely rotted. 
The one frame, also tanned, was perfectly preserved, and the 
other, untanned, had rotted. It was further shown that linen, 
which had begun to moulder, might be preserved from further 
change by being tanned. It seems to be only necessary that 
the articles should be kept 2 or 3 days in a warm solution of 
tannin. Sponge may be similarly tanned. 

2. Bleaching.—The oldest process of employing sun and 
dew is still resorted to, but has been almost supplanted by the 


use of chlorine or chloride of lime. The new and singular 
9 


130 TEXTILE FABRICS. LV. 


substance, ozone (singular, because but little understood), seems 
to possess bleaching properties, and hence we notice it. 

Ozone.—Phosphorus kept in moist air imparts to it the pro- 
perty of bleaching various vegetable colors, and when kept 
too long in this air, their texture is weakened, as in bleaching 
by chlorine. Such air is termed ozonized air by Schonbein, 
who first investigated its properties, and called the substance 
itself ozone. A convenient way of making ozonized air is to 
cover the bottom of a capacious bottle with water, to set in it 
a stick of phosphorus, which must rise above the water, to 
close it loosely with a cork, and place it in a temperature of 
60-68°. The air will be ozonized in the course of an hour, 
may be used, and fresh ozone obtained with the same ar- 
rangement. 

Its bleaching effects are due to its large content and loose 
combination of oxygen, analogous to that of binoxide of hy- 
drogen, and to that of dilute solutions of chlorine. A color- 
ing substance is changed in its nature by oxidation, and new 
colorless compounds formed. Schénbein has further shown 
its oxidizing effect on protosalts of manganese. By writing 
with a solution of sulphate of manganese, and putting the 
dry writing for a short time into a bottle of ozonized air, the 
writing appears of a brown color, from the formation of per- 
oxide of manganese. ‘The writing will vanish in sulphurous 
acid by reduction to protoxide, and will reappear in ozonized 
alr. 

Bleaching Sponge.—A fter extracting lime by dilute muriatic 
acid, and washing with water, it is put into very dilute muriatic 


acid and,a solution of chloride of lime added, after which it. 


is rinsed in water and passed through an acid bath. It is 
‘then put into very dilute sulphuric acid, containing sulphite 
of soda, thoroughly washed, pressed out and dried. (Kressler 
in Journ. f. Chem. u. Pharm. Ixiv.) 

Bastick, examining the effect of chloride of lime upon 
starch, sugar, cotton, &c., found that when free lime is pre- 
sent, formiate of lime is produced; when absent, carbonic acid 
is generated. (Journ. Pharm. (3) xiv.) It appears then that 


MORDANTS. TSH 


where the alkaline base is absent, the decomposition by oxida- 
tion is more violent: a fact of importance in the use of this 
bleaching agent. 

Bristles Bleached.—Winkler and Fink give the following 
as the best method of bleaching bristles. (Monatsbl. d. Hess- 
isch. Gewerbver. 1847.) They are first well washed in a 
solution of soft-soap in luke-warm water, rinsed in cold water, 
then laid for 2-5 days in a saturated solution of sulphurous 
acid in water, well washed, and dried. By merely moistening 
and exposing them to the air, most kinds may be bleached, 
and still better by moistening them with very dilute sulphuric 
acid, and sunning them. In the latter case, however, Winkler 
observed that they were slightly attacked by the acid. 

3. Mordants.—Under Chemics, we have seen the preparation 
of the two great mordants, alum and copperas, together with 
several others. A few are prepared more exclusively for the 
dyer, and some by the dyer himself. 

Persulphate of Iron.—A mixture of powdered copperas and 
some soda-saltpeter is ignited for a short time in a crucible, 
and, when cooled, extracted by water. The presence of the 
sulphate of soda, also formed by the process, does not inter- 
fere with its employment in dyeing, &c. Elsner properly 
remarks that this process is not as economical as the older 
method of heating a due mixture of oxide of iron and oil of 
vitriol in a cast-iron vessel. It may nevertheless be sometimes 
convenient to employ it. (Mechan. Mag. 1847.) 

A good article on the nitrates of iron, Xc., appears in the 
American Journal, 2d series, ix. 30, by Ordway. 

Nitrate of Copper.—This salt may be made by mixing 1} 
pts. powdered blue vitriol with 1 pt. soda-saltpeter, moistening 
it with water, and heating it in a crucible until the fluid mass 
begins to evolve red vapors. The solution then made will 
contain sulphate of soda, which does not injure its value to 
the dyer. (Mechan. Mag. 1847.) 

Tin-salt.—C. Nollner proposes (Ann. der Chem. u. Pharm, 
Ixiii. 120) to adapt stoneware receivers to the retorts in which 
muriatic acid is generated, and to fill them with granulated 


132 TEXTILE FABRICS. [V. 


tin. The concentrated solution of tin thus obtained is eva- 
porated in a tin pan, containing an excess of granulated tin ; 
so that the pan will not be acted on, because it becomes posi- 
tively, and the granulated tin negatively, electric. All copper 
present in tke solution is precipitated as a black powder on 
the granulated tin. 

Salts of Tin.—Bouquet, in his paper upon the preparation 
of some protosalts of tin (Journ. de Pharm. xi. 460), gives 
the following formula for making the sulphate of the protoxide 
(SnO,S0,). Dissolve recently precipitated protoxide of tin 
in warm dilute sulphuric acid. Nacreous plates of sulphate 
separate on cooling. 

Stannate of Soda.—It is usually made by adding caustic 
soda-lye to a solution of chloride of tin. Another method, 
suitable for dyeing and color-printing, consists in heating 22tb 
caustic soda in an iron crucible to a red-heat, adding 8fb soda 
saltpeter and 416 common salt, bringing it to fusion, and then 
adding 10Ib granulated tin. The heat is continued until ig- 
nition takes place and the mass has a doughy consistence. 
It may be powdered and used at once, or may be purified by 
solution in water and crystallization. (Journ. of Arts, 1846.) 

Arseniate and Stannate of Soda.—Stannate of soda is made 
as usual from oxide of tin and soda, or tin and nitrate of soda, 
and dissolved in water until it reaches 50° Twaddle, and about 
1iib arseniate of soda (made by fusing together equal parts 
of arsenious acid and nitrate of soda) is added to a gallon of 
the hot solution, in an iron vessel over the fire. As soon as 
a little of the mass taken out congeals at once, the compound 
is completed. In like manner, phosphate of soda may be added | 
to the stannate, in order to make phosphate and stannate of 
soda. (Lond. Journ. Aug. 1850.) 

Lead Mordants.—The best mordants of lead are: 1. Basic 
acetate of lead, obtained by digesting litharge in a solution 
of sugar of lead; 2. Potassa-lime and oxide of lead, obtained 
by digesting litharge in a solution of caustic potassa contain- 
ing lime; and, 3. A similar solution with soda instead of po- 
tassa. All these mordants give a beautiful chrome-yellow. A 


MADDER. £55 


gray is obtained by passing the goods thus mordanted through 
a solution of sulphuret of calcium; and a deep-black by the 
same, finishing with iron mordant and campeachy wood. 
(Technologiste, 1846.) 

New Mordant.—Broquette’s new method of fixing colors, 
or his new mordant, is a solution of casein in ammonia, with 
which the goods are impregnated, and then heated to expel 
the ammonia and leave the casein on the cloth. He has also 
employed casein with lime alone, or with lime and ammonia. 
See Chem. Gaz. vill. 584. 

4, Dye-stuffs.—Many experiments have been recently made 
on well-known dye-stuffs, especially on the invaluable madder, 
and a few new dyes have been added to the list; but experience 
alone can prove their durability, beauty, and economy. 

Madder.—The investigation of this valuable coloring-sub- 
stance is attended with many difficulties, in consequence of 
the presence of several different coloring principles, which 
have some analogy in color, are different in their properties, 
and yet, according to some observations, one may be trans- . 
formed into another. It is probable that the substances alz- 
zarin and xanthin, found some twenty-five years since, were 
not pure. In 1835, Runge described, in a valuable essay on 
madder, five coloring principles in it, madder-purple, red, 
orange, yellow, and brown, and mentioned also two acids, rudi- 
acie and maddric ; but he viewed the sesubstances solely as a 
dyer and not as a chemist, leaving the most important part un- 
done, their more important combinations, transformations, and 
their composition. 

Schiel also examined the colors of madder. (See essay in 
Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm. Oct. 1846.) To prepare madder- 
purple, water is poured over the ground madder in a wooden 
vat, suffered to stand for 1 or 2 days, and drawn off. The 
madder is then pressed, boiled in a copper vessel with a strong 
solution of alum, and filtered hot. It deposits a reddish-brown 
substance, which is separated by filtration. Sulphuric acid is 
added to the red solution, which deposits the purple in 24 
hours. ‘The latter is again dissolved in alum and precipitated. 

M 


134 TEXTILE FABRICS. [ Vv. 


It is then boiled with muriatic acid, washed with cold water, 
dissolved in alcohol, and the solution evaporated, when it de- 
posits the pigment. It is, lastly, dissolved in ether several 
times, and separates from it by evaporation. It is a cherry- 
red powder, insoluble in cold water, rather soluble in hot, 
very soluble in alcohol and ether; soluble in alkalies with 
deep-red color, and reprecipitable by acids. It fuses by heat, 
and sublimes with partial decomposition, condensing in the 
form of red needles, which dissolve in alkalies with a violet 
color. Its composition is expressed in the formula C,,H,,0,.. 
Both madder-purple and madder-red dissolve in cold oil of 
vitriol, with a brilliant red color, and are again precipitated 
unchanged by the addition of 4 its volume of water. Hence, 
in preparing garancine, the oil of vitriol should be diluted 
with 4+ its volume of water, which would not dissolve the 
colors, while it chars the woody fibre. 

Madder-red is contained in the precipitate which sepa- 
rates from a cooling decoction of madder. After repeated 
purification, it is a yellow powder, difficultly soluble in water, 
readily soluble in alcohol and ether, soluble in potassa with a 
violet, in ammonia with a red color, sublimes at 437°, and 
deposits orange-yellow needles. Both the sublimed and the 
unsublimed appear to have the same composition, expressed by 
the formula C,,H,O,. The red appears to pass into the pur- 
ple by taking up 1 eq. water and 5 eq. oxygen. O,,H,O,+ 
HO+0,=C,,H,,9,,. 

Schunck performed a series of experiments on madder root, 
from the aqueous extract of which he obtained alizarin, rudza- 
cin, a and B resins, a bitter principle rubian, pectic and rubiacie 
acids, and a dark-brown substance. After thorough extraction 
by water, and then by hydrochloric acid, which removed lime 
and magnesia, he obtained by extraction with potassa, alizarin, 
pectic acid, 8 resin, and probably rubiacic acid. Alizarin has 
the formula C,,H,O,+38HO, soluble in pure water with a yellow 
color, in alcohol and ether; soluble in caustic and carbonated 
alkalies, with a brilliant purple color; the potassa solution is 
precipitable by alumina, which becomes reddish-purple; by 





MADDER-LAKE. 135 


peroxide of iron, which becomes blackish-purple. It is soluble 
in sulphuric acid, and reprecipitable by water unaltered; hence 
its permanency when madder is charred by oil of vitriol. 
Nitric acid, pernitrate and perchloride of iron convert it into 
alizaric acid. Rubiacin (probably Runge’s madder-orange) 
has the formula C,,H,0,,, is slightly soluble in boiling water 
and in sulphuric acid without decomposition ; in caustic po- 
tassa with a purple, and in carbonated with a blood-red color ; 
forms adingy-red precipitate with chloride of calcium, and an 
orange-colored compound with alumina, which last is soluble 
in potassa with a purple color. Boiling pernitrate or chloride 
of iron changes it to rubiacie acid. The resins are slightly 
soluble in boiling water; the @ resin in caustic and carbonated 
alkalies with a purple-red color, 8 resin with a dingy-red color. 
Rubian is the bitter, nitrogenous principle. Schunck believes 
alizarin to be the active dyeing substance in madder, although 
he states in one place that rubiacin assists in brightening color 
when alkali is present. He thinks that the resins impart a 
yellowish, and xanthin a brown tone to the color. (Ann. Ch. 
Pharm. Ixvi. 174.) 

Higgin ascribes some effect to rubiacin and xanthin in dye- 
ing. He believes that xanthin passes by a kind of fermenta- 
tion, first into rubiacin and then into alizarin, and that the 
resins are products of decomposition with boiling water. 
(Phil. Mag. (8) xxxili. 282.) : 

Residue of Madder.—Wy dler proposes the following method 
of using the residue of madder, exhausted by dyeing (Schweizer 
Gewerbebl. 1847). The pressed residue is mixed with 40 per 
cent. oil of vitriol, the mixture steamed for an hour, and then 
washed until the wash-water tests no longer acid. It is said 
to yield as much color as before. 

Madder-lake.—A fine madder-lake is thus prepared from 
an ordinary article, by Kressler. 1 oz. common madder-lake 
is powdered, treated with 2 oz. strong acetic acid (1.045), 
stirred frequently, set aside for 12 hours, then diluted with 
6—8 pts. distilled water, and filtered. Twice as much boiling 
water is added to the clear filtrate, and then gradually a dilute 


136 TEXTILE FABRICS. [W. 


solution of carbonate of soda (3-4 oz.) until all is precipitated. 
The precipitate is filtered, washed, pressed in linen, and dried 
in the shade. It has arich carmine color, and rubbed on glass 
with a good oil-varnish, appears as transparent as red glass. 
Its solution in strong acetic acid gives a beautiful and durable 
red ink, which does not mould and requires no gum. It may 
be diluted at pleasure. 

For the properties of a new dye of somewhat analogous 
character to madder, we refer to the Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 335. 

Red Coloring-matter of Rhubarb.—The erythrose of Garot 
(Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim. 1850) is extracted from rhubarb 
by acting on 1 pt. with 4 pts. of nitric acid. The residue, 
remaining untouched, is the coloring-matter, and varies in 
different rhubarbs from 8 to 20 per cent. It is orange-red, 
soluble in alcohol and ether, and forms with the alkalies red 
compounds of eminent tinctorial power. It is said to give a 
dye of much greater brilliancy and stability than that from 
cochineal. 

Cochineal.—Warren de la Rue (Chem. Soc. Trans. 1847) 
thus obtains the coloring-matter. 3Ib powdered cochineal are 
boiled for 20 minutes in 60 litres distilled water, strained, and 
poured off clear in3 an hour. It is then precipitated by a 
solution of acetate of lead previously acidulated by acetic 
acid (6 pts. acetate, 1 pt. acid), the precipitate washed with 
boiling water, dried in warm air, and powdered. This yields 
17 oz. crude carmine-oxide of lead. The cake is suspended in 
water, sulphuretted hydrogen passed through, the deep-red 
solution evaporated ina water-bath, and lastly dried in vacuo. 

The crude carminic acid contains phosphoric acid, and to 
purify it, it is dissolved in boiling absolute alcohol, and digested 
for some hours with carminate of lead. Ether is added to the 
solution, which precipitates a little nitrogenous matter, and 
the filtrate evaporated in a retort, and finally dried in vacuo. 
It is the pure cochineal-red or carminic acid. 

This substance is a purplish-brown pulverizable mass, 
transparent under the microscope, of a beautiful red color 
when finely divided, decomposed by chlorine, bromine, iodine, 


ROCELLA TINCTORIA. 137 


and nitric acid, above 277°. It is soluble in all proportions 
in alcohol and water; difficultly so in ether, its solution giving 
an acid reaction. The alkaline earths throw it down of a 
purplish color; the acetates of lead, copper, zine, and silver, 
purplish-red. Sulphate of alumina does not throw it down, 
but upon adding a little ammonia, a brilliant carmine-lake 
is precipitated. The chlorides of tin do not precipitate it, 
but impart a rich carmine tint to the liquid. Its formula 
is C,.H,,0,,- 

Alkanet.—Bolley gives (Schweizer Gewerbebl. 1847) a 
method of preserving the tincture of alkanet, which is valua- 
ble, since alkanet is a costly dye, and its tincture produces a 
peculiar violet of the fastest character. The method consists 
simply in the addition of avery little pure muriatic acid to the 
tincture, a few drops being sufficient for large quantities. Its 
action is supposed to be its neutralizing a little ammonia, 
which is the cause of the tincture spoiling; but it is more 
probable that it combines with the substance from which the 
ammonia is produced by decomposition. 

Rocella Tinctoria (Orchil, Cudbear).—Schunck’s examination 
of this lichen is described in Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm. lxi. 64, 
&e. The cut lichen is boiled in water for some time, in a 
spacious vessel, and the yellowish-brown liquid strained. On 
cooling, white flocks and crystals separate, and when filtered 
off, washed and dried, are gray. Dissolved in boiling alcohol, 
a slight-brownish residue remains, and the cooling solution 
deposits a white crystalline substance, Heeren’s erythrin, 
Kane’s erythrilin, and Schunck’s erythric acid. It is the 
most important constituent of the lichen, as it produces the 
color for which the lichen is gathered. lb lichen yields 
about 50 grains. 

It is white, tasteless, soluble in alcohol and ether; 1 pt. 
dissolves in 240 pts. boiling water, but the greater part se- 
parates on cooling; it is also more soluble in boiling than in 
cold alcohol; its solution reddens litmus; it is soluble in 
caustic and carbonated alkalies, in lime and barytic water, 


and is again precipitated by acids in a gelatinous form. Its 
M2 


138 TEXTILE FABRICS. [W. 


tincture is not precipitated by a tincture of acetate of lead, 
but a solution of subacetate gives a large precipitate. Its 
solution in ammonia, by exposure to the air, becomes purplish- 
red. By continued boiling in water it is converted into 
picroerythrin. Heated on platinum foil, it fuses and burns 
without residue; heated in a glass tube, it yields first an oily, 
then a crystalline sublimate of orcin. LErythric acid is the 
basis, and, according to Schunck, the only basis of all the 
coloring-matters of the lichens. Its composition is C,,H,,0,.. 

Picroerythrin is a product of the decomposition of erythric 
acid, and is the cause of the bitter taste of an extract of 
lichens. A hot solution of the acid, evaporated, leaves a 
brown glutinous mass, which becomes solid and crystalline, 
has a bitter taste, and leaves white picroerythrin when ex- 
tracted by cold water. Its composition is C,,H,,O,,; and it 
is formed from the acid by its taking up the elements of 5 eq. 
water. 

Extraction of Color from Orchil.—Chandois (Ch. Gaz. vii.) 
exhausts the lichens by repeated washings with water, and 
separates the coloring-matter from this liquid by means of 
ammonia or alkali. 

New Mode of Testing Indigo.—Reinsch’s new process 
(Jahrbuch fiir Pract. Pharm.) for testing the coloring power 
of indigo is said to give accurate results, with greater facility 
than the usual methods. It consists in the use of a standard 
solution, made by triturating 1} gr. finely-powdered Bengal 
indigo, of best quality, with 4 or 5 drops of very concentrated 
fuming sulphuric acid, and when the mass has become uni- 
formly brown, adding 15 gr. more of the same acid. The 
rubbing is to be continued until the mixture turns green, when 
another 15 gr. of acid is added, and the whole diluted with 
150 gr. water. Two uniform cylinders having been previously 
graduated into 20 equal divisions, one is to receive 15 gr. of 
the above solution, or more if necessary, to give a light-blue 
liquid by filling the glass with water. The other cylinder is 
similarly filled, to determine whether the contents of the two 
are alike in shade. ‘This being so, one is emptied, and then, 


WONGSHY. 139 


having received 15 gr. of solution of inferior indigo, prepared 
as above directed, water is to be poured in until it assumes the 
tint of the standard liquor. The difference in the quantity 
of water required to produce a uniformity of shade in the two 
liquids, denotes the ratio of the quality of the indigoes em- 
ployed. For example, 20 pts. water were used for the stan- 
dard solution, whereas the same quantity of the indigo under 
test required only 15 measures to produce the same degree of 
coloration: therefore the latter contains 25 per cent. (z’pths) 
less of coloring matter than the former. 

The author gives the following results of certain essays with 
solution of best Bengal indigo, = 20. 


Hensal NG 2. GUAILY.. 6. oos..ded sey en paderese 19 

Same Ore Miers Wy Secon oes ese coin c secs 6 
DAVIN O: Lo nGUALLY ccc .csscabenemacs ole naideieit 194 
SN Oo aiuto Mos oa cain etnamensWise sence ey 183 


Coloring-matter of Soorangee.—This material, extensively 
used by the native Indians asa dye, is imported from Bombay. 
According to Dr. Anderson, it is the root of the morinda 
eitrifolia. His examinations (Ch. Gaz. vi.) prove that it con- 
tains a red coloring principle morindin, extracted by alcohol, 
which is very similar to madder-purple both in physical and 
chemical properties and in composition, though differing re- 
markably as a dye. Its behavior to mordants is given in 
detail in the original paper. 

Wongshy.—This new yellow dye, imported from Batavia, 
according to Stein (Journ. f. Prac. Chem. 1849), consists of 
the seed-vessels of a plant of the family of gentianx ; by tri- 
turation with water it gives a reddish-yellow liquid which re- 
tains its color even when largely diluted. Alcohol acquires 
by digestion with it a bright-red tint. It yields an orange-color 
to unmordanted woollen cloth; cottons require to be mor- 
danted. The color resists the action of soap, but is yellowed 
by alkalies and reddened by acids, and fades by exposure te 
light. The details of the author’s experiments are given in 
the original paper. 


140 TEXTILE FABRICS. [V. 


See a full essay on this material in the Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 
265-275. 

5. Dyeing.—Some goods will receive a color directly from 
a solution and retain it, but in most cases it is necessary to 
impregnate the goods first with a mordant or color-base, and 
then to pass them through the dye, which adheres to the 
color-base. We present a few suggestions which have been 
recently made in reference to dyeing. 

In place of the cream of tartar used in woollen fabrics, a 
patentee (Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 385) proposes mixtures of salts 
and acids, enumerating 8 acids, 4 alkaline chlorides, 3 alkaline 
sulphates, besides alkaline acetates, nitrates, oxalate, borate, 
and sulphate of zinc. Out of these twenty salts and their 
scores of compounds, one may possibly succeed. 

Recovery of Soap from Scouring—Where large quantities 
of soap are used, as in scouring wool, cotton, &c., it may be 
recovered by adding muriate of lime to the wash-water (which 
is a Solution of soap), and precipitating the salt of lime with 
the fat acids. The salt, being collected, is easily decomposed 
by sulphuric or muriatic acid, and the fat acids obtained to be 
again used in the making of soap. This is the subject of an 
English patent. See Rep. Pat. Inv. July, 1850. 

Orchil, Cudbear.—Lightfoot proposes (Lond. Journ. Sept. 
1850) preparing vegetable textile fabrics by the Turkey-red 
preparation (pearlash, olive-oil, and water) by 10-12 paddings, 
then padding in acetate of alumina or aluminate of potassa, 
and dyeing in orchil or cudbear. He also proposes impreg- 
nating the goods with salts of magnesia, lead, zinc, copper, 
tin, &c., and fixing the base by alkali before printing with 
orchil or cudbear. The proposition to use cobalt or nickel 
salts is absurd on account of their cost. 

Indigo.—According to Chevreul (Comptes Rendus, 1846) 
indigo is more permanently fixed on woollen goods, dyed in 
the hot vat, by steaming them, or by a boiling bath of alum 
and argal, or tin-salt and argal, or by a bran-bath, or, lastly, 
by a solution of potassa or soda. 

Red Prussiate of Potash.—Dr. Meitzendorff published an 


CHROME DYES. 141 


essay in the Verhandl. z. Beford. d. Gewerbfl. in Preussen, 
1846, on the process of shading with blue on woollen-yarn. 

Chromate of Lead, as a Gold-yellow for Cotton.—The gold- 
yellow color with a silky lustre, on cotton-yarn, is prepared 
by mordanting in a solution of subacetate of lead, and then 
passing it through bichromate of potassa, acidulated with nitric 
acid; after thoroughly rinsing in water, it is dipped for a few 
minutes into an alcoholic tincture of saffron, and dried in the 
shade without previous washing. (Innerdsterr. Industr. und 
Gewerbebl. 1847.) 

Chrome Dyes.—Kurrer (Ch. Gaz. viii. 461, and Lond. 
Journ. Aug. 1850) has made some valuable contributions to 
the chemistry of colors, in an essay on chrome dyes. As 
these latter resist the action of light, acids, and alkalies, they 
may be considered fast colors. The new methods of preparing 
the different shades, with the requisite proportions of materials 
to be employed, are given in the original paper, which may be 
profitably consulted. 

Sea-green.—Prepared by dissolving hydrated peroxide of 
chrome in dilute hydrochloric acid, carefully neutralizing ex- 
cess of acid with caustic potassa, and evaporating solution to 
46° B. The chrome oxide is precipitated from solution of 
bichromate of potassa by arsenious acid. 

For cylinder-printing, either starch or gum tragacanth may 
be used for thickening ; but the gum is preferable, because it 
gives colors of greater depth and richer tone. 

The prints are brightened, after being stretched over night 
in a cool place, by passing them through caustic potash-lye of 
2° B., airing, pressing, washing, drying, and, finally, by im 
mersion in a bath of acetate of copper, rinsing, and drying. 

Olive.—The addition of catechu-brown to the chloride of 
chrome, in varying proportions, produces the different shades 
of olive. R 

Pearl-gray.—This tint is obtained by a mixture of sulphate 
of chrome and chrome alum. The prints are finished by im- 
mersion in milk of lime, rinsing in hot and cold water, and 
drying. 


142 TEXTILE FABRICS. [V. 


Black Dye for Felt Hats.—The composition of this dye, for 
which a prize was awarded, is as follows. 1. The felt hat- 
bodies are first cleaned, and galled by passing them through 
the following solution, and washing: fustic, copperas, argal, 
each 8b, are boiled together in water for half an hour. 2. The 
dye-bath consists of 55Ib campeachy wood, 1316 gum, 3th galls, 
which are boiled together in water for 3 hours. To produce 
the black color, 5tb refined verdigris, 21 each of blue vitriol, 
sugar, and quicklime, are added to the bath. (Bulletin de la 
Société d’Encouragement, August, 1846.) 

6. Color-printing.—The expansion of chemical science and 
of calico-printing are simultaneous, and must necessarily be 
so, for this beautiful art includes in it a larger share of the 
principles and practice of chemistry than any other, or perhaps 
than all other arts. Little of the experience of the calico- 
printer is published, except by the issue of his beautifully 
finished goods, and the cost of that experience is a sufficient 
apology for his silence. 

Steam-blue for Printed Goods.—According to Petersen 
(Polytech. Centralbl. 1847, 14) a topical blue for cotton, silk, 
wool, &c. is obtained by printing a thickened mixture of 
prussiate of potash with tartaric or sulphuric acid, and steam- 
ing. The ferrocyanhydric acid, thus set free, penetrates the 
fibre, depositing cyanide of iron, somewhat colored, which first 
assumes a fine color by oxidation in a bath of chromate of 
potash or chlorine, a blue protopercyanide being formed.. 

The lively tone of French blue is due to the use of tin-salt 
together with the others, or to ferrocyanide of tin, which is 
obtained by adding tin-salt to prussiate of potash. 

Prussian-blue for Calicoes.—A solution of pertartrate and 
persulphate of iron is treated with ammonia in excess, and 
then with yellow prussiate of potash. Cotton is not imme- 
diately colored when dipped into this solution, but by subse- 
quent exposure to the air, it assumes a violet-blue, which passes 
into a beautiful deep-blue when passed through a bath of tin- 
salt. (Dingl. Journ. xcix. 399.) 

White Discharge on Indigo.—This is usually effected by 


INKS. 143 


bichromate of potassa and an acid, but is objectionable because 
the white ground requires cleaning. Mercer (Phil. Mag.) pro- 
_ poses to effect it by red prussiate of potash and caustic alkali ; 
for when the former is printed on, and the cloth is then passed 
through dilute caustic-lye, a brilliant white is discharged. 

Ammonia-oxide of Copper.—Runge draws attention to the 
resolution of sulphate of copper in ammonia (Polytech. No- 
tizbl. 1847), and shows its utility for color-printing, when 
mixed with decoctions of plants. Thus, catechu gives almost 
the same brown as chromate of potassa, by fusing 1 pt. ca- 
techu in 4 pts. water, adding 12 pts. of the liquid ammonia- 
oxide of copper, and printing with the liquid, thickened with 
tragacanth. It shows a singular action on the yellow color 
which separates from a cold infusion of French berries. This 
color, when treated with the ammoniacal copper, becomes 
reddish-brown in the course of 6—8 hours, and if then treated 
with alcohol, the brown copper-salt is left, and a red color 
dissolved, which yields compounds with alumina of a beautiful 
red, like those from madder. 

Pyrophosphate of Copper and Potassa.—Persoz proposes 
this double salt for calico-printing, as it is decomposed by zine 
or iron with less facility than any other salt of copper, and 
as difficulties attend the use of other salts of copper. (Ann. de 
Chim. et de Phys. and Journ. f. Prac. Chem. xli. 361.) 

7. Coloring Fluids—We may conveniently embrace under 
this head various fluid inks, which are liquid dyes; as well 
printing-inks, which are pasty dyes, printed on from a type 
or pattern. 

Black Ink from Logwood.—Boil 125 pts. rasped logwood 
with so much water that it will yield 1000 pts. of the decoc- 
tion, and when cold, stir in 1 pt. yellow chromate of potassa. 
It is a beautiful blue-black, and gives no precipitate. Butif too 
much chromate be used, or the decoction be too concentrated, 
a dark precipitate takes place. (Runge’s Grundriss d. Chem. 
il. 207, 1847.) Being free from acid, it will not corrode steel 
pens, but it does not write as freely as our most fluid inks, 
made from nut-galls and copperas. 


144 SHEET FABRICS. [V. 


_ Another ink is made by adding a very small quantity of 
blue vitriol to a solution of logwood-extract. This is apt to 
precipitate. 

Soluble Prussian-blue (a Blue and Black Indelible Ink).— 
Dissolve in a solution of iodide of potassium as much more 
iodine as it contains, and pour this solution into one of yellow 
prussiate of potash, containing as much of the solid prussiate 
as the whole amount of iodine. Soluble Prussian-blue pre- 
cipitates and iodide of potassium remains in solution. After 
filtering, the precipitate is dissolved in water, and forms a 
blue ink, containing no free acid, and therefore adapted to 
steel-pens. If the soluble blue be added to common black 
ink (from galls), the result is a black ink which cannot be 
removed from paper without destroying it. 

Indelible Ink.—To remove spots of indelible ink, T. and H. 
Smith propose moistening the spots for a few moments with 
moist chloride of lime, which forms chloride of silver, and 
then dissolving the latter by caustic ammonia. It may be 
sometimes necessary to repeat the operation. (Chem. Gaz. 
Sept. 1847.) Cyanide of potassium may also be employed. 

Printing-ink.—Pratt’s patent consists in the use of rosin- 
oil, instead of linseed oil, with rosin, yellow soap, &c., in the 
manufacture of printing-ink. 


2. SHEET FABRICS AND Souip TISSUES. 


Among these are paper, leather, horn, caoutchouc, &c., of 
which caoutchouc and guttapercha, being new, and presenting 
remarkable properties, have been most rapidly advanced of 
all others, during the past few years. 

Paper.—Amos and Clark claim improvements in the ma- 
nufacture of paper, whereby, 1. The bluing material is more 
uniformly distributed so as to equalize the tint on both sides 
of the paper; 2. The pulp is more expeditiously sifted ; 
3. The paper is better dried on the cylinders; 4. The paper is 
glazed by means of a traversing horizontal table with two or 
more pairs of rollers. (Lond. Journ. xxxvu. Aug.) 


TANNING. 145 


/ 


Bleaching Paper.—After bleaching the pulp by chloride of 
lime, small quantities of this salt or chlorine remain in the 
paper, tending to injure its quality. It is entirely removed 
by sulphite of soda, which is converted by chlorine and water 
into muriate and sulphate of soda. Sulphite of lime, or, better 
still, a stale solution of sulphide of calcium, would probably 
answer the purpose as well.—J. C. B. 

Water-proof Paper.—J. Bossy prepares such paper by treat- 
ing half-stuff alternately with soapsuds and a solution of sul- 
phate of alumina, which results in producing an aluminous 
soap inthe pulp. The sheets, after drying, are sized with glue, 
rosin-soap, &c. (Rep. Pat. Inv. Aug. 1846.) 

Tracing Paper.—A paper dipped into a thick solution of 
gum arabic and pressed between two dry sheets, renders the 
three transparent. When dry, it is every way superior for 
tracing purposes, as it can be written or painted upon. Like 
the oiled paper, to which it is every way superior, it impresses 
the traced lines upon linen or paper. (Chemist, 1850.) 

Tanning.—The ancient process of tanning requiring a long 
period of time to produce leather, numerous processes have 
been latterly set forth, and many of them tried on a working 
scale, for the purpose of shortening this lapse of time. Al- 
though the end has been attained in a variety of ways, yet 
the quality of the leather has proved so inferior, that the 
slower process is still preferred for the finer qualities. The 
deterioration has been nearly, but not however quite, in direct 
proportion to the reduction of time in tanning, so that we may 
hope that methods will be devised for shortening the time 
without losing in quality. It is true that we are not thoroughly 
acquainted with the exact nature and progress of the change 
which a hide undergoes in its transformation, but we believe, 
on sufficient grounds, that it consists in the simultaneous 
metamorphosis of the hide into a gelatinous material and its 
combination with tannin. In some kinds of tanning, alumina, 
or an aluminous salt, seems to act the part of tannin. It has 
been found that an elevated temperature hastens the trans- 


formation ; that strong liquors, or the injection of liquors by 
N 10 


146 SHEET FABRICS. [v. 


force, hasten the combination of tannin. The same ends ap- 
pear to be also attained by the free use of lime, whereby the 
hide is swelled and its pores opened. ‘The precise action of 
acid is not well ascertained, except that the process is short- 
ened. These are the main principles by which a shortened’ 
process of tanning has been accomplished. Where lime has 
been freely used, acid liquors generally follow, and the hide is 
so puffed and porous, that tanning becomes expeditious ; but 
the hide has been torn and rent asunder, and the organized 
structure must be necessarily impaired, and the strength and 
firmness of the leather consequently diminished. It will be 
observed that in the older processes the change was so slow 
that the organized structure of the skin was not impaired; that 
but little matter was removed from the hide, while a quantity 
was added to it. In accelerating the change, a portion of the 
matter is removéd by solution while undergoing transformation, 
before it can unite with, and become fixed by, the tannin. 
Hence the greater looseness and levity of leather prepared by 
the more modern and rapid processes. It may perhaps be 
stated as an ascertained fact, that leaving the side in the vats 
during two years instead of one, the increase of weight and 
quality thereby, compensates for the loss of time, by paying 
a fair interest on the capital invested.— J. CL B. 

A patentee, in Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 310, proposes a combi- 
nation of the white leather (alum and salt) process, with the 
tanning process by means of catechu. Another (Lond. Journ. 
xxxvi. 819) suggests the use of sulphuret of calcium instead 
of lime for unhairing. 

Since liming tends to lengthen tanning, by preventing the 
more rapid union of tannin with gelatin, Turnbull treats the 
hides after liming with a concentrated solution of sugar, so 
that the access of air is prevented during the action of the 
bark-liquors on the hides, and the formation of gallic acid 
thereby prevented. In this manner, the same amount of 
leather is obtained in 14 days from 100Ib oak-bark, as has 
been heretofore obtained in 18 months from 800tb bark. 

Tannin.—Kampfmeyer states, as a result of his compa- 





TANNING. 147 


rative experiments with oak-bark, alder-bark, catechu, di- 
vidivi, that sole-leather tanned with dividivi is, in dry weather, 
about as good as the oak-tanned, but that in wet weather it is 
inferior. It may, nevertheless, be used in conjunction with 
oak-bark. (Verh. d. Gewerbfl. f. Preussen, 1847.) 

Elsner states that in Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania, 
the root of the tormentil or septfoil is largely and success- 
fully employed in tanning, and that its value is shown by 
chemical analysis, which gives 17 to 34 per cent. tannin in it. 

The best method of determining, practically, the amount of 
tannin in a substance is that proposed by Pelouze, which is to 
hang a strip of hide (freshly deprived of hair and ready for 
the tan-vat) in a tannic solution, and keep it there until it 
ceases to increase in weight. This increase is tannic acid, the 
gallic being left in the solution. 

Horse-hair, Dyed.—Previous to dyeing, it is cleaned by 
laying it for 24 hours in soapsuds heated to 130°, turning it 
repeatedly. For brown, it is laid for 12 hours in a decoction of 
logwood in lime-water cooled down to 120°, washed and dried. 
If the brown hair be dipped into water containing a little 
crystallized tin-salt, it assumes a violet-blue shade. To give 
a blue color, the hair is first mordanted in a hot solution of 
2 pts. alum and 1 pt. argal, wrung out, then passed through 
water containing a little sulphate of indigo, washed, and dried. 
For red, it is laid for a } hour in water containing tin-salt, 
wrung out, laid for 24 hours in a bath prepared by boiling 
redwood with alum, washed, and dried at a gentle heat. (De- 
ninger in Monatsbl. d. Gewerbver. f. d. Grossh. Hessen, 1847.) 

Hair Varnish.—Williams (Monit. Indust. 1848) gives the 
following recipe for a varnish for converting fibrous materials 
into “artificial hair.” It is made by dissolving 10-40 pts. 
hog bristles in 100 pts. linseed-oil varnish. The cloth is to 
be immersed in the liquid and then dried at a moderate 
temperature. 

Horn, Dyed.—To give it the appearance of tortoise-shell, 
a paste of 2 pts. lime, 1 pt. litharge, and a little soda-lye is 
brushed on, and, after drying, brushed off again. It is the 


148 SHEET FABRICS. [W. 


same as the Indian hair-dye, and acts by forming sulphuret 
of lead with the sulphur of horn, producing dark spots, that 
contrast with the lighter color of the horn. __ 

Ivory hardened.—It is said that ivory which has become 
friable by age, will recover its original hardness by being 
boiled, for some time, in a solution of gelatin. 

Ivory rendered Soft and Translucent.—This process of 
Geisler, communicated by Dr. Elsner, is as follows. Small 
pieces of ivory are laid in strong phosphoric acid (spec. gravy. 
1.13) until they become transparent, then rinsed in water and 
dried in pure linen. When dry, it is translucent, and hard, 
but softens as often as it is dipped in warm water or milk. 
The time of immersion in the acid differs with different pieces 
of ivory. If certain parts are to retain their original charac- 
ter, they are covered with a varnish before immersion. The 
acid probably acts by forming an acid phosphate of lime out 
of the basic phosphate which constitutes ? of ivory. 

Etching on Ivory.—The ivory is to be covered with wax 
and the designs traced with a style, and then eaten in by a 
strong solution of nitrate of silver made by dissolving 6 grm. 
silver in 80 grm. nitric acid and 150 grm. water. Exposure to 
light, after the removal of the wax by hot distilled water, 
will blacken the color of the traces. By substituting gold, 
platinum, or copper nitrates, other colors may be obtained. 

Ivory Etched in Colors.—The ivory is coated like a copper 
plate, with an etching ground, a design graved through the 
groufid, and then etched by a solution of 120 gr. pure silver 
dissolved in a fl. oz. nitric acid and diluted with 1 qt. water. 
In the course of 3 to 1 hour, according to the depth of shade 
required, the liquid is poured off, the ivory washed, and dried 
by paper, then exposed for an hour to sunlight, and the ground 
removed by terpentine. The color is brown or black. Other 
colors are obtained by nitrate of copper, chloride of gold, or 
of platinum. 

Caoutchouwc.—The great expansion which the application 
of caoutchouc to various fabrics has received within a few 
years past, is largely, if not mainly, due to the persevering 


CAOUTCHOUC. 149 


industry and ingenuity of Charles Goodyear, of New Haven, 
Connecticut. During a series of years of patient investiga- 
tion, he performed numberless experiments with a single object 
in view, viz. such a modification of caoutchouc, as would ob- 
viate all objections to its use, all defects in its properties, 
without impairing, and if possible, by increasing, its valuable 
qualities. Repeated failure did not discourage him, but 
seemed to nerve him the stronger in his toilsome pursuit, 
until at length success crowned his efforts. After he had been 
engaged some years in these investigations, and had already 
met with a degree of success which would have satisfied most 
persons, in the year 1841 he placed specimens of his manu- 
factured rubber in the hands of one of the writers of this 
report, for the purpose of testing its properties under chemical 
agency, in comparison with the native caoutchouc. This writer 
has known him personally, and been acquainted with his suc- 
cessive improvements from that period to the present time. 
His first improvement, which constituted the basis of others, 
consisted in the discovery by himself, that sulphur, under the 
influence of a higher temperature than usual, imparted the 
wished-for properties to caoutchouc, and that when conjoined 
with oxide of lead, these properties were still further improved. 
He called the compound Metallic Rubber. All processes for 
vulcanizing caoutchouc employed in England and on the con- 
tinent of Europe resulted from this important discovery of 
Goodyear. A fuller account of the process he pursued, was pub- 
lished some five years since in the Encyclopedia of Chemistry, 
to which reference is here made. Many other important im- 
provements have been made under Goodyear’s direction, both 
of a chemical and mechanical nature, some of which will 
doubtless be brought into successful employment, as soon as 
he conceives them to be sufficiently perfected. The present 
advanced state of the manufacture of elastic goods leads us 
to look onward to the time, when the manifold applications 
of caoutchouc, as a substitute for leather, with or without 
elasticity,—for various kinds of cloth, whether the coarse cloth 


of a tent exposed to the weather, or the more delicate fabric 
n2 


150 SHEET FABRICS. [We 


upon which an engraving is printed,—its application to pur- 
poses for which no other substance can as well be employed, 
will all point it out as one of the valuable gifts of the vegeta- 
ble kingdom to mankind. No important improvement in the 
method of vulcanizing, or rather sulphurizing, has lately taken 
place, for the use of bisulphuret of carbon, sulphuret or hypo- 
sulphite of lead, sulphuret of antimony, &c., are not improve- 
ments, but rather indifferent variations of Goodyear’s processes. 

Burk’s process, patented in England, is to mix by grinding 
or rolling, 15 pts. golden sulphuret of antimony with 100 pts. 
India rubber, to make up cloth, &c. with this mixture, and 
then submit it in a boiler under pressure to the temperature 
of 260° to 280°. It is at least more costly than Goodyear’s 
process, and its superiority is doubtful. 

For Hancock’s proposed improvements in caoutchouc, &e. 
see Lond. Journ. 96-104, 1849. . 

Kamptulicon.—Lieut. G. Walton, of the British Navy, has 
proposed a mixture of sawdust. and caoutchouc, under the 
name of kamptulicon, as a lining for the interior of iron war- 
vessels. The inventor claims that, from its elasticity, it will 
immediately collapse when penetrated by a ball, and thus pre- 
vent the entrance of water. It also deadens concussion, and 
by its buoyancy will keep a vessel afloat though it should be 
riddled with shot, and moreover will prevent loss of life caused 
by splinters. 

Guttapercha.—This remarkable product, similar in its origin 
and composition to caoutchouc, differs wholly from it in its 
external characters, being very solid and unyielding at common 
temperatures, having something of the character of horn, but 
being quite plastic at 212°, at which temperature it can be 
pressed and moulded into any required form, from the simple 
form of a tumbler or plate, to the richest carving of a picture- 
frame and the minute lines of a medal. E. N. Kent has ob- 
served that it dissolves in the oils of terpentine, rosin, tar, 
guttapercha itself, in tereben and its muriate, but that neither 
by precipitation nor by evaporation can the solvent be wholly 
removed from it again. When dissolved in bisulphuret of 


GUTTAPERCHA. LSet 


carbon or chloroform, it may be precipitated unaltered by al- 
cohol. Its solution in 16 pts. of the solvent is with difficulty 
rendered clear by filtration. See also Vogel’s experiments, 
in Chem. Gaz. vi. 287. 

The uses of guttapercha are evidently extending from the 
beautiful picture-frames, and other articles in bold relief, to 
more important and widely extended subjects. Its inordinate 
degree of toughness, with slight elasticity, imperviousness to 
water, slight alterability by ordinary chemical agents, and the 
ease with which it may be moulded by heat into any required 
form, and caused to adhere to itself or to other objects, con- 
stitute an assemblage of valuable properties which gives it an 
almost equal position with the most useful materials which 
man possesses. A comparison of caoutchouc and guttapercha 
exhibits the wonders of nature in an eminent degree. Both 
derived in a similar manner from the concrete juices of trees 
growing together in the same region, both having the same 
composition, both eminently resisting chemical action in a 
similar manner, and each dissolving or softening in similar 
solvents; yet one is exceedingly elastic, and extensible in 
every direction, yielding to the slightest force but returning 
to its primary form, the other resists extension powerfully, but 
possesses a slight elasticity at right angles to its extended 
surface; one, when heated only to its softening point, becomes 
very adhesive and gummy, and returns very slowly, in months 
or years, to its original elastic character, the other, when 
gently heated, becomes pliant and yielding like wax, and re- 
tains with unyielding obstinacy, when cold, the impressions it 
received while warm. We have already witnessed a vast num- 
ber of applications of caoutchouc, devised by the ingenuity 
and perseverance of Mackintosh, Goodyear, and others; but 
we have yet to discover the manifold applications of which the 
properties of guttapercha convince us this material is sus- 
ceptible, and we may be assured that neither of them will 
exhibit their full sphere of utility for a lengthened period of 
time. Its analogy with caoutchouc will doubtless hasten the 
development of its usefulness, but the same analogy will also 


152 ADHESIVES. [W. 


retard it in some points, by leading it too closely in the track 
of that substance, whereas its peculiarities should in some 
respects open a new path in its applications and mode of 
application. 

The properties of guttapercha led early to the proposition 
to apply it to ships and other apparatus requiring to be water- 
proof, and Forster suggests an improvement for coating 
plank (Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 51), for sheathing vessels, Xe. 

For an account of guttapercha and its applications, see 
Proc. Brit. Assoc. and London Atheneum, 1849; also Amer. 
Journ. (2) vil. 276. 


3. ADHESIVES. 


Textile and sheet fabrics, and solid tissues, are either orna- 
mented or united by varnishes and cements. These have 
either a resinous basis, or are composed of gums or glue. The 
solvents for resins are alcohol, or the oils, whether fat, es- 
sential, or empyreumatic; water is the vehicle for conveying 
gum and glue. Resins and balsams are first introduced. 

Copaiva Balsam.—Posselt (Liebig’s Annalen, lxix.) has 
examined a copaiva balsam, from South America, which is 
quite distinct from the ordinary kind. It has the same odor, 
but is lighter colored and more fluid. Spec. grav. 0.94. Be- 
comes turbid on the addition of potassa solution or of aqua 
ammonia, but separates in time without having become soapy. 
In alcohol it is partially soluble, forming a milky liquid. By 
distillation with water, it yields 82 per cent. of paracopaiva 
oil (C,,H,), the residuum being a resin, part of which is soluble 
and the rest insoluble in alcohol. 

Rosin, or Common Resin.—Louyet (Comptes Rendus, xxiv.) 
has obtained, by the destructive distillation of the resin of the 
pimus maratima, two products, one of which he proposes as a 
substitute for oil of terpentine. One is a fat oil, and the 
other a very fluid essential oil. The latter, by rectification 
over lime to separate acetic acid, water, &c., becomes suitable 
for purposes both of illumination and painting. KH. N. Kent, 


LACQUER FOR LEATHER. 1538 


of New York, whose researches upon this subject have been 
extensive, proposes an economical mode of bleaching this es- 
sence, which he has patented. 

Dammara Resin.—Dulk (Pharm. Cent. Blatt, 1847), who 
examined this resin, found that it fuses at 165° F. and leaves 
3.9 per cent. of ash. It is nearly insoluble in alcohol, potassa, 
and ammonia, but is taken up entirely by strong sulphuric 
acid and the fatty oils. Its proximate constituents are dam- 
maryl C,,H,,, forming 13.5 per cent., soluble in ether; alpha- 
resin C,,H,,0,, 24.5 per cent., soluble in dilute alcohol and not 
separating on cooling; beta-resin, 10.5 per cent., soluble in 
hot dilute alcohol and depositing on cooling; gamma-resin, 
or dammarylic acid C,,H,,0,, 44 per cent., dissolved by ab- 
solute alcohol; and epsilon-resin 2 (C,,H,,)+HO = 7.5 per 
cent. : 

Gold Lacquer.—3 oz. seed-lac, 1 0z. yellow amber, 1 oz. 
gamboge, 40 gr. red-wood, 18 gr. saffron, 30 gr. dragon’s 
blood, 3 oz. pounded glass, 20 oz. alcohol. The powdered 
substances are dissolved in the alcohol on a sand-bath. The 
articles should receive two or three coatings, and be dried by 
a gentle warmth. (Mannheim. Gewerbvereinsbl. 1847, 14.) A 
collection of recipes for gold lacquer will be found in the 
Polytech. Centralblatt, and the Polytech. Notizblatt for 1846. 

Copal Varnish.—See an essay on the different kinds of 
copal and their behavior to solvents, in Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 
194. 

Brilliant Lacquer for Leather.—Over 4 oz. shellac and 
4 oz. lampblack in a stoneware vessel, pour 1416 alcohol (of 
80 per cent.), and cover it with a moist bladder. After stand- 
ing in the cold 24 hours, during which it is often shaken, the 
bladder is punctured by a needle, the jar put in hot water, 
frequently shaken, and 4 oz. Venice terpentine added. The 
lacquer is shaken when used. (Polytech. Notizbl. 1846, 48.) 
It is recommended as a good varnish for boots, not affect- 
ing the leather; but repeated applications would tend to 
crack the leather, from the want of sufficient flexibility in the 
coating. 


154 ADHESIVES. [W. 


Brilliant Lacquer for Paper and Papier-maché.—38 oz. 
powdered sandarac are digested on a sand-bath in 12 oz. al- 
cohol, 2 oz. elemi-resin added, previously fused in an earthen 
pot, and the whole digested until dissolved. This lacquer is 
brilliant, and rather durable. A good lacquer for colors is 3 
oz. sandarac, 2 oz. mastic, 2 oz. pounded glass, 14 oz. Venice 
terpentine, and 1tb alcohol. After solution, the varnish is 
- filtered through felt. It may be colored red by anotto, dra- 
gon’s blood, or red-wood, yellow by gamboge or turmeric, and 
green by buckthorn berries. (Polytech. Notizbl.) 

Ou Varnish.—Liebig’s method of preparing a good varnish 
is as follows. 116 acetate of lead, 1Ib litharge, and 5 pints 
water are digested together until the reddish color of the 
litharge has become white, from the formation of % acetate 
of lead, and filtered. 20tb linseed oil, containing 1b litharge, 
is added to the filtrate, exposed to the sun, and frequently 
shaken, until the varnish has become wine-yellow and clear, 
when it is filtered through cotton. It dries rapidly. An 
analogous method for poppy-seed oil prescribes 4 oz. oil, 2 oz. 
litharge, and 2 pints water, and directs that the liquid should 
be poured off, 8 oz. of the oil poured on the white basic ace- 
tate remaining, and exposed to the sun until it has become 
colorless. 

Varnish for Patent Leather.—The process followed in 
France for glazing leather is to work into the skin, with ap- 
propriate tools, three or four successive coatings of drying 
varnish made by boiling linseed oil with white lead and litharge, 
in the proportion of one pound of each of the latter to one 
gallon of the former, and adding a portion of chalk or ochre. 
Each coating must be thoroughly dried before the application 
of the next. Ivory-black is then substituted for the chalk or 
ochre, the varnish slightly thinned with spirits of terpentine, 
and five additional applications made in the same manner as 
before, except that it is put on thin and without being worked 
in. The leather is rubbed down with pummice-stone powder 
and then varnished and placed in a room at 90°, out of the 
way of dust. 





CEMENT. 155 

The last varnish is prepared by boiling }ib of asphalt with 
10ib of the drying oil used in the first step of the process, 
and then stirring in dfb copal varnish and 10fb terpentine. 
It must have a month’s age before it is fit for use.—Patent 
Journal. 

Elastic Varnish.—2 pts. rosin, or dammar-resin, and 1 pt. 
caoutchouc are fused together, and stirred until cold. To add 
to the elasticity, linseed oil is added. Another varnish for 
leather is made by putting pieces of caoutchouc in naphtha 
until softened into a jelly, adding it to an equal weight of heated 
linseed oil, and stirred for some time together, while over the 
fire. 

Cement for Luting Joints of Steam Apparatus.—Serbat 
prepared a mastic instead of the red-lead cement used for 
this purpose, by thoroughly incorporating sulphate of lead, 
‘black oxide of manganese, and linseed oil. See Lond. Journ. 
1849, 61. 

For the preparation of a lubricating grease from rosin oil, 
see the Report on Serbat’s process, in Lond. Journ. 1849, 58. 
The quantity made by Serbat in 1847 was 805,000tb, which 
may give some idea of its value. 

Cement (glue).—Herberger recommends the following as 
an excellent cement to join metal with glass or porcelain. To 
2 oz. glue, dissolved in water and boiled down to a thick solu- 
tion, are added 1 oz. oil varnish, or # oz. Venice terpentine, 
and the whole heated to ebullition to incorporate them tho- 
roughly. The articles cemented should remain 48-60 hours 
before use. 

A good cement for glass, porcelain, and pottery, which is 
not to be exposed to water, is to mix equal parts dry quick- 
lime and gum arabic, in fine powder, and to moisten the whole 
with water or white of egg, to make a thick paste. (/sner.) 
Quicklime and white of egg alone make an excellent cement 
of this kind; but the diamond cement, a dilute alcoholic solu- 
tion of fish glue and resin, is far superior, although more 
costly, and will withstand a considerable exposure to moisture. 

Emery and sand-paper, being made with glue, which is liable 


156 ADHESIVES. [ WV. 


to become moist and injure the efficiency of the paper, a 
water-proof adhesive surface is desirable, to which the grind- 
ing powder may be attached; and for this purpose it has been 
proposed to use a solution of copal in hot linseed oil, to- 
gether with Venice terpentine, Venetian red, a little litharge, 
and caoutchoue. (Lond. Journ. xxxvi.) 


VI. OLEICS. 


ALTHOUGH some fatty bodies are very different from others 
in their chemical nature, and all of them differ from the 
essential oils, yet being often used in the same branch of 
manufacture indiscriminately, they may be embraced together 
as a class. 


1. O1ts AND Fats. 


By far the larger proportion of oils and fats agree in being 
composed of a fat acid united to a base called glycerin. The 
three principal acids are stearic, margaric and oleic; when 
stearate or margarate of glycerin predominate (the compound 
being called stearin or margarin), the fat is more solid, as 
tallow, suet, &c.; when oleate of glycerin (called also olein) 
is in sufficient quantity, the fat is fluid or oily, as olive oil. 
The chemical connection between margaric acid, which is a solid 
erystalline fat, and vinegar or acetic acid, and the connection 
between acetic acid and common alcohol, are pointed out in an 
essay by one of us, published in the Journ. Fr. Inst. 1848. 
Now since formic, acetic, and valeric acids can be shown to 
be derived from wood-spirit, common alcohol, and fousel-oil, 
which are their respective alcohols, we may infer that the 
higher fat acids have also their alcohols. The investigations of 
Brodie in wax seem to point out such alcohols and their acids. 
The general formula for this fat acid series, the most ex- 
tended series yet developed in organic chemistry, is C,H,0,, 
n being an even number (see below). No well-defined con- 
nection has yet been established between other fat acids not 
belonging to this group. 

Cocoanut Oil.—According to Georgey (Ann. der Chem. 
und Pharm. lxvi.) the butter of cocoa contains the following 
acids : 

0 157 


158 OILS AND FATS. [ VI. 
Da proity ievite cs acseacuctacmrans tec eb cteee C,2H Oy 
Cap yilic’: -aetasatessncnssmers tec icn ses «ne Cun 70. 
WApTIG sb seen medcen'sde sete eee eat dnc to se CHO; 
Pichuric (lauric, laurostearic) ......... CEO; 
Myristic (probably).cncsemarenss.t ose s0- CFO; 
Palimitie iw. cac sd. esicok emer c ashok sock C,, HO} 


The cocinie acid of St. Evre is a mixture of capric and 
pichuric acids. 

Stearic Acid.—Gerhardt and Laurent have endeavored to 
prove (Comptes Rendus, 1849) that the formula for stearic 
acid is C,,0,,0,; that margaric acid is an isomeric modification 
of it, and should be called metastearic acid. 

Oil of the Beaked Whale.—The train-oil of the balena 
rostrata has recently been examined by Scharling (Journ. f. 
Prac. Chem. xliii.), who gives it the formula ©,.H,,0,. It 
consists principally of a liquid fat, free from glycerin, a minute 
portion of spermaceti and traces of other fats. Its spec. grav. 
is 8807 at 52°. It burns with a bright flame, and its illu- 
minating power is in the ratio of 1.57: 1 of common whale 
oil. It also burns slower and emits less smoke than the latter 
oil. 

Bleaching of Oil by Chromic Acid.—Mr. ©. Waitt, Sr. 
(Newton’s Journ. 1848, and Ch. Gaz. vi.), uses the following 
method for bleaching dark oils or tallow. To every 3 ton of oil 
take 1016 bichromate of potassa. Powder the salt, dissolve it 
in 4 pts. hot water, stir, and carefully add 15tb sulphuric acid, 
and continue the stirring until complete solution. This mix- 
ture is then thoroughly incorporated with the melted fat, 
previously separated from foreign matters by repose and de- 
cantation. The containing vessels should be of wood, and the 
temperature about 130° F. When, after much agitation, the 
liquid fat assumes a light-green color, the bleaching is com- 
pleted, and 4 buckets of boiling water are then to be added, the 
whole stirred for five minutes and then left to repose for 
several hours, when it will be white and ready for use. 

Mr. Watts, Jr., proposes to recover the chromic acid ad 
infinitum, and thus render the process very economical, in 


LUBRICATING OIL. 159 


manner as follows. Transfer the green chrome liquor, after 
the separation of the fat, to a tub, dilute it with water, and 
then add thick milk of lime until the sulphuric acid is nearly 
saturated ; leave to repose, decant the liquor from the sulphate 
. of lime, and carefully add to it another portion of cream of 
lime until the precipitation of all the green oxide, and the 
supernatant liquor is clear and colorless. Drain off this 
liquor, add fresh water, and, after settling, again decant. 
Repeat this washing, then transfer the precipitate to a red-hot 
iron slab, and keep it constantly stirred until it changes to a 
yellow powder. The chromate of lime, thus formed, if de- 
composed by sulphuric acid in slight excess, yields chromic 
acid as well suited for bleaching purposes as that from bi- 
chromate of potassa. 

Oil-filter.—A good filter is said to be made of fine sand, 
charcoal, and gypsum; the sand to retain substances sus- 
pended in it, charcoal to decolorize it, and plaster to remove 
water. (Journ. de Chim. Med. 1846.) 

Raw Linseed Oil Decolorized.—A solution of 2tb copperas 
in 2}%b water is poured into a flask containing 2b linseed oil, 
and exposed to the sun for several weeks, during which it is 
frequently shaken. The oil is said to be rendered limpid and 
colorless, and may be drawn off by a siphon or stoppered 
funnel. 

Lubricating Oil.— Many substitutes have been proposed for 
the more costly oil for lubricating machinery, but hitherto 
with only partial success. Munkittrick’s patent (Lond. Journ. 
xxxvi. 98) consists mainly in the addition of caoutchouc to 
common grease, the former being softened by spirit of terpen- 
tine; but he also uses other ingredients. For example: 10 
galls. water being heated, 11b glue and 10Ib carbonate of soda 
are stirred in, 10 galls. oil or grease are next added, whereby 
a quasi soap is formed, and lastly, 41b caoutchouc, softened by 
terpentine, are incorporated. 

Boudet (Journ. de Pharm., and Lond. Pharm. Journ. 1850), 
gives the following as the process by which the French liard, 
or lubricating fluid, is made. Add 1 pt. finely minced caout- 


160 OILS AND FATS. [ WH. 


chouc to 50 pts. rape-oil, and heat until the mixture is com- 
plete. A very unctuous oil is thus formed, which remains fluid 
at freezing temperature, and does not clog the machines, but 
facilitates the motion of their parts. 

Fat Oils, to distinguish them.—Ueydenreich proposes 
(Journ. de Connais. Utiles, 1849) to distinguish these oils from 
each other by their odor when warmed, their color by contact 
with oil of vitriol, and their specific gravities. By the first 
process, the oil is heated in a porcelain capsule over a spirit- 
lamp, when the peculiar volatile odor of fish, linseed, and other 
oils may be detected, especially if compared in the same way 
with the unadulterated oils. For the acid test, 10-15 drops 
of the oil are dropped upon a piece of glass, underlaid by 
white paper, and a drop of oil of vitriol is brought in contact 
with it by a glass rod. If it be rape-oil, a greenish-blue 
circle is formed around and at a short distance from the drop, 
while light yellowish-brown striz form towards the centre. 
The same takes place with oil of black mustard, but 25-30 
drops of the oil are required. With whale oil, the color is 
reddish, after 12-15 minutes violet on the edge, and in 2 
hours violet throughout. Olive oil gives a pale-yellow passing 
into greenish-yellow. Linseed oil is at first dark reddish- 
brown and then black. 

2. Chandlery.—The more solid fat, stearin, is separated 
from the more fluid olein by pressure, to make stearin-candles, 
or, the fats being decomposed, the more solid stearic acid is 
separated from buttery or fluid acids, to make stearic acid 
lights. Under this head we may embrace spermaceti and 
wax. There is but little novelty offered on any of these 
points. 

Stearin, §¢e.—To separate the solid from the more fluid fat 
in palm oil, lard, &c., the fats are granulated and pressed cold 
in bags by a powerful hydraulic press, the olein which flows 
out being used for soap. The contents of the bags being 
again granulated, and pressed between warm plates of iron, 
the balance of the olein with some margarin and stearin is 
removed. ‘To remove color from the stearin thus obtained, it 


WAXES. 161 


is fused with a very little nitric acid. To remove still further 
all the olein, Morfit proposed mixing it with a little oil of ter- 
pentine, and then pressing. 

See Morfit’s “Chemistry Applied to the Manufacture of 
Soap and Candles.” According to Heintz (Ber. d. Berl. 
Acad.) stearin from mutton-suet becomes transparent at 
124-126°, but does not fuse before 144°. 

Candles of Fats and Rosin.—A process is described in the 
Rep. Pat. Inv. Oct. 1850, for mixing some 20-30 per cent. 
of rosin with fatty bodies in the melted state, by adding sul- 
phuric acid gradually, heating it from 12 to 18 hours so as to 
evolve sulphurous acid, and then submitting the dark-brown 
crystalline solid to distillation by heated steam. The solid 
and oily portions are then separated by pressure. 

Wax, Test of Purity.—To test for the presence of stearic 
acid, Geith pours over 2 drachms wax 1 oz. lime-water diluted 
with 1 oz. water. If the acid be present, the liquid loses its 
alkalinity and remains clear. Buchner proposes fusibility 
and specific gravity, as an approximate test of the presence 
of stearic acid or tallow. Tallow fuses at 108°, yellow wax 
at 142°. (Buchner’s Rep. xliv.) 

Wazxes.—Our knowledge of the composition and alliances 
of the waxes has been much enlarged by Brodie’s investiga- 
tions of common beeswax and Chinese wax. He found com- 
mon wax to consist of cerotie acid (formerly cerin), soluble in 
hot alcohol, of the composition C,,H,,0,, therefore of the fat 
acid series C,H,O,; and of palmitate of meliss-ether (for- 
merly myricin). By saponifying myricin he obtained palmitic 
acid and melissin, which last has the formula C,,H,,0, 
(=C,,H,,,,0,), or that of an alcohol. By the action of lime 
and potassa on melissin he obtained the corresponding acid, 
melissic acid C,,H,,0,. Upon examining Chinese wax, he 
found it to consist chiefly of cerotate of cerote-ether, 
=C,,H,,0,C,,H,.,0,, for by saponification he obtained cerotic 


54-55 


acid C,,H,,O,, and cerotin (the alcohol) C,,H,,0, (C,H, ,,0,)- 


54°54 


(Phil. Mag. Sept. 1848, Amer. Journ. (2) vii. 427.) 


02 Ll 


162 SAPONIFICATION. [ VE. 


2. SAPONIFICATION. 


Soap-boiling consists in boiling a fat with alkali and water, 
whereby the fat acid unites with the alkali to form a soap, and 
glycerin is set free. The soft soaps usually contain the 
glycerin, but it is removed from the hard soaps, and remains 
in the saline solution. Soaps retain variable quantities of 
water, even to 30 per cent. and more, when they appear to 
be dry. Rosin is usually added to make the common yellow 
soaps, but it can hardly be called an adulteration, as it pos- 
sesses some detergent properties. 

Irish Moss and Salt in Soap.—(Lond. Journ. 1849, 37.) 
To a strong solution of Irish moss (1tb to 6 galls. water), 
made by a short ebullition and maceration for several hours, 
and run through sieves, a quantity of common salt is added, 
lib to each 4 galls., and stirred until dissolved. One ton of 
this mixture is combined with 5 tons of soap. The utility of . 
this compound is not clear. 

Oily Acids.—When wool is cleaned by alkali in water, a 
portion of fat is removed, and in order to get the oily acids 
again from the water, Shearman treats the water with sul- 
phuric or muriatic acid, heats the fat acid, separated from the 
liquid, to 212° in a leaden vessel, saturates the free acid with 
chalk, adds hot water, stirs, and lets it settle for several days, 
when the fat can be drawn off clear. It may be reconverted 
into soap by alkali. 

Perfumery is allied to soap-boiling, which in fact forms 
part of this art, since one of its most extended applications 
is to perfume soap. The perfumes are essential oils, some- 
times solid; usually derived from the distillation of odorous 
plants or parts of plants. Many of them are simple com- 
pounds of carbon and hydrogen; others contain also oxygen, 
and afew sulphur. It is probable that we shall be enabled to 
make some of them artificially on a large scale ; for through 
the interesting experiments of Wohler and Liebig, it was shown 
how oil of bitter almonds was formed; through those of 





OIL OF RUE. 168 


Procter and Cahours, that oil of winter-green could be made 
artificially, and below is an account of Deville’s having pro- 
cured oil of lemons from spirit of terpentine. 

Essential Oils—Van Hess has given the following table 
of the yield of essential oils, with their specific gravities. 
The oils heavier than water were distilled by surrounding the 
still with high-pressure steam; those lighter than water by 
blowing steam through the vegetable matters. 


Sp. grav 

Oleum anisi....... Zi aestnciaa Vesencelecceeateledtocsisatistoerer el yielded 54 02. 0.977 
OlsamisivstellaticspA Oi encveseteteivergacecosse sence: sctuisresss CC iOS Con Ono HO 
Olicalam- sano. Old soilirezs ssc encisencrs susie sapeleasacapeniencs os ce 0.984 
L 55ib calamus, of a previous year.... ‘ 12 ‘... 0.956 

“ 8dib new calamus ...............seceeeee Comet ie Ceres sO ROU 

OM Garuts.sccnc- 124%b of last year’s seeds............00 foe OMe OM 2e 
oe 25tb fresh seeds from the Hifel....... ‘¢ 17 ‘... 0.918 

o HF CWt. Saxony SCS ...scerecoornssssere £0) (6) Eee. 0.926 

Ol. caryophyll.... 10Ib Amboina cloves, at6distillations ‘“ 31 *... 1.040 
re SIP PEOULDONCLOVES: scccnccecceccscaseesee Om Dilnatar eel. 0o0 

“6 25tb Dutch cloves, at 8 distillations.. ‘* 74 ‘... 1.033 

€¢ A owt. clove-SteMS..........0seceesevessees £016) B68) ..61049 

Ol. cass. cinnam.. 4 cwt. bruised cinnamon.............++ CO 26... A030 
OMMCHSa tory sorngl Za. mecscsg-recesarslsoresescsjiesececas sess. See One stnwectl Oe 
Ol. foenic:.......5. OlOiccecseecescesestescesstacertasacsssecses CCAM TER LOGS 
Ol. junip. bacc... 441b dried ripe berries...............06. Senn (22 665.210.8070 
ce 961b fresh <‘ ic mneadeean ie etet asa CC edna! ea OES O2 

ee 531b unripe SC omepaidie cates lsh Cre Bal OS O04: 

Ol. lavendul....... ¢ cwt. dried flowers. ........cscseesceeeee LOE DOOR OO e 


Artificial Oil of Lemon.—Deville (Comptes Rendus, 1849) 
has shown that the camphor produced by the action of chloro- 
hydric acid upon oil of terpentine, when treated with potas- 
sium, yields an essential oil identical in odor, boiling point, 
density, and composition, with oil of lemon. 

Oil of Rue.—Wagner (Journ. fiir Prac. Chem. xlvi.) has 
proven by experiments that the oil of rue (ruta graveolens) is 
evolved from cod-liver oil when the latter is acted upon by 
sulphuric acid, and the resulting purplish mass saturated with 
alkali or alkaline earth. Wagner does not consider it a pro- 
duct of decomposition, but adopts the theory of Gerhardt in 
considering it the aldehyde of capric acid C,,H,,0,, and exist- 


ps 


164 SAPONIFICATION. [ Vi. 


ing as such naturally in the oil. He draws the inference, 
therefore, that the SO, combines with the aldehyde, or rather 
with the oxide of caprinyle C,,H,,0, and that this compound, 
upon the addition of a base, is decomposed, and aldehyde 
separates. 

Castoreum Canadense.—¥. Wohler has by recent examina- 
tions (Liebig’s Annalen, Ixvii.) confirmed the supposition that 
the odor of castor is due to the presence of carbolicacid. He 
also found that it contains salicin and benzoic acid. Carbolic 
acid is obtained among the products of coal-tar. 

Adulteration of Attar of Rose.—Guibourt (Journ. de Pharm. 
1849), after showing the unreliableness of the physical cha- 
racters, as a test of purity, because of the readiness with 
which they may be imitated, proposes three tests for dis- 
tinguishing the true attar. The usual adulterants are oils of 
rosewood and geranium. They may be detected as follows : 

By Iodine.—The suspected attar is placed in watch-glasses, 
under a bell, along with a capsule containing iodine. The 
vapors of iodine, after some hours, condense, and form a brown 
areola upon the oil, if adulterated, but do not change its 
color, if pure. On exposure to air, the iodine volatilizes, but 
the color, in either case, remains unaltered. 

By Nitrous Acid.—This serves only to detect the oil of 
geranium, to which it imparts an apple-green color; as it 
tinges the attar and oil of rosewood alike dark-yellow. 

By Sulphuric Acid.—This reagent turns all three of the 
oils brown, but the attar retains the purity of its odor, while 
that of the oil of rosewood is rendered more perceptible; the 
geranium oil, at the same time, acquiring a strong and un- 
pleasant smell. 

Sandal Wood.—According to Meier, there are six different 
substances in sandal-wood. (Ch. Gaz. vii. and Archiv. der 
Pharm. lv. and lvi.) 

1. Santalic acid, extracted by alcohol, in microscopic prisms 
of a beautiful red tint, soluble in alcohol and insoluble in 
water, and forming deep-violet salts with the alkalies. 

2. Santalic oxide, also extracted by alcohol; a brownish 


4 


ILLUMINATING GAS. 165 


mass, soluble in alcohol of .863, but insoluble in water and cold 
ether. 

3. Santalide, extracted by water; a dark-red mass, soluble 
in ether and alcohol of .863, but, when pure, insoluble in 
water. 

4. Santaloide, extracted by water; a yellowish amorphous 
mass, soluble in cold water and alcohol of .863, but insoluble 
in ether. 

5. Santaloidide, extracted by water; a dark-brown resinous 
mass, insoluble in water and ether, and only slightly so in cold 
alcohol. 

6. Santalidide, extracted by water; an amorphous brown 
mass, soluble in water, sparingly so in boiling alcohol of .912, 
and insoluble in ether and cold absolute alcohol. 


3. ILLUMINATION. 


The fatty bodies and resins of the preceding and present 
classes, together with bituminous coals, are the sources of ar- 
tificial light. The fats are generally used as oils, spermaceti 
oil, whale oil, to be burned in lamps; or the more fluid por- 
tions of fat, as lard oil, are removed by pressure, and the hard 
stearin remaining is formed into candles; or a stearic fat is 
decomposed by alkali and acid, so that stearic acid is obtained 
to be made into candles. Spermaceti and wax are also burned 
in the form of candles. Their preparation falls under a pre- 
ceding division, while under the present we might consider their 
comparative merits as sources of light; as there is, however, 
little of novelty to offer in this respect, we confine ourselves 
to improvements in the gas manufacture, and to what are 
termed burning-fluids. 

1. Illuminating gas is obtained by throwing bituminous 
coal, grease, or rosin, upon a red-hot surface, whereby it is 
resolved into new compounds by an internal combustion; into 
permanent gases; vapors, which condense into aqueous solu- 
tions and tar; and coke, which remains. The coke is used as 
fuel; the tar is either distilled to obtain ethereal oils and 


166 ILLUMINATION. [ WI. 


pitch, or burned to make lampblack; the aqueous solutions 
contain ammonia, and are sometimes used to procure it; the 
gas is a mixture of carbohydrogens, carbonic oxide and acid, 
&c. The gas is freed by cooling and by lime from sulphuretted 
hydrogen, carbonic acid, suspended tarry matter, cyanogen, 
&e. Since the proportion of carbohydrogen determines the 
illuminating power of gas, and some coals yield too much car- 
bonic oxide, &c., it has been proposed to pass the gas through 
volatile, liquid, and solid carbohydrogens, of which it will take 
up a small quantity and increase its luminosity: this is termed 
naphthalizing. Quite recently, hydrogen has been used, in a 
naphthalized condition, but we may doubt its success. 

Coal Gas.—On the comparative value of the different kinds 
of coal used for illumination, and on methods for ascertaining 
the value of the gases, see an article by Dr. Fyfe, in Edin. 
Phil. Journ. xlv. and in Amer. Journ. 2d ser. vii. 77-86, 
157-167. 

Rosin Gas.—A variation of the manufacture of gas from 
rosin is patented by Robertson (Lond. Journ. 1849, 37), in 
which the rosin, mixed with sawdust and alkali (lime, &c.), 
is charged into iron cases, which are put into a gas-retort and 
heated as usual. The products of distillation are passed into 
a second retort filled with lumps of coke, brick, &c., and heated 
to cherry redness. To make gas alone, these products pass 
through a third and fourth retort, filled with brick, coke, &c., 
and are then washed and purified by lime. To obtain partly 
gas and partly oily matters, the vapors issuing from the first 
retort, containing coke, &c., are passed through a tank con- 
taining water, where oily matter deposits, and then through 
the washer and purifier. The oily products are made into a 
grease for machinery by mixing it with lime and finely gra- 
nulated zinc. Or, the oily product may be first distilled with 
water, yielding a spirit, which, after several distillations with 
a little lime, becomes colorless and thin, and is used for illu- 
mination or for a varnish. 

On water and rosin gas, see an article by Prof. Fyfe, in the 
Journ. Fr. Inst. (8) xx. 271,.319. 


PURIFICATION OF GAS. 167 


Purification of Gas.—All the sulphuretted hydrogen may 
be removed from coal-gas by the washers and lime purifier, 
but a perfect decomposition may also be effected (according 
to Croll, Lond. Journ. 1849) by passing the gas through a 
solution of sulphurous acid, whereby water is formed and sul- 
phur deposited. The excess of sulphurous acid is removed 
by washers and the dry lime purifier. 

Lanning’s process (Ch. Gaz. viii.), which has been success- 
fully carried out at the Chartered Company’s works, is said 
to remove from illuminating gas every trace of ammoniacal 
and sulphuretted impurity. The principal agent employed is 
the carbonic acid of the gas, assisted by a mixture of oxide 
of iron and chloride of calcium. The latter is made by pre- 
cipitating solution of chloride of iron with lime or chalk, and 
adding sawdust to the mass to render it permeable. The pre- 
cipitated iron becomes peroxidized by the atmosphere during 
the progress of preparation. In its transit through this mix- 
ture, the gas loses its impurities in the following manner. 
The chloride of calcium contained in it acts by its hygroscopic 
property as an absorbent or solvent, and thus promotes the 
contact of the foul matters with the disinfecting material. 
The peroxide of iron takes the sulphur of the hydrosulphuret 
of ammonia and becomes sesquisulphuret, at the same time 
surrendering its oxygen to the eliminated hydrogen to form 
water. The ammonia set free immediately unites with the 
carbonic acid as carbonate, and this latter salt exchanges bases 
with the muriate of lime as fast as it is produced. A portion 
of it, however, forms sulphate with the spontaneously gene- 
‘rated sulphuric acid. 

The mixture may be repeatedly regenerated by exposure to 
air, and thus made serviceable for new operations. When it 
becomes surcharged with ammoniacal salt, the latter must be 
removed by washing with water. In the original mixture, the 
lime-salt was a chloride, whereas after usage it becomes sul- 
phate; thus, the sesquisulphuret of iron in contact with air 
changes into sulphate by the absorption of oxygen, and this 
sulphate, reacting upon the carbonate of lime thrown down 


168 ILLUMINATION. [ VI. 


from the muriate by the carbonate of ammonia, becomes sub- 
carbonate, and ultimately sesqui or peroxide of iron. 

According to the inventor, the sulphuret of carbon is also 
removed during the operation, and the illuminating power of 
the gas thus augmented about 8 per cent., with but slight 
expense for material and a great economy as to wear and 
tear of apparatus. 

Gas-lime.—Graham’s examination of gas-lime exposed to 
the air for a few hours after use, was composed of — 





Hyposulphite of lime... 0.00.8 12.30 
Sulphite BRIE ii aixtedd cy eee ettes anes 14.57 
Sulphate REIS Alc eed ceo rane 2.80 
Carbonate Beek, Th gga eel Mshe a eel aa 14.48 
Caustie lime sens 17.72 
Preevsulphar ys 2a as 5.14 
Dawe s215 Si ee a a Or 
Water a5 BO RO Rag 32.28 
100.00 


In this state it is well adapted to the preparation of hypo- 
sulphite of soda, for which purpose it is extracted with water, 
the solution decomposed by carbonate of soda, and evaporated 
to crystallization. The hyposulphite of soda thus obtained 
may be used for the daguerreotype, and might possibly be 
used instead of common salt to extract silver from its ores. 
By proper calcination, gas-lime may be converted into a mix- 
ture of nearly equal parts of sulphate and carbonate of lime, 
in which state it may be employed in agriculture and other 
arts. (Rep. Pat. Inv. 1845.) Elsner draws attention to its » 
value for removing hair from hides. 

Naphthalizing Gas.—Among the many patents for naph- 
thalizing gas, is one in Lond. Journ. xxxvii. Aug., in which 
the heat of the burning jet is communicated by metal to a 
vessel containing a hydrocarbon. The gas, in passing through 
this vessel, takes with it a portion of the hydrocarbon, passes 
into a sphere over the jet, where it is heated, and then passes 
out at the jet. It is supposed to yield a whiter light. There 


HYDROGEN FOR ILLUMINATION. 169 


are other inventions for the same purpose, and doubtless some 
will be made of great practical value; but it would be much 
more desirable that gas, capable of yielding the fullest in- 
tensity of light, should be made at the gas-works. The con- 
sumer should be saved the trouble of making his own light. 
Whether there be any advantage in heating gas previous 
to its combustion in the naphthalizing process or not, we 
offer a suggestion by way of improvement. ‘The vessel to 
be heated over the jet might be concave underneath, provided 
with a tube passing off from the highest point of the concavity 
into the open air, or chimney, so that it would carry off the 
products of combustion. The heated vessel might be a double 
cylinder or a cylindrically wound spiral tube. 

Hydrogen for Illumination.—Various processes have been 
devised or adopted for obtaining light by means of hydrogen: 
and this gas is obtained for the purpose by one of three 
methods, in each of which cases water is decomposed, by 
incandescent iron or coal, or magnetic force. 1. Vertical iron 
pipes are filled with scrap-iron, and heated externally to a 
high temperature ; steam is introduced, forming oxide of iron 
and liberating hydrogen, which passes into a gas-holder. In 
order to reduce the oxide of iron to the metallic state, to be 
again subjected to the action of steam, carbonic oxide gas is 
passed through the heated pipes, and becomes carbonic acid, 
which escapes. The carbonic oxide is obtained by passing 
the waste gases of the fire through a fire or ignited carbon. 
Instead of carbonic oxide, carburetted hydrogens may be em- 
ployed, such as tar, &c. 

2. Another method for obtaining hydrogen, mixed with 
carbonic oxide and other gases, is to pass steam through or- 
dinary gas-retorts charged with carbonaceous matters, brought 
to a state of high ignition, whereby these gases are generated 
together with carbonic acid. A purifier serves to remove the 
carbonic acid from the combustible gases. 

3. By means of a magnetic battery, hydrogen and oxygen 
are separately liberated from decomposed water. 


In order to utilize the hydrogen, &c., obtained bv any of 
Pp 


170 ILLUMINATION. [ Vi. 


these methods, the flame as it issues from a jet may be directed 
upon a wick of fine platinum wire, whose incandescence will 
produce the desired illuminating effect. Another method is 
to naphthalize the hydrogen, i. e. to pass it through a liquid 
or over a solid hydrocarbon (such as naphtha or naphthalin), 
or to mix it with the vapor of a hydrocarbon, in all which 
cases its illuminating property depends on the same causes as 
in all ordinary cases of combustion for light, viz. the inflamma- 
tion of hydrogen and the precipitation and momentary in- 
candescence of carbon in the flame. | 

2. Burning-fluids.—These are generally solutions of cam- 
phine (purified spirit of terpentine) in alcohol, and are burned 
in lamps constructed for the purpose. Their danger has 
been pointed out from year to year by one of the writers, in 
public lectures delivered in the Franklin Institute, in Phila- 
delphia; yet such is the neatness of these illuminating liquids, 
their convenience and brilliancy, that they continue to be 
used until a serious accident awakens the public to a sense of 
their danger. But the disaster serves only to deter those from 
their use who were more immediately affected by it. There 
is no doubt that burning-fluids may be safely used by those 
who understand the conditions of their explosiveness, or who 
exercise care in their use; but since their tendency to explo- 
sion cannot be prevented, and since knowledge and care will 
not generally attend their use by the public, they should be 
abandoned. 

Let us not however abandon the idea of finding a liquid 
which shall possess the requisite qualities of cleanliness, cheap- 
ness, illumination, and freedom from danger. Sperm-oil pos- 
sesses the last two qualities; burning fluids the first three; 
lard-oil is cheap and free from danger, but is not cleanly, is 
too liable to congeal in winter, and is apt to clog the wick. 
Naphtha is very little, if at all, liable to explosion, but it 
contains an excess of carbon, and it is too apt to smoke when 
burned in an ordinary lamp. Since sperm-oil has a high 
illuminating power and is free from danger, we may yet hope 
to discover a liquid which shall possess these properties to- 


APPARATUS FOR ILLUMINATION. Vit 


gether with cleanliness and cheapness combined. May not 
such a liquid be found among the products from the distillation 
of coal, to be used either by itself or in conjunction with ¢ 
other substances ? 

3. Apparatus for Illumination.—We have nothing novel to 
present in relation to lamps and jets, except a remark upon 
reflectors. 

Reflectors are found to increase the ordinary effect of a 
light in proportion to the perfection of their reflecting surface 
and their approach+o a parabolic form ; but, being constructed 
of metal, they are expensive. Kempton (Lond. Journ. 1849, 
330) proposes making earthenware reflectors of a good form, 
and then lustring their reflecting surface in the usual manner. 
Clay-ware is undoubtedly an excellent material for giving a 
good form to a reflector, as it is readily and cheaply made, and 
retains its shape tolerably well during burning. But the new 
method of precipitating silver from solution, with a brilliant 
surface, might advantageously be substituted for the method 
usually adopted for lustring pottery with silver. 


VII. SITEPSICS. 


THE present class embraces arts which are exclusively con- 
fined to the preparation of food, or which prepare substances 
largely used in the preparation and preservation of food, 
both solid and liquid, and likewise used in the arts generally. 


1. PREPARATION OF FARINA AND SuGAR. 


Flour, starch, and sugars, are employed both as food and 
in the arts. 

1. Starch is extracted from roots, as the potato, arrow-root, 
or from grain, wheat, rice, corn, by washing over and collect- 
ing the finely suspended sediment. ‘There are different kinds 
of starch, but even the same kind, as that obtained from the 
above-named substances is supposed to be, differs in its pro- 
perties so far that it is desirable to distinguish one from the 
other. The form of the grain under a powerful microscope 
is one mean of distinguishing them, and probably the best. 

Starch, Wheat and Potato.—Redwood has given the follow- 
ing method of distinguishing them. If wheat-starch be ground 
well in a mortar with water, then filtered, and the filtrate 
tested with tincture of iodine, it strikes a yellow or reddish, 
but not a blue color, whereas potato-starch, similarly treated, 
strikes a blue color. 

Instead of soda-ash liquor to steep grain in, it is proposed 
to use quicklime and salt. (Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 391.) 

Amidulin.—Schulze applies this name to a substance of 
the same elementary composition with starch, and forming the 
transition substance preceding all the transformations of starch 
into dextrin. It is perhaps identical in composition with 
Jacquelin’s amylum granules; is soluble in hot and insoluble 
in cold water, and reacts with iodine like starch. (Journ. fur 
Prac. Chem. xliv. and Ch. Gaz. vi.) 


172 


TESTS FOR SUGARS. ‘ ite 


Bleaching Gums.—Picciotto describes a process for de- 
colorizing Arabian gums (Lond. Journ. 1849), by dissolving 
them in a strong solution of sulphurous acid, distilling off 
part of the acid, and precipitating the balance by carbonate 
of baryta, and, after filtering, evaporating to dryness. Or, 
the gums may be decolorized and cleansed by adding hy- 
drated alumina to their solution, filtering and evaporating. 
If the gums are to be used for medicinal or alimentary 
purposes, the use of baryta is highly objectionable, and in- 
deed for most purposes the decolorization is a matter of minor 
importance. 

2. Sugar.—When starch is acted upon by sulphuric acid or 
diastase in water, it is converted into a sugar, called starch- 
sugar, which seems to be identical with grape-sugar. Cane- 
sugar treated with acids is resolved into the same kind; but we 
have not as yet succeeded in producing cane-sugar from grape 
or starch-sugar. There is room for extended observation in 
the changes suffered by the sugars, both in relation to science 
and to practice. 

Tests for Sugars.—G. Reich thus distinguishes between dif- 
ferent kinds of sugar. (Gewerbvereinsbl. d. Provinz Preussen, 
1846.) If a hot concentrated solution of bichromate of po- 
tassa be added to molasses (cane-sugar molasses), in a test-tube, 
and heated to boiling by a spirit lamp, an energetic action 
takes place between them after removing the flame, until the 
liquid has assumed a beautiful green color from oxide of 
chrome, which is rendered more distinct by dilution with water. 
Starch-molasses produces no change whatever, under similar 
circumstances. Even when common molasses is mixed with 
4-4 starch-molasses, no change is produced, or if it be, it does 
not exhibit the fine green color of pure cane-molasses. A solu- 
tion of the bichromate is not acted on by syrup (a solution) of 
cane-sugar, and hence molasses-sugar shows itself distinct in 
kind from the two others. . 

A solution of nitrate of cobalt is, according to Reich, a good 
mean of distinguishing cane and grape sugars. A strong 


solution of cane-sugar, treated with fused potassa, heated to 
p2 


174 PREPARATION OF FARINA AND SUGAR. [ VER. 


ebullition, diluted with water, and then treated with a few 
drops of nitrate of cobalt solution, yields a bluish-violet pre- 
cipitate, which after some time has a greenish color. <A con- 
centrated solution of starch-sugar, similarly treated, yields a 
dirty, light-brown precipitate; or, if dilute, remains clear. A 
very small quantity of starch-sugar contained in cane-sugar 
prevents the violet precipitate by nitrate of cobalt. 

Chevallier tests the presence of starch-sugar in cane-sugar 
by warming the solution with caustic potassa, whereby a greater 
or less quantity of the former produces a red or yellow color- 
ing. According to Cotterau, all the caustic alkalies, including 
ammonia, produce this effect,—even their carbonates, but not 
their bicarbonates,—and hence he proposes starch-sugar as a 
test for the presence of neutral. 

Maumené (L’Institut, No. 846, and Silliman’s Journ. 1850) 
proposes bichloride of tin as a reagent for detecting the pre- 
sence of sugar in urine; the test-cloth is made of white merino, 
saturated with diluted tin solution, drained and dried in a 
water-bath. This cloth, when spotted with urine and held 
over a heated coal, turns black in the moistened places if 
sugar is present; whereas the stain of ordinary urine is not 
darkened. The reaction is due to the dehydration of the 
sugar, highly carbonated caramel being formed. 

The author suggests the possibility of forming a useful 
brown pigment by the above reaction. 

Quantitative Test for Cane-sugar.—Peligot’s method de- 
pends upon the definite constitution of sugar-lime, its greater 
solubility in water than lime alone, and the unalterability of 
this solution by heat. Soubeiran had found that sugar-lime 
consisted of 3 eq. lime to 2 eq. sugar, z. e. 84 pts. lime to 
342 pts. sugar, or 1:4. 10 grm. sugar are dissolved in 75 
cub. centimetres water, ground up with 10 grm. slacked lime, 
filtered, and again filtered through the lime. 10 cub. cent. 
of the filtrate, diluted with 2-5 decilitres water, and tinctured 
with a little litmus, are carefully neutralized by a measured 
volume of dilute sulphuric acid (21 grm. oil of vitriol in 1 litre 
water), and the quantity of acid used noted. It gives. the 


REFINING SUGAR. Lf 


quantity of lime neutralized, and from the above proportion 
the quantity of sugar present. 

If cane-sugar is to be examined for starch or grape-sugar, 
one test is made as above, and another test in which the liquid 
is heated to 212°, and then, when cool, tested with the acid. 
The lime solution with cane-sugar becomes cloudy by heat, 
but clarifies on cooling, while, if grape-sugar were present, it 
becomes brownish-yellow, and requires much less acid for 
neutralization. Indeed, a decilitre of starch-sugar solution 
requires 4 cub. cent. of the test-acid, or just as much as lime- 
water itself. Cane juice may be similarly tested after con- 
centration to 6-8° Beaumé. (Le Technologiste, 1846.) 

One of the best means of determining the quantity of 
cane-sugar present in a solution is an instrument for showing 
circular polarization in liquids, a full description of which will 
be found in a Report to Congress by Prof. R. 8. McCulloh, 
made several years since. 

Honey.—Soubeiran’s (Comptes Rendus, 1849) examination 
of honey proves that it consists of—1. Glucose, or granular 
sugar; 2. A right-rotating sugar, alterable by acid; 3. A 
left-rotating sugar. In the original paper, the author has 
given some distinctive characteristics of each, and promises 
the results of further investigations as soon as completed. 

Purification of Honey.—André’s method of purifying honey 
is simple, and is said to be efficient. Three sheets of white 
bibulous paper are doubled up and put into 25Ib honey, diluted 
with half its weight of water, and the whole boiled over a 
gentle fire, until the paper is dissevered into a pulp. After 
cooling, the liquid is filtered through a woollen cap or cone, 
and evaporated gently to the consistence of honey. 

Refining Sugar.—Much has been lately said, and some 
patents issued (Lond. Journ. Sept. 1850) for clarifying and 
defecating saccharine solutions by the use of salts of lead, 
and ingenious processes have necessarily followed for removing 
from the solutions every trace of lead. But we must express 
an unqualified disapproval of all poisonous materials in the 
preparation of substances used as articles of diet. The ma- 


176 PREPARATION OF FARINA AND SUGAR. [ Vil. 


nufacturer might at first test his liquors and sugars with all 
possible care, to insure the removal of every trace of lead, but 
can he be sure that the same nicety will be observed when he 
transfers this operation to workmen? If a chemist were em- 
ployed, might not his tests sometimes deceive hin? Now, it 
may be shown that a very minute dose of lead, frequently 
repeated, will produce deleterious effects on the system; and 
yet such traces are apt to elude the vigilance of even an ex- 
perienced chemist, when he is called upon to repeat his tests 
day after day. In the patent referred to (Lond. Journ. Sept. 
1850), the collection of sulphite of lead as a pigment is too 
trivial to notice further. 

Acetate of alumina may be safely used in defecating sac- 
charine solutions (see Oxland’s patent, Lond. Journ. Sept. 
1850), but whether efficient or not, is to be tried. It is probable 
that it will answer a good purpose in part, from the ac- 
knowledged effect of aluminous solutions. In the above 
patent, the remainder of alumina is thrown down by a solution 
of tannin. The two substances are stated to be used either 
before or after neutralization by lime in the case of cane juice 
or beet-root juice. The acetate of alumina is easily made by 
precipitating sulphate of alumina by alkali, washing thoroughly 
and dissolving the moist precipitate in vinegar. It is stated 
that, on trial, 416 of alumina were sufficient for one ton of 
sugar. 

Another patented process (Rep. Pat. Inv. July, 1850) for 
clarifying cane juice and sugar solutions, is the use of sul- 
phate of alumina with chalk and silex. The process seems to 
be not well digested, and there is a liability of leaving some 
soluble sulphate in solution, which tends to injure sugar upon 
evaporation. 

Extraction of Sugar.—Melsen’s novel process (Gard. Chron. 
1849) for extracting sugar from cane juice, consists in the use 
of sulphurous acid combined with lime, forming a bisalt. Its 
presence arrests the action of the air, and thus prevents the 
development of any ferment. In accomplishing so much, it 
obviates all the difficulties heretofore experienced, in the 


EXTRACTION OF SUGAR. LT 


manufacture of sugar, by the too rapid decomposition of the 
crude juice, in warm climates. 

It is to be poured in cold solution upon the cane, as it passes 
through the mill, so as to insure its intimate mixture with the 
expressed juice. Here it exerts its antiseptic property, and 
also, by its great affinity for oxygen, intercepts the action of 
that gas upon the constituent of the juice. Its influence does 
not, however, stop here, for when the mixture is heated to 
212°, the caseum, albumen, and analogous nitrogenous matters 
separate as a coagulum, and the liquid becomes materially 
blanched. Thus it acts also as a defecating and bleaching 
agent. It likewise prevents the formation of any new coloring 
matter by the action of air upon the pulp, insures a more 
perfect crystallization without the necessity of haste, decreases 
the amount of molasses, and yields nearly double the quantity 
of sugar obtained by the old methods. 

The sulphurous acid, in exerting this beneficial influence, 
absorbs oxygen and becomes sulphuric acid, and as this latter 
would transform the cane into grape-sugar, the lime base is 
necessary to neutralize and convert it into insoluble sulphate 
of lime as fast as it is formed. 

The sulphurous taste adhering to the sugar may be removed 
by crushing and exposing it to the air. A more effectual way 
is to refine it until its weight is decreased one-tenth. A very 
white and pure sugar is thus obtained. 

It may be observed, in regard to the reason given for having 
a salt of sulphurous acid, that, if the acid were oxidized, we 
would have, it is true, the insoluble sulphate of lime, but also 
free sulphuric acid. According to Liidersdorff this free acid 
is not injurious. 

The English patent for Melsen’s process appears in the 
Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 229. The accompanying propositions 
and claims, for the use of baryta or oxide of lead, are objec: 
tionable, for the reasons stated below. 

Liidersdorff’s method, especially applicable to beet-sugar, is 
based upon the fact, determined by experiment, that juice con- 


tains two kinds of extraneous matters, of opposite chemical 
12 


178 PREPARATION OF FARINA AND SUGAR. [ VEE. 


relations. The use of both an acid and an alkali are therefore 
required for effectual defecation. — 

The freshly-rasped pulp is to be mixed with 3,45 of its 
weight of sulphuric acid. All oxidation (?) is thus prevented 
and the quantity of juice increased, while the pulp retains its 
whiteness. Three per cent. of plastic clay is added to the 
juice to remove its cloudiness, and at the end of twelve hours 
separated by filtration. The filtrate, which runs through per- 
fectly limpid, is entirely proof against viscous fermentation, 
but still contains foreign matters, which are to be removed by 
the usual process of heating with milk of lime. The juice, 
thus defecated, yields by evaporation and crystallization, a 
very fair sugar without the use of boneblack. 

Phosphoric would be preferable to sulphuric acid, were it 
less costly. The use of the latter is attended with several 
serious disadvantages; one of which is the difficulty in re- 
moving the sulphate of lime formed, and another in preventing 
injury to the juice at the temperature 167° F. required for 
its rapid filtration. Both of these might probably be obviated 
by the substitution of phosphoric acid. See details in Lond. 
Journ. xxxvi. 403. 

Sugar-filters.—For filtering saccharine and other liquids, a 
patent appears in the Lond. Journ. xxxvi. 107, in which a 
cycle of filters is used, the bottom of each being connected 
by a pipe with the top of the next. The first liquor is run 
into that one longest in use, and passes successively through 
the others. One is always out of use, and being prepared 
with a fresh charge of boneblack. 

A filter of cotton for sugar solutions is described in Lond. 
Journ. 1849. About 22tb of raw cotton are drenched with 
hot water and allowed to remain in water for 12 hours. A 
little chalk and starch, with a boiling heat and skimming, are 
used to remove a portion of the impurities. The drenched 
cotton is then put on the slat-bottom of a cylinder or conical 
filter and a little water poured through, which is run off by a 
cock under the false bottom. The sugar solution is next 
poured on the filter, and, after passing through, is immediately 


FERMENTATION. 179 


boiled down to crystallization. The sugar adhering to the 
cotton is washed out and added to the blow-up; the impurities 
remain in the cotton. 

A late improvement in refining sugar is the employment 
of centrifugal force for driving out the syrup from the crys- 
talline grains of sugar. For this purpose, the syrup, with the 
grains formed in it, is led into a drum fixed on a vertical shaft, 
with its circumference formed by wire-gauze. The drum being 
made to revolve with rapidity, 2000 times per minute, the 
liquid mass is driven by centrifugal force to the circumference, 
where the grains are detained by the gauze and the liquid 
oozes through on the outside. It is a constantly acting force, 
and it would seem as if the same effect might be produced by 
a broad and shallow filter, the lower part of which should be 
partially exhausted by an engine. 


2. FERMENTATION. 


Practically, we have only to consider the manufacture of 
alcohol and vinegar, but the consideration of fermented liquors 
generally may be introduced. Vinegar is now chiefly made 
from alcoholic liquids by simple oxidation, and the process is 
a beautiful gift from chemical science to the arts. As there 
is nothing new in relation to the vinegar process, we offer a 
few observations in regard to the nature of fermentation, to 
alcohol and wines. We notice a large work on Fermentation, 
issued in Germany, entitled ‘‘ Giihrungschemie in 3 Biinden, 
1845, und 4ter (Supplement) Band, 1847,” by Prof. C. Balling. 

Fermentation.—According to Helmholz’s experiments, sub- 
stances capable of undergoing fermentive changes in common 
air, do not suffer them if the air have been previously ignited ; 
from which he drew and confirmed a formerly advanced opinion 
that fermentations arise from the exhalations of matter in the 
act of fermentation, whose germs or seed are conveyed to 
fresh matter capable of these changes, and impart to it their 
own character; and that these germs being destroyed by heat, 
such air will not produce fermentation. 


180 FERMENTATION. [ WER. 


Mitscherlich’s experiments lead to a similar conclusion. 
(Berzelius Jahresb. 1846.) The fermentable substances were 
put into flasks with water, and boiled to destroy the vitality 
of seed. One flask was left open, and the other closed with 
filtering paper, pasted tightly around the edges. The open 
flask soon showed signs of fermentation in the formation of 
mould; while the other did not exhibit any such change in the 
course of months, the paper apparently filtering off the germs 
from the air which entered the vessel. 

Déppning and Struve, repeating Helmholz’s experiments, 
drew the conclusion that all nitrogenous substances undergo 
decomposition, even in air previously ignited, and that it is 
chiefly prevented or diminished by a boiling temperature. 
They also observed that paper, straw, and other porous bodies 
may be fermented without the presence of a ferment, but 
that the resulting product is butyric acid and not alcohol. 
The same fermentation occurs when solutions of sugar are 
brought in contact with powdered charcoal or sulphur, but 
in the latter case, a little tartrate of ammonia should be added. 
(Bullet. de St. Petersbourg, 1847.) 

Action of Ferment on Sugar.—Dubrunfault’s examination 
of the changes suffered by cane-sugar, in the fermenting pro- 
cess, previous to the formation of alcohol and carbonic acid, 
Jed him to the following conclusions. The altered cane-sugar 
(or its analogous grape-sugar or fruit-syrup) is not a simple 
variety of sugar; only a certain quantity of it becomes glu- 
cose by crystallization, the residue polarizing to the left with 
the same power that the separated grape-sugar polarizes to 
the right. In the vinous fermentation of the altered sugar, 
that which disappears in the first part of the process is op- 
tically neutral, while the sugar which disappears last polarizes 
strongly to the left. No one sugar is exclusively decomposed 
before another in fermenting mixed sugars. The sugar pro- 
duced from starch, by the action of malt, is not identical with 
grape-sugar ; for the former is less soluble in alcohol, less 
liable to change by ebullition, or the alkalies, and its polarizing 
power is three times that of the latter. The optical deflecting 


ALCOHOLOMETERS. 181 


powers of such quantities of grape-sugar solution, kept for a 
long time, of freshly dissolved grape-sugar, of starch malt- 
sugar, and of dextrine, as will all give the same quantity of 
alcohol, are in the ratio of 1: 2: 3:4. (Journ. Prac. Chem. 
xl. 418.) 

Alcohol and Water.—Townes gives the following results of 
his experiments to determine the specific gravity of mixtures 
of alcohol and water. Column A shows the percentage of 
alcohol by weight in the mixture, and B the spec. grav. at 60°. 


> 


0.9069 
0.8956 
0.8840 
0.8721 
0.8603 


5 
10 
15 
20 
25 





Alcoholometers.—Two instruments have been invented for 
determining the proportions of alcohol in liquids containing 
substances in solution which increase the spec. grav. of the 
liquids, in which case the indications of a hydrometer are not 
to be relied on. ‘The principle of their use depends upon the 
lower boiling point of a mixture in proportion to the quantity 
of alcohol it contains. They are termed Hbullioscopes. The 
instrument employed by Brossard-Vidal is a large thermome- 
ter; the mercury in the tube carrying a float, from which a 
cord passes over a pulley and is counterpoised by a light 
weight. An index is attached to the roller, which points to 
degrees on a graduated scale, according as the pulley revolves, 
2. e. as the level of mercury alters, when the liquid boils. 

Conaty’s instrument is a common thermometer, with ascale 
attached, which directly indicates the proportion of alcohol 
contained in a liquid into which it is immersed during ebulli- 
tion. The movable scale may be also adjusted for barometric 
variation, so that further corrections are avoided. Both in- 
struments have been reported to the Paris Academy as capable 
of indicating 1 or 2 per cent. of alcohol in a liquid, but that 
of Conaty is thought to be the most convenient. (Comptes 
Rendus, xxvii.) 

Q 


182 FERMENTATION. [ VEE. 


Ure has constructed an instrument of the same kind, similar 
in principle to that of Conaty. (Phar. J. Trans. vii. 166.) 

Dilatometer.—Silbermann (Comptes Rendus, 1848) has in- 
vented an instrument for determining the relative quantity 
of each liquid in mixtures of water and alcohol. It is called 
a dilatometer, and derives its principle from the fact, that the 
dilatation of alcohol is three and a half times greater than that 
of water, at temperature from 77° to 122° F. For example, 
if the bulb of a thermometer-tube be over-filled with alcohol 
and heated to 122°, it will be seen that the liquid rises in the 
tube three and a half times higher than would the same quan- 
tity of water under like circumstances. So, also, any mixture 
of the two would give a mean point of dilatation, approximat- 
ing that of the alcohol or water, according as either may 
preponderate. Thus, by making the water point 0°, and 
noting severally and consecutively the degree of dilatation 
of a series of 100 mixtures, commencing with water 99 and 
alcohol 1, and ending with alcohol 100, water none, a cen- 
tesimal alcoholometric scale may be graduated so as to show 
at a glance the proportion of either in any mixture of the two 
liquids. 

Other scales may be adopted upon the same principle, to 
determine the ratios of any other two liquids differing in their 
degree of dilatation. 

The dilatometer is particularly applicable for testing wines. 
The particulars as to its construction and use are given in the 
original paper. 

Distilled Liquors and Fousel-oil.—To free them readily 
from fousel-oil, Peters recommends a hogshead with a false 
bottom to be half filled with well-ignited charcoal, the top of 
this to be strewed over with 10tb boneblack, and 5tb black 
oxide of manganese, and the whole to be filled up with char- 
coal. The hogshead is to be filled with brandy, whisky, &c., 
which is to remain in it for 3 days, and then drawn off. That 
which first runs off cloudy is to be redistilled, but this opera- 
tion will not be again required. The vessel thus prepared 
will last 12-15 months. 


EFFECT OF OAK-CASKS UPON WINES. 183 


Butyric Ether.—This ether is used for imitating rum, on ac- 
count of its agreeable apple-odor. To obtain it dissolved in 
alcohol, Wohler recommends (Pogg. Ann. xlix. 360) saponifying 
butter with strong potassa-lye, dissolving this soap in the least 
amount of alcohol, by the aid of heat, adding to it a mixture 
of alcohol and sulphuric acid until it has a strong acid reac- 
tion, and distilling it as long as the distillate possesses the 
apple-odor. 

Sulphurie Acid in Wines.—Lassaigne (Ann. de Ch. et de 
Phys. xxi. 119) proposes avery simple and delicate test of the 
presence of sulphuric acid in wines. When a piece of white- 
glazed paper, containing starch, is touched with pure wine and 
dried at a gentle heat, no spot is produced; but if sulphuric 
acid be present, even to the extent of zy'55, the spotted portion 
reddens and becomes brittle between the fingers before the 
white paper becomes at all colored. Pure wine leaves, by 
spontaneous evaporation, a violet-blue spot, but if containing 
2-3 thousandths of sulphuric acid, a rose-red spot. 

Effect of Oak-casks upon Wines.—Famé (Journ. de Pharm. 
et de Chim. xii. and Millon and Reiset’s Annuaire, 1849) 
gives the following conclusions, based upon the results of a 
series of analyses. 

1. That the oak woods used by the coopers for making wine 
and liquor casks are the same*in composition; though the 
proportions of the ingredients vary with the place of growth 
of the tree. 

2. That the soluble principles of oak-wood have an appre- 
ciable action upon liquors, and particularly upon wines. 

3. That this action is more evident upon white than upon 
red wines; more so upon light and delicate than upon colored 
and coarse wines. 

4, That American oak contains less soluble matter than other 
kinds. 

5. That casks made of American, Dantzic, or Stettin oak, 
have, in general, the least action upon spirituous liquors. The 
two latter even, sometimes, improve the quality of the wines. 

6. That alkalies increase the color and solubility of the ex- 


184 CULINARY ARTS. [ VEE. 


tractive matter of the wood; and the mineral acids, on the 
contrary, weaken them. 

Sweetening of Sour Wines.—Liebig (Ann. der Chem. und 
Pharm. Ixy.) proposes to remove the acidity of sour Rhine 
wines, by means of a concentrated solution of tartrate of 
potassa, which precipitates the acid as insoluble bitartrate. 
The proper proportion of the salt varies with the wines, their 
age and quality, and must be determined by the intelligence 
of the operator. This mode is far preferable to neutralization 
by lime or potassa, as it leaves no salt in the wine to impair 
its flavor. 

Malt Liquors.—On the amount of inorganic constituents 
in ale and porter, see Phil. Mag. xxxiii. 341, and Amer. Journ. 
(2) vii. 102. 


3. CULINARY ARTS. 


1. Beverages.—Doubtless the most important of these is 
water, which we have considered in regard to manufactures 
under Chemics, and now present it in its character of a 
beverage. Soft water, taken on shipboard, frequently under- 
goes several. distinct fermentations, after which it appears to 
be no longer liable to alteration; but the character of these 
changes has not been studied. Probably all sweet waters, 
and perhaps all waters on the globe, contain more or less 
organic matter, generally a minute quantity, dissolved in 
them, and the putrefactive processes observed in a ship’s 
supply of water is doubtless due to this cause; for if caused 
by other organic matter, the cessation of putrefaction would 
not be observed, as the same cause would continually present 
itself. How to remedy the defect is an important question. 

Perinet has found that binoxide of manganese will preserve 
the sweetness of water for years. 60 gallons of water, con- 
taining 3b of the powdered binoxide, remained perfectly sweet 
and clear for seven years in a wooden vessel. (Journ. de Chim. 
Medic. April, 1846, 301.) 

Purification of Sea-water.—According to Cardan, sea-water 


ACTION OF WATER UPON LEAD. 185. 


is entirely deprived of its nauseous taste by infiltration through 
powdered charcoal. A siphon-shaped vessel is recommended 
—the coal to occupy the long arm. (Lond. Athenzeum, 1850.) 

Action of Water upon Lead.—Horsford (Procdgs. Amer. 
Acad. Arts and Sciences) classifies drinking-waters, as follows : 

1. Open waters, as ponds, lakes, and rivers, having their 
sources in rainfalls and surface drainage. 

2. Waters concealed from sunlight, as wells, and certain 
springs, formed by infiltration through earthy and rocky strata. 

The latter, except in winter, are colder and contain a greater 
amount of gases than the former. They also hold, in solution, 
more inorganic matter, especially nitrates and chlorides, but 
have less organic matter than open waters. 

The results of his experiments authorized the following 
conclusions. That neither dry air, or water freed of air, have 
any oxidizing influence upon lead; that metal being acted 
upon proportional to the amount of free oxygen in solution. 
That the nitrates are partially reduced by lead, and that both 
they and the chlorides facilitate the solution of the plumbic 
coating formed in service pipes. That the presence of ani- 
malcule or vegetable matters does not impart corrosive pro- 
perties to water; for these substances being most abundant 
in summer, the oxygen arising from their decomposition (?) is 
expelled by the natural heat of the water. Moreover, the 
escape of gas and air is promoted by the presence of insoluble 
organic matter, whilst that portion of the latter which may be 
in solution consumes the dissolved oxygen and reduces the 
nitrates. Organic matter, therefore, rather impairs the solvent 
action of water upon lead. 

Lead does not reduce iron oxide, nor is it corroded by 
alkaline chlorides, in the absence of air. Pure water, as a 
general rffle, possesses a greater solvent power than when 
salts are in solution. All natural waters produce more or less 
corrosion in the interior of lead conduits, but the coating at 
first formed is entirely insoluble; contact with water and 
carbonic acid, however, soon increases its state of oxidation, 
and it then becomes soluble in 7 to 10,000 parts of pure 

Q2 


186 CULINARY ARTS. [ VEE. 


water. When sulphuric acid, oxide of iron, or organic mat- 
ters are present, this oxide unites and forms with them a highly 
protective covering. 

Paraguay Tea.—A decoction of the leaves of Ilex Para- 
guayensis is used in South America as a beverage, in place of 
tea and coffee, and hence its vulgar name of ‘‘ Paraguay tea.” 
According to Stenhouse and Rochleder (Ann. der Chem. und 
Pharm. lxvi.) its crystalline principle is identical with caffein, 
and its acid gives the same reactions as caffeo-tannic acid. 

Chicory Coffee.-—This article, originally manufactured in 
Holland, a century since, was first made in France in 1801, 
by Orban and Giraud. Since then, it has become an important 
object of commerce; the exports from 1827 to 1836 having 
reached 458,971 kilogrammes. The home consumption alone 
amounts to 12,000,000 pounds. It is used alone, or mixed 
with coffee, to which it imparts a bitter taste, and at the same 
time, it is said, modifying its stimulant action. It is fre- 
quently adulterated with coffee-grounds, brick-dust, earthy 
matters, roasted acorns, corn, haricots, and peas. Of these 
fraudulent mixtures, those containing starch may be detected 
by means of iodine-water. The coffee-grounds are recognised 
by throwing a pinch of the suspected chicory, previously dried, 


over a water-bath, upon the surface of water; the chicory 


absorbs water and sinks, the coffee-grounds float. 

The mode of preparing chicory coffee is, to collect the plant 
in the spring, and to strip and wash the roots. These roots 
are then divided into longitudinal strips, which are in turn 
still further reduced in size by being cut transversely, and 
dried ina heated chamber. The drying is facilitated by fre- 
quent stirring, and the root thus prepared takes the name of 
cossetes. After roasting in cylinders, 2 per cent. of butter is 
added and the machine rotated several times, in offfler to give 
lustre and the appearance of coffee to the chicory. Grinding 
between cylinders, sieving, and coloring with rouge brun de 
Prusse, complete the operation. 

On chicory coffee, by Chevallier, see Amer. Journ. 2d ser. 
vul. 441, and Chem. Gaz. 1849. 


PREPARATION OF FOOD. 187 


Alcoholic Drinks.—Bouchardat and Sandras (Ann. de 
Chim. et de Phys. 1847, and Ch. Gaz. vi. 121), with a view 
of determining the manner in which alcohol is absorbed by 
and the changes which it undergoes in the system, performed 
a series of experiments, the results of which go to prove that 
it is absorbed by the veins, and not by the lacteals; and, ex- 
cepting a minute portion escaping by the lungs, it is entirely 
oxidized into carbonic acid and water, either directly or by 
passing through the intermediate stage of acetic acid. 

2. Preparation of Food.—On this subject, much cannot be 
yet offered by the chemist; but, with his wonted spirit, Liebig 
has led the way in this branch of the chemical arts. 

Index of Nutrition.—Dr. A. Veelker’s essay, presented to 
the British Association at their late meeting (1850), showed 
that the quantity of nitrogen, considered as an index of the 
nutritive value of food, had been incorrectly estimated, in con- 
sequence of a portion of it existing in the form of ammonia. 

Detection of Corn-meal in Wheat-flour.—La Grange (Journ. 
de Chem. Med. iv. 539) takes of the suspected matter 2 grm. 
sifts and places it in a test-tube, and then stirs in 4 grm. nitric 
acid. After this it is diluted with 60 grm. water, and then a 
solution of 2 grm. carbonate of potassa in 8 grm. water is 
added. After the escape of carbonic acid, if there is no 
corn present, the subsiding flocculse will be yellow; otherwise 
they will be intermixed with orange-colored particles. This 
test serves for the detection of as little as 4 per cent. of in- 
dian-meal. 

Hlorse-chesnut.—Flandin (Comptes Rendus, xxvii.) proposes 
to remove the acrid resin and bitter taste of the horse-chesnut, 
by kneading the powdered kernel with gg to zo of its weight 
of soda, and then washing out with water. 

Cooking of Meat.—Liebig’s researches (Ann. Ch. Pharm. 
Ixii. 257) upon the juices of flesh have furnished valuable 
results, which are full of general interest, because of their 
practical application. All the nutritious portions of flesh may 
be extracted by finely mincing and exhausting it with cold 
water. The liquid, thus obtained, contains creatin, some cre- 


188 CULINARY ARTS. [ VEE. 


atinin, albumen, coloring matter, inosinates, lactates, alkaline 
phosphates and chlorides, with other salts. It is to be heated 
over a water-bath in order to coagulate the albumen, which 
carries with it the coloring matter. The liquor is then strained, 
and if the constituents are to be separated, treated with caustic 
baryta to precipitate free phosphoric acid, which would, other- 
wise, cause the deposit of a brown sediment during the sub- 
sequent evaporation. If the liquor is intended for soup, 
instead of being strained, it may, after maceration in the cold, 
be gently boiled with the meat for a few minutes, and strained. 
The clear liquor then only requires seasoning to become pa- 
latable broth, imbodying all the nutriment of the flesh. The 
residual meat is sinewy and without taste or nourishment. Gela- 
tine forms but a very small portion of the dissolved matters ; 
and Liebig confirms Proust’s view that soup does not derive 
any taste or nourishing power from it. The flavor is due to 
the soluble constituents of the meat, which exist in it ready 
formed, and are not generated during the process of boiling. 
By a gradual and carefully managed evaporation in shallow 
pans, the liquor, prepared as above, may be converted into a 
brown “‘ extract of flesh,” retaining the savory odor of roast- 
beef. It may be called portable soup, for it can be preserved 
any length of time, and gives, with 30 pts. water and proper 
seasoning, a most palatable and nutritious broth. 

From these facts, it follows that the proper way of boiling 
meat, so as to insure the retention of its flavor and nutriment, 
is to plunge it directly into boiling water, and after a few 
minutes to reduce the temperature of the liquid to 158° by 
the addition of cold water. The outer portion of the meat 
is thus hardened, and a gentle simmer, so as to heat the 
interior to 158°, will coagulate the albumen, enveloping the 
fibres and also the coloring matter of the blood, without hard- 
ening the flesh. The nutriment and flavor of the meat are 
thus preserved unimpaired. 

According to Liebig, the brine running from meat packed 
with dry salts, consists mainly of the juice, and that, there- 
fore, the process of salting lessens its nutritious power. 


PRESERVATION OF FOOD. 189 


Testing Butter for Casein.—Add ether to the butter, con- 
tained in a flask, and shake them together for some time. 
The butter is dissolved and the cassein remains. (Archiv. 
der Pharm. lvi.) 

3. Preservation of Food.—This subject has also been but 
superficially investigated by the chemist. Some of the sub- 
stances used for preserving food are ice, sugar, alcohol, and 
vinegar ; but more attention should be given to the preserva- 
tion of food, by procuring it in a dry state, where chemical 
action cannot take place. We offer the preservation of milk 
as an example. 

Ice.—As this article is now regarded as almost indispensable 
to health in summer, and as it is unquestionably one of the 
greatest luxuries, it would be desirable to manufacture it in 
the season when it is wanted, especially in latitudes and lo- 
calities where it is not obtained in sufficient quantity in winter 
and cannot be procured at a moderate cost by importation. 
Several of the freezing mixtures, formerly used as subjects 
of pleasing experiment by the chemist, begin to attract atten- 
tion, as means of economic manufacture of ice in summer. 
See an article on the subject, in Amer. Journ. 2d ser. vii. 280. 

Preservation of Milk.—ULouis (Ch. Gaz. vii. 48) renders 
milk portable without impairing its original sweetness, by 
mixing it with clarified sugar, 4 oz. to the gallon, evaporating 
it in shallow pans by steam, and removing it at the solidifying 
point, and pressing it into cakes. 

Another method recommended is to curdle the sweetened 
milk by rennet, and then to separate the solid from the liquid 
portion, by means of a sieve. The whey is evaporated to dry- 
ness and the residue mixed, by the aid of heat and a little 
bicarbonate of soda (1 pt. to 20 pts. of residue), with the 
curd previously washed and pressed. When the amalgamation 
is perfect, sufficient tragacanth is added to promote the solidi- 
fication of the mass. 

Milk and Cream.—Bethel has obtained a patent (Newton's 
Journal, 1849) for preserving milk or cream, by first scalding 
it, and then surcharging it with carbonic acid by means of 


190 CULINARY ARTS. [ VEE. 


a force-pump, and afterwards drawing it off into strong metal 
barrels. By the aid of a valve-cock attached to a pipe leading 
to the bottom, the exit of the liquid, as may be wanted, can 
be managed; the internal pressure of the gas being sufficient 
to force out the milk. The milk may be placed in the barrels 
first and the gas forced in afterwards. 

Products of the Decomposition of Casein.—Iljenko (Liebig’s 
Annalen, xiii.) has reported the following results of the action 
of water upon casein. He obtained pure casein by washing 
fresh cheese with water, dissolving it in soda-lye, skimming 
off the fat which rose to the surface after repose, precipitating 
casein from the clear liquid by sulphuric acid, and washing 
with alcohol and ether. 

Eight pounds of this casein were mixed with distilled water 
and exposed to the air at summer heat. After a week, am- 
moniacal and sulphuretted odors were evolved and continued 
during the whole process, the liquid remaining alkaline from 
the commencement to the end of the reaction. The liquid 
was replaced every four days by fresh water. After ten 
weeks, the united liquors, after having been tested separately 
and found to behave alike, were filtered. The casein had 
decreased in weight considerably during this time. 

The volatile products of the distillation of this filtrate were 
volatile oil, butyric, and valerianic acids. The ammonia 
generated during the putrefactive fermentation, dissolved a 
portion of the casein. The liquor also contained aposepedin, 
or oxide of caseum. 


VIII. BIOTECHNICS. 


Since plants are modified in appearance and special pro- 
ducts by the use of manures, and the products of animals are 
influenced by food and other conditions, the study of these 
modifying circumstances is an art of the highest importance. 
To ascertain them to a limited extent, empirical experiment 
will be of much assistance ; but to determine them more fully, 
proximate analysis of organized bodies and organic mixtures 
demands a more thorough elaboration. Quantitative proxi- 
mate analysis is still in its beginning. After this, or simul- 
taneous with its development, must be a study of the successive 
changes experienced by special substances in plants and ani- 
mals during growth, both in normal and abnormal conditions, 
under usual circumstances or when subjected to particular 
chemical influences. We have an ingenious investigation of 
this kind to report by Fremy. 

1. Physiology.— Ripening of Fruit.—Fremy’s investigation 
of the ripening of fruits has opened a new and interesting field. 
He calls pectose a substance associated with cellulose in unripe 
fruits, in carrots, turnips, &c.; it is insoluble in water, alcohol, 
and ether. It is converted into pectin by heat and dilute acids, 
or by the ripening of fruits, in which case malic and citric acids 
produce the effect. When pectin is boiled for some time in 
water, it is converted into parapectin, of the same composition 
as pectin, but precipitable by sugar of lead. Parapectin 
boiled with dilute acids is rapidly changed to metapectin, of 
the same composition as pectin, but decidedly acid, and pre- 
cipitable by chloride of barium. Fremy has found a ferment 
in fruits, and carrots, &c., which he terms pectas, the soluble 
modification of which is obtained from carrots. Pectas, or 
cold dilute alkaline solutions, transforms pectin into pectosie 


acid. The longer action of pectas, or alkalies, or ebullition 
191 


192 PHYSIOLOGY. [ VEER. 


converts pectin into pectic acid, which is insoluble in cold water. 
Continued ebullition of pectic acid in water converts it into 
soluble parapectic acid, and this is easily changed by dilute 
acids into metapectic acid. ‘The last acid is also formed by 
the action of strong acids on pectin, or of an excess of alkali 
on pectin, pectosic or pectic acid. The following table shows 
the composition of these bodies and their respective compounds 
with oxide of lead. 





Lead-salt. 

PECLOSEstassne sas. —— se ieevene 

Pectin. ctatsastaps SE OSC Hy Ore see nie —— 
Parapectin ...... SHO. CoH Oo) ssc THO, 7 PbO,C. AO: 
Metapectin...... SHO HO. vests. 6HO, 2PbO,C,,H,,0., 
Peetosie acid... 5 O,CeH Or c.s. HO, 2Pb0,C,H.07. 
Pectic acid...... ZHO SC 2 EOL, accre 2PbO,C..n OF 
Parapectic acid 2HO,C,,H,.0,,....... 2PhO,CH,.0., 
Metapectic acid 2HO,C, H,0O, ...... ; 2PbO,C, H, O, 


The above series commences with neutral pectin, and passes 
through a series of bodies successively more acid, to a strong 
acid, the metapectic. They either differ from each other by 
the elements of water, or are isomeric. 

The changes of the pectin series by water, acids and alka- 
lies are similar to those which take place in the ripening of 
fruits. Unripe fruits contain pectose, which is, during ripening, 
gradually converted into pectin and parapectin, by the action 
of acids present (malic, &c.); and these are changed by pec- 
tas into metapectic acid, which unites with potassa or lime. 
The metapectic acid probably causes the conversion of starch 
into sugar. Boiling unripe fruits induces a similar formation 
of pectin, which by the action of pectas is transformed into 
gelatinous pectosic and pectic acids, forming a jelly. (Ann. d. 
Ch. u. Pharm. Ixvii.) 

2. The Atmosphere.—The presence of carbonic acid in the 
air has long been known. Its influence on vegetation has 
been brought out more prominently by Liebig. Many experi- 
rents seem to determine the presence of ammonia in the air, 





THE ATMOSPHERE. 198 


and its influence on the growth of plants is maintained by 
Liebig. Future analysis may determine the presence and 
influence of other matters, which at present elude our analytic 
methods, or whose presence is only suspected. 

Marchand found, as the mean of 150 experiments, that 
10,000 volumes of air contain 5.1 of carbonic acid. Kemp 
found that 24,840 cubic inches of air yielded 1.8 milligrammes 
of ammonia. Greger and Horsford have also found ammonia. 

The discrepancies in the experiments of Greger, which gave 
0.323 grm. ammonia = 0.938 carbonate, and those of Dr. 
Kemp, determining 3.68 caustic = 10.37 carbonate of ammonia 
in 1,000,000 grm. of the atmosphere, induced Fresenius to 
make some essays with a view to the correct decision of the 
matter. His apparatus consisted of two gasometers, of nearly 
2 galls. capacity each, with a collecting apparatus of two 
flasks, containing 1 pt. muriatic acid of 1.12 and 20 pts. water. 
The passage of the air was continued, day and night without 
intermission, for six weeks. The results obtained were .089 
ammonia = .285 carbonate during the day, and .169 ammonia 
= .474 carbonate during the night, in every 1,000,000 grm. 

3. Mineral Manures.—That mineral matters in the soil 
exert an important influence on plants is generally admitted, 
but which substances are most influential and how far they are 
beneficial have not been determined. On this head, we call 
attention to the investigations of G. Magnus, of Berlin. 

Magnus made a series of careful experiments, during 1849, 
on the growth of plants (barley having been selected), from 
which he drew the following conclusions : 

1. When mineral matters are not present, the barley attains 
only the height of 5 inches, and then dies. 

2. When a small quantity of mineral matter (different salts) 
is present, perfect development takes place. 

3. If somewhat more mineral matter is present, the plant 
either grows in a stunted form or is not developed at all. 

4. In feldspar alone, barley attains complete development 


and produces seeds. 
R 13 


194 MANURES. [ WHEE. 


5. The progress of growth varies according as the feldspar 
is used in the state of coarse or fine powder. 

6. Manure exerts its fertilizing action also at a distance. 
It then acts, not only by conveying certain mineral matters 
to the soil, but its organic constituents also contribute, and 
that essentially, to the promotion of vegetation. 

For a more detailed account of Magnus’s experiments, see 
Chem. Gaz. viii. 261. 

Common Salt.—The injurious effects of common salt on 
vegetation were clearly shown in a case reported to the British 
Association. See Amer. Journ. 2d ser. vil. 299. 

W. B. Randall (Ch. Gaz. vi.) has proved by experiment 
that water, containing as much as seven grains of chloride of 
sodium to the pint, is highly destructive to the weaker forms 
of vegetation. 

On the other hand, Dubreuil, Fauchet, and Girardin ex- 
perimented practically on the effects of common salt on wheat, 
and found that in the ratio of 6-831b per acre, the straw and 
grain were both heavier; when more salt was employed, the 
straw was more influenced than the grain. 

Persoz found that hortensias flourished far more in an or- 
dinary soil manured, than the same not manured; the manure 
being 6ib boneblack, Sib nitric acid, and 1ib phosphate of 
potassa. A vine manured with Ib silicate of potassa, 3b 
phosphate of potassa and lime, and an equal weight of dried 
blood and goose-dung, produced a shoot of more than 11 yds. 
in a year, while another, not manured, gave a shoot of only 
A yds.; the former produced on nine shoots 25 bunches of 
grapes, the latter none. 

Polstorff (Ann. Ch. Pharm. Ixii. 192) drew the following 
conclusions from experiments with salts upon barley grown in 
lead-lined boxes, and in the field: 1. That barley reaches its 
full development in a soil containing only the constituents of 
its ashes; 2. That the amount of nitrogen in grain is therefore 
not dependent on the soil; 3. That mineral manures are ca- 
pable of producing entirely different results, according to the 





MINERAL MANURES. 195 


form in which their constituents are employed. Excrements 
gave much more than their ash, when each were employed 
separately. In the field, he found that ammonia-phosphate of 
magnesia did not affect the development of the grain, that it 
injured the formation of the straw, and that mineral manures 
without ammonia retarded vegetation. 

Disintegration of Rocks.—Soils being formed by the disin- 
tegration of rocks, the study of this point is of some im- 
portance in vegetable physiology. 

Ebelmen (Comptes Rendus, xxvi. and Ch. Gaz. vi.) gives, 
as conclusions from a series of analyses, 1. That silicates, 
which contain no alumina, lose, on disintegration, silica, lime, 
and magnesia: sometimes the iron disappears with the bases, 
and at others, remains in the residue as peroxide. 2. Silicates 
containing alumina and an alkali, and even other bases also, 
become richer in alumina on disintegration ; and this alumina 
retains the silicic acid and assimilates water, while the other 
bases, with a portion of the silicic acid, disappear. In this 
case, the residue approaches in composition to a hydrated 
silicate of alumina. 

W. B. and R. E. Rogers have given the results of a series 
of experiments (Amer. Journ. 1848) upon the solvent power 
of pure and carbonated water upon mineral compounds, by 
which they prove in two ways, Ist, by an extemporaneous 
method with the tache, and, 2dly, by prolonged digestion at the 
ordinary temperature, ‘‘the solvent and decomposing power 
of pure and carbonated water upon all the important mineral 
aggregates, as well without as with alkaline ingredients.”’ 

Phosphate of Lime in Basaltic Rocks.—Deck (Chem. Gaz. 
vi.) has, by recent analyses of some basalts, proved the pre- 
sence of phosphate of lime in igneous rock, and thereby con- 
firmed those of Mr. Forbes, in contradiction of those by Prof. 
Kersten. 

Artificial Mineral Manures.—Liebig gives the following 
proportions of salts, as the basis for manures. 1. 24 pts. 
carbonate of lime and 1 pt. potash (or 1 pt. of a mixture of 


196 MINERAL MANURES. [ VERE. 


potash and soda). The potash usually contains 60 per cent. 
carbonate, 10 per cent. sulphate, 10 muriate, and some silicate 
of potassa. 2. Equal parts of phosphate of lime, potash, and 
soda. The above mixtures are each fused separately in a re- 
verberatory. According to the peculiar wants of the soil, the 
proportions given may be varied, and also different substances 
added, such as plaster, bones, silicated alkali, ammonia, phos- 
phate of magnesia. According to Stenhouse, the calcareous 
phosphate may be obtained from urine, as well as from guano 
and bones, by adding milk of lime, drawing off the liquid 
from the deposit, and drying the latter. 100Ib urine yield 
nearly 31b of the precipitate, which when dry contains ? phos- 
phoric acid, ? lime, &c., and } nitrogenous organic matter. 

Analysis of Bone-earth.—Heintz’s analyses of bones (Ber- 
lin. Berichte, 1849) give the following results. 


Human. Sheep. Ox. 
Maree Ne eee eee 31.89" 37.51 4000.4 37.46 
Moapriesia\s. 0c. eile aactacs OLd G2 0564.0) Oaks SOP or 
Phosphoric acids... vsc0e. 28:27. 28.00. 3.72964 2562 7.89 
Carbonic Eau ene ene B00" RISD ea 00 tah one 
Water, fluorine, and organic 
TRACER ee a aoe eae eee ees 30.47. 31.12 ... 26.54... 30.58 


Phosphates of Lime.—Reesky’s ee (Caines Ren- 
dus, xxvi. and Ch. Gaz. vi.) show that the artificial or bone 
phosphate of lime has the composition 3CaQ,PO,; that the 
biphosphate of lime is decomposed by alcohol into a phosphate 
and free acid; but the former is not a neutral salt but a new 
phosphate 8Ca0,2P0,,4HO. 

Solubility of Phosphates.—According to Liebig, 1 litre of 
water saturated with carbonic acid, dissolves 0.6626 grm. of 
bone-earth, of which 0.500 grm. is deposited by boiling. (Ann. 
der Chem. und Pharm. lxi.) According to Lassaigne, water 
with its own volume of carbonic acid, dissolves in the course 
of 12 hours, at the temperature of 50°, 0.00075 of artificial 
basic phosphate of lime, 0.000166 from fresh bones, and 
0.0003 from bones that had been buried for 20 years. He 


PHOSPHATOMETRY. 197 


states that 40 cub. centimeters water, containing ;'5 their 
weight of common salt, dissolve 0.0127 grm. basie phosphate 
of lime; and that salammoniac increases the solubility still 
further. (Journ. Ch. Med. ili. and iv., Comptes Rendus, and 
Lond. Journ. 1849.) Crum has observed that 100 pts. of 
various acids (diluted in the proportion of 1 equiv. acid to 
1000 eq. water), dissolve from ? to 14 pts. of basic phosphate 
of lime. The acids were sulphuric, tartaric, acetic, lactic, 
malic, hydrochloric, and nitric; the first dissolving the most, 
the last, the least. (Ann. der Ch. und Pharm.) 

Acid Phosphate of Lime.—It is some years since this salt 
was proposed as a manure, and repeated trials since that time 
have fully demonstrated its efficiency. The simplest method 
of preparing it is as follows. Bones are thrown into heaps, 
where they soften by fermentation. They are then covered 
with half their weight of water in wood or stone vats, and 
half their weight of oil of vitriol added. The whole passes 
into a pasty state in the course of 8 or 10 days, when it is 
mixed with earth, charcoal, or sawdust, to render it pulveru- 
lent. If it be required to apply the salt in a fluid state to 
land, the paste is diluted with 100-200 times its bulk of water. 

Ammonia Phosphate of Magnesia.—Boussingault and Smith 
propose making this salt from urine, by treating the latter 
with a solution of sulphate or muriate of magnesia. The 
ammonia phosphate will separate in the course of a month. 
They state that 6300 pts. urine gave 46 pts. of the salt, equal 
to ? of one per cent. It might readily be made in towns and 
manufacturing establishments ; and while the proposed treat- 
ment will diminish the disagreeable odor of putrefying urine, 
it will offer an invaluable manure to the agriculturist. 

Phosphatometry.—Moride and Bobierre have proposed 
(Technologiste, 1849) an expeditious method for determining 
the proportion of phosphates in manures. 1 grm. boneblack 
or dust, dried at 212°, is to be incinerated and reweighed, so 
as to estimate the carbon and organic matter by loss. The 
soluble saline matters are separated from the ash by leeching 

R2 


198 ORGANIC MANURES. [ WEEE. 


with water, and their amount ascertained by the decrease of 
weight. The residue, insoluble in water, is then carefully 
digested in nitric acid, saturated dropwise with aqua ammonia, 
and when a cloudiness appears, treated with acetic acid to 
redissolve the suspended phosphate of lime. i 

A normal liquor is now prepared by dissolving 3.107 grm. 
of pure acetate of lead in 50 cub. centimeters of water, that 
amount of salt having been found by experiment to be equiva- 
lent to 1 grm. phosphate of lime. The liquor must be slightly 
acidulated with acetic acid, and then poured into a tall glass 
cylinder graduated into 100 equal parts, so that each degree 
may represent 1 centigramme of phosphate. 

The acetic solution of phosphate, prepared as above, is 
mixed with this liquid until it assumes a yellowish tint, when 
two-thirds of its volume of alcohol must be added to mitigate 
the solvent power of the free acid upon the lead phosphate, 
and the pouring of the test-liquor continued, very carefully, 
until a drop of the mixture gives the greenish-yellow lead 
reaction with iodide of potassium. The number of divisions 
of the normal liquid required to bring it to this point denotes 
the number of centigrammes of phosphate of lime contained 
in the solution. 

4. Organic Manures.—The feeces of animals alone, or mixed 
with other organic matter which they cause to putrefy, have 
been used as manures time out of mind, and their value uni- 
versally attested. The great influence of their ashes or 
mineral constituents has been investigated latterly, and has 
almost led to a disregard of their organic contents, unless in 
the form of a compound yielding up ammonia to the air. Too 
much haste has been shown in these conclusions. We report 
a few examinations of excrements, which are of value inde- 
pendently of theory. ~~ 

Human Feces.—Fleitmann, who carefully examined the 
human feeces (Silliman’s Journ. 1849), found their inorganic 
contents, as follows: 


EXCREMENTS. 199 


Feces of one Day. Urine of one Day. 


Nath vada SOONER Ayes 8.9243 
MaQ trie awe eiscs: O:01BS) wna ay 
IOI eget eatiedi ot eid iscesiele 0.7511 
TO Maha ailesids. ced. OAH... 2.4823 
CxOei Aes GA fave), O:55G6U8 <2 sues 0.2245 
MisOpi@soainis sso, D271 8A feadss'ide, 0.2415 
Bee is Dele aurosustes en0/0544 tua ye ioh: 0.0048 
AG esal ths ass wales $4O:8072 asia. . 1.7598 
BOei dey ile. qubides OM29Braits, os 0.3864 
iOpus eiitene sola fists 0.0375 s+. 0.0691 
D.B48B ces, 14.8438 


Composition of Excrements.—The first four analyses are by 
J. R. Rogers (Ann. Ch. Pharm. lxv. 85), the fifth is by Vohl. 


CONSTITUENTS. Pig. Cow. | Sheep. | Horse. | Dog. 


| 100 of flesh excrement yielded water.| 77.13 | 82.45 | 56.47 | 77.25 
«dried =“ at212° yielded ash. 37.17 | 15.23 | 13.49 | 13.36 
«¢ ash gave matters soluble in 





WALEE stieadesFadiccsces sameeren nse 9.65] 5.84])17.29) 3.16 
‘«* ash gave matters soluble in 
hydrochloric acid............. 18.70 | 82.21] .... | 22.59 
«¢ ash gave matters soluble in 
MUUCH CH ACL Oct wa ce cart oiealsele Sis sce Soa ween. (O4S04' | sass 
‘¢ ash gave insoluble residue.....| 71.65 | 61.95 | 48.17 | 74.25 
Composition of the Ash. 
POUNSBA scvososes rec deacioessscsseseneeetos Nas 8.60} 2.91] 8.32)11.380} 0.380 
Od tercsrccedtcdeecscscaccsssteccstecseseateecs 8.44} 0.98] 3.28] 1.98] 0.44 
Tato Sa tesstal adosnicduck sacceseascssoeeee yies 2.03] 5.71|18.15] 4.63 | 33.05 
IMIAPIIGSYSiraa esdasu acsincesdeladeacangescecacen’ 2.24|11.47| 5.45] 8.84} 0.09 
Oxides of manganese .........s.2...0e00s Sess era |traceee | ee Loot sales 
Chloride of, SOdiuM.....2.hee-cssevceceee 0.89} 0.23] 0.14] 0.03 
Phosphate Of, 10M..<sc<ccesssese,dvese00ss LO S5315 5.8.93 | 73.98 [F208 | lees 
PHOS PHOPIG ACI s,Fah. tee icercsiese vie eats 0.41} 4.76) 7.52} 8.93 | 34.46 
UU IG hoe i sce nrc ourtpacuserccuass ODDO Wid | 22 69u 83) hv. 
Carbonic cinrscematecesenccsesp cece cae: OFCOM essecmal traces: | ence 7.46 
Chlorine Cee Pea strdbs ta ilit cals) insects Seay “eae meee gee 0.04 
SilCauccrsasesssstetsenvtaalenese scoters cpees 13.19 traces. 
Sands iais deo Monty c 61.37 | 0254 | 50.11 | 62 a 











Kuhlmann has concluded from his experiments that, while 
salts exert an influence in promoting the growth of plants, 
nitrogenous matter is the most efficacious. 


200 ORGANIC MANURES. [ VEET. 





Deodorizing Putrid Matter.—Among the various substances 
proposed to disinfect excrements, and at the same time to 
fix and retain their valuable constituents, some, as sulphuric 
and muriatic acids, expel sulphuretted hydrogen, and are there- 
fore objectionable; others, as the metallic salts, may them- 
selves be injurious to plants (see Magnus’s experiments). 
Boussingault proposed chloride of magnesium, which would 
form the difficultly soluble ammonia-phosphate of magnesia. 
Calloud proposes the mother-waters of salines, containing 
salts of lime and magnesia, together with charcoal. While 
the former would form phosphates of slow solubility, the coal 
absorbs the noxious gases, and by its porosity also oxidizes 
sulphuret of ammonium into sulphate of ammonia. 

To deodorize human excrements, the best material is pro- 
bably the pyrolignate of iron, the free acid of which has been 
previously neutralized by a base (ashes, lime, &c.). 

To prevent the escape of disagreeable and perhaps noxious 
gases from decomposing animal matter, and to convert it into 
good manure, E. Brown recommends (Lond. Journ. Arts, 
1847) pouring into a privy a dilute solution of sulphate, mu- 
riate, or pyrolignate of iron, or muriate of manganese (from 
the manufacture of bleaching-salt), stirring up, then covering 
it with a good absorbent (75 pts. wood-ash, and 25 pts. saw- 
dust, bone-powder, &ec.), and closing the building for 10 
minutes. Thus freed from odor, it may be transported to a 
poudrette building, where it is mixed with 15-20 per cent. of 
a drying powder, dried, and packed. 

Blood may be rendered inodorous and incapable of putrefac- 
tion by adding to it a solution of chloride of iron or of 
manganese, which unites with and coagulates the albuminous 
matter, and then drying it alone, or mixing with absorbents 
and drying it. 

5. Ashes of Plants.—It is hoped, and with good reason, 
that an accurate determination of the ashes of plants and of 
parts of plants, will assist in determining what special mineral 
substances are needed by those plants, or their parts, for their 
more perfect development. Hence these analyses have been 


ASHES. 201 


multiplied in no ordinary degree within the few last years. 
For the fullest view of them, we refer to the Annual Report 
for 1849, by Liebig, Kopp and others, and give here only an 
example of such analyses. * 

Ashes of Pine-wood.—Sace’s analysis (Ann. de Chim. et de 
‘Phys. xxv.) gives the following result : 


RMT B ee sicraaios dee ty dace ee Sse dvenecae de 10.8667 
SURDMILIC ACI. Seteasce cede slctinsot eset ses 1.2844 
TAOS DHORIC MCI. , secccssdet aw eecsscoccs cee 3.0569 
MON VOE TG ist os fas ane os tena ec sens s vasnee 0.1229 
Pecoxide. Gl WOM. svyo.cssascs ees Jones os 2.6018 
Protoxide of manganese.............+0 2.6498 
WPM CUA dastis ac ct arusee abs cetsc calha ses tas 3.9873 
AGING Meee eae swudccre rst tecssctacele se oee 58.6475 
OURESa radi cenncsoetadyaeas ewe dvees toes « 2.3076 
UGH et rai aecccccre se cautcnesbavteseaecce 13.9751 


Ashes of Coffee.—T. J. Herapath, who analyzed the ashes 
of the berries of the coffea Arabica, with a view to the deter- 
mination of the best manure for promoting the growth of the 
plant, obtained the following per centage composition. (Ch. 
Gaz. vi.) 





PHOSPH OME MENG LM design teal Ne eladendves 19.801 
ULL UC tt PSS ee eh Sh tee he dae 0.244 
PP OLHBSG Lewd «edealed vast Uecom tee sestigotbce 16.512 
da ae. secrn. MBL Meee. sae 6.787 
Chloride of sodinmt.tii.0n.2.. sce bec Nees 0.645 
MAGS EKG tered eee Mi pdeas catcdssvade 2.329 
BPO Oat oll). Gi atin sts chsiddisideeaaUlab a. 0 sera ain’ 5.942 
Sulphate! OF WEMEs Nadie ladys. sideale Ltd 
PhHospieate voVlimed:).sijcco i.e stegs abscess 45.551 
CHS TA CNA ALN Masts sista ies cndinnclin snieielns 0.438 

100.000 


The author calculates, from this analysis, that every ton 
of berries removes from the soil the following proportions of 
mineral substances : 


202 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. [ VERE. 

dbs. oz. 
Phosphoric acide das. sans. jester: te 27 ... 144 
Sulphuric, seh ponsncesheetmereriserasts is or 0 ete 
Potassa, st. pc nacre aA ae AA. oie Mer 
Soda: sicsistelia tvs aresieoe sine edits vnsid ane 4 10 
Chloride: of sodimmisnses cacecsties vue, 0 T 
Bisa ie sits io eos oemereecute alain o ac Wiclaieiass $3 nat 
Miaenesia cs 5cise seitauteo gamebits ssmpents A as pak 
DUNGIGKACIGs. 3. oem ep avesteentitsueasio. 0 5 

68 5 


6. Agricultural Products.—That chemistry might prove a 
great benefit to agriculture, no one doubts; but that it has not 
yet done so, is true. The changes undergone by milk and 
cream in their metamorphosis into cheese and butter have not 
been minutely and accurately studied ; and by way of illus- 
trating the bearing of chemistry on these points, we offer an 
alkalimetric method of determining the richness of milk, and 
Reiset’s examination of the yield of butter under different cir- 
cumstances of milking. 

Lactometry.—Poggiale (Comptes Rendus, 1849) proposes to 
estimate the richness of milk by determining the volume of 
sugar of milk contained in it; the proportion of that in- 
gredient having been found by experiment to be uniformly 
near 52.7 in 1000 pts. of pure milk. His process is based 
upon the reduction of copper-salt by sugar of milk. He 
employs a test-liquid, made by mixing a solution of 10 grm. 
crystallized sulphate of copper, with one of 10 grm. erys- 
tallized bitartrate of potassa, and dissolving the precipitate in 
an aqueous solution of 30 grm. caustic potassa, diluting with 
water to the quantity of 200 grm., and filtering. 20 cubic 
centimeters of this clear blue liquid correspond with two 
decigrammes of whey, of which latter pure milk contains 923 
pts. in the thousand. In 1000 pts. of whey, there are there- 
fore 57 pts. of sugar. The fat and casein having been 
coagulated by mixing the milk, say 50 grm. with a few drops 
of acetic acid, and heating to 120°, are then to be separated 


LACTOMETRY. 203 


by filtration. The filtrate or whey is poured into a cylinder 
graduated into divisions of a fifth of a cubic centimeter, and 
thence added, dropwise, to 20 cub. centimeters of the test- 
liquid, until the disappearance of its blue color. The number 
of divisions of whey required to effect this are then to be 
noted, and the weight of sugar in the 1000 pts. calculated by 
the rule of three. The liquor must be contained in a glass 
flask and boiled before and after each addition of whey. 

Yield of Butter.—Reiset instituted a series of experiments 
to determine the truth of a statement by Peligot, that, during 
milking, the last portions of milk were richer in solid consti- 
tuents than the first. He employed two cows, which grazed 
through the day and were stalled without food through the 
night. The following tables contain the results. The residues 
were obtained by evaporating 20 grm. of the milk to dry- 
.ness at 212°. 


White Cow, No. 1. 


& gl Bone | Bout Weight of 
Dare. | Time of Milking.) 2 & a ea Sos =o penne Mean. Milk 
BEStS|esage|esses obtained. 
h. min. h. min. 
6 A. M.} 12 9.33 16.04 12.68 4940 
7 és 12 9.90 15.85 12.87 4840 
7 cs 12 9.90 17.82 18.86 4200 
6 380 P. M.} 11 80 10.41 21.30 15.85 4570 
GudOt 1< 11 30 9.62 19.07 14.34 4100 
6 30 «¢ 6 13.30 16.30 14.80 2000 
GusOiy.¢ 6 12.80 16.06 14.43 2540 
12) “M. 5 11.49 17.70 14.60 2600 
12 ne 5 12.00 21.20 16.60 2695 
12 Ce 5 13.60 18.50 16.05 2355 
4 P.M.) 4 ie 16.93 17.06 1320 
4 cs 4 15.28 14.73 15.00 1240 
6-801 << 6 30 14.60 13.33 13.86 425 
6 30 «“ 6 380 12.84 13.08 12.86 530 
215% 266 1 15 13.65 13.89 13.77 650 
3380 « 1 15 11.65 11.89 Lae 60 
5 sé 1 30 10.96 — — 20 
6 30 * 1 30 10.88 13.33 12.10 | normal. 
Red Cow, No. 2. 

7 A. M.| 12 30 11.01 17.63 14.32 4465 
6 30 P.M.| 6 380 13.15 17.29 15.22 2210 
12 M. 5 14.37 18.93 16.65 2120 
6 380 P.M.| 5 13.20 17.50 15.35 2040 
sone £ 1 30 18.34 16.33 17.33 80 


Residue of Residue of 
the middle. last milk. 
12 M. 5 10.96 WS.A4 222... 19.20... White Cow. 
5 


MOue aos 20.00...Rea Cow. 





204 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. [ VERE. 


The white cow gave, on an average, in 24 hours, 12,500 grm. 
milk; the red cow, 10,250 grm. Both cows were usually 
milked at 6 A. M., 12 M., and 6 p.m. It appears from the 
above, that the fat on the milk behaves in the udder as in any 
quiet vessel, for the last portions are generally richer than the 
first. But this only occurs when it remains more than 4 
hours; for if it be drawn off every 2 hours, it is uniform. 
The milk obtained from cows which are kept on the grass, is 
decidedly richer than that obtained from such as are stalled 
at night without feed. 

The differences observed above in the milk seem only to 
affect the fat; for that portion of the residue insoluble in 
ether, as well as the nitrogen and ashes of this portion, are 
almost constant, as shown by the following table. The num- 
bers in the first column will be found in the preceding table, 
the first of each pair being the residue from the first portions, 
milked, the second from the last, with their respective quantities 
soluble in ether (fat, &c.), and insoluble (casein, &c.). 










| Residue in Soluble 
100 pts. Milk. | in Ether. 





Insoluble |Nitrogen in 100 pts. of |Salts in 100 pts. of 
in Ether. |that insoluble in Ether.| the same Residue. 





9.90 1.80 
15.86 6.60 
9.90 0.80 
17.82 9.60 
10.41 1.07 
21.30 138.20 
12.00 3.30 
21.20 | 13.10 
13.60 5.23 
18.50 | 10.70 
17.19 9.70 5 
16.93 8.60 s 
11.01 2.20 
17.63 9.70 9; 
13.20 4.40 8.80 
17.50 9.10 8.40 
13.15 4.30 8.85 
17.29 8.80 8.49 
{ 14.60 7.20 7.40 
13.33 7.10 6.23 
{ 15.28 4.90 0.38 
14.73 5.10 9.63 
| ae 4.90 7.94 
| (13.08 4.30 8.78 
( 9.62 1.22 8.40 
119.07 | 11.20 7.87 
14.37 5.90 8.47 
{ 18.93 | 10.50 8.43 





LACTOMETRY. 205 


It appears from the foregoing that it would be better for 
the farmer to reserve the last portions of milk for making 
butter, in order to obtain a larger yield from the same weight 
of milk; unless, indeed, all the milk obtained is employed for 
this purpose. The following experiments show this conclusively. 
1. From the 21st to 28th Aug. 1843, 106,056 grm. of milk 
gave 4850 grm. butter, or 4.57 per cent. of the milk. 

2. From the 6th to the 10th Sept., 62,415 grm. milk gave 
2870 grm. butter, or 4} per cent. 

3. Milk collected from 27th Sept. to 3d Oct....... 79,025 grm. 

Last portions of the milking, worked for 


BURGE Sect eaten taco hess nee orcicaisdtecaseesace 18,765: > 

Amount.of butter obtained: 3...-.0...-5-. 05-9. 1,245 * 
Or 6.65 per cent. of the milk employed. 

4. Milk obtained from 4th to Tth Oct............. 42,835 “ 

Last portions of the milkings..............0.000 8,565 “ 

Pat ETMOMtATMC Wass ifiad-naactnssees ste ssccesuytosoas C2 


Or 7.53 per cent. of the milk used. 

5. Milk obtained from 8th to 15th Oct. (inclusive) 85,850 * 
Last portions of the milkingS...............+000 12,495 “ 
Butter obtained <r sesc tisade ods. salecsle ce sacieseo swe 1,050)" 

Or 8.4 per cent. of the milk used. 


(Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. (3) xxv. 82-85. Abstr. in Ch. 
u. Ph. Centralbl. 1850.) 





INDEX. 





























PAGE 

ADANSONIA DIGITATA, bark Of........00seeeeeee easleacnscnousseatereicansindsesmacnees 118 
BME GRAVES masa sseccuneescsccecnsssedeossassorsescccacedccstcesvsceisscuseeenscette 152-156 
Alcoholic drink, its digestibility............sssecseee oe sodas clonecvivone scieeaes seen ROL 
Milecoholuandiwaterss SpOCs GTRV.\Ofsccssecaocceesiccccccsecsoscsecnslessmesiececeseotess 181 
Alcoholometry ......... Wade teustiedtepecsclescesrssslcetsecscsidoesetecsiscapsadeelecsees 181-182 
PAUEZAIITew eat tase cesicst pet censen cots celta eta ce sees sotoesecc ses cuacdtecsesetesenaweneueseeees 134 
PUK AN Othesviaiscdssnceaitusteses tes sescesuver cessidetasicscte aricanestiosoces vocscdcdtesenseee 187 
PMO occ caclevcstdcstecetasioscreseteccosetcsusteestescceteac oceseeees oass cate soecees 62-68 
SGORMAN' S BUVED se eccdedscatenUeceltssscsiesicsdele dssdeececleeWecviddessowooeenoetone 63 

IDL OMZCH A cecsencdedetsecstevaclecdctecticecssderslavcecacccetcccsccoendecticcesecsa 64 
PSPCCUMMMEM OLA lodsccenesasartlarscrsses vacscscesiccsececesseciecerstiocenctionness 64 
MIMAILOULOMPLASBiesssds catdccls ces cSonaal deceeccslddeoececercteeeucceestedbeices 64 

HOPED CRISIS teasecieencestesonesccrleccracece\sces sss sncns seseas poste scscenenctesse 65 

— Clerrhigtstsssrecieccnedetedecoscieccocsandesaccohanlesseacoctsedsonescssicccenters 66 
AMIMONERNC eZINC ra tassscsasstachet doeca ves cashce cosekiocoeetoescseteca rors aceses 67 

PAGLTI NN era men areca stansclauieatidecouciddcassnabossaseses sconce catceecadtetarsiecocesisnite se 102 
Amal gamy for (eNtISts:.\.0<-.ctsccccesenissencscasssqcconassoniccescodansssencinecdsclssieess 66 
Amalgamated Zinc...........60 Sascecabenie seas tasecstonccea saccesetcctecet cosctstececes 71 
ATaTMimse sees ener veispcaseees cos cceostnacscoase races cesces te seeswcsacn esses Beaaciaceene 172 
Amtimony,/ freed from ALSCNIC ss scesessssannecsssrasessvececes cosvcses teceecensees 53 
— PSORIMC IO Las caa ence rede Sostelscesatecccesoseteciecnoencsecnence cen cadasessoetce 106 
y PUTC..0s0 pencevccviccwiactessiastcenesscentecerd ssccesisvceeciones ee ees 116 

, Sulphuret Of; And SOGIUM....22.. cccesececces coeses vveses pecs caseee 116 

ATL eeHMiMTONGO lth icleasestiaeene stasis ceaccisscecstsslacesecarelccasce ececesiccosesisccees 9 
chemical force and agents in the ........seesecsesenes Rontocereeerelscnsis aon 
tabular view Of the........cscessscsescseeeececees Broetemennececdess 16 

Artificial brilliants and Gems. .....0..0cccees cocesscocese svccceces vovcevese coveceses 28 
marble and stone........... Repent ascrccnecscnceeuencunemsonaotosssleda esses 37 
Arseniatevand stammate Of Soda... 0.ci0s56 ss0ods veescs csvesecee soassocceceveccese | LOU 
ATACMICMITS GHEUSIOM coccss'eseces vosiecscetdncledvawslcsticcetessesees ecoses eearsatedes 45, 51 
Asphalt pavement, &......scc00cceceeee Gapdclentedausscasddd eesulodsseeseoeesceatecees 37 
ASHES AOL PLANS cco vcenessccleascasiccceectceecsicpeesbeorivoesesessesclceseesaed sisveren -.. 200 
PUNO WOO sc cracisecdnocsacenocdas stosegccsicesscrsacececssltessstcosssscewsceess 201 

COMCO i aesqeicddeccvapisdacesccauscceaccs sesscassrclecabeseesloesy calscedsslavecedads 201 
Atmosphere, carbonic acid and ammonia in the...........seseeseseenees ereees 192 
IAT OPI se asnaless osc csieavassicboccseasiooscosinsseso'stasbelenss caiseeuavioresesindcedvduessedcasae 121 
PV ONGWEINOs TLRs cecusnesceevasionseacecsssecsseccesdecseacusasnscenctaerssdenacesq\adeecs 26 
BAR TRON, COnteNb Of CATDON MIN: cis c2sice cceevesdasdecsaschegadceds Sossccdesserace 42 
frOMAGC PACU OD sse'denassleeesereovleasmecdseeenvens deneek ree Sebtsee ses tede tees 43 
Benzole........ Sounaclsevecksueistcatasactedsedelnsadaencsi ddan de denieeceatatacsc cd caetiers te eses 125 


207 























208 INDEX. 
PAGE 
BIOtECHTICE) 2. .c00 cosiccne soslesieocnssencisarestieepsausciecencvssee sss rwsesescalnammoens 191-205 
BISMU tesa Secale seco sisseieseceblovsoserecesesota wsiosweleaslemsiciesless vessse,e nese dlecsaanlenieiiseesis 53 
Blast furnace, portable ........c.secceceee conscaece coreeneee seeceeees soesenceceeseces 20 
a= PASESi ss sosseacine cocnaeessibetaedersiadaevcsenieceessese/seascensrinne seuss 40 
— Meposit iM 2.0.02. cceesnaeececnsececctacnsecs sonses coccesccscceses cannes 41 
Black dye, for felt.........sscosseee csscoscesccscacvercvscssesceccoeces sacra sseees sens 142 
Bleaching........00cccorcece sovseesee access evedssesesateseassiesesstesocce secessccaresioncens 129 
eA NORMA ALLOMI DY snecsnccisen ce steciascoselereeselnesericaiesir sp aneslssleiecte ovetceas . 130 
SPONGE! ssc vassonssouee econsvoselessecinecelucvvedueelonasispiase cacelwn venoascecian . 130 
ee) IDLISH ESI catmnawcscec ac ceasine sec ccciecenctmesiocse cane ccieseckasecenasbcwectan 131 
BlWe; StCaM cosets wslescoctbsisenc dacacssessiansesceen coleesenesestnalnseacssceuesnersig emcee 142 
PPTUSSIANESTOL, ‘CAlICOn ccewcccnlesecessccneclesseomosseasieueesctesios Ssieveseeleconconee 142 
Borate of Copper, & PIZMENt.......0. csececcesceccececcnccccssceessssccccesweesonee 104 
Bohemian glass, cOMposition Of ........-sseseecae corsccscecoecescscesseveeeces cone 26 
Brass; Malleables.:..ccscieccasesac/sesesestsoes «csloscosscsuetoeselseeses(osceaeccsissseasnes 64 
With ATOM serscs ees icvrae cacsssesciasricndecs ossisccecciorcceescierenneneciaesuceseenas 67 
Bristles; bleached:®........c.cisecsorwcnces -ssesescsisecectinenseseeaivasavslvncspencelinntsrne 131 
Bronzes analysis Oliescbscn.s.sce-scacsesssose cess cvacpvepseeetcsncen wares seat as 64 
Bronzing and brassing........cssececcesececeeseerssssseesecsercvasccses evecceers sone 82 
Burning fuids........cccccccacsescvecvessscasconsecoeseaces ooesaeses Gacaeccsiecsocsoesta= 170 
Butyric ether.......ccccsessercecesecaseesecensceceeeces ceceen ses secansces sosseeees seseaes 188 
Butter, tested for Casein........cccocesccsceevevceeces sosenseee vessescee svssesscs cscs 189 
» Yield Of.......0.sseccecceceesceseccnsccssasesssovscesessesses coseeevoeeeees 203-205 
WATORTOS sss ceseee<cecsescciescocsiocsassscoivsscssusnlacessescclepcoressclepsnineteainacealiss .. 11-25 
(DRTISEICE Us ocex cevesecds vosctccice sont srcdslocsonse seg uelsenceslesciens se stcecssinesanogoniasmernr 13 
Candles of fat and TOSIN .........2secccccecae soncccenciocesaesescocee seesesinosess sacs 161 
CeOuUtCHOUG ascneonecseatencocactieesossdes vs pegnisectnsiscacseeltecteucstiossstcsnasmrscctens 148 
Carbon, reduced in the Wet WAY........cccccsecersecses cevecceee serscscen sosececes 70 
Carbonic oxide, preparation Of..........csscesseseseecoeneeees seeeenceeeceteessees 39 
MATMING irevescsaciiowass danse vesodcateccssiessiessasecasles cece ce sjavessiepiaesinenisaciynacieseissle 136 
Casein nm, butter..s...o.c2.cccecesns cars siteoocivenssice's pealsealscieessseaensesionss'escas/éc> 189 
, ASCOMPOSICION Of: <0csco-0 vorponeae.tnve sects she ic pachchlusematipa copatoanmoesasss 190 
Castoreum Canadense ...ss.erececocceeccorscncccscecenscsessecsenesesenecvcns vavcwvers 164 
Jast-ir0n, CATDON iN......ssseeecceceecenececesecnsce cesses terseecoseeceen ceases eeeceeee 42 
—— changed tO bar ...sccccccssece serseensererneeenecnecerseeeecaes eeeecaeeece 43 
Sees Sat Bell eas sececs iuecnwicare sees cseeenctucosupeeasesemate ener 44 
Castings, malleable ......cc.sceseeeenees snveecceesesaroceseeneeces seeeaeess seseneecees 43 
- Cle aNEdeccss cease scccksarkccsasrececealneesseieensiouinssecpaculnnnivestcdavsivancs 68 
GCEAT ON coc se. se cgok dose se taka sees bleswee he deweslensteciessseaivcononsgniagesasennietens pitistis alates 120 
Cement for pottery and glass.....cccsssecssacseecnreeeeeseeeeteseecens ane seneeeeeses 338 
StCAM JOINES...... cece cee eranee ceneecenscesececveceueeeeren causes sneee 38 
Chandlery ........csscees cossessececceecesscaccesecceacescceccnseeeeecesaneane cesee cases 160 
Charcoal for gUNPOWEY......cccceeeeeceeeceee cee erceneseeeen neseeeens teseneees cones 23 
Cheese, decomposition Of. ......sseceeceeeeceeeeeneee cesses ann ceeeerees sen eecareceuees 190 
GH eMICS sc e7o0 voce coleccccsecdecateconctMecns/csesieewaslanetejae enicebepn eunclensptasinens stae 12, 91 
Chemicals and pharmaceutics.......scccescnveeceeccrereeeseerere ie cjscaeninee 112-126 
Chickory coffee ......... Meweneticeces cH aacaahanelsuslortaenaeeleenaccoeimenaciNasa'ss saaenaa 186 


INDEX. 209 





PAGE 

Chlorine, preparation and determination Of.............ss0cce00 cecseeseeeeeees 114 
Chloride of lime........ Renemielvaiseia.casis saneniesqaceisesers,sss sciceunaaneraeten ecencies dona 100 
VOMING Meme tseccintaces|enccesscc cece paises ive! ncstacctacaacthrs cusecmaaeslva sore 114 
Chiloratejofupotassaeeseressclacs darecelsccecnnaeos segeinasicesiocsecsinsseaciesvelnccesivusossee 101 
Gialeroloriiy) at eness gees tenets sh seatsoasseacchs sneaes svedee csanenus chip ease wesaah 122 
Whromen(GxiGerofascmaeesseewesavctiesigns dseniseedsceeveevace.spesssanccodlardene mec eeles 112 
ChromatesmanmiactynagOls.cscssi vere scscvesenecciapewesess scenes secsaseneete 1G 
MCOWMDLEP SALES ec. cessiszeseatesclesianslesaaelsies ves sedaisinee’nootecuaciccmetcadactes 112 

Chromic hacid PreparatlOMidless csia-cecsssicecescsseictacecronvnen ances veseencoeueat 116 
CUE OM LCN NG AM GAME pe acstat nce odase wessnesogiwee raeps ersiqeianins esjoss aise seaccesiess 14] 
CHROME AVES ie tteson sat cowceels stances csocopasinsusesiascasstesens placcedelvecdadaneeasteeuseae 141 
Cinnabar. scis.icsccescses tals duisivelncarealansoed laces: caseestasiirenscansindecesaesloreessiessuars 51 
OMA CHOW Mes ceesanlacsoasicone on aceasvnseaesiene ces se slicesdsees ecincccisescesnaceevaastecenes oot 117 
Clay wares, pottery, &c piseneacienverines esvines esnisesoAqnaseeeast canoe eo 
NE Gen em aseriencle sees efeaenaclacseccieas enstenjaceatecestencs'sy se croccaccnsecc sau sejsnocenterioes 18-20 
Eee eeencsfanp eae toesecessaceasnianonsnctoccesr pier menecee tes Measiesicclecen sere 166-167 

Cobalt and nickel........ Map swas(sasescseulesrenmecclaseaerisdusscecs tase atiesuacdecesedberrs 62 


Goelimenlepecccudaccnsacass coke cstlevles casaaceis Ves eveciogsulsdenaaceeccocees oedioansoorsemaligo 
Geen arnmb Rai Cecsc sacs cect wonerose soni adies ovina cee eco Seba saw orcc nies she ound eomesse tonne 


Wee HeChiCkOnypcucsscssccsasesesecsconaesdcirtvasiesselacescseceschecoreecancsnatedeers 186 
WOKO MITSANAVOMOHS taccnoncclesatensslestetsaes-mvs seen Seeseasa cos baaecorar te leneowee ts 28 
eee SA oertinasn arias sor anewneaaanesseeonaniaesnien tr sigdatcstacsasandaeducsceetes teak 26 
Rp bear apse GI i an wena rans eos ana so metiaaedccys caddarmeoamedeoanapaenbes Sesion 142-148 
COM ODIC Tisaccescaciesasccnrals <encesnsiesesccrscleccassnsesenecussciarsteeneeckolesenspecetectsioes 124 
Combustion prevented and extinguished..............cs0sscscccesecosceeccsceess 24 
@opatvalpal samen. .snce odecct/<ceneslesesacisasacsacancccssiacnreveccscssacueserstascnceeeee 152 
Wopalkvaanis hice ccc cccias's sss ccairsvinatcusiueidesoecisesecadsolenceciiees|ssccneicce) ¢riaceiees sare 153 
WOPPEL sm GULUSTONNOL cccnseinnssinesecdauroanceicas'eiests alc doesacsiscesasesojeaeqaviesoontan 45 
SpAKMTMOICATESt MON ecere cones coels-sesacenicencisctdeys stele taateecorestesanee 46 
ONES NEW, OMSL AUCTION «j.5.+s0<c0yorsastens savcasversebeuschte sence 47 
HOSP MLOGUS) Aflcsasvcbernesbesitiioncelsaessarsagvareseyeteuenon tacecaserabaontess 48 
ARCH OMLOLSA] O WHET pOMasocsecisciteniaatenajccnschineitcretnes senses ceveasieas 49 
OU LO Maa desstaneecnist: seebajenels deceeiaanastesercsecaae tnesate ences iianceatea seine 48 
PLCCUIPIUALE DM covcincceecesc secure voces asieeldaienlqaaiscaiosisnseieomaadeteceueete 80 
——— _, sulphuret of, precipitated...............cecccssces cesses sscoscoesceveeses 80 
SPROLATOLO Le DUPLO MEN bascns ovsriccesscecvicsawanwaplooscase tee seudecacies Netecee 104 
nr MIMS ISHUPNULEE Of cicerdiceeseesecsesesssas ssaseaiessascossccsiesdeccdoccusests 104 
eee MINE ALOT OL ec ob duc coniicieusiaccaesids e's saivan se'vceonceheeoedoevee sae eateccbunesceslons 131 
pyrophosphate of, for color pr ae Meade dee ntateasslovareneeccscaceens 143 
Coppering iron, glass, &............s.s00 plat cialeeledtiontigstieacienccsaieecaeeee GU 
Copperas purified and peeeeaead eascleueiaulon estes ssincns acces snes ded adlceninanateceacee 108 
Cotton and linen, distinguished from each other................seeeeeeeeeeess 128 
LAMB OU eonectasncacossias censiececnienncen cacjacanceceteeteate antes, 125 
Corm meal in wheat flour............. pamancniexcoesiescecis oxsersi aus sokeras een tten eee 187 
TAY ODN CA PUCTECOLYD OC) avasslecesseatciacsesalsacecs coccccicassqaiceswanvasersaraeetetries ce 88 
Cream and milk preserved............secsescsccscceseseessssces eatetecetclec se vane 189 
RENOAUPAIt snoreei econ dogcescavededesaclececcsesese nceene Vatesslsseveateaserttonsietee.tsesses 1387 
Cyanide of potassium, solution of metals im ....sccssssecsscssees corse veresenee 70 
52 14 


210 INDEX. 

PAGE 
DAGUERREOTYPE........ dedadeuderisdelcentdcaeereersesatlysaciags sores old cileinceslesinestrecute 87 
DSM MATS TOSI. ss 404scesceswests vives fest eieceteprusslocuieas Vests sieckiederane ew lsoseesieraey LOD, 
Decomposition of solutions by charcoal.........scccsssssesesesceseesecesess 92, 94 
Diamond! carbon ss sisisscsveasaveass cednstesvodsdaercodsteersnededse dees S28 
Dilatometers.csnpevecvoness socrssacsneeawks eseesaaeass sheaveuceieecedeswaydwatenndieesese LOS 
Deodorizing. excrements 1.3515 scccnesdassadseetdasevedvvecsdescerosdeesedas igi 200 
Distilled liquor.........-.0« abetlnsess sacs sssedoudaterdssdedesascenaescbessene Rete oe 





Enamel for porcelain.......... edscssdewtadoeatvosecuse see Sadasclaniotelde' vevdldadceucenes OO 
Enamelled iron..........s..0000.+ vacsieabaaveluamese Bicbeonevedsaeteescs gdavolgeeuadaneate 68 
Biny thro seiiridsiwss seston sateen Saute aeecaded doce wdelaleievanlie'e seene eae diateac<satoarece 136 
Essential oils.....s..6secceceee Sedeusaretssscerates daagtenesve dedsseeds dg dans edeereeosicons 163 
Etching and engraving.........sscsseseeeee Aecessceecneidées dessaiisssesedocssdnocsen seme: 
Hither; butyric. saseccdedeveeeseres aiearale 6 paewoweubeckasadsevne Soave besion ste sougaslesstee nr 183 
Excrements, composition Of.........sescsseeees Padectsanras adatcitetd desde voreinerse 198-199 
MeodoriZedicc scasenvececossnt wecsdercsensetes Toseasdeadeeeas aalosdere 200 





PACES :eicssdeesedswoucndresdeeedsecneeswasesusineee ovevvesvcleceweceecisvebeanortnawe'dee she lees 198 
Fermentation....cs..scsevceevercieeres aakeheesonen enters eouebbesemecb eels cece tare soe 179-184 
Ferment, action On-Sugarr .cc.sroecwedaseost cree isos sisteissbeovicsvassedsscnseccer neces TOO 
Filtration through charcoal..........scecsseercesceves eldsjedddacesenielsi sdesaisolcatass 92-94 


Bire. extinguishers assaes cssgedsowrerionsoiovdsovleduvecisvoatsateoeooaesenweseeosteletes ont ames O 
CLAY Hasso vevieeresi'eavledeniwree's wovetesee es ute enadies edesecatecedecstescesdcgdetetenencnaemon 
Flax and hemp...... aides oeeslee dione ssw tens sabia craencslensseustensd oh seueaat ceccloaaseeELeO 
Blix: for porcelains COlOUS. ...cesiece.cscceeenasa» qoiecesovtds eacdeacUeddss teesteecatens we OL 
HOuSels Ol); REMOVERevssecsnisiadarievesicvenesdoslccsraveck oo Maa deelomoucde bedaceeneabormeaelom 








and furnaces.........6 Ueiedatuiennvadevenedsuesseee seseuvivsieneonemede et cudetonv illo 
Furnaces, kinds of.......... sesteaenesenenseneserenseeseneeenensssres cesses srasen caesees 17 


(GATTO ACID eaeies seve sa viawslews ou ace inert dvs icunscse's cjceotautlsecuceeassesees denne wenaceCedimlene 
Galvanoplastics ........+2+600 Srolseic ss svoeverseet cd voswapwocecnisve rau cbaece seus meamOo 
Galvanic gilding and silvering......... sddale vavosiedslobistswoteiele nevis estesiemereetioe sale OsmiNl, 
COPPCYING.......0cee06 Sageniectle delceoscuaa cee cesta ceeds cloescsenuslteasaeeeen sete mol 
Garaneins, iv sacwed sees sisleb lot ictls sfe'elets'a vlopreish leieitohie suet Newennsltwe sadvtauiecaletdes lume senliaet 
Gas’ for. UWlumination-wasowcwsecovowvocieds cones odes ccdede tvecedenteeetoeestaceeene aes eID 
—, purified .........cceceeeees wuspevesldsreceecs SEIN cieee ewelcen eee etae seeemaaee foeatee eneLON, 
—,, naphthalized.............000 dudduanoe voev anaes vboy ch ses tuemeroseheseececosvesaees 168 
= LUNG sie deaesaienres aeetuaosece vadateve ousarsaa veunee ds cer eadeoneetmage shatee eee OG 
Gems; artificial ....cscvievecnets steers tu gulolateoree wbiolenebewieaewa eee neeeeR eae tee ZS 
German-silver, amalysis: Of. j7..6/scisscaceweeeiesevesoucsecdositonccescwscetsudecice ceee se 63 
Galding: on iron: and steelincs. 1c .scess dase covecesesiceccinaedslae duedare sie vcademspges des snthO 
WAbCH-WhEELS. 1. 162. ddveseraduaslbedyeasteiate avebernuenavaditeseummeeeeemts Hunan prt 






































PAGE 

ESTE PEANL: 5.02. duc cjetiaoaeateata vee ae deeau cline bua ose nuvooemetnaatabatels axdsv otal outie des 120 
Glass, \Optical. BORSMMAN oc. dccdaasaas ds saos'sancsivins cles lsiatan tate $ibay biow canedee 26 
py UVC TAMU T ATA OMe craters ate Ul s ois s.0's 0:4 aw olvclod af viuleteclceWeane Saran’ eee eL aaa te seu eirasos 26 
RUDY wes MA INON Ccerecssseiconacwaseracasecss sce<ce<cornanatenedtadeaata acess os 27 

villi ants eecwencn Sens sites createed sistmsshecoetessdacearesesseease liste cnbtvagalexe 28 
Fw DL AUGITAUZE Ueaaisatstalens oc aiecince els Sealseissietne sesisdslenaihapeeestriateceuuesandyaan te 79 
py COP MONG Utesemnaneslens vosliasisetniecias'cicasdaadalctialsslny Je\sova.oate venmeuatnsetuatenils 80 
—MOGIIET a aasantelessacee ra nesasa roses sen eutslinc aun aioe cieacleetwacu kale meaner 155 
Gla e Ncomieniteenasesoue ane scacicrttesossiasesses sietiass nt seis dasinaecco ns cob ekeunee ue oceans 155 
Gold Calitornia, ANALYSIS: Of 500s. sccssccn ces diceowasie neisadappepsissiparaadivaoow shan tue 58 
SOXGPACLOUMEOMMOLESS sete eaulsiscsces doceias ocees sessment ch caek re deenteustasonee 59 
WAMELeASER PTOAUCHON IN LEH. 50, 2c ssic0chsshacdedsdenss cases Sema vacnecs cue 59 
FU MTGLTITO de wpbcisinsiace ecleacias Weis claasisovevderisasses «ods seme eeaccaacsaseeaccenedtanp ints 53 
——_—___—_ by sulphuric acid ..............cccescsecsccossscecece coscessee coesses 56 
FP MLO ON ONG Uwe cewccavs ves dacsccievtacserskseressrascessssdesucenatecstaateaawneaeecs 60 
——— | BITOYS. .c0ccscssccecsserecovoves Sale enleststiscet cosine ccncistncns «cases aemistnedelsete 66-68 
part da LCHULIA De cioairssscaae seacclsseacecsccesnasemecotusceasep shulcecisgegien sebeomantocaice 71-78 
SIO MLE Osada sccacinerasidsasioscassecsisese ssaaainccciocesisesscesbeldeesececeasotocaecatye 71 
— and silver, recovered from cyanide solutions................0cceesesees 78 
UAC HME irescaseacicsonsstlesssvaserissesscosntecssenstaccetesecstseacesiateretenseree 153 

Gero crite ye ROMS CHTOMD ccsxsises unas aecatnsedecesdscnesssacesadesstcassothenemucgarees 141 
RENTON NED CACM Coane sedecusctaacoovasssssiagacssecdiincensewsivnuewcnenionsnocn cect eens 173 
SG RUG OULON NGS) CAN MOT. o osc cccciesecis qe deiertn Uoicedenoaph opto stcienadnarswanenitepSaeee ove 22 
MCOTMPOSITON Ole sesasacsioncsopersanuvinecccuseeenes seek eeemee see arean ek 23 
Gunpowder mews COMP OsitlOMiscoscasevesacsscscises snncacienesecie andoseaphieganie qeeecs 22 
ARaUTA DENG Shes, co ssnceorsetaecloacoaet aninatneccsacssee ia oaacioe sai ctes ca sieieesraec® olasecenas + 150 
MOSM sce cces sn ieraciecsscfeorerssesceuasceslicessceccisssessaccassnesess suscucaojsachlesonaoes 36 
TUATE VABNISHiva.sacccsssaoescdseveseass ssp ae einoeisgreats «eisecguicens cone Un aeeaeatins kaa’ 147 
Heematimone .........sereeessessesseses cereeeene seeessees sessesuss eneceeseeceeaneeen senaes 27 
HAG IAN AUK oa aaicilsnitede toa): SelswasSenceiesnces osalseh cso: tetace mass casceetmacukites seca 127 
Honey, analysis and) purificatton) Of%. 2c. conc ossevexenscvreseas somanenncdvouseos 175 
HUGH SOS None LY. COs caveancisensianesasisccccestien te racesanasaciidipndsauelesstelsaaiinadey udacae 147 
ACHE SUM tN ASvLOO Weiepasiscncatsnesicmsaiotas'sieis cle sieearieeiexiaenbccemeinese stanaretaaicn sire 187 
VOL MUCVeOs hase wecsesepcsscentiseiese Pascsaewepecwecuanastastesciccesarensrestnmicee nN seids 147 
HA AE ape OST OIOUACLG conde bhesehasneaaniaenccneigvians aacorapde res sagedasasbagepecheurats 28 
Hydraulic cement....... Gatameadeasicclacacaasen\s mantenaniode nceiesalorees aeseilnccecaceucs 34-36 
EY NOL CWACLiLseracsmaniodvelcs drccdaas seccnascccienctvarsteivusdastissenesscctesesesesantnes 115 
TAN OD MAR UICS me somadiaaecatenecsaccnastnt) cas Gsueaeuusioeanecass vestpacscindcine sasencee 33-388 
Et domme tlm gay sevemusnserneacatelscasecscsisasececctiesesssessitessas sealed anion snjsscece 69-90 
Hydrogen for MlUuMINgONssascsceno5-saespeleottonnce,caooeeoncissp> sneasiesipningstege «. 169 


Pie MOSM PHILG, OLssOOMesesmcscsmssensascagracnscsiseseccensses conde seacatnarndstewentecn OO 


MOE sar LUC LAMY RIN AGS lesarspdssonedetacdsectcescieactinacsiicacrcscateas tle studs acenvions 189 
MITER SEOW seste sass ests yscnciesccersraseasancaesesacsep-naa ena aneeted ident sey 165-171 
Midi Pa GESTCU opasezcersscensaice uadaecciasesaeresiaen car tesinegewecselcegestacsidacesosee conse 138 

vec tesa saneniecmasinccclvesesdacclessndssncicensaueauennsiatea Meech Acucaes sells 140 





HIE ONCIS CHAT CHONutactascqueccadensiterasctacpracteatacsscnee et avesleseceke . 142 





212 INDEX. 



































PAGE 

Inks indelible ‘and printings 7escocgeis she ccavev ssvveccea'ccds ostecsvecdttentes 143, 144 
To dine extraction Of. scescsitessessescccs sees ee eee eheeaeetoe ces evessuceseendnceceacee 114 
, photographic use of ............. Roaasteseteeccinesssscse rr oreasecencemscecises 86 

SCHL OVIM eS Of 255553 eek cate aaa eee eee eee aan sae Shen de ceca eeoseteneeenen 114 
HOdGHY Aric HCIA.s..veccussessecets Mecenatateneenpee sven utciesestetee coctcesteceen tases 115 
Todide of potassium on lead ..........ssceeeee ee pomatisiecas deneciocrssoenivscerstscceee 115 
Troniores ‘and metal ascssissciteaacsse aces eoateestecat neces eee vaecorcoes cleveetneceees 40 
!VANRAOIUM ANG iaTSenTE AM sssssseeiescaer en se oneeetos oebectere ste eeseienee 41 
 alkalimetric test :ofticcessssscests rghit haa! 0 Seelam 41 

oe Peduced ansretortssnsseessceosssessncoete accccsereceetecsssouenccesets 43 
= captristeel sand! Darcy esss cides Hee hoe ea eee eee ee eee eee eee 42-45 
— MAN DATs SO] CELEA. stistecasg cs ecorereeeen coats ciensuee coeteesecuicesencees 69 
PLOLECKEA OME TUShi a easscreivsceeosesavecescosseoetescereteeenctnscecosctnseoss 42 

= NCOPP OLED ssassacscoss sadecoccos set csnes abanescacicesdentaes sosaumeeoneraarcoreenees 48 
Sea ONAM EMEA s wseNividedkods seceseladeud decd acess cavade dcher Pemba tee ee tee outs 68 
5; PerSulphatvelolcjnccccstscwssessos\ssessesssosesescelectesacetooresedenecssssssslens 131 
Iyory, hardened; ‘softened, etched} G0: \i5..cccscenwctccocdececesdsdcectecsiossses 148 
KAMPTULICONM sootcecesccchecoseatiscerecsns paichsiocate sleceaitensenesewles encecelesmecaites 150 
TAA CTOMETRY : 2s occ snsttohivsct Wore ee pe costiuee ilecwectiteacoetecomeare ties cnenacacn cessor 202 
MAC QUEL S. 15 He stee sacs Geese Ee Tea NEE SREP UU CA Re enrages 153, 154 
Lead, quantity produced in Great Britaim........0....ceccscesccecesceececceo ens 49 
=>; ‘alkalimetric) test* fons. iicy late ean elsed capone dacs ua dee eee e eee 49 
5 “reduction Im the iweb -wayss./...iovaeeceseuevesvesceresccleavsscuceevelneeoesoes 83 
———" pipe, influence of water Ons: 205004: sua seoievesteccuevneclonee eeceet aeeuseses 185 
= EMPTAMENLS ioscossecoscarenecencoscssodccteesee aa enana ten eab een sseeaeneect escheat ets 108 
WMOTMANGS' <4. ciereescieescioec tuscccedseccesciccdsedeseeesuorceteerossue sacreeeess 132 
ddeadinis coppertand’ 1rons.tsscssstets ssxcsiessse nest esteee ceeeerceteetae centers 83 
Leather varnish......... Be rusetscuincesncconecsomeraa ee se eteneuke wetcont eusutclonemcseeciss 154 
Demons yoilvolaeiaisse pees sore evan secret eee eae ee oh eeecee senees eneeesceccenseeese es 128 
Light, action on starch and iodide of lead............ccscsssecsccencrecee cecers 86 
Linen: distinguished from cottomss..2c2 52 cesec. ce ceceneceucceleeseee scuvaciecceaeiece 128 
and-cotton tanned sestcseeiess ctesseeaseae cee cea abe cece censoeseneeeneenene 129 
inseedtoil*decolorizedictsvssssv. sie sssctsosticscocrieseesescsccicccctsiddestccsesscre 159 
WUbTICAtIN DOU aass csseancearace net vetencas cies sswalesietieecesaciaecects secosaceece trate 159 
IMIAD DER cartatencactenectacse cates cesceoectanetenes sue henuaicnabslomcetee sooeaeeerens 133-136 
Malt lrquorshashestotecest hoses sesset ssn eceeess nc vos susie ceociecomenteceuscecccersceace 184 
Maneanesetvitiiolss:sscscnsscssectaanesscssises ses cossctiecsavsnesuceidiesnietiecctessemeere 104 
Menures, mineral, influence on plants..........c...c.sccocscsocscececocesoresooees 193 
MOPTAMIC Ni shatdensssere seen ceeseesseccaneeetaeees SS FA ee 198 

Migat; COOKIN OF is.5 siedeciarsoeeviennscotte cesses ce concsedecusecencnenetaaeetrmostecenertes 187 
Mercury ‘Ore’. 26.i. sestansiedeansiesostusceseelccssidciesanese aes Maseotcleteeee axe arcase manent. 51 
=, purification ofinipiscisccinsleceaeectic olde ecclesdsen dddvdcs aes eatemees 51 

distilled! by steam’ sews cten a acclocsestodccaccnecovesteeecedeesiens 52 

s black-sulphuret/ of te atn tues Wye ccoaeeedetan ceeteeaes cles 118 

Metallurgy inctctiscasecw..se an ose sdeirebeeseaecosesstecatweneey testeaermtes sees 12, 89-90 


INDEX. 2138 

PAGE 

Malic preserviediareccrsrccsitecesce reek cs seve sucsbensnae ctodse atu acodaala cade dulseee 189 
ML Gr aTi GSS te Seen EO TENE ISD Tea oes tee caceanltisceteectocsineemsioes 131 
SIME Wires eae aea con icceeacltewesencadetaces cae bueaciinenaesemaaenashetelsieey cad 133 








NICK KEAN DY COBATTH ae tel ce cas co cues oem cseceesesdeesee couse sccdicenesiteseteaseses 62 
BING YAH eueeoneaamunteeetnatst dacs tensecesoesesueusccoues vecserened tee denise ssas 03 
INTelIOM Worker csces cesateaecet een os cea ercneCeuaeaeabale weanelssdese seddles cessles secelececee 84 
Nitre.. a Eee Ne AUIS NS eT SINR T SRE UN UR! Stee WA Uy ane, ange cuctsaieme aps 
Nitric aa anhydrous. Merete one catgeseedeasiteciewcs sec muonnertecmacseweneeaml Oe 
Nitrates.. ara RRR BOR Ere Sian eal yA MANES TTS SAU Saclay acecesiods Saatce sjaasee LO) 
Nutrition, caalon fie Boe sae NLA U NEN Uae Path wu staatt heces dusines eceleteessiacpeae LOG 





RRM CN MELEN cetiacoedees cen aartes tice weaeacerssce tecaacese st sost ott decescecelanvenseesweewae” EU 
Oil, cocoanut.. Ree E GaSe Calo O ROE ES Coos E eee Thee eset eck eiiese et Cote honseedsecteermL OG 

—,, whale, plenohed:: BAN IaNe Cert ei he KeIE tonto Leet Tek wale eeiodaer cor neosere: OO 
: Peete eeheyie aie cetsas tel noe irl a REIN RS Le eB 159 
ae U DTI CHAIND eaveconcceenec ewe nocsires esta ctescsstesses ic «ce csuaccesescastacesecieg ree TOG 
Enea UL LES LEU Nese ea ec tee recent cr essiscanad coc cscae ress esnuecieds tawasseoclssaseeveseee LOO 
=e BV ATMS retiavccrcst verccawsslesucuecesssocnassdietscesduvastisssicssieiesccbaredoiwacoecess LOS 
DillyAa LAST CONGLEM 4 cecsce ve ceerclesu esses covicen decicseanctencus see sanieceinecscvoesiess MLO 
OMEWESR eral! Totes ccddcssscacaceslccsestesscseccsccdsccces sanesdavecasiocsese . 163 
Oleics.. phd ak ennleGciek o(caemabicessccursscsawacessececcieasons oe "157- 171 
Olive ik from: aimomes. sWacsasteseccsactsae teu cnissoeencauece scoeasaestteceonsas Wear 
(pratt tes pelorsscerecesiecscnsacnesacacssciesaecciecsisescccteanescemicesecdeaceedscccosess ALLO 
ay ONE PULE ss scene se pecnuenestinn sseciacasaceadaerssecaatssecsieseseicsciasocesecteseeeeees) ace 
OZO eee eeestlccasonenclsncccciese caalvonaed toencccswense ete roscaise conset cdctcctasssecesse LOO 


PATUADINMENCXEEACTLOM LOL cssceneweilostecesaydestas ce ade cenevesseesdtesssveeeuesasene 62 
EU AMCIIN Ms netwanrctescetonowonsels datessonenerccssastsort cseconvenccecsesoseaavenceawelees nh 
Papers improved process) Of; Makin.) s..isosccscsescaseccecgtsecceayecoccwsiesosee 144 
, bleached, water-proof, Gers. .c. os .soctecssscasseeseosnoes ee ata 145 
ENMA CURLY UCM -sedsontevseasesdsaveave suse cjacsesecne tes see ccomueciene seisaatis Reeve stodssdse 186 
Partin Spy SULPUUTI Cra Clear clvscecccsteascecssesccvescsnsdescmadscedeciecievenceses 56 
MELELCEACI sstacveceatestweunet ccaccsctesecserstlacadadscslattaes taaeaseealsee 57 
GG LIMMEMECULCNACIO TOUCH osencsicscocsadeccenestsanscseacsciatesee deceased scviadddvat cartes 191 
OMIT Osea eal eactetenccb els sacelcs cca secn meen cat Coca tene cies cnacanoneeer reece esitces 162 
Phrarmnicentien Gnd \OMPMICHSs\s)scesecusesalsceketetedecctsecseescenoneesckes 113-126 
ADOSPMRLOWMIOL ye ectesstaseess .checdscrwactarssccsssecsnsceriacacteoss tacess soonest 197 
Phosphiaterom lime DASaliC POCKSs. ht sc.sccssscecccccoscosas cqesescesoes recess 195 

PICOMIPOSILION Ofocuacccesce sonevececodecccssocccecelcssacenadicusans 196 

PBOUMDUAVeOLlent sess csicceroscsecres«sesejencs sasasapencciesiansdns 196 
aor MA CICS B Deraeecectecactacscccece tascdeccestcoccocestaveneceeasas 197 
—————_——_ Magnesia and AMMONIA.............scseeceeserccerescesecnceeserees 197 
EHOLOOTA DM yiecarcadteccnestestrroccassieccteccancrscsa sidectanoteccomeaenscatone Batenes 85-90 
OU G IAS Ss vesesascvicctcararsicdelesieunstsccstusnacuvacites suatsieceeedsccsevacs 89 
PHOLO CT AP MECH AN CLrcastsccocitecsscerrttessecessescenstanccsiovertesusestsrecrscec reeds 87 
GHG PEDIC CLABSCSiasswecsseise veer sess seceeceoeesacieseestaraiartresstccsthosedsiae saere, Lae 

















214 INDEX. 




















PAGE 

RSE CS vscvecnic ote ciecose sc cujsho ce tee Reston sales os cosas sesh csusaiescecuteeeemses 12, 26-38 
Hlaster bowed iby stam. c.rccscrsocceccicnecteppacstesscosless ocakacievscnrsctneueness 86 
MAT CCNEO ss scccaresciceccansesncdet ssteacesecsess ses snveescecesectepeassoncie 37, 88 
Platini Zig SASS, OCC: sa ceeacse'esehes ess soeasnpesiactas sessiaasachaensnvsbenceinseesanniee 79 
AlatiNOld “Metals ..S.aswacsedenecsiosack os donee weamoseececece oss owen csqnseaoanaiencanes 61 
Platinumsand:)solutlom; Olic. sessecusscdscenestenasssosseslcovsstecetevssceeamhecnees 61 
a MINOW Ba stacenseseslensecaessivedesaveecasecvaselstsesessice hues teeicceuncieserasncrense 66 
Plating hy Gip pire cscvecverscenss sacestseecerssroasscecoseclece Sesaces se secatcleceen eres 12 
Porcelain, structure and composition Of.............ssssesscsecses cococeecscoeses 30 
SC OLONSiad OY ne cassecewes os esee cera Catoetsomeneasins elesionsasusscceeccdentes 32, 33 

— COMEN bri ascosccsccccocscestorssnedsecweciorcnesactasessisneosmsadpcconacscleee 155 
Portable blast fUrNAce....scrsescccroeceacegsseissencacasssesedesssccoages ses coseecees 20 
POET Vw etnascse ct laccssiosestecseinsSecatcsbeatecavenensecsecnstiooaeccccesncscveslensees 29-38 
Potash New SOULCECOLaweccsss sess sce vssecccsneeveneecnuesesincsaessnteense taeusoanesss 101 
LEsted FOLSOM ss. cavsvecccins occssasiotss code clesncns conlceasaievanserondaseensuacnas 101 
PLES CRV ALON OL OOM aces ccc sewecs voc scieco esses oascsnees esata tasenoesacece ceeeeomssnts 189 
PARTITION, suiasctalve aoe sescaceisiceoe sions dnoesinosclonsssicasecs ocseceecsscnmanetanccaneee 144 
Prussiate of potash, yellow\and Led. ......<.0....cescocessooereoes sosessinee 109, 110 
a) TO veces eececesececccccccccaccesecccon crosses consestoepesiane 140 
PYUSsian DlUe; TOM CAliCOrwcsevescccevssssstiesscieissesss cse'cccinctexuesigeaaoes satei ees 142 
IPLUSSIC ACID) ANNYALOUG. ascheovieassasiecenscensbesine oocstesecievissncpcioneseneneconeanaes 121 
RUM POITITECs ssp asescncesiedesess ocoebopacisens niosesaclcseecacsweciessseecsescececsbteees 18 
EV POLE CHU Yi iaatet sence cote salscas soln sediacita ve cnlaws\eole etsiecicoisaisatmcsise aoecleaga inte act: 22-25 
Pirometallurory:...dcenesaesiccdesdeseswcienssueisdecccteciessaleleden se cossenttuastesancs 40-69 
PAV TOLALURLIC NACI Oc sccueceinceseciennens cvocsdeesccmzsccreiesse tec essasjedesesisascseccuceccrs 121 
OUGAR TATION (ocscccsccecsesssdavensonsedses «sees detnoonice sess sidesateeen tenance dosiocsses seen 57 
Mainin' and {GUINOLIN sss ase cs cieetees sseeeonse rece caceccleessacaensedeeces alesecmeetnees 117 
REED, PRUSSTATE OF POTASH cs coscaiarssscisssis sales ccccitivalssieccsrsswenssesesiece avons 140 
REL ECLOLS!.Zuccacstansieaveen sts cesibesesalervenaiecupavises sesiee Osos asoensinanie ceapaicneatsjeds as 171 
Resin WY AMMAT Accs. cecowe coves clcansinvescelece desist sas Genebeneanvene nacwerceaneene 152 
MGVELDELAtOLy, HITNACOscscsccccscsniccesasiesssacjoccccosecsce veloeac cnpertinosesscckaceies 20 
Rhibarh, Red) diye yfrOmes succes cossioecdoces ceases -c'sues eemacea devaaciesiesasset happens 136 
Rocks, disintegration of, to form soils.........sscssssecssessee cones biolee sciences 195 
FROSIN,Y OF COMMON: TESIM eo. ce.caseccicke sas tieossivosssscosacecucate Ye ak ae cattails 152 
PASacsscuarcesins ceepetedselsescesioncesues oreslancssslacsvcsissemease caress ener ae naaen 166 

HVOSESS Ol Olcassccioatestiiece sluseetiosesccvevecsione cones cussions gener echionenes ia monaeee 164 
HUD VA DLASBsasccese seennceser sion sels tidsesvis soceweieeeinoenanociscsciacs a cugciaationseesien teas 27 
Rubiagcin and) TUPAC ACI. sessions cacecsaustannesiecdeacias cdeciicecasisndeccamessne . 134 
MLE OWL OL. wacacsscsworsersale vesesciessoselsues se te oavaeteesen as cece conenlecoeenpescese «os, 168 
Sar, common...... Kusadauvisaasiass wendecsesicosless ease ear sneany seen cenc ones ute eeaetes 97 
5 BS MANULO: .sscscscesene Vest cons sviens sop ealscuainoatesiemnswsilcussasease estsnccneteey 193 
SalGMeter..... css stcecsaveswawecs cecarspocessscvevescesevtewoadestccdvascemtarcvesenaaeaaes 102 
HAN PAPEL: sac-.lcneccescees secmeaese tejetes seus steeecweeemneeee Ssstarnece ganeseenisne 155 
Sandal wood..........00. Ledeelanessepodlnuss sep atoasnatedcaeetene eacarhun cleus cemomeriteen 164 
DPAPOBIMICATION. .co5cc0re sedentuns cosvestodlessramedemereasrencostes eesemnenr ese ... 162-165 


INDEX. 215 












































PAGE 

Ned_waten purified foriAnimMicing 7. se... ccccoscscsslecccecececccwowdseecesetet couse. 184 
EMV Ga tlOnserencescchacese senicosees ceelsers cosscicscscsccs socseccscnvesesedscs'ss 29-33 
Dee tifa peresidieeeceec ston aenes ses tocseosacedonscsseccccestonceessktiercecsesscet 144-152 
SHOU caaceeneececatene ten cer ree aree ceaccocn cercascondcnsion seas eecrcatsutenssceguinese asses 49 
Silver nexhraceronttroMvOless.ccacecccasevesceslscescdess aces ssaesjeneale seem absiiassas/ests 54 
AMEHNOHULCROM SONU ULE cadcscesasec spstarsacadeccas ccsseases sxocesoce Nadeuereelacs 55 

—_—— See MMO UOLION er coicusc rune sunt crrosesd soecusacseeacseeunveuets 55, 57 
Pa LCRME Mae Meeeteetaca tsi vosseesceloowensene Koonesasivesvenoenitnuceacetiseanaeveutys 58 
SURO MRH haere seeetctcereenette cc setsenodatecevierecesseclenstsesesenovesicecsuonsciehtase 72-78 
PlassytONVOCN AMON tre cccevnctesceaseasar/setsessatviacenssssccceleesiconesanes 28 

TUPEROUM Sate recs emedee eacderaeconcasssiore svcecowescnerccendesisodeisiecn snes 74 

Diep sresisstsedece ssuco scar ecdssereciesecreecseysresersiswaterestisrsedvose casceeece 14, 172-190 
Hlags of UNN ACES TOL COMENE!sneroeoes svscevese soocaces ecvecceectoecesccs scdeseass 36 
SOM pe eccere tone cases ac car ssclecucanapatecustesis cassne'sspivaselacus tise teesee sguadsrssincdare 162 
SPPECONVENCU reer manta dices rcee so esWeact o daeciedciet neve cash cueaticusedejes cee cite 140 
Nou MsheMANULAe CUTS Ole cee ssateesederssccecaceschsscsesestcsiae ocldecsesescates 98 
MplEaY POU ATELO CESLEU si ecs vasehecesdercsicussccsecsPscess/ccssestsciesceeeiceriees 100 
Soils, tromidisintepratrom Of TOCKS seine ...: c.ess vacveveaeeseicrssneiessrescasnce 195 
NYO Menime ks lbtaceeccte soca acactstacets cacieacioas tieceeleauesseesisvucaciscsncsias lees) avdecrase 69 
CHSLLAMN OMDAL ATOM ereacaccdccdess\sdnapestsceccatea esate dactccssoacatees 69 
SUOR A GOietasence mcrae lmoaieceee vecnconetiesiescy «ewsereleseucasediealivenedesesicelecveideernes 139 
Soluatronbamceteltrationice.cessesscvesesicsesss ess soscse cue soclesesedesoisceoesiadecccdesdtses 92 
Speculum: Metals ceciitesecwcseeercecets evscscecs sosocceessseece oedss rocesccuenre 64 
WHONe Gm leacleectcssccslecssccocedsossesclucescnccnardeecsenssvececencavenseccsscaisnes 130 
Stane atweee eee eee cctleceane etieccos cvese otis or svancect susinrs en lsc ceiss'es ee.sisiavcqc acne 172 
Stan ater aiwsotlae-cscrcasscostecoestne enews cos ones coves etodbsceis ccseiccssvandosee 132 
SUCMPIGACLU mae se oclsnareatecacceredsasesisnerccecocstecticnsceser ocsrch ance meseenieréuneicns 158 
ILCMAT ITM Read ace ee tae eter este cast sh tee Stee colses cae cesilcc voce nsiccisrcaisctseniaeitae ose esse 160 
SUERTE cesua chi oseoecslvesseneccicess sas Bere ceca cecscine soe av caivocasiiescieveuectedince 142 
GCOMIGUIL Mase as anenar esate scnrenecadstecssecciscacacien sesanacsaclvenetacee erates sees 155 
SLCGlACONLENt OL CALDON.«)ccocacese cemeaasecivereecseoscacendoudst/apeaslicemeestesean shies 42 
AU OHM CHAU-INODseraesracirecetetcd en saslgss stessscee/s spasiscietyeecisaktsnucceeiacan|ies 44 

FOAL =IL OM tes swncseevaciacesiesssecevaisree vedtc rsceauarsenaniaxitnaes Rocce ee suatse 45 

DEGHE VAT OL elalasteetteatetedcseac sv eccaccaccanddces betes secheicccses td ecagucwenvactoon cas 37 
SRY CMMUnlperstetco ta stansasemenattens svdadMedeaciedslveacenistocanacvieecctcesiesdesereceannss 119 
SUGCIIGE AGE Awates tisnddaccvaseoeariedvensisst or cesecchisoweaveccsssscatealesaess evn oele'see 122 
DUCA MMUGSUMELGWteeuurdeadcaceesasccesiavce cceceloocseccasinesassieseneeasttarisesersicnssas 173 
PMOL Oeeieseeecenicc sonsica ee elacce doses cuceta acute seeancnecessaccledases cede saene 175 
PULPeMsotettetedasctsarscdsasedadeaaneides comtcewrcieeserseiisecectlvesese 178, 179 

MPLEL MONTE dete cataccwdscscetces tance cacccseisvecseasseesscslepacssewcastoccsesdas 180 
Sulphur and sulphuric acid............... Cicsncasmeslacsiarncocen soosiescbaccsvterenecite 94 
Sulphuric acid and water, densities! Of .............02.sssosedescoossscssereseecce 96 
—__—____——, MEW PF0cess FOF ..........cseecreeecee ceeees cvcece sevens sanacveesece 97 
Seal PUUTOUsIACLd, ChYStA IAC, cr52. a cseapsay capers an.ctvancseelssconsassiuentvsn acess 97 
Suri ANIM ONIALS/ Ola SODIUM scrssecancviereoencceideovatuastectiacueceetratisqcseas cole 116: 
SIAISWIEN Gi slacisscinpanisoapianas stacantncagiastaneaen nvod ea sactedaceemtatc eden tie encisencsen sosecers 145 


MISPTERTHTNY race cae cles a cocceveccncdpscisdedeeces cceednnteresneerie Radic sloceu ced dad cerelenis 146 























216 INDEX. 
PAGE 
LCG MATA DUA. oscens sesweessiate dat cossenseee ss esincteess tus sciueencfesesemanets eiedpeese 186 
MN Gite aienekiaepacicssoes et since csunionscesisanacesentsoseaciskascs/oes ses sane e cee seeienepeemenene 120 
Tin san alysis ol Metallicn sc ccsseesstsiesessuisccreslorser secs ve ueceess ee eueslesorseionenes 50 
—— plate ...c.cc0c sececneeee Somcarasentulsedvesienpstblessiecaesarwatesesnastcrsccelercsseessae 51 
———=, AOS Of -sc500% «swrceiccs sons Wajancseisnsle@eleclensceilesssosdcslocesailes doumnenmeweents 64 
—=—, COMPOUNS Oks wecsicesccincecas son deciesesme ho ee aewiean/ssaeieees 131-132 
Tungsten and coppem alloys. csesusrae<seesocsevees ste piexsestnes sanecesosionaesm nese 65 
ULTRAMARINGS, HAT UILIGIAl wens de. ciecasseosrlocs sccerececess css ce tescevess nonce oeeesious ion LES 
WABRNISHEStesececaes atesecesssetostaececoesuecierses cree searcorscsreceseucenareetee 153-155 
Ventilation (and warmino-.. jcdsecincssc sconces swore ccelnastesreisevecsvVessecocusesons 21 
Witt rifi GAtlONM. sec secconcseatciocshoncetiectamecebies oboe selsedeacecnaeaasmcasesserCaeEre 26-29 
WARMING CAND “VENTIGATION. 5.0. cdscicsuveeesslasselvevvsCeseasseseedaeslaevep voniveiiewe 21 
Waste gases) of blastturnaces.iccsscde. soe twesincewoesssicovaer oteibedeubeneiesdearesicay 40 
Water, for manufacturing ..2:.. .c..secsceccssecs eters Eiabiscisciadn Cuntesoviaaeenaeece lege 91 
LESCOL saves colce'sceactas Secmee cave heaved ouceuereeesoeee 91 
FHLB AM DOVERAL Cs esewensicsuslecuesiecceiens sutareoeieaestacsonccuslovancnectyaceceas colecs 184 
—— p AEOMNSCA=WALEL js0s0ccceslcveseeanetvecaes see sisewaerlleoss 184 
» ACtion ON lead PIPe.........ceccsorce eee tseeeecevesseeeceewanensseseeuane cenees 185 
WiGKA tee? esceGscvcosse voveesseuicesseessejevevseseelerdoscaticres sae secestacnemsverronccereses 161 
Wieldin oe POW eM ccc scacqcsinceesscosccotenesstecuacesccinatsisowencnevatucussucducenseeeseces 69 
Wihalevollis.ct ors: cone ceceisconwedarisseu ous steateesosooucsesiosicarccnarctieseonceoneseorees 158 
Wheat/flour tested for cornmeal s.5c0..5.).cccscsssissesessaedwasiesaepieoesesesocerace 187 
Witte ead 2. %.55. ccsoescs ose cinastecseviseve se eseleaessbaceiacuntueesss Nae ogataacpiveeantens 108 
Wine; csulphnriccacid sin... ...c..jccoesesscworserisverean sacetuessecionsiestinerestsmeeastes 183 
TSEMECE OL OAK CRSKS OMs.a50.0200ooneseesinceseesssiceeorssssioussererececedstecees 183 
BOUL; SWECLENCG. + oscc0siessioveensas avers cuinssloase gens catmececaecosescseseimectmes 184 
Wo csliyaacrsscccsccssersectersecsccciccsdeviceteseteclenceuecas emacs ucuseeslevmsmavecheaeey 139 
VRLUOW DYE, {POM CHLOMEs. coocecdcsoscvescssuseveseasestnssicvvesenes somes vosiecede 141 
TANG-ORES in: the United States. ceca 20.c¢ssecessesedarersaeeae sesmelesees sgncon 51 
ANANCOPPEriallOVSrecarcccsicenscascenrevscss oseo secacscclersees nenseeececsents 63-64 
PAHANG VOM Nace ub otccvessdecescossae seuss esos sc tocbaeewasaeiscuaciecsenssabegaTaaee 67 
———- AMA] FAMATEK scaccsdteicco<acansiccaoscess ccsoccverece ese cocesisoscacposmtencceusacs 71 
AN CHINE Krlvedepecosietes cacsnivare'svassicossonncsiverescevslecedsvensissseseuss(eaaeeneeriueete te 83 
BAD Ca WUC ee tscscsien omiahay concsoecincasscdceessacvesclncsnccs steaacteuecevceemenee 105-107 


THE END. 


STEREOTYPED BY L. JOHNSON AND CO, 
PHILADELPHIA. 


Bx TRACTS 


FROM ‘THE 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS 


OF THE 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 


IN RELATION TO 


WHE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH. 





Mae Beal C Tis 


FROM THE 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS 


OF THE 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 





Wasuinaton, March 16, 1857. 

The Secretary, Prof. Jos. Henry, made a communication to the Board, 
[A,] relative to an article which had been published by Prof. S. F. B. 
Mokrss, containing charges against his moral character and _ his scientific 
reputation. 

The Chancellor, Chief Justice TANrY, corroborated Prof. Hrenry’s 
statement as to his advising a delay in noticing the publication referred 
to, until the public mind should be more settled in regard to the policy of 
the Institution, and the discussions which had arisen in Congress in refer- 
ence to it should be ended. 

He stated that it would be seen by the report of the decision of the 
Supreme Court, in the case in which Professor Henry was a witness, that, 
in the opinion of the court, Prof. Morse had produced no testimony that 
could invalidate the testimony of Professor Henry, or impair in any 
degree its weight; and that the court gave full credit to it in the judg- 
ment it pronounced. 

On motion of Mr. Mason, the following resolution was adopted : 

Liesolved, That the communication of the Secretary and accompanying 
documents be referred to a committee, to examine and report upon it at 
the next session of the Board of Regents. 


it 


Whereupon the Chancellor appointed Messrs. Mason, Pearce, FELTON, 
and Doue.Las as the committee. 


Wasnineton, May 19, 1858. 
Prof. Felton, in behalf of the special committee to whom the communi- 
cation of Professor Henry, of March 16, 1857, together with accompany- 
ing documents, &c., were referred, presented a report, [B.]} * * * 
The report was accepted, and the resolutions submitted [C] were unani- 
mously adopted. 


[A.] 


COMMUNICATION 


. FROM 


PROL. JOSEPH HENRY, SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 


RELATIVE TO A 


PUBLICATION BY S. F. B. MORSE. 





Presented to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, March 16, 1857. 





GENTLEMEN: In the discharge of the important and responsible duties 
which devolve upon me as Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, I 
have found myself exposed, like other men in public positions, to unpro- 
voked attack and injurious misrepresentation. Many instances of this, it 
may be remembered, occurred about two years ago, during the discussions 
relative to the organic policy of the Institution; but, though very unjust, 
they were suffered to pass unnoticed, and generally made, I presume, no 
lasting impression on the public mind. 

- During the same controversy, however, there was one attack made upon 
me of such a nature, so elaborately prepared and widely circulated, by 
my opponents, that, though I have not yet publicly noticed it, I have, 
from the first, thought it my duty not to allow it to go unanswered. I 
allude to an article in a periodical entitled “‘ Shaffner’s Telegraph Com- 
panion,” from the pen of Prof. S. F. B. Morse, the celebrated inventor 
of the American electro-magnetic telegraph. In this, not my scientific 
reputation merely, but my moral character was pointedly assailed ; in- 
deed, nothing less was attempted than to prove that in the testimony 
which I had given in a case where I was at most but a reluctant witness, 
I had consciously and wilfully deviated from the truth, and this, too, 
from unworthy and dishonorable motives. 

Such a charge, coming from such a quarter, appeared to me then, as it 
appears now, of too grave a character and too serious a consequence to be 
withheld from the notice of the Board of Regents. I, therefore, presented 
the matter unofficially to the Chancellor of the Institution, Chief Justice 
Taney, and was advised by him to allow the matter to rest until the then 
existing excitement with respect to the organization of the Institution 


6 


should subside, and that in the meantime the materials for a refutation of 
the charge might be collected and prepared, to be brought forward at 
the proper time, if I should think it ne@&ssary. 

The article of Mr. Morse was published in 1855, but at the session of 
the Board in 1856 I was not prepared to present the case properly to 
your consideration, and I now (1857) embrace the first opportunity of 
bringing the subject officially to your notice, and asking from you an 
investigation into the justice of the charges alleged against me. And 
this I do most earnestly, with the desire that when we shall all have 
passed from this stage of being, no imputation of having attempted to 
evade in silence so grave acharge shall rest on me ; nor on you, of having 
continued to devolve upon me duties of the highest responsibility, after 
that was known to some of you individually, which, if true, should render 
me entirely unworthy of your confidence. Duty to the Board of Regents, 
as well as regard to my own memory, to my family, and to the truth of 
history, demands that I should lay this matter before you, and place in 
your hands the documents necessary to establish the veracity of my 
testimony, so falsely impeached, and the integrity of my motives, so 
wantonly assailed. 

My life, as is known to you, has been principally devoted to science, 
and my investigations in different branches of physics have given me 
some reputation in the line of original discovery. I have sought, how- 
ever, no patent for inventions, and solicited no remuneration for my 
labors, but have freely given their results to the world, expecting only, 
in return, to enjoy the consciousness of having added, by my investiga- 
tions, to the sum of human knowledge, and to receive the credit to which 
they might justly entitle me. 

I commenced my scientific career about the year 1828, with a series 
of experiments in electricity, which were continued at intervals up to the 
period of my being honored by election to the office of Secretary of this 
Institution. The object of my researches was the advancement of science, 
without any special or immediate reference to its application to the wants 
of life or useful purposes in the arts. It is true, nevertheless, that some 
of my earlier investigations had an important bearing on the electro- 
magnetic telegraph, and brought the science to that point of development 
at which it was immediately applicable to Mr. Morse’s particular inven- 
tion. 

In 1831 I published a brief account of these researches, in which 1] 
drew attention to the fact of their applicability to the telegraph; and in 
1832, and subsequently, exhibited experiments illustrative of the appli- 
cation of the electro-magnet to the transmission of power to a distance, 
for producing telegraphic and other effects. The results I had published 


7 


were communicated to Mr. Morse, by his scientific assistant, Dr. Gale, as 
will be shown on the evidence of the latter; and the facts which I had 
discovered were promptly applied in rendering effective the operation of 
his machine. 

In the latter part of 1837 I became personally acquainted with Mr. 
Morse, and at that time, and®afterwards, freely gave him information in 
regard to the scientjfic principles which had been the subject of my in- 
vestigations. After his return from Europe, in 1839, our intercourse was 
renewed, and continued uninterrupted till 1845. In that year, Mr. Vail, 
a partner and assistant of Mr. Morse, published a work purporting to be 
a history of the Telegraph, in which I conceived manifest injustice was 
done me. I complained of this to a mutual friend, and subsequently re- 
ceived an assurance from Mr. Morse that if another edition were published, 
all just ground of complaint should be removed. A new emission of the 
work, however, shortly afterwards appeared, without change in this re- 
spect, or further reference to my labors. Still I made no public complaint, 
and set up no claims on account of the telegraph. I was content that my 
published researches should remain as material for the history of science, 
and be pronounced upon, according to their true value, by the scientific 
world. 

After this, a series of controversies and lawsuits having arisen between 
rival claimants for telegraphic patents, I was repeatedly appealed to, to act 
as expert and’witness in such cases. This I uniformly declined to do, not 
wishing to be in any manner involved in these litigations, but was finally 
compelled, under legal process, to return to Boston from Maine, whither 
I had gone on a visit, and to give evidence on the subject. My testimony 
was given with the statement that I was not a willing witness, and that 
I labored under the disadvantage of not having access to my notes and 
papers, which were in Washington. That testimony, however, I now 
reaffirm to be true in every essential particular. It was unimpeached be- 
fore the court, and exercised an influence on the final decision of the 
question at issue. sf 

I was called upon on that occasion to state, not only what I had pub- 
lished, but what I had done, and what [ had shown to others in regard to 
the telegraph. It was my wish, in every statement, to render Mr. Morse 
full and scrupulous justice. While I was constrained, therefore, to state 
that he had made no discoveries in science, I distinctly declared that he 
was entitled to the merit of combining and applying the discoveries of 
others, in the invention of the best practical form of the magnetic telegraph. 
My testimony tended to establish the fact that, though not entitled to the 
exclusive use of the electro-magnet for telegraphic purposes, he was en- 
titled to his particular machine, register, alphabet, &c. As this, however, 


8 


did not meet the full requirements of Mr. Morse’s comprehensive claim, 
I could not but be aware that, while aiming to depose nothing but truth 
and the whole truth, and while so doing being obliged to speak of my 
own discoveries, and to allude to the omissions in Mr. Vail’s book, I might 
expose myself to the possible, and, as it has proved, the actual, danger of 
having my motives misconstrued and my te@imony misrepresented. But 
I can truly aver, in accordance with the statement of the counsel, Mr. Chase, 
(now Governor of Ohio,) that [had no desire to arrogate to myself undue 
merit, or to detract from the just claims of Mr. Morse. 
I have the honor to be your obedient servant, 


JOSEPH HENRY. 
To tHe Boarp oF REGENTS. 


[B.] 


7REP ORT 


. OF 


THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS 


ON THE 


COMMUNICATION OF PROF. HENRY. 


<8 —_______ 


Professor Henry laid hefore the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian 
Institution a communication relative to an article in Shaffner’s Telegraph 
Companion, bearing the signature of Samuet F. B. Morss, the inventor 
of the American electro-magnetic telegraph. In this article serious 
charges are brought against Professor Henry, bearing upon his scientific 
reputation and his moral character. The whole matter having been referred 
to a committee of the Board, with instructions to report on the same, the 
coinmittee have attended to the duty assigned to them, and now submit the 
following brief report, with resolutions accompanying it. 

The committee have carefully examined the documents relating to the 
subject, and especially the article to which the communication of Professor 
Henry refers. This article occupies over ninety pages, filling an entire 
number of Shaffner’s Journal, and purports to be ‘‘a defence against the 
injurious deductions drawn from the deposition of Professor Joseph Henry, 
(in the several telegraph suits,) with a critical review of said deposition, 
and an examination of Professor Henry’s alleged discoveries bearing upon 
the electro-magnetic telegraph.” 

The first thing which strikes the reader of this article is, that its title 
is a misnomer. It is simply an assault upon Professor Henry; an attempt 
to disparage his character ; to deprive him of his honors as a scientific 
discoverer ; to impeach his credibility as a witness and his integrity as a 
man. Itis a disingenuous piece of sophistical argument, such as an 
unscrupulous advocate might employ to pervert the truth, misrepresent 
the facts, and misinterpret the language in which the facts belonging to 
the other side of the case are stated. 

Mr. Morse charges that the deposition of Professor Henry “ contains 
imputations against his (Morse’s) personal character,” which it does not, 


10 


and assumes it as a duty “‘ to expose the utter non-reliability of Professor 
Henry’s testimony ;”’ that testimony being supported by the most com- 
petent authorities, and by the history of scientific discovery. He asserts 
that he ‘‘is not indebted to him (Professor Henry) for any discovery in 
science bearing on the telegraph,” he having himself acknowledged such 
indebtedness in the most unequivocal manner, and the fact being inde- 
pendently substantiated by the testimony of Sears C. Walker, and the 
statement of Mr. Morse’s own associate, Dr. Gale. Mr. Morse further 
maintains, that all discoveries bearing upon the telegraph, were made, not 
by Professor Henry, but by others, and prior to any experiments of Pro- 
fessor Henry in the science of electro-magnetism ; contradicting in this 
proposition the facts in the history of scientific discovery perfectly estab- 
lished and recognized throughout the scientific world. 

The essence of the charges against Professor Henry is, that he gave 
false testimony in his deposition in the telegraph cases, and that he has 
claimed the credit of discoveries in the sciences bearing upon the electro- 
magnetic telegraph which were made by previous investigators ; in other 
words, that he has falsely claimed what does not belong to him, but does 
belong to others. 

Professor Henry, as a private man, might safely have allowed such 
charges to pass in silence. But standing in the important position which 
he occupies, as the chief executive officer of the Smithsonian Institution ; 
and regarding the charges as undoubtedly containing an impeachment of 
his moral character, as well as of his scientific reputation; and justly 
sensitive, not only for his own honor, but for the honor of the Institution, 
he has a right to ask this Board to consider the subject, and to make 
their conclusions a matter of record, which may be appealed to hereafter 
should any question arise with regard to his conduct in the premises. 

Your committee do not conceive it to be necessary to follow Mr. Morse 
through all the details of his elaborate attack. Fortunately, a plain 
statement of a few leading facts will be sufficient to place the essential 
points of the case in a clear light. 

The deposition already referred to was reluctantly given, and under 
the compulsion of legal process, by Professor Henry, before the Hon. 
George 8. Hillard, United States commissioner, on the 7th of September, 
1849. 

The following is the statement of the Hon. 8. P. Chase, (now Gov- 
ernor of Ohio,) one of the counsel in the telegraph cases, in a letter to 
Professor Henry, dated Columbus, Ohio, November 26, 1856. 


In the year 1849, 1 was professionally employed in the defence of certain 
gentlemen engaged in the business of telegraphing between Louisville and New 
Orleans, against whom a bill of complaint had been filed in the Circuit Court of 


11 


the United States for the district of Kentucky. The object of the bill was to 
restrain the defendants, my clients, from the use in telegraphing of a certain 
instrument called the Columbian Telegraph, on the ground that it was an infringe- 
ment upon the rights of the complainants under the patents granted to Professor 
Morse. It therefore became my duty, in the preparation of their defence, to 
ascertain the precise nature and extent of their rights. With this view I called 
upon you, in August or September of that year, for your deposition. It was 
taken before George S. Hillard, esq., a United States Commissioner for the Dis- 
trict of Massachusetts, in Boston. I remember very well that you were unwilling 
to be involved in the controversy, even as a witness, and that you only submitted 
to be examined in compliance with the requirements of law. Not one of your 
statements was volunteered. They were all called out by questions propounded 
either verbally or in writing Iwas not sufficiently familiar at the time with 
the precise merits of the case to know what would or would not be important, 
and therefore insisted on a full statement, not merely of the general history of 
electro-magnetism as applied to telegraphing, but of all your own discoveries in 
that science having relation to the same art, and of all that had passed between 
yourself and Professor Morse connected with these discoveries or with the tele- 
graph. You could not have refused to respond to the questions propounded, 
without subjecting yourself to judicial animadversion and constraint. Nothing 
in what you testified, or your manner of testifying, suggested to me the idea that 
you were animate by any desire to arrogate undue merit to yourself, or to detract 
from the just claims of Professor Morse. 


S. P. CHASE. 

Previous to this deposition, Mr. Morse, as appears from his own letters 
and statements, entertained for Professor Henry the warmest feelings of 
personal regard, and the highest esteem for his character as a scientific 
man. In a letter, dated April 24,1839, he thanks Prof. Henry for a copy 
of his “valuable contributions,” and says, “I perceive many things (in the 
contributions) of great interest to me in my telegraphic enterprise.’’ Again, 
in the same letter, speaking of an intended visit to the Professor at Prince- 
ton, he says: ‘‘I should come asa learner, and could bring no ‘contributions’ 
to your stock of experiments of any value.’ And still further: “I think 
that you have pursued an original course of experiments, and discovered 
facts more immediately bearing upon my invention than any that have been 
published abroad.” 

It appears, from Mr. Morse’s own statement, that he had at least two 
interviews with Prof. Henry—one in May, 1839, when he passed the after- 
noon and night with him, at Princeton ; and another in February, 1244— 
both of them for the purpose of conferring with him on subjects relating 
to the telegraph, and evidently with the conviction, on Mr. Morse’s part, 
that Prof. Henry’s investigations were of great importance to the success 
of the telegraph. 

As late as 1846, after Mr. Morse had learned that some dissatisfaction 
existed in Prof. Henry’s mind in regard to the manner in which his re- 
searches in electricity had been passed over by Mr. Vail, an assistant of 
Mr. Morse, and the author of a history of the American magnetic tele- 


12 


graph, Mr. Morse, in an interview with Prof. Henry, at Washington, said, 
according to his own account, ‘‘ Well, Prof. Henry, I will take the earliest 
opportunity that is afforded me in anything I may publish, to have justice 
done to your labors; for I do not think that justice has been done you, 
either in Europe or this country.” 

Again, in 1848, when Prof. Walker, of the Coast Survey, made his 
report on the theory of Morse’s electro-magnetic telegraph, in which the 
expression occurred, ‘‘the helix of a soft iron magnet, prepared after the 
manner first pointed out by Prof. Henry,’ Mr. Morse, to whom the re- 
port was submitted, said: ‘I have now the long wished for opportunity 
to do justice publicly to Henry’s discovery bearing on the telegraph.” 
And in a note prepared by him, and intended to be printed with Prof. 
Walker’s report, he says: ‘‘ The allusion you make to the helix of a soft 
iron magnet, prepared after the manner first pointed out by Prof. Henry, 
gives me an opportunity, of which I gladly avail myself, to say that I 
think that justice has not yet been done to Prof. Henry, either in Europe 
or in this country, for the discovery of a scientific fact, which, in its bear- 
ing on telegraphs, whether of the magnetic needle or electro-magnet order, 
is of the greatest importance.” 

He then proceeds to give a historical synopsis, showing that, although 
suggestions had been made and plans devised by Soemmering, in 1811, and 
by Ampere, in 1820, yet that the experiments of Barlow, in 1824, had 
led that investigator to pronounce “the idea of an electric telegraph to 
be chimerical’’—an opinion that was, for the time, acquiesced in by 
scientific men. Le shows that, in the interval between 1824 and 1829, 
no further suggestions were made on the subject of electric telegraphs. 
But he proceeds—“ In 1830, Prof. Henry, assisted by Dr. Ten Eyck, 
while engaged in experiments on the application of the principle of the 
galvanic multiplier to the development of great magnetic power in soft 
iron, made the important discovery that a battery of intensity overcame 
that resistance in a long wire which Barlow had announced as an insu- 
perable bar to the construction of electric telegraphs. Thus was opened 
the way for fresh efforts in devising a practicable electric telegraph ; and 
Baron Schilling, in 1832, and Professors Gauss and Weber, in 1833, had 
ample opportunity to learn of Henry’s discovery, and avail themselves of 
it, before they constructed their needle telegraphs.” And, while claiming 
for himself that he was “ the first to propose the use of the electro-magnet 
for telegraphic purposes, and the first to construct a telegraph on the 
basis of the electro-magnet,” yet he adds, “to Professor Henry is un- 
questionably due the honor of the discovery of a principle which proves the 
practicability of exciting magnetism through a long coul, or at a distance, 
either to deflect a needle or to magnetize soft iron.” 


13 


What Mr. Morse here describes as a “principle,” the discovery of 
which is unquestionably due to Professor Henry, is the Jaw which first 
made it possible to work the telegraphic machine invented by Mr. Morse, 
and for the knowledge of which Mr. Morse was indebted to Professor 
Henry, as is positively asserted by his associate, Dr. Gale. This gen- 
tleman, in a letter, dated Washington, April 7, 1856, makes the following 
conclusive statement : 


WasHineton, D. C., April 7, 1856. 

Sir : In reply to your note of the 3d instant, respecting the Morse telegraph, 
asking me to state definitely the condition of the invention when [ first saw the 
apparatus in the winter of 1836, I answer: This apparatus was Morse’s original 
instrument, usually known as the type apparatus, in which the types, set up in 
a composing stick, were run through a circuit breaker, and in which the battery 
was the cylinder battery, with a single pair of plates. This arrangement also 
had another peculiarity, namely, it was the electro-magnet used by Moll, and 
shown in drawings of the older works on that subject, having only a few turns of 
wire in the coil which surrounded the poles or arms of the magnet. The sparse- 
ness of the wires in the magnet coils and the use of the single cup battery were 
to me, on the first look at the instrument, obvious marks of defect, and I accord- 
ingly suggested to the Professor, without giving my reasons for so doing, that a 
battery of many pairs should be substituted for that of a single pair, and that the 
coil on each arm of the magnet should be increased to many hundred turns each ; 
which experiment, if I remember aright, was made on the same day with a bat- 
tery and wire on hand, furnished I believe by myself, and it was found that while 
the original arrangement would only send the electric current through a few feet 
of wire, say 15 to 40, the modified arrangement would send it through as many 
hundred. Although I gave no reasons at the time to Professor Morse for the 
suggestions I had proposed in modifying the arrangement of the machine, I did 
so afterwards, and referred in my explanations to the paper of Professor Heury, 
in the 19th volume of the American Journal of Science, page 400 and onward. 
It was to these suggestions of mine that Professor Morse alludes in his testimony 
before the Circuit Court for the’eastern district of Pennsylvania, in the trial of 
B. B. French and others vs. Rogers and others.—See printed copy of Complain- 
ant’s Evidence, page 168, beginning with the words ‘Karly in 1836 I procured 
40 feet of wire,” &c., and page 169, where Professor Morse alludes to myself and 
compensation for services rendered to him, Xe. 

At the time I gave the suggestions above named, Professsor Morse was not 
familiar with the then existing state of the science of electro-magnetism. [ad 
he been so, or had he read and appreciated the paper of Henry, the suggestions 
made by me would naturally have occurred to his mind as they did to my own. 
But the principal part of Morse’s great invention lay in the mechanical adapta- 
tion of a power to produce motion, and to increase or relax at will. It was only 

-necessary for him to know that such a power existed for him to adapt mechanism 
to direct and control it 

My suggestions were made to Professor Morse from inferences drawn by read- 
ing Professor Henry’s paper above alluded to. Professor Morse professed great 
surprise at the contents of the paper when I showed it to him, but especially at 
the remarks on Dr. Barlow’s results respecting telegraphing, which were new to 
him, and he stated at the time that he was not aware that any one had even 
conceived the idea of using the magnet for such purposes. 

With sentiments of esteem, I remain, yours truly, 
L. D. GALE. 

Prof. Jos. Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 


14 


It further appears, that principally for the information thus communi- 
cated, Mr. Morse assigned to Dr. Gale an interest in the telegraph, which 
he afterwards purchased back for $15,000, as appears from the following 
letter of Dr. Gale: 


PATENT OFrFicr, August 5, 1857. 


DEAR SiR: In reply to yours of this date, respecting the interest I once pos- 
sessed in Morse’s telegraph patent, secured to me by the said Morse, as alluded 
to by him in his statement to the Commissioner of Patents, I would simply state 
that the part J owned when I entered the service of the government in this office 
was originally given me by the said Morse, for services rendered him in making 
his invention practically effective in sending currents through long distances, &c., 
and that the said interest was retransferred to the said Morse for the sum of fifteen 
thousand dollars. 

Respectfully, 
L. D. GALE. 

Professor Henry, 

Secretary Smithsonian Institution. 


It thus appears, both from Mr. Morse’s own admission down to 1848, 
and from the testimony of others most familiar with the facts, that Prof. 
Henry discovered the law, or ‘‘ principle,” as Mr. Morse designates it, 
which was necessary to make the practical working of the electro-magnetic 
telegraph at considerable distances possible; that Mr. Morse was first 
informed of this discovery by Dr. Gale; that he availed himself of it at 
once, and that it never occurred to Mr. Morse to deny this fact until after 
1848. He had steadily and fully acknowledged the merits and genius of 
Mr. Henry, as the discoverer of facts and laws in science of the highest 
importance in the success of his long-cherished invention of a magnetic 
telegraph. Mr. Henry was the discoverer of a principle, Mr. Morse was 
the inventor of a machine, the object of which was to record characters at 
a distance, to convey intelligence, in other words, to carry into execution 
the idea of an electric telegraph. But there were obstacles in the way 
which he could not overcome until he learned the discoveries of Professor 
Henry, and applied them to his machine. These facts are undeniable. 
They constitute a part of the history of science and invention. They 
were true in 1848, they were equally true in 1855, when Professor Morse’s 
article was published. We give a passage here from the deposition of 
SEARS C. WALkKeER, in the case of French vs. Rogers, Respondent’s Evi- 
dence, page 199, bearing upon this whole subject : 


“‘In consequence of some statements made by me in my official reports relative 
to the invention of the receiving magnet, a question arose between Mr. Morse 
and myself as to the origin of this invention. It was amicably- discussed by Mr. 
Morse, Professor Henry, Dr. Gale, and myself, with Professor Henry’s article, 
alluded to in answer to the second question before us. The result of the inter- 
view was conclusive to my mind that Professor Henry was the sole discoverer of 


15 


the law on which the intensity magnet depends for its power of sending the 
gaivanic current through a long circuit. I was also led to conclude that Mr. 
Morse, in the course of his own researches and experiments before he had read 
Professor Henry’s article, before alluded to, had encountered the same difficulty 
Mr. Barlow and those who preceded him had encountered, that is, the impossi- 
bility of forcing the galvanic current through a long telegraph line. His own 
personal researches had not overcome this obstacle. They were made in the 
laboratory of the New York University. I also learned at the same time, by the 
conversations above stated, that he only overcame this obstacle by constructing 
a magnet on the principle invented by Professor Henry, and described in his 
article in Silliman’s Journal. His attention was directed to it by Dr. Gale.” 


What changed Mr. Morse’s opinion of Professor Henry, not only as a 
scientific investigator, but as a man of integrity, after the admissions of 
his indebtedness to his researches, and the oft repeated expressions of 
warm personal regard? It appears that Mr. Morse was involved in a 
number of lawsuits, growing out of contested claims to the right of using 
electricity for telegraphic purposes. The circumstances under which 
Professor Henry, as a well known investigator in this department of 
physics, was summoned by one of the parties to testify have already been 
stated. The testimony of Mr. Henry, while supporting the claims of Mr. 
Morse as the inventor of an admirable invention, denied to him the addi- 
tional merit of being a discoverer of new facts or laws of nature, and to 
this extent, perhaps, was considered unfavorable to some part of the claim 
of Mr. Morse to an exclusive right to employ the electro-magnet for tele- 
graphic purposes. Professor Henry’s deposition consists of a series of 
answers to verbal, as well as written, interrogatories propounded to him, 
which were not limited to his published writings, or the subject of elec- 
tricity, but extended to investigations and discoveries in general having a 
bearing upon the electric telegraph. He gave his testimony at a distance 
from his notes and manuscripts, and it would not have been surprising if 
inaccuracies had occurred in some parts of his statement; but all the 
material points in it are sustained by independent testimony, and that 
portion which relates directly to Mr. Morse agrees entirely with the state- 
ment of his own assistant, Dr. Gale. Had his deposition been objection- 
able, it ought to have been impeached before the Court ; but this was not 
attempted ; and the following tribute to Professor Henry by the Judge, 
in delivering the opinion of the Supreme Court of the United States, 
indicates the impression made upon the Court itself by all the testimony 
in the case: ‘* It is due to him to say that no one has contributed more 
to enlarge the knowledge of electro-magnetism, and to lay the foundations 
of the great inventions of which we are speaking, than the Professor him- 
self.” 

Professor Henry’s answers to the first and second interrogatories pre- 
sent a condensed history of the progress of the science of electro-magnet- 


16 


ism, as connected with telegraphic communication, embracing an account 
of the discoveries of Oersted, Arago, Davy, Ampére ; of the investigations 
by Barlow and Sturgeon; of his own researches, commenced in 1828, and 
continued in 1829, 1830, and subsequently. The details of his experi- 
ments and their results, though brief, are very precise. There is abundant 
evidence to show that Professor Henry’s experiments and illustrations at 
Albany, and subsequently at Princeton, proved, and were declared at the 
time by him to prove, that the electric telegraph was now practicable ; 
that the electro-magnet might be used to produce mechanical effects at a 
distance adequate to making signals of various kinds, such as ringing bells, 
which he practically illustrated. In proof of this, we quote a letter to 
Professor Henry, from Professor James Hall, of Albany, late president 
of the American Association for the advancement of Science. 


JANUARY 19, 1856. 


Dear Str: While a student of the Rensselaer School, in Troy, New York, in 
August, 1832, I visited Albany with a friend, having a letter of introduction to 
you from Professor Eaton. Our principal object was to see your electro-magnetic 
apparatus, of which we had heard much, and at the same time the library and 
collections of the Albany Institute. 

You showed us your laboratory in a lower story or basement of the building, 
and in a larger room in an upper story some electric and galvanic apparatus, with 
various philosophical instruments. In this room, and extending around the 
same, was a circuit of wire stretched along the wall, and at one termination of 
this, in the recess of a window, a bell was fixed, while the other extremity was 
connected with a galvanic apparatus. 

You showed us the manner in which the bell could be made to ring by a cur- 
rent of electricity, transmitted through this wire, and you remarked that this 
method might be adopted for giving signals, by the ringing of a bell at the dis- 
tance of many miles from the point of its connection with the galvanic apparatus. 

All the circumstances attending this visit to Albany are fresh in my recollec- 
tion, and during the past years, while so much has been said respecting the 
invention of electric telegraphs, [ have often had occasion to mention the exhibi- 
tion of your electric telegraph in the Albany Academy, in 1832. 

If at any time or under any circumstances this statement can be of service to 
you in substantiating your claim to such a discovery at the period named, you 
are at liberty to use “it in any manner you please, and I shall be ready at all 
times to repeat and sustain what I have here stated, with many other attendant 
circumstances, should they prove of any importance. 

I remain, very sincerely and respectfully, yours, 
JAMES HALL. 

Professor JosepH HENRY. 


In his deposition, Professor Henry’s statements are within what he 
might fairly have claimed. But he is a man of science, Jooking for no 
other reward than the consciousness of having done something for its 
promotion, and the reputation which the successful prosecution of scien- 
tific investigations and discoveries may justly be expected to give. Inhis 
public lectures and published writings he has often pointed out incidentally 


17 


the possibility of applying the facts and laws of nature discovered by him 
to practical purposes; he has freely communicated information to those 
who have sought it from him, among whom has been Mr. Morse himself, 
as appears by his own acknowledgments. But he has never applied his 
scientific discoveries to practical ends for his own pecuniary benefit. It 
was natural, therefore, that he should feel a repugnance to taking any 
part in the litigation between rival inventors, and it was inevitable that, 
when forced to give his testimony, he should distinctly point out what was 
so clear in his own mind and is so fundamental a fact in the history of 
human progress, the distinctive functions of the discoverer, and the inven- 
tor who applies discoveries to practical purposes in the business of life. 

Mr. Henry has always done full justice to the invention of Mr. Morse. 
While he could not sanction the claim of Mr. Morse to the exclusive use 
of the electro-magnet, he has given him full credit for the mechanical 
contrivances adapted to the application of his invention. In proof of this 
we refer to his deposition, and present also the following statement of 
Hon. Charles Mason, Commissioner of Patents, taken from a letter 
addressed by him to Professor Henry, dated March 31, 1856: 


U.S. Parent Orrice, March 81, 1856. 

Sir: Agreeably to your request I now make the following statement : 

Some two years since, when an application was made for an extension of Prof. 
Morse’s patent, I was for some time in doubt as to the propriety of making that 
extension. Under these circumstances I consulted with several persons, and 
among others with yourself, with a view particularly to ascertain the amount of 
invention fairly due to Professor Morse. 

The result of my inquiries was such as to induce me to grant the extension. I 
will further say that this was in accordance with your express recommendation, 
and that [ was probably more influenced by this recommendation and the infor- 
mation I obtained from you, than by any other circumstance, in coming to 
that conclusion. 


I am, sir, yours very respectfully, 
CHARLES MASON. 
Prof. J. Henry. 


To sum up the result of the preceding investigation in a few words. 

We have shown that Mr. Morse himself has acknowledged the value of 
the discoveries of Professor Henry to his electric telegraph; that his 
associate and scientific assistant, Dr. Gale, has distinctly affirmed that 
these discoveries were applied to his telegraph, and that previous to such 
application it was impossible for Mr. Morse to operate his instrument at 
a distance ; that Professor Henry’s experiments were witnessed by Prof. 
Hall and others in 1832, and that these experiments showed the possibility 
of transmitting to a distance a force capable of producing mechanical 
effects adequate to making telegraphic signals; that Mr. Henry’s depo- 
sition of 1849, which evidently furnished the motive for Mr. Morse’s 

2 


18 


attack upon him, is strictly correct in all the historical details, and that, 
so far as it relates to Mr Henry’s own claim as a discoverer, is within 
what he might have claimed with entire justice; that he gave the deposi- 
tion reluctantly, and in no spirit of hostility to Mr. Morse ; that on that 
and other occasions he fully admitted the merit of Mr. Morse as an inven- 
tor; and that Mr. Morse’s patent was extended through the influence of 
the favorable opinion expressed by Professor Henry. 

Your committee come unhesitatingly to the conclusion that Mr. Morse 
has failed to substantiate any one of the charges he has made against 
Professor Henry, although the burden of proof lay upon him; and that 
all the evidence, including the unbiased admissions of Mr. Morse himself, 
is on the other side. Mr. Morse’s charges not only remain unproved, but 
they are positively disproved. 

Your committee recommend the adoption of the following resolutions : 


[C.] 


Resolved, That Professor Morse has not succeeded in refuting the 
statements of Professor Henry in the deposition given by the latter in 
1849, that he has not proved any one of the accusations against Professor 
Henry made in the article in Shaffner’s Telegraph Companion in 1855, 
and that he has not disproved any one of his own admissions in regard to 
Professor Henry’s discoveries in electro-magnetism, and their importance 
to his own invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph. 


Resolved, That there is nothing in Professor Morse’s article that dimin- 
ishes, in the least, the confidence of this Board in the integrity of Prof. 
Henry, or in the value of those great discoveries which have placed his: 
name among those of the most distinguished cultivators of science, and 
have done much to exalt the scientific reputation of the country. 


Resolved, That this report, with the resolutions, be recorded in the Pro- 
ceedings of the Board of Regents of the Institution. 


APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE, 


STATEMENT OF PROF. HENRY, 


IN RELATION TO 


THE HISTORY OF THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH. 


——ol 





In the beginning of my deposition I was requested to give a sketch of 
the history of electro-magnetism having a bearing on the telegraph, and 
the account I then gave from memory, I have since critically examined 
and find it fully corroborated by reference to the original authorities. My 
sketch, which was the substance of what I had been in the habit of giving 
in my lectures, was necessarily very concise, and almost exclusively con- 
fined to one class of facts, namely, those having a direct bearing on Mr. 
Morse’s invention, and my paper in Silliman’s Journal was likewise very 
brief and intended merely for scientific men. In order, therefore, to set 
forth more clearly in what my own improvements consisted, it may be 
proper to give a few additional particulars respecting some points in the 
progress of discovery, illustrated by wood cuts. 

There are several forms of the electrical telegraph ; first, that in which 
frictional electricity has been proposed to produce sparks and motion of 
pith balls at a distance. 

Second, that in which galvanism has been employed to produce signals 
by means of bubbles of gas from the decomposition of water. 

Third, that in which electro-magnetism is the motive power to produce 
motion at a distance; and again, of the latter there are two kinds of tele- 
graphs, those in which the intelligence is indicated by the motion of a 
magnetic needle, and those in which sounds and permanent signs are made 
by the attraction of an electro-magnet. The latter is the class to which 
Mr. Morse’s invention belongs. The following is a brief exposition of the 
several steps which led to this form of the telegraph. 

The first essential fact, as I stated in my testimony, which rendered 
the electro-magnetic telegraph possible was discovered"by Oersted, in the 


20 


winter of 1819-’20. It is illustrated by figure 1, in which the magnetic 
Fig. 1. 


needle is deflected by 
the action of a current of 
galvanism transmitted 4 =~ 
through the wire A B. 

(See Annals of Philos- 

ophy, vol. 16, page 273. 
The second fact of importance, discovered in 1820, by Arago and Davy, 
Fig. 2. is illustrated in figure 2. 
It consists in this, that 
while a current of gal- 
vanism is passing through 
a copper wire A B, it is 
magnetic, it attracts iron 
filings and not those of 
copper or brass, and is capable of developing magnetism in soft iron. 
(See Annales de Chimie, vol. 15, page 94.) 

‘ The next important discovery, also made in 1820, by Ampére, was that 
two wires through which galvanic currents are passing in the same direc- 
tion attract, and in the opposite direction, repel, each other. On this fact 
Ampére founded his celebrated theory, that magnetism consists merely in 
the attraction of electrical currents revolving at right angles to the line 
joining the two poles of the magnet. The magnetisation of a bar of steel 
' or iron, according to this theory, consists in establishing within the metal 
by induction a series of electrical currents, all revolving in the same direc- 
tion at right angles to the axis or length of the bar. (See Annales de 
Chimie, vol. 15, page 69.) 

It was this theory which led Arago, as he states, to adopt the method 
of magnetizing sewing needles and pieces of steel wire, shown in figure 3, 
Fig. 3. This method consists in 

aoe transmitting a current of 

=J—> electricity through a he- 

lix surrounding the needle 

or wire to be magnetized. For the purpose of insulation the needle was 
inclosed in a glass tube, and the several turns of the helix were at a dis- 
tance from each other to insure the passage of electricity, through the 
whole length of the wire, or, in other words, to prevent it from seeking a 
shorter passage by cutting across from one spire to another. The helix 
employed by Arago obviously approximates the arrangement required by 
the theory of Ampére, in order to develop by induction the magnetism 
of the iron. By an attentive perusal of the original account of the exper- 
iments of Arago, given in the Annales de Chimie et Physique, vol. XV, 














21 


1820, page 93, it will be seen that, properly speaking, he made no elec- 
tro-magnet, as has been asserted by Morse and others; his experiments 
were confined to the magnetism of iron filings, to sewing needles and 
pieces of steel wire of the diameter of a millimetre, or of about the thick- 
ness of a small knitting needle. (See Annales de Chimie, vol. 15, page 95.) 

Mr. Sturgeon, in 1825, made an important step in advance of the ex- 
periments of Arago, and produced what is properly known as the electro- 
magnet. He bent a piece of iron wire into the form of a horseshoe, coy- 
ered it with varnish to insulate it, and surrounded it with a helix, of which 
the spires were at a distance. When a current of galvanism was passed 
through the helix from a small battery of a single cup the iron wire became 
magnetic, and continued so during the passage of the current. When the 
current was interrupted the magnetism disappeared, and thus was produced 
the first temporary soft iron magnet. 

The electro-magnet of Sturgeon is shown Fig. 4. 
in figure 4, which is an exact copy from the 
drawing in the Transactions of the Society 
for the Encouragement of Arts, &c., vol. 
xlii. By comparing figures 3 and 4 it 
will be seen that the helix employed by Stur- 
geon was of the same kind as that used by 
Arago; instead, however, of a straight steel 
wire inclosed in a tube of glass, the former 
employed a bent wire of soft iron. The difference in the arrangement at 
first sight might appear to be small, but the difference in the results pro- 
duced was important, since the temporary magnetism developed in the 
arrangement of Sturgeon was sufficient to support a weight of several 
pounds, and an instrument was thus produced of value in future research. 

The next improvement was made by myself. After reading an account 
of the galvanometer of Schweigger, the idea occurred to me that a much 
nearer approximation to the requirements of the theory of Ampére could 
be attained by insulating the conducting wire itself, instead of the rod to 
be magnetized, and by covering the whole surface of the iron with a series 
of coils in close contact. This was effected by insulating a long wire 
with silk thread, and winding this around the rod of iron in close coils 
from one end to the other. The same principle Fig. 5. 
was extended by employing a still longer insulated 
wire, and winding several strata of this over the 
first, care being taken to insure the insulation 
between each stratum by a covering of silk ribbon, 
By this arrangement the rod was surrounded by a 
compound helix formed of a long wire of many coils, 
instead of a single helix of a few coils, (figure 5.) , 








22 


In the arrangement of Arago and Sturgeon the several turns of wire 
were not precisely at right angles to the axis of the rod, as they should 
be, to produce the effect required by the theory, but slightly oblique, and 
therefore each tended to develop a separate magnetism not coincident 
with the axis of the bar. But in winding the wire over itself, the obliquity 
of the several turns compensated each other, and the resultant action was 
at right angles to the bar. The arrangement then introduced by myself 
was superior to those of Arago and Sturgeon, first in the greater multi- 
plicity of turns of wire, and second in the better application of these turns 
to the development of magnetism. The power of the instrument, with 
the same amount of galvanic force, was by this arrangement several times 
increased. 

The maximum effect, however, with this arrangement and a single 
battery was not yet obtained. After a certain length of wire had been 
coiled upon the iron, the power diminished with a further increase of the 
number of turns. This was due to the increased resistance which the 
longer wire offered to the conduction of electricity. Two methods of 
improvement therefore suggested themselves. The first consisted, not in 
increasing the length of the coil, but in using a number of separate coils 
on the same piece of iron. By this arrangement the resistance to the 
conduction of the electricity was diminished and a greater quantity made 
to circulate around the iron from the same battery. The second method 
of producing a similar result consisted in increasing the number of elements 
of the battery, or, in other words, the projectile force of the electricity, 

Fig. 6. which enabled it to pass through an increased 
number of turns of wire, and thus, by increasing 
the length of the wire, to develop the maximum 
power of the iron. 5 

To test these principles on a larger scale, the 
experimental magnet was constructed, which is 
shown in figure 6. In this a number of compound 
helices were placed on the same bar, their ends 
left projecting, and so numbered that they could 
be all united into one long helix, or variously combined in sets of lesser 
length. 

From a series of experiments with this and other magnets it was proved 
that, in order to produce the greatest amount of magnetism from a bat- 
tery of a single cup, a number of helices is required; but when a com- 
pound battery is used, then one long wire must be employed, making many 
turns around the iron, the length of wire and consequently the number of 
turns being commensurate with the projectile power of the battery. 

In describing the results of my experiments, the terms intensity and 





23 


quantity magnets were introduced to avoid circumlocution, and were 
intended to be used merely in a technical sense. By the zntensity magnet 
I designated a piece of soft iron, so surrounded with wire that its magnetic 
power could be called into operation by an intensity battery, and by a 
quantity magnet, a piece of iron so surrounded by a number of separate 
coils, that its magnetism could be fully developed by a quantity battery. 

I was the first to point out this connection of the two kinds of the bat- 
tery with the two forms of the magnet, in my paper in Silliman’s Journal 
January, 1831, and clearly to state that when magnetism was to be devel- 
oped by means of a compound battery, one long coil was to be employed, 
and when the maximum effect was to be produced by a single battery, a 
number of single strands were to be used. 

These steps in the advance of electro-magnetism, though small, were 
such as to interest and astonish the scientific world. With the same bat- 
tery used by Mr. Sturgeon, at least a hundred times more magnetism was 
produced than could have been obtained by his experiment. The devel- 
opments were considered at the time of much importance in a scientific 
point of view, and they subsequently furnished the means by which mag- 
neto-electricity, the phenomena of dia-magnetism, and the magnetic effects 
on polarized light were discovered. They gave rise to the various forms 
of electro-magnetic machines which have since exercised the ingenuity of 
inventors in every part of the world, and were of immediate applicability 
in the introduction of the magnet to telegraphic purposes. Neither the 
electro-magnet of Sturgeon nor any electro-magnet ever made previous to 
my investigations was applicable to transmitting power to a distance. 

The principles I have developed were properly appreciated by the 
scientific mind of Dr. Gale, and applied by him to operate Mr. Morse’s 
machine at a distance. 

Previous to my investigations the means of developing magnetism in 
soft iron were imperfectly understood. The electro-magnet made by 
Sturgeon, and copied by Dana, of New York, was an imperfect quantity 
magnet, the feeble power of which was developed by a single battery. 
It was entirely inapplicable to a long circuit with an intensity battery, 
and no person possessing the requisite scientific knowledge, would have 
attempted to use it in that connection after reading my paper. 

In sending a message to a distance, two circuits are employed, the 
first a long circuit through which the electricity is sent to the distant 
station to bring into action the second, a short one, in which is the local 
battery and magnet for working the machine. In order to give projec- 
tile force sufficient to send the power to a distance, it is necessary to uso 
an intensity battery in the long circuit, and in connection with this, at 
the distant station, a magnet surrounded with many turns of one long 


24 


é 


wire must be employed to receive and multiply the effect of the current 
enfeebled by its transmission through the long conductor. In the local 
or short circuit either an intensity or a quantity magnet may be em- 
ployed. Ifthe first be used, then with it a compound battery will be 
required ; and, therefore, on account of the increased resistance due to 
the greater quantity of acid, a less amount of work will be performed by 
a given amount of material; and, consequently, though this arrangement 
is practicable it is by no means economical. In my original paper I 
state that the advantages of a greater conducting power, from using 
several wires in the quantity magnet, may, in a less degree, be obtained 
by substituting for them one large wire; but in this case, on account of 
the greater obliquity of the spires and other causes, the magnetic effect 
would be less. In accordance with these principles, the receiving magnet, 
or that which is introduced into the long circuit, consists of a horse-shoe 
magnet surrounded with many hundred turns of a single long wire, and 
is operated with a battery of from 12 to 24 elements or more, while in 
the local circuit it is customary to employ a battery of one or two ele- 
ments with a much thicker wire and fewer turns. 

It will, I think, be evident to the impartial reader that these were 
improvements in the electro-magnet, which first rendered it adequate to 
the transmission of mechanical power to a distance; and had I omitted 
all allusion to the telegraph in my paper, the conscientious historian of 
science would have awarded me some credit, however small might have 
been the advance which I made. Arago and Sturgeon, in the accounts 
of their experiments, make no mention of the telegraph, and yet their 
names always have been and will be associated with the invention. 
I briefly, however, called attention to the fact of the applicability of my 
experiments to the construction of the telegraph; but not being familiar 
with the history of the attempts made in regard to this invention, I called 
it “‘ Barlow’s project,” while I ought to have stated that Mr. Barlow's 
investigation merely tended to disprove the possibility of a telegraph. 

I did not refer exclusively to the needle telegraph when, in my paper, 
I stated that the magnetic action of a current from a trough is at least 
not sensibly diminished by passing through a long wire. ‘This is evident 
from the fact that the immediate experiment from which this deduction 
was made was by means of an electro-magnet and not by means of a 
needle galvanometer. 

At the conclusion of the series of experiments which I described in 
Silliman’s Journal, there were two applications of the electro-magnet in 
my mind: one the production of a machine to be moved by electro-mag- 
netism, and the other the transmission of or calling into action power at 
a distance. ‘The first was carried into execution in the construction ot 


25 


the machine described in Silliman’s Journal, vol. xx, 1831, and for the 
purpose of experimenting in regard to the second, I arranged around one 
of the upper rooms in the Albany Acad- Fig. 7. 

emy a wire of more than a mile in 
length, through which I was enabled to 
make signals by sounding a bell, (fig- 
7.) The mechanical arrangement for 
effecting this object was simply a steel 
bar, permanently magnetized, of about 
ten inches in length, supported on a 
pivot, and placed with its north end 
between the two arms of a horse-shoe 
magnet. When the latter was excited 
by the current, the end of the bar thus 
placed was attracted by one arm of the horse-shoe, and repelled by the 
other, and was thus caused to move in a horizontal plane and its further 
extremity to strike a bell suitably adjusted. 

This arrangement is that which is alluded to in Professor Hall’s letter* 
as having been exhibited to him in 1832. It was not, however, at that 
time connected with the long wire above mentioned, but with a shorter 
one put up around the room for exhibition. 

At the time of giving my testimony, I was uncertain as to when 1 had 
first exhibited this contrivance, but have since definitely settled the fact 
by the testimony of Hall and others that it was before I left Albany, and 
abundant evidence can be brought to show that previous to my going to 
Princeton in November, 1832, my mind was much occupied with the sub- 
ject of the telegraph, and that I introduced it in my course of instruction 
to the Senior class in the Academy. I should state, however, that the 
arrangement that I have described was merely a temporary one, and that 
I had no idea at the time of abandoning my researches for the practical 
application of the telegraph. Indeed, my experiments on the transmis- 
sion of power to a distance were superseded by the investigation of the 
remarkable phenomena, which I had discovered in the course of these 
experiments, of the induction of a current in a long wire on itself, and of 
which I made the first mention in a paper in Silliman’s Journal in 1832, 
vol. xxu. 

IT also devised a method of breaking a circuit, and thereby causing a 
large weight to fall. It was intended to illustrate the practicability of 
calling into action a great power at a distance capable of producing me- 





* See the Report of the Committee, page 96, and Proceedings of the Albany Institute, 
January, 1858. 


26 


chanical effects ; but as a description of this was not printed, I do not 
place it in the same category with the experiments of which I published 
an account, or the facts which could be immediately deduced from my 
papers in Silliman’s Journal. 

From a careful investigation of the history of electro-magnetism in its 
connection with the telegraph, the following facts may be established : 

1. Previous to my investigations the means of developing magnetism in 
soft iron were imperfectly understood, and the electro-magnet which then 
existed was inapplicable to the transmission of power to a distance. 

2. I was the first to prove by actual experiment that, in order to de- 
velop magnetic power at a distance, a galvanic battery of intensity must 
be employed to project the current through the long conductor, and that 
a magnet surrounded by many turns of one long wire must be used to 
receive this current. 

3. I was the first actually to magnetize a piece of iron at a distance, 
and to call attention to the fact of the applicability of my experiments to 
the telegraph. 

4. I was the first to actually sound a bell at a distance by means of the 
electro-magnet. 

5. The principles I had developed were applied by Dr. Gale to render 
Morse’s machine effective at a distance. 

The results here given were among my earliest experiments; in a 
scientific point of view I considered them of much less importance than 
what I subsequently accomplished; and had I not been called upon to 
give my testimony in regard to them, I would have suffered them to 
remain without calling public attention to them, a part of the history of 
science to be judged of by scientific men who are the best qualified to 
pronounce upon their merits. 


DHPOSITION OF JOSHPH HENRY, 


IN THE CASE OF 


MORSE vs. O’REILLY, 


TAKEN AT BOSTON, SEPTEMBER, 1849. 


[From the Record of the Supreme Court of the United States.] 


1. Please state your place of residence and your occupation; also, 
what attention, if any, you have given to the subjects of electricity, mag- 
netism, and electro-magnetism. 


Answer.—lI begin this deposition with the express statement that I do 
not voluntarily give my testimony ; but that I appear on legal summons, 
and in submission to law. Iam Secretary to the Smithsonian Institution, 
established in the city of Washington, where I now reside. The prin- 
cipal direction of the Institution is confided tome. As I do not expect to 
return to Washington until some time in October, I have been called upon 
to give my testimony here in Boston; on this account I labor under the 
disadvantage of being obliged to testify without my notes and papers, 
which are now in Washington. 

I commenced the study of electro-magnetism in 1827; and since then 
have, at different times, (until) within the last two and a half years, when 
I became Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, made original inves- 
tigations in this and kindred branches of physical science. I know no 
person in our country who has paid more attention to the study of the 
principles of electro-magnetism than myself. 


2. Please give a general account of the progress of the science of elec- 
tro-magnetism, as connected with telegraphic communication ; and of any 
inventions or discoveries in electro-magnetism applicable to the telegraph, 


made by yourself. 


Answer.—I consider an electro-magnetic telegraph as one which 
operates by the combined influence of electricity and magnetism. Prior 
to the winter of 1819-’20, no form of the electro-magnetic telegraph was 


28 


possible: the scientific principles on which it is founded were then 
unknown. ‘The first fact of electro-magnetism was discovered by Oersted, 
of Copenhagen, durmg that winter. It is this: A wire being placed 
close above, or below, and parallel to a magnetic needle, and a galvanic 
current being transmitted through the wire, the needle will tend to place 
itself at right angles to it. This fact was widely published, and the 
account was everywhere received with interest. 

The second fact of importance was discovered independently, and about 
the same time, by Arago, at Paris, and Davy, at London. It is this: 
During the transmission of a galvanic current through a wire of copper, 
or any other metal, the wire exhibits magnetic properties, attracting iron, 
but not copper filings, and having the power of inducing permanent mag- 
netism in steel needles. The next important fact was discovered by 
Ampére, of Paris, one of the most sagacious and successful cultivators of 
physical science in the present century. It is this: Two parallel wires 
through which galvanic currents are passing in the same direction, attract 
each other; but if the currents pass in opposite directions, they repel 
each other. On this fact Ampére founded his ingenious theory of mag- 
netism and electro-magnetism. According to this theory, all magnetic 
phenomena result from the attraction or repulsion of electric currents, 
supposed to exist in the iron at right angles to the length of the bar ; and 
that all the phenomena of magnetism and electro-magnetism are thus 
referred to one principle, namely, the action of electrical currents on each 
other. 

Ampére deduced from this theory many interesting results, which were 
afterwards verified by experiment. He also proposed to the French 
Academy a plan for the application of electro-magnetism to the transmis- 
sion of intelligence to a distance; this consisted in deflecting a number 
of needles at the place of receiving intelligence, by galvanic currents 
transmitted through long wires. ‘This transmission was to be effected by 
completing a galvanic circuit. When completed, the needle was deflected. 
When interrupted, it returned to its ordinary position, under the influence 
of the attraction of the earth. This project of Ampére was never reduced 
to practice. All these discoveries and results were prior to 1823. 

The next investigations relating to the magnetic telegraph were pub- 
lished in 1825; they were by Mr. Barlow, of the Royal Military Acad- 
emy of Woolwich, England. He found that there was great diminution 
in the power of a galvanic current to produce effects with an increase of 
distance; a diminution so great in a distance of two hundred feet was 
observed, as to convince him of the impracticability of the scheme of the 
electro-magnetic telegraph. His experiments led him to conclude that 
the power was inversely as the square root of the length of the wire. The 


29 


publication of these results put at rest, for a time, all attempts to construct 
an electro-magnetic telegraph. 

The next investigations, in the order of time, bearing on the telegraph, 
were made by Mr. Sturgeon, of England. He bent a piece of iron wire 
into the form of a horse-shoe, and put loosely around it a coil of copper 
wire, with wide intervals between the turns or spires to prevent them 
touching each other, and through this coil he transmitted a current of 
galvanism. ‘The iron, under the influence of this current, became mag- 
netic, and thus was produced the first electro-magnetic magnet, sometimes 
called simply the electro-magnet. An account of this experiment was 
first published in November, 1825, in the Transactions of the Society for 
the Encouragement of the Arts in England; and was made known in this 
country through the Annals of Philosophy for November, 1826. 

Nothing further was done pertaining to the telegraph until my own 
researches in electro-magnetism, which were commenced in 1828, and 
continued in 1829, 1830, and subsequently ; Barlow’s results, as I before 
observed, had prevented all attempts to construct a magnetic telegraph 
on the plan of Ampére, and our own knowledge of the development of 
magnetism in soft iron, as left by Sturgeon, was not such as to be appli- 
cable to telegraphic purposes. The electro-magnet of Sturgeon could not 
be made to act by a current through a long wire, as will be apparent 
hereafter in this deposition. 

After repeating the experiments of Oersted, Ampére, and others, and 
publishing an account in 1828 of various modifications of electro-magnetic 
apparatus, I commenced in that year the investigation of the laws of the 
development of magnetism in soft iron, by means of the electrical cur- 
rent. The first idea that occurred to me in accordance with the theory 
of Ampére, with reference to increasing the power of the electro-magnet, 
was that of using a longer wire than had before been employed. A wire 
of sixty feet in length, covered with silk, was wound round a whole length 
of an iron bar, either straight or in the form of a U, so as to cover its 
whole length with several thicknesses of the wire. 

The results of this arrangement were such as I had anticipated, and 
electro-magnets of this kind, exhibited to the Albany Institute in March, 
1829, possessed magnetic power superior to that of any ever before 
known. 

The idea afterwards occurred to me that the quantity of galvanism, 
supplied by a small galvanic battery, might be applied to develop a still 
greater amount of magnetic power in a large bar of iron. On experiment, 
I found this idea correct. A battery of two and a half square inches of 
zinc, developed magnetism in a large bar sufficient to lift fourteen pounds. 

The next suggestion which occurred to me was that of using a number 


30 


of wires of the same length around the same bar, so as to lessen the 
resistance which the galvanic current experienced in passing from the 
zinc to the copper through the coil. To bring this to the test of experi- 
ment, a second wire, equal in length to the first, was wound around the 
last mentioned magnet, and its ends soldered to the plates of the same 
battery. 

The magnet with this additional wire lifted twenty eight pounds, or, in 
other words, its power was doubled. 

A series of experiments was afterwards made, to determine the resist- 
ance to conduction of wires of different lengths and diameters, and the 
proper lengths and number of wires for producing, with different kinds of 
galvanic batteries, the maximum of amount of magnetic development 
with a given quantity of zinc surface. For this purpose a bar of soft 
iron, two inches square and twenty inches long, weighing twenty-one 
pounds, and much larger than any before used, was bent in the form of 
a horse-shoe. Around this were wound nine strands of copper wire, each 
sixty feet long, the ends left projecting so that one or more coils could 
be used at once, either connected with a battery or with each other, thus 
forming several coils with several battery connections, or one long coil 
with single battery connections. The greatest effect obtained with this 
magnet, using a battery of a single pair, with a zinc plate of two-fifths of 
a square foot of surface, and all the wire arranged as separate coils, was 
to lift a weight of six hundred and fifty pounds ; with a large battery the 
effect was increased to seven hundred and fifty pounds. In a subsequent 
series of experiments, not published with the preceding, the same magnet 
was made to sustain one thousand pounds. When a compound battery 
was employed of a number of pairs, it was found that the greatest effect 
was produced when all the wires were arranged as a single long coil. I 
subsequently constructed electro-magnets on the same plan, which sup- 
ported much greater weights. One of these, now in the cabinet of 
Princeton, will sustain three thousand six hundred pounds with a battery 
occupying about a cubic foot of space. It consists of thirty strands of 
wire, each about forty feet in length. 

The abovementioned experiments exhibit the important fact that when 
a galvanic battery of intensity (that is to say, a battery consisting of a 
number of pairs) is employed, the electro-magnet connected with it must 
be wound with one long wire, in order to produce the greatest effect ; and 
that when a battery of quantity, (that is, one of asingle pair,) is employed, 
the proper form of the magnet connected with it is that in which several 
shorter wires are wound around the iron. The first of these magnets, 
which is the one now employed in the long or main circuit of the tele- 


31 


graph, may be called an intensity magnet; and the second, which is 
used in the local circuit, may be denominated the quantity. 

The quantity of electricity which can be passed through a long circuit 
of ordinary sized wire is, under the most favorable circumstances, exceed- 
ingly small, and in order that this may develop magnetism in a bar of 
iron, it was necessary that it should be made to revolve many times 
around the iron, that its effects may be multiplied; and this is effected 
by using a long single coil. Hence it will be seen that the electro-magnet 
of Mr. Sturgeon was not applicable to telegraphic purposes in a long 
circuit. 

Previous to making the last experiments above mentioned, in order to 
guide myself, I instituted a series of preliminary experiments on the 
conduction of wires of different lengths and diameters, with different 
batteries. In these experiments a galvanometer, or an instrument con- 
sisting of a magnetic needle freely suspended within a coil of wire, was 
first employed to denote, by the deflection of its needle, the power of the 
current. ‘The result from a number of experiments, with a battery of a 
single pair, was the same as that obtained by Barlow, namely, that the 
power diminished rapidly with the increase of distance. With the same 
battery, and a larger wire, the diminution was less. The galvanometer 
was next removed, and a small electro-magnet substituted in its place. 
With a single battery, the same result was again obtained—a great dim- 
inution of lifting power with the increase of distance. After this the 
battery of a single pair was removed and its place supplied by one of 
intensity, consisting of twenty-five pairs. With this the important fact 
was observed, that no perceptible diminution of the lifting power took 
place, when the current was transmitted through an intervening wire 
between the battery and the magnet of upwards of one thousand feet. 

This was the first discovery of the fact that a galvanic current could 
be transmitted to a great distance with so little a diminution of force as 
to produce mechanical effects, and of the means by which the transmission 
could be accomplished. I saw that the electric telegraph was now prac- 
ticable ; and, in publishing my experiments and their results, I stated 
that the fact just mentioned was applicable to Barlow’s project of such 
a telegraph. I had not the paper of Barlow before me, and erred in 
attributing to him a project of a telegraph, as he only disproved, as he 
thought, the practicability of one. But the intention of the statement 
was to show that I had established the fact that a mechanical effect could 
be produced by the galvanic current at a great distance, operating upon 
a magnet or needle, and that the telegraph was therefore posstble. In 
arriving at these results, and announcing their applicability to the tele- 
graph, I had not in mind any particular form of telegraph, but referred 


32 


only to the general fact that it was now demonstrated that a galvanic 
current could be transmitted to great distances with sufficient power to 
produce mechanical effects adequate to the desired object. 

The investigations above mentioned were all devised and originated, 
and the experiments planned, by myself. In conducting the latter, 
however, I was assisted by Dr. Philip Ten Eyck, of Albany. An account 
of the whole was published in the 19th volume of Silliman’s Journal, in 
1831, with the exception of the account of the large magnet afterwards 
constructed at Princeton in 1883, and the experiment mentioned of 
lifting a thousand pounds with one of my first magnets. While I was 
engaged in these researches, Professor Moll, of the University of Utrecht, 
was pursuing investigations somewhat similar, and succeeded in making 
powerful electro-magnets, but made no discovery as to the distinction 
between the two kinds of magnets, or the transmissibility of the galvanic 
current to a great distance with power to produce mechanical effects. In 
fact, his experiments were but a repetition on a large scale of those of 
Sturgeon. 

After completing the investigations abovementioned, I commenced a 
series of experiments on another branch of electricity closely connected, 
with this subject. Among other things, I applied the principles above- 
mentioned to the construction of an electro-magnetic machine, which has 
since excited much attention in reference to the application of electro- 
magnetism as a motive power in the arts. 

In 1832 I was called to the chair of natural philosophy in the College 
of New Jersey, at Princeton, and in my first course of lectures in that 
institution, in 1833, and in every subsequent year during my connection 
with that institution, I mentioned the project of the electro-magnetic 
telegraph, and explained how the electro-magnet might be used to produce 
mechanical effects at a distance adequate to making signals of various 
kinds. I never myself attempted to reduce these principles to practice 
or to apply any of my discoveries to processes in the arts. My whole 
attention, exclusive of my duties to the college, was devoted to original 
scientific investigations, and I left to others what I considered in a scien- 
tific view of subordinate importance, the application of my discoveries to 
useful purposes in the arts. Besides this, I partook of the feeling 
common to men of science, which disinclines them to secure to themselves 
the advantages of their discoveries by a patent. 

In February, 1837, I went to Europe; and early in April of that year 
Professor Wheatstone, of London, in the course of a visit to him in King’s 
College, London, with Professor Bache, now of the Coast Survey, 
explained to us his plans of an electro-magnetic telegraph ; and, among 
other things, exhibited to us his method of bringing into action a second 


33 


galvanic circuit. This consisted in closing the second circuit by the 
deflection of a needle, so placed that the two ends projecting upwards, of 
the open circuit, would be united by the contact of the end of the needle 
when deflected, and on opening or breaking of the circuit so closed by 
opening the first circuit, and thus interrupting the current, when the 
needle would resume its ordinary position under the influence of the mag- 
netism of the earth. I informed him that I had devised another method 
of producing effects somewhat similar. ‘This consisted in opening the 
circuit of my large quantity magnet at Princeton, when loaded with many 
hundred pounds weight, by attracting upward a small piece of moveable 
wire, with a small intensity magnet, connected with a long wire circuit. 
When the circuit of the large battery was thus broken by an action from 
a distance, the weights would fall, and great mechanical effect could thus 
be produced, such as the ringing of church bells at a distance of a hun- 
dred miles or more, an illustration which I had previously given to my 
class at Princeton. My impression is strong, that I had explained the 
precise process to my class before I went to Europe, but testifying now 
without the opportunity of reference to my notes, I cannot speak posi- 
tively. Iam, however, certain of having mentioned in my lectures every 
year previously, at Princeton, the project of ringing bells at a distance, 
by the use of the electro-magnet, and of having frequently illustrated the 
principle of transmitting power to a distance to my class, by causing in 
some cases a thousand pounds to fall on the floor, by merely lifting a 
piece of wire from two cups of mercury closing the circuit. 

The object of Professor Wheatstone, as I understood it, in bringing 
into action a second circuit, was to provide a remedy for the diminution 
of force in w long circuit. My object, in the process described by me, 
was to bring into operation a large quantity magnet, connected with a 
quantity battery in a local circuit, by means of a small intensity magnet, 
and an intensity battery at a distance, 

The only other scientific facts of importance to the practical operation 
of the telegraph not already mentioned, are the discovery by Steinheil, 
in 1837, in Germany, of the practicability of completing a galvanic cir- 
cuit, by using the earth for completing the circuit, and the construction 
of the constant battery in 1836, or about that time, by Professor Daniell, 
of King’s College, London. I believe that I was the first to repeat the 
experiments of Steinheil and Daniell in this country. I stretched a wire 
from my study to my laboratory, through a distance in the air of several 
hundred yards, and used the earth as a return conductor, with a very 
minute battery, the negative element of which was a common pin, such as 
is used in dress, and the positive element the point of a zinc wire im- 
mersed in a single drop of acid. With this arrangement, a needle was 


34 


deflected in my laboratory before my class. I afterwards transmitted 
surrents in various directions through the college grounds at Princeton. 
The exact date of these experiments I am unable to give without reference 
to my notes. They were previous, however, to the unsuccessful attempt 
of Mr. Morse to transmit currents of electricity through wires buried in 
the earth between Washington and Baltimore, and before he attempted 
to use the earth as a part of the circuit. Previous to this time, and after 
the abovementioned experiments, Mr. Morse visited me at Princeton, to 
consult me on the arrangement of his conductors. During this visit, we 
conversed freely on the subject of insulation and conduction of wires. I 
urged him to put his wires on poles, and stated to him my experiments 
and their results. 

In the course of the years 1836 and 1837, various plans of more or 
less merit were devised, and more or less fully carried into effect, for 
applying the principles already discovered to the construction of electro- 
magnetic telegraphs in different parts of the world, but of these I do not 
undertake to give any particular account. I would say, however, that of 
these plans that for which Mr. Morse subsequently obtained a patent was, 
in my judgment, the best. 


3. Please state whether or not you are acquainted with the electro- 
magnetic telegraph for which 8. F. B. Morse obtained a patent in 1846. 
If you are, please state whether any, and if any, which of the principles 
or plans which you have described as discovered, or announced by your- 
self or others are used in the construction or operation of it. State also 
what principles used in the telegraph are, so far as you know, original 
with Professor Morse. 


Answer.—I am acquainted with the principles and general mode of 
operation of the telegraph and improvement referred to. The telegraph 
is based upon the facts discovered by myself and others, of which I have 
already given an account. 

The plan which was first described to me in the autumn of 1837 by Mr. 
Morse, or by Professor Gale, who was associated with him in the con- 
struction of the telegraph, was to employ a single entire circuit of wire, 
with an intensity battery to excite the current, and an intensity magnet 
to receive it and produce a mechanical action, which would work the 
recording apparatus. Mr. Morse afterwards employed the intensity 
battery in a long circuit, and an intensity magnet to receive its current 
at a distant point, and produce the mechanical effect of closing a secondary 
circuit. ‘The secondary circuit may be either employed to transmit a 
second current to a distant point and there close a third circuit, and thus 
continue the line, or for working a recording apparatus in the secondary 


35 


circuit, or it may be employed without reference to the continuation of 
the line, as a short local circuit to work a local magnet. In the first 
case, there must be in the secondary circuit an intensity battery and 
intensity magnet; in the last case, a quantity magnet and quantity 
battery are required. 

I heard nothing of the secondary circuit as a part of Mr. Morse’s plan 
until after his return from Europe, whither he went in 1838. It was not 
till long after this that Mr. Morse used the earth as a part of the circuit 
in accordance with the discovery of Steinheil. 

I am not aware that Mr. Morse ever made a single original discovery, 
in electricity, magnetism, or electro-magnetism; applicable to the inven- 
tion of the telegraph. I have always considered his merit to consist in 
combining and applying the discoveries of others in the invention of a 
particular instrument and process for telegraphic purposes. I have no 
means of determining how far this invention is original with himself, or 
how much is due to those associated with him. 


4. Please state when you first became acquainted with Mr. Morse, and 
what knowledge he possessed of electricity, magnetism, and electro-mag- 
netism, and what information you or others communicated to him relating 
to the telegraph. State, also, all you know of the attempts of himself, 
and others associated with him, to construct an electro-magnetic telegraph, 
either from your own observation or from statements made by himself or 
by others in your presence. State particularly any conversation, if any, 
you may have had with him in reference to your own discoveries applied 
to the telegraph. 


Answer.—Shortly after my return from Europe, in the autumn of 1837, 
I learned that Mr. Morse was about to petition Congress for assistance 
in constructing the electro-magnetic telegraph. Some of my friends in 
Princeton, knowing what I had done in developing the principles of the 
telegraph, urged me to make the representations to Congress, which I 
expressed some thought of doing, namely: that the principles of the 
electro-magnetic telegraph belonged to the science of the world, and that 
any appropriation which might be made by Congress should be a premium 
for the best plan, and the means of testing the same, which the ingenuity 
of the country might offer. Shortly after this I visited New York, and 
there accidentally made the personal acquaintance of Mr. Morse ;* he 
appeared to be an unassuming and prepossessing gentleman, with very little 
knowledge of the general principles of electricity, magnetism, or electro- 





* This meeting took place in the chemical store of Mr. Chilton, Broadway, New York, 
and the place and time are both indelibly impressed upon my mind. 


36 


magnetism. He made no claims, in conversation with me, to any scientific 
discovery, or to anything beyond his particular machine and process of 
applying known principles to telegraphic purposes. He explained to me 
his plan of a telegraph with which he had recently made a successful 
experiment: I thought this plan better than any with which I had been 
made acquainted in Europe; I became interested in him, and instead of 
interfering in his application to Congress, I [subsequently*] gave him a 
certificate, in the form of a letter, stating my confidence in the practica- 
bility of the electro-magnetic telegraph, and my belief that the form 
proposed by himself was the best which had been published. 

Mr. Morse subsequently visited Princeton several times to confer with 
me on the principles of electricity and magnetism which might be appli- 
cable to the telegraph. I freely gave him any information I possessed. 

I learned in 1837, or thereabouts, that Professor Gale and Dr. Fisher 
were the scientific assistants of Mr. Morse in preparing the telegraph. 
Mr. Vail was also employed, but I know not in what capacity, and I am 
not personally acquainted with him. With Professor Gale I have been 
intimately acquainted for several years ; he had been a pupil in chemistry 
of my friend Dr. Torrey, and had studied my papers on electro-magnet- 
ism, and, as he informed me, had applied them in the arrangement of the 
apparatus for the construction of Morse’s telegraph. 

My researches had been given to the world several years before the 
attempt was made to reduce the magnetic telegraph to practice. Mr. 
Chilton, of New York, informed me that he had referred Mr. Morse to 
them previous to his experiments in the New York University. I was 
therefore much surprised on the publication, in 1845, of a work purport- 
ing to give a history of the telegraph, and of the principles on which it 
was founded, by Mr. Vail, then principal assistant of Mr. Morse, and one 
of the proprietors of his patent, to find all my published researches 
relating to the telegraph passed over with little more than the remark 
that Dr. Moll and myself had made large electro-magnetic magnets. Pre- 
suming that this publication was authorized by Mr. Morse and the proprie- 
tors.of the telegraph, I complained to some of his friends of the injustice, 
and after his return from Europe, (for he was absent at the time the book 
was issued,) I received a letter, copied and signed by Mr. Vail, but written 
by Mr. Morse, as the latter afterwards informed me, excusing the publica- 
tion,-on the ground that he (Mr. Vail) was ignorant of what I had done, 
and asking me for an account of my researches. This letter was addressed 
to me after the book had been stereotyped and widely circulated. It has 


* The word subsequently was accidentally omitted in giving my testimony. The omission, 
however, is of little importance. 


Tee 


37 


been translated into French, and, I believe, published in Paris. To the 
letter I did not think fit to make any reply. I afterwards received a 
letter from Mr. Morse, in his own name, on the same subject, to which 
I gave a verbal reply in January, 1847, in Washington. In this inter- 
view Mr. Morse acknowledged that injustice had been done me, but said 
that proper reparation would be made. Another issue of the same work 
was made, bearing date 1847, in which there is no change in the state- 
ment relative to my researches. 

About the beginning of 1848, Mr. Walker, of the Coast Survey, in a 
report on the application of the telegraph to the determination of dif- 
ferences of longitude, alluded to my researches. A copy of this was sent 
to Mr. Morse, which led to an interview between Mr. Walker, Professor 
Gale, Mr. Morse, and myself. At this meeting, which took place at my 
office in Washington, Mr. Morse stated that he had not known until read- 
ing my paper in January, 1847, that I had, two years before his first 
conception in 1832, settled the point of practicability of the telegraph, 
and shown how mechanical effects could be produced at a distance, both 
in the deflection of a needle and in the action of an electro-magnet; that 
he did not know, at the time of his experiments in 1837 that there had 
been any doubts of the action of a current at a distance, and that in the 
confidence of the persuasion that the effect could be produced, he had 
devised the proper apparatus by which his telegraph was put into opera- 
tion. Professor Gale, being then referred to, stated that Mr. Morse had 
forgotten the precise state of the case; that he, (Mr. Morse,) previous to 
his (Dr. Gale’s) connection with him, had not succeeded in producing 
effects at a distance ; that, when he was first called in, he found Mr. Morse 
attempting to make an electro-magnet act through a/ circuit of a few 
yards of copper wire suspended around a room in the University of New 
York, and that he could not succeed in producing the desired effect even 
in thes short circuit; that he (Dr. Gale) asked him if he had studied Prof. 
Henry’s paper on the subject, and that the answer was “‘no;’’ that he 
then informed Mr. Morse that he would find the principles necessary to 
success explained in that paper; that instead of the battery of a single 
element, he should employ one of a number of pairs; and that, in place 
of the magnet with a short single wire, he should use one with a long 
coil. Dr. Gale further stated that his apparatus was in the same build- 
ing, and that having articles of the kind he had mentioned, he procured 
them, and that with these the action was produced through a circuit of 
half a mile of wire.* To this statement Mr. Morse made no reply. The 


* See Dr. Gale’s letter of April, 7, 1856, page 93. 


38 


interview then terminated, and I have since had no further communication 
with him on the subjeet. 


5. Please state whether or not you ever constructed any machine for 
producing motion by magnetic attraction and repulsion ; if yea, what was 
it, and what led to the making of it. 


Answer.—After developing the great magnetic power of the electro- 
magnet as already described, the thought occurred to me that this power 
might be applied to give motion to a machine. The simplest arrangement 
which suggested itself to my mind was one already referred to, namely, 
causing a movable bar, supported on a horizontal axis like a scale beam, 
to be attracted and repelled by two permanent magnets. This could be - 
readily effected by transmitting through a coil of wire around the suspended 
bar, a current of galvanism, first in one direction, and then in the opposite 
direction, the alternations of the current being produced by dipping the 
ends of wires projecting from the coils into cups of mercury connected 
with batteries, one oneither side. An account of this was published in 
Silliman’s Journal, for 1831, vol. xx., p. 340. It was the first successful 
attempt to produce a mechanical motion which might apparently be 
employed in the arts as a motive power. This little machine attracted 
much attention at home and abroad, and various modifications of it were 
made by myself and others. I never, however, regarded it as practically 
applicable in the arts, because of the great expense of producing power 
by this means, except, perhaps, in particular cases where expense of 
power is of little consequence. 


6. Please look at the drawings of the Columbian Telegraph, now shown 
you, marked G. W. B. and N. B. C., and certified by G. 8. Hillard, 
Commissioner. Describe generally the apparatus represented and its 
mode of operation, and state in what respects, if any, it differs from the 
telegraphic apparatus patented by Mr. Morse. 


Answer.—I have looked at the drawings, and I find, on examination, 
that it will be impossible for me to give a definite answer to the question, 
unless J have more time than is now at my disposal, and the means of 
examining and comparing the operations of the machines. 


7. Please state, if you can, how many original experiments you have 
made in the course of your investigations in electricity, magnetism, and 
electro-magnetism. 


Answer.—The experiments I have mentioned in this deposition fourm 
but a small part of my original investigations. Besides many that I made 
ia Albany, which I have not mentioned, since my removal to Princeton, 


39 


[ have made several thousands on electricity, magnetism, and electro- 
magnetism, particularly the former, which have more or less bearing on 
practical applications of this branch of science, brief minutes of which 
fill several hundred folio pages. Many of these have not been published 
in detail. They have cost me years of labor and much expense. 

The only reward I ever expected was the consciousness of advancing 
science, the pleasure of discovering new truths, and the scientific reputa- 


tion to which these labors would entitle me. 
JOSEPH HENRY. 


Sworn to before me, September 7, 1849. 
GEO. 8S. HILLARD, 


Commissioner. 





PORTRAITS 


OF 


NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS, 


WITH SKETCHES OF SCENERY, ETC., 


PAINTED BY 


J, Mo STANLEY. 


DEPOSITED WITH 


THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 








WASHINGTON: 
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 


DECEMBER, 1852. 


<<. 





s * 
ee SS ee 
e PHILADELPHIA: 
: COLLINS, PRINTER, 705 JAYNE STREET. 











PREFACE. 


THE collection embraced in this Catalogue comprises accu- 
rate portraits painted from life of forty-three different tribes 
of Indians, obtained at the cost, hazard, and inconvenience 
of a ten years’ tour through the South-western Prairies, New . 
Mexico, California, and Oregon. Of course, but a short de- 
scription of the characters represented or of the leading inci- 
dents in their lives is given. But even these brief sketches, it 
is hoped, will not fail to interest those who look at their por- 
traits, and excite some desire that the memory, at least, of 


these tribes may not become extinct. 
J. M. STANLEY. 


CONTENTS. 


SEMINOLES, sscccunsotawesiesteec secs 
GREEKS so ch sii canceneaccnenrcneiepees 
OHEROKERS eioccesocodeoaerenscctt's 
CHICKASA WS treneceoreenscsstecicnss 
POTOWATOMIES ccctascasocossseraue 
STOCKBRIDGES...ecscdcecccesthoasi's 
IMIONSERS)ccccosstrccdncssecesceasees 
TNO WAS scr: tasstacdecscossete=stcs 
CHIPPE WAS: «.sescececnscestscsscss 


BIA WARES: sc cascscastecscosecncees 


IWIBEIATTON ios tcasccessesescoscoetesente 


SHAWINDES sebettscctewecscvsicvss ss 
SAGS AND SHORES). csesoseecseesecis 
BLACK BERT. pecosesscoucssaceet ee 
QUAPAWS......+- a dae ct ee elo 
TOWAS)s cavbsserecasteevocccresesccees 
WicHETAWws, oR PawNez Picts 


CADDOESS. ak seeemeee rr oeaenateneen 


IAN ANDARKOES-accecssueccrececene 


PAGE 


5 

8 
14 
26 
26 
29 
30 


IWGACOESS cccwouo sence cuindesssuelencte 
NATCHITOCHES.....0..s00000008 ace 
MOWIOCCONTESS tse cere cetes ae sce 
IGE CHIES yaracsesccteers tartesrects 
COMANCHES, .ccntcssecusevdsas quater 
IPUBBEOS! sse8 ce seus sloneneeatnee eee 
WMPOQWAS)..cveccseccteecante cos cne 
ICVAME DH Ssasetatisesentesseaee aeons 
CALE APOOWAS)-csesecossesceetnonese 
CHINOOKS........ soncielaates Mons debe te 
CLACKMUS ts. ncscescoen semeecers ne 
WILLAMETTE Farts INDIANS... 
TLICKITACKS......- eauiececwaee stents 
WeATTA-WiALTAG A dcuscdeccacsnoeee 
CAVUSES! s dewisve os ccecuisdnereoncesits 
INEZ PERCESscccgscetcusesencaieeene 
PETIOUSES ssc ecsscocsiecssecdeentness 
SPOKANES soa. ceases certeiees jaeas 
Stony Istanp INDIANS......... 


OKANAGANS!. concceosechenescemecene 


PAGE 
50 
51 
dl 
52 
53 
59 
59 
59 
60 
60 
61 


65 
66 


72 


SEMINOLES. 


THE Seminoles originally belonged to the Creek family; but, owing 
to some internal dissensions, they left them and formed a separate 
and independent band. The Creeks gave them the appellation of 
Seminoles, which signifies “runaways.” On their removal west of 
the Mississippi, the government assigned to them a portion of the 
Creek country ; but being unwilling to come under the then existing 
Creek laws, they refused to oceupy it, and took up their abode in the 
Cherokee nation, in the vicinity of Fort Gibson. Here they resided 
until the spring of 1845, when they met the Creeks in council; and 
through the exertions of Major Wm. Armstrong, Superintendent of 
Indian Affairs in the South-west, Gov. P. M. Butler, Cherokee Agent, 
and Col. Jas. Logan, Creek Agent, their causes of dissatisfaction were 
removed, and they accordingly took up their abode in the Creek 
Nation, upon the waters of Little River. 


i. 


CO-WOCK-COO-CHEE, or WILDCAT. 
(Painted Dec. 1842.) 


A Seminole Chief, and one of the most celebrated of his tribe ; 
possessed of much vanity and an indomitable spirit, he has won for 
himself an exalted name and standing among his people. 

At the outbreak of the Florida War, he was a mere boy; but he 
shouldered his rifle, and fought with so much courage and despera- 
tion, that he was soon looked up to as a master-spirit. This gathered 
a band of warriors about him, who adopted him as their chief leader. 
At the head of this party he became a formidable enemy of the United 
States troops, and gave them much trouble during that campaign, and 
probably would never have fallen into the hands of the whites, had 
he been able to procure food and ammunition for his band: being 
reduced to a state of starvation, he was obliged to surrender, and, by 
treaty stipulations with the United States Government, was with his 


people removed west of the Mississippi. 
5 


6 SEMINOLES. 


2. 


AL-LECK TUSTENUGGEE. 
(Painted Dec. 1842.) 


This Chief is at the head of the Mikasukie band, and during the 
Florida War was one of the most active among the Seminoles. 

During this war, his band perpetrated some of the most cruel mur- 
ders on record; among them was that of Mrs. Montgomery, who 
was brutally massacred while riding on horseback, within a short 
distance of the post, where her husband, Lieut. Montgomery, of the 
_U.S. A., was stationed. Since the removal of his people west of the 
Mississippi, they have been quite peaceable, but not altogether con- 
tented. Great numbers have died from local diseases, and the in- 
temperate use of whiskey, which they procure on the frontier. 

He inquired particularly after the health of Gen. Worth, of the 
U.S. A:, of whom he spoke in the highest terms. He wore many 
ornaments and articles of dress, the gifts of that distinguished officer. 

I asked of him the privilege of painting one of his wives. He 
replied that his women had been hunted through the everglades of 
Florida until they were unfit to be seen; but whenever they recruited, 
he would not object to their being painted. 


De 
NOKE-SUKE TUSTENUGGEE. 
(Painted Dec. 1842.) 


A Seminole Sub-chief of the Mikasukie band. <A warrior of dis- 
tmction, and Al-leck Tustenuggee’s aid. 


4. 


AL-LECK TUSTENUGGEE, NOKE-SUKE TUSTENUGGEE, CUDJO, 
and GEO. W. CLARKE. 
(Painted Dec. 1842.) 


Cudjo is a negro Interpreter, who served the United States during 
the Florida War; and Geo. W. Clarke is Seminole Agent. 


SEMINOLES. 7 


De 
TUSTENUGGEE CHOP-KO, or THE BIG WARRIOR. 
(Painted Dec. 1842.) 


A Seminole Mikasukie Sub-chief, and one of the most distin- 
guished warriors of his tribe. He is six feet three inches in height, 
and well proportioned, and is esteemed one of the best ball-players 
among his people. His countenance indicates any thing but intelli- 
gence or shrewdness; on the contrary, it exhibits evidence of a 
capacity to commit any act, however cruel and atrocious, at the bid- 
ding of his chief. He is said to have cut off the hands of Mrs. Mont- 
gomery after her murder, for the purpose of procuring the rings upon 
her fingers. 


6. 


CHO-CO-TE TUSTENUGGEE. 
(Painted Dec. 1842.) 


A Sub-chief, of some note as a warrior, but abandoned and dissi- 
pated; he is painted in the costume in which he presented himself, 
with a bottle of “‘fire-water” in his hand. He possesses an amiable 
disposition, and is passionately fond of joking, which has acquired 
for him the celebrity of punster to the band. 


J 
HAL-BURTA-HADJO, or ALLIGATOR. 
(Painted Aug. 1843.) 


A Seminole Chief, celebrated for his prowess as a warrior. His 
name has been frequently before the public, as the instigator and 
perpetrator of many atrocious murders, during the Florida campaign. 
He has suffered much from sickness since his removal, and looks de- 
jected and careworn. 


8. 


COT-SA, or TIGER. 
(Painted Dee. 1842.) 


A Seminole Warrior, and son of Alligator. 


8 CREEKS. 


9. 


SEM-I-WOC-CA. 
(Painted Sept. 1843.) 


Represented as about crossing a small stream, with a corn-basket 
under her arm. She is attired in the costume peculiar to the Creek 
and Seminole women. Their dress consists of calico, of a coarse, 
cheap kind, worked to the depth of from twelve to fifteen inches from 
the bottom with different colours, in various devices. 

I found it exceedingly difficult to get the women of this tribe to 
sit for their pictures, owing to the opposition of their chiefs, who do 
not consider them worthy of such an honour. 


CREEKS. 


TuEsE people formerly resided in Georgia and Alabama, but were 
removed by the United States Government in 1836, and are now re- 
siding on the Arkansas, seven hundred miles west of the Mississippi. 
They are somewhat advanced in civilization and the arts. They 
mostly follow agricultural pursuits, having extensive farms and 
many negroes. The principal productions of the soil are corn and 
sweet potatoes; they raise some cotton, from which they manufacture 
a very substantial cloth, suitable to their own wants. Vegetables 
of almost every description are produced in abundance. They raise 
large stocks of horses, hogs, and cattle, to which their country is well 
adapted, being mostly prairie, and one of the finest grazing countries 
in the world. 

They adhere tenaciously to all their ancient customs, with a super- 
stitious awe and veneration, having among them their rain-makers, 
medicine or mystery men, in the potency of whose charms they are 
firm believers. 





CREEKS. 


10. 


OPOETH-LE-YO-HOLO. 
(Painted July, 1843.) 

Sjyeaker of the Upper Creeks. ‘This man holds the rank of 
prinépal counsellor, or speaker of the councils, over which he pre- 
sides vith great dignity. His influence is so great, that the questions 
submitied to council are generally decided according to his will; for 
his triby consider him as the organ of their chief, and suppose he 
only speiks as he is directed. 

“His power is such over them, that they have frequently requested 
him to subnit himself as a candidate for the principal chieftainship ; 
but he prefers his position as speaker, which brings him more imme- 
diately in coatact with his people, and gives him the advantage of 
displaying hisaddress and eloquence. 

“During the late unhappy contest between the United States and 
the Seminole Iniians, it was to be expected that the sympathies of the 
Creeks would be strongly excited in favour of the latter, who are a 
wandering tribe, lescendants from the Creek nation. Accordingly, 
in 1836, when the war grew hot, and the Seminoles were successful 
in several sanguinary engagements, the spirit of revolt spread through 
the Creek nation, and many of that people were urged, by the fatal 
destiny which seemed to have doomed that whole race to extinction, 
into open war. Sau-gah-at-chee, one of the towns of Opoeth-le-yo- 
holo’s district, was the first to revolt. The warriors, without a single 
exception, painted themselves for war; the young men rushed out 
upon the highways, and murdered all the travellers who fell in their 
way. Opoeth-le-yo-holo, on hearing the intelligence, immediately 
placed himself at the head of the warriors of his own town, marched 
upon the insurgents, burned their village, and, having captured some 
of their men, delivered them over to the military, by whom they 
were imprisoned.”—Mc Kinney. 


ti. 


OPOETH-LE-YO-HOLO. 
(1843.) 
Represented in the manner in which he paints himself when going 
to war. One would hardly recognise this celebrated chief in this 
disguise. He insisted on being thus painted, and it was with diffi- 


10 CREEKS. 


culty that he was afterwards induced to wash his face, and sit for 2 
portrait which his friends would be able to recognise. See No. 10. 


12. 


A CREEK BUFFALO DANCE. 
(Painted Aug. 1843.) 

This dance is enacted every year during the season of th+ir busk 
or green-corn dances; and the men, women, and children, al’ take an 
active part in the ceremony. They invest themselves with the scalp 
’ of the buffalo, with the horns and tail attached, and dance about in 
a circle, uttering sounds in imitation of the animal they represent, 
with their bodies in a half-bent position, supporting sheir weight 
upon their ball-sticks, which represent the forelegs of the buffalo. 


is. 


TUSTENUGGEE EMATHLA. 
(Painted June, 1843.) 

“This is a fine-looking man, six feet and one iach in height, and 
well proportioned, of manly and martial appearance and great physical 
strength, and is well calculated to command the respect of a band of 
savage warriors. He is generally known by the name of Jim Boy. 
Tustenuggee means ‘ warrior ;? and Emathla, ‘next to the warrior.’ 

‘He is and always has been a firm and undeviating friend of the 
whites: he led a party of seven hundred and seventy-six warriors to 
Florida, and endeavoured, first as mediator, to induce the Seminoles 
to abandon the bloody and fruitless contest in which they were en- 
gaged, but was unsuccessful. 

“Soon after his arrival at Tampa, he joined the camp of Col. Lane, 
by whom he was sent, with two hundred of his warriors, to look after 
the Seminoles. He fell in with a party of the latter, and drove them 
into a swamp, from which they opened a fire, and wounded several 
of his men. He was then sent to meet Gov. Call, and arrived at the 
spot where Gen. Gaines was surrounded, soon after that officer had 
been relieved. On the following day, he joined Goy. Call, and pro- 
ceeded to Fort Drane, where the Seminoles, though numerous, re- 
fused them battle, fled, and were pursued. The Creeks were unable 
to overtake them; but the Tennessee horse fell in with them on the 
following day, and a fight ensued, in which several were killed on 





CREEKS. it 


each side. Tustenuggee Hmathla and his party joined the army 
again at Fort Dade; and the Seminoles being in a swamp hard by, 
an attack was planned, in which the Creeks were invited to go fore- 
most, an honour which they promptly declined, while they cheerfully 
agreed to advance side by side with the white men. In this fight 
the Creeks lost four men, besides one who was accidentally killed by 
the whites, but the Seminoles were beaten. He was afterwards sent 
to a place towards St. Augustine for provisions, and was in several 
skirmishes not worth recording. 

“He says he joined our army under a promise made by the com- 
manding general, that in the removal of his people west of the Mis- 
Sissippi, about to take place, his property and family should be 
attended to, and that he should be indemnified for any loss that 
might happen in consequence of his absence. These stipulations, he 
alleges, were broken by the removal of his women and children, 
while he was absent in the service of the government, whereby his 
entire property was destroyed. Nor was this the worst of his mis- 
fortunes. His family, consisting of a wife and nine children, were 
among the unfortunate persons who were on board of the steamboat 
Monmouth, when that vessel was sunk by the mismanagement of those 
to whose care it was intrusted, and two hundred and thirty-six of the 
Creeks, including four of his children, were drowned. Melancholy 
as such an occurrence would be under any circumstances, the catas- 
trophe is infinitely the more deplorable when happening to an igno- 
rant people, while emigrating, unwillingly, under the charge of our 
public agents, and to a people whose whole intercourse with the 
whites has tended to render them suspicious of the faith of civilized 
men.” —Mc Kinney. 

He speaks English quite fluently, but will not converse with a man 
unless well acquainted with him; and he will not then speak it, in the 
presence of the Indians, lest he should compromise the dignity cha- 
racteristic of Indian greatness. For his interference in the Florida 
war, he has entailed upon himself the lasting hatred of the Semi- 
noles: they hold him in such utter abhorrence and detestation, that 
they would never look upon his portrait, while in my studio, without 
manifesting dissatisfaction and disgust. 

He is about fifty-two years of age, vigorous and active, and is 
still able to undergo much fatigue and hardship. He is beloved 
and respected by his people, and is one of the leading men of bis 
nation. 


12 CREEKS. 


14. 


TO-MATH-LA-MICCO, or THE LITTLE KING. 
(Painted June, 1843.) 


Principal Chief of the Upper Creeks. Distinguished only as a War- 
rior, he was elected to the chieftainship through the instrumentality 
of Opoeth-le-yo-holo, who has great influence over him. He is 
painted in the attitude of holding a red stick, which is invariably 
carried by him, during the ceremonies of the busk or green-corn 
dance. It is emblematical of the red-stick or late Creek war. 

Possessing no merit as an orator or counsellor, his will is easily 
swayed by his speaker. He is mild and amiable in his disposition, 
and much beloved by his people. 


1d. 


TUCK-A-BACK-A-MICCO, or THE MEDICINE-MAN or PHYSIC- 
MAKER. 
(Painted June, 1843.) 


This is the great Medicine or Mystery Man of the Creeks; his 
fields of corn are cultivated by the people of the town in which he 
resides, and a salary of five hundred dollars per annum is allowed 
him from the treasury of the nation, for his services. 

They suppose him to be indued with supernatural powers, and 
capable of making it rain copiously at will. 

In his town is a building of rather a singular and peculiar con- 
struction, used during their annual busk or green-corn dances as a 
dancing-house. It is of a circular form, about sixty feet in diameter 
and thirty feet high, built of logs; and was planned by this man in 
the following manner :— 

He cut sticks in miniature of every log required in the construc- 
tion of the building, and distributed them proportionately among the 
residents of the town, whose duty it was to cut logs corresponding 
with their sticks, and deliver them upon the ground appropriated for 
the building, ata given time. At the raising of the house, not a 
log was cut or changed from its original destination; all came to- 
gether in their appropriate places, as intended by the designer. 
During the planning of this building, which occupied him six days, 
he did not partake of the least particle of food. 


CREEKS. re 


He has in his possession, and wears, a medal said to have been 
presented to his parents by Gen. Washington. 
He is painted in the costume which he usually wears. 


16. 


TAH-COO-SAH FIXICO, or BILLY HARDJO. 
(Painted Aug. 1843.) 


Chief of one of the Upper Creek towns. He is a merchant or 
trader among his people; also, has an extensive farm and several 
negro slaves, which enable him to live very comfortably. He is 
much beloved and respected by his people. The dress in which he 
is painted is that of a ball-player, as they at first appear upon the 
ground. During the play they divest themselves of all their orna- 
ments, which are usually displayed on these occasions, for the pur- 
pose of betting on the result of the play: such is their passion for 
betting, that the opposing parties frequently bet from five hundred to 
a thousand dollars on a single game. 


1%. 


CHILLY McINTOSH. 
(Painted June, 1843.) 


An Upper Creek Chief. This man is a brother of Gen. McIntosh, 
who was killed some years since by his people, for negotiating a 
treaty with the United States Government, contrary to the laws of 
his.country. Chilly was pursued by the same party who massacred 
his brother, but succeeded in making his escape by swimming a 
river, which arrested his pursuers. 

‘“Menawa, who is called the Great Warrior, was commissioned by 
the chiefs to raise a party to march to the Indian Springs and exe- 
cute the judgment of their law upon McIntosh on his own hearth- 
stone. With the usual promptitude of the Indians in the prosecution 
of bloody business, Menawa was soon at the head of one hundred of 
his Oakfuskee braves, and, after a rapid march, arrived before the 
house of the fated McIntosh before day, on the morning of the first 
of May, just seventy-seven days after the signing of the treaty. The 
house having been surrounded, Menawa spoke:—‘Let the white 
people who are in the house come out, and also the women and 
children. We come not to injure them. McIntosh has broken the 
law made by himself, and we are come to take his life.’” 


4: CHEROKEES. 


This summons was obeyed by all to whom it was addressed. 
Chilly, who, having signed the treaty, was in the list of meditated 
victims, was enabled by his light complexion to pass out with the 
whites, and escaped. : 

Out of this occurrence arose two parties among the Creek Indians. 
Onc was composed of the bulk of the nation—the other of the fol- 
lowers of McIntosh, headed by Chilly. 

He speaks English fluently, and has seen much of civilized life, 
having spent much time at Washington, transacting business with 
the heads of Departments, in behalf of his people. He is among the 
first men of his nation. 


is. 


KEE-SEE-LAH ann AH-SEE-HEE. 
(Painted Aug. 1843.) 


Daughters of Opoeth-le-yo-holo. The latter is commonly denomi- 
nated the Young Queen. The remaining figure on the right is a 
half-breed and the wife of a white trader. 


CHEROKEES. 


Tuts nation’s territory borders on Arkansas and Missouri. They 
are a semi-civilized people, and are more advanced in the arts and 
agriculture than any other Indian Nation. “They number about 
twenty thousand souls. Most of them cultivate the soil with much 
success. Their farms are cultivated by slaves, of which they own 
great numbets. Corn is the staple production of the soil, although 
they raise some small grain, and enough cotton for home consump- 
tion. Many of them manufacture cloth sufficient for themselves and 
slaves. They display much taste in the formation of their patterns, 
many of which are truly beautiful. A sample may be found among 
the various Indian Curiosities attached to the Gallery. 


CHEROKEES. 15 


The National Authorities have established schools in every dis- 
trict throughout the nation, and engaged competent teachers to take 
charge of them. Missionaries of various denominations are assiduously 
engaged among them, from whose pious and exemplary conduct they 
are receiving lasting benefits. 


19. 


COO-WIS-COO-EE, or JOHN ROSS. 
(Painted Sept. 1844.) 


Principal Chief of the Cherokees. Mr. Ross has been for a number 
of years at the head of his people, which fact is sufficient evidence of 
the high estimation in which they hold him asa man capable of 
discharging the responsible duties devolving upon the office. Mr. R. 
is a man of education, and as a statesman would do honour to the 
legislative halls of any country. His hospitality is unbounded; 
from his soft and bland manners, his guests are at once made to feel 
at home, and forget that they are far from the busy scenes of civil- 
ization, and surrounded by the red men of the forest. His house is 
the refuge of the poor, starved, and naked Indian; when hungry, he 
is sure to find at the abode of this exemplary man something where- 
with to appease his hunger, and if naked, a garment to cover his 
nakedness. Of his private and political history much might be said; 
but we leave it to those who are more competent to the task, and 
able to do him that justice due to so eminent a man. 


20, 


KEETH-LA, or DOG. 
(Painted 1844.) 


Commonly called Major George Lowery, Second or Assistant 
Chief of the Cherokees; an office which he has filled for a num- 
ber of years with much credit to himself and the entire satisfaction 
of his people. He is about seventy years of age, speaks English 
fluently, and is an exemplary Christian. 

He is painted in the attitude of explaining the wampum, a tradition 
of the manner in which peace was first brought about among the 
the various Indian tribes. (See No. 27.) 


16 CHEROKEES. 


21. 
STAN WATIE. 
(Painted June, 1843.) 


A highly gifted and talented Cherokee. This man is a brother of 
Boudinot, who was murdered some years since for his participation 
in negotiating with the United States the New Echota treaty, (which 
has caused so much internal dissension among the Cherokees,) con- 
trary to the laws of his country. Stan Watie was also one of the 
signers of that instrument, but has thus far escaped the horrible 
death that befell his brother. He is reputed to be one of the 
bravest men of his people. During the session of the International 
Council, at Tah-le-quah, in June, 1848, he sat for his portrait; he 
was surrounded by hundreds of his enemies at the time, but did not 
manifest the least symptoms of fear during his sojourn. A biogra- 
phy of this man’s life would form a very interesting volume. 


22. 


THOMAS WATIE. 
(Painted 1842.) 


Brother of Stan WariE, a fine-looking man, but abandoned and 
dissipated. He is a printer by trade, and speaks English fluently 
and writes a good hand. 


23. 


YEAH-WEE-00-YAH-GEE, or THE SPOILED PERSON. 
(Painted 1844.) 


This man was one of the signers of the first treaty made with the 
Cherokees by the United States Government, during the administra: 
tion of General Washington. He says he was at that time quite 
a young warrior, but he distinctly recollects how the General looked, 
and all that took place. He describes the manner in which the In- 
dians were received by their Great Father as follows :— The white 
men stood like geese flying, the Great Father standing at the head. 
The Indians were told by the interpreter, that they must not shake 
hands with any one until they had shaken the hand of their Great 
Father; they all passed through the centre, and each in his turn 
shook him by the hand.” He also gave an amusing description of 
the dinner which was prepared for themwn that occasion. 


CHEROKEES. 17 


During the Creek war he fought with the whites against the 
Creeks, and at the battle of Horse Shoe received several wounds. He 
is now about 88 years of age, and receives a pension from the United 
States for his services during that war: he is still in the full en- 
joyment of all his faculties, having ridden thirty miles on horseback 
to sit for the portrait now exhibited. 


24. 


OH-TAH-NEE-UN-TAH, orn CATCHER. 
(Painted 1844.) 
A Cherokee Warrior. 
4 
2. 


CHARLES McINTOSH. 
(Painted 1842.) 


A Cherokee half-breed, about twenty-three years of age, little 
known among his people until December, 1842. He then distinguished 
himself by killing a man upon the Prairies, by the name of Merrett, 
an escaped convict from the jail at Van Buren, Arkansas, who with 
his brother was under sentence to the State Prison, had escaped, and 
fled to the Prairies, where they carried on a sort of land piracy, rob- 
bing and murdering all travellers whom chance threw into their 
power. 


26. 


WE-CHA-LAH-NAE-HE, or THE SPIRIT. 
(Painted 1844.) 


Commonly called John Huss. A regular ordained minister of the 
Presbyterian denomination, and speaks no English. He is a very 
pious and good man. ‘The following letter, written in the Cherokee 
language, which I received from him, will give the reader some idea 
of the situation of the people under his pastoral charge. 


TAH-LE-QUAH, CHEROKEE N41r0n, 
January 30th, 1844. 

My Frrenp :—You wish that I should tell you something about 
the Cherokees living on Honey Creek. I suppose you wish to know 
whether the people are acting as a civilized or uncivilized people 
Tam very glad to hear that you wish to know something about the 

2 


18 CHEROKEES. 


Cherokees. TI will write to you in Cherokee, it being the only lan- 
guage which I can write. I cannot write the English language as 
the Whites. You can get some person to interpret this for you. 

When we came to this country and settled on Honey Creek, there 
were but few who emigrated from east of the Mississippi, that formerly 
were connected with the church, who had settled in this place; but 
now there are a great many, and we have built a house of God, and 
on the Sabbath-day we pray to him at that place, and we have the 
gospel of God preached to us, and we meet here every Sabbath. The 
people attend to what is said during divine service, and we have a 
Sunday-school. The children attend to learn to read, both in Chero- 
kee and English; we have also formed a Temperance Society, and 
have met once, which was on the first of the month; it was a very 
cold day, and only few attended, but I think about fifty signed the 
pledge. We have lately formed a Bible Society in this neighbour- 
hood, and have met once. There were about thirty subscribed their 
names to give money to buy good books. There were only twenty 
dollars received. In this manner the people are gradually improving 
under the influence of the gospel, and I believe they have become 
acquainted with God and his Son. 


I am your ob’t servant, 
JOHN HUSS. 


27. 


INTERNATIONAL INDIAN COUNCIL. 
) (Painted 1843.) 


This council was convened by John Ross, at Tah-le-quah, in the 
Cherokee Nation, in the month of June, 1843, and continued in 
session four weeks. Delegates from seventeen tribes were present, 
and the whole assemblage numbered some ten thousand Indians. 
During the session, each of the chiefs and warriors of the several 
delegations delivered a “talk ;”’ but want of space compels us to 
confine ourselves to the explanation of the wampum belt, and the 
speech of Mr. Ross. 

Major George Lowrey, Second Chief of the Cherokees, (No. 20,) in 
explanation of the wampum, spoke as follows :— 

“You will now hear a talk from our forefathers. You must not 
think hard, if we make a few mistakes in describing our wampum ; if 
we do, we will try and rectify them. 


CHEROKEES. 19 


*“My Brotuers, you will now hear what our forefathers said to us. 

“Tn the first place, the Senecas, a great many years ago, devised 
a plan for us to become friends. When this plan was first laid, the 
Seneca rose up and said, I fear the Cherokee, because the toma- 
hawk is stuck in several parts of his head. The Seneca afterward 
remarked, that he saw the tomahawk still sticking in all parts of the 
Cherokee’s head, and heard him whooping and hallooing say that he 
was too strong to die. The Seneca further said: Our warriors in old 
times used to go to war; when they did go, they always went to fight 
the Cherokees; sometimes one or two would return home—sometimes 
none. He further said, The Great Spirit must love the Chero- 
kees, and we must be in the wrong, going to war with them. The 
Seneca then said, Suppose we make friends with the Cherokee, and 
wash his wounds and cause them to heal up, that he may grow larger 
than he was before. The Seneca, after thus speaking, sat down. 
The Wyandot then rose and said, You have done right, and let it 
be. Iam your youngest brother, and you are our oldest. This word 
was told to the Shawnees: they replied, We are glad, let it be; you 
are our elder brothers. The Senecas then said, they would go about 
and pray to the Great Spirit for four years to assist them in making 
peace, and that they would set aside a vessel of water and cover it, 
and at the end of every year they would take the cover off, and ex- 
amine the water, which they did: every time they opened it, they 
found it was changed; at the end of four years they uncovered the 
vessel and found that the water had changed to a colour that suited 
them. The Seneca then said, The Great Spirit has had mercy upon 
us, and the thing has taken place just as we wished it. 

“The Shawnee then said, We will make straight paths; but let us 
make peace among our neighbouring tribes first, before we make this 
path to those afar off. 

“The Seneca then said, Before we make peace, we must give our 
neighbouring tribes some fire; for it will not do to make peace with- 
out it,—they might be travelling about, and run against each other, 
and probably cause them to hurt each other. These three tribes 
said, before making peace that this fire which was to be given to 
them should be kindled in order that a big light may be raised, so 
they may see each other at a long distance; this is to last so long as 
the earth stands; they said further, that this law of peace shall last 
from generation to generation—so long as there shall be a red man 
living on this earth; they also said, that the fire shall continue 


20 CHEROKEES. 


among us and shall never be extinguished as long as one remains. 
The Seneca further said to the Shawnees, I have put a belt around 
you, and have tied up the talk in a bundle, and placed it on your 
backs ; we will now make a path on which we will pass to the Sioux. 
The Seneca said further, You shall continue your path until it 
shall reach the lodge of the Osage. When the talk was brought to 
the Sioux, they replied, We feel thankful to you and will take your 
talk; we can see a light through the path you have made for us. 

‘‘When the Shawnee brought the talk to the Osages, they replied, 
By to-morrow, by the middle of the day, we shall have finished 
our business. The Osage said further, The Great Spirit has been 
kind to me; he has brought something to me, I being fatigued hunt- 
ing for it. When the Shawnee returned to the lodge of the Osages, 
they were informed that they were to be killed, and they immediately 
ly made their escape. 

‘“‘When the Shawnees returned to their homes whence they came, 
they said they had been near being killed. 

“The Seneca then said to the Shawnees, that the Osages must be 
mistaken. They sent them back to them again. The Shawnees 
went again to see the Osages—they told them their business. The 
Osages remarked, The Great Spirit has been good to us,— 
to-morrow by the middle of the day he will give us something with- 
out fatigue. When the Shawnees arrived at the lodge, an old man 
of the Osages told them that they had better make their escape; 
that if they did not, by the middle of the following day, they were 
all to be destroyed, and directed them to the nearest point of the 
woods. The Shawnees made their escape about midday. They 
discovered the Osages following them, and threw away their packs, 
reserving the bag their talk was in, and arrived at their camp safe. 
When the Shawnees arrived home, they said they had come near being 
killed, and the Osages refused to receive their talk. The Seneca 
then said, If the Osages will not take our talk, let them remain as 
they are; and when the rising generation shall become as one, the 
Osages shall be like some herb standing alone. The Seneca further 
said, The Osages shall be like a lone cherry-tree, standing in the 
prairies, where the birds of all kinds shall light upon it at pleasure. 
The reason this talk was made about the Osages was, that they prided 
themselves upon their warriors and manhood, and did not wish to make 
peace 

“The Seneca further said, We have succeeded in making peace with 


CHEROKEES. 21 


al 


all the Northern and neighbouring tribes. The Seneca then said 
to the Shawnees, You must now turn your course to the South: you 
must make your path to the Cherokees, and even make it into their 
houses. When the Shawnees started at night they took up their camp 
and sat up all night, praying to the Great Spirit to enable them to 
arrive in peace and safety among the Cherokees. The Shawnees 
still kept their course, until they reached a place called Tah-le-quah, 
where they arrived in safety, as they wished, and there met the 
chiefs and warriors of the Cherokees. When they arrived near Tah- 
le-quah, they went to a house and sent two men to the head chiefs. 
The chief’s daughter was the only person in the house. As soon 
as she saw them, she went out and met them, and shook them by 
the hand and asked them into the house to sit down. The men 
were all in the field at work—the girl’s father was with them. She 
ran and told him that there were two men in the house, and that 
they were enemies. The chief immediately ran to the house and 
shook them by the hand, and stood at the door. The Cherokees all 
assembled around the house, and said, Let us kill them, for they are 
enemies. Some of the men said No, the chief’s daughter has taken 
them by the hand; so also has our chief. The men then became bet- 
ter satisfied. The chief asked the two men if they were alone. They 
answered, no; that there were some more with them. He told them 
to go after them and bring them to his house. When these two men 
returned with the rest of their people, the chief asked them what 
their business was. They then opened this valuable bundle, and told 
him that it contained a talk for peace. The chief told them, I can- 
not do business alone; all the chiefs are assembled at a place called 
Cho-qua-ta, where I will attend to your business in general council. 
When the messengers of peace arrived at Cho-qua-ta, they were kindly 
received by the chiefs, who told them they would gladly receive their 
talk of peace. The messengers of peace then said to the Cherokees, 
We will make a path for you to travel in, and the rising generation 
may do the same,—we also will keep it swept clean and white, 
so that the rising generation may travel in peace. The Shawnee 
further said, We will keep the doors of our houses open, so that when 
the rising generation come among us they shall be welcome; he 
further said, This talk is intended for all the different tribes of our 
red brothers, and is to last to the end of time; he further said, 
I have made a fire out of the dry elm—this fire is for all the different 
tribes to see by. I have put one chunk toward the rising sun, one 


22. CHEROKEES. 


toward the setting sun, one toward the north, and one toward the 
south. This fire is not to be extinguished so long as time lasts. I 
shall stick up a stick close by this fire, in order that it may fre- 
quently be stirred, and raise a light for the rising generation to see 
by; if any one should turn in the dark, you must catch him by the 
hand, and lead him to the light, so that he can see that he was wrong. 

‘“‘T have made you a fire-light, I have stripped some white hickory 
bark and set it up against the tree, in order that when you wish to re- 
move this fire, you can take it and put it on the bark; when you 
kindle this fire it will be seen rising up toward the heavens. I will 
see it and know it; I am your oldest brother. The messenger of 
peace further said, I have prepared white benches for you, and leaned 
the white pipe against them, and when you eat you shall have but 
one dish and one spoon. We have done every thing that was good, 
but our warriors still hold their tomahawks in their hands, as if they 
wished to fight each other. We will now take their tomahawks from 
them and bury them; we must bury them deep under the earth where 
there is water; and there must be winds, which we wish to blow them 
so far that our warriors may never see them again. 

‘“‘ The messenger further said, Where there is blood spilt I will wipe 
it up clean—wherever bones have been scattered, I have taken them 
and buried them, and covered them with white hickory bark and a 
white cloth—there must be no more blood spilt; our warriors must 
not recollect it any more; our warriors said that the Cherokees were 
working for the rising generation by themselves; we must take hold 
and help them. 

“The messengers then said that you Cherokees are placed now 
under the centre of the sun; this talk I leave with you for the differ- 
ent tribes, and when you talk it, our voice shall be loud enough to 
be heard over this island. This is all I have to say.” 

Mr. Ross then arose and addressed the Council as follows: 

‘ Broruers: The talk of our forefathers has been spoken, and 
you have listened to it. You have also smoked the pipe of peace, 
and shaken the right hand of friendship around the Great Council- 
fire, newly kindled at Tah-le-quah, in the west, and our hearts have 
been made glad on the interesting occasion. 

“ Brothers: When we look into the history of our race, we see 
some green spots that are pleasing to us. We also find many things 
to make the heart sad. When we look upon the first council-fire 
kindled by our forefathers, when the pipe of peace was smoked in 


CHEROKEES. 93 


_ 


brotherly friendship between the different nations of red people, our 
hearts rejoice in the goodness of our Creator in having thus united 
the heart and hand of the red man in peace. 

“For it is in peace only that our women and children can enjoy 
happiness and increase in numbers. 

“‘ By peace our condition has been improved in the pursuit of civil- 
ized life. We should, therefore, extend the hand of friendship from 
tribe to tribe, until peace shall be established between every nation 
of red men within the reach of our voice. 

“ Brothers: When we call to mind the only associations which en- 
deared us to the land which gave birth to our ancestors, where we 
have been brought up in peace to taste the benefits of civilized life; 
and when we see that our ancient fire has there been extinguished, 
and our people compelled to remove to a new and distant country, 
we cannot but feel sorry; but the designs of Providence, in the 
course of events, are mysterious—we should not, therefore, despair 
of once more enjoying the blessings of peace in our new homes. 

“ Brothers: By this removal, tribes that were once separated by 
distance have become neighbours, and some of them, hitherto not 
known to each other, have met and become acquainted. ‘There are, 
however, numerous other tribes to whom we are still strangers. 

‘‘ Brothers : It is for reviving here in the west the ancient talk of our 
forefathers, and of perpetuating for ever the old fire and pipe of peace 
brought from the east, and of extending them from nation to nation, 
and for adopting such international laws as may be necessary to re- 
dress the wrongs which may be done by individuals of our respective 
nations upon each other, that you have been invited to attend the 
present council. 

“‘ Brothers, let us so then act that the peace and friendship which so 
happily existed between our forefathers, may be for ever preserved ; 
and that we may always live as brothers of the same family.” 

The following compact was then introduced by Mr. Ross, for the 
deliberation and action of the council :— 

“< Whereas, the removal of the Indian tribes from the homes of 
their fathers, east of the Mississippi, has there extinguished our 
ancient council-fires, and changed our position in regard to each 
other; and whereas, by the solemn pledge of treaties, we are assured 
by the government of the United States that the lands which we now 
possess shall be the undisturbed home of ourselves and our pcsterity 
for ever. Therefore, we the authorized representatives of the several 


94 CHEROKEES. 


nations, parties hereunto assembled around the Great Council-fire, 
kindled in the west, at Tah-le-quah, in order to preserve the existence 
of our race, to revive and cultivate friendly relations between our 
several communities, to secure to all their respective rights, and to 
promote the general welfare, do enter into the following compact : 

“1st. Peace and friendship shall be for ever maintained between 
the parties to this compact, and between their respective citizens. 

“9d. Revenge shall not be cherished, nor retaliation practised for 
offences committed by individuals. 

“¢3d. To provide for the improvement of our people in agriculture, 
manufactures, and other domestic arts, adapted to promote the com- 
fort and happiness of our women and children, a fixed and perma- 
nent location on our lands is an indispensable condition. In order, 
therefore, to secure those important objects, to prevent any future 
removal, and to transmit to our posterity an unimpaired title to lands 
guarantied to our respective nations by the United States, we 
hereby solemnly pledge ourselves to each other, that no nation, party 
to this compact, shall, without the consent of all the other parties, 
cede, or in any manner alienate to the United States any part of 
their present territory. 

“Ath. If a citizen of one nation commit wilful murder, or other 
crimes, within the limits of another nation, party hereto, he shall be 
subject to the same treatment as if he were a citizen of that nation. 
In cases of property stolen, or taken by force or fraud, the property, 
if found, shall be restored to the owner; but if not found, the con- 
victed person shall pay the full value thereof. 

“5th. Ifa citizen of any nation, party to this compact, shall com- 
mit murder or other crime, and flee from justice into the territory 
of any other party hereto, such criminal shall, on demand of the 
principal chief of the nation from which he fled, (accompanied with 
reasonable proof of his guilt,) be delivered up to the authorities of 
the nation having jurisdiction of the crime. 

“6th. We hereby further agree, that if any of our respective citi- 
zens shall commit murder or other crime upon the person of any such 
citizen in any place beyond the limits of our several territories, the 
person so offending shall be subject to the same treatment as if the 
offence had been committed within the limits of his own nation. 

“7th. Any citizen of one nation may be admitted to citizenship 
im any other nation, party hereto, by the consent of the proper au- 
thorities of such nation. 


CHEROKEES. 25 


“8th. The use of ardent spirits being a fruitful source of crime 
and misfortune, we recommend its suppression within our respective 
limits; and agree that no citizen of one nation shall introduce them 
into the territory of any other nation, party to this compact.” 

The foregoing compact was, however, only signed by two or three 
tribes; it was something new to the delegates, and a project they did 
not feel authorized to act upon without consulting their respective 
constituents; each delegation was furnished with a copy for future 
deliberation and action. 

Although the council failed in its main object, we doubt not that 
much good will result from the commingling of so many different 
tribes, who have often been arrayed against each other in deadly 
strife, upon the immense plains which supplies most of them with 
the means of subsistence. 

During the whole session the utmost good feeling and harmony 
prevailed; the business was brought to a close at sundown, after 
which the various tribes joimed in dancing, which was usually kept 
up to a late hour. 


28. 
THREE CHEROKEE LADIES. 
(Painted 1842.) 


e 
29. 


TWO CHEROKEE GIRLS. 
(Painted 1842.) 


30. 
CADDO COVE, CADDO CREEK, ARKANSAS. 
(Painted 1843.) 


Gov. P. M. Butler and party on their return from council with 
the wild Indians. 


oi. 


VIEW OF THE ARKANSAS VALLEY FROM MAGAZINE 
MOUNTAIN. 
(Painted 1844.) 


26 POTOWATOMIES. 


32. 


NATURAL DAM IN CRAWFORD COUNTY, ARKANSAS. 
(Painted 1844.) 


33. 


VIEW OF DARDANELLE ROCK ON THE ARKANSAS, 
(Painted 1844.) 


CHICKASAW. 


34. 


ISH-TON-NO-YES, or JAMES GAMBLE. 
(Painted 1843.) 


Chickasaw Interpreter. A young man of education, and speaks 
Finglish fluently. 


POTOWATOMIES. 


TnHeEsE people formerly owned and occupied a large tract of land 
in Michigan, and have by treaty stipulations been removed west of 
the Mississippi; they are at present located on the Missouri, in the 
vicinity of Council Bluffs. A portion of them raise some corn and a 
few vegetables, but do not cultivate the soil to any great extent. 
They are supposed to have originally belonged to the Chippewa 
family, as their language, manners, and customs bear a similarity 
to them. 


POTOWATOMIES. oT 


35. 


WA-BON-SEH, or THE WHITE SKY. 
(Painted June, 1843.) 


Principal Chief of the Prairie Band of Potowatomies, residing near 
Council Bluffs. This chief is a bold and sagacious warrior, but pos- 
sesses no merit as an orator; his will is submitted to his people 
through his speaker, a man possessed of great powers of oratory. 

Many of his war exploits are of a thrilling and exciting nature ; 
but the want of room compels us to restrict ourselves to one or two 
instances only of his firmness and bold daring. 

Some years since, a war-party of Osages visited their country and 
made an unexpected attack upon them, killing many of their war- 
riors and escaping with their scalps. Immediate retaliation was out 
of the question. Years passed away, during which time many of his 
people died with the small-pox and intemperate use of whiskey, 
thereby reducing his warriors to a mere handful. Notwithstanding 
this dire calamity, Wabonseh still cherished that spirit of revenge 
so dear to an Indian’s heart, and determined to avenge the death of 
his people. 

He accordingly collected a small party, visited the Osage country, 
and made a descent upon one of their villages, which contained triple 
their own number of warriors. Nothing daunted, he determined to 
make an attack. They consequently secreted themselves in the 
neighbourhood, and waited the approach of night. It was dark and 
cloudy, and well suited to their purposes. A spy was despatched to 
learn the position of their enemies, with orders to return to camp 
when the Osages were slumbering. About midnight he made his 
appearance, bringing the intelligence that all was quiet. Wa-bon-seh 
and his party made their way to the village, crept upon the war- 
riors who lay sleeping around the embers of their camp-fires, uncon- 
scious of the fate that awaited them. Ata signal from the chief the 
work of death commenced; those who escaped this fate were aroused 
by the noise, and fled in terror. 

Wa-bon-seh, having been successful in procuring the scalps of seve- 
ral of their warriors, did not pursue them, but set fire to their lodges, 
and made good his retreat. At sunrise they were far on their way 
towards their homes. 

This man was in attendance at the great international council held 
at Tah-le-quah, in the Cherokee nation, during the month of June, 


98 POTOWATOMIES. 


1843. Shortly after his arrival he entered the camp of his old ene- 
mies, the Osages. The old chief, Black Dog, and some six of his 
warriors were seated upon the ground, busily engaged in mending - 
their moccasins, and did not for some time perceive him. After main- 
taining silence for some time, and gazing upon the timeworn visage 
of the Osage chief, he asked him, through the interpreter, if he recol- 
lected the facts above alluded to. Black Dog replied, that he re- 
membered the circumstance well; he then told him that he was the 
warrior who led the party upon that occasion. Black Dog and his 
party immediately sprang to their feet, and each in his turn shook 
the venerable chief by the hand, and assured him that hereafter they 
would be firm and lasting friends. The pipe of peace was then lit, 
and they sat down to enjoy a friendly smoke. 

This little circumstance tends to show the friendly feeling that 
existed among the several tribes assembled upon that occasion. 

“Tn 1812, he and his tribe were among the allies of Great Britain, 
and actively engaged against the United States. But at the treaty 
held at Greenville, in 1814, he was one of those, who, in the Indian 
phrase, took the seventeen fires by the hand and buried the toma- 
hawk. He has ever since been an undeviating friend of the Ameri- 
can government and people. 

‘‘He was one of the chiefs who negotiated the treaty of the Wa- 
bash in 1836. At the close of the treaty, and while encamped on 
the bank of the river near the spot where the town of Huntingdon 
now stands, he engaged in a frolic, and indulged too freely in ardent 
spirits. A mad scene ensued, such as usually attends a savage revel,’ 
in the course of which, a warrior who had the station of friend or aid 
to Wa-bon-seh, accidentally plunged his knife deep in the side of the 
chief. The wound was dangerous, and confined him all winter; but 
Gen. Tipton, then agent of our government in that quarter, having 
kindly attended to him, he was carefully nursed, and survived. His 
sometime friend, fearing that he might be considered as having for- 
feited that character, had fled as soon as he was sober enough to be 
conscious of his own unlucky agency in the tragic scene. 

‘Karly in the spring, Gen. Tipton was surprised by a visit from 
Wa-bon-seh, who came to announce his own recovery, and thank the 
agent for his kindness. The latter seized the occasion to effect a r 
corciliation between the chief and his fugitive friend, urging upon 
the former the accidental nature of the injury, and the sorrow and 
alarm of the offender. Wa-bon-seh replied instantly, ‘You may send 


STOCKBRIDGES. 29 


to him and tell him to come back—a man that will run off like a dog 
with his tail down, for fear of death, is not worth killing. I will not 
hurt him.’ We are pleased to say he kept his word.” 





Me Kinney. 


36. 
OP-TE-GEE-ZHEEK, or HALF-DAY. 
(Painted June, 1843.) 

Principal Speaker and Counsellor of the Potowatomies. This man 
is justly celebrated for his powers of oratory. By his dignity of 
manner, and the soft and silvery tones of his voice, he succeeds ad- 
mirably in gaining the most profound attention of all within hearing. 
At the council which he attended in the Cherokee nation he attracted 
universal attention, both from his eloquence and the singularity of 
his dress, the style of which he probably obtained from the Catholic 
missionaries residing upon the frontier. 


3%. 
NA-SWA-GA, or THE FEATHERED ARROW. 
(Painted 1843.) 
Principal Chief of a band of Potowatomies, residing on the waters 
of Little Osage River; he is distinguished as a bold warrior. 


STOCKBRIDGES. 


’ 38. 


THOMAS HENDRICK. 
(Painted 1843.) 
PrincrpaL Chief of the Stockbridges. Of this tribe but few are 
living, and they have united themselves with the Delawares, with 


whom they cultivate the soil in common. This man speaks good 
English, and is very affable in his manners. 


30 MUNSEES.—OTTAWAS. 


MUNSEES. 


39. 


JIM GRAY. 
(Painted 1843.) 


PrincrpaL Chief of the Munsees, a small tribe residing with the 
Delawares. 


OTTA WAS. 


40. 


SHAB-A-NEE. 
(Painted 1843.) 


Aw Ottawa Chief. This man is well known throughout the north- 
ern part of Michigan and Illinois, his people having formerly occu- 
pied and owned the soil in that region. During the late war he was 
one of the most prominent actors, and one of Tecumseh’s counsellors 
and aides-de-camp. He says he was near Tecumseh when he fell, 
and represents him as having been stabbed through the body with 
a bayonet, by a soldier: he seized the gun with his left hand, raised 
his tomahawk, and was about to despatch him, when an officer, wear- 
ing a chapeau and riding a white horse, approached him, drew a 
pistol from his holster, and shot him. He and the remaining few of 
his people reside with the Potowatomies, near Council Bluffs, on the 
Missour. 


CHIPPEWAS.—DELAWARES. 31 


CHIPPEWAS. 


Al. 


SAUSH-BUX-CUM, or BEAVER DRAGGING A LIMB. 
(Painted 1843.) 


A Cuippewa Cuter. This man is chief of a small band of Chip- 
pewas, residing in the Potowatomie country; these are more advanced 
in civilization than those living on the Northern Lakes; they are not 
unlike the Potowatomies in their manners and customs. 


DELAWARKES. 


THE history of this once powerful tribe is recorded in the early 
settlements of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Ohio, Indiana, 
and Illinois. There is perhaps no tribe who have been more en- 
croached upon by the whites, or who have more manfully resisted 
civilized invasion, as they have been forced from the graves and hunt- 
ing-grounds of their forefathers, than the Delawares. They now 
occupy a small tract of country west of the Missouri river, and sub- 
sist by cultivation. 


42, 
CAPT. KETCHUM. 
(Painted 1843.) 
A Delaware Chief. 


43. 
SECOND EYE. 
(Painted 1843.) 
A Delaware Chief. 


39 DELAWARES. 


44, 


RO-KA-NOO-WHA, tat LONG TRAVELLER. 
(Painted 18438.) 


Commonly called Jim Second Eye, Head War-Chief of the Dela- 
wares. 

Some years since, a small band of Delawares, while on a hunting 
and trapping expedition on the Upper Missouri, were surprised by a 
large party of Sioux, who fell upon them and murdered all but one 
of the party, who succeeded in making good his escape and returned 
to his people. Second Hye immediately started with a small force 
to avenge the death of his warriors; after travelling several weeks, 
they fell in with the identical party who committed the depredation. 
The Sioux, anticipating an attack, retreated to a deep ravine in 
the mountains in order to defend themselves more advantageously. 
Second Eye, perceiving the many disadvantages under which he 
laboured, but having an indomitable spirit, determined to surmount 
all obstacles, and obtain that vengeance which the death of his 
warriors loudly called for. He waited until all was quiet within the 
ravine, raised the war-whoop, rushed madly upon them, and mas- 
sacred the whole party; he having with his own hands cut off the 
heads of sixteen Sioux, which he threw to his warriors to scalp. 

He speaks some English, and is frequently employed by the United 
States and Texas asa “runner” to the wild Indians, with whom he 
carries ona very successful trade. He derives his name of Long 
Traveller from the fact that he has crossed the mountains to Oregon, 
and has visited Santa Fé, California, and the Nayahoe Village. 


4D. 
AH-LEN-I-WEES. 
(Painted 1843.) 
A Delaware Warrior of distinction in his tribe. 


46, 
CAPT. McCALLAH. 
(Painted 1843.) 
Principal Chief of the Texan Delawares. This man is very influ- 
ential among his people; he also exerts a great influence over the 
wild Indians, and his presence is considered indispensable at all 





DELAWARES. 33 


councils convened either by the United States or Texas, for the pur- 
pose of negotiating treaties. 


4%. 


PA-CON-DA-LIN-QUA-ING, or ROASTING EARS. 
(Painted 1843.) 

Second or Assistant Chief of the Texan Delawares, and Principal 
Orator and Councillor. 

The following is the interpretation of a speech he made ai a coun- 
cil on the river Brasos, called by the government of Texas, and to 
which council Gov. P. M. Butler was sent as commissioner on the 
part of the United States, to assist the Texan commissioners in mak- 
ing a treaty with the wild Indians :— 

“Frrenps: I am much pleased to meet you here at this hour 
of the morning. 

“Dear Brothers: I am rejoiced to see the course you are pursuing 
in this business. . I am likewise much pleased to hear that which 
you have spoken. Understanding that you were about to enter into 
this business, and having the welfare of my people at heart, I now 
appear before you. I wish you, my friends, to endeavour to make 
peace with our red brothers; and I pledge myself to aid and assist 
you all in my power. It will be very well that you implicitly obey 
the orders of your chief. I do not wish you, my friends, to notice 
things of little importance, but to turn your attention to things which 
deserve it, and I will act in the same manner. The Great Spirit is 
now looking down upon us, and will mark whether we are now tell- 
ing the truth; and if he find we do, he will cause the peace we are 
about to make to be religiously kept. 

“My Friends: I wish to go hand in hand with you. The treaty 
must affect alike both men and women; and [ also tell you, that you 
must prevent your young men from committing depredations on my 
red brothers, and I will do the same with mine. 

“Gov. Butler has been sent here by our great and mutual father, 
the President of the United States, to witness the treaty we are about 
to enter into. Let this not be children’s play, but as men who are 
determined on entering into the firm bonds of friendship and peace. 
For the present I have but little to say, but what I have spoken is 
true, and it came from my heart. While I stand in the midst of 
this assemblage, [ am at a loss for words to express my ideas. You 


will therefore excuse me for the present.” 
3 


34. WEEAHS.—SHAWNEES. 


WEEAUBS. 


48. 


WAH-PONG-GA, or THE SWAN. 
(Painted 1843.) 

PrincipaL Chief of the Weeahs. Once a powerful tribe, but now 
reduced to the small number of two hundred warriors. They for- 
merly resided in Indiana, and are at present located with the Pianke- 
shaws, about forty miles south of Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri. 


SHAWNEKS. 


Tue history of this once powerful tribe is so closely connected 
with that of the United States in the revolutionary and last war, 
that it is pretty well understood. They formerly occupied the states 
of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and for many years past a part of 
the states of Indiana and Ohio. 

They now occupy a rich tract of country west of the Missouri 
River, enjoying all the comforts of a civilized life. 


AS. 


QUAH-GOM-MEE. 
(Painted 1843.) 


Principal Chief of the Shawnees. 


50. 


SHAC-EE-SHU-MOO. 
(Painted 1843.) 


An hereditary Shawnee Chief. 


SACS AND FOXES. 35 


ol. 


PAH-QUE-SAH-AH, or LITTLE TECUMSEH. 
(Painted 1843.) 


A son of Tecumseh. He has none of the extraordinary traits of 
character for which his sire was celebrated, and is of very little note 
in his tribe; he was in the battle in which his father fell. 


SACS AND FOXKS. 


52. 


KEOKUK.—HEAD CHIEF. 
(Painted May, 1846.) 


“Tire former residence of the Sacs was on the banks of the St. 
Lawrence, where they were driven by the Six Nations, with whom 
they carried on a long and bloody war. As they retired toward the 
west, they became embroiled with the Wyandots, and were driven, 
farther and farther along the shores of the lakes, until they found a 
temporary resting-place at Green Bay. 

“Here they were joined by the Musquakees, (Foxes, ) who, having 
been so reduced by war as to be unable to maintain themselves as a 
separate people, sought refuge among their kindred. They subse- 
quently removed to Illinois on Rock River; where, surrounded by 
the choicest beauties of nature, it would seem that a taste for the 
picturesque, a sense of the enjoyment of home and comfort, and an 
ardent love of country would have been implanted and fostered. But 
we find no such results—and the Sacs of Illinois presented the same 
character half a century ago which they now exhibit. They are 
savages as little ameliorated by place or circumstance as the Coman- 
ches—or other of the wild Prairie tribes. 

“Tn early life he distinguished himself by killing a Sioux warrior 


36 SACS AND FOXES. 


with a spear, under circumstances which rendered the exploit con- 
spicuous—and for which he was feasted. 

‘Shortly after this event, and while Keokuk was yet too young to 
be admitted to the council, a rumour reached the village that a large 
body of American troops was approaching to attack it. So formidable 
was this enemy considered, that, although still distant, and the object 
of the expedition not certainly ascertained, a great panic was excited 
by the intelligence, and the council, after revolving the whole matter, 
decided upon abandoning the village. Keokuk, who stood near the 
entrance of the council-lodge awaiting the result, no sooner heard this 
determination than he stepped forward and begged to be admitted. 

“The request was granted. He asked permission to address the 
council, which was accorded; and he stood up for the first time to 
speak before a public assemblage. 

‘‘ Having stated that he had heard with sorrow the decision of his 
elder brethren, he proceeded, with modesty, but with the earnestness 
of a gallant spirit, to deprecate an ignominious flight before an enemy 
still far distant, whose numbers might be exaggerated, and whose 
destination was unknown. 

‘He pointed out the advantages of meeting the foe, harassing their 
march, cutting them up in detail, driving them back, if possible, 
and finally of dying honourably in defence of their homes, their 
women, and their children, rather than yielding all that was dear 
and valuable without striking a blow. ‘Make me your leader,’ he 
exclaimed, ‘Jet your young men follow me, and the pale-faces shall 

be driven back to their towns. Let the old men and the women, and 
all who are afraid to meet the white man, stay here; but let your 
braves go to battle: I will lead them.’ This spirited address re- 
vived the drooping courage of the tribe,—the recent decision was 
reversed, and Keokuk was appointed to lead the braves against the 
invaders. 

“The alarm turned out to be false; and after several days’ march 
it was ascertained that the Americans had taken a different course. 
But the gallantry and eloquence of Keokuk, in changing the pusil- 
Janimous policy at first adopted, his energy in organizing the expedi- 
tion, and the talent for command discovered in the march, placed him 
in the first rank of braves of the nation. 

“The entire absence of records, by which the chronology of events 
might be ascertained, renders it impossible to trace, in the order of 
their date, the steps by which this remarkable man rose to the chief 


SACS AND FOXES. 37 


place of his nation, and acquired a commanding and permanent influ- 
ence over his people. 

“Keokuk is in all respects a magnificent savage. Bold, enter- 
prising, and impulsive, he is also politic, and possesses an intimate 
knowledge of human nature, and a tact which enables him to bring 
the resources of his mind into prompt operation. His talents as a 
military chief and civil ruler are evident from the discipline which 
exists among his people. 

‘This portrait was painted in the spring of 1846, on the Kansas 
River, where he, with his people, were temporarily residing after 
their removal from the Desmoines River. 

“‘ He said he had been painted before, when he was a young man, 
and they had represented him as a war-chief, but that he was now an 
old man, and wished to be painted with his peace-pipe.”—McKinney. 


53. 


SAC CHIEF, AND FOX BRAVE. 
(Painted May, 1846.) 


54. 


KEP-PEO-LECK, or RED WOLF. 
(Painted May, 1846.) 


DD. 


SAC WAR CHIEF, IN WAR PAINT. 
(Painted May, 1846.) 


56. 


WIFE AND DAUGHTER OF BLACK HAWK. 
(Painted May, 1842.) 


5%. 
MEDICINE DANCE OF THE SACS. 
(Painted May, 1846.) 


The Medicine Dance of the Sacs is performed once every year, for 
the purpose of initiating the mystery or medicine-men into this sacred 
custom of their tribe. 


88 SACS AND FOXES. 


On this occasion the spirits of all who have died through the year 
(or since the holding of their annual ceremony) are relinquished to 
the Great Spirit; and notwithstanding months may have elapsed since 
death, the great principle of life, the spirit which never dies, does 
not wing its flight to the land of the happy hunting-grounds until it 
is set free by the potent charm of the medicine-man. 

The names of the deceased are called out, when the father or other 
near relative steps forward, and in a long speech relates the war or 
other exploits which distinguished him through life. The chiefs and 
relatives endorse the recital with hearty grunts of approbation, and 
the spirit, having been previously prepared with provisions for his 
journey, is supposed to leave the body. 

The lodge consecrated to these mystic rites is made of rush-mats, 
stretched over poles in the form of an arch, and fifty feet in length. 
Appemus, the chief physic-maker, and his assistants, attired in the 
robes of their office, dance through the lodge, holding in both hands, 
in an horizontal position, a highly ornamented otter-skin medicine- 
pouch. In the dance, the otter-skin is made to imitate the animal it 
represents, and with its nose to the ground, and carefully up the 
sides of the lodge, as in the act of scenting any thing that may affect 
the charm of his medicine or offend the Great Spirit. The chiefs 
seated in the lodge are often obliged to move their seats, as the 
sagacious animal continues to scent the ground upon which they 
sit, as if suspecting that something might be concealed. 

The dance is continued in a careful manner until the lodge is 
thoroughly examined. During this part of the ceremony, the squaws, 
gaily clad in embroidered dresses, are arranged around the interior 
of the lodge, facing the centre, and dancing sideways in slow and 
measured step, in time to the drum, which they accompany with 
their voices. After the medicine-men are satisfied with the otter’s 
scenting of the lodge, they deposit their medicine-bags upon the 
ground, and, apparently overcome with their efforts, fall prostrate, 
writhing as if in great bodily pain; placing their hands on different 
parts of the body, as the pain shifts from limb to limb, until, over- 
come by a severe fit of coughing, they vomit a white bean. With 
this magical bean they perform wonderful cures and all the super- 
stitious rites of their profession on this occasion. 

All the medicine-men having procured the bean in ike manner, 
they take their medicine-bags, and with the bean in the palm of the 
hand proceed around the lodge, and exhibit it to the chiefs and war 





SACS AND FOXES. 39 


tiors, who give evident signs of satisfaction by emphatic grunts of 
approbation. The bean is then put in the medicine-pouch and 
held in the manner before described, and the dance continued with 
more rapidity and energy, the performers making a low grumbling 
sound, in imitation of the animals whose skins they hold. This is 
continued some minutes with a spirited step and action of the figure, 
when they commence shooting the bean from the medicine-pouch at 
the chiefs and braves, and sometimes at the medicine-men assisting 
in the ceremony, who immediately fall, and in writhing contortions 
of the limbs and face vomit the bean, and resume their seats or 
places in the dance. 

The ground is sometimes covered with prostrate figures, uttering 
cries and groans of pain, mingling with their wild chants and mono- 
tonous drum, forming a scene as wild and interesting as it was curi- 
ous and novel. 

This part of the ceremony continued about one hour, and, like all 
their religious rites, was conducted with great solemnity. The ground 
around the lodge was crowded with visitors from three Sacs villages, 
and some eight hundred were witnessing the grand féte. 

At this time, the guard, composed of some sixty of Keokuk’s prin- 
cipal braves, dressed in their war-paint, and wearing all their trophies 
of the battle and chase, armed with spears, war-clubs, and bows, and 
mounted on their favourite horses, painted and decorated with feathers, 
came charging madly around the medicine-lodge, putting to flight 
scores of women and children. 

The principal war-chief approached the mouth of the medicine-lodge 
and related his war exploits, the number of scalps he had taken to 
entitle him to the honour of the post he occupied as chief brave and 
one of the guards of the medicine-lodge. 

Appemus, his squaw, and a young warrior, and several medicine- 
men of lesser attainments in the mystical rites, danced slowly around, 
with heads inclined towards the ground, halting at the end of the 
lodge, speaking with great energy and spirit of the virtues and hero- 
ism of the persons of his town who had died the past year, and more 
particularly of his son (a young warrior) and daughter, saying that 
he now yielded them to the Great Spirit, and wishing them a pleasant 
journey on the white path to the happy hunting-grounds. 

His wife and a young brave were then prepared for initiation in 
the mysteries of medicine-lodge. They first spread down upon the 
ground a piece of broadcloth and calico; the squaw and brave were 


40 BLACK-FOOT 


then placed in a kneeling posture on one end of the cloth to i. .zive 
the medicine. The medicine-men commence their dance on the op- 
posite end of the cloth—slowly at first—but as they approach their 
subjects they become more energetic, and when within a few feet of 
them, they shoot them with the magical bean—they fall senseless 
and lifeless. The medicine-men rub them with their medicine-bags, 
breathe in their faces, and chafe their limbs until they are partially 
restored. They are then denuded of their clothes, and rapped in the 
cloth upon which they knelt, in which they remain until the bean is 
vomited up, which is exhibited to the chiefs. They are then dressed 
in a new suit, and the same scene again performed upon other sub- 
jects; after which, a general dance comes off, in which all take a 
part. Then follows the feast. The guests are invited by the pre- 
sentation of a short stick, marked with devices. Being a medicine- 
man, I had the honour of participating in this part of the ceremony. 


oS. 
THE CHIEFTAIN’S GRAVE. 
(Painted Jan. 1851.) 


A form of burial practised by many tribes inhabiting the borders 
of Missouri and Iowa. 


BLACK-FOOT. 


59. 


FLIGHT OF A MOUNTAIN TRAPPER. 
(Painted 1851.) 


THE flight of a Mountain Trapper from a band of Black-Foot 
Indians, constitutes an incident in the life of Capt. Joe Meek, the 
present marshal of Oregon Territory. He was a native of Ohio, and 
early in life enlisted in the service of the American Fur Company as 
a trapper; in which service he spent eighteen years in the Rocky 
Mountains. 


OSAGES. 41 


This picture represents one of the many thrilling incidents in his 
life, characteristic of the trapper and pioneer. Finding himself pur- 
sued by a large party, he hoped, by the aid of a well-bred American 
horse, to escape a personal encounter; but the Indians, taking advan- 
tage of the broken country, soon overtook him, and were showering 
their arrows at him while in full pursuit, using their horses as a 
shield. Joe, reserving his fire for a favourable moment, selected the 
war-chief who was foremost, and, with well-directed aim, hit both 
horse and rider, which caused them to abandon the pursuit. 

Joe was one of the early pioneer residents of Oregon, and one of 
its first representatives under the provisional government. 


6O. 
THE TRAPPER’S ESCAPE. 
(Painted 1851.) 


Joe is seen in the middle ground of the picture, waving his gun in 
exultation at his lucky escape. 


G61. 
BLACK-FOOT INDIANS IN AMBUSH, AWAITING THE 


APPROACH OF AN EMIGRANT PARTY. 
(Painted 1852.) 


A composition characteristic of Indian warfare. 


OSAGES. 


Tue territory of this tribe adjoins that of the Cherokees. 

They cultivate some corn, but depend mostly upon the chase for 
subsistence, and repel all attempts towards civilization. The influence 
exerted over their neighbours, the Cherokees and Creeks, by the ‘n- 
troduction of missionary and civilized arts among them, has but little 
weight with them. 


42 OSAGES. 


One admirable trait in their character is, however, worthy of re- 
mark, viz. their aversion to ardent spirits. Such is their abhor- 
rence of the “fire-water,” as they term it, that they cannot be 
ipduced to drink it. This may be thought strange, but it is never- 
theless true. It is generally supposed that all Indians are passion- 
ately fond of it, those particularly who are brought more immediately 
into contact with the whites. We note this fact as an exception to 
the general rule. 

They possess a great passion for thieving, which they gratify upon 
every occasion ; and, like the Spartans, they deem it one of the at- 
tributes of a great man to pilfer from his neighbour or friend and 
avoid detection. Any thing placed in their possession they will take 
the best care of and defend with their lives. When called upon, 
it will be restored; but the next instant they will steal it, if they can 
do so without being detected. 

Among the collection will be found a portrait of one of the prin- 
cipal chiefs, and some of his warriors. 

We regret to say that we have not portraits of their women, but 
shall endeavour to procure them at some future period. 


G2. 
TECHONG-TA-SABA, or BLACK DOG. 
(Painted 1843.) 


Principal Chief of the Osages. A man six feet six inches in 
height, and well proportioned, weighing some two hundred and fifty 
pounds, and rather inclined to corpulency. He is blind of one eye. 
He is celebrated more for his feats in war than as a counsellor; his 
opinions are, however, sought in all matters of importance appertain- 
ing to the welfare of his people. The name Black Dog was given 
to him from a circumstance which happened some years since, when 
on a war expedition against the Comanches. He, with his party, 
were about to surprise their camp on a very dark night, when a black 
dog, by his continued barking, kept them at bay. After several in- 
effectual attempts, being repelled by the dog, Techong-ta-saba became 
exasperated, and fired an arrow at random, hitting him in the head 
and causing instant death. By this name he is familiarly known to 
the officers of the army and white traders in that section of country. 

In the latter part of the summer of 1843, a party of fifteen Pawnees 
went on a trading expedition among the Comanches: having been 


OSAGES. 43 


prosperous in their enterprise, and feeling themselves secure from the 
attack of enemies on their route homeward, they were induced to 
barter most of their guns, ammunition, and a few of their horses, of 
which the Comanches stood much in need. They then took their 
departure homeward. At the Wichetaw village they halted for a few 
days to recruit. An Osage, sojourning with the Wichetaws, seeing 
the large amount of skins in the possession of the Pawnees, and learn- 
ing their’ defenceless situation, immediately mounted his horse, pro- 
ceeded homeward, and informed Black Dog of the facts. Knowing the 
trail the Pawnees would take on their route, he immediately started 
with a war-party for the point they were expected to pass, on the 
head waters of Canadian River, where they lay in wait for them. 
Several days elapsed, during which time they sent out runners in 
every direction to give notice of the approach of the Pawnees. They 
were at last espied, wending their way leisurely along, unconscious 
of their close proximity to their deadliest enemies—their horses 
laden with the fruits of months of fatigue and hardship, destined for 
the white trader in exchange for guns, ammunition, and blankets. 
The Osages were in active preparation for the attack. They secreted 
themselves and awaited the approach of the Pawnees, when they 
suddenly fell upon and massacred the whole party, securing all 
their peltries, horses, &e. They departed for their town in savage 
exultation at the death of their enemies; happy undoubtedly in the 
belief that they had done their people good service, and enriched 
themselves without toil. 


63. 
SHU-ME-CUSS, or WOLF. 
(Painted 1843.) 
A nephew of Black Dog, and a warrior of distinction among his 
people. 


64. 


CROW-SUN-TAH, or BIG SOLDIER. 
(Painted 1843.) 


An Osage Chief and Brave; is about seventy years of age, vigor- 
ous and active. He, together with a number of his tribe, were taken 
to France some years since by an American citizen for the purpose 
of giving exhibitions of their various dances. After having made a 


44. OSAGES. 


large sum of money by the operation, he abandoned them, leaving 
them entirely destitute of money and a protector. In this situation 
they contracted disease incidental to the climate, and most of them 
died. La Fayette, being in Paris, found Crow-sun-tah and a woman, 
the only survivors, and took them home with him, treated them with 
the utmost kindness, and finally sent them home to the American 
government, by whom they were again restored to their people and 
the quiet of their native forest. He wore a medal presented him by 
La Fayette, which he prizes above every thing on earth; he often 
spoke of him and his kind treatment. 

He was in attendance at the large International Council held at 
Tah-le-quah, in the Cherokee Nation, during the month of June, 
1843, and participated in the various dances and amusements with 
as much zest as any of the young warriors. He spent a week with me 
the following September. He died during the summer of 1844. 


65. 
NE-QUA-BA-NAH. 
(Painted 1843.) 
An Osage Warrior. 


66. 


CHA-PAH-CAH-HA, or EAGLE FEATHER. 
(Painted 1843.) 


An Osage Warrior. His head-dress is composed of the skin from 
the head of a buffalo, with the horns attached. 


67. 


THE OSAGE MIMIC. 
(Painted 1843.) 


This picture is painted from an incident that took place in my 
studio at Tah-le-quah, in the Cherokee nation, during the session of 
the International Council, in 1843. 

I was often absent for a short time, sketching, and listening to 
the various speeches made in council. My door being of rather a 
rude construction, fastened only by a common wooden latch, all In- 
dians who chose had free ingress. Among those who paid me fre- 
queut visits, was an Osage boy, about seventeen years of age, by the 





OSAGES. 45 


name of Wash-cot-sa, an hereditary chief, possessed of an amiable dis- 

position and inquiring mind. He seemed to observe every thing 
- going on in my studio, and would endeavour to imitate any thing 
done by me. On one occasion I had been absent for a short time, 
and during the interim he and one of his companions sauntered in; 
and finding themselves alone, he concluded to try his hand at painting. 
He assumed the palette and brushes, placed his subject in a favour- 
able position, and had made some few chalk-marks upon the canvas, 
when I entered; he immediately discovered me, and, dropping the 
palette and brushes and pointing to the canvas, said it was pe-shee 
very bad. I endeavoured to induce him to return to his work, but 
to no purpose. 

He expressed a great desire to learn English, and would endeavour 
to repeat every thing he heard spoken, without knowing the mean- 
ing of it: at every visit he would ask me by signs to count for him, 
which I would do, he repeating after me; then he would count in 
his own language for me to repeat after him in like manner. At 
the close of the council, Mr. Ross, Principal Chief of the Cherokees, 
induced him to remain with him to learn the English language; he 
however staid but a short time; for, hearing of a skirmish between 
his own people and the Pawnees, he immediately left for his own 
country, regretting that he had lost so fayourable an opportunity of 
distinguishing himself as a warrior. 


6S. 


AN OSAGE SCALP-DANCE. 
(Painted 1845.) 


All tribes of wild Indians scalp their captives, save the women 
and children, who are treated as slaves, until ransomed by the United 
States Government. 

On returning from the scene of strife, they celebrate their victories 
by a scalp-dance. The chiefs and warriors, after having painted 
themselves, each after his own fancy, to give himself the most hideous 
appearance, encircle their captives, who are all placed together. 
Thus stationed, at a tap on their drums, they commence throwing 
themselves into attitudes, such as each one’s imagination suggests as 
the most savage, accompanied by yells, for the purpose of striking 
terror into the hearts of their captives. 

This picture represents the scalp-dance of the Osages around 2 


46 QUAPAWS.—IOWAS. 


woman and her child; and a warrior in the act of striking her with 
his club, his chief springing forward and arresting the blow with 
his spear. 


QUAPAWS. 


69. 
KI-HIC-CA-TE-DAH, or PASSING CHIEF. 
(Painted 1843.) 

Principat Chief of the Quapaws. Once a very powerful and 
warlike tribe, but now reduced to a small number; they reside with 
the Senecas. This chief is represented by the agent as being a very 
good man, and possesses the entire confidence of his whole people. 


TOWAS. 


70. 
WO-HUM-PA, an IOWA CHIEF, anp true ARTIST. 
(Painted 1843.) 

Tr was with much difficulty that I induced this chief to sit for his 
portrait. I was anxious to paint one of his warriors upon the same 
canvas with him; to this he objected, saying that they were no good, 
and that chiefs only were worthy of such a distinguished honour ; 


WICHETAWS. AT 


he insisted on being painted in the act of shaking hands with me, so 
that when the Great Father (the President of the U.S.) saw it, he 
might know that he was a friend of the white man. He is a great 
warrior, his arms bearing evidence of this fact, having been pierced 
with balls and arrows in several places from the hands of the Sioux. 
He was very particular as to the correct imitation of the painting on 
his blanket, which is to him the history of his war exploits. The 
hands represent the scalps taken from the heads of his enemies. I 
tried repeatedly to get some of his warriors to sit, but they could not 
be induced to do it without the consent of their chief. Such was 
their fear of him, that they dared not enter my studio while he was 
present without his invitation. 


WICHETAWS, or PAWNEE PICTS. 


Tuts tribe live on the head-waters of Red River; are similar in 
their manners and customs to the Wacoes, Caddoes, and Comanches ; 
they live in villages and raise some corn, but depend mostly upon the 
chase for their subsistence. They are a small tribe, numbering about 
three hundred warriors, are extremely poor, and use the bow and 
spear, having no fire-arms among them. 


3h. 


KA-SA-ROO-KA, or ROARING THUNDER. 
(Painted 1842.) 


Principal Chief of the Wichetaws or Pawnee Picts. This chief, 
together with his brother, visited the Cherokee Nation in the fall of 
1842, and remained until after the close of the International Council 
in June, 1845. During his stay he spent his time with John Ross, 
the Principal Chief; he spoke no English, and having no interpreter, 
he manifested all his wants by signs. He was treated with the 
utmost kindness and friendship by Mr. Ross, to whom he became 
very much attached. He is painted as he appeared on the morning 
after his arrival at Fort Gibson from the prairies. 


48 CADDOES. 


72. 


NASH-TAW, or THE PAINTER. 
(Painted 1842.) 


Second Chief of the Wichetaws or Pawnee Picts, and a brother of 
Ka-sa-roo-ka. 


3. 
RIT-SA-AH-RESCAT, on THE WOMAN OF THE HUNT, anv 
BRACES or BABY. 
(Painted 1842.) 


Wife. of Nashtaw, and Child. On the arrival of the two chiefs 
and this woman at Fort Gibson, I took them to my studio for the 
purpose of painting their portraits. They very willingly acceded to 
my wishes, and manifested by signs that they wanted something to 
eat. I accordingly had as much meat cooked as would appease the 
appetite of six men, which they ate in a short time, and then asked 
for more. I again procured about the same quantity, which, to my 
astonishment, they also devoured. It was the first meat they had 
eaten for some five or six days. ‘ 

They remained one day with me, and then took their departure 
for Mr. Ross’s. 


CADDOKS. 


THE Caddoes are one of the many small tribes residing on the 
western borders of Texas. 


G4. 
BIN-TAH, THE WOUNDED MAN. 
(Painted 1843.) 


Principal Chief of the Caddoes. He derived his name from the fact 
of his having been wounded in the breast by an Osage; he wears a 
piece of silver suspended from his nose, as an ornament. 


ANANDARKOES. 49 


WD. 
AH-DE-BAH, or THE TALL MAN 
(Painted 1848.) 


Second or Assistant Chief of the Caddoes. Painted in the act ot 
striking the drum. 


36. 
SE-HIA-AH-DI-YOU, THE SINGING BIRD. 


(Painted June, 1843.) 


Wife of Ah-de-bah, seated in her tent. A view on Tiwoccany 
Creek, Texas. 


4%. 


HA-DOON-COTE-SAH. 


(Painted 1843.) 
A Caddo Warrior. 


ANANDARKOKES. 


7S. 


JOSE MARIA. 
(Painted 1843.) 


Principat Chief of the Anandarkoes. This chief is known to the 
Mexicans by the name of José Maria, and to the Caddoes as Jesh. 
He has fought many battles with the Texans, and was severely 
wounded in the breast in a skirmish with them. 


50 WACOES. 


WACOEKS. 





OncE a powerful tribe, living on the Brazos River, Texas. 


79. 


KA-KA-KATISH, or THE SHOOTING STAR. 
(Painted 1843.) 


PrincipaL Chief of the Wacoes. This man is justly celebrated 
for his powers of oratory, being probably one of the greatest natural 
orators now living among the Indians. At the council held upon the 
River Brazos, he was the principal speaker; and by his dignity and 
grace of manner succeeded in gaining the attention and respect of 
these wild and untutored sons of the forest, whose implicit confidence 
he enjoys. 

The following is a copy of the speech made by him on that occa- 
sion :— 

“BroTHers: [ am very glad to hear that we have all met here 
in friendship to-day. Amidst this assemblage I do not wish to utter 
falsehoods, and I believe that my Texan friend has spoken nothing 
but the truth. The soil I now stand upon was once mine; it is now 
the land of the Texans, and my home is far off in the west. Iam 
now here on this soil, where in my young days I hunted the buffalo 
and red deer in peace, and was friendly with all, until the Texan 
came arfd drove me from my native land. I speak the truth—I wish 
for peace that shall last so long as the sun rises and sets, and the 
rivers flow. ‘The wild-fire of war has swept over the land, and en- 
veloped my home and people in smoke; but when I return and tell 
them what I have heard, the smoke will be dissipated, and they can 
find their way to the council-ground of our white brothers of Texas, 
and combine to quench this fire that heats our blood and impels us 
on to war. It made my heart glad to hear my Texan brother say, 
that lands and countries would be given the red men for homes, and 
that liberty should be granted for the red men to hunt the wild game 
in the forest. The chiefs of all tribes who dwell with me, and far 
beyond, shall hear of the true words you have spoken, and they can- 
not fail to be pleased. I will bear your words to the north, this 


a 


NATCHITOCHES.—TOWOCCONIES. 51 


great captain to the east, and my Texan friend can bear the glad 
tidings to the south. 

“T have nothing else to say; but I do implore the Great Spirit to 
bear witness that it is my fond wish that war and trouble for ever 
cease between us.” 


NATCHITOCHES. 


80. 
CHO-WEE, or THE BOW. 
(Painted 1843.) 


Principat Chief of the Natchitoches. This man had a brother 
killed by the Texans, some four or five years since, while on a hunt- 
ing expedition, whose death he afterwards avenged by taking the 
scalps of six Texans. 


TOWOCCONIES. 


SI. 


KEECHE-KA-ROOKI, or THE MAN WHO WAS NAMED BY 
THE GREAT SPIRIT. 
(Painted 1844.) 


PrincrpaL Chief of the Towocconies, and acknowledged Chief of 
the allied tribes of Texas. 


52 KEECHIES. 


8§2. 
KO-RAK-KOO-KISS. 
(Painted 1844.) 

A Towoccono Warrior. This man distinguished himself among 
his people by a daring attempt at stealing horses, in the night, from 
Fort Milan, on the western frontier of Texas. He succeeded in pass- 
ing the sentries, and had secured some eight or ten horses to a la- 
riat, and was making his way to the gates of the fort, when “he was 
discovered and fired upon. The night being dark, the shots were at 
random; he was, however, severely wounded by two balls, received 
two sabre wounds upon his arms, and narrowly escaped with his life. 
He is about twenty-three years of age, and by this daring feat has 
won the name and standing of a warrior among his people. 


KEECHIKS. 


83. 


KO-RAN-TE-TE-DAH, on THE WOMAN WHO CATCHES THE 
SPOTTED FAWN. 
(Painted 1844.) 


A Kercure Woman, wife of Ko-rah-koo-kiss. 


84. 


KOT-TAN-TEEK. 
(Painted 1844.) 
Principal Chief of the Keechies. 


$5. 


A BUFFALO HUNT. 
(Painted 1845.) 


On the South-western Prairies. 


————— 


COMANCHES. 53 


COMANCHES. 





A POWERFUL and warlike tribe, divided into twenty different bands. 
They are migratory in their habits, subsisting upon buffalo and other 
game, with which their country abounds. 


S86. 


POO-CHON-E-QUAH-EEP, or BUFFALO-HUMP. 
(Painted 1844.) 


Second Chief of the Hoesh Band of Comanches, and head war- 
chief of all the Comanches. ‘This chief was painted at a council of 
the wild Indians on the head-waters of Red River. The principal 
chief was in mourning for the loss of a son, and was unable to 
attend the council, and sent this chief with the following “ talk :’— 

Poo-chon-e-quah-eep stated in council, that he had been sent in 
by Pa-ha-eu-ka, who had spoken to him thus :—“It has pleased 
the Great Spirit to visit me with sorrow and trouble—I mourn the 
loss of my only boy, who met his death in the war-path. I must ery 
and mourn till green grass grows; I have burnt my lodges, killed my 
mules and horses, and scattered ashes on my head. I can do no- 
thing during the season of my grief; but you, my chief, (addressing 
Poo-chon-e-quah-eep,) I send you afar off to meet in council the cap- 
tain from the white nations of the east. You must make peace with 
all nations and tribes, for I am sick of hearing the ery of my people 
mourning the loss of some relative killed in battle. Should you meet 
any captain from Texas, tell him that we have heard that the people 
of Texas believe that we still hold many prisoners taken from their 
country ; but such is not the case, there is but one, and he, a young 
man, has been raised among us from his infancy, and is now absent 
on a war-party against the Spaniards. If they believe not this ccate- 
ment, they have permission to come among us and examine for them- 
selyes; and they shall come and go freely, safely, and unmolested. 
We have waned, waned, and waned beyond the memory of our grand- 
sires. We now desire to be at peace with all. mankind. We want 
vermission to travel among the white settlements in the east to learn 


54 COMANCHES. 


the white man’s method of planting corn, and also to seek for some 
of our people whom we have lost. I want the chiefs and headmen 
of all nations and tribes to hear my talk and know that it is a good 
one. I want you, my chief, to make peace with all nations, a peace 
that will continue as long as there is ground for us to walk upon.” 


8%. 


PO-CHON-NAH-SHON-NOC-CO, orn THE EATER OF THE BLACK 
BUFFALO HEART. 


(Painted 1844.) 


One of the principal warriors of the Hoesh Band, or Honey- 
Raters. 


8S. 


WIFE OF PO-CHON-NAH-SHON-NOC-CO. 
(Painted 1844.) 


89. 


O-HAH-AH-WAH-KEE, THE YELLOW PAINT HUNTER. 
(Painted 1844.) 


Head Chief of the Ta-nah-wee Band of Comanches. 


36. 


NAH-MOO-SU-KAH. 
(Painted 1844.) 


Somanche Mother and Child. 


91. 


A COMANCHE DOMESTIC SCENE. 
(Painted 1844.) 


A Sleeping Warrior. Landscape on the head-waters of Red 
River. 


PUEBLOS. 5 


92. 


A COMANCHE GAME. 
(Painted 1844.) 


This game is played exclusively by the women. They hold in 
their hand twelve sticks about six inches in length, which they drop 
upon a rock; the sticks that fall across each other are counted for 
game: one hundred such counts the game. They become very 
much excited, and frequently bet all the dressed deer-skins and buf- 
falo-robes they possess. 


PUEBLOS. 


? and their 


History of the “ Pueblos of San Diego de Tesuque,’ 
customs—written by their present chief :— 

“The origin and antiquity of the country and of our first ancestors 
date many ages back. We are wholly ignorant of the year and the 
time past by which to regulate the history correctly, nor is my ability 
sufficient to give information of a nation so ancient. 

“ Without doubt, this nation from its beginning was called Tegua. 
It was a rude, infidel nation, without religion—idolatrous, and without 
the observance of any worship; but their customs were extremely 
good and agreeable to the inhabitants of this Pueblo. 

“They were governed by the cacique and a war captain, and other 
principal men of the Pueblo. So good were the customs which they 
themselves had chosen and established for the common-weal, and 
which they loved and embraced rigorously, and with much pleasure, 
that all were happy. Their crops were in abundance, all their goods 
in common, and they were favoured by the Almighty with union and 
good conduct. 

“They lived under the rule of their magistrates and chiefs 
from among themselves, during the first conquest. At that time 
they knew religion, and were Catholics. In a short time the Spa- 
niards were driven from the country to their own land by the Indians, 


56 PUEBLOS. 


and in a few years came the second conquest, which remains perma- 
nent to this time. 

“During the preceding years they were held in dislike by their 
conquerors. All the Indians of the country were under arms, and 
despised and persecuted by the Spaniards. 

“This nation was so warlike that the Spaniards did not find any 
action conclusive, till a man of much force, and possessing the endu- 
rance of a nation which had passed through many troubles, appeared 
in all the manliness and energy of character that can be imagined. 
The gentleman mentioned was a native of the Pueblo of San 
Diego de Tesuque—his name is Don Domingo Romeo. This 
great man established a peace with the Spaniards for his people—a 
peace wise and eternal. As to the other Pueblos, they again took 
arms against the Spaniards: this Pueblo was not seduced by the other 
Pueblos.” 


93. 


JOSE MARIA VIGIL ZUAZO. 
(Painted 1852.) 


94. 


CARLOS VIGIL, EX-GOVERNOR OF PUEBLO. 
(Painted 1852.) 


95. 


JUAN ANTONIO VIGIL. 
(Painted 1852.) 


96. 
JOSE AHAYEA. 
(Painted 1852.) 


97. 


JOSE DOMINGO HERURA. 
(Painted 1852.) 


APACHES. bil 


APACHES. 


/ 

Tuts predatory tribe have no fixed home, but roam over a large 
extent of mountainous country that divides the waters of the Del 
Norte from the waters flowing into the Pacific. Game is scarce, and 
they gain their subsistence by plundering the settlements of Sonora, 
Chihuahua, and other lesser towns in the Del Norte valley—whence 
they supply themselves with large herds of cattle, and choice horses, 
which enable them to retreat with rapidity and safety. 


98. 
BLACK KNIFE. 
(Painted 1846.) 


An Apache Chief, reconnoitring the command of General Kearney 
on his march from Santa Fe to California. 


99. 


VIEW ON THE GILA RIVER. 
(Painted 1851.) 


“About two miles from camp, our course was traversed by a 
seam of yellowish-coloured igneous rock, shooting up into irregular 
spires and turrets, one or two thousand feet in height. It ran at 
right angles to the river, and extended to the north and south, in 
a chain of mountains, as far as the eye could reach. 

‘‘One of these towers was capped with a substance many hundred 
feet thick, disposed in horizontal strata of different colours, from deep 
red to light yellow. Partially disintegrated, and lying at the foot 
of the chain of spires, was a yellowish calcareous sandstone, altered 
by fire, in large amorphous masses. In one view could be seen clus- 
tered the Larrea Mexicana, the Cactus, (King) Cactus, (Chandelier) 
Greenwood Acacia, Chamiza, Prosopis Odorata, and a new variety 
of Sedge.” . 

“For a better description of the Landscape, see the Sketch by Mr. 
Stanley.”—Tieut.-Col. W. Emory’s Report to the Secretary of War. 


58 PIMOS.—MARICOPAS.—SHASTE. 


PIMOS. 


THE Pimos reside on the Gila, about ninety miles from its conflu- 
ence with the Rio Colorado, and subsist chiefly by agriculture. They 
manufacture an excellent article of blanket from cotton, which they 
cultivate, and which constitutes their only article of dress. 


100. 
PIMO CHIEF. 
(Painted 1846.) 


101. 
PIMO SQUAW. 
(Painted 1846.) 


MARICOPAS. 


Tuts tribe also resides on the Gila, to the west-of the Pimo villages. 


102. 
MARICOPA CHIEF anv INTERPRETER. 
(Painted 1846.) 


SHASTE. 


Tuts tribe reside west of the Rocky Mountains, and are of the 
wildest of the Oregon Tribes. 


103. 
SHASTE SQUAW. 
(Painted 1847.) 
A slave to the Clackamus Indians. 


UMPQUAHS.—KLAMETHS. 59 


UMPQUAHS. 


——__ 


Tuts tribe reside in the valley of the Umpquah River, in the 
southern part of Oregon. Their country abounds in game, upon 
which they subsist. 


104. 


ENAH-TE, or WOLF. 
(Painted 1848.) 


A young Warrior. 


KLAMETHS. 


A ROVING band of Indians, subsisting chiefly upon game. Their 
country is contiguous to that of the Umpquahs. 


105. 
TE-TO-KA-NIM. 
(Painted 1848.) 
Klameth Chief. 


106. 
ENISH-NIM. 
(Painted 1848.) 


Wife of Te-to-ka-nim. 


60 CALLAPOOYAS.—CHINOOKS. 


CALLAPOOYAS. 


Turis tribe formerly resided in the southern part of the Willamette 
valley. They are now reduced to a few in number, and have no 
fixed home. 


10%. 


YELSTO. 
(Painted 1848.) 


A Callapooya. 





CHINOOKS. 


Tus once powerful nation reside in the vicinity of Astoria, Ore- 
gon Territory. They are few in number, and gain their subsistence 
by fishing. 

108. 


STOMAQUEA. 
(Painted 1848.) 


Principal chief of the Chinooks. 


169. 


TEL-AL-LEK. 
(Painted 1848.) 


Chinook Squaw. 


CLACKAMUS. 61 


CLACKAMUS. 


TuIs degraded remnant of a once numerous tribe reside on the 
Clackamus River, near Oregon City. 


110. 
QUATYKEN. 
(Painted 1847.) 


Hud. 
DR. JOHN McLAUGHLIN. 
(Painted 1848.) 


Former Chief Factor of the Hon. Hudson’s Bay Company, and 
founder of Oregon City. 


Li. 
GOV. P. S. OGDEN. 
(Painted 1848.) 


Hon. Hudson’s Bay Company, Oregon. 


Lis. 
OREGON CITY. 
(Painted 1848.) 


WILLAMETTE FALLS, INDIANS. 


1414. 
W A-SHA-MUS. 
(Painted 1847.) 
Principat Chief of the Willamette Falls Indians. This once 


62 WILLAMETTE FALLS INDIANS. 


numerous band is now reduced to some half-dozen lodges, and con 
fined to a few barren acres of ground on the west bank of the Willa- 
mette, where they maintain a miserable existence by fishing at the 
falls of that river. 

Although reduced in circumstances and degraded by dissipation, 
Wa-sha-mus retains much of that native dignity which gave him 
the ascendency over a brave band of warriors. 

In the days of his prosperity he made frequent excursions to the 
mountain tribes, with whom he carried on an extensive traffic in the 
exchange of dried salmon for slaves, horses, dried meat, and articles 
of clothing or ornament. On his return from one of these excur- 
sions, he was attacked by a large party of Roque River Indians, and 
in the skirmish lost his left eye by an arrow. In this battle he took 
many scalps, which he presented to the commander of one of Her 
Majesty’s ships, and received in return a naval officer’s suit, a part 
of which he still retains; and when intoxicated, he may be seen in 
the mixed costume of an English admiral and Indian chief. 

It is a very common practice of the Shaste, Umpqua, and Roque 
River Indians, to sell their children in slavery to the tribes inhabit- 
ing the banks of the Columbia River. During my tour through the 
Willamette. valley in 1848, I met a party of Tlickitacks returning 
from one of these trading excursions, having about twenty little boys, 
whom they had purchased from the Umpqua tribe. 


RES. 
MARY AND ACHATA. 
(Painted .1847.) 


Willamette Falls Squaws. This group belong to the great family 
of Chinooks, or Flat-Heads. 


AiG. 
WILLAMETTE FALLS. 
(Painted 1848.) 


TLICKITACKS.—WALLA-WALLAS. 63 


BUICK ITACKS. 


w1%. 


CASINO. 
(Painted 1848.) 


Tuts chief is one of the Tlickitack Tribe, and the principal chief 
of all the Indians inhabiting the Columbia River, from Astoria to 
the Cascades. In the plenitude of his power he travelled in great 
state, and was often accompanied by a hundred slaves, obedient to 
his slightest caprice. The bands over whom he presided paid him 
tribute on all the furs and fish taken, as also upon the increase of 
their stock, to support him in this afiluence. 

He was the petted chief of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and 
through him they are undoubtedly much indebted for the quiet as- 
cendancy they always maintained over these tribes. 

It is said that on visiting Fort Vancouver, his slaves often carpeted 
the road, from the landing to the fort, with beaver and other furs, a 
distance of a quarter of a mile; and that on his return, the officers of 
the Hudson Bay Company would take the furs, and carpet the same 
distance with blankets and other Indian goods, as his recompense. 
He is now an old man, having outlived his prosperity and posterity, 
to see a once numerous people reduced to a few scattered lodges, 
which must soon disappear before the rapidly growing settlements 
of the adventurous pioneers. 


WALLA-WALLAS. 





THEY reside on the Walla-Walla River, in the northern part of 
Oregon, and subsist chiefly upon salmon, with which their streams 
abound. 


64 WALLA-WALLAS. 


Lis. 


PEO-PEO-MUX-MUX, or YELLOW SERPENT. 
(Painted 1847.) 


Principal Chief of the Walla-Wallas, commonly called by the Hud- 


son’s Bay Company, Serpent Jaune. 

There are many incidents of thrilling interest in this man’s life, 
one of which will serve to show his cool, determined courage. 

In the year 1841, his eldest and favourite son, of twenty-two years, 
had some difficulty with one of the clerks of the Hudson Bay Com- 
pany, which terminated in a hand-to-hand fight. The young chief 
coming off second best, carried, with the tale of his inglorious exploit, 
a pair of black eyes to his father’s lodge. The chief’s dignity was 
insulted, and the son’s honour lost, unless the officer in charge of the 
fort, Mr. Archibald McKinley, should have the offender punished. 

The old chief, at the head of one hundred armed warriors, went 
into the fort, and demanded the person of the clerk for punishment. 
Mr. McKinley, not having heard of the difficulty, was taken quite 
by surprise, and after instituting inquiries, he found nothing to cen- 
sure in the conduct of the young man. ‘This decision, having been 
made known to the old chief, resulted in an animated discussion of 
the case. The Indians were not to be appeased, and some of the 
warriors attempted to seize the clerk; but being a powerful and ath- 
letic man, he defended himself until Mr. McKinley gave him a pistol, 
reserving two for himself, and charging him not to fire until he should 
give the word. The crisis was now at hand—the war-cry was sounded, 
and the savages had raised their weapons to spill the white man’s 
blood. Mr. McKinley rushed into an adjoming room, and seizing a 
keg of powder, placed it in the centre of the floor, stood over it with 
flint and steel raised, and exclaimed that they were all brave men, 
and would die together. The result was the immediate flight of all 
the Indians, save the old chief and his son. 

As soon as the warriors had gained the outer walls of the fort, the 
gates were closed against them; while they, halting at a respectful 


distance, were in momentary expectation of seeing the fort blown to’ 


atoms. 
Mr. McKinley then quietly seated himself with the old chief and 
his son, and amicably arranged the difficulty. 


CAYUSES. 65 


CAYUSKES. 


THE principal settlement of this nation is on the banks of a small 
creek flowing into the Walla-Walla River, about twenty miles from 
its confluence with the Columbia. 

Under the superintendence of the late Dr. Whitman, (their mis- 
sionary,) this nation cultivated large fields of corn, wheat, potatoes, 
and other vegetables, which, with the fish that annually visit the 
streams watering their country, enabled them to live in comparative 
affluence. 

They also raised large stocks of cattle and horses, which they bar- 
tered to the Hudson’s Bay Company for articles of Huropean manu- 
facture; so that they were not only above want but the wealthiest 
tribe in Oregon. 


Lid. 
TE-LO-KIKT, or CRAW-FISH WALKING FORWARD. 


Principal Chief of the Cayuses, and one of the principal actors in 
the inhuman butchery of Wailetpu. Was hung at Oregon City, June 
3d, 1850. 


120. 
SHU-MA-HIC-CIE, orn PAINTED SIRT. 
(Painted 1847.) 


One of the chief Cayuse Braves, and son of Te-lo-kikt, and one of 
the active murderers of the Mission family. 

After the massacre, this man was one who took a wife from the 
captive females—a young and beautiful girl of fourteen. In order 
to gain her quiet submission to his wishes, he threatened to take the 
life of her mother and younger sisters. Thus, in the power of 
savages, in a new and wild country, remote from civilization and all 
hope of restoration, she yielded herself to one whose hands were yet 
wet with the blood of an elder brother. 

5) 


66 CAYUSES. 


During the negotiations for these captives, (by Chief-factor Ogden, ) 
and subsequent to their delivery, this man spoke with much feeling 
of his attachment to his white wife, and urged that she should still 
live with him. He said he was a great warrior, possessed many 
horses and cattle, and would give them all to her—or if she did not 
like to reside with his people, he would forsake his people, and make 
the country of her friends, the pale faces, his home. 


12k. 
TUM-SUC-KEE. 


Cayuse Brave. The great ringleader and first instigator of the 
Wailetpu massacre—was hung at Oregon city, June 3d, 1850. 


122. 
WAIE-CAT—ONE THAT FLIES. 


Cayuse Brave and son of Tum-suc-kee. This man, though young, 
was an active participator in the massacre of Dr. Whitman, and com- 
mitted many atrocities upon the defenceless captives. He escaped 
the ignominious death which awaited those not more guilty than 
himself. 


123. 


Massacre of Dr. Whitman’s family at the Wailetpu Mission, in 
Oregon, 29th of November, 1847. 


E24. 


Abduction of Miss Bewley from Dr. Whitman’s mission. 


125. 
CASCADES OF THE COLUMBIA RIVER. 


126. 
SALMON FISHERY ON THE HEAD-WATERS OF THE 
COLUMBIA. 


12%. 
MOUNT HOOD.—(OREGON.) 


NEZ PERCES.—PELOUSES. 67 


NEZ PERCES. 


Tuts tribe occupies the country on the head waters of Snake River. 
They are numerous and warlike. 


128. 


TIN-TIN-METZE. 
(Painted 1847.) 


A Nez Percé Chief. 


PELOUSES. 


A sMALL band occupying the valley of the Pelouse, near its con- 
fluence with Snake River. 


129. 
KEOK-SOES-TEE. 
(Painted 1847.) 


A Palouse Brave. 


130. 
VIEW ON THE PELOUSE RIVER. 


131. 
PELOUSE FALLS. 

This beautiful cascade is situated about nine miles from the junc- 
tion of the Pelouse with Snake River, and is estimated at three 
hundred feet in height. According to an old tradition, the Great 
Spirit caused this barrier to rise, to prevent the salmon from passing 
toa band of Indians living on its head-waters, with whom he was 
displeased. 


68 PELOUSES.—SPOKANES. 


1s2. 
VIEW IN THE CASCADE MOUNTAINS. 


133. 
VIEW ON THE COLUMBIA. 


1d4. 
VIEW ON THE COLUMBIA. 


135. 


THE ARTIST TRAVELLING IN NORTHERN OREGON IN 
THE MONTH OF DECEMBER. 


136. 
VIEW OF MOUNT HOOD. 


137. 
CASCADES OF THE COLUMBIA. 


138. 


THE GREAT DALLES BASIN, AND VIEW OF 
MOUNT HOOD. 


SPOKANES. 


RestpE on the Spokane River, and occupy the country on the 
Columbia River as high as the 49° of latitude. 

They subsist chiefly on salmon, which are caught in great abun- 
dance during the fishing season, and dried for winter consumption. 
Owing toa scarcity of game, and their improvidence, they are fre- 
quently reduced to great want, and exist for months on moss and 
roots. Small parties join the Flat Heads, and the Coeur-de-Lions, 
(who occupy the adjacent territory,) in their buffalo-hunts on the side 
of the Rocky Mountains. 


SPOKANES. 69 


139. 


SE-LIM-COOM-CLU-LOCK, or RAVEN CHIEF. 
(Painted 1847.) 


Commonly called Ugly Head. Principal Chief of the Spokanes, 
or Flat-Heads, residing on the waters of the Spokane River. When 
about to commence the painting of this portrait, the old chief made a 
sign for me to stop, as he wished to give me a talk. He spoke near 
an hour, and said that his people had always been friendly with the 
whites—that some of the first “dong knives’’ that came to his country 
had taken wives from among his women, and had lived among them 
—they were his brothers—he had adopted the white man’s religion, 
and had used his influence to promote Christianity among his people. 
Shortly after the butchery at the Wailetpu Mission, a rumour reached 
the Spokanes that the Cayuses were coming to murder the families of 
Messrs. Walker and Hels, missionaries located among them at Fishi- 
makine. The old chief collected his people, and with their lodges 
surrounded the mission, declaring the Cayuses should first murder 
them. In the mean time, Messrs. Walker and Hels prepared them- 
selves, by barricading their houses, to resist the fate of their co- 
labourers to the last extremity. At this exciting moment, a report 
reached the Spokanes, that a number of their people residing in the 
Willamette valley had been killed by the Americans, in retaliation 
for the Wailetpu massacre. The young warriors collected for the pur- 
pose of protecting Messrs. Walker and Eels from the hands of the 
murderous Cayuses, now became clamorous, and were with great dif_i- 
culty restrained from spilling their blood themselves. The old chief 
told them the rumour might be false ; and, by his influence and good 
sense, the lives of these pious labourers in the cause of Christianity 
were spared. 

Messrs. Walker and Eels were subsequently taken from the mission 
to Fort Colville by the old chief, fearing the responsibility of protect- 
ing them from the Cayuses and his own impetuous warriors, if the 

rumoured death of their friends in the Willamette should prove true. 

After remaining some weeks at Fort Colville, they were taken by a 
company of Oregon volunteers to the settlements, where they still 
reside. 


70 SPOKANES. 


140. 


KWIT-TEAL-CO-KOO-SUM. 
(Painted 1847.) 


Big Star Chief, a Medicine-man of the Spokanes. Whenever a 
person is sick, this tribe suppose that the spirit has left the body, 
and hovers invisibly in the air, until it can be charmed or brought 
back through the agency of the medicine-man. ‘To accomplish this 
end, the patient is placed in a sitting posture, enveloped in a buffalo- 
robe, or other covering, having only the top of the head exposed. 

The medicine-man then commences dancing and singing around 
the patient, gesticulating mysteriously, and often clutching in the air 
with his hands, as if in the act of catching something. ‘The spirit is 
supposed to be attracted by the chant, and to hover near the aper- 
ture at the top of the lodge; and the dance is often continued for an 
hour before it can be caught. It is then pressed and rubbed, as the 
medicine-man pretends, through the patient’s skull, whose recovery, 
if not soon effected, he supposes to be thwarted by his having caught 
the spirit of some other person; and it then becomes necessary to 
undo his work by setting it at liberty, and repeating the performance 
until the right spirit is caught. 

During my stay among this people much sickness prevailed, and I 
was often kept awake all night by the wild chant and monotonous 
drum. 

This chief has four wives, whom he supports in Indian affluence 
by the successful practice of his art of conjuration. He possesses a 
countenance of great intelligence, and seemed to doubt my ability to 
transfer it correctly to the canvas. But the picture proved to be 
highly satisfactory, and he became my daily visitor, and acknow- 
ledged me to be “big medicine.” 


141. 
KAI-MISH-KON, on MARKED HEAD. 
Spokane Chief. 


142. 


KAI-ME-TE-KIN, or MARKED BACK. 
Spokane Brave. 


STONY ISLAND INDIANS. 71 


143. 
PA-SE-LIX. 


Spokane Squaw. 


144. 
TIN-TIN-MA-LI-KIN, or STRONG BREAST. 


STONY ISLAND INDIANS. 


ResibE in the vicinity of Fort Okanagan, Upper Columbia River, 
and subsist by tishing. 


145. 
HI-UP-EKAN. 
Stony Island Brave. 


146. 
LAH-KIES-TUM. 
Stony Island Squaw. 


14%. 
SO-HA-PE, 
Stony Island Brave. 


"2 OKANAGANS. 


OKANAGANS. 


148. 
WAH-PUXE. 
Curer of the Priest’s Rapid. 


149. 
KO-MAL-KAN, or LONG HAIR. 


An Okanagan Medicine-man. 


150. 
SIN-PAH-SOX-TIN, 


Okanagan Squaw. 


EOE. 
VIEW ON THE SPOKANE RIVER. 


Adz. 


J. M. STANLEY, THE ARTIST. 
_ Painted by A. B. Moore, 1851. 


INDEX. 


A. 
Page 
AAYOAS JOSE) NOs GOrdess<cosasicosens 56 
AbGebals NO: Wilsesssrc.ecoessessacen= 49 
ANTeniwees, NOLO sectecssecensisccelesaes 32 
IADSECHEE) NO: pl Bsenvecaseics ccsnosclececes 14 
Alleck Tustenuggee, Nos. 2, 4....... 6 
PANG ATOMS INOS Mouccececaccesdseeses)scieses id 
Arkansas Valley, No. 31.........6.04 25 
B. 

Beaver dragging a Limb, No. 41...31 
Big Soldier, No. 64............sseeseeee 43 
Sto WVALTLON NOs. O sec vcencslessesclavianan 7 
Billy Handjo, No. 16; ........scceseseee 18 
Bin tab w NO Awe. csicsvisssjsleesescsseceees 48 
Weick OP MNO. O2ivcssscacciscicesceseees 42 
Black Feet in Ambush, No. 61...... 41 

Black Hawk’s Wife and Daughter, 
INO MO Giketssecencicsacnsceaccstse-delesetine 37 
Bla cke KMife NOS: secesvoideoiceesetness 57 
BOW NOs, SO nc sceens accrcewesee sede dawweae 51 
Buffalo Dance, (Creek,) No. 12.....10 
Buffalo Hump, No. 86............6000 53 


Buffalo Hunt, (Keechie,) No. 85....52 


C. 


Caddo Cove: Nos SOlscccocecose scesesess 25 
GanloshVigils NO: Oaessceceseseccs/sces +00 
Cascade Mountains, No. 182......... 68 
Cascades of Columbia River, No. 
MO Gercisieccacissoves¥eceioceucssisers ss 66 


Pago 
Cascades of the Columbia, No. 187..68 
Casino NOs Migemecscsssercerec sateen: 63 
Watcher! Non 2antcccssesteosneeereineres 17 
Chapaheahha,, No: '66\<.....c.ceue-ceee 44 
Charles McIntosh, No. 25...........+. i 
Cherokee Girl, No. 29.......00 csscesees 25 
Cherokee Ladies, No. 28..........00 25 
Chieftain’s Grave, No. 58.........00+. 40 
Chilly McImtoshyaNon liiescstsssscoere 13 
Chocote Tustenuggee, No. 6.......... 7 
Chowee; INO: S0l-ccst.tcccecscscte cess: 51 
Clarke, George W., No. 4............. 6 
Columbia River, View on, Nos. 133, 
USA elicits deacsaes, sobveees costeedengenees 68 
Columbia River, Cascades of, Nos. 
DO; LO Tevvosuecsaeconcseeshoseees 66, 68 
Comanche Domestic Scene, No. 91..54 
Comanche Game, No. 92............4. 55 
Coowiscooee; No: Lori ccc. cece cseses ese 15 
Cotsay NOX Orc: dccossucscsncceesossccssses 7 
Council, International, No. 27.......18 
Cowockcoochee, No. 1..........c0seeeee 5 
Craw-fish walking forward, No. 
NAGS ce wceosccesctesssccstacetanciseecseer 65 
Creek Buffalo Dance, No. 12......... 10 
Crowsuntah, Not G4eccccssccsescasenses 43 
Wado. NOnA.. snccecienccccecsiqncescieverss 6 
1D: 
Dardanelle Rock, No. 33.......0604 0+ 26 
DOG NG NA Uuercestatdentnaviesessosacteccers 15 


73 


74 
KE. 
Page 
Eagle Feather, No. 66.............---. 44 
Eater of the Black Buffalo Heart, 
INO vi Siecuececciescccscusloratwobestsresseens 54 
Bmahtes No. OSs ce sceccesceeeccsisieoens 59 
mishnim, No. WOGieccsnecoesssesistoees 59 
F. 
Feathered Arrow, No. 87.......ss0e00 29 
Flight of a Mountain Trapper, No. 
DOL iesesucoue eetosereiscnnsssencecce seco: 40 
RoxsBraves Nov OSstueees densesierctaossss o7 
G: 
Gamble, James, No. 34........0.eeeee 26 
GilavRiversriNOs OOsvecdecuccsoncesness 57 
Gray,.diM, INOS Onctescsnaicecscssesienmass 30 
Great Dalles Basin, No. 138......... 68 
EL: 
Hadooncotesah, No. 77. ..cccscsssceees 49 
Halburtahadjo, No. 7.......0.sssseceee 7 
Half-Day yNors6s...c.csscscsesseacciess 29 
Hendrick, Thomas, No. 88........... 29 
Herura, José Domingo, No. 97...... 56 
Hiupekan, No. 145.........0..+ sensors 71 
I 
International Council, No. 27....... 18 
Ishtonnoyes, No. 34.....00.sss000eeee00 20 
J. 
John ROSS vINOslOascassecvcseenecrcss 15 
José Ahayea, No. 96.........00 eeceeees 56 
José Domingo Herura, No. 97.......56 
DOserViaria, INO Sueerccencestecescsees 49 
José Maria Vigil Zuazo, No. 93.....56 
Juan Antonio Vigil, No. 95.......606 56 


INDEX. 


KK. 
Page 
Kaimetikin, No. L422 ic.cucscceocnetese 70 
Kaimishkon, /Nont4lesceassaresccsss 70 
Kakakatish,, No: 79; 3 eseccissssasieciise 50 
Kasarouka, Nosatdlisteccsscecrcivareecses 47 
Keechekarouki, No. 81................ 51 
Keeseelah, Noid'8:...0ccacecsasseclecsoes 14 
Keethila; NOs 203cu.ssacascsossesccclens 15 
Keoksoestee, No. 129.......... seseseee- 67 
Rie okwks NOWD2. secuessiescs'eissieaccesiene 35 
Keppeoleck, No. 54......-...00ceesesees BT 
Ketchum, Captain, No. 42.........+6. bl 
Kihiccatedah, No. 69..........sseeeeee 46 
Komalkan, (Nopu 4909.0. .oscecsinecsesees ime 
Korakkookiss, No. 82.....,....ss00e00 52 
Korantetedah, No. 83 ............s000: 52 
Kottanteek, (No. 84..222..c.csossecocnt= 52 
Kwittealcokoosum, No. 140.......... 70 

L. 
Lahkiestum, No. 146.......00.sescessee 71 
Tittle Kang. No.l ai acc cccniecss score 12 
Little Tecumseh, No. 51............... 35 
Long Hair, No. 149...........00. ceseee 72 
Long Traveller, No. 44........ sees 32 

M. 

Man named by the Great Spirit, 
INO aSlicnvoseoudeewcctedesrseeteceese 51 
Maricopa Squaw, No. 102.........+6. 58 
Marked Back, No. 142......... Necieies 70 
Marked Head, No. 141............0000 70 
Mary and Achata, No. 115........... 62 
McCallah, Captain, No. 46........... 82 
McIntosh, Charles, No. 25............17 
McIntosh, Chilly, No. 17..........06 13 
McLaughlin, Dr., No. 111............ 61 
Medicine-dance of the Sacs, No.57..37 
Medicine-man, No. 15...........ss0eeee 12 
Miss Bewley, Abduction of, No. 

A ee ce accent r aeesopeetaseces: 66 


Mount Hood, Nos.127,136,138...66,68 


INDEX. 


N. 
Page 
Nahmoosukah, No. 90..........seeeee 54 
Nashtaw, No. 72 .......cscccesecesceeees 48 
Naswaga, No. B7....cccseesse sereeeees 29 
Natural Dam in Arkansas, No. 382...26 
Nequabanah, No. 65..........2+0+ seers 44 
Nokesuke Tustenuggee, No. 3...... 4,6 

@. 
Ogden, Gov. P.S., No. 112........... 61 
Ohahahwahkee, No. 89............-++- 54 
Ohtahneeuntah, No. 24...........0000 17 
Opoethleyoholo, Nos. 10, 11......... 9 
Optegeezheek, No. 36......csceceeeeees 29 
Oregon City, No. 113.........sseeeeeee 61 
Oregon in December, No. 185.......68 
Osage Mimic, No. 67.......sseseeeee e044 
Osage Scalp-dance, No. 68.......... 45 

Ps 
Pacondalinquaing, No. 47.........++ 33 
Pahquesahah, No. 51......... sesso 35 
Pamted Shirt, No. 120) <2... .<<e)s0ss0 65 
BAINES NOsildavievecesesoscelcocacdeoesee 48 
IBASCLIXS NOU AGicccescsaccrsasvosiccecss 71 
Passing Chief, No. 69.......0.ss0eceee 46 
Pelouse Falls, No. 131........ Geatnetios 67 
Pelouse River, No. 180............000- 67 
Peopeomuxmux, No. 118............. 64 
Physic Maker, No. 15... s+. seeeeeee 12 
Pamo Chief Nos lOO... cc. ccccss excess 58 
Pimo Squaws NO. LOW. csccssicoscesess 58 
Pochounahshonnocco, No. 87........ 54 

Pochonnahshonnocco’s Wife, No. 

SB scccccenanesaotevslersecaieceseadscloctsrs 54 
Poochonequaheep, No. 86..........+. 53 


QO; 


Quahgommee, No. 49...cs.seecseseeeee 84 
Quatyken, No. 110......c000sseseeseeene 61 


79 
R. 
Page 
Rayen! Chief, Nos 139) sees cswecesese os 69 
Red. Wolf, Nov G4 csteeccaeterestensosteee 3 
Ritsaahrescat, No. 73......0s00 secesees 48 
Roaring Thunder, No. 71........+000 47 
Roasting, Hars,, No« 47.) ccccecss seceee 33 
Rokanoowha, No. 44.........00. Tee O es 
Ross, ohn, INO WG. ceaccoclsaces creas: 15 
5S. 
Sac Chick NOWbS:.cscccsvsccctiessesclteol 
Sac Medicine-dance, No. 57......... 37 
Sac War-chief, Non55....<.0scccssscss 37 


Salmon-fishing on the Columbia, 


INGHLZGresssivcctesecs ssscentecterescsasn OO 
Saushbuxcum, No. 41.........0.eceeees 8L 
Second Bye, No. 48........sccessererens bl 
Scalp-dance (Osage), No. 68......... 45 
Sehiaahdiyou, No. 76.......00.sseeeeee 49 
Selimcoomelulock, No. 139...........69 
Semiwocca, No.9... .cccisccccelecsrs sce 8 
Shabanees Non AO eesecruscscscsecses ooo OO 
Shaceeshumoo, No. 50..........405+..04 


Shaste Squaw, No. 103...........2224.5 
Shooting Star, No. 79...1...000s0+--00 
Shumahiccie, No. 120...........+0++0.65 


Shumecuss:) NOWGSis..m<sccsecseotosecs 43 
Singing Bird, No. 76... ... 0000000000049 
Sinpahsoxtin, No. 150.............000 72 
Sohape, No. 47 ....cscscesscecersssessees rel 
Spirit, NO. 26. .......ssccesee cecsescavees 17 
Spoiled Person, No. 28.............--. 16 
Stanley, J. M., (the Artist, ) No.152.72 
Star Watery NOs 2s des cusesloave secmen 16 
Stomaquea, No. 108........+20sceeeeeee 60 
Strong Breast, No. 144........00...00 71 
Swallow NOwASE. |. scceeisas soscnciearsccseiees b4 
a 
Tahcoosah Fixico, No. 16............ 13 
Malle Mans wNio sd Oeeceseresescioesceseesees 49 
Techongta Saba, No. 62...........4..42 
Melallek; Now 109 csc ssesmassse Meclanedes 60 


76 

Page 
Mel okiktw No: ll Qveccsersiecceecsteocciers OO 
Tetokanim, No. 105.........c.scceseees 59 
Thomas Watie, No. 22...........+0++--16 
Tiger, No. 8.. Soecsctclonsseomenceenndl 
Bintinmalikin; ‘No. 144 asada destaose 71 
Tintinmetze, Nos L282...cceccsccaceesrs 67 
Tomathla Micco, No. 14.......ccsesee 12 
Trapper’s Escape, No. 60.......... ++. 41 
Tuckabacka Micco, No. 16........... 12 
Tumsuckee, No. 121...........seseseees 66 
Tustenuggee Chopko, No. 5.......... 7 
Tustenuggee Emathla, No. 18....... 10 

ve 

View on the Spokane River, No.151.72 
Wigil, Carlos, Noj94.c.c0.ccessvecnsaes 56 
Vigil, Juan Antonio, No. 95......... 56 


Vigil Zuazo, José Maria, No. 98....56 


W. 
Wiabonselt, (NO:130. -ccccccaciscevtesiesoctes 27 
Wahpongga, No. 48....c00ce sesecserees 34 


INDEX. 


Page 
Wahpuxee, No. 148...0....0sesccsseseee 72 
Watecat. JNO. 1222 scsrcsctecsmesntscseas 66 
Washamus, Nos Wan. eo. cctecscsttenddes 61 
Wechalahnache, No. 26............6+- 17 
White Sky, Nos 35:5. ...c2:sveccessocttee 27 
Whitman, Dr., Massacre of his Fa- 
mily, No. 123 .s.5.ccasecsenanconicsdass 66 
Waldt@ats No: Wik:.5..aererneesonessone 5 
Willamette Falls, No. 116............ 62 
Wohumpa, No. 70...cccceceecoseescerere 46 
Wolf INOsNG8; MOA Sc 2.s..ccreseres 43, 59 
Woman of the Hunt, No. 73......... 48 
Woman who catches the Spotted 
Hawn NOwSorssescutcsscdess fences 52 


Wounded Man, No. 74........:ccceeeee 


wy: 
Yeahweeooyahgee, No. 23............ 16 
Yellow Paint Hunter, No. 89........ 54 
Yellow Serpent, No. 118.............5 64 


Mielstos NOwWOTs ts cencecsccescsteveceses 60 


THE END. 


STEREOTYPED BY L. JOHNSON & OO, 
PHILADELPHIA. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 





CATALOGUE 


or 


NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS, 


CHIEFLY IN THE MUSEUM OF THE 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 


BY 


SPENCER F. BAIRD. 


[FIRST OCTAVO EDITION.) 





WASHING TON: 
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 
1859. 






eee 


PHILADELPHIA: 


COLLINS, PRINTER, 705 JAYNE STREET. 





d 








¥ 
hi 





CNTRODUCTION. 


THE present “ Catalogue of North American Birds” has been reprinted, 
with some changes, from the one in quarto, forming a portion of the 
report on North American Birds, in Vol. LX. of the Reports of the Pacific 
Railroad Survey, and published as a separate paper, by the Institution, in 
October, 1858. Its object is to facilitate the labelling of the specimens of 
birds and eggs in the Museum of the Institution, as also to serve the pur- 
poses of a check list of the species. 

Copies printed on one side of the paper only, for labelling, or on both 
sides, for miscellaneous purposes, will be furnished to institutions and indi- 
viduals on application. 

JOSEPH HENRY, 
Secretary S. I. 


se 


5. as : 
fT RE Ae? CAREC 


PEP te Rha 


Cres 


rave tapes 
Cyt eee Be Ap is 


hae 








. CATHARTES AURA, I tie. 

Turkey Buzzard. 

. CATHARTES CALIFORNIANUS, Cvv. 
California Vulture. 

. CATHARTES ATRATUS, Lesson. 
Black Vulture. 

. CATHARTES BURROVIANUS, Cassin. 
Mexican Vulture. 

. FALCO ANATUM, Bonaparte. 

Duck Hawk. 

. FALCO NIGRICHEPS, Cassin. 

Black Capped Hawk. 


. HYPOTRIORCHIS COLUMBARIUS, Gr. 


Pigeon Hawk. 

. HYPOTRIORCHIS AURANTIUS, Kavr. 
Orange-breasted Hawk. 

. HYPOTRIORCHIS FEMORALITS, Gray. 
_Aplomado. 

. FALCO POLYAGRUS, Cassin. 
Prairie Falcon. 

. FALCO CANDICANS, Gmetin. 

Jer Falcon. 

. FALCO ISLANDICUS, Sasine. 

Jer Falcon. 

. TINNUNCULUS SPARVERIUS, Vicitt. 
Sparrow Hawk. 

. ASTUR ATRICAPILLUS, Bonar. 
Goshawk. 

. ACCIPITER COOPERII, Bonar. 
Cooper’s Hawk. 

. ACCIPITER MEXICANUS, Swans. 
Biue-backed Hawk. 

. ACCIPITER FUSCUS, Bonar. 
Sharp-shinned Hawk. 

. BUTEO SWAINSONYI, Bonar. 
Swainson’s Hawk. 

. BUTEO BAIRDII, Hoy. 

Baird’s Hawk. 

. BUTEO CALURUS, Cassin. 

Biack Rea-tall. 


bo 
= 


i) 
bo 





36. 


. BUTHO COOPERI, Cassin. 


. BUTEO INSIGNATUS, Cassin. 


Brown Hawk. 


. BUTEO HARLANI, Bonararrz. 


Harlan’s Hawk. 


. BUTEO BOREALIS, Viritt. 


Red-tailed Hawk. 


24. BUTHO MONTANUS, Norratt. 


Western Red-tail. 


. BUTEHO LINEATUS, Jarpine. 


Red-shouldered Hawk. 


. BUTEO ELEGANS, Cassin. 


Red-bellied Hawk. 


. BUTHO PENNSYLVANICUS, Boyar. 


Broad-winged Hawk. 


28. BUTEHO OXYPTERUS, Cassin. 


Sharp-winged Hawk. 


California Hawk. 


30. ARCHIBUTEHO LAGOPUS, Gray. 


Reugh-legged Hawk. 


31. ARCHIBUTEO SANCTI-JOHANNIS, Gr. 


Biack Hawk. 


. ARCHIBUTEO FERRUGINEUS, Gray. 


Squirrel Hawk. 


. ASTURINA NITIDA, Bonap. 


Mexican Hawk. 
NAUCLERUS FPURCATUS, Vicors 


Swallow-tailed Hawk. 


35. BLANUS LEUCURUS, Bonar. 


White-tailed Hawk. 
ICTINIA MISSISSIPPIENSIS, Gray. 
Mississippi Kite. 


. ROSTRHAMUS SOCIABILIS, D’Ors 


Black Kite. 


38. CIRCUS HUDSONIUS, VieIttor. 


39. 


Marsh Hawk. 
AQUILA CANADENSIS, Cassin. 


Golden Eagle; Ring-tailed Easle. 


40. 


HALIAETUS PELAGICUS, Sizezorp. 


Northern Sea Eagie. 


41. 


54. 


59. 


56. 


57. 


58. 


59. 


60. 


HALIAETUS WASHINGTONII, Jarp. 
Washington Eagle. 


. HALIAETUS ALBICILLA, Cov. 


Gray Sea Eagle. 


. HALIAETUS LEUCOCEPHALUS, Savieny. 


Bald Eagie. 


. PANDION CAROLINENSIS, Bon 


Fish Hawk. 


. POLYBORUS THARUS, Cassin. 


Caracara Eagle. 


. CRAXIREX UNICINCTUS, Cassin. 


Hiarris’ Buzzard. 


. STRIX PRATINCOLA, Bonar. 


Barn Owl. 


. BUBO VIRGINIANUS, Bonar. 


Great Horned Owl. 


. SCOPS ASIO, Bonar. 


Mottled Owl. 


. SCOPS McCALLII, Cassin. 


Western Mottied Owl. 


. OTUS WILSONIANUS, Lesson. 


Long-Eared Owl. 


. BRACHYOTUS CASSINII, Brewer. 


Short-Eared Owl. 


. SYRNIUM CINEREUM, Avp. 


Great Gray Owl. 
SYRNIUM NEBULOSUM, Gray. 
Barred Owl. 

NYCTALE RICHARDSONII, Bonar. 
Sparrow Owl. 
NYCTALE ALBIFRONS, Cassin. 
Kirtland’s Owl. 
NYCTALE ACADICA, Bon. 
Saw-whet Owl. 
ATHENE HYPUGABA, Bonar. 
Prairie Owl. 
ATHENE CUNICULARIA, Bon. 
Burrowing Owl. 
GLAUCIDIUM GNOMA, Cassin. 
Pigmy Owi. 


bo 


61. 


63. 


64, 


66. 


67. 


68. 


69. 


70. 


NYCTEA NIVEA, Gray. 
Snowy Owl. 
SURNIA ULULA, Bonar. 
Hawk Owl. 
CONURUS CAROLINENSIS, Kvut. 
Parakeet. 
RHYNCHOPSITTA PACHYRHYNCHA B. 
Thick-billed Parrot. 


. TROGON MEXICANUS, Swaryson. 


Mexican Trogon. 
CROTOPHAGA RUGIROSTRIS, Sw. 
Black Parrot. 
CROTOPHAGA ANI, Linn. 
Ani. 

GHOCOCCYX CALIFORNIANUS, Bairp 

Paisane; Chaparral Cock. 
COCCYGUS AMERICANUS, Bonar. 

Wellow-billed Cuckoo. 
COCCYGUS ERYTHROPHTHALMUS, Br. 

Black-billed Cuckoo. 


. COCCYGUS MINOR, Cas. 


Mangrove Cuckoo. 


. CAMPEPHILUS PRINCIPALIS, Gray. 


Ivory-billed Woodpecker. 


. CAMPEPHILUS IMPSERIALIS, Gray. 


Imperial Woodpecker. 


. PICUS VILLOSUS, Liny. 


Hiairy Woodpecker. 


. PICUS HARRISII, Avp. 


Harris’ Woodpecker. 
PICUS PUBESCENS, Linn. 
Downy Woodpecker. 
PICUS GAIRDNERI, Avp. 


Gairdner’s Woodpecker. 


78. 
79. 


80. 


| 
Red-cockaded Woodpecker. 


PICUS NUTTALLI, GamBeEL. 
Nuttali’s Weodpecker. 
PICUS SCALARIS, Wactrr. 
Texas Sapsucker. 
PICUS BOREALIS, Vieitt. 






81. PICUS ALBOLARVATUS, Baro. 

| White-headed Wvuodpecker. 

82. PICOIDES ARCTICUS, Gray. 
Three-toed Woodpecker. 

83. PICOIDES HIRSUTUS, Gray. 

Banded three-toed Woodpecker. 

84. PICOIDES DORSALIS, Barrp. 

Striped three-toed Woodpecker. 

8. SPHYROPICUS VARIUS, Barrp. 
Yellow-bellied Woodpecker. 

86. SPH YROPICUS NUCHALIS, Barirp 

| Red-throated Woodpecker. 

87. SPHYROPICUS RUBER, Bairp. 

Red-breasted Woodpecker. 

88. SPH YROPICUS WILLIAMSONII, Batrp. 

| Williamson’s Woodpecker. 

89. SPHYROPICUS THYROIDHUS, Barrp. 





| Brown-headed Woodpecker. 

ki HYLOTOMUS PILEATUS, Barrp. 

| Black Woodpecker. 

91. CENTURUS CAROLINUS, Bonar. 

| Red-bellied Woodpecker. 

92. CENTURUS FLAVIVENTRIS, Sw. 
Yellow-bellied Woodpecker. 

938. CENTURUS UROPYGIALIS, Batrp. 

Gila Woodpecker. 


94, MELANERPES ERYTHROCEPHAULUS, Sw. 


Red-headed Woodpecker. 
95. MELANERPES FORMICIVORUS, Bonar. 
California Woodpecker. 
96. MELANERPES TORQUATUS, Bonar. 
Lewis’s Woodpecker. 
97. COLAPTES AURATUS, Swainson. 
| Yellow-shafted Flicker. 
98. COLAPTES MEXICANUS, Swarms. 
| Red-shafted Flicker. 
98a. COLAPTES HYBRIDUS, Bano. 
Hybrid Woodpecker. 
99. COLAPTES CHRYSOIDES, Bairp. 


100. LAMPORNIS MANGO, Swarys. 
Mango Humming Bird. 
101. TROCHILUS COLUBRIS, Linn. 
Humming Bird. 
102. TROCHILUS ALEXANDRI, Bovurc. & Mots. 
Black-chinned Humming Bird. 
103. SELASPHORUS RUFUS, 8&w. 
Rufous Humming Bird. 
104. SELASPHORUS PLATYCERCUS, Govtp. 
Broad-tailed Humming Bird. 
105. ATTHIS ANNA, Retcuens. 
Anna Humming Bird. 
106. ATTHIS COSTAE, Reicuens. 
Ruffed Humming Bird. 
107. PANYPTILA MELANOLEUCA, Bairp. 
White-throated Swift. 
108. NEPHOECETES NIGER, Bairp. 
Black Swift. 
109. CHAETURA PELASGIA, Srepu. 
Chimney Swallow. 
110. CHAETURA VAUAZII, De Kay. 
Oregon Swift. 
111. ANTROSTOMUS CAROLINENSIS, Goutp. 
Chuck-will’s-widow. 
112, ANTROSTOMUS VOCIFERUS, Bonar. 
Whip-poor-will. 
1138. ANTROSTOMUS NUTTALLI, Cassy. 
Poor-will. 
114. CHORDEILES POPETUE, Bairp. 
Night Hawk. 
115. CHORDEILES HENRYI, Cassin. 
Western Night Hawk. 
116. CHORDEILES TEXENSIS, Lawrence. 
Texas Night Hawk. 
1l6a. NYCTIDROMUS 
Pauraque. 
117. CERYLE ALCYON, Bor 
Belted King-fisher. 
118. CERYLE AMERICANA, Borr. 
Texas King-fisher. 


119. 


120. 


123, 


124. 


129. 


180. 


131. 


133. 


134. 


137. 


138. 


. TYRANNUS DOMINICENSIS, 


MOMOTUS CABERULICHPS, Goutp. 
Saw-bill. 


PACHYRHAMPHUS AGLAIAB, Larrusy. 


Rose-throated Flycatcher. 


. BATHMIDURUS MAJOR, Cas. 


Thick-bill. 


. MILVULUS TYRANNUS, Bonar. 


Fork-tailed Flycatcher. 
MILVULUS FORFICATUS, Sw. 
Scissor-tail. 
TYRANNUS CAROLINENSIS, 

King Bird; Bee Bird. 


Barr. 


Ricu. 


Gray King Bird. 


. TYRANNUS VERTICALIS, Say. 


Arkansas Flycatcher. 


. TYRANNUS VOCIFERANS, Sw. 


Cassin’s Flycatcher. 


. TYRANNUS COUCHII, Barrp. 


Couch’s Fiycatcher. 
TYRANNUS MELANCHOLICUS, Vreitt. 
Silent Flycatcher. 

MYIARCHUS CRINITUS, Cas. 

Great Crested Flycatcher. 

MYIARCHUS MEXICANUS, Barrp. 
Ash-throated Fiycatcher. 


. MYIARCHUS COOPERI, Bairp. 


Mexican Flycatcher. 
MYIARCHUS LAWRENCII, Barnp. 
Lawrence’s Flycatcher. 
SAYORNIS NIGRICANS, Bonar. 
Black Flycatcher. 


. SAYORNIS FUSCUS, Bairp. 


Pewee. 


. SAYORNIS SAYUS, Bairp. 


Say’s Fiycatcher. 
CONTOPUS BOREALIS, Barrp. 


Olive-sided Flycatcher. 
CONTOPUS RICHARDSONII, Barrp. 


Short-legged Pewee. 


140. 


144. 


144 


146 


147 


148 


149 


149 


. CONTOPUS VIRENS, Cas. 
Wood Pewee. 
EMPIDONAX TRAILLII, Bairp. 
Traill’s Flycatcher. 
. EMPIDONAX PUSILLUS, Cas. 


Little Flycatcher, 
. EMPIDONAX MINIMUS, Barrp. 


Least Flycatcher. 
. BMPIDONAX ACADICUS, Barrp. 
Green-crested Flycatcher. 
EMPIDONAX FLAVIVENTRIS, Barrp 
YWellow-bellied Fiycatcher.. 
a. EMPIDONAX DIFFICILIS, Batrp. 
Western Flycatcher. 
. EMPIDONAX HAMMONDII, Bairp. 
Hammonds Flycatcher. 
. EMPIDONAX OBSCURUS, Bairp. 
Wright’s Flycatcher. 
. PYROCEPHALUS RUBINEUS, Gray. 
Red Flycatcher. 
. TURDUS MUSTELINUS, Gn. 


Wood Thrush. 
. TURDUS PALLASI, Cas. 


Wermit Thrush. 
a. TURDUS SILENS, Swainson. 
Silent Thrush. 


150. TURDUS NANUS, Avp. 


Dwarf Thrush. 
. TURDUS FUSCESCENS, Srteruens 
Wilson’s Thrush. 


152. TURDUS USTULATUS, Nurratt. 


Gregon Thrush. 


153. TURDUS SWAINSONITI, Can. 


Olive-backed Thrush. 


154. TURDUS ALICIA, Bairp. 


Gray-cheeked Thrush. 


5. TURDUS MIGRATORIDUS, Liv. 


Robin. 


156. TURDUS NABEVIUS, Guetin. 


Varied Thrush. 


57. SAXICOLA CANANTHE, Becusr. 

| Stone Chat. 

58. SIALIA SIALIS, Barrp. 

) Blue Bird, 

59. SIALIA MEXICANA, Swainys. 

Western Blue Bird. 

60. SIALIA ARCTICA, Swains. 

Rocky Mountain Biue Bird. 

61. REGULUS CALENDULA, Licar. 

| Ruby-crowned Wren. 

. REGULUS SATRAPA, Licurt. 
Golden-crested Wren. 

. REGULUS CUVIERI, Auvp. 





Cuvier’s Golden Crest. 
. HYDROBATA MEXICANA, Bairp. 
Water Ouzel. 
65. ANTHUS LUDOVICIANUS, Licur. 
Tit-lark. 
. NEOCORYS SPRAGUEII, Scrarter. 
Missouri Skylark. 

67. MNIOTILTA VARIA, VIEILL. 
Black and white Creeper. 





Long-billed Creeper. 
PARULA AMERICANA, Bonar. 
Blue Yellow-back. 
. PROTONOTARIA CITRBEA, Bairv. 
Prothonotary Warbler. 
. GEOTHLYPIS TRICHAS, Cas. 
Maryland Yellow-throat, 
71. GHEOTHLYPIS VELATUS, Cas. 
Gray-headed Warbler. 
. GEOTHLYPIS PHILADELPHIA, Barrp. 
Mourning Warbler. 
. GEOTHLYPIS MACGILLIVRAYY, Bairp. 
Macgillivray’s Warbler. 
- OPORORNIS AGILIS, Bairp. 
Connecticut Warbler. 
. OPORORNIS FORMOSUS, Bairp. 
i Kentucky Warbler. 


67a. Var. MNIOTILTA LONGIROSTRIS, Bairp. 


176. ICTERIA VIRIDIS, Bonar. 

Wellow-breasted Chat. 

. ICTERIA LONGICAUDA, Lawr. 
Long-tailed Chat. 

. HELMITHERUS VERMIVORUS, Bonar. 
Worm-eating Warbler. 

179. HELMITHERUS SWAINSONIYI, Bonar. 
Swainson’s Warbler. 

180. HELMINTHOPHAGA PINUS, Bairp. 

Blue-winged Yellow Warbler. 

181. HELMINTHOPHAGA CHRYSOPTERA,B 

Golden-winged Warbler. 
182. HELMINTHOPHAGA BACHMANI, Cas 


Bachman’s Warbler 


1838. HELMINTHOPHAGA RUFICAPILLA, Bp. 


Nashville Warbler. 


1834. HELMINTHOPHAGA VIRGINIAE, Bairp. 


Mountain Warbler. 
184. HELMINTHOPHAGA CELATA, Barnp. 


Orange-crowned Warbler. 


Tennessee Warbler. 
. SEIURUS AUROCAPILLUS, Sw. 
Golden-crowned Thrush. 
. SEIURUS NOVEBORACENSIS, Nort. 
Water Thrush. 
SHIURUS LUDOVICIANUS, Bonar. 
Large-billed Water Thrush. 
189. DENDROICA VIRENS, Barrp. 


188. 


Black-throated Green Warbler. 
190. DENDROICA OCCIDENTALIS, Batnp. 
Western Warbler. 
191. DENDROICA TOWNSENDII, Bairp. 
Townsend’s Warbler. 
. DENDROICA NIGRESCENS, Batrp. 
Black-throated Gray Warbler. 
DENDROICA CANADENSIS, Bairp. 
Black-throated Blue Warbler. 
DENDROICA CORONATA, Gray. 


193. 


194. 


Yellow-rump Warbler. 


. HELMINTHOPHAGA PEREGRINA, Cas. 


196. 
197. 
198. 


199: 


204. 
205. 
206, 
207. 


208. 


212. 


214, 


. DENDROICA AUDUBONII, Bairp. 


Audubon’s Warbler. 
DENDROICA BLACKBURNIAE, Bairp. 
Blackburnian Warbler. 
DENDROICA CASTANBEA, Bairp. 
Bay-breasted Warbler. 

DENDROICA PINUS, Batrp. 
Pine-creeping Warbler. 
DENDROICA MONTANA, Barrp. 


Blue Mountain Warbier. 


| DENDROICA PENNSYLVANICA, Bain. 


Chestnut-sided Warbler. 


. DENDROICA CAERULEA, Bainrp. 


Blue Warbler. 


. DENDROICA STRIATA, Batrrp. 


Black Poll Warbler. 


. DENDROICA AESTIVA, Barrp. 


Yellow Warbler. 
DENDROICA MACULOSA, Barnrp. 
Black and Yellow Warbler. 
DENDROICA KIRTLANDII, Bairp. 

Kirtland’s Warbler. 
DENDROICA TIGRINA, Batrp. 

Cape May Warbler. 
DENDROICA CARBONATA, Bainp. 
Carbonated Warbler. 
DENDROICA PALMARUM, Bairp. 
Yellow Red Poll. 


. DENDROICA SUPERCILIOSA, Bairp. 


Wellow-throated Warbler. 


. DENDROICA DISCOLOR, Bairp. 


Prairie Warbler. 


. MYIODIOCTES MITRATUS, Aup. 


Woeded Warbier. 
MYIODIOCTES MINUTUS, Bainp. 


Smali-headed Flycatcher. 


. MYIODIOCTES PUSILLUS, Bonar. 


Green Black-cap Flycatcher. 
MYIODIOCTES CANADENSIS, Avp. 
Canada Flycatcher. 


215. MYIODIOCTES BONAPARTII, Auvp. 
Bonaparte’s Flycatcher. 
. CARDELLINA RUBRA, Bonar. 
Vermilion Flycatcher. 
. SETOPHAGA RUTICILLA, Sw. 
Redstart. 

. SETOPHAGA PICTA, &w. 
Painted Fiycatcher. 

. SETOPHAGA MINIATA, Sw. 
Red-bellied Flycatcher. 


220. PYRANGA RUBRA, VIEILL. 


Scarlet Tanager. 
221. PYRANGA AESTIVA, VIEILL. 
Summer Red Bird. 

222. PYRANGA HEPATICA, Swairns. 
Rocky Mountain Tanager. 
. PYRANGA LUDOVICIANA, Bonar. 
Louisiana Tanager. 
4, EBUPHONIA ELEGANTISSIMA, Gray. 
Blue-headed Tanager. 
. HIRUNDO HORREORUM, Barron. 
Barn Swallow. 
. HIRUNDO LUNIFRONS, Say. 
Cliff Swallow. 
. HIRUNDO BICOLOR, VIEILL. 
White-bellied Swallow. 
. HIRUNDO THALASSINA, Sw. 
Violet Green Swallow. 
. COTYLE RIPARIA, Bote. 
Bank Swallow. 

230. COTYLE SERRIPENNIS, Bonar. 
Rough-winged Swallow. 
231. PROGNE PURPURBA, Bole. 
Purple Martin. 
23la. PROGNE 

(Florida. ) 

232. AMPELIS GARRULUS, Linn. 
Wax Wing. 

2338. AMPELIS CEDRORUM, Bainp. 


Cedar Bird. 





34. PHAINOPEPLA NITENS, Scrater. 
Black-crested Fiycatcher. 
135. MYIADESTES TOWNSENDII, Cas. 
Townsend’s Fiycatcher. 

136. COLLYRIO BOREALIS, Bairp. 
Great Northern Shrike. 

37. COLLYRIO LUDOVICIANUS, Barinp. 
Logserhead Shrike. 


White-rumped Shrike. 
139. COLL YRIO ELEGANS, Barrp. 

W hite-winged Shrike. 

1440. VIREO OLIVACHUS, Vie1tt. 
Red-eyed Fiycatcher. 

41. VIREO FLAVOVIRIDIS, Cassin. 
Yellow-green Vireo. 

149, VIREO VIRESCENS, Vieitt. 
Bartram’s Vireo. 

43. VIREO ALTILOQUUS, Gray. 
Whip Tom Kelly. 

2444, VIREO PHILADELPHICUS, Cassin. 
Philadelphia Vireo. 

45, VIREO GILVUS, Bonar. 





Warbling Flycatcher. 

246. VIREO BELLI, Avp. 

Bells Vireo. 

247. VIREO ATRICAPILLUS, Woopn. 
Black-headed Fiycatcher. 

248. VIREO NOVEBORACENSIS, Bonar. 

White-eyed Vireo. 

249. VIREO HUTTONI, Cass. 
Hutton’s Flycatcher. 

250. VIREO SOLITARIUS, Vier. 
Blue-headed Flycatcher. 

251. VIREO CASSINII, Xanvtvs. 

Cassin’s Vireo. 
252. VIREO FLAVIFRONS, Vrertt. 
Yellow-throated Flycatcher. 
263. MIMUS POLYGLOTTUS, Bom. 
Mocking Bird. 


38. COLLYRIO EXCUBITOROIDES, Barrp. 


253a. Var. MIMUS CAUDATUS, Bainp. 
Long-tailed Mocker. 
254. MIMUS CAROLINENSIS, GRAY 
Cat Bird. 
255. OREOSCOPTES MONTANUS, Barrp. 
Mountain Mocking Bird. 
256. HARPORHYNCHUS REDIVIVUS, Cas 
California Thrush. 
257. HARPORHYNCHUS LECONTII, Bonar. 
Leconte’s Thrush. 
258. HARPORHYNCHUS CRISSALIS, Henry. 
Red-vented Thrush. 
259. HARPORHYNCHUS CURVIROSTRIS, Ca. 
Curve-billed Thrush. 
2592. HARPORHYNCHUS VETULA, Batrp. 
Mexican Thrush. 
260. HARPORHYNCHUS LONGIROSTRIS, Ca. 
Texas Thrasher. 
261. HARPORHYNCHUS RUFUS, Cas. 
Brown Thrush. 
261a. HARPORHYN cHUS LONGICAUDA, Bp 
Long-tailed Thrush. 
262. CAMPYLORHYNCHUS BRUNNBICA- 
PILLUS, Gray. 
263. CATHERPES MEXICANUS, Barnp. 
White-throated Wren. 
264. SALPINCTES OBSOLETUS, Cas. 
Rock Wren. 
265. THRYOTHORUS LUDOVICIANUS, Bonap 


Great Carolina Wren. 
266. THRYOTHORUS BERLANDIERI, Coucu. 
Berlandier’s Wren. 
267. THRYOTHORUS BEWICKII, Bonar. 
Bewick’s Wren. 
268. CISTOTHORUS PALUSTRIS, Cas. 
Long-billed Marsh Wren. 
269. CISTOTHORUS STELLARIS, Can. 
Short-billed Marsh Wren. 
270. TROGLODYTES AEDON, Vieitu. 
House Wren. 








278. 


279. 


280. 


. TROGLODYTES PARKMANNI, Avp. 


Parkman’s Wren. 


. TROGLODYTES AMERICANUS, Avp. 


Wood Wren. 


. TROGLODYTES HYEMALIS, Vrettt. 


Winter Wren. 


. CHAMABA FASCIATA, GamBeEL. 


Ground Tit. 


. CERTHIA AMERICANA, Bonar. 


American Creeper. 


. CERTHIA MEXICANA, Grocer. 


Mexican Creeper. 


. SITTA CAROLINENSIS, Gmetin. 


White-bellied Nuthatch. 
SITTA ACULEATA, Cassin. 


Slender-billed Nuthatch. 


SITTA CANADENSIS, Linn 
Red-bellied Nuthatch. 
SITTA PUSILLA, Larnam. 


Brown-headed Nuthatch. 


281. 


282. 


283. 


284. 


285. 


286. 


287. 


°88. 


289. 


SITTA PYGMABA, Vicors. 
California Nuthatch. 
POLIOPTILA CAERULEA, Scrat. 
Blue-gray Gnatcatcher. 
POLIOPTILA PLUMBBA, Barrp. 
Western Gnatcatcher. 
POLIOPTILA MELANURA, Lawrence. 
Black-tailed Gnatcatcher. 


-LOPHOPHANES BICOLOR, Bonar. 


Tafted Titmouse. 


LOPHOPHANES ATRICRISTATUS, Cass. 


Black-crested Tit. 
LOPHOPHANES INORNATUS, Cassin. 


Gray Titmouse. 


LOPHOPHANES WOLLWEBERI, Bonar. 


Wollweber’s Titmouse. 
PARUS SHPTENTRIONALIS, Harris. 
Long-tailed Chickadee. 


289a. Var. PARUS ALBESCENS, Barrp. 


Hoary Titmouse. 


290. 


291. 


295. 


296. 


297. 


298. 





306. 


307. 


308. 


3809. 


PARUS ATRICAPILLUS, Linn. 
Black-cap Titmouse. 
PARUS OCCIDENTALIS, Barrp. 


Western Titmouse. 


. PARUS MERIDIONALIS, Scrarer. 


Mexican Titmouse. 


. PARUS CAROLINENSIS, Avp. 


Carolina Titmouse. 


. PARUS MONTANUS, Gamset. 


Mountain Titmouse. 
PARUS RUFESCENS, Towns. 
Chestnut-backed Tit. 
PARUS HUDSONICUS, Forster. 
Hudsonian Titmouse. 
PSALTRIPARUS MELANOTUS, Bonap 
Black-cheeked Tit. 
PSALTRIPARUS MINIMUS, Bonar. 
Least Tit. 


. PSALTRIPARUS PLUMBBEUS, Barinp. 


Lead-colored Tit. 


. PAROIDES FLAVICEPS, Barrp. 


Verdin. 


. CERTHIOLA FLAVEOLA, Sunp. 


WYellow-rumped Creeper. 


. EREMOPHILA CORNUTA, Botr. 


Sky Lark. 


. HESPERIPHONA VESPERTINA, BonaP 


Evening Grosbeak. 


. PINICOLA CANADENSIS, Cas. 


Pine Grosbeak. 


. CARPODACUS PURPUREUS, Gray. 


Purple Finch. 
CARPODACUS CALIFORNICUS, Barrp. 
Western Purple Finch. 

CARPODACUS CASSINII, Barnp. 
Cassin’s Purple Finch. 
CARPODACUS FRONTALIS, Gray. 
House Finch. 
CARPODACUS HAEMORRHOUS, Wact 


Mexican Finch. 


810. 


811 


812. 


313 


314. 


815 


216. 


317. 


318. 


818a. Var. CORVIROSTRA MEXICANA, Srricx. 


319. 


320. 


822. 


823. 


324 


825 


326 


827 


328 


CHRYSOMITRIS MAGELLANICA, Bonap. 


Black-headed Goldfinch. 
CHRYSOMITRIS STANLEYI, Bonar. 
Stanley’s Goldfinch. 
CHRYSOMITRIS YARRELLI, Bonar. 
Yarrell’s Goldfinch. 
CHRYSOMITRIS TRISTIS, Bonar. 
Yellow Bird. 
CHRYSOMITRIS PSALTRIA, Bonar. 
Arkansas Finch. 
CHRYSOMITRIS MEXICANA, Bonar. 
Mexican Goldfinch. 
CHRYSOMITRIS LAWRENCII, Bonar. 
Lawrence’s Goldfinch. 
CHRYSOMITRIS PINUS, Bonar. 
Pine Finch. 
CURVIROSTRA AMERICANA, Wits. 
Red Crossbill. 


Mexican Goldfinch. 
CURVIROSTRA LEUCOPTERA, Wits. 
White-winged Crossbill. 
AEGIOTHUS LINARIA, Cas. 
Lesser Red Poll. 


. AEGIOTHUS CANESCENS, Cas. 


Mealy Red Poll. 

LEUCOSTICTE TEPHROCOTIS, Sw. 
Gray-crowned Finch. 

LEUCOSTICTE GRISEINUCHA, Bonar. 

Gray-necked Finch. 
LEUCOSTICTE ARCTOUS, Bonar. 

Arctic Finch. 

PLECTROPHANES NIVALIS, Meyer. 


Snow Bunting. 


Lapland Longspur. 
PLECTROPHANES PICTUS, Sw. 
Smith’s Bunting. 
PLECTROPHANES ORNATUS, Towns. 
Chestnut-collared Bunting. 


381. 


338. 
339, 
340. 
341. 
342. 
345. 
344. 


| 345. 


. PLECTROPHANES LAPPONICUS, Sztsy. | 346. 


347, 


348. 


PLECTROPHANES MELANOMUS, Barro 


. PLECTROPHANES MACCOWNII, Lawr 


Maccown’s Longspur. 
CENTRONYX BAIRDII, Batrp. 


Baird’s Bunting. 


. PASSERCULUS SAVANNA, Bonar. 


Black-shouldered Longspur. 
Savannah Sparrow. 


. PASSERCULUS SANDWICHENSIS, Bp. 


. PASSERCULUS ANTHINUS, Bonar. 


Nootka Sparrow. | 
| 
Spotted Sparrow. | 


5. PASSERCULUS ALAUDINUS, Bonar. 


Lark Sparrow. 


. PASSERCULUS ROSTRATUS, Barrp. 


Beaked Sparrow. 


. POOECETES GRAMINBEUS, Barrp. 


Grass Finch. 
COTURNICULUS PASSERINUS, Bonar. 
Yellow-winged Sparrow. 
COTURNICULUS HENSLOWI, Bonar. 
Henslow’s Bunting, 
COTURNICULUS LECONTII, Bonar. 
Leconte’s Bunting. 
AMMODROMUS CAUDACUTUS, Sw. 
Sharp-tailed Finch. 
AMMODROMUS MARITIMUS, &w. 
Sea-side Finch. 
AMMODROMUS SAMUELIS, Bairp. 
Samuels Finch. 
CHONDESTES GRAMMACA, Bonap. 
Lark Finch. 
ZONOTRICHIA LEUCOPHRYS, Sw. 
White-crowned Sparrow. 
ZONOTRICHIA GAMBELII, Gamset. 
Gambel’s Finch. 
ZONOTRICHIA CORONATA, Batnp. 
Golden-crowned Sparrow. 
ZONOTRICHIA QUERULA, Gans. 


Harris’s Finch. ~ 


849. "ZONOTRICHIA ALBICOLLIS, Bonar. 


White-throated Sparrow. 
350. JUNCO CINEREUS, Cas. 
Mexican Junco. 
851 JUNCO DORSALIS, Henry. 
| Red-backed Snow Bird. 
352. JUNCO OREGONUS, Scrar. 
Oregon Snow Bird. 
3538. JUNCO CANICHPS, Bairp. 
Gray-headed Snow Bird. 
354. JUNCO HYEMALIS, Sctar. 
Black Snow Bird. 
355. POOSPIZA BILINEATA, Scrat. 
Black-throated Sparrow. 
856. POOSPIZA BELLI, Sctar. 
Bells Finch. 
357. SPIZELLA MONTICOLA, Bairp. 
Tree Sparrow. 
358. SPIZHLLA PUSILLA, Bonar. 
Field Sparrow. 
359. SPIZELLA SOCIALIS, Bonar. 
Chipping Sparrow. 
360. SPIZELLA PALLIDA, Bonar. 
Clay-colored Bunting. 
861. SPIZELLA BREWHRI, Cass. 
Brewer’s Sparrow. 
362. SPIZELLA ATRIGULARIS, Bainp. 
Black-chinned Sparrow. 
363. MELOSPIZA MELODIA, Barrp. 
Song Sparrow. 
364. MELOSPIZA HEERMANNI, Barrp. 
Heermann’s Song Sparrow. 
364 MELOSPIZA GOULDII, Bairp. 
Gould’s Sparrow. 
866. MELOSPIZA RUFINA, Bairp. 
Rusty Songs Sparrow. 
367. MELOSPIZA FALLAX, Batrp. 
Mountain Song Sparrow. 
368. MELOSPIZA LINCOLNII, Barrp. 


Lincoln’s Finch. 


369 


370 


=] 


371 


372 


373 


374 


oo 
~] 
or 


376 


. MELOSPIZA PALUSTRIS, Barnp. 


Swamp Sparrow. 


. PEUCAEA AESTIVALIS, Cas 


Bachman’s Finch. 


. PEUCAEA CASSINII, Barnp. 


Cassin’s Finch. 


. PEUCAEA RUFICHEPS, Barrp. 
Brown-headed Finch. 
. BMBERNAGRA RUFIVIRGATA, Lawr. 


Texas Finch. 


. PASSEHRELLA ILIACA, Sw. 
Fox-colored Sparrow. 
. PASSERELLA TOWNSENDII, Norr. 


Oregon Finch. 


. PASSERELLA SCHISTACEA, Barrp. 


Slate-colored Sparrow. 


376a PASSHRELLA MEGARHYNCHUS, Bop 


Thick-billed Finch. 


377. CALAMOSPIZA BICOLOR, Bonar. 


co 
=I 
oO 


379 


Lark Bunting. 


. BUSPIZA AMERICANA, Bonar. 
Black-throated Bunting. 
. EUSPIZA TOWNSENDII, Bonar. 


Townsend’s Bunting. 


. GUIRACA LUDOVICIANA, Sw. 
Rose-breasted Grosbeak. 
. GUIRACA MELANOCEPHALA, Sw. 


Black-headed Grosbeak. 


382. GUIRACA CAERULBA, Sw. 


Blue Grosbeak. 


383. CYANOSPIZA PARELLINA, Barrp. 


386 


Blue Bunting. 


. CYANOSPIZA CIRIS, Bairp. 


Painted Bunting. 


. CYANOSPIZA VERSICOLOR, Barrp. 


Varied Bunting. 


. CYANOSPIZA AMOENA, Barnrp. 


Lazuli Finch. 


887. CYANOSPIZA CYANEA, Barrp. 


10 


Indigo Bird. 


388. 
389. 


390. 


391 


394. 


3895. 


396. 


397. 


398. 


399. 


400. 


401. 


402. 


403. 


Red and White-shouldered Blackbird. 


SPERMOPHILA MORELETII, Pocueran. 
Little Seedeater. 
PYRRHULOXIA SINUATA, Bonar. 
Texas Cardinal. 
CARDINALIS VIRGINIANUS, Bonar. 


Red Bird. 


PIPILO ERYTHROPHTHALMUS, Vixitt. 


Ground Robin; Towhee, 


. PIPILO OREGONUS, Bett. 


Oregon Ground Robin. 


. PIPILO ARCTICUS, Sw. 


Arctic Towhee. 
PIPILO MEGALONY&, Bairp. 
Spurred Towhee. 
PIPILO ABERTII, Bainp. 
Abert’s Towhee. 
PIPILO FUSCUS, Sw. 
Brown Towhee. 
PIPILO MESOLEUCUS, Barrp. 
Canon Finch. 
PIPILO CHLORURA, Bairp. 
Green-tailed Finch. 
DOLICHONYX ORYZIVORUS, Sw. 
Boblink; Reed Bird. 
MOLOTHRUS PECORIS, Sw. 
Cow Bird. 

AGELAIUS PHOENICHUS, Viet. 
Red-winged Blackbird. 
AGELAIUS GUBERNATOR, Bonar. 
Red-shouldered Blackbird. 
AGELAIUS TRICOLOR, Bonaparte, 


408. ICTERUS VULGARIS, Davprin. 


409 


410 


411 


413. 


414. 


415. 


416. 


417. 


418. 


| 419, 


420. 


404. FANTHOCEPHALUS ICTEROCEPHAL'S | 424. 


405. 


406. 


407. 


Wellow-headed Blackbird. 
TRUPIALIS MILITARIS, Bonar. 
Red-breasted Lark. 
STURNELLA MAGNA, &w. 
Meadow Lark. 
STURNELLA NEGLECTA, Avp. 
Western Lark. 


427. 


Troupial. 
. ICTERUS AUDUBONII, Grravp. 
Audubon/’s Oriole. 
. ICTERUS MELANOCEPHALUS, Gray 
Black-headed Oriole. 
. ICTERUS PARISORUM, Bonar 
Scott's Oriole. 
. ICTERUS WAGLERI, Scrater. 
Wagler’s Oriole. 
ICTERUS CUCULLATUS, Swarns. 
Eiooded Oriole. 
ICTERUS SPURIUS, Bonar. 
Orchard Oriole. 
ICTERUS BALTIMORE, Dauvpiy. 
Baltimore Oriole. 
ICTERUS BULLOCKII, Bonar. 


Bulloch’s Oriole. 


Rusty Blackbird. 


Brewer’s Blackbird. 
QUISCALUS MACROURA, Sw. 
Long-taiied Grakle. 
QUISCALUS MAJOR, VIEILL. 
Boat-tailed Grakle. 


. QUISCALUS VERSICOLOR, Viri.t. 


Crow Blackbird. 


. QUISCALUS BARITUS, Viz Ix. 


Florida Blackbird. 


. CORVUS CARNIVORUS, Bartram. 


American Raven. 
CORVUS CACALOTL, Wact. 


Colorado Raven. 


. CORVUS CRYPTOLEUCUS, Coucn. 


W hite-necked Crow. 


. CORVUS AMERICANUS, Avp. 


Common Crow. 
var. CORVUS FLORIDANUS, Barrp, 


Florida Crow. 


SCOLECOPHAGUS FERRUGINEUS, Sw. 


a a aS I a a 


SS 


SCOLECOPHAGUS CYANOCEPHALUS. | 


i 


428 
429 


:430 


(431. 


(432. 


433. 


CORVUS CAURINUS, Bainp. 
Western Fish Crow. 
CORVUS OSSIFRAGUS, Witson. 
Fish Crow. 
PICICORVUS COLUMBIANUS, Bonar. 


Clark’s Crow. 


GYMNOKITTA CYANOCEPHALA, Pr. M. 


Maximilian’s Jay. 
PICA HUDSONICA, Bonar. 
Magpie. 
PICA NUTTALLI, Avp. 


Yellow-billed Magpie. 


434. 


435. 


437. 


438. 


439. 


440. 


441, 


442. 


443. 


444. 


CYANURA CRISTATA, Sw. 
Blue Jay. 


CYANURA STELLERI, bw. 


Steller’s Jay. ’ 


. CYANURA MACROLOPHUS, Bairp. 


Long-crested Jay. 
CYANOCITTA CALIFPORNICA, Srrick. 
California Jay. 
CYANOCITTA WOODHOUSII, Bairp. 
Woodhouse’s Jay. 
CYANOCITTA FLORIDANA, Bonar. 
Florida Jay. 
CYANOCITTA SORDIDA, Batrp. 
Mountain Jay. 
CYANOCITTA ULTRAMARINA, Strick. 
Ultramarine Jay. 
XANTHOURA LUXUOSA, Bonar. 
Green Jay. 
PERISOREUS CANADENSIS, Bonar. 
Canada Jay. 
PSILORHINUS MORIO, Gray. 


Brown Jay. 


5. COLUMBA FASCIATA, Say. 


Band-tailed Pigeon. 


. COLUMBA FLAVIROSTRIS, Waat. 


Red-billed Dove. 


. COLUMBA LEUCOCEPHALA, Linn. 


White-headed Pigeon. 


| 448. 


449. 


452. 


457. 


458. 


461. 


465a. var. BONASA UMBELLOIDES, Barrp. 


466. 


12 


. BONASA UMBELLUS, Sreru. 


ECTOPISTES MIGRATORIA, Sw. 
Wild Pigeon. 
ZENAIDA AMABILIS, Bonar. 


Zenaida Dove. 


. MELOPELIA LEUCOPTERA, Bonar. 


White-winged Dove. — 


- ZENAIDURA CAROLINENSIS, Bonar 


Common Dove. 
SCARDAFELLA SQUAMOSA, Bonar. 


Scaly Dove. 


. CHAMAEPELIA: PASSERINA, Sw. 


Ground Dove. 


4. OREOPELEIA MARTINICA, Retrcu. 


Key West Pigeon. 


. STARNOENAS CYANOCEPHALA, Bon 


Blue-headed Pigeon. 


5. ORTALIDA M’'C CALLI, Bainp. 


Chiacalacca. 
MELEAGRIS GALLOPAVO, Liny. 
Wild Turkey. 
MELEAGRIS MEXICANA, Govutp. 


Mexican Turkey. 


. TETRAO OBSCURUS, Say. 


Dusky Grouse. 


. TETRAO CANADENSIS, Linn. 


Spruce Partridge. 
TETRAO FRANKLINO, Dovetas. 


Franklin’s Grouse. 


. CENTROCERCUS UROPHASIANUS, Sw. 


Sage Cock. 


. PEDIOECETES PHASIANELLUS, Bairp 


Sharp-tailed Grouse. 


. CUPIDONIA CUPIDO, Bairp. 


Prairie Hen. 


Ruffed Grouse. 


Gray Mountain Grouse. 
BONASA SABINII, Bairp. 


Oregon Grouse. 


67. 


468. 


469. 





470. 


471. 


472. 


473. 


474. 


475. 


476. 


477. 


478. 


479. 


480. 


481. 





LAGOPUS ALBUS, Avp. 
White Ptarmigan. 
LAGOPUS RUPESTRIS, Leacnu. 
Rock Grouse. 
LAGOPUS LEUCURUS, §&warns. 
White-tailed Ptarmigan. 
LAGOPUS AMERICANUS, Auvp. 
American Ptarmigan. 
ORTYX VIRGINIANUS, Bonar. 
Partridge; Quail. 
ORTYX TEXANUS, Lawr. 
Texas Quail. 
OREORTYX PICTUS, Barrp. 
Mountain Quail. 
LOPHORTYX CALIFORNICUS, Bonar. 
California Quail. 
LOPHORTYX GAMBELI, Norv. 
Gambel’s Partridge. 
CALLIPEPLA SQUAMATA, Gray. 
Blue Partridge. 
CYRTONYX MASSENA, Govutp. 
Massena Partridge. 
GRUS AMERICANUS, Orp. 
Whooping Crane. 
GRUS CANADENSIS, Tem. 
Sand-hill Crane. 
GRUS FRATERCULUS, Cassin. 
Little Crane. 
ARAMUS GIGANTEUS, Bairp. 
Crying Bird. 


. DEMIEGRETTA PEALITI, Bairp. 


Peale’s Egret. 


. DEMIEGRETTA RUFA, Barrp. 


Reddish Egret. 


. DEMIEGRETTA LUDOVICIANA, Barrp. 


Louisiana Heron. 


. GARZETTA CANDIDISSIMA, Bonar. 


Snowy Heron. 


. HBRODIAS EGRETTA, Gray. 


White Heron. 





486a. HERODIAS EGRETTA, v. CALIFORNICA | 
California Egret. 
487. ARDEA HERODIAS, Linn. 
Great Blue Heron. 
488. ARDEA WURDEMANNII, Barrp. 
Florida Heron. 
489. AUDUBONIA OCCIDENTALIS, Bonar. 
Great White Heron. 
490. FLORIDA CAERULEA, Barrp. | 
Blue Heron. | 
491. ARDETTA BEXILIS, Gray. | 
Least Bittern. 
492. BOTAURUS LENTIGINOSUS, Srepru. 
Bittern; Stake Driver. 
498. BUTORIDES VIRESCENS, Bonar. 
Green Heron. 
494. BUTORIDES BRUNNESCENS, Barrp. 
Brown Heron. 
495. NYCTIARDEA GARDENI, Barrp. 
Night Heron. 
496. NYCTHERODIUS VIOLACEUS, Reicu. 
Yellow-crowned Heron. 
497. TANTALUS LOCULATOR, Liyy. 
Wood Ibis. 
498, IBIS RUBRA, VIEILLoT. 
Red Ibis. 
499. IBIS ALBA, VIEILLor. 
White Ibis. 
500. IBIS ORDII, Bonaparte. 
Glossy Ibis. 
500a. IBIS GUARAUNA, Suaw. 
Bronzed Ibis. 
501. PLATALEA AJAJA, Liny. 
Rosy Spoonbill. 
502. PHOENICOPTERUS RUBER, Lyn. 
Flamingo. 
503. CHARADRIUS VIRGINICUS, Borck. 
Golden Plover. 
504. AEGIALITIS VOCIFERUS, Cassin. 
Killdeer. 
13 


505. 
506. 
507. 
508. 
509. 
510. 
611. 
512. 
513. 


514. 


516. 


517. 


518. 


621. 


528. 


624. 


AEGIALITIS MONTANUS, Cassin. 
Mountain Plover. 
AEGIALITIS WILSONIUS, Cassin. 
Wilson’s Plover. 

AEGIALITIS SEMIPALMATUS, Cas. 

Semipalmated Plover. 
AEGIALITIS MELODUS, Cas. 
Piping Plover. 
AEGIALITIS NIVOSUS, Cassin. 
Western Plover. 

SQUATAROLA HELVETICA, Cov. 
Black-bellied Plover. 

APHRIZA VIRGATA, Gray. 

Surf Bird. 
HAEMATOPUS PALLIATUS, Trem. 
Oyster Catcher. 
HAEMATOPUS NIGER, Pattas. 
Bachman’s Oyster Catcher. 
HAEMATOPUS ATER, VIEILLotT. 
Dusky Oyster Catcher. 


. STREPSILAS INTERPRES, Iu. 


Turnstone. 
STREPSILAS MELANOCEPHALA, Via. 
Black Turnstone. 
RECURVIROSTRA AMERICANA, Gm. 


American Avoset. 


HIMANTOPUS NIGRICOLLIS, Vieittor. 


Black-necked Stilt. 


. PHALAROPUS WILSONIYI Sas. 


Wilsonm’s Phalarope. 


. PHALAROPUS HYPERBOREUS, Trmm. 


Northern Phalarope. 
PHALAROPUS FULICARIUS, Bonar. 
Red Phalarope. 


. PHILOHELA MINOR, Gray. 


American Woodcock. 
GALLINAGO WILSONITYI, Bonar. 
English Snipe. 
MACRORHAMPHUS GRISEUS, Lzacn. 
Red-breasted Snipe. 


525. MACRORHAMPHUS SCOLOPACBUS, La. 


Greater Longbeak. 
526. TRINGA CANUTUS, Liny. 
Knot. 
627 TRINGA COOPERI, Barrp. 
Cooper’s Sandpiper. 
628. TRINGA MARITIMA, Briinnicn. 
Purple Sandpiper. 
029. TRINGA SUBARQUATA, Trmm. 
Curlew Sandpiper. 


530. TRINGA ALPINA, var. AMERICANA, Cas. 


Red-backed Sandpiper. 
631. TRINGA MACULATA, VisItt. 
Jack Snipe. 
5382. TRINGA WILSONII, Norratt. 
Least Sandpiper. 
5338. TRINGA BONAPARTII, Scuracet. 
Bonaparte’s Sandpiper. 
534. CALIDRIS ARENARIA, Itticer. 
Sanderling. 
5385. EREUNETES PETRIFICATUS, Itt. 
Semipalmated Sandpiper. 
5386. MICROPALAMA HIMANTOPUS, Bairp. 
Stilt Sandpiper. 
537. SYMPHEMIA SEMIPALMATA, Hartt. 
Willet. 
538. GLOTTIS FLORIDANUS, Bonar. 
Florida Greenshank. 
5389. GAMBETTA MELANOLEUCA, Bonar. 
Tell-tale; Stone Snipe. 
540. GAMBETTA FLAVIPES, Bonar. 
Yellow Legs. 
541. RH YACOPHILUS SOLITARIUS, Bonar 
Solitary Sandpiper. 
542. HETEROSCELUS BREVIPES, Barrp. 
Wandering Tatler. 
648. TRINGOIDES MACULARIUS, Gray. 
Spotted Sandpiper. 
544. PHILOMACHUS PUGNAG, Gray. 
Ruff, 


14 


645. ACTITURUS BARTRAMIUS, Bonar. 563a. ANSER ALBATUS, Cassy. 


Field Plover. White Goose. 
646. TRYNGITES RUFESCENS, Cas. 1564. ANSER CAEBRULESCENS, Liyy. 
Buff-breasted Sandpiper. White-headed Goose. 
447. LIMOSA FEDOA, Opp. 565. ANSER GAMBELII, Harrtavs. 
Marbled Godwit. White-fronted Goose. 
648. LIMOSA HUDSONICA, Sw. 566. ANSER FRONTALIS, Bairp. 
Hudson Godwit. Brown-fronted Goose. 
549. NUMENIUS LONGIROSTRIS, Wits. 567. BERNICLA CANADENSIS, Bors. 
5 Long-billed Curlew. Canada Goose. 
650. NUMENIUS HUDSONICUS, Larnam. 5672. BERNICLA OCCIDENTALIS, Barrp. 
Hudsonian Curlew. Western Goose. 
651. NUMENIUS BOREALIS, Laruam. 568. BERNICLA LEUCOPAREHIA, Cassin. 
Esquimaux Curlew. White-cheeked Goose. 
§52. RALLUS ELEGANS, Auvp. 569. BERNICLA HUTCHINSII, Bonar. 
Marsh Hen. Hutchin’s Goose. 
653. RALLUS CREPITANS, Gm. 570. BERNICLA BRENTA, Steers. 
Clapper Rail. Brant. 
554. RALLUS VIRGINIANUS, Linn. 571. BERNICLA NIGRICANS, Cassin. 
Virginia Rail. Black Brant. 
555. PORZANA CAROLINA, Viritt. 572. BERNICLA LEUCOPSIS, (Liny.) 
Common Rail. Barnacle Goose. 
656. PORZANA JAMAICENSIS, Cassin. 573. CHLOEPHAGA CANAGICA, Bonar. 
Little Black Rail. Painted Goose. 
657. PORZANA NOVEBORACENSIS, 574. DENDROCYGNA AUTUMNALIS, Eyton 
Yellow Rail. Long-legged Duck. 
558. CREX PRATENSIS, Brcusr. 575. DERDROCYGNA FULVA, Burm. 
Corn-crake. Brown Tree-duck. 
659. FULICA AMERICANA, GME tin. 576. ANAS BOSCHAS, Linn. 
Coot. Mallard. 
660. GALLINULA GALEATA, Bonap. 577. ANAS OBSCURA, Gm. 


Florida Gallinule. Black Duck. 
661. GALLINULA MARTINICA, Larn. . DAFILA ACUTA, Jzenyns. 


On 
-~I 
oo 


Purple Gallinule. Sprig-tail; Pin-tail. 
56la. CYGNUS AMERICANUS, Suarrrsess. 579. NETTION CAROLINENSIS, Barrp 
American Swan. Green-winged Teal. 
562. CYGNUS BUCCINATOR, Ricu. 580. NETTION CRECCA, Kavp. 
Trumpeter Swan. English Teal. 
663. ANSER HYPERBORHEUS, Pattas. 581. QUERQUEDULA DISCORS, Srepu. 


Snow Goose, Blue-winged Teal. , 
15 


ij 


| 


582. QUERQUEDULA CYANOPTERUS, Cassin. 


Red-breasted Teal. 
583. SPATULA CLYPEATA, Bor. 
Shovelier. 
584. CHAULELASMUS STREPERUS, Gray. 
Gadwall. 
585. MARECA AMERICANA, STEPHENS 
| Baldpate. 
586. MARECA PENELOPE, Bonapy 
| Widgeon. 
587. AIX SPONSA, Bore. 
Summer Duck. 

588. FULIX MARILA, Barrp. 
Greater Black-head. 

FULIX AFFINIS, Bairp. 

Little Black-head. 
FULIX COLLARIS, Batrp. 

Ring-necked Duck. 
AYTHYA AMERICANA, Bonar. 

Red-head. 

AYTHYA VALLISNERIA, Bonar. 


589. 


690. 


691. 


592. 
Canvass-back. 
BUCEPHALA AMERICANA, Bairp. 
Golden Eye. 
BUCEPHALA ISLANDICA, Batrp. 


598. 


594. 
Barrow’s Golden Eye. 
BUCEPHALA ALBEOLA, Bairp. 
Butter Ball. 
HISTRIONICUS TORQUATUS, Bonar. 


595. 


596. 
Harlequin Duck. 
HARELDA GLACIALIS, Leaca. 
South Southerly. 
POLYSTICTA STELLERI, Eyron. 
Steller’s Duck. 
LAMPRONETTA FISCHERI, Branpt. 


597. 


598. 


599. 
Spectacled Eider. 
600. 
Labrador Duck. 
MELANETTA VELVETINA, Barrp. 
Velvet Duck. 


601. 


CAMPTOLAEMUS LABRADORIUS, Gray. 


PELIONETTA PERSPICILLATA, Kacr 
Surf Duck. 
PELIONETTA TROWBRIDGII, Bairp. 
Long-billed Scoter. 
OIDEMIA AMERICANA, Swarns. 
Scoter. 
OIDEMIA BIMACULATA, Barrp. 
Huron Scoter. 
SOMATERIA MOLLISSIMA, Leacu. 
Eider Duck. 
SOMATERIA V. NIGRA, Gray. 
Pacific Eider. 
SOMATERIA SPECTABILIS, Leacu. 
King Eider. 
ERISMATURA RUBIDA, Bonar. 
Ruddy Duck. 
ERISMATURA DOMINICA, EyrTon. 
Black Masked Duck. 
MERGUS AMERICANUS, Cass. 
Sheidrake. 
MERGUS SERRATOR, Linn. 


618. LOPHODYTES CUCULLATUS, Retcu. 
Hooded Merganser. 
614. MERGELLUS ALBELLUS, Se sy. 
Smew. 
615. PELECANUS ERYTHRORHYNCHUS, Gm. 
American Pelican. 
616. PELECANUS FUSCUS, Liny. 

Brown Pelican. 
617. SULA BASSANA, Briss. 


602. 
608. 
604. 
605. 
606. 
607. 
608. 
609. 
610. 
611. 
612. 
Red-breasted Merganser. 
| 
| 


Gannet. 
618. SULA FIBER, (L.) 
Booby. 
619. TACHYPETES AQUILA, Vreix1or. 
Man-of-war Bird. 
620. GRACULUS CARBO, Gray. 
Common Cormorant. 
621. GRACULUS PERSPICILLATUS, Lawr. 


Pallas’s Cormorant. 


16 


622. GRACULUS CINCINNATUS, Gray. 


623 


624 


625 


626 


627. 


628 


Tufted Cormorant. 
. GRACULUS DILOPHUS, Gray. 
Double-crested Cormorant. 
. GRACULUS FLORIDANUS, Bonar. 
Florida Cormorant. 
. GRACULUS MEXICANUS, Bonar. 
Mexican Cormorant. 
. GRACULUS PENICILLATUS, Bonar. 
Brandt’s Cormorant. 
GRACULUS VIOLACEUS, Gray. 
Violet Green Cormorant. 
. PLOTUS ANHINGA, Linn. 


Snake Bird; Water Turkey. 


629. 


630. 


631. 


633. 


654. 


635. 


636. 


637. 


638. 


639. 


640. 


641. 


PHAETON FLAVIROSTRIS, Branpt. 
Yellow-billed Tropic Bird. 
DIOMEDEA EXULANS, Linn. 
Wandering Albatross. 
DIOMEDEA BRACHYURA, Temm. 
Short-tailed Albatross. 


. DIOMEDEA CHLORORHYNCHUS, Gmeu. 


Yellow-nosed Albatross. 
DIOMEDEA FULIGINOSA, Get. 
Sooty Albatross. 
PROCELLARIA GIGANTEA, Get. 
Gigantic Fulmar. 
PROCELLARIA GLACIALIS, Liyy. 
Fulmar Petrel. 
PROCELLARIA PACIFICA, Aup. 
Pacific Fulmar. 
PROCELLARIA TENUIROSTRIS, AUD. 
Slender-billed Fulmar. 
PROCELLARIA MERIDIONALIS, Lawr. 
Tropical Fulmar. 
DAPTION CAPENSIS, Srepu. 

Cape Pigeon. 
THALASSIDROMA FURCATA, Govutp. 
Fork-tailed Petrel. 
THALASSIDROMA HORNBYI, Gray. 
Hornby’s Petrel. 


642. 


643. 


644. 


646. 


647. 


648, 


649. 


650. 


654. 


656. 


657. 


660. 


THALASSIDROMA LEACHO, Temm. 
Leach’s Petrel. 
THALASSIDROMA MELANIA, Bonar. 


Black Stormy Petrel. 
THALASSIDROMA WILSONI, Bonar. 
Wilson’s Petrel. 


. THALASSIDROMA PELAGICA, Bonar. 


Mother Carey’s Chicken. 
FREGETTA LAWRENCII, Bonar. 
Black and White Petrel. 

PUFFINUS MAJOR, Fazer. 

Greater Shearwater. 
PUFFINUS FULIGINOSUS, Srricx. 
Sooty Shearwater. 

PUFFINUS ANGLORUM, Temm. 
Mank’s Shearwater. 

PUFFINUS OBSCURUS, Laru. 
Dusky Shearwater. 


. PUFFINUS CINEREUS, Gmet. 


Cinereous Petrel. 


. STERCORARIUS CATARRACTES, Tem. 


Common Skua. 


. STERCORARIUS POMARINUS, Temm. 


Pomarine Skua. 
STERCORARIUS PARASITICUS, Trmm. 


Arctic Skua. 


. STERCORARIUS CEPPHUS, Ross. 


Buffon’s Skua. 
LARUS GLAUCUS, Brinn. 
Burgomaster. 
LARUS GLAUCESCENS, Licur. 
Glaucous-winged Gull. 


. LARUS LEUCOPTERUS, Fazer. 


White-winged Gull. 


. LARUS CHALCOPTERUS, Lawr. 


Gray-winged Gull. 
LARUS MARINUS, Livy. 


Great Black-backed Gull. 


661. 


17 


LARUS ARGENTATUS, Brinn. 
Herring Gull. 


662. LARUS OCCIDENTALIS, Aup. 


663 


664 


564 


665 


666. 


667. 


668. 


669. 


670. 


671. 


673. 


674. 


678. 


679. 


680. 


Western Gull. 
. LARUS CALIFORNICUS, Lawr. 
California Gull. 
. LARUS DELAWARENSIS, Orp. 
Ring-billed Gull. 
a. LARUS BRACHYRHYNCHUS, Ricu. 
Short-billed Gull. 
. LARUS SUCKLEYI, Lawr. 
Suckley’s Guil. 
BLASIPUS HEERMANNI, Bonap. 
White-headed Gull. 


Laughing Gull. 


Franklin’s Rosy Gull. 


Hiooded Gull. 


CHROICOCEPHAULUS PHILADELPHIA, 


Bonaparte’s Gull. 


Little Gull. 


. RISSA TRIDACTYLA, Bonar. 


Kittiwake Gull. 
RISSA SEPTENTRIONALIS, Lawe. 
North Pacific Kittiwake. 
RISSA BREVIROSTRIS, Branptr. 
Short-billed Kittiwake. 


. RISSA NIVEA, Broca. 


Yellow-billed Gull 


. PAGOPHILA EBURNEA, Kavp. 


Ivory Gull. 
. PAGOPHILA BRACHYTARSI, Hizs. 
Short-legged Gull. 
RHODOSTETHIA ROSBA, Jann. 
Wedge-tailed Guill. 
CREAGRUS FURCATUS, Bonar. 
Swallow-tailed Gull. 
XEMA SABINI, Bonar. 
Fork-tailed Gull. 


CHROICOCEPHALUS ATRICILLA, Linn. 


CHROICOCEPHALUS FPRANKLINIYI, Brv. 


CHROICOCEPHALUS CUCULLATUS, Br. 


CHROICOCEPHALUS MINUTUS, Brucn. 


683. 


684. 


686. 


687. 


688. 


689. 


690. 


691. 


693. 


694. 


696. 


697. 


698. 


699. 


700. 


18 


. STERNA ARANEA, Wus. 


Marsh Tern, 


. STERNA CASPIA, Pattas. 


Caspian Tern. 
STERNA REGIA, Gamse.. 

Royal Tern. 
STERNA ELEGANS, GamsBet. 


Elegant Tern. 


. STERNA ACUFPLAVIDA, Casor. 


Cabot’s Tern. 
STERNA HAVELLI, Aun. 
Havell’s Tern. 
STERNA TRUDEAUII, Aun. 
Trudeauw’s Tern. 
STERNA FULIGINOSA, Gm. 
Sooty Tern. 
STERNA WILSONI, Bonar. 
Wilson’s Tern. 
STERNA MACROURA, Navm. 
Arctic Tern. 
STERNA FORSTERI, Nort. 


Forster’s Tern. 


. STERNA PARADISEA, Brinn 


Roseate Tern. 
STERNA PIKEI, Lawe. 
Slender-billed Tern. 
STERNA FRENATA, GAmMBEL. 


Least Tern. 


. HYDROCHELIDON PLUMBBEA, Wits. 


Short-tailed Tern. 
ANOUS STOLIDUS, Leacu. 
Noddy Tern. 
RHYNCHOPS NIGRA, Liyy. 
Black Skimmer. 
COLYMBUS TORQUATUS, Brinn. 
Loon. 
COLYMBUS ARCTICUS, Liyy. 
Black-throated Diver. 
COLYMBUS PACIFICUS, Lawr. 
Pacific Diver. 


701 COLYMBUS SEPTENTRIONALIS, Linn. 
Red-throated Diver. 
702. PODICEPS GRISHIGENA, Gray. 
Red-necked Grebe. 
708. PODICEPS CRISTATUS, Laru. 
Crested Grebe. 
703a. PODICEPS COOPERI, Lawr. 
Cooper’s Grebe. 
704. PODICEPS OCCIDENTALIS, Lawn. 
Western Grebe. 
705. PODICEPS CLARKII, Lawr. 
Clark’s Grebe. 
706. PODICEPS CORNUTUS, Larnam. 
Horned Grebe. 
707. PODICEPS CALIFORNICUS, Herrmann. 
California Grebe. 
708. PODICEPS AURITUS, Laru. 
Eared Grebe. 
708a. PODICEPS DOMINICUS, Laru. 
White-winged Grebe. 
709. PODILYMBUS PODICEPS, Lawr. 
Carolina Grebe. 
ALCA IMPENNIS, Linz. 
Great Auk. 
. ALCA TORDA, Livy. 
Razor-billed Auk. 
. MORMON CIRRHATA, Bonar. 
Tufted Puffin. 
- MORMON CORNICULATA, Naum. 
Horned Puffin. 
- MORMON GLACIALIS, Leacu. 
Sea Parrot; Puffin. 
. MORMON ARCTICA, Ixurazr. 
Arctic Puffin. 


710. 


716. SAGMATORRHINA LABRADORIA, (Cas. 


Labrador Auk. 
717. CERORHINA MONOCERATA, Cassin. 
Sea Horn-bill. 
718. CERORHINA SUCKLEYI, Cassin. 


719. PHALERIS CRISTATELLA, Bonar. 
Crested Auk. 
. PHALERIS TETRACULA, SrepruHens. 
Dusky Auk. 
. PHALERIS CAMTSCHATICA, Cassin. 
Kamtschathkan Auk. 


. PHALERIS MICROCEROS, Branpr. 


. PHALERIS PUSILLA, Cassin. 
Least Auk. 
. PTYCHORHAMPHUS ALEUTICUS, Brr. 
Cassin’s Guillemot. 
. OMBRIA PSITTACULA, Escuscu. 
Parrot Auk. 
. URIA GRYLLE, Laruam. 
Black Guillemot. 

. URIA COLUMBA, Cassin. 

Western Guillemot. 
URIA CARBO, Branpt. 

Crow Guillemot. 
. URIA LOMVIA, Brinnicu. 

Foolish Guillemot. 
URIA RINGVIA, Briinnicu. 

Murre. 

731. URIA ARRA, (Pattas.) 

Thick-billed Guillemot. 
732. BRACHYRHAMPHUS MARMORATUS, 

Marbled Guillemot. 
733. BRACHYRHAMPHUS WRANGELII, Br. 
Wrangel’s Guillemot. 

734. BRACHYRHAMPHUS BRACHYPTERUS 


730. 


Short-winged Guillemot. 
7385. BRACHYRHAMPHUS KITTLITZII, Br 
Kittlitz’s Guillemot. 
736. BRACHYRHAMPHUS ANTIOUUS, Br. 
Ancient Auk. 
787. BRACHYRHAMPHUS TEMMINCKII, Br. 
Temminck’s Guillemot. 
788. MERGULUS ALLE, Vicittor. 


Sea Dove. 











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ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF GENERA OF BIRDS. 


(THE NUMBERS ARE THOSE OF THE FIRST SPECIES MENTIONED IN THE CATALOGUE. ) 


A. 


Accipiter, 
Actiturus, 
Actodromus, 
Adamastor, 
Aegialeus, 
Aegialitis, 
Aegiothus, 
Aestrelata, 
Agelaius, 
Aix, 

Alcea, 
Ammodromus, 
Ampelis, 
Anas, 
Anorthura, 
Anous, 
Anser, 
Anthus, 
Antrostomus, 
Aphriza, 
Apobapton, 
Aquila, 
Aramus, 
Ardea, 
Ardetta, 
Archibuteo, 
Ardenna, 
Arquatella, 
Astragalinus, 
Astur, 
Asturina, 
Athene, 
Atthis, 
Audubonia, 
Aythya, 


B. 


Basileuterus, 
Bathmidurus, 
Bernicla, 
Blasipus, 

Bonasa, 
Botaurus, 
Brachyotus, 
Brachyrhamphus, 
Bubo, 


545 
531 
651 
507 
504 
320 
638 
401 
587 
710 
341 
232 
576 
273 
696 
563 
165 
111 
511 
732 


480 
487 
491 


647 
528 
313 


33 
58 
105 
489 
591 


121 
567 
663 
465 
492 


732 
48 





Bucephala, 
Buteo, 
Butorides, 


C. 


Calamospiza, 
Calidris, 
Callipepla, 
Campephilus, 
Camptolemus, 
Campylorhynchus, 
Cardellina, 
Cardinalis, 
Carpodacus, 
Cataractes, 
Cathartes, 
Catherpes, 
Centrocercus, 
Centronyx, 
Centrophanes, 
Centurus, 
Cerorhina, 
Certhia, 
Certhiola, 
Ceryle, 
Chetura, 
Chamea, 
Chamepelia, 
Charadrius, 
Chaulelasmus, 
Chen, 
Chenalopex, 
Chloephaga, 
Chloroceryle, 
Chondestes, 
Chordeiles, 
Chroicocephalus, 
Chrysomitris, 
Ciceronia, 
Circus, 
Cistothorus, 
Coccygus, 
Colaptes, 
Collyrio, 
Columba, 
Colymbus, 
Contopus, 
Conurus, 


593 
493 


377 
534 
476 
72 
600 
262 
216 
390 
305 
729 
1 
263 
462 
331 
326 
91 
717 
275 
301 
117 
109 
274 
453 
503 
584 
563 
710 
573 
118 
344 
114 
667 
310 
722 
38 
268 
69 
99 
236 
445 
698 
137 


Corvus, 
Coturnicops, 
Coturniculus, 
Cotyle, 
Craxirex, 
Creagrus, 
Creciscus, 
Crex, 
Crotophaga, 
Cupidonia, 
Curvirostra, 
Cyanocitta, 
Cyanospiza, 
Cyanura, 
Cygnus, 
Cyrtonyx, 
Cyrtopelicanus, 


D. 


Dafila, 
Daption, 
Demiegretta, 
Dendrocygna, 
Dendroica, 
Diomedea, 
Dolichonyx, 
Dysporus, 


E. 


Ectopistes, 
Elanus, 
Embernagra, 
Empidonax, 
Eremophila, 
Ereunetes, — 
Erismatura, 
Erolia, 
Euphonia, 
Euspiza, 


F. 


Falcinellus, 
Falco, 
Florida, 
Fratercula, 


63 | Fregetta, 


423 
557 
338 
229 

46 
679 
556 
558 


464 
318 
457 
383 
434 
561 
477 
615 


578 
639 
482 
574 
189 
630 
399 
399 


448 

35 
373 
140 
302 
535 
609 
529 
224 
378 


500 


490 
713 
646 


Fulica, 
Fulix, 
Fulmarus, 


G. 


Gallinago, 
Gallinula, 
Gambetta, 
Garzetta, 
Gennaia, 
Geococeyx, 
Geothly pis, 
Glaucidium, 
Glottis, 
Goniaphea, 
Graculus, 
Grus, 
Guiraca, 
Gymunokitta, 


He 


Haematopus, 
Haliaetus, 
Harelda, 
Harporhynchus, 
Helminthophaga, 
Helmitherus, 
Helospiza, 
Herodias, 
Hesperiphona, 
Heteroscelus, 
Hierofalco, 
Himantopus, 
Hirundo, 
Histrionicus, 
Hydrobata, 
Hydrochelidon, 
Hylotomus, 
Hypotriorchis, 


ET. 


Ibis, 
Icteria, 
Icterus, 
Ictinia, 
Ixoreus, 


559 
588 
635 


523 
560 
539 
485 

10 

68 
170 


538 
380 
620 
478 
380 
431 


512 

40 
597 
256 
180 
178 
368 
486 
303 
543 


518 
225 
596 
164 
695 

90 


498 
176 
408 

30 
156 





Junco, 


L. 


Lagopus, 
Lampornis, 
Lampronetta, 
Laniivireo, 
Larus, 
Leucoblepharon, 
Leucopareia, 
Leucopolius, 
Leucopternis, 
Leucosticte, 
Limosa, 
Lobipes, 
Lophodytes, 
Lophophanes, 
Lophortyx, 
Lunda, 


M. 


Macrorhamphug, 
Mareca, 
Melanerpes, 
Melanetta, 
Meleagris, 
Melopelia, 
Melospiza, 
Mergellus, 
Mergulus, 
Mergus, 
Micropalama, 
Milvulus, 
Mimus, 
Mniotilta, 
Molothrus, 
Momotus, 
Mormon, 
Myiadestes, 
Myiarchus, 
Myiodioctes, 


N. 


Nauclerus, 
Nectris, 
Neocorys, 
Nephoecetes, 
Nettion, 
Numenius, 
Nyctale, 
Nyctiardea, 
Nyctea, 
Nyctherodius, 
Nyctidromus, 


350 


467 
100 
599 
248 
656 
567 
572 
509 


322 
548 
520 
613 
285 
A474 
712 


524 
585 

94 
601 


450 
363 
614 
738 
611 
536 
122 
253 
167 
400 
119 
712 
235 
130 
211 


34 
648 
166 
108 
579 
549 

55 
495 

61 
496 

ll6a 


O. 


Oceanites, 
Oceanodroma, 
Ochthodromus, 
Oidemia, 
Olor, 

Ombria, 
Onocrotalus, 
Oporornis, 
Oreopeleia, 
Oreortyx, 
Oreoscoptes, 
Ortalida, 
Ortyx, 
Ossifragus, 
Otus, 
Oxyechus, 


Pe 


Pachyrhamphus, 
Pagophila, 
Pandion, 
Panyptila, 
Parula, 
Paroides, 
Parus, 
Passerculus, 
Passerella, 
Patagioenas, 
Pedioecetes, 
Pelicanus, 
Pelionetta, 
Perisoreus, 
Peucaea, 
Phalacrocorax, 
Pheopus, 
Pheton, 
Phalaropus, 
Phaleris, 
Phainopepla, 
Philomachus, 
Philohela, 
Pheebastria, 
Phoebetria, 
Phoenicopterus, 
Phrenopicus, 
Pica, 
Picicorvus, 
Picoides, 
Picus, 
Pinicola, 
Pipilo, 
Planesticus, 
Plectrophanes, 
Plotus, 
Podiceps, 
Podylimbus, 
Poecilopternis 
Polioptila, 


644 
640 
506 
604 
561 
725 
616 
174 
454 
473 
255 
456 
471 
634 

51 
504 


Polyborus, 
Polysticta, 
Pooecetes, 
Poospiza, 
Porphyrula, 
Porzana, 
Procellaria, 
Progne, 
Protonotaria, 
Psaltriparus, 
Psilorhinus, 
Ptychorhamphus, 
Puffinus, 
Pyranga, 
Pyrrhuloxia, 
Pyrocephalus, 


Q. 


Querquedula, 
Quiscalus, 


Ri 


Rallus, 
Recurvirostra, 
Regulus, 
Rhodostethia, 
Rhyacophilus, 
Rhynchophanes, 
Rhynchops, 
Rhynchopsitta, 
Rissa, i 
Rosthramus, 


S. 


Sagmatorhina, 
Salpinctes, 
Saxicola, 
Sayornis, 
Scardafella, 
Schoeniclus, 
Scolecophagus 
Scops, 
Seiurus, 
Selasphorus, 
Setophaga, 
Sialia, 
Simorhynchus, 
Sitta, 
Somateria, 
Spatula, 
Spermophila, 
Sphyropicus, 
Spizella, 
Squatarola, 
Starnoenas, 
Steganopus, 


45 
598 
337 
355 
561 
555 
634 
231 
169 
297 


724 
647 
220 
389 
147 


581 
419 


552 
517 
161 
678 
541 
330 


716 
264 
157 
134 
452 
530 


519 


Stercorarius, 
Sterna, 
Strepsilas, 
Strix, 
Sturnella, 
Sula, 
Surnia, 
Symphemia, 


Synthliborhamphus, 


Syrnium, 
oan: 


Tachypetes, 
Tachytriorchis, 
Tantalus, 
Telmatodytes, 
Tetrao, 
Thalassarche, 
Thalassidroma, 
Thalassoica, 
Thriothorus, 
Tinnunculus, 
Trichopicus, 
Tringa, 
Tringoides, 
Trochilus, 
Troglodytes, 
Trogon, 
Trupialis, 
Tryngites, 
Turdus, 
Tylorhamphus, 
Tyrannus, 


U. 


Uria, 
Urile, 
Utamania, 


We 
Vireo, 
Vireosylva, 

x. 
Xanthocephalus, 
Xanthoura, 
Xema, 
Xenopicus, 

Z. 
Zenaida, 


Zenaidura, 
Zonotrichia 


652 
681 
515 

47 
406 
617 

62 
537 
736 

53 


726 
626. 
711 


442 
680 
81 


449 
451 
345 


CATALOGUE 


OF 


NORTH AMERICAN REPTILES 


IN THE MUSEUM OF THE 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 


PART I—SERPENTS. 


BY 


Sf. BAT RD ann C. GIRARD: 








WASHINGTON: 
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 


JANUARY, 1853. 












PHILADELPHIA: 
COLLINS, PRINTER, 705 JAYNE STREET. 





CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


RIE AGH erecta en etalenicactes tecencods cscasetecccecesledecececblodecesccsiness Geecslecvacescslmn lv 


ENTE CD CTL MORE I hoc ca eee inckab alana vb daw oene dedebigon tour ecomamectcree AL 


GENUS CROTALUS....00.sccceccceee 


Ex peANAPIONCOF) TRERMSIUSED. <2o0sc cs veceustacdesceheveochsteebetesweddenecdt WAL 
Synopsis oF FAMILIES AND GENERA, AND SysTEMATIC INDEX OF 
Sprcres OF NORTH AMERICAN SERPENTS... .ccsecccsccessscesseseesees 1X 


ol 








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7 CONTENTS. 


PaGE 
APPENDIX A.—SPECIES EXAMINED, OF WHICH NO SPECIMENS ARE IN 


POSSESSION OF THE SMITHSONIAN TINSIDUMUMTO Nie ccicovecee es voce adeeecateeseeese an) 


APPENDIX B.—SPECIES DESCRIBED BY AUTHORS, BUT OF WHICH NO é 
SPECIMENS COULD BE OB TANG Beare Ae Gove dencs avs eceosseptiemcnamme alam 
2 


APPENDIX C.—SPECIES COLLECTED oN THE UNITED STATES AND 
Mexican Bounpary Survey By Joun H. Cnark AND ARTHUR | 
Scuort, unpDER Mas. Wo. H. Emory, AND RECEIVED TOO LATE FOR 
INSERTION IN THEIR PROPER PRNGIRSN tet hcteseiutea cnt cee ee OO 


APPENDIX D.—InprEx oF SOURCES FROM WHICH THE SPECIMENS HAVE 
BERN RH GHIEVED s cecescectanceieesn cas soceceatiaes coe acaessc cnenecacis came eee emma eetenetlOz, 


3 . 

APPENDIX E.—InpEx or SraTEs AND TERRITORIES FROM WHICH 
SPECIMENS HAVE BEEN RECEIVED, ...iccosscsscscocecoocstas saccanacece@sose seal OF 

AT PHABETICAT: INDE Xteranecnvoccensiocnt craecowndecterncecseeesslesecesieareacemmentianeaes OO) 


1. OV ERNAGULAR NAMIMS s:,cccopcisosceslsocivsns secsttecssblccelesoucniceremteee oseeel OD) 


D SYSTEMATIC, NAMES. ..cscscssoccsscsesvocectescivascsescecesioscoctmmeuenicons soil Ol, 





PREFACE. 


In the present catalogue it is proposed to present a systematic ac- 
count of the collection of North American Serpents in the museum 
of the Smithsonian Institution. In the Appendix will be found such 
species not in possession of the Institution, as could be borrowed for 
description, as well as notes on more or less authentic species of which 
no specimens could be found. 

A complete synonomy of all the species has not been attempted, 
as tending to swell the bulk of a catalogue too much. All those, 
however, necessary to a proper understanding of the history or cha- 
racter of the species, have been introduced, and all the Supra 
quoted have been actually verified by original reference. 

Owing to the want of osteological preparations, it has been a diffi- 
cult task to arrange the genera in a natural succession. In many 
cases forms are now combined which will hereafter necessarily be 
widely separated. The almost entire deficiency of modern general 
works upon the Colubride, has also been a serious obstacle to any 
correct idea-of a natural system. The forthcoming work of M. M. 
Duméril will undoubtedly clear up much of the obscurity which now 
exists. But when systematic writers all carefully avoid the subject 
of the Ophidians, each waiting for the others to make the first step, 
the attempt to combine genera by well marked, though perhaps arti- 
ficial points of relation, will it is hoped be looked upon with indul- 
gence, even after more comprehensive and extended investigations 
shall render it necessary to break up the combinations here adopted. 

The collections upon which the original descriptions of the present 
catalogue have been based are as follows :— 

Spencer F. Barrp. Species from Massachusetts, New York, 
Ohio, and Pennsylvania. 

CHARLES GIRARD. Maine, Massachusetts, and South Carolina. 

Rey. Cuarzes Fox. Species from Eastern Michigan. 

Dr. P. R. Hoy. Species from Eastern Wisconsin. 

Pror. L. AcAsstz. Lake Superior, Lake Huron, and Florida. 

Vv 


a PREFACE. 


Dr. J. P. Kirtianp. Northern Ohio. 

G. W. Faunestock. Western Pennsylvania. 

Miss VALERIA BLANEY. LEastern Shore of Maryland. 

Dr. OC. B. R. Kennerzty. Northern Virginia. 

Joun H. Crark. Maryland, Texas, New Mexico, and Sonora. 

Joun VARDEN. District of Columbia and Louisiana. 

Dr. J. B. BARRATT. Western South Carolina. 

Miss CHARLOTTE PAINE and Mrs. M. E. Danien. Western S. 
Carolina. 

Dr. S. B. BarKER. Charleston, S. C. 

Prog. F.S. Hotmes and Dr. W. J. Burnerr. South Carolina. 

R. R. CuyLEer and Dr. W. L. Jones. Georgia. 

D. C. Luoyp. Eastern Mississippi. 

Dr. B. F. Soumarp and Cot. B. L. C. Wares. Mississippi. 

JAMES Farriz. Mexico and Western Louisiana. 

Carts. R. B. Marcy and G. B. McCietian, U. S. A. Red 
River, Ark. 

FERDINAND LINDHEIMER. Central Texas. 

Cou. J. D. GranaM, U. 8. A. The specimens collected while on 
the U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, by Mr. J. H. Clark, viz., in 
Texas, New Mexico, and Sonora. 

Mas. W. H. Emory. Specimens collected on the U. S. and Mexi- 
can Boundary Survey, by Arthur Schott, at Eagle Pass, Tex., and 
by J. H. Clark, in Texas and New Mexico. 

Gen. 8. CourcHILL, U.S. A. Valley of the Rio Grande. 

Dr. L. Epwarps, U.S. A. Northern Mexico. 

Dr. WM. GAMBEL. New Mexico and California. 

Dr. Joun L. Le Contre. Littoral California. 

Dr. C. C. Boyt and J. S. Bowman. Central California. 

Dr. A. J. Skmton. Species collected in California by Henry 
Moores, Esq. 

U. S. Exprortine Expepition. Littoral California and Oregon. 

ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILAD. Various unique 
specimens described by Dr. Holbrook. 

Boston Socrery of NaturaAu History. California. 


SPENCER F. BAIRD, 
Assist. Sec. S. I. in charge of Museum. 


Smithsonian Institution, ; 
January 5, 1858. 


ee 


INTRODUCTION. 


EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED. 


THE vertical plate is the central one in the middle of the head 
above, having on each side of it the superciliaries, which form the 
upper part of the orbit. The two plates behind the vertical are the 
occipitals ; the pair in front of it, the postfrontals. The prefrontals 
or anterior frontals are situated in front of the postfrontals; and an- 
terior to these and terminating the snout is the rostral. The plates 
immediately in front of the eye are the anteorbitals; those behind it 
are the postorbitals. In advance of the anteorbital is the oral, be- 
tween which and the rostral are the two nasa/s, with the nostril be- 
tween them. The upper and lower labials margin the upper and 
lower jaws. The temporal shields are situated between the upper 
labials and the occipitals. The inframazillary or mental scutellze 
or shields are just within the lower labials. 

The arrangement on the top of the head of one rostral, two pairs 
of frontals, one vertical with one superciliary on each side, and one 
pair of occipitals we have considered as typical or normal, from which 
but few of the genera described vary. Sometimes one plate occupies 
the place of the two prefrontals, and in some genera a second median 
plate is seen between the rostral, frontals, and vertical. On the side 
of the head we have sometimes but one nasal, and sometimes either 
the loral or the anteorbitals may be wanting. Where the latter con- 
dition exists, it is sometimes difficult at first to determine which plate 
has disappeared. A clue is to be found in the shape of the remain- 
ing plate ; if this be longitudinal, it is probably the loral ; if vertical, 
or divided into two or more, one above the other, it is to be con- 
sidered as anteorbital. The loral belongs to the postfrontals, and 


the anteorbital to the vertical, the posterior edges in the former and 
vii 


vil INTRODUCTION. 

the anterior in the latter generally ranging. Thus, when the ver- 
tical plate is very short, the anteorbital is also short or wanting 
entirely, and the same relation holds good between the loral and 
postfrontals. 

The specimen whose measurements are first given, unless stated to 
the contrary, has served as the type of the description, and the first 
mentioned species is to be considered as the type of the genus. 

Of the five numbers given at the end of the descriptions, the first 
indicates the number of the abdominal scutellee from chin to anus. 
The second is that of the pairs of subcaudal scutelle ; the third, the 
dorsal rows or the number of rows of scales around the body (ex- 
cluding the abdominal series). The fourth number shows the entire 
length of the animal, and the fifth the length of the tail, in English 
inches. 

In referring to the dorsal rows, the exterior one, or that next the 
scutellze, is considered to be the first, unless the contrary is stated. 

When there are two numbers separated by the symbol at the be- 
ginning of the measurements, the first indicates the number of entire 
abdominal scutellee, the latter of those that are bifid or divided. The 
subcaudal scutellee are to be considered as divided or in pairs, unless 
mentioned to the contrary. 

In enumerating the number of labial plates, those on one side of 
the jaws only are to be understood, and the terminal and median one 
on the symphysis of the upper and lower maxillaries is never in- 
cluded. On the upper jaw that plate is at the end of the snout, and 
is the rostral. 

The descriptions are all based on specimens preserved in alcohol, 
unless otherwise stated. 


INTRODUCTION. 1x 


Synopsis OF FAMILIES AND GENERA, AND LIST OF SPECIES OF 
NortH AMERICAN SERPENTS. 


Family I1—Croranimpar. Erectible poison fangs, in front. 
Few teeth in upper jaw. <A deep pit between the eye and nostril. 


Family Il—Coxrvermar. Both jaws fully provided with teeth. 
No anal appendages. 


A. Loral and anteorbital both present. 


B. Lither loral or anteorbital absent. 


Family I11.—Bormar. Both jaws with teeth. Rudiments of 


hinder limbs or spur-like anal appendages. 


Family [V.—Typuiormakr. Teeth only in one jaw, either 
the upper or lower. Upper jaw strongly projecting. Scales on the 
belly instead of scutellee, disposed in several series like those on the 


upper surface. 


Family —CROTALID A. 


Mus] witht a rattle { with small scale-like plates. ......Crotalus 
aie : | with large plates arranged as in 
Ee oGheo cares [ Coluber 3 Crotalophorus 


Tail without a rattle. eee Agkistrodon 


Loral plate RIS CM Useraweniseenss(esees sce tha eet ne Toxicophis.......1£ 





INTRODUCTION. 


—COLUBRIDZ. 


II 
Loral and anteorbital both present. 


ly 


i 


Fam 


A 


OSL SNTTOTOOUTY 8 oaTVTA 
BIL BULOSOUTYY "898" "* popratp 
TD IG WOOO ES 5 Yo} 8 (ey =] EO DOOOCRDOTs FF if S[BIGLoO 
OM Tebosteet seer TD ONS: seen weeevoe aa -4S0q ‘ouo 
SIL BIydopeig: Sete eeeeeeeeecees ereseeeerg Mg 
Org cone, es ae) S[VJIG.10}S0g 
Q(ilese sBULOSOIONO ys org OM} “qjoous 
90L° stydoqdatq” bien essiences*ir=-bse*=" 2-H OA GHITGO 
FOL CBIOPBATESG"'**'' S[TVSBU JO [VAI] a} VAOG’G sospo [GA9}Vl YT 
86 “-STUCOOTISRYAL **[VIqvy YG 94} uo ” 
G6 “CC MOTUBOSEg'’*[VIqVl WIP 94} WO Senne 
z6 aE TSLOOe) sere MBOIG SoTIVITIOIadng Deora 

see EnTOgIydgy  MOIIVU SatIvTpoOedng ‘“peyRoraqu1 Jou 

eats 8 TTT COPOOS este tcteecres sees seecaeees -emesese nes NOABOTIEO Ayuo SMO [RSLOp UBIPETL ‘trod 4} 

eeceene cers STAT COMMIT Toes tees et sslbsicidn snseeisianaissisciameseincetuiciedeses 6 UeoT CO oud 0UL SuL9}U9 \ S[VIGV'T 

[8 
| 


\ a]joynos Tepnevoqng ‘poyutod ynoug ‘proxq 


1 
S[VJIG.1ooyUW | 
“S[USVU OAT, | 


‘asny}qgo ynoug 


-peosq, “2048 ozRjd [voTAIA | “Nos ‘pgrysog 


*‘paprarp ‘saydojdary4da0 
-xo ‘yJoouIS 


saTBRog 
‘[Vsva oud J 


SO[BOS [VSIOog  *d11}U 


“Mopor1ejo Rt Wee ereeeeees seeteeeserereeseeereerar To OY} WOLJ POpNpOXd ord dy you 
see eeeeeeees coos DTUTTAT rest teeeeeees eeeneneas ceeeeenee corereeeeg 10 OI SULLOyUO Y aro 
seteeeeeeees eee pUTTGQyy ts treeetteseeseeee aeceeeereeeeree eT 10 ULOAT POPNOXO J [e10'T 
seeeeeese oe BTIQOIONT tt tseeee easeeeees eoeeeeees DOD TAID 3 E : 
steesoede “OB TTTTeAnTy ss: +901} BT[[PyNOs [BUITHOPgBIsSoOg 90o1Y} 
see eeeeeeeee ees sogypprpssteeseesteeececes ceeeneees ceases creeesers seesereee Onis OBI WO Suvj uostod yoo.r0 fquourus0d ¥ ‘Woous 

ose 


XOqIOA 
UO So}R[q 
S[BITG.10jS0 gq “poywulavo 

‘yeord 44 


[84380 1T | 
*‘[VULLOU | “MOLIVU ‘SUT | 


OM} | 


Sd[BOg [Rs10g 





INTRODUCTION. 


Family Il.—COLUBRIDA, continued. 
B. Loral or anteorbitals absent. 


Scales { 
two. ae ‘ Abastor..... 


Anteorbitals 
absent. 
Prefrontals | smooth. Post- 


fn orbitals 


“* entire....Osceola... 


Scales carinated Storeria 


Family I.—Borpz. 


Anteorbitals & f one. Loral one Wenona...13 
superciliaries | three. Lorals two Charina....15 





Family [V.—TYPHLOPIDZ. 


( Frontonasals, nasals, oculars, parietals, and 
Cephalic | postparietals 
plates con- 4 Prefrontals, frontal proper, fronto-nasals, 
sisting of nasals, oculars, pre- and supra-oculars, 


| and parietals Ophthalmidion... 


Virginia..... 


Postabdom. sc. divided...Tantilla...... é 


xl 








INTRODUCTION. 


—COLUBRIDA. 


ily II. 
Loral and anteorbital both present. 


Fam 


As 


OZ’ SNTIOOOUTYYT 8 oaTyTA 
BIL BULOsOUTyYT "8 paprarp 
LUD  BIOMOg  e a0atTy S[eqIq10 
SLL SIMOPVIT eee greets terete eeeeeeees gang 
On Sc pmo ee ene) S[BVIIGIOSOg — 
QOL BULOSOIOTYO et Omg “yyoous 
QOL? SIMOAC arg treet teeee eeeee eres ee ay umTatO 
FOL BIOPCATESG"****s[Vsvu jo [PA9| oy aA0GB sonpo [G49}8T YIM 
86 “TN STydoonseyy'*[viqey YG oY} WO ” \ 
cia eed UOIULOSEG’”* [Viqvl Usp oq} WO S]C}IGQIOJSOg 
sireeeerenres BIBTOQED Te NROTG SAILITIOLedNG “poywormquar \ 
‘“snjoqrydo'* soeccvoes MOTIBU sorvipoasdng “poz BOLI UL 40a 
reese eee eTTTOJOOG tr eitteteeesereettee eteseeeeeceeeeesreeres HQduOLIUD ATMO SMO [SLOP TRIPE -qword 44 
teeeeeceee STTTOMAT Ee ttte eteeseee ceeeeeese cesses cee sesseeseesseees G10 9} OFUL SUIIOPUO S[VIGV'T 
“8888 TIO DOTOIORL eerie esses seeeeeees eeeteesseveees sereeeeerarg 10 OU} WLOTT ete ‘wordy you 
ste aeeeecees eves DEUITNT teres steteeeeseeevesees ceeeeeeeecooereeeea TO UL BULLOJUO Ne 
reese ereeee seep TTT Gyr est tteeeetee recesses seceveseseeesee soa 110 WOT POPNOX f 
sieeeeee eee BID OTNT TTT te eete tteeeese seeeeeee nan rArp 
-pTTeynA Hieeeeeeeeeeoeree QT) 9 
te seeeeeeee cee cogparey tereeees Wrtseateserers eeeserere ani YORA UO Surg uostod 400.0 fquoueusod Y ‘yoous 
ostg 


\ eyjoynos [epnvoqng ‘pojurod ynoug ‘proazq 


} 
S[BqIqIOOUV | 
“g[VSVU OAT, | 


‘asnyqo ynoug 


‘pworq “yLoy4s oyeyd [Loo | “Nos “pqrysod 


SaTVOg *peprtarp ‘seydojdaryydao 
‘[esea eno) -xo ‘y}oowS 


[vaysory 
*[VULIOM | ‘MOLIvU ‘OUOT 
S9[VOS [BVSIOG ‘dau 


XOJIOA 
+ wo soqrtg 
S[BIIG.10}S0g *poywulsvo 
‘yeord 44 


[e1oy omy | 


\ V][OINOS [VUIMMOPYVJsog 9014} 





| 


Sa[BOg [RsIOg 





INTRODUCTION. xl 


Family Il.—COLUBRIDA, continued. 


B. Loral or anteorbitals absent. 


Anteorbitals poalce { 


absent. 
Prefrontals 


Farancia....12 
two Pose | Qnesnasall .ttce.cr Abastor.....1: 


he Post- Two nasals Virginia.....12 
| orbitals 

Postabdom. se. divided... Tantilla...... 131 
| ** entire ....Osceola 


Senlés: carinated i 135 





Family II.—BorDz. 


Page } 
Anteorbitals & f one. Loral one Wenona...139 
superciliaries | three. Lorals two Charina....154 





Family [V.—TYPHLOPIDZ. 


{ Frontonasals, nasals, oculars, parietals, and 
Cephalic | postparietals 
plates con- + Prefrontals, frontal proper, fronto-nasals, 
| nasals, oculars, pre- and supra-oculars, 
| and parietals Ophthalmidion...155 | 


sisting of 





xii 


INTRODUCTION. 


SysTEMATIC INDEX OF WELL-ASCERTAINED SPECIES OF NORTH 


AMERICAN SERPENTS. 


(The new species are indicated by an asterisk). 


CROTALUS, Linn. 


Page 
1. Crotalus durissus, Liyy............... Penna., Louisiana, Mississippi... 1 
2 ce adamanteus, Bravy........ South Carolina: fs. cerscec.-.<ccce eee 3 
3.* 6 ALTO, BGG ceeseceteceeseee MGXGIS.  wacacaconstnastevecneicenssaiteews 5 
4, ce AICHE, BO Cssconewsteteostices OTnevONn Ne ecsectseen osc eeeseeanescece 6 
5 be confluentus, Sav............/ Arkansas, sMexasecscs tres .ccesosdees 8 
6.* 65 molossus, B. & G............ SOOT. ccccecisseevecsn cocetteseues os ses 10 
7 Ee oregonus, HoLsR............- Columbia (River: ccestwerecess ase 145 
CROTALOPHORUS, Gray. 
1. Crotalophorus miliarius, Hotsr....Georgia, South Carolina........... 11 
Dari ee consors) Bi. & Gos. .cecccsse ss2 MOXAG aes ddecakacscssesesiwoascetesesease 12 
3. ce tergeminus, Ho.Lpn......... Wise: Mich: Ob10tinccssscs-seeeceses 14 
Ak ott Bawardsii, B.'& Gi .s.....s MexiCO, SONOLA. cecouwecadeesmenacnae 15 
5. a Kirtlandii, Hour ........... Oh 066.5. sessdenceienssensceteseees sends 16 
AGEKISTRODON, Beauty. 
1. Agkistrodon contortrix, B.& G....Ohio, Penna., 8. C., La............ 17 
TOXICOPHIS, Troost. 

1. Toxicophis piscivorus, B. & G.....Lowisiana.........secsccecesceceeceeees 19 
2.* PUPA, 9B in Geveccccesssiess MOXOS. .\cscncicoemeclcccusncesstcmnsaetee 20 
ELAPS, Firz. 
i> Gslaps  FULVIUS CU es cscseceseses ocoeeoses South, Canolimatnvcccs sncescceresess 21 
De emeen ce tenere” BY iG yee ese cee MORASS ovchtae ses siccocestecsuse teense 22 
Once wt ETISUISH Db sOuiscssrtesvecconcies: Mississippi, Texas.........ccsecees 28 
BUTAINIA, B. & G. 

1 Butainia saurita, B. & G. ...........Mass., Penna., N. Y., Md., Va... 24 
rene ass PALL GVA Go" Giseoaicdsceisesiees WjOWISVAN Dste-s- s-socsas-conte eee eee 25 
3. ss proxima, B. & G............. Ark., Texas, New Mexico......... 25 
4. ée infernalis, B. & G............ California s.cc.ccccsecrosctenceseescee 26 
Bee 7 Ss Pickeringii, Bii& Git-c.-2-s OTe GON -2:.-.-.cerclossssacesencscciecesse 27 
6. ae parietalis, B. & G............ TOXOBy cad sceecscoseeceeiccsoneeeencetes 28 
ee ace leptocephala,'B. & (Gu... ..-OLe GON ..2. 02.5. .oocncecevenscsene ceeces 29 

8. ce sirtalis;, Bs & (G..o.8..sceeusse Me., Mich., N. Y., Penna., Md., 
Wiass is Gr, MISS. c.coneeremooceses 30 
2 i Gorsalis)) Bi & \Gite.cssscre ese Texaisirarcts orcas cteacseclereneeceeerntes 31 
Remus’ ordinata, Bi &iGiie.. -ss+: s+ GCOTLID voecerceeeosceececeeseecescn:: 32 
le 66 ordinoides, B. & G.......... Californias. cossc- nc eracecteriesssceers 33 


INTRODUCTION. xill 


Page 
12.* Butainia radix Bli& G: cr.-..-.--. Wisconsin seeeeee renee eeeees Reassises 3 
Hioase a 5 elegans; Ba & Gi. ...ccn.es- --- Califone tee sosmocetoessarl«secs qaceoss 34 
Aas ice Vaerans,B: Ob Gi csseesessce: Mex., Call, -Orevone. sc... .sscenssass 85 
15.* « MATCI Ana Be eUGerawes ATK. LOXAS Sands essGoissessseciessscs 386 
16.. 5° @)  Seonemana, B&G... ..cc05... Oregon ..sccccsiae sMeaatales abfes daiiounsos 146 
NERODIA, B. & G. 
1. Nerodia sipedon, B. & G............. Mich., Mass., Penna., N. Y., Md.. 38 
23 “é fasciatai Be GiGi ccsesscssces South Carolinasiccesceduesscsneencs 39 
3. se erythrogaster, B. & G...... Was SiC rcesccaccuouedsiese secoecteseres 40 
4% 66 Agassizii, B. & G............ WakevHunont jcesscsccnectecres slectees 41 
One 66 WOOGDOUSIT GBS SiGrec.. 0. LOX AS m.a2s lacealeonsccionacicloodccbas sless 42 
6. cc taxispilota, B. & G.......... GE OT LUaisijccees cegsinanswacenessccaieccens 43 
tak 66 Holbrookii, B. & G......... WOUISTANIG.. 2c. saabcocddecee vvesteseesin es 3 
8. ce MAZEL is Gieswaescsalsnes ce ss: Massachusetts jascepecsceccenesieases 147 
9. ke rhombifer) B2.&. Gists.c.ss AT KANS SS) soccwsscsscis sclesoor siete sees 147 
TIO 9 OG transversa, B. & G.......... ATKSNSAB'.cossccsscesssecesies sasatewease 148 
REGINA, B. & G. 
1. Regina leberis, B. & G............0. 05+ Mich. "OhiosPenngesscccscseeecsecs 45 
2. oC TAPIG AWB, Ci Gi tececisccscceisns Benna., (GeOr gia. .catcsrsseessiessseesas 46 
one 8 Grahamii, B. & G............ MORRIS sora ccorescecsuetereodsess cosces 47 
4% 6 Clare B Gr Gosecetnest cose ACRAGsiiccovatisncescocertiesecocicesececsivacs 48 
NINIA, B. & G. | 
1.* Ninia diademata, B. & G........... IMe@xICONZ 2) cacsa0 POSER ER Acaveeecaes 49 
HETERODON, Beauv. 
1. Heterodon platyrhinos, Larr......Penna., Va., 8. C., Ohio, Miss... 51 
eae pices cognatus,) Bii& Gaceccss 052s. ORAS eR see eR eR accaneetsoss 54 
3. ze Niger. TROOST: tcl. dccsese esses Rennarg 8.00. PVIssy se. cae.ceseses 55 
Bae ts atmodes;, B.S (Giieseccks. Gai Say. cacmcserdsciosaces aati testes 57 
5. 0 simus, HOLBR.................- S CsA VISBt eceoeseasssteossvarioteas 59 
6. “ masicus, B..& Gescccs.. 0s: Ark., Texas, Sonora, Cal......... 61 
PITUOPHIS, Hotsr. 
1. Pituophis melanoleucus, Houpr...Carolina............ wetdaeer arc eaai es 65 
2s 6e Dellon aM Bes Gece ccecssocstces Texas aCaly) SOMOLAscedessacvet eres 66 
Bae) EE McClellanii, B. & G......... IATKANIBAB vers aceteinsieceascnsseteccssets 68 
4, ee catenifer, B. & G............. California ci ccssscesdesesse on vceete es 69 
ge Wilkesii, B. & G............. OTeGON: cv. scsjeceeeriecudnetastsoessctentece 71 
Gam sts annectens, B. & G.......... CAITFOTNTAUS sseccscesterceseervecaseene 72 
SCOTOPHIS, B. & G. 
1. Seotophis alleghaniensis, B. & G...Pennsylvania....... Seraaches eaeedees 73 
Dee) we Lindheimerii, B. & G...... MMGRGG csc ccesenecteratacacers cores) 0s 74 
Sas oy 8 WUlpinUSs aeons seers ees Mich., Wisc........ Peasuantsroneeses ens 75 


XIV INTRODUCTION. 


Page 
4.* Scotophis confinis, B. & G......... Somthy Carolina... smmeosesaneseacss 76 
One ee Tastus; (BiG Gitsccccseseseseas IAT KATISHUS scale asics ce seccticctectiless colons 77 
6. ce Puttatus), Byes Gasscccccewces SoC aGi osm VLISStisccess euccnesecscwace 78 
ite ee Quadrivittatus PBA CiGrecsHOridasncncsccscsecrsioostactcaeesettece 80 
Sze Ve IMO Ya Bs Gressseseeescince MOKA Sia astes 0's soncclscanaeeaciecesemors 157 

OPHIBOLUS, B. & G. 

1.* Ophibolus Boylii, B. & G........... California s.cctesscccsescoreonsesascters 82 
Dee nin Ae splendidus, B. & G......... OMONA osc sesce cecisecte teens eecieneie eters 83 
3. oe Saya yD imenGerunesssesenete Wars Mises. cAr kee wLeOx is sscsconnese 84 
4. ie Petulus) (BY SiGrescsecsscass: SitCEwiVigsecctvsceeeetoceseccsccesiees 85 
5. 6 rhombomaculatus!B: GGMGa oe Crsccccecesccscc cece -vissoosrace 86 
6. Ob eximius, Bo & Geiieccece ccs Mass’, N@Ye-/Penmnasinn.sossocssstee 87 
arse nce CleriCUs MB ARG eecescsere te Vides, MaIseiescemersisccncctsrscteeerise ates 88 
8. ce Goliatus BY S Giesssseccss'es: MISSISSIPPI cc! sewscesiecs sen cecievnsesees 89 
Oe areas PEWS ce Giese-mereciec-te es SAT Ket TTA, wonsle cestiocacediccose de suisciees - 90 


GHORGIA, B. & G. 


IaiGeoreiay Couper, Bi tGnGiis..csseccses MCOPCIA .cesceceians soweccort eonicedaneeee aoe 
2s 6 obsoleta, B.i&'G:..s.2-5.0 MEKABS cscs scccecceueoshesoreestenese ees LOS 


BASCANION, B. & G. 
1. Bascanion constrictor, B. & G.....Penna., Md., Miss., S. C., La.... 93 


Daas Fremontii, B: &,Gescssess- Californilals.c.scveosc osiecseeaeer conensee ste) 
Bee Se PlOsdd, BiG Giiseieccessiessosciose MICH = Penn As oecnseestenescnsacee sets 96 
4, ce flaviventris, B. & G......... MexaseOalnecssecseseccrccucseeerseees 96 
5 8s WEtUStUS; vB. ColGaecowestes css UA sONCTOME. ccsececioseseer ioteceraces OF 
MASTICOPHIS, B. & G. 
1. Masticophis flagelliformis,B.& G...South Carolina........ 2.00000: 98, 149 
2: 6¢ flavigularis, B. & G.......... PORAss PADI, Mrwweteeteuecitencciecs 99 
3. 6c MODNION, (BGs Gisvecseccesees Witaltns ccteestetecstesecceecaavsmeeres 101 
Aa ec OmMatuS NB Or Ghesscetecsttes MOKAS? sco sdine sleek cotedvetles toceiteeees 102 
5. ee Teeniatus Bae Gies.sessee cs California estan. asscseeseencciscomsse 108 
Gis 6 i88 ScCHOtHE BAGG. eectecseecn MORAG he ioces cee seaen saan eeaeere ees 160 
SALVADORA, B. & G. 
1.* Salvadora Grahamice,B. G'G....:SOMOra......ccsccs vsccseese voncaccuaeee 104 
LEPTOPHIS, Bett. 

1. Leptophis zestivus, Brtt.............Md., Va., S. C., Miss.......00 cose 106 
ees Miajalis; BiG Givccccensesces Texas; Arkénucecceccscessieteresean LOG 
CHLOROSOMA, Wact. 

1. Chlorosoma vernalis, B. & G.....Me., Mass., N. Y., Penna., Mich. 
WAS, MUSSicesncscccssaatenthnsemense 108 
CONTIA, B. & G. 
1 Contiaymitis,, Be, GiGi. dcctecescciess Cals Oreronccsrecieececressierseseces 110 
« 


INTRODUCTION. sae 


DIADOPHIS, B. & G. 
Page 
1. Diadophis punctatus, B. & G.......N. Y., Penna., Ga., 8. C., Miss..112 


2X86 amabilis, B. & :G.............. Californias iecterertectcecercvosecs ane 113 
3.% 66 GOCTIS PB is Gisiccrselsseoss sos MOXAS arcecentenqeteedersscecceiestsess se 114 
4oxe ats pulchellusy B: & Ge. .5..-0...- California... ccoseccecionseecccssesces ees 115 
Ora a eS reealish B.S Gewe caccecets SONOPA:.sccestesscsserecerasclscacavienisees 115 


LODIA, B. & G. 
if PLOGiaS tenis ec, Girecdsascesesaqccess OLE TONMsecaasacctoacdeocderecsesecetes 116 


SONORA, B. & G. 
1.* Sonora semiannulata, B. & G.....SOMOra. ...cscecsseseeececvenccsececes ces 117 


RHINOSTOMA, Firz. 
1. Rhinostoma coccinea, Hoxsr......8. C., Ga., Miss., La......... e000 118 


RHINOCHEIUUS, B. & G. 
1.* Rhinocheilus Lecontii, BciGress:Californiacsntvcccdsceetseson teckes 120 


HALDBEA, B. & G. 
1. Haldea striatula, B. & G.............. Vian Sa Ono MISS i csceccceoceetes tees 122 


FARANCIA, Gray. 
fey eatanCia ADACULUS) Di G& Gvesenna coe OrsliGsiccsocssenecceoce tense ssiee esse 123 


ABASTOR, Gray. 
1. Abastor erythrogramMus, GRAY...Ga .....ssccececccee cvscceces svvceesce vee 125 


VIRGINIA, B. & G. 
1.* Virginia Valerie, B. & G............ IMS aVidisu ter Grecteceeetstatacecce secs 127 


CELUTA, B. & G. 
Ie Celtitasamoona Be 65G,csccsccssesses Penna., Md., Va., S. C., Miss....129 


TANTILLA, B. & G. 


1.* Tantilla coronata, B. & G........... IMISBISSIpPlacocsesenccscaremancsereaces 131 
Decay mes PY ACUI GH Gisleacss: nsec ses MEX Seriocrciccecsloccensesetdecsooreduraees 132 


OSCEOLA, B. & G. 
1. Osceola elapsoidea, ei WA racesessccae, Ovs; WLISR: covecedrecevsiccrsteeseees 133 


STORERIA, B. & G. 


1. Storeria Dekayi, B. & G.............. Wisc., Mich., Ohio, Mass., N. Y., 
Pa., Md.,8. C., Ga., La., Tex..135 
2. & occipito-maculata, B. Me., N. Y., Lake Sup., Wisc., 


Xvl INTRODUCTION. 


WENONA, B. & G. 


Page 

1. Wenona p!lumbea, B. & G............ GEC ONY shosedcaseen-cecnsecennee ees 139 

2: “ isabella, -BwaniGieivccsecce+es OREGON vac. iesccepvessveresensell 140 
RENA, B. & G. 

1% Rena’ dulcis; BY& Gi. cieeccscceer ene MEAS teectncces cossncesotedsce ss ctese 142 
Dd! 06) gies Ot Graeastce ee teae ae Californias. i.cssssecceocte'teeseeees 148 
SUMMARY. 

Generar MOldiiretcntscccscecesccncte cioscenteccdeurs cacccisnrsiiiseciecesanens 13 
ING Wissccsescsisses calves oQnetestensslescosrces eecececetioetesssociees 22 
TO tall coaccesesicctac savalessepaeececsiactucrasciasslvecchecoeeceene 
Species.) SOME... -cesiecscaseocisaceaeceecsassescinorenes cece okacetsieceee 65 
INE Wissscccncewssiescecsiesecalesdeeseocscosss/eseceleseactsiecteaeese 54 
MNotalines cove ceases cosesuecteceonclonecneeses saneneecornaneee 119 
SPECIES NOT SHEN. 
1. Toxicophis atrofuscus, TROOST.....TeNNeSSee ...sscccccecececececcen ses 150 
2. Coluber testaceus, Sav..............s. FROCKysMits icone cece ccldecieeseearectoe 150 
See OMI AVI OOH. 1..cecccejscucsesseesecess IMU SSOUNI. onesies cacleee score seectiors 151 
4, ‘ -vyertebralis, BLAINV................California .......0. siteaeebumeceenaes 152 
5. ‘* (Ophis) californiz, Buarnv.....California .............00 Reaeeeran 158 
6. ‘ (Zacholus) zonatus, BuAINv....California ........... sseseceeecoveee 153 
7. $ planiceps, BUAINV........ scsi. Californtalyenccccctenscmcereseceene es 154 
8. Charina Bottz, GRAY.........0.sc0.0s: California ilecteddcscecsavacevascene 154 
ee ee Seiten Rlozida, B.Ldekr ae 155 
mum, Dum. & Bisr. 


SERPENTS. 





GENUS CROTALU s,* LINN. 


Gren. Cuar. Upper surface of head covered with small plates, 
seale-like, with a few larger ones in front. The tail is terminated 
by a well-developed rattle. A deep pit between the eyes and the 
nostrils. Subcaudal scutelle entire. Temporal and labial shields 


small and convex. 


4. Crotalus durissus, Livy.—Head angular. Scales between the 
superciliaries small, numerous, uniform. Plates above snout, 2 anterior 
frontal, and 5 postfrontal. Suborbital chain continuous, of large scales. 
Two rows between this and labials. Labials 12-14 above, 5th largest; 13-15 
below. Scales on the back 23-25, all carinated; carination on outer row 
obsolete. Tail black. Above sulphur-brown, with two rows of confluent 
brown lozenges. Light line from superciliary to angle of the mouth. Be- 
hind this a dark patch. 


Syn. Crotalus durissus, Linn. Syst. Nat. I. 1766, 872.—Gm. Linn. Syst. 
Nat. ed. xiii. I., III. 1788, 1081.—Honsr. N. Amer. Herp. III. 1842, 9. Pl. i. 
—Dexay, New Y. Fauna. Pt. III. 1842, 55. Pl. ix., fig. 19.—Srorer, Rep. 
Rept. of Mass. 1839, 233. 

Vipera caudisona americana, CatesB. Nat. Hist. Carol. II. 1748, 41. Pl. 1xi. 

Banded Rattlesnake. 


Head above covered with small subtuberculous scales. Supercili- 
aries large. Anterior frontals large, triangular, emarginated behind 
to receive a series of three small plates. A single subhexagonal plate 
between the superciliary and anterior frontal. The exterior plate of 
the posterior frontal row is much the largest, and is in contact with 


%* The names and characteristics of the higher divisions will be given in the sy- 
nopsis of species. 

The figures at the end of the descriptions refer, the Ist to the number of abdomi- 
nal scutelle ; 2d, to the subcaudal scutelle ; 3d, to the dorsal rows; 4th, to tho 
total length; and 5th, to the length of the tail. 

1 


2 CROTALUS. f 


the superciliaries. A series of three or four larger flat scales extends 
from the posterior extremity of the superciliary. Scales on the cheeks 
very large, truncate. Anterior orbitals double; the upper one rect- 
angular, elongated longitudinally ; separated from the nasal by two 
small plates. 

General color above, that of roll sulphur; beneath, whitish yel- 
low. Along the back is a double series of subrhomboidal blotches, 
looking as if they had been in contact, and then the line of junction 
partially effaced for the three or four central rows. The impression 
conveyed of the color of these blotches is that of coarse mottlings 
of soot or gunpowder grains, more crowded exteriorly. There are 
twenty-one of these blotches from the head to the anus, the tail being 
entirely black. The rhomboids are enclosed within about twelve 
dorsal series of scales. Directly opposite to these spots on each side 
is a series of subtriangular blotches similarly constituted as to colour, 
and extending from the abdomen to about the fifth lateral row, and 
some six or seven scales long. Anteriorly these are distinct from the 
dorsal series, but posteriorly they are confluent with them, forming a 
series of zigzag blotches across the body. The scutellee below show 
more or less of the grain-like mottlings. Posteriorly the yellow of 
the body is suffused with darker. 

There are no markings of lines distinctly visible on the sides of 
the head. In the centre of the spaces between the dorsal and lateral 
series of blotches are indications of small obsolete spots; and in some 
cases the yellow scales external to the blotches are of lighter colour 
than the rest. 


Huntingdon Co., Pa. 166. 25.23. 42.5. D.C. Lloyd. 


Another specimen has the ground-color darker, more brownish 
yellow. The markings, however, are on the same pattern, except 
that the line of junction of the blotches is not so much effaced, and 
the colors more decided. Lateral row of scales smooth, not cari- 
ated Plates of head similar. Fifteen labial plates, fourth upper 
one the largest. The blotches are nearly uniform umber-brown, 
margined with darker; the scales external to which are lighter than 
the ground-color. 


Lycoming Co., Pa. 165. 25.23. 25. 33. S. F. Baird. 


A female from Huntingdon Co., Pa., has the general pattern of 
the one last mentioned, but a dark brown tint pervades the whole 


CROTALUS. 3 


body, and obscures the pattern of coloration. External row of scales 
smooth. The inferior orbital chain is composed of scales nearly as 
large as the two next rows. 


Huntingdon Co., Pa. ¢ 168. 18.23. 35. 34. 8. F. Baird. 


In a specimen from Prairie Mer Rouge, La., the general system 
of coloration is similar; it differs principally in having a reddish 
brown strip or tint down the back, for a width of some three scales, 
extending from head to tail. First row of lateral scales smooth. 
Plates of head as described, except that there are but two plates em- 
braced between the two postfrontals. ‘The upper jaw pale cream 
colour, the line of demarcation starting from the anterior canthus, 
and passing backward to the angle of the mouth, along the edge of 
the labials, or rather a narrow cream-colored line beginning on the 
upper labials, at the angle of the mouth, and widening on the fifth 
plate, encloses the whole anterior portion of the face below the 
nostrils. The white patch closely mottled with black beneath the 
eye. A brown patch across and beneath the angle of the mouth, in- 
terrupted by the white just mentioned. 


Prairie Mer Rouge, La. 165. 27.25. —— Jas. Fairie. 
Mississippi. Col. Wailes. 


2. Crotalus adamanteus, Beauv.—Head triangular. Two an- 
terior frontals, connected with superciliaries on each side by two large 
plates: inside of these a second row; included space filled by small scales. 
Scales margining superciliaries small; scattered larger ones toward the 
centre of the intermediate space. Three rows of scales between the suborbi- 
tals and labials. Suborbitals extending to the middle of the orbit. Labials 
15 or 16 above; Ist, 5th, and 7th largest and vertical ;—below, 18; Ist, 4th, 
and 5th largest. Dorsal rows 27; outer rows obsoletely carinated. Three 
or four dark rings on tail. Three series of well-defined perfect rhombs, 
one dorsal, two lateral, separated by narrow lines. Light stripe from su- 
perciliary to the angle of the mouth.. A second in front of the eye. 


Syn. Crotalus adamanteus, Beauv. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc. IV, 1824, 
368.—Hotzr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 17. Pl. ii. 

C. horridus, Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, ii, 1827, 370. 

Diamond Rattlesnake. 


Scales on the cheek smooth. Three rather large plates on the 
edge of the upper part of the head, between the superciliaries and 
rostral, inside of which is a second row of three, also larger than 
the rest. 


4 CROTALUS. 


The two lower rows of lateral scales smooth. Third and fourth 
very faintly carinated. Scales on the back and sides not conspicu- 
ously different in size except the lower 2 or 3 rows. Posteriorly, 
near the tail, all the scales are carinated except the lowest. 

General color, yellowish gray, with rhomboidal black blotches, 
lighter in the centre, and with all the angles perfect. Or rather 
there is a series of dull yellowish lines crossing obliquely from one 
side of the abdomen to the other over the back, following the oblique 
series of scales, and occupying generally the posterior half of each 
scale, the basal portion being black. These lines, of which there are 
about 36 crossing from each side, from head to tail, (9 on tail,) 
decussate first on the 5th or 6th lateral row, and then on the back, 
where they are more or less confluent three or four rows. The 
rhomboids thus enclosed and crossing the back are generally black 
for 14 or 2 scales within the yellowish lines, and the most central 
portion is dark yellowish brown, mottled with darker. The inter- 
vals on the sides between the lines are mostly dark yellowish brown, 
minutely mottled with dark brown. These intervals constitute a 
lateral series of transverse rhomboids, sometimes with the lower 
angle truncated. Opposite to the dorsal rhomboids is a series of 
small triangles in the angles of the first decussation. The distance 
between two parallel transverse stripes generally consists of five 
rows of scales, occasionally of six. 

On the sides and posteriorly these markings are more or less in- 
distinct, though generally recognisable. The tail usually exhibits a 
good deal of black. The under parts are dull yellowish white, or 
greenish white, clouded toward the sides with brown. No regular 
spots visible. The black on the tail does not constitute complete 
rings, but is interrupted in the middle of the lower surface, and in fact 
the black patches alternate with each other, and are not opposite. 

The top of the head is light brown, with occasional black scales. 
A dull yellowish streak starts at the posterior edge of the supercili- 
ary plate, and passing obliquely backward, through two rows of scales, 
extends to the angle of the mouth. A second band starts on the 
plate in advance of the superciliary, and crossing the anterior orbitals, 
expands till it involves the 7th, 8th, and 9th upper labials. Inter- 
val between the first two stripes dark brown. There are also indi- 
cations of a second vertical light bar in front of the nostril, and two 
below the pit. Rostral dark yellowish, lighter in the margin. 
Charleston, S. C. 169. 82.27... 48. 54. Dr. Barker. 


CROTALUS. 5 


3. Crotalus atrox, B. & G.—Head subtriangular. Plates on head; 
2 anterior frontals in contact, between these and superciliaries, on side of 
the crown, 2 imbricated plates. Space enclosed occupied by smaller scales. 
Superciliaries bordered by a row of larger scales; the anterior much largest. 
Three rows of scales between labials and suborbitals. Labials 16 above; 
1st, 5th, and 7th largest;—15 below, Ist and 8d largest. Dorsal rows 
25-27: 2 exterior rows smooth. On the tail 3-6 half rings. Color yel- 
lowish brown, with a continuous succession of dorsal lozenges, sometimes 
truncate before and behind; intervals all narrow. A single transverse 
light line on superciliary. Stripe from superciliary directly to the angle 
of the mouth. 


General style of coloration somewhat as in C. adamanteus. Ground- 
color above dull yellowish brown, with a series of subhexagonai 
patches from the head nearly to the tail, in an uninterrupted series, 
separated throughout by narrow lines. We may refer the markings 
to the intersection of two series of light yellowish lines, about 40 in 
number, crossing obliquely from each side across to the other, along 
the anterior half of as many oblique series of scales. The lateral de- 
cussation is along the sixth row of dorsal scales; on the back, where 
they cross, the lines are confluent for a breadth of five or six scales, 
making a series of transverse lines across the back, truncating the 
obtuse angles of the rhomboids, which would otherwise be produced. 
Sometimes the acute lateral angle of the rhomboids are also trun- 
cated. Laterally, the yellowish lines are more or less obsolete, leay- 
ing a more or less distinct chain pattern. The rhomboids or sub- 
rhomboids enclosed have a narrow margin of dark brown, lighter 
toward the centre. In all cases the interval between the successive 
rhomboids is but one or two half scales in width. The lateral rhom- 
boids and triangles referred to in C. adamanteus are indicated by 
two alternating series of dark brown blotches, the first along the 3d 
and 4th lateral row, opposite the apices of the rhomboids ; the second 
along the 6th and 7th, and alternating with the same; the spots 
occupy one scale, or part of four contiguous ones. Space between 
these rhomboids and the yellowish lines, dull yellowish brown. Be- 
neath nearly uniform yellowish, slightly clouded on the sides of the 
scales. On the tail the blotches are confluent into 3 or 6 dark brown 
half rings, interrupted on the under surface. General distribution 
of lines on the head much as in C. adamanteus ; a narrow light line 
from the posterior end of the superciliary backward, directly to the 


6 CROTALUS. 


angle of the mouth; a second from the anterior extremity, nearly 
parallel with the first, the two enclosing an indistinct patch, and sepa- 
rated on the labials by 4% scales. There is also a single narrow 
light line across the superciliary Dervenene to its length, obsolete 
in old specimens. 

It may readily be ‘Kainenieued from C. adamanteus by its light 
color and the truncations of the rhomboids, as well as the general 
obsoleteness of the lateral markings. The rhomboids are longer in 
proportion and more rounded. The two lateral rows of scales are 
smooth, the next two more strongly carinated than in C. adaman- 
éeus. The 5th upper labial is largest, and transverse ; the rest nearly 
uniform. ‘The stripes on the side of the head are less distinct. 

From C. confluentus, it may be distinguished by the greater com- 
parative size of the interval between the dorsal blotches, especially 
posteriorly. In C. confluentus, there are two light lines across the 
superciliary plate, dividing it into three sections, the central rather 
narrower. Here, too, the posterior facial stripe, instead of passing to 
the angle of the mouth, goes back of it on the 2d row above the 
labials, in C. atrox, passing directly to the angle of the mouth. 
Other important distinctions are seen in the narrower scales of 
C. confluentus, Ke. 


From (. lucifer, the more narrow head, fewer and larger inter- 
superciliary scales, lighter color, arrangement of color along the head, 


will at once distinguish it. 


Indianola. 187..23.-25. 33. .3$.. < Col: J. D.'Graham: 
& 183. 27. 27. 393. 44 a 
“ 177. 28.25. 36. 48 
187. 23.95. 153.1 2 

San Pedro, Texas. 177. 28.25. 36. 48. 


4. Crotalus lucifer, B. & G. Muzzle broad. Scales between the 
superciliaries numerous, small, and uniform. Plates on top of head, 4 pre- 
frontal, 4 postfrontal, or else irregular. Three rows scales between the sub- 
orbitals and labials. Labials 16 above; ist and 5th largest ;—15 below. Dor- 
sal rows 25, exterior smooth, 2d and 3d with obsolete carination. Tail, and 
posterior portion of body with 16 or 17 half rings. A succession of brown 
dorsal hexagons or octagons, separated throughout by a narrow lighter 
line. Light stripe from superciliary crosses the angle of the mouth on the 
3d and 4th row above labial. 


Syn. Crotalus lucifer, B. & G. Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Phila. VI., 1852, 177, 


CROTALUS. 7 


Head very broad anteriorly, outline little tapering. Head above 
covered with many small tuberculiform scales, showing a substelli- 
form radiation. Interval between superciliary plates filled with small 
scales, nearly uniform in size; row bordering the superciliaries very 
small. Scales in front of the superciliaries variable: in one speci- 
men there are two rows of four each, of considerable size ; in another 
they are larger than the rest, but irregular. Scales on the checks 
large, flat, smooth. 

Ground-color, light brown above. Along the back a series of 
subhexagonal or octagonal blotches, formed by a skeleton of dull 
yellowish, constituting a dorsal chain. The space thus enclosed of 
the ground-color is margined faintly with dark brown: the width 
of the interval between the successive blotches is from one-half to 
one anda half scales. These spots are frequently confluent, two and 
three running together. Where most distinct the spots are four scales 
long and eleven wide. On each side of this dorsal series is a second, 
separated by a single row of scales, the blotches extending from the 
abdominal scutelle to the 5th or 6th row. These are smaller than 
the dorsal, and subcircular. Opposite the transverse light bands, 
and in the open space between four contiguous blotches on the sides, 
smaller blotches are indistinctly visible. Posteriorly, the spots on 
the back and sides are confluent and darker; in one specimen form- 
ing 17 half rings, encircling the back, leaving about 24 dorsal 
blotches. Abdomen greenish yellow, more or less clouded with 
brown at the bases of the scales. Head dark brown; a light line 
from posterior portion of the superciliaries along the 4th row of su- 
pralabial scales back to the angle of the jaws, on the occiput, where 
it expands into the color of the under part. Upper labials of the 
same light color behind, rapidly widening anteriorly so as to include 
whole front and side of the face, leaving only the top of the head 
dark. The space about the facial pit darker. 

The theory of coloration is that of decussating lines, which, when 
they intersect, unite so as to have the angles of intersection truncated. 

The species has a general resemblance to C. atrox in the arrange- 
ment of the blotches, but is darker, and has about 17 dark half rings 
posteriorly instead of 4 or 5. In @- atrow the head is narrower and 
more triangular, the space between the superciliaries narrow, amd 
aceupied by angulated larger scales instead of small tuberculous ones. 
In ©. atrox, the row bordering the superciliaries is much larger than 
the rest, and the scales on the top of the head generally more angu- 


8 CROTALUS. 


lated. In C. lucifer, the line on the side of the head, instead of 
going directly from the posterior end of the superciliary to the com- 
missures, passes back nearly parallel to the mouth, crossing along the 
4th row of scales above the labial. The second line in front of the 
eye is much wider below in C. ducifer, and the face generally shows 
more of white, while the dark portions are much darker. 

A specimen collected in California by Dr. Leconte resembles this, 
but owing to the imperfect state of preservation, little definite can be 
ascertained. The dorsal figures are, however, more in lozenges than 
in hexagons. Color dark. Size, very large. 


Oregon. 168. 25. 25. 272.3%. (indep.) Expl. Exped. 


5. Crotains comfluemtus, Say. Head subtriangular. Plates on 
top of head squamiform, irregular, angulated, and imbricated; scales be- 
tween superciliaries small, numerous, uniform. Four rows of scales be- 
tween the suborbital series (which only extends to the centre of the 
orbit) and the labials. Labials 15 or 18, nearly uniform. Dorsal series 
87-29. Dorsal blotches quadrate, concave before and behind; intervals 
greater behind. Spots transversely quadrate posteriorly, ultimately becom- 
ing 10 or 12 half rings. Two transverse lines on superciliaries, enclosing 
about one-third. Stripe from superciliary to angle of jaws, crosses angle of 
the mouth on the second row above labial. Rostral margined with lighter. 

Syn. Crotalus confluentus, Say, in Long’s Exped. Rocky Mts. II, 1828, 48. 

C. Lecontet, Hattow. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. VI, 1851, 180. 


This species bears a considerable resemblance to C. atrox, but the 
body is more slender and compact. Scales on the top of the head 
anterior to the superciliaries nearly uniform in size. Line of scales 
across from one nostril to the other consists of six, not four as in C. 
atroxz. Superciliaries more prominent. Labial series much smaller. 
Upper anterior orbitals much smaller, as also is the anterior nasal. 
Seales on the top of the head less carinated. Scales between super- 
ciliaries smaller and more numerous, five or six in number instead of 
four. Two lateral rows of scales smooth, first, second, and third 
gradually increasing in size. Scales more linear than in C. atroz. 

General color yellowish brown with a series of subquadrate dark 
blotches, with the corners rounded and the anterior and posterior 
sides frequently concave, the exterior convex. These blotches are 
ten or eleven scales wide and four or five long, lighter in the centre, 
and margined for one-third of a scale with light yellowish. The inter- 
vals along the back light brown, darker than the margins of the 


CROTALUS. 9 


blotches. Anteriorly the interval between the dark spots is but a 
single scale; posteriorly it is more, becoming sometimes two scales, 
where also the spots are more rhomboidal or lozenge-shaped; nearer 
the tail, however, they become transversely quadrate. ‘The funda- 
mental theory of coloration might be likened to that of Crotalus 
adamanteus, viz. of forty or fifty light lines decussating each other 
from opposite sides; but the angles of decussation, instead of being 
acute, are obtuse, and truncated or rounded off throughout. Along 
the third, fourth, and fifth lateral rows of scales is a series of indis- 
tinct brown blotches covering a space of about four scales and falling 
opposite to the dorsal blotches: between these blotches, and opposite 
to the intervals of the dorsal blotches, are others less distinct. 
Along the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth rows is a second series. of 
obsolete blotches, each covering a space of about four scales, and just 
opposite the intervals between the dorsal spots. The dorsal and 
lower series are separated by an interval of three scales, this interval 
light brown. Beneath, the color is dull yellowish, and ten or twelve 
darker half rings are visible on the tail. 

In point of coloration the principal features, as compared with C. 
atrox, lie in the dorsal blotches, being disposed in subquadrate spots 
instead of subrhomboids; the intervals thus forming bands across the 
back perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. This tendency to 
assume the subquadrangular pattern has broken up the chain-work 
into isolated portions, as in Coluber eximius or Crotalophorus terge- 
minus. The intervals of the dorsal blotches are wide and darker in 
the middle, while in C. atro« they are narrow, not linear, and uni- 
color. The sides of the head present the usual light stripe from the 
posterior extremity of the superciliary ; it passes, however, to the 
angle of the jaw on the neck, along the second row of scales above 
the labials. A second stripe passes in front of the eye to the 
labials, widening there. A small light vertical bar is seen below the 
pit, and another on the outer edge of the rostral. On the supercili- 
aries are seen two light transverse lines enclosing a space nearly one- 
third of the whole surface. In C. atrox there is a single median 
line. Sometimes, as in C. atrozx, the single blotches on the nape are 
replaced by two elongated ones parallel to each other. 


Red River. 180. 27.29. 34. 4. Capt. Marcy. 
San Pedro, Texas. 181. 28.27. — —- Col. J. D. Graham, 


Bet. San Antonio 
9 9 ; 
and El Paso. ; 188. 23. 27. 27. 3. “ : 


10 CROTALUS. 


G6. Crotaius molossus, B. & G. Muzzle broad; rostral small. 
Scales between superciliaries small, uniform, except the two anterior. Two 
frontal plates, four postfrontal. Two inter superciliary, all in contact. Five 
rows scales between the labials and suborbital row.. Middle row, not ex- 
tending beyond the middle of the orbit. Labials 18 above, fifth and sixth 
largest; 17 below. Dorsal rows of scales 29. Two external rows small. .Tail 
uniform black. Color roll sulphur, a series of chestnut-brown transverse 
lozenges, with exterior corners produced to the abdomen. Centres of lozenges 
with one or two spots. Each scale but one color. A brown patch below and 
behind the eye. 


One of the most strongly marked of all the species. Head very 
broad in front; outline nearly rectangular. Rostral small. Two 
anterior frontals; behind these four plates, the exterior resting on 
the superciliary ; behind these two other plates, between and in 
contact with the superciliaries. Anterior nasal subtriangular. Top 
of head with numerous smooth subtuberculous scales. Suborbitals 
large, extending to the anterior canthus. General aspect smoother 
than in Crotali generally, scales rounded at the posterior apex, 
carinated but slightly. 

General color above that of roll sulphur, beneath pale yellowish, 
posteriorly very faintly clouded with brownish. ‘Tail black. Ante- 
riorly the scutelle are entirely immaculate. Along the back is 
a series of transverse reddish or chestnut-brown lozenges embraced 
in a width of 12 or 14 scales and 4 or 5 scales long, and with the 
exterior angles produced to the abdomen. These lozenges are 
frames with the outline generally one scale in width and with the 
centres of the ground-color; sometimes divided by a median line of 
brown, so as to show two yellowish spots inside of the lozenges. 
The scales exterior to the lozenges are rather lighter. Sometimes 
the brown rings and the lozenges widen at the abdomen and indicate 
lateral spots of four scales; at others, and especially anteriorly, the 
rings are obsolete, and the brown is in a dorsal series. In fact, for 
the anterior fourth of the body we have a dorsal patch of brown, 
showing alternately at successive intervals one large yellowish spot 
and then a pair of smaller ones, owing to the confluence of the suc- 
cessive lozenges. The superciliaries and scales anterior to them, as 
well as a broad patch below and behind the eye, light greenish 
brown. Tail uniform dark brown above, paler beneath. Only one 
button with two necks, no rattle. 

A remarkable character of this species is that each individual 


CROTALOPHORUS. 11 


scale is of the same uniform tint to its base, and not showing two 
colours as in other species. 


Fort Webster, St. Pita rs ene : 
ca oe ; 187.25. 99. 882.3. Col. J.D. Graham. 


Genus CROTALOPHORUS, Gray. 


Gren. CHar. Upper surface of the head covered with nine large 
plates, as seen in Coluber and allied genera. The tail terminates in 
a rattle, generally smaller than in Crotalus. A deep pit between 
the eye and nostril, as in Crotalus. Subcaudal scutellz entire, except 
a few at the end of the tail, which are bifid. 


Syn. Crotalophorus, Gray, Ann. Philos. 1825, 205. 


1. Crotalophorus miliarius, Horsr.—Twenty-two or twenty- 
three dorsal rows of scales, all of which are carinated, the lateral and first 
row but slightly ; a vertebral brownish red line ;. seven series of blotches, one 
dorsal and three lateral, on each side, the uppermost of which is obsolete 
and the lowest subject to irregularities. Vertical plate subcordiform, occipi- 
tal oblong and elongated. A narrow white line commences at the lowest 
point of the orbit and passes obliquely backward to the angle of the mouth. 

Sy. Crotalus miliarius, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 372.—Gm. LZ. Syst. Nat. ed. XIII, 
I, iii, 1788. 1080.—Mmurr. Vers. Syst. Amph. 1820, 156.—Hart. Jour. Acad. 
Nat. Sc. Phila. V, ii, 1827, 370. Hotsr. N. Amer. Herp. II, 1838, 73 Pl. xv. 

Caudisona miliarius, Waau. Syst. Amph. 1830, 176. 

Crotalophorus miliarius, Houpr. N. Amer. Herp. 2d. ed. IIT, 1842, 25. PI. iv. 

Vipera Caudisona americana minor. Catess. Nat. Hist. Carol. II, 1743, 42. 
Pl. xiii. 


Ground Rattlesnake. 


Ground-color dark greyish ash, minutely mottled. A series of 
thirty-eight to forty-five subcircular dorsal blotches extending from 
head to tail, dark brown, each with a narrow distinct yellowish 
border. Interval rather narrower than the spots themselves. A 
broad band of purplish red passes from head to tail, through the 
blotches. On each side may be distinguished three series of blotches, 
the first on the first and second lateral rows of scales and partly on 
the abdominal scutellze. The second alternating with this on the 
second, third, fourth, and fifth rows of scales, and opposite the dorsal 


12 CROTALOPHORUS. 


series. The third alternating with the second and the dorsal series, 
on the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth rows of scales. The latter 
series is dusky and obsolete; the others are uniform and distinctly 
black. 

The shape of the blotches is subjected to some variation according 
to individuals. Generally subcircular or slightly oblong, they become 
sometimes a transversely elongated quadrangle, three times as long as 
wide. Their shape varies according to the region of the body on 
which they are found. On the anterior third they are subquadran- 
gular, anteriorly and posteriorly emarginated ; on the middle region 
they elongate, and toward the posterior third become nearly circular. 
Backward of the anus the five or six blotches of that region extend on the 
sides, without, however, meeting on the lower surface. The blotches of 
the first lateral row are subquadrangular and a little smaller than those 
of the second and third rows; the blotches of the second row being 
transversely oblong and largest on the middle region of the body. 
Side of the head purplish brown. A narrow distinct white line from 
the lowest part of the orbit passing obliquely backward to the angle 
of the mouth. Above and continuous with that white line a deep 
chestnut-brown vitta is observed, of the same length but broader and 
lined above with a narrow dull yellowish margin. Two undulated 
dark-brown vittee extend from the vertex to the first dorsal blotch 
and confluent with it. A double crescentic blotch is observed on the 
frontal scutellee leaving a transversal fulvous band across the head 
between the orbits. The color underneath is reddish yellow, mar- 
morated with brownish black blotches and minute dots. 

The scales are elongated, carinated, and acute posteriorly. Those 
of the lateral row are slightly carinated also, but narrower than in C. 
consors, and more acute posteriorly. 


Liberty Co., Georgia. 185. 284-5. 28. 15%. 23. Dr. Jones. 
Charleston, S. C. 136. 22-211, 22.) V7E5 28. Dr. Barker. 
a 135. 30. 23. 14%. 138. at 
6 39. 814-5. 22. 154. 1. Ke 
& 136. 27. 23. T3ks Le. es 
: 132. 34. 220 TAS a. a 


2. Crotalophorus consors, B. & G.—Twenty-five rows of dor- 
sal scales, all carinated except the two first rows on either side. Seven series 
of blotches, one dorsal and three on each side, all very small. A yellowish 
white line passing from behind the nostril below and behind the eye. 


CROTALOPHORUS. 13 


Resembles C. miliarius in its general appearance, but without the 
vertebral brownish red line. The ground color is olivaceous brown, 
the blotches of a deeper brown, encircled with a black fillet margined 
with a whitish yellow line. There are about fifty blotches in the 
dorsal series emarginated anteriorly only, thirty of which are trans- 
versely elongated, very irregular; the twenty remaining ones nearly 
circular, with regular outlines. The blotches of the lateral rows are 
comparatively small and of nearly equal size, though sometimes one of 
either row may appear much the largest. The blotches of the first 
lateral series are opposite to those of the dorsal and affect the Ist, 
2d, and 3d rows of scales and the extremities of the abdominal scu- 
tellee. The blotches of the second series alternate with these, extend- 
ing on the 3d, 4th, and 5th rows of scales. The blotches of the third 
series are obsolete and alternate with those of the second series, and are 
generally opposite to those of the dorsal series situated in the 5th, 
6th, and 7th rows. The upper surface of the head is brown; there 
are two vittee extending from the vertex along the neck to the first 
dorsal blotch. A broader and deep chestnut-brown band extends from 
the eye to the neck. The frontal region is deeper brown than the 
vertex. A yellowish white line starts from the nostrils near the upper 
surface of the head, extending backward in passing between the eye 
and the pit to the angle of the mouth. A vertical whitish bar extends 
from each side of the pit to the labial. The belly is yellowish white 
marbled with black transversely oblong patches. The vertical plate 
is cordiform; the anterior frontal plates proportionally small; the 
occipital rather broad. The scales of the body are elongated, a 
little smaller than in C. mi/iarius, but not quite so acute posteriorly. 
The two lateral and smooth rows are much broader than the rest 
and conspicuous: most of the scales of these two rows are black, with 
the posterior edge straw colored, giving the appearance of a succession 
of distinct crescents. The tail is conical and tapering; the rattle 
composed of one ring besides the terminal one. 


Indianola. 147. 33. 25. 184. 24. Col. J. D. Graham 


14 CROTALOPHORUS. 


3. Crotalophorus tergeminus, Horsr.—Twenty-five rows of 
dorsal scales, strongly carinated, with the exception of the first row, which 
is perfectly smooth. Vertical plate subhexagonal, pointed posteriorly. 
Seven longitudinal series of blotches. A narrow band of yellowish white 
extends from the pit to the neck in passing close to the angle of the mouth. 


Syn. Crotalus tergeminus, Say, Long’s Exp. Rocky Mts. I, 1823, 499.— 
Hart. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. v. iii, 1827, 872. 

Crotalophorus tergeminus, House. N. Amer. Herp. IIL., 1842, 29. Pl. v. 

Crotalophorus,- (57.30.30 Ae@ass. Lake Sup. 1850, 381. Pl. vi. fig. 6-8. 

Prairie Rattlesnake, Massasauga. 


The ground color above is brown; the blotches are deep chestnut- 
brown blackish externally, and with a yellowish white margin. The 
dorsal blotches are thirty-four in number from the head to the region 
opposite the anus, twenty-six of which are transversely and irregu- 
larly oblong, anteriorly and posteriorly emarginated—less so, however, 
posteriorly ; eight are subcircular. Five or six exist on the tail from 
the anus to its tip, extending on the sides, the last two forming 
sometimes a complete ring. The next series on either side is com- 
posed of small blotches, but as intensely colored as in the other 
series. They alternate with the dorsal ones. They have no regu- 
larity either in outline or position. The second lateral row is com- 
posed of the largest lateral blotches. They are transversely oblong 
or oval on the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth rows of scales, and 
opposite the blotches of the dorsal series; consequently alternating 
with the third series above. The first lateral series again is com- 
posed of blotches intermediate in size between those of the third 
and second series; they occupy the first and second rows of scales, 
and extend somewhat to the abdominal scutelle, and alternating 
with the adjoining sefies. Two undulated vitte extend from the 
supraorbital plates along the neck to the first dorsal blotch, and 
often confluent with the latter. A linear vitta margined with 
yellowish white extends from the posterior edge of the eye to the 
sides of the neck; the inferior yellow margin is the broadest, and 
passes from the pit close to the angle of the mouth, turning forward 
to the middle of the lower jaw, enclosing a semi-elliptical browz. 
patch. Two elongated yellowish spots may be observed diverging 
from both sides of the pit to the lip. The cephalic plates are deep 
chestnut brown; a transverse light brown band extends across the 
head from one orbit to the other. 


CROTALOPHORUS. 4% 


The color underneath is blackish brown intermingled with yellowish. 
Racine, Wisc. 150. 21.11.25. 293. 23. Dr. Hoy. 
Grosse Isle, Mich. 186. 81. 29... 19%. 2%. |? Rev. ‘Chas. Hox. 
Warren Co., Ohio. 141.29. 25. 2, Dr. J. P. Kirtland. 


on 


anloo 
Oo } 


9 
Og. 


i) 


4. Crotalophorus Edwardsii, B. & G.—Twenty-three rows of 
dorsal scales ; first and second lateral row smooth. Vertical plate subpen- 
tagonal, tapering posteriorly. Lateral rows of blotches proportionally very 
small. 


The ground-color is yellowish brown with three lateral series of 
deep chestnut-brown blotches. Two elongated brown blotches ex- 
tend from the supercilliaries backward. A narrow band of chestnut 
brown, from the posterior frontal plates, passes over the eyes to the 
neck, under which a yellowish stripe extends from the nostril to the 
angle of the mouth. The snout and upper jaw are brown with two 
yellow fillets diverging from the pit. The lower jaw and chin are 
mottled with brown and yellow. There are about forty-two dorsal 
brown and irregular blotches margined with deep black and encircled 
with a yellow fillet, from the head to. the tip of the tail—the 34th — 
opposite the anus—the last three passing to the sides of the tail 
but do not meet below. Subcircular on the posterior half of the 
body, the blotches on the anterior half are longer transversely than 
longitudinally ; emarginated anteriorly only. 

The blotches of the two lateral series are proportionally small. 
The blotches of the upper series are more or less obsolete and alter- 
nate with the dorsal ones. ‘Those of the second lateral series are the 
smallest and alternate also, being of as deep a color as the dorsal 
ones, but do not extend beyond the anus, occupying the second, third, 
and fourth rows of scales. The first and lower series affect the first 
and second rows, and only one scale. The belly is of a light straw 
color, dotted and sprinkled irregularly with brown. 

Scales elliptical, subtruncated posteriorly, constituting twenty-three 
rows, strongly carinated, except the two lateral rows, which are 
smooth. 

Head, when seen from above, subelliptical ; vertical plate propor- 
tionally more elongated than in C. tergeminus. 


Tamaulipas. — - 143. 28.13.23. 174.24. Dr. Edwards. 
S. Bank of Rio Grande. 153. 24. 23. 11. 12. Gen. Churchill. 
Sonora. 145, 26. 23. 84. 14. Col.J.D.Graham. 


16 CROTALOPHORUS. 


5. Crotalophorus Kirtlandii, Horsr.—Twenty-five rows of dor- 
sal scales, sometimes only twenty-four, all strongly carinated except those 
of the first lateral row. Vertical plate rather short and broad. Color in 
the adult almost uniformly black, with a vertebral series of dusky brown 
blotches, sometimes very obsolete. Underneath bluish slate, with the pos- 
terior margin of the scutelle yellowish. 


Syn. Crotalophorus Kirtlandit, Hotpr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 31, 
Pl. vi. 
Black Massasauga. 


The scales of the lateral row are as broad or high as long. Those 
of the second row are but slightly carimated, and distinguished from 
the next rows above in being broader and regularly elliptical poste- 
riorly. The carinated scales are elongated, and the narrowest as they 
approximate the dorsal region. ‘They are posteriorly rounded or 
subacute. 

In the young, eight inches and a half long, the ground-color is 
brown, with a dorsal series of deep brown spots transversely oblong, 
emarginated anteriorly and pdsteriorly, almost quadrangular on the 
posterior region of the body and tail; and thirty-four in number from 
head to tail. There are three lateral series of blotches on each side ; 
the upper one composed of small and obsolete blotches, alternating 
with the dorsal ones; the second row is composed of vertically oblong 
blotches, larger than those of the upper, and a little smaller than 
those of the lower series. The latter extend partly on the abdominal 
seutellee, as in C. tergeminus and other allied species. Six or seven 
rings to the rattle. 


Warren Co., Ohio. 140.21-4+5.24. 233. 23. Dr. J.P. Kirtland. 
“ 144, 1945.28. 248. 25. « 
« 142.17-48.25. 25. 23 « 
«“ 143.159.2925. 83. #. «“ 


AGKISTRODON. 17 


Genus AG KISTRODON, BeEavy. 


GEN. Cuar. <A deep pit between nostril and the eye. Nine 
plates on top of head. Without rattle. Poison fangs as in Crotalus. 
One pair of occipitals. A loral between the nasal and anterior orbit- 
als. Labials excluded from the orbit by the presence of suborbital 
plates. Scales carinated; rows 25 in number. Subcaudal scutelle 
divided posteriorly. Sometimes a small plate between the vertical 
and postfrontals. Habits terrestrial. 


Syn. Agkistrodon, Pau. pe Beauv. Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. Philad. IV, 
1799, 381. 


1. Aghistrodon contortrix, B. & G.—Loral present. Labials 
not entering into the orbit. Dorsal rows of scales 23. Color light chestnut, 
with inverted Y-shaped darker blotches on the sides. Labials yellowish 
white. 

Syy. Boa contortrix, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 273.—Gm. Z. Syst. Nat. ed. xiii, 
I, iii, 1788, 1082. 

Agkistrodon mokason, Bracv. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc. Philad. IV, 
1799, 380. ‘ 

Scytalus cupreus, Ravin. Amer. Journ. Se. I., 85.—Haru. Med. & Phys. 
Res. 1835, 130. 

Trigonocephalus cenchris, Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. desc., 1837, 553. 
Pl. xx, fig. 10 and 11. 

Trigonocephalus contortriz, Houser. N. Amer. Herp. I, 1838, 69 Pl. xiv, Me 
2d ed. III, 1842, 39. PI. viii. 

Copperhead. . 


More slender than Zoxicophis pisciovorus. Plates on neck and side 
smaller. Two anterior orbitals, one above the other, the lower nar- 
rower, and forming the posterior wall of the pit. A distinct loral 
between these and the posterior nasal. Labial not forming part of 
the orbit, but separated by the four post and suborbitals. Labials 
not so largely developed; 8 above, 3d and 4th largest; 9 below. 

Above light hazel brown, rather brighter on the top of the head, 
and everywhere minutely mottled with very fine dark points. On 
each side is a series of 15-26 darker chestnut-colored blotches resting 
on the abdominal scutellee, and suddenly contracting about the mid- 
dle of the side, so as somewhat i: resemble an inverted Y. These 


18 AGKISTRODON. 


-blotches extend to the vertebral line, where they may be truncated 
or end in a rounded apex. Generally those of opposite sides alter- 
nate with each other, but frequently they are confluent above, form- 
ing continuous bands. ‘They are so disposed, that the intervals 
between the successive blotches are pretty much of the same shape 
and size, though inverted. The centres of the blotches are lighter ; 
in some cases so much so as greatly to increase the Y-shaped resem- 
blance. Color beneath dull yellowish, with a series of distinct large 
dark blotches, 835-45 in number, on each side. Chin and throat un- 
spotted. Sides of head cream color; the line of demarcation very 
distinct; this passes along the upper edge of the head, in front of the 
eye, and involving the lower three-fourths of the orbit, intersects the 
middle of the 2d postorbital plate, (counting from above,) and ex- 
tends along the 1st row above the labials, to the posterior edge of the 
last labial; the line then comes back through the middle of the lower 
labial range, where it is marked by a narrow black line. Rostral of 
the same color. A small areolated dark spot near the inner edge of 
each occipital plate. 


Cleveland. 153. 4010.23. 27%. 38. Dr. Kirtland. 
3 152.42+-10. 28. 29. 42. A 
Foxburg, Pa. 152. 3218.23. 26%. 32. 8. F. Baird. 
me 152.32+18.238. 3823. 43. ee 
& 150. 48. QS. eit 4. eho ée 

Carlisle, Pa. 154. 42. 23.. (225.26. 

- 154. 48. 23. 283.44. 
Charleston. 150. 40-+8. 23. 242. 33. C. Girard. 
Prairie Mer Rouge, La. 153.40+8. 25. 203.2%. Jas. Fairie. 

o ue 150.30+18. 23. 20.3. e 


Slotches larger and fewer, about 15 in number, and running more 
upon the abdomen. Vertical plate larger and more acute posteriorly. 


Bet. Indianola & 150. 23. Col. Graham. 


San Antonio. 


Sabinal. 150. 3814-17. 28. 114. 13. s 


TOXICOPHIS. 19 


Genus TOXECOP HIS, Troost. 


Gen. Cuar. Norattle. Pit and fangs asin Agkistrodon. Eleven 
plates on top of head. No loral plate between nasal and anterior 
orbital. A second and smaller pair of occipital plates contiguous to 
the first. Labial entering into the orbit. Scales very conspicuously 
carinated, forming 25 longitudinal rows. Subcaudal scutelle divided 


posteriorly. Habits aquatic. 


Syn. Toxicophis, Troost, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. York, IL, 
1833, 190. 


Lk. Toxicophis piscivorus, B. & G.—No loral. Inferior wall of 
orbit constituted by 38d labial: 25 dorsal rows. Dark chestnut brown, with 
indistinct vertical dark bars. Line from superciliary along the edge of the 
head, through the middle of the second supra labial row. <A second line 
from the lowest point of the orbit parallel to the first. 


Syn. Trigonocephalus piscivorus, Housr. N. Amer. Herp. I, 1838, 63. 
Pl. xiii. and 2d ed. III, 1842, 33. Pl. vii. 
Water moccasin. 


Scales all large and well developed; those on the sides and back 
of head conspicuously so. Two nasal plates with the nostril between 
them. Anterior orbitals two, one above the other; the upper ex- 
tending from the eye to the posterior nasal, the lower linear, and 
forming the upper wall of the pit. Lower and posterior wall of pit 
constituted by a narrow plate resting along the 8d labial, and termi- 
nating on the 2d. Third labial very large, constituting the inferior 
wall of the orbit, of which three scales form the posterior. Upper 
labials 8, very large and broad: lower 10. Occipitals terminated 
each by a triangular plate. All the scales on the back of the head 
earinated. Dorsal scales all carinated. 

General color dark chestnut-brown, with darker markings. Head 
above purplish black. An obsolete chestnut-brown streak passes 
from the posterior end of the superciliary along the upper edge of 
the head, through the middlé of the 2d row of supralabial scales. 
A narrow yellowish white line passes from the dd labial, or begins 
just below the lowest part of the orbit, and passing backward, paral- 


20 TOXICOPHIS. 


lel with the first stripe, crosses the angle of the mouth at the 7th 
labial, and meets the first stripe on the side of the neck, where it is 
confluent with the yellowish white of the throat. On the lower 
labial are three short, nearly vertical light bars, on the 4th, 6th, 
and 7th; the rest of the jaw itself, as well as the interval between 
the stripes on the sides of the head, dark purplish brown, of which 
color is also the space in front and below the eyes. General color 
above dull dark chestnut-brown. On each side a series of 20 or 50 
narrow vertical purplish black bars, one or two scales wide. Of 
these, sometimes two contiguous to each other on the same side are 
united above into an arch, enclosing a space, the centre of which is 
rather duskier than the ground-color; at others, corresponding bars 
from the opposite sides unite and form half rings, encircling the body. 
Sometimes there is a lighter shade bordering the dark bars. Be- 
neath black, blotched with yellowish white. 


Prairie Mer Rouge. 140. 24+ 21.25. 223. 54. Jas. Fairie. 


2. Toxicophis pugnax, B. & G.—No loral plate. Second labial 
displaced; 25 dorsal rows. Above olive-brown, with narrow transverse 
dark zigzag bars. Cheeks uniform light colored. 


General structure of the plates as in 7. piscivorus. No loral. 
Second labial pressed out of place, and with its apex alone on the 
edge of the mouth. Scales of head smaller than in 7. piscivorus. 
Outline different. Lower edge of orbit bordered by parts of two 
labials. 

General color above light olive-brown; beneath yellowish, with a 
series of indistinct square brown blotches on each side; chin and throat 
unspotted. Tail entirely black. A series of transverse dark brown 
zigzag lines are seen crossing the back, involving the entire surface 
of single scales; these lines are broken up more or less, so as to 
render the definition of pattern very difficult. Sometimes the band 
will be indicated merely by a few dark scales on the middle of the 
back; at others it may be traced to the blotches on the abdomen. 
Of these blotches there are about 50 from head to anus. The inter- 
vals between the bands are much larger than the bands themselves, 
being from 5 to 6 scales in length. No indication of a dark patch 
behind the eye, but the cheeks appeaf yellowish brown, brighter on 
the labials. 


Indianola, Tex. 145. 21-+ 21.25. 364! 5%. Col. J. D: Graham. 


ELAPS. | =e 


Genus ELAPS, Scan. 


GeN. CHAR. Body slender and cylindrical, never exceeding three 
or four feet in length. Head somewhat depressed, in most cases 
continuous with the body; subelliptical in shape, tapering forwards, 
covered above with plates, generally nine in number. No pit be-. 
tween the eyes and the nostrils. Mouth moderately cleft, not di- 
latable as in the other serpents. Upper jaw furnished on each side 
with a small permanently erect fang, situated more posterior than in 
Crotalide. The tail is continuous with the body, conical, and taper- 
ing towards the tip. Scales smooth; subcaudal scutelle entirely 
bifid. 


Syn. laps, Scun. Hist. Amph. Nat. & Lit. 1801, 289. 


i. Elaps fulvius, Cuv.—Head oval, posteriorly broader than the 
neck. Body red, annulated with black rings margined with yellow. Verti- 
cal plate pentagonal, rounded anteriorly ; its posterior tapering part in- 
cluded between the occipitals. 


Syy. Coluber fulvius, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 381.—Gm. Linn. Syst. 
Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1104. 

Vipera fulvia, Hart. Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. V, 1827, 364. 

Flaps fulvius, Cuv. Regn. Anim. II, 1817.—Firz. N. Class. Rept. 1826, 61. 
—Hotsr. N. Amer. Herp. II, 1838, 87. Pl. xviii; and 2d ed. III, 1842, 49. 
Plex. 

Harlequin Snake. 


The red may be considered as the ground-color of the body, though 
the black rings occupy nearly as much space above as the red, so as 
to give the general appearance of a succession of red and black rings. 
The yellow is intermediate. The anterior part of the head from the 
posterior point of the vertical plate, embracing the orbits, is black, as 
is also the tip of the lower jaw. A yellow ring passes across the ov- 
cipital region down to the inferior surface of the head, embracing the 
space between the posterior rim of the eye and the angle of the mouth. 
Then comes a black ring, covering eight dorsal scales, margined pos- 
teriorly with yellow. From this region to the origin of the tail, the 
black and red rings from 14 to 19 in number each, alternate, being 


22 ELAPS. 


separated from each other by a narrow band of yellow. The black 
rings cover seven entire scales, and two halves; the intermediate red 
space, five entire scales and two halves; and the yellow either one 
and two half-scales or two halves only. Some red spaces may oc- 
casionally cover nine and ten scales. The tail is alternatively black 
and yellow; the first caudal ring is black, and embraces ten scales ; 
the second is yellow, and covers three scales. Two black and two 
yellow succeed and cover the same ground. The tip of the tail is 
black on five scales. The tip may be either black or yellow, for, 
according to the size, there are either three or four black rings. 
Underneath the colors are the same, but dull; occasionally one or 
more black rings may not surround the body. The reddish spaces . 
are irregularly blotched with deep black, as also sometimes on the 
upper surface. 


Charleston, S. C. 207. 30. 15. 28%. 33. C. Girard. 
Ks 205. 39. 15. 22%. 2%. Dr. 8. B. Barker. 
e DOQE Ns Lox, “Wl hden lee a 


2, Elaps tenere, B. & G.—Head narrow, elongated, continuous with 
the neck and body. Body fawn-colored, annulated with black and yellow. 
Vertical and occipital plates narrow and elongated. 


The ground-color is of a light fawn, dotted with black, annulated — 
with black rings about one-third narrower than the fawn, and with 
yellow rings about the half of the width of the black ones. The an- 
terior portion of the head is black, from the posterior rim of the eye 
across the middle of the vertical plate to the mouth, scarcely affecting 
the tip of the lower jaw. A yellow ring embraces the occipital 
region from the eyes to the angles of the mouth. There are thirteen 
black rings from the head to the origin of the tail, and twice as many 
yellow ones, the fawn-colored rings being equal in number to the 
black ones. The first black ring covers eight scales. The succeed- 
ing ones cover only six, and occasionally the half of the next scale. 
The yellow rings embrace two entire scales and two halves. The 
fawn-color intermediate covers nine or ten scales, the last but one 
only seven or eight, and the last five or six. On the tail the fawn is 
absent, and two black and two yellow rings alternating cover the 
whole space. The first of the caudal rings is black, and embraces ten 
and two half-scales; the yellow coming next, covers four scales; the 
second black one twelve and two half-scales; the second yellow also 


ELAPS. 23 


fi * 


four scales; the extreme tip of tail is black. Underneath, the color- 
ation is the same, with less brilliancy ; the fawn-colored rings are 
maculated with black blotches. 

The proportional difference in width between the colored rings con- 
stitutes a great difference between this species and L. fulvius. It is 
a much more slender snake, provided with a more slender head, which 
imparts to the cephalic plates a more elongated shape, especially to 
the vertical and occipitals. The eyes also are much smaller. 


Oe aed at 237-12. 26.15. 173.18. Col. J. D. Graham. 
New Braunfels, Tec. 2304-1. 29.15. 26. 2. F. Lindheimer. 
« 2941-1.38.15. 22. 24. « 


3. Elaps tristis, B. & G.—Head broad behind, pointed forwards. 
Vertical plate subpentagonal, equilateral, with its posterior triangular part 
short and obtuse. Eyes proportionally small. 


The affinities of this species are intermediate between L. fulvius 
and L. tenere. It has the red-colored ground, annulated with black 
rings, fourteen in number, and covering five or six scales above, oc- 
casionally seven, and only three or four when reaching the outer or 
lateral rows: thus these rings diminish towards the abdomen. The 
yellow rings on the other hand have the same width as in 2. fulvius, 
embracing one entire row of scales and two halves. The intermedi- 
ate red spaces affect six or seven scales, dotted all over with deep 
black, as in the two preceding species. The tail has four black and 
three yellow rings, the tip being yellow. The first three black ones 
embrace nine and eight scales, the fourth only six. The intermedi- 
ate yellow cover three or four scales. 

The shape and structure of the head, as given above, are the pro- 
minent distinguishing characters. 


Kemper Co., Miss. 203. 41.15. 178. 24. D. C. Lloyd. 
Sane ee ; 209. 40. 15. 10%. 1h. Gen. Churchill. 


San Antonio. 


94 EUTAINIA. 


Genus EU TAINIA, BATED & GIRAR. 


Grn. Cuar. Body moderately stout in some species, slenderer in 
others. Scales carinated. Skin very extensible. Cephalic plates 
normal. Anterior orbitals 1; posterior 8. Abdominal scutellee all 
entire; subcaudal divided. Dorsal rows of scales 19-21. Abdomi- 
nal scutelle, 140-170. Subcaudal, 50-120. General color, three 
light stripes on a darker ground, intervals with alternating or tesse- 
lated spots. Abdomen without square blotches. Mostly terrestrial. 


Many of the species ovo-viviparous. 


A. Body very slender, elongated. Tail very long. Lateral stripe 


on the third and fourth rows of scales. Dorsal rows 19. 


1. Eutainia saurita, B. & G.—Very slender. Color above light 
chocolate. Three stripes of uniform yellow. Below the lateral stripes, light 
brown. Abdomen greenish white. Onan average the length of tail is more 
than one-third the total length. 


Syn. Coluber saurita, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 385.—Gm. Linn. Syst. 
Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1109.—Hart. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 
1827, 352.—Srorer, Rep. Rept. Mass. 1839, 229.—Tuomps. Hist. of Verm. 
1842, 115. 

Leptophis sauritus, House. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 21. Pl. iv.—Dexay, 
New York Fauna, 1842, 47. PI. xi, fig. 24. 

Riband Snake; Swift Garter Snake. 


A broad vertebral line of sulphur-yellow, occupying one and two 
half-rows of scales, the line margined for half a scale on each side 
with black. A lateral stripe on each side along the 3d and 4th rows 
of lateral scales; the scales in the exterior edges of this stripe occa- 
sionally speckled or margined with black. Skin between the scales 
black, with numerous small yellow lines, half a scale long, seen only 
in dilating the skin. In some specimens the black shows as a series 
of lateral spots. The usual double spot on the line of union of the 
occipitals. Orbital plates yellowish white, as are the lower part and 
sides of the head and throat. 


EUTAINIA. 95 


-_ 


In one specimen from Westport, N. Y., there is a well-defined 
black line under the lateral stripe. 


Carlisle. P56? TLSS19) Sd." WR S. F. Baird. 
- 1572 148. 19,>° 263.9: 6“ 
Washington. LOT. LS) 19S) 325° 9: “ 
Westport, N. Y. Ee RS se « 
Lancaster, Mass. —- -—- - —- — “ 
Virginia. —- -—- - _— C. Sanford. 


2. Eutainia Faireyi, B. & G.—Body above blackish brown, with 
three longitudinal stripes of uniform tint. Abdomen greenish white. 
Stouter than Z#. saurita. Head large. Tail rather less than one-third total 
length. 


Syn. Tropidonotus saurita? Scutrc. Ess. Physiogn. Serp. Part. diser. 
1887, 321. 


A dorsal stripe one and two half-scales wide, and one lateral on 
each side on the 3d and 4th row, of the same color, (greenish yellow.) 
Scales broader and more rounded than in Z. saurita; head stouter, 
color different. Differs from /. prowima, in having all the longitu- 
dinal stripes of the same color; from LZ. saurita in a stouter body, and 
in having the color below the lateral stripe the same as that above. 
Body slender, but stouter than in 2. sawrita. The tail is propor- 
tionally shorter than in /. saurita, but longer than in 7. proxima. 


Prairie Mer Rouge, La. 178.115.19. 803.10. Jas. Fairie. 
66 “ 074.:134.419, 264: 8. c 
sc 6 1682249) 293° — 6“ 


3. Eutainia proxima, B. & G.—Body stoutest of the division. 
Black above; three longitudinal stripes, the dorsal ochraceous yellow or 
brown, lateral greenish white or yellow. Total length about three and a 
half times that of the tail. 


Syn. Coluber proximus, Say in Long’s Exped. to Rock. Mts. I, 1823, 187. 
—Hart. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 353. 


Deep brown almost black above and on the sides; beneath green- 
ish white. Dorsal stripe on one and two half-rows of scales, ochra- 
ceous yellow, lateral stripe on the 3d and 4th rows of scales, greenish 
yellow or white, markedly different in tint from the dorsal. Sides 


26 EUTAINIA. 


of abdominal scutellw, and Ist and 2d dorsal series of the same color 
as the back. On stretching the skin, numerous short white lines are 
visible. Occipital plates with two small approximated spots on the 
line of junction. Orbitals whitish. The greenish white of the ab- 
domen becomes more yellow anteriorly. 

In some specimens from along the Rio Grande the dorsal stripe is 
ochraceous brown. 

Head more like that of 2. saurita than of FE. Faireyi, while the 
body is stouter than in either. The subcaudal scales are less nume- 
rous than in the other two allied species. Resembling 2. Faireyi in 
color, it is always distinguishable by the stouter body, fewer caudal 
scales, and dissimilarity of color in the longitudinal stripes. 


Red Tier 170. 100.19. 33. 9. ee . 
McClellan. 
New Braunfels, Texas. 171. 100.19. 25%. 72. F. Lindheimer. 
Near Indianola. 170:'105. 19. 15%. 4% Col. Graham. 
& &“ 178. 108019.3 19. 52 oe 
San Pedro, Texas. 169. 105.19. D42- 4. te 
Sabinal, New Mex. - -—- -—- — — “ 


Medina, New Mex. —_ — ——— “ 


B. Body stouter. Tail shorter. Lateral stripe on the 2d and 3d 
row of scales. 


1. Dorsal rows 19. 


A, Eutainia infernalis, B. & G.—Most slender of all the species 
of the section. Head and eye large. Above black: a series of about 110 
triangular reddish yellow spots, confluent with the indistinct lateral stripe, 
itself confluent with the greenish white sides and abdomen. 


Syn. Coluber infernalis, Buainv. Nouv. Ann. Mus. @Hist. Nat. III, 1834, 
59. Pl. xxvi, fig. 3 & 3a. 


Aspect colubrine, as indicated by Blainville. A vertebral line of 
yellowish white, cémposed of one and two half-rows of scales, on 
each side of which is a blackish stripe, not encroaching upon the 
light colored stripe along the 2d and 384d lateral rows of scales. 
Above the latter the black is interrupted by about 110 subtriangu- 
lar spots of reddish yellow or reddish white. Abdomen and exterior 
row of dorsal scales are greenish white, tinged posteriorly with slate. 
A minute black spot, more or less covered by the incumbent scutellz 


i 


a - 


EUTAINIA. o7 


on each side of each abdominal scale, near the extremity. No occipi- 
tal spot. 

The exterior row of dorsal scales is carinated, and larger than the 
rest, which are about equal. ‘The scales of the slender tail are like- 
wise carinated. ¥ 

A specimen collected on Sacramento River by the Exploring Ex- 
pedition is smaller, but very similar. As usual in small specimens, 
the black is in the form of isolated spots, confluent above, with an 
olivaceous brown ground. 


California. 163. 83.19. 253. 63. Dr. Wm. Gambel. 
Sacramento River. 170. — 19. 13%. 3%. (ondep.) Expl. Exped. 


5. Eutainia Pickeringii, B. & G.—Body slender. Black above, 
slate-color beneath. Lateral stripe irregular, confluent with the light-colored 
intervals between the dark spots. 


This species exhibits great variations in color, principally in re- 
gard to the amount of black on the abdomen and the extent of the 
stripes. The most strongly marked specimen is of an intense black, 
tinged with bluish below. There is a very narrow greenish white 
vertebral line, beginning at the nape, where it occupies one and two 
half-scales, and gradually narrows to the carina of the middle dorsal 
row, becoming obsolete at the anus. The carine of the 2d and 3d 
rows of exterior dorsal scales show the faint line of greenish white, 
only perceptible on close observation. The lores, labials, cheeks, 
and head beneath, greenish white, gradually shading into the blue- 
black of the abdomen at or about the anterior fifth. 


Puget Sound, Or. 158. 75.19. 264.63. (ondep.) Expl. Exped. 


In another specimen, with the general color very dark, the verte- 
bral line occupies one and two half-scales throughout. The black on 
each side appears formed by the confluence above of about 76 spots 
from head to anus, each spot from 1} to 2 scales. long. In other 
words, there is a stripe of black 54 scales wide on each side of the 
vertebral line, confluent with which is a series of black spots on each 
side, as indicated. The lateral stripe is on the 2d lateral row of 
scales, of a greenish white color, and confluent with the intervals of 
the spots also of the same color. ‘The stripe is not well defined, but 
swells and narrows like a knotted cord. Exterior row of dorsal 


98 _ EUTAINIA. 


scales and sides of abdomen deep blue-black, becoming greenish to- 
ward the middle of the abdomen; anteriorly the color shows more 
white. 

Puget Sound, Or. 170. 86.19. 18.43. (on dep.) Expl. Exped. 


In other specimens the lateral lines are better defined, though al- 
ways more irregular than usual. Sometimes the color above is more 
brown than described ; inferiorly, however, there is always a slate- 
blue tint, especially behind. 

Puget Sound, Or. 166.87.19. 214. 53. (on dep.) Expl. Exped. 

Af of LOLS 75519. 226. 255: a «6 


In this species the inequality between the exterior dorsal row of 
scales and the rest is inconspicuous. The former is rather the larger, 
and little or not at all carinated. The second row is about the same 
size as the rest. The eyes are larger, and the head shorter than in 
LE. leptocephala, from the same locality. 

Collected by the United States Exploring Expedition, and dedi- 
cated to the discoverer, Dr. Charles Pickering. 


6. Eutainia parietalis, B. x G.—Above olive-brown: beneath 
slate-color. Longitudinal stripes greenish. Spaces about and between the 
dark spots on the sides, brick red, these colors belonging to the skin, not to 
the scales. 


Syy. Coluber parietalis, Say, in Long’s Exped. to Rock. Mts. I, 1823, 186. 
—Hart. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 349. 


Body apparently more slender than ZL. sirtal’s. In many respects 
resembling L. Pickeringtii. The only specimen being a stretched skin 
preserved in alcohol, the colors are somewhat difficult of definition. 
Above dark olive, beneath light slate-color, except the inferior sur- 
face of the head, which is yellowish white. A broad longitudinal 
dorsal line of one and two half-rows of scales, and an equally dis- 
tinct one on each side on the second and third dorsal rows, of a 
greenish slate. The sides of the abdomen and the exterior dorsal 
row are dark slate-brown. When the skin is stretched, there are 
seen on each side, between the dorsal and lateral rows, two rows of 
quadrate black blotches, the first quite distinct, between the third and 
sixth rows ; the second between the sixth and vertebral line, the spots 


EUTAINIA. 99 


more or less confluent above with each other, and with those on the 
opposite side; the blotches about one scale apart. The intervals 
between the blotches of a vivid brick-red, which color, as well as the 
black, is sometimes seen on the bases of the adjoining scales. None 
of the short white lines of £. sirtalis are visible. More or less of 
white on the inferior surface of the tail. 

The color when living, as described by Say, is black-brown above, 
beneath bluish green, head beneath white. A vertebral greenish 
yellow line, and a lateral pale yellow one: about eighty concealed 
red spots or semifascize on the skin and lateral margin of the scales. 


Betw. San Antonio &§ El Paso. 157. 78. 19. 36. 8%. Col. Graham. 


4%. Eutainia leptocephalia, B. & G.—Scales on the greater 
portion of tail scarcely carinated. The two exterior dorsal rows on each 
side unequal, but conspicuously larger than the rest; outer one not cari- 
nated. Head slender, plane above. Orbitals 8 posterior; 2 anterior. Above 
light olive-brown, with distinct small brown spots, 130 in a series from 
head to anus. 


Exterior row of dorsal scales broader than usual, not carinated ; 
second smaller, but also broader than usual, and faintly carinated. 
Top of head nearly plane from occiput to anterior frontals. Head 
narrow and depressed. Eyes small. Labials narrow. Scales on 
sides of anus not conspicuously smaller. 

Color dull light olive-brown or light chocolate, beneath pale green- 
ish slate: when the epidermis is removed, the subjacent skin of the 
abdomen is seen minutely punctured and clouded with black, so as to 
impart this latter color to the whole, except near the edge. <A ver- 
tebral dull yellowish line on a single row of scales which appears 
more prominent than the rest. On each side of this vertebral line 
are two series of subquadrate black spots, about 130 from head to 
anus, on about every other scale, or eyen closer, and showing very 
conspicuously on the clear ground-color. Bases of: all the scales on 
the sides of the body are more or less black, occasionally showing 
beyond the incumbent edges. Little or no indication of a lateral 
stripe. The lower series of black spots is continued in a faint line 
along the side of the head to the orbit. In one specimen the color- 
ation is less defined, showing a greenish white color above, with tessel- 
Jated small spots of black. 


30 EUTAINIA. 


Puget Sound, Or. 146. 59. 19. 


ak 
o> 
Go 

oa 


. (on dep.) Expl. Exped. 


16 
“ 6 149. 66.19. 233. 5. € “é 
ce “ec 144. 63. 17; 17#.-48. 6 « 
“ “ 148. — 19. 20. 4. 6 “ 


§. Eutainia sirtalis, B. & G.—Body among the stoutest of their 
form. Olivaceous brown above the lateral stripes, sometimes nearly black, 
beneath them greenish white ; dorsal stripe narrow, encroached upon by the 
spot; lateral stripes not conspicuous; two or three rows of small indistinct 
spots, often not perceptible, especially the lower: about 70 from head to 
anus. 


Syn. Coluber sirtalis, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 883.—Gm. Linn. Syst. Nat. 
ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1107.—Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 
352.—StorerR Rep. Rept. Mass. 1839, 221. 

Tropidonotus bipunctatus, Scuu. Ess. Physiogn. Serp. Part. descr. 1837, 320. 

Tropidonotus sirtalis, Houser. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 41. Pl. xi. 

Tropidonotus tenia, Dexay, New Y. Fauna, Rept. 1842, 43. Pl. xiii, fig. 27. 

Striped Snake. Garter Snake. 


Color above the lateral stripes dark olive, in old specimens dark 
brown, beneath greenish white. A narrow, rather indistinct verte- 
bral greenish yellow line. Three series of small indistinct spots on 
each side, of about 70 from head to anus. The first series is along 
the exterior dorsal row, the spots about two scales apart. This is 
sometimes entirely wanting. The second series is on the 3d, 4th, 
and 5th-rows from the abdomen; the third upon the 8th and 9th. 
In many cases the last-mentioned rows have the spots on opposite 
sides more or less confluent, giving the appearance of a single median 
series. These rows of spots are sometimes of a dark chestnut-brown, 
at others nearly black, and often so blended with the olivaceous of 
the back as to be scarcely discernible. Numerous short white lines 
visible on stretching the skin. 

Although the Ist, 2d, and 8d exterior dorsal rows of scales are 
colored like the abdomen, yet a lighter shade on the 2d and 3d gives 
indication of a lateral stripe. 

The bases of the abdominal scales on each side near the outer ex- 
tremities have a black blotch. There is also the usual double spot 
on the occiput, not areolated. The dark spotting on the sides be- 
longs more or less to the skin between the scales, in some cases 
merely tinging the edges of the latter. 


EUTAINIA. 31 


& 138. — 19. 114. 
Washington, D. C. See a ah 


cc 


St.Lawrence0o.,N.¥. 157. — 19. 15. 84 Dr. Hough. 
Westport, N. Y. Lo ies80e5 19). 8205. 5R: S. F. Baird. 
Adirondack Mts.,N.Y.146.— 19. 243. — e 

ue 151.— 19. 203.— gs 

as 148.— 19. 143. — ‘S 
Summerville, N. Y. —-—- —- — — oF 
Madrid, N. Y. --—- -—- —- = ee 
Grosse Ile, Mich. —-—- —- — — Rev. Chas. Fox. 

66 te Se ie “ ‘“ 

“ ey S20 pus 4 6c 
Androscoggin, Me. 155. 66. 19. 213. 44. ©. Girard. 
Portland, Me. —-—- —- —- — Prof. Caldwell. 
Clarke Co., Va. 1517 — 19. 26.5 — Dr. Kennerly. 

“ 160. 56. 19. 183. 32. ie 

e 145. — 19. 10%. 23. i 
Centreville, Md. . PL fo: 9 19." FOS 2s. S. F. Baird. 
Foxburg, Pa. 150: 70. 19.7 242s; oF. te 

os 147.— 19. 18. 4. te 
Carlisle, Pa. —-—-—- —- — — i 
Abbeville, S. C. Lod. Oy I: Dr. Barratt. 
Anderson, S. C. -—-- - -—- = Miss Paine. 
Kemper Co., Miss. SON GOD AOS 29'5..6. D. C. Lloyd. 


Col. P. Force. 


A very old specimen from Westport, N. Y., (2) has the dorsal 
line more conspicuous, but still encroached upon by the black spots, 
(on the exterior half-row.) Bases of all the scales in the exterior 
row black. Lateral stripe and exterior row bright yellow, and very 
conspicuous, brighter than the dorsal stripe. Ground-color dark 
brown. 


Westport, N. Y. @ 145. 64.19. 34. 7. S. F. Baird. 


9. Eutainia dorsalis, B. & G.—Dimensions of JZ. sirtalis. Outer 
rows of dorsal scales emarginate. Color olivaceous. Dorsal stripe broad, 
yellow, margined with black. A row of spots above the lateral stripe. 


A broad dorsal stripe of greenish white very well defined, and 
covering one and two half-rows of scales, margined on each side for 
one scale continuously with black. On each side, on the 2d and 5d 
exterior rows, likewise a broad stripe of the same color. Space be- 


39 EUTAINIA. 


tween the stripes bright olivaceous, in which on each side is indis- 
tinctly seen a series of rather large spots, about 74 in number from 
head to anus, and ranged just above the lateral stripe. Abdomen, 
and below the lateral stripes greenish white, not materially differing 
from the stripes in color, only rather darker. Sides of abdominal 
seutellee, and the upper basal edge of the scales in the exterior dorsal 
row margined with black. A series of black dots on each side of the 
abdominal scutellee at the base. The scales in the exterior dorsal 
row acutely emarginated, as are some of those in the 2d row. 

A specimen collected between Monclova, Mexico, and the Rio 
Grande, by General Churchill. 


tio Grande, Texas. 166. 81.19. 253. 64. Gen. S. Churchill. 


10. Eutainia ordinata, B. & G.—Olive, with three distinct rows 
of square dark spots on each side: about 85 from head to anus. Lateral 
stripe wanting; dorsal, very indistinct. ! 


Syn. Coluber ordinatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 879.—Gm. Linn. Syst. 
Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1097.—Hart. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 
1827, 349. 

Tropidonotus ordinatus, Hotpr.-N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 45. Pl. xii. 

Vipera gracilis maculatus, Catuss. Nat. Hist. Carol. II, 1743, 51. LI. 

Vipera viridis maculatus, CatesB. Nat. Hist. Carol. II, 1748, 58. LIITI. 

Garter Snake, or Grass Snake. 


General color greenish brown or olive. Vertebral yellowish line 
more or less inconspicuous. Lateral stripe on the 2d and 3d rows 
of scales very little evident. In fact it might be almost said to be 
wanting, but for a faint trace. Three series of small square dark 
blotches on each side, about 85 in number from head to anus. The 
first is on the outer row of dorsal scales, involving the edges of the 
contiguous scales, The second on the 4th row; the third on each 
side of the dorsal stripe, both like the first, involving the edges of, 
and intervals between the contiguous scales; indeed, on stretching 
apart the skin, the black spots are seen to be converted into a net- 
work of black along the skin. Beneath greenish white, with spots 
of black near each end of the abdominal scutelle. Upper labial 
plates all prominently edged vertically with black. 

This species strongly resembles Z. sirtalis, especially the spotted 
varieties. It may, however, be readily distinguished by the three 
regular series of tessellated black spots on each side, their promi- 


EUTAINIA. 99 


nence, and their number, about 85, not 70. The lateral stripe is 
nearly absent, and the dorsal quite indistinct. The lower row of 
blotches is below and along the place of the lateral stripes. The oc- 
cipital black patch is much larger than in, Z. sirtalis, and the labials 
more margined. 

From 2. Marciana, which it resembles, the want of the light 
patch behind the mouth, and the different number of dorsal rows will 
always distinguish it. 


Riceboro, Ga. 130 °68)-19 292.28. 7. Dr. Jones. 
Ke 141.5519; * 21 oF: m 
Georgia. 152. 79.19. 14.8%. Prof. C. B. Adams. 


Wi. Eutainia ordimoides, B. & G.—A dorsal and two lateral 
stripes. On each side two series of black spots, about 80 in number; be- 
tween the lower series reddish brown; between the upper olivaceous. Dor- 
sal rows 19-21. Body stouter than most species. Exterior row of dorsal 
scales the larger, carinated. Remaining scales nearly equal. Caudal 
scales strongly carinated. 


Syvy. TZropidonotus ordinoides, B. & G.—Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. VI, 
1852, 176. 

A very strongly defined dorsal stripe of a yellowish color, occupy- 
ing one and two half-scales. A second line less distinct along the 2d 
and 3d rows from the abdomen. On each side, between the dorsal 
and lateral stripes, are two series of subquadrate black spots, 80 to 
84 in number, arranged alternately, and occupying portions of seve- 
ral scales; the spots in the lower series larger. Intervals between 
the lower series of spots occupied by reddish brown scales, in shape 
and color somewhat resembling the dead leaves of the hemlock, 
(Abies canadensis). Intervals between the upper series olivaceous 
brown, more or less blended with the black. Beneath uniform green- 
ish white, with bases of the scales black, as they are also on the more 
exterior dorsal rows; this color, however, rarely shows beyond the 
margin of the incumbent scales. 

In one specimen, which is much larger than the others, the dorsal 
spots form a rather narrow margin to the broad dorsal stripe, and are 
more or less confluent with the ground-color. Space between the 
lower row of spots pale reddish. Dorsal scales 19. Ninety spots 
from head to anus. 

The characters are very aires marked, and easily recognised. 


34 EUTAINIA. 


ees Sele tay (on dep.) 
California. 161. 67.19. 35%. 73. (84 spots) i Heplaienea 
San Francisco, Cal. 165. 85.21. 212. 84. He 
“6 167. 84.19. 283.74. (80spots.) Dr. Leconte. 


12. Eutainia radix, B. & G.—General color black, with three nar- 
row gamboge-yellow lines. Lateral rows of scales broader than usual. 


The head is shorter than usual with the genus. The exterior row 
of dorsal scales is very broad, nearly as high as long. The second 
nearly similar in proportion, (a little longer than high,) but smaller, 
and yet markedly larger than the third and succeeding rows. Pos- 
terior angle of the exterior dorsal scales truncated, with the corners 
rounded off, a character seen to less extent on the second row. The 
carination of all the scales is greater than usual, and the whole animal 
has a rougher appearance. 

Color above deep brownish black, on the sides verging to lustrous 
anthracite black, especially on the exterior dorsal and sides of ab- 
dominal scutelle. Beneath bluish black, with minute mottlings of 
dull gamboge yellowish, which increasing anteriorly becomes uni- 
form greenish gamboge yellow on the anterior third. A narrow line 
of black near the posterior edge across each abdominal scutella. A 
dorsal line of gamboge yellow along the middle of the vertebral row 
of scales, and one on each side along the 3d lateral row, occasionally 
involving the lower edge of the 4th row. 

There are faint indications of the usual black spots where the 
epidermis has been lost. 


Racine, Wisconsin. 158. 51.19. 223. 43. Dr. Hoy. 


3. Dorsal rows 21. 


13. Eutainia elegans, B. & G.—Resembles L. proxima, but be- 
longs to a different section. Black above, light beneath. A broad ochra- 
ceous dorsal stripe, with two lateral, greenish white. Dorsal scales 21. 


Head very short, broad. Upper labial plates highly developed. 
Eyes small. Exterior dorsal row of scales largest, delicately cari- 
nated, remainder of equal size. Above deep blackish brown. An 
ochraceous or dark gamboge-yellow dorsal stripe begins at the occiput, 
and suddenly widening to the width of 3 or 4 scales, contracts gradu- 


EUTAINTA. 35 


ally to one and two half-rows, at which it continues to the tail. On 
each side is a well-defined stripe of greenish yellow along the second 
and part of the third outer row, and contrasting decidedly in color 
with the vertebral line. The blackish brown color is strongly defined 
between the stripes, below them the greenish white sides and abdo- 
men are tinged with brown, (on the exterior dorsal and ends of ab- 
dominal scutellz.) The bases of the scales on the exterior dorsa: 
row are black, which sometimes shows when the scales are separated, 
though usually covered by the incumbent edges. 

The species is readily distinguished from its nearest analogue, 
E.. infernalis, by the darker color of the sides, the ochraceous dorsal 
stripe, smaller head, number of dorsal scales, &c. It has a strong 
resemblance to #. proxima in distribution of color, but is stouter 
and shorter, and has the lateral stripe on the 2d and 8d rows, not on 
the 3d and 4th. 


El Dorado Co., Cal. 167. 57.21. 284. 44. Dr. C. C. Boyle. 


A second specimen, belonging to the Boston Natural History So- 
ciety, has precisely the same markings, although with but 19 dorsal 
rows. As usual in young individuals, it has black spots along the 
sides upon an olivaceous ground, with which they are confluent. 
Above the lateral stripe are seen from 80 to 90 black spots from 
head to anus, as well as a series of small ones below the line. 


California. 155. 80. 19. 134. 34. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 


14. Eutainia wagrans, Bb. & G.—Above light brown, beneath 
slate-color. Vertebral light line on a single row of scales. Two series of 
small black spots, about 100 in number, on each side. 


Above light brown; beneath slate-color, (sometimes black,) with 
the margins of the scutellze black. A dorsal line occupying a single 
row of scales, of a dull yellowish color, the tint occasionally running 
into the marginal row. On each side of this, two series of small 
black spots occupying generally a single scale, and varying from 95 
to 105, from occiput to anus. The upper series is in the 2d row 
from the vertebral, the lower in the 7th. 

Compared with its nearest neighbor, 27. leptocephala, it differs in 
having the exterior row of dorsal scales large and carinated, the next 


86 EUTAINIA. 


row scarcely if at all larger than the rest. Scales of tail decidedly 
carinated. Labial plates much developed. It has also 21 rows of 
dorsal scales, and 106, not 150 spots, in series from head to anus. 
The head is larger and much arched. 

The specimen from Puget Sound, may possibly belong to a closely 
allied species, though it is much like that from California. 


California. 169.80. 21. 27. 64. (98 spots) Dr. Gambel. 
Humboldt Ri-)\ _ 5 
‘ 179. 70-80. 21. 12. 3. (100 “ ) J.S.Bowman. 
ver, Cal. 
South of Rio 
Grande, N. 173.90. 21. 153.4. (106 “ ) Gen.Churchill. 
Mexico. 


Puget Sound. 161.58. 21. 12§.23. (ondep.) Expl. Exped. 


15. Eutainia Marciana, B. & G.—Prominent color light brown; 
a vertebral paler line and one lateral on each side, more or less indistinct. 
Three series of square black spots on each side, of about 56-60 in each series, 
from occiput to anus. Sides of head black, with a crescentic patch of yel- 
lowish posterior to the labial plates. Three and sometimes four black 
vittee radiating from the eye across the jaws. A double white spot with a 
black margin on the suture of occipital plates. 


The markings about the head are generally very constant and dis- 
tinct. Viewed laterally, we see first the large dark brown patch at 
the back part of the head, extending as far back as the posterior ex- 
tremity of the jawbones. In the anterior part of this patch is seen 
the crescentic patch (concave before) of yellowish white, with a more 
or less narrow dark-brown margin anteriorly. The next black band 
starts from the posterior edge of the superciliaries, and passes ob- 
liquely downwards and backwards along the posterior edge of the 
6th upper labial. Similar black margins are seen on the posterior 
edges of the 5th and 4th labials, the intervening spaces being yel- 
lowish white, particularly on the 5th upper labial. Occasionally the 
posterior margins of the 7th and 3d labials have the black line as 
well as those mentioned, which frequently extend across to the pos- 
terior margins of the corresponding lower labials. The white spot 
on the anterior portion of the occipital suture is always margined 
with black. 

The six series of black spots are arranged so as to alternate with 
each other. The lower or third series on each side is below the indis- 


tinct lateral stripe. 


EUTAINIA. 


3T 


The posterior edges of each abdominal scutella 


shows a black margined spot on each side. The dorsal line is gene- 
rally a single scale in width, occasionally including portions of the 
lateral, and itself sometimes encroached upon by the black spots. 
Each spot is about a scale or a scale and a half long, and about three 
scales broad. The number in the dorsal series from the head to the 
Posterior edges of scales very slightly 
All are decidedly keeled. 


anus varies from 56 to 60. 


emarginate, if at all. 


Red River, Ark. 152. 75. 21. 
New Braun- (2 
felsy Tex ; 153. 75. 21. 
6 Hoos woe 2. 
S 149761. 21. 
6c ee te Ls 
Near San aie 
eee } T6355. 2h. 
ac 16085: 21: 
San Pedro. 156. 78. 21. 
6 153. 70. 21. 
Indianola. 145. 66. 21. 


d4. 8. 


bo 
olco 
oo 


Capts. Marcy & 
eeeBole { McClellan. 


. 60 F. Lindheimer. 


60 6c “ 
56 66 cc 
5A 6c c 


34. 58 “ Col. J. D. Graham. 


56 «& 66 
. 56 ce 6c 
56 6c 6c 
DT 66 “ 


38 NERODIA. 


Genus NERODMTA, Bainp & Girarp. 


GEN. CHAR. Body generally stout, and almost all the species at- 
taining a large size. ‘Tail one-fourth or one-fifth of the total length. 
Scales carinated. Cephalic plates normal. Anterior orbitals gene- 
rally 1, occasionally 2; posterior 3, occasionally 2. Last and some- 
times penultimate abdominal scutelle bifid; subcaudal, all bifid 
or divided. Dorsal rows of scales 23-29. Abdominal. scutelle 
135-154. Subcaudal 66-80. General color, three series of dark 
blotches on a lighter ground, sometimes almost uniform, brown or 


blackish. Abdomen unicolor or maculated. Habits aquatic. 


i. Nerodia sipedom, B. & G.—Head rather narrow, elongated. 
One anteorbital; three postorbitals. Vertical plate smaller, and occipitals 
larger than in WV. fasciata. Length of vertical equal to commissural line of 
occipitals. Inframaxillary plates extending near to posterior extremity 
of seventh lower labials. Dull brown, with narrow transverse light bands 
margined with black. Dorsal rows 23. 


Syn. Coluber sipedon, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 379.—Gm. Linn. Syst. Nat. 
ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1098.—Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 
351.—Tuomps. Hist. of Verm. 1842, 118. 

Coluber peecilogaster, Max. Winp. Reise Inn. Nord. Amer. I, 1839, 106. 

Tropidonotus sipedon House. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 29. Pl. vi. 

Water Snake. 


General color dull brown, exhibiting narrow transverse bands of 
lighter, margined with dark brown or black; these bands generally 
about half a scale in width, and their margins more or less parallel 
immediately on the back. This is especially the case posteriorly, 
where they are usually at right angles to the axis of the body; an- 
teriorly they are more or less oblique, and widen rapidly towards the 
abdominal scutellee. Sometimes the general brown hue is so predomi- 
nant as to render the transverse marks more or Jess obsolete, and the 
general tint then appears uniform above. The abdomen is always 
dull yellowish, each scutella with large blotches of light brown, 
margined with black. 


NERODIA. 39 


Vv 


In young individuals, and those generally in which the epidermis 
has been removed, the normal type of coloration is seen to consist 
of three series of nearly quadrate dark-brown spots, with still darker 
border, one dorsal, and one on each side. These are so disposed that 
the two corresponding Jateral spots are opposite the interval between 
the two dorsal, and thus appear to be connected by a light line. The 
longitudinal diameter of the dorsal spots, amounting to 3 or 4 scales, 
is the greater, just the reverse of what is the case with the lateral. 
Of these lateral spots there are generally about 32 on each side from 
the head to the anus, the spaces between them being equal to or less - 
than the spots, (not greater, as in NV. fasciata). 

While this pattern is generally quite distinguishable on the pos- 
terior half of the body, anteriorly it becomes confused, the lateral 
blotches standing opposite to the dorsal, and becoming confluent, so 
that the back appears crossed by lozenge-shaped blotches extending 
to the abdominal scutellze, and thus separated on the sides by triangu- 
lar intervals of a lighter color. 

Occasionally the color appears to be a dull and rather light brown, 
with the back crossed by narrow transverse lines, with dark (nearly 
black, but still not distinct) margins. 

Small specimens from Framingham and Westport show a larger 
amount of black on the sides and abdomen. 


Carlisle, Pa. 14241. 68. 23. 35. 83 8. F. Baird. 

< 142+1.— 23. — — e 

a 143-41. 66. 23. — — re 

c 136-1. 75. 28. 12. 33. . 

“3 143-++-1.'67. 238. 9. 22. « 

wh 137-1. 75. 23. 274. 74. ef 

ef 140+-1. 71. 23. 143. 32. 6 

g 141-++1. 80. 23. 26. 72. e 
Westport, NV. Y. 140-11. 70. 28. 16. 4 os 
Centreville, Md. 136-+-1. 62.25. — — ee 
Washington, D.C. 1388+-1. 62.23. 35. 8. sf 
Framingham, Mass. = — —-—_—- —- — ee 
Grosse Isle, Mich. 148-+1.— 23. 27. 5%. Rev. Chas. Fox. 

fe 142-1. 59. 23. 24. 54 i 


2. Nerodia fasciata, B. & G.—Head broader behind, and deeper 
than in JV. sipedon ; hence a greater development of labials, temporals, lorals, 
and nasals. Three and sometimes only two postorbitals. Vertical plate 


AO NERODIA. 


pentagonal, broad. Transversal lozenge-shaped or oblong black patches on 
the back, tapering on the sides. About thirty oblong or triangular marks 
of red on the flanks. Dorsal rows of scales 23, sometimes 25. 


Syn. Coluber fasciatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 378.—Hoisr. N. Amer. 
Herp. I, 1838, 938. PL. xx. 

Coluber porcatus, Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 356. 

Tropidonotus fasciatus, Houpr. N. Amer. Herp. 2d ed. III, 1842, 25. Pl. vy. 


Head elliptical, tapering on the snout. Dorsal rows of scales 23-25, 
all carinated ; carinze on the dorsal region very conspicuous. Scales 
on the outer row broad and rounded posteriorly. Tail one-fourth of 
total length, very much tapering. Vertical plate elongated, pentago- 
nal, posterior triangular portion obtuse. Superciliaries very narrow. 
Two postorbitals and sometimes three. Superior labials 8 in num- 
ber; 6th and 7th very large. Inferior labials 9 ; 4th and 5th largest. 
Last abdominal scutella divided. A large temporal shield anteriorly 
contiguous to the postorbitals. 

Ground-color above in the adult uniform blackish brown, lighter 
in the young, which exhibit transverse lozenge-shaped black patches 
irregularly tapering on the sides. There are from 50 to 38 subtri- 
angular or vertically oblong red spots extending to the abdominal 
scutella. The 26th of these red markings is opposite to the anus, 
and twelve smaller ones may be observed along the tail, gradually 
diminishing posteriorly. A black vitta extends from the posterior 
rim of the eye to behind the angle of the mouth, above and below 
which a light elongated patch tinged with red may be seen. Under- 
neath reddish white. lLabials dusky, margined with reddish brown. 


Charleston, S. C. 1324-1. 70. 25. 28. 7. Dr. Barker. 
“ 130-+1. 41. 23. 40. 63. Acad. Nat. Se. 
Summerville, S.C. 128+1. 75.23. 21. 54. C. Girard. 


3. Nerodia erythrogaster, B. & G.—Head elongated, narrowing 
forwards; occipital region flattened; convex on the snout. Vertical plate 
pentagonal, very large, as are also the occipitals. Three postorbitals. An 
elevated loral. Dorsal rows of scales 23 in number, all very strongly cari- 
nated. Uniform dark bluish black above, lighter on the sides; a lateral or 
external band of dull blue extending on the abdominal scutelle. Body be- 
neath uniform dull yellow, tail bluish. 


Syn. Coluber erythrogaster, SHaw, Gen. Zool. III, 1804, 458.—Horsr. N. 
Amer. Herp. II, 1888, 91. Pl. xix. 


NERODIA. AY 


Tropidonolus erythrogaster, Houpr. N. Amer. Herp. 2d ed. III, 1842, 33. 
Pr. viil. 
Viper a venrre vapret votorrs, CatusB. Nat. Hist. Carol. II, 1742, 46. Tab. xlvi. 


The head is proporticnally narrow and elongated, flattened above, 
and convex on the snout. The vertical plate is elongated and sub- 
pentagonal, broader anteriorly than pusteriorly, with the sides slightly 
concave. The postorbital plates, proportionally small, are three in 
number. Loral large and polygonal, higher than long. There are 
three or four temporal shields very much developed. Dorsal rows 
of scales 23 or 24 in number, strongly carmated, with the keels on 
the posterior third of the body, constituting very conspicuous and 
continuous ridges, the intermediate depressions or furrows giving to 
the body and tail a canaliculated appearance. The lateral or outer 
row, however, is but slightly carinated. The tail itself is subconical, 
very much tapering, forming one-fourth of the entire length. 

The color, as taken from life, is said to be brick-red above, tinged 
with green on the sides, and uniform copper-color beneath. 

Prairie Mer Rouge, La. 154--1. 80. 24. 44. 11}. Jas. Fairie. 


Biss piri’ ch ls (on dep.) 
Carolina. 149-1. 23. 505. ee Nat. Se. 


4. Nerodia Agassizii, B. & G.—Dorsal rows of scales 23, carinated 
except the outer row, which is entirely smooth. A second very small ante- 
orbital; postorbitals three. Color uniform reddish brown above, with obso- 
lete transverse narrow light bands under the epidermis; yellowish beneath. 


The vertical plate is proportionally more contracted on the sides 
than in any of the species of this genus, and also more tapering. 
The occipital plates are broad and proportionally large. The eyes 
are rather small, resembling in that respect those of NV. tawispilota, 
the latter differing however greatly from it in being provided with 
five more rows of dorsal scales; the scales of the outer dorsal row 
are proportionally large and perfectly smooth, while these are keeled 
in the other species. ‘The number of subcaudal scutellee could not 
be ascertained, as the only specimen at our command is destitute of 
a tail. The two last abdominal scutellze are bifid. 

The color, though uniform in the adult, in the immature state is 
blotched, as in other species of this genus; judging from the trans- 


42 NERODIA. 


verse narrow light bands that may be seen on the back when the 
epidermis is removed. 


Lake Huron. 147+2.—23. 24.— (ondep.) Prof. Agassiz. 


5. Nerodia Woodhousii, B. & G.—Dorsal rows of scales 25, 
carinated. Three series of subquadrate black blotches, a dorsal and two 
lateral, the latter vertically elongated. A double yellow occipital spot. A 
yellow spot between the superciliaries and vertical plates. A black vitta 
from posterior rim of eyes to angle of mouth. 


The head is broad behind, and tapers forwards, very much flattened 
above. ‘The mouth is very deeply cleft. The labials are nine above 
and eleven below; the 5th, 6th, and 7th the largest on both jaws. 

Ground-color dusky, with a dorsal series of subquadrangular black 
blotches, 37 to 40 in number, separated by a narrow whitish trans- 
verse line. A lateral series of vertically elongated black blotches, 
alternating with the dorsal series, with anterior and posterior margins 
nearly parallel, sometimes tapering downwards and reaching the ab- 
dominal scutella. The fuscous space between the lateral blotches 
is wider than that occupied by the blotches themselves. Along the 
tail, both the dorsal and lateral blotches are small and subeircular. 
Underneath the color is yellowish, and the scutellz in the young, 
margined posteriorly with black, while in the adult the middle region 
of the scutellee is unicolor. The head is brownish black, with a 
double yellow spot near the commissure of the occipital plates, and 
two spots of the same color on the commissural line between the 
vertical and superciliaries. A black vitta extends from the posterior 
rim of the eye to the angle of the mouth. 


Indianola. 1441-1.— 25. 273.— Col.J.D. Graham. 
Betw. Ind. & San 
ore \ 144-11. 64. 25. 103. 23. 66 

Ks 142-+-1.°79. 25. 11. 24. 

Sabinal, Tex. 144-1-1. 68.25." 13.- 3. “ 

New Braunfels, Tex. 148-+-1. 68.25. 34. 7}. F. Lindheimer. 
me 147-L1. 72. 25. 25." 63. “ 
ef 145-+-1. 70. 25. 17. 44. « 


NERODIA. 43 


o 


6. Nerodia taxispileta, B. & G.—Head proportionally small, 
subtriangular, pointed on the snout. Vertical plate broad, subquadrangu- 
lar; occipitals small. Two postorbital plates; anteorbital narrow. Dorsal 
rows of scales 29, allcarinated. Brown, with three series of subquadrangu- 
lar blackish blotches. 


Syn. Coluber taxispilotus, Hotpr. N. Amer. Herp. II, 1888, 118. Pl. xxv. 

Tropidonotus taxispilotus, Houpr. N. Amer. Herp. 2d ed. III, 1842, 35. 
Pl. viii. 

The head is proportionally small, conical forwards. The eyes also 
are small. The vertical plate has the shape of an elongated quad- 
rangle. The occipital plates are rather small and posteriorly attenu- 
ated. The anterior frontal plates are small and triangular, the apex 
of the triangle being directed forwards. There are two large post- 
orbital plates. The superciliaries are narrow and elongated. Dor- 
sal rows 29; their scales all carinated. 

Ground-color reddish brown, with three series of subquadrangular 
blackish blotches, forty-six in number, the twenty-sixth opposite the 
anus. ‘They embrace transversely from 7 to 10 rows of scales, and 
longitudinally three scales on the two anterior thirds of the body, 
and two scales on the posterior third. The space between the blotches 
is equal to the blotches themselves. The lateral series are isolated, 
that is to say, not contiguous to the dorsal series except sometimes 
towards the origin of the tail and along the latter region. The 
blotches extend over nine or ten lateral rows of scales, and affect 
from three to five scales. Hquilateral on the anterior part of the 
body, they become narrower on the posterior part, and taper upwards. 
The space between is narrower by one scale. On the tail the dorsal 
series of blotches has almost entirely disappeared ; now and then an 
irregular patch may be seen confluent with the lateral series, which 
remain conspicuous to the very tip of that organ. The lower surface 
of the body is yellowish white, with irregular deep chestnut-brown 
patches, the lateral ones contiguous to the lateral series. 


Riceboro, Liberty Co., Ga. 141-11. 80.29. 86.9. Dr. W.L. Jones. 


4%. Nerodia HMolbrookii, B. & G.—Head ovoid or elliptical, nar- 
rowest on the snout. Vertical plate much longer than in J. taxispilota. Oc- 
cipitals much larger also. Three postorbitals. Loral higher than long. 
Dorsal scales in 27 rows, all strongly carinated. Brown, with three series 
of quadrangular black blotches, the blotches of the lateral series alternat- 
ing with those of the dorsal. 


44 NERODIA. 


Head and eyes propor Aonally larger than in N. taxispilota. Verti- 
cal plate subpentagonal, and more elongated than in NV. taxispilota. 
Occipital plates also much more developed and broader. Inframaxil- 
lary longer. Proportion between the length of the tail and that of 
the body about the same as in WV. taxispilota. The rows of scales 27 
in number, and carinated ; the scales themselves proportionally much 
larger than in JV. taxispilota. The lateral row especially differs much 
in that respect. 

Ground-color reddish brown, with three series of black subquad- 
rangular blotches, forty-one in number, the twenty-fifth opposite the 
anus. They embrace transversely six or seven rows of scales, instead 
of seven or ten as in JV. taxispilota. Longitudinally they cover three 
scales on the anterior portion of the body, and two posteriorly as in 
NV. taxispilota. The intermediate space, however, is greater than the 
blotches themselves, embracing one scale more. ‘The lateral series 
are contiguous to the dorsal one, and alternate regularly with it. 
The blotches extend on seven lateral rows, embracing three scales, 
while the intermediate space embraces four of them. Beneath yel- 
lowish white, with small and irregular brown blotches scattered along 
the sides. 


Prairie Mer Rouge, La. 144+1.70.27. 35.8. Jas. Fairie. 
6 141+-1. 68.27. 33. 7. a 


REGINA. 45 


Genus REGINA, Bairp & Garp. 


Gen. Cuar. Body slender; tail subconical, very much tapering, 
forming one-third or one-fourth of the total length. Head conical, 
continuous with the body, and proportionally small. yes large. 
Mouth deeply cleft. Labials small. Loral and nasals large. Scales 
carinated. Cephalic plates normal. Anterior orbitals 2, occasion- 
ally one ; posterior 2, occasionally 3. Last and sometimes last but one 
abdominal scutellee bifid or divided. Subcaudal scutellee all divided. 
Dorsal rows of scales 19-21. Abdominal scutellee 182-162. Sub- 
caudal 52-86. General color five or more longitudinal dark bands 
on a lighter ground. Abdomen unicolor, or likewise provided with 


similar bands. Aquatic. 


1. Regina leberis, B. & G.—Chestnut-brown, with a lateral yellow 
band, and three narrow black dorsal vitte. Abdomen yellowish, with four 
brown bands, two of which are lateral and two medial. Dorsal rows of 
scales 19, all carinated. 


Syn. Coluber leberis, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x, I, 1766, 216.—Gm. Linn. Syst. 
Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1086.—Suaw Gen. Zool. III, iii, 1804, 433. 

Coluber septemvittatus, Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. IV, 1825, 240.— 
Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 855; and Med. & Phys. Res. 
1835, 118. 

Tropidonotus leberis, Horpr. N. Amer. Herp. IV, 1842, 49. Pl. xiii.i—DrxKay, 
New York Fauna, Rept. 1842, 45. PI. xi, fig. 23. 


Head small, very much depressed, flattened on the region behind 
the orbit, sloping anteriorly. Vertical plate pentagonal, proportion- 
ally broad. There are two anteorbitals, the upper one the larger; 
and two postorbitals, the upper one the smaller. The loral is large 
and higher than long. One temporal shield only. Upper labials, 
8; 6th and 7th largest. Lower labials 10; 5th and 6th largest. 
Scales regularly elliptical, slightly notched posteriorly, and all of 
them carinated, gradually diminishing in width from the sides to- 
wards the middle line of the back. Those of the outer row one-third 
broader than the rest, and posteriorly subtruncated. 


46 REGINA. 


Ground-color dark chestnut or chocolate-brown above, marked with 
three narrow black vittee or bands, one covering the medial row of 
dorsal scales, and two (one on each side) following the fifth row. A 
lateral yellow band occupies the upper half of the outer row and the 
whole of the second row, thus broader than the black bands above. 
Immediately below, and contiguous to it, a somewhat larger brown 
band covers the lower half of the outer row of scales and the ex- 
tremity of the abdominal scutellz. The abdomen is yellowish, pro- 
vided along its middle region with two approximate brown bands, 
similar though a little narrower, and interrupted by the yellowish 
edge of the scutellz. The tail beneath is almost rendered uniformly 
brown by the confluence of the bands. 


Carlisle, Pa. 144-2. 81..19. 234. 64. 8. F. Baird. 

ee 142-1. 86. 19. 214. 62. « 

ec 14211. 71.19, 143. 33. “ 

6 145-+1. 78.19. 9%. 2%. “ 

af 140-++1. 75.19. 8%. 22. 6 
Foxburg, Pa. 151+1.— 19. 23. — af 
Grosse Isle, Mich. 147-11. 64.19. 183.4%. Rev. Chas. Fox. 
Highland Co., Ohio. 1494-1. 76.19. 11%. 23. Jos. M.D.Mathews 
Washington, D.C. 141-+1. 81.19. 114. 23. (ondep.) Nat. Inst 


2, Regina rigida, B. & G.—Greenish brown above; two deep brown 
vitte: along the dorsal region. Contiguous edges of the outer row of scales 
and abdominal scutelle finely margined with brown. The middle region of 
the outer row like the abdomen, as is that of the second row, but less dis- 
tinctly. Abdomen reddish yellow, with two series of black spots on the 
middle region, approaching each other towards the anterior region of the 
body. Dorsal rows of scales 19, carinated except the outer row, which is 
smooth. 


Syn. Coluber rigidus, Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. IV, 1825, 39.— 
Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. V, 1827, 855; and Med. & Phys. Res. 
1835, 118. 

Tropidonotus rigidus, Hotpr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 39. Pl. x. 


Head proportionally larger than in 7. /eberis, much less depressed 
and shorter on the snout. Its upper surface is flat, the snout convex, 
the high and large rostral making it less sloping. Vertical plate 
subhexagonal and elongated. Occipitals truncated posteriorly. Su- 
perciliaries narrow and tapering forwards. Anterior pair of frontals 
very small. Two postorbitals of nearly equal size, and two ante- 


REGINA. AT 


orbitals, the upper one much larger than the lower. Loral subcireu- 
lar or oblong. An elongated and narrow temporal shield, followed 
by two or three smaller. Upper labials 7, 5th and 6th very large. 
Lower labials 11, 6th and 7th largest. Scales elliptical, narrower 
along the middle line of the back, carinated, except the outer row, 
which is perfectly smooth, and furthermore distinguished by the 
scales having their height greater than their length. The second 
row is noticeable for its size, and sometimes for its want of carina- 
tion, which in all cases is obsolete. 

The ground-color is uniform greenish brown, but each scale on the 
flanks is provided with a small blotch of deeper brown at its base. 
The brown vittee of the back cover each one entire row, and the half 
of the two adjoining rows, separated on the dorsal line by one row 
and two half-scales of the ground-color. Beneath dull yellowish. 
Along the middle region of the abdomen there are two series of 
elongated deep brown blotches approaching each other towards the 
anterior region and under the tail, sometimes however not extending 
beyond the anus. 


Southern States. 135+1. 71.19. 123 
Riceboro, Ga. 135-++1. 56.19. 7%. 
Pennsylvania. 182-1. 52.19. 21. 


. dt. Rev. Dr. J. G. Morris. 
1}. Dr. W. L. Jones. 
4. (on dep.) Acad. Nat. Se. 


3s Regina Grahamiii, B. & G.—Brown, with a dorsal light band 
margined on either side with a black line or vitta. A broad band of yellow 
on the flanks, margined likewise with a black vitta. Abdomen unicolor, 
yellowish. Dorsal rows of scales 20, all carinated. 


Head elongated, slender, depressed, and flattened above, slightly 
sloping on the snout. Occipitals elongated and posteriorly pointed. 
Vertical plate subpentagonal, narrower anteriorly. Superciliaries 
proportionally well developed, as also the anterior pair of frontals. 
Two anteorbitals, lower one a little the larger. Three postorbitals, 
the lower one very small and almost suborbital in its position. Loral 
elevated. Rostral well developed. Upper labials 7, 5th and 6th 
largest. Lower labials 10, 5th and 6th largest. Dorsal rows of 
scales 20, all carinated. The three outer rows sensibly the largest, 
and truncated posteriorly, while the remaining ones are tapering. 

A light-brown band along the dorsal line, covering one and two 
half-rows of scales. On each side of this a narrow black vitta cover- 
ing one and a half scales. Next succeed three rows of scales, uni- 


48 REGINA. 


formly brown. Then again, a black vitta covering an entire row of 
scales, and the edge of the row immediately under it, (the third.) 
The first, second, and most of the third outer rows of scales are 
straw-color. This yellowish band extends forwards, passing under 
the head to the extremity of the snout. A black line is seen run- 
ning from bebind the neck to the anus, affecting the extremity of 
the scutelle, and occasionally the lower edge of the outer row of 
_ scales. The abdomen is uniform light straw-color; a medial nebu- 
lous blackish band under the tail is observable. 


Rio Salado, Tex. 161-++-1..57. 20. 102.2. ColoJ. D. Graham. 


4, Regima Clarkii, B. & G.—Yellowish brown, with four longitu- 
dinal bands of deeper brown. Abdomen dull yellow, with two clouded 
brown bands dotted with black. One anteorbital. Dorsal rows of scales 
19, all carinated. 


This is the largest species of the genus. Head elongated, conical 
from occiput to the extremity of the snout, depressed above, subcon- 
cave on the occipital region, slightly sloping on the snout. Cephalic 
plates very much developed. Vertical subpentagonal, broader anteri- 
orly, though slightly tapering. Anterior pair of frontals quite large. 
Three and sometimes only two postorbitals, variable in comparative 
size; when there are three, the lowermost is suborbital. One ante- 
orbital, large. oral well developed, longer than high. Upper 
labials 8, 5th and 6th largest, the latter very large. Scales of the 
body elliptical, rounded posteriorly. Outer row somewhat’ larger 
than the rest, and very slightly carinated. 

Color of head dirty brown, occipital and temporal region blackish. 
Each of the four longitudinal bands of deep brown covers two rows 
of scales. The intermediate yellowish brown spaces embrace each 
two rows of scales also, except the dorsal one, which has three rows. 
Each of the abdominal clouded bands embraces one-fourth of ab- 
dominal space, inside of which is left a yellow space one-fourth of 
the width, and exteriorly another yellow space one-eighth of the 
width of abdominal space. The tail beneath is blackish, owing to the 
confluence of the abdominal bands, interspersed with yellowish macule. 
Indianola. 18241. 57.19. 313. 6%. Col. J. D. Graham. 


79 ce 


cc A ce 


“c E 66 


NINTIA. 49 


Genus NENEA, Bairp & Girarp. 


GEN. CHAR. Head elongated, ovoid, distinct from the body. 
Cephalic plates normal. ‘Two nasals. A large loral produced into 
the orbit between the anteorbitals, which are two in number. Two 


postorbitals. #Scales all carinated. Subcaudal scutellee bifid. 


Ninia diademata, B. & G.—Body above deep chestnut; on the 
middle of each scale an elongated yellowish spot. A yellow occipital blotch 
Abdomen yellowish, with a medial brown band. Dorsal scales in 19 rows. 


The vertical plate is hexagonal, as broad anteriorly as long; an- 
terior angle very obtuse; posterior angle acute. The occipitals are 
very much developed, rounded exteriorly and posteriorly, angular 
anteriorly. The postfrontals are likewise remarkable for their great 
development; they are obtusely quadrilateral, being somewhat longer 
than broad. The prefrontals are proportionally reduced, angular, 
broader outside. The rostral is broad and well developed. The 
nostril opens through the middle of the posterior margin of the pre- 
nasal, and is seen from above; the postnasal is subquadrilateral, 
higher than long. The loral occupies a large portion of the face; it 
is angular in shape, and behind extends to the orbit between the 
anteorbitals. The lower anteorbital is subtriangular, resting on the 
4th upper labial, contiguous to the commissure of the 3d; the upper 
anteorbital is regularly quadrangular, and visikle from above. There 
are two postorbitals, subquadrangular in shape. The superciliaries 
are rather small, narrow, and elongated. Anterior temporal shield 
very large, the rest resembling scales. The eyes are proportionally 
large and circular. The mouth deeply cleft. Upper labials 6; 5th 
largest. Lower labials 6; 4th largest. 

Body subcylindrical, deeper than broad; tail very slender and 
tapering, about one-third of the total length. The scales are all cari- 
nated, and constitute 19 rows, the outer row considerably larger, the 


rest diminishing towards the back. Postabdominal scutella appa- 
4 


50 NINIA. 


rently entire; the shrunken state of the specimen did not allow a 
satisfactory examination to be made. 

The ground-color of the head and body above is a deep chestnut. 
On the posterior part of the head is a yellow ring, sending a narrow 
stripe along the upper, labials to the orbit. Hach scale is provided 
on its middle with a narrow and elongated yellow dot, very conspicu- 
ous on the outer row of scales, giving at first the impression of a 
narrow vitta along the sides. The exterior edge of the abdomen is of 
the same color as the back. ‘The abdomen is yellowish; a medial 
chestnut band extends from the head to the tip of the tail, interrupted 
only by the narrow yellowish margin of the scutelle themselves. 


Orizaba, Mex. 1386. — 19. 83. 23. Jas. Fairie. 


HETERODON. 51 


Gexus HE TERODON, Pat. vz Beavv. 


Gen. CHar. Body short, stout, tail shart. Head, neck, and 
body capable of excessive dilatation. Posterior palatine teeth longer. 
Head broad, short; outline of mouth very convex, on a single curve. 
Orbit enclosed by a continuous chain of small plates, the circle com- 
pleted above by the superciliaries. Rostral prominent, its anterior 
face very broad, and turned up; its ridge above sharp. Behind it a 
median plate, either in contact with the frontals or separated by small 
plates. Frontals in two pairs. Nasals two. Loral one or two. Dor- 
sal rows of scales 25-27, carinated? Abdominal scutellee 125-150, 
posterior bifid. Subcaudal scutellee all bifid. 

Colors light, with dorsal and lateral darker blotches, or else brown, 
with dorsal transverse light bars. Sometimes entirely black. 

The species exhibit a very threatening appearance when alive, in 


flattening the head, hissing violently, &c. but are perfectly harmless. 


Syn. Heterodon, Pau. DE BEAU. in Latr. Hist. Nat. des Rept. 
IV, 1799. 


A. Azygos behind the rostral, in direct contact with the frontals 


1. HMeterodon platyrhinos, Larr.—Occipitals and vertical longer 
than broad, about equal in length. Centre of eye anterior. Dorsal rows 25, 
all carinated, the outer sometimes smooth. Keels of the scales extending 
to their tips. Scales on the back quite linear anteriorly, posteriorly they 
are much broader. Color yellowish gray, or brown, with about 28 dark dor 
sal blotches from head to anus, and 15 half-rings on the tail. One or two 
lateral rows. Beneath yellowish. A dark band across the forehead in front 
of the vertical, continued through the eye to the angle of the mouth. 


Syn. Coluber heterodon, Daup. Hist. Nat. Rept. VII, 1799, 158. Pl. Ix. 
fig. 28.—Say, Amer. Journ. of Sc. I, 1818, 261.—Hart. Journ. Acad. Nat. 
Se. Philad. V, 1827, 357; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 120. 

Heterodon platyrhinos, Larr. Hist. Nat. Rept. LV, 1799, 82, fig. 1-3. 
—Hoxpr. N. Amer. Herp. II, 1828, 97. Pl. xxi; and 2d ed. IV, 1842, 67. 
Pl. xvii. 

Hog-nose Snake; Blowing Viper. 





52 HETERODON. 


Vertical plate hexagonal, narrower behind; longer than broad; ~ 
angles all distinct, lateral outlines straight. Postfrontal large, the 
lateral angle extending down to the loral; the two postfrontals 
separated anteriorly by the azygos or postrostral. Prefrontals 
smaller, entirely separated by the azygos. Rostral with the out- 
line spherical angled, subacute at the apex, its upper surface com- 
pressed into a sharp ridge, which, prolonged backwards between 
the nasals and the prefrontals, connects with the azygos. This is 
linear, subpentagonal, acute-angled behind, where it wedges between 
the postfrontals. Superciliaries large. Scales behind the head 
distinctly carinated. Eye large. Line connecting tip of rostral 
with the postinferior corner of the last labial passes over the lower part 
of the eye. A triangular nasal, with the corners rounded, joined by 
its apex to the exterior angle of the postfrontals. Nostrils valvular, 
situated entirely in the posterior nasal, the anterior edge formed by 
the anterior nasal. Labials 8 above, 6th largest, the 3d to the 6th in 
contact with the suborbitals: two large temporal shields above the 
three posterior labials. Centre of the eye anterior to the middle of 
the chord connecting the apex of rostral and posterior end of labials 
and over the middle of the 5th labial. Outline of upper jaw convex. 
Lower labials eleven. 

Body stout and short. Tail very short, and rapidly tapering, 
rather thicker than the thinnest part of the body. Dorsal rows 25. 
Scales all distinctly carinated, (including those on the back of the 
head,) except the outer row, which is either perfectly smooth, or pre- 
sents very obsolete carination. The ridges on the 2d row much less 
distinct than the rest. 

Color reddish brown above, with dark blotches. A series of 28 
quadrate, dorsal, uniform black blotches from head to anus, each 
from 2 to 3 scales long, and 7 to 9 wide, separated by regular brown- 
ish yellow intervals of 13 to 2 scales. The blotches anteriorly are 
nearly square, posteriorly they are transversely elongated. Opposite 
the intervals, and, indeed, bounding them on either side, is a second 
series of small circular blotches on the 4th to the 8th lateral rows, 
and separated only by a narrow interval from the corner of the dor- 
sal blotches. Sometimes there are faint traces of small blotches be- 
tween the upper lateral series. Intervals between the lateral rows 
of blotches yellowish or reddish brown, darker than those on the 
back ; outer dorsal rows greenish or yellowish white. On the tail 
there are 15 black half-rings, interrupted on the subcaudal scutelle, 


FF 


Ly 


HETERODON. oo 


the scales on the tail larger than on the greater part of the body. 
In young specimens is distinetly visible a second series of still smaller 
blotches, below the one just mentioned, there being two of these op- 
posite each one of the former, and placed on the 2d, 3d, and 4th 
exterior rows. Beneath greenish yellow, with obsolete greenish 
brown blotches, indistinctly visible through the epidermis, some- 
times more conspicuous in young specimens. 

There is a transverse black or dark bar on the forehead, crossing 
the posterior half of the postfrontals, involving only the anterior 
edge of the vertical, and the anterior corners of the superciliaries. 
Behind this a dark patch, with its anterior margin a little back of 
the middle of the vertical, and involving the adjoining margin of the 
superciliaries and occipitals, together with the greater portion of the 
occipitals ; sometimes with a light spot in the middle: the light 
space included between the two patches appears to extend continu- 
ously backwards to the neck; above a dark vitta from the back 
part of the orbit to the posterior labial, itself a continuation of the 
frontal vitta. An elongated narrow vertebral spot behind the junc- 
tion of the occipitals, and generally isolated from them, on each side 
of which is a similar patch widening behind. 

This species is subject to great variations of color. Sometimes the 
sides of the dorsal blotches pass insensibly into the ground-color, so 
as to become transverse bands. At others they are light internally, 
with a narrow margin of black. Occasionally there is much black on 
the abdomen (in young specimens). The ground-color varies from 
gray to bright yellow, and sometimes even red. It may also happen 
that, by the confluence and extension of the darker margins, we have 
light bars on a dark ground, as on a specimen from the Scioto valley, 
Ohio, where, with the other characters similar, the color is of a dark 
brown above and on the sides, with transversely quadrate brownish 
ash-colored spots along the back, some one and a half or two scales 
long, 9 or 10 wide, and at intervals of about three scales. Of 
these spots there are 28 from head to anus, and about 9 on the tail, 
where they form half rings, with intervals a little larger than them- 
selves. 


Carlisle, Pa. 129-+-1. 53. 25. 28. 6. S. F. Baird. 
is 123-+-1. 49. 25. 243. 5. A 
Clarke Co., Va. 148-++1. 46. 25. 19. 23. Dr.C. B. Kennerly. 
& 12741. — 25. 11. 2 a 


Anderson, S. C. —- =| Miss C. Paine. 


54 HETERODON. 


Mississippi. ? 135-41. 51.25.1402 14. ° DrsB. F. Shumard) 
Ke ? D. C. Lloyd. 


tae ins aii (on dep.) 
Scioto Valley, Ohio. 148--1. 45. 25. 26. 4. i Dr. J.P. Kirtland. 


2, Heterodon cognatus, B. & G.—Vertical longer than occipi- 
tals. Dorsal rows of scales 23-25; outer smooth; next scarcely carinated. 
Seales of the rest with keels extending to their tips. Scales broader than 
in preceding. Disproportion between scales of the back, before and behind, 
not conspicuous. Light chestnut, with 20 yellow blotches from head to anus, 
and 9 on the tail. Beneath yellow. 


Vertical plate pentagonal, elongated. Frontals moderate, of nearly 
the same length. Azygos rather broad, similar in its relations to that 
of HZ. platyrhinos. Rostral quite fully developed. Occipitals small, 
less than in H. platyrhinos. Scales back of head distinctly carinated. 
Centre of eye above the middle of the 5th Jabial. Orbital chain of 
10-11 plates. Loral rather large, triangular. Nasals moderate. 
Labials 8. Penultimate rather longer than high. 

Scales diminishing in width towards the back, although not be- 
coming as linear as in ZZ platyrhinos. Scales on the hinder part of 
back scarcely wider than those in front. 

Color above light chestnut, with transverse, sometimes more or 
less oblique, dorsal bars between the 7th exterior rows. These bars 
are bright yellow, tinged with brown in the centre, and with a darker 
marginal shade of the ground-color. Of these bars there are 28, 
from head to tail, the 20th opposite to the anus, each about ten scales 
long, about nine broad, and separated by intervals of from four to 
six scales. The proportional difference between the two colors in the 
tail is much as in H. platyrhinos. Color beneath clear dull yellow. 
Exterior dorsal scales mottled brownish yellow, more or less spotted 
and margined with brighter yellow. On separating the skin a dark 
spot is seen at each end of the dorsal patches, between and around 
which the color is yellow. Head olivaceous yellow, with the usual 
markings of the genus obsolete. An elongated black patch behind 
the angle of the jaws on each side. 

Somewhat similar to H. platyrhinos, but the scales anteriorly are 
wider, nor is there that disproportion between the scales on the back 
before and behind. The occipitals are shorter. From H. atmodes, 
the narrower intervals between the caudal light band, the scales cari- 


HETERODON. 55 


nated on the back of head as well as elsewhere to the tip, the more 
prominent rostral, (the line from the tip to the lower posterior angle 
of the last labial passes over the eyeball,) &c. will at once distin- 
guish it. 

A much mutilated, but much larger specimen from New Braunfels 
agrees with this, although the rostral is proportionally less; in other 
characters it is very similar. The intervals between the light bars, 
and the sides at their extremities are, however, much darker. 

A small specimen from Indianola has much the same distribution 
of color as described in the young 7. platyrhinos. The principal dif- 
ferences are seen in the larger head, stouter body, shorter occipitals, 
narrower dark line across the superciliaries and vertical, broader scales 
anteriorly, &c. The ground-color is mottled chestnut, with subquad- 
rate brown blotches, indistinct at the outer edges, a circular dark spot 
opposite each light dorsal interval, like the dorsal series surrounded 
by a lighter areola; beneath each dark spot a pair still smaller. 
Below greenish white, blackish posteriorly, with narrow blotches of 
black in front. Distinct patch from eye to the last upper labial. 


Indianola. 130-+-1. 58. 23. 26.6. Col. J.D. Graham. 
= 129-E 1. BIS 25. V1. 2. . 
New Braunfels, Tex. 1244-1. 56. 25. 27. 6. F. Lindheimer. 


3 Eieterodon niger, Troost.—Vertical plate as long as the oc- 
cipitals. Rostral prominent. Dorsal rows of scales 25, the exterior smooth, 
the 2d row obsoletely carinated, the rest with the scales distinctly carinated, 
the carinz extending quite to the tip. Uniform black above, slate-color 
beneath. 


Syn. Vipera nigra, Caruss. Nat. Hist. Carol. II, 1748, 44. Pl. xliy. 

Scytale niger, Daup. Hist. Nat. Rept. V, 1799, 342.—Haru. Journ. Acad. 
Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 867; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 180. 

Coluber cacodemon, Suaw, Gen. Zool. III, 1802, 377. Pl. cii. 

Coluber thraso, Haru. Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 120. 

LHeterodon niger, Troost. Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. York, III, 1836, 186.— 
? Horse. N. Amer. Herp. Ist ed. II, 1838, 105. Pl. xxiii; and 2d ed. III, 
1842, 63. Pl. xvi. 

Black Viper; Spreading Adder. 


Postfrontals large, extending to the loral. Prefrontals smaller. 
Azygos rather large, separating the prefrontals entirely, and 
the postfrontals anteriorly: in a line with the rostral. Rostral 


56 HETERODON. 


broad. Keel acutely distinct. Scales on the back of head keeled, 
though obsoletely in those next to the occipital plates. The line from 
tip of snout to lower angle of posterior labial, crosses the lower part 
of the eye, whose centre is a little in advance of the middle of this 
line. Orbital chain of 9 plates. Loral triangular, truncated above. 
Nasals rather large, less developed than in HZ. platyrhinos. Upper 
labials 8; 3d—6th in contact with suborbitals. Centre of eye above 
the juncture of the 4th and 5th. 

Scales distinctly carinated, except the outer row, which is smooth, 
and the second, on which the carination is very obsolete, sometimes 
quite smooth. All the scales diminish gradually to the back, where 
they are quite linear; posteriorly, however, they are broader. 

Color above and on the sides entirely dull black, beneath rather 
light slate-color, shading into milk-white on the chin and on the edge 
of the upper labials. The exterior rows of scales shade gently from 
the color of the back to that of the belly. 

The Heterodon niger bears quite a close relationship in the cha- 
racter of the plates and scales to H. platyrhinos, from which the 
principal difference lies in the color. Although this species greatly 
resembles in color the black variety of H. atmodes, they may be 
readily distinguished. The rostral of H. niger is well developed, 
high, broad, and with the dorsal carina acute and well marked. The 
carination on the scales back of the head is delicately distinct, as also 
upon the other scales, the keel extending to the very tip. The scales 
on the back are linear and narrow, but become much broader in pro- 
portion towards the tail. The occipitals are longer, and the head in 
front of the eye longer in proportion to the part behind it. No bands - 
evident, even obsoletely. The other differs in all these respects: 
rostral low, and the keel more rounded; scales on back shorter, 
and anteriorly rather broad, and the disproportion with those posteri- 
orly much less conspicuous; carine not extending to the tip; faint 
bars seen indistinctly across the black of the back, Xe. 


Carlisle, Pa. 2 140-+1. 49. 25. 36.6. 8. F. Baird. 


Specimens from the South differ simply in being rather darker on 
the sides and beneath. 
Abbeville, S. C. 145+1. — 25. 26.— Dr. J.B. Barratt. 
Kemper Co., Miss. 126-1. 58. 25. 28. 53. D. C. Lloyd. 


ray 


HETERODON. 57 


4. Heterodon atmodes, B. & G.—Vertical plate longer than oc- 
cipitals, which are small, and as broad aslong. Azygos in contact with the 
frontals. Rostral low, obtuse, and very little prominent. Eye more an- 
terior. Dorsal rows 28 or 25. Outer row smooth, 2d and 3d very obso- 
letely carinated. Scales broader, smoother, and more rounded than in H. 
platyrhinos. Keel not extending to the tip. Black, with 18 transverse yel- 
lowish bands on the body, and 7 on the tail; the dark intervals much broader 
than the light bands, sometimes entirely black. 


Vertical plate hexagonal, narrower behind, and more elongated 
than in H. platyrhinos ; lower than the occipitals. Postfrontals large, 
extending down to the loral. The anterior frontals rather larger 
than in H. platyrhinos, separated by the azygos and rostral. Rostral 
small, moderately recurved, much smaller and less conspicuous than 
in H. platyrhinos. Superciliaries long, narrower than in ZH. platy- 
rhinos. Scales on back of the head broad, flat, carination very obso- 
lete. Imaginary line connecting tip of rostral, and posterior angle 
of last upper labial passes entirely below the eye, whose centre is an- 
terior to the middle of this line. Hye large, its centre above the 
middle of the 4th labial. Loral nearly square, rather narrower 
above. Nasals small, which with the less development of the rostral 
brings the eye more forwards. Labials 7 above. Owing to a greater 
development of the suborbital series, (of 9 plates,) the labials are 
lower than in H. platyrhinos. The posterior upper angle of the 2d 
labial, as well as the 3d, 4th, and anterior upper angles of the 5th, 
are in contact with the suborbitals. The difference from 7. platy- 
rhinos in this respect is caused by the much greater size of the 2d or 
3d labials, the first being much smaller than all the rest. 

Dorsal rows of scales 23; exterior smooth, 2d and 3d very obso- 
letely carinated, rest of scales more so, but in all cases less distinctly 
than in ZZ. platyrhinos. The keel on each scale does not extend to 
the tip, but becomes obsolete at a point from the tip of one-half to 
one-fifth of the length; while in ZZ platyrhinos it extends very 
nearly, if not entirely to the extreme tip, especially on the back. 
The seales also are broader and more oval. The tail is slenderer 
and more tapering than in H. platyrhinos, and is not as thick as the 
posterior part of the body. 

Color above lustrous pitch-black, crossed by 18 transverse light 
yellow bands, from head to anus, and 7 on the tail; sides mottled 
with black and yellowish. Beneath yellowish, blotched with black. 


58 HETERODON. 


The pattern of coloration is probably similar to that of H. platy- 
rhinos, except that the outer edges of the dorsal blotches are confluent 
with the irregular markings of the sides, instead of being quite dis- 
tinctly defined. Occasionally black blotches opposite the transverse 
light marks are evident. The light bands are sometimes interrupted 
and sometimes oblique; their extent is about the same as in J. 
platyrhinos. The black intervals between these light bars are much 
longer than in HZ platyrhinos, occupying from 5 to 6 scales anteri- 
orly, and on the tail from 6 to 7. The light bands may have been 
orange in life. On the side of the head is a broad distinct black 
stripe from the posterior part of the eye to the posterior end of the 
truncated Jast labial, and continuous with an obscured black band 
across the forehead, on the posterior half of the postfrontals. Lower 
jaw and sides of head blotched with black. 


Georgia. 131-1. 56. 23. 25.5%. Prof. C. B. Adams. 


A young specimen, apparently of this species, has the head much 
more depressed than in individuals of HZ. platyrhinos of the same 
size. The general color above is lead-gray, with transverse bands 
of lighter gray on the back, margined by dark chestnut, which shades 
gradually into the gray. The other features are well preserved, 
except that the rostral, as usual in young specimens, is higher. 


Charleston, S.C. 187-+1. 54.25. 123.1%. Dr.S. B. Barker. 


Another larger specimen has the lateral spots rather more distinct. 
The dorsal bands are pale rose-color, (in alcohol). It agrees in the 
shorter occipitals, smaller number of bands, less carinated scales, 
lower rostral, Xe. | 


Charleston. 141-+-1. 49. 25. 17. 23. C. Girard. 


A large specimen from Charleston agrees in its external anatomy, 
but at first sight appears entirely black above, and of an irregular 
slate-color beneath. On a closer examination, however, the trans- 
verse bands are obsoletely visible, especially towards the tail. Traces 
of the markings on the head may likewise be distinguished. Per- 
haps often confounded with the true H. niger. 


Charleston, S.C.  187-+1. 53.23. 26.44. Dr.S. B. Barker. 


&. 


ES 


HETERODON. 59 


B. <Azygos plate behind the rostral separated from the frontals by 
small plates. 


5. Meterodon simus, Horsr.—Vertical plate as broad as long, 
much longer than the occipitals. Rostral broad and high. Azygos encir- 
cled by five or eight small plates. Mouth very short. Dorsal rows 25, the 
three or four externals smooth. Dorsal series of 35 blotches, with one to 
three other series on each side. Abdomen yellowish, scarcely maculated. 
A narrow black band across the forehead in front of the vertical, and pass- 
ing through the eye across one labial to the angle of the mouth. 


Syn. Coluber simus, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. xii, I, 1766, 216.—Gm. Linn. 
Syst. Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1086. 

Heterodon simus, Houser. N. Amer Herp. IV, 1842, 57. Pl. xv. 

Heterodon platyrhinos, Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. descr. 1837, 97. Pl. 
ili, figs. 20-22. 

? Vipera capite viperrens, CatusB. Nat. Hist. Carol. II, 1743, 56. Tab. lvi. 

Hog-nose Snake. 


Vertical plate subheptagonal, sometimes nearly triangular; with 
three sides anteriorly, the lateral against the postfrontals, the middle 
agaist the azygos plates, the sides very obtusely angled. Superci- 
liaries rather short, broad. Occipitals very short, almost as long as 
broad. Postfrontals moderate, the exterior angle scarcely reaching 
the angle of the loral; the two separated by three small plates pos- 
terior to the azygos. Anterior frontals not much smaller. Azygos 
plate resting anteriorly against the rostral, and touched by the inner 
angle of the prefrontal: there is a small plate on each side, between 
it and the notch at the junction of the anterior and postfrontals, 
while behind, the space between it, the postfrontals, and the vertical 
is occupied by the three small plates already mentioned. This 
azygos is thus surrounded on the sides and posteriorly by five small 
plates, (this number is sometimes greater). Rostral broad and high, 
much recurved. Eyes moderate, situated posterior to the centre of im- 
aginary line connecting the last labial and rostral, which would pass 
nearly through its centre. Loral subtriangular, acute above, scarcely 
reaching to the exterior angle of the postfrontal, a small plate some- 
times intervening. Nasal plates rather short and high; nostril oc- 
cupying most of the posterior one, its infero-anterior wall constituted 
by the first labial, its lower by a small plate. Labials 7 above; in- 
creasing very rapidly from the diminutive first; 5th and 6th largest ; 


60 HETERODON. 


all much higher than broad. Lower labials 9. Curve of upper jaw 
very convex and short. 

Scales back of the head short, curved, obsoletely carinated. Dorsal 
rows of scales 25, outer rows smooth, sometimes only three, the cari- 
nation slight, increasing to the medial row. Scales shorter and 
broader than in the other type, becoming narrower on the back; 
those behind rather narrower than before. Body contracted at the 
anus, then expanding or swelling on the tail, which is thick through- 
out, tapering suddenly at the tip. Scales on the tail longer and 
broader than those of the upper part of the body in front; carination 
not very distinct, inferior three rows truncated behind, especially the 
highest. 

A dorsal series of transverse black blotches, 35 from head to tip of 
tail, the 27th opposite the anus. These are sometimes oblique, but ge- 
nerally transverse, and with the anterior and posterior margins paral- 
lel: they are about 9 scales wide, and three to four long, with light 
brownish yellow intervals one or one and a half scales wide. On 
each side, and opposite the intervals, is a distinct series of subquad- 
rate or circular black spots on the 6th—9th rows, not touching those on 
the back, and between them a dusky shade opposite the dorsal spots. 
Below these again are usually two smaller blotches to each spot. 
Intervals between the spots mottled yellowish brown. Beneath yel- 
lowish, with obsolete small brown blotches. On the tail there are 
9 half-rings, rather wider than the light intervals, and somewhat con- 
tracted above. 

A narrow black line crosses the forehead, on the posterior half of 
the postfrontals, and just margining the vertical; this passes through 
the centre of the eye, and is continued to the postlabial. A medial 
patch of black expanding behind, starts from the commissure of the 
occipitals, from which plates others, one on each side, pass across the 
angle of the jaws, the three confluent with the dark color in the occi- 
pitals. In H platyrhinos this medial patch is isolated, and not in 
contact with the occipital one. 


Charleston, S.C. 117+1.85+9.25. 18. 33. C. Girard. 


Some specimens from Abbeville, S. C., vary in having the rostral 
separated from the prefrontals by two or three small plates, and 
the azygos entirely cut off from the frontals by intervening plates. 
The lower wall of the rostral is constituted by two small plates: there 
is a second small plate above the loral; in fact a general tendency to 


HETERODON. 61 


break up into small plates. The markings on the back are restricted 
to a dorsal series, with a dusky shade opposite, and a lateral series 
opposite the light yellowish intervals; the ground-color of the sides 
a quite uniform yellowish brown. Specimens from Mississippi have 
the dorsal spot smaller and nearly circular. 


Abbeville, S. C. 130-++1. 55.27. 153.13. Dr. J.B. Barratt. 
~ 119-++1. 46. 25. 19. 34. . 
ue 130-+-1. 82.25. 143. 13. - 
e 132+-1. 30.25. 12. 13. 4 
Mississippi. 182+-1. 34. 25. 16. 2. Dr. B. F. Shumard. 
i 1382-+-1. 39.27. 14. 2. z 


6. Heterodon nasicus, B. & G.—Vertical broader than long. 
Rostral excessively broad and high. Azygos plate surrounded behind and 
on the sides by many small plates (12-15). A second loral. Labials short 
and excessively high. Dorsal rows of scales 23, exterior alone smooth. A 
dorsal series of about 50 blotches, with four or five others on eachside. Body 
beneath black. A narrow white line across the middle of the superciliaries ; 
a second behind the rostral. A broad dark patch from the eye to the angle 
of the mouth, crossing the last two labials. 


Syn. Heterodon nasicus, B. & G., Reptiles in Stansbury’s Expl. Valley of 
Great Salt Lake, 1852, 352. 


Vertical plate very broad, subhexagonal. Occipitals short. Rostral 
very broad, high, more than in the other species, outline rounded. 
The interval between the opposite frontals, the rostral, and the ver- 
tical occupied by a number of small plates, from 10 to 12, or more, 
arranged without any symmetry, on each side and behind the small 
azygos. The base of the rostrals between the opposite anterior 
nasals, is generally margined by these small plates, which some- 
times, too, are seen between the vertical and the anterior portion of 
the superciliaries. This crowding of plates causes the anterior part 
of the forehead to be broader than in HZ simus. Eye small, its 
centre rather posterior to the middle of the imaginary line connecting 
the tip of rostral with the lower angle of the postlabial, which 
line scarcely crosses the eyeball. Orbital plates, 10-13 in number. 
Loral triangular, rather longer than high, separated from the frontal 
by a small plate. Nasals rather short, occasionally with the lower 
part of the nostril bounded by a small plate. Labials 8 or 9 above, 
all of them higher than long; indeed, their vertical extension is 


62 HETERODON. 


much greater than in any other species: the 6th highest, centre of 
eye over the junction of the 5th and 6th. 

Dorsal rows of scales 23, outer row smooth, rest all distinctly cari- 
nated, the keels extending to the ends of the scales; those just be- 
hind the occipital plates truncated, with obsolete carinze. Scales on 
the hind part of the body rather broader and shorter than anteriorly ; 
the inequality scarcely evident in large specimens. 

Ground-color light brown, or yellowish gray, with about 50 dorsal 
blotches from head to tip of tail; the 89th opposite the anus. These 
blotches are quite small, rather longer transversely, subquadrate, or 
rounded, indistinctly margined with black, (obsoletely on the out- 
side) ; they cover 7 to 9 scales across, are 2 to 23 long, and sepa- 
rated by interspaces of 13 scales, which are pretty constant through- 
out, though rather narrower on the tail. On each side of the dorsal 
row may be made out, under favorable circumstances, four alternat- 
ing rows of blotches; the first on the contiguous edges of the scales 
of the first and second exterior dorsal rows; the second on the scales 
of the 3d row, and the adjacent edges of those in the 2d and 4th; 
the third on the scales of the 4th, 5th, and 6th, and the adjacent 
edges of the 3d and 7th; and the fourth on the scales of the 6th, 
7th, and 8th rows, and the adjacent edges of those of the 5th. This 
last is opposite the intervals of the dorsal series; the rest alternate 
with it. The central inferior surface of the abdominal scutellx is 
black, sharply variegated with quadrate spots of yellowish white ; 
the portion of the scutellee entering into the side of the body is yel- 
lowish white, with that part opposite the dorsal intervals dark brown, 
thus, in fact, constituting a fifth lateral series of blotches, alternating 
with the lowest already mentioned. The throat and chin are un- 
spotted. The head is light brown, with a narrow whitish line finely 
margined before and behind with black, which crosses in front of the 
centre of the vertical, and through the middle of the superciliaries : 
a second similar but more indistinct line runs parallel to this, just 
behind the rostral, and extending down in front of the eye. <A third 
equally indistinct and similar line crosses the posterior angle of the 
vertical, and runs back on the side of the neck, behind the labials 
and temporal shields. There is a broad brown patch from the back 
part of the eye to the angle of the mouth, across the penultimate and 
last labial. The coloration is thus very different from that of 7. 
simus, where there is a distinct narrow black band across the fore- 
head scarcely involving the vertical, and passing through the eye to 


HETERODON. 63 


the angle of the mouth across the last labial. Behind this a much 
broader yellowish band, continued without interruption into the neck 
behind the angle of the mouth. In ZZ. nasicus the most conspicuous 
feature is a narrow white band, much narrower than the darker patch 
before and behind it. The dark patch, to the angle of the mouth, 
is much broader, continuous as it were, with the broad bar between 
the middle and anterior light lines, which corresponds with the nar- 
row black line of ZZ. simus. The other distinguishing features are 
evident. ‘The three dark patches behind the head are much as in 
H. simus. 

In the larger specimens from Sonora and the Copper Mines, the 
ground-color is yellowish gray, each scale minutely punctate with 
brown. The blotches are all obsolete, only one dorsal and two lateral 
on each side being defined by darker shades. The blotches on the 
sides of the abdomen are wanting, but the black in the middle is 
strongly marked. ‘The other characters, however, are preserved, 
except that the exterior row of dorsal scales is more or less carinated. 


Rio Grande. 188-1. 45. 23. 73.14. Gen. 8S. Churchill. 
12 1 Capts. Marcy & 


Red River, Ark. 148+1. 40.23. 12. 13 McClellan, 
Ft. Webster, Santa k a Con 

Rita del Cobre. 14642. 34. 23. 21.2%. Col.J. D: Graham. 
Sonora, Mex. 150-++1. 39. 28. 24. 8. a 


A specimen from California has the rostral rather less developed 
and four irregular plates on top of head. The coloration differs in 
having the light transverse intervals between the dorsal blotches 
narrower, especially posteriorly. 

California. 137-+2. 48.23. 224.4. Dr. Wm. Gambel. 


64 PITUOPHIS. 


Genus PETUOPHEIS, Horse. 


Grn. Cuar. Body subcylindrical, deeper than wide, attaining 
often a considerable size. Head elongated, ovoid, in some instances 
narrow anteriorly. Vertical plate elongated, sometimes as broad 
anteriorly as long. Superciliaries large, subtriangular. Posterior 
frontals two pairs, an internal and external, both elongated. Pre- 
frontals subquadrate. A small loral. Postorbitals three or four; 
anteorbitals generally two, occasionally only one. ‘Temporal shields 
very small, resembling the scales. Cleft of mouth curved. Dorsal 
rows of scales 29-85, variable in some species; those on the back 
carinated, on the sides smooth. Abdominal scutelle 209-248 ; 
posterior large and entire. Subcaudal scutellee all bifid. 

Ground-color whitish or reddish yellow; a triple series of dorsal 
black blotches, those of the medial series the largest; several 
series of smaller blotches on the flanks. Abdomen unicolor or ma- 
culated, with an outer row of blotches. Head of the same color as 
the body, maculated with black spots. A narrow band of black 
across the upper surface between the eyes, and a postocular vitta on 
each side, extending obliquely from the eye down to the angle of the 
mouth. A black vertical patch is often seen beneath the eye. 


Syn. Pituophis, Horse. N. Amer. Herp. IV, 1842, 7. 

Pityophis, Hatwow. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. VI, 1852, 181. 

Churchillia,* Barry & GIRARD, Reptiles in Stansbury’s Expl. of 
the valley of the Great Salt Lake, 1852, 350. 


* The species upon which the genus Churchillia was established, exhibits in the 
structure of the cephalic plates the remarkable character of having a small median 
plate in advance of the vertical, limited on each side by the external, and in front 
by the internal postfrontals. This character, together with the presence of two 
anteorbitals and four postorbitals, one more on either side than in Pituophis me- 
lanoleucus, the only species then known, appeared a sufficient generic character. 
Since the discovery of several other species, in which there are two anteorbitals 
and four postorbitals, with the structure of the cephalic plates similar to what they 


PITUOPHIS. 65 


1. Pituophis melanoleucus, Horsr.—Head ovoid, broad behind. 
Anteorbital 1; postorbitals 8. Dorsal rows of scales 29, the four outer rows 
smooth, 5th, 6th, and 7th with an obsolete keel. Tail about } of total 
length. Head maculated with black; an oblique vitta from the orbit to the 
7th labial. Color of the body whitish, with a dorsal series of very large 
blotches, the 24th opposite the anus; anteriorly and posteriorly emarginated 
on the anterior third of the body, oblong posteriorly. Elongated smaller 
blotches on the flanks, forming three indistinct series, often confluent. Ab- 
domen unicolor. <A series of 20-29 distinct blotches along the extremities 
of the scutelle. 


Syn. Coluber melanoleucus, Daup. Hist. Nat. Rept. VI, 1799, 409.— 
Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. V, 1827, 359; and Med. & Phys. Res. 
1835, 122. 

Pituophis melanoleucus, Houser. N. Amer. Herp. IV, 1842, 7. Pl. i. 

Pine Snake, or Bull Snake, Bartram, Tray. in Carol., Geo., and Florida, 
1791, 276. 


Head robust, conical. Vertical plate subpentagonal, broad an-. 
teriorly. Occipitals a little larger than the vertical, and as broad 
anteriorly as long. Internal postfrontals elongated and subtriangu- 
lar; external postfrontals polygonal. Prefrontals quadrilateral, se- 
parated by the rostral. Rostral narrow, very convex, raised above 
the surface of the snout, and reaching the internal postfrontals. 
Nasals very large, anterior one the larger. Nostrils vertically ob- 
long, situated in the middle and between both plates. Loral ovoid, 
small, horizontal. One large anteorbital, with its anterior margin 
convex, of the same width above as below. Three postorbitals, 
proportionally large. Temporal shields small, six or nine, or more. 
Upper labials 8, 7th largest, 4th coming into the orbit. Lower 
labials 14, 5th and 6th largest, the five posterior ones quite small. 
Posterior pair of mental shields one-third of the size of the anterior 
pair, and reaching backwards to opposite the middle of the lower 6th 
labial. Tail conical and tapering, forming about the seventh of the 
total length. 

The ground-color, when living, is said to be white ; as preserved in 
alcohol it is yellowish brown. The head is maculated with small 
black spots; frontal bar rather wide; postocular vitta broad. A dor- 


are in P. melanoleucus, we deem it expedient to place Churchillia bellona in the 
genus Pituophis. One might well have been familiar with the reptiles of North 
America described before 1851, and not be prepared to identify species presenting 


the characters just alluded to. z 


66 PITUOPHIS. 


sal series of very large blotches, of a deep chestnut-brown, broadly 
margined with black anteriorly and posteriorly. These blotches are 
24 in number from the head to opposite the anus, and 6 on the 
tail, where they extend laterally down to the subcaudal scutelle. 
More or less confluent, and consequently irregular in shape on the 
anterior third of the body, they are posteriorly subround or sub- 
quadrate, emarginated in front and behind, and separated from each 
other by a light space embracing four scales, whilst the blotches them- 
selves cover six scales. The flanks are blotched but very irregularly ; 
on the anterior region of the body the blotches elongate in the shape 
of longitudinal bands or vittze; on the middle region three indistinct 
series may be traced, alternating and often confluent by their corners ; 
posteriorly there is only one series opposite to the dorsal, and often 
confluent with it, so that the corresponding blotches form single 
patches, extending from the back to the abdomen, and tapering on 
the sides. The abdomen is dull yellow, with a series of distant 
blackish brown patches along the extremity of the scutell, often 
extending to the outer row of scales. 


Carolina. 216. 60. 29. 55%. 8. (on dep.) Acad. Nat. Se. 


2. Pituophis belloma, B. & G.—Head elliptical, rather pointed. 
Vertical plate very broad anteriorly. A second anterior vertical, small, and 
subcordiform. Anteorbitals 2; postorbitals 4. Dorsal rows of scales 31-35; 
the seven outer rows smooth. Tail about ;/5 of total length. Head macu- 
lated with black; transverse frontal bar extending from one orbit to the 
other, well marked; the oblique postocular vitta rather narrow, and reach- 
ing the angle of the mouth. Color of the body whitish yellow, sometimes 
reddish yellow, with a dorsal series of deep black blotches, or of deep brown, 
margined with black, 51 in number, from the head to the origin of the tail, 
and a series of smaller spots on each sides. Ten transverse jet-black bars 
on the tail. Flanks crowded with small and irregular blotches. Abdomen 
dull yellow, maculated with black blotches more or less crowded. 


Syn. Churchillia bellona, B. & G. Reptiles in Stansbury’s Expl. Valley 
of Great Salt Lake, 1852, 350. 
Pituophis afinis, Hattow. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. VI, 1852, 181. 


Head broad behind, and well separated from the body by a con- 
tracted neck, very much tapering to the end of the snout, subquad- 
rangular from the eyes forwards. Upper surface flattened, snout 
elevated and rounded. Occipital plates triangular, as broad anteri- 


PITUOPHIS. 67 


orly as long. Superciliaries longer than either the vertical or oc- 
cipitals. Vertical subpentagonal very broad anteriorly, as broad as 
long, and very much tapering posteriorly ; its sides concave. The 
second small subcordiform anterior vertical is situated between the 
external postfrontals, which are comparatively the larger. Internal 
postfrontals irregularly triangular, and smaller than the prefrontals, 
which are irregularly quadrangular. The rostral is proportionally 
narrow, and raised above the surface of the snout, not reaching, how- 
ever, the internal postfrontals. Nasals subquadrangular, anterior one 
a little larger; nostrils situated between the two plates, but more in 
the posterior one. Loral very small, narrow, and elongated, hori- 
zontal in position. Two anteorbitals, inferior one very small ; upper 
one very regular, slightly convex on its anterior margin. Postorbitals 
four in number, occasionally only three, the two upper ones a little 
the larger. Numerous small temporal shields. Upper labials 8, 6th 
and 7th somewhat larger. Lower labials 13, 7th largest; the six 
posterior ones the smallest. Dorsal scales elliptically elongated, con- 
stituting 31-35 rows, the seven outer of which are smooth, the others 
carinated, the five outermost very sensibly the larger. 

The ground-color is whitish yellow: on the anterior third and 
upper part of the body, the bases, and sometimes the two anterior 
thirds of the scales are jet black, so as to make the ground-color 
appear black. There are 51 large chocolate-brown dorsal blotches, 
margined with jet black from the head to opposite the anus, and 
10 on the tail. On the anterior portion of the body these blotches 
are subcircular, or rather elliptical, covering in width seven or eight 
rows of scales, and four and two half-scales in length; the spaces 
between embrace about two seales. Posteriorly the blotches be- 
come quadrate, and the intermediate spaces increase so as to be at 
first equal to the blotches, and towards the origin of the tail they are 
actually wider by one scale than the blotches themselves. On the 
tail the blotches assume the shape of narrow transverse bars, taper- 
ing downwards. On each side of the dorsal blotches is a series of 
much smaller and somewhat irregular blotches, margined with black, 
the blotches being opposite to the light spaces, alternating, but not con- 
fluent with the medial blotches. On the anterior third of the body a 
series of small blotches is observed on the flanks, and beneath it, a 
series of elongated black patches, all of which exhibit a tendency to 
become obsolete vertical bars, more apparent posteriorly in very large 
individuals, giving to the flanks a nebulous appearance. The head 


4 


68 PITUOPHIS. 


above is yellowish brown, with small black spots on the vertex and 
occiput. Frontal black bar distinct in small individuals, obsolete 
in large ones; postorbital vitta narrow; suborbital spot small. In- 
ferior surface of the head and abdomen light straw-color, with an ex- 
ternal series of distant black spots on each side, confluent under the 
tail, and constituting a medial band. 


Betw. San Antonio 


99 33. Zz, 58, Ol Q 
& El Paso. ; D8. AA OS 614. 53 Col. J. D. Graham. 


Rio Grande. D231. ia too. 61%. 52.  Gen.S8. Churchill. 
FI’ t Webster, Santa k 5 a eh ie 
Rita: del Cobre, 225. 63. 31-83. 44%. 64. Col. J. D. Graham. 
ae 225.NOS. 100. js Boar 
Sonora, Mex. 222. 60. 29-31. 23%. 44. e 
California. 226. 58.31. 45%. 5] Dr. W. Gambel. 


3. Pituophis McClelianii, B. & G.—Head subelliptical. Rostral 
plate very narrow. Anteorbitals 2; postorbitals 4. Dorsal 38-35 rows; 


the 7 outer rows smooth. Tail forming } or ;!, of totallength. Postocular 


vitta brown, and rather broad. Suborbital black patch conspicuous; com- 
missure of labials black. Color of body reddish yellow, with a series of 53 
blotches from head to origin of tail. Blotches of adjoining series, on either 
side, confluent across the light spaces between medial blotches. Flanks 
covered with small blotches, forming 3 or 4 indistinct series. Twelve trans- 


verse jet black bars across the tail. Abdomen yellowish, thickly maculated 
with black patches. 


Head proportionally large, ovoid, detached from the body. Snout 
pointed. Occipital plates small. Vertical broad, subpentagonal, 
slightly concave on the sides. Superciliaries large. Internal postfront- 
als rather narrow, elongated, external postfrontals quadrilateral, a lit- 
tle broader forwards. Prefrontals irregularly quadrangular. Rostral 
very narrow, extending halfway between the prefrontals, convex 
and raised above the surface of the snout. Nostrils in the middle 
line between the nasals, the posterior of which is a little the smaller. 
Loral trapezoidal, proportionally large. Inferior anteorbital very 
small, resting upon the fourth upper labial. Postorbitals varying 
in comparative size. Temporal shields small, resembling scales. 
Upper labials 8, 6th and 7th the larger. Lower Jabials 12, 6th and 
7th largest. Posterior mental shields very small, extending to op- 
posite the junction of the 7th and 8th lower labials. Scales propor- 


PITUOPHIS. 69 


tionally small, in 33-35 rows, the 7 outer ones perfectly smooth and 
somewhat larger than the remaining rows. 

Ground-color yellowish brown, with three series of dorsal black 
blotches, 53 in number, from the head to opposite the anus, with 
12 on the tail, in the shape of transverse bars. Those of the 
medial series the larger, and covering 8 or 9 rows of scales. On 
the anterior part of the body they are subcircular, embracing longi- 
tudinally four scales; posteriorly they become shorter by one scale. 
The light spaces between are a little narrower than the blotches 
themselves for the twelve anterior blotches, and wider than the 
blotches for the remaining length of the body. The blotches of the 
adjoining series alternate with those of the medial series, being oppo- 
site to the light intermediate spaces, across which the blotches of 
either sides are generally united by a transversal narrow band. The 
flanks are densely covered with small and irregular blotches, forming 
three indistict series, confluent in vertical bars towards the origin of 
the tail. Inferior surface of the head yellowish, unicolor. Abdo- 
men dull yellow, with crowded brownish black blotches in series on 
the extremity of the scutelle. 


Red River, Ark. 231. 52.35. 383 
e 231. 52. 38. 24 


bo we 


%. Capts. Marey & McClellan. 
ne ‘ 
Se 


‘ 


he Be 


4. Pituophis catenifer, B. & G.—Head subelliptical, flattened 
above. Vertical plate elongated, nearly equilateral, posterior triangular 
portion excepted. Rostral broad. Anteorbitals 2; postorbitals 3. Loral 
trapezoidal, proportionally larger than in other species. Dorsal rows of 
scales 31; the 4 external rows smooth. Tail forming about } of the total 
length. Frontal black bar conspicuous. Postocular vitta of a jet black, 
reaching the angle of the mouth between the penultimate and last upper 
labials. Color of body grayish yellow, the triple series of dorsal black 
blotches, 61 in number, from the head to the origin of the tail, forming a 
continuous chain all along the back, owing to the confluence of the lateral 
series of small blotches with the large medial series, with which they alter- 
nate. A series of proportionally large subcircular blotches along the mid- 
dle of the flanks. Middle of the abdomen unicolor, with an external series 
of black spots on each side. 


Syn. Coluber catenifer, Buainv. Nouv. Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. III, 1834. 
Pl. xxvi. figs. 2, 2a, 2b. 


Head subelliptical. Vertical plate maintaining its width posteri« 
orly. Superciliaries proportionally large. Occipitals very much 


70 PITUOPHIS. 


dilated anteriorly, tapering posteriorly. Prefrontals proportionally 
small, subcircular. The nasals are nearly equal in size, and the 
nostrils open between their commissure near the edge of the pre- 
frontals. Rostral proportionally broad, even with the surface of the 
snout. oral small, subelliptical and oblique. Two anteorbitals, 
the upper one very large, the lower one small, resting on the 
fourth upper labial. Three postorbitals of nearly the same size. 
The temporal shields, ten to twelve in number, are slightly larger 
than the contiguous scales. Upper labials 8, 7th the larger. Lower 
labials 12, 5th and 6th largest. Posterior mental shields very nar- 
row, extending beyond the 6th lower labial. Dorsal scales narrow 
and rather acute, constituting 31 rows, the outer one of which is con- 
siderably the larger. ‘Tail very tapering. 

Ground-color above fuscous, with a triple series of black blotches 
along the back, 78 in number, the 61st opposite to the anus; 17 on 
the tail. The blotches, of the medial series are proportionally very 
large, quadrangular, longer than broad, covering six rows of scales, 
and the half of the adjoining rows, embracing longitudinally five or six 
scales. A narrow light space of one scale exists between each blotch. 
The adjoining series is composed of much smaller blotches, alternat- 
ing and covering three rows of scales confluent with the middle ones, 
thus forming a continuous chain on the back, and enclosing entirely 
the light spaces between the blotches. A series of subcircular or 
oblong blotches runs conspicuously along the middle of the flanks, 
on the 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th rows of scales. These are 88 in num- 
ber, the 71st opposite to the anus, and 10 along the anterior half of 
the tail. The five first blotches are elongated, and exhibit a tend- 
ency towards forming a vitta or band. From the middle region of 
the body to the tail, two obsolete series of very small blotches are seen 
alternating with the series of the flanks, one above and one below. 
The abdomen is yellowish, unicolor, except a series of blotches on the 
extremities of the scutella, extending sometimes to the outer row of 
scales. 


San Francisco, Cal. 230. 71.81. 55. 5§. (ondep.) Expl. Exped. 


PITUOPHIS. “1 


5. Pituophis Wilkesii, B. & G.—Head elongated, conical for- 
wards. Vertical plate pentagonal, much broader anteriorly than posteri- 
orly. Rostral broad. Anteorbitals 2; postorbitals 8. Loral trapezoidal. 


Dorsal rows of scales 29-31; three outer rows smooth. Tail } or } of total 


length. Frontal black bar well marked. Postocular vitta extending over 
the last upper labial to the angle of the mouth. Color of body whitish yel- 
low on the sides, reddish yellow above, with a dorsal series of subquadrate 
blotches, 70 in number, from the head to origin of the tail, and proportion- 
ally smaller than in any other species. The blotches of the two adjoining 
series not confluent with those of the medial one. 


Head elongated, subelliptical, subpyramidal, or subconical anteri- 
orly. Occipital plates much longer than broad, longer than either 
the vertical or superciliaries. Vertical pentagonal, concave laterally, 
tapering; length greater than the width of its anterior margin. Ex- 
ternal postfrontals sometimes divided into two plates, one of which 
has been called upper loral. Internal postfrontals elongated, very 
narrow posteriorly, sometimes also subdivided. Rostral broad, not 
separating the prefrontals. Nasals equal in size ; nostrils intermediate 
and nearer to the frontals than labials. Loral not very large. In- 
ferior anteorbitals small, and situated between the 4th and 5th upper 
labials. Postorbitals nearly equal in size, and generally contiguous 
to the anterior ones, thus excluding the labials from the orbit, into 
which, however, the fifth occasionally enters. Temporal shields 
scarcely to be distinguished from the scales. Upper labials 8 or 9, 
4th or 5th occasionally coming into the orbit, penultimate the largest. 
Lower labials 12 or 15, 5th or 6th the largest, the six posterior ones 
very much reduced. Dorsal scales elliptical, forming 29-31 rows, 
the three outer rows perfectly smooth, slight carinze on the 4th, 5th, 
and 6th rows, and not very conspicuous on the remaining ones. 
Tail conical and tapering. 

Ground-color yellowish, with a dorsal series of subquadrate blotches, 
about 90 in number, 20 of which on the tail. These are deep 
brown, margined with black anteriorly, entirely black posteriorly ; 
these blotches cover transversely 8 or 9 rows of scales, embracing 
longitudinally five to seven scales on the anterior region of the body, 
and two or three posteriorly. The spaces between the blotches are 
of the uniform width of one scale for the whole length of the body, 
decidedly narrower than in other species. <A lateral series of blotches 
on each side of the medial, covering three rows of scales, and alter- 


<2 PITUOPHIS. 


nating with the medial series. A series of blotches along the middle 
of the flanks opposite to the blotches of the medial series of the back. 
On the anterior part of the body the lateral blotches are elongated, 
and occasionally combine into a band or vitta behind the neck. On 
the anterior third of the body, an indistinct series of black spots may 
be seen between the scutellee and the outer series of lateral blotches. 
Inferior surface of head and abdomen dull yellowish white, with two 
series of distant blotches, the outer series more conspicuous than the 
inner one, and extending to the end of the tail. 

In the young the middle region of the abdomen is unicolor, and 
the external series of spots only exists, which, together with the series 
on the middle of the flanks, are most conspicuous. 


Puget Sound, Or. 215. 56. 29-81. 39%. 5§. (on dep.) Expl. Exped. 
ce 


“ 209. 72. 29-31. 418. 72 
Oregon. 209. 66. 29. 143, 13 6 
6“ 213. — 29. 13}. 1F “ 


6. Pituophis annectens, B. & G.—Head elongated, elliptical. 
Vertical plate subpentagonal, elongated, posteriorly obtuse, with sides con- 
cave. Anteorbitals 2; postorbitals 8. Dorsal rows of scales 33, 5 outer 
rows smooth. Triple series of dorsal blotches confluent for nearly the whole 
length of the body. 


Differs from P. catenifer in having much smaller dorsal blotches, 
and more interspaced. The fifteen anterior blotches of the three 
dorsal series almost united in a transverse or oblique band, ante- 
riorly and posteriorly irregular. The blotches on the flanks are also 
proportionally smaller than in P. catentfer. From P. Wilkesii, which 
it resembles in the small size of the blotches, it differs by a more coni- 
cal head, a narrower and longer vertical plate, and a rostral reaching 
higher up on the snout. The loral and superior anteorbital are quite 
large, and the lower anteorbital very small. In one specimen we 
have noticed 5 postorbitals, the 5th contiguous to the lower ante- 
orbital, thus constituting a continuous chain beneath the eye. Dor- 
sal scales in 33 rows, the 5 outermost perfectly smooth. 


San Diego, Cal. 243. {4.33.." 28%. 423. Dr. J. L. Leconte. 


SCOTOPHIS. 


~I 


Go 


Genus SCOTOPHIUIS, Barrp & Girarp. 


GEN. Car. Form colubrine. Body cylindrical, very long— 
many individuals attaining a very large size, perhaps the largest of 
all North American serpents. Head elongated, rather narrow. 
Vertical plate very broad, sometimes wider than long. Posterior 
frontals very large. Postorbitals 2; anteorbitals one, generally very 
large; the longitudinal extension of this and of the postfrontals pro- 
ducing a much elongated muzzle. Mouth deeply cleft, outline 
nearly straight. Dorsal rows of scales 28-29; those along the back 
slightly carinated (9-15 rows), on the sides smooth. Abdominal 
seutellz: from 200 to 235; posterior bifid. Subcaudals all bifid. 

Color brown or black, in quadrate blotches on the back and on the 
sides, separated by lighter intervals. Abdomen usually coarsely 
blotched with darker. In one species dark stripes on a light ground. 
Although very large and powerful, many of the species of the genus 
are characterized by their extreme gentleness, rarely becoming en- 


raged, even when provoked. 


1. Scotophis alleghaniensis, B. & G.—Vertical plate longer 
than broad. Posterior upper labial largest. Outer 7 rows of scales smooth. 
Dorsal rows 27. Abdominal scutelle 235. Color black below, mottled 
anteriorly with white. White edges to some scales, imparting an appear- 
ance of dorsal and lateral blotches, especially in the young. 


Syn. Coluber alleghaniensis, Houser. N. Amer. Herp. I, 1836, 111. Pl. xx; 
and 2d. ed. III, 1842, 85. Pl. xix.—Drxay, New York Fauna. Rept. 1842, 36. 
Pl. xii, fig. 26. 


Anterior frontals larger in proportion than in S. Lindheimerit. 
Superciliaries subtriangular. Upper labials 8, increasing behind ; 
posterior the largest. Lower labials 11, 5th and 6th largest, de- 
creasing posteriorly. Nostrils more in the anterior nasal. Outer 
seven rows of dorsal scales smooth, then an obsolete carination, in- 
creasing to the vertebral series. Hach scale minutely bipunctate. 

General color lustrous pitch-black ; beneath, the color posteriorly 
is uniform slate-black ; on the chin and throat dull yellowish: these 


74 SCOTOPHIS. 


two colors, as they extend towards each other, are of less and less 
extent, mingling in the form of blotches: the anterior fourth shows 
most of yellowish, the next fourth most of the black, the posterior 
half uniform black. On separating the scales, those at certain suc- 
cessive intervals on both back and sides will be found to have their 
bases narrowly margined with white, as if the fundamental color con- 
sisted of dark blotches on a white ground, as in S. Lindheimerit. 

A second specimen, smaller, shows the same characters, but with 
more of white beneath. 
Carlisle, Pa. 234+-1. 86. £ 


9 103. S. F. Baird. 
Unknown. 233-+1. 83.27. 38 


$. Unknown. 


2. Scotophis Lindheimerii, B. & G.—Head broader than in 
S. alleghaniensis. Vertical plate as broad anteriorly as long. Posterior 
upper labials smaller than in S. alleghaniensis. Dorsal series 29; abdominal 


scutelle 228-235. Black dorsal and lateral blotches; intermediate space 
rather lighter, with scales edged with white. Scale on sides of neck white, 


each with bluish spot. 


Occipitals moderate, their commissure equal in length to the verti- 
cal. Orbits moderate, above the 4th and 5th labials, centre about 
midway between the snout and angle of the mouth. Anterior orbital 
large, single, extending nearly to the outer angle of the vertical. 
Loral trapezoidal, highest anteriorly. Nasals moderate, including 
nostrils between them. Labials 8 above, moderate, posterior small ; 
12 below; posterior very small, 6th and 7th largest. Nine rows of 
scales between labials and abdominal scutellz at the angle of the 
mouth. Outer ten rows smooth, then carinated very obsoletely, 
rather more decidedly and in increasing degree towards the back. 

Color above dark lead color, constituted by a dorsal series of 
quadrangular blotches, about 54 from head to anus, rather acutely 
emarginate before and behind, occupying a width equal to about 15 
scales. The lozenge-shaped intervals between these blotches are 
from two to three scales long centrally, diminishing and becoming 
more linear posteriorly. On each side, and alternating with the 
dorsal series, is a second alternating one, composed of subrectangu- 
lar elongated blotches, and alternating again with these is a second 
indistinct series along the edge of the abdomen. ‘The entire system 
of coloration is very difficult to define, the general appearance being 
that of a black snake with irregular obsolete mottlings of white. 


SCOTOPHIS. 75 


The intervals between the blotches may be indicated as being white, 
with the centre and apex of each scale lead color, the proportion of 
the latter peng very small on the sides, and increasing to the dorsal 
line. The scales in the centres of the blotches have the basal half 
narrowly margined with white, as is the case, to some extent, with 
the lateral spots. Beneath greenish white, with the centres of the 
scutellee mottled with dark slate-blue, increasing backwards. Chin 
and throat immaculate yellowish white, scales on the sides with a 
bluish spot on the apex. 

The colors described are those as preserved in alcohol. Probably 
the color of the animal when alive is much like that of Bascanion 
constrictor or Scotophis alleghaniensis. 

In the general obsoleteness of the markings, the blotches may 
sometimes be detected as more or less confluent between the different 
series. 


New Braunfels, Tex. 227-+-1. 81.29. 386.7. Dr. F. Lindheimer. 


A second specimen much larger, of what appears to be the same 
species, differs in haying the belly nearly uniform yellowish: the 
black of the upper parts is replaced by umber-brown. The blotches 
are visible, but very obsoletely. 


Indianola. 234+1. 85.29. 60.9. Col. J. D. Graham. 


3. Scotophis vulpinus, B. & G.—Head rather short, vertical 
broader than long. Postfrontals very large, as long as the verticals, pe- 
nultimate upper labial largest. Dorsal series 25; outer 4 rows smooth. 
Abdominal scutelle 203. Subquadrate dorsal blotches transverse, 3 or 4 
scales long. Tail tumid. 


Anterior frontals much smaller than the posterior. Rostral broad. 
Occipitals broad, rather short, longer than the vertical. Eyes smaller 
than in S. alleghaniensis, centre over the junction of the 4th and 5th 
Jabials. Upper labials 8, penultimate one the largest, last somewhat 
smaller: lower 10, 6th the largest. Anteriorly the first three or four 
rows are smooth, there they are very obsoletely carinated, increasing 
towards the back, although everywhere moderately so. Tail thick. 

General aspect that of Ophibolus eximius, from which it is however 
distinguishable by the carinated scales and other generic features. 
Ground-color above light brown. A series of broad transverse quad- 
rate chocolate blotches extending from head to tail, about 60 in num- 
ber, 44 to anus. ‘The first spot anteriorly is divided into two on the 


76 SCOTOPHIS. 


t 

nape, and occasionally the blotches anteriorly are irregular, oblique, 
and varying in size. This occurs, however, only on the anterior fifth 
of the body, behind which the intervals between the blotches are 
rectilinear, nearly equal, and about one and a half scales in length. 
The blotches are generally embraced between the 5th or 6th rows 
on each side, and are 3 to 4 scales long. The sides of the blotches 
are not linear but obtuse angled. On each side is a series of smailer 
rounded blotches on the 5—7th rows, similar in color to those on the 
back, and like them with a black border, sometimes more or less in- 
terrupted. Another series of subquadrate black blotches, about the 
same size as the last, is visible on the edge of the abdomen, some- 
times involving the Ist and 2d rows of scales, these are opposite to 
the dorsal blotches. Rest of the abdomen yellowish white, with al- 
ternating quadrate blotches of black. The brown color becomes 
lighter on the sides. 


Racine, Wise. 202-1. 68. 25. 32. 7. DrwPo Re Eoy: 


A second much larger specimen from Michigan has the ground- 
color a yellowish brown, and there is a black streak from the eye to 
the angle of the mouth ; a second vertical stripe under the eye. The 
spots on the back are only about 45, of which 13 belong to the tail. 

This species is probably allied to C. calligaster of Say, but no men- 
tion is made of the abdominal blotches, and Drs. Holbrook and Hal- 
lowell assure us particularly that the scales are smooth. 


Grosse Ile, Mich. 202+-1. 69. 25. 57. 9. Rev. Chas. Fox. 


A. Scotophis confinis, B. & G.—Vertical plate longer than broad. ~ 
Nostrils more anterior than in S. vulpinus. Dorsal rows 25, outer rather 
larger; exterior 6 rows smooth; abdominal scales 240. Quadrate dorsal 
blotches elongated throughout, 5-6 scales long. 


Head large, broad. Posterior frontals large; anterior consider- 
ably smaller; occipitals broad, large. Eye rather large; centre over 
the line joining the 4th and 5th labials: orbits above the whole of 
the 4th and 5th labials. Upper labials 8, penultimate the largest, 
Jast one large; inferior 12 or 11, posterior small. Nostrils nearly 
terminal. Rostral narrow, high. 

Seales rather short. Outer six rows smooth, remainder very obso- 
letely carinated. Exterior row rather larger, rest nearly uniform. 


SCOTOPHIS. 77 


General aspect that of Ophibolus eximius, from which its lar ser eyes 
and head, carinated scales, &c. at once distinguish it. Ground- 
color ash-gray. A series of 44 dorsal blotches, of which 12 are on 
the tail. These blotches are dark chocolate-brown, with obsolete 
black margins. They are included between the 6th and 7th row on 
each side, and about six scales long. They are very regular in shape, 
longitudinally quadrate, rather wider transversely in the middle, and 
with the corners slightly produced longitudinally. The gray inter- 
vals are thus not quite rectilinear, rather elliptical, but of the same 
width throughout. On the 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th lateral rows is a 
second series of similar blotches, more or less elongated, especially 
anteriorly. On the side of the neck, indeed, the blotches are con- 
fluent into very narrow distinct stripes. A third series of square 
blotches on the side of the abdomen, involving the Ist and 2d lateral 
rows. Rest of belly yellowish white, with black blotches; anterior 
eighth immaculate. A black stripe from the posterior part of the 
orbit to the angle of the mouth, which it reaches on the anterior 
extremity of the last labial. A vertical line beneath the eye, and 
the edges of the labials in front also black. Some blotching on the 
top of the head, which is too indistinct to define. 

Compared with S. vulpinus the eyes are larger, the vertical plate 
longer, the nostrils more anterior, the carination more obsolete. 
Body more elongated. Abdominal scutellee more numerous. Spots 
longitudinal, not transverse. Scales shorter, broader, more obtusely 
angular. 

This species is closely allied to S. guttatus, but is quite distinct. 
Its full characters can only be seen in larger specimens, which may 
have been confounded with S. guttatus. Very probably some of the 
numerous synonyms assigned to the latter species may belong here, 
but in the want of accurate descriptions, the only course left is to 
give a new name. 


Anderson, S. C. 239+-1. 81.25. 163. 4%. Miss C. Paine. 


5. Scotophis laetus, B. & G.—Similar to S. confinis, but posterior 
frontals larger. Vertical plate longer than broad. Dorsal rows 29. Ab- 
dominal scutelle 227. Blotches fewer. 


This species bears a close resemblance to S. confinis, and its cha- 
racters may be best given by comparison with the latter. It differs 
therefore in the greater number of dorsal rows, 29 instead of 25. 


78 SCOTOPHIS. 


The whole body and head are much stouter. Exterior eight rows 
smooth, rest slightly carinated. The vertical is broad before, 
rather acute behind. A probably monstrous feature is seen in the 
union of the two postfrontals, except for a short distance before, and 
in the loral and postnasal coalescing into one trapezoidal plate. 
Blotches less numerous. A broad vitta across the back part of the 
postfrontals, passing backwards and downwards through the eye, and 
terminating acutely on the posterior upper labial. A blotch across 
the back part of the vertical, and extending through the occipitals 
on each side to the nape. The spots are larger, longitudinal through- 
out, with occasional exceptions. 

Its affinities to S. vulpinus are close. The vertical, however, is 
narrow, the eyes much larger, dorsal rows 29 instead of 25. The 
blotches on the back are longitudinal, and fewer in number. For 
the full description of this species also, it will be necessary to pro- 
cure larger specimens. 


Red River, Ark. 227.77.29. 18.34. Capts. Marcy & M’Clellan. 


G6. Scotophis guttatus, B. & G.—Head narrow. Dorsal rows 27, 


outer one scarcely larger ; abdominal scutelle 215-235. A series of quadrate 


brick-red blotches, intervals lighter. Two light frontlets on the head, mar- 
gined with black, enclosing a dark red stripe which passes through the eye, 
across the mouth to the neck. 


Syn. Coluber guttatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 885.—Gm. Linn. Syst. 
Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1110.—Harz. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 
1827, 863; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 126.—Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. 
descr. 1837, 168.—Hotgr. N. Amer. Herp. II, 1838, 109. Pl. xxiv; and 2d 
ed. III, 1842, 65. Pl. xiv. 


Head elongated, outline nearly straight, and transversely tapering 
from the sides of the occiput to the subtruncate snout. Vertical 
large, longer than wide, pentagonal, with the lateral margins at a 
very slight angle with each other. Occipitals rather narrow. Eye 
moderate; centre rather in advance of junction of 4th and 5th 
labials; orbit above the whole of these labials. Labials 8 above, 
penultimate the largest; 11 below. 

Body elongated, decidedly compressed to the tip of the tail. Dor- 
sal rows 27. Carination very obsolete, visible only on the 13 central 
rows, and there very indistinctly; not evident on the tail. Scales 


SCOTOPHIS. 19 


rather large, triangular, pointed. The exterior row little if any 
larger than the rest. 

General color of body above light red, paler on the sides. Along 
the back a series of dorsal blotches, about 45 in number, 32 from 
head to anus. These blotches anteriorly are longitudinally quad- 
rate, gradually becoming transverse; in front they are concave be- 
fore and behind, and with the corners produced longitudinally, 
exteriorly they are zigzag convex. The color of each blotch is a 
dark brick-red, with a deep black margin half a scale wide. Ex- 
terior to the black is a lighter shade of the ground-color. On each 
side of the dorsal series is a second alternating one of smaller elon- 
gated blotches, similarly constituted as to color. A third opposite 
to the dorsal, occurs on the edge of the abdomen, and on the Ist to 
the 4th row of scales: in this the red is lighter, and the black is con- 
fined to a few scattered scales. The lateral blotches are more or less 
indistinct in places, and frequently confluent with each other and the 
dorsal series. Posteriorly too they are reduced more or less to the 
black marks in single scales. Color beneath yellowish white, with 
subquadrangular blotches of black, generally occupying half of the 
inferior surface of the abdominal scutellee. 

The ground-color of the sides extends up on the forehead in the 
form of a frontlet, which crosses the vertical at its anterior extremity, 
passes backwards along the top of the head, including the supercili- 
aries and outside of occipitals, crosses above the angle of the mouth, 
and runs into the sides of the neck. This is narrowly margined on 
both edges with black. A second frontlet across the front of the 
postfrontals, narrower but similar, and bending down on each side to 
the anteorbital. A similarly colored blotch on the commissure 
of the occipitals, widening behind and constituting a centre to the 
dark red space enclosed by the large frontlet on the back of the neck : 
behind the one just mentioned is another rather larger, and the two 
are sometimes confluent. A dark red stripe is included between the 
two frontlets just described, crossing the posterior part of the post- 
frontals, the upper end of the anterior frontals, and through the eye, 
across the angle of the mouth down the sides of the neck. Vertical 
edges of the upper and lower labials black. 


Charleston, S. C. 214+-1. 79.27. 293%. 42. Dr. Barker. 


Specimens from Kemper Co., Miss., much larger in size, agree 
exactly in the pattern of coloration. The red is, however, more or 


80 SCOTOPHIS. 


less effaced, probably by the alcohol. The blotches are light hazel, 
and the interspaces light chocolate. 

Smaller specimens from Georgia differ only in having the blotches 
dark hazel, lighter centrally. The intervals are ash-gray. 

The young sustain a close resemblance to the species described 
from Anderson, 8S. C. The scales are scarcely if at all carinated 
however ; the dorsal rows two more: the blotches less regularly quad- 
rate and not elongate posteriorly. The shape of the head and its 
plates are different. The markings on the head in the latter are 
reduced to a uniform black band across the postfrontals, passing back 
through the eye, and ending acutely on the angle of the mouth. The 
scales also are more carinated. 


Kemper Co., Miss. 226-+-1. 69.27. 438. 7. D. C. Lloyd. 
e¢ 223-41. 66.27. 47. 7. Me 

Mississippi. — —27 — — _ Dr. B.F. Shumard. 

Savannah, Ga. 226+1. 65.27. 21. 34 R. R. Cuyler. 

Georgia. 236-+1. — 27. 12. 1%.(ondep.) Prof.Adams. 
ef 228+1. — 27. 188. 2. 66 


7 Scotophis quadrivittatus, B. & G.—Shape of head resem- 
bling most that of S. Jetus. Vertical broader anteriorly and more tapering 
posteriorly. Dorsal rows of scales 27, the five or eight medial rows alone 
carinated; the carination obsolete. Greenish yellow, with four longitudinal 
brown bands. 


Syn. Coluber quadrivittatus, Horpr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 89. Pl. xx. 
Chicken Snake, Barrr. Tray. in Carol., Geo. & Florida, 1791, 275. 


Body slender, tail very slender, about the fifth of the total length. 
Head elliptical, quite detached from the body by a slender neck. 
Eyes large. Vertical plate pentagonal, slightly concave on the sides, 
equalling in length the commissure of the occipitals. The lower por- 
tion of the anterior orbital is narrower than in SN. detus. Loral tra- 
pezoidal. Two elongated and small temporal shields. Upper labials 
8, 7th largest; lower labials 10, 5th largest. Rostral hexagonal. 
Scales very thin, lozenge-shaped, constituting 27 dorsal rows. Slight 
traces of carination may be observed on the five or eight medial rows. 
The outer row is composed of scales as high as long; in the second 
row they are perceptibly larger than the remaining ones. 

Ground-color above greenish yellow, with four longitudinal brown 
bands, covering each one entire row of scales and the half of the ad- 


SCOTOPHIS. 81 


joining rows. The lateral bands thus extend along the 3d, 4th, and 
5th rows, the 4th being the one entirely covered. The dorsal bands 
extend along the 10th, 11th, and 12th rows, the 11th being entirely 
covered. The space between the dorsal and lateral band embraces 
four entire rows of scales, and the half of the adjoining ones. The 
dorsal space between the dorsal bands comprises three entire rows of 
scales and the half of the adjoining rows. The abdomen, head and 
tail beneath are uniformly light straw-color. On the removal of the 
epidermis the dark bands disappear to a considerable extent, and then 
indistinct and obsolete quadrate spots become visible on the sides, 
and probably on the back. The edges of many of the scales are 
lighter. 


Florida. 236-+1. 98.27. 282. 52. (ondep.) Prof. Agassiz. 


82 OPHIBOLUS. 


Genus OPHMEBOLUS, Bairp & Girarp. 


Gen. CHAR. Body rather thick, tail short. Dorsal rows 21, (in 
one group 25,) the scales hexagonal, arranged in longitudinal series, 
broad, short, scarcely overlapping, nearly as high as long, all per- 
fectly smooth and lustrous. Abdominal scutellae 180-220 ; posterior 
entire Subcaudal all bifid. Head short, depressed, but little wider 
than the body. Eyes very small. Vertical plate very broad. Post- 
orbitals two, the lower in notch between the 4th and 5th labials. 
One anteorbital, like the loral, small. Nasals two, with the nostril 
between them. Upper labials 7. 

Ground-color black, brown, or red, crossed by lighter intervals 
generally bordered by black. 

The type of the genus is to be found in O. Sayi, to which we would 
refer for more full generic characters. The red species belong to the 


genus Lrythrolamprus of Boie, as understood by Duméril & Bibron. 


B. Dorsal rows 23. 


1. Ophibolus Boylii, B. & G.—Black, with upwards of 30 broad 
ivory white transverse bands widening on the sides. Dorsal rows of scales 
23. 


Vertical plate distinctly pentagonal, longer than broad: more 
elongated than in O. Sayi. Sides nearly parallel, a little shorter 
than the occipital plates. The sides of the head asin O. Say?. Dorsal 
rows 23, the scales rather more elongated than in O. Say?. Outer 
row a little larger, all the rest nearly equal. Back and sides black, 
crossed by about 37 ivory-white bands, the 50th opposite the anus. 
On the vertebral region these bands are about one and a half scales 
wide, with the margins parallel to about the 7th outer row of scales, 
where they begin to widen, so as to embrace from five to seven scales 
on the outer row. They continue of this width to the middle of the 
abdomen, where they are either confluent with the white of the oppo- 
site side, or are opposite to the black interval on the other side. 
The black interval between the cross bands is some eight to ten scales 


OPHIBOLUS. 3 


long, narrowing on the sides as the white spaces enlarge, until on the 
outer dorsal rows it occupies them to four scales, and is continued to 
the middle of the abdomen; owing to a slight obliquity of the dark 
patches on the back, their abdominal extensions are very apt to 
alternate with each other on the middle of the abdomen, instead of 
being directly opposite and confluent. Every transition from the one 
condition to the other is observable. The general pattern is thus: a 
black body, encircled by white rings, which are wider on the sides 
and beneath. The end of the tail is distinctly annulated. Occa- 
_ sionally some of the black scales on the sides have indistinct white 
spots in the centres. Labials, plates on the sides of the head, and 
above in front of the vertical, yellow, with black margins. 


El Dorado Co., Cal. 240. 52. 23. 28. 3}. Dr. C. C. Boyle. 


2. Ophibolus splendidus, B. & G.—Black above; the sides black, 
with a white spot in each scale. The body crossed by broad bands, consist- 
ing of white spots, one in each scale. Dorsal rows 23. 


Similar in general features to O. Boylii. Vertical plate similar to 
that of O. Boylii but broader, and the sides more nearly parallel. 

This species forms. a connecting link, as to color, between the 
blotched varieties of O. Sayi and O. getulus. There is a series 
of dorsal black blotches from head to tail; in one specimen 653, 
the 49th opposite the anus; in the other 52, the 41st opposite 
the anus. These are four or five scales long, and six or seven wide. 
The lighter intervals between are constituted by one or two trans- 
verse rows of spots, each one on a separate scale. The scales on the 
sides (from the 1st to the 7th or 8th rows) are black, each one with an 
elongated white blotch in the centre. These blotches occupy nearly 
the whole scale on the exterior row, but diminish in amount towards 
the back. A series of rhomboidal darker spots is seen on each side 
opposite the light intervals, produced by the less amount of white 
on the scales at that place, and sometimes extend to the abdomen. 
The abdomen is white, blotched not very deeply with black two or 
three scales wide, and a continuation of the dark shade in the pro- 
longation of the lateral rhomboids. The blotches of the opposite 
sides are sometimes confluent and sometimes alternate. In one spe- 
cimen the black patches are rather wider, extending nearly to the 
abdomen. Head less blotched with yellow than O. Boylii. Ditters 


84 OPHIBOLUS. 


from O. Boylii in having the light intervals in the form of spots in 
the centres of dark scales, instead of covering the whole space. The 
lateral blotches are alternate with those of the back, not continuous 
and opposite. The blotches are more numerous. 


Sonora, Mex. 219. 65. 23. 36. 53. Col. J. D. Graham. 
cc 215. 55. 28. 26. 4. . 


B. Dorsal rows 21. 


3. Ophibolus Sayi, B. & G.—Black, each scale above with a large 
circular or yellow spot in the centre. Sometimes only transverse lines of 
these spots across the back. 


Syn. Herpetodryas getulus, Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. descr. II, 1837, 198. 
Coronella Sayi, House. (non Schl.) N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 99. Pl. xxii. 
Coluber Sayi, Dexay, New York Fauna, Rept. 1842, 41. 

King Snake. 


As already remarked, we consider this as the true type of the 
genus, and shall accordingly reproduce some of the generic features 
in more detail. 

Body, as in most of the other species, very tense and rigid, with 
difficulty capable of being extended after immersion in alcohol. 
Vertical plate triangular, wider than long; outer edge slightly con- 
vex, an angle being faintly indicated at the junction of the super- 
ciliaries and occipitals; shorter than the occipitals, which are short, 
longer than broad. Postfrontals large, broad; anterior smaller. 
Rostral small, not projecting, slightly wedged between prefrontals. 
Hye very small, orbit about as high as the labial below it; centre 
of the eye a little anterior to the middle of the commissure, over the 
junction of the 3d and 4th labials. One anteorbital, vertically 
quadrate ; loral half its height, square. Upper labials 7, increasing 
to the penultimate. Lower labials 9; 4th and 5th largest. 

Seales nearly as high as long, hexagonal, truncated at each end. 
Dorsal rows 21, exterior rather larger, and diminishing almost im- 
perceptibly to the back, although all the scales in a single oblique 
row are of very nearly the same shape and size. 

The scales on the back and sides are lustrous black, each one with 
a central elliptical or subcireular spot of ivory-white, which on the 
sides occupy nearly the whole of the scale, but are smaller towards 
the back, where they involve one-half to one-third of the length. 
Beneath yellowish white, with broad distinct blotches of black, more 


OPHIBOLUS. 8 


oo 


numerous posteriorly. Skin between the scales brown. The plates 
on the top and sides of the head have each a yellowish blotch; the 
labials are yellow, with black at their junction. 


Prairie Mer Rouge, La. 216. 52.21. 42. 5. Jas. Fairie. 


Other specimens agree except in having bright yellow instead of 
white as described; the spots too are rather smaller, and manifest a 
slight tendency to aggregation on adjacent scales, so as to form trans- 
verse bands. ‘This is seen more decidedly where the back is crossed 
by about 70 short dotted yellow lines; the 56th opposite the anus. 
The scales between have very obsolete spots of lighter, scarcely dis- 
cernible. The sides are yellow, with black spots corresponding to 
the dorsal lines; indeed, there may be indistinctly discerned two or 
three lateral series of alternating blotches. 

Kemper Co., Miss. 211. 52.21. 47%. 64. D. C. Lloyd. 


c en ee 93. ae “c 


In larger specimens from the West, this tendency in the spots to 
aggregation is still more distinct. The back is crossed by these 
dotted lines of the number and relation indicated, at intervals of four 
or five scales; the spots on the intervening space being obsolete. 
These lines bifurcate at about the 9th outer row, the branches con- 
necting with those contiguous, so as to form hexagons, and these ex- 
tending towards the abdomen again, decussate on about the third 
outer row, thus enclosing two series of square dark spots on each 
side. These lateral markings are, however, not very discernible, 
owing to the confusion produced by the greater number of yellow 
spots. On the edge of the abdomen are dark blotches, one opposite 
each dorsal dark space, the centres of the scutellze being likewise 
blotched, but so as rather to alternate with those just mentioned. 

Specimens from Indianola exhibit all varieties of coloration. 

Red River, Ark. 224.49.21. 33}. 3%. Capts. Marcy & McClellan. 
Indianola. 213.50. 21: .394. 44. Col. J. D. Graham. 


4. Ophibolus getulus, B. & G.—Black, crossed by about 30 nar- 
row continuous yellow lines, which bifurcate on the flanks, the very obtuse 
angles embracing on each side a series of very much elongated patches, and 
in fact, by the union of the branches with each other, dividing the back into 
a succession of large black hexagons. 


86 OPHIBOLUS. 


Syn. Coluber getulus, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 382.—Gu. Linn. Syst. Nat. 
ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1106.—Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 
858; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 122.—Pratn, Cont. Macl. Lye. I, 1829. 
Plain, 

Pseudoelaps getulus, Firz. N. Class. Rept. 1826, 56. 

Coronella getula, Houser. N. Amer. Herp. III. 1842, 95. Pl. xxi. 

Anguis annulatus, Cates. Nat. Hist. Carol. Il, 1743, 52. Tab. lil. 

Thunder Snake; King Snake; Chain Snake. 


Very similar in general relations to O. Say7, although the body 
appears rather stouter, and the head and eyes somewhat larger in 
proportion. The color above is deep lustrous black, crossed by about 
33 continuous yellow lines, the 26th opposite the anus. These lines, 
which on the middle of the back are narrow, one-half or one scale in 
width, widen rapidly till they meet the lateral series of black blotches, 
when they extend longitudinally in either direction, and anastomose 
with their fellows. On each side, and alternating with the dark en- 
closures on the back, is a series of deep black blotches, extending 
from the abdomen (where those of opposite sides are generally con- 
fluent) over the Ist and 2d outer rows of scales. These blotches are 
rounded above, five or six scales long, and separated from the nearest 
dark part of the back by one or one-half scale. The outer edge of 
the abdomen, and the exterior dorsal rows between these blotches 
being yellow, causes the chain pattern to be continuous, enclosing a 
series of elongated dorsal spots, from 7 to 10 scales long and about 
17 wide. Centre of abdomen largely blotched with black, usually 
confluent with the blotches already mentioned. The plates on the 
head are black, with yellow spots. 

The pattern as here described is subject to some irregularities, the 
chain being sometimes broken, and the lines oblique, not transverse, 
and the dark blotches of opposite sides not truly opposite to each 
other. 


Anderson, S. C. 9924.48.21. 30%. 43. Miss C. Paine. 
Charleston, S. C. QS. DAMM MAT. Tes Dr. 8. B. Barker. 
Mississippt. a ee, De nomad 


5. Ophibolus rhombomaculatus, B. & G.—Light chestnut, 
with a dorsal series, and two lateral on each side of darker rhomboid 
blotches. Each blotch with still darker margins. 


Syn. Coronella rhombomaculata, House. N. Amer. Herp. IL, 1842, 103. 
Pip xxiiie 


OPHIBOLUS. 97 


Above light chestnut-brown, darker along the back, lighter to- 
wards the abdomen. Hach scale minutely mottled with darker. 
Beneath reddish yellow, obscurely blotched with light-brown. <A 
series of 52 dorsal blotches from head to tip of tail, the 42d opposite 
the anus. These are irregularly and transversely rhomboidal, six 
or seven scales wide, one and a half to two and a half long, and se- 
parated by intervals of about 5 scales, thus wider than the blotches. 
Their color is darker chestnut, with still darker margins, and some- 
times with a faint areola lighter than the ground-color. On each 
side and alternating with this series, is a second on the 2d to the 6th 
outer rows, and about a scale long; then a third again alternating on 
the Ist, 2d, and 5d rows, sometimes involving the edges of the scu- 
telle. These, though smaller than the dorsal spots, are similar. 
They are sometimes confluent with each other, though rarely with 
those of the back. There is a dark stripe from the eye to the angle 
of the mouth. 


Anderson, S. C. 203. 48. 21. 24. 32 Miss C. Paine. 
21. 282. 3% Prof. C. B. Adams. 


Georgia. 200. 44. 


6. Ophibolus eximius, B. & G.—Grayish ash, with one dorsal 
series of upwards of 50 transversely elliptical chocolate blotches, with two 
other alternating lateral series on each side. 


Syn. Coluber eximius, Duxay, (Mss.) and N. York Fauna, Rept. 1842, 38. 
Pl. xii, fig. 25.—Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 360; and 
Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 123.—Srorur, Rep. Rept. Mass. 1839, 227. 

Pseudoelaps Y, Berru. Abh. K. Ges. Wiss. Gott. I, 1843, 67. Pl. i, fig.11 & 12. 

House Snake, Milk Snake, Chicken Snake, Thunder and Lightning Snake. 


Muzzle rather broader, and the head more depressed than in the 
first described species of the genus: in other respects generally 
similar, like them having all the scales-hexagonal, those on the back 
scarcely narrower than those on the sides, although rather more 
elongated than usual. Vertical longer than broad, shorter than the 
occipitals. General color above yellowish gray, with a dorsal series 
of large blotches, 55 in number from the head to the tip of the tail, 
the 45th opposite to the anus. These are transversely elliptical, about 
four scales long, covering 12 to 15 scales across the back, (more an- 
teriorly than posteriorly,) and separated by intervals of one and a 
half to two scales, all of nearly the same width. The spots them- 
selves are grayish brown or chocolate, with a broad black border, and 


88 OPHIBOLUS. 


finely mottled internally (as is the ground-color on the sides) with 
lack. The blotches become narrower posteriorly ; on the tail their 

confluence with the lateral series forms black half-rings. On each 
side, and involving the 2d to the 5th rows, is another series of much 
smaller and nearly circular blotches, black with the centres brown. 
These alternate with the dorsal spots. Alternating with the series 
just described is still another similar to it, but entirely black, on the 
margin of the abdomen, and on the contiguous spots of the Ist, 2d, and 
3d rows. These two lateral series are sometimes confluent. The an- 
terior dorsal blotch is elongated, so as to cover the posterior half of 
the vertical plate: and in it is a central elongated spot of the ground- 
color behind the occipitals. A double light spot is seen on the junc- 
tion of the occipitals, as in Hutainia. There are indications of a 
dark band across the posterior half of the postfrontals, and another 
from the eye to the angle of the mouth. The labials are edged with 
black. 

The abdomen is yellowish white, with square black blotches, al- 
ternating with those already described. 

The number and size of these spots varies somewhat in different 
specimens, though rarely less than 40 from head to anus. The 
young differ in having the dorsal blotches bright chestnut-red inside 
of the black margins. The intervals are sometimes white, or clear 
ash. 


Westport, NV. Y. 214. 54. 21. 403.54. S. F. Baird. 
Somerville, N. Y. 200. 49.21. (27. 32. Dr. F. B. Hough. 
Warren, Mass. 200. 55.21. 29. 44. 8. F. Baird. 
Woburn, Mass. —- -—--—- -—- C. Girard. 
Foxburg, Pa. —- --—- —- = S. F. Baird. 
Carlisle, Pa. 200. 52.21. 25. 3%. «6 


7. Ophibolus clericus, B. & G.—Similar to O. eximius. Body 
stouter. Head much shorter, centre of eye above the middle of the com- 
missure. Eye much smaller. Body light ash, crossed by less than 40 
blotches, which extend to the exterior dorsal row. Only one lateral series 
of blotches. 


Syn. Coluber eximius, House. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 69. Pl. xv. 


Similar in general appearance to O. eximius, but readily distinguish- 
able by prominent characters. The head and mouth are very short, 


OPHIBOLUS. 89 


the centre of the eye being in the centre of the commissure, not an- 
terior to it. The vertical is as broad as long, and the occipitals are 
but little longer than broad. The superciliaries are very short to 
correspond with the minute eye. All these plates are shorter than 
in the corresponding size of O. eximius. 'The scales on the body are 
much wider in proportion, and on the sides, where they are arranged 
more in quincunx, owing to the less amount of truncation. Hntire 
body much stouter than in the allied species. 

The body is crossed by a series of 88 dorsal blotches, the 29th 
opposite the anus. They are much broader and larger than in 0. 
eximius, and extend between the outer dorsal rows. These blotches 
are chocolate, lighter on the sides, and distinctly bordered with 
black ; they are about five or six scales long. The intervals between 
the blotches are mottled ash, or pepper and salt. On each side is a 
second alternating series of black blotches, much smaller than the 
dorsal, and extending from the exterior dorsal row on the edge of 
the abdominal scutelle. Beneath yellowish white, with distinct 
quadrate black blotches. The stripe from the eye to the angle of the 
mouth as in O. eximius. 

The body, viewed from above, appears encircled by a series of 
black rings in pairs, enclosing a third of an ash-color. The tints as 
usual are darker on the back. 


Clark Co., Va. 199. 49.21. 36.6%. Dr. C. B. Kennerly. 
Mississippi. —- —- —- — Dr. B. F. Shumard. 


S. Ophibolus doliatus, B. & G.—Red, encircled by about 22 pairs 
of narrow black rings, each enclosing a yellow unspotted ring. Head red, 
with the first ring of the anterior pair crossing the ends of the occipitals. 


Syn. Coluber doliatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 879.—Gm. Linn. Syst. 
Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1096.—Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 
1827, 362; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 125. 

Coronella coccinea, Scut. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. descr. II, 1837, 67. PI. 
il, fig. 11. 

Coronella doliata, Houser. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 105. Pl. xxiv. 


Head rather more depressed than in the species of the other sec- 
tion. The lower postocular, which is smaller than the upper, rests 
in a notch between the 4th and Sth upper labials, lying longitudi- 
nally against the latter. In many other species the contact is not so 
intimate. 


90 OPHIBOLUS. 


Color above yellowish white ; in life, bright red. The body is en- 
circled by 24 pairs of black rings, (the 19th opposite the anus,) each 
pair enclosing a yellow ring between them. Along the back the 
black and yellow rings are nearly of equal width, the three covering 
a length on the back of five or six scales. Anteriorly their intervals 
are 8 or 9 scales long, posteriorly somewhat less. The black rings, 
as they descend on the sides, separate somewhat, so as to leave an 
interval of about three scales; they are also somewhat narrower 
than above. On the abdomen they are generally interrupted, the 
corresponding ends of the same ring sometimes meeting, and some- 
times alternating. Occasionally there are scattered black blotches 
on the belly between the pairs. The anterior black ring of the first 
pair crosses the posterior part of the occipitals, extending across be- 
tween the angles of the mouth. The head in front of this is red, 
with a small black ring in the posterior half of the vertical. The 
posterior edges of the labials are black. 

In a second smaller specimen from Mississippi, there are 17 pairs 
of rings to the anus, and 4 on the tail. The whole head is black, 
the first yellow interval beginning just back of the occipitals. 

Not having a specimen of O. doliatus from the Atlantic States, we 
are in some uncertainty as to whether this be really the above species, 
especially as it differs somewhat from Dr. Holbrook’s description. 


Kemper Co., Miss. 208. 49.21. 18%. 28. D. C. Lloyd. 
Mississippi. 188. 50.21. 8%. 14. Dr. B: F. Shumard. 


( 


9. Ophibolus gentilis, B. & G.—Muzzle more conyex and acute 
than in O. doliatus. Body brownish red, encircled by about 25 pairs of 
broad black rings enclosing a yellow ring: the yellow mottled with black 
on the sides. Black rings broader than in O. doliatus. Upper part of head 
entirely black. 


Ground-color dull red, encircled by 25 pairs of black rings, the 
21st opposite the anus, each pair enclosing a third ring of yellowish 
white. The black rings are conspicuously broader above, the three 
crossing eight scales on the vertebral row anteriorly, and towards the 
anus about five. Anteriorly the intervals between successive pairs 
consist of about five scales, posteriorly only of two or three, thus di- 
minishing considerably. The black rings contract as they descend, 
those of each pair receding slightly from each other, so as to cause 
the yellow portion to expand about one scale. The black rings are 


OPHIBOLUS. 91 


continuous on the abdomen, those of contiguous pairs (not of the 
same pair) sometimes with their intervening spaces black. The 
scales in the white rings are always more or less mottled with black, 
especially along the sides of the body, this mottling being very rarely 
observable on the red portion. The anterior black ring of the first 
pair is extended so as to cover the whole head above, except the very 
tip; the yellow ring behind it involves the extreme tip of the oc- 
cipitals. 

A larger specimen is much duskier in its colors. The black rings 
extend on the back so that the contiguous rings of adjacent pairs run 
into each other. There are 28 pairs of rings, the 25th opposite the 
anus. 

In a specimen from Prairie Mer Rouge, which probably belongs 
to this species, there are but 21 pairs of rings, the 19th opposite the 
anus. The rings separate more on the sides than in the other speci- 
mens, the intervals covering some six or eight scales. The black 
rings are mostly interrupted below; the interrupted ends of con- 
tiguous rings of adjacent pairs connected by short black blotches. 
The white rings are mottled, and the head is black as described. 


dR Pe oe | Capts. Marcy & 
fied River, Ark. 2 198. 45.21. 20. 22. McClellan, 
se 201. — 21. 273. — «é 
zg. 2t. Jas. Fairie 


? Prairie MerRouge,Ea. 184. 45. 21. 163. 


92 GEORGIA. 


Genus G@EORGIA, Barn & Girarp. 


Gen. Cuar. Vertical plate short, very broad. Superciliaries 
broad, and the cornea scarcely visible from above. Head rather 
high. Outline of the top of the head very convex. ‘Two postorbit- 
als; one large anteorbital. Two nasals, very short. Rostral broad, 
low. Dorsal rows of scales perfectly smooth, in 17 rows, overlap- 
ping or imbricated. Postabdominal scutella entire. Postfrontals 
much larger than the prefrontals. Size of the animal very large. 
Color black. 

This genus has a strong resemblance to Bascanion, from which it 
differs by its stouter form, much broader vertical, one anteorbital, 
undivided postabdomidal scutella, &e. From Ophibolus it is dis- 
tinguished by the broader superciliaries, deeper head, much imbri- 


cated scales, &. 


1. Georgia Couperi, B. & G.—Postorbitals resting on the 4th 
labial. Black above, dark slate beneath. No red marks evident on the 
abdomen. 


Syn. Coluber Couperi, Houser. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 75. Pl. xvi. 


Vertical plate pentagonal, as broad as long. Much shorter than 
the occipitals. Width of head greater than half its length. Hye 
rather small, its centre above the junction of the 4th and 5th labials, 
and anterior to the middle of the commissure. Inferior postorbital 
resting on the 4th labial. Loral quadrangular. Labials 7 above, 
increasing in size to the 4th; the 5th small, triangular, and having 
the 4th and 6th in contact above it; 6th very large; 7th scarcely 
smaller. Color intense lustrous black, the bases of the scutelle 
clouded with lead-color. Plates on the inferior surface of the head 
with the centres brownish yellow. 

Specimen described belonging to the Academy of Natural Sciences. 


Altamaha, Ga. 184. 60.17. 60.11. Dr. J. E. Holbrook. 


BASCANION. 93 


Genus BAS CANION, Bamop & Girarp. 


Gen. Cuar. Body slender, elongated. Tail very long. Head 
narrow, deep, long. Eyes very large. Postorbitals 2; anterior 2, 
upper very large, lower very small, in a notch between the 2d and 3d 
labials. Fourth labial produced up behind the eye to meet the lower 
postorbital. lLoral one; nasals two. Vertical much elongated and 
narrow, concave externally. Dorsal rows of scales 17, all perfectly 
smooth, and subhexagonal. Abdominal scutellee 170-200 ; posterior 
one divided: subeaudal 90-110, all bifid. Colors black or olive. 
Uniform above; lighter below: skin between the scales black. 
Young blotched. 


i. Bascanion constrictor, B. & G.—Vertical diminishing for 
half its length, then parallel. Centre of eye over the 4th labial. In the 
adult, color lustrous pitch-black, above and beneath greenish black, some- 
times tinged with greenish white. Chin and throat white. The young are 
olive, with rhomboidal dorsal blotches; beneath greenish white. 


Syn. Coluber constrictor, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 385.—Gm. Linn. Syst. 
Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1109.—Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 
1827, 348; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 112.—Scut. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. 
descr. 1837, 183. Pl. v, figs. 3 & 4.—Srorur, Rep. Rept. Mass. 1839, 225.— 
Hotsr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 55. Pl. xii—Tuomps. Hist. of Verm. 
1842, 117.—Dexay, New York Fauna, Rept. 1842, 35. Pl. x, fig. 20. 

Hierophis constrictor, Bonav. Fn. Ital. I, 1841. Art. Col. leopard. 

Vipera niger, Caress. Nat. Hist. Carol. II, 1743, 48. Tab. xlviii. 

Black Snake, Katm, Reise N. Amer. II, 1764, 202.—Prnn. Arct. Zool. 
Suppl. II, 1792, 92. 


Vertical plate much longer than broad, pentagonal, anterior margin 
convex, the lateral strongly concave, the plate rapidly diminishing 
to half its length, thence nearly parallel, terminated by a rather ob- 
tuse angle; a little shorter than the occipitals. Superciliaries large, 
rather broad. Rostral rather broad and high, wedged to a slight 
extent between the prefrontals. ye large, its centre before the 
middle of the commissure, and over the 4th labial. The lower 


94. BASCANION. 


anteorbital very small, wedged in between the upper anteorbital, the 
loral, the 3d labial, and the eye. Loral trapezoidal, oblique, mode- 
rate. Labials above 7; the Ist, 8d, and 5th smaller than the rest, 
the 3d and 4th entering into the orbit; the 4th the only one in con- 
tact with the lower postorbital; 6th and 7th largest. Lower labials 
8, the 5th much the largest. Two rows of temporal scales between 
the labials and occipitals. Exterior row of dorsal scales very large, 
diminishing gradually on the back. Scales very thin, the posterior 
angle moderately truncate, so as to give an elongated hexagonal shape 
to the exposed portion. Exposed surface of exterior row nearly as 
high as long. 

Color above uniform lustrous pitch-black, beneath slate-color, some- 
times tinged with greenish white. Lower jaw and chin, and some- 
times edge of the upper labials white. Specimens from the South 
and South-west, as preserved in alcohol, are apt to exhibit an olive- 
green tinge, sometimes a dark blue, and occasionally the whole under 
surface has a decided greenish white color. In one or two specimens 
there is but one anteorbital. 


Carlisle, Pa. 178+1. 93.17. 404. 108. S. F. Baird 
ce 189+1. 95.17. 50. 122. s 
ee 18441. 95.17. 58. 18. Ks 
Ke 178-++1. 95.17. 37%. 10. 6 
Anderson, S. C 179+1. — 17. 41. — Miss C. Paine 
Ke 185-11. 90.17. 474. 12. nb 
Kemper Co., Miss. 175+1. — 17. 30. 62 D. C. Lloyd, 
ao 181+]. — 17. 4384. 112. Ks 
Deep. 181-£:1:110:17. $3. 10 Col! Bi C. Ti: Wailes. 
uae me i ASSL eT SE Jas. Fairie. 


As is usually the case, the young of this species are variegated in 
color instead of being uniform. The ground-color is dark olive, with 
a succession of darker rhomboidal dorsal blotches from head to tail. 
These are about nine scales wide, and four or five long, separated by 
lighter intervals, which, narrow along the back, widen of course 
rapidly towards the abdomen. The edge ot each scale is obsoletely 
lighter than the centre, the dark centres in some scales being of such 
intensity as to produce the impression of distinct spots, especially on 
the sides. Along the vertebral region, the margins of the blotches 
are narrowly darker, and those of the intervals lighter than on the 


BASCANION. 95 


sides. Beneath greenish white, each scutella with from two to four 
dark spots on the edges. Top of head yellowish gray, posterior 
margins of both pairs of frontals dark chestnut, as are the contiguous 
edges of the superciliaries and vertical, and posterior edges of the 
superciliaries and occipitals as well as a small blotch on the outer 
edge of the superciliaries, and a broad patch in the centre of the oc- 
cipitals running up into the vertical. Sides of head white, especially 
labials and orbitals; tinged with bluish behind the eyes, and spotied 
with dark brown. 

Specimens over 18 inches lose the blotching, and become more and 
more uniform, although to a considerable size showing traces of the 
spots on the abdominal scutellee. 


Carlisle, Pa. POSEN OL a7 QT. Hk: S. F. Baird. 
& 186-++1. 83.17. 153. 38. Fe 
a 13-1 OL. 17." 22. . bk “ 
Anne Arundel Co.,Md. 184+1.94.17. 144. 34 J. H. Clark. 
Anderson, S. C. 180+1.100.17. 214. 58 Miss C. Paine. 
cs V7T--1L.938. 17... 2120 5%: 
Charleston, S. C. 177-+1.105.17. 214. 5%. Dr: 8S. B. Barker. 


2. Bascanion Fremontii, B. & G.—Black, and similar to B. 
constrictor, but stouter. Scales behind the head broader, those on the back, 
narrower. ‘Tip only of the lower jaw white. 


The single specimen in our possession of this species is too much 
mutilated to allow of an accurate diagnosis of its character. By 
comparison with a large number of specimens of Bascanfon con- 
strictor, its distinction is sufficiently evident. For the reasons given, 
however, it will be necessary to make the description comparative 
with that of b. constrictor. The body is stouter. The scales back 
of the head a good deal broader, while those on the back generally 
are more elongated and less truncate. The head is larger in all its 
dimensions. ‘The color appears to be intense black, tinged with slate 
on the belly. Head entirely black, except the end of the lower jaw, 
which is white. The specimen was collected in California by Col. 
J. C. Fremont, to whom we dedicate the species. 


California. 183+1.—17. 55.122. Col. J.C. Fremont. 


96 BASCANION. 


3. Bascanion Foxii, B. & G.—Body and head thicker than B. 
constrictor. Tail shorter. Scales broader, the two outer rows having their 
exposed surface higher than long. No adult procured. Immature speci- 
wen brownish olive tinged with blue: a series of transverse blotches on the 
back. Sides spotted. 


This species is, in all probability, the young of one which when 
adult is entirely black, and as such confounded with the true B. con- 
strictor. Its primary differences, when compared with individuals of 
the same size of the latter species, are to be seen in the much greater 
thickness of the head and body and shorter tail, this accompanied by 
much wider scales on the back and abdomen. ‘The vertical plate is 
rather broader behind. There are two lorals, one above thé other, 
this probably not constant. The labials are higher. ‘The scales are 
all broader ; the two exterior rows having their exposed parts higher 
than long. The posterior part of the body and tail more truly 
cylindrical than on the other species. Color above brownish olive, 
tinged with blue on the sides, each scale with a deeper shade of 
brown towards the tip. A series of very obsolete darker transverse 
blotches along the back. Beneath greenish white, with darker 
blotches on the sides of the abdomen. <A specimen from Pittsburgh, 
Pa., probably belonging to this species, has three postorbitals and a 
single loral. It has also 19 dorsal rows, but agrees in all the other 
characters. 


Grosse Isle, Mich. 18342. 79. 17. 22. 5. Rev. Chas. Fox. 
Pittsburgh, Pa. 177+1. 85. 19. 15.5%. B.A. Fahnestock. 


4. Bascanion flaviventris, B. & G.—Above dark olive-green, 
beneath yellow. Scattered spots of black on the sides and beneath. Head 
across superciliaries narrower than distance from snout to end of occipitals. 
Lower postorbital in contact only with the 4th labial. 


Syn. Coluber flaviventris, Say, in Long’s Exped. Rock. Mts. II, 18238, 185. 


General characteristics of the head as in Bascanion constrictor, the 
differences being difficult to express by description. Head narrow, 
elongated. Greatest width on superciliaries less than half the length 
of plated part of head. The lower anteorbital is included between the 
2d and 3d labials, the upper orbital and the eye, only touching the 


BASCANION. 97 


loral by one corner. Lower postorbital in contact only with the 4th 
labial, the 5th scarcely touching it by its corner. The scales are 
scarcely as much elongated as in B. constrictor. 

Above light olive-green, posteriorly tinged somewhat with reddish. 
Beneath bright greenish yellow, rather lighter on the tail, this color 
involving the lower half of the labials. The skin between the scales, 
but slightly extensible, is black. On the sides the scales are ob- 
scurely margined with greenish yellow, and many of them have each 
a single spot of black, generally near the tip. The abdominal scu- 
tellze are also sparsely spotted in a similar manner. The spots are 
sometimes wanting. 

A specimen from California differs in having the vertical broader. 


Betw. Indianola & s 
Rana. ; 167-++-1. 90.17. 85.10. Col.J.D. Graham. 
Ae 1694-1. 95.17. 29. 73. & 
California. 188-+-1. 91.17. 34. 82. Dr. W. Gambel. 


&. Bascanion vetustus, B. & G.—Stouter than B. flaviventris. 
Breadth of head across superciliaries equal to half the interval between tip 
of rostral and posterior end of occipitals. Lower postorbital in notch be- 
tween the 4th and Sth labials. Olive-brown above, greenish white beneath. 


Head broader and shorter than in B. flaviventris. Vertical rather 
shorter, broader behind. Superciliaries and frontals much broader. 
Centre of eye scarcely in advance of the centre of commissure. Pro 
file more rounded in front. Above olive, tinged with brown; be- 
neath greenish white, no black dots visible. There appears to be 
little if any black in the skin between the scales, although the basal 
edges of the scales themselves are slightly tinged. 


San Jose, Cal. 17142. — 17. 34. — Dr. J. L. Le Conte 
Puget’s Sound. 171+1. 89.17. 30%. 8. (ondep.) Expl. Exped 
Ke 164+2.90.17. 19. 54. «“ 
és 166-F3.°79. 17. .29.. 7. ‘“ 

Oregon. 160+1. — 17. 28. — 6 


98 MASTICOPHIS. 


Genus MIAS TECOPHIS, Bairp & Girarp. 


GreN. CHAR. Similar in general features to Bascanion, but still 
more slender and elongated. Tail very long. The head is almost 
as deep as broad, and the vertical plate very narrow and long. The 
most striking feature of difference is seen in the prolongation upwards 
of the 5th posterior labial instead of the 4th, to meet the lower post- 
orbital. Superciliaries very broad and projecting, more so in pro- 
portion to the vertical than in Bascanion. Rostral quite small. 
Eyes very large. Postorbitals 2; lower resting on the upward ex- 
tension of the 5th labial, not toucbed by the 6th. Anteorbitals 2; 
upper very large, lower very small, in a notch between the 3d and 
4th labials. One loral and two nasals, with the nostril intermediate. 
Seales all very smooth. Dorsal rows 17 or 15. Abdominal scutellee 
200-210; posterior divided. Subcaudal 95-150, all divided. Ab- 
domen blotched, seldom unicolor. Marking anteriorly and poste- 
riorly apt to be different. The true type of this genus is to be seen 
in M. ornatus, B. & G. 


A. Dorsal rows 17. Tail 4 length of body. 


i. Masticophis flagelliformis, B. & G.—Oolor black anteriorly, 
lighter posteriorly. Scales, when lighter, with darker margins. 


Syn. Anguis flagelliformis, CatesB. Nat. Hist. Carol. I, 1743: 54. Tab. liv. 

Coluber flagellum, Suaw. Gen. Zol. III, 1802. 475. 

Coluber flagelliformis, Houser. N. Amer. Herp. I, 1886, 107. Pl. xix. 

Psammophis flagelliformis, Houser. N. Amer. Herp. 2d ed. III, 1842, 11. 
Plait: 

Coach-whip Snake, Bartr. Tray.in Carol., Georgia, and Florida, 1791, 219. 


Vertical plate wide in front, rapidly tapering, until at the anterior 
third it is less than half as wide as in front, thence the sides are 
parallel, acutely pointed behind. Superciliaries very broad, pro- 
jecting. Occipitals as long as the vertical. Postfrontals large, 
anterior smaller. Eye large, its centre considerably in advance of 


MASTICOPHIS. 99 


the middle of the commissure, and over the junction of the 4th and 
5th labials. Upper orbital very large, extending far forwards above, 
its upper angle reaching the angle of the vertical. Loral rather 
large, higher than long. Nasals moderate. Upper labials 8; the 
6th subtriangular, and smaller; the 7th and 8th largest of all, elon- 
gated, equal. Lower labials 9, the 5th largest. 

Body very slender and attenuated. Dorsal rows of scales 17, all 
smooth, elongated, even the exterior row longer than broad. 

Color anteriorly, above and on the sides black, this distinct for 
one-fourth of the length, fading gradually into brown, which be- 
comes lighter and lighter towards the tail. Behind the black portion, 
the scales above are brownish yellow at their basal margin, the rest 
of the scale more or less mottled with the different shades of brown. 
The darkest tint is usually scen near the tip of the scales, this on 
the tail forming a distinct margin. Beneath, the color is yellowish 
white, on the anterior fifth so much blotched with purplish brown as 
to be nearly uniform, posterior to which it disappears almost en- 
tirely, being represented only by occasional dashes. The ends of 
each scutella, however, on their margins, exhibit the reddish brown 
blotches, and are colored much like the sides of the body at that 
place. The centres of all the plates beneath and on the sides of the 
head are yellow. Anteorbital mostly yellow. 

S. Carolina. 202+2.96.17. 44.103. Dr. W. J. Burnett. 


2. Masticophis flaviguiaris, B. & G.—Light dull yellow, tinged 
with brown above. Beneath, two longitudinal series of blotches distinct an- 
teriorly. In alcohol, and especially when the epidermis is removed, the 
whole animal appears of a soiled white. 


Syy. Psammophis flavigularis, Hattow. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. VI, 
1852, 178. 


Size very large. Vertical plate broad before, tapering to the middle, 
where it is about half as wide as anteriorly, thence it runs nearly 
parallel. Vertical rather shorter than occipitals. Greatest breadth 
across superciliaries less than half the length of the portion covered 
by plates. Occipitals moderate. Centre of eye considerably an- 
terior to the centre of commissure; over the junction of the 4th and 
5th labials. Labials 8 above, increasing in size to the 5th, which is 
elongated vertically, the 7th elongate and largest. The 5th forms 
part of the inferior and posterior wall of the orbit, as in all the species 
of the genus, resting above against the lower postorbital, with which 


100 MASTICOPHIS. 


the 6th labial is not in contact. Dorsal scales broader than in Bas- 
canion constrictor, their sides perfectly straight, slightly truncate, 
with the corners rounded. Exterior row largest, rest gradually di- 
minishing. Scales on the tail widely truncate. 

The general color, both above and below, may be described as a 
dull straw-yellow, tinged with light olivaceous brown above. This 
latter tint exists in the form of a shading on the centres and towards 
the tips of the scales, leaving the bases yellowish. The proportion 
of brown increases towards the back, and in older specimens some- 
times suppresses the yellow. In all instances a darker shade is seen 
towards the tip of each scale. The skin between the scales is yel- 
lowish. The scutellee anteriorly exhibit each two rather large brown- 
ish blotches, one on each side of the median line, constituting two 
rows on the abdomen, which fade out posteriorly. Sometimes the 
series are not discernible, the blotches spreading so as to constitute 
a dark shade to the margins and exterior edges of the scutelle. The 
posterior portions of the plates under, and on the sides of the head, 
are similarly blotched; the same tendency being observable on the 
posterior edges of the plates on the top of the head, by the deeper 
shade of the olivaceous brown there prevalent. Anteorbitals yellow. 


Betw. San Antonio i 
2 Na tO eee ae ek : 
§ El Paso. 198+-2. 100.17. 572. 17%. Col. J.D. Graham 
: 196+1. 100.17. 653. 153. et 
New Braunfels, Tex. 1964-2. 94. 17. 693. 153 F. Lindheimer. 
S Capts. Marcy & 
aT je - @ 
Red River. Ark. §& 191+2. iis Oder | McClellan. 


In smaller specimens the blotching beneath is rather more de- 
cided. In addition to the colors described, the back is crossed by 
indistinct bars of darker, eight or nine scales wide and half a scale 
long. his color is also seen on the skin between the scales under 
the dark bars, where the bases of the scales themselves are darker 
instead of light. There is a tendency towards stripes on the side: 
first one of light brown, on the outer edge of the abdomen; then an 
interrupted yellow one at the junction of the abdominal scutellz and 
outer scales; then brown again through the centres of the rows. 
This, however, is not very conspicuous. Sometimes the dark shades 
on the sides are tinged with reddish. The obsolete transverse bars 
are seen at intervals of one or two scales. 


MASTICOPHIS. 101 


ae Pi HOTseo) GH0 17. 414.10) Cal, JD: Graham. 
San Antonio. 
Indianola. 194+-2.110.17. 40. 10}. Ke 
6 197+2.110.17. 343. 9. é“ 


A specimen from Fort Webster or Copper Mines shows the stripes 
on the sides much more distinctly, running through all the dorsal 
rows anteriorly, and crossed by the indistinct bars already referred 
to. The contrast between the dark chestnut-brown spots on each 
side, and its deeper centre, with the clear yellow of the edges, is very 
distinct. Beneath yellow, with the blotches reduced to mere dull 
spots. 


Santa Rita del Cobre 2114+2.101.17. 394.108. Col. J. D. Graham. 


3. Masticophis mormon, B. & G.—Head rather short. Vertical 
plate with anterior and posterior ends nearly equal, concave between. Pale 
yellowish red, tinged with gray anteriorly. A series of transverse blotches 
across the back. 


Syn. Coluber mormon, B. & G. Reptiles in Stansbury’s Expl. of Valley of 
Great Salt Lake, 1852, 351. 


The only specimen of this species in our possession is immature. 
Although belonging to a different genus, it is somewhat similar to the 
young of B. constrictor, though lighter. The occipitals and commis- 
sure of the mouth are, however, much shorter, the vertical and oc- 
cipital nearly equal in length. Vertical, with the sides concave; 
dimensions anteriorly and posteriorly nearly equal. Scales not quite 
so broad as in Bascanion Foxii, though broader than in B. con- 
strictor, especially on the anterior row. Above pale yellowish red, 
more grayish anteriorly. A series of transverse blotches from head 
to tail, as in Bascanion constrictor, though rather less distinct. Be- 
neath yellowish, unspotted except on the outer edges. Stouter in 
its dimensions than the young of Bascanion constrictor. 

Owing to the immaturity of the specimen, we have felt in doubt 
whether it should be referred to Bascanion or to Masticophis. The 
fact of the 5th Jabial being in contact with the lower postorbital has 
rather decided us in favor of the latter. ~ 


Great SaltLake, Utah. 178-+-1.100.17. 133.33. Capt.H.Stansbury. 


102 MASTICOPHIS. 


B. Dorsal vows 15. Tail about } the total length. 


4. Masticophis ornatus, B. & G.—Excessively elongated. Above 
very deep purple, brighter on the sides. Beneath mottled. A yellow stripe 
on each side of the abdomen, and two pairs of short yellow stripes, one be- 
hind the other, on the anterior part of the body, and in the 4th dorsal rows. 


In this form the peculiar characters are carried to their maximum 
of development, and the species should be considered as the true 
type of the genus. The head is narrow, much elongated, and rather 
depressed; being considerably less arched than in J/. flagelliformis. 
The vertical is very much elongated, a little shorter than the oc- 
cipital. The muzzle is rather broad anteriorly, owing to the greater 
than usual development of the anterior frontals. The centre of the 
eye is considerably in advance of the commissural line, and behind 
the junction of the fourth and fifth labial. The upper ante- 
orbital is very large, the lower still smaller than in the other species; 
in one specimen it is wanting. The sixth labial scarcely touches the 
postorbital; in one specimen being separated by a small plate. The 
loral is elongated, lower than in MZ. flagelliformis. Labials 8 aboye, 
penultimate largest; 9 or 10 below, the fifth largest. Rostral broader 
than high, the reverse being the case in M. flagelliformis. Dorsal 
rows of scales 15. The scales are broad, very large, thin, and _per- 
fectly smooth. The edges are nearly straight, tip truncated and 
rounded off. They are decidedly broader than in J. flagelliformis. 

General color above dark purple, becoming almost black towards 
the back, brighter on the sides. The colors are deeper towards the 
head. Skin between the scales dark. Beneath yellowish, blotched 
with black. Anteriorly the blotches are in the form of two quite 
contiguous rows of broad mottled spots, which become broken pos- 
teriorly, and overspread the abdomen. Anteriorly these are dark 
brown, posteriorly they are lighter, and tinged with red. The tail 
is immaculated, reddish white. A distinct yellow line is seen along 
the outer edge of the scutelle involving the lower edge of the ex- 
terior row of scales, and through the five exterior rows of purplish 
scales run stripes of darker; the bases of the scales being yellow. 
A very striking mark is to be seen in two pairs of short yellow stripes 
on each side, one pair commencing opposite to the 10th scutella, and 
running back about six scales; the second about opposite the 29th 
scutella, and running back about 10 or 12 scales. The mark is on 


MASTICOPHIS. 103 


the fourth row and adjacent edges of the 8d and 5th. It is not 
entirely yellow, but has a light reddish stripe through its centre. 
There are faint indications of a repetition of these marks of similar 
character farther behind, but the specimens do not show them 


distinctly. 
Betw. Indianola at 
& El Paso. boos.e. 149.15. 653.22. Col. J.D. Graham. 
= 2041-2. 152.15. 65. 22. - 


5. Masticophis tzeniatus, B. & G.—A broad brown dorsal stripe 
margined by a darker line. The four outer rows of scales on each side 
yellow, with a dark line through the centre of each. A dark line along the 
edge of the abdomen, making six dark lines on each side. Beneath yellowish. 


Syn. Leptophis teniata, Hattow. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. VI, 1852, 
181. 


Owing to the mutilation of the head of the single specimen in our 
possession, it is impossible to describe this with any degree of accu- 
racy ; in its general relations, however, it has the plates much as in 
the preceding species. 

A longitudinal dorsal band, six and two half-scales wide, olive- 
brown, each scale with a rather deeper spot in the centre; the four 
and a half scales on each side of this band yellow, each row with 
a narrow brown stripe through its centre, fading out in the tail. 
There are thus five dark stripes on each side, the fifth above margin- 
ing the dorsal band. Of these stripes, the Ist and 5d are narrow, 
each showing a stripe of yellow of the same size on each side of it; 
the 2d and 8d are closer to each other and broader. Beneath yel- 
lowish, with a distinct dark stripe on each side, just within the external 
row of dorsal scales. The scutelle: otherwise immaculated, except a 
few scattered dots towards the head, exhibiting a tendency to ar- 
rangement in two rows. Extreme bases of all the scales black. 


California. 209-+2. 157.15. 482. 14. Dr. W. Gambel. 


104 SALVADORA. 


Genus SALVADORA, Barren & Girarp. 


Gen. Cuar. Head elliptical, detached from the body by a con- 
tracted neck. Snout protruding. Cephalic plates normal. Edges 
of rostral free. Two nasals. One loral. Two, occasionally three 
anteorbitals and two postorbitals. Temporal shields small, scalelike. 
Eyes quite large. Two pairs of mental scutelle. ‘Tail slender. 
Body covered with smooth scales. Postabdominal scutella bifid. 
Subcaudal all bifid. Color diversified, in longitudinal bands. 


Salvadora Grahamiz, B. & G.—A dorsal ochraceous band or 
vitta, on each side of which a black one of the same width. Flanks yellow- 
ish green. Abdomen uniform dull yellow. Dorsal scales in 17 rows. 


Head conical, rostral plate very prominent, with edges free, ap- 
pearing as if fastened on the outside of the snout after all the others 
had taken their place. Prefrontals proportionally large, forming the 
upper edge of the nostrils, and widely separated, for the two anterior 
thirds of their length, by the rostral. Postfrontals but slightly 
larger than the prefrontals, like the latter, subrounded, longitudi- 
nally narrow, transversely elongated, and produced slightly between 
the postnasal and the loral, on the sides of the head. Vertical sub- 
pentagonal, much elongated, tapering posteriorly without being 
pointed. Occipitals elongated, posteriorly truncated, sides rounded. 
Prenasal larger, subtrapezoidal; postnasal subquadrangular ; nostril 
situated at the antero-posterior angle of the postnasal. Loral sub- 
triangular, base in an horizontal line with the head; apex upwards 
produced between the postfrontal and the upper anteorbital. Upper 
anteorbital large, angular, produced to the upper surface of the head 
between the superciliaries and postfrontals. Inferior anteorbitals 
small and quadrangular, lowest situated on the commissure between 
the 4th and 5th labials. Postorbitals angular, equal in size. Two 
pretemporals, shields somewhat larger than rest, which are scarcely 
larger than the scales. Mouth deeply cleft, undulating. Upper 


SALVADORA. 105 


labials 9; 7th largest, the 4 anterior ones comparatively small. 
Lower labials not conspicuous, 10 in number, 5th largest, the three 
posterior ones scarcely to be distinguished from the scales. Posterior 
pair of mental scutellze much smaller than the anterior, extending to 
the middle of the fifth inferior labial. 

Body subcylindrical, elongated, tail subconical, tapering, forming 
about the 4 of the total length. Scales elliptical, disposed in 17 
rows; outer row somewhat broader, the rest slightly diminishing to- 
wards the dorsal region. 

Surface of head brown. An ochraceous vitta extends from the 
occiput to near the end of the tail, embracing anteriorly three rows 
of scales, and posteriorly one row, and two adjoining halves to oppo- 
site the anus; on the tail it covers two half scales. On each side of 
this a black vitta runs parallel, and covers the same number of scales 
anteriorly and posteriorly, except on the tail, where it is narrower, 
and embraces only half a scale. The antero-inferior margin of the 
scales in the black vitta is yellowish green. The remaining portion 
of the flanks, embracing four rows of scales, and the extremities of 
the scutellee, is uniform yellowish green, with the bases of the scales 
blackish, as is also the skin. The abdomen is uniform dull yellow. 


Sonora, Mex. 180-+1.97.17. 28%. 73. Col. J.D. Graham. 


106 LEPTOPHIS. 


Genus LEP TOPHIS, Bett. 


Gen. CHAR. Head conical, very much swollen on the temporal 
region, separated from the body by a very small neck, and tapering 
considerably on the snout, which is protruding. Cephalic plates 
normal. One nasal plate. One loral. One anteorbital and two 
postorbitals. Eyes large. Cleft of mouth deep and curved. Tail 
slender and very long, forming more than } of the total length. 
Scales in 17 rows, carinated, except the first and second rows, which 
are smooth. Postabdominal scutellee bifid. Subcaudal all bifid. 


Unicolor. 


Syn. JLeptophis, BewL, in Zool. Journ. II, 1826, 328. 


1. Leptophis zestivus, Horpr.—Body reddish green above; yel- 
lowish white beneath. Dorsal scales in 17 rows. 


Syn. Coluber xstivus, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 887.—Gm. Linn. Syst. Nat. 
ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1114.—Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 
857; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 121. 

Leptophis xstivus, Butt, Zool. Journ. II, 1826, 329.—Hoxsr. N. Amer. 
Herp. III, 1842, 17. Pl. iii. ; 

Anguis viridis, Catess. Nat. Hist. Carol. II, 1748, 57. Pl. lvii. 

Green Snake, Barrr. Trav. in Carol., Geo. and Flo., 1791, 16. 


Head regularly ovoidal. Vertical plate elongated, subpentagonal, 
diminishing posteriorly, though not acute. Occipitals elongated, 
tapering posteriorly, and subtruncated. Frontals subrounded ; pre- 
frontals smaller than postfrontals by about one-fourth. Rostral 
rounded, broader than high. Nostril in the middle of the nasal. 
Loral subtrapezoidal. Anteorbital angular, much broader above 
than below. Postorbitals subangular, lower one the smallest. Su- 
perciliary well developed, irregularly oblong. A large pretemporal 
shield, and three or four smaller ones. Upper labials 7 ; 6th slightly 
the largest. Lower labials 8; 5th the largest. Posterior mental 
scutellee slender and elongated, extending beyond the 5th lower labial. 


LEPTOPHIS. 167 


Scales subelliptically elongated, strongly carinated except the outer 
row, which is perfectly smooth, and the 2d row, which is but slightly 
carinated. These two external rows are broader than the rest, espe- 
cially the outermost. 


Anderson, S.C.  157-++1. 180.17. 253. 98. Miss C. Paine. 


« 15441. 184.17. 24. 93. « 
Kemper Oo., Miss. 15441. 128.17. 273.103. D.C. Lloyd. 
« 15441. 129.17. 25. 10. «“ 

Virginia. 15441. 126.17. 334. 83. 
Anne Ar. Co., Md. 155+1. 185.17. 213. 83. J. H. Clark. 


2. Leptophis majalis, B. & G.—Reddish green above, yellowish 
white beneath. Body proportionally stouter and tail shorter than in ZL. 
etivus. Snout and whole head, including vertical, longer than in latter 
species. Dorsal scales in 17 rows. 


Head more pointed, broader on the temporal region, and more 
tapering on the snout than in L. wstivus. Vertical plate subhexa- 
gonal, broader, and postfrontals proportionally larger in comparison 
with the prefrontals, than in LZ. estivus. Occipitals maintaining 
more their width posteriorly, obtuse-angled behind. Nasal more 
elongated ; loral smaller, and longer than high. Two large temporal 
shields and a few small ones behind. Scales strongly carinated, ex- 
cept the outer row which is perfectly smooth, and the second row, 
which is but slightly carinated. The scales of both of these rows 
are broader than the rest. 


Indianola, Tex. 163+41.111.17. 298.10. Col. J. D. Graham. 
1 
ce 


«“ 16g 17.) 2 


82.103. rf 
; Capts. Marcy & 
Le 4 ye ¢ 
Red River, Ark. 163-+-1.111.17. 28%. 94. 1 MoClelare: 


New Braunfels, Tex. 1544-1. 115.17. 23%. 83. F. Lindheimer. 


108 CHLOROSOMA. 


Genus CH LOROSOMA, Wact. 


Gen. Coar. Head elongated, ovoidal, separated from the body 
by a slender neck. Snout protruding. Cephalic plates normal. One 
> nasal plate, with the nostril in the centre. One loral. One ante- 
orbital; two postorbitals. Eyes very large. Mouth deeply cleft. 
Tail slender, between $ and + of total length. Scales all perfectly 
smooth. Postabdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal all bifid. Uni- 
color. 


Syn. Chlorosoma, Waau. Nat. Syst. der Amph. 1830, 185. 


Chiorosoma vermalis, B. & G.—Uniform green, darker above, 
lighter beneath. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. 


Syn. Coluber vernalis, Dekay, Mss.—Hanrt. Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. 
V, 1827, 861; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 124.—Srormr, Rep. Rept. Mass. 
1839, 224.—Horpr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 79. Pl. xvii.—DeKay, N. 
York Fauna. Rept. 1842, 40. Pl. xi, fig. 22.—Tuomps. Hist. of Verm. 
1842, 117. 

Green Snake. 


Head proportionally long, ovoidal, slightly swollen on the tem- 
poral region. Snout rounded and projecting considerably over the 
lower jaw. The rostral plate shows but little from above. Outlines 
of frontals rounded, prefrontals proportionally large, and more than 
half the size of the postfrontals. Vertical hexagonal, elongated, 
posteriorly more tapering than anteriorly; sides slightly concave. 
Occipitals large, subangular. Superciliaries quite large, broader pos- 
teriorly than anteriorly. Postorbitals two, subquadrangular; lower 
one resting on the commissure of the 4th and 5th upper labials. 
- Anteorbital angular above, rounded below, with anterior margin con- 
vex. Loral angular, longer than high, and proportionally well de- 
veloped. Nasal elliptically elongated, with nostril in the middle. 
Three temporal shields, well developed; anterior one elongated, 
largest. Cleft of mouth curved or undulated. Upper labials 7; 


CHLOROSOMA. 109 


4th largest; 5th and 6th nearly equal to the 4th; 3d and 4th be- 
neath the eye, forming the inferior part of the orbit. Lower labials 
8; 5th largest; the three anterior and three posterior ones quite 
small. Posterior pair of mental scutella longer and slenderer than 
the anterior pair, extending much beyond the 5th lower labial. 
Body elongated, subcylindrical, a little deeper than broad, covered 
with smooth subhexagonal or subelliptical scales, constituting 15 
longitudinal rows, the outer row broader than the rest, which di- 
minish towards the middle line of the back. ‘The tail is very much 
tapering, pointed, and forming about 4 or } of the total length 
Dark green above, lighter on the flanks; yellowish white beneath. 


Westport, N.Y. 9 138+1.79.15. 18. 54. 8. F. Baird 
137-E fk 74. bo. 17.5 i 
x 132+1. 94.15. 174. 64. éé 
Lebanon Sp.,N.Y. — — 15. 15. 5. Wm. B. Parker, 
ou — — 15. 15. 6. a 
Carlisle, Pa. 130-+2. 92.15. 18%. 6%. 8. F. Baird. 
ee 130+1.— 15. 113. 4. ee 
Racine, Wise. 128-+-1. 85.15. 124. 44. Dr. P. R. Hoy. 
Portland, Me. — — 15. 193. 53. Prof. Caldwell, 
ie — — 15. 18. 53. es 
Cambridge, Mass. 138+1. 79.15. 188. 53. J. H. Richard 
Ee i DE, Oz. TS: C. Girard 


2? Mississippi. 138-++-1. 69.15. 203.— Dr. B. F. Shumard 


110 CONTIA. 


Genus CON THA, Barp & Grrarp. 


Grn. Coan. Head ovoidal, and with the body much depressed, 
rather short, with the snout truncated. Cephalic plates normal. 
One nasal. Nostril in its middle. One loral. One anterior and 
one postorbital. Eye small. Mouth moderately cleft. Scales smooth. 
Postabdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal all divided. 


Contia mitis, B. & G.—Deep chestnut-brown above, with two longi- 
tudinal light bands, one on each side of the back, below which is a series of 
black dots. Scales minutely dotted with black. Anterior half of the scu- 
telle black; posterior half light yellow. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. 


Head almost as deep as the body, snout protruding over the lower 
jaw, and obliquely truncated. Vertical plate hexagonal, sides 
nearly parallel, posteriorly very acute. Occipitals elongated, trun- 
cated posteriorly, slightly convex exteriorly. Postfrontals large 
and angular. Prefrontals subangular, much smaller. Rostral well 
developed, broad, but slightly produced between the prefrontals. 
Nasal quadrangular, longer than high, with nostril in the middle, a 
little nearer the anterior than posterior edge of the plate. Loral 
elongated and quadrangular, situated above the 2d labial. Ante- 
orbital angular and elevated, situated above the 3d labial. Post- 
orbital angular, larger than the anteorbital, situated above the 
commissure between the 4th and 5th labials. Superciliaries propor- 
tionally small and oblong. A large and angular elongated temporal 
shield. Upper labials 7; anterior and posterior ones smaller; 3d 
and 4th beneath the eye; lower labials 7, 4th largest. Posterior 
pair of mental scutellee very small. Two scutellz on each side, 
along the 5th, 6th, and 7th infralabials. 

Body slender, subcylindrical, broader than deep. Scales propor- 
tionally large, subelliptical, posteriorly rounded or subtruncated. 
Those of the exterior row conspicuously broader. Tail short, coni- 
cal, and tapering. 


CONTIA. LEI 


The lighter bands of the back cover the 4th exterior row of dorsal 
scales; the series of black dots is immediately beneath on the 3d row 
of scales. Tip of scales of exterior row black. Head above black- 
ish brown, beneath mottled with black, on a yellowish green ground. 
The abdomen is regularly and transversely barred with black and 
light yellow. 

San Jose, Cal. 167-+1. 31.15. 128. 1,%. Dr. John L. Leconte. 
California. — —-— 4 §. (ondep.) Expl. Exped. 
Oregon. 15411. 35.15. 8. 1,5. Dr. Avery J. Skilton. 


112 DIADOPHIS. 


Genus DEABDOP HIS, Bamp & Gmarp. 


Gen. CHAR. Head subelliptical, elongated, depressed, distinct 
from the body. Cephalic plates normal. Two postorbitals, and two 
anteorbitals. A well-developed loral. Two nasals; nostril between. 
Hyes large. Mouth deeply cleft. Body slender, subcylindrical ; 
tail tapering. Scales smooth, disposed in 15 or 17 rows. Postab- 
dominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal all divided. Unicolor above, and 
generally with a light ring on the occipital region. Abdomen lighter, 


unicolor, or punctate. 


A. An occipital ring. Eye above the 4th and 5th upper ladials. 
Dorsal scales in 15 rows. 


i. Diadophis punctatus, B. & G.—A yellowish white occipital 
ring. Body bluish black above; yellowish orange beneath, with a medial 
series of spots, sometimes absent. ‘Tail beneath unicolor. Dorsal scales in 
15 rows. 


Syn. Coluber punctatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1776, 376.—Gm. Linn. Syst. 
Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1089.—Harz. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 
1827, 854; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 117.—Srorzur, Rep. Rept. Mass. 
1839, 225.—Hopr. N. Amer. Herp. 2d ed. III, 1842, 81. Pl. xviii. 

Spiletes punctatus, Swains. Nat. Hist. of Fish. Amph. & Rept. II, 1839, 364 

Calamaria punctata, Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. descr. 1837, 39. 

Ring-necked Snake. 


Head very much depressed, flattened above ; snout rounded, and 
overlapping the lower jaw. Vertical plate subpentagonal, tapering 
backwards, posteriorly acute. Occipitals large, elongated, subangu- 
lar. Prefrontals irregularly rounded, posterior pair twice the size of 
the anterior. Rostral broad, but low. Nasal plates large, nostril 
intermediate. Loral quadrilateral. Two anteorbitals, inferior one 
narrow and the smaller. Superciliary well developed, broader pos- 
teriorly than anteriorly. Two postorbitals, inferior one very small, 
situated above the junction of the 5th and 6th upper labials. Tem- 
poral shields conspicuous, anterior one larger and elongated. Upper 


DIADOPHIS. 118 


labials 8; 7th the largest, 4th and Sth forming the lower part of 
the orbit. Lower labials 8; 5th the largest. Two pairs of mental 
scutella, extremity of the posterior pair extending beyond the 5th 
lower labial. 

Body slender, subcylindrical; tail tapering. Scales subelliptical ; 
outer row but slightly larger. Occipital ring of the width of two 
scales, sometimes narrower. Upper labials yellowish, like the lower 
jaw and inferior surface of head and abdomen. A series of dark sub- 
triangular spots along the lateral margins of the scutellee, and in con- 
tact with the dark color of the flanks. Abdomen either unicolor or 
provided with series of similar dark spots along its middle region, from 
the anterior third of the body to near the anus. The spots some- 
times elongate transversely in the shape of bars across the abdomen. 


Carlisle, Pa. 148+-1. 538.15. 13%. 3. S. F. Baird. 

AE 158+-1. 50. 15. 13. 23. 66 

Y 158+-1. 52,15. 14. 3. 66 

cu 148-+-1. 44.15. 114. 24. 66 
Foxburg, Pa. 1614-1. 56.15. 144. 82 66 
Pittsburgh, Pa. 159-+1. 50.15. 158. 34. 6 
French Creek, Pa. 157+2. 36.15. 1384. 24. & 
Lebanon Sp., N.Y. — — 15. 5. 18 Wm. B. Parker. 
Georgia. _ 141-41. 48. 15. 104.2%. Maj. J. Le Conte. 
Riceboro, Ga. 145+-1. 36.15. 10. 13. Dr. W. L. Jones. 


A specimen from Anderson, 8S. C., exhibits a somewhat slenderer 
head, and a narrower and more elongated vertical plate. 


Anderson, S. C. 155-+1. 44.15. 143. 24. Miss C. Paine. 


Another very young specimen from Mississippi has a shorter head, 
and a vertical plate proportionally much broader and shorter. 


Mississippi. — — 15. 5. 1. Dr. B. F. Shumard. 


B. An occipital ring. Eye above the 3d-and 4th labials. Dor- 
sal scales in 15 rows. 


2. Diadophis amabilis, B. & G.—Body above deep blackish 
brown; beneath yellowish white, with crowded small black spots. Occipital 
ring narrow. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. 


Head, body, and tail very slender; head flattened above; body 
subcylindrical; tail subconical and tapering into a point. Vertical 
8 


114 DIADOPHIS. 


plate subpentagonal, less tapering posteriorly than in D. punctatus, 
and subacute. Occipitals narrow and elongated. Frontals as in D. 
punctatus. Superciliaries narrower, and nearly of the same width 
throughout their length. Upper labials 7; 6th largest. Lower 
labials 8; 5th largest. Scales rather short, subelliptical, consider- 
ably larger on the sides than on the back, especially the outer row. 
Color of the abdomen extending to the outer row of scales, the pos- 
terior portion of which alone is black. Numerous small spots are 
scattered all over the lower part of the body, from the head to near 
the end of the tail. The upper surface and sides of head, as well as 
the labials of both jaws and chin, are blackish brown. The abdomen, 
in life, is in all probabilities purplish, judging of it from traces of 
that color left beneath the tail of one of the specimens preserved in 
alcohol. 
San Jose, Cal. 182-1. 59.15. 1 
ui — — 15. 9 


bole 


. 2%. Dr. J. Li. Leconte. 


Oe ce 


me bo 


3. Diadophis docilis, B. & G.—Body above uniform ash-gray; 
yellowish white beneath, spotted with black. A proportionally broad yel- 
lowish white occipital ring, margined with a narrow black line. Dorsal 
scales in 15 rows. 


Head narrower than in D. amabilis. Vertical plate subpentago- 
nal, elongated, sides nearly parallel to the point where it enters be- 
tween the occipitals. Prefrontals and eyes proportionally much 
smaller than in D. amabilis. Body very slender, covered with pro- 
portionally large scales. Head above blackish brown. Upper labials 
and head beneath yellowish, mottled with black. Occipital ring yel- 
lowish white, covering the length of three scales. The anterior black 
margin passes to the black spots along the labials. Small black spots 
are irregularly scattered all over the abdomen; they form one series 
on each side, along the exterior and posterior margin of the scutellee, 
to the tip of the tail. All the scales are uniform ash-gray, but when 
examined closely’ they appear punctured with minute black dots. 
The bases of the scales are black when stretched apart. The tail 
beneath is almost unicolor, exhibiting but very few dots. 

R. San Pedro of 
R. Grande, a 1938-11. 57. 15. 11%. 24. Col.J.D. Graham. 
Devil’s River. 


DIADQPHIS. 115 


A. Diadophis pulchellus, B. & G.—Body above greenish brown, 
the scales minutely dotted with black. Beneath deep orange-red, with small 
black spots irregularly scattered all over, from head to near the end of tail. 
Occipital ring broad, margined anteriorly and posteriorly with a narrow 
black line. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. 


Head small, body proportionally long and subcylindrical ;_ tail 
conical, and very much tapering. The vertical plate is subpentago- 
nal, and still less tapering, and less acute than in the preceding 
species. Superciliaries as in D. amabitlis. Scales subelliptical, 
elongated. Outer rows larger than the rest, which diminish towards 
the dorsal line. The bright color of the abdomen extends to the two 
external rows of scales, which are unicolor, the spots of the abdomen 
scarcely passing beyond the scutellz, although a series of very small 
spots may be followed along the upper edge of the 2d dorsal rows of 

seales close to the color of the back. The upper labial and lower 
jaw are yellowish white. 


El Dorado Co., Cal. 203--1. 60.15. 143.28. Dr. C. C. Boyle. 


©. No occipital ring. Eye above the 3d and 4th labials. Dorsal 
scales in 17 rows. 


5. Diadophis regalis, B. & G.—Body above uniform greenish ash ; 
beneath light yellow, scattered all over with small black spots. No oc- 
cipital ring. Dorsal scales in 17 rows. 


Head proportionally short and broad behind; head less depressed 
than in the preceding species, though flattened above ; snout rounded. 
Kyes very small. Vertical plate subpentagonal, tapering posteriorly. 
Superciliaries narrower anteriorly. Body long and subcylindrical. 
Scales proportionally large and elongated, in 17 rows; those of the 
outer row conspicuously broader. The upper and lower jaws and 
inferior surface of head maculated with black, on a light ground. 
Color of the abdomen extending to the outer row of scales, which are 
dotted with black posteriorly. The black spots on the abdomen ex- 
tend considerably beyond the anus. 


Sonora, Mex. 237-++1. 58.17. 22%. 34. Col. J. D. Graham. 


116 LODIA. 


Genus LO DIA, Bairp & Girarp. 


GEN. CHAR. Head ovoidal, distinct from the body. Two vertical 
plates; a small anterior one being situated between the postfrontals 
immediately in advance of the vertical proper. Two nasals. Loral 
entering into the orbit; above it one anteorbital. Postorbitals two. 
Superciliaries elongated and well developed. Mental scutellee one 
pair. Eyes proportionally large, circular. Scales smooth. Post- 


abdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal, all in pairs. 


Lodia tenuis, B. & G.—Body dull brown above, bluish on the sides, 
with a longitudinal lighter stripe on each flank. Abdomen lighter; bases 
of scutelle bluish. Tail beneath unicolor, with an external series of bluish 
spots. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. 


Syn. Calamaria tenuis, B. & G. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. VI, 1852, 176. 


Vertical plate hexagonal, as broad anteriorly as posteriorly, An- 
terior vertical ovoidal or subelliptical, intermediate between the post- 
frontals, which are angular and extend to the sides of the head. 
Prefrontals subtriangular, about half the size of postfrontals. Rostral 
broad and well developed. Occipitals subangular externally, propor- 
tionally large and elongated. Nasals large, nostrils in the middle, 
between both plates. Loral large, polygonal, elongated, situated 
above the commissure of the 2d and 3d upper labials, entering into 
the orbit as an inferior anteorbital. A quadrangular superior ante- 
orbital, enclosed between the postfrontal, superciliary, and loral. Two 
angular postorbitals, inferior one resting on the commissure of 
the 4th and 5th labials. Superciliaries oblong. Temporal shields 
conspicuous, anterior one elongated and largest. Mouth deeply 
cleft. Upper labials 6; the three posterior ones a little larger than 
the three anterior. Lower labials 6; 4th largest. Mental scutelle 
one pair. Body slender, subcylindrical; tail short, conical, and 
tapering. Scales proportionally large, rhomboidal, smooth, forming 
15 dorsal rows; outer row but slightly broader than the rest. 


Puget Sound, Or. 150-+-1. 83. 15. 84. 14. (on dep.) Expl. Exped. 


SONORA, 117 


Genus SONORA, Barro & Girarp. 


» Gen, Cuan. Head continuous with the body, very much nar- 
rower on the snout. Cephalic plates normal. Vertical plate narrow 
anteriorly. Superciliaries proportionally large. One loral. One 
anteorbital and three postorbitals. Two nasals. Eyes proportionally 
large. Scales smooth. Postabdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal, 
divided. 


Sonora semiannulata, B. & G.—Body above annulated with jet 
black; tail completely annulated; intermediate space wider, orange-red on 
the dorsal region, greenish on the sides, with bases of scales blackish. Dor- 
sal scales in 15 rows. 


Snout subquadrangular, elongated. Vertical plate widening pos- 
teriorly to the occipitals. Occipitals elongated, margin irregular. 
Postfrontals angular, not reaching the orbit. Prefrontals trapezoidal, 
two-thirds of the size of the postfrontals. Rostral very much de- 
veloped. Nostrils in the middle, between the two nasals. Loral 
elongated, horizontal, angular. yes circular. Superciliaries angu- 
Jar, lozenge-shaped. Anteorbital one, subcrescentic, narrow, resting 
on the third upper labial. Postorbitals three, angular, upper one 
largest, produced between the superciliaries and occipitals, and touch- 
ing slightly the vertical. Three temporal shields, anterior one 
largest, and angular. Mouth deeply cleft, undulated. Upper labials 
7; nearly equal in size; first and last smallest. Inferior labials 8 ; 
4th largest. Body subcylindrical, covered with smooth scales, pro- 
portionally broad, and forming 15 rows, outer row but slightly 
broader. Tail tapering to a point. 

Body above crossed with transverse jet-black bars, 25 from head 
to anus, extending between and involving the exterior rows, becom- 
ing narrower on the flanks: along the back 3 to 4 scales long. 
Space between the bars above orange-red, one scale wider than the 
black bars ; on the sides greenish, with the base of the scales black- 
ish. On the tail 6 black rings, continuous all around, covering 2 to 3 
scales ; intermediate space red-orange, 4 or 5 scales wide. Beneath uni- 
form dull green, the black bars of the body not touching the scutellze. 


Sonora, Mex. 149-+-1. 39.15. 94.1%. Col. J.D. Graham 


118 RHINOSTOMA. 


Genus RH ETNOSTOMA, Frizz. 


Gen. CHar. Head small, subconical, pointed, continuous with 
the body. Rostral large, prominent. ‘Two pairs of frontal plates. 
Vertical cordiform. One nasal; nostril in the middle. One loral. 
One anterior and two postorbitals. Superciliaries very small. Eyes 
small, over the 3d upper labial. Mouth small. Scales smooth, in 


19 rows. Postabdominal scutella entire. Subcaudal scutellee bifid. 


Syn. Rhinostoma, Firz. N. Class. Rept. 1826, 29. 


Rhinostoma coccinea, Ho1sr.—Body yellowish red (said to be 
crimson in life), crossed by pairs of black rings, enclosing each a yellow 
one. 


Syn. Coluber coccineus, Buum. in Licht. and Voigt, Magaz. V, 1788. PI. v. 
—Gm. Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1097.—Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat: 
Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 356; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 119. 

Heterodon coccineus, Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. deser. 1837, 102. Pl. 
ii, figs. 15 and 16. 

Rhinostoma coccinea, Houser. N. Amer. Herp. IIT, 1842, 125. Pl. xxx. 

Scarlet Snake. 


Body slender, cylindrical, tense, and rigid. Dorsal scales rhom- 
boidal, rather elongated. Vertical plate very large, cordiform or sub- 
hexagonal, almost as broad anteriorly as long; obtuse angled before, 
acute angled behind; the two outer sides short, parallel. Occipitals 
large, a little longer than the vertical. Postfrontals large; prefrontals 
much smaller. Rostral projecting forwards, acute, causing the snout 
to be pointed, not recurved nor compressed into a ridge as in Heterodon. 
Eye small, its centre over the 3d labial, and over the middle of the 
commissure. Postorbitals two; anteorbital one. The superciliaries 
are very small and narrow, in one specimen looking like an upper 
postorbital. One line of temporal shields. Loral small. One 
nasal; nostril situated in its centre, with a rounded groove to the 
lower edge, sometimes to the upper, apparently separating two nasals. 
Upper labials 6, the 3d constituting the greater portion of the orbit 


RHINOSTOMA. 119 


below, with the lower postorbital resting upon it: all the labials 
nearly equal in size; 4th and 5th largest. Lower labials 8, 5th 
largest. 

The back and sides are embraced by about 20 elongated longitu- 
dinal black rings (the 16th opposite the anus), their anterior and 
posterior sides on the dorsal line, their lateral resting on the outer 
dorsal row. Across the back the black is well defined and continu- 
ous, about two scales long; on the sides, however (from the 1st to 
the 3d rows), the black is interrupted more or less, sometimes re- 
duced to a few scattered scales. The intervals between the succes- 
sive rings are yellow, with the centres of the scales dusky (they 
sometimes have only a narrow margin of yellowish), and on the sides 
may be seen a distinct rhomboidal black spot opposite each dorsal 
light interval. This is sometimes broken up, and confused with the 
black of the rings on the sides. The large spaces enclosed by the 
rings themselves are yellowish red (said to be crimson in life), six 
to nine scales long, and about thirteen wide: they are variable in 
length, being larger at about the anterior third than elsewhere. 
Beneath uniform yellowish white. The first ring crosses just behind 
the occipital plates, and in front of it isa narrow black band crossing 
the middle of the occipitals, from one angle of the mouth to the 
other, sometimes connected with the first ring by a narrow black 
line. Rest of the head yellowish. Another specimen has 26 rings, 
the 20th opposite the anus, ri 
Anderson, S. C. £69035) 190 Dig 2 Miss C. Paine. 
Riceboro, Ga. 166. 45. 19. 18%. 24. Dr. W. L. Jones. 
Mississippi. — —— — — Dr. B. F. Shumard. 


Jax Ie 


oo 


A specimen from Prairie Mer Rouge has the whole lower wall of 
the orbit constituted by the 3d labial, with both anterior and pos- 
terior orbitals resting upon it. The vertical is more elongated. 
The anterior dorsal ring, instead of being continuous, is divided an- 
teriorly, and the ends, after approximating, are bent back on the oe- 
cipitals, and extend to the eye. The snout, too, seems rather more 
pointed. 

Prairie Mer Rouge, La. 166. 56.19. 13%. 24. Jas. Fairie 


129 RHINOCHEILUS. 


Gexus RHE NOCHEILWS, Barr & Girarp. 


Gren. CHAR. Head subelliptical, pointed on the snout, and sepa- 
rated from the body by a contracted neck. Rostral plate large, but 
not prominent above. ‘Two pairs of frontal plates. Vertical hex- 
agonal. ‘Two nasals; nostrils Intermediate. One loral. One an- 
terior and two postorbitals. Superciliaries large. Eyes also large, 
over the 4th and 5th upper labial. Mouth large. Scales smooth, in 
23 rows. Postabdominal scutella entire. Subcaudal scutellee all un- 
divided. 


Rhinocheilus Lecontei, B. & G.—A dorsal series of quadrate 
black blotches, with the intermediate spaces of the same size, and pale 
red. Flanks variegated with yellowish and black; beneath lighter, 
unicolor. 


Head distinct from the body; broad behind, nearly flat above. 
Vertical plate hexagonal, elongated, largest anteriorly, the lateral 
edges tapering, and constituting the longest sides of the figure. 
Superciliaries quite large. Occipitals subangular, proportionally 
small. Prefrontals large compared to the postfrontals. Rostral 
prominent forwards, rounded beneath, tapering upwards. Eyes large, 
over the junction of the 4th and 5th upper labials, about opposite 
the middle of the commissure. Postorbitals two, lower in notch be- 
tween the 5th and 6th labials, although resting more on the latter. 
Anteorbital large, resting on the 4th labial, the 4th and 5th 
labials constituting equally the inferior part of the orbit. Loral 
elongated, horizontal, trapezoidal, well developed. Nasals apparently 
double, perhaps a single one very much excavated. Two temporal 
shields between the occipitals and labials. Labials 8 above, 7th 
largest; 8 below, 5th largest. Dorsal rows of scales 23, all per- 
fectly smooth; scales rhomboidal, nearly equal, but rather narrow 
above. Abdominal scutellze 206; posterior one entire. Subcaudal 
scutellz: 40, all entire. 


RHINOCHEILUS. Lat 


The body is crossed by about 33 quadrate black blotches, the 27th 
opposite the anus. These are nearly of the same length, and of the 
same distance apart throughout, four scales long, and extending be- 
tween the second external rows, where their sides are rather rounded 
or angulated. “he black is very deep, and continuous on the four 
or five central rows of scales, whence to the flanks it is varied 
by having the centres of each scale reddish yellow. The intervals 
between the blotches are exactly the reverse ; above they are uni- 
form pale red, and on the sides the centres of each scale are black. 
Sometimes scattered black scales may be observed on the back in the 
light spaces. Beneath yellowish white, unspotted. The two outer 
rows of scales of the same color, but with a short black bar extend- 
ing from the middle of each light and dark space, perpendicularly to 
the abdomen, the extreme edge of which is sometimes involved. The 
head and half its length behind are black, spotted with yellowish on 
the sides. The snout and labials yellowish, the plates margined 
with black. 


San Diego, Cal. 206. 40. 23. 21.2%. Dr. John L. Leconte. 


122 HALDEA. 


Genus HAL DEA, Barrp & Grirarp. 


GEN. Cuar. Head elongated, ellipsoid, distinct from the body. 
Prefrontal plate single. Postfrontals large, entering ¢ogether with the 
loral into the orbit, thus suppressing the anteorbitals. Postorbital 
one. Two nasals. Eyes proportionally large, circular. Scales cari- 
nated. Postabdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudals divided. Unicolor. 


HMaldea striatula, B. & G.—Grayish brown above, soiled yellow 
beneath, (said to be reddish gray above, and salmon-colored beneath, in life). 
A narrow light chestnut band across the middle of the occipitals, spreading 
over the angle of the mouth. Dorsal scales in 17 rows. 


Syv. Coluber striatulus, Linn. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 375.—Gm. Linn. Syst. 
Nat. ed. xiii, I, iii, 1788, 1087.—Harwt. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 
1827, 854; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 117. 

Calamaria striatula, Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. descr. 1837, 43.—Housr. 
N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 123. Pl. xxix. 

Brown Snake. 


Vertical plate elongated, hexagonal. Occipitals proportionally 
very long, subround exteriorly. Prefrontal subtriangular. Portion 
of postfrontals seen from above, oblong, dilated on the face, and ap- 
proximating the postnasal and upper part of the orbit. Rostral 
tapering upwards. Nostril opening in the posterior margin of the 
prenasal plate. lLoral elongated, situated above the 2d and 3d 
labials, and forming, with the postfrontal, jhe anterior part of the 
orbit. Hyes circular. Superciliaries proportionally large. One 
angular postorbital, elevated, the fourth labial forming the lower 
portion of the posterior part of the orbit. Temporal shields of 
medium size. Mouth deeply cleft. Upper labials 5; 4th and 5th 
very large. Inferior labials 6; 5th disproportionally the largest. 

Body slender, subcylindrical ; tail short, and very much tapering. 
Scales lanceolated, in 17 rows, all carinated, very narrow along the 
back ; outer row conspicuously broader, with an obsolete carination. 


Richmond, Va. 128-412 36. Lin 98. 1s: C. W. Keesee. 
ee 129+.1. 37.17. 74.18 a 
Charleston, S. C. 126-L1..46. 17. 94.1%. | Dr..S: B. Barker. 
os 123-11. 46.17. 7%. 13 cs 
Kemper Co., Miss. 125-++1. 44.17. 82. 13 D.C. Lloyd. 


FARANCIA. 128 


Genus FARANCHEA, Gray. 


GEN. CHAR. Head subelliptical, elongated, slightly distinct from 
the body. Prefrontal plate single. One nasal, grooved beneath the 
nostril. No anteorbital; postfrontal and loral constituting the an- 
terior portion of the orbit. Two postorbitals. Eyes rather small. 
Scales smooth. Postabdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal in pairs. 


Syn. Farancia, Gray, Zool. Misc. 1842, 68; and Catal. of 
Snakes in Brit. Mus. 1849, 74. 


Farancia abacurus, B. & G.—Body and head above bluish black, 
with subquadrate red spots on the flanks. Abdomen red, with transverse 
or alternating bluish black irregular spots. Dorsal scales disposed in 19 
rows. 


Syy. Coluber abacurus, House. N. Amer. Herp. I, 1836, 119. Pl. xxiii. 
Homalopsis Reinwardtii, Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. descr. 1837, 357. 
Hydrops Reinwardtii, Gray, Zool. Mise. 1842, 67. 

Hydrops abacurus, Dum. & Brier. Erp. Gen. —— Tab. 65. 

Helicops abacurus, House. N. Amer. Herp. 2d. ed. III, 1842,111. Pl. xxvi. 
Farancia Drummondi, Gray, Zool. Misc. 1842, 68. 

Farancia fasciata, Gray, Catal. of Snakes, Brit. Mus. 1849, 74. 
Red-Bellied Snake; Horn Snake. 


Vertical plate subhexagonal, elongated, sides nearly parallel, 
pointed posteriorly. Occipitals elongated, angular, posteriorly taper- 
ing. Postfrontals subangular, entering in the orbit. Prefrontal 
angular, well developed. Rostral much broader than high, concave 
beneath. Nostril in the middle of the nasal plate, visible from above. 
Loral elongated, horizontal, forming together with the postfrontal, 
the anterior part of the orbit. Eyes circular. Superciliaries sub- 
angular, elongated, well developed. Two angular postorbitals, upper 
one largest, lower one resting on the commissure between the 4th 
and 5th labials. One pretemporal shield, large, and four smaller 
ones. Upper labials 7; 5th and 6th slightly larger. Lower labials 8, 
4th largest; the two posterior ones scale-like. Mental scutellae two 


124 FARANCIA. 


pairs, nearly equal in length, posterior pair more tapering. Body 
subcylindrical, opalescent; tail proportionally short and conical. 
Scales perfectly smooth, rhomboidal; outer row somewhat broader 
than the rest. The five medial rows smaller. 

Color uniform bluish black above. On the two outer rows the 
ground-color assumes the shape of vertical bands, from one and 
a half to two scales broad, leaving an intermediate space from 
two to three scales wide, which is red in life, and dull yellow in spe- 
cimens preserved in alcohol. Both the red and bluish black extend 
on the abdomen, the former being the ground-color, and the vertical 
bands of the flank confluent on the middle of the abdomen, either 
directly opposite or alternating. 


Anderson, S. C. 171+2. 47.19. 818.58. Miss C. Paine. 
Prairie Mer Rouge, La. 178+-2. 47.19. 304. 78. Jas. Fairie. 
tf 1738-2. 47.19. 16. 23. ae 
& —- —-1) — — “ 


«“ DEUS les RG) ee Le “ 


ABASTOR. 125 


Gexus ABAS TOR, Garay. 


Gen. Cuar. Head subconical, continuous with the body. Cepha- 
lic plates normal. Vertical plate elongated. One nasal, grooved 
beneath the nostril. No anteorbitals. One loral together with the 
postfrontals constituting the orbit anteriorly. Two postorbitals. 
Eyes of medium size, circular. Scales smooth. Penultimate and 
last abdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal all bifid. 


Syn. Abastor, GRAY, Catal. of Snakes in Brit. Mus. 1849, 78. 


Abastor erythrogrammus, Gray.—Bluish black, opalescent, 
with three longitudinal lines of dull yellow (red in life). Abdomen dull 
yellow (flesh-colored in life), with a series of bluish-black spots on each 
side. Dorsal scales in 19 rows. 


Syn. Coluber erythrogrammus, Davup. Hist. Nat. Rept. VII, 1799, 93. 
Tab. 83, fig. 2.—Hozrpr. N. Amer. Herp. Ist ed. I, 1836, 115. Pl. xxii. 

Helicops erythrogrammus, Wau. Nat. Syst. Amph. 1830, 170.—Hotzsr. N, 
Amer. Herp. 2d ed. III, 1842, 107. Pl. xxv. 

Homalopsis erythrogrammus, Botn, Isis. 1827, 551. 

Abastor erythrogrammus, GRAY, Catal. of Snakes in Brit. Mus. 1849, 78. 


Vertical plate subhexagonal, long, maintaining its width posteriorly 
to the point where it enters between the occipitals. Occipitals long, 
anteriorly and posteriorly angular, rounded exteriorly. Postfrontals 
polygonal, entering into the orbit. Prefrontals proportionally small 
and subtriangular. Rostral very broad. Nostril in the middle of 
the nasal, with a groove beneath. Eyes very large. Loral narrow, 
forming with the postfrontals the anterior portion of the orbit. Su- 
perciliaries large, elongated, sides undulated. ‘Two rounded post- 
orbitals, lower one smallest. A very long temporal shield extending 
backwards beyond the occipitals, and two or three smaller ones, 
scarcely distinguishable from the scales. Mouth deeply cleft. Upper 
labials 7, 6th larger; lower labials 7; 4th larger. Two pairs of 


126 ABASTOR. 


mental shields, posterior pair smallest, extending backwards beyond 
the 4th inferior labial. Scales subrhomboidal, smooth, constituting 
19 longitudinal rows; outer rows considerably larger, the other 
nearly equal amongst themselves, except the second row, which is 
somewhat larger. 

Ground-color above bluish black. Dorsal longitudinal red line 
narrow, embracing only the medial rows of scales, extending from 
the occipitals to a little way beyond the anus. On each side of this 
there are three rows of scales of the ground-color. Then a longitu- 
dinal red line, broader than the medial one, though covering only 
one row of scales, then again three rows of the ground-color. Of 
the remaining two outer rows of scales, the outermost is uniform red- 
dish yellow, and the bases of the scales of the second row have a spot 
of bluish black. Beneath, two series of bluish black subelliptical 
and transverse spots, one spot on the exterior third and anterior 
margin of each scutella. The plates of the head are narrowly mar- 
gined with yellow. The labials are yellow, with a central black spot. 


Southern States. (?) 182+-1. 87.19. 153. 23. . Rev. J. G. Morris. 
ee 185+1.— 19. 143. f. ve 

Savannah, Ga. 179+1. 41.19. 10. 13. R. R. Cuyler. 
Ke 179-+-1. 37.19. 10. 13. : 


VIRGINIA. 197 


Genus VER GUNWIOA, Bairp & Girarp. 


Gen. Cuar. Head subelliptical, detached from the body. Cepha- 
lic plates normal. Two nasals; posterior one not invaded by the 
nostril. Postfrontals and loral entering into the orbit, and suppress- 
ing the anteorbitals. Two postorbitals. Mental scutellee two pairs. 
Eyes of medium size, circular. Scales smooth. Postabdominal 
scutella bifid. “Subcaudal all divided. 


Virginia Valeriz, B. & G.—Yellowish or grayish brown above, 
with minute black dots irregularly scattered, or constituting two series. 
Beneath lighter. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. 


Vertical plate hexagonal, more or less elongated; occipitals ob- 
Jong, exteriorly rounded. Postfrontals irregularly angular, produced 
into the orbit. Prefrontals subtriangular, proportionally small. 
Rostral narrow, and tapering upwards. Nostrils in the middle of 
the posterior margin of the prenasal. Loral elongated, forming to- 
gether with the postfrontals, the anterior portion of the orbit. Eyes 
circular. Superciliaries rather large, oblong, elongated. Postorbitals 
two (angular), lower one between the 4th and 5th labials. Mouth 
deeply cleft. Upper labials 6, 5th largest; inferior labials 6, 4th 
largest. Temporal shields four or five, well developed. Body slen- 
der, subcylindrical, flattened beneath; tail very short, diminishing 
very rapidly towards its acute tip. 

The scales are subrhomboidal and perfectly smooth; the two outer 
rows considerably broader than the rest, then diminishing gradually 
towards the middle line of the back. 

Ground-color uniform yellowish or grayish brown; dull yellow 
beneath. Minute black dots are in most cases scattered along the 
upper part of the body, forming sometimes two longitudinal series. 
Along the middle of each scale is a faint light line, which makes the 


128 VIRGINIA. 


body appear as if striated. On the outer rows this light line is 
broader, and appears as a succession of oblong spots. 


Kent Co., Md. 127-41. 25 
Maryland. 122-11. 36. 
Washington, D. C. 123-+1. 25. 
ee 125-41. 24, 
128+-1. 25. 
Ue 125+1. 29 


Anderson, 8. C. 125-1. 27. 
is 118-+-1. 25. 


rage oy 
15. 
15. 
15. 
15. 
LD. 
15. 
15. 


3, 1. Miss V. Blaney. 
7s. 13. Prof.C.B.Adams. 
73. 1. (ondep.) J. Varden. 
84. 1t. &“ 

10%. 14. 6 
oF. 14. “ 
84. 1}. Miss C. Paine. 
Teer UG ‘“ 


CELUTA. 129 


Genus CE LW TA, Barren & Girarp. 


GEN. CHAR. Head elongated, subelliptical, continuous with the 
body. Cephalic plates normal. Vertical broad. Superciliaries very 
small. One nasal, nostril in the middle. No anteorbital. Orbit 
formed chiefly by the loral, which is large, and slightly by the post- 
frontals. Scales smooth. Postabdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudals 
divided. Unicolor. 

Differs from Brachyorrhos in having two pairs of frontals, and 


smooth scales. 


Celuta ameena, B. & G.—Above uniform chestnut-brown, opa- 
lescent; light yellow (bright salmon-color in life) beneath. Dorsal scales 
in 13 rows. 


Syy. Coluber ameenus, Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. IV, 1825, 237. 
—Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 855; and Med. & Phys. 
Res. 1835, 118.—Svorer, Rep. Rept. Mass. 1839, 226. 

Calamaria amena, Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. descr. 1837, 31. PI. i, 
figs. 19 and 20. 

Brachyorrhos amenus, Houser. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 115) Pl. xxvii. 

Ground Snake; Worm Snake. 


Head very small; vertical plate hexagonal, nearly as broad as 
long. Prefrontals angular, one-third the size of postfrontals, which 
are likewise angular, and enter posteriorly into the upper portion of 
the orbit in front. Occipitals proportionally large. Rostral broad, 
and well developed. Nasal single, nostril in the middle of the an- 
terior half. A large loral forming with the postfrontal the anterior 
part of the orbit. A quadrangular and elevated postorbital. Super- 
ciliaries very small and narrow. Snout protruding. Eyes circular, 
over the commissure of the 3d and 4th labial. Upper labials 5, 5th 
largest. Inferior labial 6, 3d largest. Temporal shields well de- 
veloped. 

Body very glossy, subcylindrical. Tail short, tapering into a 
point. Scales rhomboidal, broad, all perfectly smooth. Outer row 


somewhat larger. Postabdominal scutella bifid. 
9 


1380 CELUTA. 


The specimen figured by Schlegel, and which he had from Ten- 
nessee, exhibits only one pair of frontal plates, whilst the numerous 
specimens from the eastern part of the United States, examined by 
us, are all provided with two such pairs. Of two specimens from 
Missssippi, one corresponds exactly with the figure given by Schlegel, 
whilst the other has three frontal plates, a posterior pair, and the 
right plate of the anterior pair. This circumstance has warned us 
against distinguishing, for the present, a western species from an 
eastern. Schlegel had ten individuals in his possession, but we are 
not told whether they all agreed together, as no importance is given 
by that author to the presence of one pair of frontals only. Should 
all the western specimens agree in the deficiency of the prefrontals, 
this. would undoubtedly become a character of some importance. 


Carlisle, Pa. 128-+-1. 80. 13.. 119%. 18. S. F. Baird. 

120-+-1. 36.13. 8%. 14. € 

ae ESI 129. 13. tO ae: & 

¥ 120---1. 38. 13.., 62." 17: 
Foxburg, Pa. T19-- 126. 18... 728. Ee 
Washington, D.C. 181-+-1. 28. 18. 103. 1%. J. Varden. 
Mount Vernon, Pa. 129+-1. 27.18. 12. 12. W. B. Parker. 
Clarke Co., Va. 131-+1. 24.18. 1013.1%. Dr. C. B. Kennerly. 
Anderson, S. C. 131-L1. 28.18. 10%. 1,5 Miss C. Paine. 

E 126520 27 doe LOR ES: gs 

a 130-4-15:26..1385." 10d: 13: 66 
Mississippi. 120-++1. 33.13. 83. 113. Dr.B.F.Shumard. 

ee 121-+1. 35. 13. 83. 14. oc 


TANTILLA. 131 


Genus TAN TILLA, Bamp & Girarp. 


Gun. CHAr. Head slender, continuous with the body. Cephalic 
plates normal. Postfrontals proportionally large, separated from the 
labials to which they approximate, between the postnasal and ante- 
orbital. Two nasals, nostrils in the anterior plate. No loral. An- 
terior orbital one; posterior one or two. Eyes below the medium 
size. Body slender, subcylindrical; tail tapering. Scales smooth in 
in 15 rows. Postabdominal scutella bifid. Subcaudal all divided. 
Unicolor. 


1. Tantilla coronata, B. & G.—One anteorbital, two postorbitals. 
Body uniform reddish brown; head deep chestnut-brown, with a black band 
across the neck above, in advance of which is a narrow lighter space. 


Snout prominent. Vertical plate hexagonal, anteriorly and pos- 
teriorly acute. Occipitals slender, rounded exteriorly. Postfrontals 
angular, excluded from the orbit, though extending on the sides of 
the head. Prefrontals triangular. Rostral proportionally broad. 
Nostrils situated on the posterior margin of the prenasal plate, and 
visible from above. Postnasal elongated, contiguous anteriorly to 
the anteorbital plate, and above to the postfrontal. No loral plate. 
Eyes rather small, circular. Superciliaries proportionally large, 
angular. Anteorbital one; postorbitals two, all angular. A large 
pretemporal shield, and two smaller ones behind. Mouth deeply cleft. 
Upper labials 7; 7th the largest; 3d and 4th beneath the eye. In- 
ferior labials 7; 4th the largest. Mental scutellze one pair. Body 
slender, tail rather short, tapering into a point. Scales subelliptical, 
considerably broader in outer row. 

Ground-color of body uniform reddish brown; light beneath. 
Head deep chestnut-brown; upper part of neck with a blackish 
brown half-ring, covering 3 scales in length, between which and the 
head a narrow space of the ground-color exists, across the tip of the 
occipitals. 


Kemper Co., Miss. 143-1. 85.15. 82. 1,5. D. C. Lloyd. 


132 TANTILLA. 


2. Tantilla gracilis, B. & G.—Anterior and postorbitals one each. 
Color uniform greenish brown above, lighter beneath; head darker. 


Vertical plate subhexagonal, much shorter than in 7” coronata. 
Postfrontals separated from 2d upper labial by the postnasal. Nostril 
in the postmargin of the prenasal. Hyes very small and circular. 
Superciliaries proportionally smaller and narrower than in 7’. coro- 
nata. One anteorbital and, one postorbital, both angular. Mouth 
deeply cleft. Upper labials 6; 5th and 6th equally larger than the 
rest; 3d and 4th beneath the eye, entering slightly into the orbit 
anteriorly and posteriorly. ‘Temporal shields two, narrow and elon- 
gated. Body slender and subcylindrical, covered above with sub- 
rhomboidal or elliptical and smooth scales, constituting 15 rows ; 
outer row but slightly larger than the three or four succeeding rows. 
Tail very slender. 

Ground-color uniform greenish brown, lighter beneath. Head 
darker. 


Indianola. 12941. 45.15. 74.18. Col. J.D. Graham. 


6“ aa ee Se 66 


OSCEOLA. 133 


Genus OSCEOLA, Bairp & Gimarp. 


Grn. Cuan. Head subelliptical, distinct from the body. Cepha- 
lic plates normal. ‘Vertical hexagonal. Postfrontals very large, ex- 
tending to the upper labials, and suppressing the loral. Two nasals, 
with nostril intermediate. One anterior and two posterior orbitals. 
Mental scutellee 2 pairs. Eyes large. Body slender, subcylindrical. 
Tail tapering. Scales smooth. Postabdominal scutella entire. Sub- 
caudal bifid. 


Osceola elapsoidea, B. & G.—Body red, crossed by pairs of black 
rings enclosing each a white one. Scales disposed in 19 rows. 


Syn. Calamaria elapsoidea, Housr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 119. 
Pl. xxviii. ; 


Snout projecting over the lower jaw; mouth deeply cleft. Verti- 
eal plate hexagonal, longer than broad anteriorly. Occipitals large, 
elongated, and angular. Postfrontals very large, extending to the 
2d upper labial. Prefrontals proportionally well developed and tra- 
pezoidal. Rostral very broad. Nostrils very large, occupying the 
whole inner margin of the nasals, and visible from above. Ante- 
orbital narrow, resting on the 3d labial. Middle of the eye over the 
commissure of the 8d and 4th labial. Two angular postorbitals, in- 
ferior one situated on the commissure, between the 4th and 5th 
labials. One large temporal shield, anterior, several posterior ones 
smaller. Upper labials 7, 6th largest; inferior labials 7, 5th largest 

Body subcylindrical, deeper than broad; tail forming about the 
eighth of the total length. Scales rhomboidal, perfectly smooth, 
constituting 19 rows; the outer row slightly broader than the 
rest. 

Ground-color brilliant red above, fading below, annulated with 
15 pairs of jet-black rings from head to anus, and three pairs on the 


134 OSCEOLA. 


tail, each pair enclosing a white ring. Head from the eyes to the 
snout red, vertical plate maculated with black. A black bar across 
the occipitals to the temporal shields, and another on the neck, 
between which a yellowish ring, narrow above, and spreading over 
the angle of the mouth, post upper labials and inferior surface of the 
head. The black rings cover from two to three scales, and the inter- 
mediate white, one scale. The red spaces between the black em- 
brace from 4 to 7 scales. The black rings taper towards the sides, 
whilst the white ones are spreading. 


Charleston, S. C. 175. 44. 19. 17%. 23. Dr. S. B. Barker. 


In a specimen from Mississippi there are 21 pairs of black rings 
from the head to the anus, narrower than in the specimen from 
Oharleston, and interrupted on the abdomen. The intermediate 
white is of about the same width in each. On the tail there are 5 
pairs of black rings, all the rings at the same distance apart, and 
equal in width to their interspaces. 


Mississippi. 180. 54. 19. 17. 23. Dr. B. F. Shumard. 


STORERIA. 135 


Genus STORERIEIA, Bamop & Giranp. 


Gen. Cuar. Head subelliptical, distinct from the body. Cephalic 

plates normal. Loral plate absent. Orbitals, two posterior; one or 
two anterior. Nasals two, rather large. Body small, scarcely ex- 
ceeding a foot in length, subcylindrical ; tail comparatively short, 
tapering. Dorsal scales 15-17 rows, all carinated. Abdominal 
scutellaee 120-140; posterior one bifid. Subcaudal, all divided, from 
41 to 51 in number. Color brown, with two dorsal dotted lines. 


1. Storeria Dekayi, B. & G.—One anterior and two posterior 
orbitals. Dorsal rows 17. Gray or chestnut-brown above, with a clay- 
colored dorsal band, margined by dotted lines. A dark patch on each side 
of the occipital; a dark bar between this and the eye, and two below the 
orbit. 


Syn. T'ropidonotus Dekayi, House. N. Amer. Herp. II, 1842, 538. Pl. xiv. 
—Dexay, N. York Fauna. Rept. 1842, 46. PI. xiv, fig. 30. 
Tropidonotus ordinatus, Storur, Rep. Rept. Mass. 1839, 223. 


Body rather thick in the middle, tapering to the tail and head, 
both of which are small and slender. Eyes small. Nostril princi- 
pally in the prenasal. Seven upper labials on each side. Lower 
labials seven, of which the 4th and 5th are very large, extending 
quite to the mental. A second plate parallel with the 6th, rather 
longer. Exterior dorsal row of scales largest, rest diminishing gra- 
dually to the back. 

Color grayish brown, sometimes chestnut-brown above and on the 
sides, with a dorsal stripe extending from occiput to the end of the 
tail, of a decidedly lighter tint, and about three and two half-scales 
in width. This is bordered along each outer edge by a,series of 
rounded brown dots, occurring at intervals of about two scales; of 
these there are about 70 pairs from occiput to anus. Each dot occu- 
pies generally a single scale, but is sometimes seen on the skin on 
each side. On separating the scales, the skin on each side of the 
4th lateral row of scales exhibits a second series, similar to and 


186 STORERIA. 


alternating with the first. A third series opposite to the first and 
alternating with the 2d, is seen along the 2d row, and there are even 


traces of a fourth between the abdominal and first dorsal series. Of - 


these only the first-mentioned series is visible under ordinary circum- 
stances, and is generally only to be made out on separating the scales, 
the color only occasionally being shown on their margins. The first 
pair of dots just behind and across the angle of the jaw is enlarged 
into a crescentic patch, concave before. A second narrow vertical 
patch of black across the sides of the head, anterior to a point half- 
way between the first and the eye; this sometimes interrupted in the 
middle. The posterior margins of the 3d and 4th (sometimes the 
2d) labials black, showing two vertical lines below the orbit. Plates 
on top of head mottled chestnut-brown. 


4 


Color beneath grayish white, with one or two black specks near 


the exterior edge of each scale. Tail unicolor. 

In some specimens the brown of the sides increases in depth to the 
dorsal stripe. In some, too, a transverse bar connects the lateral 
spots across the back. 

In a very young specimen from Grosse Ile, the colors are dark 
chestnut above, with the interval between the occipital patches and 
the cephalic plates and orbit white, crossed by a vertical black line 
on the angle of the mouth. Length 43 inches. 


Racine, Wisc. 1281.47.17. 18. 28. DE. B.ckoy: 
Grosse Ile, Mich. 1252-1550. 17. 82.012. Rev. Chas. Hox. 
Cleveland, Ohio. 131+1. 48.17. 113. 24. Dr. Kirtland. 
Westport, IV. Y. 128-1. 61.17. 10%. 2%. S. F. Baird. 
Harrisburg, Pa. 120-1. 17. 78. 2¥- y 
Framingham, Mass. 127-+-1. 45.17. 114. 24. - 
Pittsburgh, Pa. — —— — — G.W. Fahnestock. 
Washington, D. C. 129-+-1. 41.17. 12. 24. 8S. F. Baird. 
Anderson, S. C. 120+1. — 17. 93. 34. Miss C. Paine. 
ae 130-+-1. 47. 17. 124. 24. “ 
Georgia. 136-+1. 49.17. — — Major Leconte. 
New Orleans. ? 124 er 46 ty. TT. Oe: J. Varden. 


New Braunfels, Tex. — — — F. Lindheimer. 


STORERLA. 137 


2. Storeria occipito-maculata, B. & G.—Orbitals 1, two an- 
terior, two posterior. Dorsal scales in15 rows. Above gray, or chestnut- 
brown, sometimes with a paler vertebral line; beneath red or salmon-color. 
Three distinct light colored spots behind the head, and a smaller one on 
the 4th or 5th upper labial. 


Syn. TZropidonotus occipito-maculatus, Storer, Rep. Rept. Mass. 1839, 230. 
Coluber venustus, Hattow. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. III, 1847, 274; 
and vol. IV, 1849, 245. 


Nostril almost entirely in the prenasal plate, in some cases the 
postnasal not entering at all into it. Five to six upper labials, 
increasing in length posteriorly, lower labials 6 to 7, similarly con- 
stituted. Vertical plate hexagonal, shield-shaped. Muzzle rather 
broad, eyes larger than in S. Dekay?. 

Color above light chestnut-brown, sometimes chestnut-gray, at 
others olivaceous: a paler vertebral line from occiput to end of tail, 
about three scales in width; on each side of this may be seen a 
series of minute brown spots, produced by the brown bases of the scales 
in the 3d row on each side from the central series. Sometimes the 
brown covers the whole scale, and gives rise to two dorsal lines; at 
others it is almost entirely wanting, and this, connected as it gene- 
rally is with a less distinct vertebral band, gives the impression of a 
uniform tint above. Upper margin of the exterior dorsal lines 
brighter yellowish, giving the effect in some cases of a lateral narrow 
light line. Abdomen in life salmon-color, in alcohol whitish yellow, 
with the sides finely mottled with dark-brown, sometimes obsoletely, 
at others constituting very distinct bands. These generally do not 
encroach upon the dorsal scales. Occasionally, however, the middle 
of the exterior row of scales exhibits a dark stripe. Immediately 
behind the occipital plates, and on the median line, is seen a 
dull salmon-colored blotch, on each side of which, over the angle of 
the jaws, is a similar smaller one. The intervals between these 
blotches sometimes darker. A small salmon-colored spot on the 4th 
or 5th upper labial, behind the orbit. Plates on the top of the head 
blotched with darker. Lower jaw minutely dotted with brown. 

Description of a living specimen caught at Westport, N. Y., Au- 
gust, 1847.—‘“‘Iris dark chestnut, Father lighter above and ex- 
ternally. General color above dull chestnut-brown. Attentively 
examined, however, when wet, there is seen a faint dorsal stripe of 


158 STORERIA. 


lighter color, bordered by a line on each side of darker, which fades 
off to the abdominal scutellz until the color is the same as the dorsal 
line, or even lighter. Behind the head are three light yellowish 
brown occipital spots. Whole under parts, except the chin or throat, 
bright brick-red. Chin and throat white, mottled finely with gray 
and black, like pepper and salt. An irregularly defined stripe of the 
same mottling along the sides, from head to anus, crossing the ab- 
dominal scutellee near the outside.”—S. F. Baird, Mss. 


Westport, N.Y. 12441. 438.15. 94. 12. 8S. F. Baird. 
Portland, Me. —- — —- — — Prof. Caldwell. 
Lake Superior. —- —-—- —— Prof. Agassiz. 
Racine, Wise. —- —-—- —— Dr. P. R. Hoy. 
Foxburg, Pa. —- —-—- —— S. F. Baird. 
Madrid, N. Y. 128-++-1. 50. 15. 11. 23. E. A. Dayton. 
Pittsburgh, Pa. —- —- —- —— G. W. Fahnestock. 
Pottsville, Pa. —- — — —— Mr. Sheafer. 
Charleston, S. C. —- —- —- —— Dr. S. B. Barker. 
Anderson, S. C. —- -—--—- —-— Miss C. Paine. 
(Feorgia. —- -—--—- -— Major Leconte. 


A very strongly marked variety, which the condition of the speci- 
mens does not allow us to characterize or determine as a species, is 
seen in individuals from Charleston and Anderson, S. C., in which 
the body is dark slate-blue, except the middle third of the abdomen, 
which is yellowish white. The dorsal lines of black dots are visible 
through the ground-color; the lateral lighter line is scarcely per- 
ceptible. The three occipital spots, and that on the labials, are 
distinct. 


Charleston, S. C. — — — — —Dr.8.B. Barker. 
Anderson, S. C. 125-++1. 53.15. 84. 23. MissC. Paine. 
( Dr Bek: 


Near Mammoth Cave, Ky. 118-++-1. 47.15. 84. 2. \ Shamnsnd 


Another variety is seen in a specimen from Pittsburgh, Pa., where, 
in addition to the coloration just mentioned, the vertebral stripe is 
light chestnut, contrasting strongly with the ground-color. . 


WENONA. 13 


Ne) 


Genus WENOWNA, Bairp & Gimarp. 


Gen. Cuan. Head small, conical, slightly swollen on the tempo- 
ral region, though not separated from the body by a contracted neck. 
Snout protruding beyond the lower jaw. Mouth moderately cleft. 
Hyes very small. A broad and short vertical; two or three pairs of 
frontals. Occipitals very small, the size of the superciliaries. One 
nasal, a posterior one; nostril between it and the prefrontals, which 
extend over the place occupied elsewhere by the prenasal. Loral 
united with postfrontals or separated. One very large anteorbital ; 
two or more postorbitals. Numerous small temporal shields. Scales 
very small, lozenge-shaped, smooth, in 45 dorsal rows. Postab- 
dominal scutella not divided. Subcaudal all entire. Unicolor. 


Tail proportionally short, stout, terminating blunt. 


Syn. Wenona, B.& G. Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. VI, 1852, 176. 


1. Wenona plumbea, B. & G.—Uniform bluish lead-color \above ; 
uniform yellowish white beneath. Three pairs of frontal plates. Middle 
pair united with the loral, and thus extending to the labials. Labials not 
entering into the orbit. Dorsal scales in 45 rows. 


Syn. Wenona plumbea, B. & G. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. VI, 1852, N76. 


Upper surface of head slightly convex, snout rounded and pron\i- 
nent. Vertical plate as broad as long, obtuse angled anteriorly, 
rounded posteriorly. Postfrontals small and triangular, the smallest 
of all the frontals. Middle frontals subangular, transversely elon-\ 
gated, reaching the labials at the commissure of the 2d and 34, \ 
occupying the place of the loral. Prefrontals angular posteriorly, | 
rounded anteriorly, reaching the first labial, and occupying the 
place of the prenasal. Rostral broad and large. Postnasal subtri- 
angular, elongated, apex directed backwards. Nostril vertically 
elongated, situated between the lateral expansion of the prefrontals 
and the postnasal. Occipitals quite small, and united in one plate, 


eo 


140 WENONA. 


perhaps accidentally. Anteorbital subpyramidal, apex reaching the 
upper surface of head, touching the vertical, and produced between 
the superciliaries and postfrontals. Superciliaries subquadrangular, 
more developed on the surface of the head than in the orbit. Three 
postorbitals, with rounded margins, upper one slightly the largest, 
situated near the upper surface of head, and might be considered 
as a second superciliary. Two suborbitals; anterior larger, sub- 
hexagonal, situated above the commissure between the 4th and 5th 
labials; posterior rounded, oblong, above the posterior half of the 
5th labial. Temporal shields numerous and small, scalelike. Cleft 
of mouth slightly arched upwards. Upper labials 9; three anterior 
ones much higher than the rest; 5th broadest, none reaching the 
orbit. Lower labials inconspicuous; three anterior ones the largest. 

Body subcylindrical, deeper than broad; abdomen comparatively 
narrow. ‘Tail short, thick, blunt at its extremity. Scales small, 
irregular, subelliptical, or sublozenge-shaped ; on the outer row very 
large proportionally, higher than long. In the 2d row the scales are 
still larger; but in the remaining rows they become uniformly small, 
scarcely diminishing towards the middle line of the back. On the 
tail, hovrever, they are somewhat larger. 


Puget Sound, Or. 206. 87.45. 173. 24. (on dep.) Expl. Exped. 


2. Wenona isabella, B. & G.—Uniform isabel-color above, dull 
yellovy beneath. Two pairs of frontal plates. An angular loral. Upper 
4th end 5th labials entering into the orbit. A small anterior vertical be- 
tween the postfrontals. Dorsal scales in 45 rows. 


f3yn. Wenona isabella, B. & G. Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. VI, 1852, 176. 


Upper surface of head flat, snout subtruncated. Vertical broader 
jjhan long, rounded posteriorly. A small second vertical between 
the postfrontals. Occipitals united in one small narrow plate. Two 
pairs of frontals only; postfrontals much larger, subrounded, forming 
on the right side a continuous plate with the loral, whilst on the left 
side the loral is distinct from the postfrontal which itself is angular. 
Prefrontals subangular, extending to the first upper labial, and occu- 
pying the place of the prenasal. Rostral broad, obtuse angled above. 
Anteorbital pyramidal, extending to the surface of the head, pro- 
duced between the postfrontals and superciliary, and touching the 
vertical. Superciliary proportionally larger than in W. plumbea, 


e 


A WENONA. 141 


irregularly rounded. Three subangular and polygonal postorbitals. 
Numerous temporal shields of the size of the postorbitals, and but 
slightly larger than the scales. Cleft of mouth horizontal. Upper 
labials 9; the 5 anterior ones higher, the 4th and 5th entering into 
the orbit. Lower labials 10; the 4 anterior ones larger than the 
rest, which, as in W. plumbea, are not conspicuous. 

Body subcylindrical, deeper than broad; abdomen narrow. Tail 
short and thick, blunt posteriorly. Scales as in W. plumbea, only 
proportionally smaller. 


Puget Sound, Or. 210. 34.45. 154. 2;'5. (on dep.) Expl. Exped. 


16 


142 RENA. e 


Genus R EWA, Barren & Girarp. 


Gen. CHAr. Head slightly depressed and continuous with the 
body. Snout blunt and rounded, overlapping considerably the lower 
jaw. A large rostral plate. One nasal. A pair of fronto-nasals. One 
eye shield, or ocular. A pair of parietals. A pair of postparietals. 
Medial row of scales extending over the head to the rostral. Nostrils 
lateral, oblong, situated between the nasal and fronto-nasal. yes 


not conspicuous. Mouth inferior, semilunar. 


1. Rena dulcis, B. & G.—Reddish brown above; reddish white be- 
neath. Fifteen rows of scales. Body depressed. Eye shield separated by 
a small plate from the series representing the vertical. 


Body slender, elongated, rather stouter posteriorly than anteriorly, 
depressed, broader than deep. ‘Tail very short, subconical, bluntly 
terminated, about 5), of the total length. Rostral rounded, taper- 
ing, separating the fronto-nasals for nearly their whole length. 
Fronto-nasals proportionally large, tapering upwards, and undulat- 
ing. Nasal subtriangular, nostril situated on the middle of its upper 
margin, close to the fronto-nasal. Hye shield large, elevated, irregu- 
larly oblong, extending to the top of the head from the margin of 
the jaw. Parietal and postparietal similar, transversally elongated, 
the postparietal somewhat larger. Four shield-shaped scales in a 
longitudinal series between the postparietals, parietals, eyeshield, 
fronto-nasals on each sides, and the rostral in front, occupy the place 
of the vertical. On the crown, and just above the eye-shield, is a 
small semilunar plate, separating it from the series just described, 
and probably the homologue of the supraorbital. The margin of the 
upper jaw is formed in front by the rostral; on the sides next to the 
rostral by the nasal, behind which is a subquadrangular, obliquely ele- 
vated labial, limited above by the fronto-nasal, and posteriorly by the 
eye-shield, which enters likewise in the upper labial series. Pos- 
terior to the eye-shield is a subtriangular labial at the angle -of the 
jaw, approximating above the parietal, and limited behind by the 


RENA. 143 


postparietal and the beginning of the scales. Inferior labials four, 
similar to the scales under the throat. 

The scales present a great uniformity throughout the whole length 
of the body; a little smaller beneath than above. 


Between San Pedro and 


Camanche: Speiays es length 7%. tail ;45. Col. J. D. Graham. 


2. Rena humilis, B. & G.—Uniform chestnut-brown, lighter be- 
neath. Scales in 15 rows. Body cylindrical. The eye-shield in contact 
with the longitudinal series on top of the head. 


Body oe slender and cylindrical. Tail short, conical, tapering, 
not acute, ;/; of the total length. Head less depressed. Eyes and 
nostril more ena than in the preceding species. No supraorbitals. 
Postparietals much smaller than the parietals. Scales on the abdo- 
men larger than on the back. 


Valliecitas, Cal. length 6. tail 4. Dr. John L. Le Conte. 


mt Wh 
Li 
me 





APPENDIX A. 


SPECIES EXAMINED, OF WHICH NO SPECIMENS ARE IN POSSESSION 
OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 


Crotalus oregonus, Hoisr.—Grayish ash above, with narrow 
lighter lines decussating, so as to form dorsal and lateral rhomboids, with 
the angles all sharp and well defined, and their margins within the light 
lines, black. Beneath black. The dark postocular vitta passes above the 
labials without coming into the edge of the mouth. A light line across the 
head through the middle of the superciliaries. 


Syn. Crotalus oregonus, Houpr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 21. PI. iii. 


The only known specimen of this strongly marked species, and 
the same as that upon which Dr. Holbrook based his description, is 
too much shrivelled to admit of accurate description. In its general 
features it has a close resemblance to C. adamanteus, like it, having 
the back crossed by decussating light lines, enclosing transversely 
elongated rhomboids, with all the angles sharp and well defined. 
Of these rhomboids there are about 82 from head to anus. 

The general color is grayish ash, the decussating lines being of a 
lighter tint of the same. Along the margins of the lozenges, and just 
within the light lines, is a black border. Scutellae black, with ash- 
colored margins, the width of the ash-color diminishing from the 
head to the tail. There is a narrow, well-defined line across the 
head, just above the middle of the eye, which then appears to be 
continuous along the edge of the superciliaries to the angle of the 
jaw. A second white line starts between the nostril and the eye, 
and, passing back under the eye, strikes the edge of the mouth at the 

10 145 


146 APPENDIX A. 


7th labial, and extends along to the angle of the mouth: the ends of 
the anterior lines on opposite sides scarculy appear to meet on the 
top of the head. The vitta between these two light lines is dark 
ash, margined with black, and passes back above the labials to the 
angle of the mouth. The space in front of the second line is black, 
except a short narrow line produced along the labials anteriorly as a 
branch of the line in front of the eye. Edges of the nostril light. 

The animal is quite young, there being but a single button. 

An important feature of distinction from C. adamanteus is seen in 
the fact that the dark line on the side of the head passes above the 
labials to the angle of the mouth, instead of passing very directly 
down to the edge of the mouth, considerably anterior to the angle. 
The sharpness and close approximation of the rhomboids distinguish 
it from the other Western species. The head is much longer in pro- 
portion than in C. lucifer. 

From the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- 
delphia. 


Columbia River. 177. 22. — 124. 13. Thomas Nuttall. 


Eutainia concinna, B. & G.—Dorsal rows of scales 21, all cari- 
nated. Black, with a dorsal light stripe, and the usual lateral stripes re- 
placed by a series of distinct salmon-colored spots. 


Syn. Tropidonotus concinnus, Hattow. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. VI, 
1852, 182. 


Head small; body rather stout. Outer row of scales higher and 
larger than the rest, which are nearly equal. Above intense black, 
with a dorsal greenish white line one and two half-scales wide, and 
extending from head to tip of tail. On each side is a series of verti- 
cally elongated distinct spots of a reddish salmon-color, and 75 in 
number, between the head and anus. They occur on the 2d to the 
6th rows of scales, and are half a scale long, the same color being 
visible on the adjoining skin. The dark intervals are one scale 
longer than the spots themselves. Beneath greenish black, tinged 
with white anteriorly. Whole head reddish yellow, tinged above 
with brown. 

A near relative of our Lutainia Pickeringii. Belonging to the 
Academy of Natural Sciences. 


Oregon. & 168. 85. 21. 26. 74. Dr. B. F. Shumard. 


APPENDIX A. 147 


Nerodia niger, B. & G.—Head ellipsoid, anteriorly blunt, flattened 
above. Vertical plate very long, subhexagonal, slightly concave on the 
sides. Three postorbitals. Loral and nasals proportionally large. Dorsal 
scales in 23 rows. Color nearly uniform dark-brown on the back, macu- 
lated on the flanks and abdomen. 


Syn. Zropidonotus niger, Houpr. N. Amer. Herp. IV, 1842, 37. Pl. ix. 
Water Adder. 


Body more slender, and head larger than in JV. sipedon, though 
provided with 23 rows of scales, all of which are carinated. The 
scales of the outer row, however, are very large, proportionally more 
so than in WV. sipedon, the nearest relative of this species. The pre- 
frontals are triangular. The vertical plate is more elongated than in 
NV. sipedon, whilst the occipitals are smaller. The nasals and loral 
are also larger, as are the labials, though their number is the same 
in both species. The prefrontals are triangular. 

Ground-color chestnut-brown, with the scales streaked with black 
on the dorsal region, whilst the flanks are mottled, so as to appear 
darker. ‘The head beneath, and the middle of the abdomen on the 
anterior portion of the body are yellowish. The sides of the abdo- 
men, and posterior portion of body and tail, are densely maculated 
with black, almost entirely black beneath the tail. 

From the Cabinet of the Academy of Natural Sciences. 


Massachusetts. 141+-1. 66.23. 283.6%. Dr. D. H. Storer. 


Nerodia rhombifer, B. & G.—Vertical plate elongated, narrow, 
sides nearly parallel. Dorsal scales 27; scales all carinated. Postorbitals 
two on one side, three on the other. Labials 8, 6th highest. A dorsal 
series and a lateral on each side of quadrate blotches; the alternating 
blotches of opposite sides connected across the back by dark lines passing 
into the dorsal series. 


Syn. Tropidonotus rhombifer, Hattow. Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. VI, 
1852, 177. 


Ground-color light brown, or when the epidermis is removed, 
bluish ash. The dorsal dark spots are 50 in number from the head 
to the tip of the tail, the 35th opposite the anus. The lateral bars 
alternate with the preceding: they extend between the edges of the 


148 APPENDIX A. 


abdomen and the 9th or 10th rows of scales, and are about one and 
a half scales long, separated by intervals of 22 or 3 scales. The dark 
bars crossing the back obliquely, and connecting the alternating bars 
of opposite sides by their decussation and slight confluence, form the 
dorsal series of blotches. These lines are about half the width of the 
vertical bars, appearing like their bifurcations. They divide the 
back into a succession of transversely elongated hexagons of the 
ground-color. The dark markings are confined to the skin and the 
basal halves of the scales, the tips of these in all cases being of the 
ground-color. Beneath yellowish white, blotched along each side 
with darker. 

Collected by Dr. 8. W. Woodhouse, on the Arkansas river and its 
tributaries, near the northern boundary of the Creek nation, and in 
possession of the Topographical Bureau. 


Arkansas River. 1414-1. 70.27. — — Dr. 8. W. Woodhouse. 


Nerodia transversa, B. & G. 


Syn. Tropidonotus transversus, HALLow. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. VI, 
1852, 177. 


Owing to the imperfect condition of the specimen upon which this 
species was founded, it has been impossible to determine its true af- 
finities (except the generic), although strongly suspecting it to be the 
same, or at least very similar to V. Woodhousti, B.& G. If they be 
the same, the name of Dr. Hallowell will of course have priority, 
although neither the description nor the present condition of the spe- 
cimen afford conclusive proof on this point. Dr. Hallowell’s descrip. 
tion is as follows :—‘ Head large, swollen at the temples, convex 
posteriorly, flattened between the orbits, depressed in front; a series 
of subquadrate dark-colored blotches, thirty-six or thirty-seven in 
number, along the back; a transverse row of oblong bars along the 
sides, their upper margins alternating with the inferior margins of 
the dorsal blotches; scales strongly carinated, 25 rows; abdominal 
scutelle 144; subcaudal 78. 

“ Dimensions. Length of head 12 lines; greatest breadth 7; 
length of body 1 ft. (Fr.) 5 inches, 7 lines; length of tail 6 inches; 
total length 2 ft. 

“ Habitat. Creck boundary, found near the banks of the Arkan- 
sas and its tributaries.” 


Topographical Bureau. . 


APPENDIX A. 149 


Masticophis flagelliformis, B. & G. 


A young individual in the cabinet of the Academy of Natural 
Sciences of Philadelphia, and labelled ‘ Coluber reticularis, Daup.,” 
present the following characters, after long preservation in aleohol :— 
Above white, with a series of transverse dark bars across the back, 
extending from head to tail, about two scales long, and crossing from 
one side of the abdomen to the other. There is a faint indication of 
darker lateral lines extending through the centres of the lateral rows 
of scales. Beneath white, with two series of brown dotted lines ex- 
tending from the chin for about one-fourth of the length. Plates on 
the top of the head yellowish, with darker margins. 


South Carolina. ——17. 19. 43. Acad. Nat. Se. 


APPENDIX B. 


SPECIES DESCRIBED BY AUTHORS, BUT OF WHICH NO SPECIMENS 
COULD BE OBTAINED. 


i. Toxicophis atrofuscus, Troost.—Body above dusky, with 
light rhomboidal dorsal blotches of smoky gray, disappearing entirely near 
the tail, which is black. 


Syn. Toticophis atrofuscus, Troost. Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y. III, 
1836, 190. 

Acontias atrofuscus, Troost. ibid 180. 

Trigonocephalus atrofuscus, Houpr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 43. PI. ix. 


“Upper part of the head dark-brown, bordered with gray, which 
becomes lighter behind the eyes, with a dark longitudinal spot reach- 
ing from the orbit to the tympanal bones. Upper lip white, termi- 
nating near the tip in gray. Body dusky, variegated with brown 
spots of smoke-gray ; broadest on the back, and disappear on the tail, 
which is black. Throat marked with black and white, the latter 
color predominating ; belly irregularly spotted with black and white, 
darkest towards the tail, and in all parts the white is minutely dotted 
with black.’”’—Holbrook. 


Tennessee. 133. 25-+-18. — 25. 32. Dr. G. Troost. 


The species probably belongs really to the genus Aghistrodon, 
Beauv. 


2. Coluber testaceus, Say.—‘‘ Body above pale sanguineous or 
testaceous; beneath sanguineous, immaculate.”—Say. 


Syn. Coluber testaceus, Say in Long’s Exped. Rocky Mts. II, 1823, 48.— 
Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 848; and Med. & Phys. Res. 
1835, 118.—Hoxsr. N. Amer. Herp. II, 1842, 63. Pl. xiii. 

150 


APPENDIX B. 151 


“ Head subovate, elongated, the snout produced slightly and 
rounded. The form of the head, as well as the plates that cover it, 
and the disposition of the eyes and nostrils, appear in the preserved 
specimen to be precisely similar to those of Coluber constrictor. The 
body is long and slender, and is covered with large, smooth hex- 
agonal scales above, and with broad plates below. The tail is long 
and slender. The whole upper surface of the animal is pale brick- 
dust color, the abdomen and below brighter red.””—Holbr. 


Rocky Mts. 198. 80. — 62. — Thos. Say. 


The figure represents the postabdominal scutella as divided. The 
species perhaps belongs to the genus MJasticophis, more dorsal rows 
being represented than probably belong to it. It may prove to be 
Masticophis flavigularis, B. & G. 


3. Coluber Sayi, Scut. (non Hotsr.)—General color reddish orange, 
with a dorsal series of transverse blotches, forming bands towards the pos- 
terior region of the body. Flanks mottled or maculated. 


Syn. Coluber Sayi, Scuu. Ess. Phys. Serp. Part. descr. 1837, 157. 
Coluber melanoleucus var. Say.—Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 
1827, 360; and Med. & Phys. Res. 1835, 123. 


“‘This species is beyond all dispute one of the handsomest of the 
genus (Coluber), and as well characterized by the shape of its snout 
and the plates of its surface as by the beautiful reddish yellow tint 
predominant over all the regions of the body. The back, however, 
is of a deeper chestnut-brown, in the midst of which the ground-color 
appears in the shape of numerous transverse and oval blotches : these 
two tints constitute towards the posterior region broad and alternat- 
ing bands, extending to the inferior surface. The anterior region is 
deeper in color, spotted or maculated with black like the abdomen, 
or else exhibiting large patches of this same tint. 

‘The head is distinct from the neck, and covered with plates, the 
vertical of which is a spherical triangle almost equilateral; the oc- 
cipitals are noticeable for their small size; the labials are large, and 
margined with black, but are not to be distinguished from the scales 
of the body, which are lanceolated, provided with a carina, and dis- 
posed in 26 rows. 

“There are three postorbital plates and but one anteorbital, pre- 
ceded by a very small loral. The snout is conical, and terminated 


152 APPENDIX B. 


by a plate, which has the shape of a prominent nose, on each side of 
which are the nasals. Our specimen has two pairs of postfrontals 
disposed on a single transverse row. 

“The bones which constitute the skull are stouter than in the 
other species of Coluber. The tympanum is longer, and the nasals 
elongated. The intermaxillary is very depressed. The teeth are all 
of the same length.””—Schlegel. 

The specimen described was brought from the Rocky Mountains 
by Mr. Say, and presented to M. Schlegel by Charles L. Bonaparte. 


Missouri. 991. 5d 25: =~ about:4 feet: 


The species here referred to belongs undoubtedly to the genus 
Pituophis. The general system of coloration, the peculiar shape and 
structure of the snout, and the presence of two pairs of postfrontal 
plates, are characters which this genus alone possesses in the manner 
just described. 

As to Say’s variety of Coluber melanoleucus, as given by Harlan, 
it is introduced into the synonymy with some doubt. 


4. Coluber vertebrahis, Buainv.—“ Reddish yellow or pale red, 
marbled with deep brown, forming a dorsal united series in the shape of a 
succession of sections of fish vertebra, becoming isolated and more apart 
towards the posterior region.” 


Syn. Coluber vertebralis, Buarnv. Nouy. Ann. Mus. d’Hist. Nat. IIT, 1834, 
61. Pl. xxvii. figs. 2, 2a, and 2b. 


“Body elongated and slender anteriorly; head small and com- 
paratively distinct; snout pointed; tail short, conical, and pointed. 
Nostrils lateral, small, circular, between the two nasal plates. Hyes 
large, lateral, almost entirely surrounded with the orbital plates. 
Cephalic plates: two prefrontals and two postfrontals ; two lorals 
superposed. ‘Two anteorbitals and three postorbitals. Abdominal 
scutella: 245; subcaudal 64. Scales rather small, lozenge-shaped, 
smooth, imbricated.”’ 

California. —-—- —-  — M. Botta. 


This species is not without a certain resemblance to Pituophis. 
The chained dorsal blotches, the acute head, prominent snout, and 
presence of two lorals, the upper one resembling in shape and posi- 


APPENDIX B. 155 


tion an exterior pair of postfrontals, are the characters which lead us 
to this belief. Its generic affinities, however, cannot be determined 
without specimens in hand. The smooth scales would militate 
against the supposition of its being a Pituophis. 


5. Coluber (Ophis) Califormia, Brainv.—< Yellow, lighter be- 
neath, darker above, with six longitudinal bands more or less effaced, and 
more or less anastomosed, of a black color, the upper ones broader and often 
united.” 


Syn. Coluber (Ophis) Californix, Buainv. Ann. Mus. d’Hist. Nat. III, 1834, 
60. Pl. xxvii. figs. 1, 1a, 1b. 


“ Body of ordinary form and medium length; head proportionally 
large, depressed; snout short and obtuse. Tail rather short, conical, 
and pointed. Nostrils lateral, oval, between the two nasal plates, 
contiguous to the frontals. Eyes of medium size, lateral. Cephalic 
plates. Two prefrontals and two postfrontals; one loral; one ante- 
orbital and two postorbitals. Scales rather small, lozenge-shaped, 
imbricated, and perfectly smooth.” 


California. —--—-—-_—- -— M. Botta. 


6. Coluber (Zacholus) zonatus, Buainv.—“ Reddish white, en- 
tirely annulated with deep black, with two half-rings of the same color on 
the head.” 


Syn. Coluber (Zacholus) zonatus, Buainv. Nouv. Ann. Mus. d’Hist. Nat. 
Ill, 1834, 61. 


“ Body cylindrical, back depressed, subcarinated, suddenly attenu- 
ated posteriorly, and but slightly anteriorly. Head small, tetragonal, 
with an obtuse and thick snout; tail short, small, and very much 
tapering, about 4 of total length. Nostrils lateral, large, infundi- 
buliform, in the midst of the two nasal plates. Eyes large and late- 
ral. Mouth deeply cleft; anus very far back. Cephalic plates: 
two prefrontals and two postfrontals; one loral, very small; one 
anteorbital and two postorbitals, very small. Scales rather large, 
rhomboidal, subimbricated, increasing in size from the back towards 
the sides, subconvex and perfectly smooth.” 


California. —-—-——_—- — — M. Botta. 


154 APPENDIX B. 


4. Coluber planiceps, Briarny.—‘ Uniform reddish above, of a 
soiled white beneath, with a black patch on the occiput and the beginning 
of the neck.” 


Srv. Coluber planiceps, Buainv. Nouv. Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. IIT, 1834, 62. 
Pl. xxvii, figs, 3, 3a, 3b. 


“ Body slender, rather elongated, cylindrical; head small, de- 
pressed, but little distinct; snout short and elliptical; tail rather 
long, slender, and very much tapering, } of the total length. Nostrils 
lateral, very small, situated in the middle of the nasal, which is elon- 
gated and single. Eyes of medium size. Mouth broad, consider- 
ably cleft; anus far back. Cephalic plates: two prefrontals and two 
postfrontals. No loral. One anterior and one postorbital. Ab- 
dominal scutella 184, beginning at some distance from the head. 
Subcaudal 56. Scales broad, convex, very smooth, opalescent, ob- 
liquely imbricated.” 


California. —-—-— M. Botta. 


Genus CHAR UNA, Gray. 


Gen. CHar. Resembles Wenona in general shape and appear- 
ance, and bears with it many affinities in structure. There are two 
lorals instead of one; three anteorbitals instead of one; three super- 
ciliaries instead of one; and the subcaudal scutellz much narrower, 
and more elongated transversely. The comparison of specimens will 
no doubt show other generic differences inappreciable by the de- 
scriptions. 


Syn. Charina, GRAY, Catal. of Snakes in Brit. Mus. 1849, 115. 


8. Charina Botte, Gray.—Body cylindrical, blunt at each end; 
pale yellow; back and tail darker. 


Syy. Charina Botte, Gray, Catal. of Snakes in Brit. Mus. 1849, 1138. 
Tortric Botte, Buainv. Nouy. Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. III, 1834, 57. PI. 
Xxvi, figs) 1, 1a, 1b. 


APPENDIX B. 15 


wo 


Genus OPH THALMIDEION, Dum. & Birr. 


Gen. Coan. Head more or less depressed, covered with plates ; 
rostral plate recurved under the snout, the tip of which is rounded, 
and extending to the upper part of the head in the shape of an oval 
cap. An anterior frontal plate. A frontal proper. A pair of su- 
praoculars. A pair of pariectals; no interparictals, or one only. A 
pair of nasals. A pair of fronto-nasals. A pair of oculars. A pair 
of preoculars. Nostrils hemidiscoid, opening under the snout, one to 
the right, the other to the left, between the nasal and fronto-nasal. 
Eyes lateral, more or less distinct. 


Syn. Ophthalmidion, Dum. & Brpr. Erp. Gen. VI, 1844, 262; 
and Catal. Rept. Mus. d’Hist. Nat. II, 1852, 201. 


9. Ophthalmidion longissimum, Dum. & Bisr.—Tail double 
the length of the width of the head, cylindrical, straight, rounded at the tip, 
and provided with a small spine. Nasal plates in the shape of little subrec- 
tangular bands, placed longitudinally on each side at the inferior part of 
the rostral. Oculars in vertical subhexagonal bands, less developed than 
the preoculars, and showing the eyes but slightly through. Head yellow- 
ish, the whole body of a grayish tint. 


Syn. Ophthalmidion longissimum, Dum. & Bier. Erp. Gen. VI, 1844, 263 ; 
and Catal. Rept. Mus. Hist. Nat. II, 1852, 201. 


N. America. Collected by Comte de Castelnau. Florida. ? ? 
The following species given by Schlegel in his Hssaz as North 


American, cannot be admitted into our fauna without further evi- 
dence. 


CalaMaria MelaAMOCe PMala,..........ccccevees Surinam & Philada 
MVC OMOM CLOUT Asner ecccces sooner ottisevsvdesecdscssiocesseetasetesscacosenes DL DTLAd a, 
Hierpetodryas Margaritiferuss.................ccccecees New Orleans. 
Her petOdryaSs CUPSOD. .............ccc6. cccces cesses ceccncces seeeee New York. 
DryOpWis CAtesDOe L...........cccccccececceeeeeceneenene ces Southern States. 
BPADSERS AMMMN UND NG. oo nies = sores edhe vanes aconasiens onayed syeohe Delta of Miss. 
HTOMALOPSIS CAMPTMICAUAA...........ccccccccscsececsey cosceeees New York. 


Homalopsis plicatilis, Var............cccccsseeeees see New Orleans. 


AP PE Nipt XC. 


SPECIES COLLECTED BY JOHN H. CLARK AND ARTHUR SCHOTT, 
on THE U. S. anD Mexican Bounpary SuRVEY, UNDER MAJ. 
Wo. H. Emory, U. 8. A., AND RECEIVED TOO LATE FOR INSER- 
TION IN THEIR PROPER PLACES. 


BH. Crotalus AtrOX, B. & G.wccccserccieesscsessses soossesen sesseeese Page 5 
Pecos, Tex. —— 15. 35. 28. John H. Clark. 
Eagle Pass, Tex. — ee LL DO, DE. Arthur Schott. 

2. Toxicophis pugnax, B. & G...........seecees Riassessceeness Page 20 
Eagle Pass, Tex. 188. 48. 25. 28. 43. Arthur Schott. 

BS. Blaps temere, Bik G......ccucccssscccessovsvecss sernsvsesserrasess Page 22 


The ground-color of the present specimen is red, the same as in 
Elaps fulvius; the fact of its being fawn-colored in the specimen de- 
scribed above must be attributed to the action of the preserving 
fluid. The specimens here referred to are of a greater size, but ex- 
hibit all the other characters by which we have distinguished this 
species from Klaps fulvius. 


San Felipe, Tex. —-—— —— John H. Clark. 
Eagle Pass, Tex. —-——_—- —>— Arthur Schott. 

4, Eutainia Marciama, B. & Goo... cesses eee eens Page 36 
Eagle Pass, Tex. —-—-— Arthur Schott. 


156 


APPENDIX C. 157 


5. Heterodom masicus, B. & Goi....cccccs cceeccessseeees teneeeees Page 61 


Specimens of this species vary in the number of small postrostral 
plates. In some there are only three or four, in others a larger num- 
ber. Sometimes, instead of a single series of median dorsal spots, 
there are two, in close contact, and more or less confluent. The nar- 
row light line across the middle of the superciliaries and the high 
labials are still highly characteristic. _ 


Pecos, Tex. 130+-1. 40.23. 143. 28. John H. Clark. 
cs 141-+4-1. 29. 23. 203. 23. 3 
és 141+-1. 87. 23. 233. 34. x 
Eagle Pass, Tex. 14441. 88.28. 264. 33. Arthur Schott. 
G. Pituophis belloma, B. & Gu... cesses cee esseeeeseeeeees Dage 66 


Presidio del Norte, Mex. 248. 51. 82. 513. 6. John H. Clark. 


4%. Scotophis Emoryi, B. & G.—Head rather narrow; vertical plate 
elongated. Eye large. Median six or eight scales only carinated; very 
slightly. Dorsal rows 29. Above ash-gray, with a dorsal series of trans- 
verse brown blotches, on each side of which are two others of smaller size; 
indistinct traces of a third. <A frontal brown vitta passing back through the 
eye, and crossing the angle of the mouth on to the side of the neck. 


- Plates and shape of head much as in S. guttatus. Vertical plate 
more elongated than in the species of allied color, being decidedly 
longer than broad. Head rather narrow. Eye larger than in S. 
guttatus, its centre a little posterior to the junction of the 4th and 
5th labials. ~ Postorbitals resting on the 5th labial, as in the other 
species. Anteorbital large. Loral elongated, acute angled behind. 
Upper labials 8, 6th and 7th largest; lower 11, 6th largest. Dor- 
sal rows of scales 29, central five or six only carinated, and those 
only slightly : exterior row largest, rest nearly equal. Ground-color 
grayish ash. A.series of olivaceous brown transverse quadrate 
blotches along the back, 70 in number, the 50th opposite the anus. 
These are ten or twelve scales broad, two to three long, and sepa- 
rated by intervals of one to two scales. They are narrowly margined 
with black. On each side of the dorsal series, and alternating with 
it, is a series of smaller, nearly circular, but similarly constituted 
blotches extending between the 3d, and 7th or 8th rows: below this, 


158 APPENDIX C. 


and on the 2d and 3d rows, is a still smaller and quite indistinct 
third series, and occasionally traces of a fourth on the Ist and 2d. 
The ground-color or space between the blotches is grayish ash ; each 
scale minutely mottled with dark-brown or black; the extreme bor- 
der generally pure ash, especially on the sides. Beneath yellowish 
white, with rather indistinct blotches of brownish ash, thickest 
behind. 

Head grayish ash, with a somewhat curyed broad brown vitta on 
the back part of the postfrontals, which, involving the commissure 
of the anteorbital and superciliary, passes back through the eye, and 
crossing the angle of the mouth on the adjacent halves of the ulti- 
mate and penultimate labials, extends into the blotches on the sides 
of the neck. A second nearly effaced bar crosses the anterior front- 
als, leaving an ash-colored band half the width of the first-mentioned 
bar. The anterior dorsal blotch is replaced by two elongated ones 
running up on the head to the centre of the occipitals, parallel with 
the postocular vitta, with an ash-colored stripe between the two, 
which extends from the superciliary backwards on the sides of the 
neck. As in the other brown marks, these stripes are margined by 
black. The adjacent edges of the 4th and 5th labials are brown. This 
is the only species except S. guttatus, in which the’ postocular vitta 
crosses the angle of the mouth, and passes down the side of the neck. 
There is scarcely any indication of elongation in the lateral spots 
except anteriorly. 

This species differs from S. vu/pinus in the gray color, much larger 
eye, longer head, narrower vertical, &c.; from S. dwtus in much the 
same points as well as in having the dorsal spots transverse not longi- 
tudinal; from S. Lindheimeri in lighter color, and absence of white 
margins to the basal ends of the dorsal scales. 


Howard Springs, Tex. 217-+1. 72.29. 413. 7. J. H. Clark. 


8. Georgia obsoleta, B. & G.—Postorbitals resting on the fifth 
labials, not on the 4th, as in Georgia Couperi. Black above, beneath slate- 
color; anteriorly with the bases of the scutelle red. 


Syn. Coluber obsoletus, Say in Long’s Wxped. Rocky Mts., I, 1823, 140.— 
Haru. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. V, 1827, 347; and Med. & Phys. Res. 
1835, 112.—Hoxsr. N. Amer. Herp. III, 1842, 61. Pl. xii. 


Upper labials 8; 7th and 8th largest ; postorbitals supported by 
the 5th; 6th labial small, triangular, but still separating the 5th and 


APPENDIX C. 159 


7th, which do not meet above it. Lower labials 9; 4th and 5th 
largest. Two rows of temporal shiclds. Two lorals in one speci- 
men, one in another. General color above deep black; some of the 
scales having dashes of reddish white at their bases, scarcely indi- 
cating blotches as in Scotophis: the same color is sometimes shown 
on the skin. Beneath slate-black. The color is uniform on the pos- 
terior half: the bases of the scutelle: then begin to exhibit more or 
less of pale reddish white, which tint incréases in extent and in- 
tensity anteriorly until towards the head the slate-color is only seen 
along their edges, the tint there being a dark salmon-color. The pos- 
terior margins of the upper and lower labials, as well as all the plates 
on the sides of the neck and beneath, are edged with well-defined 
black. Sides of the head reddish brown, margined as above. 


Eagle Pass, Tex. 193. 60.17. 45%. 732. Arthur Schott. 
. 193. 56.17. 48%. 93. ¢ 
9. OPHIDOLUS Sai, B. & Gio..........c00ecccevees sonsevees oogeoeeee Page 84 
Variety with transverse penultimate bands. 
Eagle Pass, Tex. 210. 59. 23. 378. 52. Arthur Schott. 
10. Masticophis flavigularis, B. & G........ cesses Page 99 


Mr. Clark mentions having seen specimens of this species on the 
upper Rio Grande, with a decided tinge of red. It would not sur- 
prise us, therefore, to find it the same with Coluber testaceus, Say—a 
point of much interest, as this is the only one of Say’s Western spe- 
cies which we have not identified as clearly distinct. 


Presidio del Norte,Mex. 200-++-1. 167.17. 56.153. John H. Clark. 


il. Masticophis ornatus, B. & G................... Steeda Page 102 


A highly marked specimen, differing somewhat from those already 
described. Very dark purple on the back, lighter on the sides be- 
tween the light lines. A narrow yellow line along the contiguous 
edges of the abdomen and outer dorsal rows. The 4th row of scales 
with the adjacent edges of the 3d and Sth, are yellowish white, with 
a well-defined black line through the centre of the former. Down 
the centre of all the rows as well as the fourth, is a black line, 
most intense on the 1st and 8d rows. At successive intervals along 


160 APPENDIX C. . 


the back, are seen broad transverse light bands, produced by the ob- 
literation of the black line in the 4th row, and by all the dorsal 
scales between the light lines being yellowish white, with more or 
less of purplish black towards the tips. There are about eight of 
these dorsal marks on the anterior three-fifths of the body, the first 
being indicated by a light bar on the nape. 


Howard Springs, Tex. 206+-1.— 15. 61§. 173. J. H. Clark. 


12. Masticophis Schotti, B. & G.—Greenish brown, with two nar- 
row white lines on each side, becoming obsolete at about three-fifths of the 
length from the head. Scales on the back yellow at the base. Sides of the 
neck in front red. Dorsal scales in 15 rows. 


This species presents quite a close relationship to JZ teniatus, al- 
though sufficiently different in its distribution of color. The general 
tint above is a dark greenish olive. On each side are two well-de- 
fined narrow yellowish white lines: the first along the junction of the 
outer dorsal row and the abdominal scutelle, involving only the ad- 
jacent angles; the second similarly constituted in relation to the 3d 
and 4th rows (not running through the centres of the scales). The 
portion of the 3d and 4th rows not involved by the upper white line 
is black, as is also a narrow margin above the lower white line, of 
the same diameter with it. The upper angles of the scales in the 
first row, and the whole of those of the second row, are of a lighter 
olive than the back. All the scales on the back between the upper 
yellow lines of opposite sides are margined with yellow along their 
basal edges, only evident on separating the scales. Anteriorly is a 
short yellow line along the junction of the 2d and 3d rows of scales, 
extending to about the 25th abdominal scutella. 

Color beneath dull yellow, with the greater part of the scutelle 
closely and minutely blotched with greenish slate. Anteriorly the 
proportion of yellow is much greater, and near the head the blotch- 
ing is in two series, as in the rest of the genus. The tail also is 
nearly unspotted yellowish, except anteriorly. On the external 
fourth of the abdominal scutellz the blotching is more confluent, 
forming a well-defined margin to the lower yellow line. Anteriorly 
the side of the abdomen is of a dull red. The upper jaw is yellowish 
white, excepting the lower edges along the Ist to the 6th labials, 
which are black. Orbitals, loral, and ‘nasals with a yellow central 
spot. 


APPENDIX C. 161 


The lateral stripes become obsolete at about 3 of the length from 
the head, so that the body posteriorly is nearly unicolor above. 
Upper labials 8, 7th longest; lower 9, 5th largest. 


Eagle Pass, Tex. 20141.138.15. 543.173. Arthur Schott. 


iS. Salvadora Grahamia, B. & Gu... cscs cceeseeeeees Page 104 


This specimen has but two anteorbitals, the upper very large; in 
other respects it is as previously described. The under parts appear 
to have been of a delicate reddish salmon-color. 


Presidio del Norte, Mex. 189+-1.100. 17. 283. 7%. John H. Clark. 


14. Leptophis maajalis, B. & G......... cee ccccee ee ceee eee eees Page 127 
Eagle Pass, Tex. 162-++1.127.17. 28. 16%. Arthur Schott. 


LS. DWiadoOpPhis regalis, B. & Guu... ceccseseceeeeevee ceneeee Page 115 


Eagle Springs, Tex. 229+-1. 56.17. 25%. 4. John H. Clark. 


16. Rhimocheilus Leconte, B. & G.........6c cece eeeeee Page 120 
Pecos, Tex. 191. 56. 23. 26%. 44. John H. Clark. 
OY. TWamtilla Sracilis, B. & G...........20 seerccscs sessen cesses cess Page 132 
Eagle Pass, Tex. 133. 44.15. 72%. 14. Arthur Schott.’ 


11 


APPENDIX D. 


InpEX oF SOURCES FROM WHICH THE SPECIMENS HAVE BEEN 
RECEIVED. 


Acapvremy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 40, 41, 47, 66, 92, 146, 
147, 149. 

Adams, Prof. C. B., 33, 58, 80, 87, 128. 

Agassiz, Prof. L., 42, 81, 138. 


Barrp, S. F., 2, 8, 18, 25, 31, 39, 46, 53, 56, 74, 88, 94, 95, 109, 1138, 1380, 
136, 188. : 

Barker, Dr. 8S. W., 4, 12, 22, 40, 58, 79, 86, 95, 122, 184, 138. 

Barratt, Dr: J. B.,, dl, 56; 61: : 

Blaney, Miss Valeria, 128. 

Boston Society of Natural History, 55. 

Bowman, J. 8., 36. 

Boyle, Dr. C. C., 35, 88, 115. 

Burnett, Dr. W. J., 99. 


CALDWELL, Prof. M., 31, 109, 188. 

Churchill, Gen. 8., 15, 28, 82, 36, 63, 68. 

Clark, Jonn H., 95, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161. 
Cuyler, R. R., 80, 125. 


DanieL, Mrs. M. E. See Miss C. Paine. 
Dayton, E. A., 18. 


Epwarps, Dr., 15. 
Emory, Maj. W. H., 156—161. 


Fanunestock, G. W., 96, 136, 138. 
Fairie, James, 3, 18, 20, 22, 25, 41, 44, 50, 85, 91, 94, 119, 124. 
Force, Col. P:, 31. 
Fox, Rey. Charles, 15, 31, 39, 46, 76, 96, 136. 
Frémont, Col. J. C., 95. 
162 


APPENDIX D. 16: 


Go 


GAMBEL, Dr. Wm., 27, 36, 63, 68, 97, 103. 

Girard, Charles, 18, 22, 81, 40, 58, 60, 88, 109. 

Graham, Col. J. D., 6, 9, 11, 18, 15, 18, 20, 28, 26, 29, 37, 42, 48, 55, 63, 
68, 75, 84, 85, 97, 100, 101, 103, 105, 107, 114, 115, 117, 182, 148. 


Hoven, Dr., 31, 88. 
Hoy, Dr. P. B., 15, 84, 76, 109, 136, 138, 


Jones, Dr. W. L., 12, 83, 48, 47, 118, 119. 


Kreseg, C. W., 122. 
Kennerly, Dr. C. B. R., 31, 53, 89, 130. 
Kirtland, Dr. Jared P., 15, 16, 18, 54, 136. 


Leconte, Dr. John L., 34, 72, 97, 111, 114, 121, 148. 
Leconte, Major John, 113, 136, 138. 

Lindheimer, Ferd., 23, 26, 37, 42, 55, 75, 100, 107, 136. 
Lloyd, D. C., 2, 28, 31, 54, 56, 80, 85, 90, 94, 107, 122, 131. 


McCietuan, Capt. G. B., 26, 37, 63, 69, 78, 85, 91, 100, 107. 
Marcy, Capt. R. B., 9, 26, 37, 63, 69, 78, 85, 91, 100, 107. 
Mathews, Jos., M. D., 46. 

Morris, Rev. J. G., 47, 126. 


NaTronat Institute, 46. 


Paine, Miss C., 31, 58, 77, 86, 87, 93, 95, 107, 118, 119, 124, 128, 1380, 
136, 188. 
Parker, Wm. B., 109, 113, 130. 


Ricwarp, J. H., 109. 


SANFORD, C., 25. 

Schott, Arthur, 156, 157, 159, 161. 

Sheafer, M., 138. 

Shumard, a B. F., 54, 61, 80, 86, 89, 90, 109, 118, 119, 180, 134, 188. 
Skilton, Dr. A. J., 111, 

Stansbury, Capt. H., 101. 


TorograpuicaL Bureau, 148. 


U. 8. Exploring Expedition, 8, 27, 28, 30, 34, 36, 70, 72, 97, 111, 116, 
140, 141. 


VARDEN, J., 128, 130, 136. - 


Waxes, Col. B. L. C., 3, 94. 


APPENDIX E. 


InDEX OF STATES AND TERRITORIES FROM WHICH SPECIMENS 
HAVE BEEN RECEIVED. 


Arxansas, 9, 26, 37, 68, 69, 78, 85, 
91, 100, 107. 


CaLIFoRNIA, 27, 34, 35, 36, 63, 68, 70, 
72, 88, 95, 97, 108, 111, 1138, 115, 
121, 148. 


Groraia, 12, 33, 48, 47, 58, 80, 87, 
92, 118, 119, 126, 1386, 138. 


Lovisrana, 8, 18, 20, 25, 41, 44, 85, 
91, 94, 119, 124, 136. 


Maine, 31, 109, 138. 


Marytanp, 25, 81, 89, 46, 95, 107, 
128, 180, 136. 


MassacnusEtts, 25, 39, 88, 107, 140. 
Micuia@an, 15, 31, 89, 46, 76, 95, 136. 


Mississippi, 8, 28, 31, 54, 56, 61, 80, 
85, 86, 89, 90, 94, 107, 109, 113, 
119, 122, 130, 181, 184. 


New Mexico and Mexico, 15, 26, 
36, 50, 157, 159. 


New York, 25, 81, 89, 88, 109, 118, 
136, 1388. 
164 


Ouro, 15, 16, 18, 46, 54, 136. 


Orxeon, 8, 28, 30, 36, 72, 97, 111, 
116, 140, 141. 


PENNSYLVANIA, 2, 3, 18, 25, 31, 39, 
46, 47, 53, 56, 74, 88, 94, 95, 96, 
109, 113, 180, 186, 188. 


Sonora, Mex., 11, 15, 63, 68, 84, 105, 
nS ell gee 


Sourn Carona, 4, 12, 18, 22, 31, 
39, 41, 538, 56, 58, 60, 61, 66, 77, 
T9186. 87, 194,195, 99.1072 Tis, 
119, 122, 124, 126, 128, 130, 134, 


“-) 


136, 138. 


Texas, 6, 9, 13, 18, 20, 23, 26, 29, 32, 
37, 42, 48, 55, 68, 68, 75, 85, 95, 
100, 101, 103, 107, 114, 131, 136, 
148, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161. 


Uran, 101. 


Virerinza, 25, 31, 53, 89, 107, 122, 
130. 


Wisconsin, 15, 384, 76, 109, 136, 
188. 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


1.—VERNACULAR NAMES.* 


A. 


AppeER, Spreading, 55. 
“© Water, 147. 


B. 


Banded Rattlesnake, 1. 
Black Massasauga, 16. 
«© Snake (Base. consir.), 93, and 
(Georg. obs.), 158. 
«¢ Viper, 55. 
Blowing Viper, 41. 
Brown Snake, 122. 
Bull Snake, 65. 


C. 


Chain Snake, 86. 
Chicken Snake, 89, 87. 


G. 


Garter Snake, 30, 32. 
Gopher Snake (Georg. Coup.), 92. 
Grass Snake, 32. 
Green Snake, 106, 108. 
Ground Rattlesnake, 11. 
ss “Snake; 129! 


HH. 


Harlequin Snake, 21. 

Highland Moeassin (Tox. atrof.), 150 
Hog-nose Snake, 51, 59. 

Horn Snake, 128. 

House Snake, 87. 


I. 


Coach-whip Snake (Mast. flagell. and | Indigo Snake (Georg. Coup.), 92. 


flavig.), 98 and 99. 
Copperbelly (Ver. erythr.), 40. 
Copperhead, 17. 

Corn Snake (Scot. guttatus), 78. 


D. 


Diamond Rattlesnake, 3. 


E. 
Egg Snake (Oph. Sayi), 84. 


K. 


King Snake, 84, 85. (J. tener.), 21 


Lb 


Lightning Snake, 87. 

Little Green Garter Snake 
ordinala), 32. 

Lizard Snake (Lut. sirt.), 30. 


(But. 


* Such vernacular names as have been omitted in the body of the catalogue are here given 
with their systematic titles placed within parentheses. 


165 


166 


M. 


Massasauga, 14. 
«Black, 16. 
Milk Snake, 87. 
Moeassin (JV. sip. and NV. fase.), 38 and 
89. (Tox. pugn.), 2 
Mocassin, Highland, 150. 
«¢ Upland, 150. 
“¢ Water, 19. 


iP: 


Pilot Snake (Pit. McCl.), 68. 
Pine Snake, 65. 
Prairie Rattlesnake, 14. 

‘© Snake (Mast. flavig.), 99. 


R. 


Racer (Base. constr.), 98. 
Rattlesnake, Banded, 1. 

‘Diamond, 3. 

‘¢ Ground, 11. 

‘¢ Prairie, 14. 

‘¢ Small, 11. 
Red-bellied Snake, 123. 
Liband Snake, 24. 
Ring-necked Snake, 112. 


S. 
Scarlet Snake, 118. 
Small Rattlesnake (Crotal. milar.), 
di: 
Brake Black, 93, 158. 
Brown, 122. 

«¢ Bull, 65. 

fe Chain, 86. 

«© Chicken, 80, 87. 

“* Coach-whip, 98, 99. 

<¢ Corn, 78: 

“Egg, 84. 

“¢ Garter, 30, 32. 

“© Gopher, 92. 

‘6 Grass, 32. 

“© Green, 106, 108. 








ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


enake, Ground, 129. 
Harlequin, 21. 
‘¢ Hog-nose, 51, 59. 
ce Horn, 128. 
‘House, 87. 
<6 Indigo, 92. + 
sc King, 84, 86, 21. 
‘¢ Lightning, 87. 
‘¢ Little Green Garter. 32. 
“ Lizard, 30. 


be, Malik; (Sis 
«¢Pilot, 68. 
cc" Pines 65. 


‘¢ Prairie, 99. 

‘¢ Red-bellied, 123. 

‘¢ Riband, 24. 

‘© Ring-necked, 112. 

“¢ Scarlet, 118. 

‘¢ Striped, 30. 

“ Swift Garter, 24. 

ss Thunder, 86, 87. 

“© Water, 38, 39. 

“Worm, 229° 
Spreading Adder, 55. 
Striped Snake, 30. 
Swift Garter Snake, 24. 


Te 
Thunder Snake, 86, 87. 


IR 
Upland Mocassin, (oz. atrof.), 150. 


V. 


Viper, Blowing, 51. 
«Black, 55. 
‘s Water, 19. 


W.. 


Water Adder, 147. 
‘¢ Mocassin, 19. 
«Snake, 38, 39. 
“© Viper (Tox. pise.), 19 
Worm Snake, 129. 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 167 


2.—SYSTEMATIC NAMES. 


abacurus, Farancia, 123. 
Se Coluber, 123. 
oe Helicops, 123. 
ue Hydrops, 123. 
Abastor, 125. 


EC erythrogrammus, 125. 


Acontias atrofuscus, 150. 
adamanteus, Crotalus, 3. 
zestivus, Leptophis, 106. 

<¢ Coluber, 106. 
affinis, Pituophis, 66. 
Agassizii, Nerodia, 41. 
Agkistrodon, 17. 

ce contortrix, 17. 

sc mokason, 17. 
alleghaniensis, Coluber, 73. 

oe Scotophis, 73. 
amabilis, Diadophis, 118. 
amsnus, Brachyorrhos, 129. 

‘© Coluber, 129. 
amoena, Celuta, 129. 

‘© Calamaria, 129. 
Anguis annulatus, 86. 

£¢ flagelliformis, 98. 

“6 viridis, 106. 
annectens, Pituophis, 72. 
annulata, Dipsas, 155. 
annulatus, Anguis, 86. 
atmodes, Heterodon, 57. , 
atrofuscus, Acontias, 150. 

ft Toxicophis, 150. 


a Trigonocephalus, 150. 


atrox, Crotalus, 5. 


B. 


Bascanion, 93. 
ne constrictor, 93. 
ae flaviventris, 96. 
a Foxii, 96. 
te Fremontii, 95. 
66 vetustus, 97. 
bellona, Churchillia, 66. 
‘* Pituophis, 66. 








'bipunctatus, Tropidonotus, 30. 


Boa constrictor, 17. 
Boide, ix, xi. 
Bott, Charina, 154. 
« Tortrix, 154. 
Boylii, Ophibolus, 82. 
Brachyorrhos amenus, 129. 


C. 


cacodemon, Coluber, 55. 
Calamaria amoena, 129. 
as elapsoidea, 123. 


' 


a melanocephala, 155. 
ss punctata, 112. 

ce striatula, 122. 

“ tenuis, 116. 


californiz, Coluber (Ophis), 153. 
capite viperrens, Vipera, 59. 
carinicauda, Homalopsis, 155. 
catenifer, Coluber, 69. 

«¢ — Pituophis, 69. 


| Catesboei, Dryophis, 155. 


caudisona, Viperra, 1. 


i Celuta, 129. 


ee amoena, 129. 


| cenchris, Trigonocephalus, 17. 


Charina, xi, 154. 

‘¢ Botte, 154. 
Chlorosoma, 108. 

Of vernalis, 108. 
Churchillia, 64, 66. 

cc bellona, 65, 66. 
Clarkii, Regina, 48. 
clelia, Lycodon, 155.+ 
clericus, Ophibolus, 88. 
coccinea, Coronella, 89. 

se Rhinostoma, 118. 
coccineus, Coluber, 118. 

ee Heterodon, 118. 
cognatus, Heterodon, 54. 
Coluber abacurus, 123. 

ce zestivus, 106. 


e alleghaniensis, 73. 
ks amznus, 129. 
ss cacodemon, 55. 


vs calligaster, 76. 


168 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Coluber (Ophis) californize, 153. 
se catenifer, 69. 


G coccineus, 118. 
ce constrictor, 93. 
ee Couperi, 92. 


ce doliatus, 89. 
es erythrogaster, 40. 


e erythrogrammus, 125. 
HY eximius, Dekay, 87. 

gs eximius, Holbr. 88. 

eC fasciatus, 140. 


és flagelliformis, 98. 
es flagellum, 98. 

“s flaviventris, 96. 

os fulvius, 21. 

f getulus, 86. 

6 guttatus, 78. 

“*.  heterodon, 51. 


ce infernalis, 26. 

ss leberis, 45. 

<6 melanoleucus, 65. 
sf melanoleucus, var. 151. 
ce mormon, 101. 

Se obsoletus, 158. 

oe ordinatus, 32. 

ee parietalis, 28. 

cS planiceps, 154. 

“ poecilogaster, 38. 
os poreatus, 40. 

sf proximus, 25. 

es punctatus, 112. 

sf quadrivittatus, 80. 
es rigidus, 46. 

ce saurita, 24. 


6 Sayi, Schl.,.151. 
Ke Sayi, Holbr. 84. 


cs septemyittatus, 45. 
ee simus, 59. 

s sipedon, 38. 

ce sirtalis, 30. 

se striatulus, 122. 
Ss taxispilotus, 43. 
ss testaceus, 150. 
Ce thraso, 55. 

ss venustus, 137. 
fc vernalis, 108. 

es vertebralis, 152. 


cs (Zacholus) zonatus, 153. 


Colubridx, ix, x, xi. 
confinis, Scotophis, 76. 
confluentus, Crotalus, 8. 
concinna, Eutainia, 146. 
concinnus, Tropidonotus, 146. 
consors, Crotalophorus, 12. 
constrictor, Bascanion, 93. 

wa Coluber, 93. 

sf Hierophis, 95. 
Contia, 110. 

ce mitis, 110. 


contortrix, Agkistrodon, 17. 

ce Boa, 17. 

a Trigonocephalus, 17. 
coronata, Tantilla, 151. 
Coronella, coccinea, 59. 

ce doliata, 59. 

Gi getula, 86. 

et rhombomaculata, 86. 

ae Sayi, 84. 

Couperi, Coluber, 92. 

‘¢ Georgia, 92. 
Crotalidee, ix. 

Crotalophorus, 11. 


os consors, 12. 

cs Edwardsii, 15. 
ee Kirtlandii, 16. 
ue miliarius, 11. 
f tergeminus, 14. 


Crotalus, 1. 
Ke adamanteus, 3. 


66) aAttOxs Oo: 

ee confluentus, 8. 
cS durissus, 1. 

se horridus, 3. 

ae Lecontei, 8. 

os lucifer, 6. 

cs miliarius, 11. 
cc molossus, 10. 

MG oregonus, 145. 
sé tergeminus, 14. 


cupreus, Scytalus, 17. 
cursor, Herpetodryas, 155. 


D. 


Dekayi, Storeria, 135. 

«¢ — Tropidonotus, 135. 
diademata, Ninia, 49. 
Diadophis, 112. 

Gd amabilis, 113. 

se docilis, 114. 

sf pulchellus, 115. 

cs punctatus, 112. 

ee regalis, 115, 161. 
Dipsas annulata, 155. 
docilis, Diadophis, 114. 
doliata, Coronella, 89. 
doliatus, Coluber, 89. 

«¢  Ophibolus, 89. 
dorsalis, Eutainia, 31. 
Drummondi, Farancia, 123. 
Dryophis Catesbeei, 155. 
dulcis, Rena, 142. 
durissus, Crotalus, 1. 


E. 


Edwardsii, Crotalophorus, 15. 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 169 


Elaps, 21. 
6 fulvius, 21. 
se tenere, 22. 
ce tristis, 23. 


elapsoidea, Calamaria, 138. 
ce Osceola, 133. 
elegans, Eutainia, 34. 
Emoryi, Scotophis, 157. 
erythrogaster, Coluber, 40. 
ee Nerodia, 40. 
ce Tropidonotus, 40. 


erythrogrammus, Abastor, 125. 


ee Coluber, 125. 

oc Helicops, 125. 

Se Homalopsis, 25. 
Erythrolamprus, 82. 
Eutainia, 24. 

cs concinna, 146. 


cc dorsalis, 31. 

ee elegans, 34. 

Ss Faireyi, 25. 

e infernalis, 26. 
ee leptocephala, 29. 
sc Marciana, 36. 
ce ordinata, 32. 

ss ordinoides, 33. 
Ke parietalis, 28. 
oC Pickeringii, 27. 
ce proxima, 25. 

< radix, 34. 

ee saurita, 24. 

ee sirtalis, 30. 

ss yagrans, 35. 


eximius, Coluber, 87, 88. 
‘¢ Ophibolus, 87. 


i: 


Faireyi, Eutainia, 25. 
Farancia, 123. 

of abacurus, 123. 

“c Drummondi, 123. 

ce fasciata, 123. 
fasciata, Farancia, 123. 

‘© Nerodia, 39. 
fasciatus, Coluber, 40. 

or Tropidonotus, 40. 
flagelliformis, Anguis, 98. 

oe Coluber, 98. 

fe Psammophis, 98. 


ce Masticophis, 98, 149. 


flagellum, Coluber, 98. 
flavigularis, Masticophis, 99. 
Ee Psammophis, 99. 
flaviventris, Bascanion, 96. 
Od Coluber, 96. 
Foxii, Bascanion, 96. 
Fremontii, Bascanion, 95. 


fulvia, Vipera, 21. 
fulvius, Coluber, 21. 
sc Elaps, 21. 


G. 
gentilis, Ophibolus, 90. 
Georgia, 92. 

“  Couperi, 92. 

‘¢  obsoleta, 158. 
getula, Coronella, 86. 
getulus, Herpetodryas, 84. 

‘¢ — Ophibolus, 85. 

<¢ — Pseudoelaps, 86. 
gracilis maculata, Vipera, 32. 

‘© -Tantilla, 131. 
Grahamiz, Salvadora, 104. 
Grahamii, Regina, 47. 
guttatus, Coluber, 78. 

s¢ — Scotophis, 78. 


H. 


Haldea, 122. 

ce striatula, 122. 
Helicops abacurus, 123. 

a erythrogrammus, 125. 
Heterodon, 51. 

66 atmodes, 57. 


oe coccineus, 118. 
ee cognatus, 54. 
ée nasicus, 59. 


cs niger, 55. 

ce platyrhinos, 51. 

ee simus, 59. 
heterodon, Coluber, 51. 
Herpetodryas cursor, 155. 

ce getulus, 84. 

ce margaritiferus, 155. 
Hierophis constrictor, 93. 
Holbrookii, Nerodia, 48. 
Homalopsis carinicauda, 155. 


s erythrogrammus, 125. 
ce plicatilis, var., 155. 
Mh Reinwardtii, 125. 


horridus, Crotalus, 3. 
humilis, Rena, 143. 
Hydrops abacurus, 128. 

« -Reinwardtii, 1238. 


E. 


infernalis, Coluber, 26. 
6 Eutainia, 26. 
isabella, Wenona, 140. 


ie 
Kirtlandii, Crotalophorus, 16. 


170 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


L. 


letus, Scotophis, 77. 
Lecontei, Crotalus, 8. 
“ Rhinocheilus, 120. 

leberis, Coluber, 45. 

«Regina, 45. 

«©  Tropidonotus, 45. 
leptocephala, Eutainia, 29, 
_ Leptophis, 106. 


ee eestivus, 106. 

&e majalis, 107, 161. 
ce sauritus, 24. 

ee teeniatus, 103. 


Lindheimerii, Scotophis, 73. 
Lodia, 116. 

es tenuis, 116. 
longissimum, Ophthalmidion, 155. 
lucifer, Crotalus, 6. 
Lycodon clelia, 155. 


M. 


majalis, Leptophis, 107. 
Marciana, Eutainia, 36. 


margaritiferus, Herpetodryas, 155. 


Masticophis, 98. 
“6 flagelliformis, 98, 149. 


£6 flavigularis, 99. 
ec mormon, 101. 
ue ornatus, 102. 
Ke Schottii, 160. 
ee teeniatus, 108. 


McClellanii, Pituophis, 68. 
melanocephala, Calamaria, 155. 
melanoleucus, Coluber, 68. 
ss Pituophis, 65. 
6s var., Coluber, 150. 
miliarius, Caudisona, 11. 
ce Crotalophorus, 11. 
6 Crotalus, 11. 
mitis, Contia, 110. 
mokason, Agkistrodon, 17. 
molossus, Crotalus, 10. 
mormon, Coluber, 101. 
ce Masticophis, 101. 


N. 


nasicus, Heterodon, 61. 
Nerodia, 38. 
es Agassizii, 41. 


«  * erythrogaster, 40. 
6c fasciata, 39. 

és Holbrookii, 43. 

ue niger, 147. 

ee rhombifer, 147. 


ce sipedon, 38. 


Nerodia, taxispilota, 43. 
‘¢*  transversa, 148. 
‘© Woodhousi, 43. 
niger, Heterodon, 55. 
‘¢  Nerodia, 147. 
‘¢ Tropidonotus, 147. 
“Vipera, 93. 
nigra, Vipera, 55. 
Ninia, 49. 
st diademata, 49. 


O. 


obsoleta, Georgia, 158. 
obsoletus, Coluber, 158. 
occipito-maculata, Storeria, 137. 


a Tropidonotus, 137. 
Ophthalmidion, 155. 
ce longissimum, 155. 


Ophibolus, 82. 
Be Boylii, 82. 


6 clericus, 88. 
ee doliatus, 89. 
ee eximius, 74. 


ee gentilis, 90. 
Oe getulus, 85. 


ce rhombo-maculatus, 86. 
i Sayi, 84. 
se splendidus, 83. 


Ophis californiz, 153. 
ordinata, Eutainia, 32. 
ordinatus, Coluber, 32. 

€¢ Tropidonotus, 32, 135. 
ordinoides, Eutainia, 33. 

cc Tropidonotus, 38. 
oregonus, Crotalus, 145. 
ornatus, Masticophis, 102. 
Osceola, 133. 


36 elapsoidea, 1838. 
iP: 
parietalis, Coluber, 28. 
“e Eutainia, 28. 


Pickeringii, Eutainia, 27. 
piscivorus, Toxicophis, 19. 
ce Trigonocephalus, 19. 
Pituophis, 64. 
66 affinis, 66. 


os annectens, 87. 

ee bellona, 66. 

ele catenifer, 69. 

ce McClellanii, 68. 
6s melanoleucus, 65. 


“6 Wilkesii, 86. 
Pityophis, 64. 
poecilogaster, Coluber, 38. 
porcatus, Coluber, 40. 


ALPHABETICAL INDEX. re 


Psammophis flagelliformis, 98. 


“s flavigularis, 99. 
Pseudoelaps getulus, 86. 
a Xi Olle 


planiceps, Coluber, 154. 
platyrhinos, Heterodon, 51, 59. 
plicatilis, var. Homalopsis, 155. 
plumbea, Wenona, 139. 
proxima, Eutainia, 25. 
proximus, Coluber, 25. 
pugnax, Toxicophis, 20. 
pulchellus, Diadophis, 115. 
punctata, Calamaria, 112. 
punctatus, Coluber, 112. 

a Diadophis, 112. 

oe Spiletes, 112. 


@: 


quadrivittatus, Coluber, 80. 
ss Scotophis, 80. 


R. 


radix, Eutainia, 34. 
regalis, Diadophis, 115. 


Regina, 45. 
aC Clarkii, 48. 
6 Grahamii, 47. 
ec leberis, 45. 


ee rigida, 46. 
Reinwardtii, Homalopsis, 123. 
a Hydrops, 123. 
Rena, 142. 

ee dulcis, 142. 

ae humilis, 148. 
Rhinocheilus, 120. 

ke Lecontei, 120, 161. 
Rhinostoma, 118. 


cc coccinea, 118. 
rhombifer, Nerodia, 147. 
ee Tropidonotus, 147. 


rhombomaculata, Coronella, 86. 


rhombomaculatus, Ophibolus, 86. 


rigida, Regina, 46. 
rigidus, Coluber, 46. 
‘< — Tropidonotus, 46. 


S. 


Salvadora, 104. 

ce Grahamiz, 104, 161. 
saurita, Coluber, 24. 

‘«¢ Futainia, 24. 

«¢ ‘Tropidonotus, 25. 
sauritus, Leptophis, 24, 


Sayi, Coluber, 84, 151. 

66 Coronella, 84. 

fe Ophibolus, 84. 
Schottii, Masticophis, 160. 
Scotophis, 73. 

ce alleghaniensis, 72. 


ce confinis, 76. 

se guttatus, 78. 

ce letus, 77. 

os Lindheimerii, 74. 
cc quadrivittatus, 80. 
sé vulpinus, 75. 


Scytalus cupreus, 17. 
semiannulata, Sonora, 117. 
septemvittatus, Coluber, 45, 
simus, Coluber, 59. 
‘¢ Heterodon, 59. 
sipedon, Coluber, 38. 
ss Nerodia, 38. 
«¢  Tropidonotus, 38. 
sirtalis, Coluber, 30. 
‘«¢  - Eutainia, 30. 
«*  Tropidonotus, 30. 
Sonora, 117. 
oc semiannulata, 117. 
splendidus, Ophibolus, 82. 
Spiletes punctatus, 112. 
Storeria, 135. 
Ks Dekayi, 135. 
es occipito-maculata, 137, 
striatula, Calamaria, 122. 
ce Haldea, 122. 
striatulus, Coluber, 122. 


AL. 


tenia, Tropidonotus, 30. 
teeniatus, Leptophis, 103. 
teeniatus, Masticophis, 103. 
Tantilla, 151. 

cs eoronata, 151. 

ee gracilis, 1382, 161. 
taxispilota, Nerodia, 43. 
taxispilotus, Coluber, 43. 

ce Tropidonotus, 48. 
tenere, Elaps, 22. 
tenuis, Calamaria, 116. 

‘¢ Lodia, 116. 

tergeminus, Crotalophorus, 14. 

eS Crotalus, 14. 
testaceus, Coluber, 150. 
thraso, Coluber, 55. 
Tortrix Botte, 154. 
Toxicophis, 19. 


ce atrofuscus, 149. 
ce piscivorus, 19. 
oe pugnax, 20. 


transversa, Nerodia, 148. 


172 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


transversus, Tropidonotug, 148. 
Trigonocephalus atrofuscus, 150. 


ce cenchris, 17. 
sé contortrix, 17. 
cs piscivorus, 19. 


tristis, Elaps, 23. 
Tropidonotus bipunctatus, 30. 
concinnus, 146. 
fe Dekayi, 135. 
ke erythrogaster, 41. 
ec fasciatus, 40. 
ee leberis, 45. 
cs niger, 147. 


es occipito-maculatus, 137. 
fs ordinatus, Storer, 135, 
ss ordinatus, Holbr. 32. 

ee ordinoides, 33. 


ce rhombifer, 147. 
fe rigidus, 46. 


ce saurita, 25. 

es sipedon, 38. 

ce sirtalis, 80. 

ce tenia, 30. 

eC taxispilotus, 43. 
es transversus, 148. 


Typhlopide, ix. 


Y 


vagrans, Eutainia, 35. 
Valeris, Virginia, 127. 
vernalis, Chlorosoma, 108. 
be Coluber, 108. 
ventre cuprei coloris, Vipera, 41. 
venustus, Coluber, 137. 


vertebralis, Coluber, 152 
vetustus, Bascanion, oT: 
Vipera capite viperrens, 59. 
caudisona americana, i 
es re ‘* minor, 11. 


“s fulvia, 21. 

cs gracilis maculata, 32. 

Kc niger, 93. 

ee nigra, 595. 

ce ventre cuprei coloris, 41. 

Gs viridis maculatus, 32. 
Virginia, 127. 

“e Valeria, 127, 


viridis, Anguis, 106. 
«¢ maculatus, Vipera, 32. 
vulpinus, Scotophis, 75. 


W. 
Wenona, 139. 
6 isabella, 140. 
oc plumbea, 1389. 
Wilkesii, Pituophis, 71. 
Woodhousii, Nerodia, 42. 


aM . 
Y, Pseudoelaps, 87. 


Ls 


Zacholus zonatus, 153. 
zonatus, Coluber (Zacholus), 153. 


THE END. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 





CHECK Lists 


OF THE 


SHELLS OF NORTH AMERICA, 


PREPARED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 


BY 


ISAAC LEA, P. P. CARPENTER, WM. STIMPSON, 
W. G. BINNEY, AND TEMPLE PRIME. 





WASHINGTON: 
SMITEHSONTAN TMS LIT UTLON. 
Junz, 1860. 


; as oi Aid 


"ae : 





PRODUCTION: 


Tue following lists of the described species of North American shells 
have been prepared at the request of this Institution, by several accom- 
plished conchologists, for the purpose of labelling the specimens in the 
Smithsonian collection. 

Applications having been made for copies of the lists, it has been though 
that their publication would be generally useful, in facilitating the pre 
paration of catalogues, the labelling of collections, conducting exchanges, 
checking off faunas of particular regions, ete. 

The series of lists is complete with the exception of that of the marine 
fauna of the West India Province, including the shores of Florida, the Gulf 
coast, the West Indies, ete. On account-of the great extent of this pro- 
vince, and the‘uncertainty in relation to many of its species, together with 
their imperfect representation in American conchological collections, it has 
been thought expedient to omit for the present a list of its shells. As 
soon as such a list can be properly prepared, it will be added to the series. 

In accordance with the views of a majority of the compilers of the lists, 
the authority given for each name refers to the original describer of the 
species, and not to the one who first published the name, both generic and 
specific, as here printed. 

It will be readily understood that the Smithsonian Institution cannot 
vouch for the accuracy of the names of the lists or for their completeness, 
and that all responsibility in reference to these points rests with the several 
authors. 

JOSEPH HENRY, 
Secretary S. I. 
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
May, 1860. 


appr sy 


eae Ave 





-I 


Pei Oor CON DEN ES: 


. West Coast—Mexican and Panamic Province. 


. East Coast—Florida and the Gulf of Mexico. 
: Torveststal Gasteropoda. By. W. G. Biyney. 
. Fluviatile Gasteropoda. By W. G. Bryyey. 
. Cyclades. By Tempe Prime. 


. Unionide. By Isaac Lza. 


. West Coast—Oregonian and Californian Province. By P. P. Carpenter. 


By P. P. Cagpester. 


. East Coast—Arctic Seas to Georgia. By W. Srimpson. 


(Not yet published.) 


Rr 7" wih et ae a snl 
‘ana it % ie ehigalnent 


ihe 


ha ie sis i 


eral ae 
: et ayy 
“apr ink vibe i i . meme. ttt bbe te gene m4 
rs 5 ks ree eT met rie ray 
‘ wed Pht we : eg ko ALL CR vitae dis 
THRE) sete Tat PE PG nC ai ie ey wh ue 
ub ie TEN . ; 'r . } 


. ; + ' 


i ane rat 

sel ee SOO rl as wae hee 
it par aah soe 
othe a ‘hihi ~ oe th a 


Mints ee Wr i § Shi 





[SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS.] 


CHECK LIST 


OF THE 


SHELLS OF NORTH AMERICA. 


WEST COAST: 
OREGONIAN AND CALIFORNIAN PROVINCE. 


P. P. 


BY 


CARPENTER. 


Turis list is condensed from that presented in the “ Report to the British 
Association,”? 1856, pp. 298 et seq. 
since been discovered to be synonyms, or which rest on doubtful authority 
as occurring in this zoological province; which is known to extend from 


Puget Sound to San Diego. 


Species are omitted which have 


Stragglers from other districts are omitted; 


as also the species peculiar to the peninsula of Lower California. 
The generic names alone are given of undescribed species in the Smith- 
sonian collection, or of species not yet satisfactorily identified 


co bo 


omsrtI OQ or 


10. 


UI. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 


PALLIOBRANCHIATA. 
Discinidz. 

. Digcina Evansii, Dav. 
Yerebratulide2. 

. Waldheimia californica, Koch. 

. Terebratella caurina, Gld. 

. Terebratella pulvinata, Gid. 


LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 
Pholadidze. 

. Teredo 

. Zirphea ?crispata, Linn. 

. Pholadidea ovoidea, Gd. 

. Pholadidea penita, Conr. 

. Parapholas californica, Conr. 
Saxicavidz. 

Saxicava pholadis, Zam. 
Myidz. 

Panopea generosa, Gid. 

Mya precisa, Gid. 

Platyodon cancellata, Conr. 

Cryptomya californica, Conr. 

Tresus capax, (id. 

Schizothoerus Nuttallii, Conr. 


©) 


DiS 
18. 


iy 
20. 
21. 
. Periploma argentaria, Conr. 
. Pandora punctata, Conr. 

. Pandora 


Corbulidz. 
Neera 
Sphenia 

Anatinidz. 
Thracia curta, Conr. 
Lyonsia californica, Conr. 
Mytilimeria Nuttallii, Conr. 


Solenidz. 


. Solen sicarius, Gld. 


Sclecurtidze. 


. Machera lucida, Conr. 

. Machzera patula, Port. 

. Solecurtus californianus, Conr. 
. Solecurtus subteres, Conr. 


Tellinidz. 


. Sanguinolaria Nuttallii, Conr. 
. Sanguinolaria rubroradiata, C 
. Psammobia pacifica, Conr. 

. Tellina bodegensis, Hds. 

. Tellina 

. Tellina 


-1 ~T -1 +1 -3 
OS Olan 


oo 
oO 


oO 
— 


bo 


. Tellina 

. Tellina 

. Macoma edulis, Nutt. 
. Macoma inconspicua, B. § Sby. 
. Macoma nasuta, Conr. 

1. Macoma secta, Conr. 

. Scrobicularia alta, Conr. 

. Strigilla carnaria, Linn. 

. Semele decisa, Conr. 

. Semele rubrolineata, Conr. 
. Cumingia californica, Conr. 


Donacidez. 


. Donax californicus, Conr. 
. Donax flexuosus, Gid. 
. Arcopagia vicina, C. B. Ad. 


Mactridz. 


. Mactra californica, Conr. 
. Mactra falcata, Gid. 
. Mactra planulata, Conr. 


Venerida. 


. Trigona crassatelloides, Conr. 
. ?Trigona tantilla, Gld. 

. Dione callosa, Conr. 

. Venus californiensis, Sby. 
. Venus dispar. 

. Venus excavata, Cpr. 

. Venus fluctifraga, Sby. 

. Venus Nuttallii, Conr. 

. Venus 

. Tapes gracilis, Gid. 

. Tapes Petitii, Desh. 

. Tapes rigida, Gid. 

. Tapes staminea, Conr. 


Petricolidae. 


. Petricola californica, Conr. 
. Rupellaria lamellifera, Conr. 
. Saxidomus aratus, Gid. 

. Saxidomus Nuttallii, Conr. 


Astartida. 


. Astarte 
. Trapezium californicum, Conr. 
. Cardita ventricosa, (id. 


Chamide. 


. Chama exogyra, Conr. 
. Chama pellucida, Rve. 


Cardiade. 


. Cardium californiense, Desh. 
}, Cardium (like groenlandicum). 
. Cardium luteolabrum, Gid. 
. Cardium Nuttalli, Conr. 

). Cardium quadragenarium, Con. 
. Cardium substriatum; Conr. 


Lucinide. 


. Lucina bella, Conr. 
. Lucina californica, Conr. 


83. 
84. 
85. 








129. 


(2) 


86. 


87. 
88. 
89. 
90. 
91. 


106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 


110. 
111. 
112. 
113. 
114. 
115. 


116. 
iis 
118. 
119: 
120. 
121. 
122. 
123. 
124. 
125. 


126. 
127. 
128. 


Lucina Nuttallii, Conr. 
Lucina 
Cryptodon 
Diplodonitidz. 
Diplodonta orbella, Gid. 
Melliadae. 
Kellia Laperousii, Desh. 
Kellia [rugifera]. 
Kellia suborbicularis, J/ont. 
Lasea 
Montacuta 
Mytilida. 


. Mytilus californianus, Conr 
93. 
94, 
95. 
96. 
Wie 
98. 
Jos 
100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 
104. 
105. 


Mytilus edulis, Linn. 
Mytilus glomeratus, Gid. 
Septifer 
Modiola capax, Conr. 
Modiola elongata, Swains. 
Modiola flabellata, Gid. 
Modiola modiolus Linn. 
Modiola nitens, Cpr. 
Modiola recta, Conr. 
Modiola 
Crenella [like discrepans]. 
Lithophagus falcatus, Gild. 
Lithophagus 
Arcade. 
Arca labiata, Sby. 
Arca ?multicostata, Shy. 
Byssoarca pernoides, Cpr. 
Axineza septentrionalis, J/. 
Nuculida. 
Nucula czlata, Hds. 
Nucula ?tenuis, Mont. 
Leda ?caudata, Mont. 
Leda 
Yoldia 
Yoldia 
Pectinid2. 
Pecten Fabricii, Pui. 
Pecten hericius, Gld. 
Pecten (like Islandicus). 
Pecten latiauratus, Conr. 
Pecten ?nodosus, Linn. 
Pecten purpuratus, Lam. 
Pecten ?ventricosus, Shy. 
Amusium caurinum, Gd. 
Janeira florida, Hds. 
Hinnites giganteus, (ray. 
Ostraecidze. 
Ostrea conchaphila, Cpr. 
Ostrea [lurida]. 
Ostrea rufa, Gld. 
Anomiadze. 
Placunanomia alope, Gray. 


130 
131 
132 


133. 
134. 
135. 
136. 
137. 
138. 
139. 
140. 
141. 


142. 


143 


144. 
145. 
146. 
147. 
148. 
149. 
150. 
151. 
152. 
153. 
154. 
155. 
156. 
157. 
158. 
159. 
160. 
161. 
162. 
163. 
164. 
165. 


166. 
167. 
168. 
169. 


170. 


. Placunanomia cepio, Gray. 
. Placunanomia macroschisma, 
. Anomia lampe, Gray. [ Desh. 


GASTEROPODA 
OPISTHOBRANCHIATA. 
Bullid2. 
Bulla nebulosa, Gid. 
Haminea vesicula, Gld. 
Haminea virescens, Sby. 
Haminea 
Tornatina cerealis, Gid. 
Tornatina culcitella, G/d. 
Tornatina inculta, Gld. 
Tornatina 
Cylichna 


GASTEROPODA 
PROSOBRANCHIATA. 
CIRRIBRANCHIATA. 

Dentaliadz. 
Dentalium 
. Dentalium 


* SCUTIBRANCHIATA. 
Chitonidz. 
Callochiton interstinctus, Gld. 
Lepidochiton Mertensii, Midd. 
Lepidochiton scrobiculatus, J/. 
Tonicia lineata, Wood. 
Mopalia Blainvillei, Brod. 
Mopalia Hindsii, Sby. 
Mopalia Simpsonii, Cray. 
Mopalia vespertina, (id. 
Katherina tunicata, Sby. 
Cryptochiton Stelleri, Midd. 
(Chiton) acutus, Cpr. 
(Chiton) californicus, Nutt. 
(Chiton) dentiens, (/d. 
(Chiton) Hartwegii, Cpr. 
(Chiton) lignosus, Gid. 
(Chiton) montereyensis, C. 
Chiton muscosus, (ld. 
(Chiton) Nuttalli, Cpr. 
(Chiton) ornatus, Nutt. 
(Chiton) regularis, Cpr. 
Chiton scaber, fve. 
(Chiton) Wosnessenskii, 1/, 
Patellid2. 
Patella toreuma, Rve. 
Nacella depicta, Hds. 
Wacella incessa, //ds. 
Wacella instabilis, (//d. 
Acmeidz. 
Acmza Asmi, Midd. 





171. 
172. 
173. 
174. 
175. 
176. 
Wife 


178. 
79: 
180. 
181. 
182. 


183. 
184. 
185. 
186. 
187. 
188. 


189. 
190. 
OTS 
192. 
193. 
194. 
195. 
196. 
197. 
198. 
199. 
200. 
201. 
202. 
203. 
204. 
205. 
206. 
207. 
208. 
209. 
210. 
211. 
212. 


213. 
214. 
215. 
216. 
217. 
218. 


(2) 


Acmeza patina, Fsch. 
Acmea pelta, Esch. 
Acmea persona, Esch. 
Acmea scabra, Nutt. 
Acmeea spectrum, Nutt. 
[Tecturella] grandis, Gray. 
Scurria mitra, Esch. 


Fissurellidz. 
Fissurella volcano, Rve. 
Glyphis aspera, Esch. 
Lucapina crenulata, Sby. 
Puncturella cucullata, Gld. 
Puncturella galeata, Gld. 


Waliotidze. 
Haliotis californiensis, Swains. 
Haliotis corrugata, Gray. 
Haliotis Cracherodii, Leach. 
Haliotis [/ike kamtschatkiana] 
Haliotis rufescens, Swains. 
Haliotis splendens, ve. 


Trochid x. 
Phasianella compta, Gid. 
Pomaulax undosus, Wood. 
Pachypoma diadematum, Val 
Trochiscus Norrisii, Sy. 
Ziziphinus annulatus, Mart. 
Ziziphinus doliarius, Chemn. 
Ziziphinus filosus, Wood. 
Livona picoides, Gd. 
Osilinus gallina, Fbs. 
Osilinus 
Omphalius aureotinctus, Ibs, 
Omphalius brunneus, A. Ad. 
Omphalius euryomphalus, ./. 
Omphalius fuscescens, Phil. 
Omphalius mestus, Jonas. 
?Omphalius marcidus, (/d. 
Omphalius marginatus, Nutt. 
Omphalius Pfeifferi, Phil. 
Margarita callostoma, A. Ad, 
Margarita pupilla, Gild. 
Margarita 
Margarita 
Margarita 
Margarita 


PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 
Calyptrzaida. 

Crucibulum spinosum, Sby. 
Galerus fastigiatus, Gid. 
Crepidula aculeata, Linn. 
Crepidula adunca, Sby. 
Crepidula explanata, (G/d. 
Crepidula incurva, Brod. 


219. 
220. 
221. 
222. 


236. 
237. 
238. 

39. 
240. 
241. 


248. 
249. 
250. 
251. 
252. 
253. 


261. 


Crepidula lingulata, Gild. 
Crepidula nummaria, Gid. 
Crepidula rugosa, Nutt. 
Hipponyx antiquatus, Linn. 
Hipponyx barbatus, Sdy. 


. Hipponyx Grayanus, ke. 


Vermetida. 
Aletus squamigerus, Cpr. 


. Spiroglyphus 
. Spiroglyphus 


Turritellidz. 


. Mesalia 


Mesalia 
Cerithiade. 


. Bittium filosum, Gid. 

. Bittium 

. Bittium 

. Cerithidea albonodosa, Cpr. 
. Cerithidea pullata, Gld. 

. Cerithidea sacrata, Gid. 


Litorinidz. 
Litorina planaxis, Phil. 
Litorina plena, Gd. 
Litorina scutellata, Gld. 
Litorina sitchana, Phil. 
Lacuna carinata, Gid. 
Lacuna unifasciata, Cpr. 

Ovulide. 


. Radius variabilis, Sby. 


Cy praeidz. 


. Luponia albuginosa, Gray. 
. Luponia spadicea, Swains. 
. Trivia californica, Gray. 

. Hrato leucophea, Gid. 


Cancellariada:. 


. Trichotropis cancellata, Hds. 


Pleurotomida. 
Drillia 
Daphnella 
Mangelia 
Mangelia 
Bela fidicula, Gid. 
Bela 

Conidze. 


. Conus ravus, Gid. 


Pyramidellida. 


. Odostomia gravida, Gid. 

. Odostomia 

. Parthenia 

. Chemnitzia [chocolata]. 

. Chemnitzia tenuicula, Gd. 
. Chemnitzia torquata, Gid. 


Eulimide. 
Hulima 


262. 
263. 
264, 


265. 
266. 
267. 
268. 
269. 
270. 
271. 





b bo bo 
© co oo 
So 6 © 





Scalariad2. 
Scalaria australis, Phil. 
Scalaria [like ochotensis]. 
Scalaria 

Naticida. 

Natica ?clausa, Brod. §- Sby. 
Natica impervia, Phil. 
Lunatia algida, Gld. 
Lunatia caurina, Gid. 
Lunatia Lewisii, Gid. 
Neverita Recluziana, Rve. 
Polinices perspicua, Recl. 

Tritomidae. 


. Argobuccinum oregonense, 


Redf 
Ranellide. 


. Ranella californica, Hds. 
. Ranella triquetra, Rve. 


Mitrine. 


. Mitra maura, Nutt. 


Marginellidae. 


. Marginella Jewettii, Cpr. 


Olividee. 


. Olivella biplicata, Shy. 


Olivella rufofasciata, Rve. 
Olivella 
Purpurid2. 


. Purpura decemcostata, Midd. 
. Purpura emarginata, Desh. 


Purpura lactuca, Esch. 
Purpura ostrina, Gid. 


. Monoceros engonatum, Conr. 
- Monoceros lapilloides, Conr. 
. Nitidella Gouldii, Cpr. 

. Nitidella 

. Truncaria 

. Cerastoma Belcheri, Hds. 

. Cerastoma foliatum, Esch. 


Buccinidee. 


1. Columbella californiana, Gasi 
2. Columbella carinata, Hds. 

. Columbella gausapata, Gid. 

. Columbella sta-barbarensis, C. 
. Buccinum corrugatum, Rve. 

. Nassa fossata, Gid. 


Wassa mendica, Gid. 
Muricidze. 


. Chrysodomus antiquus, Zinn. 
. Chrysodomus Middendorffii, 
. Chrysodomus 
. Chrysodomus sitchana, Midd. 
. Trophon cancellinum, Phil, 


[ Cooper. 


Trophon corrugatum, Rve. 
Trophon orpheus, Gid. 
Pteronotus festivus, Hds., 


[SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS.) 


CHECK LIST 


OF THE 


SHELLS OF NORTH AMERICA. 


WEST COAST: 
MEXICAN AND PANAMIC PROVINCE. 


BY 
P.P. CARPENTER. 


Tue West Tropical fauna of America is known to extend from Guaymas 
in the Gulf of California, to the shores of Ecuador and Peru; and includes 
the Galapagos Islands. This list contains the Panama Shells of Prof. C. 
B. Adams; the Mazatlan Shells of the British Museum Catalogue; the 
species from various sources enumerated in the “ Report on the Present 
State of our Knowledge of the Molluska of the West Coast of N. America,” 
—British Association, 1856, pp. 289 et seg.; and a few since discovered. 
The synonyms, stragglers from other faunas, and the insular and South 
American species are omitted. Being prepared simply for the interchange 
of named specimens, it should not be cited as an authority. 


BRYOZOA. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 
Membraniporide. Pholadide. 
1. Membranipora denticulata, b.| 15. Pholas cornea. 
2. Membranipora gothica, y/. 16. Pholas crucigera, Sby. 
3. Lepralia adpressa, busk. 17. Pholadidea curta, Soy. 
4. Lepralia atrofusca, fy. 18. Pholadidea melanura, Sby. 
5. Lepralia hippocrepis, Busk. 19. Pholadidea tubifera, Sby. 
6. Lepralia humilis, Busk. 20. Parapholas acuminata, Sby. 
7. Lepralia marginipora, Reuss. 21. Parapholas calva, Gray. 
8. Lepralia mazatlanica, Busk. 22. Martesia intercalata, Cpr. 
9. Lepralia rostrata, Busk. 23. Martesia xylophaga, Val. 
10. Lepralia trispinosa, Jolnst. Gastrochenide. 
Celleporide. 24. Gastrochena ovata, Sby. 
11. Cellepora cyclostoma, Busk. 25. Gastrochzena truncata, Sy. 
12. Cellepora papilleformis, Dusk. Saxicavide. 
Discoporide. 26. Saxicava ?arctica, Linn. 
13. Defrancia intricata, Busk. Corbulidee. 
27. Spheenia fragilis, Cpr. 
PALLIOBRANCHIATA. 28. Potamomya equalis, C. B. Ad. 
14. Discina Cumingii, Brod. 29. Potamomya inflata, C. B. Ad. 


(2) 


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. Potamomya trigonalis, C. B. A. 
- Corbula 
- Corbula 
3. Corbula 
. Corbula 
- Corbula 
- Corbula 
- Corbula 
. Corbula 
9. Corbula 
. Corbula 
- Corbula 
- Corbula 
. Corbula 
- Corbula 
- Corbula 


bicarinata, Sby. 
biradiata, Sly. 
Boivinei. 
fragilis, Hus. 
marmorata, Has. 
nasuta, Sby. 
nuciformis, Sby. 
obesa, Hds. 
ovulata, Sby. 
pustulosa, Cpr. 
radiata. 

rubra, C. B. Ad. 
speciosa, Huds. 
tenuis, Sby. 
ventricosa, Jive. 
Anmatinidae. 


. Thracia squamosa, Cpr. 

. Tyleria fragilis, H. §- A. Ad. 
. Lyonsia diaphana, Cpr. 

. Lyonsia picta, Sby. 

. Periploma alta, C. B. Ad. 

. Periploma excurvata, Cpr. 
. Periploma Leana, Conr. 

. Periploma papyracea, Cpr. 
. Periploma planiuscula, Sby. 
. Nezra costata, Hds. 

. Nezra didyma, Jdds. 

bins 
58. 


59. 


Pandora brevifrons. 

Pandora claviculata, Cpr. 

Pandora cornuta, C. B. Ad. 
Solenidee. 

Solen rudis, C. B. Ad. 
Solecurtidae. 


. Solecurtus affinis, C. B. Ad. 

. Solecurtus politus, Cpr. 

. Solecurtus violascens, Cpr. 

. Sanguinolaria miniata, Gd. 

. Sanguinolaria tellinoides, Ad. 
. Psammobia Kindermanni, Pail. 
. Tellina brevirostris, Desh. 

. Tellina 
- Tellina 
70. Tellina 
- Tellina 
. Tellina 
. Tellina 
- Tellina 
- Tellina 
- Tellina 
- Tellina 
. Tellina 
- Tellina 
. Tellina 
- Tellina 


Broderipii, Desh. 
cognata, C. B. Ad. 
columbiensis, Hanl. 
crystallina, Chemn. 
Cumingii, Hanl. 
delicatula, Desh. 
denticulata, Desh. 
Deshayesii, Cpr. 
donacilla, Cpr. 
eburnea, Hanl. 
fausta, Donov. 
felix, Hani. 
gemma, G/d. 
hiberna, Han. 





133. 
134. 
135. 


(0) 


. Tellina 
- Tellina 
- Tellina 
- Tellina 
). Tellina 
- Tellina 
. Tellina 
. Tellina 
. Tellina 
91. 
92. 
293° 
94. 
95. 
96. 
97. 
98. 
99. 
100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 
104. 
105. 
106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
110. 
Gd 
112. 
Ss 
114. 
115. 
116. 
ELF 
118. 
119. 
120. 
121. 
122. 
123. 
124, 
125. 
126. 
127. 
128. 
129. 
130. 
Se 
132. 


insculpta, Hanl. 
laceridens, Hanl. 
lamellata, Cpr. 
panamensis. 
princeps, Hani. 
prora, Hanl. 
puella, C. B. Ad. 
punicea, Gorn. 
pura, Gid. 
regia, Hanl. 
regularis, Cpr. 
rhodora, Hanl 
rubescens, Hanl. 
rufescens, Chemn. 
siliqua, C. B. Ad. 
Tellina straminea, Desh. 
Tellina virgo, Hanl. 
Macoma aurora, Hanl. 
Macoma concinna, C. B. Ad. 
Macoma Dombeyi, Hani. 
Macoma elongata, Hani. 
Macoma gubernaculum, Hanl 
Macoma mazatlanica, Desh. 
Macoma petalum, Val. 
Macoma plebeia, Hanl. 
Macoma tersa, Gid. 
Strigilla carnaria, Linn. 
Strigilla dichotoma, Phil. 
Strigilla disjuncta, Cpr. 
Strigilla ervilia, Phil. 
Strigilla lenticula, Phil. 
Strigilla sincera, Hanl. 
Tellidora Burneti, Brod. §- Shy. 
?Scrobicularia producta, Cpr. 
?Scrobicularia viriditincta, C 
Semele bicolor, C. B. Ad.. 
Semele californica, A. Ad. 
Semele elliptica, Sby. 
Semele flavescens, Gid. 
Semele obliqua, Wood. 
Semele planata. 
Semele proxima, C. B. Ad. 
Semele pulchra, Sby. 
Semele striosa, C. B. Ad. 
Semele tortuosa, C. B. Ad. 
Semele ventricosa, C. B. Ad. 
Semele ?venusta, A. Ad. 
Cumingia californica, Conr. 
Cumingia lamellosa, Sby. 
Cumingia trigonularis, Shy. 
Cumingia 

Donacidee. 
Iphigenia altior, Shy. 
Iphigenia levigata, Gmel. 
Arcopagia vicina, C. B. Ad. 


Tellina 
Tellina 
Tellina 
Tellina 
Tellina 
Tellina 


. Donax 
- Donax 
- Donax 
- Donax 
- Donax 
- Donax 
- Donax 
- Donax 
- Donax 
- Donax 
- Donax 
- Donax 
- Donax 


assimilis, /Zanl. 
bella, Desh. 
celatus, Cpr. 
carinatus, Hanl. 


Conradi, Desh. 
culminatus,: Cpr. - 
2 
gracilis, Hanl. éa 
navicula, Hanl. 
ovalina, Desh. 
panamensis. 


transversus, Sby. 
Mactridae. 


. Mactra angulata, Gray. 
. Mactra angusta, Desh. 
. Mactra californica, Desh. 
. Mactra exoleta, Gray. 
. Mactra fragilis, Chemn. 
. Mactra goniata, Gray. 
- Mactra laciniata. 

- Mactra pallida. 

. Mactra velata, Phil. 

. Raeta elegans, Sby. 

. Rangia mendica, Gd. 


Venerid2. 


. Clementia gracillima, Cpr 

. Trigona argentina, Sdy. 

. Trigona humilis, Cpr. 

. Trigona planulata, Sby. 

. Trigona radiata, Sby. 

- Dosinia Anne, Cpr. 

. Dosinia Dunkeri, Pil. 

- Dosinia ponderosa, Gray. 

. Cyclina producta, Cpr. 

. Cyclina subquadrata, Hanl. 
- Dione 
- Dione 
- Dione 
- Dione 
. Dione 
- Dione 
- Dione 
- Dione 
- Dione 
. Dione 
. Cytherea petichialis, Lam. 
- Venus 
. Venus 
. Venus 
- Venus 
- Venus 
- Venus 
- Venus 
- Venus 


aurantia, Hanl. 
brevispinosa, Sby. 
chioneza, Mke. 
circinata, Born. 
concinna, Shy. 


lupinaria, Less. 
rosea, Brod. § Sby. 
unicolor, Sby. 
vulnerata, Brod. 


amathusia, Phil. 
californiensis, Brod. 
columbiensis, Sby. 
crenifera, Shy. 

distans, Phil. 
fluctifraga, Sby. 
fuscolineata, br. § Shy. 
gnidia, Grod. § Sby. 


Carpenteri, H. §- A. Ad. 


punctatostriatus, /Zanl. 





consanguinea, C. B. Ad. 





189. 
190. 
LOT. 
192. 
193. 
194, 
195. 
196. 
Os 
198. 
199% 
200. 
201. 


202. 
203. 
204, 
205. 
206. 
207. 
208. 
209. 
210. 
211. 


212. 
213. 
214, 
215. 
216. 
217. 


NHnwnwnwnwbwww by nmppwpby bb wv 
oOownwpnnwnd bd bw wv NwWwPbyee 
FS PEO GO ST Oo) ONG on eH S&S © © 


232. 
233. 
234, 
235. 
236. 
237. 
238. 
239, 


() 


. Chama 
. Chama 
. Chama 
. Chama 
. Chama 
. Chama 
. Chama 


Venus Kellettii, Huds. 
Venus multicostata, Sby. 
Venus neglecta, Gray. 
Venus ornatissima, Brod. 
Venus pulicaria, brod. 
Venus reticulata, Ln. 
Venus undatella, Sby. [Sby 
Anomalocardia subimbricata, 
Anomalocardia subrugosa, S. 
Tapes grata, Say. 
Tapes histrionica, Shy. 
Tapes squamosa, Cpr. 
Tapes tenerrima, Cpr. 
Petricolide. 
Petricola cognata, C. B. Ad. 
Petricola dactylus, Sdy. 
Petricola denticulata, Sly. 
Petricola robusta, Shy. 
Petricola ventricosa, Desh. 
Rupellaria exarata, (pr. 
Rupellaria foliacea, Desh. 
Rupellaria lingua-felis, Cpr. 
Rupellaria paupercula, Vesh. 
Naranio scobina, Cpr. 
Astartidae. 
Gouldia pacifica, C. B. Ad. 
Gouldia varians, Cpr. 
Circe margarita, Cpr. 
Circe subtrigona, Cyr. 
Crassatella gibbosa, Shy. 
Trapezium 


. Cardita affinis, Brod. 

. Cardita californica, Desh. 
. Cardita crassa, Gray. 

. Cardita Cuvieri, brod. 

. Cardita laticostata, Shy. 
. Cardita radiata, Brod. 


Chamide. 
Buddiana, C. B. Ad. 
corrugata, Brod. 
echinata, Brod. 
exogyra, Conr. 
frondosa, Brod. 
panamensis, Ive. 
producta, Brod. 
Chama spinosa, Sby. 
Cardiadze. 
Cardium alabastrum, Cpr. 
Cardium Belcheri, Brod. §- Shy. 
Cardium biangulatum, B. § Shy. 
Cardium consors, Brod. §- Shy. 
Cardium Cumingii, brod. 
Cardium elatum, Sby. 
Cardium graniferum, [rod. §- S. 
Cardium maculosum, Wood. 


240. 
241. 
242. 
245. 
244, 


245. 
246. 
247. 
248. 
249. 
250. 
251. 
252. 
253. 
254, 
255. 


256. 
257. 
258. 
259. 
260. 
261. 
262. 


Cardium obovale, Brod. § Sby. 
Cardium panamense, Sdy. 
Cardium procerum, Sby. 
Cardium rotundatum, Cpr. 
Cardium senticosum, Sby. 
Lucinide. 
Codakia punctata, Linn. 
Codakia tigerina, Linn. 
Lucina annulata, ve. 
Lucina artemidis, Cpr. 
Lucina eburnea, Jive. 
Lucina excavata, Cpr. 
Lucina fenestrata. 
Lucina mazatlanica, Cpr. 
Lucina muricata, Chemn. 
Lucina pectinata, Cpr. 
Lucina prolongata, Cpr. 
Diplodontida. 
Diplodonta calculus, Rve. 
Diplodonta obliqua, Piil. 
Diplodonta semiaspera, Phil. 
Diplodonta subquadrata, Cpr. 
Felania cornea, /ve. 
Felania serricata, lve. 
Felania tellinoides, Ave. 
Kelliadee. 


. Kellia suborbicularis, Mont. 

. Lasea oblonga, Cpr. 

. Lasea ?rubra, Mont. 

. Lasea trigonalis, Cpr. 

. Lepton clementinum, Cpr. 

. Lepton dioneum, Cpr. 

. Lepton obtusum, Cpr. 

. Lepton umbonatum, Cpr. 

. Pythina sublevis, Cpr. 

2. Montacuta chalcedonica, Cpr. 
. Montacuta elliptica, Cpr. 

. Montacuta subquadrata, Cpr. 
. Scintilla Cumingii, Desh. 

. [Cycladella papyracea. ] 


My tilidae. 


. Mytilus multiformis, Cpr. 

. Mytilus palliopunctatus, Dkr. 
. Septifer Cumingianus, Dkr. 

. Modiola braziliensis, Chemn. 

- Modiola capax, Conr. 

. Modiola mutabilis, Cpr. 

. Crenella coarctata, Dkr. 

. Lithophagus aristatus, Sol. 

. Lithophagus attenuatus, Desh. 
. Lithophagus calyculatus, Cpr. 
. Lithophagus cinnamomeus, L. 
. Lithophagus plumula, Hanl. 

. Leiosolenus spatiosus, Cpr. 


4 











290. 
291. 
292. 
293. 
294, 
295. 
296. 
297. 
298. 
299. 
300. 
301, 
302. 
303. 
304. 
305. 
306. 
307. 
308. 
309. 
310. 
311. 
312. 
313. 
514. 
315. 
316. 
317. 
318. 


319. 
320. 
321. 
322 
323. 
324. 
325. 
326. 


327. 
328. 
329. 
300. 
331. 
332. 
333. 
334. 


335. 
336. 
337. 
338. 
339. 
340. 


(0) 


2. Leda 


Arcade. 
Arca cardiiformis, Sby. 
Arca concinna. 
Arca formosa, Sby. 
Arca grandis, Brod. § Shy. 
Arca multicostata, Shy. 
Arca tuberculosa, Sy. 
Scapharca bifrons, Cpr. 
Scapharca emarginata, Shy. 
Scapharca labiata, Sby. 
Scapharca nux, Sby. 
Noetia reversa, Gray. 
Argina brevifrons, Sdy. 
Byssoarca alternata, Soy. 
Byssoarca aviculoides, /ve. 
Byssoarca gradata, Brod. § Sby 
Byssoarca illota, Sby. 
Byssoarca mutabilis, Sby. 
Byssoarca pacifica, Sby. 
Byssoarca Reeviana, L’ Orb. 
Byssoarca solida, Sy. 
Byssoarca vespertilio, Cpr. 
Axineza bicolor, Live. 
Axineza gigantea, [ve. 
Axinzea inequalis, Sdy. 
Axinza maculata, Brod. 
Axinza muliticostata, Say. 
Axineea parcipicta. 
Axinza pectenoides. 
Nucinella 
Nuculide. 
Nucula exigua, Sby. 
Leda costellata, Shy. 
Leda crispa, Hds. 
elenensis, Shy. 
excavata, //ds. 
Leda gibbosa, Sdy. 
Leda lyrata, Hds 
Leda polita, Shy. 
Aviculide. 
Pinna lanceolata, Shy. 
Pinna maura, Sby. 
Pinna rugosa, Sy.” 
Pinna tuberculosa, Sby. 
Avicula sterna, (ld. 
Margaritiphora fimbriata, Dkr 
Isognomon Chemnitzianus, 
Isognomon janus, Cpr. [D’ Orb. 
Pectenidz. 
Pecten circularis, Shy. 
Pecten fasciculatus, /Hds. 
Pecten nodosus, Ln. 
Pecten subnodosus, Shy. 
Pecten tumbezensis, Orb. 
Pecten ventricosus, Shy 


Leda 


366. 


367. 
368. 
369. 
370. 
371. 
. Haminea cymbiformis, Cpr. 
373. 


377. 
378. 
379. 
380. 
881. 


. Janira dentata, Sby. 
. Janira sericea, Hds. 
. Lima angulata, Sby. 
. Lima arcuata, Sby. 

. Lima pacifica, D’Orb. 
. Lima tetrica, Gid. 


Spondy lide. 


. Spondylus calcifer, Cpr. 

- Spondylus dubius. 

9. Spondylus limbatus, Sby. 

- Spondylus princeps, brod. 
- Spondylus radula, five. 

- Plicatula penicillata, Cpr. 


Ostreadz. 


- Ostrea columbiensis, Hanl. 
- Ostrea conchaphila, Cpr. 

- Ostrea Cumingiana, Dkr. 

- Ostrea iridescens, Gray. 

7. Ostrea palmula, Cpr. 

. Ostrea ?Virginica, Gmel. 


Anomiade. 


. Placunanomia claviculata, C. 
- Placunanomia Cumingii, brod. 
. Placunanomia foliata, Brod. 

. Placunanomia pernoides, Gray. 
. Anomia fidenas, Gray. 

- Anomia lampe, Gray. 


GASTEROPODA 
OPISTHOCBRANCHIATA. 
Pleurobranchide. 


- Umbrella ovalis, Cpr. ° 


Philinide. 

Smaragdinella thecaphora, C. 
Bullidee. 

Bulla Adamsi, ke. 

Bulla exarata, Cpr. 

Bulla nebulosa, Gid. 

Bulla panamensis, Piil. 

Bulla Quoyii, Gray. 


Haminea vesicula, Gid. 
Cylichnidee. 


4. Cylichna luticola, C. B. Ad. 
- Tornatina carinata, Cpr. 
. Tornatina infrequens, C. B. Ad. 


GASTEROPODA 
PULMONATA. 
Auriculidae. 
Melampus acutus, D’Orb. 


Melampus Bridgesii, Cpr. 


Melampus concinnus, C. B. Ad. 
Melampus infrequens, C.B.Ad. 


Melampus olivaceus, Cpr. 


382. 
383. 
384, 
385. 
386. 


387. 
388. 
389. 
390. 
391. 
392, 


393. 
394. 
095. 


396. 
397. 
398. 
399. 
400. 


401. 
402. 
403. 
404. 
405. 
406. 
407. 
408. 
409. 
410. 
411. 
412. 
413. 
414, 
415. 
416. 
417. 
418. 
419. 
420. 
421. 
422, 
423. 
424. 





425. 


(2) 


Melampus panamensis, C. BL. A. 
Melampus stagnalis, D’ Orb. 
Melampus tabogensis, (. B. A. 
Melampus trilineatus, C.5. Ad. 
Pedipes angulata, (. b. Ad. 
Siphonariade2. 
Siphonaria equilirata, Cpr. 
Siphonaria costata, Sby. 
Siphonaria gigas, Sby. 
Siphonaria lecanium, Piil. 
Siphonaria maura, Sby 
Siphonaria pica, Sby. 


GASTEROPODA 
PROSOBRANCHIATA. 
HETEROPODA. 
Tanthimide. 
Ianthina decollata, Cpr. 
Ianthina striulata, Cpr. 
Recluzia Rollandiana, Phil. 


CIRRIBRANCHIATA. 
Dentaliade. 
Dentalium corrugatum, Cpr. 
Dentalium hyalinum, Piil. 
Dentalium liratum, Cpr. 
Dentalium pretiosum, Soy. 
Dentalium tessaragonum, 


SCUTIBRANCHIATA. 
Chitonide. 

Lophyrus albolineatus, B. § S. 
Lophyrus articulatus, 5. § Sby. 
Lophyrus dispar, Sby. 
Lophyrus levigatus, Sby. 
Lophyrus Stokesii, rod. 
Lophyrus striatosquamosus, C. 
Callochiton pulchellus, Gray. 
Lepidopleurus Beanii, Cpr. 
Lepidopleurus bullatus, Cpr. 
Lepidopleurus clathratus, Cpr. 
Lepidopleurus magdalensis, H/. 
Lepidopleurus M’Andree, C. 
Lepidopleurus sanguineus, &. 
Lepidochiton proprius, Ave. 
Tonicia crenulata, brod. 
Tonicia Forbesii, Cpr. 
Tonicia lineata, Wood. 
[Chiton] clathratus, fve. 
Chiton columbiensis, Sby. 
[Chiton] Elenensis, Sby. 
Chiton flavescens, Cpr. 
Chiton luridus, Sby. 
Chiton scabricula, Shy. 
[Chiton] setosus, Sby. 
Mopalia Hindsii, Sby. 


441. 
442. 
443. 
444. 
445. 
446. 
447. 
448. 
449, 
450. 
451. 
452. 
453. 
454. 
455. 
456. 
457. 
458. 


459. 
460. 
461. 
462. 
463. 
464. 
465. 
466. 
467. 
468. 
469. 
470. 
471. 
472. 
473. 
474. 


. Acanthochites arragonites, C. 
. Plaxiphora retusa, Soy. 


Patellida. 


. Patella discors, Phil. 

9, Patella mexicana, Brod. § Shy. 
. Patella pediculus, Pail. 

. Patella stipulata, ve. 

- Nacella 


Acmme#xida. 


. Acmea fascicularis, Ike. 

. Acmeza livescens, [ive. 

. Acmea mesoleuca, Wke. 

. Acmea mitella, Mke. 

. Acmea scabra, Nutt. 

. Acmea vespertina, ve. 

. Scutellina navicelloides, Cpr. 


Gadiniade. 


. Gadinia pentegoniostoma, Sby. 


Fissurellidae. 


Fissurella 
Fissurella 
Fissurella 
Fissurella 
Fissurella 
Fissurella 
Fissurella 
Fissurella 
Fissurella 
Fissurella 
Fissurella 
Fissurella 


alba, Cpr. 
crenifera, Shy. 
macrotrema, Sdy. 
mexicana, Sby. 
microtrema, Sby. 
mus, five. 
nigrocincta, Cpr. 
nigropunctata, Sby. 
ostrina, Ave. 
rugosa, Shy. 
spongiosa, Cpr. 
virescens, Sby. 


Glyphis alta, C. B. Ad. 
Glyphis gibberula, Lam. 
Glyphis inzequalis, Sby. 


Glyphis panamensis, Sly. 
Fissurellidea zequalis, Sby. 
Rimula mazatlanica, Cpr. 


Trochidee. 
Phasianella compta, Gid. 
Phasianella perforata, Phil. 
Callopoma fluctuosum, Mawe. 
Callopoma saxosum, Wood. 


Collonia phasianella, C. 5. Ad. 


Turbo rutilus, (. B. Ad. 
Turbo squamigera, Jive. 
Uvanilla inermis, Gel. 
Uvanilla olivacea, Mawe. 
Uvanilla unguis, J/awe. 
Ziziphinus Leanus, C. B. Ad. 
Ziziphinus lima, Phil. 
Ziziphinus M’ Andree, Cpr. 
Ziziphinus panamensis, Phil. 
Ziziphinus versicolor, J/ke. 
Tegula pellis-serpentis, Wood. 





475. 
476. 
477. 
478. 
479. 
480. 
481. 
482. 
483. 
484, 
485. 
486. 
487. 
488. 
489. 
490. 
491. 
492. 
493. 
494. 
495. 
496. 
497. 
498. 
499. 
500. 
501. 
502. 
503. 
504, 
505. 
506. 
507. 
508. 
509. 
510. 
511. 
512. 
513. 
514, 
515. 
516. 


517. 
518. 
519. 
520. 
521. 
522 
523. 
524, 
525. 
526. 
527. 
528. 


(2) 


Gibbula coronulata, C. B. Ad. 
Omphalius globulus, Cpr. 
Omphalius ligulatus, Mke. 
Omphalius rugosus, A. Ad. 
Omphalius viridulus, Gel. 
Polydonta dentata, A. Ad. 


Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 
Vitrinella 


annulata, Cpr. 
bifilata, Cpr. 
bifrontia, Cpr. 
carinulata, Cpr. 
cincta, Cpr. 
concinna, (. B. Ad. 
coronata, Cpr. 
decussata, Cpr. 
exigua, C. B. Ad. 
janus, C. b. Ad. 
lirulata, Cpr. 
modesta, C. B. Ad. 
monilifera, Cpr. 
monilis, Cpr. 

orbis, Cpr. 
panamensis, C. B. A. 
parva, C. B. Ad. 
perparva, C. b. Ad. 
planospirata, Cpr. 
regularis, C. B. Ad. 
seminuda, C. b. Ad. 
subquadrata, Cpr. 
tricarinata, C. Bb. Ad. 


Ethalia amplectans, Cpr. 
Ethalia carinata, Cpr. 
Ethalia lirulata, Cpr. 
Ethalia naticoides, Cpr. 
Ethalia pallidula, Cpr. 
Ethalia pyricallosa, Cpr 


Ethalia valvatoides, C. B. Ad. 
Teinostoma amplectans, Cor. 
Teinostoma minutum, C.B.Ad. 
Teinostoma substriatum, Cpr. 
Globulus sulcatus, Cpr. 
Globulus tumens, Cpr. 
Adeorbis scaber, Phil. 
Neritidae. 
Nerita Bernhardi, Rec’. 
Nerita scabricosta, Lum. 
Neritina californica, /ve. 
Neritina cassiculum, Sby. 
Neritina globosa, rod. 


2. Neritina guayaquilensis, S)y. 


Neritina intermedia, Sy. 
Neritina latissima, Brod. 
Neritina Listeri, Pfr. 
Neritina Michaudi, Récl. 
Neritina picta, Sby. 
Neritina pulchra, Wood. 


556. 
557. 
558. 
559. 
560. 
561. 
562. 


563. 
564. 
565. 
566. 
567. 
568. 
569. 


570. 
571. 
572. 
573. 
574. 
575. 


PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 
ROSTRIFERA. 
Naricide. 


. Narica cryptophila, Cpr. 


Caly ptraide. 


. Crucibulum imbricatum, Sby. 
. Crucibulum Jewettii, Cpr. 

. Crucibulum radiatum, Lrod. 

. Crucibulum serratum. 

. Crucibulum spinosum, Sby. 

. Crucibulum umbrella, Desh. 
3. Calyptrezea cepacea, Brod. 

. Calyptrzea corrugata, rod. 

. Calyptreea planulata, Brod. 

. Galerus conicus, Brod. 

. Galerus mamillaris, brod. 

-. Galerus sordidus, rod. 

2. Galerus subreflexus, Cpr. 

- Galerus unguis, brod. 

. Trochita spirata, Forbes. 

- Trochita ventricosa, Cpr. 

. Crepidula 
- Crepidula 
. Crepidula 
9. Crepidula 
. Crepidula 
. Crepidula 
. Crepidula 
. Crepidula 
. Crepidula 
- Crepidula 


aculeata, Gel. 
adunca, Sby. 
arenata, rod. 
dorsata, Brod. 
excavata, Brod. 
incurva, Brod. 
marginalis, Brod. 
nivea, C. Bb. Ad. 
onyx, Sby. 
unguiformis, Lam. 

Capulide. 
Hipponyx antiquatus, Linn. 
Hipponyx barbatus, Sby. 
Hipponyx Grayanus, Ike. 
Hipponyx mitrula, Sby. 
Hippony=x planatus, Cpr. 
Hippony= serratus, Cpr. 
Capulus 

Vermetide. 
Aletes centiquadrus, Val. 
Aletes margaritarum, Val. 
Vermetus eburneus, Ave. 
Vermetus Hindsii, Gray. 
Bivonia albida, Cpr. 
Bivonia contorta, Cpr. 
Petaloconchus macrophrag- 

ma, Cpr. 

Crcidee. 
Czcum abnormale, Cpr. 
Cecum clathratum, Cpr. 
Cecum corrugulatum, Cpr. 
Czecum dextroversum, Cpr. 
Czcum elongatum, Cpr. 
Czecum farcimen, Cpr. 


576. 
577. 
578. 
579. 
580. 
581. 
582. 
583. 
584. 
585. 
586. 


589. 


592. 
593. 
594. 


596. 
597. 
598. 
599. 
600. 


602. 
603. 
604 
605. 
606. 
607. 
608. 





609. 


610. 


611. 
612. 


613. 
614. 


615. 
616. 
617. 
618. 
619. 
620. 
621. 
622. 
623. 
624, 


1) 





587. 
588. 


590. 
591. 


595. 


601. 


a 


Cecum firmatum, C. B. Ad. 
Cecum glabriforme, Cpr. 
Czecum heptagonum, Cpr. 
Czcum insculptum, Cpr. 
Czcum leve, C. B. Ad. 
Czcum laqueatum, (. B. Ad 
Czcum liratocinctum, Cpr 
Czecum obtusum, Cpr. 
Czecum quadratum, Cpr. 
Czecum reversum, Cpr. 
Czcum subimpressum, Cpr. 
Czcum subspirale, Cpr. 
Czcum teres, Cpr. 
Czecum undatum, Cpr. 
Turritellide. 
Turritella fascialis, Rve. 
Turritella goniostoma, Val. 
Turritella nodulosa, Aing. 
Turritella rubescens, Ave. 
Turritella tigrina, Aven. 
Cerithiadz. 
Cerithium alboliratum, Cpr. 
Cerithium famelicum, (. 2. Ad. 
Cerithium interruptum, J/<ke. 
Cerithium irroratum, C. B. Ad. 
Cerithium maculosum, Aven. 
Cerithium musicum, Vai. 
Cerithium pacificum, Sby. 
Cerithium stercusmuscarum, V’. 
Cerithium uncinatum, Gmel. 
Vertagus fragraria, Val. 
Vertagus gemmatus, //ds. 
Cerithidea mazatlanica, Cpr. 
Cerithidea Montagnei, D’ Orb. 
Cerithidea pulchra, C. B. Ad. 
Cerithidea varicosa, Sby. 
Truncatellide. 
Truncatella Bairdiana, C.B.Ad. 
Melaniadz. 
Melania Gouldii, H. § A. Ad. 
Pyrgula quadricostata, Cpr. 
Ampullaride. 
Ampullaria Cumingii, King. 
Ampullaria malleata. 
Litorinidz. 
Litorina aberrans, Phil. 
Litorina aspera, Phil. 
Litorina conspersa, Pil. 
Litorina coronata, Lam. 
Litorina fasciata, Gray. 
Litorina Philippii, Cpr. 
Litorina pulchra, Phil. 
Litorina varia, Sby. 
Modulus catenulatus, Pizl. 
Modulus disculus, Phil. 


625. 
626. 
627. 
628. 
629. 
630. 
- Fossarus 
. Isapis maculosa, Cpr. 
. Isapis ovoidea, Gid. 


649. 
650. 
651. 


652. 
653. 
654. 
655. 
656. 
657. 
658. 
659. 
660. 
661. 


662. 
663. 
664. 
665. 
666. 


667. 
668. 
669. 
670. 
671. 
672. 
673. 
674. 


abjectus, (. B. Ad. 
angiostoma, C. B. Ad 
angulatus, Cpr. 
excavatus, C. B. Ad. 
foveatus, C. B. Ad. 


FPossarus 
Fossarus 
Fossarus 
Fossarus 
Fossarus 
Fossarus 
tuberosus, Cpr. 


Rissoidze. 


. Rissoina clandestina, C. B. Ad. 
. Rissoina firmata, C. B. Ad. 

}. Rissoina fortis, C. B. Ad. 

. Rissoina infrequens, C. B. Ad. 
. Rissoina janus, C. B. Ad. 

. Rissoina stricta, Mke. 

. Rissoina Woodwardii, Cpr. 

. Barleeia lirata, Cpr. 

. Alvania effusa, Cpr. 

. Alvania excurvata, Cpr. 

. Alvania tumida, Cpr. 

. ?Cingula dubiosa, C. B. Ad. 

3. Cingula paupercula, C. 6. Ad. 
. Cingula saxicola, C. B. Ad. 

. Hydrobia ?ulve, Penn. 


Jeffreysiadz. 
Jeffreysia Alderi, Cpr. 
Jeffreysia bifasciata, Cpr. 
Jeffreysia tumens, Cpr. 

Planaxidae. 

Alaba alabastrites, Cpr. 

Alaba conica, Cpr. 

Alaba laguncula, Cpr. 

Alaba mutans, Cpr. 

Alaba scalata, Cpr. 

Alaba supralirata, Cpr. 

Alaba terebralis, Cpr. 

Alaba violacea, Cpr. 

Planaxis nigritella, Forbes. 

Planaxis planicostata, Sby. 
Ovulidae. 

Radius equalis. 

Radius avena, Shy. 

Radius inflexus, Shy. 

Radius variabilis, C. B. Ad. 

Ovula emarginata, Sby. 

Cypreaidez. 

Cyprzea exanthema, Linn. 
Aricia arabicula, Lam. 
Aricia punctulata, Gray. 
Trivia pacifica, Gray. 
Trivia pulla, Gask. 
Trivia pustulata, Lam. 
Trivia radians, Lam. 
Trivia rubescens, Gray. 


megasoma, C. B. Ad. 


675. 
. | 676. 
677. 
678. 
679. 
680. 


681. 
682. 
683. 
684. 
685. 
686. 
687. 
688. 
689. 
690. 
691. 
692. 
693. 
694. 
695. 
696. 
697. 
698. 
699. 
700. 
701. 
702. 
703. 
704. 
705. 


706. 








707. 
708. 
709. 
710. 


sls 
712. 
713. 
714. 
715. 
716. 
717. 
718. 
Os 
720. 
721. 
722. 
LT 2d5 
724, 


() 


Trivia sanguinea, Gray. 
Trivia Solandri, Gray. 
Trivia ?suffusa, Gray. 
Erato columbella, Mke. 
Erato Maugerie, Gray. 
Erato scabriuscula, Gray. 


Cancellariade. 


Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 
Cancellaria 


acuminata, Sby. 
affinis, C. B. Ad. 
albida, Hds. 
bifasciata. 

brevis, Sby. 
buccinoides, Sby. 
bulbulus, Sby. 
bullata, Sby. 
candida, Sby. 
cassidiformis, Sby 
chrysostoma, Shy. 
clavatula, Shy. 
crenata, Hds. 
decussata, Sby. 
elata, Hds. 
gemmulata, Sby. 
goniostoma, Sby. 
indentata, Sby. 
obesa, Shy. 
pulchra, Shy. 
pygmea, C. B. Ad 
solida, Sby. 
tessellata, Sby. 
uniplicata, Shy. 
urceolata, Hds. 
ventricosa, Hds. 


Strombidz. 
Strombus galeatus, Wood. 
Strombus gracilior, Sby. 
Strombus granulatus, Swains. 
Strombus peruvianus, Swains. 


TOXIFERA. 

Terebride. 
Subula luctuosa, Hds. 
Subula strigata, Sby. 
Subula varicosa, Hds. 
Buryta aciculata, Hds. 
Euryta fulgurata, Phil. 
Terebra lingualis, Hds. 
Terebra ornata, Gray. 
Terebra robusta, Hds. 
Terebra specillata, Hds. 
Terebra uva. 
Myurella albocincta, Cpr. 
Myurella armillata, Hds. 
Myurella aspera, Hds. 
Myurella elata, Hds. 


725. 
726. 
727. 
728. 
729. 
730. 


731. 
732. 
733. 
734. 
735. 
736. 
737. 
738. 
739. 
740. 
741. 
742. 
743. 
744. 
745. 
746. 
747. 
748. 
749. 
750. 
751. 
752. 
753. 
754. 
755. 
756. 
757. 
758. 
759. 
760. 
761. 
762. 
763. 
764. 
765. 
766. 
767. 
768. 
769. 
770. 
qin. 
772. 
773. 
774. 
775. 
776. 
ite 
778. 


Myurella Hindsii, Cpr. 
Myurella larveformis, Hds. 
Myurella rufocinerea, (pr. 
Myurella subnodosa, Cpr. 
Myurella tuberculosa, Hds. 
Myurella variegata, Gray. 
Pleurotomidz. 
Pleurotoma arcuata, Jve. 
Pleurotoma bituberculifera. 
Pleurotoma cedo-nulli, Ave. 
Pleurotoma clavulus, Sly. 
Pleurotoma funiculata, Val. 
Pleurotoma gracillima. 
Pleurotoma maculosa, Soy. 
Pleurotoma nobilis, Hds. 
Pleurotoma olivacea, Sby. 
Pleurotoma oxytropis, Sby. 
Pleurotoma picta, Beck. 
Pleurotoma pudica, Hds. 


Pleurotoma tuberculifera, Brod. 
Pleurotoma unimaculata, Sby. 


Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 
Drillia 


albonodosa, Cpr. 
albovallosa, Cpr. 
aterrima, Siy. 
bicolor, Shy. 
celebs. 
cerithoidea, Cpr. 
collaris, Shy. 
corrugata, Sby. 
duplicata, Shy. 
excentrica, Sby. 


granulosa, Sdy. 
Hanleyi, Cpr. 
impressa, Hds. 
incrassata, Sby. 
luctuosa, Hds. 
militaris, Hds. 
monilifera, Cpr. 
nigerrima, Sdy. 
nitida, Sdy. 
obeliscus, Ave. 
pallida, Sdy. 
pardalis, Hds. 
punctatostriata. 
rudis, Shy. 
rustica, Sby. 
striosa, C. B. Ad. 
Drillia unicolor, Sby. 
Drillia zonulata, Ave. 
Clathurella aurea, Cpr. 
Clathurella bella, Hds. 
Clathurella bicanalifera, Sby. 
Clathurella czlata, Hds. , 
Clathurella candida, Hds. 


grandimaculata, C.B.A. 


779. 
780. 
781. 
782. 
783. 
784. 
785. 
786. 
787. 
788. 
789. 
790. 
(sile 
792. 
793. 
794. 
795. 
796. 
797. 
798. 
799. 
800. 
801. 


802. 
803. 
804. 
805. 
806. 
807. 
808. 
809. 
810. 
811. 
812. 
813. 
814. 
815. 
816. 
817. 
818. 
819. 
820. 
821. 
822. 
823. 
824. 
825. 
826. 


827. 


828 
829 


CD) 


Clathurella 
Clathurella 
Clathurella 
Clathurella 
Clathurella 
Clathurella 
Clathurella 
Clathurella 
Clathurella 
Clathurella 
Clathurella 
Clathurella 
Clathurella 
Clathurella 
Clathurella serrata. 
Clathurella variculosa, Sby. 
Daphneila casta, Hds. 
Cithara sinuata. 

Cithara stromboides, Jive. 
Mangelia acuticostata, Cpr. 
Mangelia concinna, C. Bb. Ad. 
Mangelia neglecta, C. B. Ad. 
Mangelia sulcosa, Sly. 


Conidez. 
Conus archon, Brod. 
Conus arcuatus, Brod. §- Shy. 
Conus brunneus, Wood 
Conus cinctus. 
Conus concinnus, Brod 
Conus ferrugatus. 
Conus gladiator, Brod. 
Conus lineolatus. 
Conus Lorenzianus, Chemn. 
Conus mahogani, Ave. 
Conus nux, Brod. 
Conus orion, Brod. 
Conus pafricius, Hds. 
Conus princeps, Linn. 
Conus puncticulatus, Hwass. 
Conus purpurascens, Brod. 
Conus pusillus, Chemn. 
Conus pyriformis, Rve, 
Conus ravus, Gid. 
Conus regalitatis, Sby 
Conus regularis, Shy. 
Conus scalaris, Val. 
Conus tornatus, brod. 
Conus vittatus, Brug. 
Conus Ximenes, (ray. 


cornuta. 
corrugata. 
ericea, //ds. 
exigua, CU. B. Ad. 
gemmulosa, C.5.A 
intercalaris. 
merita, Hds. 
micans, Hds. 
neglecta, Hds. 
occata, Hds. 
quisqualis, Hds. 
rava, ids. 
rigida, Hds. 
sculpta, Hds. 


PROBOSCIDIFERA. 
Solariadz. 
Solarium granulatum, Lam. 
Solarium quadriceps, Hds. 
Torinia bicanaliculata. 


830. 
831. 


832, 
833. 
834. 
835. 
836. 
837. 
838. 
839. 


840. 
841. 
842, 
843. 
844. 
845. 
846. 
847. 
848. 
849. 
850. 
851. 
852. 
853. 
854, 
855. 
856. 
857. 
858. 
859. 


860. 


861. 
862 
863. 
864. 
865. 


866. 
867. 


868. 
869. 


870. 
871. 
872. 


873. 


874. 
875. 
876. 
877. 
878. 
879. 
880. 
881. 
882. 
883. 


Torinia granosa, Vail. 
Torinia variegata, Lam. 
Pyramidellidz. 
Obeliscus clavulus, A. Ad. 
Obeliscus conicus, . B. Ad. 
Odostomia lamellata, Cpr. 
Odostomia mamillata, Cpr. 
Odostomia sublirulata, Cpr. 
Odostomia subsulcata, Cpr. 
Odostomia tenuis, Cpr. 
Odostomia vallata, Cpr. 
Parthenia armata, Cpr. 
Parthenia exarata, Cpr. 
Parthenia lacunata, Cpr. 
Parthenia quinquecincta, Cpr. 
Parthenia scalariformis, Cpr. 
Parthenia ziziphina, Cpr. 


Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chrysallida 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 
Chemnitzia 


clathratula, C.B.A. 
clausiliformis, Cpr. 
communis, C.B.A. 


convexa, Cpr. 
effusa, Cpr. 
fasciata, Cpr. 
indentata, Cpr. 


marginata, C.5.Ad. 


nodosa, Cpr. 
oblonga, Cpr. 
ovata, Cpr. - 
ovulum, Cpr. 


paupercula, C.B.A. 


photis, Cpr. 
Reigeni, Cpr. 
rotundata, Cpr. 
telescopium, Cpr. 
aculeus, C. B. Ad. 


acuminata, C. B.A. 


C-B-Adamsi, Cpr. 
affinis, C. B. Ad. 
flavescens, Cpr. 
gibbosa, Cpr. 


gracilior, C. B. Ad. 


gracillima, Cpr. 
major, C. B. Ad. 
muricata, Cpr. 


panamensis, C.B.A. 


prolongata, Cpr. 
similis, C. B. Ad. 
striosa, ©. B. Ad. 
tenuilirata, Cpr. 
terebralis, Cpr. 
turrita, C. B. Ad. 
undata, Cpr. 
unifasciata, Cpr. 


Dunkeria cancellata, Cpr. 
Dunkeria intermedia, Cpr. 


10 


884. 
885. 
886. 
887. 
888. 


889. 
890. 
891. 
892. 
893. 
894. 
895. 
896. 
897. 
898. 
899. 


900. 
901. 
902. 
903. 
904. 
905. 
906. 
907. 
908. 
909. 
910. 





Dunkeria paucilirata, Cpr. 
Dunkeria subangulata, Cpr. 
Eulimella obsoleta, Cpr. 
Aclis fusiformis, Cpr. 
Aclis tumens, Cpr. 
Eulimide. 
Eulima acuta, A. Ad. 
Eulima hastata, Shy. 
Eulima interrupta. 
Leiostraca distorta, Piil. 
Leiostraca [involuta, Cpr.] 


‘Leiostraca iota, C. B. Ad. 


Leiostraca linearis, Cpr. 
Leiostraca [producta, Cpr.] 
Leiostraca recta, C. B. Ad. 
Leiostraca retexta, Cpr. 
Leiostraca solitaria, C. B. Ad. 
Cerithiopsidae. 

Cerithiopsis assimilata, C.B.A. 
Cerithiopsis bimarginata, UB A 


Cerithiopsis 
Cerithiopsis 
Cerithiopsis 
Cerithiopsis 
Cerithiopsis 
Cerithiopsis 
Cerithiopsis 


cerea, Cpr. 
conveza, Cpr. 
decussata, Cpr. 
neglecta, C. B. A. 
pupiformis, Cpr. 
sorex, Cpr. 
tuberculoides, C. 


Triforis alternatus, C. B. Ad. 
Triforis inconspicuus, C. B. Ad. 
Scalariadez. 


- Sealaria aciculina, /ds. 
- Scalaria 
- Scalaria 
- Scalaria 
- Scalaria 
- Scalaria 
- Scalaria 
- Scalaria 
- Scalaria 
- Scalaria 
- Scalaria 
- Scalaria 
- Scalaria 
- Scalaria 
- Scalaria 
- Scalaria 
- Cirsotrema funiculata, Cpr. 


Cumingii. » 
diane, Hds. 
hexagona, Sby. 
Hindsii 
indistincta, Shy. 
mifrzformis, Shy. 
obtusa. 
raricostata, Cpr. 
reflexa, Cpr. 
regularis. 
statuminata, Sby. 
subnodosa. 
suprastriata, Cpr. 
tiara. 

vulpina, /7/ds. 


Naticide. 


- Natica bifasciata, Gray. 

- Natica excavata, Cpr. 

- Natica Haneti, ?écl. 

- Natica maroccana, Chemn. 
- Natica Souleyetiana, Récl. 
- Natica zonaria, Réc/. 

. Lunatia Bonplandi. 


935. 
936. 
937. 
938. 
939. 
940, 
941. 
942. 
943. 
944. 
945. 


946. 


947. 


948. 


949. 
950. 
951. 


952. 
953. 
954. 
955. 
956. 
957. 
958. 
959. 
960. 
961. 
962. 
963. 
964. 
965. 
966. 
967. 
968. 
969. 
970. 
971. 
972. 
973. 
974. 
975. 


976. 


977. 
978. 
979. 
980. 
981. 


Lunatia lurida. 

Lunatia otis, Brod. § Shy. 
Lunatia tenuilirata, Cpr. 
Neverita glauca, Val. 
Polinices intemerata. 
Polinices panamensis, Réc/. 
Polinices 
Polinices 
Polinices 


uber, Val. 
unimaculata, ve. 
Polinices virginea, Récl. 
Sigaretus debilis, Gid. 
Lamellariadez. 
Lamellaria inflata, C. B. Ad. 
Ficulidz. 
Ficula ventricosa, Sby. 
Doliadz. 
Malea ringens, Sby. 
Cassidze. 
Oniscia tuberculosa, fve. 
Cassis abbreviata, Lam. 
Cassis coarctata, Sly. 
Tritonide. 
Triton anomalus, Hds. 
Triton constrictus, Brod. 
Triton crebristriatus. 
Triton eximius, Ave. 
Triton fusoides, C. B. Ad. 
Triton gibbosus, Brod. 
Triton lignarius, Brod. 
Triton scalariformis, Brod. 
Triton tigrinus, Brod. 
Triton vestitus, Hds. 


Argobuccinum nodosum, Ch. 


Persona ridens, Rve. 
Ranella albifasciata, Sby. © 
Ranella anceps, Lam. 
Ranella celata, Brod. 
Ranella convoluta. 
Ranella muriciformis, Brod. 
Ranella nana, brod. 
Ranella nitida, rod. 
Ranella pectinata, Hds. 
Ranella plicata, Ave. 
Ranella pyramidalis. 
Ranella triquetra, lve. 
Ranella tuberculata. 


Turbinellide. 
Turbinella czestus, Grod. 


Fasciolariade. 
Lathirus armatus. 
Lathirus californicus. 
Lathirus castaneus, (ray. 
Lathirus ceratus, Gray. 
Lathirus concentricus, Rve. 


salangonensis, Récl. 


11 


982. 
983. 
984. 
985. 
986. 
987. 


988. 
989. 
990. 
991. 
992. 
993. 
994. 
995. 
996. 
997. 
998. 


O99: 
1000. 
1001. 
1002. 
1003. 
1004. 
1005. 
1006. 
1007. 
1008. 


1009. 
1010. 
1011. 
1012. 
1013. 
1014. 
1015. 
1016. 
1017. 
1018. 
1019. 
1020. 
1021. 
1022. 
1023. 
1024. 
1025. 
1026. 
1027. 
1028. 
1029. 
1030. 
1081. 
1032. 
1033. 


(0) 





Lathirus nodatus, Mart. 

Lathirus rudis, Rve. 

Lathirus spadiceus, Rve. 

Lathirus tuberculatus, Drod. 

Lathirus tumens. 

Leucozonia cingulata, Lam. 
Mitrinez. 

Mitra attenuata, Rve. 

Mitra badia, Ave. 

Mitra Belcheri, Hds. 

Mitra funiculata, Jive. 

Mitra Hindsii. 

Mitra lens, Wood. 

Mitra nucleola, Lam. 

Mitra solitaria, C. B. Ad. 

Mitra sulcata, Swains. 

Strigatella effusa, Swains. 

Strigatella tristis, Brod. 
Volutide. 

Voluta Cumingii, Brod. 

Voluta harpa, Mawe. 


Marginella cerulescens, Lam 
Marginella curta, Sby. 
Marginella cypreola. 
Marginella margaritula, Cpr. 
Marginella minor, C. B. Ad. 
Marginella polita, Cpr. 
Marginella sapotilla, Hds. 


Persicula imbricata, Hds. 
Olividz. 
Oliva angulata, Zam. 
Oliva Cumingii, Rve. 
Oliva Duclosi, Rve. 
Oliva intertincta, Cpr. 
Oliva julieta, Ducl. 
Oliva Melchersi, Mke. 
Oliva porphyria, Linn. 
Oliva splendidula, Sby. 
Oliva venulata, Lam. 
Olivella anazora, Ducl. 
Olivella aureocincta, Cpr. 
Olivella dama, Mawe. 
Olivella eburnea, Lam. 
Olivella gracilis, Gray. 
Olivella inconspicua, C. B. A. 
Olivella intorta. 
Olivella pellucida, Gray. 
Olivella semistriata, Gray. 
Olivella tergina, Ducl. 
Olivella undatella, Lam. 
Olivella volutella, Lam. 
Olivella zonalis Lam. 
Agaronia testacea, Lam. 
Harpa crenata, Swains. 
Harpa scriba. 


1034. 
1035. 
1036. 
1037. 
1038. 
1039. 
1040. 
1041. 
1042. 
1043. 
1044. 
1045. 
1046. 
1047. 
1048. 
1049. 
1050. 
1051. 
1052. 
1053. 
1054. 
1055. 
1056. 
1057. 
1058. 
1059. 
1060. 
1061. 


1062. 
1063. 
1064. 
1065. 
1066. 
1067. 
1068. 
1069. 
1070. 
1071. 
1072. 
1073. 
1074. 
1075. 
1076. 
1077. 
1078. 
1079. 
1080. 
1081. 
1082. 
1083. 
1084. 
1085. 
1086. 


Purpuride. 
Purpura biserialis, Blainv. 
Purpura columellaris, Lam. 
Purpura melo, Ducl. 
Purpura muricata, Gray. 
Purpura patula, Linn. 
Purpura planospira, Lam. 
Purpura triangularis, Blainv. 
Purpura triserialis, Blainv. 
Cuma costata, Blainv. 
Cuma kiosquiformis, Ducl. 
Cuma tecta, Wood. 
Rhizocheilus asper. 
Rhizocheilus nux, ve. 
Vitularia salebrosa, King. 


Monoceros brevidentatum, G. 


Monoceros lugubre, Sby. 


r2 


1087. 
1088. 
1089. 
1090. 
1091. 
1092. 
1093. 
1094. 
1095. 
1096. 
1097. 
1098. 
1099. 
1100. 
1101. 
1102. 
1103. 


Monoceros tuberculatum, Gr. 


Engina alveolata, Kien. 
Engina carbonaria, Ave. 
Engina contracta, Rve. 
Engina crocostoma, five. 
Engina heptagonalis. 
Engina jugosa, C. B. Ad. 
Engina maura. 
Engina pyrostoma, Sby. 
Engina Reeviana, C. B. Ad. 
Nitidella cribraria, Lam. 
Nitidella pulchrior, C. B. Ad. 
Buccinidez. 
Columbella castanea, Sby. 
Columbella cervinetta, Cpr. 
Columbella festiva, Kien. 
Columbella fuscata, Sby. 
Columbella 
Columbella 
Columbella 
Columbella 
Columbella 
Columbella 
Columbella 
Columbella 
Columbella 
Columbella 
Metula Hindsii, H. § A. Ad. 
Truncaria modesta, Pws. 
?Buccinum leiocheilus. 
?Buccinum panamense. 
Nassa canescens, C. B. Ad. 
WNassa collaria, Gid. 
Nassa corpulenta, C. B. Ad. 
Nassa crebristriata, Cpr. 
Nassa festiva, Pws. 
Nassa gemmulosa, C. B. Ad. 
Nassa glauca, C0. Bb. Ad. 


harpiformis, Sy. 
labiosa, Sby. 
ligata. 

livida. 

major, Sby. 
nasuta. 
pardalis. 
procera. 


hzemastoma, Sby. 


strombiformis, . 


1104. 


1105. 
1106. 
1107. 
1108. 
1109. 
1110. 
1111. 
1112. 
1113. 
1114. 
1115. 
1116. 
Lie 
1118. 
1119. 
1120. 
1121. 
1122. 
1123. 
1124. 
1125. 
1126. 
1127. 
1128. 
1129: 
1130. 
1131. 
1132. 
1133. 
1134. 
1135. 
1136. 
1137. 
1138. 
1139. 


(2) 


Nassa luteostoma, Brod. § Shy 

Nassa meesta. 

Nassa nodifera, Pws. 

Wassa pagodus, CU. B. Ad. 

Nassa pallida. 

?Nassa panamensis, (. B. Ad. 

Wassa scabriuscula, Pws. 

Nassa striata, U. Bb. Ad. 

Nassa tegula, Rve. 

WNassa versicolor, C. B. Ad. 

Nassa Wilsoni, C. B. Ad. 

Phos articulatus, Hds. 

Phos biplicatus. 

Phos crassus, [ds 

Phos gaudéns, Hds 

Phos turritus, A. Ad. 

Phos veraguensis, Hds. 
Pyrulide. 

Pyrula patula, Brod. § Sby. 
Muricidz. 

Fusus ambustus. 

Fusus apertus, Cpr. 

Fusus bellus. 

Fusus Dupetithouarsii, Kien. 

Fusus lignarius, Rve. 

Fusus pallidus, Brod. § Sby. 

Fusus tumens, Cpr. 

Trophon Hindsii, Cpr. 

Anachis albonodosa, Cpr. 

Anachis atramentaria, Shy 

Anachis Boivinei, Kien. 

Anachis conspicua, C. B. Ad 

Anachis coronata, Sby. 

Anachis costellata, Brod. § Sb. 

Anachis diminuta, (C. B. Ad. 

Anachis fluctuata, Sby. 

Anachis fulva, Shy. 

Anachis Gaskoinei, Cpr 

Anachis gracilis, C. B. Ad. 

Anachis lentiginosa, Hds. 

Anachis lyrata, Shy. 

Anachis meesta, C. B. Ad. 

Anachis nigricans, Shy. 

Anachis nigrofusca, Cpr. 

Anachis nucleolus, Phil. 

Anachis pallida, Phil. 

Anachis parva, Sby. 

Anachis pygmea, Sby. 

Anachis rufotincta, Cpr. 

Anachis rugosa, Sdy. 

Anachis scalarina, Shy. 

Anachis serrata, Cpr. 

Anachis tzeniata, Pil. 

Anachis tessellata, C. B. Ad. 

Anachis varia, Sby. 


1140. 
1141. 
1142. 
1143. 
1144. 
1145. 
1146. 
1147. 
1148. 
1149. 
1150. 
1151. 
1152. 
1153. 
1154. 
1155. 
1156. 
1157. 
1158. 
1159. 
1160. 
1161. 
1162. 
1163. 
1164. 


13 


Strombina angularis, Soy. 
Strombina bicanalifera, Sby. 
Strombina dorsata, Sby. 
Strombina elegans, Sby. 
Strombina fusiformis, Hds. 
Strombina gibberula, Shy. 
Strombina maculosa, Sby. 
Strombina pulcherrima, Sdy. 
Strombina turrita, Sdy. 
Pisania equilirata, Cpr. 
Pisania gemmata, five. 
Pisania insignis, Hve. 
Pisania lugubris, C. b. Ad. 
Pisania nigrocostata, Rve. 
Pisania pagodus, five. 
Pisania panamensis, Phil. 
Pisania pastinaca, Jive. 
Pisania ringens, /ve. 
Pisania sanguinolenta, Ducl. 
Pisania Stimpsoniana, C.L. A. 
Northia pristis, Desh. 
Clavella distorta, bligh. 
Murex armatus. 

Murex erosus, Brod. 
Murex horridus, 5rod. 





1165. 
1166. 
1167. 


1168. 
|; 1169. 


1170. 
Lie 
1172. 
1173. 
1174. 
1175. 
1176. 


| 1177. 


1178. 
1179. 
1180, 


‘1181. 


1182. 
1183. 
1184. 
LLS5. 
1186. 
1187. 
1188. 
1189. 


(4) 


Murex plicatus, Shy. 
Murex rectirostris, Sby. 
Murex recurvirostris, Brod. 
Pteronotus centrifugus, is. 
Phyllonotus bicolor, Val. 
Phyllonotus brassica, Lam. 
Phyllonotus imperialis, Sw. 
Phyllonotus nigritus, Phil. 
Phyllonotus nitidus, Grod. 
Phyllonotus oxyacanthus, br 
Phyllonotus princeps, Lrod. 
Phyllonotus radix, Lam. 
Phyllonotus regius, Swains. . 
Muricidea alveata, Kien. 
Muricidea dubia, Swains. 
Muricidea fimbfiata, L/ds 
Muricidea incisa, brod. 
Muricidea lappa, Lrod. 
Muricidea pauxillus, A. Ad. 
Muricidea radicata, Huds. 
Muricidea vibex, Brod. 
Muricidea vittata, Brod. 
Typhis fimbriatus. 

Typhis grandis. 

Typhis quadratus, Hus. 


“pre 


a aes ; 


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C . ik 7 hd a ae sf ~ 
sti aE 
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baad cclamcuneea ere 





[SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS.) 


CnrTicK LPS? 


OF THE 


SHELLS OF NORTH AMERICA. 


EAST COAST: 
ARCTIC SEAS TO GEORGIA. 


BY 
WwM. STIMPSON. 


Tne following catalogue is offered as an exposition of the present state 
of our knowledge of the molluscous fauna of the eastern coast of North 
America, from the arctic seas to Georgia, inclusive. It is the result of an 
attentive search of all published accounts relating to the subject, and no 
species is included that has not been thus announced as an inhabitant of our 
shores by competent authority ; although others are known to exist there, 
which have not yet been properly determined. All synonyms have been 
carefully eliminated. Under the head of ‘‘ Doubtful Species”? we have added 
a list of the names both of those the existence of which upon our coast is 
uncertain, and of those which will probably prove identical with species 
already catalogued. 





BRYOZOA. 20. Hippothoa rugosa, Stm. 

1. Pedicellina americana, Leidy. 21. Gemellaria dumosa, Stm. 
2. Bowerbankia gracilis, Leidy. 22. Crisia denticulata, Johnst. 
3. Valkeria pustulosa, Lillis. 23. Crisia cribraria, Sim. 
4, Eschara foliacea, Linn. 24. Idmonea pruinosa, Sim. 
5. Escharina variabilis, Leidy. 25. Tubulipora divisa, Stm. 
6. Escharina pediostoma, Leidy. 26. Tubulipora patina, Johnst. 
7. Escharina lineata, Leidy. 27. Tubulipora crates, Stm. 
8. Flustra truncata, Lin. 
9. Flustra solida, Sim. TUNICATA. 
10. Cellularia ternata, lis. ’ 28. Botryllus stellatus, Pallas. 
11. Cellularia densa, Desor. 29. Synoicum turgens, Phipps. 
12. Cellularia fastigiata, Blum. 30. Salpa Caboti, Desor. 
13. Cellularia turrita, Desor. 31. Boltenia clavata, 0. Fabr. 
14. Membranipora tenuis, Desor. 32. Boltenia rubra, Sim. 

«15. Lepralia annulata, Johnst. 33. Pera pellucida, Stm. 
16. Lepralia sordida, Stm. 34, Cynthia crystallina, Ml. 
17. Lepralia rubens, Stm. 35. Cynthia pyriformis, Kathke. 
18. Lepralia crassispina, Sim. 36. Cynthia subcaerulea, Sim. 
19. Lepralia labiata, Stm. 37. Cynthia partita, Sim. 


(c) 


39. 
49. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 
46. 
47. 
48. 
49. 
50. 


o 
to 


53. 
54. 
55. 
56. 


57. 
58. 


F 


59. 


60. 
61. 


. Cynthia 


vittata, Sim. 
echinata, Lin. 
complanata, O. Fabr. 
gutta, Stn. 

Cynthia monocera, Moll. 
Cynthia conchilega, Miill. 
Glandula glutinans, Moll. 
Glandula mollis, Stm. 
Glandula fibrosa, Stm. 
Molgula arenata, Sim. 
Molgula sordida, Sim. 
Molgula producta, Stm. 
Ascidia manhattensis, DeKay. 


Cynthia 
Cynthia 
Cynthia 


. Ascidia tenella, Stm. 
. Ascidia lurida, Jol. 


Ascidia callosa, Stm. [ Sow. 


Chelysoma Macleayana, br. § 


Chelysoma geometrica, Sim. 
Pelonaia arenifera, Stm. 


PALLIOBRANCHIATA. 
Lingula pyramidata, Stm. 
Rhynchonella psittacea, (rm. 
Terebratella labradorensis, 
Sow. 
Waldheimia cranium, Miill. 
Terebratulina septentrionalis, 
Couth. 


LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 


62. 
63. 
64. 
65. 


Us 
78. 
79. 
80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
85. 
56. 
87. 


Anomia ephippium, Lin. 
Anomia aculeata, Gm. 
Ostrea virginiana, Lister. 
Ostrea borealis, Lam. 
Ostrea triangularis, Holmes. 


. Ostrea fundata, Say. 


Ostrea equestris, Say. 


. Ostrea semicylindrica, Say. 
. Plicatula barbadensis, Petiv. 
. Lima sulculus, Leach. 


Lima scabra, Born. 


. Pecten tenuicostatus, M/igh. 
. Pecten islandicus, Ch. 

. Pecten fuscus, Gould. 

. Pecten nodosus, Lin. 


Pecten dislocatus, Say. 
Pecten irradians, Lam. 
Pecten groenlandicus, Sow. 
Axinaea charlestonensis, Holm. 
Arca Holmesii, Kurtz. 
Arca pexata, Say. 

Arca americana, Gray. 
Arca caelata, Con. 

Arca transversa, Say. 

Arca glacialis, Gray. 

Arca lienosa, Say. 


92. 


94, 

95. 

96. 

97. 

98. 

99. 
100. 
101. 
102. 
| 103. 
104. 
105. 
106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
110. 
tala 
112. 
113. 
114. 
115. 
116. 
117. 
118. 
119. 
120. 
121. 
122. 
123. 
124. 
125. 
126. 
127. 
128. 
129. 
130. 
131. 
132. 
1335 





135. 
136. 
137. 
138. 
139. 
140. 
141. 
142. 





) 


134.- 


. Arca noae, Lin. 

. Arca ponderosa, Say. 
. Arca incongrua, Say. 

- Nucula inflata, Hane. 


Nucula expansa, Reeve. 


. Nucula tenuis, Mont. 


Nucula delphinodonta, Migh. 
Nucula proxima, Say. 
Yoldia pygmaea, Muenst. 
Yoldia arctica, Gray. 
Yoldia sulcifera, Reeve. 
Yoldia siliqua, Reeve. 
Yoldia thraciformis, Storer. 
Yoldia sapotilla, Gould. 
Yoldia limatula, Say. 
Yoldia myalis, Couth. 

Leda buccata, Moll. 

Leda tenuisulcata, Couth. 
Leda minuta, Mill. 

Leda acuta, Con. 

Pinna squamosissima, Phil. 
Pinna carolinensis, Hanl. 
Avicula atlantica, Lam. 
Lithophagus aristatus, Sol. 
Dacrydium vitreum, Jol. 
Crenella glandula, ott. 
Crenella pectinula, Gould. 
Modiolaria nigra, Gray. 
Modiolaria substriata, Gray. 
Modiolaria laevigata, Gray. 
Modiolaria discors, Lin. 
Modiolaria corrugata, Sim. 
Modiolaria lateralis, Say. 
Modiola carolinensis, Con. 
Modiola plicatula, Lam. 
Modiola vulgaris, Fleming. 
Modiola americana, Leach. 
Modiola castanea, Say. 
Mytilus edulis, Lin. 
Mytilus cubitus, Say. 
Dreissena leucopheata, Con. 
Chama macrophylla, Chemn. 
Chama arcinella, Lin. 
Cardium elegantulum, J/0//. 
Cardium magnum, Jorn. 
Cardium isocardia, Lin. 
Cardium muricatum, Lin. 
Cardium pinnulatum, Con. 
Cardium islandicum, Lin. 
Liocardium serratum, Lin 
Liocardium Mortoni, Con. 
Serripes groenlandicus, Ch. 
Lucina contracta, Say. 
Lucina crenulata, Con. 
Lucina radians, Con. 


143. 
144. 
145. 
146. 
147. 
148. 
149. 
150. 
151. 
152. 
153. 
154. 
155. 
156. 
157. 
158. 
159. 
100. 
161. 
162. 
163. 
164. 
165. 
166. 
167. 
168. 
169. 
170. 
171. 
172. 
173. 
174. 


175. 
176. 
177. 
178. 
179. 
180. 
181. 
182. 
183. 
184. 
185. 
186. 
187. 
188. 
189. 


190. 
Doe 
192. 
193. 
194. 
195. 


Lucina edentula, Lin. 
Lucina filosa, Stm. 

Lucina squamosa, Lam. 
Lucina tigerina, Lin. 
Lucina strigilla, Stm. 
Cryptodon Gouldii, Phil. 
Diplodonta? punctata, Say. 
Kellia planulata, Stm. 
Turtonia minuta, O. Fabr. 


Montacuta ferruginosa, Mont. 


Montacuta elevata, Stm. 
Lepton lepidum, Say. 
Lepton fabagella, Con. 
Lepton longipes, Stm. 
Cyprina islandica, Lin. 
Astarte Banksii, Leach. 
Astarte striata, Leach. 
Astarte semisulcata, Leach. 
Astarte crebricostata, Forbes. 
Astarte lactea, Br. §- Sow. 
Astarte compressa, Lin. 
Astarte portlandica, Migh. 
Astarte quadrans, Gould. 
Astarte castanea, Say. 
Astarte lunulata, Con. 
Cardita borealis, Con. 
Cardita tridentata, Say. 
Cardita floridana, Con. 
Mercenaria violacea, Schum. 
Mercenaria Mortoni, Con. 
Mercenaria notata, Say. 
Gemma Tottenii, Stm. 
Venus gemma, Totten. 
Chione alveata, Con. 
Chione cribraria, Con. 
Chione cancellata, Lin. 
Chione inaequalis, Say. 
Chione trapezoidalis, Kurtz. 
Callista gigantea, Chemn. 
Callista maculata, Lin. 
Callista convexa, Say. 
Dosinia discus, Keeve. 
Tapes fluctuosa, (ould. 


Petricola pholadiformis, Lam. 


Raeta canaliculata, Say. 
Raeta lineata, Say. 
Mactra oblonga, Say. 
Mactra polynyma, Stm. 
M. ovalis, Gould. 
Mactra solidissima, Chemn. 
Mactra similis, Say. 
Mactra lateralis, Say. 
Mactra nucleus, Con. 
Ceronia arctata, Con. 
Ceronia deaurata, Turt. 


5 





196. 
197. 
198. 
oo; 
200. 
201. 
202. 
203. 
204. 
205. 
206. 
207. 
208. 
209. 
210. 
211. 
212. 
213. 
214. 
215. 
216. 
217. 
218. 
. Solen viridis, Say. 
220. 
221. 
. Siliquaria gibba, Spengl. 

. Siliquaria bidens, Chemn. 

. Solenomya velum, Say. 

. Solenomya borealis, Jott. 

. Mya truncata, Lin. 

. Mya arenaria, Lin. 

. Corbula contracta, Say 

. Neaera pellucida, Stm. 

. Cyrtodaria siliqua, Spengl. 

. Panopaea norvegica, Spenyl. 
. Panopaea americana, Con. 

. Saxicava distorta, Say. 

. Saxicava arctica, Lin. 

. Anatina papyracea, Say. 

. Cochlodesma Leana, Con. 

. Thracia truncata, Migh. 

. Thracia myopsis, Moll. 

. Thracia Conradi, Couth. 

. Lyonsia arenosa, Moll 

. Lyonsia hyalina, Con. 

. Pandora trilineata, Say 

. Pholas costata, Lin. 

. Pholas truncata, Say. 

. Pholas oblongata, Say. 

. Pholas semicostata, Lea 

. Pholas crispata, Lin. 

- Pholadidea cuneiformis, Say 
. Xylotrya palmulata, Lam. 

. Teredo dilatata, Sim. 


Donax fossor, Say. 
Donax variabilis, Say. 
Cumingia tellinoides, Con. 
Semele orbiculata, Say. 
Abra equalis, Say. 
Tellina alternata, Say. 
Tellina polita, Say. 
Tellina tenera, Say 
Tellina tenta, Say. 
Tellina iris, Say. 

Tellina brevifrons, Say. 
Tellina elucens, Migh. 
Tellina decora, Say. 
Tellina lateralis, Suy. 
Tellina constricta, Brug. 
Tellina lusoria, Say. 
Strigilla flexuosa, Say. 
Strigilla carnaria, Lin. 
Macoma fusca, Say. 
Macoma sabulosa, Spengl. 
Macoma fragilis, 0. Fabr. 
Tellidora lunulata, Holmes. 
Solen ensis, Lin. 


Machaera costata, Say. 
Machaera squama, Blainv. 


251. 
252. 
253. 
254, 
255. 
256. 


GASTEROPODA. 


PTEROPODA. 
Clione limacina, Phipps. 
Heterofusus balea, J/d//. 
Limacina helicina, Phipps. 
Psyche globulosa, Rang. 
Cleodora pyramidata, Lin. 
Hyalea trispinosa, Les. 


NUDIBRANCHIATA. 


. Limapontia zonata, (rd. 

. Placobranchus simplex, Grd. 
. Tergipes rupium, J/dll. 

- Aeolis 
- Aeolis 
2. Aeolis 
. Aeolis 
. Aeolis 
. Aeolis 
. Aeolis 
. Aeolis 
. Aeolis 
. Doto coronata, Gmel. 

. Dendronotus Reynoldsii, Couth. 
. Ancula sulphurea, Sim. 

. Proctaporia fusca, 0. Fabr. 
. Polycera Holbollii, Méll. 

. Polycera illuminata, Gould. 
- Doris planulata, Stm. 

. Doris liturata, All. 

- Doris acutiuscuia, Sip. 

-. Doris obvelata, Mill. 


bostoniensis, Couth. 
farinacea, Gould. 
stellata, Sim. 
purpurea, Stm. 
diversa, Couth. 
gymnota, Couth. 
Olrikii, Jfoerch. 
salmonacea, Couth. 
mananensis, Stm. 


OPISTHOBRANCHIATA. 


. Philine sinuata, Stm. 

. Philine quadrata, Wood. 

. Philine punctata, Moll. 

. Philine lineolata, Couth. 

. Scaphander puncto-striata, J. 
. Diaphana 
- Diaphana 
- Utriculus 
- Utriculus 
- Utriculus 
- Utriculus 
- Utriculus 
- Utriculus 
. Cylichna nucleola, Reeve. 
. Cylichna alba, Brown. 

. Cylichna oryza; Tott. 

. Bulla sculpta, Reeve. 

. Bulla incincta, Migh. 

. Bulla Reinhardtii, Moll. 

. Bulla solitaria, Say. 

. Tornatella puncto-striata, 


hiemalis, Couth. 
debilis, Gould. 
Gouldii, Couth. 
semen, Reeve. 
turritus, J/éll. 
biplicatus, Lea. 
pertenuis, MJigh. 
canaliculatus, Say. 


C: By Ad. 











300. 
301. 
302. 
303. 
304. 
305. 
306. 
307. 
308. 
309. 
310. 
311. 
312, 
313. 
314. 
315. 
316. 
317. 
318. 
319. 
320. 
321. 
322. 
323. 
324. 
325. 
326. 
327. 
"| 328. 
329. 
330. 
dal. 
332. 
333. 
334. 
335. 
336. 
337. 
338. 
339. 
340. 
341. 
342. 
343. 
344. 
345. 
346. 
347. 
348. 
349. 
350. 
351. 
352. 


353. 


Ce) 


PROSOBRANCHIATA. 
Chiton mendicarius, Migh. 
Chiton apiculatus, Say. 
Chiton cinereus, Lin. 
Chiton marmoreus, 0. Fabr. 
Chiton laevis, Penn. 

Chiton albus, Lin. 

Amicula Emersonii, Couth. 
Entalis striolata, Stn. 
Entalis pliocena, 7. § H. 
Tectura testudinalis, Mill. 
Tectura alveus, Con. 
Lepeta caeca, Mill. 
Pilidium rubellum, 0. Fubr. 
Crepidula unguiformis, Lam. 
Crepidula fornicata, Lin. 
Crepidula convexa, Say. 
Crepidula aculeata, Gm. 
Crucibulum striatum, Say. 
Cemoria noachina, Lin. 
Fissurella alternata, Say. 
Clypidella pustula, Lin. 
Janthina fragilis, Brug. 
Scissurella crispata, Flem. 
Adeorbis costulata, J/éll. 
Margarita minutissima, Migh. 
Margarita helicina, 0. Fabr. 
Margarita Vahlii, Moll. 
Margarita argentata, Gould. 
Margarita Harrisoni, Hancock. 
Margarita obscura, Couth. 
Margarita acuminata, Migh. 
Margarita varicosa, Migh. 
Margarita cinerea, Couth. 
Margarita groenlandica, Ch. 
Trochus occidentalis, Migh. 
Turbo crenulatus, Gm. 
Cochliolepis parasitica, Stm. 
Skenea planorbis, Fabr. 
Rissoella? eburnea, Stm. 
Rissoella? sulcosa, Migh. 
Rissoa minuta, Jott. 
Rissoa robusta, Lea. 
Rissoa turriculus, Lea, 
Rissoa latior, Migh. 

Rissoa aculeus, Gould. 
Rissoa saxatilis, Ml. 
Rissoa multilineata, Sim. 
Rissoa Mighelsii, Sim. 
Rissoa castanea, Moll. 
Rissoa exarata, Sim. 
Rissoa carinata, Migh. 
Rissoa scrobiculata, Moll. 
Lacuna vincta, Mont. 
Lacuna glacialis, Moll. 


354. 
355. 
356. 
357. 
358. 
359. 
360. 
361. 
362. 
363. 
364. 
365. 
366. 
367. 
368. 
369. 
370. 
371. 
372. 
373. 
374. 
375. 
376. 
377. 
378. 
379. 
380. 
381. 
382. 
383. 
384, 
385. 
386. 
387. 
388. 
389. 
390. 
391. 
392. 
393. 
394. 
395. 
396. 
397. 
398. 
399. 
400. 
401. 
402. 
403. 
404. 
405. 
406. 
407. 
408. 


Lacuna neritoidea, Gould. 
Littorina litorea, Lin. 
Littorina palliata, Say. 
Littorina rudis, Mont. 
Littorina irrorata, Say. 
Scalaria Humphreysii, Kien. 
Scalaria turbinata, Con. 
Scalaria lineata, S7y. 
Scalaria multistriata, Say. 
Scalaria novangliae, Couth. 
Scalaria groenlandica, Perry. 
Acirsa borealis, Beck. 
Solarium granulatum, Lam. 
Vermetus radicula, Stm. 
Caecum pulchellum, Stm. 
Turritella erosa, Couth. 
Turritella reticulata, Migh. 
Turritella costulata, Migh. 
Turritella acicula, Stim. 
Aporrhais occidentalis, Beck. 
Bittium arcticum, Moerch. 
Bittium nigrum, 7ott. 
Bittium Greenii, C. B. Ad. 
Triforis nigrocinctus, C. B. Ad. 
Odostomia producta, C. Bb. Ad. 
Odostomia fusca, C. B. Ad. 
Odostomia dealbata,-Stm. 
Odostomia modesta, Stm. 
Odostomia bisuturalis, Say. 
Odostomia trifida, Tott. 
Odostomia seminuda, C. B. Ad. 
Odostomia impressa, Say. 
Turbonilla interrupta, Jott. 
Turbonilla nivea, Stir. 
Menestho albula, Méll. 
Obeliscus crenulatus, /olmes. 
Eulima conoidea, K. § S. 
Eulima oleacea, K. § S. 
Velutina zonata, (ould. 
Velutina haliotoides, Miill. 
Velutina lanigera, Méll. 
Velutina flexilis, Mont. 
Marsenina micromphala, Bergh. 
Marsenina groenlandica, M. 
Onchidiopsis groenlandica, B. 
Catinus perspectivus, Say. 
Natica .pusilla, Say. 

Natica clausa, Sow. 

Lunatia heros, Say. 

Lunatia triseriata, Say. 
Lunatia Gouldii, Phil. 
Lunatia groenlandica, J//l. 
Mamma? immaculata, Jott. 
Mamma? nana, Méil. 
Neverita duplicata, Say. 





409. 
410. 
411. 
412. 
413. 
414. 
415. 
416. 
417. 
418. 
419. 
420. 
421. 


422 


(c) 


Bulbus flavus, Gould. 
Amauropsis helicoides, Jofnst, 
Amaura candida, J/d/l. 
Volva uniplicata, Sow. 
Marginella roscida, /edf. 
Mitra groenlandica, Moll. 
Voluta junonia, Chemn. 
Pleurotoma plicata, C. B. Ad. 
Pleurotoma cerina, K. §- S. 
Pleurotoma bicarinata, Couth. 
Mangelia rubella, KX. § S. : 
Mangelia filiformis, //olmes. 
Bela exarata, Mil. 


2. Bela nobilis, Jl. 
423. 
424. 
425. 
426. 
427. 
428. 
429. 
430. 
431. 
432. 
| 433. 
434. 
435. 
436. 
437. 
438. 
439. 
440. 
441. 
442. 
443. 
444. 
445. 
446. 
447. 
448. 
449. 
450. 
451. 
452. 
453. 
454, 
455. 
456. 
457. 
458. 
459. 
460. 
461. 
462. 
463. 


Bela turricula, Mont. 

Bela Woodiana, Jol. 

Bela harpularia, Couth. 

Bela violacea, Migh. 

Bela livida, Mol. 

Bela decussata, Couth. 

Bela Pingelii, J/0//. 

Bela cancellata, Miyh. 

Bela pleurotomaria, Couth. 
Bela Vahlii, J/¢//. 

Bela elegans, J/0tl. 

Oliva litterata, Lam. 
Olivella mutica, Say. 
Columbella ornata, Rav. 
Columbella avara, Say. 
Columbella rosacea, (ould. 
Columbella lunata, Say. 
Columbella dissimilis, Sim. 
Dolium galea, Lin. 
Semicassis granulosa, Brug. 
Cassis cameo, Stm. 
Pedicularia decussata, Gou/d. 
Purpura lapillus, Lin. 
Purpura floridana, Con. 
Nassa obsoleta, Say. 

Nassa trivittata, Say. 

WNassa acuta, Say. 

Nassa unicincta, Say. 

Nassa vibex, Say. 
Cerithiopsis terebralis, C. 5. A. 
Cerithiopsis Emersonii, C. B. A. 
Acus dislocatus, Say. 

Acus concavus, Say. 
Buccinum undatum, Lin. 
Buccinum cyaneum, Brug. 
Buccinum ciliatum, 0. Fubr. 
Buccinum glaciale, Lin. 
Buccinum Hancocki, Moerch. 
Buccinum Donovani, (ray. 
Buccinum undulatum, J/0l/. 
Buccinum scalariforme, J/¢éll. 


464. 


465. 
4656. 
467. 
468. 
469. 
470. 
471. 
472. 
473. 
474. 
475. 
476. 
A477. 
478. 
479. 
480. 
4s1. 
482. 
483. 
484. 
485. 
486. 
487. 
488. 
489. 
490. 
491. 
492. 
493. 
494. 
495. 
496. 
497. 
498. 


499. 
500. 
501. 
502. 
503. 
504. 
505. 
506. 
507. 
508. 
509. 
510. 
511. 
512. 


Buccinum sericatum, Hanc. 
Rapana? cinerea, Say. 
Fusus norvegicus, Chemn. 
Fusus pygmaeus, Gould. 
Fusus pellucidus, Hance. 
Fusus propinquus, Alder. 
Fusus Holbollii, Moll. 
Fusus islandicus, Chemn. 
Fusus ventricosus, ray. 
Fusus latericeus, Moll. 
Fusus Kroyeri, Moll. 
Fusus tornatus, (Gould. 
Fusus fornicatus, 0. Fabr. 
Fusus despectus, Lin. 
Fusus decemcostatus, Say. 


Trophon craticulatus, 0. Fabr. 


Trophon clathratus, Lin. 
Trophon scalariformis, Gould. 
Trophon Gunneri, Loven. 
Sycotypus papyraceus, Say. 
Busycon pyrum, Dillw. 
Busycon canaliculatum, Lin. 
Busycon carica, Lin. 
Busycon perversum, Lin. 
Trichotropis conica, Mdil. 
Trichotropis borealis, Bb. §- S. 
Admete viridula, 0. Fabr. 
Cancellaria reticulata, Lin. 
Fasciolaria ligata, Migh. 
Fasciolaria gigantea, Kien. 
Fasciolaria tulipa, Lin. 
Fasciolaria distans, Lam. 
Ranella caudata, Say. 

Murex spinicostata, Val. 
Strombus alatus, Gm. 


CEPHALOPODA. 
Spirula fragilis, Lam. 
Ommastrephes Bartramii, Les. 
Onychia caribaea, Les. 
Onychoteuthis Fabricii, Méll. 
Onychoteuthis Bartlingii, Les. 
Loligopsis pavo, Les. 
Loligopsis hyperborea, Stp. 
Sepiola atlantica, D’Orb. 
Rossia palpebrosa, Moll. 
Rossia Moelleri, Stp. 

Loligo punctata, DeKay. 
Loligo Pealei, Les. 

Loligo brevipinna, Les. 
Cirroteuthis Muellerii, Esch. 


513. 
514. 





(c) 


DLS. 
516. 
517: 
518. 
Hg: 
520. 
Bate 
522. 
| 523. 
524, 
525. 
526. 
527. 
528. 
529. 
530. 
Hole 
532. 
533. 
534, 
Soo 
536. 
537. 
538. 
539. 
540. 
541. 
542. 
543. 
544, 
545. 
546. 
547. 
548. 
549. 
550. 
. Actaeon parvus, Lea. 
552. 
Boas 
554. 
bode 
556. 
Soe 
558. 
joo: 
560. 


Octopus rugosus, D’ Orb. 
Octopus groenlandicus, Dew. 


DOUBTFUL SPECIES. 
Ascidia amphora, Ag. 
Ascidia ocellata, Ag. 

Arca improcera, Con. 
Nucula radiata, Dekay. 
Nucula cascoensis, Mig. 
Modiola pulex, Lea. 
Modiola elliptica, Lea. 
Modiola tulipa, Lam. 
Modiola cicercula, Mil. 
Mytilus faba, 0. Fabr. 
Lucina multistriata, Con. 
Astarte Warhami, Hanc. 
Venericardia cribraria, Say. 
Cytherea occulta, Suy. 
Petricola dactylus, Sow. 
Tellina tenuis, Da Costa. 
Tellina versicolor, Cozzens. 
Tellina maculosa, Lam. 
Tellina mera, Say. 

Doris pallida, Ag. 
Dentalium occidentale, Stim. 
Crepidula intorta, Say. 
Crepidula acuta, Lea. 
Infundibulum depressum, Say 
Delphinula coarctata, Migh. 
Margarita ornata, DeKay. 
Margarita multilineata, DeKay 
Cingula laevis, Dekay. 
Cingula modesta, Lea. 
Littorina lunata, Lea. 
Turbo canaliculatus, Say. 
Turritella areolata, Stm. 
Turritella aequalis, Say. 
Turritella alternata, Say 
Chemnitzia spirata, K. § S. 
Chemnitzia textilis, Kurtz. 


Pasithea sordida, Lea. 
Sigaretus maculatus, Say. 
Cerithium cancellatum, Lea. 
Columbella spizantha, Rav. 
Columbella Gouldiana, Ag. 
Buccinum Wheatleyi, DeKay. 
Buccinum zonale, Lins. 
Fusus Trumbulli, Lins. 
Fusus muricatus, Mont. 


[SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS.] 


[SECOND EDITION] 


CHECK LIST 


OF THF 


SPREE SOF NORTH AMERICA. 


TERRESTRIAL GASTEROPODA. 


BY 


Ww. G. BINNEY 


List No. 1. The species of the Pacific coast from the extreme north to 
Mazatlan. 

No. 2. The species of Eastern North America, from the boreal regions 
to the Rio Grande. 

No. 3. The species found in Mexico exclusive of those included in No. 1 
(viz. 3, 7, 8, 11, 23, 25, 35, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 48, 45, 46, 47) 


I HO LP 


ao 


~ 


Section I.—PACIFIC COAST. 


PULMONOBRANCHIATA. 


Testacellidz. 


- Glandina Albersi, Pf. 
- Glandina turris, Pf. 


Arionidz. 


. Arion foliolatus, Gid. 


Helicidz. 
Limax columbianus, (/d. 


- Succinea cingulata, Vorbes. 


Succinea Nuttalliana, Lea. 


. Succinea oregonensis, Lea. 
. Succinea rusticana, (Gd. 


9. Helix acutedentata, W. G. B. 


13. 


. Helix anachoreta, W. G. B. 
aT . 


12. 


Helix areolata, Pf. 

Helix areolata, Pf. 
var. B. Pf. 

Helix areolata, Pf. 
var. y. Pf. 


14, 
15. 
16. 
is 
18. 
19. 
20. 
. Helix 
. Helix 
3. Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 


bo 
_ 


Ww bo 


ns 


ou 





why by wo bw bw wv 
oc 


Oo ~I 


31 
(e) 


Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 


arrosa, (id. 
aspersa Vull.? 
californiensis, Zea. 
columbiana, Lea. 
cultellata, Thomson. 
devia, Gid. 
Dupetithouarsi, Desh. 
exarata, Pf. 
fidelis, Gray. 
germana, G/d. 
infumata, G/d. 
intercisa, W. G. B. 
Kelletti, Forb. 
levis, Pf. 

levis, Pf. 

var. 8. Pf. 


- Helix loricata, Cld., Pf., 
30. 


Helix mazatlanica, P/. 
Helix mormonum, Pf. 


32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
- Bulimus chordatus, Pf. 


45. Bulimus excelsus, Gid. 
46. Bulimus Humboladti, Ave. 58. 
47. Bulimus mexicanus, Lum. 
PULMONOBRANCHIATA. | 86 
Testacellida. 87 
59. Glandina bullata, Gd. 88 
60. Glandina corneola, W. G. B. 89 
61. Glandina parallela, W. G. B. 90 
62. Glandina texasiana, Pfr. 91 
63. Glandina truncata, Gmel. 92 
64. Glandina Vanuxemensis, Lea. 93 
Arionidz. 
65. Arion empiricorum, Fer.? 94 
66. Arion hortensis, fer. 95 
Helicidz. 96 
67. Tebennophorus carolinensis, 
Bose.| 97. 
68. Tebennophorus dorsalis, Binn.| 98. 
69. Limax agrestis, Lin. 99. 
70. Limax campestris, Binn. 100. 
71. Limax flavus, Zin. 101. 
72. Vitrina angelice, Beck. 102. 
73. Vitrina limpida, Gd. 103. 
74. Succinea aurea, Lea. 104. 
75. Succinea avara, Say. 105. 
76. Succinea avara, Say. 106. 
var. major. 107. 
77. Succinea campestris, Say. 
78. Succinea concordialis, Gd. 108. 
79. Succinea effusa, Shutt. ; 109. 
80. Succinea groenlandica, Beck. | 110. 
81. Succinea Haydeni, W. G. B. te 
82. Succinea Haydeni, W. G. B. 112. 
var. minor, TS. 
83. Succinea inflata, Lea. 114. 
84. Succinea lineata, W. G. B. 115. 
85. Succinea luteola, Gld. 116. 


Helix Newberryana, W.G.B. | 48. 
Helix Nickliniana, Lea. 49. 
Helix pandore, Jorb. 50. 
Helix ramentosa, Gid. ile 
Helix redemita, W. G. B. 52. 
Helix reticulata, Pf. 53. 
Helix sportella, Gd. 54, 
Helix strigosa, Gid. 

Helix Townsendiana, Lea. yay 
Helix tudiculata, Binn. 

Helix vancouverensis, Lea. 
Bulimus californicus, fve. 56. 


57. 


Bulimus pallidior, Sowd. 
Bulimus proteus, Grod. 
Bulimus sufflatus, G/d. 1 
Bulimus Ziegleri, Pf. 
Orthalicus zebra, Mull. 
Achatina californica, P7/. 
Pupa Rowellii, Newc. 


Onchidiide. 
Onchidium Carpenteri, 
WG. B 
Auriculide. 


Melampus olivaceus, Cpr. 

Pedipes lirata, W. G. b. 
Truncatellide. 

Truncatella californica, P/. 


Section II—EASTERN NORTH AMERICA. 


(e) 


- Succinea obliqua, Say. 

. Succinea ovalis, Gld. non Say. 
. Succinea retusa, Lea. 

-. Succinea Salleana, P/. 

. Succinea Totteniana, Lea. 

- Succinea vermeta, Say. 

. Helix albolabris, Say. 

. Helix albolabris, Say. | 


var. dentata. 


. Helix alternata, Say. 
. Helix appressa, Say. 
. Helix appressa, Say. 


var. a. 
Helix arborea, Say. 
Helix ariadne, 1/. 
Helix aspersa, J/ill. 
Helix asteriscus, Morse. 
Helix auriculata, Say. 
Helix auriformis, Bland. 
Helix avara, Say. 
Helix barbigera, Red/. 
Helix Berlandieriana, Wor. 
Helix bucculenta, Gid. 
Helix bucculenta, Gid. 

var. minor. ; 
Helix bulbina, Desh. 
Helix caduca, Jf. 
Helix capsella, Gid. 
Helix Carpenteriana, Bland. 
Helix cellaria, Mull. 
Helix cereolus, Muhi. 
Helix chersina, Say. 
Helix Christyi, Gland. 
Helix Clarkii, Zea. 


Le 
118. 
119. 
120. 
121. 
122. 
123. 
124. 
125. 
126. 
127. 
128. 
129. 
130. 
131. 
132. 
133. 
134, 
135. 
136. 
137. 
138. 
139. 
140. 
141. 


142. 
143. 
144. 
145. 
146. 
147. 
148. 
149. 
150. 
151. 
152. 


153. 
154. 
155. 
156. 


157. 
158. 


159. 
160. 
161. 
162. 
163. 
164. 
165. 
166. 
167. 


Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 


clausa, Say. 
concava, Say. 
Cooperi, W. G. B. 


demissa, Binn. 
dentifera, Binn. 
divesta, Gid. 
Dorfeuilliana, Lea. 
Edgariana, Lea. 
Edvardsi, id. 
egena, Say. 
electrina, Gd. 
elevata, Say. 
Elliotti, Redf. 
Helix espiloca, Bland. 
Helix exigua, Stim. 
Helix exoleta, Binn. 
Helix Fabricii, Beck. 
Helix fallax, Say. 
Helix fatigiata, Say. 
Helix friabilis, W. G. B. 
Helix fuliginosa, Binn. 
Helix griseola, Pf. 
Helix gularis, Say. 
Helix gularis, Say. 

var. umbilicata. 
Helix Gundlachi, Pf 
Helix Hazardi, Bland. 
Helix Hindsi, Pf. 
Helix hippocrepis, Pf. 
Helix hirsuta, Say. 
Helix hispida, Linn. 
Helix hopetonensis, Shut. 
Helix hortensis, Mull. 
Helix incrustata, Poey. 
Helix indentata, Say. 
Helix indentata, Say. 

var. umbilicata. 
Helix inflecta, Say. 
Helix inornata, Say. 
Helix interna, Say. 
Helix interna, Say. 

var. albina. 
Helix intertexta, Binn. 
Helix intertexta, Binn. 

var. carinata. 
Helix introferens, Bland. 
Helix jejuna, Say. 
Helix kopnodes, W. G. B. 
Helix labyrinthica, Say. 
Helix levigata, Pf. 
Helix lasmodon, Puiill. 
Helix leporina, Gid. 
Helix ligera, Say. 
Helix limatula, Ward. 


cumberlandiana, Lea. 


168. 
169. 
170. 
171s 
172. 
173. 
174. 
175. 
176. 


Lids 


178. 
179. 
180. 
Sis 
182. 





213. 


214 
(e) 


183. 


184. 
185. 
186. 
187. 
188. 
189. 


190. 
191. 
192. 
183. 
194. 
195. 


196. 
197. 
198. 
199: 
200. 
201. 
202. 
203. 
204, 
205. 
206. 
207. 
208. 
209. 
210. 
211. 
212. 


Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 


lineata, Say. 
major, Binn. 
maxillata, (/d. 
milium, J/orse. 
minuscula, Linn. 
minutissima, Lea. 
Mitchelliana, Leu. 
Helix monodon, lack. 
Helix monodon, Rack. 
var. 1. Helix fraterna, Say. 
Helix monodon, Lack. 
var. 2. Helix Leaii, Ward. 
Helix Mooreana, W. G. B. 
Helix mordax, Shutt. 
Helix multidentata, Binn. 
Helix multilineata, Scy. 
Helix multilineata, Say. 
var. albina. 
Helix multilineata, Say. 
var. rufa, unicolor. 
Helix nitida, Mull. 
Helix obstricta, Say. 
Helix oppilata, Mor. 
Helix Ottonis, Pf. 
Helix palliata, Say. 
Helix palliata, Say. 
var. carolinensis. 
Helix pennsylvanica, Green. 
Helix perspectiva, Say 
Helix Postelliana, Bid. 
Helix profunda, Say. 
Helix pulchella, J/iill. 
Helix pulchella, Mill. 
var. costata. 
Helix pustula, Fer. 
Helix pustuloides, Bid. 
Helix Roemeri, Pf. 
Helix Rugeli, Shutt. 
Helix Sayii, Binn. 
Helix sculptilis, Bid. 
Helix septemvolva, Say. 
Helix solitaria, Say. 
Helix spinosa, Lea. 
Helix Steenstrupii, Mérch. 
Helix stenotrema, Jer. 
Helix striatella, Anth.. 
Helix subplana, Binn. 
Helix suppressa, Say. 
Helix tenuistriata, binn. 
Helix texasiana, J/or. 
Helix texasiana, Jor. 
var. B, Pf. 
Helix texasiana, Mor. 
Vase 
. Helix tholus, W. G. B. 


BD bo bo 
ox7 


co 


5 


231 
232 
233. 
234. 
235. 

36. 
237. 
238. 
230. 


240. 


241. 
242. 
243. 
244. 
245. 
246. 
247. 


. 
S 


. Helix 
». Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 
. Bulimus 
- Bulimus 
- Bulimus 
27. Bulimus 
. Bulimus 
. Bulimus 
230. 
- Bulimus 
. Bulimus 


thyroides, Say. 
tridentata, Say. 
Troostiana, Lea. 
uvulifera, Shutt. 
varians, Menke. 
ventrosula, P/. 
vortex, Pf. 
vultuosa, Gid. 
Wheatleyi, Bland. 
acicula, Miiller. 
alternatus, Say. 
dealbatus, Say. 
decollatus, Lin. 
Dormani, W. G. B. 
floridanus, Pf. 
Gossei, Pf. 
gracillimus, Pf. 
harpa, Say. 
marginatus, Say. 
Marie, Albers. 
modicus, Gid. 
multilineatus, Say. 
octona, Ch. 
patriarcha, W. G. B. 
Bulimus Schiedeanus, Pf. 
Bulimus Schiedeanus, Pf. 
var. apice nigra. 
Bulimus serperastrus, Say. 
Bulimus subula, Pf. 
Orthalicus undatus, Brug. 
Orthalicus zebra, Mull. 
Macroceramus Kieneri, Pf. 
Achatina fasciata, Mill. 
Achatina fasciata, Mall. 
var. 1. Achatina crenata, Sw. 


Bulimus 


Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 


. Achatina fasciata, AZil/. 


var. 2. Achatina solida, Say. 


. Achatina lubrica, Mill. 
. Achatina picta, Kve. 

. Pupa armifera, Say. 

. Pupa badia, Ad. 

. Pupa contracta, Say. 

. Pupa corticaria, Say. 

. Pupa decora, Gid. 


Pupa Hoppii, Méll. 


. Pupa incana, Binn. 

- Pupa pellucida, Pf. 

- Pupa pentodon, Say. 
- Pupa placida, Say. 

. Pupa rupicola, Say. 

. Pupa variolosa, Gid. 
- Vertigo Gouldii, Binn 


Vertigo milium, Gid. 


. Vertigo ovata, Say. 

- Vertigo simplex, Gid. 

. Cylindrella Goldfussi, Menke 
. Cylindrella jejuna, Gid. 


Cylindrella Poeyana, Orb. 


. Cylindrella Remeri, Pf. 


Veroniceilidae. 
271. Veronicella floridana, Binn. 
Auriculide. 
272. Melampus bidentatus, Say. 
273. Melampus cingulatus, Pf. 
274. Melampus coffea, Linn. 
275. Melampus flavus, G'mel. 
276. Melampus floridanus, Shutt. 
277. Melampus obliquus, Say. 


bb bp bv 
oo 
e 


284. 
285. 
286. 
287. 


288. 
289. 


290. 
291. 
292. 
293. 
294. 
295. 


(e) 


-. Melampus pusillus, (mel. 
. Melampus Redfieldi, Pf. 
. Alexia myosotis, Drap. 

. Blauneria pellucida, Pf. 

. Leuconia Sayii, Kiist. 

. Carychium exiguum, Say. 


Truncatellidee. 
Truncatella bilabiata, Pf. 
Truncatella caribeensis, Sowb 
Truncatella pulchella, P/. 
Truncatella subcylindrica, Gr. 


Cyclophoride. 
Ctenopoma rugulosum, Pf. 
Chondropoma dentatum, Say. 

Helicinide. 

Helicina chrysocheila, Ainn. 
Helicina Hanleyana, /7/. 
Helicina occulta, Say. 
Helicina orbiculata, Say. 
Helicina subglobulosa, Poey. 
Helicina tropica, Pf 


. Helix 
- Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 
- Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 
3. Helix 
. Helix 
- Helix 
). Helix 
. Helix 
. Helix 
- Helix 
- Helix 
- Helix 


Section IJI.—MEXICO. 


PULMONOBRANCHIATA. 
Vestacellidz. 


. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 
. Glandina 


candida, Shuttl. 
carminensis, Mor. 
conularis, Pf. 
cordovana, Pf. 
corneola, W. G. B. 
delicatula, Shuttl. 
Ghiesbreghti, Pf. 
indusiata, P/r. 
isabellina, Pf. 
Liebmanni, Pf. 
margaritacea, Pf. 
monilifera, Pf. 
nana, Shuttl. 
pulchella, Pf. 
orizabe, Pf. 
solidula, Pf. ? 
Sowerbyana, Pf. 
speciosa, Pf. 
stigmatica, Shuttl. 
Vanuxemensis, Lea. 


HMelicidez. 


. Vitrina mexicana, Beck. 

. Simpulopsis chiapensis, Pf. 
. Simpulopsis cordovana, Pf. 
. Simpulopsis Salleana, Lyf. 

- Succinea 
- Succinea 
. Helix ariadne, Pf. 
Berlandieriana, Mor. 
bicincta, Pf 
bicruris, 7/f. 
bilineata, Pf. 

caduca, Pf. 
chiapensis, Pf. 
coactiliata, Fer. 
contortuplicata, Beck. 
cordovana, [7f. 
Couloni, Shuttl. 
flavescens, Wiegm. 
fulvoidea, Vor. 
Ghiesbreghti, Nyst. 
griseola, Pf. 
Guillarmodi, Shutil. 
helictomphala, P/. 
Hindsi, Pf. 
Humboldtiana, Val. 
implicata, Beck. 


brevis, Dunker. 
undulata, Say. 


342. 
343. 
344. 
345. 
346. 
347. 
348. 
349. 
350. 
351. 
352. 
353. 
354. 
355. 
356. 
357. 
358. 
359. 
360. 
361, 
362. 
363. 
364. 
365. 
366. 
367. 
368. 
369. 
370. 
371. 
372. 
373. 
374, 
375. 
376. 
377. 
378. 
379. 
380. 
381. 
382. 
383. 
384. 
385. 
386. 
387. 
388. 
389. 
390. 





(e) 


Helix lucubrata, Say. 


Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Helix 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Bulimus 
Spiraxis 
Spiraxis 
Spiraxis 
Spiraxis 
Spiraxis 
Spiraxis 
Spiraxis 
Spiraxis 
Spiraxis 
Spiraxis 
Spiraxis 


mexicana, Koch. 
oajacensis, Koch. 
plagioglossa, Pf. 
Salleana, Pf. 
stolephora, Vail. 
tenuicostata, Dunk. 
texasiana, Mor. 
trypanompala, Pf. 
veracruzensis, Pf. 
zonites, Pf. 


alternatus, Say. 
attenuatus, P/. 
aurifluus, Pf 
cordovanus, Pf. 
coriaceus, [P/. 
costatostriatus, Pf. 
Droueti, Pf. 
Dunkeri, Pf. 
emeus, Say. 
fenestratus, P/. 
gnomon, Beck. 
Gruneri, P7/. 
Hegewischi, Pf. 
Humboldti, ve. 
livescens, Pf. 
Marie, Albers. 
Martensi, Pf. 
mexicanus, Lam. 
patriarcha, W. G.Binn 
punctatissimus, Less. 
rudis, Anton. 
Schiedeanus, /’f. 
serperastrus, Say. 
sulcosus, Pf. 
sulphureus, [Pf 
truncatus, Pf. 
varicosus, Pf. 
acus, Shuttl. 
auriculacea, Pf. 
biconica, Pf. 
catenata, P/. 
coniformis, Shutil. 
dubia, Pf. 
euptycta, Pf. 
irrigua, Shuttl. 
lurida, Shuttl. 
mitreeformis, Shuttl. 
Nicoleti, Shuttl, 


391. 
392. 
393. 
394. 
395. 
1396. 
‘B97. 
398. 
399. 
400. 
401. 
402. 
403. 
404. 
405. 
406. 
407. 
408. 
409. 
410. 
41. 
412. 
413. 
414, 
. 415. 
416. 
417. 
418. 
419. 
420. 
421. 
422. 
423. 
424, 
425. 


426. 


427. 


Spiraxis nigricans, P/. 
Spiraxis oblonga, Pf. 
Spiraxis parvula, P/. 
Spiraxis Shuttleworthi, Pf. 
Spiraxis streptostyla, P/. 
Spiraxis turgidula, Pf. 
Orthalicus Boucardi, 7. 
Orthalicus livens, Pf. 
Orthalicus longus, PY. 
Orthalicus undatus, Brug. 
Achatina ambigua, Pf. 
Achatina chiapensis, Pf. 
Achatina Rangiana, P/. 
Achatina trochlea, Pf 
Achatina trypanodes, P/. 
Cylindrella apiostoma, Pf. 
Cylindrella arctospira, Pf. 
Cylindrella attenuata, P/. 
Cylindrella Boucardi, P7/. 
Cylindrella clava, Pf. 
Cylindrella cretacea, Pf. 
Cylindrella decollata, Nyst. 
Cylindrella denticulata, F/. 
Cylindrella filicosta, Shuttl. 
Cylindrella Ghiesbreghti, Pf. 
Cylindrella goniostoma, P7/. 
Cylindrella grandis, Pf. 
Cylindrella Liebmanni, Pf. 
Cylindrella mexicana, Pf. 
Cylindrella Pfeifferi, Menke. 
Cylindrella Pilocerei, Pf. 
Cylindrella polygyra, Pf. 
Cylindrella splendida, Pf. 
Cylindrella teres, Menke. 
Cylindrella turris, Pf. 
Auriculidez. 
Melampus coffea, Linn. 
Truncatellidz. 


Truncatella caribzensis, Sow). 


428. 
429. 
430. 
431. 
432. 
433. 
434, 


435. 
436. 
437. 
438. 
439. 
440. 
441. 
442. 
443. 
444. 
445. 
446. 


447. 


448. 
449, 
450. 
451. 
452. 
453. 


454. 


455. 
456. 
457. 


458. 
459. 


460. 


461. 
462. 


(e) 


Cyclophoridz. 
Cyclotus Dysoni, Pf. 
Cyclophorus Boucardi, Sallé. 
Cyclophorus mexicanus, J/. 
Tudora planospira, P7/. 
Cistula trochlearis, Pf. 
Chondropoma cordovanum, P. 
Chondropoma truncatum, W. 

Helicinide. 

Helicina brevilabris, Pf. 
Helicina chiapensis, Pf. 
Helicina chrysocheila, Binn. 
Helicina chrysocheila, Shuttl. . 
Helicina cinctella, Shutil. 
Helicina concentrica, Pf. 
Helicina cordillere, Sallé. 
Helicina delicatula, Shuttl. 
Helicina elata, Shuttl. 
Helicina flavida, Menke. 
Helicina Ghiesbreghti, Pf. 
Helicina Heloise, Sallé. 
Helicina Lindeni, Pf. 
Helicina lirata, Pf. 
Helicina merdigera, Sallé. 
Helicina notata, Salle. 
Helicina Oweniana, Pf. 
Helicina Sandozi, Shutti. 
Helicina sinuosa, Pf. 
Helicina tenuis, Pf. 
Helicina tropica, Pf. 
Helicina turbinata, Wiegm. 
Helicina zephyrina, Ducl. 
Schasicheila alata, Mke. 
Schasicheila Nicoleti, Shuttl 
Schasicheila pannucea, Mor. 

Proserpinidz. 

Ceres eolina, Ducl. 
Ceres Salleana, Gray. 


[SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS.] 


CHECK LIST 


OF THE 


SHELLS OF NORTH AMERICA. 


FLUVIATILE GASTEROPODA. 


BY 
Ww. G. BINNEY. 


THE species whose range is confined to Eastern North America are not 
indicated by any peculiar mark. The letter W. distinguishes those confined 
to the Pacific coast; the letters W. E. are affixed to the names of those 
found in both the Eastern and Western sections, while the Greenland and 
Mexican species are also respectively designated by the letters G. and M. 

This list has been compiled from all American publications and the few 
European monographs treating of this branch of the Mollusca. I have 
preferred giving the name of many doubtful species rather than omit that 
of any which my own limited knowledge of the subject does not lead me 
to consider a synonym. ‘The list, therefore, is not offered as a complete 
elimination of the synonymy, but rather as a temporary guide to the 
arrangement of this portion of the collection. It should not be quoted as 
authority. 


PECTINIBRANCHIATA. 18. Melania approximata, Hald. 


Melaniide. 19. Melania arachnoidea, Anth. 
1. Melania abbreviata, Anth. 20. Melania arctata, Lea. 
2. Melania abrupta, Lea. ' 21. Melania armigera, Say. 
3. Melania abscida, Anth. 22. Melania assimilis, Zea. 
4. Melania acuta, Lea. 23. Melania athleta, Anth. 
5. Melania acuto-carinata, Lea. 24, Melania auriculzformis, Zea. 
6. Melania adusta, Anth. 25. Melania auriscalpium, Menke. 
7. Melania equalis, Hald. 26. Melania Babylonica, Lea. 
8. Melania alexandrensis, Lea. 27. Melania baculum, Anth. 
9. Melania altipeta, Anth. 28. Melania basalis, Lea. 
10. Melania altilis, Lea. 29. Melania bella, Conr. 
11. Melania alveare, Conr. 30. Melania bellacrenata, Hald. 
12. Melania ambusta, Anth. 31. Melania bicincta, Anth. 
13, Melania ampla, Anth. 32. Melania bicolorata, Anth. 
14. Melania angulata, Anth. 33. Melania bicostata, Anth. 
15. Melania angulosa, Menke. — 34. Melania bitzeniata, Conr. 
16. Melania angustispira, Anth. 35. Melania bizonalis, DeKay. 
17. Melania annulifera, Conr. 36. Melania blanda, Lea. 


Y) 


37. Melania Boykiniana, Lea. 


38. 
39. 
40. 


41. 
42. 
43. 
44, 
45. 
46. 
47. 
48. 
49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 
53. 
54, 
55. 
56. 
Bile 
58. 
59. 
60. 
61. 
62. 


3 
Ie 


64. 
65. 
66. 
67. 
68. 
69. 
70. 
he 
72. 
73. 
74. 
75. 
76. 
77. 
78. 


19% 


80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
85. 


86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 


90. 


91. 


Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 


brevis, Lea. 
brevispira, Anth. 
Brumbyi, Lea. 
brunnea, Anth. 
Buddii, Lea. 
bulbosa, Gld. W. 
caliginosa, Lea. 
canaliculata, Say. 
cancellata, Say. 
carinata, Rav. 
carinifera, Lam. 


carino-costata, Lea. 


casta, Anth. 
castanea, Lea. 
catenaria, Say. 
catenoides, Lea. 
circinata, Lea. 
clara, Anth. 
Clarkii, Lea. 
claveeformis, Lea. 
ccelatura, Conr. 
cognata, Anth. 
columella, Lea. 
comma, Conr. 
compacta, Anth. 
concinna, Lea. 
congesta, Conr. 
conica, Say. 
consanguinea, Anth. 
coracina, Anth. 
corneola, Anth. 
coronilla, Anth. 
corpulenta, Anth. 
costata, Rav. 
costifera, Hald. 
costulata, Lea. 
crebri-costata, Lea. 
crebri-striata, Lea. 
crenatella, Lea. 
cristata, Anth. 
cubicoides, Anth. 
Curreyana, Lea. 
curta, Hald. 
curvata, Lea. 
curvilabris, Anth. 
cuspidata, Anth. 
cylindracea, Conr. 
decora, Lea. 
decorata, Anth. 
depygis, Say. 
Deshayesiana, Lea 
densa, Anth. 
dislocata, Rav. 
dubiosa, Lea. 


92. 
93. 


94. 


95. 


96. 

oie 

98. 

99. 
100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 
104. 
105. 
106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 


110. 


111. 
112. 
113. 
114. 
115. 
116. 
117. 
118. 
AIDS 
120. 
121. 
122. 
123. 
124. 
125. 


127. 
128. 


130. 
131. 
132. 
133. 
134. 
135. 


137. 
138. 
139° 





(f) 


126. 


129. 


136. 


140. 
141. 
142. 
143. 
144. 
145. 
146. 


Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 


Duttoniana, Lea. 
ebenum, Lea. 
Edgariana, Lea 
elata, Anth. 
elegantula, Anth. 
elevata, Say. 
eliminata, Anth. 
elongata, Lea. 
exarata, Menke. 
exarata, Lea. 
excavata, Anth. 
excurata, Conr. 
exigua, Conr. W. 
exilis, Hald. 
eximia, Anth. 
expansa, Lea. 
fastigiata, Anth. 
filum, Lea. 
Florentiana, Lea. 
Foremani, Lea. 
formosa, Conr. 
fuliginosa, Lea. 
funebralis, Anth. 
furva, Lea. 
fuscata, Desh. 
fusiformis, Lea. 
fusco-cincta, Anth. 
gemma, DeKay. 
germana, Anth. 
gibbosa, Lea. 
gibbosa, Raf. 
glabra, Lea. 
glandula, Anth. 
glauca, Anth. 
globula, Lea. 
gracilior, Anth. 
gracilis, Lea. 
gracillima, Anth. 
gradata, Anth. 
grata, Anth. 
gravida, Anth. 
grisea, Anth. 
Haleiana, Lea. 
harpa, Lea. 
hastata, Anth. 
Haysiana, Lea 
Hildrethiana, Lea. 
Holstonia, Lea. 
hybrida, Anth. 
Hydeii, Conr. 
imbricata, Anth. 
impressa, Lea. 
incrassata, Anth. 
inemta, Anth. 
inflata, Hald. 


147. 
148. 
149. 
150. 
151. 
152. 
153. 
154. 
155. 
156. 
157. 
158. 
159. 
160. 
161. 
162. 
163. 
164. 
165. 
166. 
167. 
168. 
169. 
170. 
171. 
172. 
173. 
174. 
175. 
176. 
177. 
178. 
179. 
180. 
181. 
182. 
183. 
184. 
185. 
186. 
187. 
188. 
189. 
190. 
191. 
mg 2 
193. 
194. 
195. 
196. 
197. 
198. 
199. 


Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 


inflata, Lea. 
infrafasciata, Anth. 
inornata, Anth. 
intersita, Hald. 
intertexta, Anth. 
iostoma, Anth. 
iota, Anth. 
Jayana, Lea. 
Kirtlandiana, Lea. 
leeta, Jay. 

leevis, Lea. 
laqueata, Say. 
latitans, Anth. 
Lecontiana, Lea. 
Liebmanni, Phil. 
ligata, Menke. 
livescens, Menke. 
lugubris, Lea. 
marginata, Raf. 
Menkeana, Lea. 
modesta, Lea. 
monozonalis, Lea. 
multilineata, Say. 
napilla, Anth. 
nassula, Conr. 
nebulosa, Conr. 
neglecta, Anth. 
Newberryi, Lea, 
niagarensis, Lea. 
nigrocincta, Anth. 
nigrina, Lea. W. 
nitens, Lea. 
nobilis, Lea. 
nodulosa, Lea. 
nucleola, Anth. 
oblita, Lea. 
obtusa, Lea. 
occidentalis, Lea. 
occulta, Anth. 
Ocoensis, Lea. 
oliva, Lea. 
olivula, Conr. 
opaca, Anth. 
oppugnata Lea. 
Ordiana, Lea. 
ovalis, Lea. 
ovoidea, Lea. 
ovularis, Menke. 
pagodiformis, Anth. 
pallescens, Lea. 
pallidula, Anth. 
paucicosta, Anth. 
perangulata, CVonr. 


200. Melania percarinata, Conr. 
201. Melania perfusca, Lea. 


M. 


Ww. 


bo bo bo bo bo bo 
So o.coore 
ADAP wp 


bo bp b tv 
bpp bp wv 
He CoO bo 


on 


bo b bo 
bp bw bb 
~I co ¢ 


bo 
Oo © oo 


SON wWw wb tw 


ww tw G OO bo 
bo 


bo 
~ OO 


bo 
an 
- oO 


bo 


5 
oO Or 1 
~~ 





2h 


bo bo 
en or on 


. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
208. 
209. 
210. 
211. 
212. 
213. 
214, 
215. 
216. 
217. 
218. 
219. 
220. 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
-. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
28. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 


Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 
Melania 


. Melania 


. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 


. Melania 


. Melania 
. Melania 
). Melania 
247. 
248. 
249. 
. Melania 


Melania 
Melania 
Melania 


. Melania 
. Melania 
- Melania 
. Melania 
- Melania 
. Melania 


pernodosa, Lea. 
perstriata, Lea. 
pilula, Lea. 
picta, Lea. 
pinguis, Lea. 
planogyra, Anth. 
planospira, Anth. 
plebeius, Anth. 
plena, Anth. 
plicifera, Lea. W. 
pluristriata, Say. 
ponderosa, Anth. 
Postellii, Lea. 
Potosiensis, Lea. 
prasinata, Conr. 
producta, Lea. 
proscissa, Anth. 
proteus, Lea. 
proxima, Say. 
pulchella, Anth. 
pulcherrima, Anth. 
pumila, Lea. 
pupoidea, Anth. 
pyramidalis, Mor. 
pyrenella, Conr. 
regularis, Lea. 
rhombica, Anth. 
rigida, Ant. 
robulina, Anth. 
robusta, Lea. 
rubida, Lea. M. 
rufescens, Lea. 
rufula, Hald. 
rugosa, Lea. 
Saffordii, Lea. 
Schiedeana, Piil. 
sculptilis, Lea. 
Sellersiana, Lea. 
semicarinata, Say. 
semicostata, Conr. 
shastaensis, ea. W. 
silicula, Gid. W 
simplex, Say. 
solida, Lea. 
sordida, Lea. 
spinalis, Lea. 
spurca, Lea. 
striatula, Lea. 
strigosa, lea. 
stygia, Say. 
subangulata, Anth. 
subcylindracea, Lea 
subglobosa, Say. 
subsolida, Lea. 
substricta, fHald. 


M. 


M 


M 


275. 


. Melania 
- Melania 
- Melania 
- Melania 
- Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
- Melania 
- Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
- Melania 
- Melania 
- Melania 
. Melania 
- Melania 
. Melania 


Melania 


. Melania 
- Melania 
- Melania 
- Melania 
- Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
- Melania 
- Melania 
- Melania 
- Melania 
. Melania 
- Melania 
- Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
- Melania 
. Melania 
. Melania 
- Melania 
. Lithasia 
. Lithasia 
. Lithasia 
. Lithasia 
. Lithasia 
. Lithasia Showalterii, Zea. 
. Gyrotoma 
. Gyrotoma 
- Gyrotoma 
- Gyrotoma 
- Gyrotoma 
- Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 


10 


subularis, Lea. 
succinulata, Anth. 
sulcosa, Lea. ; 
symmetrica, Conr. 
symmetrica, Hald. 
tabulata, Anth. 
tzeniolata, Anth. 
Taitiana, Lea. 

tecta, Anth. 
tenebro-cincta, Anth. 
tenebrosa, Lea. 
terebralis, Lea. 
teres, Lea. 

textilosa, Anth. 
torquata, Lea. 

torta, Lea. 

torulosa, Anth. 
tracta, Anth. 
trochiformis, Conr. 
Troostiana, Lea. 
tuberculata, Lea. 
turgida, Lea. 
uncialis, Hald. 
undosa, Anth. 
undulata, Say. 
valida, Anth. 
Vanuxemensis, Lea. 
varicosa, Ward. 
venusta, Lea. 
versipellis, Anth. 
vestita, Conr. 

vicina, Anth. 

virens, Anth. 
virgata, Lea. 
virginica, Gmel. 
viridis, Lea. 
viridula, Anth. 
vittata, Anth. 
vittata, Raf. 
wahlamatensis, L. W. 
Warderiana, Lea. 
zonalis, Raf. 
geniculata, Hald. 
lima, Conr. 
nuclea, Lea. 
nupera, Say. 
salebrosa, Conr. 


alabamensis, Lea. 
ampla, Anth. 
babylonica, Lea. 
Buddii, Lea. 
bulbosa, Anth. 
carinifera, Anth. 
castanea, Lea. 


Ww. 





312. 
313. 
314, 
315. 
316. 
317. 
318. 
319, 
320. 
321. 
322. 
323. 
324. 
325. 
326. 
327. 
328. 
329. 
330. 
331. 
332. 
333. 
334. 
330. 
306. 
307. 
338. 
339. 
340. 
341. 
342, 
343. 
344. 
345. 
346. 
347. 
348. 
349. 
350. 
351. 
352. 
353. 
354. 
355. 
356. 
357. 
358. 
359. 
360. 
361. 
362. 
363. 
364. 
365. 
366. 


Y) 


Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Gyrotoma 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptozis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptozis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 
Leptoxis 


constricta, Lea. 
costata, Shuttl. 
curta, Mighels. 
cylindracea, Miill. 
demissa, Anth. 
excisa, Lea. 
funiculata, Lea. 
glandula, Lea. 
glans, Lea. 
globosa, Lea. 
Hartmanii, Lea. 
incisa, Lea 
laciniata, Lea. 
Ovalis, Anth. 
ovoidea, Shuttl. 
pagoda, Lea. 
pumila, Lea. 
pyramidata, Shuttl. 
quadrata, Anth. 
recta, Anth. 
robusta, Anth. 
salebrosa, Anth. 
Showalterii, Lea. - 
virens, Lea. 
wetumpkaensis, Z 


affinis, Hald. 
altilis, Lea. 
ampla, Anth. 
angulata, Conr. 
Anthonyi, Redfield. 
carinata, Anth. 
carinata, DeKay 
carinata. Lea. 
carinifera, Anth. 
cincinnatiensis, Lea 
contorta, Lea. 
corpulenta, Anth. 
costata, Anth. 
crassa, Hald. 
crenata, Hald. 
dentata, Couthouy: 
dentata, Lea. 
dilatata, Conr. 
dissimilis, Say. 
elegans, Anth. 
flammata, Lea. 
formosa, Lea. 
Foremani, Lea. 
fusca, Hald. W. 
gibbosa, Lea. 
Griffithiana, Lea. 
incisa, Lea. 
inflata, Lea. 
integra, Say. 
isogona, Say. 


367. 
368. 
369. 
370. 
371. 
372. 
373. 
374. 
375. 
376. 
377. 
378. 
379. 
380. 
381. 
382. 
383. 
384, 
385. 
386. 
387. 
388. 
389. 
390. 
Sod 
392. 
393. 
394. 
395. 
396. 
397. 
398. 
399. 
400. 
401. 
402. 
403. 
404. 
405. 


406. 
407. 
408. 
409. 
410. 
411. 
412. 
413. 
414. 
415. 


416. 
417. 
418. 


Leptoxis ligata, Anth. 419. 
Leptoxis littorina, Hald. 420. 
Leptoxis melanoides, Conr. 421. 
Leptoxis monodontoides, Con. | 422. 
Leptoxis Nickliniana, Lea. 423. 
Leptoxis nigrescens, Conr. 424. 
Leptoxis Nuttalliana, Lea. W. | 425. 
Leptoxis obovata, Say. 426. 
Leptoxis ornata, Anth. 427. 
Leptoxis patula, Anth. 428. 
Leptoxis picta, Conr. 429. 
Leptoxis pisum, Hald. 430. 
Leptoxis plicata, Conr. 431. 
Leptoxis przerosa, Say. 432. 
Leptoxis pumila, Conr. 
Leptoxis Rogersii, Conr. 433. 
Leptoxis rubiginosa, Lea. 434. 
Leptoxis solida, Lea. 435. 
Leptoxis Showalterii, Lea. 436. 
Leptoxis squalida, Lea. 437. 
Leptoxis subglobosa, Say. 438. 
Leptoxis tzniata, Conr. 439, 
Leptoxis trilineata, Say. 440. 
Leptoxis trivittata, DeKay. 441, 
Leptoxis Troostiana, Lea. 442. 
Leptoxis tuberculata, Lea. 443. 
Leptoxis turgida, Hald. 444 
Leptoxis variabilis, Lea. 445. 
Leptoxis virens, Lea. W. 446 
Leptoxis viridula, Anth. 447. 
Leptoxis vittata, Lea. 448, 
Leptoxis zebra, Anth. 449, 
Io brevis, Anth. 450. 
Io fluvialis, Say. 451. 
Io inermis, Anth. 452. 
Io spinosa, Lea. 453. 
Io spirostoma, Anth. 454. 
Io tenebrosa, Lea. 455. 
Io turrita, Anth. 456. 
Viviparide. 457. 
Vivipara acuta, Raf. 458. 
Vivipara alleghanensis, (7. 459. 
Vivipara angulata, Lea. 460. 
Vivipara castanea, Mill. G. 461. 
Vivipara castanea, Val. 
Vivipara coarctata, Lea. 462. 
Vivipara contorta, Shuittl. 463. 
Vivipara coosaensis, Lea. 464. 
Vivipara cornea, Val. 465. 
Vivipara cyclostomatiformis, | 466. 
Lea. | 467. 
Vivipara decapitata, Anth. 468. 
Vivipara decisa, Say. 469. 
Vivipara Elliotti, Lea. 470. 


11 


7) 


Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 


Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 
Vivipara 


- Vivipara 


Vivipara 


}. Vivipara 


Vivipara 
Vivipara 


exilis, Anth. 


genicula, Conr. 
georgiana, Lea. 


gonula, Raf. 
Haleiana, Lea. 
humerosa, Anth. 


incrassata, Lea. 
integra, Say. 
intertexta, Say. 
lacustris, Raf. 


lima, Anth. 


magnifica, Conr. 
microstoma, Kiril. 
multicarinata, 


nitida, Rav. 


Hald. M 


plaioxis, Raf. 
ponderosa, Say. 
scalaris, Jay. 
regularis, Lea. 


rudis, Rav. 
rufa, Hald. 


rugosa, Raf. 
subcarinata, Say. 
subglobosa, Say. 
subpurpurea, Say. 
subsolida, Anth. 
sulculosa, Menke. 
transversa, Suy. 
Troostiana, Lea. 


verrucosa, 


Raf. 


Vivipara vivipara, Lin. 
Vivipara Wareana, Shuttl 


Bithinia nuclea, Lea. 
Bithinia seminalis, Hinds. 
Bithinia tentaculata, Lin. 
Valvata humeralis, Say. 


Ww. 
Ww. 
G. 
M., 


Valvata pupoidea, Gid. 
Valvata sincera, Say. W.E. 
Valvata tricarinata, Say. 
Ampullaria depressa, Say. 
Ampullaria flagellata, Say. M. 
Ampullaria malleata, Jonas. M. 


Ampullaria paludinoides, 


Crist. et 


Jan. M. 


De 


Ampullaria reflexa, Sw. M. 
Ampullaria scalaris, D’Orl. M. 
Ampullaria urceus, Linn.? M. 


Ampullaria violacea, Val. 


M. 


Amnicola attenuata, Hald. 
Amnicola cincinnatensis, A. 
Amnicola decisa, Hald. 
Amnicola elongata, Jay. 
Amnicola galbana, Hald. 


471. 
472. 
473. 
474. 
475. 
476. 


ee 
dd 


. Amnicola 
478. 
479. 
480. 
481. 
482, 
483. 
484. 


Amnicola granum, Say. 
Amnicola lapidaria, Say. 
Amnicola limosa, Say. 
Amnicola longinqua, Gid. W. 
Amnicola lustrica, Say. 
Amnicola Nickliniana, Lea. 
obtusa, Lea. 
orbiculata, Lea. 
pallida, Hald. 
parva, Lea. 
porata, Say. 
protea, Gld. W. 
tenuipes, Couper. 
Sayana, Anth. 


Amnicola 
Amunicola 
Amnicola 
Amnicola 
Amnicola 
Amnicola 
Amnicola 


PULMONOBRANCHIATA. 


485. 
486. 
487. 
488. 
489. 
490. 
491. 
492. 


493. 
494. 
495. 
496. 
497. 
498. 
499. 
500. 
501. 
502. 
503. 
504, 
505. 
506. 
507. 
508. 
509. 
510. 
511. 
512. 
513. 
514. 
515. 
516. 
HAs 
518. 
519. 
520. 
521. 


Limmeida. 
Limnea ampla, Miyhels. 
Limneza apicina, Lea. 
Limneza appressa, Say. 
Limnea attenuata, Say. 
Limnza bulimoides, Lea. 
Limnza caperata, Say. 
Limnza casta, Lea. 
Limnza catascopium, Say. 

W. E. 


Ww. 


M. 
Ww. 


coarctata, Lea. 
columella, Say. 

curta, Lea. 

decollata, Mighels. 
desidiosa, Say. 
exigua, Lea. W.E. 
expansa, Hald. 
ferruginea, Hald. W. 
fusiformis, Lea. 
galbana, Say. 

gracilis, Jay. 
groenlandica, Beck. G. 
Limnea Griffithiana, Lea. 
Limnea Haydeni, Lea. 
Limnza Holboliii, Beck. G. 
Limnza humilis, Say. 

Limnea jugularis, Say. W. EH. 
Limneza Kirtlandiana, Lea. 
Limnza lanceata, Gd. 
Limnza lepida, Gid. W. 
Limnza megasoma, Say. 
Limnzea obrussa, Say. 
Limnza pallida, Ad. W.E. 
Limnza palustris, Lin. W.E. 
Limneza parva, Lea. 
Limnea Pingelii, Beck. 
Limnza planulata, Lea. 
Limnza platyostoma, Hald. 
Limnza plica, Lea. 


Limnezea 
Limnea 
Limnea 
Limnza 
Limnzea 
Limnea 
Limnea 
Limnzea 
Limnza 
Limnzea 
Limnea 
Limnea 


G. 





22. Limnezea proxima, Lea. 
. Limnza reflexa, Say. 
. Limnza rugosa, Val. 
. Limnza rustica, Lea. 
}. Limneea solida, Lea. 
. Limnzea strigosa, Lea. 

. Limneza subulata, Dunk. 
. Limnea Vahlii, Beck. 

. Limneza vitrea, Hald. 

- Pompholyx effusa, Lea. 
. Physa 
. Physa 
. Physa 
. Physa 
. Physa 
. Physa 
. Physa 
. Physa 
). Physa 
- Physa 
. Physa 


572 
573 
574 


YY) 


. Physa 
. Physa 
. Physa 
. Physa 
. Physa 
. Physa 
. Physa 
550. 
551. 
552. 
553. 
554. 
555. 
556. 
557. 
558. 
559. 
560. 
561. 
562. 
563. 
564. 
565. 
566. 
567. 
568. 
569. 
570. 
571. 


WwW. 
M. 
Ww. 


M. 
G. 


Ww. 
ancillaria; Say. 
aurantia, Carp. W. 
bullata, Gld. W. 
Charpentieri, Ajis¢. 
concolor, Hald. W. 
distorta, Hald. 
elata, Gld. W. 
fragilis, Mighels. 
globosa, Hald. 
gyrina, Say. 
heterostropha, Say. 
W.E 
Hildrethiana, Lea. 
humerosa, Gid. W. 
hypnorum, Lin. W.E 
inflata, Lea. 
integra, Hald. 
mexicana, Phil. M. 
microstoma, [ald. 
nitens, Phil. M. 
osculans, Hald. 
Philippii, Avister. 
pomilia, Conr. 
semiplicata, Kiist. ? 
scalaris, Juy. 
solida, Phil. 
triticea, Lea. 
Troostiana, Lea. 
Physa vinosa, Gild. 
Physa virgata, Gid. W. 
Physa virginea, Gid. W. 
Planorbis albus, Miill. 
Planorbis ammon, Gid. W. 
Planorbis antrorsus, Conr. 
Planorbis arcticus, Beck. G. 
Planorbis armigerus, Say. 
Planorbis bellus, /ea. 
Planorbis bicarinatus, Say. 
Planorbis Buchanensis, Lea. 
Planorbis campanulatus, Say. 
Planorbis corpulentus, Say. 
Ww.&E 
deflectus, Say. 
dilatatus, Gild. 
exacutus, Say. 


Physa 
Physa 
Physa 
Physa 
Physa 
Physa 
Physa 
Physa 
Physa 


M. 


Planorbis 
Planorbis 
Planorbis 


13 


575. Planorbis fragilis, Dunk. M. 592. Planorbis trivolvis, Say. 


576. Planorbis glabratus, Say. var. fallax. 

W.H.| 593. Flanorbis tumens, Carp. W. 
577. Planorbis gracilentus, Gid. W. | 594. Planorbis tumidus, Pf. M. 
578. Planorbis Haldemani, D.. M. | 595. Planorbis vermicularis, Gd. 
579. Planorbis lentus, Say. Ww 
580. Planorbis Liebmanni, D. M 596. Planorbis Wheatleyi, Lea. 
581. Planorbis multivolvis, Case. 597. Ancylus calcarius, DeKay. 
582. Planorbis Newberryi,lea. W. | 598. Ancylus crassus, Hald. W. 
583. Planorbis obtusus, Lea. 599. Ancylus depressus, Hald 
584. Planorbis opercularis, Gid.W. | 600. Ancylus diaphanus, //ald. 
585. Planorbis planulatus, Cooper. | 601. Ancylus elatior, Anth. 

W. | 602. Ancylus filosus, Conr. 

586. Planorbis parvus, Say. 603. Ancylus fuscus, Adams. 
587. Planorbis regularis, Lea. 604. Ancylus Newberryi, Lea. W. 


588. Planorbis subcrenatus, Carp. 605. Ancylus Nuttalli, Hald. W. 
W. | 606. Ancylus obscurus, Hald. 
589. Planorbis tenuis, Phil. M. 607. Ancylus parallelus, Hald. 
590. Planorbis Traskii, Lea. W. 608. Ancylus patelloides, Lea. W 
591. Planorbis trivolvis, Say. W.E.| 709. Ancylus rivularis, Say. 
610. Ancylus tardus, Say. 


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[SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 


CHECK LIST 


OF THE 


SHELLS OF NORTH AMERICA. 


CYCLADES. 


BY 
TEMPLE PRIME. 


[ Norr.—In the following list the species not marked are found living in 
the United States. FF. signifies that’ they are found fossil. CC. refers to 
Cuba; ©. A. to Central America; H. to Honduras; J. to Jamaica; M. to 
Mexico; P. to Panama; Y. to Yucatan. ] 


1. Pisidium abditum, Hald. 29. Spherium nobile, Gould. 

2. Pisidium Adamsi, Pr. 30. Spherium occidentale, Pr. 

3. Pisidium equilaterale, Pr. 31. Spherium partumium, Say. 

4. Pisidium arcuatum, Pr. F. 32. Sphzrium patellum, Gould. 

5. Pisidium compressum, Pr. 33. Spherium pygmeum, Adams. J. 
6. Pisidium contortum, Pr. F. 34. Spherium rhomboideum, Say. 
7. Pisidium ferrugineum, Pr. 35. Spherium rosaceum, Py. 

8. Pisidium novi-eboraci, Pr. 36. Spherium securis, Pr. 

9. Pisidium retusum, Pr. H. 37. Spherium solidulum, Pr. 
10. Pisidium rotundatum, Pr. 38. Spherium sphericum, Anth. 
11. Pisidium tenellum, Gould. 39. Spherium stamineum, Conr. 
12. Pisidium variabile, Pr. 40. Spherium striatinum, Lam. 

13. Pisidium ventricosum, Pr. 41. Spherium subtransversum, /r 
14. Pisidium virginicum, bgt. M 

42. Spherium sulcatum, Lam. 

15. Spherium acuminatum, Pr. 43. Spherium tenue, Pr. 

16. Spherium aureum, Pr. 44, Spherium tenuistriatum, Pr. 
17. Spherium bulbosum, Anth. 45. Spherium transversum, Say. 
18. Spherium cardissum, Pr. 46. Spherium triangulare, Say. M 
19. Spherium dentatum, /Hald. 47. Spherium truncatum, Lin. 
20. Spherium eburneum, Anth. 48. Spherium Veatleyii, Adams. J. 
°1. Spherium elevatum, /Hald. 

22. Spherium emarginatum, Pr. 49. Cyrena californiensis, Pr. 

23. Sphzerium fabale, Pr. 50. Cyrena caroliniensis, Lam. 

24. Spherium flavum, Pr. 51. Cyrena cubensis, Pr. C. 

25. Spherium fuscatum, /iafin. 52. Cyrena Cumingii, Desh. C. A. 
26. Spherium gracile, Pr. 53. Cyrena densata, Conr. F. 

27. Spherium Jayanum, Pr. 54, Cyrena floridana, Conr. 


28. Spherium maculatum, Mor. Y¥.| 55. Cyrena insignis, Desh. 
(y) 


. Cyrena 
. Cyrena 
58. Cyrena 


. Cyrena 
. Cyrena 


. Cyrena 
. Cyrena 


maritima, Adams. P. 
mexicana, Sowb. 
moreauensis, Meck § 


nebraskensis, Pr. F. 
occidentalis, Meek §- 


olivacea, Cpr. C. A. 
panamensis, Pr. C. A. 


67. 
Hayden. ¥F.| 68. 
69. 


(9) 


. Cyrena placens, Hanley. C. A. 
. Cyrena radiata, Hanley. C. A. 
. Cyrena salmacida, JMJorelet. C. A 
Hayden. ¥F. | 66. 


Cyrena sordida, Hanley. C. A. 


Corbicula convexa, Desh. C. A 
Corbicula truncata, Pr. F. 
Corbicula ventricosa, Pr M. 


[SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS.] 


CHECK 


LES 


OF THE 


SHELLS OF NORTH AMERICA. 


UNIONID &. 


aso peppy 


co CO 


16. 


19. 


BY 


ESAAC LEA. 


NORTH AMERICA. 


Unionida. 


- Unio 
. Unio 


Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 


- Unio 


Unio 


. Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 


Unio 


. Unio 
- Unio 


Unio 


. Unio 


Unio 


. Unio 
. Unio 
. Unio 
. Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 
. Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 
. Unio 


abacus, Hald. 
abbevillensis, Lea. 
Aberti, Con. 
acutissimus, Lea. 
zequatus, Lea. 
ZBasopus, Green. 
affinis, Lea. 
aheneus, Lea. 
alatus, Say. 
altilis, Con. 
amoenus, Lea. 
amygdalum, Lea. 
angustatus, Lea. 
anodontoides, Lea. 
apicinus, Lea. 
apiculatus, Say. 
approximus, Lea. 
aquilus, Lea. 
aratus, Lea. 
arceeformis, Lea. 
arctatus, Con. 
arctior, Lea. 
arcus, Con. 
argenteus, Lea. 
arquatus, Con. 
asper, Lea. 
asperrimus, Lea. 
atrocostatus, Lea. 


atromarginatus, Lea. 


aureus, Lea. 
Bairdii, Lea. 
Baldwinensis, Lea. 
Barrattii, Lea. 
Barnesianus, Lea. 


(h) 


34a. Unio Bradleianus, Zea. 


30. 


36. 


co 


oa an 
“I 


ADAH DAa SD HW 
anon rW Nr OO @ 


67. 
68. 


Unio 
Unio 


- Unio 
. Unio 


Unio 


Unio 


- Unio 
- Unio 
. Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 


Unio 
Unio 


biangulatus, Lea. 
biemarginatus, Lea. 
bigbyensis, Lea. 
Binneyi, Lea. 
Blandianus, Lea. 


. Unio “‘Blandingianus, Lea. 
- Unio 
- Unio 
3. Unio 
. Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
. Unio 
. Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 


Bournianus, Lea. 
Boydianus, Lea. 
Boykinianus, Lea. 
bracteacus, Gould. 
brevidens, Lea. 
Brumbyanus, Lea. 
Buckleyi, Lea. 
Buddianus, Lea. 
bulbosus, Lea. 
Burkensis, Lea. 
buxeus, Lea. 
cacao, Lea. 
celatus, Con. 
caliginosus, Lea. 
callosus, Lea. 
camelopardilis, Lea. 
camelus, Lea. 
camptodon, Say. 
canadensis, Lea. 
capax, Green. 
caperatus, Lec. 
capseformis, Lea. 
cariosus, Say. 
castaneus, Lea. 
castus, Lea. 
catawbensis, Lea. 
chattanoogaensis, Lea. 
claibornensis, Lea. 


69. 
70. 
ae 
72. 
13. 
74. 
75. 
76. 
tig 
78. 
79. 
80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
85. 
86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 
90. 
91. 
92. 
93. 
94. 
95. 
96. 
Dilis 
98. 
99. 
100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 
104. 
105. 
106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
110. 
aL 
112. 


112a. 


Idd. 
114. 
115. 
116. 
ai 
118. 
119. 
120. 
TZ 
122. 


Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 


Clarkianus, Lea. 
clavus, Lam. 
cincinnatiensis, Zea. 
circulus, Lea. 
coccineus, Lea. 
collinus, Con. 
coloradoensis, Lea. 
compactus, Lea. 
compressus, Lea, 


compressissimus, Lea. 


complanatus, Lea. 
concavus, ea. 
concestator, Lea. 
confertus, Lea. 
congareus, Lea. 
Conradicus, Leu. 
constrictus, Con. 
contractus, Lea. 
contradens, Lea. 
Cooperianus, Lea. 
cor, Con. 
cornutus, Bar. 
coruscus, (ould. 
corvus, Lea. 
crassidens, Lam. 
creperus, Lea. 
crocatus, Lea. 


cumberlandianus, Lea. 


cuneolus, Lea. 
cuprinus, Lea. 
curtus, Lea. 
Cuvierianus, Lea. 
cylindricus, Say. 
cyrenoides, Phili. 
dactylus, Lea. 
dariensis, Lea. 
decisus, Lea. 
declivus, Say. 
decoratus, Lea. 
denigratus, Lea. 
discrepans, Lea. 
dispar, Lea. 
dolabriformis, Zea. 
dollabelloides, Lea. 


Unio dolosus, Lea. 


Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 


donaciformis, Zea. 
Dorfeuillianus, Lea. 
Downiei, Lea. 
dromas, Lea. 
Duttonianus, Lea. 
ebenus, Lea. 
Edgarianus, Zea. 
Hightsii, Zea. 
elegans Lea. 
Elliottii, Lea. 


v7 


123. 


124 


125. 
126. 
127. 
128. 
129. 
130. 
131. 
132. 
133. 
134. 
135. 
136. 
137. 
138. 
139. 
140. 
141. 
142. 
143. 
144. 
145. 
146. 
147. 
148. 
149. 
150. 
151. 
152. 
153. 
154. 
155. 
156. 
157. 
158. 
159. 
160. 
161. 
162. 
163. 
164. 
165. 
166. 
167. 
168. 
169. 
170. 
171. 
172. 
173. 
174. 


Unio 
- Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 


ellipsis, Zea. 
Emmonsii, Lea. 
errans, Lea. 
Estabrookianus, Lea. 
exactus, Lea. 
excavatus, Lea. 
exiguus, Lea. 
extensus, Lea. 
fabalis, Lea. 
fallax, Lea. 
famelicus, Gould. 
fatuus, Lea. 
favosus, Lea. 
fibuloides, Lea. 
Fisherianus, Lea. 
flavescens, Lea. 
florentinus, Lea. 
floridensis, Lea. 
foliatus, /Zild. 
folliculatus, Lea. 
Forbeseanus, Lea. 
Foremanianus, Lea. 
Forsheyi, Lea. 
fragosus, Con. 
fraternus, Lea. 
fucatus, Lea. 
fulgidus, Lea. 
fuliginosus, Lea. 
fulvus, Lea. 
fumatus, Lea. 
furvus, Con. 
fuscatus, Lea. 
Geddingsianus, Lea. 
geminus, Lea. 
Genthii, Lea. 
Georgianus, Lea. 
gibber, Lea. 
Gibbesianus, Lea. 
gibbosus, Lar. 
glaber, Lea. 
glans, Lea. 
globosus, Lec. 
Gouldii, Lea. 
gracilentus, Zea. 
gracilior, Lea. 
gracilis, Barnes. 
graniferus, Lea. 
Greenii, Con. 
Griffithianus, Zea. 
Haleianus, Lea. 
Hallenbeckii, Lea. 
Hanleyanus, Lea. 


174a. Unio Hartmanianus, Lea. 
175. Unio Haysianus, Lea. 
176. Unio Hazlehurstianus, Lea. 


(A) 


ite 
178. 
io. 
180. 
181. 
182. 
183. 
184. 
185. 
186. 
187. 
188. 
189. 
190. 
191. 
192. 
192a. 
193. 
194, 
195. 
196. 
197. 
198. 
199. 
200. 
201. 
202. 
203. 
204. 
205. 
206. 
207. 
208. 
209. 
210. 
211. 
212. 
213. 
214, 
215. 
216. 
217. 
218. 
219. 
220. 
221. 
222. 
223. 
224. 
225. 
226. 
227. 
228. 
229: 
230. 


Unio hebes, Lea. 
Unio hebetatus, Con. 
Unio Hembeli, Con. 
Unio heterodon, Lea. 
Unio Higginsii, Lea. 
Unio hepaticus, Lea. 
Unio hippopzus, Lea. 
Unio holstinensis, Lea. 
Unio hopetonensis, Lea. 
Unio Houstonensis, Lea. 
Unio hyalinus, Lea. 
Unio Hydianus, Lea. 
Unio incrassatus, Lea. 
Unio ineptus, Lea. 
Unio inflatus, Zea. 
Unio infucatus, Con. 
Unio insulsus, Lea. 
Unio intercedens, Lea. 
Unio intermedius, Con. 
Unio interruptus, Lea. 
Unio inusitatis, Lea. 
Unio iris, Lea. 
Unio irroratus, Lea. 
Unio Jamesianus, Lea. 
Unio Jayensis, Lea. 
Unio jejunus, Lea. 
Unio Johannis, Lea. 
Unio Jonesii, Lea. 
Unio Kienerianus, Lea. 


Unio Kirtlandianus, Lea. 


Unio Kleinianus, Lea. 
Unio lacrymosus, Lea. 
Unio levissimus, Lea. 


Unio Lamarckianus, Lea. 


Unio lanceolatus, Lea. 
Unio latecostatus, Lea. 
Unio latus, Lea. 

Unio Lazarus, Lea, 
Unio Lecontianus, Lea. 
Unio lenior, Lea. 

Unio lens, Lea. 

Unio lepidus, Gould. 
Unio Lesleyi, Lea. 
Unio Lesueurianus, Lea. 
Unio Lindsleyi, Lea. 
Unio lineatus, Lea. 
Unio lienosus, Con. 
Unio ligamentinus, Lam. 
Unio limatulus, Con. 
Unio linguzeformis, Lea. 
Unio lugubris, Lea. 
Unio luridus, Lea. 

Unio luteolus, Lam. 
Unio macer, Lea. 

Unio maconensis, Lea. 





- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
. Unio 
. Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 


macrodon, Lea. 
maculatus, Con. 
Masoni, Con. 
Menkianus, Lea. 
Meredithii, Lea. 
merus, Lea. 
metanever, Raf. 
metastriatus, Con. 
micans, Lea. 
minor, Lea. 
mississippiensis, Con- 
modicellus, Lea. 
modicus, Lea. 
modioliformis, Zea. 
meestus, Lea. 
monodontus, Say. 
Monroensis, Lea. 
Mooresianus, Leu. 
Moussonianus, Lea. 
Miihlfeldianus, Lea. 
multiplicatus, Lea. 
multiradiatus, Lea. 
mundus, Léa. 
mytiloides, Raf. 
nashvillianus, Lea. 
nasutus, Say. 
naviculoides, Lea. 
neglectus, Lea. 
Neislerii, Lea. 
neusensis, Lea. 
nigellus, Lea. 
nigerrimus, Lea. 
nigrinus, Lea. 
nitens, Lea. 
notatus, Lea. 
novi-enboraci, Lea. 
nucleopsis, Con. 
nux, Lea. 

obesus, Lea. 
obfuscus, Lea. 
obliquus, Lam. 
obnubilus, Lea. 
obscurus, Lea. 
obtusus, Lea. 
occidens, Leu. 
occidentalis, Con. 
occultus, Lea. 
ochraceus, Say. 
opacus, Lea. 
orbiculatus, /ild. 
oregonensis, Lea. P. 
ornatus, Lea. 
othcaloogensis, Lea. 
ovatus, Say. 
oviformis, Con. 


. Unio pallescens, Lea. 

. Unio palliatus, Lea. 

. Unio paludicolus, Gould. 
. Unio papyraceus, Gould. 
. Unio parvulus, Lea. 

. Unio parvus, Bar. 

. Unio patulus, Lea. 


292. Unio paulus, Lea. 


. Unio pectorosus, Con. 
. Unio pellucidus, Lea. 

. Unio penicillatus, Lea. 
. Unio penitus, Con. 

. Unio percoarctatus, Lea. 
. Unio perdix, Lea. 

9. Unio permiscens, Lea. 
. Unio pernodosus, Lea. 
. Unio perovalis, Con. 

2. Unio perovatus, Con. 

. Unio perpictus, Lea. 

. Unio perplexus, Lea. 
5. Unio perplicatus, Con. 
5a. Unio perpurpureus, Lea. 
3. Unio perradiatus, Lea. 
. Unio personatus, Say. 
. Unio perstriatus, Lea. 
. Unio phaseolus, Hild. 
. Unio Phillipsii, Con. 

. Unio pictus, Lea. 

. Unio pilaris, Lea. 

. Unio pileus, Lea. 

. Unio pinguis, Lea. 

. Unio placitus, Lea. 


Unio plancus, Lea. 


. Unio pianicostatus, Lea. 
. Unio Plantii, Lea. 

. Unio plenus, Lea. 

. Unio plicatus, Lesueur. 
. Unio pliciferus, Lec. 

. Unio Popeii, Lea. 

2. Unio porrectus, Con. 

. Unio Postellii, Lea. 

. Unio Powellii, Lea. 

5. Unio Prattii, Lea. 

3. Unio Prevostianus, Lea. 
. Unio productus, Con. 
. Unio propinquus, Lea. 
. Unio proximus, Lea. 

. Unio pudicus, Lea. 

. Unio pulcher, Lea. 

. Unio pullatus, Lea. 

. Unio pullus, Lea. 

. Unio pulvinulus, Lea. 
. Unio pumilis, Lea. 

. Unio purpuratus, Lam. 
. Unio purpurellus, Lea. 


338. 
339. 
340. 
341. 
342. 
343. 
344. 
345. 
346. 
347. 
348. 
349. 
350. 
Sows 
352. 
3586 
354. 
355. 
356. 
Dis 
358. 
359. 
360. 
361. 
362. 
363. 
364. 
365. 
366. 
367. 
368. 
369. 
370. 
371. 
372. 
Silas 
374. 
375. 
376. 
377. 
378. 
Ae 
379a. 
380. 
381. 
382. 
383. 
384. 
385. 
386. 
387. 
388. 
389. 
390. 
391. 


(”) 


Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 


purpuriatus, Say. 
purus, Lea. 
pusillus, Con. 
pustulatus, Lea. 
pustulosus, Lea. 
Pybasii, Lea. 
pyramidatus, Lea. 
pyriformis, Lea. 
quadrans, Lea. 
quadratus, Lea. 
radians, Lea. 
radiatus, Lam. 
Raeensis, Lea. 
Rangianus, Lea. 
Ravenelianus, Lea. 
rectus, Lam. 
Reeveianus, Lea. 
regularis, Lea. 
retusus, Lam. 
Rhumphianus, Lea. 
roanokensis, Lea. 
rostriformis, Lea. 
Roswellensis, Lea. 
Rowellii, Lea. 
rubellinus, Lea. 
rufus, Lea. 
rufusculus, Lea. 
rotundatus, Lam. 
rubellus, Con. 
rubiginosus, Lea. 
rutersvillensis, Lea. 
rutilans, Lea. 
sagittiformis, Lea. 
salebrosus, Lea. 
satillaensis, Lea. 
satur, Lea. 
savannahensis, Lea. 
saxeus, Con. 
Schoolcraftensis, Lea. 
scitulus, Lea. 
securis, Lea. 
Shepardianus, Lea. 


Unio Showalterii, Lea. 


Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 


similis, Lea. 
simplex, Lea. 
simus, Lea. 
Sloatianus, Lea. 
solidus, Lea. 
sordidus, Lea. 
Sowerbianus, Lea. 
spadiceus, Lea. 
sparsus, Lea. 
spatulatus, Lea. 
spinosus, Lea. 
spissus, Lea. 


392. 
393. 
394. 
395. 
396. 
397. 
398. 


Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 


. Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 


Unio 


- Unio 
. Unio 


Unio 
Unio 


- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 


Unio 
Unio 
Unio 


. Unio 
- Unio 


Unio 
Unio 


. Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 


Unio 


. Unio 
- Unio 


Unio 
Unio 


- Unio 
- Unio 


Unio 


- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 


Unio 


- Unio 
- Unio 


splendidus, Lea. 
stagnalis, Con. 
stapes, Lea. 
Stewardsonii, Lea. 
Stonensis, Lea. 
stramineus, Con. 
striatulus, Lea. 
striatus, Lea. 
strigosus, Lea. 
subangulatus, Lea. 
subcrassus, Lea. 
subcroceus, Con. 
subellipsis, Lea. 
subflavus, Lea. 
subgibbosus, Lea. 
subinflatus, Con. 
sublatus, Lea. 
subniger, Lea. 
subovatus, Lea. 
subplanus, Lea. 
subrotundus, Lea. 
subtentus, Say. 
succissus, Lea. 
sudus, Lea. 
sulcatus, Lea. 
symmetricus, Lea. 
teeniatus, Con. 
Taitianus, Lea. 
Tappanianus, Lea. 
tenebricus, Lea. 
tener, Lea. 
tenerus, av. 
tennesseensis, Lea. 
tenuissimus, Jea. 
tetralasmus, Say. 
tetricus, Lea. 
texasensis, Lea. 
Thorntonii, Lea. 
tortivus, Lea. 
trapezoides, Lea. 
triangularis, Bar. 
trigonus, Lea. 
Troostensis, Lea. 


Troschelianus, Lea. 


trossulus, Lea. 
tuberculatus, Bar. 
tuberosus, Lea. 
tumescens, Lea. 
Tuomeyi, Lea. 
turgidulus, Lea. 
turgidus, Lea. 
umbrans, Lea. 
umbrosus, Lea. 
undulatus, Zar. 
unicolor, Lea. 


5 


| 447. 
448. 
449, 
450. 
451. 
452 
453. 
454. 
455. 
456. 
457. 
458. 
459. 
460. 
461. 
462. 
463. 
464. 
465. 
466. 
467. 


468. 
469. 
470. 
471. 
472. 


473. 
ATA. 
475. 
476. 
ATT. 
478. 


479. 
480. 
481. 
482. 
483. 
484. 


485. 
486. 
486a. 
487. 
488. 
489. 
490. 
491. 


492. 
493. 


494. 
495. 


(h) 


Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 
Unio 


vibex, 


virens, 


Margaritana 
Margaritana 
Margaritana 
Margaritana 
Margaritana 


Margaritana 
Margaritana 
Margaritana 
Margaritana 
Margaritana 
Margaritana 


Margaritana 
Margaritana 
Margaritana 
Margaritana 
Margaritana 
Margaritana 


Margaritana 
Margaritana 


utriculus, Zeca. 
Vanuxemensis, Lea. 
varicosus, Lea. 
Vaughanianus, Lea. 
velatus, Con. 
ventricosus, Sar. 
venustus, Lea. 
verrucosus, Lar. 
verutus, Lea. 


Con. 


vicinus, Lec. 


Lea. . 


virescens, Lea. 
viridans, Lea. 
viridicatus, Lea. 
viridiradiatus, Lea. 
watereensis, Lea. 
Whiteianus, Lea. 
Woodwardianus, Lea. 
Zeiglerianus, Lea. 
zigzag, Lea. 


arcula, Lea. 
calceola, Lea. 
complanata, Lea. 
confragosa, Lea. 
connasaugaensis 
Lea. 
Curreyana, Lea. 
dehiscens, Lea. 
deltoidea, Lea. 
Elliottii, Lea. 
elliptica, Lea. 
etowahensis, 
Con. 
fabula, Lea. 
georgiana, Lea. 
Gesnerii, Lea. 
Hildrethiana, Lea 
holstonia, Lea. 
margaritifera, 
Lea. A. & P. 
marginata, Lea. 
minor, Lea. 


Margaritana quadrata, Lea. 


Margaritana 
Margaritana 
Margaritana 
Margaritana 
Margaritana 


Margaritana 
Margaritana 


radiata, Lea. 
Raveneliana, Lea. 
rugosa, Lea. 
Spillmanii, Lea. 
tombigbeensis, 
Lea. 
triangulata, Leu. 
undulata, Lea. 


Anodonta angulata, Lea. 
Anodonta argentea, Lea. 


496. 
497, 
498. 
499. 


500. 
501. 
502. 
503. 
504. 
505. 
506. 
507. 
508. 
509. 
510. 
511. 
512. 
513. 
514. 
515. 
516. 
517. 
518. 
519. 
520. 
521. 
522. 
524, 
525, 


oO Pp wd 


Anodonta arkansensis, Lea. 
Anodonta Benedictii, Lea. 
Anodonta Buchanensis, Lea. 
Anodonta californiensis, 
Lea. P,| 530. 
Anodonta Couperiana, Lea. 
Anodonta cultrata, Gould. 
Anodonta cylindracea, Lea. 
Anodonta Danielsii, Lea. 
Anodonta dariensis, Lea. 
Anodonta decora, Lea. 
Anodonta denigrata, Lea. 
Anodonta Dunlapiana, Lea. 
Anodonta edentula, Lea. 
Anodonta fragilis, Lam. 
Anodonta ferruginea, Lea. 
Anodonta Ferussaciana, Lea. 
Anodonta fluviatilis, Lea. 
Anodonta Footiana, Lea. 
Anodonta Gesnerii, Lea. 
Anodonta gibbosa, Say. 
Anodonta gigantea, Lea. 
Anodonta grandis, Say. 
Anodonta Hallenbeckii, Lea. 
Anodonta harpethensis, Lea. 


526. 
527. 
528. 
529. 


531. 
532. 
533. 
534. 


| 530. 


Anodonta horda, Gould. 


Anodonta imbecillis, Say. 


Anodonta implicata, Say. 


Anodonta Kennerlyi, Lea. 


Anodonta lacustris, Lea. 





- Unio 
. Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 


536. 
537. 
538. 
539. 
540. 
541. 
542. 


Anodonta Lewisii, Lea. 
Anodonta Linneana, Lea. 
Anodonta lugubris, Say. 
Anodonta Marryatana, Lea. 
Anodonta modesta, Lea. 
Anodonta Nuttalliana, Zea. P 
Anodonta oblita, Lea. 
Anodonta opaca, Lea. 
Anodonta oregonensis, Lea. P. 
Anodonta ovata, Lea. 
Anodonta papyracea, Anth. 
Anodonta pavonia, Lea. 
Anodonta pepiniana, Lea. 
Anodonta plana, Lea. 
Anodonta plicata, Hald. 
Anodonta salmonia, Lea. 
Anodonta Shafferiana, Lea. 


542a. Anodonta Showalterii, Lea. 


543. 
544. 


545. 
546. 
547. 
548. 
549. 
550. 
551. 


552. 


Anodonta Stewartiana, Lea. 
Anodonta subcylindracea, 
Lea. 
Anodonta suborbiculata, Say. 
Anodonta subvexa, Con. 
Anodonta tetragona, Lea. 
Anodonta texasensis, Lea. 
Anodonta virens, Lec. 
Anodonta virgulata, Lea. 
Anodonta wahlamatensis, 
Lea. P. 
Anodonta Wardiana, Lea. 


MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 


aratus, Lea. Nicaragua. 


Averyi, Lea. Isth. Darien. 
aztecorum, Pihili. Mexico. 
Berlandierii, Lea. Mexico. 
Caldwellii, Zea. Is. Darien. 


5a. Unio cognatus, Lea. 
5b. Unio Couchianus, Lea. 


- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
2. Unio 
- Unio 


Unio 


- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
- Unio 
» Unio 
- Unio 


cuprinus, Zea. Mexico. 


cyrenoides, Phili. Nicarag. 


discus, Lea. Mexico. 
Dysonii, Zea. Honduras. 


goascoranensis, Lea. Hon. 
Liebmanni, Phili. Mexico. 


manubius, Gould. Mexico. 
medellinus, Lea. Mexico. 
mexicanus, Phili. Mexico. 


Newcombianus, Lea. Nic. 
Nicklinianus, Zea. Mexico. 
persulcatus, Zea. Mexico. 


petrinus, Gould. Mexico. 
pliciferus, Lea. Mexico. 
Poeyanus, Zea. Mexico. 





| 21. 


21a. 
22: 
23. 


29. 
30. 
ol. 
32. 
33. 


34, 
35. 


36. 


ch) 


Unio Rowellii, Zea. Cent. Amer. 

Unio Saladoensis, Lea. 

Unio sapotalensis, Lea. Mexico. 

Unio scamnatus, Morelet. Cuba. 

Unio semigranosus, Vondem- 
Busch, Mexico. 


- Unio tabascoensis, Phili. Mex. 
- Unio tampicoensis, Zea. Mex. 
. Unio tecomatensis, Lea. Mex. 
- Unio umbrosus, Lea. Mexico. 


Anodonta cylindracea, Lea. 
Anodonta glauca, Valen. Mex. 
Anodonta globosa, Lea. Mex. 
Anodonta Henryana, Zea. Mex. 
Anodonta Holtonis, Zea. New 
Grenada. 
Anodonta luteola, Zea. Is. Dar. 

Anodonta montezuma, Lea. 
Central America. 

Anodonta nicaragua, Phili. 
Nicaragua. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 


DIRECTIONS 


FOR 


COLLECTING, PRESERVING, AND TRANSPORTING 


SPECIMENS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 


PREPARED FOR THE USE OF 


THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 





[Third Edition.] 


WASHINGTON: 
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 
MARCH, 1859. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION fs . e 


§ I. General Remarks ; : ; . “ ’ . 
List of apparatus useful for travelling parties , ’ 
§ II. Instruments, preservative materials, etc. » ° > 
1. Implements for skinning . , > . 2 
2. Preservatives . ° . > > > * 


§ III. Skinning and stuffing animals . , , p ° 


7.2 Birds a. c . 
2. Mammals . ° 
3. Reptiles . e 
4, Fishes ° : 


§ IV. Preserving in liquids, and by other modes besides skinning 


1. General Remarks 
2. Vertebrates — . 
3. Invertebrates . 
§ V. Embryos . . ° 
§ VI. Nests and eggs. . 
§ VII. Preparation of skeletons 
SiVILE Plants: 4. 3 ° 


. ° . a c 

. ° 6 . , e 
° e e e » e 
» e e ® ° e 
’ ° e e 2 2 


§ IX. Minerals and fossils . . > ° » ‘ . 
§ X. Minute microscopical organisms . write . 
§ XI. Marine invertebrates ' : ; ° = ‘ 





COLLINS, 


PHILADELPHIA: 
PRINTER, 705 JAYNE STREET. 





ca 


os 


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16 
16 
16 
17 
ay 
21 
22 
23 
25 
25 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
35 
36 
37 


INTRODUCTION. 


In the present pamphlet (prepared under the direction of Pro- 
fessor Baird with the co-operation of several naturalists) will be 
found brief directions for collecting and preserving objects of 
Natural History, drawn up for the use of travellers and others 
who may desire elementary instruction on this subject. The gene- 
ral principles involved are so simple as to enable any one, with 
but little practice, to preserve specimens sufficiently well for the 
ordinary purposes of science. 

In transmitting specimens to the Smithsonian Institution, re- 
course may be had, when practicable, to the facilities kindly 
authorized by the War, Navy, and Treasury Departments, in the 
annexed letters. Parcels collected in the vicinity of military posts 
in the interior, may usually be sent down to the coast or the fron- 
tier in returning trains of the Quartermaster’s Department. While 
waiting for opportunities of shipment, packages can generally be 
deposited in custom-houses, or public stores. 

Where it is not convenient or practicable to make use of 
government facilities, the ordinary lines of transportation may be 
employed. When there is time enough to communicate with the 
Institution, instructions will be supplied as to the most eligible 
route; if not, then the cheapest but most reliable channel should be 
selected. In every case the parcels should be addressed to “the 
Smithsonian Institution, Washington,” with the name of sender 
and locality marked on the outside. Full directions for packing 
specimens will be found in the pamphlet. 

Collections in Natural History, as complete as possible, including 
the commonest species, are requested from any part of the country ; 
as also lists and descriptions of species, notes of habits, &c. 

For all assistance which may be rendered either in gathering 
specimens, or in aiding in their transportation, full credit will be 
given by the Institution in the annual reports to Congress, cata- 
logues and labels of collections, and in other ways. 

JOSEPH HENRY, 
Secretary Smithsonian Institution, 


War DEPARTMENT, 

Washington, January 17, 1852. 
Smr: In reply to your letter of the 7th inst., asking whether authority 
can be given to the officers of the Quartermaster Department to receive 
and transmit specimens of Natural History for the use of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, I have the honor to inform you that directions have 
been given through the Quartermaster-General to furnish the facilities you 

ask for, whenever it can be done without expense to the United States. 

Very respectfully, your obedient servant, 
C. M. Conran, 
Secretary of War. 
Prof. Jos. Henry, 
Secretary Smithsonian Institution. 


Navy DEPARTMENT, 
February 21, 1853. 
Str: Authority is hereby given to you, to apply to the commanding 
officer of any vessel of war, or to any naval storekeeper of the United 
States, for facilities in transporting packages and specimens of Natural 
History intended for the Smithsonian Institution, and such officers are 
hereby required to furnish such facilities when asked for, provided they 
can be afforded without inconvenience to the public service and without 
expense to the United States. 
I am, very respectfully, your obedient servant, 
Joun P. Kennepy, 


Secretary of the Navy. 
Prof. J. Henry, 


Secretary Smithsonian Institution. 


TREASURY DEPARTMENT, 
January 25, 1854. 
Siz: In reply to your communication of 13th inst., I have the honor to 
state that collectors of the customs, commanders of cutters, and other 
officers of this Department, are hereby authorized and required to receive 
into buildings or vessels under their control, any packages intended for 
the Smithsonian Institution, and to transport or transmit the same towards 
their destination, whenever this can be done without inconvenience to the 
public service and without expense to the United States. 
Iam, very respectfully, your obedient servant, 
JAMES GUTHRIE, 
Secretary of the Treasury. 
Prof. JosepH Henry, 
Secretary Smithsonian Institution. 


31. GENERAL REMARKS.* 


THE general principle to be observed in making collections of 
Natural History, especially in a country but little explored, is to 
gather all the species which may present themselves, subject to the 
convenience or practicability of transportation. The number of 
specimens to be secured will, of course, depend upon their size, and 
the variety of form or condition caused by the different features of 
age, SeX, Or season. 

As the object of the Institution in making its collections is not 
merely to possess the different species, but also to determine their 
geographical distribution, it becomes important to have as full 
series as practicable from each locality. And in commencing such 
collections, the commonest species should be secured first, as being 
most characteristic, and least likely to be found elsewhere. It is 
a fact well known in the history of museums, that the species which 
from their abundance would be first expected, are the last to be 
received. : 

In every little known region the species which are the commonest, 
are rarest elsewhere, and many an unscientific collector in Texas, 
Mexico, the Rocky Mts., and elsewhere, has been surprised to find 
what he considered the least valuable species in his collection 
(owing to the ease with which they had been obtained in numbers), 
more prized by the naturalist than the rarities, which were in fact 
only well known stragglers from more accessible localities. 

The first specimen procured of any animal, however imperfect, 
should be preserved, at least until a better can be obtained. 

Where a small proportion only of the specimens collected can be 
transported, such species should be selected as are least likely to 
be procured in other localities or on other occasions. Among these 
may be mentioned reptiles, fishes, soft insects, &c.; in short, all 
such as require alcohol for their preservation. Dried objects, as 


* This chapter is intended especially for the guidance of travelling 
parties by land, and embraces many points referred to subsequently at 
greater length. 


6 


skins, can be procured with less difficulty, and are frequently col- 
lected by persons not specially interested in scientific pursuits. 

In gathering specimens of any kind, it is important to fix with 
the utmost precision the localities where found. This is especially 
desirable in reference to fishes and other aquatic animals, as they 
occupy a very intimate relation to the waters in which they live. 

The surest way of procuring the smaller mammals, as rats, mice, 
&e., is by setting traps in places where such animals may be ex- 
pected to resort. A common mouse trap placed near the runs of 
meadow mice and baited with corn, potato, cheese, or other 
attractive substances, will often reveal the existence in numbers, 
of species whose presence was previously unknown. Corn shocks, 
stacks of hay, piles of rails, wood or stones, old stumps or logs, when 
overturned or removed, will often exhibit these mammals in greater 
or less number. They are also often turned up by the plough, 
spade, or pick. 

Wolves, foxes, bears, and in fact most mammals can be obtained 
by placing strychnine on their favorite food. 

There are two principal methods of preserving mammals; one 
by skinning, the other by throwing entire into alcohol. The skin, 
when removed from the body, as directed hereafter, may be pre- 
pared dry with arsenic, or placed in spirits ; or if the animal be of 
small size, it may be thrown entire into alcohol, but an incision 
should always be made into the abdomen to facilitate the entrance 
of the liquid. The skin of the belly should also be separated from 
the subjacent walls of the abdomen. For purposes of examination 
it will be more convenient to have the skull removed entirely from 
the skin, when this is to be prepared dry ; but care should be 
taken to attach corresponding marks to the two, so that they may 
be readily referred one to the other. The skull may then be pre- 
served by boiling, or by cutting away the muscle, and drying, or 
by immersion in alcohol; in any case great care should be taken 
not to cut or mutilate any part of the bone, as its value would 
thereby be impaired. Separate skulls in any number, are always 
desirable. Where several specimens of a species are collected, the 
skulls of some may be left attached to the skin. 

It will be well to preserve specimens of the smaller species, 
both as dry skins, and in alcohol. 

It is very important to have the locality of specimens care- 
fully noted and transmitted; and if possible, the date of capture, 


7 


and notes of habits and peculiarities. The sex, and color of the 
iris may likewise be indicated, and if not too much trouble, the 
following measurements in the case of skins of mammals: Ist, 
Length of head to the occiput; 2d, Length of head and body to 
the root of the tail; 3d, Length of tail from root to end of verte- 
bre, and 4th, Length of tail from root to the end of the hairs. 

In many eases it is very difficult to preserve skins of the larger 
mammals, owing to the amount of arsenic required, the length of 
time needed for drying the specimens, or the inconveniently large 
bulk they occupy. All these objections may be readily obviated 
by the use of a fine powder composed of two parts of alum and one 
of saltpetre, intimately mixed.* Every portion of the fresh skin 
should be well covered with this mixture, to which some arsenic 
may be added, the powder being forced into every corner. It may 
be most readily applied by means of a tin dredging box and after- 
wards rubbed in. If the skin be perfectly fresh, it may be folded 
up, without any stuffing, shortly after application of the powder, 
and packed away; it will be better, however, to allow it to dry 
partially, although it should be folded up before losing its flexi- 
bility. The skin should always be taken, when possible, from a 
recently killed animal, and the preservative applied at once. Skins 
prepared in this way will relax sufficiently for mounting by soaking 
a few hours in cold water. 

Any fat, blood or muscle, which may be attached to the skin, 
should be carefully removed before the preservative is applied, the 
surface being kept at the same time moist and fresh, in order that 
the powder may more readily adhere. © The first coat may be ap- 
plied when the skin is inverted, and the hair inside; it should, 
after a little while, be returned to its natural condition, and a 
second quantity of the powder added. 

The skin should be folded up something like a coat, the hair 
side outward; the head, feet and tail, properly adjusted. In small 
specimens, the folding may be omitted, and the skin kept in a flat- 
tened state. In animals less than a fox, a little stuffing may be 
used to fill out the head, and a small portion placed in the skin and 
legs. As little, however, should be used as possible, as it is an 
important object to diminish in every way the bulk of the prepara- 


* The use of this mixture was first suggested to the Smithsonian In- 
stitution by Mr. John G. Bell, of New York. 


8 


tion. No wrinkles, however, or unnecessary folds should be left 
in the skin. 

In skinning the larger animals, the skull may generally be re- 
moved entirely, and thus the labor of preparation greatly reduced. 
In this case the skull can be cleaned separately, by boiling until 
the flesh becomes soft and easily removed, or the raw flesh may be 
cut away, the brain extracted, and the skull dried rapidly by ex- 
posure to the air and sun. It can at any time afterwards be 
cleaned more perfectly. The preservation of the skull is a matter 
of the highest importance. 

Skins of large animals may readily be converted into pliable 
leather, by rubbing on salt, alum and soft soap, continuing the 
operation for a considerable length of time. When the skin be- 
comes nearly dry, it should then be pounded or rubbed all over, 
until the desired softness is obtained. 

The: skeletons of all kinds of mammals, even of the commonest 
species, should be collected. These may be roughly prepared by 
cutting away the meat, and allowing the bones to dry in the air. 
The skeleton may be dismembered, and the ribs separated from 
the vertebre. The bones of each leg should, however, be left 
attached to each other, if possible. The skull may be cleaned by 
boiling. Where there is an opportunity, it will be well to soak 
the bones in water for a few hours to remove the blood. 

A perfectly dry skin will keep very well without any application 
of preservative material, provided the insects are excluded. To 
this end each specimen may be separately enveloped in paper. 
Tobacco leaves in layers between skins, and covering them, will 
be a sure protection against most adult insects; and in the absence 
of tobacco, any highly pungent or odoriferous substance, as the arte- 
misia or sage, and larrea of the western plains, may be employed. 

In preparing skins of any kind, it is a matter of prime import- 
ance not to use any animal substance, as wool, hair, or feathers, 
for stuffing. 

Skins of mammals and birds, especially if at all greasy and not 
thoroughly freed from muscle, are very liable to the attacks of 
small beetles, as Dermestes, &c., when boxed up for any length of 
time, especially in the field, and valuable collections have frequent- 
ly been entirely destroyed by them in less than a month. An 
occasional examination should therefore be made of such collec- 
tions. Whenever possible, it will be well to envelop each speci- 


9 


men completely in paper or cotton-cloth. The greatest care 
should always be taken to keep from such collections any uncleaned 
skulls or bones, wool, hair, loose feathers, or unpreserved animal 
matter of any kind. If necessarily kept in the same boxes with 
skins, skulls, even if apparently quite clean, should be separately 
and closely wrapped up so as to prevent the access of insects to 
them. It must be borne in mind that it is the larve of these 
insects that do the mischief, and that a single female gaining access 
to a specimen may lay eggs enough to do a vast amount of injury 
when developed. 

Where danger is apprehended to large skins, or where they 
have been already attacked, a quantity of arsenic may be boiled 
for a time in water, and after the free arsenic is strained out by 
means of a cloth, the liquid may be applied to the fur or wool by 
means of a watering-pot. The ears, lips, orbital region, and nose 
may be well moistened by an alcoholic solution of corrosive sub- 
limate. A tincture of strychnine is said, however, to keep off in- 
sects much better than anything else. (See also page 22.) 

In passing through the breeding grounds of birds, attention 
should be paid to securing abundant specimens of nests and eggs. 
When possible, the skin of the bird to which each set of eggs may 
belong should be secured. Further directions in regard to nests 
and eggs will be found hereafter. Skins of all the species of birds 
in each locality should be collected. A series of birds in alcohol 
will also be very desirable. 

A great obstacle in the way of making alcoholic collections while 
on a march has been found in the escape of the spirits and the 
friction of the specimens, as well as in the mixing up of these from 
different localities. All such difficulties have been successfully ob- 
viated by means of the following arrangement: Instead of using 
glass jars, so liable to break, or even wooden kegs, so difficult of 
stowage, a square copper can should be procured, having a large 
mouth with a cap fitting tightly over it, either by a screw or other- 
wise. The can should be inclosed in a wooden box, or may be made 
to fit into a division of a leather pannier, to be slung across the 
back of a mule. Several small cans, in capacity of from a half to 
one-third of a cubie foot, or even less, will be better than one large 
one. Small bags of musquito netting, lino, crinoline, or other 
porous material, should be provided, made in shape like a pillow- 
case, and open at one end; these may be from six to fifteen inches 


10 


long. When small fishes, reptiles, or other specimens, are pro- 
cured in any locality, they may be placed indiscriminately in one 
or more of these bags (the mouths of which are to be tied up like 
a sack or pinned over), and then thrown into the alcohol. Pre- 
viously, however, a label of parchment, or stout writing paper 
should be placed inside the bag, containing the name of the locality 
or other mark, and written in ordinary ink or pencil. The label, 
if dry before being placed in the bag, will retain its writing un- 
changed for a long time. The locality, or its number, should also 
be coarsely marked with a red pencil, on the outside of the bag, 
or a second piece of numbered parchment pinned on. This, if dry 
when pinned, will swell so as to be in no danger of being lost off. 
In this way, the specimens, besides being readily identified, are 
preserved from rubbing against each other, and consequent injury. 
Still farther to facilitate this object, an India-rubber gas-bag may 
be employed to great advantage, by introducing it into the vessel, 
and inflating until all vacant space is filled up by the bag, and the 
consequent displacement of the spirit. When additional specimens 
are to be added, a portion of the air may be let out, and the bag 
afterwards again inflated. In the absence of these arrangements a 
quantity of tow, cotton, or rags, kept over the specimens, will be 
found useful in preventing their friction against each other or the 
sides of the vessel. 

The tin cans with screw caps for preserving meats and vegetables 
from the atmosphere, and now so universally used, may be employed 
as a substitute for the copper tanks, as being cheaper and more 
easily obtained. The most useful sizes are a quart and half gallon. 
Care must, however, be taken not to crowd too many specimens in 
the cans, to have them full of alcohol, and to change the spirit at 
least once. 

The larger snakes should be skinned, as indicated hereafter, and 
the skins thrown into alcohol. Much space will in this way be 
saved. Smaller specimens may be preserved entire, together with 
lizards, salamanders, and small frogs. All of these that can be 
caught should be secured and preserved. The head, the legs with 
the feet, the tail, in fact, the entire skin of turtles may be preserved 
in alcohol; the soft parts then extracted from the shell, which is 
to be washed and dried. 

Reptiles are to be sought for in different localities: those covered 
with scales can generally be readily observed: the naked skinned 


‘11 


ones are generally more or less concealed. Tree frogs will be found 
in early spring by the side of small streams or ponds in the woods 
or meadows. Salamanders are found under logs or bark in damp 
woods, or under flat stones near or in the water. 

Every stream, and, indeed, when possible, many localities in each 
stream, should be explored for fishes, which are to be preserved as 
directed. For these, as well as the other alcoholic collections, the 
lino bags are very useful. 

The stomachs of fishes and other vertebrates will often be found 
to contain rare animals not otherwise procurable, and should be 
carefully examined. 

Great attention should be paid to procuring many specimens of 
the different kinds of small fishes, usually known as minnows, 
shiners, chubs, &c. Among these will always be found the greatest 
variety of species, some never exceeding an inch in length. These 
fish are generally neglected under the idea that they are merely 
the young of larger kinds; even if they should prove to be such, 
however, they will be none the less interesting. Different forms 
will be found in different localities. Thus the Ltheostomata, or 
Darters, and the Cott’, live under stones or among gravel, in 
shallow, clear streams, lying flat on the ground. Others will be 
dislodged by stirring under roots or shelving banks along the 
water’s edge. The Melanure, or mud-fish (a few inches in length), 
dwell ¢z the mud of ditches, and are secured by stirring up this 
mud into a thin paste with the feet, and then drawing a net 
through it. The sticklebacks and cyprinodonts live along the 
edges of fresh and salt water. The Zygonectes swim in pairs slowly 
along the surface of the water, the tip of the nose generally ex- 
posed. They generally have a broad black stripe on the side. By 
a careful attention to these hints, many localities supposed to be 
deficient in species of fishes will be found to yield a large number. 

After the death of a mammal or bird, or after the skin has been 
prepared a short time, lice will be seen on the surface, generally 
near the head. These should be carefully preserved on small pa- 
pers and marked, separately, with the name or number of the spe- 
cimen to which they belong. 

The alcohol used on a march may be supplied with tartar emetic. 
This, besides adding to its preservative power, will remove any 
temptation to drink it on the part of unscrupulous persons. 

Insects, excepting the Lepidoptera, and those covered with hairs 


12 


or scales, can be readily preserved in alcohol. Small bottles should 
be used for the purpose. Crabs and small shells, and aquatic ani- 
mals generally, may, likewise be treated in the same manner. 

It is not usually possible to collect minerals, fossils, and geo- 
logical specimens in very great mass while travelling. The fossils 
selected should be as perfect as possible ; and especial care should 
be paid to procuring the bones and teeth of vertebrate animals. 
Of minerals and rocks, specimens as large as a hickory-nut will, in 
many cases, be sufficient for identification. . 

Where collections cannot be made in any region, it will be very 
desirable to procure lists of all the known species, giving the names 
by which they are generally recognized, as well as the scientific 
name, when this is practicable. The common names of specimens 
procured should also be carefully recorded. 

All facts relating to the habits and characteristics of the various 
species of animals, however trivial and commonplace they may 
seem, should be carefully recorded in the note book, especially 
those haying relation to the peculiarities of the season of repro- 
duction, &c. The accounts of hunters and others should also be 
collected, as much valuable information may thus be secured. The 
colors of the reptiles and fishes when alive should always be given, 
when practicable, or, still better, painted on a rough sketch of the 
object. 


LIST OF APPARATUS USEFUL FOR TRAVELLING PARTIES. 


1. Two WOODEN CHESTS; OR TWO LEATHER PANNIERS supplied 
with back strap for throwing across a mule, when the transporta- 
tion is entirely by pack animals. One of these is intended to con- 
tain the copper kettles, and their included alcohol, together with 
the nets and other apparatus; the other to hold the botanical 
apparatus, skins of animals, minerals, &c. These, when full, should 
not weigh more than one hundred and fifty pounds the pair. 
Where the transportation is by wagons, the kettles may be carried 
in stout wooden chests, about two feet long, one foot wide, and one 
foot high outside, made of inch stuff. Two half-inch partitions 
inside may cut off spaces at each end large enough to receive 
kettles six inches broad, leaving an intermediate space of nine 
inches for the accommodation of nets, ete. It will be found very 
convenient to have a chest fitted with trays dropping in from 


13 


above, to carry more readily and securely skins of birds, small 
mammals, eggs, etc. 

2. Two COPPER KETTLES in one of the panniers or chests, to 
contain the alcohol for such specimens as require this mode of 
preservation, viz: Reptiles, fishes, sometimes birds, small quadru- 
peds, most insects, crabs, and all-soft invertebrates. 

3. HALF A DOZEN OR MORE TIN PRESERVING CANS, of different 
sizes, from pint to gallon. These may replace the copper cans, 
though they are not so durable. Many of the ordinary stores of 
the expedition may be cargied in these cans, which, when emptied, 
can then be used for preserving specimens. 

4. AN IRON WRENCH to loosen the screw-caps of the copper ket- 
tles when too tight to be managed by hand. 

5. Two INDIA-RUBBER BAGS, One for each kettle. These are in- 
tended to be inflated inside of the kettles, and by displacing the 
alcohol cause it to rise to the edge of the brass cap, and thus fill 
the kettle. Unless this is done, and any unoccupied space thus 
filled up, the specimens will be washed against the sides of the 
vessel, and much injured. 

6. SMALL BAGS MADE OF LINO, MUSQUITO-NETTING, OR COTTON, of 
different sizes, and open at one end. ‘These are intended, in the 
first place, to separate the specimens of different localities from 
each other; and, in the second place, to secure them from mutua, 
friction or other injury. These bags may be respectively 7 x 3 
inches, 11 X 5, and 15 X 7: of the latter size one-third as many 
as of each of the others will be sufficient: about 100 may be taken 
in all. The number or name corresponding to the locality is to 
be marked on the outside with red chalk, or written with ink on a 
slip of parchment, and dropped inside. The specimens are then to 
be placed in the bag, a string tied round the open end, or the end 
pinned up, and the bag thrown into alcohol. A piece of parchment 
may also be pinned on the outside, so as at the same time to close 
the mouth of the bag by folding over once or twice. The ink of 
the parchment must be dry before the slip is moistened in any way, 

N. B. All mammals, and fishes and reptiles over five or six 
inches in length should have a small incision made in the abdomen, 
to facilitate the introduction of the alcohol. Larger snakes and 
small quadrupeds, too large to preserve entire, may be skinned, and 
the skins placed in alcohol. The skin covering the belly in tho 
mammals should always be loosened from its adhesion to the walls 
of the abdomen, to prevent the hair from coming out. 


14 


7. Prncrts for marking the bags. 

8. PARCHMENT to serve as labels for the bags. This may also 
be cut up into strips, and fastened by strings to such specimens as 
are not suited for the bags. Leather, kid, buckskin, &c., will also 
answer as substitutes. 

9. FISHING-LINE AND HOOKS. 

10. SMALL sEINEs for catching fishes in small streams. The 
two ends should be fastened to brails or sticks (hoe-handles answer 
well), which are taken in the hands of two persons, and the net 
drawn both up and down stream. Fish@s may often be caught by 
stirring up the gravel or small stones in a stream, and drawing 
the net rapidly down the current. Bushes or holes along the 
banks may be inclosed by the nets, and stirred so as to drive out - 
the fishes, which usually lurk in such localities. These nets may 
be six or eight feet long. 

11. Pocket ScOOP-NET; AND CASTING-NET. 

12. Atconot. About five gallons to each travelling party. 
This should be about 95 per cent. in strength, and medicated by 
the addition of one ounce of tartar emetic to one gallon of alcohol, 
to prevent persons from drinking it. 

13. ARSENIC in pound tin canisters. This may be applied to 
the moist skins of birds and quadrupeds, either dry or mixed with 
alcohol. Arsenical soap may also be used. 

14, ALUM AND SALTPETRE, finely powdered and intimately mixed 
in the proportion of two parts of the former, and one of the latter. 
Ten or fifteen pounds may be taken, to be used in the preparation 
of large skins. It can best be carried in the tin preserving cans, 
with screw caps, and applied from a small tin dredging box. 

15. TARTAR EMETIC for medicating the alcohol as above. 

16. Some DRACHM BOTTLES OF STRYCHNINE for poisoning carni- 
vorous animals—wolves, foxes, bears, ete.—and for protecting cer- 
tain parts of skins from insects. 

17. Some cAMPHOR. 

18. Corron or Tow for stuffing out the heads of birds and 
mammals. To economize space, but little should be put into the 
bodies of the animals. The skulls of the quadrupeds, except very 
small ones, may be removed from the skins, but carefully preserved 
with a common mark. 

19. Paper for wrapping up the skins of birds and small quad- 
rupeds, each separately. The paper supplied for botanical pur- 
poses will answer for this. 


15 


20. A BALL OF STOUT COTTON TWINE. 

21. A SHEET OF PARCHMENT. 

22. BUTCHER KNIFE, SCISSORS, NEEDLES, AND THREAD, for skin- 
ning and sewing up animals: also, some papers of COMMON PINS. 

23. BLANK LABELS of paper with strings attached for marking 
localities, sex, &c., and tying to the legs of the dried skins, or to 
the stems of plants. The name of the expedition and of its com- 
mander may be printed on the upper margin, and of the collector 
at the right end of the lower. 

24. Porrrotio for collecting plants. 

25. Press for drying plants between the blotting-paper. Pres- 
sure is applied by straps. 

26. VERY ABSORBENT PAPER for drying plants. 

27. SvIFFER PAPER for collecting plants in the field. The same 
paper may be used for wrapping up skins of birds and quadrupeds, 
as well as minerals and fossils. 

28. SMALL BOTTLES with wide mouths for collecting and pre- 
serving insects, ete. They should always be properly corked be- 
forehand; 2 and 4 oz. are convenient sizes. Homeopathic bottles 
may also be added to advantage. 

29. GEOLOGICAL HAMMER. 

30. DoUBLE-BARRELLED GUN AND RIFLE; also shot-belt, powder- 
flask, powder, shot, percussion caps, and wadding. 

31. Frne snor for small birds and mammals. Numbers 8, 6, 
and 9, or 10, are proper sizes; the latter should always be taken. 

32. A PocKET CASE of dissecting instruments will be very con- 
venient. 

33. BLOWPIPE APPARATUS for mineralogical examinations. 

34. PockeET VIAL for insects. 

35. Borris or eruer for killing insects. 

36. Insect Pins, and apparatus for capturing insects. 

37. CORK-LINED BOXES. 

38. Pockrer noTE-BooK. The kind made of what is called me- 
tallic paper, with which a pewter pencil is used, is much the best, 
as not liable to being defaced. Every specimen should have its 
number, beginning with 1, marked on the label or object itself, and 
entered in the record, and but a single series for those dried and in 
alcohol. The different parts of the same object should have a sin- 
gle, common number, as a skin and its skull or skeleton; a bird and 
its nest or eggs, etc. Where several specimens of one locality are 


16 


enclosed in bags, however, a single number will suffice, unless some 
particular reference is to be made to any one of them. All notes 
of habits, ete., are to be made in the note-book; but the date, 
locality, and sex should be marked in addition on the label of the 
specimen. 


¢ Il. INSTRUMENTS, PRESERVATIVE MATERIALS, &c. 


1. IMPLEMENTS FOR SKINNING. 


The implements generally required in skinning vertebrated ani- 
mals are: 1. A sharp knife or a scalpel. 2. A pair of sharp- 
pointed scissors, and one with strong short blades. 3. Needles 
and thread for sewing up the incisions in the skin. 4. A pair of 
spring forceps, rather sharp pointed, for adjusting the skin and 
feathers of birds, especially about the head, and for other purposes. 
5. A pair of long forceps for introducing cotton into the neck of 
animals, ete. 6. A hook by which to suspend the carcass of the 
animal during the operation of skinning. To prepare the hook, 
take a string, of from one to three feet in length, and fasten one 
end of it to a stout fish-hook which has had the barb broken off. 
By means of a loop at the other end, the string may be suspended 
to a nail or awl, which, when the hook is inserted into the body of 
an animal, will give free use of both hands in the operation of 
skinning. 


2, PRESERVATIVES. 


The best material for the preservation of skins of animals con- 
sists of powdered arsenious acid, or the common arsenic of the 
shops. This may be used in two ways, either applied in dry pow- 
der to the moist skin, or still better mixed with alcohol or water 
to the consistency of molasses, and put on with a brush. Some 
camphor may be added to the alcoholic solution, and a little strych- 
nine will undoubtedly increase its efficacy. There are no satisfac- 
tory substitutes for arsenic; but, in its entire absence, corrosive 
sublimate, camphor, alum, &c., may be employed. Many persons 
prefer the arsenical soap to the pure arsenic. This is composed 
of the following ingredients: arsenic 1 0z.; white soap 1 0z.; car- 
bonate of potash 1 drachm; water 6 drachms; camphor 2 drachms. 
Cut the soap into thin slices, and melt over a slow fire with the 
water, stirring it continually: when dissolved, remove from the fire 


17 


and add the potash and arsenic by degrees: dissolve the camphor 
in a little alcohol, and when the mixture is nearly cold stir it in. 

The proper materials for stuffing out skins will depend much 
upon the size of the animal. For small birds and quadrupeds, 
cotton will be found most convenient; for the larger, tow. For 
those still larger, dry grass, straw, sawdust, bran, or other vege- 
table substances, may be used. Whatever substance be used, care 
must be taken to have it perfectly dry. Under no circumstances 
should animal matter, as hair, wool, or feathers, be employed. 

The bills and loral region, as well as the legs and feet of birds, 
and the ears, lips, and toes of mammals, may, as most exposed to 
the ravages of insects, be washed with an alcoholic solution of 
strychnine applied with a brush to the dried skin; this will be an 
almost certain safeguard against injury. 


@ III. SKINNING AND STUFFING. 


1. BIRDS. 


Whenever convenient, the following notes should be made pre- 
vious to commencing the operation of skinning, as they will add 
much to the value of the specimens :— 

1. The length, in inches, from tip of bill to the end of the tail ; 
the distance between the two extremities of the outstretched wings; 
and the length of the wing from the carpal or first joint. The 
numbers may be recorded as follows: 44, 66, 12 (as for a swan), 
without any explanation ; it being well understood that the above 
measurements follow each other in a fixed succession. These 
numbers may be written on the back of the label attached to each 
specimen. 

2. The color of the eyes, that of the feet, bill, gums, membranes, 
carancles, &e. 

3. The date, the locality, and the name of the collector. 

4. The sex. All these points should be recorded on the label, 

Immediately after a bird is killed, the holes made by the shot, 
together with the mouth and internal or posterior nostrils, should 
be plugged up with cotton, to prevent the escape of blood and the 
juices of the stomach. A long narrow paper cone should be made; 
the bird, if small enough, thrust in, head foremost, and the open 

2 


18 


end folded down, taking care not to bend or break or bend the tail 
feathers in the operation.* 

When ready to proceed to skinning, remove the old cotton from 
the throat, mouth, and nostrils, and replace it by fresh. Then 
take the dimensions from the point of the bill to the end of the tail, 
from the tip of one wing to that of the other, when both are ex- 
tended, and from the tip of the wing to the first or carpal-joint, as 
already indicated. 

A recent author recommendst that the girth of the bird be 
taken before skinning, by means of a band of stiff paper passed 
round the middle of the body over the wings, and pinned in the 
form of aring. It is then slipped off towards the feet, and after 
the skin is prepared, is replaced, the stuffing inserted being enough 
to keep it from falling off. The exact circumference of the original 
bird can thus be readily maintained. In fact, the ring may be 
slipped on before the stuffing is commenced, and enough cotton 
inserted to fill out the shoulders within the paper. 

After these preliminaries, make an incision through the skin 
only, from the lower end of the breast bone to the anus. Should 
the intestines protrude in small specimens, they had better be ex- 
tracted, great care being taken not to soil the feathers. Now 
proceed carefully to separate the skin on each side from the sub- 
jacent parts, until you reach the knee, and expose the thigh 
when, taking the leg in one hand, push or thrust the knee up on 
the abdomen, and loosen the skin around it until you can place 
the scissors or knife underneath, and separate the joint with the 
accompanying muscles. Place a little cotton between the skin and 
body to prevent adhesion. Loosen the skin about the base of the 
tail, and cut through the vertebre at the last joint, taking care not 
to sever the basis of the quills. Suspend the body by inserting 
the hook into the lower part of the back or rump, and invert the 
skin, loosening it carefully from the body. On reaching the wings, 
which had better be felaxed previously by stretching and pulling, 
loosen the skin from around the first bone, and cut through the 
middle of it, or, if the bird be small enough, separate it from the 
next at the elbow. Continue the inversion of the skin by drawing 


* Crumpled or bent feathers may have much of their elasticity and 
original shape restored by dipping in hot water. 
t Davies’ Naturalist’s Guide. Edinburgh, 1858, page 19. 


19 


it over the neck, until the skull is exposed. Arrived at this point, 
detach the delicate membrane of the ear from its cavity in the skull, 
if possible, without cutting or tearing it; then, by means of the 
thumb-nails, loosen the adhesion of the skin to the other parts of 
the head, until you come to the very base of the mandibles, taking 
care to cut through the white nictitating membrane of the eye, 
when exposed, without lacerating the ball. Scoop out the eyes, 
and, by making one cut on each side of the head, through the 
small bone connecting the base of the lower jaw with the skull, 
another through the roof of the mouth at the base of the upper 
mandible, and between the jaws of the lower, and a fourth through 
the skull behind the orbits, and parallel to the roof of the mouth, 
you will have freed the skull from all the accompanying brain and 
muscle. Should anything still adhere, it may be removed sepa- 
rately. In making the first two cuts, care must be taken not to 
injure or sever the zygoma, a small bone extending from the base 
of the upper mandible to the base of the lower jaw-bone. Clean 
off every particle of muscle and fat from the head and neck, and, 
applying the preservative abundantly to the skull, inside and out, 
as well as to thé skin, restore these parts to their natural position. 
In all the preceding operations, the skin should be handled as near 
the point of adhesion as possible, especial care being taken not to 
stretch it. 

Finely powdered plaster of Paris, chalk, or whiting, may be 
used to great advantage by sprinkling on the exposed surface of 
the carcass, and inside of skin, to absorb the grease and blood. 

An excellent suggestion of Mr. Davies, the author just quoted, 
in the case of greasy, fatty, or bloody specimens, is to have strips 
of calico or cotton cloth, and to baste them on the inside of the 
skin along the edges of the incision, so that they may project a 
little beyond the feathers. This will be exceedingly effectual in 
keeping the feathers clean. The cloth should be applied as soon 
as the edges of the first incision are raisedsenough to admit of it. 
This will answer the additional purpose of preventing the stretch- 
ing of the skin. 

The next operation is to connect the two wings inside of the 
skin by means of a string, which should be passed between the 
lower ends of the two bones forming the forearm, previously, how- 
ever, cutting off the stump of the arm, if still adhering at the elbow. 
Tie the two ends of the strings so that the wings shall be kept at 


20 


the same distance apart as when attached to the body. Skin the 
leg down to the scaly part, or tarsus, and remove all the muscle. 
Apply the arsenic to the bone and skin, and, wrapping cotton 
round the bone, pull it back to its place. Remove all the muscle 
and fat which may adhere to the base of the tail or the skin, and 
put on plenty of the preservative wherever this can be done. Lift 
up the wing, and remove the muscle from the forearm by making 
an incision along it. In many cases, the two joints may be exposed 
by carefully slipping down the skin towards the wrist-joint, the 
adhesion of the quills to the bone being loosened: this is, however, 
scarcely an advisable method. It is perhaps generally better to 
clean the forearm from the inside before tying the wings. 

The bird is now to be restored to something like its natural 
shape by means of a filling of cotton or tow. Begin by opening 
the mouth and putting cotton into the orbits and upper part of 
the throat, until these parts have their natural shape. Next 
take tow or cotton, and after making a roll rather less in thickness 
than the original neck, put it into the skin, and push firmly into 
the base of the skull. This can best be done by means of long 
forceps. By means of this, you can reduce or contract the neck 
if too much stretched. Fill the body with cotton, not quite to 
its original dimensions, and sew up the incision in the skin, com- 
mencing at the upper end, and passing the needle from the inside 
outwards; tie the legs and mandibles together, adjust the fea- 
thers, and, after preparing a cylinder of paper the size of the 
bird, or using one previously prepared as suggested on page 18, 
push the skin into it so as to bind the wings closely to the sides. 
The cotton may be put in loosely, or a body the size of the original 
made by wrapping with threads. If the bird have long legs and 
neck, these had better be folded down over the body, and allowed 
to dry in that position. Economy of space is a great object in 
keeping skins, and such birds as herons, geese, swans, &c., occupy 
too much room when outstretched. 

In some instances, as among the ducks, woodpeckers, &c., the 
head is so large that the skin of the neck cannot be drawn over it. 
In such cases, skin the neck down to the base of the skull, and cut 
it off there. Then draw the head out again, and, making an in- 
cision on the outside, down the back of the skull, skin the head. 
Be careful not to make too long a cut, and to sew up the incision 
again. 


21 


The sex of the specimen may be ascertained after skinning, by 
making an incision in the side near the vertebra, and exposing the 
inside surface of the ‘‘ small of the back.” The generative organs 
will be found tightly bound to this region (nearly opposite to. the 
last ribs), and separating it from the intestines. The testicles ot 
the male will be observed as two spheroidal or ellipsoidal whitish 
bodies, varying with the season and species, from the size of a pin’s 
head to that of a hazel-nut. The ovaries of the female, consisting 
of a flattened mass of spheres, variable in size with the season, will 
be found in the same region. 

Some writers advise a very careful cleaning out of the skull, 
without cutting away any of the bones, so that the skin, if other- 
wise useless, will at any time furnish a skull for the osteological 
series. This, however, requires so much more time, that it can 
scarcely be done on a journey, and a skull can generally be better 
obtained from another specimen, too much shot, perhaps, to be 
skinned. 

The breast bone with its attachments, of at least one specimen 
of each species, should be cleaned and preserved. 

For transportation, each skin of mammals as well as of birds 
should, when possible, be wrapped in paper, or else arranged in 
trays lined with cotton, and the interstices filled with the same 
material. 


2. MAMMALS. 


The mode of preparing mammals is precisely the same as for 
birds, in all its general features. Care should be taken not to 
make too large an incision along the abdomen. The principal 
difficulty will be experienced in skinning the tail. To effect this, 
pass the slipknot of a piece of strong twine over the severed end 
of the tail, and, fastening the vertebre firmly to some support, pull 
the twine towards the tip until the skin is forced off. Should the 
animal be large, and an abundance of preservative not at hand, 
the skin may remain inverted. In all cases, it should be tho- 
roughly and rapidly dried. Further remarks on this subject will 
be found in the introductory chapter. 

The tails of some mammals cannot be skinned as directed above. 
This is particularly the case with beavers, opossums, and those 
species which use their tail for prehension or locomotion. Here 
the tail is usually supplied with numerous tendinous muscles, which 


22 


require it to be skinned by making a cut along the lower surface 
or right side, nearly from one end to the other, and removing the 
bone and flesh. It should then be sewed up again, after a previous 
stuffing. 

for the continued preservation of hair or fur of animals against 
the attacks of moths and other destructive insects, it may be satu- 
rated with a solution of arsenic in water to be strained and applied 
rather warm. A little strychnine added will be of much service. 

A free use of tobacco scraps among skins, though no security 
against the attacks of insects, will be of use. Kreosote is also an 
excellent remedy, though a disagreeable one. The Persian Insect 
powder (made from the leaves and stems of Pyrethrum, and form- 
ing the basis of the so-called magnetic powders of Lyon and 
others), when fresh, will also keep off insects. Perhaps none of 
these remedies, including ether, chloroform and turpentine, will 
kill larvee; they may repel the .perfect insect, but when the eggs 
are laid, there is scarcely any remedy except exposing the skins to 
a temperature a little below that of boiling water for ten or twelve 
hours, and thus drying up the egg or grub. The best plan there- 
fore will be to keep the skins clean, and not packed too tightly, 
and in close fitting drawers or trays. (See also page 8.) 


3. REPTILES. 


The larger Zizards, such as those exceeding twelve or eighteen 
inches in length, may be skinned according to the principles above 
mentioned, and then dried, although preservation in spirit, when 
possible, is preferable for all reptiles. 

Large frogs and salamanders may likewise be skinned, although 
cases where this will be advisable are very rare. 

Turtles and large snakes will require this operation. 

To one accustomed to the skinning of birds, the skinning of frogs 
or other reptiles will present no difficulties. 

The skinning of a snake is still easier. Open the mouth and 
separate the skull from the vertebral column, detaching all sur- 

rounding muscles adherent to the skin. Next, tie a string around 
the stump of the neck thus exposed (see figure), and, holding on 
by this, strip the skin down to the extremity of the tail. The skin 
thus inverted should be restored to its proper state, and then put 
in spirit or stuffed, as convenient. Skins of reptiles may be stuffed 


23 


with either sand or sawdust, by the use of which their shape is 
more easily restored, or they may be simply flattened out. 





Turtles and tortoises are more difficult to prepare in this way, 

although their skinning can be done quite rapidly. ‘‘The breast- 
plate must be separated by a knife or saw from the back, and, when 

the viscera and fleshy parts have been removed, restored to its posi- 
tion. The skin of the head and neck must be turned inside out, 
as far as the head, and the vertebre and flesh of the neck should 
be detached from the head, which, after being freed from the flesh, 
the brain, and the tongue, may be preserved with the skin of the 
neck. In skinning the legs and the tail, the skin must be turned 
inside out, and, the flesh having been removed from the bones, they 
are to be returned to their places by redrawing the skin over them, 
first winding a little cotton or tow around the bones to prevent the 
skin adhering to them when it dries.’—RiIcHARD OWEN. 

Another way of preparing these reptiles is as follows: Make two 
incisions, one from the anterior end of the breastplate to the sym- 
physis of the lower jaw, and another from the posterior end of the 
breastplate to the vent or tip of the tail; skin off these regions and 
remove all fleshy parts and viscera without touching the breastplate 
itself. Apply the preservative, stuff, and sew up again both inci- 
sions. 

‘“‘ When turtles, tortoises, crocodiles, or alligators, are too large 
to be preserved whole in liquor, some parts, as the head, the whoie 
viscera stripped down from the neck to the vent, and the cloaca, 
should be put into spirit or solution.”—-R. OWEN. 


4, FISHES. 


As a general rule, fishes, when not too large, are best preserved 
entire in spirits. 


24 


Nevertheless, they may be usefully skinned and form collections, 
the value of which is not generally appreciated. In many cases, 
too, when spirit or solutions cannot be procured, a fish ney be pre- 
served which would otherwise be lost. 7 

There are two modes of taking the skin of a fish: 1. The whole 
animal can be skinned and stuffed like a bird, mammal, or reptile. 
2. One-half of the fish can be skinned, and nevertheless its natural 
form preserved. 

Sharks, skates, sturgeons, garptkes or garfishes, mudfishes, and all 
those belonging to the natural orders of Placotds and Ganoids, 
should undergo the same process as given above for birds, mammals, 
and reptiles. An incision should be made along the right side, the 
left always remaining intact, or along the belly. The skin is next 
removed from the flesh, the fins cut at their bases under the skin, 
and the latter inverted until the base of the skull is exposed. The 
inner cavity of the head should be cleaned, an application of pre- 
servative made, and the whole, after being stuffed in the ordinary 
way, sewed up again. Fins may be expanded when wet, on a piece 
of stiff paper, which will keep them sufficiently stretched for the 
purpose. A varnish may be passed over the whole body and fins, 
to preserve somewhat the color. 

In the case of Otenodds, perches, and allied genera ; and Cycloids 
trouts, suckers, and allied genera; one-half of the fish may be skin- 
ned and preserved. To effect this, lay the fish on a table with 
the left side up; the one it is intended to preserve. Spread ont 
the fins by putting underneath each a piece of paper, to which it 
will adhere on drying. When the fins are dried, turn the fish over, 
cut with scissors or a knife all around the body, a little within the 
dorsal and ventral lines, from the upper and posterior part of the 
head, along the back to the tail, across the base of the caudal fin 
down, and thence along the belly to the lower part of the head 
again. The dorsal, caudal, and anal fins, cut below their articula- 
tions. This done, separate the whole of the body from the left 
side of the skin, commencing at the tail. When near the head, 
eut off the body, with the right ventral and pectoral fins, and pro- 
ceed by making a section of the head and removing nearly the half 
of it. Clean the inside, and pull out the left eye, leaving only the 
cornea and pupil. Cut a circular piece of black paper of the size 
of the orbit and place it close to the pupil. Apply the preserva- 
tive, fill the head with cotton as well as the body. Turn over the 


25 


skin and fix it on a board prepared for that purpose. Pin or tack 
it down at the base of the fins. Have several narrow bands of 
paper to place across the body in order to give it a natural form, 
and let it dry. The skins may be taken off the board or remain 
fixed to it, when sent to their destination, where they should be 
placed on suitable boards of proper size, for permanent preserva- 
tion. 

Such a collection of well-prepared fishes will be useful to the 
practical naturalist, and illustrate, in a more complete manner, to 
the public the diversified forms and characters of the class of fishes 
which specimens preserved in alcohol do not so readily show. 

These skins may also be preserved in alcohol. 


@1V. PRESERVING IN LIQUIDS, AND. BY OTHER MODES 
BESIDES SKINNING. 


1. GENERAL REMARKS. 


The best material for preserving animals of moderate size is 
alcohol. When spirits cannot be obtained, the following substi- 
tutes may be used :— 

I. Goapsy’s Sotution.—A. The aluminous fluid, composed of 
rock salt, 4 ounces; alum, 2 ounces; corrosive sublimate, 4 
grains ; boiling water, 2 quarts. B. Zhe saline solution, composed 
of rock-salt, 8 ounces; corrosive sublimate, 2 grains; boiling 
water, 1 quart. To be well stirred, strained, and cooled. 

II. A strong brine, to be used as hereafter indicated for 
Goadby’s Solution. 

III. Jn extreme cases, dry salt may be used, and the specimens 
salted down like herring, &c. 

The alcohol, when of the ordinary strength, may be diluted with 
one-fifth of water, unless it is necessary to crowd the specimens 
very much. The fourth proof whiskey of the distillery, or the 
high wines, constituting an alcohol of about 60 per cent., will be 
found best suited for collections made at permanent stations and 
for the museum. Lower proofs of rum or whiskey will also answer, 
but the specimen must not be crowded at all. 

To use Goadby’s Solution, the animal should first be macerated 
for a few hours in fresh water, to which about half its volume of 


26 


the concentrated solution may then be added. After soaking thus 
for some days, the specimens may be transferred to fresh concen- 
trated solution. When the aluminous fluid is used to preserve 
vertebrate animals, these should not remain in it for more than a 
few days; after this, they are to be soaked in fresh water, and 
transferred to the saline solution. An immersion of some weeks 
in the aluminous fluid will cause a destruction of the bones. 
Specimens must be kept submerged in these fluids. The success 
of the operation will depend very much upon the use of a weak 
solution in the first instance, and a change to the saturated fluid 
by one or two intermediate steps. 

The collector should have a small keg, jar, tin box, or other 
suitable vessel, partially filled with liquor, into which specimens 
may be thrown (alive if possible) as collected. The entrance of 
the spirit into the cavities of the body should be facilitated by 
opening the mouth, making a small incision in the abdomen a 
half or one inch long, or by injecting the liquor into the intestines 
through the anus, by means of a small syringe. After the animal 
has soaked for some weeks in this liquor, it should be transferred 
to fresh. Care should be taken not to crowd the specimens too 
much. When it is impossible to transfer specimens to fresh spirits 
from time to time, the strongest alcohol should be originally used. 

To pack the larger specimens for transportation, procure a small 
keg, which has been properly swelled, by allowing water to stand 
in it for a day or two, and from this extract the head by knocking 
off the upper hoops. Great care must be taken to make such 
marks on the hoops and head as will assist in their being replaced 
in precisely the same relative position to each other and the keg 
that they originally held. At the bottom of the keg place a layer 
of tow or rags, moistened in liquor, then one of specimens, then 
another of tow and another of specimens, and so on alternately 
until the keg is entirely filled, exclusive of the spirit. Replace the 
head, drive down the hoops, and fill completely with spirits by 
pouring through the bung-hole. Allow it to stand at least half an 
hour, and then, supplying the deficiency of the liquor, insert the 
bung and fasten it securely. An oyster-can or other tin vessel 
may be used to great advantage, in which case the aperture should 
be soldered up and the vessel inclosed in a box. A glass jar or 
bottle may also be employed, but there is always a risk of breaking 
and leaking. The specimens may also be transported in the copper 


27 


vessels referred to on pages 9 and 138, and also in the tin pre- 
serving cans. In the absence of tow or rags, chopped straw, fine 
shavings, or dry grass may be substituted. 

It will conduce greatly to the perfect preservation of the speci- 
mens, during transportation, if each one is wrapped up in cotton 
cloth, or even paper. A number of smaller specimens may be 
rolled successively in the same wrapper. In this way, friction, and 
the consequent destruction of scales, fins, &c., will be prevented 
almost entirely. The travelling bags described on p. 13 will answer 
the same purpose. 

Should the specimens to be packed vary in size, the largest 
should be placed at the bottom. If the disproportion be very 
great, the delicate objects at the top must be separated from those 
below by means of some immovable partition, which, in the event 
of the vessel being inverted, will prevent crushing. The most im- 
perative rule, however, in packing, is to have the vessel perfectly 
full, any vacancy exposing the whole to the risk of loss. 

It is sometimes necessary to guard against the theft of the spirit 
employed by individuals who will not be deterred from drinking it 
by the presence of reptiles, &c. This may be done by adding a 
small quantity of tartar emetic, ipecacuanha, quassia, or some other 
disagreeable substance. The addition of a little arsenic will add 
to the preservative power of the spirit. A small quantity of soap 
is said to have a remarkable effect in preserving the color; a little 
saltpetre appears to have also the same effect. 


2. VERTEBRATES. 


Mammals and birds should always have an incision made in the 
abdomen to admit the spirit. In the former the skin on each side 
of the cut should also be raised or separated from its attachment 
to the subjacent walls, to prevent the hair from coming off. Where 
several specimens of a kind are preserved it will be well to remove 
the intestines entirely from some of them, to insure their sound 
preservation. 

Fishes over five or six inches in length should also have the 
abdominal incision. Specimens with the scales and fins perfect 
should be selected, and, if convenient, stitched, pinned, or wrapped 
in bits of muslin, &c., to preserve the scales; placing them in the 
lino bags will answer the latter object. In general, fishes under 


28 


twelve or fifteen inches in length should be chosen. The skins of 
larger ones may be put in liquor. It is important to collect even 
the smallest. The same principles apply to the other vertebrata. 

The smallest and most delicate specimens may be placed in 
bottles or vials, and packed in the larger vessels with the other 
specimens. 


3. INVERTEBRATES. * 


Insects, Buas, &c.—The harder kinds may be put in liquor, as 
above, but the vessel or bottle should not be very large. Butter- 
flies, wasps, flies, &c., should be pinned in boxes, or packed in 
layers with soft paper or cotton. Minute species should be care- 
fully sought under stones, bark, dung, or flowers, or swept with a 
small net from grass or leaves. They may be put in quills, small 
cones of paper, or in glass vials. They can be readily killed by 
immersing the bottles, &c., in which they are collected, in hot 
water, or exposing them to the vapor of ether. Large beetles, 
however, can generally only be killed by piercing with some poi- 
sonous solution, as strychnine. 

When possible, a number of oz. or 2 oz. vials, with very wide 
mouths, well stopped by corks, should be procured, in which to 
place the more delicate invertebrata, as small crustacea, worms, 
mollusea, &e. 

It will frequently be found convenient to preserve or transport 
insects pinned down in boxes. The bottoms of these are best 
lined with cork or soft wood. The accompanying figures will ex- 
plain, better than any description, the particular part of different 
kinds of insects through which the pin is to be thrust; beetles 
(Fig. 1) being pinned: through the right wing-cover or elytra; all 
others through the middle of the thorax, as in Fig. 2. 

The traveller will find it very convenient to carry about him a 
vial having a broad mouth, closed by a tight cork. In this should 
be contained a piece of camphor, or, still better, of sponge soaked 
in ether, to kill the insects collected. From this the specimens 
should be transferred to other bottles. They may, if not hairy, be 
killed by immersing directly in alcohol. 


* A separate pamphlet in reference to collecting insects will be pub- 
lished by the Institution, and a special chapter on marine invertebrates 
will be found at the end of the present work. 


29 


A lump of camphor may be placed in a piece of cotton cloth and 
pinned firmly in the corner of the box containing dried insects, for 
the purpose of preventing the ravages of larve. A few drops of 
kreosote occasionally introduced will also answer the same purpose. 


Fig. 2. 





Sea-urchins and starfishes may be dried, after having been pre- 
viously immersed for a minute or two in boiling water, and packed 
up in cotton, or any soft material which may be at hand. 

The hard parts of coral, and shells of mollusca may also be pre- 
served in a dried state. The soft parts are removed by immersing 
the animals for a minute or two in hot water, and washing clean 
afterwards. The valves of bivalve shells should be brought to- 
gether by a string. 

Wingless insects, such as spiders, scorpions, centipedes or thou- 
sand-legs, earth-worms, hair-worms, and generally all worm-like 
animals found in the water, should be preserved in alcoholic liquor, 
and in small bottles or vials. 


@ V. EMBRYOS, 
Much of the future progress of zoology will depend upon the 


extent and variety of the collections which may be made of the 
embryos and fetuses of animals. No opportunity should be 


30 ‘ 


omitted to procure these and preserve them in spirits. All stages 
of development are equally interesting, and complete series for the 
same species would be of the highest importance. Whenever any 
female mammal is killed, the uterus should be examined for em- 
bryos. When eggs of birds, reptiles, or fish are emptied of their 
young, these should be preserved. It will be sufficiently evident 
that great care is required to label the specimens, as in most cases 
it will be impossible to determine the species from the zoological 
characters. 

Whenever the abundance of specimens will warrant it, as many 
as fifty eggs of the same kind of bird, in different degrees of deve- 
lopment, may be collected, care being taken to crack the egg at 
the blunt end, to facilitate the entrance of the spirit. 


@ VI. NESTS AND EGGS.* 


Nothing forms a more attractive feature in a museum, or is more 
acceptable to amateurs, than the nests and eggs of birds. These 
should be collected whenever they are met with, and in any number 
procurable for each species, as they are always in demand for pur- 
poses of exchange. Hundreds of eggs of any species with their 
nests (or without, when not to be had) will be gladly received. 

Nests require little preparation beyond packing so as to be 
secure from crumbling or injury. Each one should be placed in a 
box or ring of paper just large enough to hold it. The eggs of 
each nest, when emptied, may be replaced in it and the remaining 
space filled with cotton. 

Eggs, when fresh, and before the chick has formed, may be 
emptied by making small pin-holes on opposite sides, and blowing 
or sucking out the contents. Should hatching have already com- 
menced, an aperture may be made in one side by carefully pricking 
with a fine needle round a small circle or ellipse, and thus cutting 
outapiece. The larger kinds should be well washed inside, and all 
allowed to dry before packing away. If the egg be too small for 
the name, a number should be marked on it with ink corresponding 
to a memorandum list. Little precaution is required in packing, 
beyond arranging in layers with cotton and having the box entirely 


* A separate pamphlet has been published by the Institution in regard 
to the collecting of nests and eggs. 


* 31 


filled. It is always better to wrap each-egg in a loose coat of 
cotton before arranging in layers, and they should be packed in 
small wooden boxes. 

Cracked eggs should have strips of tissue paper pasted over the 
line of fracture; or the crack may be painted over with collodion 
while the sides are pressed together. 

The parent bird should be secured, and either skinned entire or 
the head and wing kept to identify the species. 

The eggs of reptiles, provided with a calcareous shell, can be 
prepared in a similar way. 

The eggs of fishes, salamanders, and frogs may be preserved in 
spirits, and kept in small vials or bottles. A label should never 
be omitted. 


@ VII. PREPARATION OF SKELETONS. 


Skulls of animals may be rapidly prepared by boiling in water 
for a few hours. A little potash or lye added will facilitate the 
removal of the flesh. 

Skeletons may be roughly prepared in the field by skinning the 
animal and removing all the viscera, together with as much of the 
flesh as possible. Whenever practicable, they should be allowed 
to soak a few hours in water to extract the blood. The bones 
should then be exposed to the sun or air until completely dried. 
Previously, however, the brain of large animals should be removed 
by separating the skull from the spine, and extracting the brain 
through the large hole in the back of the head. The head may be 
cleaned by boiling. In case it becomes necessary to disjoint a 
skeleton, care should be taken to attach a common mark to all the 
pieces, especially when more than one individual is packed in the 
same box. 

Skulls and skeletons may frequently be picked up, already cleaned 
by other animals or exposure to weather. By placing small animals 
near an ant’s nest, or in water occupied by tadpoles or small crus- 
tacea, very beautiful skeletons may often be obtained. The sea- 
beach sometimes affords rich treasures in the remains of porpoises, 
whales, large fishes, as sharks, and other aquatic species. 

Although, to save time and opportunities in the field, it is 
usually necessary to prepare skulls by boiling in water, as just ex- 
plained, the process is sometimes apt to leave the bones colored, 
or even somewhat greasy. The best method of preparing skulls 


32 


and skeletons for a museum is undoubtedly, after cutting away the 
greater mass of flesh, that of macerating, or allowing them to remain 
in cold water until the decaying flesh separates from the bones. 
At first, the water, as it becomes charged with blood, is poured 
off and replaced by fresh; after this is repeated for a time, the 
flesh becomes bleached, and the bones may then be suffered to 
remain as long as necessary (sometimes for weeks), removing the 
specimen from time to time and scraping off the softening flesh. 
After this has been all removed and the bones well scrubbed under 
water with a stiff brush, they should be soaked a little longer to 
remove any remnant of infiltrated blood. During these operations, 
care must be taken not to injure or separate any of the ligaments. 
Shreds of tendon may be cut off with a sharp knife or pair of scis- 
sors. The ligaments may then, according to Kyton,* be converted 
into a tough, leathery substance by immersion in a liquid prepared 
by making a saturated solution of common alum and, when cold, 
diluting it with an equal quantity of water, and adding half an 
-ounce of common salt for every half pound of alum. If the bones 
are free from blood, twenty-four hours’ immersion will be sufficient; 
large birds or other animals may require nearly a week. When 
removed from the solution, the bones must be washed under a cur- 
rent of water, or in a basin, and then allowed to dry in any desira- 
ble position. 

It is important, in preparing skeletons, not to allow the flesh to 
dry too soon on the bones, or, at least, to allow them to soak in 
water for a time before drying, as the subsequent operations will 
be rendered much easier. 

Greasy skulls or bones can be readily cleaned by immersion in 
ether for a length of time. The ether should be kept in a tight 
jar, and every precaution taken to prevent undue proximity to a 
light or the fire, the vapor being exceedingly explosive. A sim- 
pler method consists in boiling them in a large quantity of water, 
having a little potash added. 


@ VUI. PLANTS. 


The collector of plants requires but little apparatus ; a few quires 
or reams of unsized paper, of folio size, will furnish all that will be 


* Ibis, I, 1859, 55. 


33 


needed. The specimens as gathered may be placed in a tin box, 
or, still better, in a portfolio of paper, until reaching home. About 
forty or fifty sheets of the paper should be put into the portfolio on 
setting out on an excursion. Put the specimens of each species in 
a separate sheet as fast as gathered from the plant, taking a fresh 
sheet for each additional species. On returning to camp, place 
these sheets (without changing or disturbing the plants) between 
the absorbent drying papers in the press, and draw the straps tight 
enough to produce the requisite pressure. The next day the driers. 
may be changed, and those previously used laid in the sun to dry ; 
this to be continued until the plants are perfectly dry. If paper 
and opportunities of transportation be limited, several specimens 
from the same locality may be combined in the same sheet after 
they are dry. 

Place in each sheet a slip of paper having a number or name of 
locality written on it corresponding with a list kept in a memoran- 
dum book. Record the day of the month, locality, size, and cha- 
racter of the plant, color of flower, fruit, &c. 

If the stem is too long, double it or cut it into lengths. Collect, 
if possible, half a dozen specimens of each kind. In the small 
specimens, collect the entire plant, so as to show the root. 

In many instances, old newspapers will be found to answer a 
good purpose both in drying and in keeping plants, although the 
unprinted paper is best—the more porous and absorbent the better. 

When not travelling, pressure may be most conveniently applied 
to plants by placing them between two boards, with a weight of 
about 50 lbs. laid on the top. 

While on a march, the following directions for collecting plants, 
drawn up by Major Rich, are recommended :— 

Have thick cartridge or envelop paper, folded in gzarto form, 
and kept close and even by binding with strong cord ; newspapers 
will answer, but are liable to chafe and wear out; a few are very 
convenient to mix in with the hard paper as dryers. This herb- 
arium may be rolled up in the blanket while travelling, and placed 
on a pack-animal. The specimens collected along the road may 
be kept in the crown of the hat when without a collecting-box, 
and placed in paper at noon or at night. Great care should be 
taken to keep the papers dry and free from mould. When there 
is not time at noon to dry the papers in the sun, they should be 
dried at night by the fire, when, also, the dried specimens are 

3 


34 


placed at the bottom of the bundle, making room on top for the 
next day’s collection. A tin collecting-box is very convenient ; 
plants may be preserved for two or three days in one if kept damp 
and cool. It is also convenient in collecting /and-shells, which is 
generally considered part of a botanist’s duty. A collector should 
also always be provided with plenty of ready-made seed-papers, not 
only for preserving seeds, but mosses and minute plants. Many 
seeds and fruits cannot be put in the herbarium, particularly if of a 
succulent nature, causing mouldiness, and others form irregularities 
and inequalities in the papers, thus breaking specimens and causing 
small ones and seeds to drop out. Fruits of this kind should be 
numbered to correspond with the specimen, and kept in the saddle- 
bags, or some such place. It is necessary, in order to make good 
specimens, to avoid heavy pressure and keep the papers well dried, 
otherwise they get mouldy, turn black, or decay. 

The seeds and fruits of plants should be procured whenever 
practicable, and slowly dried. These will often serve to reproduce 
a species otherwise not transportable or capable of preservation. 

On board ship, it is all-important to keep the collections from 
getting wet with salt water. The papers can generally be dried at 
the galley. The whole herbarium should be exposed to the sun as 
often as possible, and frequently examined, and the mould brushed 
off with a feather or camel-hair pencil. 

In collecting alge, corallines, or the branched, horny, or cal- 
careous corals, care should be taken to bring away the entire 
specimen with its base or root. The coarser kinds may be dried 
in the air (but not exposed to too powerful a sun), turning them 
from time to time. These should not be washed in fresh water, 
if to be sent any distance. The more delicate species should be 
brought home in salt water, and washed carefully in fresh, then 
transferred to a shallow basin of clean fresh water, and floated ont. 
A piece of white paper of proper size is then slipped underneath, 
and raised gently out of the water with the specimen on its upper 
surface. After finally adjusting the branches with a sharp point 
or brush, the different sheets of specimens are to be arranged be- 
tween blotters of bibulous paper and cotton cloth, and subjected 
to gentle pressure. These blotters must be frequently changed 
till the specimens are dry. 


35 


@ IX. MINERALS AND FOSSILS. 


The collections in mineralogy and paleontology are, amongst 
all, those which are most easily made; whilst, on the other hand, 
their weight, especially when travelling, will prevent their being 
gathered on an extensive scale. 

All the preparation usually needed for preserving minerals and 
fossils consists in wrapping the specimens separately in paper, with 
a label inside for the locality, and packing so as to prevent rubbing. 
Crumbling fossils may be soaked to advantage in a solution of 
glue. Melted wax also answers an admirable purpose in the case 
of bones. 

Fossils of all kinds should be collected. Minerals and samples 
of rocks are also desirable. The latter should be properly selected, 
and cut to five by three inches of surface and one to two inches 
thick. 

The vertebrate fossils of North America are of the highest in- 
terest to naturalists. These are found in great abundance in the 
regions known as “‘ Mauvaises Terres,” or ‘‘ Bad Lands,” and 
occurring along the Missouri and its tributaries, White River, 
Milk River, Platte, Eau qui Court, &c. The banks and beds of 
these and other streams likewise contain rich treasures of fossil 
bones. Similar remains are to be looked for in all caves, peat 
bogs, alluvial soil, marl-pits, fissures in rocks, and other localities 
throughout North America. Single teeth, when found, should be 
carefully preserved. 

The floor of any cavern, if dug up and carefully examined, will 
generally be found to contain teeth, bones, &c. These, however 
similar in appearance to recent or domesticated species, should be 
carefully preserved. 

Specimens ought to be tightly packed up in boxes, taking care 
that each one is wrapped up separately, in order that the angles or 
any crystalline surfaces should not be destroyed by transportation ; 
their value depending upon their good condition. The same pre- 
cautions will be required for corals. The interstices between the 
specimens, in the box or cask, may be occupied by sand, shavings, 
hay, cotton, or other soft substance. Sawdust is considered ob- 
jectionable on account of its settling too much. It is absolutely 
essential that no cavity be left in the vessel or box. 


36 


¢ X. MINUTE MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS. 


It is very desirable to procure specimens, from many localities, 
of the various forms of microscopic animals and plants, not only 
on account of their intrinsic interest, but for their relation to im- 
portant general questions in physical and natural science. These 
will almost always be found to occur in the following localities :— 

1. In all light-colored clays or earths, as found in peat bogs, 
meadows, soils, &e., particularly when these are remarkably light. 

2. In the mud from the bottom of lakes and pools. A small 
handful of this mud or of the confervoid vegetation on the bottom, 
if dried without squeezing, will retain the Diatomacee and Des- 
midiex. 

3. In the mud (dried) from the bottom and along the margins 
of streams in any locality. The muds from brackish and from 
fresh waters will differ in their contents. 

4. In soil from the banks of streams. The surface and subsoils 
should both be collected. 

5. In the soundings brought up from the bottom of the sea or 
lakes. These should be collected from the greatest possible depths. 
If an armature be used to the lead, it should be of soap rather 
than fatty matter, as being more readily removed from the organ- 
isms. The mud which adheres to anchors, to rocks, &c., below 
high-water-mark, as well as below /ow-water, should also be care- 
fully gathered. 

6. In bunches of damp moss from rocks, roofs of houses, trees, 
about pumps, Xe. 

7. In the deposits in the gutters and spouting of roofs of houses. 

8. In the dust which at sea collects upon the sails or deck of 
vessels. When not in sufficient quantity to be scraped off, enough 
may be obtained for examination by rubbing a piece of soft clean 
paper over the surface affected. 

Specimens of all these substances should be gathered, and, when 
moist, dried without squeezing. The quantity may vary from a few 
grains to an ounce, depending on the mode of transportation to be 
adopted. very specimen, as collected, should have the date, lo- 
cality, depth below the surface, collector, $c., marked immediately 
upon the envelop. 

It is also desirable to collect filterings from river, brackish, and 


37 


sea-waters. To do this, take a circular piece of filtering-paper, 
six inches or thereabouts in diameter (blotting-paper will answer 
if the other cannot be procured). Pass a quantity of the water, 
varying with its turbidity from a pint to a gill, through the paper, 
and allow this to dry. Mark the paper or its envelop with the 
amount of water passed through, date, place, &c. It is desirable 
to have specimens thus prepared for every locality and for every 
month in the year. They may be sent, as well as light packages 
of dried muds, &e., by mail, and should be transmitted as speedily 
as possible. Unless the operation can be performed by an expe- 
rienced hand, the weighing may be dispensed with. 

When the water of lakes and ponds has been rendered turbid by 
minute green or brown specks, these should be gathered by filtration 
through paper or rag, which may then be dried, or, still better, 
this matter may be scraped off into a small vial of alcohol. 


2 XI. ON THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF 
MARINE INVERTEBRATES.* 


CLASSIFICATION.—The animals inhabiting the sea, excluding the 
fishes and other vertebrates, may be divided, for convenience, into 
groups, as follows: Ist. CRUSTACEANS, including crabs, hermits or 
soldier crabs, lobsters, dangoustes, cray-fish, camerones, shrimps, 
prawns, sand-hoppers, beach-fleas, whale-lice, sea-creepers, pill- 
balls, fish-lice, sea-spiders, water-fleas, gill-suckers, and other para- 
sites on fish, also barnacles. 2d. ANNELIDS, including all kinds 
of sea-worms, some of which hide among seaweed and pebbles, 
but most of which live in mud or sand, many having tubes. 3d. 
CEPHALOPops, or cuttle-fishes and squids. 4th. Nakep Mou.uscs, 
or sea-slugs. 5th. SHewys, both bivalve and univalve. 6th. Tunt- 
CATES, vulgarly called ‘‘ sea-squirts,” consisting simply of leathery 
balls or sacks of various shapes, with two apertures, often occurring 
in compound forms. ‘th. Bryozoans, or those minute coral-like 
‘incrustations found on seaweeds, stones, and old shells. 8th. Hono- 
THURIANS, those worm-like or slug-like echinoderms like the biche- 
le-mer or trepang. 9th. EcHINI, sea-eggs or sea-urchins, most of 
which resemble chestnut burrs, being covered with spines. 10th, 
AsTeERIAS and star-fishes of all kinds. 11th. Potyps, including 


* Prepared by Mr. Wm. Stimpson. 


38 


corals and corallines, and those minute animals from which the 
meduse are developed. And 12th. Sponaes. 

Localities AND Stations.—Where the retreat of the tide is 
sufficient, the sea-shore always affords the best field for the col- 
lector, and the specimens generally increase in number and interest 
in proportion as we approximate to low-water-mark. Neverthe- 
less the whole area should be searched, as each species has its 
peculiar range, and many forms can live only where they are ex- 
posed to the air for a greater part of the time each day. The 
ground may be either muddy, sandy, weedy, gravelly, stony or 
rocky, and the animals inhabiting each kind of ground will be 
found to be more or less peculiar to it, and rarely to occur on the 
others. Sand and mud are, however, so similar in character that 
their denizens are nearly the same, though some prefer the clearer 
waters which flow over sand, to the turbid tide which deposits 
mud. But few specimens will be found on the surface of such 
ground, although the little pools lying upon it should be scooped 
with the dip net for shrimps, ete., but it is only by the spade that 
its true riches can be developed. By digging in spots indicated 
by small holes, a great number of worms, boring crustaceans, and 
bivalves may always be found. Weedy ground is so called from 
the abundance of eel-grass and sea-weed which covers it. These 
weeds should be examined carefully for small shells and crustaceans ; 
perhaps the best method of doing this being to wash quantities of 
the weed in a bucket of water and examine the sediment. Gravelly 
ground is not generally very rich in animal life, but will repay an 
examination, as small crabs are fond of lurking among the pebbles. 
Stony ground is by far the richest of all. Wherever there are 
stones, particularly flat ones, about large enough to afford a mode- 
rate degree of exercise to a common sized man in turning them 
over, there the zoologist can never fail to fill his basket and bottles; 
for beneath these stones myriads of rare and beautiful species retire 
for moisture and protection during the retreat of the tide. Rocky 
ground should be searched chiefly in the pools and crevices. 

Littoral or sea-shore investigations should be carried on not only 
in the bays, harbors, and creeks, but on the ocean beach, in each 
locality, to get at a true idea of its fauna, as the respective animals 
will be found different. 

Drepoina.—A large proportion of the marine invertebrates never 
approach the shore closely enough to be left exposed by the tide, 


39 


and these can only be obtained with certainty and facility by means 
of the dredge. This consists of a rectangular frame of iron, the 
longer sides of which are sharpened in front and beveled outward 
a little. Along the back of the frame holes are perforated for the 
attachment of a fine meshed net, and to the 
short sides handles are hinged, which may 
be folded down in packing. There should 
be a ring at the end of each handle, and 
through these rings the rope may be passed 
when the handles are raised, which will be 
found a simple and sufficiently safe method 
of fastening the dredge for use. A weight 
should be attached to the rope two or three 
feet in front of the dredge, which is useful 
in sinking and keeping it in proper position 
when operating in deep water. On each of 
the longer sides of the frame there should be 
a leather flap, attached, for the protection of 
the net. The following are convenient di- 
mensions for the apparatus: Frame, a, a, 20 
inches long by 10 inches broad, of bar-iron, 
14 inches wide and one-fifth of an inch thick. 
Handles, 6, 6, each 17 inches long, of half-inch rod-iron. Bag, e, 
three feet long, of mesh as fine as can be got, and strong twine ; 
size of aperture rather larger than that of the frame. Rope, ec, 20 to 
200 fathoms to suit the depth of water. Weight, d, 5lbs.; an 
iron window-weight answers the purpose, and is much cheaper 
than lead. 

The dredge should be carefully cast mouth-downward, that the 
tail of the net may not foul the handles or scythes. No precise 
directions can be given as to the amount of scope of warp to be 
let out ;—about twice the depth of water is generally sufficient, but 
this should be diminished or increased in proportion as the dredge 
nips too hard or slides too easily over the ground, which may be 
readily determined by feeling the rope. The dredge is liable to be 
caught on rocky bottoms. When the check is felt, it is usually 
only necessary. to heave in a portion of the warp, but sometimes 
the boat must be put about and run in an opposite direction. 

All bottoms should be searched with the dredge, but gravelly 
and shelly ground will be found most productive. The boat may 





40 


be propelled by sails if sufficient care be taken to graduate the 
amount of canvas to the strength of the wind, in order that the 
dredge may move slowly over the bottom. Oars are safer, if the 
force is at command; and ina tide-way, the tide alone may move 
the boat with sufficient power, the rope being made fast amidships, 
or towards the bows, according to the strength of the current. 
Dredging may be carried on at all depths inside of 200 fathoms. 

INSTRUMENTS FoR CoLLEctiIna.—For shore collecting, a broad 
flat basket, with jars or tin-cans, of various sizes, for the smaller 
and more delicate animals, which should be brought home in sea- 
water. <A spade, trowel, and a strong knife for detaching limpets 
and tunicates from the rocks. A small dip-net is quite indispensa- 
ble. In dredging, besides the baskets and bottles, one or more 
buckets are necessary, as many of the larger animals, such as star- 
fishes, are fragile, and can only be brought safely home in sea-water. 
And, above all, there should be wire-sieves for washing out the 
sand or mud brought up from soft bottoms. 

PRESERVATION OF SpEcIMENS.—Alcoholic fluid is the only me- 
dium in which marine invertebrates can be properly preserved, shells 
and corals alone being excepted. Dried specimens are always in 
danger from dampness and breakage, and when sent to the Museum, 
seldom reach their destination uninjured. In placing the specimens 
in kegs, cans, jars, or bottles, a few rules should be carefully ob- 
served: Ist. Never crowd them too much; a bottle should be not 
more than half filled with specimens, but must be always entirely 
filled with alcohol. 2d. Adapt the bottles to the size of the 
specimens, placing small ones in small bottles, or, if very minute, 
in homeeopathic vials. 38d. Never put soft and delicate forms with 
hard or spinous ones, which would injure them in any agitation. 
Each jar or bottle should contain specimens from one locality and 
station, which should be indicated in full on the label—the nature 
of the ground, distance from low water mark, and, if dredged, the 
depth of water being noted. In the larger kegs or cans, if speci- 
mens from more than one locality are included, each should have 
a parchment label attached, with the notes written in ink. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 


CIRCULAR 


TO 


OFFICERS OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY. 


THE Smithsonian Institution has been engaged for several years 
in the prosecution of researches relative to the climatology and 
natural history of the continent of North America. For this 
purpose the voluntary services of a large body of intelligent 
correspondents, distributed throughout the entire territory of the 
United States, have been secured, from whom records of changes 
of the weather, and other phenomena, with facts and specimens 
in natural history of much interest, have been obtained. 

The observations thus accumulated have been reduced, and the 
results will shortly be published, both in tabular form and on 
maps, illustrating the lines of equal temperature: of rain at dif- 
ferent points: the mean direction and intensity of the wind: the 
character of the land, whether forest or prairie, fertile or barren: 
the distribution of various animals and vegetables, ete. Reports 
have been issued, or are in preparation, embodying detailed 
monographie descriptions of the Algze, the forest trees, the Verte- 
brata, insects, Mollusca, Crustacea, &c., of the continent; and 
efforts made generally to furnish a full and perfect account of its 
natural and physical history. 

In the prosecution of these researches, a serious obstacle has 
been experienced in the lack of sufficient data from the region 
north of the boundary line of the United States, especially from 
its more northern portion. The isolated observations and collec- 
tions, which have from time to time been received, have proved 
of great interest and importance; but the Institution now desires 

3 


2 


to receive communications, if possible, from all inhabited portions 
of North America, especially from the stations of the Hon. Hud- 
son’s Bay Company. And with this view it has obtained the 
sanction of the proper authorities for an application to the officers 
of the Company for assistance, as shown by the accompanying 
letter of Sir George Simpson, Governor of the H. B. Territory. 

The attention of the friends of science is therefore respectfully 
invited to certain points, which will be referred to more fully 
hereafter. In an accompanying package will be found detailed 
instructions in regard to making and recording observations, and 
it is only necessary here to indicate a few subjects which are of 
more particular interest. 

Ist. The beginning and ending of storms of wind and rain, and 
the time when the sky is overcast. Records of this kind enable 
us to map the face of the heavens over a large surface of country, 
and to determine the extent of a cloud, or of falling rain, snow, &c. 

Beside the regular variations of the meteorological instruments, 
special information is desired as to the occurrence of thunder 
storms; the time of day at which they take place; the direction 
from which they come; their duration and intensity; notice of 
trees or other objects which may be struck by lightning. 

2d. Tornadoes, land and water-spouts, and whirlwinds. The 
width of the path along which the mechanical effects are pro- 
duced; the direction of the path; the appearance of the tornado 
at a distance; the motion of the clouds over the head of the 
observer as the tornado approaches and as it recedes from him. 
Note whether any electrical phenomena are exhibited, such as 
thunder, lightning, and luminous appearances; the mechanical 
effects, prostration of trees, and translation of heavy bodies. 

3d. The aurora borealis: time of its beginning and ending; 
time of the formation of arch, beams, and corona; and whether 
there is a dark cloud below the arch; and other points mentioned 
in the pamphlet of instructions. 

4th. Time of early and late frosts, particularly first and last. 
Depth of ground frozen, in feet and inches; disappearance of 
frost from the ground. 

5th. Time of closing and opening of rivers, lakes, streams, &c., 
and any other phenomena relating to temperature. 

A single register of any one of these phenomena carefully made, 


3 


may prove of great service in tracing the changes of weather over 
large districts of country; for example, a knowledge of the exact 
time at which a violent wind commences at a particular place may 
enable us, with similar observations at other localities, to trace 
the progress of the disturbance through its whole course from its 
beginning to its ending. 

For more detailed instructions reference should be made to the 
accompanying blanks and pamphlets. 

Of the blank registers two different classes are sent. Those 
marked No. 1 are intended to record observations with all the 
instruments, with spaces to include the reductions for ‘‘ Force of 
Vapor” and ‘ Relative Humidity,” which need not be filled up 
unless the observer himself prefers to make the calculations, which 
will otherwise be made at the Institution. 

Blanks No. 2 are intended for observers who have no instru- 
ments, excepting a thermometer; and if this instrument be broken, 
or the observer have none, valuable materials may still be furnished 
by filling up the other columns, and simply noting the beginning 
and ending of warm and cold spells. 

In the accompanying package will also be found blanks for 
recording periodical phenomena of animal and vegetable life. 
Such records will be of especial interest, as showing the progress 
and development of the seasons, and the geographical distribution 
of species. 

In the package will also be found detailed instructions in regard 
to the collecting and preparing objects of natural history. Speci- 
mens of the different animals will be particularly interesting, espe- 
cially of the small mammals, as mice, moles, shrews, gophers, 
weasels, rabbits, ground squirrels, marmots, etc. Good skins and 
skulls of the barren ground bear, the musk ox, and the reindeer, 
are much wanted. 

Attention is especially invited to the collecting of eggs of any 
and all kinds of the birds which may be met with. The species 
of most interest are the different eagles, hawks, and owls, snipes, 
sandpipers, plover, gulls, ducks, loons, grebes, ete. Care should 
be taken, as far as possible, to secure a parent bird of each set 
of eggs, for the purpose of identifying the species; either the 
entire skin being preserved, or at least the head, wing, and tail. 
If a parent cannot be obtained, the eggs should nevertheless be 


4 


collected, and any information communicated which may serve to 
determine the species. 

Skins of any divers or grebes in full spring plumage, of the 
large black grouse, of the ptarmigan, or willow grouse (especially 
in summer dress), of the different kinds of Canada or black-necked 
geese, and of any waders in full breeding plumage, and in fact of 
Arctic birds generally, will be very acceptable. 

The different species of Salmonide, as salmon, trout, whitefish, 
and grayling, are particularly desired by the Institution. In the 
absence of alcohol, these may be skinned and dried. Fishes of 
all kinds, however, will be much valued. 

Insects of all kinds will be highly prized, and, in fact, no object 

of natural history, however abundant and familiar, will be without 
its interest to the Institution. 

If suitable opportunities occur for the transmission of any re- 
turns to these circulars, either of specimens or of observations, 
they should be sent directly to the Smithsonian Institution, Wash- 
ington, D. C.; if not, they should be forwarded to the care of the 
Governor of the Hon. Hudson’s Bay Company. 


JOSEPH HENRY, 
Secretary S. I. 


SmirHsonian Institution, WasHincton, April 20, 1860. 


APPENDIX. 


Houpson’s Bay House, Lacurye, 31st March, 1860. 
To the Officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s Service. 


GENTLEMEN: Having been applied to by the Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution of Washington, for permission to invite 
phe assistance of the Company’s officers in conducting observa- 
‘tions, having for their object the development of the physical and 

’ natural history of the northern part of this continent, I have very 
cheerfully acceded to the request, and take the present means of 
commending the object in view to your favorable consideration. 

You are well aware of the desire of the Company to promote 
the interests of science by all the legitimate means in its power. 
In the present case, where so much may be done by systematic 
and conjoined action, over a widely extended territory, it will be 
gratifying to learn that information and materials of a valuable 
character have been supplied from the stations of the Company, 
and by the industry of its officers. 

The accompanying circular and instructions, from Professor 
Henry, will explain more fully the objects of the Institution, and 
will be found to embrace all necessary information for your 
guidance. 

I am, gentlemen, 
Your obedient servant, 
G. SIMPSON. 











SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 


INSTRUCTIONS 


IN REFERENCE TO 


COLLECTING NESTS AND EGGS OF NORTH 
AMERICAN BIRDS. 


INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 


THE Smithsonian Institution is desirous of collecting as full 
a series as possible of the nests and eggs of birds of North Ame- 
rica, with the view not only of exhibiting them in its museum, 
but also to serve as materials for a work on North American 
Oology, to be prepared by Dr. Brewer, of Boston, and published 
in successive parts by the Institution. 

This memoir is intended to give an account of the geographi- 
eal distribution of North American birds, as well as of their 
habits and peculiarities during the breeding season, and to be 
accompanied as far as possible by accurate figures of the princi- 
pal varieties of the egg of each species, based upon photographic 
drawings. Of this work, the first part, embracing the Raptores 
(vultures, eagles, hawks, and owls), and Jsszrostres (swallows, 
swifts, and goatsuckers), has already been published. 

The object contemplated by the Institution is thus not merely 
to procure specimens of eggs not previously in its museum, but 
also to obtain positive evidence as to the limits within which 
each species rears its young. For this reason it respectfully 
invites donations from all parts of the country of as many kinds 
of nests and eggs as can be obtained, with the exception of a 
few of the very commonest species hereafter mentioned; and asks 
that especial attention may be directed toward making the col- 
lection as complete as possible for each locality. As duplicate 
eggs of all kinds, and in any number, can be readily used in the 


t 


2 


exchanges of the Institution, and in supplying other cabinets, 
no fear need be entertained of sending more than enough for the 
purposes in view. 

The eggs, of which a single set only need be collected for the 
present, are chiefly those of the eastern bluebird (Szalia sialis), 
the robin (Zurdus migratorius), the cat-bird (imus carolinen- 
sts), the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus), and the 
crow blackbird (Quiscalus versicolor). Those to which particu- 
lar attention should be paid as groups, are the eagles, hawks, 
owls, woodpeckers, small waders, ducks, &c., of all portions of 
the country ; but, as stated, all kinds of eggs, and particularly 
those from the regions west of the Mississippi, and:from the 
northern parts of America, are desired. A subjoined list em- 
braces the species more particularly desired by the Institution ; 
especially those having an asterisk prefixed, which are, with 
few exceptions, entirely unknown to science. The numbers in 
the list refer to a printed catalogue of North American birds, 
published by the Institution, which will be sent to any one who 
proposes to collect eggs for its museum. 

The attention of collectors and correspondents is particularly 
invited to eggs of the following easily identified and well-known 
birds : The California condor or vulture (Cathartes california- 
nus), and the golden or ring-tailed eagle (Aquila canadensis) ; 
the swallow-tailed hawk (Nauclerus furcatus), the black-shoul- 
dered hawk (Hlanus leucurus), and the Mississippi kite (Ictinia 
plumbea), of the Southern States; the duck hawks (falco 
anatum, ete.), and the speckled partridge hawk (/ candicans), 
of the North. <All the black and other Rocky Mountain hawks ; 
all the owls, especially those breeding in the North, as also the 
burrowing owls of the West; the ivory-billed woodpecker 
(Picus principalis), the red-shafted flicker of the West (Colaptes 
mexicanus), the Rocky Mountain bluebird (Stata arctica) ; all 
the warblers ; the Bohemian wax-wing (Ampelis garrulus), the 
violet green swallow (/irundo thalassina); the black swifts or 
swallows of the Rocky Mountains and the Northwest ; the Rocky 
Monrntain wrens and nuthatches; the Canada, Steller’s and 
Rocky Mountain jays generally, including the Pifiolero ; the 
band-tailed pigeon of the Rocky Mountains and West (Columba 
fasciata); the New Mexican and Rocky Mountain wild turkey 
(Meleagris mexicana); the dusky or black mountain grouse 


3 


( Tetrao obscurus); the spruce partridge (Tetrao canadensis), and 
all other grouse and pheasants ; all the crested quails or par- 
tridges of Western Texas and New Mexico ; the white prairie or 
whooping crane (Grus americana) ; the courlan, water hen, or 
erying bird of Florida (Aramus giganteus), all the snipes, sand- 
pipers, plovers, curlews, ducks, geese, swans, gulls, and terns of 
the interior, as well as the different flycatchers, sparrows, ete. 

The following details furnished by Dr. Brewer, are believed to 
contain the most important instructions necessary for the prepa- 
ration and preservation of oological collections :— 


INSTRUCTIONS FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING. 


The nests of birds are to be sought for in all localities and in 
various months of the year according to the latitude, May and 
June being generally the most productive. Many of the rapa- 
cious birds, however, begin to lay much earlier in the middle 
States, even in February and March. This is especially the 
case with the bald eagle, great-horned owls, ete. Others again 
will be found breeding in July and August. 

When a nest containing eggs, or one newly constructed, is 
discovered, it should not be disturbed, if possible, before the 
parents have been observed hovering around or near, and thus 
identified. If the species cannot be otherwise positively deter- 
mined, and generally in any case, a parent bird should be secured, 
and either the whole skin be prepared, or a portion—as the head 
and wing—preserved for identification. The bird may also be 
thrown into alcohol, and thus easily kept. 

The services of boys and other persons on farms, plantations, 
&e., may be called to great advantage into requisition in col- 
lecting eggs. Whenever they have found a nest, however, it 
should not be disturbed before information is communicated to, 
and the spot visited by some one competent to determine the 
species, unless the parents can be taken with the nest. No 
pains should be considered too great to secure the certain iden- 
tification of each set of eggs. Horse-hair snares arranged 
about a nest will often secure the parent bird. If identification 
be impossible, however, the eggs should still be preserved, as 
the species can usually be approximated to, if not absolutely 
determined, by an expert oologist. 


4 


Sometimes by removing all the eggs in a nest, except one or 
two, without handling those left, quite a large number can be 
obtained from one pair of birds; generally, however, the nest 
will be found abandoned on a second visit. 

The nests may not always be removable. In such cases, full 
mention of their. position, character, &c., should be carefully 
made. Nests constructed in bushes or on trees usually need but 
slight precautions for their preservation intact. Those on the 
ground often require to be secured against dropping to pieces 
by a little judicious wrapping, or tying together, or even by a few 
coarse stitches with a thread and needle. 

A little cotton packed in the nest above the eggs will gene- 
rally keep the latter whole until reaching home, unless subjected 
to a violent shock. It will be safer, however, to inclose each 
one in an envelop of cotton. 

It is absolutely necessary, in all cases, to empty every egg of 
its contents, in order to preserve the shell for cabinet purposes ; 
and this should be done at the earliest moment possible. It 
is accomplished in various ways: the simplest, when the egg 
does not contain an embryo, being to prick a small aperture 
at each end, on opposite sides, with a sharp needle (a three- 
eornered one answers best), or an egg drill, one aperture rather 
the larger, through which the contents are blown by the appli- 
cation of the mouth at the other. Delicate ergs, however, when 
fresh, can be best emptied by suction, a small quantity at a time 
of the contents being drawn into the mouth, and then discharged. 
Kuropean collectors generally make two apertures near the ex- 
tremities, that towards the blunt end the larger; or else a single 
hole in the side through which the contents are emptied by the 
blowpipe or syringe. This is much the better way, when a 
blowpipe can be procured. 

Should there be an embryo in the egg, or should the contents 
have become thickened by long standing, it will be necessary to 
make a larger aperture in the side by: cutting out a circular 
piece of shell carefully with the needle or drill. A smaller hole 
may then be made opposite to this, at which to apply the mouth 
in blowing, or the embryo may be picked out through a single 
large hole. It will be of much interest to preserve all embryos , 
in alcohol for further investigation. The discharge of the 
contents of the egg is facilitated by the use of a small blow- 


5 


pipe or tube, the smaller end so fine as to enter the smaller 
aperture. A stream of water injected by the mouth through 
the tube into the aperture will be found an expeditious method 
of emptying the egg, but it must be conducted very carefully. 
When a large hole is made, the tube may be directed through 
it to the opposite side of the egg, and a current of water 
forced in this will soon discharge the contents. A syringe, 
with slender fine point, will be found an exceedingly conve- 
nient instrument, as a discharge of water through the pipe 
into the egg will empty it very rapidly, and serve to wash the 
inside afterwards. Great care must, however, be exercised not 
to use much force or haste in this, as there is much danger of 
bursting the egg. When practicable, the white membrane, the 
edge of which usually protrudes from the opening after the 
liquids are forced out, should be seized with a pair of forceps 
and pulled out, as, if left, it may discolor the egg, and will 
always attract insects. If not too small, the egg should then be 
partly filled with water, by means of the tube or syringe (or by 
laying one hole against a saucer of water and sucking through 
the other), and carefully rinsed out. After the water is again 
blown out, the egg may be allowed to dry by placing the larger 
hole downwards on blotting or absorbent paper or cloth. When 
dry, the eggs should be replaced in the nest, or laid carefully 
away, care being taken to add a number or other mark showing 
the locality, position of the nest, whether on the ground, or in a 
bush or tree, etc., date, collector, and supposed species, as well 
as relationship to an embryo removed, or to any portion of the 
parent preserved. It will in most cases be best to give exactly 
the same number to nest, eggs, embryo, and parent belonging 
together. This mark may be made neatly on the eggs (best 
with ink and a quill pen). A record book showing what has 
been taken and preserved, with dates and explanatory remarks, 
should always be kept. 

In making the apertures in eggs that have peculiar markings, 
care should be taken to select some inconspicuous spot that will 
leave the pattern of coloration undisturbed. Eggs that are 
cracked may be greatly strengthened by pasting tissue or other 
thin paper along the line of injury, or what is easier, and in 
most cases even better, by brushing collodion along and over 
the cracks. It is often well to cover the punctures or holes cut 


6) 


out, especially if large, with thin paper or silk or goldbeaters’ 
skin. If a piece be removed, it can usually be easily replaced 
and kept in by pasting thin paper over it and the line of 
separation, or around the latter. 

Notwithstanding the apparent fragility of eggs, a very little 
experience will enable any one to empty them of their contents 
with great ease and safety. The principal accident to be guarded 
against is that of crushing the egg by too great pressure between 
the fingers; these should be applied so as to barely hold the egg, 
and no more. If the operation of emptying be performed over 
a full basin of water, the occasional dropping of the egg from 
the finger into the water will be attended with no harm. 

To pack eggs for transportation, each one should be wrapped 
in a light envelop of cotton and laid down in layers separated by 
strata of cotton. They should be kept in rather small boxes of 
wood, or if pasteboard be used, these should always be trans- 
mitted in wooden boxes, as the eggs are thereby less likely to be 
broken by a sudden jar or shock. If the nest is sent along, it 
may contain the eggs belonging to it, each one wrapped in cot- 
ton, and the vacancy of the nest filled with the same or other 
light elastic material. It will be well to pin or tie up each nest 
in paper to keep it secure, and to prevent entangling of the ma- 
terials when several are laid together. A temporary box may 
often be readily constructed of pasteboard, to contain the more 
delicate or valuable ones. 

Whenever practicable, the embryos or young found in the egg 
should be carefully preserved in alcohol, great care being, of 
course, taken to mark the specimens properly. The better plan 
will be to keep each set ina small bottle or vial, and a slip of 
stiff paper or parchment placed inside with the number or name. 
Whenever the abundance of the eggs will authorize it, a large 
number with the young in different degrees of development, even 
as many as fifty of a kind, should be secured. The embryos in 
this case need not be removed from the egg, which should, how- 
ever, be cracked at the blunt end to facilitate the entrance of the 
spirit. Researches at present in progress relating to the em- 
bryology of birds promise results of the highest importance in 
reference to ornithological classification. 

In addition to the nests and eggs of North American birds, 
skins of some species are wanted by the Smithsonian Institution 


7 


for the completion of its ornithological museum, by filling up 
gaps in the series or by replacing imperfect specimens. Among 
the large groups of birds, to which attention is invited, are the 
wandering oceanic species of both the Atlantic and Pacific 
coasts, such as petrels, shearwaters, guillemots, Mother Carey’s 
chickens, jagers, gulls, terns, ete.; together with the cormorants 
and grebes, or divers, in their full breeding plumage, as orna- 
mented with linear white feathers, crests, ruffs, etc. 

The species of birds most wanted from particular regions are, 
among others, the following :— 

From Florida and the Southeastern U. S.—The flamingo, 

pink curlew, scarlet ibis, small black hawk (Rosthramus socia- 

bilis), a vulture or turkey buzzard with white markings, a blue 
neron of the largest size with white crest (Ardea wurdemannt), 
the large Florida crow, the small blue jay, ete. 

From Texas and New Mexico —Any of the summer resident 
birds, especially those found on or near the Rio Grande, with 
their eggs; jays, thrushes, doves, hawks, owls, orioles, black- 
birds, crows, quails or partridges, the large white whooping or 
prairie crane (Grus americana), ete. 

From the Rocky Mountain Regions.—The wild turkey with 
whitish margin to the feathers of the rump and tail (Meleagris 
mexicana) ; all the different jays, grouse, pheasants, woodpeckers, 
black swallows, with or without white throats; the hawks, espe- 
cially the large black ones. 

From the Interior and Northern Portions of the Continent.— 
The white crane already mentioned, the small geese, the large 
Canada goose with white extending from the collar down the 
throat (Bernicla lewcolema), the larger trumpeter swan, the rusy 
gull with black head (Larus franklinii), and any other gulls and 
terns; the white and speckled hawks of the arctic regions, ete. 

From the Pacifie Coast.—The large California vulture or 
condor, any hawks, geese, terns, thrushes, magpies, the black 
oyster catcher, etc. 

A pamphlet containing the necessary instructions for preserving 
birds will be forwarded to any one desiring it, upon application. 


JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary S. 


Suirusonian Institution, Jan. 1, 1860. 


SPECIAL DESIDERATA AMONG THE EGGS OF NORTH 
AMERICAN BIRDS. 


N. B.—The asterisk (*) prefixed indicates that the egg of the species is either 
entirely unknown to science, or scarcely te be found in any American collee- 
The numbers are those of the species in the catalogue of North American 
Birds, published by the Smithsonian Institution, reprinted from the ninth 
volume of the Pacific Railroad Reports. 
in this list are wanting in the Smithsonian collection. 


tion. 


*35 
*36 
*BT 
*39 
*40 
*AY 
42 
47 
48 
49 


51 





*104 
1*107 
¥*108 
*110 
113 
*115 
118 
*119 
|*120 
*121 
*122 
125 
|*127 
¥*128 
*129 
¥*132 
|*133 
134 
'¥136 
Jou 13a 
138 
141 
}*142 
144 

145 
*146 
147 
149 
*150 
151 
¥*152 
153 
¥*154 
156 
159 

160 
*161 
162 
*163 
¥*164 


52 
53 
54 
#55 
*56 
57 
*58 
59 
*60 
*61 
*652 
63 
*64 
*65 
66 

















Many species, however, not entered 











| | 

165 211 |*274 4323 | 381 | 
166 *212] 275) 324] 382 
168| 213 |*278 *327 |*383 | 
*169| 214 |*2'6 *329 | 385 
*171 ¥*215 | 278 *330| 388 
*172 *216 | 280 *331| 389 
*173 *218(*281 |*333 *392 
*174 |*219 '*283 *334 *393 
175 | 251 |*284| 335 *394 
178 992 |*285| 336 |*395 
179 ¥*223 |*286 | 339| 397 
180 224 |*287 |*340| 398 
18] | 228 |*288| 341| 402 
#182 *232 |*289 *343 | 403 
183| 234 |*291!*345 | 404 
184 | *235 |*292| 346] 404 
¥185| 236] 293)*347] 408 
187 | 239 |*294 |*348 | 409 
*188 |*241 |*295 }*350| 410 
189 /*242 |*297 |*351} 411 
*190 *243 | 298 *352| 412 
¥191 |¥244 /*299 |*353 | 413 
*192| 246] 300 |*355 |*417 
193 | 247 |*301 |*356 | 422 
194 |*249 |*303 |*360] 423 
*195 | 250 |)*304 |*361 |*424 
196 | 251 |*306 |*362| 425 
*197| 255] 307| 364 |*427 
198 | 256 *310 |*365 | 428 
#199 | 257 |*311 |*366 | *430 
200 | 258 |}*312| 367 |*431 
¥*201 | 262| 314/*370]| 432 
202. )*263 *315 |*371 |*433 
204 |*264! 316 |*372| 435 
*205 |*266 | 317 |*373 |*436 
*206 | 267] 318 |*374| 437 
¥*207| 269] 319] 375 |*438 
208] 271! 320] 376] 439 
*209 | 272| 321 /*379 |*440 
210| 273 *322| 380 |*441 











#442 
*443 
KAA4 
*KAAB 
446 
447 


448 | 


449 
450 
*452 


e454 


455 
*458 
459 
460 


461 | 


462 
463 
*466 
467 
468 
*469 
470 
473 
*475 
*476 
*ATT 
*478 
479 
*480 
*481 
*482 
*488 
489 
*494 
497 
498 
500 
501 
502 


| 
| 503 
*505 
*509 
*510 
R511 
*513 
515 
*516 
520 
521 
523 
*524 
*525 
|*526 
1527 
528 
1*529 
530 
*531 
|*532 
1533 
[534 
}*535 
\*536 
*538 
¥*539 
540 
541 
¥*542 
546 
547 
*548 
549 
*550 
*551 
556 
*557 
*561 
*562 
*563 








*564 
*565 
*566 

567 
*568 
*569 
*570 
*571 


KD 72 


*573 
*O75 
578 
579 
582 
583 
584 
#585 
*588 
*589 
*590 
*591 
*592 
#593 
*O9A 
*595 
*596 
*598 
*599 
*600 
*601 
*602 
*603 
604 
*605 
*607 
608 
609 
610 
611 
613 


*614 
¥*618 
¥*621 
¥*622 
#625 

626 

627 

629 
¥630 
*631 
*632 
*633 
¥*634 

635 
1*636 
|*637 
*638 
*639 

640 
#641 
#643 
¥*644 
¥646 

647 

648 
*650 

651 

652 
*653 
¥*654 
¥*655 


*657 

658 
*659 
*663 
*664 
*665 

666 





iia 


*669 


*670 


ATL” 
k673 


GTA 
*675 
*676 
*677 
*678 
*679 


*684 
*686 
*687 
¥*691 
*693 
*700 
*702 
\* 704 
#705 
E707 
«710 
*714 
*716 
e717 
*718 
*720 
*721 
*722 
*723 
#724 
*725 
¥*728 

tae 
*733 
R734 
¥*735 
*736 
*737 

738 








APP EN DT x. 


Since the preceding pages were set in type an article has 
been received from Mr. Alfred Newton, an eminent English 
oologist, detailing the elaborate methods employed by English 
collectors of much experience in emptying and preparing eggs 
for the cabinet. As these methods involve the use of more or 
less complicated apparatus, which will not be generally procur- 
able by the correspondents of the Institution, the new instruc- 
tions are commended particularly to the use of those who are 
forming cabinets for themselves, and are willing to give the time 
and attention required. All correspondents who propose to 
collect eggs for the Institution are, however, requested to read 
carefully Mr. Newton’s instructions, and to adopt his suggestions 
as far as practicable. 

JOSEPH HENRY, 
Secretary S. I, 


10 


SUGGESTIONS 


FOR FORMING 


COLLECTIONS OF BIRDS’ EGGS. 


BY ALFRED NEWTON. 


GENERAL REMARKS. 


THE collecting of birds’ eggs for scientific purposes requires 
far more discrimination than the collecting of specimens in 
almost any other branch of natural history. While the botanist, 
and, generally speaking, the zoologist, at home is satisfied as 
long as he receives the specimens in good condition, with labels 
attached giving a few concise particulars of when and where 
they were obtained, it should be always borne in mind that to 
the oologist such facts, and even the specimens themselves, are 
of very slight value unless accompanied by a statement of other 
circumstances which will carry conviction that the species to 
which the eggs belong has been accurately identified, and the 
specimens subsequently carefully authenticated. Consequently 
precision in the identification of his specimens should be the 
principal object of an egg-collector, to attain which all others 
must give way. There are perhaps few districts in the world, 
and certainly no regions of any extent, whose faunas are so well 
known that the most rigid identification may be dispensed with. 
Next to identifying his specimens, the most important duty of 
~ an egg-collector is to authenticate them by marking them in 
some manner and on some regular system as will leave no doubt, 
as long as they exist, of their having been obtained by him, and 
of the degree of identification to which they were subjected. 
Neatness in the mode of emptying the shells of their contents, 
and other similar matters, are much to be commended; they 


ae 


render the specimens more fitted for the cabinet. But the main 
points to be attended to, as being those by which science can 
alone be benefited, are IDENTIFICATION and AUTHENTICATION. 


IDENTIFICATION. 


Of course the most satisfactory, and often the simplest, way of 
identifying the species to which a nest of eggs, when found, be- 
longs, is to obtain one of the parents, by shooting, snaring, or 
trapping. But it sometimes, in practice, happens that this is 
found to be difficult, from one cause or another—such as the 
wary instinets of the birds, or the necessities of his position 
compelling the traveller to lose no time, or the scarcity of the 
species making him unwilling to destroy the individuals. In 
any of these cases there is nothing to be done but to make as 
careful an examination as circumstances will admit of the precise 
situation of the nest, the materials of which it is composed (sup- 
posing that the collector cannot bring it away with him), and 
accurately to survey the surrounding locality, to observe by what 
species it is frequented; all the particulars of which examination 
and survey should be fully noted down at the earliest opportunity 
possible. Should, however, either or both the birds be killed, 
they should be skinned, or at least some characteristic part of 
each preserved,t and duly labelled to correspond with the in- 
scriptions subsequently put on the eggs, and always with a 
reference to the collector’s journal or ngte-book, wherein fuller 
details may be found. 

The oologist is especially warned not to be misled by the mere 
fact of seeing birds around or near the nests. Many of the crow 
family (Corvide) are great eaters of eggs, and mistakes are known 
to have originated from birds of that kind being seen near nests 
of which they were certainly not the owners. Others, such as 
the titmice (Paride), though not plunderers, obtain their food 
by incessantly seeking it even in the very localities where many 


' Birds may be preserved entire by simply pouring (through a small 
funnel) a few drops of pyroligneous acid down their throats, and satu- 
rating the feathers, especially about the vent, with the same fluid; after 
leaving them to dry for an hour or so, they may be wrapped in paper 
and packed. (Communicated by Mr. John Hancock.) 


12 


species build. It often happens, also, that two different birds 
have their nests situated very close to one another; and if they 
be allied species, the collector may be easily deceived. Thus, it 
has come to the writer’s knowledge that the dunlin (Zringa 
alpina) and the purple sandpiper (Zringa maritima) have had 
their nests only a few feet apart. At first a pair of: the latter 
only were seen, which by their actions betrayed their uneasiness. 
A short search discovered a nest with four eggs. The observer 
was one of the best practical oologists then living, and his eye 
at once saw that it was not the nest which he wanted; but a less 
experienced man would doubtless have immediately concluded 
that he had found the eggs of the rarer species. Indeed it may, 
generally speaking, be said of most birds, that whenever they 
have nests of their own they are also acquainted with those of 
their neighbors, which by their actions they will often betray 
to the collector who may be patiently watching them. Birds, 
again, will occasionally lay their ezes—accidentally, as it were— 
in the nests of other species, even when they are not of a para- 
sitic nature, as the Old World cuckoos (Cuculus, Eudynamis, 
and Oxylophus), or the cow blackbird (Molothrus pecoris); thus 
eggs of the eider duck (Somaterta mollissima) have been found 
in the nest of a gull (Zarus), and other similar cases are on 
record, in some of which, from the species being nearly allied, 
confusion might easily have arisen, though at the time no doubt 
may have occurred in the collector’s mind. 

It would be impossible in this paper to treat of the various 
methods which may bessuccessfully employed to obtain the birds 
to whom a nest belongs, and, in fact, these methods can gene- 
rally be only learned by experience. It is sufficient to indicate 
here the use of traps, snares, hingles, or bird-lime, in cases where 
the individuals are too shy to admit of being shot by the gun or 
rifle. Much may often be gathered by the collector from the 
practice of the natives, especially if they be savages, or half 
civilized. In like manner it would too much extend these sug- 
gestions to give a detailed account of the different ways in which 
the nests of birds are to be found. The experience of a single 
season is to most men worth a whole volume that might be writ- 
ten on the subject. Nevertheless, a few hints are given further 
on, which might not occur to the beginner. 


18 


AUTHENTICATION. 


The most complete method of authenticating eggs is that of 
writing in ink on their shells, not only the name of the species 
to which each belongs, but also, as far as the space will admit, 
as many particulars relating to the amount of identification to 
which the specimen was subjected, the locality where, date when, 
and name of the person by whom they were taken, adding always 
a reference to the journal or note-book of the collector, wherein 
fuller details may be given. It is advisable to do this on some 
regular system, and the following method is suggested as one 
that has already been found to work well in practice. The scz- 
entific names only to be used, except with a mark of doubt or 
within brackets, when the specimens have read/y been satisfac- 
tortly identified; and if the identification has been made by 
obtaining one or both of the parent birds, a memorandum of the 
fact to be added, thus: ‘‘Both birds snared;” ‘‘ Bird shot;” or, 
in smaller space, ‘‘Bd. st.” If the identification has been effected 
only by obtaining a good view of the birds, the fact should be 
stated thus: ‘‘Bird well seen,” ‘‘ Bird seen,” or “Bd. sn.,” as the 
case may be. For eggs not taken by the collector himself, but 
brought in by natives, or persons not having a scientific know- 
ledge of ornithology, the local name or the name applied by the 
finder should only be used, unless indeed it requires interpreta- 
tion, when the scientific name may be added, but elways within 
brackets, thus: ‘‘Tooglee-aiah (Squatarola helvetica) ;” the ne- 
cessary particulars relating to the capture and identification 
being added. Eggs found by the collector, and no# identified 
by him, but the origin of which he has reason to think he knows, 
may be inscribed with the common English name of the species 
to which he refers them; or if it has no such appellation, then 
the scientific name may be used, but in that case always with a 
note of interrogation (7?) after it, or else the words ‘‘ Not identi- 
fied.” If the collector prefers it, many of these particulars may 
be inscribed symbolically or in short-hand, but never unless the 
system used has previously been agreed upon with persons at 
home, and it be known that they have a key to it. Hach speci- 
men should bear an inscription; those from the same nest may 
be inscribed identically; but different nests, especially of the 


14 


same or nearly allied species, should never be so marked that 
confusion can possibly arise, It is desirable to mark temporarily 
with a pencil each egg as it is obtained; but the permanent 
inscription, which should always be in ink, should be deferred 
until after the egg has been emptied. The number terminating 
the inscription in all cases referring to the page of the collector’s 
note-book, wherein full details will be found, and the words or 
letters preceding the number serving to distinguish between dif- 
ferent collectors, no two of whom ought to employ the same. 
(The initial letter of the collector’s name, prefixed to the num- 
ber, will often be sufficient.) 


PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS. 


Eggs are emptied, with the least amount of trouble, at one 
hole, which should be drilled in the s¢de with such an instrument 
as shown in the sketches (figs. 1, 2, and 3).1. The hole should, 
of course, be proportioned to the size of the egg, and the amount 
of incubation it has undergone. Eggs that are hard sat upon 
are more easily blown by being kept a few days, but the opera- 
tion must not be deferred too long, or they are apt to burst 
violently immediately on being punctured, though this may be 
avoided by holding them under water while the first incision is 
made. The hole being drilled, the lining membrane should be 
cleared away from the orifice with a penknife (fig. 14), by which 
means not only is the removal of the contents, but also the sub- 
sequent cleansing of the specimen, facilitated. The small end of 
a blowpipe (jigs. 4 and 5) should then be introduced, while the 
other extremity is applied to the mouth, and blown through, at 
Jirst very gently. If the embryo is found to be moderately de- 
veloped, a stream of water should be introduced by means of a 
syringe (fig. 7), and the egg then gently shaken, after which the 
blowpipe may be again resorted to, until by the ultimate use of 
both instruments, aided by scissors (figs. 8 and 9), hooks (jigs. 
10, 11, and 12), knives (figs. 13, 14, and 15), and forceps (jig. 


' The great object to be attained is the formation of a circular hole 
with smooth edges. Collectors not having such a drill as is here recom- 
mended, will find a common nail or a three-cornered needle a useful 
substitute, but they must be used with extreme care. 


15 


16), the contents are completely emptied. After this the egg 
should be filled with water from the syringe, gently shaken, and 
blown out, which process is to be repeated until its interior is 
completely cleansed, when it should be laid upon a pad of blot- 
ting-paper or fine cloth, with the hole downwards, its position 
on the pad or cloth being occasionally changed, until it is per- 
fectly dry. During this time it should be kept as much as pos- 
sible from the light, especially from the sunshine, as the colors 
are then more liable to fade than at any subsequent time. In 
the case of very small eggs, when fresh, the contents may be 
sucked out by means of a bulbed tube (jig. 6), and the interior 
afterwards rinsed out as before. It is always advisable, as far 
as possible, to avoid wetting the outside of the shell, as the 
action of water is apt to remove the “bloom,” affect the color, 
and in some cases alter the crystallization of the shell. Conse- 
quently dirt stains or dung spots should never be removed, 
While emptying the contents, it is as well to hold the egg over 
a basin of water, to avoid breakage in case of its slipping from 
the fingers. Eggs that are very hard sat upon, of whatever size 
they be, should be treated in the manner detailed in the accom. 
panying “Description of Egg-blowing Instruments,” under the 
head of ‘fig. 17,” which is a method superior to any other known 
at present to the writer for preventing injury arising to them. 
Should the yelk of the egg be dried up, a small portion of car- 
bonate of soda may be introduced (but with great care that it 
does not touch the outer surface of the shell, in which case the 
color is likely to be affected), and then the egg filled with water 
from the syringe, and left to stand a few hours with the hole 
uppermost, after which the contents are found to be soluble, and 
are easily removed by the blowpipe, assisted by one of the hooks. 
It is almost unnecessary to add, except for the benefit of begin- 
ners, that the manipulation of the different instruments requires 
extreme caution, but a few trials will give the collector the 
practice necessary for success. Those who may still prefer to 
blow eggs by means of two holes are particularly requested not 
to make them at the ends of the eggs, nor at opposite sides, but on the 
same side. (fig. 18.) In this case the hole nearest the smaller end 
of the egg should be the smallest, and the contents blown out at 
the other. If the holes are made at the ends of the eggs, it not 
only very much injures their appearance as cabinet specimens, 


16 


but also prevents their exact dimensions from being ascertained 
accurately ; and if they are made at opposite sides, the extent of 
the “show surface” is thereby lessened. Eggs should never be 
written on until the shells are perfectly dry, or the ink will be 
found to run, and the inscription will be rendered illegible. Eggs 
with chalky shells, such as those of the anis (Crotophaga), gannets 
and cormorants (Pelecanide), and others, may be conveniently 
marked by incising with a pin or the point of an egg-drill, so 
also those of the ptarmigans (Lagopus), care being taken in this 
case to select the dark-colored patches to write upon. The 
inscriptions should always be placed on the same side as the hole 
or holes, and confined within the smallest limits possible. For 
drilling the hole or holes the side presenting the least character- 
istic markings should be selected. 


CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. 


The best allies of the collector are the residents in the country, 
whether aboriginal or settlers, and with them he should always 
endeavor to cultivate a close intimacy, which may be assisted by 
the offer of small rewards for the discovery of nests or eggs. 
He should, however, always insist upon any nests found being 
shown to him za situ, and the gratuities paid should be propor- 
tioned to his success in identifying the species to which they 
belong. He should steadily refuse any but the most trifling 
remuneration for nests or eggs taken and brought to him. As 
a rule, the eggs of the different species of plovers and sandpipers 
(Oharadriade and Scolopacide) are those most wanted by oolo- 
gists of all countries. These birds mostly breed in high northern 
latitudes, but they often choose elevated spots for nesting in 
more southern parallels. Their nests are nearly always difficult 
to find, even when the birds are discovered. ‘Their habit is, if 
the ground be at all rough with herbage, to run off the nest for 
some distance before taking wing, as the observer approaches; 
if the ground be bare, they will try to escape observation by 
squatting closely until they are almost trodden upon. The best 
method of finding them, and indeed the nests of some other spe- 
cies, is for the collector to conceal himself near the place where 
he has reason to believe the eggs are, and to endeavor to watch 
the bird as she returns to her nest—using a telescope, if neces- 


By 


sary; but should this fail, after giving her time to settle herself 
upon it, to fire off a gun suddenly, or spring up and shout, when 
the bird, in her surprise, will often at once take wing from the 
nest, or at least without running many yards. To reach the 
nests of rock-building birds, a man or boy can be lowered by a 
rope from the top, when it is accessible. The rope should always 
be tied under the arms of the person lowered, as substances, 
detached from above by the friction of the rope, may, by fall- 
ing on him, stun him for a moment, and cause him to lose his 
hold. But in all places and at all times an egg-collector should 
recollect that IDENTIFICATION and AUTHENTICATION are his main 
objects, to attaan which no trouble ts too laborious, no care too 
great. 


DESCRIPTION OF EGG-BLOWING IMPLEMENTS. 


Figs. 1, 2, and 3, represent “drills” for making neat and cir- 
cular holes in the shell. These drills should be made of the best 


Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 





Figs. 1, 2, 3, natural size, Figures 2a, 2b, enlarged 
steel that can be procured, and of different sizes. Fig. 1 is 


meant for the smallest eggs, even humming bird’s, up to those 
2 


18 


say of a robin (Yurdus migratortus). The grooves forming the 
drilled surface should be cut with a chisel. Fig. 2 will suit the 
generality of eggs, excepting those of very large birds and of 
sea fowl, which usually lay eggs with a strong but soft shell. 
The grooves may be cut either with a chisel or a file, but if with 
the latter, greater care will be requisite in its use. Mg. 3 is 
intended for the largest eggs, and even some of the smaller ones 
which have a chalky shell, such as Crotophaga. The grooves 
are cut with a jfile. In the manufacture of all these drills the 
greatest care is necessary that the grooves should lie parallel to 
one another, and that their edges should be smooth. The smaller 
the drill, the more acute should be the angle it forms at the 
point. The drills may be fitted with handles or not according 
to fancy. Those with handles are less likely than the others to 
cramp the fingers of the performer, an inconvenience which often 
causes breakages. 

N. B. A separate sketch is given with the exlarged views of 
the end of a drill, in order to show more plainly the manner in 
which the grooves should be cut. 

Figs. 4 and 5 represent blowpipes, for emptying eggs. They 


Fig. 4. 6%, Fig. 5. Fig. 7. Fig. 6. 








_—————— 





Half natural size. Natural size. 


19 


are best made of metal, and for this purpose nickel (or Ger- 
man silver) is preferable, as being less liable to rust. A col- 
lector should have two sizes, as a large size is not cenvenient 
for small eggs, and a small one causes loss of time in blowing 
large eggs. They should be made as light as possible, or they 
may slip from the mouth and break the egg being operated on. 
The chief point to be attended to in their construction, is that 
the lower orifice should be as large as the size of the pipe per- 
mits. It is of course necessary that they should be perfectly 
smooth outside, towards the lower end. They may be straight, 
although the curve is preferable. 

Fig. 6 represents a tube for emptying small eggs by suction. 
The bulb is to receive the contents of the egg and prevent them 
from reaching the mouth of the operator and thus causing 
nausea. This instrument is best made of thin glass, as thereby 
it ean be easily kept clean. The same remark applies to this as 
- to the last, with respect to the size of the lower orifice. 

N. B. A piece of thin wire (jig. 6*), long enough to pass 
entirely through the tubes, should be always kept at hand by 
the operator, to remove obstructions which are likely to occur 
from small pieces of the embryo, or half-dried yelk, being acci- 
dentally drawn into the tubes or blowpipes. 

Fig. 7 represents a syringe, which will be found useful in 
rinsing out the inside of an egg. It may be made of any metal, 
though the pewter ones are apt, from their weight, to be clumsy. 
Nickel is recommended, as for the common blowpipes. The 
lower orifice should be as large as possible. The ring at the 
top should be large enough for the insertion of the operator’s 
right thumb—as it must be remembered that he has to work it 
with one hand. The nozzle, as shown in the figure, is rather 
too tapering. It should be smaller in proportion at the upper 
end. 

Figs. 8 and 9 represent scissors of shapes likely to be found 
very useful. J%g. 8 for cutting through the bones of the embryo 
Lefore it ts extracted, aud fig. 9, for cutting off portions of it, 
while it is being extracted by one of the hooks represented in— 

Figs. 10, 11, and 12, which should vary in size from that of 
an ordinary pin to that of stout wire. The length of their 
straight portions should be rather more than the diameter of the 
egg they are used on. 


20 


Fig. 13 represents a knife with a crooked blade, somewhat like 
a bill-hook, and may be useful in cutting up the embryo prior to 
extraction. 

Figs. 14 and 15 represent a penknife and scalpel with elon- 
gated blades, or shafts, to admit of their being introduced into 


Fig. 12, Fig. 11. Fig. 13. 


Fig. 9. 





Fig, 8. 


Fig. 14. 


Fig. 15. 








Sass 


Fig. 16. 


Half Natural size. 





Fig. 10. 
Natural size. 


the egg to cut up the embryo. yg. 14 is also, perhaps, the best 
instrument with which to remove the lining membrane from the 
hole. This is done by inserting the blade perpendicularly and 
slightly scraping the edge of the hole, as soon as it is drilled. 

Fig. 16 represents a forceps for extracting the pieces of the 
embryo when cut up. The spring should not be too lively, as 
its resiliency may occasion breakage. The grasping surfaces 
should be roughed to prevent the pieces slipping. 


21 


Fig. 17 shows a piece of paper, a number of which when 
gummed on to an egg, one over the other, and left to dry, 
strengthen the shell in such a manner that the instruments above 
described can be introduced through the aperture in the middle 
and worked to the best advantage, and thus a fully formed em- 
bryo may be cut up, and the pieces extracted through a very 
moderately sized hole; the number of thicknesses required de- 
pends of course greatly upon the size of the egg, the length of 
time it has been incubated, and the stoutness of the shell and the 
paper. Five or six is the least number that it is safe to use. 


Fig. 17. Fi 


Natural size, 





Each piece should be left to dry before the next is gammed on. 
The slits in the margin cause them to set pretty smoothly, which 
will be found very desirable; the aperture in the middle of each 
may be cut out first, or the whole series of layers may be drilled 
through whea the hole is made in the egg. For convenience 
sake the papers may be prepared already gummed, and moist- 
ened when put on (in the same way that adhesive postage labels 
are used). Doubtless, patches of linen or cotton cloth would 
answer equally well. When the operation is over, a slight ap- 
plication of water (especially if warm), through the syringe, will 
loosen them so that they can be easily removed, and they can be 
separated from one another and dried to serve another time. 
The size represented in the sketch, is that suitable for an egg of 
moderate dimension, such as that of a common fowl. 
Observations —The most effectual way of adopting this method 
of emptying eggs, is by using very many layers of thin paper and 
plenty of thick gum, but this is of course the most tedious. 
Nevertheless, it is quite worth the trouble in the case of really 
rare specimens, and they will be none the worse for operating 
upon from the delay of a few days, caused by waiting for the 


22 


gum to dry and harden. The naturalist to whom this method 
first occurred, has found it answer remarkably well in every case 
that it has been used, from the egg of an eagle to that of a hum- 


ming bird, and among English oologists it has been generally 
adopted. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 


WRC U eA 


IN REFERENCE TO THE 


HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICAN GRASSHOPPERS. 


Tue Smithsonian Institution, being desirous of obtaining ac- 
curate information respecting the Grasshopper’ tribes of North 
America, calls the attention of its friends and correspondents to 
a number of queries relative to this subject, drawn up by Mr. 
P. R. Uhler. 

It is well known that these insects destroy immense quantities 
of the products of the fields; while there is scarcely a plant that 
is not at times subjected to their ravages. 

With these facts in view, and in consideration of the want of 
material to complete their history, the Institution respectfully 
requests attention to the subjoined questions. Answers may be 
returned by reference merely to the numbers. 

Should there be several species of grasshoppers committing 
their depredations in any one locality, the queries should be 
answered separately for each. 

In all cases, whenever practicable, full series of each species 
observed should be collected and preserved in a bottle or vial 
filled with alcohol, or strong spirit of some kind. If this cannot 
be obtained, the grasshoppers may be dried. Care should be 
taken to indicate the locality, date, and collector of each series. 
These may be transmitted to the Institution by any convenient 
opportunity. The answers to the queries may be sent to the 
Institution, either direct or under cover to the U.S. Commis- 
sioner of Patents. 


' The grasshoppers of North America correspond to the locusts of the 
old world, which commit such ravages in Asia and Africa. The term 
locust is applied in America to a widely different insect, not here under 
consideration, 


2 


. When does the Grasshopper lay its eggs? 
. How does it lay its eggs? With the ovipositor projected 


at the time into the ground, or into a hole dug before- 
hand? 


. At what depth does the female deposit her eggs? 


4. What kind of soil does she prefer for this purpose? 


on 


Oo DH TD 


. What localities, whether near streams, on hill-sides, in pits, 


or in cavities? 
How often does she lay her eggs ? 
How long does she live after laying them? 
Does she lay them singly or in clusters ? 


Does she sometimes lay them singly, and at other times in 
clusters ? * 


. What do the eggs resemble ? 
Ls 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 


What is their size? shape? color? markings? 

How much time is occupied in laying the eggs? 

What changes take place in the egg before it is hatched? 
How long does the egg remain before it is hatched ? 


What state of the atmosphere is most favorable for its 
development ? 


. How does the young escape from the egg? 
. What is its appearance? marking? size? 


. What places and food does it prefer ? 


Is it eapable of producing noise, and how? 


. What is its general manner of life ? 
. Does it exhibit any, peculiar actions? 


. Is it ever pugnacious, or destructive of its own or other 


kind of insects ? 


. When does its first change of skin occur ? 
. What peculiarities does it then exhibit ? 


. How long a time is occupied in changing the skin ? 


26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 


30. 
3l. 
. When and how often does it moult ? 
33. 
34. 
30. 
36. 
37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 


41. 


43. 
44, 


45. 
46. 
47. 
48. 
49. 
50. 


51. 


3 


How many changes of the skin occur? 
What are its peculiarities after each change ? 
What length of time between each change ? 


How long after its exclusion from the egg does its last 
moult occur? 


What is the appearance of the pupa? 


Does it change its skin ? 


Does it ever feed while moulting ? 

Does it change its food after moulting ? 

What changes take place in its habits or manners ? 
What remarkable appearance does it ever present ? 
When does it become full winged ? 

Does it ever moult after becoming full winged? 
What changes in habits or manners then occur? 


What comparative difference is there in the sizes of the 
sexes? 


When does the male unite, sexually, with the female? 
What is the length of time required for the act? 
What peculiarities are observed at this time? 


How much time elapses between this act and the laying 
of the eggs? 


How long does the male live after the act ? 

How long does the female live after laying the eggs? 
Does the female ever make a noise, and how? 

How does the male produce his note? 

At what times is he most noisy ? 


What variations of instinct have been remarked in either 
sex ? 

What condition of the atmosphere seems most favorable 
for their increase ? 


4 


52. What other physical conditions favor them ? 

53. What physical conditions are most unfavorable te them ? 
54. What physical or other conditions cause them to migrate? 
55. How far has their migratory flight been known to extend? 
56. What times do they prefer for migrating ? 


57. What vegetable or other substances are repugnant to 
them and what do they prefer? 


58. Do odors of any kind affect them in any particular way ? 


59. Through how extended a district have their ravages been 
noticed ? 


60. What remedies have been used to prevent their ravages ? 


61. How far has each remedy been successful ? 


A very small amount of time appropriated to observing these 
insects may bring about results of the most weighty importance. 
It is useless to attempt to prevent the destruction occasioned by 
any species of insect until a sufficient acquaintance with its eco- 
nomy is effected, and it is matter of much regret that, generally, 
so little is known respecting the insects of this country ; a little 
exertion, well directed, will do much in obtaining correct 
information respecting them, and millions of dollars’ worth of 
property be saved to the agriculturist every year. 

Hoping that the zeal which has been so often displayed by the 
coadjutors of the Institution, in other departments of science, 
may be awakened in behalf of the important subject here pre- 
sented, it makes this appeal, feeling assured that the assistance 
so much needed will be freely afforded. 


JOSEPH HENRY, 


Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 


Smirusontay Institorion, January 1, 1860. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELI ANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 


Cm RC we A 


IN REFERENCE TO COLLECTING 


NORTH AMERICAN SHELLS. 


Tue Smithsonian Institution contemplates the preparation of 
a series of Reports upon the Shells of North America, with par- 
ticular reference to their geographical distribution; and takes 
this occasion to invite the codperation of its correspondents and 
the friends of science generally, in collecting materials for this 
purpose, as well as in completing the conchological department 
of its museum and furnishing materials for its home and foreign 
exchanges. Due acknowledgment will be made for any such 
assistance, and a copy of the Reports presented to contributors, 
as well as a labelled series of their specimens returned, if desired. 

The Institution is desirous to receive even the commonest 
shells, and in large numbers, for the purposes of exchange. 

Any collections of shells or other objects of Natural History 
may be sent to the care of the Adams Express Company in the 
eastern part of the continent, and on the west coast to the care 
of Forbes & Babcock, San Francisco, Cal., by whom they will be 
forwarded to the Institution. 

The following instructions based upon the experience of 
several practised collectors, have been presented to the Smith- 
sonian Institution as containing the information necessary to 
attain the object in view. 


JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary S. 1. 


Smrtusonian Instirvtion, Jan. Ist, 1860. 


SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS. 


The shells most wanted for the purposes in view are, in the 
first place, all the species of the western portion of the continent, 
the land and freshwater, and especially the marine shells of the 
Pacific; next the marine shells of the eastern coast, and of the 
Gulf of Mexico, including the West India Islands; next the 
land and ‘freshwater univalves generally, with the Oycladide ; 
and lastly, as best known, the Unionide or Mussels, especially 
those of the regions west of the Mississippi, and the southern 
Atlantic and Gulf States. 

Wherever practicable, a full series of the shells of each local- 
ity, with their animals enclosed, should be preserved in alcohol; 
in the case of the smaller species, it will be well to throw in 
spirit all that can be collected, as much trouble in cleaning will’ 
thereby be saved. Shells with their animals are of much more 
value for scientific investigations than those without them, and 
should be carefully sought after. Dead shells, however, or those 
picked up on the beach or elsewhere, without any animal attached 
or included, should also be collected in large numbers, even when 
the same kinds are preserved in alcohol, as showing forms or 
variations not seen in the other series, or as increasing the aggre- 
gate of material for the investigation of the species. 

Asa general rule, the alcohol used should not be very strong— 
about fourth proof is the best. The shells, especially the dimi- 
nutive ones, should be kept in small lots, and not mixed with 
vertebrates or crustaceans (which require stronger spirit), if it can 
be avoided. Small bottles, jars, or tin cans may be employed 
for the purpose. Shells without their animals should be pre- 
served dry, and not thrown into spirit. 

In packing shells for transportation, care should be taken to 
have the bottle or box in which they are contained perfectly full, 
to prevent friction during transportation. The larger ones should 
be wrapped separately in paper. 

When it is inconvenient to transport shells containing their 
animals in alcohol, after having been immersed in this fluid, they 
may be taken out and the animals allowed to dry up. They can 
at any time be relaxed again for examination by soaking in a 
solution of strong potassa—although it is best to keep them in 


3 


the spirit whenever practicable; for this purpose a strong spirit 
should be diluted, else the animal is hardened and the shell 
damaged. 

The animal may be best killed and removed from the shell by 
immersing in boiling water, and allowing it gradually to cool. 
This will loosen its muscular attachments, when it can be readily 
extracted, in most cases whole. 

It is perhaps unnecessary to say that the value of shells in 
reference to indications of geographical distribution, will-depend 
entirely upon the accuracy of their labels of station and locality. 
The greatest care should always be taken to mark down the 
locality at the time of collecting, if on a journey, and to verify 
as far as possible all statements in respect to this point relating 
to specimens obtained from others. Specimens received from 
other sources should always be packed and labelled separately 
from those obtained by the collector. 

The west coast abounds in Limpets. These are found adher- 
ing to rocks at low water. Some are only seen at the ebb of 
spring tides; others live adhering to the fronds and stems of 
kelp, some being extremely small. The animals of all these 
should be preserved; and, as they drop out of the shells in spi- 
rit, each kind should be tied up separately. There are several 
slipper limpets (Crepidulide) and key-hole limpets (fssurellide) 
to which attention is requested. They generally live attached to 
other shells. There is a very large species in which the shell is 
almost hidden (Lucapina erenulata), which should be always 
preserved in spirit. The Chiton tribe (woodlouse shells) deserve 
special attention. As they are apt to roll up into a ball, they 
should be tied flat to a strip of wood on being taken off the rock, 
and then immersed in spirit. A large species, in which the 
shelly plates are quite hidden, and the animal looks like a lea- 
thery lump, should be specially sought after. The animals of the 
great Ear Shells (aliot’s) should also be preserved in spirits. 
Of these and of the Limpets, and indeed of all shells, it is very 
desirable to collect individuals of all ages, especially of the 
youngest. If they be found in spawning season, the eggs should 
be preserved in spirit. 

Special attention should be given to the Top Shells ( 7rochide) 
which, with all other univalve shells, should be carefully preserved 
with their opercula, or horny (sometimes shelly) lid on the mouth. 


4 


After a storm, the kelp and shore should be carefully searched 
for these and other shells. 

The rocks and hardened mud banks should be searched for 
bivalves, which bore in them, and must be extracted by the ham- 
mer. They should be preserved in spirit. Some kinds make a 
cup or shelly tube outside the shell, which should be preserved. 
Most of the bivalves are found in the sand or sandy mud, and 
should be dug for where a little rising, or holes are seen. Salt 
marshes are particularly productive. 

Most of the kinds can only be obtained alive by dredging,' 
especially on a bottom of sandy mud or gravel. But several 
rare deep-water species can be obtained by examining the con- 
tents of fishes’ stomachs and intestines, where they are often 
found in quantities uninjured. 

Some of the most interesting shells are extremely small. They 
may be picked off from the kelp or crevices of rocks at low 
water; and if there be sand, mud, or small gravel, especially from 
deep water, which contains small and broken shells, the larger 
shells may be packed up in it with advantage, after passing it 
through a fine sieve. 

Land shells should be sought for in rainy weather, and in the 
early morning. The small kinds are often found on decayed 
bark or under stones. The naked slugs (as well as similar 
animals in the sea) should be preserved in spirit. The fresh- 
water univalves will be found on stones, buried in mud, or among 
water plants; and the pond and river mussels at the bottom. 
None of the land or freshwater shells of the Pacific coast are as 
yet common in collections. 

All information as to the station and habits of each species 
will be very acceptable. If they be kept in water (changing 
it constantly) and the animal drawn when in motion, very im- 
portant knowledge may be gained. 

The shells should be left with the dirt and all natural secre- 
tions adhering to them; nor should filing, acid, etc., on any 
account be employed with a view to improve their appearance. 


1A figure of the dredge, and instructions for its use, will be found on 
page 39 of “Directions for making Collections of Natural History,” pub- 
lished by this Institution. The pamphlet will be sent to any one desiring 
it, on application. 


‘ee Pe sites pe 
ibrenbearcbes iy ies eit! wipes 








SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 


CIRCULAR 


IN REFERENCE TO 


THE DEGREES OF RELATIONSHIP AMONG DIFFERENT NATIONS. 


In behalf of the Smithsonian Institution, I beg to commend to 
attention the accompanying letter and schedule of Mr. Lewis H. 
Mor@an, of Rochester, N.Y. This gentleman has been engaged, 
for several years, in studying the ethnological peculiarities of the 
Indians of the North American Continent; and has discovered 
among them a system of relationship, which he wishes to compare 
with the systems of consanguinity existing among the natives of 
other countries. 

From the annexed letter, it will be seen that General Cass has 
given this interesting enquiry the official sanction of the Depart- 
ment of State. 

The answers to the circulars may be addressed to the Smithso- 
nian Institution, care of the Department of State; and full credit 
will be given to all who furnish information bearing on this sub- 
ject, when the results of these investigations are published. 

I am, very respectfully, 
Your obedient servant, 
JOSEPH HENRY, 


Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
Washington, D. C., Jan. 20, 1860. 





To the Diplomatic agents and Consuls 
of the United States in foreign countries : 


The accompanying circular and blank form have been prepared 
by L. H. Morgan, Esq., of Rochester, New York, for the purpose 


2 


of extending his ethnological investigations relative to the [adians 
of this continent to the other parts of the globe. 

As the results of his investigations are to be published in the 
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, I have been requested 
by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, in this city, to 
commend the matter to your favor. I will consequently thank you 
to do whatever you conveniently can towards furnishing the infor- 
mation desired. 

I am, gentlemen, 
Your obedient servant, 


LEWIS CASS. 


DEPARTMENT OF STATE, 
Washington, 5th January, 1860. 





Rocuester, Monroe Co., N. Y., 
October 1st, 1859. 


Dear Sir: I take the liberty to send you, herewith enclosed, a 
printed schedule, with the request that you will take the trouble 
to fill it up according to its design, with the names of the various 
degrees of consanguinity and relationship which are in use among 
the people or tribe with or near whom you reside. In order that 
you may fecl sufficient interest in the matter to induce you to com- 
ply with this request from a stranger, I would ask your attention 
to the object to which these inquiries are directed, to some of the 
results already reached, and to others still more interesting and 
important toward which they are manifestly tending. 

Several years ago the peculiar system of relationship of the 
Iroquois, one of the principal American Indian families, attracted 
my attention. I found that, while it was very special and com- 
plex, it rested upon definite ideas, which stood to each other in 
such intelligent and fixed relations as to create a system. It is 
entirely unlike our own, both in its method of classification and in 
the ends it proposes to itself; as also unlike those of the remain- 
ing Indo-European nations, all of whom have substantially one 
and the same system. ‘Fhe fundamental idea of the Iroquois sys- 
tem, upon which it is built up with great logical rigor is, that it 
never suffers the bond of consanguinity to loose itself in the ever- 


—_— 


3 


diverging collateral lines. The degrees of relationship are never 
allowed to pass beyond that of first cousin, after which the collat- 
eral lines revert into, or are merged in the lineal, in such a man- 
ner that the son of a man’s cousin becomes his nephew, and the 
son of this nephew becomes his grandson. ‘This principle works 
upwards as well as downwards, in such a manner, that the brother 
of a man’s father becomes his father, and the brother of his grand- 
father becomes also his grand-father, in this, to us, novel system 
of consanguinity. 

At first, I supposed that this peculiar system was confined to 
the Iroquois, and was a scheme of their own invention; but sub- 
sequent investigation disclosed the striking fact, that the system in 
all its complexity and precision is common to all the multitudinous 
Indian nations of North America, and most likely of both con- 
tinents. At least, I have found, from schedules filled up and in 
my hands, with the exception of the Pawnee and Omaha, in which 
cases the schedules are but partially filled out, the system com- 
plete in the following Indian nations: the Iroquois and Wyan- 
dotte, who belong to the Hodenosaunian family; the Ojibwa, Otawa, 
Potowottomie, Peoria, Shawnee, Delaware, and Mohekuneuk, who 
belong to the Algonquin family ; the Choctaw, which belongs to 
the Appalachian family; the Winnebagoe, Mississippi Dakota, 
Missouri Dakota, Iowa, Otoe, Kaw, and Omaha, who belong to the 
Dakotan family ; and the Pawnee, which perhaps with the Arie- 
karee, constitutes an independent family ; making in all, sixteen 
different Indian nations, among all of whom the system is now in 
daily use. 

Besides these, by means of the Indians above named who could 
speak for their kindred nations, and by information obtained from 
the French trappers and traders of the Upper Missouri, who have 
spent their lives in the mountains, and speak many Indian lan- 
guages, I have been able to verify the present existence of the 
same system of relationship in the following additional nations: 
the Quappas, Osage, Sawk and Fox, Assinaboines, Mandan, and 
Sheyenne, who are Dakotans; the Kaskaskias, Piankashaws, 
Weaws, Miamis, Kikapoos, Menomines,. and Blackfeet, who are 
Algonquins ; the Arickarees, who are Pawnians; che Upsarokas 
or Crows, and the Gros-Ventres, whom I am not, at present, able 


4 


to place; and lastly the Shoshonees or Snake Indians, west of the 
Rocky Mountains, who are of the same family as the Comanches 
of Texas. In further addition to these, there are the Creeks, 
Chickaswas, and Seminoles, who may be presumed to have the sys- 
tem, as they are Appalachians. That it prevails among the 
Creeks I have satisfactory evidence from other sources. 

The system is thus traced into thirty-six different Indian nations, 
comprising the principal historical races, who have, at times, occu- 
pied the whole area from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic, 
and from a point far up in the British Possessions, on the North, 
to the Gulf of Mexico and New Mexico, on the South. 

The schedules, when compared, exhibit variations from uni- 
formity, and occasional discrepancies, but the radical features of 
the system are constant in them all. 

The most important of these are the following : 

J.—AI]I the brothers and sisters of a man’s grand-father, and of his 
grand-mother, and all his ancestors above grand-father and grand- 
mother, together with all their brothers and sisters, are equally his 
grand-fathers and grand-mothers. Some of the nations discrimi- 
nate among them as second and third grand-fathers, &c., but practi- 
cally, they are all grand-fathers and grand-mothers. There are 
no great uncles, or great aunts, as with us. 

Il.—All the brothers of a father are equally fathers to his chil- 
dren, and he is a father to the children of all his brothers. In 
like manner, all the sisters of a mother are equally mothers to her 
children, and she isa mother to the children of all her sisters. These 
are not uncles and aunts, nephews and nieces, as with us. 

I1I.—On the contrary, all the brothers of a mother are uncles 
to her children, and all the sisters of a father are aunts to his 
children, as with us; so that of the father’s brothers and sisters, 
and of the mother’s brothers and sisters, the mother’s brothers and 
the father’s sisters are the true and the only uncles and aunts 
recognized under this system. 

IV.—There is one term for elder brother, another for younger 
brother ; one term for elder sister, and another for younger sister; 
and no term either for brother or sister, except in the plural num- 
ber. These separate terms are not applied to the oldest or the 


5 


youngest specifically, but to cach and all, who are older or younger 
than the person speaking. 

V.—AIl the children of several brothers are brothers and 
sisters to each other, and all the children of several sisters are 
brothers and sisters to each other, and they use, in each case, the 
respective terms for elder and younger brother, and for elder and 
younger sister, the same as in the case of own brothers and sisters. 
Whilst all the children of brothers on the one hand, and of sisters 
on the other, are cousins to cach other, as with us. To this last 
rule their are exceptions. When you cross from one sex to the 
other, the degree of relationship is farther removed. 

VI.—AlIl the sons of a man’s brothers as before stated, are his 
sons; so all the grand-sons of a man’s brothers are his grand-sons. 
The sons of a man’s sisters are his nephews, but the grand-sons 
of a man’s sisters are his grand-sons. In the next collateral line 
the son of a man’s female cousin is his nephew, and the son of 
this nephew is grand-son. “ 

VIi.—All the grandsons of brothers are brothers to each other, 
and the same of all the grandsons of sisters, while all the grand- 
sons of brothers on the one hand, and of sisters on the other, are 
cousins ; and the same relationship continues to the remotest gen- 
eration in each case, so long as these persons stand in the same 
degree of nearness to the original brothersand sisters. But when 
one is farther removed than the other, by a single degree, the rule 
which changes the collateral line into the lineal at once applies : 
thus the son of one cousin becomes a nephew to the other cousin, 
and the son of this nephew a grandson. In like manner the son 
of one brother becomes a son to the other brother, and the son of 
this son, a grandson. 

VILI.—Consequently, the descendants of brothers and sisters, 
or of an original pair, could not, in theory, ever pass beyond the 
degree of cousin, that being the most remote degree of relation- 
ship recognized, and the greatest divergence allowed from the 
lineal line. Hence the bond of consanguinity which can never, in 
fact, be broken by lapse of time, was not, as a fundamental idea 
of the Indian system, suffered to be broken in principle. 

IX.—All the wives of these several brothers, without discrim- 
ination, and all the wives of these several male cousins, are inter- 


6 


changeably sisters-in-law to the brothers and cousins of their 
respective husbands; and all the husbands of these several sisters, 
without distinction, and of these several female cousins, are in 
like manner brothers-in-law to the sisters and cousins of their 
respective wives. All the wives of these several sons and nephews 
are daughters-in-law alike to the fathers and mothers, uncles and 
aunts of their respective husbands; and all the husbands of these 
several daughters and nieces, are sons-in-law alike to the fathers 
and mothers, uncles and aunts of their respective wives. 

X.—In all the preceding cases the principle of correlative rela. 
tionship is strictly applied: thus, the person whom I call son 
calls me father; the one [ call grand-son calls me grand-father ; 
and the same with uncle and nephew, aunt and niece, brother and 
brother, cousin and cousin, father-in-law and son-in-law, step- 
father and step-son, and thus onward through every recognized 
relationship. 

This system, which, from its complexity and unlikeness to our 
own, is embarrassing to us, is yet perfectly natural and readily 
applied by the Indian, to whom any other than this is entirely 
unknown. 

As an illustration of the method and nomenclature of the sys- 
tem, and of the manner of filling out the schedule, the following 
specimen may be taken in the Seneca dialect of the Iroquois lan- 


guage : 


Nore.—Care should be taken, in putting the questions on the schedule, 
against the error of receiving a simple translation of the question from 
the native. The special term by which he is called is the answer desired. 
\The true form of each question is, ‘‘ What do I call the person described 
by the question:” thus, ‘¢ What do I call my father’s brother’s son ?”’ Xe. 
Answer, fy brother. 

Another rule should be observed. When one relationship is deter- 
mined, the next in order will be based upon it usually : thus, my father’s 
brother’s son is ‘‘ my brother ;” therefore, my father’s brother’s son’s son 
will be ‘‘ my son,” if [am a man, and ‘‘my nephew,” if I am a woman ; 
because he is the son of *‘ my brother,” and because the son of my brother 
is my son, if 1am aman, and my nephew, if 1 am a woman. 


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8 


It is not necessary in this place to discuss the variations from 
uniformity which a careful comparison of the several schedules 
has revealed; but the one most important may be adverted to, 
in this connection, as it may appear in the systems of other 
nations, and finally receive anexplanation. It is this: the son of 
a man’s father’s sister is his cousin among the [roquois, the Da- 
kotas, and the Otawas, &c., who represent three stock languages ; 
while among the Iowas, Otoes, Kaws and Shawnees, who repre- 
sent two of the same stock languages, he is a nephew ; and among 
the Choctaws, who represent a fourth stock language, he is a 
father; so that in one case the same persons are cousins to each 
other, in another, uncle and nepbew, and in another, son and 
father. 

The universal prevalence, among the North American Indians, 
of a system of consanguinity and relationship so exceedingly com- 
plex, was sufficiently remarkable to suggest some questions as to 
what might be its ethnological value. Its permanency was sufhi- 
ciently illustrated by its universal prevalence through a period of 
time, in which every word of some of the languages had under- 
gone such changes as to be wholly unintelligible to the people of 
other languages, in which the system itself had undergone no ma- 
terial modification. Consequently it seemed to indicate the unity 
of origin of all these Indian nations, which though probable be- 
fore, was not so well established as to leave undesirable the fur- 
ther evidence to be derived from this source. The ancientness 
upon this continent of the Red race, assuming its original unity, 
was rendered’manifest by the number of ages which would be re- 
quired for an original language to fall into several languages so 
entirely changed in their vocabularies as to lose all internal evi- 
dence, from this source, of their original connection ; and for these, 
in turn, to fall into the multitudinous dialects in which they are 
now spoken. This permanency and this universality of the sys- 
tem, therefore, could scarcely be understood in any other way, 
than by the assumption that this system itself was as old as the 
Indian race on this continent. If, then, the Red race was of 
Asiatic origin, it became very probable that they brought it with 
them from Asia, and left it behind them in the stock from which 
they separated. 


9 


These deductions naturally led to the extension of the field o 
inquiry to the old world, and particularly to those Scythic peoples, 
with whom it was supposed, on other ethnological grounds, the 
Red race would affiliate, if ever successfully traced to an Asiatic 
original. Hence, these schedules have been distributed in some 
portions of Asia, and in some of the islands of the Pacific, in order 
to discover whether this system is confined to the American In- 
dians, or is indeed common with them, and the Mongolian, Tun- 
gusian, Turkish, and Finnish families, whose languages constitute 
what is now known as the Scythian group of tongues. 

But two schedules have, as yet, been obtained, and these but 
partially filled, although fortunately the prominent and indicative 
features of the system of each are presented. They contain the 
principal degrees of consanguinity and relationship of the Tamil 
and Telugu peoples of southern India, numbering about twenty- 
four millions, who, with the Canarese, the Malayalam, the Tulu, 
and a few subordinate Dravidian races, have been recognized as an 
Ante-Brahminical people, having their nearest affinities with the 
Scythian families above mentioned. 

A comparison of the Tamil and Telugu schedules shows that 
the systems of these races are identical; leading to the same in- 
ference of their genetic connection, which has been drawn from 
the similarity of the Iroquois and the Dakotas as to them. A 
further comparison of the Tamil and Telugu system, with that of 
the American Indians, discloses the extraordinary fact, that so far 
as we have the present means of comparison, they are nearly 
identical. To what extent the Asiatic and the American Indians 
have the system in common, will appear by the following state- 
ment of the principal features of the Tamil and Telugu system, 
which are the following : 

I —All the brothers of a father are usually called fathers, 
(Takaippin,*) but in strictness, those who are older than the father 
are called great fathers, (Périya’ Takippiin,) and those who are 
younger, little fathers, (Sériyt Tikippin ;) so that in any event | 
all the father’s brothers are fathers, and not uncles. 





* These words are in the Tamil language, and all of them are used in 
the singular number. 


10 


II.—All the sisters of a mother are usually called mothers 
(Tay ;) but in strictness, when older or younger, great and little 
mothers, as in the former case. So that in like manner, all the 
sisters of a mother are mothers, aud not aunts. 

III.—On the contrary, all the brothers of a mother are uncles 
(Mamin) to her children, and all the sisters of a father are aunts 
(Attai) to his children; so that the mother’s brothers and father’s 
sisters are the true and the only uncles and aunts recognized under 
the Dravidian system. 

IV.—There is one term for elder brother, (Annin, ) another for 
younger brother, (Tampi;) one term for elder sister, (Akkil,) 
and another for younger sister, (Taingkichchi, ) and no term either 
for brother or sister. These separate terms are not applied to the 
oldest and youngest specifically; but to each and all who are older 
or younger than the person speaking. 

V.—AIl the children of several brothers are brothers and sisters 
to each other, and all the children of several sisters are brothers 
and sisters to each other; and they use in each case the respective 
terms for elder and younger brother and for elder and younger 
sister, the same as in the case of own brothers and sisters, and as 
given in the foregoing illustration from the Iroquois system. 

VI.—All the children of brothers on the one hand, and of the 
brother’s sisters on the other, are cousins (Miittiinin) to each 
other, as in the American system. 

VII.—All the sons of a man’s sisters are his nephews, (Mari- 
mikan,) and all the daughters of a man’s sisters are his nieces, 
(Martimikal.) So also, all the sons and daughters of a woman’s 
brothers are her nephews and nieces. But whether all the sons 
and daughters of a man’s brothers are called his sons and daugh- 
ters; and whether all the sons and daughters of a woman’s sisters 
are her sons and daughters, these schedules do not show. It is to 
be inferred that they are, from the use by these persons of the 
correlative terms. 

If, in addition to these particulars, the grand-fathers and grand- 
mother’s brothers and sisters are all alike grand-fathers and 
grand-mothers; if the grand-sons of a man’s brothers and sisters 
are his grand-sons; and if the son of a man’s female cousin is 
his nephew, and the son of this nephew is a grand-son, then all 


11 


the radical features of the American Indian are present in the 
Telugu and Tamilian system of relationship. 

Can these coincidences be accidental? While this is not the 
proper place to discuss, either the extent or the conclusiveness of 
the evidence here afforded of the Asiatic origin of the American 
Indian race, yet it is not too much to say, that the remarkable 
similarity of their systems of consanguinity in so many special 
features, furnishes no slight indication that further research will 
draw forth such additional evidence as may lead to a final solution 
of this problem. 

Should this fact become thus established, we cannot fail to per- 
ceive the important bearing which a comparison of the several 
systems of consanguinity and relationship of the human race will 
have upon the remaining question of their common origin. Lan- 
guage, which has been the great instrument in this inquiry, 
changes its vocabulary not only, but also modifies its grammatical 
structure in the progress of ages, thus losing the certainty of its 
indications, with each new foot-hold gained in the past. But the 
ideas deposited in a system of consanguinity, and standing to each 
other in such fixed relations as to create a system, are mostly in- 
dependent of all changes in language, and of the lapse of time, 
and depend for their vitality in the human mind, upon their prime 
necessity and approved usefulness. The system of the Indo- 
European nations has stood without essential change for upwards 
of thirty centuries in the lexicons of the Latin, Greek, and San- 
scrit languages. That of the Tamil and Telugu races has an 4n- 
tiquity equally great, having survived the Brahminical conquest, 
the substitution of a new religion, and the imposition upon them 
of the law of Caste ; while that of the American Indians bears 
internal evidence of the same great age and permanency. 

Sufficient has been said to show, at least, that the further pros- 
ceution of this inquiry, in which your codperation is respectfully 
solicited, promises results of some importance. (Can you be per- 
suaded to furnish to the undersigned the system of relationship, 
written out upon the enclosed schedule, of the native race among 
or near whom you reside? It is certainly a request unsupported 
by any of the ordinary motives of interest, but it is not therefore 
proffered without a hopeful expectation of a favorable response. 


12 


This letter and schedule will be forwarded by the Smithsonian 
Institution of Washington to the principal diplomatic and consular 
officers of the United States in foreign countries, to the United 
States army officers at the several military posts, and also to the 
principal missionaries of the English and American Boards, it 
being the intention of the Institution to give to them a wide distri- 
bution over Asia, Africa, the Islands of the Pacific, Mexico, and 
South America, as well as within our own territories. Such sche- 
dules as are returned will be printed over the names of the per- 
sons by whom they are prepared, and proper acknowledgments 
rendered. While these schedules are making their distant visita- 
tions, the work will be continued among the American Indians, 
with a view to settle the question whether the system is universal 
among them. 

It remains to make some explanations of this schedule, which, 
although it has a formidable appearance, is not intrinsically difh- 
cult. The word “ My” is the starting point; the point occupied 
by “‘ myself,” the questioner ; and the relationship sought is that 
which the person at the opposite end bears to me: thus, ‘my 
father’s brother’s son’s wife” is ‘‘my sister-in-law.” A difficulty 
somewhat embarrassing at first, arises from the fact that the re- 
lationship is very different in some cases where the questioner is 
a male, from what it is where the questioner is a female: thus, 
‘“‘ My father’s brother’s son’s son” is my son, if I am a man, but 
he is my nephew, if Lama woman. ‘To meet this peculiarity the 
question is put twice, once ‘said by a male,” and once ‘‘said by 
a female.” It will assist materially in working the schedule to 
keep in mind the last relationship written down, as we naturally 
follow the chain of kindred step by step, the last degree indicating 
the one to succeed. 

All languages describe relationships by using the possessive form 
of the noun, as ‘‘ father’s sister’s son,’’ but most of them have a 
special word for the same relationship, as “‘ cousin.”’ It is neces- 
sary, in the present case, to have the special word or term, and 
also that it should be spelled with English letters, even though the 
language has alphabetic characters, and that the word be also 
translated into equivalent English. Unless both of these condi- 


15 


tions are met, it will be difficult to make any use of the schedule.* 
The principal vowel marks are indicated; but if others are used 
either for vowels or consonants, the key to the same should be 
given. As one of the pronouns my, our, or his, is incorporated, 
in most languages, with the term of relationship, it is desirable to 
have these pronouns given in every case, and accordingly a place 
has been made for them on the schedule. The accented sylla- 
bles should also be marked. 

Several questions are appended concerning tribal organization, 
the answers to which will have an important bearing upon the 
full interpretation of the system of relationship, with which they 
are intimately connected. A brief explanation of two or three 
prominent characteristics of a Tribe will conclude this letter. 

Nearly all, if not all, of the Indian Nations upon this continent 
were anciently subdivided into Tribes or Families. These Tribes, 
with a few exceptions, were named after animals. Many of them 
are now thus subdivided. It is so with the Iroquois, Delawares, 
Towas, Creeks, Mohaves, Wyandottes, Winnebagoes, Otoes, Kaws, 
Shawnees, Choctaws, Otawas, Ojibewas, Potowottomies, Xe. 

The following tribes are known to exist, or to have existed, in 
the several Indian Nations—the number ranging from three to 
eighteen in each: The Wolf, Bear, Beaver, Turtle, Deer, Snipe, 
Heron, Hawk, Crane, Duck, Loon, Turkey, Musk-Rat, Sable, 
Pike, Cat-Fish, Sturgeon, Carp, Buffalo, Elk, Rein-Deer, Eagle, 
Hare, Rabbit and Snake; also, the Reed-Grass, Sand, Water, 
Rock and Tobacco-Plant. 

Among the Iroquois, and the rule is the same to the present 
day in most of the nations enumerated, no man is allowed to 
marry a woman of his own tribe, all the members of which are 
consanguinei. This was unquestionably the ancient law. It fol- 
lows that husband and wife were always of different tribes. The 
children are of the tribe of the mother, in a majority of the na- 
tions ; but the rule, if anciently universal, is not so at the present 
day. Where descent in the female line prevailed, it was followed 
by several important results, of which the most remarkable was 





*The error in some cases has occurred of translating the questions on 
the schedule, instead of giving the special term. 


14 


the perpetual disinheritance of the male line. Since all titles as 
well as property descended in the female line, and were heredi- 
tary, in strictness, in the tribe itself, a son could never succeed to 
his father’s title of Sachem, nor inherit even his medal or his 
tomahawk. Ifthe Sachem, for example, was of the Wolf tribe, 
the title must remain in that tribe, and his son, who was neces- 
sarily of the tribe of his mother, would be out of the line of suc- 
cession ; but the brothers of the deceased Sachem would be of the 
Wolf tribe, being of the same mother, and so would the sons of 
his sisters: hence we find that the succession fell either upon a 
brother of the deceased ruler or upon a nephew. Between a 
brother of the deceased, and the son of a sister, there was no law 
establishing a preference; neither as between several brothers on 
one side, or several sisters on the other, was there any law of 
primogeniture. They were all equally eligible, and the law of 
election came in to decide between them. 

The tribal organization, and the system of relationship lie at 
the foundation of Indian society. They represent and express 
ideas as old as the race itself, which are freighted with testimony 
of the highest ethnological value. Upon precisely such ideas as 
these, which have been deposited in the family life of a race, we 
may yet be able to ascend through the generations far back upon 
the covered footsteps of the human race, and re-associate nations 
and races, whose original connection has passed from human 
knowledge. Along the pathway of these generations, which is 
marked with epochs of migration from age to age, every divergence 
of a family from the parent stock would carry with it the same 
ideas, spreading them upon the track of each new migration, per- 
chance into the most distant parts of the earth. It is not impos- 
sible that we may, at no distant day, be able to re-ascend the sev- 
eral lines of the out-flow of the generations, and reach and identify 
that parent stock, from which, we believe, we are all alike de- 
scended. 

Yours, respectfully, 
LEWIS H. MORGAN. 


15 


The questions before referred to are the following : 

1. Into how many Tribes is the Nation divided? Give the name 
of each Tribe in the native language, and a translation 
into English. 

2. Was a man forbidden to marry a woman of his own Tribe ? 

3. Were the children of the Tribe of the Mother, or of the Tribe 
of the Father? 

4. Was the office of Sachem or principal chicf hereditary in the 
Tribe ? 

5. Was it elective as among the near relatives of the deceased 
Sachem of the same Tribe ? 

6. Did the Son succeed the Father; or a Brother, or a Sister’s 

Son ? 

Were the duties of a Sachem confined exclusively to the 

affairs of peace ? 

. Was the office of War Chief elective, in reward of merit, and 

non-hereditary ? 

9. Were the descendants of two Sisters of the same sex, stand- 
ing in equal degrees from their common ancestors, Brothers 
and Sisters to each other, in theory, through all genera- 
tions? Were the descendants of two brothers the same i 
Were the descendants of a Brother, and of a Sister, in the 
same manner, Cousins? * 

10. Were the names of individuals changed at different periods, 
by national custom? Thatis: had they one class of names 
for childhood, another for manhood, and still another for 
advanced age, which were successively changed ? 

11. Upon the death of the Father, to whom did his property 
descend ? 

12. Upon the death of the Mother, to whom did her property 
descend ? 

13. If the people are divided into Castes, are these Castes sub- 
divided ? 

14. If so, are these subdivisions analagous, in any particular, to 
the Tribes of the American Indians ? 

15. Can a man of one of these subdivisions marry a woman of the 
same subdivision ? 

16. Arc the members of cach subdivision regarded as consanguinei ? 

17. Do relatives salute each other by the term of relationship ? 


a 


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17 


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eee eee ee Fee FOF OHO E EE HES FETE EEESS OES OES EHH EEHE ES EOE HEHEHE ES TE EEEY 


OOOO ee Oe He OOH EES BEe REE E Ee EEE HETESS OHHH EHHES CHBEEE EEE EHEEHS MOHEES 


POO e eee FHF He CHEE Ee HEE EES CEE EEEEED BHOH ES HSBHEEHEHEES TET SS OHHH OS 


OOO ee OOOO Oe Ae CHO EEE EES BHF TEe OEE OOEEEE HHT HOEEEE FOEHREEES OOD HEHE Oe 


POO eee Oem Pee eee Ee REO EER OHH TEC E TS HTOE RE SHH ESEHEE HES EHH EE EES 


PPT MTITIPITI Meee 





sasieweesFeuseresoseses TOUIOA JOP ”? 

reeree cesccses evevvoveesseoess TATIOIG § JOUICT 
te sseeesceneneersesereeaes sonseeees eneees eB I RISTO 
cts taeeenaen seeeeees eeseeenen eneessers ens STOTT OTT 


‘“(a[emag 55 ‘9 7s 


a) 
Herre (oreyy & ) 


“T9}SIG a 


ve(oyumag — 5, ” 2 


) 

seeees(oreyy @ £q pres) ‘taq}oIg 1esun0 x 
ssoeeh(GTGULGY | Japan) eke 
seeeveen(OTBTHT a ) ‘aoystg IOPLT 
“et (GQ BUID I tae cane ey as ” 
serene (ore @ Lq pres) ‘aoyJOIg JOP 


oceeGeiseeeee’ TORU GIURCT ” 


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seeee eeeeeeereeneere TOG=pUBIN=}BOIH)-waIH AW °6 


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eS POO Cok Sowers Hee Tee eee Hie HO EEO EEE EE 


COO COE ee FR eee OOO EHH HEE HEHE HEHE EE EHEHHE 


CORR O Oe EHD O HH EE EHE HES OH UEHE BEE HEHOE 


O00 POC eee Hoo F5e Foe OOo OHH OEe HH HEHE EE 


Coe Cees ee Seco es Heo e ee HHO ED Ee ees SEeees 


SR eee ee ee Bee ee sees Soseees eee ses eeaeaH 


COO OOOO OEE CHEE HEE EE OEEEHE DES SHHEEE 


COCO Ore ee wees ee eee eeeeeae Sesee ses sevese 


OOOO ee eee wee sees ee esse HOHE o sees cesees eee 


Pees oes wee eee HEE Es FEO E EH OEE es CHEE ES 


OOS Oe woes Cee E Oe Eee HED EHEEE EEE HHHOee 


COO OOo Coe HOHE Oe Cee oe Es OOo Hoe BOR OEE MEOH EF 


COC CH eo eee oases oeeses BOOHEs BEE OEEEEE 





“YST[SUgL 
OJUI owes OY} JO UOTPVISULIAT, 





Eee eee eee wee ee Boe POO eee CHEE OEE SE COs OED FET ES EEEE COOH ER BEE BER EAEEES "re TOI SNVG ae a 


104004 coe esvecaceccrecaess sevens svasestacseusscsosesssoeeeeveoeer|scveeceseers TIOGA TBIL) 3 


wae eee teow ee wee NORE HH Cee OH Hees Bee OOOO EEE EEe SUEHEEL EHESED HeeEeD pusqsnyy §.Layysnvq ae 


” 


ee be ee cee e ee eee we ree e ee HOO eee Her ee HEe BEE HEE H ES DHE EEEEHE HOHES EHO | FHeseEEee es Loy ysnvq 


Peek COE oO OO Oe OOF Oe EOE OE DHS BOOST OES FESO OH BES HEHHEH BHHES OHH | Beesae eeuse "OITA §,m0g 9 


PO ee ee OOOO Ore OHe OHHH EES BHe HEe POHL EF OTE SHEESH EE HHH EES HESHES HES | GaHseeses HHoees BH OOEE uog § Ao} OIg (suey v) AW 


PPOTTTETTUTEERT TLE ee ey “ NUBgSNy] §,.19}S1G 
Ree e eres Cee ee ees FOF FOOTE OEE HOS SORE EE OHHH REESE EEE BOO EEEHES VEO RE sae vee-ciseneeoter ase TOI st Gt rasun0 x 
eo cece ee Fee cece ee eee HHO O EOFs HOO EE SEE OE OE EE CHEESE HE EEED FESTOEES | eesese HEdHOHEED OHHH HE HES *19}SIG IPL 


seeaenenenescereseces sovnseneecencsscsceescosascssosesscacessssses| soseessssous secsssoesceoeseserees TAISTA 


Fee Oe PHO OOOH EE OCHO OEES SEHEOO SETS ESHHE OHH EOE ESE EHH HH EEES HEEEHS | Hoe eEe HEHE EES snc VOTTAK 8 .toqyorg 


OOO ek Fe Ok CHF E Oe OO HEE CEO EEEES CE EEES OEE EH EE EE HED EHHEES DESEO EEEE | HEEHEEEED SESE HESY EHS OU HEOOEES IaqOLg § .Loq}OJN 


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Pee e ee eee HH OE Ee Hee Hee MERE O OOS HEC OE TEES LEH OEHEEs BH EE EE Fee SHOE EEHOS nesiesecesounccuees TRO SIUPT| §,19}SIg § Loqqey AW ‘9% 


eee | 





*g109}9'T YSISUT Ur “pO A OATZVN JO ‘ouUN 


‘drysuorepoy yo wordioseg 








‘ponayq0po—dIHSNOILVIEY JO SHAUNA 


19 


POCO SEHK HEHEHE HHSO EEE Oe BHR H OEE HODOEE 


COO Oem eee eee eee eee HEHE THEE ES EES HEHE 


CHOC E EHR e Oe eee Hee He HEH OEE EEe BH EHE EES 


COOH OO ED Cee ee Hee HEHE HEED HESEEE HOH Ee 


COPE HHS Oe Hee eee eee O HH HOES HOH ES CHEEee 


COO THE HER RHR HEHEHE HTT He EEE EE EHOS BHO E ES 


COO OHO e ee Hee ee HOD He EERE E TEED COOH OEE ES 


SOOO R HOE THEE eee BD OO ee Deroee ees eHEOOHEOH 


SOOO Oe POR Ree Oe seem ee eee ees HH EOS: BOER EE 


POOH eH H eRe OED HER EEE SED BEE OED EHH E ETOH 


OER OOe Pome ee eee eer o ee Fee ee ee Heo eee BHD ees 


BORO Oe HOO eee Oem eee es BH eee FHs OOe ED eEes 


SOO TH ODEO HEED HOS EHH Hee HEE OH HHH EE eoES 


SOPHO TOS TEE HEED HO Hees HERE Ee OEd HOO HHT H em 


OOOOH eee Oe eee eee Hae HHH ES OH EEE OCH e Ee 


CHO FEO HOD wee me enen Ft Hee eeeees See Hee EeEeee 


POO e CH CFE E Oe EERO OS EOE EO OED ERS EEE CODER EEE EHO HOHE HS HE OE HEED 


AOR e eee Cee eee EE HEE TESS HEES DOO EHS EET PEE T HS EOE OOH HOTT ES HESS 


ROR eee Cece eH He Eee FETE TREE SES HED ESHEEE TERETE SEE EEE HED OHHH H HEED 


POO ee hee Heed EEE ES OES FESS EE EHS EHHES SEES EES SES EES EHOEOD OHOH DERE 


POR eee e Cece ee Bee HEHE e REET EE OHO EEE HOHHE OD HOS HHS ERED O EEE BOEEES 


DOOR Ook EHO ES EOE OE CHEE OE EEE EEO EE HOH EHO HOS BHR EOEEED Hi noes aes 


POOR eos Hee He BEE E Se EEE EE FEES EE SHES EHEEH BEL ESTEES SH EES BHSESE EOS 


Fee eee cee ree BOPP Oe Oe HEe Ee EEE EH HED EHH EEEEEE SOR SED EHES ED OEE EOES 


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Fe eee e Meee ee Hee Ook EERO OE OEEHOEOOD CHO EEE HED ETO OT HOS OHH SOHO HEHE OY 


Fee Ree ee HHH S Ee HHO He EEO ESOOAT OH ETHE FOE EES FESEET FEET EES FOOOOS 


Oe ee eee ee HORSE EES EHH T ES HHH ESTESE HORSE HOSEOE EHH HEH OT FHHOHE HOD 


OOOO e Hee FeO e le POE H OE TEE HHH UES EHTS ETHOS EEE TEEHEE EOS OEE HEHEHE EES 


Pee coe Pee ewe eee eee eee ees Hee eeeees 


FORO Oe eee teehee He HOO EE EEE EHR E EE EH EEE EHH S EE BE EEER HOS BES EEEOO ORES 


CORO ee eee CHEE EF HEH HEHE ET HEHEHE OEEEH EHS FHESEE HEE SED EEE ED THEO OD 





Seeeeccece POOR OHEE THO EER HHH HEH HEHEHE SOSH EEER HEHEHE ED HEED 


J 


“"M0Q-puvtsy-7BI1H, 
“* JOIYONVG 9, 

sereveeee tog puta 
P.qsnyy 8,10, 4Snvq 
Heres IOATSNE 


eeeeeeer TT AN gOS 


seecesees rrereeees eT 8 .L9}SIG (s,UBUIO AY ) AW 


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ss eeeeeeeees TOG -puRIy) 
puvgqsnyy s.10yqSneq 
seeeeereseeeeee IUSAL 


seceee scores OUT AN § u0g 


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lao eek eee ee eee wee eee Reet ee eee HOES FEE H Oe HES SOE EEE EOE EED EOS EOHEOS possies.s sasverne wee seal OG §,10}STg (s,uvyy t) sw 


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OOF OC CEES SOOO Oe BEDE SE EHE HEHE EEEEDS SHEees 


Cesc ecnce ceoecs sesces HE EO eEls HEHE eEe) 


C000 ee Coe EOOD FEo Sees HHO HOLS HHH HEHEEe 


OOo eee Bee COSC DEES HOS CHESS OOES BESS DOES 


Oooo es Coe Coes ee COEF Ee FETT OEE BUH EHE EES 


COPS O ee ee OOo Eee Ee EEF HEH EEEEEE EO HESOE SEES 


BOO CSO SCOES CHE H EH HESS ES BEES ES SHOES OEEE 





000 ee 800 CFO LO STEe HOHE EEEEED EEE HOSES OES 


COO e ee DECC OH OEE HHO EEOEE OOEHEEOOe SHOsees 


OOOO es Oe COO o ee Loe OEE EE Ee HOLES OES OHHH ES 





“qSstsug 
OJUL OWLS OY} JO UOTPVISUBIT, 





SOOO HOS OCT HE OEE CEH HEEL ORES OHO E OOOH OEE EES OEE EES OO DOOR O EES FOS 


Fee eee ee Cee e eee HHO Ee Ee OE EE EE OS OFESOS HES HES OE EE es ee eee See beD 
FOO eee ee eee ee eee OH OO Oe O88 UFO ORO OEe Bee es OOS E Es OO Hee UE ESE Obes 
BOOS O LOSE Dore ee HHO He HED EOE OOH OOS HEE Oe OOOO EEOS BEDE Ee OES OOS HOEee® 
HOO Oe eer ee eee CHO OE HED EO OO EE O50 HOS OOOOH HES OE EE Ee EEO H OS Hee ty 
POO Cee eee eee RHEE Ee HER EES FEE HESS ES OO8 SOOT HESS EEO O OS OE8 OHS He eee 
HO eee tee eee eee Hees Bee e ee MEO OS OES EEE E EE EOE HEE ES HEOO RE EES HoEEe 
SOO Ee Eee ee eH ee ee Ee OOo OH EEE ESET ES OHS OHH OOE EES EOEEE EES BEE EE CEES 
FOO Ooo ee OOOO OOO Oe Eee ee OEE EE HES OES OEE Here es BOE EEHEOE UO Oe ee aeees 
POCO C OOO CH OE HE HED HES HOLE EE EOS OHS OEOES BEE ES HER EEE OS OOOO Oe Obes 


FCCC OHO He FOO SOO HEE eee Oe COOH ODES CHEE BOS EULESS HES HOE OES BELO OE EES 


POCO OO OOe See ee CHE O Oe HOS HEE EEE OSE ES BEES ES EERE ES BESO EE EES COOEOLOES 





“810990 YSI[SUq Ur “prO A, OAT}CN IO ‘oMeN 








psites tier cusses (Orme e 
Aq pres) ‘ajtM smog ff aes, 


(afemag 5, -) 55 ” ” ” 
(oeyy & Lq pres) ‘uog 8 1eq}oIg s,1aqyey ATV 
Td ” ” ” ” ” 
WOg-purin-ywop sg ” ” 
qayyonvg yy 39 ” 2 «"G9 
“099° Gog-pmedy es 2 - 
P.QSU]T 8.10},0q 1” ” ” 
sees raqysneq 5, i » 
“enor gmog 4 8 i 
eres ereeeesee erg § ram 01g ms 53 Le 
10},([-PUBIH-jwoIH s.to}sig (sueMOM v) LP 
ae ieee SCR ee 


“drysuorjepay Jo worndriioseg 





“ponando)O—dIHSNOILVIGU AO SUMUOAG 


eee eee toe Bee Pe OE Ee HEHE ER EHH E EOS DEH O ODES, 


eee e eet ee eee CHEE OR THEO HH EEES POE O TEE 


PTUUUTUTECEI Pe 


SOR meee ed eee eee eee Heese Ess HEHE THEE EE 


Ce ee ee eee eee SHEER TEETH ED BEOHED OHHH DEOEY 


PTEeTTTUTE MI 


eee ee eee ee ween ee THEO eee CHET O SHEE HHEE EE 


Dee e reese seeees eee es SOO REEEES SHEE ES. 


Peek eee ee COPE e eee Hee Eee THEE Ee THER TE 


See eee eee ees SEE He HOES SEES SHEESH EEOEES 


Reece wees Beet ee OHHH eHoee Sees HEHEHE eseeS 


COO e ee eee He eee EHO EE HEHE HED MEER EE EED 


Reese eens meee ee sees a ee SHE SEEEEe Cee EEO EEE 


Cee e ee eee eee ee CHRO Oe HEHE HT EEE OHHH ORES 


Cee oer eee Hee ane ee eee HOO eEes SHEE Ee SHHOES 


DOO OHHH ee OOH HE HEHE ETOH UD THOT ER OEE EE 


OOOO OOO e Hee OREO EO OEE CFE EE BE OH ES SHOE ETEEY HHEHEHOEY HEHEHE ES DH DHOS 


Pee ee eee SHOE RSs HOHE EEE CHET EEEEE SHOE FEED HEEEEH HESER EERE BEES ES 


eee ee POPC eee BOSE EE OM CEE EE EEE FHDEES HEHE EH SES ETHEHEES SHREEEEES 


SOOO OEe PERE EEE Ee aH ee Ee PESOS BESET EHD HEHEHE EHHR EL HERES OHHH EEE 


FOO ee Cee Ee Oem eeeeee eee HER EOEE ES COTES EOES SHOE EEEES HEHOHH FHSHO HOD 


VEO eee Bee e ee oe CHRO HE EEE FE EEES CHOLES HED FETT ESOS HEHEHE SED HH HOEEES 


PTETERUTLMLE EET ee) 


PPT RTTEETULIMITIE TE 


eee eee Bee OEE O OEE HOR EEE EE SES OES FES FETE S EH OERE ESSE HEHEHE S ESTED 


Oe Meee eee CHRO EEE HERS EE EET EHEEE SESE HHO EOEEED HEHEHE EHEEOEED 


Bee Oe ee eee COOOCOT IE FOG FECES SEEEES EESEEH OG EHEEED FHTHHEHEH HH OSES 


AO OOO ee ee Peet ee HORE O HC Ee HERE EE EEE HS HOES THES SHH EESEES EHR EOS MERE ED 


APOC Oe Cee eee CHORE E Ee OEE TOE EE HHS EOE EEE SHCEEH OSD BHOOE SEED HEED 


COO eee RECO ee HOHE HOES HH OE EE HEHE O TEES FOSEO ESOS SHOE O HEE MEOH SOROS 


OOOO a Oe Oe oe ee CHEESE EE HEE EEE HEEEES REE OS BEDE EEE BEDE HESSD BEE OS 


PTETEUETIMIT Ee ee 





“*(opeyy B Sq pres) 
10} B-PUBIN-JBIIH 
(oyewog v Sq pres) 
‘MOQ-puviy-VaIy 
“(avy & Sq pres) 
‘MOg-puviy-7VdIIH 
(ayeuog B Aq pres) 
‘ToySuNG s.1oyqonvg 
-(91ey & Aq pres) 
‘TOPYHNGT § coy ySnvg 
seeeee(grumag @ £q 
pres) ‘aog sao} 4Snvqg 
seeecesenee( TRIAL v £q 
pies) ‘og 5.409 q3neq 
sree (otummag @ £q 
pres) ‘1ayqySnxq s,uog 
Bee emionsiac (GT UTA B &q 
pies) ‘aaqqsnrq smog 
teeeeeeeereres (QTRMIO 
v fq pies) ‘uog smog 
retessereneererees (QTRTAT 
v £q pies) ‘aog smog 
(opuue, v Lq pres) 
‘puvqsnyy s.toyqoneg 
“(arvyy v Aq pres) 
‘puvqsnyy §,40ySnvqg 
teesseceeeenee CQUTHIO 
v fq pres) ‘aoyysneg 
seteeeeen teeeeees (QT 
v kq pies) ‘1oyqQSarq 
eeserere ees (QTR B 
fq pres) ‘asia, 80g 


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POO Oe COROT CHEE ZIOLHD HEFCE RETOS BHOHET EEE 


OOOOOS FORO OOOCe CEOS oOe COOTEELOD BHOBE LEED 


COC Cle DOee DF ELE OE DOS HELO EE BOOED BHEEEe 


OOOO ETOOe SOOO Oe FEF C EE EEEHHO LODE CHEHeTee! 


OOO CFF OOE HOD CLCO EF OOS DEO HOOTES Y POESHEEOD 


200 FO00FOOS Sooo OA TTL ETS FEOTEe BER EHENSD 


000000 000 FOR 02FOOS OOH OE EOOD C40 SEES EEER 


OOOO Ce DOPOD DOLE BOHOE TOES BOODLE EHHs HHseeee 


Pee ee sore seeoes HHO O a OEE HHEE Ee 
eco ereeree 





“astsug 
OJUL OUIeS OTT} JO UOTLISULA, 


POOF ES CO BOBS EE HES FeO E EE EES OHHH OO EET HOO OK ETE TO CET EEO DHE T Ee EOEeES 


FOCCO FOE COTO OH Heo SS OEe TASTE TECO ES HOE EOS HEE EEE BERTOE SED CORO O HOES 


POO ECL OH SOO OLE TOS CATOHD FOS BECO SE OD SAEL OH ERED HLTH EH OOD OES EOEEEE 


FOO OO Le OOOO e OOF ETE EOETEH OLS BHD OOEEEE OOF FOE HS UES S88 FEDS OE COS OE8 


OOOO COOe HHO EEe EET EE OTD FOOSE EES HEEES CORED EEOH HECTOR EES OES EOE OD 


. 


POO SOs COFFE OOD FORGE BODES EOOR FOO FS OFCEEH HTS OO EES EOE EE ESSE HEOE OS 


FOO COT CLOT OE TEREST TOO EES OOS COO OECOET SON SHES E SEES CHOOSE DOKI SS BEwees 


$9 0000 0F FFF CHF 0e O08 OFS OOOO ED CESSES EES HHO RO OES BHO E ES OO8 BODE EE OED 


FOO Fee Oe OOOO STOOD OOOO OS OFHDEH COS HED EOE HEHE ES PEER ESTEE BOSH CODES SEY 


COCO COE HO OEE HHH OOS OHO T ED EEE COTE O EES BEES HEH EHH E OS EEO ES CHEE Ee 


SOOO OF OOE HO HTT TEP OEE He HEHE EOED FESS EOD TFEC OH EOS HHH O EE BESO OOS 





‘g10}J0'T WSILSUG Ur “paOAA OATIVN IO ‘oUTVNy 


(oreutag @ £q pres) 

‘puvqsny s.oyqsnrq ,, ” ” 
“ee Coreqy @ £q pres) 

‘puvqsnyy stejqentq 4, » 33) GG, 


(ojemog vq ps) ‘103,%q 4, a RO 


(ayeqy e Aq pres) “toyeq 5, yee 
pososemericeceessusi(QTBITON 
w fq pies) ‘ojtmM smog ,, ree 
eeeese reeves seeu eee OTB TN 
w Aq pres) ‘ojrmM smog, 


06 
“68 
(ojemog vfq pres) ,, a 3 Ps 
“(aepy v Lq pres) ‘aog s,c0}81g 8,40q}0,q ATY “18 
“EC-PULIN-7ID-1ID 55 » 9°98 
‘M09-puBsy-3 19-915 ” @ » “Gg 


(oyeuna,7 e% £q pres) 
*19} CQ -PpUBIH-JVIIH S.LoyOIg s.ceqyeg AT 





‘drystorjepay Jo Wodiosog 





‘penuydo)—d HSNOLLVTEY AO SHAUNA 


23 


SFO TOOT ARES HD DET THEE TERE EE OOOOH HHS O Ee) bese OD EERE DE OOD OOHR ED BAR SOSHLODOE sha DED EOE DORHDE REO HOH ELEE ES deRdOe 


PAPROO HHT FOOLS THOS ATEOOESISEBOSEE THEE ES | FOO OCH EED TOR SESS ES DEEDS SEE EEE EOPSOSOID ESO DET FOE im EH OE EE SES EEO ESE 


VEOE EHTS TSH Heese oes HEHE EESTI DET ORSES) Lees OO Ee FH HEE HEE DED HFETO SHEN ESS OEE TEST EE EES E OE EHD EES OED HERES EEE 


SOOT T OOD SHOES E HET FEH EO EEEH EEO REE TEES nee Oe EET DEED BOSE EE TOD DERE OE ESD DOOOER EOE HES FTER EEF SESE ES OSOESEOEE 


SOOTHE HOS OEE HE EEHE TESTES ER THESES FESESE | eee eeee® OFFSET EEE SHSESERESSHO SESE ED ASHE SH HHO DEH EH SEDER EBED FECT ES 


POPE HOHE HASTE HET EE EEHHEEEED EHOEHH | eee EEEES HL OOSS ESS SHOE OE SHOE SES HESEHE BOR OHS EEE SHDOS OES BEDE EE EES 


POPES HE SETH HEE THE EEETES BEEEE OSES | LOO O HOOD BEES ES OFOH ES OEEEEE CHEE EE DESH ESEE SHE EET EES BHD EED EERE DEOES 


STOP OE EOE OTHE Ee TOOT EE TERE EE SEE OH EOEEEEE nee HEHE EEE SHOES O OOD HOH EOS REDE EH ES FORTE EEOS EEE EED ERE EE EHEHDE RED 





POCO OH EERO E OO APH HTE EEE HE EEDEH! THEE OS OFOOE OHO OSE EEE HEE EHH O ES EERE E TEES BECHER OOD THSEOE HED PEO HE OSES DEERE 





STOO OH TET SEE EH DEED OES HED SESH EED cee e ae CESOEE THEO OH OEEEEE PHO ESEOAT FEED DE CFE HEE HEOO EE EEOC ERE RSES EE 


POET ETT EE HOOE EET EEED TEESE HEED OED (Fee EER TESS OE SOOEEH OED PEE HEE DEE HOESEE EHO E ES HOEOEE HHEHEOES SHSEDE OED 


POS EHE OTC O EEE LETTE HESS EH HED EEE TESO SE FEF OTF SERS ED ESE OE FEHHO SESE BEE EEE SOSH ORSOE EES EEE OES ES OEE EE RDEEY 


POOP O TOOT SEO SEOES OS BEOOOE HES HOSE SHEE | BUTE O DEED HHO SH SOO SE HER EEE ESD “OOOO EOED PEE OE EEOE OED OEE ES BEC EOS EES 


SOOO COOOOR SOD TES SES EES THEO EE SEOEEEEED | FOEEEE EET EESE ES DEDEE EEE EES HEHE OE OOO HED HEE OR TESTED HES EES ORR O EO OS 


SOO OES OO SOO TOES EHS E EE TEES BED EHDHEEE SS [CEH OE HELTER FEES EES HESEES EES HESS EE EEE EHS PES SPO ESD EEO SED BER OEEEES 


& 
POC OPO OTOTOE TOS ESO THE ETEEES BEDE HE CHEE ES | BODEEO ODL CHORE OOES COO OOH OE TES OS FETE EEED 890ESE O88 OO HOSE ee rEOe OF 


eeeeeweaaere (oyeur.7 R 
&q pres) ‘ajtM s,a0g 
sesseseeeereens (S7RTT B 
Aq pres) ‘oj1 800g 


(or maqekqps) 5, 


(oyepy wAq pres) ‘nog s,raystg-s.tamory ATW 


TI-PAD 2 

MOG-P,.T)-4BIIN-7BOTH 

IdVYOnVg 5, ” 
"98 TO -pUBAL)-7BOIN 


‘*(gtvutog v fq pres) 
‘royysneg s.10pqSnrq 
“ss(oqeqy @ 4q pres) 
‘oyYonvg s,.caysnuwg 
sreeeeees (oratmag @ &q 
pies) ‘aog s,19}43neq 
treeseeeees (Qrery B £q 
pres) ‘uog s.t0yq3ueq 
sroreceees OT BULA R sq 
pres) ‘aojySneq s,m0g 
svarsweseesa (OTA TT ve fq 
pres) ‘aojqSneq s,u0g 
teens eeneeene «(TUT IT 
vw £q pres) ‘uog smog 
sevece eeneccseeecs==9(OTRIA 
v fq pies) ‘aog smog 


” 


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9 


PP 


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39 


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29 


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23 


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” 


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‘OIL 
‘601 
‘801 
“LOT 
‘90T 
“GOT 
“FOL 
‘SOL 


‘COT 


‘TOL 
‘OOT 


000 Oe OOOO Oe OOS TOOEEE HHO HOES BESO EEE 


eevee ene wocees cece eeees csc neees cevecees 


OOOO ee COO e oe Oe esas FHOHTOS CHORE HUED HHDEEe 


COCO OOO ed Hee OE EOS OH EEE EEE H EOE OOE HEHE ES 


OOo eee Cee oe Coes eee ee HOES CHEE ee Ee HHEEEE 


COCO OO Oe He eee Hee eee Eee SHEE EEEES EHEEES 


Oooo ee Oooo ee Coe eee HHS HEe HEHEHE S SEO EEE OES 


or 


Coe ce eee see eee eee ee BESO EE EEE EEEEEES & 


CHOCO Hees Fee HEH Eee Dee eee OHHH LED HEEeED 


CO Tee eee ee Here es OO Hee FOO OEE eee Bee eee 





“YSstsagy 
OJUL OUTS 94} JO UOTJB[SUBA, 





FOO Ole COLO ee Oe DHT H SEH HH SE BIDAOD OOH FESHEE BH HHHEHESSEH CHEHHE BOOS ED 


FOO e ee Ooo eee Pee e ee HORE EEEE EH ETEE OHO HEHOES OOH HEH ES EH HH ES SHO EH SHEE 


O00 oo ee Poe oe DHE Oe CHEH HS EHEHEE FED HETEE HESS COE OED BEOEHH PH OEEHOES 


POO ee eee coe Pee e et HHO EHE SESE HSEED SES OOOOH HEEE HHS HED EEEHERHESHESOTS 


Fee e ee nee ees woe eee ves ree nes Deseee st goeesees eooesdanses see roses 
ee GO 


See e ee rece rs cee ees seeeee wees eee Tl eee Coeeec ese esses veceeeess 
0 CFO eh eee Poor ee See eee PEE TEE EEE OE EEE EHE EEO HT ESOS TEHHHEHOS HERDED 
OOO ee eee Oe eee ee eee wee Hee EEE EEe BOTS EH ES HOE EEE SORES Bee es SEOs 
SOO Fee e ee Cee Hee Ooo e eH ees HOHE HTEES EHD HOD H EH SHEE EE HHS OHHH OHEEe BEOOES 
eee eee POCO EE Ee OFF Hare ee COSHH OES CEH EE HOES HEH EE EOD EH OEES SOHEES 


Ceo eos FOO Oe EEO Oe HOO EHS CHE EEEEED FEET ES THESES HEED EOE ED HEHE EE 


FO ee ee POP Ee Oe OPT H ELE ETE EH SOR BOOTHE SEH SEEHEE SHEE O HEED OHI SHEEEE 


*s10}}0'T ISISUG UL ‘pIOA OATZVN Io SomeNy 








(oem @ £q pres) 
‘1d Youvg §,.lo,ysuvg 
(o7e e kq pres) 
‘ray qSnVq § 19} qsuPq 
seems pag 
pres 

sesisiec.eem OBI Ge kq 
yrs) ‘MOG sda, 4qsuvg 
seeeeeee( QTBULOT eB £q 
pres) ‘1oyqsneq s,u0g 
peseereess- (GOURIN eB sq 
pres) ‘1oyySneq s,u0g 
reeves sneeeeers (QTRUIO 

ev fq pres) ‘uog suog 
eeeeraee teeeeners (QTR 

ev fq pres) ‘aog suog 
(oremog w £q pws) 
‘puvgsnyy §.toyqoned 
* (oreT % fq pres) 
‘puvgsnyy §.tey Gone 
see eeeeeeoenes (QTRMOT 

ev £q pies) ‘1ayqsneqd 
seveeeeeeteeeee es (OTBTAT 





v kq pres) ‘aoyqSneq 8.103819 sazoqyoyy ATV 





drysuoryvyjoy Jo worydizosog 


a 


i 


Ns 
° 


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SLD 





‘ponunuo)—dI HSNOILVIdY FO SUAUOAC 


SHEAR ee RHEE ETHER O TEE SOE OEE OME H UE HORE TT 


SO ROO ee mee RO eee Cee eee COO Eee DHE EOE EHS 


CEH O He HHO OO Eee OEE Ee HOHE EEF EES CHEE E SEES 


POUR UU MISECT URIS ESTOS ee ee) 


POOR eE Te ERE EE HEHE EEE EEe HEHEHE EEE ED 


CORR ER HORE HEE OR HEHEHE DHE E Ee EOE EE OED 


Preece ee CeeCIO Cee 


Pree UUM IUUOT OOOO COLIC e eee) 


COOPER OEE HEH PERE EE HHO EHEHE DERE E HEED 


oe 
OOOO OOOH EE BEE He MERE OE HEE HOSES BEDHOY 


CHORE EET EEE EE CHEE OE EEE CHEE EET EEE EO HEED 


CPAP OO ORO ee RE THE MEE EH EOE E EEE OOOO EO EED 


SAREE EER REESE HEHE Ee SEES O HOOD CHB E EEE EE 


COPE EE HEE E TH EEO E TE HEROD EES OOH E OE EES 


OORT OOH E DEO EOE THEE ET EEE OH RO OE EERE EE 


EEE SESSESAS SEE OTOS EEE EEE VE BESO SS BEDS ET 


AOA OE ARES DEERE SO THE TET EERO HEERE OOO THEE OD TORO EE HERES SEER SEE E DY 


OOOO REESE Ee COE OED SEE SEE OSE E EY CLPEEHSOESOSOT ERED SOOSSESED COED ES 


POOR E OES OOOO EEE CHO ETEEES BEER EE EOE BETEF DEES FEESSHSESEFHOET OLED OS 


SOOO Oe COPE SEES BEE ESSE SESE O SESE SESE EF OES EEESED SIDES ESS” SETH OES 


SOTO OOe COTE R TEES BEE OTESESEES OHO OSEEEE PH EFED SEEDERS OE ES OHTEO ODDS 


FORO Ok COR OOE SOOO EEER SED HEE ESET TEOEEE HEE EEFERSSES SHOOT BORE EH TOD 


SOOO Oe OOF See EOS OHEESEEEE TEES FESSEEESY OO FESSEOESEEESE OTS | HHTEHEOE 


POCO OOOO CSE OEE EE EEE EEE HET EE PEO EEE CHEHDESEL THEE HE SES EES OOOH ES 


FOO OOOO FOES OSHS ESEES COS FEEETEREESHEESESIR ESE EEE SESE IEEE THOOE TES” 


AOR CRORE ERE AEROS BERETS FED EE EES ETERS SESH OOTERESES FH PEES HOES EDS 


HEP OOH OE EH SEH EHOT SD OHS SHE THE EES TSE HESSD FHT TEEHEE SES ESOOOS OEED EE 


FOO Ee OOOO Ee HHT RTE OE HEE EE OE ESS EHO ESHEOT SOTHO O ESE SHOE EHEF OHSS 


APOC OOG THES ED EOE S ESSE TET TEST SESE EEE EEF PESISE DES STPEESSSS HOSTED 


POPES OOOO EEE EEO TET EESSEE SHEESH ESOT OSHS CHEER DOSE TUE EEDESESEOSED 





OO CREE EEO EE CHET EOE EE ROEDER E EEE TEESE STRESS FOE TEST OOSSE OHO EOS 


FOO PASO E SHOE OS SESE OSEEF DERE O HEED CESSES SEEE ESE SERSS EFESSE SEO ESSOSY 


seeeveeeee(oreny @ Xq 
pies) ‘aozq3nxq s,uog 
tteeeeeeres (QTRTOT 
w £q pres) ‘og smog 
sesenereereenenes (One TT 
w £q pies) ‘uog smog 
(oyeutag v £q pres) 
‘puvqsnyy s,toyqy Sng 
“(avqq B Aq pres) 
‘puvgsnyy Stay surg 
veseereeenee (opt 
vw &q pres) ‘10yq8neq 
ieseriee teense (orp 
vw q pres) ‘aayqSneq 
teeeeeereses (Qigua gy & 
&q pres) ‘ot $.tt0g 
Hieteeeeeee (OTe G 
&q pres) ‘oJ1M s,wo0g 
)o» 


(oyeme,qg 55 


(oeqy 8 Aq pres) ‘nog stoqporg s,tom}0Ty ATY 


IQ -pUrsy-2.19-3,19 
“MOS -PULIH-7.19-F.1D 
** 10} VI -PUBIN-}VOID 
(oyeuo,7 & Aq pres) 
‘d0g-puvaiy-jBVoIH 


“+(orwyy @ Aq pres) 
‘MOG-puBiy-}veIn 


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“LET 
“OST 


"Coy 


aG 


26 


PTeeUU MITT 


Ceo ee cree es Soe ee Hees seeeees cesses Beoere 


OOo meee ee eee e ee eee Bee eee Bee eeeeee tenner, 


Oooo ee ees meee ee Hees tena es Hees BEDE E EET 


OO Rede memo we eae aeeeee sees i erere seeserere 


COREE Oe eens Cees es eee Eeeees aeHeHeneL 


POO eee ee CHORE EE EEE Hee ee eB ee ee HH Ee ED 


POO Oe BOO e eee Oe Here ee EET BEET eEe HEHEHE EES 


POOP ere es POO OO HOE Hee Oa H Ee COE Oe He eee 


Reese Cee ee Poot eee eee Meee es Coe HHH OeEY 


‘ 


Cee ee POCO OHO e Ore Hee ee EHO OE Es BEE eeeeee 


OOOO eee es COOH Ee ee HOHE EHS He Oe HHH be wnee 


) 
TORO es Fee eee Hen Oe HHT E EE EHOEOE EEE BEF Ee PHROO SHOE HED EHHEEH HHH ES 


Cee eee ee aoe Pee H OO tee HEE MEE OE THESES HEH HEHHHEHEEDHHEHH AEE EET E EHO EH 


een Cee eee eee Oe OHHH aS HEH OHEES CHEESE HEHEEE HEOEH CHE EETEEE OOOO ES 


Dee e ee eee HHO eee HEHE EHD OEE OO EEE Hee e Ee FIFTH EEOT BEES EE FES SHOE ORES 


eee ee Bee Mee eee PHO OOH He HF Bee eee HE EEEs METH EHESE BHEEHEHEY HESS 


eee eee Mee eee HEH HEE O ee SHEET EHS. SEE ERE O HEHE CHE HEEO EE EOE EEE OEEEEE 


OOOO ee Oe Meee ae eee HHO O EE EEE HOHE ED HHO EH EEH OOS EHO ETEEHE BES SEEHHEEES 


Lee OO eee eee Hee e ee eee Bee e ee ees HEF EEO TEES BES BERS OE HES EHS OH SEED 


Ae Oe eee ee hee oe eee ee eee BH et HCHO HOHE HOR HOR DEH THD EHH DEFT OU IEF 


Pee eee Heme sees see Bee Bee Ee eo Seeeeesesese 


seem eres eee ree sedee 





eee eee Cee eee e ee Men eee HEHE He HHH RESEEE HEHE EEOED HHOHHHEEE CEO HOOD 


OOO ee tHe wee wee wee rae eee eee OHHH! COEF CHORE O HED LOE E OH EHHOO HEED HERE EE 





“SIPS UL 
OUI OUILS OTT} JO WOLLISULIY, 


*g10}JO'T YSILSUGL UL ‘PLO AA OATFVN IO SoUIvN 





” ‘19}SIG ” ” 
i ‘TOTJOIT §.loyIB]T 55 FF 


(aprg s.caymT) ‘zo}BJ-puvay AT 


A -puvsy-3.19-9.09 ” ” ” 
*TOG-puvay-7,.14-7,.09 ie ” ”» 
** 10} U-PpuUvIy-jVIIH ” ” ” 
TOG-puvI-YVITH) ” ” ” 


(oyema,y & Lq pres) 
‘ayYySuNg sta, qonrq 5 33 CPT 
(orn & £q pits) 

‘LoyyonrTsAoyysneg 4, fee) 
eeee(giotmag @ Aq 

pits) ‘aog 8,40} qS3nvq 3 a p 
soceebiseiee (TCT v &q 

pres) ‘uog 8.40} q3neq 3 » 99 OFL 
seers (a7emag Uv Lq 

pres) ‘to, qSnvq s,uo0g s LoyOIG $s 19q0PW ATL 


“GPL 
“TPL 


“6ST 











‘drysuonvyoy jo worydrsoseq, 





*ponunuo)—dINSNOILVIGU JO SHAUNA 


oe cece ee cee cee cee cceseeeees coenes veecee|eecee seen ne B00 see ee ose DOOR RES SHE senses een? sec eenersoee sesecs| “(avy ” fq pits) 
‘a0g §,197,tq ” ? ” 
“-(ayeyy @ £q pres) 
“101,07 800g ” ” ” 
“(areqy & 4q pres) 
‘a0g s,u0g ” 2 ” 
“(areqy & Aq pres) 
“19, Jone ” 2 ” 
ssdieseneniessese (OTBTA 


PTvT TITEL 


OOO TE ROOD COOH EH EEE EEEEEH OHH HESEHE OHEE ED 


See cee eee eee Heese eSeO FEF Eee HEFT ES HEH EET 


COOPER ee See HEHE EEEOD ES BEDE OSEES BEDE EE 


See Cee ee Bee O ee Eee Eee SEH HEEEES BEES ES 


DOO PORE ee HHO H HEE EHH EE BETES EE BEERS HEED 


OOOO OR ROT TEES HEHE EERE EEE OOOO EE BHEEED 


cee e ee eeceee eens cee eeeecnses os asses cee 


OOP eee rere ee HHS HHO T EES BEE EES HHO TEM 


TUTTTTTIMT LITE) 


PTUTERTT MTEL ET ET 


cece ce 8 oe Oo ee ee OF oe ee O08 CAO EEE HHS SOROS TESS BHF OES HD SEHESS BHO SUEEEE 


PTTTTTTMETITET 


PTTTUUUTIM TET, 


PTETTTITIRTTT TI ee 


PTT UTETTI ETI 


PTeTUTUITIPI Pee 


PTUPTURITELI ELT ed 


Fee ok Cee e es CHF E EE ETE PH EE ES OOOH SEES SHOE HE HEHEHE HH HESES CORSET OOH 


Fee O ee eee ee UO OF Ee CHEE TE EEE HH EOD FETED OSES EHH HELO ED HHH OOO SHO OHREES 





SOR Ree PORE HOH Ee HEE H OH TEETH EE THO HED OO DEED 


SOO OHH RECO ER EHO EEE HEE EOE HEROES CHHeenseD 


SOOO OT SETHE EH E EHE HET HEHEHE HEHE EH HH OHHH 


PTETURTTIRIT LE) 


Peek Fe eee Oe HOE H EEE HEE OE EE EE FER EES HHH EE SESESH EEE HEH HEEEOEO ES 


eee ee eee eee FH Oe EEE EHR EEE EEE THREES FETE ES SEL EHH SES EES EEE SHOES SEES 


Cee ee eels COOH EEE OHe HEE EE HEHE FHHETHEH SHESEE EES HES HEHE HY SHEE EE 


@ £q pres) ‘dog §,49}819 8,29 TIT §,19q9e,7 ST 


NO GNVS SHL SdIHSNOILVIIUM ASAHL AAV 


2? 


29 


” 


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2? 


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{ TGIS SUTHLON 
“dq POT 5 

‘19]}V,J-PUCIH -JVOIN)-}VIIL) 

*19}819 a 
IOYIOAIT § LOY} OJ -PUVAY-F,.1 
‘IOT}OW-PUBIH-}BIID 

£19}SI9 3 
IOTIOAT §,10]}V,J-PUC1IH-3,1H 
‘1OY}V,J -PUVIH-}BOIH 

*I9}SIQ ” 

“OYJOIT S,AaJOY-Puvséy 


‘19 TOF -puBriy 


”? 


9 


9 


39 


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3° 


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“99T 
‘C91 
‘FOL 
“e9T 


COL 


PPO O COE Ee OOO OTES Hee ee eeeer weeeesaee 
POCO Ose Ore aes eee e esses eee nsss senenses 
COR ee ees eres cess ees Sees eeees seeens 


COOPER See ree eee reso ee Hee e ee eee essere 


POCO Oe Ooo OOo cere esses snes eee ees eee ssener 
SPCC OE OOO Ree eee eee tHe e eee eeeeeeeses Seeeer 
POO Oe Cee ee Cees er coe oes ser eee sseeeeeees 
POP SO HEH ROOD Oe ee a rece Hoess Oeeeee Heeeos 
SPOOR H mee ree eee seeeee ress ee eee seeseee » 
PHO CO ee ee Foe Heme ees Dees ee wees eeees seuss 
COCO eee ee Feseeee cee ees cesees eeeensees 


OO OOo ee eee rere een coe ese ees seeees saneee 


oo ____ 


Yystsagq 
OJUL OILS OY) JO MOT}L[SUBIy, 


SHOP OT HHL EE HOOT CHOOT ETH HEEe B40 EOe COED DH EED CEO EOe HEE OS COE ee Eeeees 


TOR e OHH eT Oe PEO OEEEE OEE EES HOST EEES HH HEHE SHEE Ee CHEE EeEee 


FOO COOEH Coe eee BOSE CHEE ee EHO E EE TOS RHEE EEEES OEE He OEE EH BESO O HES 


POPPER EES Cee Hose Ot BOE Oe HOHE E EEE OHS HOO EEEEED OO HED TEESE BOE E ERTS 


ORES e CeO Es ee oes EEE OHOEE CHE OEE ts HOE DES PERE EE OEE EHE OOS HEE eeEes 


TORO e Cea eee Ree ee COE e Es BELO OE OOS BEES EEEES OEEH HEHE OEE EES BECO eeeee 


OM FHOH EE Oe Meee Oe Ee o ees DERE Oe Meo e es OEE OF e EOE TDES DEO OE HOOD HEE EeS 


POOH FEE Oooo ee eee oes He ee ee Bae CODE EES HEHE OS BOO EE OBESE BO EOES 


TOSCO Ree eee He OPO eH OER CEE O EES HHe EEO DHE OHO Ee Ee EHSL EEEES CHEE ee 


SPOOR Oe Oe SEED Oe Oe Hee eee ETOH ES BOE OEE Ee HEH O Es HEH CECE ES MH Eees 


FOC ee Hees es BEET ES HEE EES OOH E EE OOE BELTS TOBE Ee HEE E Ee TELE ES PEEees 


FOE OOOOH oOo OOOH HE Ee BEES OE CODE ES HES BLUE ES HOR EEEEES O8t Seeeee 





*819}J0'T YSI[SUG Ul “parOA\ OATIVN IO ‘ouTeNy 


a ee 





“(apeqy @ £q pres) 
‘I, 8 .101STY §.19TI OFT §,LOTJOT S,AOTIOT 5, 
“(o1eTy @ Aq pres) 
‘UG-Pay-ray ” ” ” ” 
“(oreyy @ Aq pres) 
“MO9-p 1)-2,1) ” ” ” ” 
“(are @ Aq pres) 
197 C849} VG ” ” ” ” 
“(ayeqy B £q pres) 
‘d0g §.10},0q ” ” ” ” 
“(ayer 8 Xq pres) 
£10} ,°q 80g ” ” ” ” 
“(areqy & &q pres) 
‘aog smog ” ” 9 2 EGLL 
“(azyy B &q pres) 
‘ayy onrg ” ” ” ” 
Beneishiesloeiesies)e (Ou BiAy 
v £q pres) ‘Mog $,40}819 8 LOYJOTY 8,19} OT 
“*(ayvyy @ £q pres) 
“1.-PADN-3.19 ” ” ” ” 
““(ayey B £q pres) 
M0g-p.AN-3,.19 ” ” ” ” 
““(orvyy @ &q pres) 
19},07 8,19} UT 8,1o}sIg 8 ,10q}ey §.109}0,7 AT “LOT 


AT 


~~ 


» “OLT 
‘691 
‘S9T 





‘diysuonvyoy jo wordrroseq: 





‘penuryuoo—dI HSNOILVIEY JO SaauNAG 


rrr rrr rrr errr rrr errr rrr rr errr reser errr ererr re rrr ire eee rer ret ieiee torweeeee so T9IVT-Aaq}g 


» “P6T 


~ 


sisseecessesnesesaesesencerssseneesssees |eoeeeeesceecnsaasasesessasaseccs censesacs conneeees seesesserseeees| o0¢(QTBTIO sere % » “S6L 
sseeeecscessen senses seeeseeees seaseeuss| coesesnenarenecens snseneeen sensecers gesesseesssoeseseserseseseres| sesees(orery @ LG PICS) ‘MBT-UI-IeIqSuvg 5, “ZEL 
Steet teeeecaesenenen cen aseessecs cesses | casecs senacens anuecses sustascns nesses cusnesacenesenses: eseeeess| seesesees oes(QIBTIO IT oe ) + » “I6L 
+ steeaes cen esecencerssecsse cesses seeaee| evesnsesseeaeeees eceseseeecen cuassenas sessessseseseceersencersees| sessessesseeres (OTuTy BAG PIGS) MVT-UI-WOG ,, “OGL 
seesenseesscnsesecnsesesseense tnsncases | arses cusses ensaessen ces censraces suaaeeses anneaaeasasessssucsateas | seeeeereceserereerereres IOMIOW-DUCIN 5, 9) “GST 
sseeeeecneecesaseeeessececees ceecsase|snacasasesen cen sensnenencseseseusnna crs anauesenssessacesstersacecs| sesserersseeeesecseseeereerererseTOTIOTT 4, 4, QT 


sistas sense erevensaeeees ceeeeesss ensues |anaeaeses seenaeeuaensueseeaecese casera cessassassceccsaseceransees| seseseseeaueees seaeeeses eseeseseess TONG T § OTT AL 


» “L8T 


“ 


siteeeeenceeeenseesen aeseneess ceeteans [esueeeeeeeaeeneaan sassaseaseces senecsescscesncesseecescsecesans| eveseeereese essere ss JOUIG T-DURIE) uf 1» “9ST 


Sens ernacacneeecsssleuveeteeriveeeerinssvedacviesseretacinussncisarses cue selnosnesesieqsaicereunssearesosiressesent|| lense cuslaccuncnce taney <=senTO ION 9 > GST 


ROO eee EHR e HEHEHE Ee THESE HET ESHEETS | FEES HEHE EH EESEEOC SD EEE EEE EE EHHEEE SHEESH EEE EEEHEH SEHEE HOES HEHE! BEE PEEL OGL OSL LE TO € hf Ht § puvqsnyy 


> PEE 


“ 


EirUeeldecdieagousiecesensicvcess/aceeveeell|itncneusasuascnsiecsaasestieessss\sansae(sotsenenentstecsense seslnecnd irareueuerlascndsaXelumaesercseccrions Saeco ay arany 


» “S8T 


OREO eee CHORE HEHE Ee EERO OEEEe NOEL OEE CHOOT EEE CHEE ES BO OEOEE ES HHS OHEEES OR OE EEE SHE EOE OES BESET SEES HHO ES eeeeee Sed te gre aeetcnege hace heer) OURO ES ” ‘OSL 


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