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SMITHSONIAN
MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
““EVERY MAN 1S A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES,
AND EXPERIMENTS, PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN’’—SMITHBON
(PUBLICATION 2969)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
1928
The Lord Baltimore (Press
BALTIMORE, MD., 0. 8. A.
ADVERTISEMENT
The present series, entitled “ Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec-
tions,” is intended to embrace all the octavo publications of the
Institution, except the Annual Report. Its scope is not limited,
and the volumes thus far issued relate to nearly every branch of
science. Among these various subjects zoology, bibliography, geology,
mineralogy, anthropology, and astrophysics have predominated.
The Institution also publishes a quarto series entitled ‘ Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge.” It consists of memoirs based
on extended original investigations, which have resulted in important
additions to knowledge.
CG. Agron,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
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CONTENTS
. Snoperass, R. E, Morphology and mechanism of the insect
thorax. June 25, 1927. 108 pp., 44 figs. (Publ. 2915.)
. Asgot, C. G. A group of solar changes. April 25, 1927. 16 pp.,
9 figs. (Publ. 2916.)
. GILMORE, CHARLES W. Fossil footprints from the Grand Canyon:
Second contribution. July 30, 1927. 78 pp., 21 pls., 37 figs.
(Publ. 2917.)
. GRAHAM, Davin CrocKketTr. Religion in Szechuan Province,
China. February 4, 1928. 83 pp., 25 pls., 16 figs. (Publ. 2921.)
. BUSHNELL, Davin I., Jr. Drawings by A. DeBatz in Louisiana,
1732-1735. December I, 1927. 14 pp., 6 pls. (Publ. 2925.)
. CooMARASWAMY, ANANDA K. Yaksas, May 8, 1928. 43 pp.,
23 pls. (Publ. 2926.)
. Mooney, JAMeEs, The aboriginal population of America north of
Mexico. February 6, 1928. 40 pp. (Publ. 2955.)
. GILMoRE, CHARLES W, Fossil footprints from the Grand Canyon:
Third contribution, January 28, 1928. 16 pp., 5 pls., 7 figs.
(Publ. 2956.)
. FewKxes, J. WaLTER. Aboriginal wooden objects from southern
Florida. March 26, 1928. 2 pp., 3 pls. (Publ. 2960.)
. BUSHNELL, Davin I., Jr. Drawings by John Webber of natives
of the northwest coast of America, 1778. March 24, 1928.
12 pp: 12 pls.) (Publ. 2961.)
Ewinc, H. E. The legs and leg-bearing segments of some primi-
tive arthropod groups, with notes on leg-segmentation in the
Arachnida. April 23, 1928. 41 pp., 12 pls. (Publ. 2962.)
CHARLES DOOLITTLE WALCOTT, SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSO-
NIAN INSTITUTION, 1907-1927. Memorial meeting, January
24, 1928. May 12, 1928. 37 pp., I pl. (with complete bibliog-
raphy of the published writings of Charles D, Walcott).
(Publ, 2964.)
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 80, NUMBER 1
MORPHOLOGY AND MECHANISM OF THE
INSECT THORAX
By
R. E. SNODGRASS
Bureau of Entomology
(PUBLICATION 2915)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
JUNE 25, 1927
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
MORPHOLOGY AND MECHANISM OF THE
INSEE, PHORAX
By Ry ES SNODGRASS
BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY
CONTENTS nee
IhatRova lorem" 5 Reco oad bab tia da GAS SESE D Dic 6 OU COAG G AOD ENE Meroe ne: 2
I. Fundamental structure of an arthropod segment................-...-- 4
BrinicupyarsecimenitattOly om ctaec. oer elensie Sevslete acinns Gite cys kelne s oecioe 5
SECONGAmVNSESMENEALIOM! | jecieno s.iherssa ois etene ore ain Saeco ore) sleueientel ake she ais 5
iselemental structure of a thoracic segment...525-..----2.0- 2266-50 8
Ground=plam ora thoracievsegiment. «cree seiai- ieiels te cians ee eile 1ele 9
Eyeiitionvetsthe: tharacic SClEPiEES «si 61s: .js p=. ofa, oe aye reieidie nie stereraie' 14
“UR aYes AWSIRETOLIMN BAA Oe Hig bere ots SRE ETO CIO TIC GOR IC eI CO corner nchs Grete 15
MIR BES He till TIM arora ebeletevetersralace seks (ole steve euctoh oncdstsreveie's [o)cveisieio Sie lane syeerate oie LZ
Mee plelnOMyy usin sects Scere ees se ates mietsie sinless cakes sieisie ec srsteine hers 22
MNES PIGACLEST treet areicre crag oars esnio sy 5 dvejater ates syets inlereretel cle re gtese Sym (evar er eyasets eee OF
III. Special structure of a wing-bearing segment................2e2e0-06 4I
Ground-plan oftawing-bearing, segment... 2.5 .ias eine oes ain lets 8 42
Siructuner oly an wihe=bearine: fen Uie sci <eisiiaiec ie) ote )steies ois stsieie eyo 45
She smoastiotale plates. © vce. cm one wac eae wee sxe pw ome silos ncn 5.8 48
Modifications,of the wing-bearine tenga... .oe.---- 2-6-5 1-44-41 52
lie Plemron Ol A’ WiNRed -SESUMENE:§ cc /'coe6 sce este wlale gj werereare ate c+ 56
[Veubheawinesiand athe mechanism or fight... esos scales lets relict = 58
CeneralestnuetiTrenolethenwiteSec eruesires cae seit etltocresierets aie cis hercials 59
Mevelopmentotathes WANlSs.c.c..6 cit is stewie ce sem cyiehess ves susie eis -vcio'e 59
Wave igh bo tite Rs Seco Samos MOAI O pC ODEO cre cea emert te 60
The wing muscles and the mechanism of wing motion.............. 3
Wane nleasnanicn thelr srmlSClestactes.clc,ca/tsjan/s elente ciers cteveiaia! cisions ola: cleiotetole octre 72
S fretunex@taatieiniSeCCES) leer. rs poise cieiateioles Morete Snias Gils Sclowtigisate eer 72
Wie ope SER Gok CAO OR Hee oO SARI ORO TS On On CIC eons rs cote 74
TONG. TRO TETINICE™ BA ahi boob boo Ue MOU co a econ Mek eoeae Re eee oay aie 78
ALLS THEA TE Ge BS od OSG eR Ee EOC Oe Ee ie Rem 80
Mile mt Dictertarer rare rete kccerete ores sieve het avevevorare/ csi siefeis iets coclv deei en aielols ciate ies 80
TRS ERS gates bao minora Cie re RO IGE Ian Rie eae Se et APRA 80
“ABlgYes WODRELENESE CS a Foo cm CGO EIR» GeO OC OC DEORE Eo cree ae 81
IMirsclessandamechanismioimthes leg arses ajaisic cls ici aiaeie <ictel~.=!=pelelertornye 83
Mor pholorivmotathie tele cseyecr acres cer Vaparels eis, 0 acs, cis/Syaiea ce teltesous ie te orayareoenarebers 93
WA, Siovanseray (Cooke Cri (Wee {Walesa aden ooadosoeseodeodga ddan couscdcr 98
Abbreviationsiused om thestictinesiee) sy .% cisleicis sale sic nels = cceleierelsieletertaere 102
POSER GMC esr Lictne t/eaule reel otts © cies & she's 6d a) siti Sisidlale ue oiele ob .cigualeha’a tale as 104
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 80, No. 1
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
INTRODUCTION
Nowhere has nature more strikingly displayed her mechanical
genius than in the thorax of a winged insect ; nowhere else can we find
a mechanism so compact, so efficient, so simple, and yet of such varied
powers. Locomotion by the coordinated action of three pairs of legs,
flight by the unified vibration of two pairs of wings—these are the
common functions of the thorax; but, add to them the powers of
leaping, grasping, climbing, digging, swimming and many others of
which the legs of various insects are capable, and consider that the
wings may carry the body forward or backward slowly or with great
speed, or keep it hovering almost stationary in the air, while, rubbed
upon each other, by some insects they can be made to produce sounds
of great volume, and it becomes needless to repeat that the insect
thorax is a marvelous bit of machinery.
If we had but to describe the thorax as it is, the task of the anato-
mist would not be a simple one, but it is always necessary to look
beyond the facts that confront us and to discover the more funda-
mental structures upon which they are reared, an undertaking which
requires redoubled effort, but without which there can be no true
morphology. An artist may depict the form and color of a building
in a manner pleasing to the eye, but, unless he has understood the
framework and the principles of its construction, his picture cannot
be convincing to the mind.
It is certain that insects did not start out to be either six-legged
creatures or winged creatures, and that, during their evolution, the
thorax has been continually refashioned to adapt it to the new modes
‘of locomotion. The embryonic history of insects shows that the
thorax was first differentiated as the locomotor region of the body
by the specialization of its three pairs of segmental appendages as the
principal organs of progression, this being accompanied by the reduc-
tion of the gnathal appendages to feeding organs, and by the suppres-
sion of most of the abdominal appendages (fig. 1). Walking or
running on three pairs of limbs instead of on many, now, not only
involved a perfection of these appendages themselves, and a con-
siderable amount of reconstruction in the segments bearing them, in
order to give the legs better support and their muscles more effective
attachment, but it necessitated a remodeling of the general body
structure and proportions to effect a proper balance about the newly
localized center of gravity. When, at some later period, lateral expan-
sions of the tergal plates began to serve, perhaps, as parachutes, and
insects became gliders, it is but natural that the tergal lobes which
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 3
eventually became wings should be those of that body region already
fixed as the locomotor center. Flight, however, being an entirely new
mode of progression, the development of the wings and the perfection
of their mechanism meant a further and much greater alteration in
the structure of the wing-bearing segments than that which was
evolved to accommodate the legs. In a study of the thorax, therefore,
we should proceed on the assumption that its elemental structure is
to be found in insects that never possessed wings, and that the special
Fic. 1—Young embryo of an insect, showing its four body regions and their
appendages. (Embryo of Naucoris, Heymons, 1899.)
The primitive head, or procephalon (Prec), bearing eyes, mouth (Mth), and
antennze (Ant) ; the jaw region (Gc) of three segments, bearing mandibles, first
maxilla, and second maxille; thorax (Th) of three segments, bearing the legs;
abdomen (Ab) of at most twelve segments, each but the last with a pair of
rudimentary appendages in some insects.
thoracic structures of winged insects are characters that have been
superposed on those primarily adapted to progression on three pairs
of legs.
Facts and theories should run parallel ; in entomology it seems they
often diverge. Some theories, however, have served as useful step-
ping stones, though they themselves have later been swept away by
the current; others are illusions of the imagination and land us in
mid-stream. There have been many speculations concerning the num-
ber of segments in the insect thorax—some anatomists have claimed
that there are five and even ten segments represented in its construc-
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
tion; embryologists say there are only three. Many entomologists,
though they reject the multiple segment theory, have, nevertheless,
thought it necessary to postulate four consecutive rings in each of the
three segments, conceived to have arisen from four primitive trans-
verse folds of a soft-bodied ancestral form, in which the sclerites of
the segment were originally laid down as chitinizations of the integu-
ment. This theory at first appeared to have much in its favor, but
the more the thoracic skeleton has been studied, especially in connec-
tion with the musculature, the more the four-ring theory loses support,
and gradually entomologists have relinquished it in favor of the idea
that the various sclerites are secondary divisions of primitively simple
plates. The last review of the evidence against these theories of
thoracic segmentation and annulation is given by Weber (1924), and
the theories should now be laid away for the historian, and respected
for the fact that they have been helpful.
Recently another theory has been proposed by Feuerborn (1922),
which would make the insect thorax a rather complicated assortment
of parts derived from four segments. It appears, however, that this
conception has been based on a misinterpretation of the facts in the
metamorphosis of certain Diptera. Feuerborn’s theory has been
opposed by Martini (1922) and by Weber (1925, ’27) ; particularly
by Weber has the evidence put forth in its favor been thoroughly and
critically examined and found to be wanting in essential points.
I. FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURE OF AN ARTHROPOD SEGMENT
The anatomical form of most parts of animals, being a patchwork
of changes or modifications that have been adopted in different stages
of the animal’s evolution, according to its changing needs, consists
of a series of characters overlapping or built one upon the other into
a concrete whole. The work of the morphologist, therefore, is largely
one of analyzing compound structures, of separating them into their
component elements, and of determining the chronological order of
the evolutionary processes that have combined them. This he must
do both from a study of embryology, and by the use of his imagina-
tion, guided by a knowledge of comparative anatomy. As a conse-
quence, morphology is largely theoretical, and morphological theories
continually supplant one another as new facts throw new light on
the subject of animal structure. In the present paper, some of the
older views on the structure of the insect thorax are discarded ; but
a base is taken from a later theory, combined with selections from
others, some new observations are added, and from the mixture the
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 5
basic theory is redistilled in a new form. The product, it is hoped,
when tested, will be found to be a closer approximation to the truth
than any of the ingredients, but it will fail of its purpose if it does
not act as a stimulus to the further study of the facts bearing on the
evolution of the insect thorax.
PRIMARY SEGMENTATION
In the study of insect evolution, we go back to a soft-skinned,
worm-like creature with the body divided into a series of cylindrical
parts, or segments, each of which bears a pair of lateral or ventro-
lateral appendages. In an animal of this sort the intersegmental rings
are the lines of attachment of the principal longitudinal muscles; in
fact, the circular grooves separating the segments, and, therefore, the
segments themselves are determined by the muscle attachments—in
other words, the body segmentation corresponds with the muscle seg-
mentation. If, at an earlier phylogenetic stage, the animal was unseg-
mented, it would seem that the body segments, or somites, must have
resulted from the division of the muscle layer into muscle segments,
or myotomes.
Starting with the insect’s ancestor as a soft-skinned, segmented
animal, resembling in its segmentation the soft-bodied larve of some
modern insects, we must believe that its body segments then corre-
sponded with its muscle divisions (fig. 2 A). This type of body
division we may call primary segmentation. The muscles, extending
between the intersegmental rings, are segmental in arrangment. Al-
ready, we assume, the creature possesses well-established dorsiven-
trality and cephalization; 7. ¢., one surface, the back or dorsum, is
normally uppermost, and the opposite surface, the venter, is down-
ward, while, in the usual progression, one end, the head end, is
forward.
SECONDARY SEGMENTATION
The modern adult arthropods, unlike their hypothetical ancestors,
are in general hard-shelled animals ; they have developed an external
skeleton formed of calcareous or chitinous matter or both deposited
in the ectoderm, and the hardening of the body wall has had a far-
reaching consequence on the structure of the segments and on the
general mechanism of the animal. The skeletal deposits have taken
the form of segmental plates (fig. 2 B), the principal plates in each
segment being a dorsal one, or tergum (T) and a ventral one, or
sternum (S). These two plates are separated on the sides of the
segment by a membranous pleural area. The hardened parts of the
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
body wall could not occupy the entire length of each segment, for if
they did the creature would become a tube that might be compressed
or expanded dorsoventrally but that could not move otherwise. A
circumferential part of each segment must, therefore, remain flexible.
Fic. 2—Diagrammatic lengthwise sections of a segmented animal, showing
primary and secondary segmentation.
A, primary segmentation of soft-bodied animal, with segments (Seg) marked
by intersegmental rings (Jsg) to which longitudinal muscles (LMcl) are
attached.
B, secondary segmentation of insect with hard plates in its body wall—each
tergum or sternum (7, S) includes part of chitinized intersegmental groove
before it, forming antecosta (dc) internally and antecostal suture (ac) ex-
ternally, with a narrow precosta (Pc) on anterior margin; posterior unchitinous
part of segment becomes secondarily the “ intersegmental”’ membrane (J/b).
C, secondary segmentation accompanied by telescoping of the segments, each
segmental plate ending in a posterior fold, or reduplication (Rd).
The flexibility could not well be at the intersegmental lines, because
the muscles are here attached and demand a firm support, for which
reason the dorsal and ventral parts of the intersegmental grooves
have been hardened and converted into internal ridges (fig. 2 B, Ac),
each marked externally by a corresponding groove, or suture (ac).
That each ridge should become continuous with the plate behind it
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS A
rather than with the one before it, is decided by the fact that the
animal already possesses cephalization. In order to retain the power
of cephalic movement when the body wall becomes hardened, the
segments must remain capable of being drawn forward by the con-
traction of their muscles, and this can be accomplished best if the
flexible region of each segment is its posterior part. Hence, each
intersegmental, muscle-bearing ridge has become continuous with the
segmental plate behind it, and usually only a narrow lip extends
forward of the ridge and its suture to connect with the preceding
membranous area.
Each dorsal or ventral plate of the body wall, terguim or sternum,
now includes: (1) a segmental sclerite of varying extent, the pri-
mary tergum or sternum (fig. 2 B, T, S); (2) an anterior inter-
segmental part, consisting of an internal, transverse, sub-marginal
ridge, the antecosta (Ac), marked externally by a corresponding
antecostal suture (ac); and (3) a narrow anterior marginal lip, or
precosta (Pc), belonging to the segment preceding. In the posterior
part of each segment, behind the tergum and sternum, is a circular
membranous area (Mb). In an animal thus constructed, the mem-
branous rings of the body wall are its movable joints, and they are
called the “intersegmental membranes” ; the longitudinal muscles
have become intersegmental in function, since they extend from the
antecosta of one plate backward to the antecosta of the plate fol-
lowing. But, a body division of this kind is clearly a secondary seg-
mentation. The antecostal ridges, still carrying the muscle attach-
ments, mark the limits of the primitive segments. All adult insects
with hard plates in their walls have a secondary segmentation; the
soft-bodied larvze of some insects, such as caterpillars, grubs, maggots,
retain a primary segmentation. This difference in the segmental limits
between larval and adult insects, and the fact that the membranous
“intersegmental ” rings of adult insects are the posterior parts of the
true segments, has already been noted by Janet (1898), who says:
“ The name intersegmental membrane generally given to such a mem-
brane, justified by its physiological function, is, however, inexact
from a morphological standpoint.”
Arthropods in general are characterized by -another feature of
their outer organization, and this is the telescoping of their segments,
each segment being partially retracted into the one before it (fig. 2 C).
This condition follows naturally from the relation of the muscle
attachments to the segmental plates and to the flexible membranous
areas. Asa result, each tergum or sternum usually ends posteriorly in
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
a fold, or posterior reduplication (Rd), which overlaps the anterior
part of the segment following.
The segmental appendages, which in their origin are simple out-
growths of the body wall, have their bases in the pleural membranes,
one on each side of the segment. In the Chilopoda and the Insecta, the
pleural areas also contain skeletal plates, the pleurites, but most of
these plates are probably derived from a basal part of the appendage.
In pterygote insects the pleurites constitute a highly organized pleuron.
Entomologists have usually described the various small chitiniza-
tions that occur between the principal segmental plates of insects as
‘““intersegmental ” sclerites. The only true intersegmental elements,
however, are the antecostz or parts derived from them, such as the
phragmata of the dorsum and the intersegmental muscle processes
of the venter. Most other so-called “ intersegmental ” chitinizations
belong either to the anterior or the posterior parts of the true seg-
mental areas. Examples of sclerites of this sort probably are the
neck plates, or cervical sclerites, though their exact morphological
status has not yet been determined. Since the anterior ends of the
principal dorsal and ventral muscles of the prothorax are attached
anteriorly on the back of the head, it would appear, at first thought,
that the neck-plates belong to the anterior part of the prothorax. But
the post-occipital ridge of the head, and the tentorium, to which the
prothoracic muscles are attached, are formed by invaginations between
the maxillary and labial segments. It follows, then, that an inter-
segmental line has been lost somewhere between the anterior margin
of the prothorax and the posterior margin of the labial segment ; per-
haps its position is indicated by the ends of certain muscles attached
on the neck membrane in some insects. It is possible, therefore, that
the cervical sclerites are derived from both segments. The two lateral
plates constitute an important part of the mechanism for moving the
head; their muscles extend to the back of the cranium, and to the
tergum of the prothorax. The cervical sclerites of various insects
have been described by Verhoeff (1903), Voss (1905), Martin
(1916), and Crampton (1917, 1917a, 1926).
Il. ELEMENTAL STRUCTURE OF A THORACIC SEGMENT
Though the form of the insect thorax most familiar to entomolo-
gists does not present to the eye the basic structure of its parts, it is
that on which our nomenclature has been established, and, therefore,
it will be necessary to consider first a typical thoracic segment in its
definitive state in order to explain the terms in common use applied
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 9
to its various parts. The morphologist is often tempted to throw off
the nomenclatural shackles that bind him to the past, for new ideas
could be much more freely stated if they did not have to be expressed
in the terminology of former errors, or, at least, in the language of
what we now regard as the misconceptions of a less enlightened
earlier age. Yet, a discarding of old names might only set an example
for a future generation, which, most likely, would proceed in turn to
reject our terms along with our ideas, and adopt a new orismology
expressive of its own ideas. After all, even a scientific term usually
meets with the fate common to all names, and soon becomes ac-
cepted as a label for an object, without significance of derivation, and
without respect to the original conception it implied.
GROUND-PLAN OF A THORACIC SEGMENT
We have already seen that a primitive limb-bearing segment pre-
sents a dorsum and a venter, in each of which is developed a chitinous
plate, the tergum and the sternum, respectively, and a membranous
pleural area between the two on each side, in which the limb is
implanted, and in which also there are usually present a number of
chitinizations, the pleurites, or collectively the pleuron.
The tergum, or notum as the dorsal segmental plate is frequently
called, in its typical form is a simple sclerite covering the back of
the segment (fig. 3 A, JT) and in wingless segments often produced
downward on the sides, sometimes overlapping the bases of the legs.
The tergum of the mesothorax, and usually that of the metathorax
is marked anteriorly by a submarginal antecostal suture (ac) and
corresponding internal antecostal ridge (B, Ac), the two setting off
a narrow precosta (Pc) from the anterior margin of the principal
tergal plate. The tergum of the prothorax, however, always lacks a
true antecosta and precosta, these parts apparently having been lost
in the “neck.” The dorsal muscles of the prothorax that arise pos-
teriorly on the antecosta of the mesotergum thus come to be inserted
anteriorly on the head, and to act as muscles for moving the head.
The metatergum also sometimes lacks an antecosta and a precosta, but
in such cases these parts are found to have been transferred to the
mesothorax, and, in the same way, the corresponding elements of the
first abdominal tergum may become a part of the metathorax. The
antecoste of the mesotergum, metatergum, and first abdominal tergum
commonly develop plates, called phragmata (fig. 23 C, rPh, 2Ph, 3Ph),
that extend into the thoracic cavity to give increased surfaces for the
attachment of the dorsal longitudinal muscles. The rear margin of
Io SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
any tergum usually forms a transverse fold, or posterior reduplica-
tion (fig. 3 B, Rd), that of the protergum sometimes widely over-
lapping the mesothorax.
The sterna of the thoracic segments of insects never have the
structure typical of segmental plates, such as that of the more simple
thoracic terga, or that of the abdominal sterna of insects, or the
sterna of the leg-bearing segments of the Chilopoda. The thoracic
sterna have been modified, apparently since an early stage in the evo-
lution of insects, through an alteration in the segmental relations of
Pe a Pevi.ae vie 90 Rd
Fic. 3.—Ground-plan of a wingless thoracic segment, showing the usual or
typical structure in pterygote insects.
A, external lateral view, left side; B, internal view of right side. Ac, ante-
costa; ac, antecostal suture; Acx, precoxal bridge; a, articulation of trochantin
with coxa; Bs, basisternum; CP, pleural coxal process; Epm, epimeron; Eps,
episternum; Fs, furcisternum; Pc, precosta; Pcx, postcoxal bridge; PIA, pleural
arm, or apophysis; PIR, pleural ridge; PIS, pleural suture; PS, poststernum
S, sternum; SA, sternal arm, or apophysis; sa, external root of sternal
apophysis; Spn, spina; 7, tergum; Tn, trochantin.
the ventral muscles. In the thorax, these muscles are attached not
to anterior ridges of the sternal plates, but to processes arising from
the posterior parts of the sterna or from intersternal folds or chiti-
nizations of the integument.
It is difficult to select, among the numerous variations in form of
the ventral thoracic plates, a structure that may be regarded as
“typical”? of a thoracic sternum. The most constant sternal land-
mark consists of a pair of entosternal arms arising either indepen-
dently from the region between the bases of the cox, where their
roots are marked externally by two pits in the cuticula, or jointly
from a common median base. Since the second condition is the more
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS Wa
frequent in higher insects, the compound, forked apodeme has been
named the furca, but the presence of two independent processes un-
doubtedly represents the more primitive condition. In some cases, the
sternal arms, or apophyses (figs. 3 B, 4, SA), arise from a transverse
ridge of the sternum, as in the prothorax of Acrididz, and the exter-
nal groove of the ridge then divides the sternum into two parts; but
again, a division of the sternum may occur anterior to the bases of
the furcal arms. The two parts of the sternum have been called some-
what, loosely the sternum and sternellum, but since the first name
should be reserved for the entire sternal plate (fig. 3 A, S), the terms
basisternum and furcisternum (Bs and Fs) proposed by Crampton
(1909) are to be preferred, though the first sternal sclerite is not
“basal” and the furca is not necessarily a process of the second.
In addition to the sternal arms or furca, there is often present in
the lower orders of winged insects a median sternal process known as
the spina (fig. 3 B, Sp) situated behind the paired apodemes. Some-
times the spina appears to be carried by the posterior margin of the
furcisternum, but typically it is borne on an independent sclerite, the
spinisternum in Crampton’s nomenclature. Another sclerite, the post-
furcisternum, is found in rare cases between the furcisternum and the
spinisternum, or extends as a fold laterally, where it may bear a pair
of small processes known as the furcille. It is probable, however,
that both furcisternum and spinisternum are parts of one poststernal
region.
In general, then, we may say that the ventral chitinization of a
thoracic segment consists of a principal plate, the true sternum (fig. 3
A, S), and of one or two poststernal sclerites constituting a post-
sternum (PS), the latter usually associated with, or incorporated
into, the posterior part of the sternum proper. There is reason to
believe, as will be shown later (page 21), that the poststernal parts
are primary intersegmental elements that once constituted the pre-
costa and antecosta of the sternum following. At any rate, this
assumption explains the apparent reversal in the attachments of the
ventral thoracic muscles, which, as the poststernal sclerites are lost,
become transferred to the posterior parts of the preceding sterna and
finally to the furcisternal apodemes.
The two divisions or regions of the sternum proper usually differ
considerably in shape and size. The basisternum lies mostly before
the bases of the legs (fig. 7 B, Bs, Bsz,) and may become expanded
laterally or fused with a precoxal part of the pleuron (fig. 3 A, Acx).
Its anterior part is sometimes differentiated as a presternum, being
separated from the rest by a suture, and an internal ridge simulating
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
an antecosta, but the ventral muscles are never attached to this ridge.
The furcisternum lies between the coxal bases; it is usually narrow,
sometimes reduced to a mere base for the furca. When the coxal
cavity is closed behind by a postcoxal bridge from the pleuron (fig. 3
A, Pcx), the bridge unites below with the furcisternum and is usually
continuous with it. In some of the Apterygota and in some species of
the higher pterygote orders the coxa of the mesothorax and of the
metathorax is articulated ventrally to the sternum by a condyle on
the lateral margin of the furcisternum.
The sternal arms, whether they are independent apophyses of the
sternum, or are united upon a common base, extend upward and out-
Fic. 4.—Diagrammatic cross-section of wingless thoracic segment of a
pterygote insect.
Cx, coxa; CP, pleural coxal process; PI, Pl, pleura; PIA, pleural apophysis ;
PIR, pleural ridge; S, sternum; SA, sternal apophyses; 7, tergum.
ward toward descending apodemes of the pleuron (figs. 3 B, 4, PIA),
and the two sets of processes are almost always closely associated, in
some cases fused, but more generally united by short muscle fibers
(fig. 28, G). The sternal and pleural arms thus form bridges across
the coxal cavities, and the similarity of their position and their com-
plimental function suggest a correlation in origin. Neither pair is
present in the Apterygota.
The pleuron, though subject to an endless number of minor varia-
tions, shows a general plan of structure in the Pterygota which may
be simplified to the diagrammatic scheme shown in figure 3 A. In the
Apterygota the pleuron is little developed, and does not indicate an
evolution toward that of the winged insects, but it does suggest, as
will be shown later (page 22), the nature of the structure from which
NOSE INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS ye
has been developed the pleural sclerites in both the Apterygota and
the Pterygota.
The key to the structure of the adult pterygote pleuron is the pleural
suture (fig. 3 A, PIS), a groove extending upward from above the
base of the coxa, and forming internally the pleural ridge (fig. 3 B,
PIR). The pleural ridge is to be identified by the pleural arm (PIA),
which extends inward and ventrally from its lower part, and by the
condyle at its ventral end, the plewral coxal process (CxP), which
forms the dorsal articulation of the coxa with the body. The part of
the pleuron dorsal to the coxa is divided by the pleural suture and
pleural apodeme into an anterior region, the episternum (fig. 3 A, B,
Eps), and a posterior region, the epimeron (Epm). These two
sclerites are thus secondary divisions of a primitive plate, there being
no evidence of their origin from separate centers of chitinization.
The relation of the pleural arm to the corresponding sternal arm
(fig. 3 B, PIA and SA) has already been noted.
The anterior ventral angle of the episternum is usually extended
toward the sternum to form a precoxal bridge (fig. 3, Acx) before
the base of the leg, and often a similar extension from the epimeron
forms a postcoxal bridge (Pcx) behind the leg, the first becoming
continuous with the basisternum, the second with the furcisternum.
The anterior bridge, however, in some of the lower insects is separated
from the episternum and constitutes an independent sclerite, the
anterior laterale, occasionally divided into an upper and a lower piece.
Less frequently is the posterior bridge an independent posterior
laterale. When all the regions of the pleuron thus far described—
episternum, epimeron, precoxal bridge, postcoxal bridge—are well
developed, they constitute an arch over the base of the coxa, braced
upon the sternum below, from which the leg is suspended by the
coxal process at the lower end of the pleural ridge.
In the generalized pterygote pleuron a sclerite known as the
trochantin (fig. 3 A, JT) lies before the base of the coxa, but behind
the precoxal bridge (Acx). The trochantin is usually triangular in
form, elongate dorsoventrally, with its upper end touching upon the
episternum or fused with the lower part of the latter. Its lower end
articulates by a trochantinal coxal process (a) with the anterior mar-
gin of the coxal base. The trochantin is a highly variable sclerite ;
it is best developed in the Apterygota and in the lower orders of the
Pterygota, though it may differ much in closely related species; in
the higher pterygote orders it is rudimentary or absent. In some of
the Apterygota the trochantin forms an arch over the base of the
coxa ; only in rare cases does it extend dorsal to the coxa in pterygote
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
insects as a free sclerite, being usually fused into the lower part of
the episternum, or limited to the region between the episternum,
precoxal bridge, and the coxa. It is clear that the trochantin is a
sclerite of the pleuron that has played a more important réle in
primitive insects, and one now in a state of becoming obliterated in
the higher insects. The evidence bearing on its past history will be
discussed in the next section of this paper.
Fic. 5.—Inner surfaces of typical dorsal or ventral segmental plates of insect
with secondary segmentation.
Ac, antecosta, or anterior submarginal ridge of segmental plate; LMcl, longi-
tudinal muscles, attached to antecoste; Mb, secondary “ intersegmental ’’ mem-
brane; Pc, precosta, narrow anterior lip of plate, before the antecosta.
EVOLUTION OF THE THORACIC SCLERITES
It is one thing to formulate in a general way a working plan for
the study of the thoracic sclerites as they occur in modern adult
insects; it is quite another to understand how the structure repre-
sented by this plan has been evolved from a more primitive one, and
to determine what the primitive structure itself may have been. in
pursuing this line of investigation a study of the thorax of the Aptery-
gota should be of assistance, though, as we shall find, the apterygote
thorax gives little evidence of having evolved into the pterygote
thorax. Yet, the thorax of apterygote insects has preserved certain
characters, which, though degenerate in some respects, afford better
evidence of the structure of the primitive insect thorax, and therefore
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 15
of that of the extinct ancestors of the Pterygota, than is to be found
in the thorax of modern winged insects, or in that of the earliest
winged forms known from the paleontological records.
THE TERGUM
The dorsal plates of the thoracic segments, though highly specialized
in the mesothorax and metathorax of the Pterygota, have been
affected less in the adaptive reconstruction of the thorax than have
either the sternal or the pleural parts. The reason for this is clearly to
be found in the fact that the evolution of the terga is correlated with
the development of the wings, organs of comparatively recent origin,
while the evolution of the sternal and the pleural parts began with the
differentiation of the thorax as the specialized locomotor center of
the body. In general, the dorsal plates of the thoracic segments have
preserved the structure characteristic of the terga of arthropods
having a secondary segmentation, in which the dorsal muscles extend
between antecostal ridges (fig. 5) derived from the primitive inter-
segmental folds (fig. 2). In the prothorax, however, the tergum
always lacks a true antecosta and precosta, and the principal dorsal
muscles are attached anteriorly on the back of the head, as. are also
the ventral muscles. By this anatomical arrangement the head be-
comes movable on the body by the action of the prothoracic muscles.
In the Apterygota the thoracic terga are comparatively simple
plates. In Japyx (fig. 6 A) the mesotergum and metatergum have
particularly large precoste (Pc, Pc;), each set off by a distinct ante-
costal suture (ac), and marked by a median pair of prominent sete,
as is also the precosta of the first abdominal segment (/Pc). Verhoeff
regarded the precostal sclerites of Japyx as representing terga of
rudimentary intercalary thoracic segments ; Enderlein (1907) claimed
that they are but “ apotomes ” of the following terga ; it is now clear
that they are nothing more than unusually large precoste, since the
dorsal muscles are attached to ridges at their bases. Behind each
principal tergal plate is a membranous area (fig. 10, >) continuous
with the pleural area on each side of the segment. In the Protura the
tergum of the mesothorax and of the metathorax (fig. 8, 7) does not
cover the entire back of the segment, there being a large membranous
or weakly chitinous area behind it. This area Berlese (1910) regards
as “intersegmental,” but Prell (1913) distinguishes in it two regions,
the first of which he calls the “ nothotergite,’ while the second he
suggests is the homologue of the postnotal plate of certain winged
insects. The postnotum, however, as will be shown later, when
2
-
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. &O
present is a development of the precosta normally attached to the
tergum following, and the post-tergal region in the proturan dorsum
does not appear to be a part of the small precosta behind it in either
the mesothorax or the metathorax.
In Lepisma the lateral margins of the thoracic terga are somewhat
produced above the bases of the legs, in Machilis they form free
lobes reaching down on the sides of the segments and overlapping the
SOL
Ae
~~k
a
yom Wed
ot on 0 a 0
ua
Ry tee
YG Ayes
}--
\ NBA y
\ 7
a
\ NG : path
Fic. 6.—Thorax of Japyx sp., with base of head and of abdomen.
A, dorsal view, showing larage precostee (Pc) of mesotergum (72), metater-
gum (T;), and first abdominal tergum (JT). B, ventral view, showing anterior
apotomal folds (i, 7, k) of sterna, and sutures (y) of Y-shaped ridges of thoracic
sterna.
leg bases, but there is no reason for believing that these tergal exten-
sions in the Thysanura have any phylogenetic relation with the tergal
lobes from which the wings of pterygote insects are presumed to
have evolved.
In the Pterygota, the terga of the thorax reach their highest degree
of development in the second and third segments, where they present
numerous specializations fitting them to their functions of supporting
the wings and of giving efficient attachment to the principal muscles
that move the wings. The features of the wing-bearing terga, how-
NOS INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 7
ever, will be described in the discussion of the structure of a wing-
bearing segment (page 45). The pterygote protergum shows various
modifications of form, but none of its characters is to be homologized
with the special structures of the mesotergum or metatergum, a fact
indicating that the rudimentary wing lobes of the prothorax of the
Paleodictyoptera (fig. 19) were never developed into movable ap-
pendages in later insects.
THE STERNUM
The most important thing to be noted in a study of the sterna of
the insect thorax is the fact that the ventral longitudinal muscles,
Fic. 7—Pleuro-sternal parts of thorax of a cicada (Tibicina septendecim).
A, ventral view of thorax of mature nymph, legs removed, showing the
pleural parts continuous around inner sides of coxal cavities, suggesting that
each pleuron represents a basal, or subcoxal, segment (Sc1) of a leg (see
figs. 15 B, 16D). B, ventral view of mesothorax and metathorax of adult, show-
ing pleural folds on inner sides of coxal cavities persisting as chitinous ridges
on edges of sterna.
except in the Protura, extend between posterior parts of the sternal
sclerites, and are never attached as they are in the abdomen, or as are
the dorsal muscles of both thorax and abdomen, to anterior ridges of
the segmental plates. The ventral musculature is greatly reduced in
the thorax of all adult pterygote insects, but in ho!ometabolous larvee
(Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera) the sternal muscles of the thorax
are developed in proportion to the rest of the body musculature, and
include large latero-ventral bands of fibers continuous with the muscle
bands of the abdomen. In the Protura, according to Berlese (1910),
the longitudinal musculature is complicated in a manner characteristic
of primitive forms, and presents features suggestive of the muscula-
ture of larvee of holometabolous insects. The ventral muscles, for
example, consist of two latero-ventral bands of fibers continuous
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
through the abdomen and thorax. In the abdomen, except in the first
segment, the fibers are attached to antecostal ridges of the sterna, and
in the thorax to the anterior margins of the sternal plates, except in
the prothorax where they are inserted anteriorly on the head. Here
is unquestionably a uniformly primitive condition of the ventral
musculature. It is probably of no phylogenetic significance that, an-
terior to the fifth abdominal segment, the fibers of these muscles are
of the length of two segments and are attached to alternate sterna.
The sternal chitinization of each thoracic segment of the Protura,
according to Berlese (1910) and Prell (1913), consists of two plates
(fig. 8), one lying before the bases of the legs, the other between and
behind them. In the mesothorax and metathorax the second sternal
plate bears a median apodemal ridge, which in the Eosentomidz is
forked anteriorly and has the form of a Y with the arms extending
toward the bases of the coxe.
In Japyx the principal part of the sternal region in each thoracic
segment consists of a large quadrate plate conspicuously marked
externally by the lines of a Y-shaped ridge on the inner surface
(fig. 6 B, y). The arms of the ridge extend outward and forward to
the bases of the legs, where each becomes continuous with a basal
ridge of the coxa and constitutes a sternal coxal articulation. The
anterior part of each sternum consists of a semimembranous area
(fig. 6 B, k) indistinctly separated from the rest, and bearing four
prominent setz in a transverse row. Before this area there are two
well-marked sternal folds (7, 7) that appear as replicas of it, each
bearing likewise four sete similarly placed. A single fold with four
setze occurs between the metasternum and the first abdominal sternum
(IS). These sternal folds, the sternal ‘‘apotomes” of Enderlein
(1907), the “intersternites”” of Crampton (1926), are usually re-
garded as intersegmental, but that they belong to the sternum follow-
ing is shown by the fact that the anterior margin of the first one of
each thoracic set, as seen in side view (fig. 10, 7), coincides with the
line of the antecostal suture of the tergum (ac) of the same segment.
A striking feature of the sternal structure in the thorax of Japyx is
the reversed overlapping of the sternal plates, the posterior edge of
each principal plate being covered externally by the anterior fold of
the sternum following. The posterior ends of the median ridges of
the sternal apodemes project as free processes into the body cavity.
There are no continuous bands of longitudinal muscle fibers in the
thorax of Japyx, as there are in the Protura. Grassi (1886) says, in
both Japy« and Campodea the longitudinal ventral muscles of the
thorax are not recognizable with certainty. In this respect these
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 19
forms resemble the adults of winged insects, though it would be diffi-
cult to homologize individual sternal muscles in the two groups. In
each thoracic segment of Japyx a pair of divergent muscles goes for-
ward from the arms of the sternal apodeme to the posterior edge of
the sternal plate preceding. These muscles clearly act as retractors
of the anterior sclerite, their action in this capacity being made possi-
ble by the reversed overlapping of the adjoining sternal parts, and the
flexibility of the folds between the chitinous plates. The median ridge
of the Y-apodeme gives origin to muscles that go obliquely outward
to the coxe, and other coxal muscles of the sternum are attached
between the arms of the apodeme. The dorsal muscles of the coxz
arise on the tergum.
The sternal apodeme of the Protura and of the entognathous Thy-
sanura is evidently a homologous structure in both groups. It consists
of a median ridge in Acerentomon and Campodea (Grassi), but is
forked anteriorly in Eosentomon and Japyx. This apodeme can
scarcely be a prototype of the furca of the Pterygota, because the
median base of the furca is clearly a secondary development in the
higher winged insects, the arms, developed from lateral sternal inva-
ginations, being the primitive elements of the furca.
The thoracic musculature of Lepisma and Machilis is complicated,
especially so is that of Machilis, but, while a thorough study of it
would make a valuable contribution to our knowledge of the Thysa-
nura, it does not appear, from a superficial examination, that it would
throw any light on the evolution of the sternal musculature in the
Pterygota. The Thysanura do show, however, that the ventral longi-
tudinal muscles of the thorax have become attached to the posterior
margins of the sterna, which latter apparently have absorbed the ante-
costal ridges following, since antecostz and precoste are not present
in the typical position on any of the thoracic sterna, or on the first
abdominal sternum.
The larve of pterygote insects with complete metamorphosis have
in most cases a primary segmentation of the body, in which the attach-
ments of the longitudinal muscles are at the intersegmental grooves.
Even where segmental plates are present in the body wall, as in the
larvee of some beetles (fig. 25), the areas of the muscle attachments
may be non-chitinous, but wherever a costa is formed (ac) it is in
the intersegmental fold and is attached to the segmental plate follow-
ing it.
In the larva of Dytiscus marginalis, as described by Speyer (1924),
a pair of furcal arms arises on each sternal region of the thorax
between the legs, and each pair is supported on a transverse ridge, or
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
infold of the sternal wall. An inflection of the integument between
the prothorax and the mesothorax, and one between the mesothorax,
and the metathorax form intersegmental folds between the thoracic
sterna. The fold between the first and second segments bears laterally
on each side a small process, the furcilla, and medially an unpaired
process (the spina) ; the fold between the second and third segments
has only a median process. The musculature of the Dytiscus larva,
Speyer shows, is primitive in many ways; both abdomen and thorax,
for example, are traversed by continuous latero-ventral bands of
muscle fibers. In the abdomen the fibers of these muscles are attached
to anterior folds of the sterna, except in the first segment where all
but one pair are inserted anteriorly on posterior parts of the metaster-
num, either on the furcal arms and the supporting ridge, or on lateral
points corresponding in position with the furcillz of the first inter-
sternal fold of the thorax. In the thoracic segments the ventral
muscles are attached to the furcal arms, to the furcillze, to the median
process, and to a transverse ligament at the posterior edge of the
segment, except in the prothorax where one set ends on the back of
the head and another on the cervical sclerites. Without going farther
into details of Speyer’s account, it is clear that the sternal thoracic
muscles in the larva of Dytiscus are attached either to posterior parts
of the sterna, or to processes (furcilla and spina) of intersegmental
folds. The folds, Speyer says, appear to be derived from the anterior
part (acrosternite) of the sternum following in each case.
In the adult of Dytiscus (Bauer, 1910), the principal ventral
muscles of the thorax consist of paired bundles of longitudinal fibers
extending between the sternal apophyses, and from the prosternal
apophysis to the back of the head. This is the general condition of
the longitudinal ventral musculature in the thorax of adult Pterygota,
except that where median apophyses are present some of the muscles
are attached to them.
A study of both the Apterygota and the Pterygota, therefore, ap-
pears to indicate that the first step in the evolution of the thoracic
sterna consisted of a union or close association of the points of
attachment of the ventral muscles with the sternal plates preceding.
It may be questioned whether the folds bearing the muscle attach-
ments in the thoracic region ever formed antecostze of the sterna
following, as they do in the abdomen, but it is reasonable to suppose
that they did, considering that the sterna of the Chilopoda are of uni-
form structure in all the limb-bearing segments, and that the ventral
thoracic muscles of the Protura are attached to the anterior margins
of the sterna (Berlese). Chitinizations of the intersegmental folds
NO. I INSECT THORAX
SNODGRASS PAL
bearing the ventral muscle attachments have thus come to form appar-
ent posterior elements of the sterna, or have been incorporated into
the posterior parts of the sterna, and in this respect, as pointed out
by Weber (1924), the sternal structure in the thorax is comparable
to the tergal structure in those segments where a postnotal plate and
phragma, originally intersegmental or a part of the succeeding tergum,
become a part of the preceding tergum. By analogy, the interseg-
mental or posterior part of the definitive sternum may be termed the
poststernum (fig. 3 A, PS). That the poststernal part in each segment,
which sometimes consists of two parts (postfurcisternite and spinis-
ternite of Crampton) is a true intersegmental element has been effec-
tively stated by Weber (1924), who says: “One may conclude with
all appearance of truth that the postfurcasternite has arisen from the
membranous region between the true sterna, perhaps as a result of
the muscles attached to it, and that it is a structure in every way
similar to the postnotum of winged insects, though doubtless of older
origin.” Where two postfurcal sclerites are present, the second, or
spinisternum, Weber believes, is only a detached piece of the first
comparable to the phragma of a postnotum, Again, reviewing the
prothoracic structure of the Neuroptera, Trichoptera, and Lepidop-
tera, in his paper on the thoracic skeleton of the Lepidoptera, Weber
(1924 a) says: “ The fourth section of the sternum, the postfurcaster-
mite, is usually clearly separated from the furcasternite and is obvi-
ously a secondary structure. In Svalis it is only suggested, in the
Trichoptera it is a distinct posterior appendage of the sternum, in
Hepialus it becomes extremely long, and here there begins the for-
mation of a posteriormost and likewise secondary piece of the ster-
num, which may be identified with the spinisternite of Crampton.
This sclerite borders so closely on the mesosternum that it becomes a
question whether it should be reckoned as a part of this sclerite or
of the prosternum.”
The poststernal sclerites, however, are not generally persistent
elements of the sterna, for in most insects they are either lost or
become indistinguishably fused into the posterior edges of the true
sternal plates. Some of the ventral muscles that remain in the adult
stage are attached to the spina, if this process is present; the attach-
ments of the others become transferred to the posterior part of the
sternum, where, in the Pterygota, they are carried mostly by the
furcal arms. The development of the furcal arms, or lateral sternal
apophyses, has differentiated the primitive sternal plate into basister-
num and furcisternum, but the presence of these processes is a char-
acter of the Pterygota, there being no trace of them or other homol-
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
ogous sternal apodeme in any of the Apterygota. While, therefore,
the general structure of the thoracic sterna has been developed in
connection with the specialization of the thorax as the locomotor cen-
ter of the insect body, the special structure of the thoracic sterna of
winged insects has evolved within the pterygote group, probably as
an adaptation to an indirect function in connection with the wings.
Though Crampton (1926) distinguishes a basisternum and a furci-
sternum in some of the Thysanura, the structures separating the
sternal regions so named, such as the Y-shaped ridges of Japyx
(fig. 6 B, y) are not to be homologized with the sternal apophyses of
the Pterygota.
THE PLEURON
The pleuron of a thoracic segment offers a more difficult problem
in morphology than does either the tergum or the sternum, and the
question of the origin of its sclerites has been the subject of much
speculation and discussion. Our prevalent ideas concerning the struc-
ture of the pleuron have been derived largely from a study of the
pterygote thorax, but, since the pleurites as they occur in a winged
insect are certainly not primary elements in the wall of any primitive
segment, we see, undoubtedly, in the thoracic pleuron of winged
insects a highly specialized structure. A study of the apterygote
thorax, therefore, might give more valuable suggestions concerning
the basic structure of the pterygote pleuron than are to be had from
a knowledge of the pterygote pleuron itself, since the pleural structure
of the Apterygota should be less removed from the common ancestral
structure than is that of the Pterygota.
The largest number of pleural sclerites is found in the Protura, In
the mesothorax and metathorax of Eosentomon, as described by Prell
(1913), there are nine principal plates on each side of the segment
between the tergum and the sternum (fig. 8). Four of these (a, 8, c,
d) are more dorsal than the others and constitute a series of tergo-
pleurites, according to Prell’s interpretation. Four others (e, f, g, 1)
form a ventral series believed by Prell to represent the true pleural
plates of other insects. Since Crampton (1914) has named the
corresponding area in Pterygota the ewpleuron, the series of plates
having an analogous position in Eosentomon and other Apterygota
may conveniently be termed the eupleural sclerites. The ninth plate
in the general pleural area of Eosentomon (Tn) is a semicircular
chitinization over the dorsal half of the coxa (Cx), and this sclerite
Prell calls the trochantin, since its anterior part is clearly the homo-
logue of the usual trochantinal sclerite of pterygote insects. It is
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 23
important to note that the eupleural and trochantinal sclerites of
Eosentomon form a group of small plates arched over the coxal base,
and that in this way they correspond with the pleurites in a pterygote
pleuron. It may be questioned whether the plates of the eupleural
series in Eosentomon are to be identified individually with specific
pleural sclerites of winged insects, as Prell suggests, but it is true,
at least, that they occur in homologous parts of the pleural area.
There can be little doubt, however, that the trochantin is the same
sclerite in both insect groups. In Eosentomon its anterior part tapers
downward and ends in a recurved point articulating with the anterior
Itc. 8.—Mesothorax of a proturan, Eosentomon germanicum, (Vigure from
Prell, 1913, but differently interpreted, and re-lettered.)
The dorsum contains a tergum (7) with narrow precosta (Pc) separated by
antecostal suture (ac), and two posterior weakly chitinized regions (4, y).
The pleural area contains a dorsal series of tergo-pleurites (a, b, c, d), a
ventral group of true pleurites (e, f, g, h) about the base of the coxa (Cx),
and a trochantin (77) arched over the coxa.
ventral rim of the coxal base, while its dorsal part, Prell says, articu-
lates both with the dorsal edge of the coxa and with the median
pleural plate (g) above it.
In the Chilopoda, the pleural regions of the leg-bearing segments
contain a number of small sclerites. The more dorsal plates in each
segment are probably tergopleurites, but those immediately above and
before the base of the leg would appear to represent the eupleural and
trochantinal sclerites of the Protura. In Lithobius forficatus, as
figured by Verhoeff (1903), there are two sclerites lying dorsal to
the base of the coxa (fig. 9), of which Verhoeff calls the upper one
(o) the “ anopleure,”’ and the lower (7) the “ katopleure.” A third
(p), lying before the coxa, Verhoeff regards as the “ trochantin”’;
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
and a fourth (q), apparently forming the dorsal part of the coxa
(Cx), he calls the “ coxopleure.”” When compared with Eosentomon
(fig. 8), it appears more likely that the plate over the coxa in Lithobius
should be the trochantin, of which the more ventral sclerite (f) may
Fic. 9.—Coxa and pleurites of one segment of a centipede, Lithobius forficatus.
(Verhoeff, 1903.)
Cx, coxa; o, eupleural sclerite (anopleure of Verhoeff) ; p, precoxal sclerite;
gq, coxal sclerite (coxopleure of Verhoeff); 7m, trochantin (katopleure of
Verhoeff ).
bea part, though the latter might correspond with the precoxal sclerite
(f) in Eosentomon. In Lithobius sp? (fig. 32 B) there is only one
plate dorsal to the coxa. Though the Chilopoda and the Protura cannot
be regarded as related except indirectly through some remote common
Fic. 10.—Lateral view of mesothorax of Japygide.
A, Japyx sp., pleural region occupied by trochantin (7) curving over base
of coxa (Cx), and by two lateral extensions (/, m) from apotomal folds (i, k)
of sternum. (Spiracles not seen in this species.)
B, Heterojapyx sp. (large species from Australia), showing spiracles. Sp;,
prothoracic spiracle; Sp», mesothoracic spiracle; a metathoracic spiracle in
corresponding position; S/p, first metathoracic spiracle, at upper end of pleural
apotomal folds. Other lettering as on figure 6.
ancestor, yet it does not appear impossible that their pleural sclerites
may have been derived from the same basic structure.
In the Japygide, the pleural structure appears, at first sight, to
have little in common with that of. the Protura. In some forms
(fig. 10 B) there is a tergopleural fold in the mesothorax and meta-
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 25
thorax immediately below the edge of the tergum, above and behind
which is the segmental spiracle (Sp2). Arching over the base of the
coxa is a chitinized fold which should represent the trochantin (77),
though it is continuous basally with the sternum before the articulation
of the latter with the coxa (Cx). Anterior to the trochantin are two or
three chitinized pleural areas (A, B,/, m) continued from the apoto-
mal folds of the sternum (1, j, Rk). The apotomal folds constitute a
specialization in the Japygide, but the true pleural parts apparently
are reduced to the trochantinal fold over the coxa.
In Lepisma the thoracic pleural regions have well-defined chitinous
plates. In the mesothorax and metathorax, two sclerites (fig. II, r,
Tn) arch concentrically over the base of the coxa, while a third
Fic. 11.—Mesothoracic pleuron, edge of tergum, and base of leg of Lepisma.
Cx, coxa; r, eupleural sclerite; s, sclerite on base of coxa; 7, trochantin ;
T, tergum.
smaller one (s) is attached to the rim of the coxa itself. The first is
evidently a sclerite of the eupleural series. It is a narrow chitinous
band, with a short dorsal arm projecting upward and posteriorly, to
the end of which is attached a muscle. The second sclerite (77) has
the position of the trochantin in Eosentomon (fig, 8), though it fits
closely over the upper end of the coxa, and has no special articular
points with the latter. It is larger than the dorsal sclerite, triangular
over the coxa, and expanded again where it overlaps the anterior
angle of the coxal base. The third sclerite (s) is a small triangular
piece closely attached to the base of the coxa, and is probably a
detached piece of the latter. It suggests Verhoeff’s “ coxopleure ”
in Lithobius (fig. 9, q), but is apparently not the sclerite so designated
by Verhoeff in Lepisma. In the prothorax, the same pleural sclerites
are present, though they are here less distinct and not easily separated.
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
The pleural pattern of Lepisma is surprisingly similar to that of
Lithobius (fig. 9), and is one also that conforms with the pleural
pattern in Eosentomon (fig. 8), except that the eupleural series of
plates is represented by a single sclerite in Lepisma (fig. 11, r). It is
not implied, however, that Lithobius and Lepisma have any immediate
relationship, or that either is descended from Eosentomon, but that
through the disintegration of a primitive chitinization in the pleural
region of a common ancestor, there have resulted the pleural patterns
of Eosentomon, Lithobius and Lepisma.
The pleuron of Machilis has little resemblance to that of the other
Apterygota. It consists of a single, small, triangular plate (fig. 12, t)
vin
Fic. 12—Left mesothoracic leg and pleural sclerite of Machilis, anterior view.
Cx, coxa; Sty, stylus; ¢, pleural sclerite, Tar, tarsus; u, apodeme of pleural
sclerite.
closely attached to the base of the coxa, but extending dorsally to the
base of the lateral fold of the tergum. Many writers, probably follow-
ing Hansen (1893), designate this sclerite the trochantin (or sub-
coxa), and its close connection with the coxa would suggest its tro-
chantinal nature. Its basal angles are continued into a fold that sur-
rounds the base of the coxa; its triangular lateral surface is marked
by a vertical groove in which a deep invagination forms a long,
slender, internal arm (uw) to which is attached a muscle from the
tergum. Crampton (1926) assumes that the plate belongs to the
eupleural series, and that its areas before and behind its external
suture are equivalent to the episternum and epimeron of pterygote
insects. It is suggested by Prell that the median plate in the eupleural
series of Eosentomon is likewise the common fundament of the
NO INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 27
pterygote episternum and epimeron. It may be questioned, however,
whether these are cases of actual homology or of resemblances in
structures arising independently in response to similar demands.
There is no evidence of lineal or connected relationship between the
Protura, Machilis, and the Pterygota.
A study of the pleura of Eosentomon, Japyx, and Lepisma leads to
the generalization that the pleurites of the Apterygota comprise a
eupleural series of chitinizations arched over the base of the coxa,
and a trochantinal sclerite in immediate contact with the coxa, while
with them there may be associated a sclerite derived from the coxal
base. A suggestion of the same pattern is to be found in the pleura
of the Chilopoda. In Machilis the pleurites are reduced to a single
plate, the identity of which is obscure—it might be the trochantin, or
it might be a sclerite of the eupleural series. In the Collembola the
thoracic pleurites are but poorly developed. Crampton (1926) finds
a trochantin closely associated with the coxa, and a pleural sclerite
lying above the coxa, but of the collembolan sclerites in general, he
says, they “are too weakly developed, and too unsatisfactory in
nature to afford much evidence of relationships to other forms.” The
line of descent of the Collembola, Crampton believes, “leads off in
a direction having no especial bearing on the evolution of the higher
forms.” The present writer would add that the same may as truly be
said of any of the apterygote groups. There is no suggestion, for
example, in the Apterygota of the probable steps in the evolution of
the pterygote pleuron ; rather, each pleural pattern in the Apterygota
appears to have resulted independently from the disintegration of a
more concrete earlier structure. Reasons will later be given for believ-
ing that the structure of the pterygote pleuron is correlated with the
wings, and that it has been developed in the extinct and unknown line
of descent that led to the winged insects.
The typical structure of the pterygote pleuron has already been
described and shown diagrammatically in figure 3. A more generalized
condition, however, is to be found in the prothorax of the Plecoptera
(fig. 13). Here there is a dorsal eupleural sclerite, or anapleurite
(Apl), and a trochantinal sclerite (7) intervening between the
anapleurite and the coxa, and articulating both anteriorly and dorsally
with the coxa (C, a, b). The anapleurite is divided by an external
suture and an internal ridge into an anterior episternal region and a
posterior epimeral region.
The more usual pleural structure in the Pterygota includes a pre-
coxal bridge from the episternal part of the anapleurite to the basi-
sternum, and often also a postcoxal bridge from the epimeral region
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
to the furcisternum. This chitinous arch constitutes the eupleuron
(Crampton, 1914), and it is clear that it corresponds closely with the
eupleural series of sclerites in Eosentomon (fig. 8), though not neces-
sarily in identity of individual plates. The “typical” trochantin of
the pterygote pleuron (fig. 3, Tm) is excluded from the dorsal, or
pleural, articulation of the coxa (CaP), but there are many insects in
which it extends posteriorly to the articulation and takes part in the
formation of the articular condyle (figs. 7, 14, 15 B, 77), and, as we
have seen, in the plecopteran prothorax (fig. 13), it intervenes entirely
between both episternum and epimeron, and the coxa, and carries the
dorsal condyle of the coxal articulation as well as the anterior one.
Fic. 13—Prothorax of Plecoptera. (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1909.)
A, left side of prothorax and base of leg of nymph of Pteronarcys; pleuron
composed of a dorsal anapleurite (4/) of eupleural arch, and of a trochantin
(eutrochantin of Crampton) carrying both anterior and dorsal articulations of
coxan (Gana)
B, same parts of nymph of Perla.
C, inner view of right prothoracic pleural plates of nymph of Perla; a, anterior
articulation of coxa; A/fl, anapleurite; b, dorsal articulation of coxa; PIR,
pleural ridge; Tn, trochantin.
We may conclude, therefore, that the basic structure of the pterygote
pleuron, as shown at A of figure 15, is identical in plan with that
of the apterygote pleuron, as exhibited in Eosentomon (fig. 8), and
that the pleuron in each group consists of a eupleural series of scle-
rites, and of a trochantinal sclerite arching concentrically over the
base of the coxa.
Though we may see, then, a fundamental identity of structure in
the pleuron throughout the entire hexapod group, the evolution of
the pleural sclerites has been quite different in the Apterygota and
Pterygota. In the former, the sclerites show a tendency to reduction
in different ways in different families, and the reduction, usually
ending in obliteration of some of the sclerites, has produced the
various and apparently unrelated pleural patterns characteristic of
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 29
the Apterygota. In the Pterygota, on the other hand, the pleuron
has evolved along a definite, constructive line. In the lower orders
of winged insects it may consist, as in the Apterygota, of a number
of separate sclerites, but in the higher orders it becomes a continuous
plate, resting below upon the sternum, giving a solid point of suspen-
sion for the leg, and, in the wing-bearing segments, a support for the
wing, and for the tergum also, since the latter must be braced against
the downward pull of the tergo-sternal muscles in order that these
muscles may function as elevators of the wings.
Fic. 14.—Mesopleuron and metapleuron of Psocus venosus.
The dorsal part of trochantin (7) of mesothorax here united with episternal
part (Eps) of anapleurite (fig. 13, Apl); postarticular part of trochantin
(fig. 13, 7) either absent or fused with epimeron (Epm); basalares (Ba, Ba)
not separated from episterna.
The evolution of the pterygote pleuron has included principally a
development of the eupleural arch, and particularly of its anapleural
region. With the latter has been united the dorsal part of the tro-
chantin, as shown by Crampton (1914) and by Weber (1924). The
resulting plate, bearing the dorsal articulation of the coxa, has been
strengthened by an internal ridge extending upward from the coxal
condyle, the external suture of which separates the definitive epister-
num and epimeron. There is perliaps no evidence as to whether the
part of the trochantin,posterior to the coxal articulation (fig. 13,
A, B, C) has been absorbed by the epimeron, or has been independently
lost, but there is abundant evidence of the fate of its pre-articular
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
part. The part dorsal to the coxa unites partially or completely with
the eupleural region above it, in the second case becoming a part of
the definitive episternum, while the part before the coxa may separate
from the supracoxal part to become a free plate (fig. 7 B, Tz), the
sclerite ordinarily known as the trochantin (fig. 3, 77). In the higher
orders of the Pterygota, the trochantin becomes rudimentary or disap-
pears entirely, and it is subject to much variation even in those orders
where it is best developed. It is clear that the trochantin is a sclerite
that has played a much more important part in the pleural mechanism
of the earlier insects, and that it is now in process of degeneration.
Fic. 15.—Theoretical composition of the pleuron, suggesting its origin from a
subcoxal segment of the leg.
A, diagrammatic lateral view of a wingless segment, showing pleuron consist-
ing of a eupleural arch (Acx, Eps, Epm, Pcx), and of a trochantinal arch (Tn),
the latter fused dorsally with anapleurite (fig. 13, Apl) to form the definitive
episternum and epimeron (Eps, Epm).
B, mesothoracic pleuron and base of coxa of mature nymph of cicada (Tibicina
septendecim), showing parallelism in structure with A, and suggesting the
origin of the pleuron from a subcoxal leg segment.
The foregoing review shows that there is a basic unity of structure
in the pleural parts in both the Apterygota and the Pterygota, since
in each group the pleurites fall into a eupleural and a trochantina!
arch concentric over the base of the coxa. For practical purposes it
is perhaps enough that we can trace the approximate evolution of the
pleurites in their various modifications, but a deeper understanding
of the thorax demands an explanation of the origin and nature of the
pleurites themselves.
The pleural sclerites have been regarded as intrinsic elements of
the lateral walls of the segments, but their variability and their general
weak development in the Apterygota, would indicate that the plates
NO. Er INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 31
are of little use in wingless insects, and that they are in a state of
degeneration in the Apterygota. It is, therefore, reasonable to suspect
that the pleurites are derivatives of some earlier structure, which has
become degenerate in the Apterygota, but which, in the wing-bearing
segments of the Pterygota, has undergone a new development by
which it has become remodeled into an essential part of the wing
mechanism.
From a comparative study of the appendages of the Arthropoda,
Hansen (1893) concluded that the coxa is the second segment of
the primitive arthropod limb, and that, in insects, the rudiment of the
true basal segment is the trochantin. It was later claimed by Heymons
(1899), however, that the trochantin is only a small part of the
original basal segment, the major part of which has formed the other
pleural sclerites. This assertion Heymons based on a study of the
development of the thorax in the Hemiptera. In the embryo, he says,
the basal part of the leg divides into a proximal and a distal part,
the second becoming the coxa, while the first flattens out and forms
those parts of the thorax with which the leg articulates. The basal
piece of the limb, or hypothetical basal leg segment, Heymons desig-
nated the subcoxa.
The idea that the arthropod limb in general includes a ‘subcoxal
basal segment has been particularly elaborated by Borner. According
to Borner’s most recently expressed view (1921), the subcoxa is
retained as a free basal segment of the limb only in the Pentapoda
(Pycnogonida) ; in other arthropods it is either incorporated into the
body wall, forming the pleuron in Insecta and in some Crustacea, and
in other Crustacea a part of the sternum, or it has entirely disap-
peared, as in the Arachnida.
Crampton and Hasey (1915) have opposed the theory of the sub-
coxal origin of the pleural plates in insects, pointing out that Hey-
mons misinterpreted some of the elements in the pleuron of Nepa,
and that according to his statement the epimeron is not included in
the subcoxa of the Hemiptera, though Heymons says that the sub-
coxal region includes both the episternum and the epimeron in
Blattidee. The hemipteran species that Heymons studied are, indeed,
not good forms on which to base a study of the pleuron, for in
Naucoris, one of his examples, the epimeron of the metathorax is
rudimentary, and the episternum of the mesothorax is united with the
sternum. In each segment, therefore, only a single pleural plate is
evident in both nymph and adult, and a failure to recognize these
conditions might give the impression that a single pleural plate in
Naucoris is the equivalent of the episternum and epimeron in gen-
3
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
eralized insects. Heymon’s general conclusion is that the pleural parts
of adult insects may not correspond exactly in their entire extent with
the subcoxal leg segment of the embryo, but that they are either in
part or principally derived from it. The subject needs further sup-
port from embryology ; but the subcoxal theory is now generally ac-
cepted in one form or another by most European students of insect
morphology, though some follow Hansen in regarding the trochantin
alone as representing the subcoxa.
Fic. 16.—Legs and pleural parts of immature insects, suggesting that the
pleural sclerites belong to a basal, subcoxal segment of the leg (Sc).
A, middle leg and pleural sclerites of larva of Scarites (Carabide). |
B, middle leg and pleural sclerites of larva of Pteronidea ribesi (Tenthredin-
idae).
C, abdominal leg of a caterpillar (Lepidoptera).
D, hind leg and pleuron of mature nymph of Tibicina septendecim (Homop-
tera).
Students of other groups of Arthropoda also recognize a subcoxal
segment, or pleuropodite, as the true base of the primitive limb
(fig. 42 A). Some of the Acarina furnish particularly suggestive
examples of structures that appear to be subcoxal leg segments. In
the ticks (Ixoidea) each leg is articulated to a large basal piece
(fig. 17, Scv) expanded on the ventral surface of the body, but con-
tinued over the base of the coxa as a narrow arch in the pleural
surface. These leg bases are provided with tergal muscles (Derma-
centor, Amblyomma), and those of the first pair at least are capable
of a slight rotary motion on their transverse axes. Each, moreover,
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 33
bears the basal attachments of the abductor and adductor muscles of
the coxa (Cx). In short, either the facts are most deceptive, or the
ticks have retained subcoxe in the form of functional. leg bases.
A recent writer, Becker (1923, 1924), would, in a manner, reverse
the relations between the pleuron and the base of the leg, since he
claims that in the Chilopoda and the Insecta the coxa and trochanter
are derived from the pleuron, the latter being a primary part of the
thoracic wall. Becker’s claim, however, may be simply another way
of stating that the pleuron and the base of the leg are parts of the
same structure.
Though it must be admitted that direct evidence for the derivation
of the insect pleuron from the base of the limb is still insufficient,
Gxeaee2 ere
Fic. 17.-—-Legs of Acarina.
A, hind leg of Amblyomma tuberculatum, ventral view; B, base of hind leg of
Dermacentor variolatus. Cx, coxa; F, femur; Ptar, pretarsus; Sc, subcoxa,
or ventral plate of body wall bearing free part of limb; Tar, tarsus; Tb, tibia;
ITr, first trochanter; 277, second trochanter.
there are many facts that may be adduced as circumstantial evidence.
In a cicada nymph, for example, each leg is attached to a large, oval,
subcoxal, latero-ventral area of the body wall between the tergum
and the sternum of its segment (fig. 7, A, Scv). The lateral part of
each area is occupied by the pleural sclerites (figs. 7 A, 15 B, 16 D),
and the precoxal and postcoxal parts (fig. 15 B, Acv, Pcx) are con-
tinuous in a semi-membranous fold around the mesal side of the base
of the coxa (fig. 7 A). Even in the adult, the mesal subcoxal fold
is quite distinct from the true sternum (fig. 7 B), though it is here
chitinized and appears as an elevated marginal rim of the sternum.
This structure recalls Heymons’ statement that the adult sternum in
the Hemiptera includes the ventral part of the subcoxa. The pleurites
of a young cricket (fig. 26 A) and of other Orthoptera in the first
instar likewise give the impression of belonging to a basal leg seg-
34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
ment flattened out in the lateral wall of the body segment. In some
holometabolous larve, as in the larva of a carabid beetle (figs. 16 A,
25), or ina sawfly larva (fig. 16 B), the thoracic legs are carried on
subcoxal mounds (Sca) of the body wall, which have the appearance
of being the true bases of the legs, and in which are situated laterally
the pleural sclerites.
To trace the evidence of subcoxal elements in the abdominal seg-
ments of adult and larval insects (fig. 16 C) would take us beyond
the limits of a paper on the thorax, but the contention by Borner
(1909) that the gills of mayfly nymphs are homologues of the tho-
racic legs, and that their basal supports are subcoxz is too interesting
to pass over. Diirken (1909), it is true, has shown that the muscu-
lature of the gill does not fit with Borner’s interpretation ; but if
Borner had compared the gill muscles, not with the tergal promotors
and remotors of the coxe, but with the coxal abductors and ad-
ductors, which should arise within the subcoxe, there might be less
objection to his homology of the skeletal parts. The general subject
of the musculature of the leg base, however, will be given special
attention in a following section (page 83), wherein it will be shown
that the coxa appears to possess muscles that should belong to two
leg segments.
Borner rightly says that an arthropod limb, in order to be an effec-
tive. instrument of locomotion, must be able to turn forward and
backward on its base. If a subcoxal segment was the primitive base
of the limb, it, therefore, moved upon a vertical axis in the pleural
membrane between tergum and sternum, Borner assumes also that
the coxa moved in the same manner as the subcoxa; but this would
give a double-jointed movement of the limb base in one plane. More
reasonable does it seem that the primitive coxa moved in a vertical
plane on a horizontal axis between anterior and posterior articular
points on the subcoxa, thus duplicating the movement of the follow-
ing coxo-trochantinal joint, rather than that of the limb with the body.
When the subcoxa then became a fixed part of the body wall, its
function as the leg base necessarily devolved upon the coxa, and the
latter, taking over the promotor and remotor muscles of the subcoxa,
shifted its axis from the horizontal to an oblique position and finally
to a vertical one.
The subcoxal theory, then, as proposed in this paper, assumes that
the coxa originally articulated with the hypothetical basal segment of
the limb (fig. 18 A, Sc) by an anterior articulation (a) and a pos-
terior articulation (>), and that, in insects, the lateral walls of the
subcoxa have furnished the pleural sclerites of the thorax, while the
Fic. 18.—Diagrams outlining the possible origin and evolution of the thoracic
pleurites from a subcoxal segment of the leg.
A, the theoretical subcoxa (Sca) as a primitive basal leg segment, with
anterior and posterior coxal articulations (a, b) on a horizontal axis. S, sternum.
B, theoretical separation from subcoxa of a supra-coxal, trochantinal sclerite
(Tn) bearing the coxal articulations (a, b).
C, subcoxa flattened into pleural wall of segment; its basal chitinization
broken up into a series of eupleural sclerites (Acx, Apl, Pcvx) forming an arch
over coxa concentric with the trochantin (Tn); posterior articulation of coxa
(b) dorsal in position. (Eosentomon, fig. 8.
D, pleuron consisting of a eupleural sclerite (Ef!) and a trochantinal
sclerite (Tn), concentric over coxa. (Lepisma, fig. 11.)
E, subcoxal part of pleuron with a single sclerite, the trochantin (Tm); coxa
articulated to sternum. (Japy-, fig. 10.)
F, theoretical primitive pterygote pleuron, consisting of a eupleural subcoxal
arch (Acx, Apl, Pcx) based on sternum, and of a trochantin (7m) carrying
anterior and dorsal articulations of coxa (a, b).
G, prothoracic pleuron of Plecoptera (fig. 13), consisting of anapleurite (A//)
of eupleural arch, and of trochantin (77).
H, usual structure of pterygote pleuron: trochantin (Tn) fused dorsally with
eupleural arch, and united areas divided by pleural suture (P/S) into episternum
and epimeron (Eps, Epm).
I, ventral part of ee (Tn) a free sclerite by separation from part
réunited with eupleuron; postcoxal part of eupleural arch lacking. (Blattide.)
J, precoxal and postcoxal parts of eupleural arch forming independent plates
(Ace Pex).
K, eupleural arch complete, united below with sternum.
L, episternal, precoxal, and basisternal regions continuous; postcoxal part of
eupleural arch Jacking; sternum with secondary articulation with coxa (c).
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
median ventral rim has either become membranous, or has united
with the edge of the sternum. In the Acarina, the ventral part of the
subcoxa has formed the large plate in the ventral wall of the body
to which the leg is attached, while the lateral part has been reduced
to a narrow arch over the coxal base.
The assumed change in the coxal axis from a horizontal to an
oblique position, when the coxa became the functional base of the
limb, suggests a reason for the detachment of a supra-coxal piece,
the trochantin (fig. 18 B, Tn”), from the body of the subcoxa, for
it is clear that the displacement of the axis would be facilitated if the
part of the subcoxa bearing the articular condyles became a free
sclerite. Borner’s view that the ventral articulation of the coxa was
originally with the sternum, and that the trochantin is derived from
the sternum is contradicted by the fact that in Protura (fig. 8) and
in the prothorax of Plecoptera (fig. 13) the trochantin is a-free
sclerite bearing both the anterior (ventral) and the dorsal articula-
tions of the coxa. In scattered cases, in both the Apterygota and the
Pterygota, the coxa is articulated ventrally to the sternum, but in
most such instances this is clearly a secondary condition, That the
primitive axis of the coxa was horizontal is attested, furthermore, by
evidence, to be presented later, that the primitive musculature of the
coxa consisted of abductor and adductor muscles. In the head, the
mandible retains this form of articulation, and a simple abductor-
adductor musculature.
It is not difficult to imagine the probable evolution of the basal part
of the subcoxa into the eupleural sclerites. In the Apterygota and in
the Chilopoda, this part of the subcoxa has broken up into small
plates forming various patterns in different families. In Eosentomon,
probably three at least of the ventral series of pleurites (fig. 8, f, g, 1)
belong to the leg base, and may be supposed to be remnants of the
eupleural part of the subcoxa (fig. 18 C). These sclerites, as Prell
(1913) has pointed out, correspond in position with the divisions of
the pterygote pleuron (fig. 18 J), one being supracoxal in position
(Apl), and the other two (Acx, Pcx) precoxal and postcoxal. In
the Chilopoda (figs. 9, 32 B), the pleural pattern is variable, and
perhaps has little relation to that in any insect, but apparently there
are to be distinguished in it both eupleural and trochantinal sclerites.
In the Thysanura there is little uniformity in the pleural structure:
Lepisma (figs. 11, 18 D) has a single eupleural plate; in Japy+
(figs. 10, 18 E.) the only true pleural chitinization appears to be the
trochantin ; in Machilis (fig. 12) one plate is present over the coxa,
but its relation to the pleurites of other Apterygota is not clear.
NOSE! INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 2y/,
In the Pterygota, the eupleural arch of the subcoxa is commonly
differentiated into three regions, one forming a supracoxal plate, or
anapleurite (fig. 18 F, Apl), lying above the coxa, and the others a
precoxal plate (Acx) and a postcoxal plate (Pcx) lying before and
behind the coxa, respectively. The anapleurite is the primitive basis
of the episternum and epimeron, and is seldom undeveloped; the
other two are variable, and one or both may be lacking. In the pro-
- thorax of Plecoptera (figs. 13, 18 G), the anapleurite (A/pl) of the
eupleuron, and the trochantin (7) are present and entirely separate
from each other, the latter carrying both the anterior and the dorsal
(posterior) articulations of the coxa (a, >). In other pterygote forms,
however, the dorsal part of the trochantin, with the dorsal articular
condyle of the eoxa (b), is united with the anapleural region of the
eupleuron (fig. 18 H). The free anterior part of trochantin may
remain continuous with its dorsal part (1H), but usually it separates
from the latter, which becomes an integral part of the episternum,
and constitutes a free sclerite lying before the coxa (I, J, K, Tn).
The anterior trochantinal piece, however, becomes rudimentary or is
lost entirely in most of the higher insects. The coxa then often ac-
quires a secondary ventral articulation with the furcisternum (L, c).
In a few insects the ventral rim of the subcoxa persists as a fold
around the mesal side of the coxal base (fig. 7), but generally it is
not distinguishable, and the precoxal and postcoxal parts of the sub-
coxa (fig. 18 H, Acv, Pcx) appear as ventral extensions from the
episternum and epimeron to the sternum, which, if chitinized, form
plates or bridges (J, Kk). The precoxal bridge is usually best de-
veloped (1), the posterior one being frequently lacking. Both may
become confluent with the pleural plates above and with the sternal
plates below, uniting all these parts into a continuous chitinization
surrounding the coxal cavity (AK), but the postcoxal bridge may be
absent, leaving the coxal cavity ‘‘open’”’ behind (L.). The numerous
other variations of the pterygote pleuron familiar to students of the
thorax need not be detailed here, for it will be clear that all are but
modifications of the basic structure given above,
THE SPIRACLES
It seems mest reasonable to suppose that the spiracles of primitive
insects were situated in the pleural regions of the segments, between
the edges of the terga and the bases of the limbs. From this neutral
position, then, the tracheal branches from each spiracle went to the
dorsal and ventral parts of the segment, and the dorsal and ventral
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS — VOL. 80
muscles of the spiracular closing apparatus were attached to the
tergum and the sternum of the same segment.
Embryologists give us little information concerning the exact
position of the spiracles in the embryo with relation to the segmental
plates. Lehmann (1925) states that the tracheal invaginations of a
phasmid, Carausius morosus, appear laterally on the bases of the
appendages close to the anterior margins of the segments. Heymons
(1895), describing the development of Forficula and Gryllus, says
the spiracles arise as pits on the anterior lateral parts of the spiracle-
bearing segments, soon after the appearance of the segmental ap-
pendages. Wheeler (1889) says the tracheal invagination on the
thorax of Leptinotarsa decemlineata are situated at the bases of the
legs near the anterior edges of the somites to which they belong ;
those of the abdomen, however, are placed near the middle of the
lateral half of each segment.
In modern adult insects the location of the spiracles is too variable —
to serve as an index of what the primitive position of the spiracles
may have been, for the adult spiracles may lie in the terga, in the
pleural membranes, or in the sterna, and these variations occur within
the orders, and often on different segments of the same species. It
can be stated as a general rule that the abdominal spiracles lie in a
line along each side of the body; especially is this true of the spiracles
of embryos and larve of most holometabolous insects (Lepidoptera,
Hymenoptera, Diptera). In many cases, therefore, where the ab-
dominal spiracles of the adult are located in lateral or ventro-lateral
areas of the terga, or in lateral parts of the sterna, it would appear
that the segmental chitinizations have simply extended from one di-
rection or the other over the spiracular areas to include the spiracles
in the definitive segmental plates. In other cases, again, it is possible
that there may have been a dorsal or ventral migration of the spira-
cles, for often the first abdominal spiracle is considerably out of line
with those following. In adult Coleoptera, the abdominal spiracles
are commonly situated on the dorsal plane of the body, where they
may be contained in lateral parts of the terga, in the pleural mem-
branes, or in upturned lateral parts of the ventral plates. In the
Scarabzidz often the spiracles of the first three or four segments
are in the pleural membranes, while those following are in the lateral
sternal plates. In adephagous larve the spiracles (fig. 25, Sp) lie in ©
lateral parts of the dorsum, the ventral limits of which are marked
on each side by a lateral fold (a, a) extending through abdomen and
thorax. In adults of this group the abdominal spiracles are inclosed
in marginal plates of the terga. In lampyrid larve the spiracles are on
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 39
ventro-lateral plates of the abdomen, beneath the projecting edges
of the terga, which in the adults are fused with the lateral edges of
the sterna and reflected dorsally. Since the homology of the so-called
“pleural” sclerites in the abdomen of the Coleoptera is not known,
the morphological position of the spiracles in this order cannot be
exactly stated, but the nature of the variations in the location of the
spiracles suggests that there has occurred, in some cases, dorsal and
ventral migrations of the spiracles themselves from a primitive site
in the pleural membranes.
The spiracles of the thorax in adult insects usually occur at vary-
ing levels on the sides, between the chitinous pleura. They appear,
therefore, to be intersegmental in position. In embryonic and larval
stages, however, the thoracic spiracles are usually well within the
limits of the segments. In the typical Chilopoda (Pleurostigma) the
spiracles are in the pleural membranes and generally in the posterior.
parts of the segments. In the Protura they lie in small plates in the
lateral margins of the mesothoracic and metathoracic terga (fig. 8,
Sp.). The tracheal branches from each abdominal spiracle in insects
are distributed mostly within the segment of the spiracle, and the
muscles of the closing apparatus of an abdominal spiracle arise from
the tergum and the sternum of the same segment. There can be little
doubt, therefore, that all spiracles are segmental organs, as claimed
by Lehman (1925) in his recent review of the insect tracheal system,
in which also he gives reasons for believing that the primitive tracheal
invaginations of insects may represent the ectodermal parts of the
ducts of the nephridial organs (nephromixia) of Peripatus. The
apparent intersegmental positions of the thoracic spiracles are evi-
dently the result of secondary displacements, which in many cases
can be traced during development, though some writers (Comstock,
1924, Keilin, 1924, de Gryse, 1926) have argued that all spiracles
are intersegmental in origin, and that their segmental positions are
owing to secondary migrations. A spiracle could not be truly inter-
segmental in a soft-bodied insect without interference with its func-
tion, and the idea of any organ or set of organs other than folds for
muscle attachments being intersegmental is at variance with our con-
ception of the nature of metamerism.
The typical number of spiracles in insects is ten pairs, two pairs
being thoracic and eight abdominal. There is much reason from
developmental studies for regarding the usual first pair of spiracles as
belonging to the mesothorax, and the second to the mesothorax, and
for believing that their intersegmental positions, or the occasional
prothoracic position of the first are due to forward migrations. Yet,
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
it is disconcerting to observe that the dorsal muscle from the closing
lever of the first spiracle of a caterpillar is attached dorsally to the
lateral margin of the protergal shield, and still more so to find that
there is a spiracle in the prothorax of Japyx and related genera in
addition to one in the mesothorax.
The usual absence of prothoracic spiracles in adult insects has never
been satisfactorily explained. Though Wheeler (1889) says the tra-
cheal invaginations of the first thoracic segment in the embryo of the
potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) are small, and soon close
over and disappear, and though Cholodkowsky (1891) mentions the
presence of a pair of such invaginations in each segment of the
embryo of Blatta, students of insect embryology in general have not
been able to find traces of spiracles or tracheal pits in the prothorax
at any stage of development (Lehmann, 1925). In Smynthurus, one
of the Collembola, the single pair of spiracles present is located in
the neck. Perhaps these are the prothoracic spiracles. In Campodea
and Japyx, and related genera, there is a pair of spiracles on each of
the thoracic segments; in Japyx there is an additional pair on the
metathorax. In Heterojapyx the first spiracle (fig. to B, Spi) is on
the side of the prothorax posterior to the base of the leg, the meso-
thoracic spiracle (Sp) lies between a dorsal (tergopleural) scelerite
of the pleuron and the edge of the tergum, the corresponding spiracle
of the metathorax has a similar position, while the fourth spiracle
(Sp) lies latero-ventrally before the base of the hind leg, between the
lateral ends of the first and second apotomal folds of the pleuron.
The significance of the number and position of the thoracic spiracles
of Campodea and Japyx is by no means clear. The dorsal spiracles
that occur on the prothorax and at the posterior end of the abdomen
in the larve of Diptera are probably special larval organs, since the
eight normal lateral spiracles appear on each side of the abdomen in
some forms (Rhagoletis, Braula) toward the end of the larval period.
The second thoracic spiracles are very small in some adult insects ;
in certain larve they are lacking. In caterpillars and in the larve
of beetles, the site of each is marked externally by a minute disc in
the cuticula just behind the intersegmental fold between mesothorax
and metathorax, and the disc is connected by a degenerate tracheal
strand with the main lateral trunk of the respiratory system; in the
adults, these spiracles are restored as functional organs. The thoracic
spiracles usually differ from the abdominal spiracles in some manner,
either in the relative positions of their parts, in their structure, or ir
the type of their closing apparatus, a condition as yet unexplained.
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 4I
III]. SPECIAL STRUCTURE OF A WING-BEARING SEGMENT
While the perfection of the legs as walking appendages affected
principally the lower pleural and the sternal parts of the thoracic
segments, the development of the wings as efficient organs of flight
involved changes mostly in the tergal and the upper pleural regions
of the two segments concerned, though the increased importance of
the tergo-sternal muscles, and the need of solidarity in the wing-
bearing part of the thorax have had a general effect on the entire
thoracic structure.
Flying insects have evolved along two quite different lines, but the
similarity in their general structure, and in the structure of the wings
themselves shows that both resulting groups are descendents of a
common ancestral form, which form had all the features distinguish-
ing the Pterygota from the Apterygota. The two lines of differentia-
tion in the Pterygota have been established through the adoption of
different mechanisms for moving the wings. Among modern insects,
one pterygote group is represented only by the Odonata, the other
includes the rest of the winged orders.
In the non-odonate insects there are few special wing muscles, the
muscles that effect the movement of the wings being chiefly the longi-
tudinal dorsal muscles of the terga, the tergo-sternal muscles, and a
set of muscles that originally were muscles of the coxz. The tergal
and the tergo-sternal muscles move the wings indirectly by the pro-
duction of alternating changes in the shape of the thorax; the other
muscles are more closely connected with the wings in the adult, but,
being leg muscles in origin, they also are not primary wing muscles.
It thus appears that when wings were developed and first became
mobile appendages, they were moved by muscles already present in
the segments bearing them. Only a few special wing muscles have
since been acquired by most insects. In the Odonata, however, the
wings are moved entirely by muscles inserted directly on the wing
bases, and it is impossible to trace any homology between these mus-
cles and the wing muscles of other insects. According to Poletaiew
(1881) the wing muscles of the dragonflies are formed and de-
veloped during the nymphal stages of these insects. The wing mech-
anism of the Odonata, therefore, must be one secondarily acquired
through the development of special wing muscles, which have sup-
planted the primitive musculature of the wing-bearing segments. For
this reason, the following descriptions of the structure of a typical
wing-bearing segment will be based on that of the mesothorax and
metathorax of non-odonate insects.
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
GROUND-PLAN OF A WING-BEARING SEGMENT
Though the general structure of the thorax was determined
through the specialization of this region of the body as the locomotor
center of the insect, and through the transformation of the subcoxz
into chitinous pleura, probably long before the wings appeared, the
special features of the thoracic segments in winged insects have un-
doubtedly been evolved as characters correlated with the development
of the wings.
The paleontological history of insects shows that lateral tergal lobes
were present on the prothorax of many of the earliest known winged
Fic. 19.—Carboniferous insects with tergal lobes on the prothorax (Palzodic-
tyoptera).
A, Stenodictya lobata Brong., with large lobes (a) on protergum. (Brongni-
art, 1890.) B, Eubleptus danielsi Handlr. (drawn from specimen No. 35576,
labeled holotype, in U. S. Nat. Mus.), showing small protergal lobe (a), well-
developed postnotal plates (PN2, PN:) in mesothorax and metathorax, and ten
abdominal segments.
species (fig. 19) ; but there is no fossil insect known from the geologi-
cal period, probably the Silurian, when the wings were in the course
of development. There can be little doubt, however, that the wings
were evolved from lateral lobes of the dorsum in the mesothorax and
metathorax. We can only speculate as to what service these lobes
were to insects during their early stages of evolution. The most
popular explanation is that they were gills, and that the trachee,
which mark later the courses of the wing veins, penetrated the lobes
first for respiratory purposes. This theory implies that the ancestors
of winged insects passed through an aquatic period in their evolution
after having acquired a tracheal system during a previous period
when they dwelt on land. Osborn (1905), in proposing this explana-
tion of the origin of insect wings, suggests that insects lived in the
NOP INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 43
water during the Silurian age, and that the aquatic progenitors of the
Pterygota were themselves descendents of primitive terrestrial tra-
cheates of Ordovician times. This theory of the origin of insect
wings is pretty safe from destructive criticism, but for the same
reason little direct evidence can be shown in its favor. Bats and flying
squirrels have not needed a baptism for the acquisition of wings, but
their wings do not contain tracheze. On the other hand, it is perhaps
not certain that, phylogenetically, the veins of insect wings were pre-
ceded by the trachee. The Silurian insects, known only as the neces-
sary ancestors of post-Silurian insects, do not attest an adaptation to
life in the water in any of their descendents. If they were aquatic,
they have left no direct descendents; and existing insects bear no
stamp of an aquatic ancestry. The abdominal gill lobes of nymphs
of Ephemerida, often cited as possible homologues of the hypothetical
thoracic gill lobes from which the wings might be supposed to have
developed, have been shown by Durken (1907), froma study of their
musculature, to have nothing in common with the wings. The oldest
known insects are distinctly terrestrial, and they likewise give no
evidence of a recent emergence from a water environment, except as
adults from aquatic nymphs. For a more complete discussion of the
arguments that have been made in favor of a gill origin of the wings,
and of the facts indicating their paranotal origin, the student is re-
ferred to the paper by Crampton (1916) on this subject, in which
will be found also a long bibliography.
If the gill theory of wing origin in insects is found eventually
unacceptable in any form, it should not be hard to believe that the
wing lobes in earlier stages enabled their possessors to glide through
the air from elevated situations, and that the lobes were thus organs
of sufficient importance to demand a considerable degree of recon-
struction in the pleura, or subcoxal chitinizations, of the segments
bearing them. There is no evidence that prothoracic lobes were ever
developed into wing-like or even movable appendages, and there is no
proof that they were present in the true ancestors of winged insects,
or that the wing lobes are their homologues in any case. Yet, con-
sidering the essential identity of structure between the prothoracic
pleuron and the pleura of the wing-bearing segments, it becomes evi-
dent that all the thoracic pleura must owe their specialized form to
some common guiding influence, and that this influence must have
determined the basic structure of the pterygote thoracic pleuron be-
fore the dorsal lobes of the mesothorax and the metathorax evolved
into true wings. A reasonable postulate, therefore, is that the deter-
44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
mining factor of the pleural structure in the thorax was the presence
of potential wing lobes on each of the thoracic segments.
Carpentier (1921), in his study of the pleura of wingless Orthop-
tera, shows that the pieuron of the prothorax is identical in structure
with the pleura of the other two thoracic segments, a condition sug-
gestive of the former presence of wings on the prothorax, though
ac ae PN. ae
\
S PS
Fic. 20.—Diagrammatic structure of a wing-bearing segment with a phragma
attached to each end; wing cut off at base; coxa removed.
ac, antecostal suture; Acx, precoxal bridge; ANP, anterior notal wing process ;
Aph, anterior phragma; Aw, prealar process, or bridge; Ba, basalare, episternal
epipleurite; Bs, basisternum; CaC, coxal cavity; CxP, pleural coxal process;
Epm, epimeron; Eps, episternum; Fs, furcisternum; Mb, remnant of inter-
segmental membrane; Pc, precosta; Pcx, postcoxal bridge; pla, external root of
pleural apophysis ; PIS, pleural suture ; PN, postnotum (postscutellum) ; PNP,
posterior notal wing process; Pph, posterior phragma; PS, poststernum; Psc,
prescutum; Pw, postalar bridge; S, sternum; Sa, subalare, epimeral epipleurite ;
sa, external root of sternal apophysis; Sci, scutellum : Sct, scutum; Tn, trochan-
tin; WP, pleural wing process.
Carpentier does not commit himself to this conclusion. The mental
picture of a pair of fully-developed wings on each of three consecu-
tive segments, however, is not convincing as a mechanical reality ;
but the degree of development in the prothoracic pleura may be taken
to mean that the paranotal lobes of the prothorax once reached a
stage ef development in which they, as well as those of the meso-
thorax and metathorax, required the support of the pleura. Beyond
this stage, the lobes of the second and third segments were evolved
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 45
into freely movable wings, while those of the prothorax degenerated
and were lost. In harmony with this view is the difference in struc-
ture between the tergum of the prothorax and that of a wing-bearing
segment, and the differences in the segmental musculature. As the
skeletal parts of the mesothorax and metathorax responded to the
demand for mobility in the tergal lobes, the segmental muscles capable
of moving the latter were developed accordingly.
The general structure of a wing-bearing segment is shown dia-
grammatically in figure 20. The dorsum of the segment may be
occupied only by the true tergal plate (7), or notwim, as the tergum
of a thoracic segment is often called; but the segment in which the
wings are best developed usually has also a second smaller plate, the
postnotum (PN), lying immediately behind its true tergum. On the
sides of the segment are the usual pleural plates of pterygote insects,
the episternum (/ps) and epimeron (pi), separated by the pleural
suture (P/s). At the upper end of the latter the dorsal edge of the
pleuron is produced into a special pleural wing process (WP), which
forms a fulcrum against the wing base. The tergum is often sup-
ported on the pleura by arms extending from its anterior lateral
angles to the corresponding dorsal angles of the episterna, each arm
constituting a prealar bridge (Aw). The postnotum, when present,
is generally connected likewise by lateral extensions with the epimera,
each extension forming a postalar bridge (Pw). Between the wing
base and the upper edge of the pleuron there is an ample membrane
in which are situated several small epipleural plates (Ba, Sa). The
ventral parts have no distinctive features in the wing-bearing seg-
ments and have been sufficiently treated in the description of the
fundamental structure of the thoracic sterna (page 17). The details
of the wing-bearing tergum, and certain features of the pleuron,
however, need a more extensive special examination.
STRUCTURE OF A WING-BEARING TERGUM
The tergum of a wing-bearing segment preserves in its basic struc-
ture the elemental composition of the tergal plate in any segment
where secondary segmentation has been established (fig. 2 B, C).
It includes the intersegmental antecostal ridge preceding (fig. 21 B,
Ac), and a precosta (A, B, Pc) demarked externally by the antecostal
suture (A, ac). Its posterior edge is reflected ventrally in a marginal
fold, or posterior reduplication (B, Rd). Between the tergum and
the following precosta there is a transverse membranous area
(fig. 23 B, Mb), functionally intersegmental, but which is morpho-
46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
logically the posterior part of the segment. Only in larval insects is
the primary body segmentation (fig. 23 A) found in the thorax, and
even here the union of the primitive terga with the chitinized inter-
segmental fold may establish a typical secondary segmentation. In
the larva of Scarites (fig. 25), the fold between the protergum and
the mesotergum is chitinized and united with the latter, forming thus
an antecosta of the mesotergum. From the antecosta of each of the
wing-bearing segments, and from that of the first abdominal segment
there is usually developed a pair of thin chitinous lobes, the two
constituting a phragma (fig. 21, Ph), which projects into the cavity
Pe se 3 Ph ari
baie f i
; ‘ \ clin tie
Hf
AxC Rd
Fic. 21.—Diagrammatic structure of a wing-bearing tergum, not including a
postnotum.
A, dorsal; B, ventral. Ac, antecosta; ac, antecostal suture; ANP, anterior
notal wing process; AxC, axillary cord; Aw, prealar process; Em, lateral
emargination of tergum; Par, parapsidal ridge; par, parapsidal suture; Pc,
precosta; Ph, phragma; PNP, posterior notal wing process; PR, ridge between
prescutum and scutum; ps, prescuto-scutal suture; Psc, prescutum ; Rd, posterior
reduplication of tergum; Sci, scutellum; Sct, scutum; VR, ridge between
scutum and scutellum; vs, scuto-scutellar suture; W, base of wing.
of the thorax and furnishes an increased surface for the attachment
of the dorsal longitudinal muscles.
The wings are hollow outgrowths from the lateral parts of the
dorsum in each segment, between the prealar bridges and the posterior
edge of the tergum (fig. 21 A, W). The posterior margins of the
wings, therefore, are direct continuations from the posterior fold
(Rd) of the tergum. The dorsal wall of each wing is continuous with
the lateral margin of the tergum, the ventral wall is reflected into the
pleural subalar membrane. The wings become movable by the mem-
branization of their bases. The lateral edges of the adult tergum are
produced into small lobes to support the dorsal articular elements of
the wings; generally there are two lobes on each side, an anterior
NO. I ‘ INSECT ’ THORAX—SNODGRASS 47
notal wing process (fig. 21, ANP), anda posterior notal wing process
(PNP), though the latter is frequently lacking. Behind the first wing
process there is a deep lateral emargination of the tergum (Em).
The surface of the wing-bearing tergum is differentiated into
several areas, some being limited by the sutures of internal ridges,
others being merely topographical in nature. The internal ridges are,
therefore, the features of greatest importance in a study of the
tergum. The most constant apodemal ridge has the form of an in-
verted V (fig. 21 B, VR), the arms of which arise near the posterior
angles of the tergum and converge forward, the apex being usually
behind the center of the tergum. This apodeme, which may be desig-
nated the )’-ridge, forms a strong brace in the posterior part of the
tergal plate, and sets off a posterior area of the tergum called the
scutellum (Scl). All the muscles of the tergum arise upon the pre-
scutellar area. The rear margin of the scutellum is deflected in the
posterior reduplication (Rd), and its ends are prolonged in the
axillary cords of the wings (4*xC).
On the anterior part of the tergum, behind the antecostal suture
(ac), there is often differentiated a narrow transverse strip, called
the prescutum (fig. 21, Psc). The area is sometimes limited by a dis-
tinct suture (A, ps), with a corresponding internal ridge (B, PR),
but the prescutum is seldom as definitely marked as the scutellum,
and’ its separation from the rest of the tergum may be faint or
obsolete. Anteriorly the prescutum is deflected into the antecostal
suture (A, ac) over the base of the phragma (Ph), beyond which is
the precosta (Pc), or anterior lip of the phragma base, always nar-
row, sometimes scarcely perceptible, except when enlarged to form
a postnotum of the preceding segment (figs. 22, 23). Laterally, the
prescutum ends in the prealar bridges (fig. 21 A, Aw), if such pro-
cesses are present.
The application of the term “ prescutum” as given here follows
the evident intent of Audouin (1824), who defines the “ praescutum ”
as “la piece la plus antériure,” and adds that “ elle est quelquefois
tres grande et cachée ordinairement en tout ou en partie dans | 'inter-
ieur du thorax.” This is the part, however, called “ acrotergite ” by
Berlese, and “ pretergite”” by Crampton (1919). As will be shown
later, the triangular area of the tergum in some insects, usually re-
garded as a part of the prescutum (“ protergite”’ of Berlese), is ap-
parently a part of the scutum.
The area of the tergum between the prescutum and the scutellum
is the scutwm (Sct). The topography of the scutum is variable; its
surface is often cut by sutures which arise from the secondary de-
4
‘6 ,
48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
velopment of ridges on its under surface. The most important of
these ridges are two known as the parapsides (fig. 21 B, Par), which
arise laterally from the prescuto-scuta] suture and converge poster-
iorly a varying distance in the scutum. The lateral margins of the
scutum bear the anterior and the posterior wing processes (ANP,
PNP), and are notched just behind the former by the lateral emar-
ginations (Em). The wings (W) are extensions from the scutum
and scutellum, their posterior, thickened edges (the axillary cords)
being continued from the narrowed ends of the scutellum.
THE POSTNOTAL PLATES
Though the terga of the wing-bearing segments have acquired no
new elements to enable them to play their parts in the wing mechan-
ism, they have, however, in most cases lost the simplicity of segmental
plates through a redistribution of some of the primitive elements.
A primitive dorsal plate, bearing the wings and preserving the struc-
ture of a typical tergum, with an antecosta or phragma at the anterior
end, occurs in the mesothorax and metathorax of Isoptera, and in
the mesothorax of Orthoptera, Euplexoptera, and Coleoptera. In
nearly all other instances, the dorsum of a winged segment contains
two plates (fig. 22A), the first being the true tergum, or notum (T),
the second the postnotum (PN). The postnotum occurs in typical
form only in the adult insect ; it consists of the greatly enlarged pre-
costa, together with the antecosta and phragma, of the following
tergum usually more or less separated from the latter and closely asso-
ciated with the preceding tergum. The altered relation in the tergal
parts of the wing segments is probably the result of a secondary
modification, for, as we shall see, it constitutes a structure correlated
with efficiency of wing motion. Presumably all the thoracic terga of
the wingless ancestors of the Pterygota had the usual form of seg-
mental plates (fig. 5), still retained in those of the Apterygota.
The nature of the redistribution of the tergal parts in segments
having a postnotum is explained diagrammatically in figure 23. At
A is shown the original primary segmentation, with the dorsal mus-
cles (LMcl) attached to the intersegmental folds. In B the folds are
chitinized to form antecoste (Ac), each with a small precosta (Pc)
before it. The posterior membranous parts of the segments (Wb)
now become the flexible “ intersegmental ” regions, and the segmen-
tation is typically secondary. Let us suppose that the dorsal plates
(C, T,-IT) are the terga of segments from the prothoracic to the
first abdominal, inclusive, and that each antecosta has a phragma
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 49
(1Ph, 2Ph, 3Ph) bearing the muscle attachments. At C, a condition
is given in which the antecosta of the first abdominal tergum (JT),
with its phragma (3Ph) and the precosta are separated from the
principal part of the abdominal tergum and are more closely con-
nected with the tergum of the metathorax (T;). The abdominal pre-
costa and antecosta, or the base of the phragma, here constitute, then,
Fic. 22,—Diagram of wing-bearing terga with postnotal plates.
A, tergal plates of mesothorax; B, tergal plates of metathorax. Each post-
notum (PN2, PN:;) consists of precosta (Pc) and narrow postcostal piece
detached from following tergum, with a phragma (Ph) developed from the
antecostal ridge, the base of which is marked externally by the primarily
intersegmental antecostal suture (ac).
the postnotum(PN;) of the metathorax, The latter segment is now
provided with two phragmata, an anterior phragma (2P/), and a
posterior phragma (3Ph), and its dorsal muscles become segmental
instead of intersegmental. The relations between the mesothorax and
the metathorax are here (C) of the normal type. The condition re-
presented is characteristic of the Orthoptera, Euplexoptera, and
Coleoptera, though in the first two orders the postnotum of the meta-
thorax usually retains its connection with the first abdominal tergum.
50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vot. 80
In most other insects a postnotum is present in each of the wing-
bearing segments, as given at D of the figure. In this case the meso-
thorax is provided with an anterior phragma (1Ph) and a posterior
phragma (2Ph), while the metathorax has only a posterior phragma
3Ph). The first phragma (zPh) is never transferred to the pro-
tergum. If the base of the middle phragma (2Ph) retains its con-
nection also with the metatergum, the mesotergum and metatergum
TSS eee Oa eat Sy ge ee
Fic. 23.—Diagrammatic lengthwise sections showing the nature of the
phragmata and the thoracic postnotal plates.
A, primary segmentation in non-chitinous segments (Seg), with longitudinal
muscles (LMcl) attached at intersegmental rings (/sg).
B, secondary segmentation: each tergal plate (7) including the chitinized
antecosta (Ac) and narrow precosta (Pc) ; antecoste bearing phragmata (Ph) ;
the antecostal sutures (ac) are the original intersegmental grooves (A, Jsqg).
C, thorax with metathoracic wings chief organs of flight: third phragma
(3Ph) separated from first abdominal tergum (JT) by secondary membrane
(mb), and its precosta (B, Pc) enlarged to form the pre-phragma part in a
postnotal plate (PN;) of metathorax.
D, thorax with mesothoracic wings chief organs of flight: each wing-bearing
segment with a postnotal plate (PN2, PN;) and a posterior phragma; the
postnotal plates prevent telescoping of the segments (fig. 2).
are said to be “ fused.” Comparing C and D with A in figure 23,
it is clear that the part of postnotal plate before the phragma belongs
to the posterior part of the primary segment in which it occurs,
and that only the narrow posterior lip of the phragma base has come
from the following segment. It is thus true, as Berlese (1909) has
shown, that the postnotum of a winged segment is the “ acrotergite ”
of the tergum following.
The variation in the connections of the phragmata is correlated with
the specialization of one pair of wings or the other as the chief organs
NO. I INSECT THORAX
SNODGRASS 51
of flight. If flight devolves principally upon the hind wings, as it does
in the Orthoptera, Euplexoptera, and Coleoptera, the second phragma,
is attached to the anterior part of the metatergum, and the third
phragma, though it may not be separated from the first abdominal
tergum, becomes functionally a part of the metatergum through the
forward extension of its precosta as a postnotal plate of the meta-
thorax. Where the fore wings are the most highly developed for
flight, as they are in the majority of insects, the second phragma
goes to the mesotergum. In other words, the segment containing the
largest wing muscles has a phragma at each end, an arrangement
which concentrates the force of the muscles upon the tergum of this
one segment.
The postnotal plates are probably contemporaneous in their origin
with the acquisition of motion by the wings. They are well developed
in the oldest known fossil insects; in the Palaeodictyoptera there is
a large postnotum behind each of the wing-bearing terga (fig. 19 B,
PN.z, PN;). The statement by Handlirsch (1908) that there are
eleven abdominal segments in this group appears to be the result of
counting the postnotum of the metathorax as the first abdominal ter-
gum. In the Isoptera postnotal plates are lacking, but this condition
is here correlated with the degeneration of the dorsal thoracic muscles
and the weak nature of the termite flight. Postnotal plates are present
in the Ephemerida and Odonata, though in the latter also the dorsal
muscles have been lost.
It is not difficult to see a reason for the development of postnotal
plates in wing-bearing segments. Where the primitive tergal plates
are separated by membranous areas of the posterior parts of the seg-
ments (fig. 2 B, 23 B, Mb), a contraction of the dorsal muscles causes
an overlapping of the terga (fig. 2 C), a result which must be counter-
acted if the muscles are to produce motion in the wings. The inter-
segmental membranes, therefore, must be reduced or obliterated, and
their suppression has been accomplished in most cases by a forward
extension of the precostal margins (fig. 23 C, D) until the resulting
postnotal plate and the tergum in each segment form an uninterrupted
arch between consecutive phragmata. The force of the muscle con-
traction is now expended against the tergal arch, with the result that
its upward flexion gives a down-stroke to the wings. Thus, also, the
longitudinal dorsal muscles become antagonists to the tergo-sternal
muscles, if the latter muscles previously existed, or they call for the
development of such muscles, which then become elevators of the
wings.
52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
MODIFICATIONS OF THE WING-BEARING TERGA
The structural variations in the terga of the mesothorax and meta-
thorax of winged insects have furnished a problem that has caused
much vexation to those who would like to have the parts of the terga
in all insects conform with one simple plan of organization. The
tergal parts probably do represent one plan of structure, but they do
not always agree with the usual system of nomenclature applied to
them. The trouble is that the fundamental structure, easily recognized
in some cases, is so obscured in others that parts which appear to be
the same in different insects are really not so.
The wing-bearing tergum, as we have seen (fig. 21), has an ante-
costa (B, Ac) on its front margin bearing a phragma (P/), the base
of which is marked externally by the antecostal suture (A, ac). The
precosta (Pc), or anterior lip of the phragma base, before the meso-
thoracic tergum is but a narrow strip, often indistinguishable ; that
before the metatergum, however, is enlarged to form a postnotal plate
of the mesothorax if the fore wings are chiefly functional in flight,
and the precosta of the first abdominal tergum becomes usually a
postnotal plate of the metathorax. Behind the antecostal suture in
a tergum that retains the precosta and phragma preceding, there is
usually differentiated a narrow prescutum (Psc) ending laterally in
the prealar bridges or other lobes before the bases of the wings. A
triangular scutellum (Sc/) is set off on the posterior part of the
tergum by the suture of the V-ridge (vs or VR), and the part of the
tergum between the prescutum and the scutellum is the scutum (Sct).
The difficulties encountered in the study of the wing-bearing terga
of different insects arise from the obscuring of these landmarks,
either through a partial or complete suppression of the marks them-
selves, or from their being subordinated to characters of secondary
development.
The prescutum occurs in typical form in most of the Orthoptera,
where it consists of a narrow transverse area of the anterior part of
the tergum (fig. 24 B, C, Psc), ending laterally in the prealar pro-
cesses, and usually expanded at the antero-lateral angles of the scutum.
In Blatta the prescutum is separated from the scutum by a faint suture
and internal ridge; in the Acrididae (fig. 24 C) it is demarked rather
by the line of declivity at the anterior margin of the scutum; in Gryllus
(B) it is scarcely distinct from the scutum medially. In Lepidoptera
there is usually a small triangular prescutal plate in the mesothorax
(G, Psc) set into a notch in the anterior border of the scutum, In the
metathorax of Coleoptera the prescutum reaches its highest develop-
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 53
ment (H, Psc), its median part being here often expanded posteriorly
until it almost meets the apex of the scutellum (Scl). In Tipulide (D)
and Tenthredinide (1), the prescutum is reduced to a narrow band
(Psc) surrounding the convex anterior margin of the scutum, and ex-
tending backward on the sides to the bases of the wings. In some cases,
Fic. 24.—Modifications of the wing-bearing tergum.
A, mesotergum of Japy+, consisting of a simple segmental plate with a large
precosta (Pc) separated by an antecostal suture (ac). B, metatergum of
Gryllus assimilis, area behind antecostal suture (ac) partially divided into
prescutum (Psc), scutum (Sct), and scutellum (Sc/). C, mesotergum of
Melanoplus femur-rubrum. D, mesotergum of Holorusia rubiginosa; prescutum
(Psc) a narrow band terminating on each side in prealar lobe (1); scutum
marked by three pairs of sutures (par, x, y); a, c, j, b, attachments of tergal
muscles (fig. 34 D, A, C, J, B). E, mesotergum of Tabanus atratus: prescutum
(Psc) fused medially with scutum; parapsidal sutures (par) extended poste-
riorly ; scutellum divided by secondary groove (z). F, mesotergum of Cynips:
prescutum and scutum fused; parapsidal sutures cut the scutum lengthwise into
three parts (c, a, c). G, mesotergum of Phassus argentiferus. H, metatergum
of Calosoma scrutator: scutum divided medially by approximation of prescutum
and scutellum, and each half divided by suture (zw) into anterior and posterior
part (Sct, Sct). I, mesotergum of Pteronidea ribesi: prescutum (Psc) very
narrow; parapsidal sutures (par) of scutum convergent; scutum cut by lateral
sutures (s). J, mesotergum of Apis mellifica: prescutum and scutum united;
scutum divided by secondary suture (s) into three parts (Sct, sct, sct).
54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
even in segments having an anterior phragma, the prescutum entirely
loses its individuality, as in the cicada and in the higher Hymenoptera
(fig. 24 F, J). In the higher Diptera, remnants of the prescutum are
distinguishable at the sides of the scutum (E, Psc) terminating in
prealar lobes (w) corresponding with those of the Tipulide (D),
but anteriorly the prescutum is not discernible in those Diptera in
which the protergum (E, 71) is fused with the mesotergum.
A prescutum is generally lacking as a defined area in metathoracic
terga that have parted with the middle phragma (fig. 22, 73), but this
condition probably does not mean necessarily that the entire prescutal
region has become detached with the phragma.
The separation of the scutellum from the scutum by the V-ridge
and its suture is usually a very distinct one (fig. 24 D-J), but in
some groups the boundary between these two areas of the tergum also
is difficult to determine. In Blattidz, the scutellum is of typical form,
though its median part extends forward in a long narrow triangle
almost to the prescutum. In Gryllus (fig. 24 B) the lateral arms of
the V-ridge do not meet, and the scutum and scutellum are continuous
medially. In Acridide, the V-ridge (C, vs) is interrupted by another
ridge of similar shape but turned in the opposite direction. The arms
of this second ridge, converging medially and posteriorly, bound the
posterior margins of the shield-shaped elevation of the scutellum
(Scl) that lies between the bases of the folded wings. A similar
condition exists in the mesotergum of Hemiptera and Coleoptera.
In the higher Diptera, the position of the V-ridge is less noticeable
externally (E, vs) than is the secondary suture (z) that forms a
deep groove across the anterior end of the scutellum. In the Ten-
thredinide a pair of sutures extends inward and posteriorly from the
lateral emarginations of the mesotergum (I, s), which sutures be-
come a continuous cleft in some of the higher Hymenoptera (J, s)
that cuts the tergum into two pieces, the second of which includes
the scutellum (Sc) and the posterior lateral parts of the scutum (sct,
sct). Systematists, for convenience, usually designate this secondary
suture as the division between scutum and scutellum, a disposition
entirely wrong from a morphological standpoint.
While, then, in terga of simple construction, it is not difficult to
identify homologous regions if the internal structure is examined,
complications are encountered within some of the orders, especially in
the scutum (fig. 24 D-J), which have led to widely different inter-
pretations. The following considerations, however, suggest an ex-
planation of these tergal modifications which gives a simplified con-
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 55
ception of their nature, and which when logically carried out does
not lead to conflicting results.
In the mesothorax of Tipulidz, the tergal area between the pre-
scutum (fig. 24, D, Psc) and the scutellum (Scl) is partially divided
into several regions by pairs of oblique lateral sutures. The sutures
constituting the first pair (par) extend inward and posteriorly a short
distance from the lateral parts of the prescuto-scutal suture (ps) ;
those of the second pair (x) arise before the bases of the wings and
converge posteriorly and medially; those of the third pair (y) go
from the region of the wing base posteriorly and medially toward the
median field of the scutellum. Each suture is the external line of a
corresponding internal ridge, and the spaces between the ridges are
areas of muscle attachments. The anterior ends of the dorsal longi-
tudinal muscles are attached on the median area (a) between the
first pair of ridges (par). The tergo-sternal muscles (fig. 34 D, C)
are attached laterally on the spaces (c) behind these ridges ; the tergo-
meron muscles (fig. 34 D, J) are attached on the lateral areas (j)
between the second and third ridges; and the tergo-phragma mus-
cles (fig. 34 D, B) are attached behind the third ridges. These lateral
tergal muscles in the Diptera all act as elevators of the wings.
The first pair of lateral tergal ridges in the Tipulidz (fig. 24 D,
par) ate clearly the homologues of the so-called parapsides, or parap-
sidal ridges, of other insects (E, F, I, par), which are usually re-
garded as defining a median triangular posterior extension of the
prescutum (the protergite of Berlese). It is here proposed, however,
that the parapsides are merely secondary ridges of the scutum, and
that the median area between them is, therefore, a part of the scutum.
The ridges are correlated with the extension of the anterior ends of
the dorsal longitudinal muscles on the tergum: as these muscles en-
large, their anterior bases encroach first upon the prescutum, then
upon the scutum (fig. 29, 4, A), and they may finally come to occupy
almost the entire median field of the latter (fig. 34 D, A, A). In
the higher Diptera, in which the median part of the prescutum and
scutum are not distinct (fig. 24 E), the anterior ends of the parap-
sidal sutures (par) are obsolete; their posterior ends unite with the
next pair of lateral sutures (x). In Cynipidz, the parapsidal sutures
(F, par) extend backward to the scuto-scutellar suture and cut the
scutum lengthwise into three areas (c, a, c). In the mesothorax of
Cicadidee and Tenthredinidz, the parapsidal sutures define an an-
terior median triangular area of the scutum; in the former (fig. 29),
the prescutum is not distinct, but in the latter family it is present
though very narrow (fig. 24 I, Psc). In the mesothorax of Lepidop-
56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
tera the scutum is strengthened by a median ridge on its inner
surface, forming a median suture externally (fig. 24 G).
The mechanism of the wing-bearing tergum and its functional
evolution in connection with the wings have been well protrayed in
recent papers by Weber (1924, 1925). The tergum must be so con-
structed that it will bend upward in response to the contraction of its
dorsal longitudinal muscles in order to give the down-stroke to the
wings. The evident purpose of the parapsidal ridges, when present,
and of the V-ridge, as Weber points out, is to conduct the flexion of
the tergum in an even curve toward the middle from the two ends of
the segment, for without these gradient braces the pull of the muscles
would simply deflect the anterior and posterior parts of the tergal
plate, in most cases. In the higher Hymenoptera, however, the
tergum becomes strongly chitinized and rigid. Here flexibility is
supplied by the development of a secondary suture, which cuts across
Fic. 25.—Thorax and base of abdomen of larva of Scarites (Carabide).
a, a, pleural fold; ac, antecostal suture of mesotergum; Cx, coxa; Epm,
epimeron; Eps, episternum; Sp, spiracle; ¢, tergopleurites; 7, trochantin.
the posterior part of the scutum (fig. 24 J, s) and divides the tergum
into two pieces movable upon each other.
THE PLEURON OF A WINGED SEGMENT
The role of the pleuron in connection with flight is a more passive
one than is that of the tergum, the chief function of the pleura in
a wing-bearing segment being to support the bases of the wings and
the tergal plates. The pleuron of a winged segment, therefore, shows
fewer variations in relation to the wings than does the tergum, and
the pleura of the mesothorax and metathorax do not differ in basic
structure from the pleuron of the prothorax, though the actual differ-
ence may often be considerable on account of the degenerative ten-
dency of the prothorax, and especially of the prothoracic pleuron.
The wing support of the pleuron of a winged segment consists of
a short thick arm, the pleural wing process (fig. 20, WP), extending
upward from the dorsal edge of the pleuron above the pleural suture
*
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 57
(PIS). It is braced internally by the upper end of the pleural ridge.
The tergum does not always rest upon the pleura of its segment, but,
when it does, the supports consist of the anterior lateral processes
of the tergum that form the prealar bridges (Aw) to the episterna,
and of the lateral extensions of the postnotum (PN) to the epimera
that constitute the postalar bridges (Pw). These props give effective
resistance to the downward pull of the tergo-sternal and the tergo-
coxal muscles.
The episternum and the epimeron (fig. 20, Eps, Epm) undergo
numerous variations in form, and various subdivisions into secondary
sclerites in the mesothorax and metathorax of the different winged
orders, but their modifications are in general easy to follow, and are
so well understood that they need not be reviewed here. The precoxal
and postcoxal elements (Acx, Pcx) are usually well developed,
though the second is generally the smaller, and may be absent. The
trochantinal plate (Tn) is best developed in the more generalized
Pterygota (figs. 13, 14, Tn), but shows always a tendency toward
reduction, and is lost in the higher orders.
The small sclerites lying in the pleural membrane immediately
beneath the base of the wing (fig. 20, Ba, Sa) serve in the adult as
insertion points for two important muscles of the wings (figs. 28, 30 A,
E, F). There are at most two of these sclerites above the episternum,
and two above the epimeron, but more usually there is only a single
plate in each position, one before the pleural wing process, the other
behind it. Many entomologists, supposedly following Audouin( 1824),
have called the episternal sclerite the “ parapteron,”’ and Audouin
says of the plate that he defines by this name, “ elle a des rapports avec
l’episternum et avec l’aile, toujours elle s’appuie sur l’episternum,
se prolonge quelquefois inferieurment le long de son bord antérieure,
ou bien, devenant libre, passe au devant de l’aile, et se place meme
accidentellment au-dessus.”’ It is possible, therefore, that Audouin
in some cases confused the plate ordinarily beneath the wing with
the tegula, though of his “ paraptere ” he says, “ toujours elle s’appuie
sur l’episternum.” Crampton (1914), however, claiming that Audouin
first applied the term ‘‘ parapteron ” to the tegula, designates the epi-
sternal plates the basalares (Ba), and the epimeral plates the subalares
(Sa). These terms commemd themselves because they carry specific
distinction, though all the plates are subalar in position. Voss (1905)
and other German writers call the sclerites the ‘‘ pleural hinge plates ”
( Pleuralgelenkplatten ), but they are not true articular elements of the
wing base. Collectively, we may call the plates the epipleurites.
58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
The epipleurites are derived from the episternum and epimeron. In
a young nymph of Dissosteira or Gryllus, the basalar and subalar
muscles (fig. 26 B, E, F,) are attached directly to the upper edges of
the pleuron, one before the pleural ridge, the other behind it, and it
is only in the adult stage that the areas of attachment are separated
as the basalar and subalar plates. In some adult insects, however,
the basalare is not distinct from the episternum, or it appears as a
lobe of the latter (fig. 14, Ba). The subalare is always an independent
plate in adult insects, but it may be reduced to a small chitinous disc
in the membrane beneath the wing.
In nymphal insects having the epipleural muscles attached above to
the pleuron and below to the coxa, the muscles evidently function as
P1S
Fic. 26.—Mesopleuron and coxa of young nymph of Gryllus assimiulis.
A, external view of left pleuron; B, internal view of right pleuron. D, base
of muscle of third axillary; E, basalar muscle of coxa; E’, sternal branch of E;
F, subalar muscle of coxa; M, M’, abductors of coxa; P, episternal branch of
depressor muscle of trochanter.
leg muscles, though there is usually a branch of the basalar muscle
to the sternum (fig. 26 B, EZ’). In the adult, the basalare is attached
to the humeral angle of the wing base by a tendinous thickening of
the cuticula (fig. 30 A, a), and the subalare is similarly connected
(b) with the second axillary sclerite. In the adult winged insect,
therefore, the epipleural muscles become muscles of the wing. In
some of the higher insects, the coxal branch of the basalar muscle
is lost, and the anterior branch alone remains, attached below to the
sternum, or to the episternum. When a second subalar sclerite is
present, it sometimes bears a small muscle arising upon the epimeron.
IV. THE WINGS AND THE MECHANISM OF FLIGHT
Morphologically, the insect wing is simply a flat, hollow outgrowth
of the lateral marginal area of the dorsum that has become a motile
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 59
appendage through the membranization of its basal part, and which
has become movable in a definite manner through the close association
of certain chitinous points in its base with special points on the edges
of the tergum and pleuron of its segment. The wing is a secondary
structure, acquired long after the legs were fully developed and the
subcoxze transformed into chitinous pluera. The first movements of
the wings were made probably through successive alterations in the
shape of the thorax produced by the contractions of body muscles
already present ; and insects in general have developed few muscles
particularly for the movement of the wings. The Odonata stand alone
among modern insects in having acquired special sets of wing muscles
attached directly to the bases of the wings, which have completely
replaced the older thoracic muscles. Since the dragonflies represent
an ancient group of insects, it must be supposed that they developed
their peculiar thoracic musculature during an early period of their
history. According to Poletaiew (1881) the wing muscles of modern
Odonata are formed in the individual during the postembryonic stages
of growth and attain their definitive form only in the last nympha!
instar.
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE WINGS
The insect wing is a flattened, double-layered expansion of the body
wall, and, therefore, its own walls consist of the same elements as
the body wall—cuticula, hypodermis, basement membrane—and its
lumen contains trachez, nerves, and liquid of the body cavity.
Development of the wings—Though the adult wing preserves the
basic structure of the hollow immature wing pad, the progressive
changes that take place within it during its growth so alter its tissues
that the fully formed wing becomes practically a lifeless appendage
serving as a propeller in the mechanism of flight. The histological
details of the development of the wings, the formation of the wing
trachez, and the relations of the trachez to the veins have been de-
scribed by Weismann (1864), Gonin (1894), Mayer (1896), Com-
stock and Needham (1899), Mercer (1900), Tower (1903), Powell
(1903), Marshall, (1915). The principal studies of the origin of
the wing trachez from the trachea of the wing base are those of
Chapman (1918), and Beck (1920).
The wings of insects with incomplete metamorphosis appear in the
second or third nymphal instar as hollow, flattened outgrowths of the
lateral parts of the dorsum in the mesothorax and metathorax, and
they’ grow externally in the same manner as do the legs, mouth parts,
or other appendicular organs of the body. In insects with complete
60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
metamorphosis the wings develop beneath the cuticula, usually in
pouches of the hypodermis, their rudiments appearing first in different
insects from a late embryonic period to the last larval stage. They are
everted from the hypodermal pockets during the prepupal stage of the
larva, and become exposed as external organs with the shedding of
the last larval skin.
The relation between wing trachez and vein channels in wings that
develop on the exterior of the body would appear to indicate that the
positions of the veins are determined by the original courses of the
tracheze, and this consideration has given weight to the idea that the
wings originated as gills. In the Holometabola, however, the vein
channels are defined in advance of the growth of the trachez, and the
latter, when formed, do not always enter veins corresponding with
those they occupy in insects with incomplete metamorphosis. Develop-
ment in the Holometabola, therefore, shows that veins may be laid
down along definite lines in the wing without the guidance of trachee,
and that the tracheal courses have no fixed relation to particular veins.
The conditions met with in the Holometabola may easily be explained
as secondary, but they allow us to question if trachez necessarily did
determine vein formation or the vein positions in the phylogenetic
development of the wings. Since the growing wing is a functionless
organ in all insects, and follows a more or less aberrant course in its
development, its ontogenetic stages are likely to have become adapted
to the conditions of growth, and, for this reason, they cannot be taken
as representative of the sequence of steps in the evolution of the wing.
The veins may have originated independently as strengthening ribs in
the primitive wing lobe, limiting to their channels, as the intervening
areas became flattened, the courses of the trachee and the nerves
penetrating the wing.
The adult wing —The fully formed wing has the same fundamental
structure in all insects, regardless of the method of development, or
of the specialized form it attains in the imago. The wing of a roach
developed externally arrives at the same structural pattern as that of
a moth developed internally ; the elytron of a beetle, the halter of a
fly retain each the unmistakable features of a wing.
The typical wing of modern insects extends laterally from the edge
of the dorsum where its base is articulated to the tergum above
and to the wing process of the pleuron below. Its anterior margin
arises behind the prealar bridge of the tergum, if this process is
present (fig. 21rA, Aw) ; its posterior margin is continuous with the
posterior fold (Rd) of the tergum. The area of the wing is traversed
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 61
by the veins and cross-veins ; the thin intervening spaces, or cells, are
occupied by the membrane of the wing. The wing base contains a
number of small sclerites, the avillaries, or pteralia (fig. 27, Ax).
At the base of the anterior margin of the wing there is usually a
thickening, the tegula (Tg), commonly having the form of a small
hairy pad, but sometimes developed into a large flat lobe overlapping
the base of the wing. The rear margin of the basal membrane of the
wing is generally corrugated and thickened, forming a posterior liga-
ture of the wing, the avillary cord (AxC). The wing is held in
Tg 2Ax age
ie / asia -Se
| a eee
oe
l 1Ax- EN SSM
iB AD ( Hs
: iy om ; Cu,
| PNP ass ae
| aes (TRIED, / 2 ;
= : f Rr, bec |
ys H Ry |
, |
AxC 3Ax me
|
a
Fic. 27——Diagrammatic structure of the wing base and its articulation with
the tergum.
A, anal veins; ANP, anterior notal wing process; 14x, first axillary; 2Ax,
second axillary; 34x, third axillary; AxC, axillary cord; C, costa; Cm, first
branch of cubitus; Cu, second branch of cubitus; D, flexor muscle of third
axillary; M, media; m, m', median plates of wing base; PNP, posterior notal
wing process; R, radius; Sc, subcosta; T, tergum; Tg, tegula.
various positions when at rest, but with most insects it can be flexed
posteriorly against the sides of the body. When extended it is capable
of a free up-and-down motion, and of a slight rotary motion on its
long axis. The posterior part, or anal area, of the wing in some
insects when flexed can also be folded or plicated along the lines of
the veins. In two orders of insects the distal part of the wing can
be variously folded.
The nomenclature of the wing veins given in figure 27 is that of
Comstock and Needham, except that the vein ordinarily called “ first
anal” is represented as a proximal branch of the cubitus. (See
Imms, 1924, fig. 28). A study of the wing base shows that this vein
62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
does not belong with the anal group attached to the third axillary,
but that it is associated with, or attached to, the base of the cubitus.
Its relation to the cubitus has been demonstrated by Tillyard (1919),
who designates it the second branch of cubitus, and by Karny
(1925), who calls it the “cubital sector.” In the adult insect, the
first vein of the wing, the costa (C), when present, usually lies in the
anterior margin of the wing. The second vein, the subcosta (Sc) is
associated at its base with the head of the first axillary sclerite (147).
The third vein, media (M), is usually associated with one or two
small median sclerites (im, m') of the wing base. The fourth vein,
the cubitus (Cu) has no particular basal connections. The following
veins, the anals (A) are definitely attached to the third axillary (34x)
or to an arm of the latter.
The axillary plates of the wing base play an important part in the
mechanism of the wing, for they not only serve to attach the wing to
the body, but they determine the effect of the muscles that act upon
the base of the wing. Three of these sclerites are almost always
present, and have definite relations to one another, to the bases of the
veins, and to the adjoining parts of the thorax. The first one, the
first axillary, or notopterale, (fig. 27, 14x), is a flat sclerite of the
dorsal membrane of the wing base, and is possibly to be regarded as
a tergal chitinization. It is hinged by its inner margin to the edge of
the tergum, and has its anterior part supported by the anterior notal
wing process (ANP). Its anterior extremity is usually more or less
closely associated with the base of the subcostal vein (Sc). By its
outer margin it articulates along an oblique line with the second
axillary. The second axillary, or intraalare (2Ax), has both a dorsal
and a ventral surface in the wing base, and may be derived from the
proximal end of the radial vein (FR), with which it is continuous.
By the inner oblique margin of its dorsal part it articulates with the
outer edge of the first axillary. Its ventral plate (fig. 30 A, c) has a
convex surface that rests upon the wing process of the pleuron when
the wing is extended. A tendon-like connection (b) with the subalar
sclerite (Sa) below it makes the second axillary the objective of the
subalar muscle (F) of the coxa. The third axillary, or basanale
(fig. 27, 34%), though developed mostly in the dorsal membrane of
the wing, has also a ventral surface. It articulates with the posterior
notal wing process of the tergum (PNP), except when a fourth
axillary is present. Its long axis is obliquely transverse, and a lobe
on its anterior margin gives attachment to the principal flexor muscle
of the wing (fig. 30, A, D). The bases of the anal veins are associated
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 63
with the distal end of the third axillary. A fourth axillary is some-
times present (Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera), but it is
always a small sclerite of the dorsal surface of the wing base, inter-
vening between the inner end of the third axillary and the edge of
the tergum (fig. 24 B, 44%). It is perhaps a detached piece of the
posterior notal wing process. Lying in the space between the second
axillary, the distal part of the third axillary, and the bases of the
median and cubital veins, there are usually two sclerites of less
definite form which may be termed the median plates of the wing base
(fig. 27, m, mm’). These sclerites serve to connect the median field of
the wing with the true axillaries.
THE WING MUSCLES AND THE MECHANISM OF WING MOTION
The mechanism of insect flight was carefully studied by entomol-
ogists in the early part of the last century. Noteworthy papers pub-
lished on the subject at that time are those of Chabrier (1820-’22),
Jurine (1820), and Straus-Dtrckheim (1828). Chabrier’s work, the
first of any importance on the wing structure of insects, contains
detailed descriptions of the skeletal anatomy of the thorax, the struc-
ture and articulation of the wings, and the muscles and mechanism
of flight—an extensive piece of original investigation, remarkable
for its accuracy and for the understanding shown by the author for
his subject. Following a general account, there is given detailed
descriptions of the entire wing mechanism in Coleoptera (M/celolon-
tha), Odonata (Aeschna), and Hymenoptera (Bombus). Jurine’s
paper, which describes the wing mechanism of Hymenoptera, ap-
peared after the first section of Chabrier’s work was published. The
great work of Straus-Durckheim (or Straus-Durckheim, as his sig-
nature appears beneath the dedication to Cuvier), published under
the title, “ Considérationes générales sur l’anatomie compareé des
animaux articulés,” is devoted principally to a study of Melolontha
vulgaris. It is one of the finest monographs ever written on insect
anatomy, and is accompanied by figures unsurpassed in clarity of
detail by any methods of modern illustration. The thorax, the wing
muscles, and the mechanism of flight are given full attention. These
early works, unfortunately, are somewhat difficult for present-day
students to read, because their authors used mostly individual sys-
tems of nomenclature, none of which has been closely followed by
later entomologists.
The modern study of the wing mechanism begins with Lendenfeld
(1881) and Amans (1883,’84, 1884, 1885), though again the nomen-
5
64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
clature of these writers has not been generally adopted. Lendenfeld
details the wing structure and all parts concerned with the wing
action in the Odonata; Amans gives a comprehensive comparative
study of the wing mechanism in the principal orders of insects.
Following these papers, accounts of the structure, musculature, and
mechanics of the wings of various insects are contained in the works
of Luks (1883), Janet (1899), Petri (1899), Voss (1905, 1912),
Diirken (1907), Berlese (1909), Snodgrass (1909), Bauer (1910),
Groschel (1911), Stellwaag (1910, 1914), Crampton (1914),
DuPorte (1920), Weber (1924, 1925): The nature of the wing
movements in insects has been studied particularly by Marey (1869,
1869,'72), Lendenfeld (1903), Stellwaag (1910, 1914), and Voss
(1913,'14).
The wing of most insects has four cardinal movements: elevation,
depression, flexion, extension. In addition, the wing is capable of a
slight rotation on its long axis. Elevation and depression are vertical
movements effected primarily by the longitudinal and oblique tergal
muscles, and the tergo-sternal muscles of the thorax, but the coxal
muscle of the epimeron becomes a strong accessory depressor of the
wing in the adult. The flexor of the wing is the muscle of the third
axillary sclerite of the wing base; the extensors are chiefly the mus-
cles of the basalar and subalar sclerites. The partial rotary movement
of the wings may be a mechanical result of the wing structure and
of the reaction of the wing surfaces to pressure of the air during
flight, but probably it is controlled by the epipleural muscles.
The tergal and tergo-sternal muscles of the thorax that principally
effect the elevation and depression of the wings are known as the
indirect wing muscles, because they produce wing movements through
causing alternating changes in the shape of the thorax. The depres-
sors consist of the pair of great dorsal longitudinal muscles, typically
stretched between the phragmata (fig. 28, 4), but often so large that
they encroach a varying distance upon the anterior part of the scutum
(fig. 29, A, A). The oblique dorsals, extending laterally from the
posterior part of the scutum to the posterior phragma (fig. 28, B),
are probably accessory to the longitudinals in some cases, but in others
their positions become so nearly perpendicular to the tergum (figs. 29,
34 D, B) that they must act as elevators of the wings. These mus-
cles are of extraordinary size in the cicada (fig. 29, B). The usual
elevators of the wings include always the pair of large vertical mus-
cles in the anterior part of the thorax (figs. 28, 29, C), attached
dorsally to the scutum laterad of the longitudinals, and ventrally to
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 65
the basisternum anterior to the coxa, but other muscles are often
accessory to these. As just noted, the oblique dorsals may be wing
elevators. In the mesothorax of Diptera the remotor of the coxa,
which arises dorsally on the scutum and is attached ventrally on the
meron of the coxa, becomes a wing elevator through the transfer of
the meron from the coxa to the wall of the segment (fig. 34 D, J).
The epipleural (basalar and subalar) coxal muscles, and the mus-
cles of the third axillary constitute the direct wing muscles, so called
because they act more immediately on the wing, though the epipleural
Fic. 28.—Diagram of the principal muscles of a wing-bearing thoracic seg-
ment, exclusive of the leg muscles, right side, internal view.
A, dorsal longitudinal muscle attached to successive phragmata, indirect wing
depressor ; B, oblique dorsal muscle from scutum to posterior phragma; C, tergo-
sternal muscle from scutum to basisternum, indirect wing elevator; D, wing
flexor of third axillary sclerite; E, basalar muscle of coxa, direct extensor of
wing; F, subalar muscle of coxa, direct extensor and depressor of wing;
G, pleuro-sternal muscle from pleural apophysis to sternal apophysis; H, longi-
tudinal ventral muscles attached to sternal apophyses.
muscles are not inserted directly on the wing base, and, as we have
seen, are primarily muscles of the leg. The basalar muscle (figs. 28,
30 A, E) arises ventrally on the lateral rim of the coxa (Cx) anterior
to the pleural articulation; an anterior branch (fig. 30A, E’) may
arise on the basisternum, on the precoxal bridge, or on the epister-
num. Since the basalar plate (fig. 30 A, Ba) or the corresponding
basalar lobe of the episternum is connected with the anterior angle
of the wing base by a ligament-like thickening of the uniting cuticula
(a), its muscles have a direct functional relation with the anterior
part of the wing base. The subalar muscle (figs. 28, 30 A, F) arises,
in typical cases, from the coxal margin posterior to the pleural articu-
66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
lation, and the ligamentous connection (fig. 30 A, b) between the
subalare (Sa) and the second axillary (2A) gives this muscle a
functional relation to the median or posterior part of the wing base.
The muscle of the third axillary (figs. 28, 30 A, D), often with
several branches, arises from the pleural ridge or from neighboring
parts of the pleuron, and goes obliquely dorsally and posteriorly to
its insertion on the muscle process of the third axillary (34x). In
the Diptera there are two small muscles inserted on the first axillary,
and in many insects there are various other small muscles associated
with the wing base, but all of these muscles are of secondary im-
portance and probably of a secondary origin.
It is difficult to demonstrate the action of the wing mechanism
in a dead insect, but, allowing for much greater efficiency of the
apparatus under the tension of living muscles, a pretty fair under-
standing of the various wing motions may be obtained from a study
of freshly killed specimens, Take some large Diptera, for example
(Syrphide, Muscoids). The wings of the dead fly are usually flexed.
A lengthwise compression of the back of the mesothorax partly ex-
tends the wings and gives to each a downward motion accompanied
by a strong deflection of the costal margin. A vertical compression
of the thorax elevates the wings, and most strongly the costal mar-
gins. If a piece is cut out of the middle of the tergum, the wings
no longer respond to pressure on the thorax in either direction, show-
ing that the movements of the tergum, though slight, are sufficient
to produce the wing motions. It is evident, too, that the nature of
the wing articulation produces, in part at least, the compound char-
acter of the wing movements, but these movements are greatly ac-
centuated by the action of other parts of the mechanism, The most
decisive movement in the wing results from a downward pressure
on the second axillary sclerite of the wing base, the wing being
immediately extended, while the hind margin turns downward until
the plane of the wing is almost vertical, with the costal margin upper-
most. Complete extension of the wing in a horizontal plane results
from pressure on the basalar plate or basalar lobe of the episternum.
The wing of the freshly killed insect can thus be made to perform
most of its movements by pressure on various parts of the thorax,
and an understanding of the wing mechanism then becomes a matter
of determining what muscles may produce the movements observed.
Since the Odonata, the Ephemerida, and the Paleeodictyoptera do
not flex the wings, the apparatus of elevation and depression by
means of the indirect wing muscles was undoubtedly the first part
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 67
of the wing mechanism to be developed by insects; but, in studying
the movements of the wings of other insects, it will be most con-
venient to begin with those movements made in the horizontal plane,
which are effected principally by the direct muscles.
The flexion of the wing is easiest to understand. When the wing,
the hind wing of a grasshopper for example, is turned back toward
the side of the body, the distal end of the third axillary (fig. 27, 3A)
turns upward, inward, and forward, carrying with it the anal area
of the wing, which is folded and laid against the side of the abdomen.
In life, the beginning of this action results probably from the natural
DT ace Mb
—
Fic. 29.—Muscles of right half of mesothorax of cicada (Tibicina septen-
decim), with metathoracic coxa.
A, A, position of longitudinal dorsal muscle; B, oblique dorsal muscle; C,
tergo-sternal muscle; P, thoracic branch of depressor of trochanter of hind leg
(Tr); Q, coxal part of depressor of trochanter.
elasticity of the wing base, which latter partially flexes when the
muscles of extension are relaxed, but the contraction of the muscle
of the third axillary undoubtedly completes the folding, and holds
the wing tight against the body in its final position. The anterior
part of the wing necessarily follows the anal area, but its movement
is acclerated by the articular relations of the axillaries. ‘The median
plate (m), affected by the motion of the third axillary, pushes the
second axillary (24x) medially and revolves it to a longitudinal posi-
tion over the first axillary, as the latter (14%) turns vertically on its
hinge with the tergum, By these multiple movements in the basal
elements of the wing, the anterior veins overtake the anals and are
folded above them against the side of the body. The flexion of the
68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
wing is simpler in wings with a small anal area, but is essentially
the same in all insects.
In the Dermaptera and the Coleoptera the distal parts of the flexed
wings are mechanically folded transversely in order that the wings
may be concealed beneath the shorter elytra. The various types of
this folding in the wings of Coleoptera have recently been described
by Forbes (1926).
The positions of the axillaries relative to one another in the flexed
wing are quite different from those which they have in the extended
wing. The extension of the wing involves a restoration of the axil-
laries to a horizontal plane, in which the sclerites again assume their
former relations. The key to the transposition from one state to the
other is in the position of the second axillary. If this sclerite is
forcibly depressed, all the axillaries go back to the horizontal plane,
and the wing is necessarily spread. The depression cf the second
axillary is evidently accomplished by the contraction of the subalar
muscle (fig. 30 A, /’), since the subalar sclerite is closely connected
with the ventral plate (c) of the second axillary. The epimeral muscle
of the coxa (fig. 26 B, Ff), therefore, in the adult insect (fig. 30 A)
becomes the posterior extensor of the wing (Straus-Durckheim,
Bauer). The final, complete extension of the wing is probably
brought about by the contraction of the basalar muscles (fig. 30 A,
E, E'), since the basalar sclerite, or corresponding lobe of the epi-
sternum, is in intimate connection with the anterior angle of the wing
base. The basalar muscles are, therefore, the anterior extensors of
the wing. Their function in this capacity, however, is sometimes
difficult to demonstrate.
The wings in extension are ready to be acted upon by the indirect
muscles of elevation and depression, These are principally the longi-
tudinal and oblique dorsal muscles, and the vertical tergo-sternal
muscles. The last (figs. 28, 29, 30 B, C), by contraction, flatten the
arch of the tergum (7), and the movement in the edges of the latter,
bearing downward on the bases of the wings mesad of the pleural
fulcra, gives the up-stroke to the distal parts of the wings (fig. 30 B).
The longitudinal dorsal muscles (4) now act as antagonists to the
verticals, since by their contraction they pull upon the two ends of the
tergum and restore the curvature of the latter. The upward move-
ment in the lateral tergal margins gives the down-stroke to the wings
(fig. 30 D). The function of the oblique dorsal muscles (fig. 28, B)
is not clear in all cases. Ordinarily these muscles appear to be acces-
sory to the longitudinals; in the Diptera (fig. 34 D, B), however,
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 69
they are clearly elevators of the wings, and in the cicada (fig. 29, B)
their great size would indicate that they are the principal wing
elevators.
The thoracic musculature of the Diptera is highly specialized in
order to give power and efficiency to the wing movements, but at
S<
—
me Shines f
y
Fic. 30.—Mechanism of wing motion.
A, direct wing muscles of right fore wing and associated parts in a grass-
hopper (Dissosteira). a, tendinous thickening of cuticula uniting basalar
sclerites (Ba) with anterior part of wing base; 24x, second axillary; 34, third
axillary; first and fourth axillaries removed; b, tendinous thickening of cuticula
uniting subalar sclerite (Sa) with ventral plate (c) of second axillary; Ba,
anterior basalare; c, ventral plate of second axillary; Ca, coxa of middle leg;
D, muscle of third axillary, flexor of wing; /, basalar muscle to coxa, with
branch (£') to basisternum, extensor and deflexor muscles of wing; F, subalar
muscle to coxa, extensor and depressor of wing; PIR, pleural ridge; Sa, sub-
alare; Tg, tegula; WV, base of fore wing, elevated.
B, C, D, diagrammatic illustration of action of indirect wing muscles in flight
as seen in cross-section of thorax through bases of wings, anterior view. A,
dorsal longitudinal muscles, attached to phragmata (see fig. 28); C, tergo-
sternal muscles; 7, tergum. The wings are elevated indirectly (B) by depres-
sion of tergum caused by contraction of tergo-sternal muscles; they are de-
pressed (D) by elevation of tergum produced by contraction of longitudinal
muscles.
the same time it is greatly simplified in comparison with that of an
orthopteroid insect. In each side of the mesothorax there are three
large, oblique dorsoventral muscles which serve as elevators of the
wings (fig. 34 D). The first is the ordinary tergo-sternal muscle(C)
attached below on the basisternum; the second (J) is the remotor
of the coxa, attached below on the meron, which in the Diptera
becomes a wing elevator through the transfer of the meron of the
79 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vol, 80
middle coxa (fig. 34 B, C, D, Merz) to the thoracic wall; the third
(D, B) is the oblique dorsal muscle attached ventrally on the lateral
extremity of the postnotum,
The tip of each vibrating wing describes a figure-8 curve, if the
insect is held stationary, showing that the wing in motion undergoes
alternating partial rotations on its long axis. Some writers have
claimed that this movement results entirely from the pressure of the
air on the wing surfaces as the wing vibrates, the flexible posterior
margin of the wing being mechanically turned upward during the
down-stroke, and downward during the up-stroke. The rotary motion
of the wings, however, is necessary to give the forward movement
to the insect in the air, and, as may be seen well in the wing of a
fly, the nature of the wing articulation causes a deflection of the costal
margin to accompany the down-stroke produced by the muscles of
the tergum. In some insects, also, pressure at the anterior root
of the wing base deflects the costal margin, and for this reason the
basalar sclerite and its muscles have been termed the “ pronator
apparatus ” of the wing (Amans). A strong posterior deflection of
the wing accompanies pressure on the second axillary in Diptera,
and it cannot be doubted, therefore, that in swiftly flying insects the
muscle of the subalar sclerite, which pulls finally upon the second
axillary, plays an important part in the posterior rotation of the wing
during the up-stroke. The subalar muscle, therefore, would act as
extensor, depressor, and rotator of the wing.
The mechanism for the control or modification of forward flight
is not definitely known. Those who attempt to explain the tropistic
reactions of insects usually assume a differential nervous regulation
of the muscles.on the two sides of the body; but this explanation
could hardty apply to the indirect muscles of flight. It is probable,
then, that the insect determines its course through the air by the con-
trol of its direct wing muscles, or by changing the slant of the body
or the position of the legs, as suggested by Jousset de Bellesame
(1879). Some insects are able to arrest their forward flight and
suddenly reverse or go sidewise, without perceptibly changing the
position of the body, and some are well known for their hovering
powers. It is difficult to conceive how a wing structure and wing
mechanism so clearly adapted to forward flight can also propel the
insect backward or sidewise. The act of hovering on vibrating wings
is explained by Straus-Diirckheim (1828) as accomplished through
a continued contraction of the subalar muscles, thus checking the
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 71
rotatory motion of the wings and preventing their forward drive.
The lifting power, then, needs only to counterbalance the weight of
the insect’s body.
The wing musculature of the Ephemerida shows clearly that the
mayflies belong to the non-odonate branch of the Pterygota. Their
thoracic musculature, according to the account of Durken (1907),
includes typical longitudinal and oblique tergal muscles (fig. 28,
A, B), and tergo-sternals (C), the two sets constituting indirect de-
pressors and elevators of the wings. The mayflies, however, do not
flex the wings, and as a consequence the episternal and epimeral coxal
muscles retain their primitive function as movers of the coxz, The
principal difference in the thoracic musculature of the Ephemerida
and that of Orthoptera is in the greater number of muscles that arise
on the epimeron, or on the epimeral region of the pleuron. There
is no question of the truth of Durken’s statement that the musculature
of the mayflies clearly separates the Ephemerida from the Odonata,
but his claim that it separates them also from the Orthoptera does
not appear to be warranted by his own descriptions. The Ephemerida
are certainly, however, the most primitive of the non-odonate branch
of the Pterygota.
The highly specialized wing musculature of Odonata has been de-
scribed by Poletaiew (1881) and by Lendenfeld (1881). The usual
tergal and tergo-sternal muscles are completely lacking in the thorax
of the dragonflies, and each wing is provided with a set of direct
muscles which effect all its movements. These muscles are of secon-
dary development in the nymph, according to Poletaiew. They com-
prise identical sets of muscles in each of the wing-bearing segments,
alike in all dragonflies. According to the elaborate descriptions of
Lendenfeld, there are eight muscles to each wing, One of each set
arises on the tergum, the others arise from ventral marginal ridges
of the pleura or from processes of these ridges ; they are all inserted
either on the bases of the wing veins or on plates directly associated
with the wing base.
In the Isoptera the dorsal longitudinal muscles of the thorax are
degenerate, but the direct wing muscles, which are highly developed,
show that the termite thoracic musculature is of the orthopteroid
type. Fuller (1925) describes the muscles of the thorax of winged
termites, but he does not explain how flight in these insects is sus-
tained, even feebly, by a mechanism in which the principal motor
elements appear to be lacking.
72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
VY, THE LEGS. AND THEIR MUSCLES
In discussing the anatomy of an insect’s leg, it will be convenient
to limit the application of the term “leg” to that part of the appen-
dage which ordinarily forms the free movable limb, ignoring for the
present the theoretically basal subcoxa, but including the coxa in all
cases, even when the latter is firmly fixed to the body wall.
STRUCTURE OF AN INSECT’S LEG
The typical and usual parts of the leg of an insect (fig. 31 A) are
the coxa (Cx), the trochanter (Tr), the femur (F), the tibia (Tb),
Fic. 31.—Structure of an insect leg, as represented by that of a roach
(Periplaneta americana).
A, left mesothoracic leg and trochantin, anterior view; B, base of prothoracic
coxa, with trochantin. a, articulation of coxa with trochantin; Ar, arolium;
b, articulation of coxa with pleuron; bc, basicostal suture; Cla, claw; Cx, coxa;
d, anterior coxal suture; e, anterior coxo-trochanteral articulation; F, femur;
Mer, meron; q, ventral pads of tarsal segments, tarsal euplantule; Tar, tarsus;
Tb, tibia; Tn, trochantin; 7, trochanter.
the tarsus (Tar), and the pretarsus (Ptar). The several divisions of
the leg are known as segments, or joints; the term segiment will here
be used for each piece of the leg, and the word joint limited to the
articulation between adjoining segments. The surfaces of the leg
are oriented for descriptive purposes when the limb is extended at
right angles to the body, the outer surface then being dorsal, the
inner ventral, and the other two anterior and posterior.
The movable base of the leg is ordinarily the coxa. The base of
the coxa is inserted into a membranous area of the body wall between
the pleuron and the sternum, which permits of whatever motions the
closer articulations of the coxa with the surrounding chitinous parts
allow. In pterygote insects the coxa is nearly always attached by an
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS aS)
articular surface on its outer basal rim (fig. 33 A, 0) to the coxal
process of the pleuron (fig. 4). In most of the lower orders, the
coxa has also an anterior articulation with the ventral end of the
trochantin (fig. 31, a), but when the trochantin is absent, the coxa
is suspended from the pleural process alone, except where it becomes
articulated ventrally to a process of the furcisternum. Sometimes
the coxa is not movable, as in the thoracic legs of caterpillars, and in
the meta-thoracic leg of adult beetles. The leg, however, is always
movable at the coxo-trochanteral joint, and if the coxa is distin-
guished as the leg basis, the part of the limb beyond it is the
telopodite.
The joints of the leg consist of membranous rings of the leg wall
between the chitinized areas that constitute the leg segments. Some-
pee (SP FR
Cn /
Fic. 32.—Leg of a caterpillar, and of a centipede.
A, left prothoracic leg of Estigmene acraea, anterior view; B, leg of Lithobius
sp. Note similarity of structure in the coxe (Ca), and in the dactylopodite-like
terminal claws (Dac) ; trochanter (77) rudimentary in the caterpillar, repre-
sented by two segments in the centipede (1Tr, 2Tr).
times there is no close association between adjacent segments, but
usually at one or two points the segments are hinged by chitinous
processes, or condyles, or by other articulating surfaces on their
opposing margins. Hinged joints are either monocondylic or dicon-
dylic, according as they have one or two articular points. A single
hinge is typically dorsal; in dicondylic joints, one hinge is anterior
and the other posterior, except at the trochantero-femoral joint where
the hinges, if present, are dorsal and ventral.
The structure of the hinges between the leg segments varies much
at different joints and in different insects. Sometimes the two oppos-
ing surfaces simply touch by their points. In other cases the hinge is
of the ball-and-socket type, a condyle of one surface fitting into a
socket of the other, and in dicondylic joints of this kind the two hinges
are frequently reversed in structure, but the condyle of the anterior
74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
hinge is generally on the proximal of the two articulating segments.
The coxo-trochanteral joint is always dicondylic. In the telopodite,
dicondylic hinges are characteristic of the legs of adult insects, mono-
condylic are usual in the legs of larve (fig. 32 A), but in the larve
of Neuroptera and Trichoptera, the femero-tibial joint is dicondylic.
An occasional special, or perhaps generalized, type of hinge consists
of a flexible chitinous bar continuous from one segment to the other.
The Coxa.—In its most symmetrical form, the coxa has the shape
of'a short cylinder or truncate cone (fig. 31 A, Cx, fig. 33 A). Its
proximal end is girdled by a submarginal basicostal suture (bc),
which forms internally a low, circular ridge, or basicosta (fig. 33 A,
Bc), and sets off a marginal flange, or basicoxite (Bcx), termed the
coxomarginale by Crampton and Hasey (1915). The basicosta
strengthens the base of the coxa, and serves also for the attachment of
some of the coxal muscles. On the mesal half of the coxa, the
basicosta is usually weak’and often confluent with the coxal margin ;
on the outer surface, however, it commonly forms a strong ridge,
(fig. 33 B, Bc), and in some cases a wide ledge (C) upon which
muscles of this region are attached (fig. 37 B). The trochanteral
muscles that arise within the coxa are attached distal to the basicosta
(fig. 35 A).
The coxa has three constant articular surfaces, one proximal on
the outer margin of its base (fig. 33 A, b) articulating with the
coxal process of the pleuron, and two distal, one anterior (e) and
the other posterior (f), by which the trochanter is hinged to the
coxa. The pleural articular surface (0) is formed by an inflection of
the wall of the basicoxite, and is supported on the basicosta (fig. 33 B,
C). Besides these articulations, there is usually an anterior basal
articulation with the ventral extremity of the trochantin (fig. 31 A,
a), if the trochantin is present ; when the trochantin is absent, there
is sometimes a ventral articulation between the coxa and the furci-
sternum (fig. 18 I, c).
The walls of the coxa are often strengthened by internal ridges,
the lines of which appear as sutures on the external surface. One
ridge extending from the basicosta to the anterior trochantinal articu-
lation, marked externally by a corresponding suture (fig. 33 A, d)
is more constant than the others, though the position of its proximal
end varies. In the legs of centipedes (fig. 32 B) and of caterpillars
(A) it extends basally to the middle of the anterior margin of the
coxal base. In the fore leg of a grasshopper (fig. 33 D, d) the ridge
has a similar position, ending at the articulation of the trochantin
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 75
(Tn) with the coxa. This position suggests that the ridge may be
a primitive coxal structure forming a brace between the anterior
trochantinal and trochanteral articulations. In many cases, however,
the ridge extends basally to the pleural articulation (fig. 33 A, d’),
Bex
Pe
Eps pe Epm
Fic. 33.—Structure of the coxa.
A, diagram of coxal structure, lateral view, showing marginal basicoxite
(Bcx) separated from body of coxa by internal basicostal ridge (Bc) and ex-
ternal basicostal suture (bc): 6, pleural articulation; d, d’, varying positions of
anterior coxal suture; ¢, f, anterior and posterior trochanteral articulations.
B, basal part of external wall of coxa, inner surface: showing pleural articu-
lation (b) supported on basicosta (Bc).
C, same parts of a coxa with part of basicoxite posterior to pleural articula-
tion (b) enlarged to form the basal coxal lobe known as the meron (Mer).
D, base of fore leg of grasshopper (Dissosteira): anterior suture (d) ex-
tending between trochantinal and trochanteral articulations.
E, middle leg of same; anterior suture (d’) continuous above with pleural
suture (P/S).
F, base of right middle coxa and associated pleural parts, inner view, of
cicada (Tibicina septendecim) : showing point of attachment of promotor muscle
(1) on trochantin (77), and of remotor (J) on meron (Mer).
G, middle coxa of peach borer moth (Aegaria exitiosa): meron (Mer)
greatly enlarged; anterior suture (d) partly suppressed.
H, Diagram of coxal structure with meron (Mer) extended distally, and
anterior suture (A, d) lacking.
as in the middle leg of a grasshopper (FE, d’), and its suture then falls
in line with the pleural suture (P/S). The latter condition has given
rise to the idea that the coxa is formed of an anterior and a posterior
part corresponding with the episternum and the epimeron, but it is
clear that this conception is based on a superficial character, which
is also a variable one. The coxal ridge is sometimes incomplete basally
76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
(fig. 33 G, d), and probably in the majority of insects it is lack-
ing (H).
The inflection of the outer wall of the basicoxite to form the
pleural articular surface of the coxa (fig. 33 A, b) divides the basi-
coxite externally, and the two lateral basicoxal parts often beome
enlarged in the form of two lobes on the coxal base (fig. 33 C), one
before the pleural articulation, the other behind it. The posterior
lobe, which is usually larger than the other, is the meron (Mer),
though, as presently will be shown, quite different parts of the coxa
have been confused under this term. The basicoxal lobes are well
developed on the middle and hind legs of a cicada (figs. 16 D, 33 F),
the meron of the hind leg of an adult cicada bearing a large hollow
spine-like process.
The meron is often much enlarged through being extended distally
on the posterior part of the coxa (figs. 31 A, 33 H), but even if .it
reaches almost to the‘end of the coxa (figs. 33 G, 34 A), it still pre-
serves the relation of a basal lobe to the rest of the coxa, for it never
takes part in the trochanteral articulations. The suture limiting the
meron is always an extension of the basicostal suture (bc), and its
internal ridge separates the bases of the coxal muscles of the meron
from those of the trochanteral muscles attached within the body of the
coxa. By this test, the meron of a coxa lacking a true lateral suture
(fig. 33 H), and the posterior part of a coxa divided by this suture
(E, d’) should be easily distinguished, but the mistake of identifying
one with the other has often been made. In the middle and hind legs
of Blattide (fig. 31 A), the distal part of the basicostal suture (bc)
defining the elongate meron is obsolete, giving the meron the appear-
ance of being a part of the coxa, but in Termitidz, with a similar
meron, the suture is complete, and the meron is a typical basicoxal
lobe.
In adult Neuroptera, Mecoptera, Trichoptera, and Lepidoptera,
the meron of the middle and hind legs is particularly large, often
reaching to the distal end of the posterior face of the coxa (figs. 33 G,
34 A, Mer), though in the larval stages it is an inconspicuous lobe
on the coxal base, or is not distinguishable (Lepidoptera). The
growth of the meron takes place during the pupal stage, and its
apparent continuity at this time with the epimeron above it, in
Neuroptera and Trichoptera, led the writer, in a former paper
(1909), to the conclusion that the adult meron in these orders is
derived from the epimeron. A study of the musculature, however,
shows the identity of the large adult meron with the inconspicuous
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 77
posterior basicoxal lobe of the larva. The continuity of the meron
and the epimeron during the pupal stage is, therefore, but a secon-
dary and temporary union of these parts in the Neuroptera and Tri-
choptera, as claimed by Crampton and Hasey (1915), but it fore-
PN; IT
I ec
Neat
}
}
if
Fic. 34.—Modifications by which the mesothoracic meron, normally a basal
lobe of the coxa, in the Diptera becomes a plate of the body wall.
A, mesothorax, metathorax, and base of abdomen of Panorpa consuetudinis:
meron (Mer) forming a large lobe on posterior face of each coxa.
B, mesothoracic and metathoracic pleura and coxe of a tipulid fly (Holorusia
grandis): meron of mesothorax (Merz) a large coxal plate projecting into
pleural wall.
C, mesothoracic and metathoracic pleura and middle coxa of horse fly
(Tabanus atratus): mesothoracic meron (Merz) detached from coxa (Cx),
and incorporated into body wall.
D, median section of thorax of a syrphid fly (Eristalis tenax): the remotor
muscle of middle coxa (J) becomes a wing elevator, by transfer of the meron
(Mer:) from coxa to body wall.
shadows a permanent displacement of the meron in the mesothorax
of Diptera.
The meron region of the coxa bears the ventral attachment of the
subalar epipleural muscle (fig. 37 B, /), and of the remotor of the
coxa (J). A plate in the ventrolateral wall of the mesothorax of
Diptera, lying above and behind the base of the coxa, constituted a
78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
puzzle for insect morphologists until it was shown by Crampton and
Hasey (1915) and by Crampton (1925, 1925a) to be the meron of
the middle leg. In the Tipulidz, the plate in question (fig. 34 B,
Mer.) is attached to the middle coxa (C2) and is quite distinct
from the postcoxal bridge of the mesothorax (Pcx.). To its upper
part is attached the muscle from the subalar plate (Sa), and to its
lower part the tergal remotor of the coxa. The plate is, therefore,
the meron, and its relations to the coxa are the same as those of the
meron in Panorpa (fig. 34 A), though it forms a part of the seg-
mental body wall in the Tipulide. In the higher Diptera, the corre-
sponding plate (fig. 34 C, Merz) is detached from the coxa, and is
closely united with a part of the epimeron above it (¢pm.), and with
the very narrow postcoxal bridge (Pcx.) behind it. The body of
the coxa (Cx) is independently movable on a vertical axis. The
base of the subalar muscle in the higher Diptera has migrated upward
upon the true pleural region, and is attached to the horizontal part
of the pleural ridge behind the base of the pleural arm, The remotor
muscle of the coxa (fig. 34 D, J), however, remains attached ventrally
to the transposed meron (Mer.) and becomes thus an elevator of
the wings, being the middle muscle of the three large wing elevators
(C, J, B) in each side of mesothorax, The transposition of the
mesothoracic meron in the Diptera from the coxa to the body wall
is clearly a device for increasing the power of flight by transferring
one of the leg muscles to the service of the wing.
The trochanter—The trochanter is ordinarily a small segment,
usually fixed more or less firmly to the base of the femur (fig. 31 A,
Tr). Structurally it resembles the coxa, having a strong basicostal
ridge (fig. 35 A, g) bearing the coxal articulations, but its motion is
limited by the latter to movements in a vertical plane. Being the base
of the telopodite, however, its articulation with the coxa is one of
the important hinges of the insect leg. The ventral lip of the tro-
chanter base usually projects into the coxa as a strong process for the
attachment of the extensor muscles (fig. 35 A, P, @Q). The
trochantero-femoral joint, though usually having but little motion,
differs from all other joints of the insect leg in that, when movable,
it bends forward and backward on a vertical axis. A reductor muscle
of the femur (fig. 35 A, #) arises in the trochanter and is inserted
on a basal thickening (basicosta) of the femur (7). By this character,
the true trochantero-femoral suture may be identified where it might
otherwise be confused with certain other sutures that sometiines
occur near it.
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 79
In a few insects the trochanter appears to be double. In some of
the Hymenoptera (Ichneumonide, Braconide), for example, two
pieces of the leg occur between the coxa and the femur which are
called “ first trochanter” and “second trochanter.” That the first
alone is the trochanter (fig. 35 B, Tr), however, is shown by the
fact that the reductor femoris muscle (/) is inserted on a plate (7)
inflected from the base of the second (F’). The latter is, therefore,
a basal subsegment of the femur (/’), separated by a secondary suture
Fic. 35.—Structure and musculature of the coxa, trochanter, and base of femur.
A, diagram of typical musculature of coxa, trochanter, and base of femur;
B, trochanter and base of femur of an ichneumonid (Megaryssa), showing basal
subdivision (F’) of the femur (Ff); C, trochanter and base of femur of middle
leg of dragonfly nymph (Aeschnide), showing double structure of the trochanter
(iTr, 2Tr).
Bc, basicosta of coxa; bc, basicostal suture; Bcx, basicoxite; Cx, coxa;
F, femur; F’, basal subdivision of femur; f, posterior coxo-trochanteral articu-
lation; g, basicosta of trochanter; h, ridge between subdivisions of trochanter ;
i, basicosta of femur; 7, femoral ridge setting off basal subdivision of femur;
O, levator muscle of trochanter; P, thoracic branch of depressor of trochanter ;
Q, coxal branch of depressor of trochanter; R, reductor muscle of femur; S,
levator of tibia; T, depressor of tibia; Ty, trochanter; 177, 2Tr, first and second
subdivisions of trochanter.
and ridge (j). A branch of the tibial flexor (7) crosses the ridge
and is attached at the anterior end of the true femoral base.
In the Odonata, both nymphs and adults, there appear likewise to
be two trochanteral segments (fig. 35 C, 1Tr, 2Tr). The structural
relations here, however, are quite different from those in the hymen-
opteran leg (B). The reductor femoris muscle (FR) of the dragon-
fly arises in the second trochanter, and the ridge (7) upon which it
is inserted is clearly the basicosta of the femur (/). The ridge (1)
with its external suture between the two parts of the trochanter is,
therefore, a trochanteral structure, and its presence furnishes a
6
80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
reason for believing that in the dragonflies the two parts of the tro-
chanter (17r, 2Tr) represent two primitive segments of the leg, as
claimed by Verhoeff (1903 a, 1903 b). Grtndberg (1903), on the
other hand, sees here only a secondary division of the trochanter,
and he would homologize the dividing ridge (1) with the more basal
ridge of the trochanter in other insects. He fails to note, however,
that the latter ridge (g) is also present and well developed in the
Odonata, and bears the coxal articulations (f). Verhoeff calls the
first trochanter the “true trochanter” and the second the “ prae-
femur.” He believes that the first disappears in most insects other
than the Odonata, and that the so-called trochanter of insects is the
homologue of the praefemur of the Chilopoda. The disappearance
of the first trochanter segment, however, would involve a replace-
ment of the articular elements in the coxo-trochanteral joint, an un-
likely transformation. It seems more reasonable, therefore, that the
two trochanteral segments have been united into one in most insects
(fig. 42). The basal lip of the trochanter (fig. 35 A), when un-
usually wide, often gives the trochanter a false appearance of being
a double segment.
The femur.—tThis, the third segment of the insect leg (fig. 31 A,
F), is usually the longest and strongest part of the limb; but it
varies in size from that of the huge hind femur of leaping Orthoptera
to that of the small femoral segment in the leg of a sawfly larva
(fig. 16 B), which is much inferior to the coxa. The femoro-tibial
joint, or “knee” of the insect leg, is typically dicondylic in adult
insects and in the nymphs of Hemimetabola; but in holometabolous
larve it is usually monocondylic (figs. 16 A, 32 A), as it is in the
Chilopoda (fig. 32 B). In the larve of Neuroptera and Trichoptera
it is dicondylic.
The tibia.—The tibia (fig. 31 A, Tb) is characteristically a slender
segment in adult insects, only a little shorter than the femur, or the
combined femur and trochanter. Its proximal end forms a more or
less distinct “head ” bent toward the femur, a device which allows
the tibia to be flexed close against the ventral surface of the femur,
and one often not expressed sufficiently in insect drawings to suggest
the essential mechanism of the femoro-tibial articulation. The tibio-
tarsal joint is dicondylic in adult insects, unless articular points are
lacking, but it is always monocondylic in holometabolous larve.
Sometimes the tibia and tarsus are united, forming a tibio-tarsal
segment (figs. 16 B, 43 B).
The tarsus.—In adult insects, the tarsus comprises from one to
five small pieces (fig. 31 A, Tar). In holometabolous larvae, however,
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS ; 8I
it consists of a single leg segment (figs. 16 A, 32 A, 41 B, Tar), as
it does in adult Protura (fig. 41 A), which segment is probably the
propodite of the generalized arthropod limb (fig. 42). The subseg-
ments, or articles, of the adult tarsus, conveniently called tarsal
“segments,” therefore appear to be subdivisions of a single primitive
shaft; they have no articular hinges with each other, though they
are usually freely movable by inflected connecting membranes (fig.
39), and they never have individual muscles. The tarsus is moved
as a whole by muscles inserted upon its base, or by tension of the
claw muscles on the tendon which traverses it (fig. 39, v). Tarsi
having fewer than five segments, therefore, represent either a stage
of progress in the division of the primitive segment, or a retrogressive
condition in which some of the articles of a five-segmented tarsus
have been lost or have coalesced. The tarsi of the Apterygota may
be supposed to be of the first class, as may likewise those of the
Odonata with three segments, but in the rest of Pterygota, the adult
tarsus appears to have been standardized with five segments, and
all reductions from this number are most likely of a secondary nature.
The basal segment of the tarsus is often larger than the others,
and is distinguished as the basitarsus, metatarsus, or planta, the first
term being preferable. On the under surfaces of the segments, ex-
cept the last, there are sometimes small pads, the euplantule (Cramp-
ton, 1923), or tarsal pulvilli (fig. 31 A, q).
The pretarsus—-Entomologists generally have not found it neces-
sary to refer collectively to the terminal parts of the insect leg (fig.
31 A, Ar, Cla), and consequently we have no satisfactory name for
the group of organs at the end of the tarsus, which in some cases
might appropriately be termed the “‘ foot,” but not with those insects
that place a part or all of the tarsus on the supporting surface. The
group of terminal foot structures is called the unguis or ungula by
Schiodte, the pretarsus by de Meijere, the articularis by MacGilliv-
ray, and the Krallenglied by Arnhart. Since de Meijere (1901) has
given the most comprehensive description of the parts in question,
his name for them, pretarsus, is adopted in the Americanized form
of “pretarsus ” in the present paper, though not without regret that
de Meijere did not invent a more fitting term.
In its simplest form the terminal part of the insect leg consists
of a small, claw-like segment similar to the dactylopodite of a
crustacean or chilopod limb (fig. 32 B, Dac). A pretarsus of this
_kind occurs in adult Protura (fig. 41 A), in some Collembola, in the
larve of most beetles (fig. 43), and in the larve of Lepidoptera
(figs. 32 A, 41 B) and Tenthredinide (fig. 16 B). A one-clawed
82 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
pretarsus is found also in a few adult pterygote insects, as in the
Coccidee, Pediculidze, and the mammal-infesting Mallophaga, but the
structure of the foot in such cases has probably resulted secondarily
from the suppression of one claw in an original pair of claws.
The pretarsus of an adult insect, in its typical form (fig. 36 A, B),
arises from the end of the last tarsal segment by a membranous base,
setts we eA
Fic. 36.—Structure of the insect foot (pretarsus).
A, end of tarsus (Tar) and foot of a roach (Periplaneta americana), dorsal
view: claws (Cla) articulated to unguifer process (k) on end of last tarsal
segment; arolium (Ar), a median lobe between claws.
B, the same, ventral view; showing ventral pad (m) of arolium, auxiliary
plates (/) at bases of claws, and unguitractor plate (Utr) to which is attached
tendon (x) of retractor muscles of claws (fig. 39, X ).
C, foot of a cicada (Tibicina septendecim) : arolium lacking, or represented
by small plates (7) between claws.
D, foot of an asilid fly, lateral view: arolium lacking; lateral, lobe-like
pulvilli (Pv) arising from auxiliary plates (/) beneath claws, and median
spine-like empodium (Emp) arising from unguitractor plate.
E, the same, ventral view.
upon which are supported a pair of movable lateral claws (Cla), and
a median lobe, the arolium (Ar). The claws are hollow, multicellular
organs, their cavities being continuous at their bases with the lumen
of the base of the pretarsus. Each is articulated dorsally to the
unquifer (A, k), a median process of the distal end of the last tarsal
segment (Tar). The arolium, likewise a hollow lobe, is a direct
continuation of the median part of the pretarsal base; it may be”
entirely membranous, or its walls may be partly chitinous. On the
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 83
ventral surface is a large basal plate, the unguitractor (B, Utr),
which is partially invaginated into the end of the tarsus (Tar),
where the flexor, or retractor, “tendon” of the claws (4%) is
attached to its proximal end. The unguitractor may consist of two
pieces (C, Utr), or sometimes there is a second plate, the planta,
distal to the unguitractor at the base of the arolium, and there may
be lateral plates, the auwxilie (1), at the bases of the claws. In the
honeybee, a transverse chitinous band lies beyond the planta in the
ventral wall of the arolium.
All parts of the pretarsus are subject to much variation. The claws
sometimes have each two points ; sometimes the claws are of unequal
size, one claw becoming reduced and occasionally obliterated, the
result being a one-clawed foot. Again, both claws become very small,
and both may be lacking. In the Physopoda, the claws are minute,
and the foot consists principally of the large bladder-like arolium.
In some of the Thysanura there is a third, median claw between the
two lateral claws, well developed though small in Lepisma (fig. 44,
C, D, Dac) rudimentary in Japyx (fig. 44 A, p). This median claw
is probably not analogous to the lateral claws, being more likely a
remnant of the primitive dactylopodite. The pretarsus of first-stage
larvee of Meloid beetles, the triungulins, also apparently has three
claws, a large median one and two slender lateral ones ; but there is
some doubt as to the nature of the lateral claws of the triungulin
foot, Boving (1924) pointing out that they are claw-like sete rather
than true claws. In a lampyrid larva with three claws on each foot,
the lateral claws appear to be outgrowths of the dactylopodite, since
they have no articulations with the tarsus.
The arolium (Ar) varies in size and in form from a small simple
lobe to a large complex appendage; or again it may be rudimentary
or entirely lacking (fig. 36 C). In the Diptera there are two lateral
ventral foot lobes, the pulvilli (fig. 36 D, E, Pv), which arise from
the auxiliz (/), one beneath the base of each claw. The arolium is
rudimentary or absent in most Diptera; only in the Tipulidz, accord-
ing to. de Meijere, is it well developed. in other families a median
process, the empodiwm (Emp), or “ processus plantaris” of de
Meijere, is commonly developed from the distal end of the ungui-
‘tractor plate. The empodium may be spinelike (fig. 36, D, E), or
lobelike and similar to the lateral pulvilli.
MUSCLES AND MECHANISM OF THE LEG
Though the legs of different insects are adapted in their structure
to a great variety of uses, their motions are made according to the
84 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vol. 80
simplest of mechanical principles, for, with the exception of the
movements of the coxa on the body, the action ‘at each of the flexible
joints is merely that of a hinge working in a single plane.
In insects, and in most other arthropods, the functional base of
the leg is the coxa, and the appendage as a whole moves on the articu-
lation of the coxa with the body. In the more generalized orders,
where the coxa is suspended freely from the pleuron, the leg may
swing forward and backward on a transverse (or vertical) coxal axis
an
Fic. 37.—The cardinal axes of motion, and the corresponding muscles of a
coxa freely articulated to the pleuron.
A, diagram of the mechanism of coxal motion on the pleural articulation (b),
inner view. The cardinal movements are: (1) abduction and adduction on longi-
tudinal axis (bb) by means of abductor and adductor muscles (M, N); (2)
promotion and remotion on transverse axis (c c) by promotor and remotor
muscles (J, J) ; and (3) rotation on vertical axis (d d) by anterior and posterior
rotator muscles (K, L).
B, diagram of coxal musculature, inner view of base of right coxa: E, F,
basalar and subalar muscles of wing attached on coxa (fig. 28) ; J, promotor of
coxa, tergum to trochantin; J, remotor, tergum to coxa; K, anterior rotator,
sternum to coxa; L, posterior rotator, sternum to coxa; M, abductor, episternum
to coxa; N, adductor, sternum to coxa.
(fig. 37 A, cc), outward and inward on a longitudinal axis (bb), or
it may turn in the plane of its base on an axis through the middle of
the coxa (dd). The possible elemental movements of the coxa and
of the leg as a whole are, therefore, promotion and remotion, abduc-
tion and adduction, and rotation; but, if the coxa has a free articu-
lation, the actual movements of the leg base are unlimited, since, by
simultaneous contraction of two or more sets of the coxal muscles,
there may result compound movements in any direction. In con-
formity with its motile possibilities, the coxa has a much more elabo-
rate musculature than that of any other segment of the leg: where
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 85
its movements are unrestricted, it is provided with antagonistic sets
of muscles corresponding with its three primary axes of motion.
It has promotors and remotors (fig. 37 A, I, J), abductors and ad-
ductors (M, N), and anterior and posterior rotators (K, L).
If the coxa represents the base of the primitive arthropod limb,
we have only to assume that its muscles were directly fitted to its
needs. We have seen, however, that there is reason for believing that
the original limb had its base in a subcoxal segment, which became
incorporated into the pleural wall of the body to form a support for
the rest of the limb, the latter acquiring a new functional base in
the coxa. This theory can not be supported on external features alone;
the transformations that it assumes could not but involve changes
in the leg musculature, and it must be shown at least that there is
nothing in the arrangement of the muscles in modern insects that is
incompatible with the theory—if positive evidence can be found of
shiftings in the muscle attachments in accord with the assumed
changes in the skeletal parts, the theory will be so much the more
acceptable.
A primitive segmental limb, perhaps of a parapodial nature, must
have turned forward and backward on its base in the lateral wall of
its segment. It, therefore, possessed promotor and remotor muscles,
probably dorsal and ventral promotors (fig. 38, A, J, K) and dorsal
and ventral remotors (J, L). According to Borner (1921) the para-
podium of an annelid worm (Nereis) has a musculature of this sort
by which it is turned anteriorly and posteriorly. If, then, the arthropod
subcoxa turned on a vertical axis, it follows that the coxal movement
on the subcoxa was most probably in a vertical plane on a horizontal
axis. The coxa, therefore, had abductor and adductor muscles
(M, N) arising on the dorsal and the ventral wall of the subcoxa.
Something analogous at least to this theoretical musculature of the
primitive limb base (fig. 38 A) may be seen in the Acarina. In
the Ixodidze the movable part of each leg is supported on a large
basis that spreads out’as a wide plate in the ventral wall of the body
(fig. 17, Scx), but which also is narrowly continuous around the
dorsal side of the first free segment of the leg. These leg bases are
provided with anterior and posterior dorsal muscles, and the bases
of the first pair of legs in Dermacentor and Amblyomma at least
are slightly movable in the living tick, turning on an obliquely trans-
verse axis. The next piece of the leg is a free, cylindrical segment
(Ca), hinged to the basis by anterior and posterior articulations on
an axis at right angles to that of the basis with the body, the anterior
86 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 8o
articulation being at the ventral anterior angle, and the axis extend-
ing obliquely dorsally and posteriorly to the rear articulation. The
third segment, a small trochanter-like piece (777), is hinged to the
second on a longitudinal axis with typical coxo-trochanteral articu-
lations. The structure of the proximal part of the acarine leg, there-
fore, strongly suggests that the ventrally expanded basis is the sub-
coxa, and that the following two segments are the coxa and the first
trochanter. Though the axis of the subcoxo-coxal joint is somewhat
oblique, its movements are essentially those of abduction and adduc-
tion, since the coxal muscles consist of dorsal and ventral antago-
nists, both attached here on the ventral plate of the subcoxa, probably
on account of the reduction of the lateral wall of the latter. The
obliquity of the subcoxo-coxal hinges in the Acarina is clearly an
adaptation to allow the legs to move in the plane of the flattened body.
Assuming, then, a subcoxal segment functioning as the leg base
at some remote time in the ancestry of insects, we must postulate
either that the present coxal musculature is a new development, or
that it has been evolved through a transfer of the subcoxal muscles
to the coxa. There is no evidence in support of the first supposition ;
there is nothing to contradict the possibility of the second. Abundant
evidence is at hand to show that the bases of insect muscles may
undergo considerable migrations. If the dorsal promotor and remotor
muscles of the subcoxa (fig. 38 A, /, J) were transferred to the coxa,
they would become promotors and remotors of the coxa (B) when
the posterior coxal articulation (A, Db) assumed its dorsal lateral
position (B, >) ; but a transfer of the ventral promotors and remotors
of the subcoxa (A, K, L) to the coxa (B) would convert these
muscles into anterior and posterior rotators of the coxa. The dorsal
promotor (/), however, remains attached to the trochantin (B, Tn),
a piece of the subcoxa, as long as this sclerite persists ; only when the
trochantin is greatly reduced or is lacking does it become attached
to the coxa. The flexibility of the free part of the trochantin, or
its detachment from the rest of the pleuron allows the trochantinal
muscle to function as a coxal promotor, The trochantinal hinge with
the coxa (a) thus becomes a lifting point rather than an articulation,
as has been noted by Crampton.
The primitive abductors and adductors of the coxa (fig. 38 A,
B, M, N) retain their original function, but the second becomes
attached to the sternum with the suppression of the ventral wall of
the subcoxa and is eventually supported on the sternal apophysis
(SA) to give it more efficient action. The forward migration of
the posterior coxal articulation to a mid-lateral position (B, >) has
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 87
crowded the base of the coxal abductor (/) to the forward part of
the eupleural region of the subcoxa, which later becomes the epister-
num, and upon this plate arise the abductors of the coxa in all
modern insects, except where the pleurum becomes rudimentary.
Placed at a mechanical disadvantage by the new position of the coxal
articulation, the abductor has regained efficiency in part from the
inflection of the pleural articular surface toward the center of the
coxal base (fig. 37 A).
The above outline of what may have taken place in the theoretical
transformation of the leg base is purely hypothetical, but it accounts
AY
iS IL,
B
Fic. 38.—Theoretical derivation of modern coxal muscles from primitive
coxal and subcoxal muscles.
A, Diagram of theoretical primitive musculature of subcoxa and coxa:
a, b, horizontal axis of coxa on subcoxa; /, J, tergal promotor and remotor
muscles of subcoxa; K, L, sternal promotor and remotor muscles of subcoxa;
M, N, abductor and adductor muscles of coxa, arising within subcoxa.
B, muscles transposed, posterior coxal articulation (b) shifted to dorsal posi-
tion: J, becomes promotor of coxa; J, becomes remotor of coxa; K, L, become
rotators of coxa; M, N, remain abductor and adductor of coxa.
for the present complicated musculature cf the coxa in the more
generalized pterygote insects, and it explains those features that give
the coxal musculature an appearance of having been secondarily
adapted to the purposes of the coxa,
A typical generalized coxal musculature of the leg of a wing-
bearing segment is shown at figure 37 B; it is approximately that
of the middle leg of a grasshopper (Acrididse), except that some of
the single muscles in the figure are represented by several groups of
fiber bundles in the grasshopper. The principal tergal promotor (/)
is nearly always a single muscle inserted below on the trochantin
(Tn), or on the anterior coxal rim when the trochantin is absent.
88 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
The remotor (J) may comprise several tergal muscles inserted on
the meron region of the coxa. Besides the principal abductor (J),
there are usually several smaller muscles from the episternum to the
anterior lateral part of the coxal rim, some of which are probably
accessory promotors. The adductor (NV) and the rotators (K, L)
arise upon the sternum or upon the sternal apophysis. The posterior
rotator may be broken up into a group of muscles. In addition to
the muscles just described the coxal musculature of a wing-bearing
segment includes the epipleural muscles (F, F), already described
in connection with the wings. The first (£) may be regarded as
a part of the abductor system of the leg in its origin, but the second
(F), having no representative in the prothorax, would appear to be
a secondarily developed muscle. Both the epipleural muscles are
present in nymphal Orthoptera, where they apparently function as
leg muscles, since the basalar and subalar plates are here not separated
from the pleuron (fig. 26 B).
The actual arrangement of the coxal muscles and their attachments
to the base of the coxa are seldom so diagrammatically simple as
shown in figure 37 B. There are likely to be several muscles in each
set, and again it is not always possible to find a representative of
each group. The coxa itself is usually turned more or less at an
angle to the body, and its base is seldom a symmetrical plane at right
angles to its length. It is, therefore, often difficult to determine the
exact function of any particular muscle or set of muscles. Moreover,
it appears that the action of individual muscles may be changed in
consequence of modifications in the coxal articulations. When the
coxa, for example, is hinged to the sternum, and has its motions
limited to a forward and backward turning on a transverse or vertical
axis, its musculature is correspondingly reduced, and such muscles
as remain become either promotors or remotors., In the Dytiscide
the hind coxz are immovable, constituting solid bases for the telo-
podites of the hind legs, which are the swimming organs. In Dytiscus,
according to Bauer (1910), each hind coxa retains, besides the sub-
alar wing muscles, only two of the normal coxal muscles, and these,
having their origin on the tergum, serve probably as accessory eleva-
tors of the wings. Since the data for a comparative myology of
insects are not yet at hand, no attempt can be made here to foilow
the modifications of the coxal musculature in the various groups of
insects. .
In the telopodite, or that part of the leg beyond the coxa, the joints
bend either forward and backward, or up and down. The most
precise terms for the motions at the two types of joints are produc-
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 89
tion and reduction, and elevation and depression, respectively. Joints
of the first type are provided with productor and reductor muscles ;
those of the second type with Jevator and depressor muscles. Some
writers use the terms “ flexor ” and “ extensor,” or “ abductor ” and
“adductor ” as synonymous with levator and depressor, regardless
of the nature of the respective movements; others call that muscle
the “extensor”? which accomplishes the principal work of the leg
segment distal to the joint, and name its antagonist the “ flexor.”
The last system is appropriate for designating function, but for ana-
Fic. 39.—Diagram of typical leg musculature, left leg, anterior view.
O, levator of trochanter; P, QO, thoracic and coxal branches of depressor of
trochanter; R, reductor of femur; S, levator of tibia; 7, depressor of tibia;
U, levator of tarsus; V, depressor of tarsus; X, X, X, X, branches of depressor
of pretarsus (retractor of claws) ; , tendon of claw retractor muscles, attached
to unguitractor plate (U?tr).
tomical descriptions “ levator ” and “ depressor ” are to be preferred,
because they lead to no ambiguity and can be applied always to homol-
ogous muscles. In the telopodite of the insect leg, only the tro-
chantero-femoral joint bends forward and backward, the other three
are movable in a vertical plane.
The muscles that move the trochanter are also levators and de-
pressors of the entire telopodite, since the trochanter usually has but
little if any motion on the femur. The levator of the trochanter
(figs. 39, 40, O) arises in the dorsal part of the coxa and is inserted
on the dorsal lip of the trochanter base, usually by a chitinous tendon.
The depressor, in pterygote insects, has both coxal and thoracic
go SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
branches. The coxal branch (Q) spreads out in a broad fan on the
ventral wall of the coxa; the thoracic branch (fig. 39, P) includes
one or two long muscles from the tergum, one from the arm of the
pleural ridge, and sometimes one from the episternum (fig. 26 B, P),
the fibers from all sources converging upon a large apodeme that
arises from the ventral lip of the trochanter or from the articular
membrane close to it. The great size of the depressor muscles of the
trochanter gives the leg a strong movement of extension, which is
that by which it accomplishes its principal work. The ample mem-
brane above the trochanteral articulation allows the trochanter and
femur to be freely flexed upward.
The trochantero-femoral joint of the insect leg, though usually
having little if any motion, is often slightly movable and sometimes
freely so, as in the bees. Its movements are always forward and
9
Fic. 40.—Muscles of right hind leg of Japyx, posterior view (lettering as on
fig. 39).
rearward (production and reduction). In the higher Crustacea,
which have two articulated trochanteral segments (basis and ischium,
fig. 42 A), the second trochanter and the femur are each provided
with productor and reductor muscles (Schmidt, 1915). In the Chilo-
poda and Hexapoda the second trochanter, or the single compound
trochanter of most Hexapoda, has no muscles, but it contains a re-
ductor femoris (figs. 35, 39, &) inserted on the posterior rim of the
femoral base. In the leg of a caterpillar (fig. 41 B) a very small
femoral reductor (A) goes from the upper anterior end of the in-
complete trochantin (77) to the upper posterior part of the base of
the femur. In the Protura, Prell (1912) describes a reductor femoris
arising within the distal end of the coxa (fig. 41 A, &). Ordinarily
the femur has no other muscle than the reductor, but both Berlese
(1909) and Prell (1912) describe in the Protura a levator of the
femur arising in the base of the coxa (fig. 41 A, Jf). Berlese describes
also a femoral depressor, but Prell does not mention or figure such a
muscle.
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS gli
The musculature of the femoro-tibial joint is variable. In adult
insects, except Protura, however, it consists of a levator and a depres-
sor of the tibia (fig. 39, S, 7), the former often double (fig. go, S,.S).
Both muscles are large and arise within the femur, though the depres-
sor commonly has an anterior branch arising on the ventral wall of
the trochanter (fig. 39, Tr). The fibers are usually inserted on
apodemes springing from the dorsal and ventral lips of the tibial
base, or arising from the membrane of the knee joint, the base of
the depressor apodeme often forming a large chitinous plate in the
ventral membrane of the joint. In the Protura, according to Prell
(1912), there are no levator muscles in the telopodite beyond the
trochantero-femoral joint, though Berlese describes a levator (ab-
ductor) of the tibia and of the tarsus. The depressor of the tibia in
the Protura (fig. 41 A, T) consists of several branches arising in the
femur and in the trochanter. In the leg of a caterpillar the tibia has
a levator (fig. 41 B, S) arising in the base of the femur, and a
depressor of three large branches (7), two branches from the femur
and one from the trochanter, the group suggesting that of the tibial
depressors in Eosentomon (A, T). Apparently all insect larve have
both levator and depressor muscles of the tibia regardless of whether
the femoro-tibial articulation is dicondylic or monocondylic.
The tarsus of typical adult insects is provided with both levator
and depressor muscles arising within the tibia (figs. 39, 40, U, V). In
the Protura (Prell, 1912) there is no tarsal levator, and the depressor
usually arises by several heads in the tibia, femur, and trochanter, the
distribution varying according to the species. In Eosentomon there
is but one long depressor of the tarsus with its origin in the trochanter
(fig. 41 A, V). Inthe caterpillar of Estigmene (fig. 41 B) there is no
tarsal levator, but a simple depressor ()”) arises on the anterior ven-
tral wall of the tibia. In all insect larve the tibio-tarsal joint is either
monocondylic or lacks articular points. In a trichopteran larva, as
figured by Borner (1921), the tarsus has only a depressor muscle;
but in coleopteran larvze with a tarsus distinct from the tibia, there
are both levators and depressors of the tarsus (fig. 43 A, U,V). In
adult insects the tarsus is freely flexed upward, but can usually be
extended only in line with the axis of the tibia; in larval insects the
tarsus has a greater downward motion.
The subsegments of the tarsus are never provided with muscles,
evidence that the articles are not true segments. Du Porte (1920)
has described and figured levator muscles of the tarsal subsegments
in Gryllus, but this is certainly an error. Likewise, muscles of the
foot, or pretarsus, never have their origin in the tarsus in insects,
g2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
though in some other arthropod groups the muscles of the dactylopo-
dite arise in the propodite.
The insect pretarsus is provided only with depressor muscles, called
usually flexor or retractor muscles of the claws, and in this feature
it resembles the terminal leg segment of the Chilopoda. In the
Crustacea, Pycnogonida, and Arachnida, however, the dactylopodite
has both levator and depressor muscles. Du Porte (1920) describes
an ‘extensor ” of the claws in Gryllus, but here again his observation
is'clearly at fault.
In insects and in the chilopods, the pretarsal muscles have their
origin in the leg segments proximal to the tarsus, and they are all
=
eS Ss
Ssy
jy
Fic. 41.—Leg of proturan and of caterpillar, showing similarity of musculature.
A, hind leg of Eosentomon germanicum (Prell, 1912); B, right hind leg of
caterpillar of Estigmene acraea, posterior view. (Lettering as on fig. 39, except
If, levator of femur.)
inserted on a long “ tendon ”’ arising on the base of the pretarsus and
extending through the tarsus (fig. 39, «). In insects, the fibers of
the pretarsal muscles form several or numerous bundles (figs. 39, 40,
AI, 43, X) arising in the tibia and the femur, and sometimes in the
trochanter, the number of the bundles and the points of their origin
varying much in different species. Where the pretarsus has the form
of a simple dactylopodite, as in Protura (fig. 41 A) and in certain
holometabolous larve (figs. 41 B, 43), the apodeme, or “tendon,”
of the pretarsal muscles arises directly from its base—in Lepisma
it arises from the base of the median claw (fig. 44 C, E, 2) ; but in
other insects in which there is a special unguitractor plate, the tendon
arises from the proximal end of this sclerite (figs. 36 B, 39,44 B, Utr).
The pull of the muscles on the unguitractor plate turns the claws
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 93
downward on their dorsal articulations with the unguifer process at
the end of the tarsus (fig. 36 A, D, k). The claws are extended by
the elasticity of their basal connections when the flexor muscles
relax, or by the weight of the insect on the supporting surface.
MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEG
Entomologists can not resist the temptation of endeavoring to trace
the evolution of the insect leg from a biramous appendage such as is
supposed to have been the ancestral form of all arthropod limbs.
The plan of this hypothetical generalized appendage, as conceived
principally by the carcinologists (fig. 42 A), includes a basal stalk, or
Pleuropodite setae
Coxopodite oe feo
BeaspOcice meni Win, ena) SQ 2W soa KE eee. hrer AE Trochanter
Ischiopodite Femur
Meropodite
hg Se Sea Tibia
Carpop odite
Propodite i Tee i
Bee eee cig nen MES eda Praetarsus-
B
Fic. 42.—Diagram suggesting homologies of segments in arthropod limbs.
_ A, generalized crustacean limb; B, leg of a chilopod (centipede) ; C, leg of an
insect.
protopodite, and two distal branches; an exopodite and an endopodite.
The stalk is divided into three segments (formerly only two were
recognized), a pleuropodite, a coxopodite, and a basipodite. The
exopodite has a number of small subdivisions, fortunately not named
individually ; the endopodite consists of five segments, an ischiopo-
dite, a meropodite, a carpopodite, a propodite, and a terminal dactylop-
odite. The basal two segments of the stalk may bear external appen-
dages called epipodites; lobes on the inner margins of the segments
are endites.
The only fact that can be construed as evidence of a biramous
origin of insect appendages is the presence of styli on the cox of
the middle and hind legs of Machilis and related genera (fig. 12, Sty).
No insect appendage develops in the embryo with a biramous struc-
94 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
ture; the lobes of the maxilla are now recognized as being endites
of a uniramous stalk. The leg styli of Machilis have apparent homo-
logues in similar styli on the legs of Symphyla, in the paired styli
occurring on a number of the abdominal segments of Machilis, Le-
pisma, Japyx, and other thysanuran genera, and in those of the ninth
abdominal segment of the males of certain pterygote insects. The
abdominal styli of Lepisma are said by Heymons (1897) to appear
and to develop during the postembryonic life of the insect, a period
rather late for a primitive organ to become first apparent. Moreover,
the leg styli of Machilis and Scolopendrella occur on the cox, while
the seat of a true exopodite is the basipodite, a segment either lacking
in most insects or included in the trochanter (fig. 42 C). There is,
therefore, reason for doubting that the styli of insects are exopodites.
Unquestionably they are organs possessed by the ancestors of both the
Apterygota and the Pterygota, but that they are other than secondary
structures is yet to be demonstrated.
When the exopodite disappears from a biramous limb, as it com-
monly does in the evolution of an appendage that takes on a special
function, there is left a uniramous shaft of eight segments. The
basal segment, pleuropodite, or subcoxa (fig. 42), according to the
theory adopted and elaborated in this paper, becomes incorporated
into the body wall to form the pleuron in the Insecta and Chilopoda.
In the Crustacea, Rorradaile (1917) says, the pleuropodite ‘“‘ may or
may not have originally existed as a free joint in every biramous
limb, but has now always disappeared, either by fusion with the
trunk or with the second joint, or perhaps sometimes by excalation.”
In the Arachnida the pleuropodite has entirely disappeared. In the
Pantapoda (Borner), and in the Acarina it apparently remains as
a basal segment or support of the leg. In those arthropod groups
‘that lose the pleuropadite, or subcoxa, as a free part of the limb, the
rest of the appendage with its new base in the coxopodite becomes
the functional leg.
In entomological terminology the pleuropodite (subcoxa) becomes
the pleuron (fig. 42 C), the coxopodite is the coxa, the basipodite
and the ischiopodite united form the trochanter, the meropodite is the
femur, the carpopodite is the tibia, the propodite the tarsus, and the
dactylopodite the pretarsus. This, at least, is a reasonable scheme of
homology, though confessedly a theoretical one, and may be applied
consistently in the several arthropod groups. The leg segmentation
of a chilopod (fig. 42 B) conforms with it, as does also that of the
Acarina (fig. 17) and the Arachnida. Exceptional opinion will be
noted presently.
NO. I INSECT THORAX
SNODGRASS 95
There is such uniformity of structure in the articulation between
the usual first and second segments of the leg that this joint may be
taken as invariably separating the coxa and the first trochanter. There
is no apparent reason for doubting that the second and third segments
of the chilopod leg (fig. 42 B) correspond with the basipodite and
ischiopodite of the crustacean leg (A). The first of these segments
lacks muscles in the Chilopoda, bit this is explained by Verhoeff
(1903a) as a device for allowing the leg to be broken off without
injury to the animal, the natural break taking place at the base of
the segment in the Pleurostigma and at the distal end in the Noto-
stigma. In insects there is reason for believing, as already shown
(page 78), that the basipodite and ischiopodite, or first and second
~Tb+Tar
B
Fic. 43.—Segmentation and musculature of legs of coleopteran larve. (Figures
from Jeannel, 1925, but differently interpreted, and re-lettered.)
A, leg of larva of Trechus, with usual six segments; B, leg of larva of
Bathisciinze, with five segments. Cx, coxa; Dac, dactylopodite; F, femur; S,
levator of tibia, 7, depressor of tibia; Tar, tarsus; Tb, tibia; Tb + Tar, tibio-
tarsus; U, levator of tarsus; ’, depressor of tarsus; X, X, branches of depressor
of dactylopodite ; x, tendon of X, inserted on base of dactylopodite.
trochanter, have united to form the usual single trochanter (fig.
42 C). The presence of a reductor femoris muscle in the trochanter
identifies the trochantero-femoral joint with that between ischiopodite
and meropodite in Crustacea and Chilopoda (A, B).
The principal bend, or “knee,” in the telopodite of the arthropod
leg is regarded by Borner as being in all cases the joint between
meropodite and carpopodite. Jeannel (1925) takes exception to this
view, since he believes that in insects the tibia and the tarsus are
subdivisions of the propodite, and that the carpopodite has been lost
from the leg of all insects, except in those coleopteran larvze of the
Adephaga group that have six segments in the leg (fig. 43 A). In
other larve, he claims, the six segments result from a division of
the propodite into tibia and tarsus. Jeannel would find a remnant of
the carpopodite in the small sclerite of the ventral membrane of the
7
96 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
knee joint to which the flexor muscle is here often attached. As
already pointed out, however, this interpretation seems entirely un-
necessary, since there is no evidence that the tibia and tarsus are
not primitive limb segments, as the tarsal muscles indicate. In coleop-
teran larve with a five-segmented leg (fig. 43 B), therefore, it is
most probable that the tibia and tarsus are united, as also is indicated
by the attachment of the first branch of the pretarsal muscle (X).
Muscle insertions in many places are upon small chitinizations of an
articular membrane, rather than directly upon the part to be moved
by the muscle.
The idea that the pretarsus of the insect represents a primitive leg
segment has not been generally accepted, some entomologists regard-
ing it as a sixth segment of the tarsus, while others see in the terminal
Fic. 44.—Terminal foot structures of Thysanura.
A, hind claws and end of tarsus of Japy.x, dorsal view, showing rudimentary
median claw (p). B, same, ventral view, showing large unguitractor plate
(Utr). C, foot of Lepisma, lateral, with dactylopodite-like median claw (Dac)
to which is attached tendon (x) of depressor muscle. D, same, end view.
E, median claw, or dactylopodite, of Lepisma, with piece of depressor tendon (+).
structures only special developments of the last tarsal segment. The
present writer, however, would now adopt the view so well stated
and so fully illustrated by de Meijere (1901), that the pretarsus,
including the claws, the arolium, and all accessory parts of the foot
is a development of the dactylopodite of the generalized arthropod
limb.
A pretarsus having the form of a simple claw-like dactylopodite
occurs in the Protura, in some of the Collembola, in caterpillars,
sawfly larvee, and in most beetle larve. In the Lepismidz each pre-
tarsus has three claws, there being a slender decurved median claw
between the two lateral claws (fig. 44 C, D, Dac). The median claw
is a hollow structure (E) with the unguitractor tendon () attached
to its base, and, if the lateral claws were lacking, it would constitute
a miniature but typical dactylopodite. In Japyx the ventral part of
the pretarsus apparently has become developed into a large unguitrac-
tor plate (fig. 44 B, Utr), while a point that is perhaps its tip remains
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS Q7
as a rudimentary median claw (pf). In Campodea and Machilis the
median claw has disappeared and only the lateral claws remain. The
median arolium of many pterygote insects might be regarded as the
transformed body of the dactylopodite, though it appears more likely
that arolium, empodium, and pulvilli are all secondary formations.
The origin of the two lateral claws of the insects pretarsus should
be determined by a study of the transformation of a single-clawed
larval pretarsus, such as that of a caterpillar, into the two-clawed
structure of the adult, but this has not been done. De Meijere believes
that the claws are merely outgrowths of the base of the dactylopodite,
though he admits no evidence of this has been found in insects, but
he points out that the possibility of claws arising thus is shown by
the presence of dorsal claw-like structures on the dactylopodite of
certain isopods (aera, Janira, Munna). The articulation of the claws
to the end of the tarsus might suggest that they belong to the tarsus,
as claimed by Jeannel (1925), but the fact that the cavities of the
claws open through their wide bases into the lumen of the pretarsus
shows that the claws belong to the terminal segment. The tarsal
articulation of the claws, then, becomes of no more significance than
the articulation of any other leg segment to the segment proximal
to it. That the claws are not transformed sete is demonstrated by
their multicellular structure, and by the frequent occurrence of true
setze upon them.
There still remains to be discussed the question as to what was the
nature of the first articulations between the segments of the insect
leg. Borner (1921) believes that the double, or dicondylic, hinge is
the primitive one, and that the single articular point, or monocon-
dylic hinge, has resulted from a dorsal migration and union of
anterior and posterior condyles. Prell (1912) argues the reverse,
basing his claim on the fact that the joints of the telopodite in the
Protura have each a single dorsal articulation, and are provided with
flexor muscles only. The coxo-trochanteral joint is so constantly
dicondylic in arthropods that there is no reason for supposing it ever
had any other structure; but the common occurrence of monocondylic
articulations at the other joints in the legs of larve of holometabolous
insects, and their association with a dactylopodite-like end segment,
as in theeChilopoda (fig. 32), furnishes a basis for believing that the
primitive joints in the telopodite of the insect leg were of the mono-
condylic type. Further evidence of this is to be seen in the fact that
the segments of the maxillary and labial palpi are provided each with
only one muscle, a condition seldom found in connection with dicon-
dylic joints.
98 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
Though the leg of a caterpillar, both in its structure, as compared
with the leg of a centipede (fig. 32), and in its musculature, as com-
pared with that of a proturan (fig. 41), irresistibly suggests that it
is a primitive organ, it must yet be noted that, in the larve of
Neuroptera and Trichoptera, the adults of which certainly stand
below the Lepidoptera, the legs have a dicondylic knee joint and two
terminal claws. The same apparent phylogenetic discrepancy is to
be observed in the Coleoptera, where the larvee of most Adephaga
have two claws, and those of other groups only one claw. It should
be recognized, however, as shown by Berlese (1913), that the larvee
of different insects do not necessarily represent equivalent ontogenetic
stages, nor, therefore, equivalent phylogenetic stages. The larve of
more generalized adults are likely to have acquired many adult char-
acters, while those of more highly specialized adults may be of an
earlier ontogenetic stage and, consequently, may retain more primitive
characters.
VI. SUMMARY (EVOLUTION OF THE THORAX)
A brief review of the principal points elaborated in the preceding
discussions may be presented in the form of an outline of the probable
evolution of insects, since the specializations of the thorax and its
appendages constitute the most distinctive characters of insects.
1. In the primitive, segmented, but soft-bodied ancestors of the
arthropods, the limits of the body segments coincided with the lines
of attachment of the principal dorsal and ventral longitudinal muscles.
Modern adult arthropods, however, with solid body wall plates, have
developed a secondary segmentation, to allow a forward contraction
of the body, through the union of the muscle-bearing ridges of the
body wall with the segmental plates following, thus converting the
membranous posterior parts of the segments into the functional but
secondary intersegmental areas.
2. In the evolution of insects, as shown by ontogeny, and probably
of all arthropods, the earliest differentiation in the long, segmented
body consisted of the union of the anterior two or three segments
to form a primitive head, or procephalon, containing the first three
nerve centers condensed into a brain.
3. The distinctive character of insects began with the development
of the thorax as the locomotor center of the body, this being accom-
panied by the reduction of the appendages on most of the segments
following, and the transformation of those on the three segments im-
mediately preceding into gnathal organs, the segments of which later
unite with the procephalon to form the definitive head. The newly
NO. I INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS 99
localized center of gravity from now on determined the general form
and proportions of the body parts. The specialization of the thorax
before wings appeared consisted of structural changes better adapting
its segments to the functions of supporting the legs and of giving
more efficient attachment and action to the leg muscles.
4. The limbs of primitive arthropods were probably rather simple
appendages growing outward from the lateral or pleural areas of the
segments between the dorsum and the venter. They probably turned
forward and backward on their bases, each being moved by promotor
and remotor muscles, fibers of each set arising on the dorsum and on
the venter, or on the tergum and the sternum when segmental plates
were developed. The second segment of the limb most likely moved
in the opposite direction from the basal one, 7. ¢., it turned dorsally
and ventrally by a longitudinal axis on the first, and was provided
with abductor and adductor muscles. The third segment moved in
the same plane as the second, on a longitudinal axis with the latter.
The proximal three segments of the primitive limb were the subcoxa,
the coxa, and the first trochanter.
5. As the evolving limb came to need more solid support, the sub-
coxa became flattened out in the pleural wall of its segment, and lost
its power of motion. A dorsal piece of the distal rim of the subcoxa,
bearing the anterior and the posterior articulations with the coxa,
separated from the basal part, and the ventral region of the latter
degenerated, or united with the edge of the sternum. The subcoxa
thus became reduced to a basal eupleural arch and a distal trochantinal
arch, the two lying concentrically over the base of the coxa, and
having now the status of chitinous elements in the pleural wall of
the body segment.
6. The coxa, thus forced to replace the subcoxa as the functional
base of the limb, had to adapt itself to its new responsibilities. By
a shifting of its posterior articulation with the trochantin to a dorsal
position, it preserved for the limb the power of torward and back-
ward movement.. With the change, however, the coxa, acquired in
addition the possibility of a partial rotary motion, but, while it re-
tained its transverse movements, its abductor muscles lost efficiency
through the altered position of the articulation. The assumption by
the coxa of the former duties of the subcoxa involved a transfer of
the subcoxal muscles to the coxa. The dorsal promotor and remotor
muscles functioned still as such when attached to the coxa, but the
ventral muscles became rotary muscles, since the coxa was now free
to turn on its dorsal articulation. The abductor and adductor mus-
cles of the coxa, the first retaining its origin on the subcoxa (now
100 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
the pleuron), but the second being transferred to the sternum, still
act in their original capacities. The dorsal promotor is the last sub-
coxal muscle to be given over to the coxa, being retained by the
trochantin until this sclerite becomes rudimentary or disappears.
7. Before the wings appeared, or while they were developing into
organs of flight, the tendency of the subcoxa, now the chitinous
pleuron of the segment, apparently was to break up into various pieces .
that would allow flexibility to the lateral segmental wall. In the
Apterygota, the eupleural and trochantinal arches remain separate,
and both have become variously reduced. In the Protura the eupleural
arch has broken up into.a number of sclerites corresponding in a
general way with the eupleural plates of the Pterygota, perhaps indi-
cating that the proturan ancestors were nearly related to the ancestors
of the Pterygota; but in the other Apterygota the eupleuron has
become degenerate, and suggests no evolution toward the pleural
pattern of the Pterygota. In the early Pterygota, the eupleural arch
became divided into a dorsal plate, an anterior plate before the coxa,
and a posterior plate behind the coxa. The trochantin, still carrying
the coxal articulations, remained an independent sclerite for a while,
but its dorsal part later united with the dorsal eupleurite. The com-
pound plate thus formed then became strengthened by an internal
ridge extending upward from the dorsal articulution of the coxa,
and the corresponding external suture divided the plate into epister-
num and epimeron. The anterior part of the trochantin has become
detached in many insects to form a free sclerite still bearing the
anterior coxal articulation. In the higher pterygote groups the evolu-
tion of the pleuron has been toward a reunion of the sclerites to form
a solid segmental wall, especially in the wing-bearing segments.
Where the free remnant of the trochantin is lost, the coxa may ac-
quire a ventral articulation with the sternum, as in some of the
Apterygota.
8. When the thorax became set apart as a locomotor region, the
overlapping of its segmental plates and the telescoping of its segments
became a handicap to its functional development. To counteract its
mechanical weakness, the muscle-bearing parts of the sterna were
transferred from the anterior margins of the sternal plates to the
posterior margins of those preceding, thus bringing about a reversal
in the segmental relations of the ventral muscle attachments in the
thorax from those in the abdomen, When furcal arms were later
developed, the muscle attachments were farther transferred in part
or entirely to these processes, and the poststernal parts were then lost
or absorbed into the posterior margins of the principal sternal plates.
NO.” 5 INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS IOI
g. The wings, developed as lateral outgrowths of the dorsum,
entailed the development of a second set of modifications in the
thoracic structure, superposed on those already acquired in connection
with the development of legs as efficient organs for terrestrial or
arboreal progression. The wing lobes served at first probably as
planing surfaces that enabled their possessors to glide through the
air from elevated positions; there is no good evidence that they ever
had any other function.
10. The wings of all insects except the Odonata are still moved
principally by muscles present in the thorax when the wing lobes were
first acquired. The evolution of the wings involved the development of
a supporting apparatus from the dorsal part of the pleuron, changes
in the terga’ bearing them, and a general consolidation of the meso-
thorax and metathorax. Since the up-and-down motions of the wings
are produced by movements of the terga, the development of wing
motion demanded from the first a suppression of the flexible over-
lapping of the terga, and this was accomplished, as in the sterna, by
a transfer of the precostal margins of the third and fourth terga,
together with their muscle-bearing ridges or phragmata, to the seg-
ments preceding, where they constitute the postnotal plates. The
dorsal longitudinal muscles; could now effect an upward bending of
each tergum, giving a down-stroke to the wings, and the tergo-sternal
muscles could act antagonistically as elevators of the wings by flat-
tening the tergal arches. Since the wings have not been developed
alike in the two wing-bearing segments of all the orders, the tergal
readjustments vary accordingly.
11. The ridges on the under surfaces of the wing-bearing terga
have been developed in response to the needs of the terga as parts of
the wing mechanism. The tergal areas between the ridges, defined
on the exterior by the corresponding sutures, are therefore in no
sense primitive component elements of these terga, and are not to be
in the other segments.
b
homologized with tergal “ divisions ’
12. But few new muscles have been developed in most insects in
connection with the wings. In the Odonata, however, the primitive
musculature has been suppressed, and has been replaced by sets of
special wing ‘muscles attached directly to the wing bases. The
Odonata, therefore, represent a highly specialized line of descent
that branched off from the main pterygote stem at an early period,
but apparently since the time of the oldest insects known from the
paleontological records.
102 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
13. The legs of insects have undergone an evolution that hag re-
sulted in the typical leg structure of the adult, but various develop-
mental stages are preserved {in the legs of some of the lower insects,
and in those of certain larval forms. The third and fourth segments
of the primitive limb, the basipodite and the ischiopodite, have united
into a single small segment, the trochanter. The trochantero-femoral
joint, when movable, preserves its vertical axis of motion, with dorsal
and ventral articulations. A reductor femoris muscle persists, but
there is no productor. The femoro-tibial and tibio-tarsal joints have
lost their primitive monocondylic structure in most adult insects,
and have become dicondylic through the development of anterior and
posterior articulations, with the acquisition of levator muscles. The
tarsus, or propodite of the primitive limb, has become fragmented into
a series of sub-segments, typically five, but none of these sub-segments
have acquired muscles. The terminal leg segment, the dactylopodite,
has developed into the complicated pretarsus of most adult insects
through the suppression of the original median claw, and the develop-
ment of lateral claws, a median arolium, or various other accessory
lobes. A levator muscle of the dactylopodite is lacking in all insects ;
the depressor, with branches arising in the tibia, femur, and even
the trochanter, is retained as the “ retractor ” of the claws, the fibers
of its branches being inserted on the retractor apodeme, or “ tendon,”
attached to the unguitractor plate in the base of the pretarsus, possibly
a remnant of the original dactylopodite.
ABBREVIATIONS USED ON THE FIGURES
A, anal veins. B, oblique dorsal muscle.
longitudinal dorsal muscle, indirect Ba, basalare, episternal epipleurite
(parapteron).
Bs, basisternum.
depressor of wing.
Ab, abdomen.
Ac, antecosta.
ac, antecostal suture.
Acx, precoxal bridge.
ANP, anterior notal wing process.
Ant, antenna.
Aph, anterior phragma.
C, costa, first vein of wing.
tergo-sternal muscle, indirect ele-
vator of wing.
Cla, claw.
Cu, cubitus, fifth vein of wing.
Cv, cervix, neck.
Apl, anapleurite.
Ar, arolium.
Aw, prealar process, or bridge.
Ax, axillaries. rAd, first axillary;
2Ax, second axillary; 3Avx,
third axillary; 4Ax, fourth
axillary.
Gyncoxa:
CaC, coxal cavity.
CxP, pleural coxal process (b).
D, muscle of third axillary, flexor of
wing.
Dac, dactylopodite.
NO. I
E, basalar coxal muscle, direct ex-
tensor of wing.
Epl, eupleuron.
Epm, epimeron.
epm, subdivision of epimeron.
Eps, episternum.
eps, subdivision of episternum.
F, subalar coxal muscle, direct ex-
tensor and depressor of wing.
femur.
Fs, furcisternum.
Fu, furca, the sternal apophyses united
on median base.
G, muscle from pleural apophysis to
sternal apophysis.
Gc, jaw segments of head, gnatho-
cephalon.
H, head.
longitudinal ventral muscle.
I, promotor muscle of coxa.
I-XII, abdominal segments.
IS, first abdominal sternum.
ISg, intersegmental groove.
IT, first abdominal tergum.
J, remotor muscle of coxa.
K, anterior rotator muscle of coxa.
L, leg.
posterior rotator muscle of coxa.
LMcl, longitudinal muscles.
M, abductor muscle of coxa.
media, fourth vein of wing.
Afb, “ intersegmental ” membrane.
mb, secondary “ intersegmental ” mem-
brane behind base of phragma.
Mer, meron.
Mth, mouth.
N, adductor muscle of coxa.
O, levator muscle of trochanter.
Op, operculum.
INSECT THORAX—SNODGRASS
103
P, thoracic branch of depressor muscle
of trochanter.
Par, parapsis, parapsidal ridge.
par, parapsidal suture.
Pc, precosta, anterior marginal lip of
segmental plate before ante-
costal ridge and suture.
Pcx, postcoxal bridge.
Ph, phragma.
Pl, pleuron.
PIA, pleural apophysis.
pla, external root of PIA.
PIR, pleural ridge.
PIS, pleural suture.
PN, postnotum (postscutellum) post-
alar tergal plate of winged
segment, bearing phragma, con-
sisting of precosta and posterior
lip of phragma, usually detached
from following tergum.
PNP, posterior notal wing process.
Pph, posterior phragma.
PR, ridge between prescutum and
scutum.
Pre, procephalon (primitive head, not
including jaw segments).
PS, poststernum (postfurcisternum
and spinisternum).
ps, prescuto-scutal suture.
Psc, prescutum.
Ptar, pretarsus.
Pw, postalar bridge.
Q, coxal part of depressor muscle of
trochanter.
R, radius, third vein of wing.
reductor muscle of femur.
Rd, posterior fold, reduplication, of
tergum.
rd, anterior ventral margin of Rd.
S, levator muscle of tibia.
sternum.
SA, sternal apophysis.
Sa, subalare, epimeral
(parapteron).
sa, external root of sternal apophysis.
epipleurite
Sc, subcosta, second vein of wing.
104 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
Scl, scutellum. Tn, trochantin.
Scx, subcoxa. Tr, trochanter.
Sct, scutum.
sct, subdivision of scutum. U, levator muscle of tarsus.
Seg, segment.
Sp, spiracle.
Spn, spina, median process of post-
sternum.
Sty, stylus.
V, depressor muscle of tarsus.
VR, ridge between scutum and scutel-
lum.
vs, scuto-scutellar suture.
7, depressor muscle of tibia. ]
WP, pleural wing process.
tergum.
Tar, tarsus.
Tb, tibia. X, depressor muscle of dactylopodite,
Tg, tegula. retractor of claws.
Th, thorax. x, “tendon” of X.
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 80, NUMBER 2
A GROUP OF SOLAR CHANGES
BY
C. G. ABBOT
[Published at the expense of the Roebling Fund]
(PUBLICATION 2916)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
APRIE 25, 1927
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By €, G. ABBOT
The author recently published * a new method of testing the varia-
bility of the sun. Heretofore such variation has been indicated only
by successive observational values of the solar constant of radiation.
The new method depends on the selection of moments when the sun
is equally high above the horizon, the atmosphere equally clear, the
quantity of atmospheric water vapor identical, and the month of the
year the same, so that the temperature conditions will be substantially
comparable, both around the recording instrument and in the atmos-
phere itself.
Under such circumstances, if they could be met ideally, the atmos-
phere, although it reduces the intensity of the sun’s radiation, reduces
it in the same proportion on every chosen occasion. Accordingly, the
pyrheliometric measurements of total solar radiation made at such
moments should show the same percentage variations of the sun as
the solar constant observations, in which atmospheric influences are,
as we suppose, eliminated. Since the most critical selection must
admit some inequality in sky conditions, the new method is not appli-
cable to individual days, but gives good results only for means of
fairly numerous groups of days, such as occur in the course of a
month of observing.
The new test of comparative pyrheliometry on selected days was
applied to the observations of the months of July from I9g10 to
1920, omitting the years 1912 and 1913 when the great volcanic
eruption of Mt. Katmai, Alaska, rendered the atmosphere so hazy
that no suitable days could be found for comparison, The results
are shown in figure I, in which the single smooth curve represents
the selected pyrheliometric observations, the dotted curve represents
the hitherto published solar constant work, and the double full curve
represents the variation of the Wolfer sun-spot numbers. It will be
seen that, except for the year 1914, the new test is closely confirm-
atory of the solar variation shown by the published solar constant
work, and that there is an exceedingly close correspondence between
*See Monthly Weather Review, May, 1926.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 80, No. 2
os SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
the variations of the sun’s total radiation and the variation of the vis-
ible spottedness.
A second trial of the new method of testing solar variation was
undertaken with the observations of the Smithsonian station at Mt.
Montezuma, in Chile, from 1920 to 1926. The work was carried
through for each of the twelve months of the year. In this method
of working, one determines the general mean values, including all
the selected days for all the months of a given name, as, for instance,
the month of January, both for the selected pyrheliometry and for
the published solar constant values. He then determines the per-
centage differences of the mean values of each individual month of
Fic. 1—Selected pryheliometry, solar constant, and sun-spot numbers
compared. Mt. Wilson work, Julys 1910-1920.
January for the series, from the appropriate general mean. If no
changes of scale in the solar constant observations occur, the two
series (pyrheliometric and solar constant) ought to show, within
experimental error, the same march of the percentage deviations ;
but if, owing to the introduction of new observers, new methods of
observation, or of reduction, the scale of the solar constant values
is altered from time to time, then the correspondence between the
two series is impaired. Such, indeed, proved to be the case at Monte-
zuma. The accompanying table gives the collected results on selected
pyrheliometry and solar constants for all months from 1920 to 1926.
I give the weights and the weighted mean percentage departures
in each instance. It will readily be seen by comparing the differences
of percentage departures, as given in italic type, that for consider-
able intervals these differences run along roughly alike from month
to month and then abruptly change. In this way they indicate
that several small changes of scale occurred in the solar constant
observations.
SOLAR CHANGES—ABBOT
19.
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4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
These changes in scale of solar constant values have been deter-
mined by averaging the differences (given in italics in table 1)
throughout such intervals as they remained similar in magnitude;
These intervals were found to coincide closely with intervals between
known changes of procedure, which might have affected the scale
of solar constant values. Based upon these facts, and allowing also
for small watch errors, the corrections of table 2, in percentages,
and‘in calories per square centimeter per minute, have been deter-
mined to reduce all Montezuma observations to the scale which pre-
vailed from August, 1920, to June, 1921, and which is believed to
accord closely * with the Mount Wilson scale of 1905 to 1920.
These corrections of scale depending on changes of procedure,
and whose respective influences extend continuously for definite in-
tervals of many months, having been applied to the percentage
changes of solar constant values given in table 1, the resulting curves
of solar variation for the twelve months of the year are given in
figure 2, both as depending on selected pyrheliometry, and as depend-
ing on corrected solar constant values. The agreement between these
curves is really extraordinary. It will be seen that a general simi-
larity of the curves to those of the sun-spot variation is found, but
it is not for all months as close as was found for the months of
July, 1910, to 1920.
As meteorologists in various parts of the country are interested
in theoretical and practical studies of the variation of the sun, I
have thought best to furnish the following table 2 of monthly mean
solar constant values as originally published and now corrected by
taking account of the aforesaid changes of scale and of eccentricity
of the watches of observers. The table begins with August, 1918,
and ends with December, 1926. These values are not the final defin-
itive ones which we shall publish soon, when the laborious recompu-
tation of all recent solar constant results is completed, but they will
probably differ very little from the final values. They lead to the
curve given at the top of the accompanying figure 3. The Wolfer
monthly mean sun-spot numbers for the same interval of years are
plotted in the second line. It will be seen that while there is a general
tendency for higher solar radiation when sun spots are numerous,
* Thus from Monthly Weather Review, May, 1925, it appears that the method
of selected pyrheliometry verifies the corrections of solar constant at Mount
Wilson of 1919 and 1920, as. given on pages 177 to 180 of Annals of the
Astrophysical Observatory, Vol. 1V. These citations indicate for Mount Wilson
(mean of 100 values of 1918 to 1920, excluding July, 1918, and September,
1920) 1.950 calories. Correspondingly, table 2 gives 1.946 calories.
NO. 2 SOLAR CHANGES——-ABBOT 5
yet the correspondence of the two groups is not exceptionally close.
Figure 4, which was prepared some years ago to represent the
relationship between solar constant values and sun-spot numbers,
from all of the Mt. Wilson, Calama, and Montezuma observations
at that time available, indicates that the increase of solar radiation
ge Departures
9
Percenta
=<.
SS
Fic. 2.—Montezuma observations, all months, 1920 to 10925.
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Solar Constant - -~-- . Selected Fyrheliometry
. Sunspots
attending a given increase of sun-spot numbers is decidedly greater
when the total spottedness is small than when it is large. If this
consideration is kept in mind in examining figure 3, it will be seen,
in part, why the correspondence of the two curves is less marked
than perhaps might have been expected.
However, a new, and, as it seems to me, very important consid-
eration also influences the relationship between the two curves of
VOL. 80
MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
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NO. 2 SOLAR CHANGES——ABBOT 7.
figure 3. It is this: The results given in table 2 show a strongly
marked periodicity of 25; months. I mentioned this discovery to
Dr. Dayton C. Miller. At his invitation, | submitted, for harmonic
analysis and synthesis by his celebrated machines, 77 successive
months of solar constant results from June, 1920, to October, 1926.
These he used as they are given in table 2, except that smoothed
curves are drawn in some months of few observations. Dr. Miller’s
work is graphically shown in figure 5. The dotted curve is that which
Sain os SOLAR-CONSTANT. Catories te
psec arama | —
yl ee
N-SPOT TCMMBER Wotrer
nem j923 192
192) 1922 RASS ams
T
Ne
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T T T ; cs
| ed IN
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|
APRI9Z0 | N es
IN
tes
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194 } LAI !
| a
ve ee a oe EN
26- MONTH
195 - = == 0 - |
YIKA see
194 9
SOLAR-CONSTANT See ie |
193
\
Serr. 1924
& san Aa aloes
Pees ee Po Me a
| ARE eae
Fic. 3—Monthiy mean solar constant values, August, 1918, to December,
1926; sun-spot numbers; and indications of approximate 26-months regular
periodicity in solar radiation.
I supplied. The full curve above it is synthesized from the first 30
harmonic components of it as determined by means of his machine.
The first and second components are of little interest, as they give
merely the effort of the machine to represent the II-year sun-spot
cycle with only 64 years of data. Periods of 77/3, 77/5, 77/6, 77/7,
77/9, 77/10, 77/12, 77/14 and 77/15 months, however, stand out with
more or less distinctness. By far the strongest of them is the one of
77/3 or 25% months, but it seems to be associated with “ overtones ”
(to borrow an expression from sound) of 3, 4, 4, and # its period.
This fundamental period of nearly 2 years and 2 months has been
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
mentioned by many authors as associated with weather and crop
harvests.”
The period 77/5, or 15% months, is approximately equal to that
which Professor Dinsmore Alter has been discussing as § the sun-
spot period, in his publications on world precipitation. It appears
also in its “overtones ” of $ and 3 period.
Finally there is the period of 77/7, or 11 months, which Clayton
and I called attention to several years ago” as occurring in the solar
A
PE ETTT
nine
197,
1.96
OLAR CONSTANT
S
19215
Fic. OL, sun-spot activity ne ree solar constant values.
2 > oS
radiation. Periods approximating this are also noted by several au-
thors in weather phenomena.” An “ overtone” of $ the period of 11
months is also distinguishable.
With his synthesizing machine, Dr. Miller built up the top curve
of figure 5, and exterpolated it for several months beyond the data
furnished him. Thus far the results from Montezuma have agreed
well with this forecast of Dr. Miller which foretold a sharp rise
of the solar constant. If, in the next few years, it should be found
*See Brunt, aes Journ. Roy. Met. Soc., Vol. 53, p. 16, and others.
See Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 77, No. 5, p. 9, 1925.
*See Brunt, just cited, page 23.
ee
SOLAR CHANGES—ABBOT
NO.
lysis of monthly mean solar constant values.
1c ana
Harmon
5
Fic.
ie) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
that these definite uniform periodicities continue in solar variation,
we shall be encouraged to predict the radiation of the sun for years
in advance. If successful in such predictions, all that may hang
upon solar variation will become equally predictable.
Contemplating the variation of the sun, one is inclined to ask
whether all wave lengths take part proportionally in producing it,
or whether, as one would naturally expect, the variation grows
greater and greater towards shorter wave lengths. This question we
answered in the latter sense several years ago, by the curves of figure 6.
This indicates that, in fact, the red and infra-red vary almost not at
1.30
SPECTRAL VARIATIONS OF THE|SUN
A,B, HARQUA HALA. SOLAR CHAINGES, 2.3AND 1.05 %
C, MONTEZUMA, SHORT-INTERVAL CHANGES, 1.45 %
A —e so Sao
ae WAVE
0.354 LENGTH! O,40 0,50 0,60 |Q70 O80 1,00 1.90 2.)00z
beviarion 200" 150! | 00" 50’
Fic. 6.—Solar variation localized in the violet and ultra-violet.
all; but that the solar variation keeps increasing, and very rapidly, as
we go to the shorter and shorter wave lengths. With a range of
only 2.3 per cent in total radiation, the ultra-violet, at wave length
0.35 micron, shows a variation in figure 6 of about 30 per cent. It
would be supposed, in view of this, that if our observations should
be continued to the limit of the solar spectrum, at 0.29 micron, we
should find there, perhaps, as much as 100 per cent change. In other
words, if the eye were sensitive to these extremely short wave
lengths, it would see the sun twice as bright on some days as on
others. ,
This expectation is confirmed by the observations of Dr. Pettit at
Mount Wilson Observatory. By silvering a quartz lens, which
NO. 2 SOLAR CHANGES——ABBOT II
thereby became opaque, except for a narrow range of wave lengths
centering about 0.316 micron, he was able to select a very narrow
region of ultra-violet spectrum, and compare its intensity outside
the atmosphere with the intensity of the solar radiation in the green.
The ratios of violet to green, in Pettit’s monthly mean values, show
a range of 60 per cent at a mean wave length of 0.316 micron.
It would naturally be expected that these large ultra-violet varia-
tions observed by Pettit would accompany exactly in point of time
the variations of total radiation as determined by Smithsonian ob-
servations. Pettit has kindly communicated some of his results
to me, and in figure 7 the two sets of observations are brought
i) Rie le eal a
ieueeauemenea
mA A
MR
AIST express
Fie. 7 ae of Smithsonian eee mean solar constant ee
with ultra-violet solar radiation values of Pettit.
together, with the scale of the ordinates of the Smithsonian work
expanded to match that of Pettit. The agreement between the two
series seems very satisfactory, in view of the fact that the range of
total solar radiation is only about 1.5 per cent, so that one can not
hope that the accuracy of the Smithsonian determinations is sufficient
to give perfect correspondence on this very wide scale. Further-
more, Pettit has observed only on four days per month in the earlier
part of his investigation; while in the latter part he has included
every possible day, and among them some of doubtful uniformity
of sky. In view of these circumstances it is not to be supposed that
his monthly results are without considerable error. :
Also, interestingly associated with solar variation are results re-
cently communicated to me by Dr. Austin on the variation of inten-
VOL. 80
COLLECTIONS
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS
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sity of reception of long-range radio-transmission. Figure 8 gives
three curves, as plotted by Austin. The first represents the monthly
mean departures from a three-year’s mean of the radio reception at
Washington from several distant stations. The second curve shows
similar departures of the Wolfer sun-spot numbers, and the third,
the corresponding departures of the Smithsonian provisional solar
constant values, given above in table 2. Dr. Austin has informed me
that the probable error of his observations of individual days on
radio reception is from 10 to 20 per cent, so that in the monthly
means it must be from 2 to 4 per cent. The general accord of the
three curves seems to indicate that the departures of monthly mean
radio reception from average values are almost wholly dependent
on the state of solar radiation.
In what has been said, we have been concerned only with long-
interval changes of the solar radiation, and associated terrestrial phe-
nomena. My colleagues and I have long believed that these changes are
due to changes in the effective temperature of the sun’s radiating
surface, which depend on the activity of convection in the stun’s
substance. We have noted, also, solar fluctuations of such short inter-
vals as a few days. These we attribute to the rotation of the sun
which brings successively opposite to the earth regions of unequal
radiating power, or perhaps, rather, of unequal absorbing or scatter-
ing power, on the sun’s surface.
In harmony with this idea, the planets, which lie in different
directions, viewed from the sun, will successively feel the changing
influence of each inequality of the solar surface, as the rotation of
the sun brings such inequalities into line with the planets successively.
‘A\s the sun’s equator is inclined to the ecliptic, the interval of time
to be allowed differs a little from that which would be the case if the
inclination were zero. Furthermore, if one observes from the earth
some effect upon a distant planet, due to a variation of solar emission,
the time of observation will be influenced by the time required for
light to travel out to the distant planet and return to the earth. For
the causal irregularity of the solar surface is moving by solar rotation
while the light is on the way.
In Volume IV of the annals of Astrophysical Observatory, page
190, figure 13, a not unfavorable test of this hypothesis is given,
depending on a comparison of observations by Guthnick of the planet
Saturn as compared with Smithsonian observations of the solar con-
stant of radiation.
While we are considering short interval solar variations, I give in
figure 9 a series of curves taken from table 6 of Clayton’s paper
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VOL. 80
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NO. 2 SOLAR CHANGES—ABBOT 15
entitled “ Solar Radiation and Weather, or Forecasting Weather from
Observations of the Sun,” * in which the barometric pressure for the
cities of Winnipeg, Chicago, and New York, are compared, cor-
responding to conditions of high, medium, and low solar constant
values. The data from which these curves are plotted are given in
table 3. In plotting the figure, the dotted curves represent the march
of barometric pressure corresponding to high solar constant.
Barometric Pressure
ITS.
ESS Ee
Fic. 9—Barometric pressures attending and following high and low states
of solar radiation.
In order to bring out what seems to me a strong case of continuity,
I have brought together the pairs of barometric curves corresponding
to the largest solar constant differences at the top of the figure, those
corresponding to the smaller intervals lower down, and the mean
at the bottom. It will be seen that for each of the cities the greatest
deviation in barometric pressure corresponds to the greatest in solar
constant, the next smaller to the medium in solar constant, and the
least to the smallest difference in solar constant. The reader will
perceive also that generally the full and the dotted curves run con-
trastingly like the right hand to the left. He will also see that the
‘Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 77, No. 6, 1925.
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
largest pressure difference occurs at Winnipeg on zero day, at
Chicago on the second day, and at New York on the third day after
the solar constant event.
It is, of course, to be expected that any wave of disturbance of
barometric pressure appearing in winter at Winnipeg on a certain
day would drift eastward, and appear at Chicago and New York after
about the intervals of time here shown. This is only ordinary well-
known meteorological experience, and proves nothing as to the influ-
ence of solar variation. But that in the mean results of such numerous
groups of cases there should remain residuals of the order of 0.15
inch in barometric pressure, and residuals so well exhibiting the
principals of continuity and proportionality relative to a supposed
cause seems to be, at least, very harmonious to the hypothesis that
the assumed cause, solar variation, has a real relationship to the
observed effects.
As it has been suggested to me that these results of Clayton’s
would perhaps be essentially modified had he been advised of the
corrections to scale, mentioned in connection with table 2, I may add
that his results concern only solar constant observations of the winter
half-years between October 1, 1918, and March 31, 1922, during
which only the few values of October, 1921, would be appreciably
affected by the new changes of scale. It will appear, too, by inspection
of figure 3, that this period was one of unusual freedom from great
swings of the solar constant such as we attribute to general changes
of the solar surface temperature, so that the fluctuations which he
discusses will have been principally those of short interval.
From the various evidences assembled in this paper, added to many
others previously published, my colleagues and myself are more and
more encouraged to believe that our long investigation of solar varia-
tion will yield useful positive results.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 80, NUMBER 3
FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS FROM THE
GRAND CANYON: SECOND
CONTRIBUTION
(WITH 21 PLATEs)
BY
CHARLES W. GILMORE
Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology,
United States National Museum
(PUBLICATION 2917)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
UE Ne3 071927;
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.
FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS FROM THE GRAND CANYON:
SECOND CONTRIBUTION
By CHARLES W. GILMORE
CURATOR OF VERTEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
(Wi1tTH 21 PLATES)
INTRODUCTION
In continuation of an investigation of the fossil footprints of the
Grand Canyon, so successfully begun in 1924,’ I was enabled, through
an allotment granted by the Marsh Fund committee of the National
Academy of Sciences, to visit the Canyon again in the early spring
of 1926. This expedition had as its purpose the acquisition of addi-
tional fossil tracks from the Coconino and Hermit formations, and
the extension of the investigation into the older Supai formation in
which the discovery of fossil tracks had been reported by Mr. J. R.
Eakin, Superintendent of the Grand Canyon National Park. The
expedition was successful far beyond expectations, the collection
made for the United States National Museum comprising a series
of slabs some 2,700 pounds in weight, on which are animal tracks
from three distinct and successive geological formations.
The old locality in the Coconino sandstone on the Hermit Trail
was explored laterally and a large series of beautifully preserved
tracks and trails secured, including many forms new to this ichnite
fauna, and the Hermit shale, some 1,400 feet below the level of the
Canyon rim, yielded both fossil tracks and plants. The discovery of
a wing impression of a large dragonfly-like insect records for the
first time the presence of such forms in the latter formation. Finally
in the Supai formation at a level about 1,800 feet below the rim,
another footprint horizon was located and a few poorly preserved
tracks were collected from this level on both the Hermit and Yaki
trails. It is upon these collections that the systematic part of the
present paper is based. Even with the diversity of forms now
available, it is still quite evident that further collecting will add many
more varieties to the known ichnite faunas of these three formations.
I am under especial obligations to Dr. John C. Merriam and his
associates on the Marsh Fund committee of the National Academy of
*Gilmore, Charles W., Fossil footprints from the Grand Canyon. Smith-
sonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 77, No. 9, 1926, pp. 1-39, 12 plates and 23 text figures.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 80, No. 3
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
Sciences for the financial assistance which made this investigation
possible. The loan of type specimens by Dr. R. S. Lull, Peabody
Museum of Natural History, Yale University, Dr. Witmer Stone of
the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, and Dr. John J.
Tilton of the University of West Virginia, was of the greatest assis-
tance in the study of the material. I wish also to express my apprecia-
tion for the help and many courtesies rendered by the various members
of the Park organization. To Superintendent J. R. Eakin I am
deeply indebted for the use of equipment, and assistance of person-
nel; to Mr. E. T. Scoyen, chief ranger, for the detail of ranger
assistants, and for his personal interest on many occasions; and to
Mr. G. E. Sturdevant, ranger naturalist, whose efficient help and
familiarity with fossil localities contributed so much to the successful
outcome of the expedition. Mr. Arthur Metszer, who acted as my
assistant on this as well as on my previous trip, furnished intelligent
and industrious help in making the collections, and throughout the
work exhibited a personal interest in the success of the expedition
second only to my own.
GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE OF FOSSIL TRACKS
In the Grand Canyon National Park, the tracks of extinct animals
occur in three distinct geological formations which, named in descend-
ing order, are the Coconino, Hermit, and Supai. Credit for the dis-
covery of fossil tracks in the Grand Canyon goes to Professor Charles
Schuchert of Yale University, who, in 1915, while making a study
of the geology of the Hermit Trail section, noted the presence of
tracks in all three formations.” After reading his account of their
occurrence it is quite apparent that he was unaware at the time of
their great abundance and variety. Fossil tracks occur in considerable
abundance in all of these formations and at several levels. These
later investigations show that in the great variety of footprints found
and in the perfection of their preservation, there are few localities
that outrank this one. It is further unique in being probably the only
place in the world where fossil tracks of three successive faunas may
be found in one nearly vertical geological section, separated by such
great geological intervals.
Tracks occur throughout a zone 130 feet thick in the lower part
of the Coconino (see fig. 1), the bottom 20 feet being barren of
impressions. In the Hermit shale, tracks, plants, and insects were
found in the hollows or troughs eroded in the top of the underlying
*Amer. Journ. Sci., Ser. 4, Vol. 45, 1918, pp. 350, 354, and 357.
NO: 3 GRAND CANYON
FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE g
Supai sandstone from 30 to 40 feet above the Hermit-Supai contact.
In the Supai, two levels some 25 or 30 feet apart near the middle
of that formation are track-bearing. Thus these evidences of past
life range through over 800 feet of
strata. These horizons lie, roughly
stated, as follows: Coconino, g00 to
1,030 feet ; Hermit, 1,350 to 1,400 feet ;
and Supai, 1,760 to 1,800 feet below the
top of the Canyon wall.
At the present time tracks are known
in these formations on the Yaki and
Hermit Trails only, but doubtless their
geographical range will be rapidly ex-
tended now that their precise levels
have been ascertained. A more de-
tailed discussion of the occurrence and
character of the beds in which the
tracks are found is given below.
Coconino sandstone —The Coconino
sandstone and the manner of occur-
rence of its fossil footprints was dis-
cussed at some length in my previous
paper, and at this time it seems only
necessary to record such observations
as resulted from my later visit to the
Canyon.
The curious fact that the trend of
nearly all of the tracks and trails was
in one direction, that is, up the slope
of the crossbedded sandstones, has pre-
viously been noted, and examination of
many additional hundred square feet
of track-covered surface of the Coco-
nino verifies this original observation.
In all of the hundreds of trails seen,
only three exceptions were found. It
should also be mentioned that where
_ Kaibab
limestone
Coconino
sandstone
Fossil
tracks
Hermit
shale
Fossil \\
tracks
Plants |
Insects !
Fossil
tracks CIT, ;
Supai
formation
Pennsylvanian
Redwall
limestone
Fic. 1—Upper part of the
geological section on Hermit
Trail. Position and extent of
track-bearing strata indicated.
(Section (modified) after
Noble. )
tracks were seen in situ on the Yaki Trail, this same condition obtained.
The vertical range of tracks in the Coconino seems to be confined
to the basal 150 feet of the formation of which the lowermost 20
are barren, and this same condition was found to prevail in the newly
*Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 77, No. 9, 1926, pp. 1-41, pls. I-12.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
discovered locality on the Yaki Trail. More extended exploration of
the Hermit Trail locality shows that tracks are abundant on both
sides of the trail wherever physical conditions are such as to allow
search being made for them. The track called Laoporus noblei Lull
is the predominating species and is apparently present wherever
tracks are found. Footprints of several of the species described in
my former paper were reccgnized in the field, but only exceptional
examples of these were collected as the object in mind was to secure
as many different kinds as possible, in order that the complete fauna
might be made known. In this we were successful to the extent of
procuring specimens sufficiently well preserved on which to base three
genera and ten species all new to the fauna, thus nearly doubling the
faunal list ; but, as stated before, it is quite apparent from a study of
the new materials that a considerable number of undescribed forms
may yet be found.
The ichnite fauna of the Coconino now consists of the following
described genera and species:
VERTEBRATES
Agostopus matheri Gilmore
Agostopus medius n, sp.
Agostopus robustus n. sp.
Allopus ? arizonae Gilmore
Amblyopus pachypodus n. gen. and sp.
Barypodus palmatus Gilmore
Barypodus tridactylus n. sp.
Barypodus metszeri n. sp.
Baropus coconinoensis n. sp.
Baropezia eakini Gilmore
Dolichopodus tetradactylus Gilmore
Laoporus noblei Lull
Laoporus schucherti Lull
Laoporus coloradoensis (Henderson)
Nanopus merriami Gilmore
Nanopus maximus n. sp.
4 Paleopus regularis Gilmore
INVERTEBRATES
Mesichnium benjamini Gilmore
Octopodichnus didactylus n. gen. and sp.
Paleohelcura tridactyla Gilmore
Triavestigia niningeri n. gen. and sp.
Unisulcus sinuosus n. sp.
In the Coconino formation, fossil tracks are now known to occur
at three distinct localities. On the Hermit Trail some little distance
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 5
below the “ White Zig Zags,” where the upper part of the track-bear-
ing horizon is marked by large cleared slabs by the side of the trail
showing the footprints in situ, an out-of-doors exhibit was prepared
on a former visit to the locality. Exploration of the slope to the north
and south of this point disclosed track-covered surfaces wherever the
local conditions permitted search for them. A second locality at
“ Dripping Springs ” at the head of Hermit Gorge was not visited,
although I was informed that tracks were to be found there. Dr.
David White, accompanied by G. E. Sturdevant, visited this locality
during the summer of 1926, and in a personal letter says: “‘ On the
Dripping Springs trail the tracks are very numerous and large ones
in particular are abundant.” The third locality is on the new Yaki
Trail where it crosses the lower 150 feet of the Coconino sandstones
some three and one-half miles east of Grand Canyon. Conditions
here were not so favorable for examination of the sandstone sur-
faces, but numerous tracks and trails were seen; these were so poorly
preserved, however, that no attempt was made to collect them, In
so far as one may rely on field identifications the tracks seemed to
pertain to the same species as those found in Hermit Basin, some
seven or eight miles distant in an air line. Several tracks of the
common Laoporus noblei were recognized.
That other localities yielding fossil footprints will be found in this
formation there seems no question, but the precipitous face of the
formation does not allow searching for them except at a few favored
localities.
Hermit shale—Schuchert, who was the first to discover fossil
tracks in the Hermit shale, makes the following comments on their
occurrence : *
Just below the sign “ Red Top” in the lower turn of the Hermit Trail and
immediately above the thick upper sandstones [of the Supai] are seen thin-
bedded red shaly sandstones alternating with deep-red zones of shale. The
surfaces of the glistening and smooth platy sandstones are replete with fillings
of the small prisms of interbedded) suncracked shales, often rain-pitted, and
further marked by the foot impressions of freshwater amphibians described
elsewhere in this number of the Journal by Professor Lull,? as Megapezia ?
coloradensis and Exocampe ? delicatula. Some of the tracks are distinct
impressions of the feet, and others are mere strokes of the toes. In these
same beds also occur plant remains in very fragmentary condition which
were badly macerated and coated with a slime of red mud during their
entombment.
No further collection of tracks was made from the Hermit shale
up to the time of the present expedition and consequently the known
*Amer. Journ. Sci., Ser. 4, Vol. 45, 1918, pp. 353-354.
? Lull, R. S., Ibid., pp. 337-346.
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
ichnite fauna was confined to the two species mentioned above. Under
the guidance of G. E, Sturdevant, who had previously made one or
more prospecting trips over the Hermit shale at the head of Hermit
Gorge (see pl. 1, figs. 1 and 2), we were led without loss of time to
the locality from which many of the specimens described in this
paper were collected. This locality may be roughly stated as being
about one-quarter of a mile west of the sign “ Red Top” on the
slopes facing north or toward the entrance of Hermit Gorge into the
main Canyon of the Colorado, and from 30 to 40 feet above the
Hermit-Supai contact. The red shales that carry the tracks and plant
remains lie in troughs eroded in the upper part of the Supai sand-
stone (see fig. 2). In some instances the knolls of sandstone rise
50 feet above the base of the hollow, and all of the tracks found
T_Upper Clifh Making.
a oe of Xhe ee: ae ae
Fic. Pras, to eee. pera contact between the
Hermit shale and Supai sandstone, and to indicate the position
of the track and plant bearing horizon at X. (Modified from
Schuchert.)
in situ came from two levels, one about 30 feet and a second 40 feet
above the base of one of these troughs. Both track and plant remains
were found also on the loose slabs covering these slopes even well
around toward the head of Hermit Gorge opposite “ Dripping
Springs,” but, as previously mentioned, only two thin layers were
found in place. Noble,’ however, reports finding plant remains “ from
beds at the base of the Hermit shale resting in depressions in the
unconformity near ‘Red Top’ in Hermit Basin.”
The Hermit shale, so named by Noble in 1922, was formerly in-
cluded in the Supai formation and has a thickness in the Hermit
Trail section of 317 feet measured from the base of the deepest
depression in the disconformity in the top of the Supai, and 267 feet
measured from the top of the highest knoll.
The Hermit shale is described by Noble as follows: ”*
The beds differ little from one another in composition and consist essentially
of sandy mud colored red by ferritic pigment. The beds that I have desig-
4 Prof. Paper No. 131,-U.-S. Geols Surv, 1922; p. 66:
* Op. ctt., pp. 64-65.
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 7
nated sandstone in the section are massive and relatively compact as con-
trasted with the beds that I have designated shale, which are thinly laminated,
but the distinction between sandstone and shale is unimportant. All the
strata are friable. Many beds exhibit sun-cracks and rain-prints, some are
ripple-marked. * * * Everywhere the formation makes a slope which is in
strong topographic contrast with the sheer cliff of the overlying Coconino
sandstone and with the steplike cliffs and ledges of the underlying Supai.
The beds containing the tracks in place are horizontal, and, where
exposed to the weather, split into thinly laminated sheets; but as
work was continued back into the hillside the layers became more
massive.
In removing these layers it was found that one surface might be
covered with tracks and plant remains and the very next one beneath
devoid of all fossil evidence. Often a trackway could be clearly
traced for a short distance only to become more and more indistinct
and finally to entirely disappear, probably due to the varying degrees
of softness of the surface at the time the animal passed over it. Some
few of the trails have the imprints beautifully distinct but in many
the details are destroyed by the inflowing mud after the withdrawal
of the foot, which would suggest that they may have been made
beneath a slight depth of water. No doubt tracks could be found in
the Hermit shale at many other localities were search made for them,
but such prospecting as was done where the Yaki Trail crosses the
formation failed to disclose any, although plant remains were found
in some abundance.
The recognition of many forms of the same genera as those de-
scribed from other Carboniferous areas is of interest, especially
those from Joggins and Paraboro, Nova Scotia. The conditions under
which these tracks were made in such widely separated localities,
seem to have been very similar as evidenced by the many resemblances
not only in fauna but in the structural and lithologic features of the
track-bearing rocks.
The fauna of the Hermit shale as known at this time consists of
the following forms:
VERTEBRATES
Batrachichnus delicatula (Lull)
B. obscurus n. sp.
Collettosaurus pentadactylus n. sp.
Crusipes sp.
Dromillopus parvus n. sp.
Hyloidichnus bifurcatus n. gen., n. sp.
Hylopus hermitus n. sp.
Parabaropus coloradensis (Lull)
INVERTEBRATES
Dragonfly-like insect
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
This ichnite fauna is quite distinct from that of the Coconino which
came after, or the Supai which preceded it.
Supat formation—The Supai formation in the Hermit Trail sec-
tion, as estimated by Noble,’ has a total thickness of 950 feet. The
first evidence of footprints occurring in this formation was noted by
Schuchert in 1915.” Apparently no one gave the discovery further
attention until 1925 when well defined tracks were found by G. E.
Sturdevant on loose blocks of sandstone lying below the new Yaki
Trail on the north end of O’Neill Butte, at a point slightly more than
two miles down from the top. This information was, together with
other discoveries made in the same locality, given to me by Superin-
tendent J. R. Eakin. In all of the early discoveries the tracks were
on detached blocks found lying on the hillside, and it was not until
the late winter of 1926 that Dr. John C. Merriam of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington, accompanied by Mr. Sturdevant, found
tracks in situ (see pl. 2, fig. 2). These were in a sandstone layer
estimated to lie in about the middle of the formation.
Unaware, at the time, of Schuchert’s previous discovery of tracks
in the Supai, I made this locality the first object of search in the
spring of 1926, accompanied by Mr. Sturdevant. Our prospecting
disclosed many additional tracks and we located a second track-bearing
horizon in a light colored sandstone some 30 feet above those found
by Merriam and Sturdevant.
Numerous tracks and trackways were found on blocks of stone
in the débris which had been thrown below the trail in the course of
excavating. No further attention was given the Supai tracks until
near the close of operations when an attempt was made to locate
these same track-bearing horizons in the Hermit Trail section in order
that they might be considered with the other track-bearing formations
in a single geological section. In this we were successful, finding the
first recognizable footprints in a whitish friable sandstone to the
left and below the Hermit Trail at a point about one-half mile below
“Santa Maria Spring.” Rather poorly preserved tracks of at least
three kinds of animals were seen. The most distinct series collected
is shown in plate 21. This is probably the same horizon in the for-
mation in which Schuchert made the original discovery. The follow-
ing day search was made for the lower horizon and passing backward
underneath the cliff after descending the first short zig-zags above
“ Breezy Point,” tracks were found, thus establishing their position
in the section as identical with those previously found in the Yaki
(OVI ehing, Wile Ws),
Amer. Journ. Sci., Ser. 4, Vol. 45, p. 357.
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 9
Trail section. That there is a distinct ichnite fauna in this formation
is clearly evident though unfortunately the extreme hardness of the
sandstone—and hence its failure to cleave in most instances—makes
the collecting of tracks a problem requiring special tools and trained
personnel.
Schuchert’s* description of the Supai as exposed on the Hermit
Trail is as follows:
The lower Supai formation [Supai of modern nomenclature] begins with a
thick-bedded and cross-bedded cliff-making sandstone of about 150 feet in
thickness. Beneath it are red sandy shales with two: bands of sandstones that
together have an estimated thickness of 200 feet. At the base of this
zone is another horizon of thin flaggy beds with some sun-crack fillings and an
abundance of rain-prints of the mammillary kind, interpreted as having been
made by long continued rain. Midribs of either ferns or cycadofilices were
seen and probably also indistinct feet imprints of amphibians. The trail runs
along this zone for about two miles and one has a fine opportunity to study
the sediments and to note the abundance of rainprints and a few rill markings.
The next lower zone is a cliff-making sandstone about 50 feet in height.
Then follows one of shales 100 feet thick, that near the top has beds of
septaria-like limy concretions embedded in a dark purple sandy mud. * * *
associated are also thin zones of intraformational conglomerates with flat and
somewhat rounded small pebbles; the shale pieces have blackened surfaces.
In the field it was estimated that the tracks occurred about 1,800
feet below the rim, but upon checking up with Noble’s measurements
of this section the conclusion is reached that the lowermost horizon
would be about 1,767 feet down and the highest track-bearing layer
about 1,717 feet below the top.
As redefined by Noble in 1922 the Supai formation is of Pennsyl-
vanian and ? Permian age and rests with possible unconformity on
the underlying Mississippian Redwall limestone. The sandstone has
its grains bound together by calcareous cement as contrasted with the
siliceous binding materials of the Coconino. Noble points out that
the thick layers are conspicuously cross-bedded and that the prevailing
dip is south as in the Coconino, and further it was noticed that in
the majority of instances the trackways were ascending the slopes
of the cross-bedding as in the Coconino.
*As this paper was going to press, the National Museum received a slab of
footprints, presented by Mr. G. E. Sturdevant, which was found by him in the
Supai formation at one side of the Bright Angel Trail. In addition to its
being an undescribed genus and species, it also records a new locality for
tracks in the Grand Canyon.
It is also worthy of mention that Mrs. G. E. Sturdevant found a small
section of the trail of some invertebrate animal in the Bright Angel shale, Cam-
brian, a specimen that was also donated to the National collections.
(OP. Cik.,. Px 357%
ie) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
The tracks occur in Noble’s subdivision B of this formation, and he
is inclined to regard the entire Supai as of Pennsylvanian age. The
fossil tracks so far collected are all new genera and species and offer
no evidence bearing on this question.
The ichnite fauna of the Supai sandstone as known at this time
consists of the following described genera and species :
VERTEBRATES
Anomalopus sturdevanti n. gen., n. sp.
Stenichnus yakiensis n. gen., n. sp.
Tridentichnus supaiensis n. gen., n. Sp.
LIST OF DESCRIBED TRACKS FROM THE CARBONIFEROUS OF
NORTH AMERICA
The following list of Carboniferous footprints is a complete roster
of all tracks described up to the present time. This list, consisting
of 34 genera and 60 species, is badly in need of revision, a task that
would doubtless decrease rather than increase the totals given. In
order to add to its value as a reference list, the geological horizon and
general locality of each is recorded. The geological occurrence of
many of the earlier described species was given as Coal Measures,
but in the present list, in so far as I have been able, I have
made more precise assignment of these, following the more recent
age determinations.
Name Horizon Locality
Agostopus matheri Gilmore...... Permian (Coconino).Grand Canyon, Ariz.
Allopus ? arizonae Gilmore...... Permian (Coconino) .Grand Canyon, Ariz.
Allopus ? littoralis Marsh........ Pennsylvanian ...... Osage Co., Kans.
Anomoepus ? culbertsonii (King) .Coal Measures....... Westmoreland Co., Pa.
Anomoepus ? gallinuloides Coal Measurés...2cn. Westmoreland Co., Pa.
(King).
Anthracopus ellangowensis Pennsylvanian ...... Mahanoy Coal Field,
Leidy. Pa.
Asperipes avipes Matthew........ Coal Meastiress ses. Joggins, Nova, Scotia.
Asperipes caudifer (Dawson)....Coal Measures....... Joggins, Nova Scotia.
Asperipes flexilis Matthew....... Coal Measures....... Joggins, Nova Scotia.
Barillopus arctus Matthew....... Coal Measures....... Joggins, Nova Scotia.
Barillopus confusus Matthew....Coal Measures....... Joggins, Nova Scotia.
Barillopus unguifer Matthew..... Coal Measures....... Joggins, Nova Scotia.
Baropezia abcissa Matthew....... Coal Measures....... Joggins, Nova Scotia.
Baropezia eakini Gilmore........ Permian (Coconino) .Grand Canyon, Ariz.
Baropezia sydnensis (Dawson)...Coal Measures....... Sydney, Nova Scotia.
Baropus lentus Marsh............ Pennsylvanian ...... Osage Co., Kans.
Barypodus palmatus Gilmore..... Permian (Coconino) .Grand Canyon, Ariz.
NO. 3
Name
Batrachichnus plainvillensis
Woodworth.
Chirotherium ? heterodactylum
King.
Chirotherium ? reiteri Moore...
Collettosaurus indianaensis Cox..
Crucipes parvus Butts
Cursipes dawsoni Matthew
Cursipes levis Matthew
Dolichopodus tetradactylus Gil-
more.
Dromillopus quadrifidus Matthew.
Dromopus aduncus Branson
Dromopus agilis Marsh
Dromopus velox Matthew
Dromopus ? woodworthi
Duovestigia scala Butts
Exocampe ? delicatula Lull
Hylopus hardingi Dawson
Elepalerele) s)e1e) 5).6
ee eee ee
ey
alle.
Hylopus logani Dawson
Hylopus minor Dawson
Laoporus coloradoensis (Hen-
derson).
Laoporus noblei Lull
Laoporus schucherti Lull
Limnopus vagus Marsh..........
Megapezia ? coloradensis Lull. .
Megapezia ? pineoi Matthew
Nanopus caudatus Marsh
Nanopus merriami Gilmore
Nanopus obtusis Matthew........
Nanopus quadratus Matthew.....
Notalacerta jacksonensis Butts. .
Notalacerta missouriensis Butts..
Notamphibia magma Butts
Onychopus, gigas Martin
Ornithoides ? adamsi Matthew...
Ornithoides ? trifidus (Dawson).
Palaeosauropus antiquior (Daw-
son).
Palaeosauropus primaevus (Lea).
Paleohelcura tridactyla Gilmore..
Paleopus regularis Gilmore....
Pseudobradypus unguifer (Daw-
son).
GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE
.Coal Measures
. Alleghanian
. Permian
. Pennsylvanian
..Permian (Coconino).
THE
Locality
Plainville, Mass.
Horizon
Carboniferous
Coal Measuressae ee Westmoreland Co., Pa.
Alleghany Co., Pa.
Warren Co., Ind.
Missouri.
Pennsylvanian
Coal Measures
Coal Measures Joggins, Nova Scotia.
Coal Measures.......Joggins, Nova Scotia.
Permian (Coconino) .Grand Canyon, Ariz.
Coal Measures
Mississippian
Pennsylvanian
Coal Measures
Joggins, Nova Scotia.
Giles Co., Va.
Osage Co., Kans.
Joggins, Nova Scotia.
Massachusetts.
Kansas City, Mo.
Grand Canyon, Ariz.
a eijetie;rel ier e)'e ie!
Pennsylvanian
Permian (Hermit)...
Coal Measures
Parrboro, Nova
Scotia.
.Horton, Nova Scotia.
Joggins, Nova Scotia.
Lyons, Colo.
Coal Measures......
Coal Measures.......
Permian (Lyons)....
Permian (Coconino).
Permian (Coconino) .Grand Canyon, Ariz.
Pennsylvanian ..... -,Osage Co., Kans.
(Hermit) ..Grand Canyon, Ariz.
Coal Measures.......
Grand Canyon, Ariz.
Parrboro, Nova
Scotia.
Osage Co., Kans.
Grand Canyon, Ariz.
Joggins, Nova Scotia.
Joggins, Nova Scotia.
Kansas City, Mo.
Kansas City, Mo.
Kansas City, Mo.
Lawrence, Kans.
Joggins, Nova Scotia.
Joggins, Nova Scotia.
Nova Scotia.
Pennsylvanian) ss. es
Permian (Coconino) .
Coal Measures
Coal Measures
Pennsylvanian
Rennsylvantann eer soe
Upper Coal Measures.
Coal Measures
Coal Measures
Coal Measures.......
Pennsylvania.
Grand Canyon, Ariz.
Grand Canyon, Ariz.
Coal Measures.......
Permian (Coconino) .
Coal Measures.......Joggins, Nova Scotia.
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
Name Horizon Locality
Punctatumvestigium circuli- Pennsylvanian ...... Kansas City, Mo.
formis Butts.
Thenaropus leptodactylus King...Coal Measures....... Westmoreland Co., Pa.
Thenaropus macnaughtoni Coal Measures....... Nova Scotia.
(Matthew).
Thenaropus ovoidactylus King...Coal Measures....... Westmoreland Co., Pa.
Thenaropus pachydactylus King..Coal Measures....... Westmoreland Co., Pa.
Thenaropus sphaerodactylus Coal Measures....... Westmoreland Co., Pa.
King.
SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF GENERA AND SPECIES
In the systematic description the genera and species are divided
into distinct faunas beginning with that of the Coconino formation,
those of the Hermit and Supai following successively. Since none
of the genera passes over from one formation into the other, it was
thought this manner of treatment would be more convenient for
reference than any attempt to group related forms.
Following the policy inaugurated in my first study of Grand Can-
yon footprints, only the best preserved and most characteristic speci-
mens were selected for descripticn. In most instances the type
specimens consist of trackways showing several steps and usually
both the right and left sides of the trail. Had it seemed wise to
describe all of the various kinds of imprints found, the faunal lists
would have been considerably augmented, but after noting the varia-
tions found in the imprints in a trackway of a single individual, the
more conservative method was adopted. This study has resulted in
nearly doubling the known ichnite fauna of the Coconino, has estab-
lished an adequate fauna for the Hermit, and has made a beginning
in the development of a fauna for the Supai. One of the interesting
facts established is that these three faunas are distinct, one from the
other. A few of the tracks may be assigned with some assurance to
the class in which they belong, but many more remain in doubt, and
with our present information, there is little hope of clearing up these
enigmas.
FAUNA OF THE COCONINO SANDSTONE
Genus DOLICHOPODUS Gilmore
Dolichopodus Gilmore, Charles W., Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 77, No. 9,
1926, p. 6.
Newly discovered material makes possible some slight emendation
of the generic characters of this genus, ee in verifying some
points previously in doubt.
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 13
Generic characters —Quadrupedal. Pes long and narrow with four
digits ; fourth long, slender and curved outward. Manus smaller than
pes, three digits. Toes of both fore- and hindfeet acuminate. Feet
turned strongly inward toward line of movement.
Genotype—Dolichopodus tetradactylus Gilmore.
DOLICHOPODUS TETRADACTYLUS Gilmore
Dolichopodus tetradactylus Gilmore, Charles W., Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
Vol. 77, No. 9, 1926, p. 6, pl. 4, fig. I.
A second series of tracks (No. 11,503, U.S. N.M.) referable to
Dolichopodus tetradactylus was found by the 1926 expedition at the
Hermit Trail locality and in the same horizon in the Coconino sand-
stone in which the type occurred. It is of interest as furnishing
confirmatory evidence of the original description and illustration, in
addition to throwing further light on the structure of the forefeet,
of which the type specimen showed little more than the presence of
three sharply pointed digits. The present specimen shows the sole
to be narrow and the foot, as a whole, smaller than the hindfoot.
In the type the hindfoot was placed in advance of the fore, but in
this specimen the forefoot impression is usually slightly in advance
or at one side of the hindfoot. This placing of the feet, however,
may be due to the irregularity of the stride as no two steps measure
the same, varying from 160 to 250 mm. in length. None of the tracks
of the forefoot gives evidence of more than three toes, although some
are deeply impressed. The forefoot, measured from the back of the
heel to the tip of the longest toe, has a length of 16.5 mm. and a
width in the opposite diameter of 19 mm. The hindfoot has essen-
tially the same proportions as the type. A third slab (No. 11,495
U.S. N.M.) also has a few impressions attributable to this species,
but these are scattered tracks made by the hindfeet and add nothing
to our previous understanding of them.
Genus NANOPUS Marsh
Nanopus Marsh, O. C., Amer. Journ. Sci., Ser. 3, Vol. 48, 1894, p. 82.
Marsh’s conception of this genus as set forth in his description of
the type species can now, with the discovery of two new species, be
greatly emended as follows:
Generic characters —Quadrupedal, semiplantigrade. Four digits in
pes, three in manus. Manus usually smaller than pes. Toes acumi-
nate or bluntly rounded. Lateral toes of pes either shorter or subequal
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
in length with median toes. Forefoot placed in front of hind. Feet
turned slightly inward toward line of movement. With or without
tail drag.
Genotype-—Nanopus caudatus Marsh.
KEY TO SPECIES
Small size. Toes stout with obtusely rounded ends. Lateral toes of pes
shorter than median toes.
N. caudatus Marsh
Small size. Toes slender, with acutely pointed ends. Lateral toes of pes
shorter than median toes.
N. merriami Gilmore
Large size. Toes slender, acutely pointed. Lateral toes of pes subequal
in length with median toes.
N. maximus n. sp.
Fic. 3.—Tracks of Nanopus obtusis Matthew. 1a, hindfoot;
1b, forefoot. Natural size. (After Matthew.)
Fic. 4.—Tracks of Nanopus quadratus Matthew. 1a, hindfoot;
td, forefoot. Natural size. (After Matthew.)
The two species N. obtusis and N. quadratus from the Coal Mea-
sures of Nova Scotia referred to this genus by Matthew show such a
radically different foot plan as to indicate that their affinities lie else-
where than in the genus Nanopus. Reference is made to the divergent
fifth or outer toe, the progressive shortening of the digits inward,
and the placing of the hindfoot in advance of the forefoot impression.
Non 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 15
N. quadratus Matthew * quite certainly belongs in the genus Dromil-
lopus with which its small size, digital formula of 4 and 4, and gen-
eral arrangement and relative length of toes are in full accord. For
these reasons it is unhesitatingly transferred to this genus to be
known hereafter as Dromillopus quadratus (Matthew).
Unfortunately the case of N. obtusis cannot be so satisfactorily
settled. The impression of the hindfoot offers no difficulties to its
assignment to Dromullopus but the forefoot shows only three toes
and the foot as a whole (see fig. 4) is quite out of accord with any
described Carboniferous ichnite. This is probably due to distortion,
as pointed out by Matthew,’ so that the number of digits and the form
of the foot as shown in figure 4 is probably not to be depended upon
as expressing the true characters of the normal manus imprint. For
that reason and as a temporary expedient this species is provisionally
assigned to the genus Dromullopus to be known as D ? obtusis ( Mat-
thew ) until such time as the discovery of better preserved specimens
shall disclose its true generic affinities.
NANOPUS MERRIAMI Gilmore
Plate 4, fig. 1
Nanopus merriami Gilmore, Charles. W., Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 77,
No. 9, 1926, pp. 9-12, pl. 4, fig. 2, text fig. 5.
A specimen of Nanopus merriami (No. 11,516, U.S. N.M.) is of
interest as recording a second occurrence of this species in the lowest
track-bearing level of the Coconino formation a considerable distance
north of where the type specimen was collected. It was found in situ
about 30 feet above the Coconino-Hermit contact, immediately above
the spring which supplies water for the trail caretaker’s house in
Hermit Basin, It would now seem that this species is confined to the
lowermost horizon of the Coconino as no tracks attributable to it
have been observed in the upper levels.
NANOPUS MAXIMUS, new species
Plate 3
Type.—Catalogue number 11,506, U.S.N.M. A large slab of
light-colored fine-grained sandstone on which is an irregular. track-
way showing impressions of all four feet.
Type locality—Hermit Trail, Hermit Basin, Grand Canyon Na-
tional Park, Arizona.
* Proc. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Vol. 10, 1904, p. 98.
? Op. cit., p. 98.
2
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
Geological occurrence.—Coconino sandstones (about 150 feet above
base), Permian.
Description.—Stride (average) about 277 mm., width of trackway
(estimated) about 300 mm. Both of these measurements are subject
to revision with the discovery of better material for it is quite appar-
ent that the type specimen does not represent a continuous normal
trackway. This is indicated by the irregularity of the stride and the
great variation in the relative position of the tracks of the fore- and
hindfeet, although the manus is always placed in front of the pes.
The longest stride measures 320 mm., while the shortest of that same
>
ey)
Fic. 5—Nanopus maximus. Type. No. 11,506, URSSNe Vinee
imprint of right forefoot; B, showing relations of fore- and hind-
feet of right side. About 4 naturai size.
side is only 225 mm. Hindfoot: Greatest length 65 mm., greatest
width 85 mm, Four toes acuminate and subequal in length. First and
fourth more slender than median pair, both curving inward from
their respective sides of the foot. Second and third having their tips
directed slightly outward. Sole equal to length of toes, suboval,
broadly rounded behind. That there were sharp well developed claws
on all four toes is shown by the long deep scratches where the foot
had slipped as may be seen on the left side of the trackway in plate 3.
Length of digit I, 34 mm., digit II, 34 mm., digit III, 34 mm., digit
IV, 36 mm. Forefoot: Length (estimated) about 43 mm., width
about 52 mm. Three toes, acuminate, clawed, and probably subequal
in length, The sole in most of the imprints is obscure but in the best
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 17
preserved one (see 4, fig. 5) it is relatively short fore and aft. The
outer toe is somewhat set off. from the median one. Sole broadly
rounded behind. Judging from the depth of the imprints the weight
of the animal was largely carried by the hind limbs. The length of
digits in the manus varies so much in the different imprints that it
seems useless to record their measurements. The outline of the manus
as given in figure 5, A, is made from the best preserved imprint on
the slab, but the relative length of toes is subject to revision when
better specimens are found.
The presence of three and four digits in the manus and pes,
parallel arrangement of the two middle toes of the hindfoot, short,
broadly rounded sole, and forefoot placed in front of hindfoot, are
characters found in the genus Nanopus.
The large size of Nanopus maximus at once distinguishes it from
the other species of the genus, all of which are small. From N. mer-
riamt from this same formation, but apparently restricted to the
lower part of the track-bearing horizon, it may be distinguished not
only by its much greater size, but also by having the two lateral toes
of the pes subequal in length with the two median toes, whereas in
both N. caudatus Marsh and N. merrianu Gilmore the two lateral
digits are shorter than the median. From N. caudatus it is further
distinguished by the more slender and acuminate form of the digits
as contrasted with the heavy rounded toes of that species. The specific
name is suggested by its great size as contrasted with the smaller
footprints of the other species of the genus.
Genus LAOPORUS Lull’
Laoporus Lull, R. S., Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. 45, 1918, p. 339.
Generic characters (emended).—Quadrupedal, semiplantigrade,
with four digits in manus and five in the pes; fifth toe often not
impressing. Lateral digits always shorter than median pairs. Sole
broad, digits usually short. Feet usually grouped in pairs with front
foot always placed in front of hind.
"After the manuscript of the present paper had been accepted for publi-
cation an article on British Permian Footprints by George Hickling (Man-
chester Lit. and Philos. Soc., Memoirs, Vol. 53, I909, Art. 22, pp. 1-24,
pls. I to IV) came to my attention for the first time. Although too late to
be discussed in the present article, I wish in this note to call attention to
the fact that many of the British tracks show striking resemblances to
those of the Coconino and that the genus Laoporus is quite certainly represented
in the Pernith Red sandstone; see figs. 10 and 11, pl. II, of the article cited.
This brief note will bring to the attention of those interested the above
mentioned fauna, and a more complete discussion of it will be included in
my next publication dealing with footprints of the Grand Canyon.
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
Genotype.—Laoporus schucherti Lull.
Two species, L. schucherti and L. noblet, were described by Lull
from the Coconino formation, but only a single specimen of the
former species has been recognized in my collections although the
other occurs in great abundance.
Fic. 6.—Laoporus noblei. No. 11,494, U.S.N.M. Diagram of
a portion of the trackway to show the relatively long median toes
of the manus. No indication of the fifth toe of the pes in this
trackway. About } natural size.
LAOPORUS NOBLEI Lull
Plate 4, fig. 2
Laoporus noblei Lull, R. S., Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. 45, 1018, pp. 339-341,
Dl 2etext) Ligse2:
Footprints of Laoporus noblet Lull are by far the most abundant
of all the animal tracks found in the Coconino sandstone. Usually
the trackway of this species can be recognized at once by the uniform-
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 19
ity of the stride and by the pairing of the impressions made by the
fore- and hindfeet, the former always being placed in front of the
latter. One trackway (No. 11,494 U.S. N. M.) among a considerable
number collected in 1926 deserves special mention because of the
unusual length of the median toes of the forefeet. These toes con-
siderably exceed in length the longest toes of the hindfoot (see fig. 6)
whereas the opposite condition usually prevails. Furthermore, in this
specimen the fore and hind tracks are subequal in size whereas the
forefoot impression is usually smaller. None of the pes tracks gives
indication of the presence of a fifth digit. The rather meager evidence
of its presence in the hindfoot may, however, now be considered as
absolutely established by two specimens (Nos. 11,491 and 11,512
U.S. N.M.) both of which show several pes tracks with five toes
clearly registered.
Genus BARYPODUS Gilmore
Barypodus Gilmore, Charles W., Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 77, No. 9, 1926,
p. 27.
The genus Barypodus was originally characterized on rather scanty
materials so that with the discovery of other species referable to this
genus, it now becomes necessary to emend the original definition as
follows:
Generic characters ——Quadrupedal, plantigrade with three parallel
digits in both manus and pes. Digits long, either slender or stout,
well separated, and with or without webbing between the toes. Sole
of pes subtriangular in outline with heel hooking outward. Sole as
long as or longer than digits. Forefoot placed in front of hind.
Genotype.—Barypodus palmatus Gilmore.
KEY TO.SPECIES
Large size. Toes long, slender, joined by web. Outer toe of manus
one-half length of inner. Palm of manus longer than digits with out-
ward hook of heel.
B. palmatus
Medium size. Toes long, slender, without webbing. Outer toe of manus
longer than inner. Palm of manus longer than digits with decided
outward hook of heel.
B. tridactylus
Medium size. Toes, moderate length, stout without webbing. Outer toe
subequal in length with inner. Palm of manus apparently shorter than
digits, without outward hook.
B. metszeri
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vot. 80
BARYPODUS TRIDACTYLUS, new species
Plate 5
T ype.—Catalogue number 11,502, U.S. N. M. Consists of the posi-
tive and negative slabs on which is a beautifully preserved trackway.
Type locality—Hermit Trail, Hermit Basin, Grand Canyon Na-
tional Park, Arizona.
Fic. 7.—Barypodus tridactylus. Type. No. 11,502, U.S.N.M.
Diagram of trackway. Toes indicate position of the hindfeet.
About 4 natural size.
Geological occurrence.—Coconino sandstone (about 150 feet above
base), Permian.
Description —Stride about 140 mm., width of trackway about 175
mm. Huindfoot: None of the impressions made by the pes is suffi-
ciently clear to provide measurements, The presence of three digits °
is distinctly indicated by several tracks (see pl. 5). Measured across
the toes the foot has a width of 44 mm. Digits shorter than those of
manus. Length of first digit about 15.5 mm., second about 23 mm.,
third 26 mm. It will be seen from these measurements that the toes
. grow progressively longer toward the outside of the foot. The.
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 21
‘smaller size of the digits and the indistinctness of the impressions
raises the question of these imprints having been made by the pes,
but when critically examined, the fact that some of the impressions
were made upon the slightly raised flow of sand forced out by the sole
of the preceding foot, seems to leave no alternative conclusion than
that they were made by the pes. If this interpretation be correct, then
we have the very unusual condition of having the hindfoot apparently
bearing less of the weight of the animal, as evidenced by the shallow-
ness of the imprints. The’ sole is not distinctly impressed (see fig. 7)
in any of the tracks and on that account no idea of its shape, extent,
or peculiarities is to be gained from this specimen. Forefoot: Length
81 mm., width 46 mm. Three digits, long, parallel and sharply acumi-
nate. Toes directed straight forward in relation to axis of trackway.
Digit I is 37 mm. long, digit II, 43 mm., digit III, 42 mm. Sole sub-
rectangular with a blunt, hook-like protuberance on the outer poste-
rior angle as in B. palmatus. There is no deviation of the lateral toes
as in so many three toed tracks, notably those of the Connecticut-
Triassic, but in both fore- and hindfeet the toes are placed nearly
parallel. All of the toes are equally well impressed. The resemblance
in form of the palm of the manus to B. palmatus seems to indicate
that the original interpretation of the position of the hook-like pro-
tuberance as being on the inside of the foot was in error. In the
specimen now before me it is clearly shown to be on the outer side.
This indicates that the type of B. palmatus belongs to the right side,
a fact that was indeterminable ‘at the time of description, due to the
paucity of the type materials.
Although there are many resemblances to be found in a comparison
of the two species here discussed, they may be at once distinguished
by the smaller size of B. tridactylus, the absence of webbing between
the toes, and the smaller relative size of the hindfoot as contrasted
with the fore. Differences found in the relative length of digit III
of the forefoot also furnish another distinguishing character.
BARYPODUS METSZERI, new species
Plate 6
Type.—Catalogue number 11,505, U.S. N. M. Consists of a track-
way about 560 mm, in length showing impressions of all four feet.
Type locality-—Hermit Trail, Hermit Basin, Grand Canyon Na-
tional Park, Arizona.
Geological occurrence.—Coconino sandstone (about 150 feet above
base), Permian.
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL, 80
Description—Stride about 235 mm., width of trackway (esti-
mated) about 210 mm. Hindfoot: Length about 88 mm., width
about 65 mm. Three stout sharply pointed toes of moderate length,
well separated. Two outer toes having their outer borders curved
EEE
Fic. 8—Barypodus metsseri. Type. No. 11,505, U.S.N.M.
Diagram of trackway. Long scratches on the left show the slipping
of the forefoot. About 4 natural size.
inward, which gives these digits the appearance of turning inward
toward the median one, when in reality they are nearly parallel.
Length of digits, I = 22 mm.; II = 28 mm.; III = 30 mm. Sole
deeply impressed; elongate, narrowed, obtusely pointed heel that
hooks slightly outward. Sole nearly twice as long as the digits. Toes
turned strongly inward. Forefoot: Length (estimated) 54 mm., width
s
NOS se GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 23
about 58 mm. Three toes more slender and more acutely pointed
than toes of hindfeet. Inner toe more widely set off from middle toe
than is the outer one. Toes all strongly bent inward, the second and
third especially so. The palm is so lightly impressed in all of the
imprints that its outline is not clearly indicated, so that much doubt
exists as to the correctness of the illustration of this portion of the
foot in figure 8. It has therefore been shown in a broken line, The
forefoot is placed in advance of the hindfoot and slightly outside.
That the claws were acuminate is not only clearly indicated by the
shape of the digits, but also by the.long, deep scratches in the rock
as shown on the left side of the trackway (see fig. 8). In both fore-
and hindfeet, distinct cross ridges indicate the presence of deep
creases on the bottom of the foot, at the base of the toes. The foot-
prints are deeply and clearly registered and there is little probability
of additional toes ever having been present since they did not reg-
ister here.
This species is referred to the genus Barypodus largely on the
ground of there being three digits on both fore- and hindfeet, and
the presence of an elongate sole. From B. palmatus it is at once
distinguished by the shorter, stouter, curved toes and the absence of
webbing between the digits. Likewise it may be distinguished from
B. tridactylus by the short toes with curved claws and a shorter
palmar impression lacking pronounced outer hook.
The specific name is in honor of Mr. Arthur Metszer who collected
the type specimen and whose efficient services contributed so largely
in bringing together this fine collection of footprints.
Genus BAROPUS Marsh
Baropus, Marsh, O. C., Amer, Journ. Sci., Vol. 43, 1804, p. 83.
The genus Baropus was founded by Marsh on a series of tracks
from the Coal Measures of Kansas. With the additional material
collected in the Grand Canyon, it may be characterized as follows:
Generic characters —Large size. Quadrupedal, plantigrade. Four
toes on both manus and pes. Toes short, thick with rounded extremi-
ties, clawless. Forefoot subequal in size or smaller than hindfoot.
Soles of feet large.
Genotype.—Baropus lentus Marsh.
KEY TO SPECIES
Imprints of fore and hindfeet subequal in size, with hindfoot placed in
rear of forefoot. Sole of pes elongate, subtriangular in outline, with
heavy protuberance on inner side.
B. lentus
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
Imprint of forefoot smaller than that of hindfoot, with hindfoot placed
in front of forefoot. Sole of pes truncate, subquadrangular in outline,
without protuberance on inner side.
B. coconinoensis
BAROPUS COCONINOENSIS, new species
Plate 7
Type.—Catalogue number 11,514, U.S. N.M. Consists of a slab
on which are four tracks made by the fore- and hindfeet of the
left side.
Fic. 9.—Baropus coconinoensis. Type. No. 11,514, U.S.N.M.
Diagram of left side of trackway. About $ natural size.
Type locality—Hermit Trail, Hermit Basin, Grand Canyon Na-
tional Park, Arizona.
Geological occurrence.—Coconino sandstone (about 125 feet above
base), Permian,
Description.—Stride about 300 mm., width of trackway unknown.
Hindfoot: Length about 108 mm., width about 138 mm, Four toes
NO: 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 25
of moderate subequal length, thick, with broadly rounded extremities,
apparently without claws. First and second toes slightly diverted
from the outer two which are more or less parallel. Foot turned
strongly inward. Sole broad, subrectangular in outline. Approximate
length of toes: I, 30 mm., II, 30 mm., III, 35 mm., IV, 35 mm. Fore-
foot: Length 75 mm., width (estimated) about 100 mm, There are
probably four toes although only three can be observed. Both of
the imprints have had at least one toe obliterated by the hindfoot
“
"
Fic. 10.—Baropus lentus Marsh. Diagram of trackway. About
jz natural size. (After Marsh.)
stepping upon them so that their entire number is in doubt. The toes
are stout, of moderate length, and, as in the pes, have rounded ends
without claws. First digit slightly set off from the others. Sole wider
than long and broadly rounded behind. Foot turned strongly inward
and placed inside the line of the hindfoot impressions. Palm about
twice the length of the longest toe, subquadrate in outline and broadly
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vot. 80
rounded behind. The missing toe has been tentatively restored as
shown in figure 9.
The specimen selected as the type is the trackway of a large
quadrupedal animal and consists of four imprints from the left side.
The tracks are deeply impressed and the softness of the sand at the
time they were made is indicated by the flows behind the impressions
displaced by the impact of the feet.
The hindfoot with four toes, in size, shape and arrangement of
digits has its closest resemblance to Baropus lentus Marsh from the
Coal Measures of Kansas. It differs in having the forefoot smaller
than the hind, sole of pes relatively broader, less elongate, and with-
out inner protuberance (compare figs. 9 and 10). In this specimen
the hindfoot is placed in front and outside of the forefoot impres-
sion, whereas in B. lentus the hindfoot is behind the forefoot. It
seems quite probable, however, that the trackway now before me does
not represent the normal walking stride of the animal, That the
creature was climbing a slope is evidenced by the position of the slab
in situ and also by the mounds of sand behind the imprints, displaced
by the pressure of the feet. The weight seems to have been equally
distributed between fore and hind limbs, as indicated by the subequal
depth of the tracks.
This form may be distinguished at once from Allopus ? arizonae
occurring in these same beds by its much larger size, and the lesser
number of digits in the pes.
Genus AGOSTOPUS Gilmore
Agostopus Gilmore, Charles W., Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 77, No. 9, 1926,
my Ze} A
The genus 4 gostopus was established on well preserved specimens
from the Coconino sandstone as exposed on the Hermit Trail section.
A. slightly emended characterization of the genus follows:
Generic characters —Quadrupedal, semiplantigrade, with five digits
in manus and four in the pes; broad soled with either two or three
clawed digits in the pes. Feet directed inward, hindfoot placed in
front of forefoot impressions. Short limbed, wide bodied.
Genoty pe.—A gostopus matherit Gilmore.
KEY TO SPECIES
Hindfoot with three long acutely pointed digits, all directed forward.
A. matheri
Hindfoot with two long acutely pointed digits, both bent strongly outward.
A. medius
NO: 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 27
AGOSTOPUS MEDIUS, new species
Plate 8
Type.—Catalogue number 11,509, U.S. N. M. Consists of a trail
870 mm. in length, showing consecutive impressions of all four feet.
Type locality—Hermit Trail, Hermit Basin, Grand Canyon Na-
tional Park, Arizona.
Geological occurrence —Coconino sandstone (about 150 feet above
the base), Permian.
Description—Average length of stride about 170 mm., width of
trackway about 230 mm. Hindfoot: Length about 75 mm., hindfoot
placed in front of forefoot, the sole usually obliterating toes of the
manus. Sole wider than long, palmate, broadly rounded behind. Sole
longer than digits. Four, possibly five, toes, the two middle ones
sharply pointed and strongly curved outward. First and fourth short
and heavy, with bluntly rounded terminations apparently without
claw; first often not impressing, Length of digits, I= 4 mm.;
II = 23 mm.; III = 30 mm.; IV = 16 mm. While the trackway as a
whole gives the impression of being clearly defined, when it comes to
considering the details of the foot plan the specimen leaves much to be
desired. On the type slab there are ten imprints made by the two hind-
feet, but only two of these in the lower left hand side (see pl. 8) show
the undoubted presence of a short, obtuse first digit. It is either miss-
ing entirely from the other tracks or else there is only the slightest
trace of its existence. Where the imprint is missing, the inward exten-
sion of the sole is always sufficient to have carried it. Ina few of these
tracks on both sides a projecting protuberance on the outer posterior
angle of the sole (see fig. 11) may represent the presence of a fifth
digit, but additional specimens are necessary before this point can
be definitely decided. Forefoot: Length (estimated) about 40 mm.,
width about 72 mm. Sole suboval in outline. Smaller than pes. Num-
ber of digits uncertain, probably five, apparently reducing inward.
All short, stout, with broadly rounded terminations and apparently
without claws. Fifth set off from the others. The uncertainty re-
garding the digits of the manus is largely brought about by their
partial obliteration by the flow of sand crowded back upon them by
the impact of the heel of the hindfoot.
A portion (negative) of this same trackway was collected in i924
and presented to the Grand Canyon National Park Museum, while
the positive portion (No. 11,136, U.S. N. M.) was brought to Wash-
ington under the impression that the tracks were duplicated in other
specimens in the collection. Critical study demonstrated its distinct-
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
ness from all others, but in the expectation of again visiting the
locality, its description was deferred until another section of the trail
could be secured. In addition there is a second specimen ( No. 11,500,
U.S.N.M.) in the 1926 collection that may also be referred to this
Fic. 11.—Agostopus medius. Type. No.-11,509, U.S.N.M. Dia-
gram of trackway. About ¢ natural size.
genus and species, but the preservation is such that it throws no
additional light on the detailed foot structure, and needs no further
mention here.
The characteristic foot structure of this short-legged, wide-bodied
animal shows it to be clearly referable to the genus Agostopus. From
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 29
the single known species, 4. matheri, it is to be distinguished by its
larger size, the relatively wider soles, and the short, stout form of
digit IV.
Genus AMBLYOPUS, new genus
Generic characters —Quadrupedal, plantigrade. Toes of both
manus and pes not differentiated but inclosed in the foot mass. Im-
pressions of feet reniform in outline, being longer than wide. Pes
tracks placed partly upon those of manus, and forming rows inside
them.
Genotype.—Amblyopus pachypodus, new species.
AMBLYOPUS PACHYPODUS. new species
Plate 9
Type.—Catalogue number 11,511, U.S.N.M. Consists of a slab
830 mm. long, having a trackway running the entire length.
Type locality—Hermit Trail, Hermit Basin, Grand Canyon Na-
tional Park, Arizona.
Geological occurrence-—Coconino sandstone (about 130 feet above
bas®), Permian.
Description.—Stride about 210 mm.; width of trackway about
330 mm. Hindfoot placed partly upon the imprint made by the fore-
foot. Hindfoot: Length about loo mm. None of the footprints, and
most of them are well impressed, gives any indication of the presence
of separate toes, but in the deepest part of the pes tracks two longi-
tudinal parallel tapering depressions (see fig. 12) evidently indicate
the presence of at least two digits, but these were wholly inclosed
within the mass of the foot. It is this peculiarity that has suggested
the specific name pachypodus. The anterior portion of the imprints
gives the impression of their having been made by a single broad toe,
which had a broadly rounded ungual. This end measures 53 mm, in
transverse diameter. On the inner side and a little posterior to its
midlength a pronounced indentation may represent the division be-
tween toes and sole. The outline of the hindfcot impression as a
whole may be said to be reniform, The sole is subquadrate in outline
and well impressed in nearly all of the tracks, especially the series
of the right side. Forefoot: The placing of the hindfoot wholly or
in part upon the impression made by the forefoot has obliterated most
of the details of its structure. It is quite evident that the feet were of
about equal size, and from what little can be seen of them, that there
was a similarity of structure. These resemblances are clearly shown
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
in plate 9, the outer right-hand row being those made by the forefoot,
the second inner row being those of the hindfeet of that side.
The depth of the tracks, wide trackway, short stride, and large
size of the imprints indicates they were made by a heavy, squat
animal, with a relatively short body, for otherwise it would be quite
impossible for the hindfoot to have been set upon the imprints of
ns eg Fe
Fic. 12—Amblyopus pachypodus. Type. No. 11,511, U.S. N.M.
Diagram of part of the trackway. Outer row of tracks made by the
forefoot; inner row, made by the hindfoot, and placed partly upon
the tracks of manus. About 4 natural size.
the forefeet. No evidence of a tail drag was found. This specimen
occurred at a slightly lower level in the horizon than the one from
which the major part of the Coconino tracks were collected.
Genus OCTOPODICHNUS, new genus
Generic characters Apparently eight footed with tracks arranged
in groups of four, alternating, two anterior impressions didactyle.
two posterior unidactyle.
Genotype.—Octopodichnus didactylus, n. sp.
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 31
OCTOPODICHNUS DIDACTYLUS, new species
Plate 10, fig. 2
Type.—Catalogue number 11,501, U.S. N.M. Consists of a slab
440 mm. long, having a trail traversing the entire length. A small
portion of the obverse slab is also present.
Type locality—Hermit Trail (500 feet to left of trail going down),
Hermit Basin, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona.
Geological occurrence —Coconino sandstone (about 150 feet above
the base), Permian.
Description —tThe trail here described consists of two lines of 1m-
prints arranged in groups of four, the groups of the two sides alter-
nating. These groups are arranged in a row of three regularly spaced
tracks with the fourth offset inward and slightly behind the most
posterior imprint of the line of three. A line passed through the
three tracks has its axis everted 45° to the line of direction of move-
ment (see fig. 13), this inclination of course being reversed in the
groups of tracks on the opposite side. The direction of movement
is clearly indicated by the displaced sand caused by the impact of
the heel (see pl. 10). The tracks are subequal in size, the two anterior
imprints being bifurcated, with the outer toe or claw slightly longer
and more robust than the inner; the two posterior imprints seem to
be unidactyle. The outer toe of the third imprint of each group,
enumerated from the front, especially of the right side, has a heavy
inward projecting heel. The toes have the same direction as the line
of tracks. The stride, if the movement may be so designated, is
106 mm. The greatest width of trackway is about 94 mm., space
between single imprints usually 21 mm., there being a slight variation ;
the fourth or offset impression is about 15 mm. inside the third. The
three tracks in line occupy a linear space of 58 to 63 mm. Single
tracks have a length of 13 mm., a width of 7 mm.
Much uncertainty exists as to the nature of the animal that made
this trail. Some of the living crustaceans have didactyle extremities
and that is the chief reason for the suggestion about to be made that
the trail may be the tracks of a member of that group. While there
seems to be no living crustacean that would make such a trail, in
Permian times there may have been such an animal. The trackway
is distinct from all others found at this locality and in all of the
hundreds of square feet of sandstone surface examined only one
other such trail was discovered. A second poorly preserved specimen
(No. 7,846, U.S. N.M.) was collected in this same general locality
in 1924, but the preservation was such that its principal characteristics
were not recognized at that time.
3
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
The stride as compared with the width of trackway would seem to
indicate an animal with considerable length of leg, and it is incon-
ceivable that the imprints are other than those made by feet on
separate legs, a conclusion substantiated by the direction of the claws
or toes. While the tracks give the impression that all four were
Fic. 13.—Octopodichnus didactylus. Type. No. 11,501, U.S. N.M.
Diagram of trackway. About 4 natural size.
moved forward simultaneously, it may be that one leg was moved
forward at a time after the manner of progression of many existing
invertebrates.
GENUS TRIAVESTIGIA, new genus
Generic characters—A continuous trail of three parallel sets of
markings, between two of which there is a faintly impressed tail
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 33
drag. Longer axes of feet impressions placed slightly diagonal to
direction of movement, alternating. Feet apparently unidactyl.
Genotype.—Triavestigia niningeri n. sp.
TRIAVESTIGIA NININGERI, new species
Plate 10, fig. I
T ype.——Catalogue number 11,510, U. S. N. M. Consists of a slab
about 260 mm. long, having a trail traversing about two-thirds of
its length.
a
¢
4
4
e
va
4
¢
.}
»
8
.Y
a Ee. aN .
4 Y s Ac
Fic. 14.—Triavestigia niningeri. Type. No. 11,510, U.S.N.M.
Diagram of trackway. About § natural size.
Type locality—Hermit Trail, Hermit Basin, Grand Canyon Na-
tional Park, Arizona.
Geological occurrence.-—Coconino sandstone (a loose slab from
hillside about 100 feet above the base), Permian.
Description—The trail here described consists of three parallel
rows of impressions, between two of which the intermittent drag of
a tail is faintly but clearly recorded. Width of the trackway 14 mm.,
width of the paired rows 8.5 mm. Length of step is about 7.5 mm.
The feet seem to have been unidactylus, and made single mark-like
depressions that stand diagonal to the axis of the line of movement.
Curiously enough all of the markings forming the three rows have
34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
the same diagonal angle as shown in figure 14. The impressions
forming the two rows on either side of the tail drag are regularly
alternating. The outer or third row is composed of the largest and
most distinct markings, but their spacing is the same as those of the
other two rows. The impressions found on either side of the tail
drag are quite certainly made by the feet, but as to the origin of the
third row, one cannot be certain whether it was made by a foot or by
some other appendage. However, the regularity of spacing and close
conformity to the other rows leaves no other conclusion than that all
were made by the same animal. Whether the normal trail would
consist of four rows of tracks, as in Bifurculapes, which in some
specimens shows only three, there is no way of determining at this
time. Only by the discovery of additional specimens can we hope to
clear up this point. While I have been unable to definitely classify
these tracks they give every indication of having been made by some
invertebrate animal and for the present at least they will be so
regarded.
The specific name is in honor of Prof. H. H. Nininger of McPher-
son, Kansas, who found the type specimen and generously donated
it to the national collections.
PALEOHELCURA TRIDACTYLA Gilmore
Paleohelcura tridactyla Gilmore, Charles W., Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
Vol. 77, No. 9, 1926, pp. 31-34, pl. 12, fig. 1, text fig. 20.
The discovery of a second specimen (No. 11,499, U.S. N.M.)
of Paleohelcura tridactyla is of interest because the tracks were found
in situ in the Coconino sandstone, at about 150 feet above the base
of the formation and not far distant from where the type was dis-
covered. The type was a loose slab found lying on the hillside below
the Hermit Trail about 125 feet above the base.
The second specimen adds nothing new to our knowledge of the
species, as it exhibits the same tridactyle impressions with a tail drag
in the center of the trackway.
Genus UNISULCUS Hitchcock
Unisulcus Hitchcock, Edward, Ichnology of New England, 1858, p. 160.
The genus Unisulcus was established by Hitchcock for a group
of simple trails which he regarded as having been made by naked
* Hitchcock, Edward, Ichnology of New England, 1858, pp. 153, 154, pl. 30.
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 35
worms or annelids. The genus was characterized as “ trackway a
single continuous groove.”
Genotype—Unisulcus marshi Hitchcock.
A specimen found in the Coconino sandstone bears a trail which
appears to have been made by some crawling, legless animal whose
affinities seem to fall in this genus.
UNISULCUS SINUOSUS, new species
Plate 11
Type.—Catalogue number 11,498, U.S. N. M. Consists of a small
slab of sandstone carrying three trackways.
Type locality—Hermit Trail, Hermit Basin, Grand Canyon Na-
tional Park, Arizona.
Geological occurrence.—Coconino sandstone (about 150 feet above
base), Permian.
Description—Trackway a continuous groove having an average
width of 3 mm. and usually slightly sinuous. Sand on one side of
trail slightly raised forming a slight ridge; the opposite side lower
and somewhat rounded. On the ridged side the wall of the groove
is nearly perpendicular, while the opposite side is beveled. At bottom
the trail gives the impression of being grooved rather than rounded.
The abrupt ending of one trail in the center of the slab as shown in
plate 11 suggests that it was made by an animal that was able to
move backward as well as forward. However, there is no accumula-
tion of sand at this end such as has been observed by Hitchcock in
trails of a somewhat similar nature. Slightly beyond the intersection
of two of these trails, both are flattened and widened out and the
bottom is sculptured by three distinct shallow, longitudinal grooves.
Of the Mesozoic ichnites assigned to this genus, the present species
most closely resembles Unisulcus marshi in size and especially in
width of groove, but is at once distinguished from that form by the
more sinuous nature of the trackway, and by the grooved character
of the furrow. The reference of this specimen to the genus Unisulcus
by no means implies that it is regarded as having been made by a
crawling worm, though such may have been the case. It seems more
probable that it is the track of a mollusk, for the dragging shell would
better account for the grooved appearance of the trail as well as the
ridge of sand on one side, although in living mollusks the trail is
usually ridged on both sides of the groove.
The type is the only specimen of this species observed in all of
the hundreds of square feet of sandstone surface examined.
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
FAUNA OF THE HERMIT SHALE
Genus BATRACHICHNUS Woodworth -
Batrachichnus Woodworth, J. B., Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 11, 1900,
p. 542, pl. 40, text fig. 2.
This genus may be characterized as follows:
Generic characters ——Small forms, quadrupedal, with four and five
toes on manus and pes respectively. With or without median groove.
Toes slender, radially arranged.
Genotype.—Batrachichnus plainvillensis \Voodworth.
This genus contains two species from widely separated localities,
B. plainvillensis Woodworth from the Carboniferous of Massachu-
setts, and B. celer (Matthew) from the Carboniferous of Nova
Scotia. The species Exvocampe ? delicatula Lull, a form of small size
with similar digital formula is provisionally referred to this genus
to be known hereafter as B. delicatula (Lull). The digital formula
of Notalacerta jacksonensis Butts* suggests its affinities also to be
with this genus to which it is now referred. Its 4 and 5 short, bluntly
rounded toes as contrasted with the five long and acuminate toes on
both manus and pes in the type species of Notalacerta (N. muis-
souriensis) certainly justify its removal from that genus. It is, how-
ever, quite possible that a comparison of the type specimens might
show that B. jacksonensis and B. plainvillensis are cospecific, in which
event the latter would become a synonym of the former on the ground
of priority. This matter could only be settled satisfactorily by a
restudy and comparison of the type specimens, which is outside the
scope of the present study.
BATRACHICHNUS DELICATULA (Lull)
Plate 12
Exocampe ? -delicatula Lull, R. S., Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. 45, 1918, pp. 544-
546, fig. 4, pl. 3, fig. 1.
Lull’s original description, based on rather scanty materials from
these same deposits, follows:
The smallest of the forms collected by Professor Schuchert consists of
a very delicately impressed fore- and hindfoot in relief on mud-cracked red
shale. The hindfoot is the larger and shows four slightly radiating digits,
but no trace of sole. The manus is also apparently four-toed with distinct
impressions of terminal claws. The digits radiate more widely, but here again
there is no palmar impression. The form may therefore be described as digiti-
grade. Faint indications which may represent phalangeal limitations may be
* The Kansas City Scientist, Vol. 5, 1891, p. 18, text fig.
NO: 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL, FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE B7
seen on the second digit of the manus. This form resembles most closely the
genus Exocampe of the Connecticut Trias, but is a generalized track which
almost any small amphibian, such as a modern salamander for instance,
might make and while it may for convenience be placed within the mentioned
genus, genetic relationship with the creatures that made the tracks so desig-
nated is not of necessity implied.
Specific characters—Manus somewhat smaller than the pes, with three
well-defined, radiating digits, the middle one of which is directed forward. An
fo} A
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Fic. 15.—Batrachichnus delicatula (Lull). No. 11,519, U.S. N. M.
A, diagram of trackway showing normal track. B, showing track-
way made by the hindfeet only. Note that the stride has lengthened
and the trackway is narrower than in A. Dotted lines connect im-
pressions made by the hindfeet. Both figures 4 natural size.
obscure impression of an additional digit lying on the inner side of and
more nearly parallel to the second is indicated. There is also at the base of
the second digit what may represent a palmar pad. It may, however, be acci-
dental, as there are other such on the slab.
Pes—The four phalangeal impressions are more or less ovoid without
indications of claws or phalanges and, except for the first, curve slightly
outward. There is a faint mark which may indicate a fifth digit. The pes
impression lies immediately behind that of the manus and a little apart from
it as the figure indicates. There lies in advance and to the left of the impres-
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
sions we have discussed a series of five minute rounded marks, whose relative
position is precisely the same as the termini of the pedal toes in the track
described. These marks seem therefore to indicate the impression of the right
pes. If so they give a trackway width of 33 mm. and an estimated stride of
the same foot of 42 mm., thus indicating a rather wide-bodied, short-legged
form. This form is provisionally included in the genus Exocampe Hitchcock,
the species being designated as delicatula in allusion to its delicate proportions.
A series of footprints, one of several trackways impressed on the
undulating surface of a large slab of Hermit shale (No. 11,519,
U.S.N.M.), seems to be referable to this species. The specimen
was found one-quarter of a mile west of the sign “ Red Top” on the
Hermit Trail, at the head of Hermit Gorge by Mr. G. E. Sturdevant,
of the Park Service, who discovered it lying loose on a slope about
30 feet above the Hermit-Supai contact where it had been exposed
to weathering, which to some extent accounts for the distinctness of
the minute tracks impressed upon the upper surface.
im
T ROP a
Dw
Wd
I ?
b
Fic. 16.—Batrachichnus delicatula (Lull). Type. No. 2,146,
Yale Museum; right manus (a) and pes (b) natural size. (After
Lull.)
The trackway, 300 mm, in extent, crosses the lower right hand
portion of the slab shown in plate 12. The hindfoot has a length of
10.5 mm. and width of 13 mm. There are five digits, and a tracing
of the foot plan, when placed upon Lull’s figure of the pes, though
slightly larger, agrees precisely in the placement and arrangement of
the toes. The digits are slender, radiating, progressively lengthening
toward the outside. The fifth, much reduced in length and widely
set off from the others, has its origin far back on the sole and is
directed strongly outward. As in the type, the sole is indistinct,
though a few imprints seem to indicate that it was broadly rounded
behind. The hindfoot, as shown by Lull, is placed directly behind
the forefoot.
The forefoot has a length of 7 mm., a greatest width from tip to
tip of first and fourth digits of 10 mm. There are four widely
radiating digits apparently without claws, although Lull thought he
detected ‘‘ distinct impressions of terminal claws.” Manus turned
strongly inward toward the axis of the direction of movement. First
NOI 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 39
and fourth toes usually in line across the palm of the foot, the former
pointing inward and backward, the latter outward and forward as
shown in figure 16. As in the pes the palmar impressions are hardly
more than a suggestion. Forefeet usually inside the line formed by
the hindfeet.
Such differences as may be noted between the forefeet of this and
Lull’s type may be more apparent than real for it must be remem-
bered that Lull had but a single impression of the manus (see fig. 16)
in the type, and as we well know the same trackway often exhibits
differences in the toe plan in successive imprints made by the same
foot (see fig. 15). It is, therefore, important to have trackways of
some length in order to be sure of the precise arrangement of the
digits.
COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS
Type No. 11,51
No. 2146 Y.M.| U.S.N.M.
mm, mm,
Wenatiiro te rSniGeseercsatete sae cers nine as sees 2.0 57.0
Width of trackway...... Reape iSO ARR E 33.0 45.0
ene thipronminlanitishywrs cisrasetancicrderseseo are sere aes e 5.5 7.0
NACE Pate TIATIAS uM eral sary ons ewe sera: | 7.0 10.0
BG TTe tte Ole POS aie ccetepeks vena ch svete keeer a euclisieu cteuis fous ovale eksinsyinis ¢ | 7.0 10.5
WA CthRote MES ere wsevstan chase ctaanaiets searchin feeeverm overseers | 7.0 13.0
A second series of small five-toed tracks on this same slab (see B,
fig. 15) but crossing the trackway just described at right angles, is
of interest as showing the apparent capability of this animal to walk
entirely on the hind legs. This series, which may be clearly traced
for a length of 290 mm., gives nowhere any evidence of the front
feet. Furthermore the lengthened stride, 82 mm., and narrowed
trackway, 34 mm., give corroborative evidence in support of this
conclusion, In proportions of foot and relative arrangement of the
digits the impressions of the hindfeet in the two trails are essentially
identical and while both may not have been made by the same indi-
vidual, they were quite certainly made by the same kind of an animal.
That small, crawling quadrupedal animals often assume the bipedal
mode of progression for short distances has often been observed
among the small lizards of the southwestern United States, as has
been convincingly portrayed by Sayville Kent in excellent photo-
graphs. However, it is rather surprising to find an amphibian doing
likewise since our living amphibians are usually slow and sluggish of
movement,
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
A salamandroid feature of the feet is seen in the inward toeing of
the forefeet and the more outward direction of the toes in the hind-
feet. The widely radiating toes of the forefoot and the digital formu-
las of 4 and 5 are particularly characteristic of the salamander group
and it would seem quite probable that the affinities of these tracks fall
into that group.
The assignment of this species to the genus Batrachichnus Wood-
worth, founded on a specimen from the Carboniferous shales of
Massachusetts, is chiefly on the basis of a similar digital formula
supplemented by its small size, with slender toes radially arranged.
Its original reference to the Mesozoic genus Evrocampe, as mentioned
by Lull, was a temporary expedient and not intended to imply genetic
relationship. The different digital formula as now definitely known
shows at once that its affinities lie outside the genus Exocampe which
has four digits in the pes and five in the manus.
The type species Batrachichnus plainvillensis shows a decided me-
dian groove (see fig. 18) of which there is no indication in B. delica-
tula, but in common with Matthew in referring Dromopus celer to
this genus, this feature is not here regarded as of great classificatory
importance.
B, delicatula is distinguished from B. plainvillensis and B. celer
by its much larger size, more widely radiating toes, .especially of the
forefoot, and lack of sole impressions. Its distinction from the Jog-
gins species is rendered difficult because of inadequate illustration and
description.
BATRACHICHNUS OBSCURUS, new species
Plate 13
Type.—Catalogue number 11,529, U.S. N.M. Consists of a trail
about 500 mm. in length; on this same slab are plant impressions and
a few tracks of Hylopus sp.
Type locality—About one-fourth mile west of the sign “ Red
Top” on Hermit Trail, at head of Hermit Gorge, Grand Canyon
National Park, Arizona.
Geological occurrence——Hermit Shale (about 30 feet above
Hermit-Supai contact), Permian.
Description.—Stride 23 mm., width of trackway 23, mm., width of
median groove 8mm, Hindfoot: Length 9 mm., width 6 mm. There
appear to be five short digits; third and fourth subequal in length
and directed straight forward ; fifth*much shortened but not especially
set off from other toes; second and first progressively shortened
inward (see fig. 17). Although the trail is of considerable length
NO GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 4I
only a few of the impressions show toe marks, and of the hindfoot
none shows the full complement, all but one imprint lacking the fifth
toe. The sole is relatively narrow, elongate and obtusely rounded
Fic. 17.—Batrachichnus obscurus. Type. No. 11,529, U.S. N.M.
Diagram of part of trackway. About } natural size.
behind. Forefoot: Length about 5 mm., width 4.5 mm. Four digits.
First slightly set off from the others and directed forward and
inward, others extending almost straight forward. The forefeet im-
Fic. 18.—Batrachichnus plainvillensis Woodworth. Genotype. Dia-
gram of trackway. Natural size. (After Woodworth. )
pressions are even more obscure than the hind, evidently due: to the
fact that the tracks were made in very soft mud which, in most
instances, ran into the track as soon as the foot was withdrawn,
leaving only a slight depression. The contour of the palm is not fully
indicated in any of the tracks.
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
In the length of stride, which is equal to width of trackway, in size
of tracks, number of digits, and presence of a median groove, these
tracks bear a strikingly close resemblance to those of Batrachichnus
plainvillensis from the Carboniferous shales of Massachusetts. The
great width and depth of the median groove seem to indicate that it
was made by the dragging belly. The course is irregularly sinuous
and at one end the animal turned sharply to the left and with a more
moderate bend to the right, and where these bends were made the
median groove is much widened and smoothed out. (See pl. 18.)
It is quite evident that the tracks were made by a salamandroid,
shortlegged crawling animal, which in moving about dragged the
belly. The foot structure also suggests its amphibian origin. No
other trails or tracks exactly comparable to it have been found at this
locality.
From B. plainvillensis this species may be distinguished by the
shorter toes, their more forward direction, and the wider and deeper
median groove. It is distinguished at once from Dromullopus, also
a small form in these same deposits, by the greater number of toes
on the hindfoot. The specific name is suggested by the obscure con-
dition of most of the tracks.
Genus DROMILLOPUS Matthew
Dromillopus Matthew, G. F., Proc. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Vol. 1o,
1904, Pp. OL.
Matthew characterizes the genus as follows:
Generic characters—Small digitigrade batrachians. Toes slender, directed
forward in a radial manner; imprint showing only four toes to each foot.
Genotype.-—Dromullopus quadrifidus Matthew.
This genus was established by Matthew on a series of small tracks
from the Carboniferous Coal Measures of Joggins, Nova Scotia.
DROMILLOPUS PARVUS, new species
Plate 14
Type.—Catalogue number 11,537, U.S. N. M. Consists of a small
slab of shale showing the trackway and tail drag of a small animal.
Type locality~—About one-fourth mile west of the sign ‘ Red
Top ” on Hermit Trail near the head of Hermit Gorge, Grand Can-
yon National Park, Arizona.
Geological occurrence-—Hermit shale (about 40 feet above
Hermit-Supai contact), Permian,
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 43
Description—Stride about 36 mm.; width of trackway about
33 mm. This small slab of reddish colored shale has impressed on
its surface some few beautifully preserved tracks (see pl. 14), al-
though the trackway as a whole is obscure in several important details.
Fic. 19—Dromillopus parvus. Type. No. 11,537, U.S.N.M.
Diagram of trackway showing tail drag. Broken lines connect the
supposed pes impressions of opposite sides. About natural size.
This obscurity is due to two conditions, first, the intermingling on the
left-hand side of the tracks of two smali animals; and second, the
failure of one pair of feet to impress clearly. The feet most clearly
registered correspond almost precisely in size and in number and
arrangement of the digits with the so-called hindfoot described by
44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
Matthew’ as Dromillopus quadrifidus from the Coal Measures of
Joggins, Nova Scotia. The presence of a distinct tail drag, and its
absence in the Joggins trackway (compare figs. 19 and 20), differ-
ences found in the structure of the forefeet, longer stride, and
greater width of trackway all point to its specific distinctness from
the Nova Scotian species ; hence the specific name parvus is proposed
for its reception. Hindfoot: Length 9 mm., width 8 mm. Four digits
of which the outer is set off from the other three. These are long
and slender, regularly increasing in length toward the outside of
the foot, the third being the longest, the fourth considerably shorter.
MM, (8h
\ .
ay
we
Oy
Va a kee
Fic. 20.—Dromillopus quadrifidus Matthew. Type. Diagram of
trackway. About natural size. (After Matthew.)
The sole is well impressed and the full rounded outline of the heel
is shown in figure 19, whereas in the Joggins species the sole is
scarcely distinguishable. The foot is shown to have been semiplanti-
grade, not digitigrade as originally characterized by Matthew. Fore-
foot: Length about 8 mm., width 8 mm. While none of the so-called
hindfoot impressions show the detailed structure plainly, it is clearly
evident there were only four toes on the manus. The sole seems to be
more broadly rounded than in the pes. A description of the other
details of the foot must await the discovery of better preserved
specimens.
The imprints connected by dotted line in figure 20 were regarded
by Matthew as having been made by the hindfeet. No reasons were
* Proc. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Vol. 10, 1904, p. 91.
NOS 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 45
given for this conclusion, though their slightly larger size may have
influenced his decision. The relative position of these tracks suggests
that their identity may be the reverse of Matthew’s conception. The
same condition prevails in the trackway now before me, but no posi-
tive evidence in solution of this suggestion is offered and for the -
present Matthew’s identification will be followed. Between the rows
of tracks is a distinct, well defined groove probably made by a
dragging tail, which registers the movement of the animal as indicated
-by the undulating character of the impression.
A second series of tracks of this species is found on the upper
side of the slab carrying the basi-relief tracks of Hyloidichnus bifur-
catus (No. 11,598, U.S.N.M.). It is a short trackway that is in
CoMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS
|
Type of
aes SEY Dromillopus
2S. iN. M, quadrifidus
mum, mun,
Wenetheorasenide. cvrnccces ac dae smehaciwicte oe 36 26
Wwidiehma tm ittackwayes cn. tecctes wan srde-g ee 33 18
Wen othimote pes mt uackce ai ueracieyteateiees see ot sreleks |
Whidithwotipesiitracks Aesitaicn: acsiua oc nase. |
encthmohemantisethackwware cers siiecine sek:
9
8
7
WWiGhdan Gi THEN. cla A saasnocndceeaudaeue Gi)
co co CO}
accord in all particulars with the type specimen. The tail drag is not
continuous as in the type but left its trace only on the crests of the
ripple marked surface across which the trail runs.
Genus HYLOPUS Dawson
Hylopus Dawson, J. W., Proc. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Vol. 12, 1895, p. 77.
The genus Hylopus was briefly characterized by Dawson as fol-
lows: “Smaller footprints [than Sauropus Lea], digitigrade, and
made by animals having a long stride and hind and forefeet nearly
equal. live toes. Probably footprints of Microsauria and possibly
of Dendrerpeton.” In all Dawson described five species. These
named in chronological order are: Hylopus logani, H. hardingi,
H. caudifer, H. minor and H. trifidus. Allare from the Coal Measures
of Nova Scotia.
Subsequently Matthew * reviewed the genus and reached the con-
clusion “that there is so much variation in the form of these foot-
* Proc. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Vol. 10, 1904, pp. 82-85.
46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
prints that they cannot all be contained in the genus Hylopus.” He
then shows that H. hardingi, H. minor, and,H. logami should be re-
tained in the genus and at the same time selects H. hardingi as the
genotype. He also concludes (p. 85) “that five toe-marks of the
hindfoot and four in the fore is the typical number for Hylopus.”
It is this conclusion that leads him to question the propriety of re-
taining H. minor which has a digital formula of 5-5. H. caudifer
is removed to the genus Asperipes, and H. trifidus to the genus
Ornithoides.
Dawson in his characterization and also in his first published fig-
ures ' before the species was named, shows five digits on the forefoot.
In the light of the many other resemblances to these tracks found in
specimens from the Grand Canyon, in which there are five distinct
toe impressions on the forefoot, it would seem that Dawson was
probably correct, and that Matthew was in error in thinking there
were only four toes on the manus. Because of the close resemblances
found in these footprints from the Hermit shale to those of H. hard-
ingi Dawson, especially in relative length of digits, stride and
width of trackway, I refer the following new species to Hylopus,
which may now be characterized as follows:
Generic characters (emended).—Quadrupedal, semidigitigrade.
Manus subequal or smaller than pes. Five toes in both manus and
pes; toes in both thick with bluntly pointed extremities; fourth
longest, progressively decreasing in length inward; fifth in both fore-
and hindfeet much shortened and strongly set off from others. Stride
long, hindfoot placed behind forefoot.
Genotype-—Hylopus hardingi Dawson.
Matthew also points out that all of the species except H. logani
have the print of the sole preserved, and on that account infers that
Dawson was in error in regarding the feet as being digitigrade. This
conclusion is fully sustained by the semi-plantigrade character of the
impressions of the specimen about to be described.
HYLOPUS HERMITANUS, new species
Plate 15
Type.—Catalogue number 11,517, U.S. N.M. Consists of a slab
on which is a trail showing many of the tracks of both fore- and
hindfeet beautifully impressed.
Type locality—One-fourth mile west of sign post “ Red Top” on
Hermit Trail, head of Hermit Gorge, Grand Canyon National Park,
Arizona.
* Air-Breathers of the Coal Period, Montreal, 1863, pl. 1, figs. 2, 2a.
NOT 3S GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 47
Geological occurrence—Hermit shale (30 feet above base),
Permian.
Description.—Stride about 144 mm.; width of trackway about
114 mm. Hindfoot: Length about 38 mm.; width 40.5 mm. Five
Fic. 21.—Hylopus hermitanus. Type. No. 11,517, U.S.N.M. Dia-
gram of trackway. About 4 natural size.
toes. The fourth toe ts longest, the others progressively shorter in-
ward. The fifth is shortened, divergent, and with a tendency to turn
backward. There seem to have been sharp claws on the second,
third, and fourth digits as in H. minor Dawson, but the fifth had a
4
48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
bluntly rounded end and was apparently without claw. If a claw
was present on the first digit it must have been obtusely pointed. In
all of the tracks, the sole is rather faintly impressed in so far as its
exact posterior outline is concerned, As determined it is relatively
short, but broad, and apparently without prominent palmar pads.
Forefoot: Smaller than hindfoot. Length 32 mm. ; width from tip to
tip of first and fifth toes is 36 mm. Five toes, arranged much as in
the hindfoot. Fourth is longest, progressively shortening inward.
wl
ANY
Fic. 22.—H ylopus hardingi Dawson. Trackway. (After Matthew.)
Fifth more widely divergent from fourth than in the pes, with an
inclination to turn backward, and apparently without claw. The palm
is short, and rounded behind. .
A second series of tracks (No. 11,524, U.S.N.M.) from this
same locality, occurring on the weathered surface of a small slab of
shale found on the hillside below the ledge where the type was found
in place, is identified as belonging to this same genus and species.
It is smaller than the type (see table of measurements) but otherwise
is in close agreement as to the proportions and arrangement of the
digits. Other scattering imprints of Hylopus are present on several
slabs of shale from this same locality.
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 49
Examination of the type (see pl. 15) shows that the animal was
in the habit of placing the hindfoot directly in line with but a variable
distance behind the forefoot, never overlapping. That the digits were
flexible is indicated by the strongly bent ends of digits three and four
in the lower impression of the pes as shown in figure 21, whereas the
very next impression forward shows them perfectly straight. Since
the straight form of digits predominates they are regarded as repre-
senting the normal shape of these toes.
CoMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS
a 4 No. 11,517 3
US.NoM. | USS.NOM. | iacthate
mm, Feng d | et
SEEN E | St og Re ae ee Cea ‘TOS 144 136.5
\Wavaldov Wonk. qirerellayiehinso neo danen ee ea oc 84 114 90.0
Menetin GP hindloots.. 2h... esas es oc 31 38.0 30.0
NWwidehi tor sntadfoots Si. oscacless ov oes | oe 40.5 33.0
Wenetin cle Gigit ibmo\c eas scciale weer 5.0 5.0 4.5
Length of digit II ..... AMES. eT 8.5 9.0 9.0
Wenethison idigite lec eric cece | nites 14.0 15.0
menothivor taigit UV" 2 ieee aes aces | 14 18.5 20.5
iL@saveadaveon? ichiteate: Whang Aas Sauda 6 ooudT nO 7.0 6.0
en gthwOn, LOLELOOts sce sas eleven cite 21 32.0
Widthimotetorerootcsaken sere cae: : | . 26 36.0
enoth Of cieite lo cares dutaeas tas 6 a5 | aye
ene timornGipite ll ene eyecare. eis oe | 7 8.0 | 0.0
IL Sayed oui wohterhe IM ay 5 oecHpewoe aca 10 10.5 | 13.5
Menottt vod Gipats [Vin se Poses oe dele. | 12 15.0 | 16.5
enptht of digit vice: sichieick acs at | 4.5 6.0 | ES)
Forefoot in front of hindfoot......... is 12 to 30
|
* Measurements of Hylopus hardingi taken from Matthew’s illustration.
Matthew * depicts a fore- and hindfoot of Hylopus hardingi which
in the explanation of figures he attributes to the right side. By com-
parison with the tracks of Hylopus hermitanus now before me, and
especially with Matthew’s figure 2, plate 6, it becomes at once appar-
ent that they pertain to the left side. It will be noted that in Mat-
thew’s illustration of the hand, the side from which the first digit
would spring is left unfinished (see fig. 23), implying that the evi-
dence for its absence was inconclusive. In view of the close resem-
blance to the specimen here described and in their close agreement
* Proc. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Vol. 10, 1904, figs. 1a and 1b.
50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
of relative proportions as shown in the table of comparative measure-
ments, and especially by Dawson’s original determination, it would
seem there can be but little doubt that the creature making the tracks
called Hylopus hardingi had five digits on the forefoot. The liability
of toes not to impress is clearly shown in the specimen now before
me for although in most of the tracks forming this short trail all
toes are indicated, one hindfoot impression shows only the dimmest
record of digit four and no trace at all of the outer toe.
Hylopus hermitanus most closely approaches H, hardingi in size
and arrangement of the digits of the feet, but may be distinguished
Fic. 23.—Hylopus hardingi Dawson. Fore- and hindfoot of left
side. Natural size. (After Matthew. )
from that species by the more widely separated and more divergent
toes, and especially by the more forward position of the fifth toe.
In both H. hardingi and H. minor, the fifth toe is given off far back
on the side of the sole. In the forefeet of both of these species the
lateral toes are much less divergent than in the specimen here de-
scribed (compare figs. 21 and 22).
In offering conjectures about the known animals which might have
been responsible for the Nova Scotian tracks, Sir William Dawson
suggests they may have been made by some microsaurian-like H yler-
peton or Hylonomus. In any event, all of the tracks here discussed
seem to conform more nearly to those made by amphibians than to
those of any known reptile.
NOW 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 51
In figure 24 is shown a diagram of the foot plan of Anthracopus
ellangowensis Leidy from the Coal Measures of Pennsylvania, which
displays such striking resemblances to the forefoot of Hylopus her-
mitanus as to allow the suggestion that with the recovery of better
preserved specimens of the Pennsylvanian species they will be found
to be congeneric. Through the courtesy of Dr. Witmer Stone, direc-
tor of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, I have had the oppor-
tunity of examining the type of Anthracopus ellangowensis and find
on one imprint a faint suggestion of the presence of a fifth digit,
although none of the other five tracks preserved gives any hint of its
existence. The evidence is, therefore, inconclusive. The absence of
the fifth digit in A. ellangowensis is the only important difference
found in a comparison of these two species, and its absence may be
due to its not impressing, a condition observed in at least one track
of the type of H. hermitanus. In general form, relative length and
Fic. 24.—Anthracopus ellangowensis Leidy. Imprint of the right
side. Less than natural size. (After Leidy.)
divergence ot the digits, and shape of palmar impression there is
great similarity between the two. Attention should also be called to
certain resemblances found between H. hermitanus and Ichnium
Sphaerodactylum described by Pabst* from the Permian (Tauback )
of Thuringen. In the general plan of the feet there is a striking
similarity, though the absence of the first digit in the manus and the
heavier toes with bluntly rounded extremities in /. sphaerodactylum
effectually distinguishes it from the Arizona form.
Genus HYLOIDICHNUS, new genus
Generic characters —Quadrupedal, semidigitigrade. Both manus
and pes have five digits. Manus smaller than pes and placed in front
of hindfoot. Toes terminated either with pellets or having bifurcated
ends.
Genotype.—H yloidichnus bifurcatus.
* Pabst, W., Deutsche geol. Gesell., Vol. 48, 1896, pp. 638 and 808, text fig. 2.
52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
HYLOIDICHNUS BIFURCATUS. new species
Plate 16
Type.—Catalogue number 11,518, U.S.N.M. Consists of the
obverse slab on which is a trackway about 500 mm. in extent.
Type locality—Hermit Trail, one-fourth mile west of sign “ Red
Top” head of Hermit Gorge, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona.
Hermit shale, 30 feet above Hermit-Supai
Geological occurrence.
contact, Permian,
Fic. 25.—Hyloidichnus bifurcatus. Type. No. 11,598, U.S. N. M.
Diagram of trackway. About 4 natural size.
Description.—Stride about 180 mm.; width of trackway about
125 mm. Forefoot somewhat smaller than hind and is placed in
front of it. Hindfoot: Length 42 mm., width 40.5 mm, There are
five toes, progressively longer toward the outside, the fourth being
the longest. The fifth digit is much shortened, and somewhat set
off from the others. Fourth digit is more than twice the length of
the sole and extending directly forward as in Hylopus. First and
fifth toes terminated by pellets, second, third and fourth usually
INO FS GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 53
having bifurcated ends with inner branch longer than outer (see
fig. 25). These have suggested resemblance to the bifurcated digits
of the living Rhacophorus maximus, a tree frog of Sumatra, which
has the unguals split to give better support to the terminal disks.
This reference should not convey the idea of relationship but simply
calls attention to an interesting similarity of structure. Sole narrow
antero-posteriorly but wide transversely. Digits have the following
leneths, b= 7.3) mm. lb 17mm Lt = 23 mm. 1V = 30 nim.,
V = 13mm. Forefoot: Length about 32 mm., width 31.2 mm. Five
digits as in the pes, which grow progressively longer toward the out-
side, the fourth being the longest. The fifth shorter than the first
and especially set off from the other toes as in the hindfoot. All of
the toes seem to be terminated by pellets. None of the imprints show
bifurcated toes.. First toe more widely separated from the others
than in the hindfoot. The digits have the following lengths:
Fo mms, tl 14.5 mime Pil = 17.5 mm., 1V = zo. mm.; V'=
g mm. These tracks may be classed as digitigrade, as shown by the
extreme shortness of the sole impression. They were evidently made
by a quadrupedal batrachian, evidently of the walking type as indi-
cated by the alternating position of the steps of opposite sides.
In such features as the digital formula, and their radiating arrange-
ment, these tracks bear a close resemblance to Hylopus found in these
same beds, but the longer and more slender toes terminated either by
pellets or bifurcated ends at once distinguish them from that genus
as well as all others coming under my observation. It is therefore
regarded as new, the specific name bifurcatus being in reference to
the divided ends of a few of the toes on the hindfeet.
Only one specimen referable to this species was found in the col-
lection of 1926,
Genus PARABAROPUS, new genus
The discovery of additional specimens that appear to be referable
to Lull’s species A/egapezia ? coloradensis* indicates the necessity of
establishing a new genus for its reception. Its original assignment to
the Nova Scotian genus Megapezia was regarded by Lull as pro-
visional, largely on account of the paucity of the materials at his
command, Cerfain resemblances to the genus Baropus suggest the
name Parabaropus, which may be characterized as follows:
Generic characters.—Quadrupedal, plantigrade, with five digits in
both manus and pes. Forefoot smaller than hind; toes in both rela-
*Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. 45, 1918, p. 341.
54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
tively short with rounded extremities, without claws; sole of pes
elongated, narrowed behind. Forefoot turning strongly inward and
placed in front of hindfoot.
Genotype.—Parabaropus coloradensis (Lull)
PARABAROPUS COLORADENSIS (Lull)
Plate 15, ties 7
Megapezia ? coloradensis Lull, R. S., Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. 45, 1918, p. 341.
In establishing this species, Lull had as type materials “ three small
slabs of red impure sandstone, one apparently of the manus obscured
by crushing and mud-cracking, another of the pes, and a third with
two impressions each of hand and foot, which determine the width
of trackway but not the length of stride.’ From a study of these
composite materials he depicted the plan of the feet as shown in
figure 26,
A series of tracks (No. 11,598, U.S. N.M.) of the left side from
the Hermit shale and from the same general locality as the type
specimens, shows such striking resemblances to the tracks figured by
Lull, except for their slightly larger size, as to at once raise the
question of the proper association of the imprints as illustrated by
Lull. This series, which is in relief, has been cast and thus affords
all of the evidence of the original imprints. The manus is shown to
be smaller than the pes, and the digits of the former resemble those
of the latter in being relatively short with rounded ends without
claws. This fact is entirely in accord with the large number of track-
ways in the collection from this same region in that the toes of the
manus are always similar to those of the pes in the character of their
termination. In other words, if one has the toes acuminate, they will
be pointed in the other; if rounded in the hindfoot, they will be
rounded in the forefoot, etc., etc. In the large collection of trackways
now available from this same region, not a single exception to this
rule can be found. This reason alone appears to be sufficient to show
that these imprints have been incorrectly associated.
That Lull recognized this incongruity of foot structure is shown
by the following remarks:
The difference in character of manus and pes is so great, except for
an agreement in size, that one would not, perhaps, be justified in associating
them together were it not for the third slab.
Examination of the type materials made possible through the kind-
ness of Dr. R. S. Lull, who forwarded them to the National Museum,
all goes to confirm my above conclusions. The third slab, on which
NOI 3S GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 55
reliance was placed for the original association of the detached im-
prints, was found to have on its surface the tracks of no less than
four kinds of animals, all rather indistinctly recorded in so far as
their exact details are concerned. None of these can be positively
identified with either of the detached tracks. The footprint which has
suggested resemblances to the pes track figured by Lull is much
smaller, but disregarding this difference in size, the preservation 1s
such as to render its positive identification with that track out of the
question.
In front of this track are two smaller tracks, one slightly encroach-
ing upon the other, which in the light of newly discovered specimens
can quite certainly be identified as the manus and pes tracks of
Fic. 26.—Megapesia ? coloradensis LulJ. Type. No. 2,145, Yale
Museum. a, right manus, b, right pes. 3 natural size. (Reduced
from Lull.)
Hyloidichnus bifurcatus. The other tracks present on this slab are
inferior in their preservation and deserve no further mention at this
* time.
After study of the type materials it is my conclusion that no evi-
dence exists for the association of these detached footprints and on
that account the track illustrated by Lull as the pes (see fig. 26) is
selected as the type of the species P. coloradensts.
Comparison of the manus track of the newly discovered trackway
(see fig. 27) with the type of P. coloradensis (Lull) (see fig. 28)
shows such close resemblances between them as to leave no doubt
that the type track pertains to the manus rather than the pes as
originally determined. These tracks are practically of the same size,
as may be seen in the table of comparative measurements and further
resemblances are found in the short radiating digits, with rounded
56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
extremities, without claws, and short, broad sole rounded behind.
The type shows the presence of only four digits but the faint im-
pression of the sole which gradually fades out on the right hand side
Fic. 27.—Parabaropus coloradensis (Lull) No. 11,598, U.S. N. M.
Diagram of left hand side of trackway. About 4 natural size.
of the track indicates that is was sufficiently wide to carry a fifth toe.
A tracing made from the type track without restoration is shown in
figure 28.
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 57
Although the evidence is not entirely conclusive, in view of the
many similarities pointed out specimen No. 11,598, U.S. N.M., is
provisionally referred to the present species, and our knowledge of
the species may now be elaborated by its description.
This specimen was found im situ in the Hermit shale about one-
quarter mile west of the sign post “ Red Top,” on the Hermit Trail,
CoMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS OF FOREFEET
No. 11,598 Type No. 2,145
U.S. N. M. Yale Museum
mm, mm,
WBEM DCI neh yp sorctetaeceis eteetesiektes ilere. i cleus matin 48 48.5
JevaGe alot a nett cette ee be On cy FOES O CT Dre e 70 > Fae
Went ote beile woke aryswee es oc.cuettucperners 12 12.6
Wenpti iat Giett UE soe Ua sees ence sees 14 15.0
Menotimore ai aite lily Vel recre re owss ok c\ccose ie ole riche 14 17.0
Weng thwonmai etl meee cles eee ee 13 ?15.5
Wenetlimotedistigiv: Mee ane sre,- Rien ciate sole II
in Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona, about 30 feet above the
Hermit-Supai contact. The length of stride is about 240 mm., width
of trackway unknown. Forefoot smaller than hind and placed in
front of the hindfoot impression. Hindfoot: Plantigrade, length
about 80 mm., greatest width 80 mm. Five relatively short digits
having rounded terminations, without claws. Fifth toe set off from
Fig. 28.—Parabaropus coloradensis (Lull) Type. No. 2,145, Yale
Museum. Outline of manus, unrestored. About 4 natural size.
the others and directed strongly outward. Sole elongate, more than
three times as long as the longest toe. Digits have the following
lencths;, Ij .14 sm. 1 = 29 om, Tl =+23.mm,., LVI 18 mm.
V=16mm. Forefoot: Length about 48 mm., width about 70 mm.
Five toes radially arranged. Toes as in the pes, short with rounded
terminations without claws. Palm nearly twice as wide as long, and
broadly rounded behind. The foot as a whole is turned inward
58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
whereas the hindfoot is directed straight forward (see fig. 26). The
relative lengths of the digits are given in the table of comparative
measurements (see p. 57). The form of the elongated hindfoot im-
pression has a considerable resemblance to the pes track of Baropus
lentus Marsh (see fig. 10), but is distinguished from that genus by
the presence of five toes and in having the forefoot considerably
smaller than the hind, and its much smaller size as a whole.
Genus COLLETTOSAURUS Cox
Collettosaurus Cox, E. T., Fifth Ann. Rep. Geol. Sury. Indiana, 1874, p. 247,
one plate.
In reviewing the literature relating to Carboniferous footprints it
became at once apparent that many of the authors gave but scant
attention to the work done by their predecessors, a procedure that has
resulted in the creation of a number of synonyms. While it is far
beyond the scope of the present paper to attempt a revision of the
entire subject, in order to secure a working basis for the proper
classification of the specimens here considered it becomes necessary
to make the nomenclatural changes herewith suggested,
In 1874 Cox proposed the genus Collettosaurus based on an ade-
quate specimen from the Carboniferous of Warren County. Indiana.
No attempt was made to characterize the genus, but from his rather
meager description and illustration it may now be defined as follows:
Generic characters —Quadrupedal. Five digits on both manus and
pes. Toes relatively slender, acuminate, radiating, with fifth some-
what set off from the others ; feet about equal in size ; hindfoot placed
behind forefoot.
Genotype.—Collzttosaurus indianaensis Cox.
In February 1891, Butts* described the new genus and species
Notalacerta missouriensis (see fig. 30) from the Upper Coal Mea-
sures of Kansas City, Missouri, and in March of the same year he
established a second genus Notamphibia magna (see fig. 29), each
having five slender sharply pointed toes on both fore- and hindfeet.
A critical comparison of these three genera fails to disclose differ-
ences of genetic importance, and on the grounds of priority Notala-
certa and Notamphibia are considered synonyms of Collettosaurus,
the species to be known hereafter as Collettosaurus missouriensis
(Butts) and C. magna (Butts).
* Butts, Edward, The Kansas City Scientist, Vol. 5, 1891, p. 18.
NO. 3
GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE
Fic. 29.—Collettosaurus magna (Butts). Type. Imprint of right
side. About natural size. (After Butts.)
Fic. 30.—Collettosaurus missouriensis (Butts). Type. Imprints of
fore- and hindfoot of left side. Natural size. (After Butts.)
59
60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS -VOL. 80
Dromopus velox Matthew* from the Lower Carboniferous of
Nova Scotia (see fig. 31), likewise appears to have its affinities within
this genus, and were it not for the uncertainty of the digital formula
of the forefoot, I should unhesitatingly refer it to the present genus.
The hindfoot with five slender digits, digits three and four subequal
in length, and the first slightly divergent, are all features in common
with the pes impressions of the species to be described below.
Matthew was in doubt as to whether there were three or four toes
in the manus of Dromopus velox, but in view of the close similarities
noted above in the hindfeet, it would seem not unlikely that five may
be found in this foot when better preserved specimens are known.
Fic. 31—Dromopus velox Matthew. Type. a, right hindfoot
impression; 2b, right forefoot impression. From Joggins, Nova
Scotia. Both natural size. (After Matthew.)
Footprints from the Hermit shale, having a similar digital for-
mula, with slender sharp pointed toes are tentatively referred to
Collettosaurus.
COLLETTOSAURUS PENTADACTYLUS, new species
Plate 19, fig. I
Type.—Catalogue number 11,527, U.S. N.M. Consists of a slab
of shale 390 mm. in length carrying a consecutive series of tracks
evidently made in very soft mud.
Type locality —One-fourth mile west of sign post “ Red Top” on
Hermit Trail, head of Hermit Gorge, Grand Canyon National Park,
Arizona.
Geological occurrence.—Hermit shale (about 30 feet above base),
Permian.
“Proc. Lrans, Roy. Soc. Canada. \Volwto) 10045 pyconnp lace tiesnecan cus
GILMORE 61
INOS GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS
Description.—Stride about 330 mm.; width of trackway 120 mm.
Hindfoot: Five digits, third and fourth long, slender, subequal in
length, and usually directed straight forward in the direction of
Fic. 32.—Collettosaurus pentadactylus. Type. No, 11,527, U.S.N.M.
Diagram of trackway. About }§ natural size.
movement. The fifth digit originates well back on the side of the sole
and is diverted strongly outward. The first is weak and about half
the length of the median digits. Sole Apparently long, but none of
the hindfoot impressions is sufficiently clear to show the precise shape
of the sole. Roughly estimated the pes may have a total length of
62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
about 50 mm. The length of the digits may tentatively be recorded
as follows: digit I, 14 mm.; digit II, 24 mm.; digit III, 28 mm.;
digit 1V, 28 mm.; digit V, 22 mm. These figures are subject to
revision since the impressions may have been lengthened by slipping
in the mud. Forefoot: Length about 54 mm.; width measured from
tip of digit I to the tip of digit V, 41 mm.. ive digits, inner and
outer, shorter than median toes, both somewhat divergent, and both
originate well back on the opposite sides of the palm behind the bases
Iguana.
Ignana
Fic. 33.—/ guana sp. Tracks. Right figure, manus; left figure, pes.
Both of the left side. Natural size. (After Hitchcock.)
of the median digits. The first is weak, and, as in the hindfoot im-
pressions, about one-half as long as the middle toes. Sole long, narrow,
and obtusely pointed behind. Length of digit, I, 13 mm.; digit II,
26 mm, ; digit IT], 27 mm.:; digit IV, 25 mm: > digit V, 20 mm ini
walking the forefoot is placed forward and directly in front of the
hindfoot. The weight of the animal, judging from the depth of the
impressions of the feet, was about equally distributed between the
fore and hind limbs. Forefoot but little smaller than hind.
From Collettosaurus magna (Butts) the present species may at
once be distinguished by the much shorter digit I in both manus and
pes and by the greater relative narrowness of the imprint as a whole.
NOS GRAND CANYON FOSSIL, FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 63
Unfortunately Butts neglected to state whether the imprint figured
by him was of the hand or the foot, nor did he designate whether
right or left, but from comparison with the specimens under consid-
eration it becomes quite apparent that the track was made by a foot
of the right side of the animal, clearly indicated by the posterior
position of the fifth digit.
The tracks here described seem to have been made by a long-legged .
quadruped walking rapidly through soft mud, for when the foot was
withdrawn the ooze closed in from either side in many instances
leaving only a narrow streak to indicate the imprint of the toe. There
are no indications of a tail drag.
The foot plan, especially of the manus, shows some striking re-
semblances to that of the living Iguana (compare figs. 32 and 33).
The long slender acuminate toes; two median digits of subequal
length ; divergent fifth toe and narrow pointed palmar impression, are
all features in common between the fossil tracks and those of the
Iguana, and at least permit the suggestion that in all probability these
fossil tracks were reptilian if not Sauri in origin.
Genus CURSIPES Matthew
Cursipes Matthew, G. F., Canadian Rec. Sci., Vol. 9, 1903, p. 102.
The genus Cursipes was established by Matthew on specimens from
the Carboniferous of Joggins, Nova Scotia. The chief characters
distinguishing Cursipes, as extracted from Matthew’s description
would seem to be as follows:
Generic characters—Quadrupedal. Five digits in pes, three in
manus. Toes long and slender in both feet. Sole small in both manus
and pes.
The presence of this genus in the Hermit formation seems to be
indicated by the rather inferior specimen briefly described below.
CURSIPES, sp.
Plate 17, fig. 2
A series of footmarks (No. 11,521, U.S.N.M.) more or less
obscured by the tracks of other animals stepping upon them, seems
to be referable to the genus Cursipes, and if correctly identified marks
the first recognized occurrence of this genus in the Hermit ichnite
fauna. This specimen was found in the same locality as the other
Hermit specimens described herein.
As shown best on the upper right hand side of the slab, the print
of the three toed forefoot was distinct from the hind and placed some
-
o
64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
distance in front of it. The stride is about 115 mm., width of track-
way about 125 mm. Hindfoot: Length about 30 mm., width about
33 mm. There are five digits. Toes widely spread as in Hylopus.
Fifth toe strongly set off from the other. Second and third toes sub-
equal in length, others progressively shorter toward the outside of
the foot. Sole rather lightly impressed. Considerable variation in the
_ length of toes is noted in the several impressions available ; the length
of toes as given below are measurements taken from the two most
clearly impressed tracks. Length of toes: I = 9 mm.; II = 11 mm.;
Ill = 10.5 «um:.; EVo= 10 mm. V =o. mmy Porefoot. Denctht
about 28 mm., width about 20 mm, There are three long slender toes,
the outer slightly spreading from the inner two. Toes subequal in
length, none less than 18 mm. long. Sole indistinctly impressed.
The digital formula of five in the pes and three in the manus at
once distinguishes this trackway from all others found in the Hertnit
fauna, but in the Joggins, Nova Scotia, fauna two genera, Asperipes
and Cursipes, are found with a similar number of digits. The elon-
gated nature of the toes, especially in the manus, and the relatively
small soles seems to show that its affinities lie in the genus Cursipes
to which it is provisionally referred.
The much larger size of the tracks, and differences noted in the
plan of the feet, especially in the relatively shorter and stouter toes
of the pes, are characters that might serve to distinguish it from the
described species, C. dawsoni and C. levis Matthew, but on account
of the unsatisfactory nature of the evidence to be obtained from this
single specimen its designation as a distinct species is deferred for
the present. It is sufficient at this time to call attention to the presence
of Cursipes in this fauna in the expectation that better specimens may
be found, which will permit its adequate characterization.
INCERTE SEDIS
Plate 17, fig. 2; plate 18
Under this heading, attention is called to certain ichnites occurring
in the Hermit formation that are apparently new to the fauna, but
due to the paucity of information to be obtained from specimens in
hand it seems undesirable to name them.
Specimen No. 11,528, U.S. N. M. (see pl. 18), is notable as being
the largest footprint yet discovered in the Hermit formation, and as
such it appears worthy of this brief description.
This specimen was found by Mr. G. E. Sturdevant and was pre-
sented by him to the national collections. It was picked up on the
NOT 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 65
hillside about one-fourth mile west of the sign “ Red Top” on the
Hermit Trail, in Hermit Basin, and from 30 to 40 feet above the
Hermit-Supai contact. The single track is deeply impressed on the
sun-baked surface of a slab of reddish sandy shale. There are five
toes and a tapering heel of moderate length. If correct in regarding
it as being the imprint of a right foot (probably the hind), the fifth
toe is somewhat set off from the others and subequal in length with
the fourth. The fourth is the longest digit, the others progressively
reducing in length toward the inside of the foot. The toes give the
impression of all being acuminate. The track has a greatest length
of 128 mm.; a greatest spread of toes of 130 mm. Length of digits
qwiolows: k= 20 ¢ mun: T= 30 mm.; lll = 40 mm,; IV =
52 mm.; V = 50 mm. On the lower left hand corner of this slab,
about 165 mm. posterior to the above described tracks are three toe
marks, but whether made by the same foot cannot be determined. In
size, narrowing of the heel, presence of five digits, toes reducing in
length inward with a divergent fifth digit, this track suggests ‘affinities
with Chirotherium heterodactylum (King)’ from the Carboniferous
of Pennsylvania. The much shorter digits with other minor differ-
ences would separate it from that species if more perfect specimens
should show its affinities to lie within that genus.
A second specimen (No. 11,530, U.S.N.M.) from this same
locality and geological horizon, and likewise consisting of a single
track made by a much smaller animal, also seems to represent an
undescribed member of this Ichnite fauna. Its principal characteris-
tics are well shown in plate 17, figure 3. It has four long, tapering,
acuminate toes, two of which are curved. A short spur extending
outward from the base of the larger toe on the left hand side of the
specimen may represent a very short fifth digit. The heel is largely
missing. Greatest spread of toes 46 mm. Length of digits taken
from vett to risht as as! follows: TL =.5.mm.5 1) = 15 mm.; 1 =
26 amar, UV 34mm: 3) V =) 39.5 mim.
FAUNA OF THE SUPAL FORMATION
Genus STENICHNUS, new genus
Generic characters —Quadrupedal, plantigrade. Four toes on both
fore- and hindfeet. Toes long, slender, and acuminate. Hindfoot
placed upon the impression made by the forefoot.
Genotype.—Stenichnus yakiensis, new species.
*Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. 48, 1845, pp. 349-351.
66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
STENICHNUS YAKIENSIS, new species
: Plate 10, fig. 2
Type-—Catalogue number 11,533, U.S.N.M. Consists of a slab
on which is a trackway about 330 mm. in length,
Type locality—Yaki Trail (about 2 miles down from top), east
side of O'Neill Butte, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona.
Fic. 34.—Stenichnus yakiensis. Type. No. 11,533, U.S.N.M.
Diagram of trackway. About 4 natural size.
Geological occurrence.—Supai formation (about middle), Pennsyl-
vanian.
Description.— Stride about 81 mm., width of trackway (estimated )
94 mm., hindfoot placed forward and partially upon forefoot. Fore-
foot nearly equal to hindfoot in size. Hindfoot: Length about 45 mm.,
width across the toes 23.5 mm., across sole 18 mm. There are four
long, slender toes. Toes nearly equa! to length of sole, and inner
three directed straight forward, outer toe slightly divergent. Two
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 67
median toes subequal in length, lateral toes slightly shorter. The sole
longer than wide, practically the same length as the toes, obtusely
rounded behind. Forefoot: Length about 40 mm., width across palm
Fic. 35.—Ornithoides ? adamsi Matthew. Type. Diagram of
trackway from Coal Measures, Joggins, Nova Scotia. Natural size.
(After Matthew. )
about 18 mm. In most of the imprints three toes are registered, but
the hindfoot, in the greater number of instances, was partially placed
upon the fore and wiped out the imprint of the shortened inner toe.
Although plainly present on the right side, in these tracks the outer
68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
toe failed to impress. Sole shorter than in pes, being wider than long.
As in the hindfoot the two median toes are longest, the inner much
shortened and the outer somewhat shorter than the second and third.
All seem to be directed forward.
In slenderness of the toes and narrow sole, these tracks bear a
striking resemblance to Ornithoides ? adamsi Matthew, from Nova
Scotia, but the greater number of toes and larger size of the present
specimen serves to distinguish the two genera. A comparison of the
- two, however, leads me to wonder whether the Nova Scotian species
is not also four-toed, the outer toe failing to register as on the right
side of the specimen now before me. In his original description of
the species Matthew remarks: ‘‘ It may be associated with O. trifidus,
though the examples do not exhibit the characters of this genus
fully.’* Matthew’s inability to distinguish fore- and hindfoot im-
pressions adds a further resemblance to the specimen in hand. Its
reference to the present genus would seem most appropriate.
Genus ANOMALOPUS, new genus
Generic characters ——Quadrupedal. Four digits in pes, three in
manus. Forefoot smaller than hind, with hind placed in front of
fore. Outer toe of both manus and pes stout with rounded clawless
extremity directed outward and forward; other toes acuminate. Inner
toe of pes short as in Agostopus.
Genotype-—Anomalopus sturdevanti, new species.
ANOMALOPUS STURDEVANTI, new species
Plate 20
Type-——Catalogue number 11,577, U.S.N.M. Consists of a slab
of sandstone 475 mm. long having a trail of 13 imprints traversing
its entire length.
Type locality —Yaki Trail, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona.
Geological occurrence.—Supai formation, Pennsylvanian.
Description—Stride about 155 mm., width of trackway about
200mm. Hindfoot: Length about 90 mm., width about 80 mm. Four
digits. First toe very short, heavy, with rounded extremity ; fourth
toe stout with rounded end much diverted outward from the others.
The fourth digit on the left hindfoot has a more pointed end and
projects more directly outward than the fourth of the right side. It
has the appearance of having suffered injury, which would fully
account for the differences noted. The second and third toes are long,
comparatively slender, with sharply pointed extremities. These me-
Proc. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Vol. 10, 1904, p. 97.
NO.
GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE
TWanus
Fic. 36—Anomalopus sturdevanti. Type. Ine ae yes AWiSSE ING IMI
Diagram of a portion of trackway. About } natural size.
69
7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
dian toes, although directed straight ahead in the direction of move-
ment, have a tendency to turn outward. The sole of the foot is
relatively narrow and supplied with palmar pads. The toes have the
following lengths: I= 5 mms; l= 35 mm.; Leb 25 omy ye
26 mm. Hindfoot placed in front of forefoot and the impression of
the sole usually obliterating the toes of the forefoot. Forefoot: Length
about 68 mm. ; width measured from tip of digit I to tip of digit ITI,
53 mm. Three digits. Outer toe stout, with broadly rounded ex-
tremity and spreading outward from the others. Digit I and II as
in the pes, long, comparatively slender, parallel acuminate and di-
rected straight forward. Sole relatively narrow with broadly rounded
heel. Length of toes as follows: I = 29 mm.; IJ = 27 mm.; III =
18 mm.
This series of footprints is impressed on a fine grained pinkish
colored sandstone that is covered with worm trails. The footprints
are deeply impressed and clearly defined except that portions of the
forefoot track are destroyed by the hindfoot partially stepping
upon. it.
The species is named for Mr. Glen FE, Sturdevant, ranger natu-
ralist of the Grand Canyon National Park, who discovered and col-
lected the specimen, and through whose efforts it was presented by
the Park Service to the United States National Museum.
Genus TRIDENTICHNUS, new genus
Generic characters —Quadrupedal, semiplantigrade. Five toes in
pes, three ? in manus. Manus smaller than pes, with hindfoot placed
behind forefoot.
Genotype.—Tridentichnus supaiensis, new species.
TRIDENTICHNUS SUPAIENSIS, new species
Plate 21
Type.—Catalogue number 11,534, U.S. N.M. Consists of a slab
on which is a trackway of eight imprints divided equally between the
feet of the two sides.
Type locality—Hermit Gorge (to the left of Hermit Trail, de-
scending, about one-half mile below Santa Maria Spring), Grand
Canyon National Park, Arizona.
Geological occurrence.—Supai formation (upper. track bearing
horizon; about 350 feet below top), Pennsylvanian,
Description.—Stride about 185 mm., width of trackway about
187 mm. Forefoot placed about 18 mm, in front of hindfoot; in
NO: 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 71
one pair of tracks slightly outside of it. Forefoot smaller than hind-
foot. Hindfoot: Length about 68 mm., width about 70 mm., five
toes, the three median ones subequal in length and directed forward ;
first much shortened and extending forward and inward, while the
fifth is widely set off from the others and is directed almost straight
Fic. 37.—Tridentichnus supaiensis. Type. No. 11,534, U. S.N.M.
Diagram of a portion of trackway. About § natural size.
outward. Three median toes bluntly acuminate, second and fourth hav-
ing a tendency to turn in toward the third (see fig. 37). Sole broader
than long and broadly rounded behind. Digits have the following
leneths: a= 10mm.) l= 23am. T= 26 mm: ; TV =. 26 mm: ;
V = 13mm. Forefoot: Length (estimated) about 40 mm., width of
three toes 48 mm, Three toes impressed, but there may have been more
in the complete complement. The three median toes bear a strikingly
72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vot. 80
close resemblance to those of the hindfoot, in size, shape, and relative
positions to one another. The presence of lateral toes is suggested
by a toe scratch on the inner side of one impression, and on the outer
side of this same print the sand shows disturbance as if a fifth toe
was present, but one cannot be sure and the other forefoot tracks are
not sufficiently well impressed to give any additional evidence on this
point. The sole is imperfectly impressed and this fact may account
for the faintness of the evidence relating to the lateral digits. Width
of three digits 48 mm., same as those of the hindfoot. Lengths:
El o2)5 sam.; sl 126 mm.; IV = 26 mm.
The variation in the different tracks is clearly indicated in figure 37.
A second occurrence of this genus and species seems to be indicated
by a comparison of figure 2, plate 2, with the trackway above de-
scribed. In the illustration the three-toed frontfoot may be seen in
its proper position in front of the hindfoot, which, except for the
lack of a fifth digit, agrees in all essentials with the type of the
present genus and species. If this long range identification is correct
it shows the presence of this form at the Yaki locality some seven or
eight miles distant in an air line from the type locality.
SUMMARY
The study of these fossil footprints has resulted in the establish-
ment of adequate ichnite faunas for the Coconino and Hermit for-
mations and the beginning of a fauna for the older Supai. The
various forms described are, with few exceptions, based upon track-
ways showing impressions of all four feet, a procedure that should
give the minimum trouble in the identification of specimens that may
be subsequently discovered. The faunal lists could have been con-
siderably augmented had it seemed expedient to describe inferior
material, but a more conservative course was adhered to.
Comparison of these three faunas shows them to be absolutely
distinct from one another as not a single genus has yet been found
common to any two of the formations. In so far as the Hermit is
concerned, this fact occasions no particular surprise, even though the
difference in geological level be disregarded, for the environmental
conditions were such as to lead one to expect an entirely different
assemblage of animal life than would be found in either the Coconino
or Supai. The muddy character of the sediments with sun-cracked
surfaces, with associated ferns and other water-loving plants are all
indicative of the low lying nature of the region at the time these ani-
mals inhabited it. The many amphibian-like footprints, and tracks
NO" 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 73
left by crawling, short-legged creatures who dragged their tails and
bellies in the mud appear typical of such an environment.
The Coconino fauna is nearly doubled in the number of known
species but the facies of the fauna remains as stated in a previous
paper—‘ Carboniferous in aspect, as shown by the relatively small
size of the animals, all of which are quadrupedal, as contrasted with
the considerable number of very large forms and many three-toed
bipedal animals of the Triassic.”” Taken as a whole, this fauna now
consists of 15 genera and 22 species and seems to have closer relation-
ships to the ichnite fauna from the Middle Coal Measures of Kansas,
described by Marsh than to the more extensive fauna from the Coal
Measures of Nova Scotia made known by Dawson and Matthew.
On the other hand the Hermit fauna has its closest affinities with
that from Nova Scotia, for of the eight genera now known, four are
common to both and the facies of the two faunas taken as a whole
shows striking resemblances, That similar environmental conditions
prevailed in these two widely separated localities is indicated by the
similarity in the character of the sediments in which the imprints
occur.
The Supai.fauna, known at present by three genera and as many
species, shows no close relationships with tracks from other localities,
although it may be said to be Carboniferous in aspect. It apparently
represents an ichnite fauna new to North America and consequently
has little correlative value at this time.
Aside from the trails of invertebrate animals found all others were
made by quadrupedal creatures, but only a comparatively few give
any certain clue as to whether they pertain to the Reptilia or
Amphibia.
Animals having a digital formula of 5 and 5 predominate in the
Hermit, while those having a lesser number are more abundant in the
Coconino. Whether this fact has any significance remains to be
determined. Search of the literature shows that all Permian animals
in which the foot structure is known have five digits in both manus
and pes and of the Coal Measures Amphibia none shows fewer than
four digits in the manus and five in the pes. It would seem therefore
either that none of the Permian animals known from their skeletons
may be considered as the makers of the three and four toed tracks, or
else certain digits consistently fail to leave their impressions.
In an attempt to identify some of the known Permian vertebrates
as being responsible for certain of these tracks, tracings were made of
all of the available fore- and hindfeet of animals of that period, in
order that these tracings might be placed directly upon the tracks,
74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
in order to more accurately compare them. No information of im-
portance resulted, as so many unknown factors enter into such a
comparison as to render any likenesses found to be of little con-
sequence. At present there appears but little likelihood of definitely
correlating the footprints with fossil skeletons. The chief importance
of these footprints, it now seems, is the establishment of adequate
faunas for each of these three formations, which in the absence of
other fossil criteria may be of future use in correlating these deposits
with other track-bearing formations of distant localities.
LITERATURE
Branson, E. B. Amphibian footprints from the Mississippian of Virginia.
Journ. Geol., Vol. 18, No. 6, 1910, p. 356.
Butts, E. Recently discovered footprints of the Amphibian age in the upper
Coal Measure group of Kansas City, Mo. The Kansas City Scientist,
Volt 5) No. 2) 1801, p. 172
Footprints of new species of amphibians in the upper Coal Measure
group of Kansas City, Mo. The Kansas City Scientist, Vol. 5, No. 3,
1891, p. 44.
Gitmore, C. W. Fossil footprints from the Grand Canyon. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., Vol. 77, No. 9, 1926, pp. 1-41, 12 pls.
HickLinG, GeorGE. British Permian footprints. Manchester Lit. and Philos.
Soc. Mem., Vol. 53, 1909, Art. 22, pp. 1-24, pls. I to. III.
Jittson, W. F. Preliminary note on the occurrence of vertebrate footprints
in the Pennsylvanian of Oklahoma. Amer. Journ. Sci. (4) Vol. 44, 1917,
p. 56 (unnamed)
Kine, A. T. Description of fossil footmarks supposed to be referable to the
classes birds, Reptilia, and Mammalia found in the Carboniferous series
in Westmoreland County, Pa. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Vol. 2,
1844, pp. 175-180, and 7 woodcuts.
Description of fossil footmarks found in the Carboniferous series
in Westmoreland County, Pa. Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. 48, 1845, pp.
343-352, 12 figs.
Description of fossil footprints. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,
Vol. 2, 1845, pp. 299-300.
Footprints. Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. 49, 1845, pp. 216-217, figs.
Footprints in the coal rocks of Westmoreland Co., Pa. Amer. Journ.
Sci. (2) Vol. 1, 1846, p. 268, 2 text figs.
Letpy, J. Fossil foot tracks of the anthracite Coalmeasures. Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philadelphia, 1879, pp. 164-165, 1 text fig.
Lutt, R. S. An Upper Carboniferous footprint from Attleboro, Massachu-
setts. Amer. Journ. Sci. Vol. 50, 1920, p. 234.
Fossil footprints from the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. Amer.
Journ. Sci. Vol. 45, 1918, p. 337.
Marsu, O. C. Footprints of vertebrates in the Coal Measures of Kansas.
Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. 48, 1894, p. 81.
Martin, H. T. Indications of a gigantic amphibian in the Coal Measures of
Kansas. Sci. Bull. Kansas University, Vol. 13, No. 12, 1922, p. 103.
NO. 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 75
MattHew, G. F. New genera of batrachian footprints of the Carboniferous
System in eastern Canada. Canadian Rec. Sci., Vol.-9, No. 2, 1903, p. 99.
New species and a new genus of bactrachian footprints of the Carbon-
iferous System in eastern Canada. Proc. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Vol. 10,
1904, Pp. 77.
An attempt to classify Palaeozoic batrachian footprints. Proc. Trans.
Roy. Soc. Canada, Vol. 9, 1903, p. 1009.
Note on the genus Hylopus of Dawson. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. New
Brunswick, Vol. 5, 1903, p. 247.
On batrachian and other footprints from the Coal Measures of Jog-
gins, N. S. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. New Brunswick, Vol. 5, 1903, p. 103, pl. 2.
Moonpiz, Roy L. Amphibian footprints from the Coal Measures. The Coal
Measures Amphibia of North America. Carnegie Inst. of Washington,
Pub. No. 238, 1916, p. 190.
New or little known Amphibia in the American Museum of Natural
History. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 26, 1900, pl. 64, fig. 1.
Moore, W. D. On footprints in the Carboniferous rocks of western Pennsyl-
vania. Amer. Journ. Sci. (3) 5, 1873, pp. 292-203.
Morton, Duptey J. Notes on the footprint of Thinopus antiquus. Amer.
Journ. Sci., Vol. 12, 1926, pp. 409-414, figs. 1-6.
Muncr, B. F. Recent discoveries of fossil footprints in Kansas. Trans.
Kansas Acad. Sci., Vol. 2, 1873, pp. 7-9.
Norcsa, F. Baron. Die Familien der Reptilien. Fortschritte der Geol. und
Palaeol., Vol. 2, 1923, pp. 129-147, pl. VI.
Passt, WILHELM. Die Thierfahrten in dem Oberrothliegenden von Tamback
in Thiiringen. Deutsche Geol. Gesell. Zeitschrift, Vol. 48, 1896, p. 808.
Titton, Joun R. Permian vertebrates from West Virginia. Bull. Geol. Soc.
Amer., Vol. 37, 1926, pp. 385-3901, pl. 11 (Abstract, p. 238).
Wituiston, S. W. Salamander-like Footprints from the Texas Red Beds. Biol.
Bull., Vol. 15, No. 1 (June, 1908), pp. 237-230.
WoopwortH, J. B. Vertebrate footprints on Carboniferous shales of Plain-
ville, Massachusetts. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 11, 1900, p. 449.
76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
EXPLANATION OF PLATES
PLATE I
PAGE
Fig. 1. General view of fossil footprint locality at head of Hermit Gorge.
Most of the specimens of fossil tracks and plants from the
Hermit shale were collected from the slope above the massive
sandstones in the middle foreground. The disconformable Her-
mit-Supai contact is plainly indicated on the left side of the
photograph. The cross indicates the level where footprints,
plants, and insect wing were found im sift............-.0c0000- 6
2. Close up view of the fossiliferous ledge indicated by the cross in
fig. 1. The projecting ledge extending to the right from the base
of the cedar tree, which is estimated to be 30 feet above the
Hermit-Supai contact, contained footprints, plants, and insect
impressions.
PLATE 2
Fic. 1. Looking up Yaki trail from a point two miles down from the top
of the rim, where the trail cuts through a massive sandstone in
the middle Supai formation on the east side of O’Neill Butte.
Numerous tracks and trails occur in the upper light-colored
sandstone seen in the right of the picture...................... 8
Casts of footprint impressions (probably Tridentichnus sp.) in
Supai sandstone. These were the first tracks to be found im situ
on the Yaki Trail. Found and photographed by Dr. J. C. Mer-
riam. These occur at the base of the heavy, darker colored
sandstone shown at the right but further down the trail than
is
3. Undescribed trackway on a large block of sandstone from the
débris blasted out of the upper light colored sandstone (shown
bal ralege, Yi ihad Joxhuillclibaver (doves MANS! ADraNI Gon ooecodubnodannoonoe see 8
PLATE 3
Nanopus maximus, new species. Type. No. 11,506, U. S. N. M. Showing
an irregular trackway. Note the scratches made by a slipping
hindfoot/on the lower lett hand sides 4raeece eee eee 15
PLATE 4
Fic. 1. Nanopus merrianui Gilmore. No. 11,516, U. S. N. M. Trackway
from lower part of track-bearing horizon in the Coconino
Sandstone: SCT 70 i daerertow ato eae ere ee eee 15
2. Laoporus noblei Lull. No. 11,494, U. S. N. M. Showing the especi-
ally long second and third digits of the manus. X 3............ 18
NO: 3 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE
PLATE 5
Fics. 1 and 2. Barypodus. tridactylus, new species Type. No. 11,502.
U.S. N. M. Showing trackway. Fig. 1, upper or positive slab;
fees OWE Ot hegativerslaba p< 2lOAR a sacri che cies eels aaies ie ela
PLATE 6
Barypodus metszeri, new species. Type. No. 11,505, U. S. N. M. Irregu-
IE Ve wee ENR OED A Anctnad.c Anant Gb GO aod nies GHOe ke cae Rae
PLATE 7
Baropus cocommoensis, new species. Type. No. 11,514, U. S. N. M. Left
SIM EMOtmEt AC KAVA VANE Xe Seo em cere, crate leit ein or Tae ETAT fetty sic Hisense ote, hie
PLATE 8
Agostopus medius, new species.. Type. No. 11,509, U. S. N. M. Track-
WEN as Bwilo) ABS ORS SBR Orkiab os Gott Kon cbs tind nee acne
PLATE 9
Amblyopus pachypodus, mew genus and species. Type. No. 11,511,
U. S. N. M. Trackway; outer rows of impressions made by
forefeet; inner, those of the hindfeet. << 4:57... .ccec conse. oe
PLATE 10
Fic. 1. Triavestigia niningeri, new genus and species. Type. No. 11,510,
U.S. N. M. Tail drag clearly shown between the parallel rows
Or yitaciesvon thes tert side, OC Fs Ao eaiaare tates ace wove wena ne bk
2. Octopodichnus didactylus, new genus and species. Type. No. 11,501,
ii ON Ny Tdny, crctetitecs while Seapyaraictare Sctitraates Sttaere tate cialsig bouts
PLATE II
Unisulcus sinuosus, new species. Type: No. 11,497, U. S. N. M. Three
LAU SPREPSSITIP A Sled NK Pox atwiccs «1 5 Fieve iovensce 'al2 45 are fayaicba) aia’ steselars) afara ald’
PLATE 12
Batrachichnus delicatula (Lull) No. 11,519, U. S. N. M. Large slab whose
surface is thickly covered with minute tracks. X 4.5...........
PLATE 13
Batrachichnus obscurus, new species. Type. No. 11,529, U. S. N. M.
Trail showing where belly dragged in the mud. Plant impres-
sions. Large tracks those of Hylopus hermitensis. X 2.7.......
PLATE 14
Dromuillopus parvus, new species. Type. No. 11,537, U.S.N.M. Track-
way with tail drag between. Tracks on left side belong to some
fiye-toed: creature, -70 over flattirall Sizes. «sce elses tes «=e «
77
21
24
27
29
33
31
35
30
40
78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
PLATE 15
Hylopus hermatensis, new species. Type. No. 11,517, U. S. N. M. Track-
way showing variation in successive impressions. X 2.......... 46
PLATE 16
Hyloidichnus bifurcatus, new genus and species. Type. No. 11,518, U. S.
N. M.:° Trackway ‘on’ the positive slab. (XC 250,05 a: sate ore whole 52
PLATE 17
Fic. 1. Parabaropus coloradensis (Lull) No. 11,598, U. S. N. M. Left
side of trackway. Photographed from the cast of the original
Specimens C3) Pay we ease oe ho tsi Rio le ote Oy etaeasee eee eee 54
2. Cursipes sp. Trackway from the Hermit shale. No. 11,521,
WESE INOS SSAmGh eS ac ue ae Co on en oe ie oe 63
3. Unidentified track. No. 11,530, U. S. N. M. From the Hermit
shale. About natural size....... Lette eee S's SUN Saree emer 65
PLATE 18
Unidentified track. No. 11,528, U. S. N. M. The largest track yet found
en (Hote lelrreanthe Vor osENKOO, <Midssio nin ndcgdooagbooddaddoonnnucos 64
PLATE 19
Fic. 1. Collettosaurus pentadactylus, new species. Type. No. 11,527,
U.S. N. M. Trackway showing how the mud flowed into the
tracksuasithe: foot} was witha) sxc sea eee ees 60
2. Stenichnus yakiensis, new genus and species. Type. No. 11,533,
UWitS. Nios Prackway, Coes ee ene sea ee 66
PLATE 20
Anomialopus sturdevanti, new genus and species. Type. No. 11,517,
Wig SUN biel iene NE, OX Boo seoh ohn dclsbessucoasuns 68
PLATE 21
Tridentichnus supoiensis, new genus and species. Type. No. 11,534,
WES Ne Mk. Dtackway on slab: Sookie ateaeiey eaten 70
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 3, PL. 1
ae
* ‘ bsea
ee
Locality of fossil footprints, Grand Canyon.
(For explanation, see page 76)
6
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 3, PL.
1. Looking up Yaki Trail.
2 and 3. Fossil footprints from the Grand Canyon.
(For explanation, see page 76)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 3, PL.3
Fossil footprints from the Grand Canyon.
(For explanation, see page 76)
VOL. 80, NO. 3, PL. 4
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
Or, ra
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from the Grand Canyon.
Fossil footprints
or explanation, see page 76)
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VOL. 80, NO. 3, PL. 5
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
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or explanation, see page 7
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 3, PL.6
Fossil footprints from the Grand Canyon.
(lor explanation, see page 77)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 3, PL. 7
Fossil footprints from the Grand Canyon.
(For explanation, see page 77)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL, 80, NO. 3, PL. 8
Fossil footprints from the Grand Canyon.
(For explanation, see page 77)
VOL. 80, NO. 3, PL. 9
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
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Fossil footprints from the Grand Can
(or explanation, see page 77)
IN
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 3, PL. 10
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Fossil footprints from the Grand Canyon.
(For explanation, see page 77)
VOL. 80, NO. 3, PL. 11
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 80, NUMBER 4
RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE,
CHINA
(WitH TWENTY-FIVE PLATES)
BY
DAVID CROCKETT GRAHAM
(PUBLICATION 2921)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
FEBRUARY 4, 1928
The Lord Waftimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE, CHINA
By DAVID CROCKETT GRAHAM
(WirH 25 PLaAtEs)
CONTENTS
PAGE
IRS WA CEM N sine Sevens arnten MRR Soya, arsine aes anne MET IEE RUNG o Om GRR Leet acta 2
LAREN TROD UW CLIO Nia rays trav onre sche oie cava uae ies Hose eee eo areeele iter 2
mo cheweograpiy of Szechuan Provinices s 0.0%). osteogenesis ccadesss 2
Deane nistonyaOlmtherpLrovillCe us sermyroeia sees eicicte stacker cies 4
3. Contacts with the rest of China and with other races........ 4
Ao SOGialmcharactenistics Ol mther peOplen rare erie oe eee eee a
5. The unique opportunity for the study of religion in Szechuan
PEO yanCeras Hem Aas ton sieccietact ait. te aiaioe Sekgmne ciate mone ase 7
Guehher writers wpreparationen2rrccwmissetisces cia coterelomee ase 8
7. The relation of religion to the basal human needs............ 9
Niger: SANCESTRAT: ‘CULEOAND » DEMONS icc 0a skis ccs «ce cates 6 2 cetelon II
Mere Anines tea Oe TIS SOUL Gils cress tyceecrale ares wicket oj oeotacre aya aco mice ave II
Brae wATICES ELA] ey CML renee eeepc ous osc eter rote ates Ss see, 12
eee? Mele MOR TIAOES): 5 atsy 4 sseytur naa) aie Seri ieh ey a Means isang weiss Wore 13
momen @ ban olin Weremionye (Ww ee. vee chi Rea Uiint i Salers okay 14
Bo WEMON- NOSSESSIONG parc sisal sis sth eo, ane es Sharon Stine hae at cece 14
Oss SWENIMALY Barc iay iano: Sisis apacatec sais Sienele sieinreysie wales eiiaehe aie si@ecery 15
MGS BIRTHS VARRTAGE Db ATE -AcN Diy Es UIRMATrlerserey tere acter Geena eines oieraee 16
MeV aGietynor Customs In Szechuan leroOvinceae idee iaeice eee 16
2. The desire for and the method of securing children........... 16
Ge aebhiy CUSTOMS es tse s cabal ein ce aisle tau armlale Ae inlet cegics aeaie 17
hs I Leb ab ate eal Ae os omc SOS, Hie CCR On Sr gra nae ae PG 22
Se Deathmanauthew hunerala prOGeSSIONuws eee eee ae 24
Hs lheniburialnandwotravewGistOmsS ac. ome eischonie ae cer siotreltelras 25
GR RNETNIVZAIN Ge ANID IS LUEIN GSIELUITaeranayavn stelersat tetera tela cteueved el onchcsiataiay ausrateyenei cece 32
THe He An Vang iGONCEDtION tater totae ici erento sake eiaeslonoeeeta casio: 2
DED UR OMG SHUG eA tc tse re iets 8 vlna cu5) Stes at araracyay aialiak wasdia ate ab ohana Na Sie 33
Vet INCAN TATIONS, | GHARNES SAND EUMUDPTS © o sils elec cisleiesaieteineiee cere e 38
Teli CantatlOnsewidelye 1ESedeen man. conti shvraitheccisl severe croveraions erescre 38
2aNew Year mottoes supposed to be potent. 3.3. -2..20.+-.---- 38
3. Charms to transform unlucky dreams to lucky ones......... 39
4, Charms to catise babies tovsleep.at mights....l1.oss<- +s. 39
Beh arnis: wittten (OM apa perens sists 6 alc cites eects) ete hieleneustel ie ahs 30
G24 Bheuse otinlocd: on Charms. .%.c cae e eee ae oe ered ee 40
PURO HEE ETA GEIS A aie att crac tear store sa deia' iba etter a ee ates ntN hota tetas 40
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VoL. 80, No. 4
z SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 8o
VI. Pusvic ‘CarEMonIES aAnp Revicious “Rusrivars....c4....--c. eee 42
i, Tmportant publiciicetemiomies: 1.".0¢. A--ocen wae ee eee ee 2
2 Whe voreat hestival sess 40 yo ck. Ae a ee wey TAZ
VII. Divination, Lucky Days, Vows, Prayer, RELIGIOUS OFFERINGS,
ND NVORGENIP got hei an 5 enh Aas oe ie mete Cee eet eae eae 47
TP TVA EVEL ON see So dae Pe eee RA a ee ue, en eae 47
By Mucky and aniiehky Mayes cent aa Se eee ee 48
ait ail Sit eye kcosscacces sare eee Meat Are ck Pare Me fe aTee eae PR ear 49
4. WARS ch Ste r2 ud ch ROR a Es er Sea oe oe i a 49
SUSE MPAVET S™ 1sVire sont hcesiti onan cist eet teh ean eae a a Ry BE 40
6. dRelisious votierines sc. ecko a eee ee ee 50
Fie NNIOUSIAIDY, a ccsvebec acct i here er aaa 51
WANN Gy Shoncanas Min SyNergany IAWNGDS: Oy we h odd wane cnekoodaedobadseseen 54
1. The relation of the temple to the community................ 54
2: Aon cian temples..s te cqce oe soe ee One ine A ee 54
34 Contents om Buddhistiandmdlaoistatemple somes ae eee 55
Ay SKOWUACSSY ON WS ITH HAMA s wh osoaenaedsacscendsoanussaneds 55
Beeliemmples? ase Sa Cheduup lace swry. cv aerials nie tes ee a 56
GieSaered! motinibais! 155 sieve hese hy aact cy woe trate a Bae 60
[XSi Goons stne SZ EG EUAN oR O VINCE Ci aaa ee reae arene ae 64
i Witferent representations of the Gods)e54,5- 450 0coe eee oe 66
ONE MUST SOLINGOUS te a acalcc sine tern cia eee ene a ee 70
X,. SUMMARY ‘AnD (CONCLUSION 3. .20 25. Sy ee ee eee 79
BIBRIOGRABENY hfe SN a aes oe od oh pclae et ne nee ee 81
PRISE
The materials for this paper were gathered at first hand in Szechuan
Province during the years 1919 to 1926. The idea of collecting the
data and of writing this paper was the result of a course in com-
parative religion under Prof. Albert Eustace Haydon of the Uni-
versity of Chicago in 1919. The writer gladly acknowledges his
unusual indebtedness to Prof. Haydon for inspiration to undertake
this study, and for supervising the writing of the manuscript. Thanks
are also due to Dr. Berthold Laufer for helpful suggestions.
The fact that there are few written sources outside the Chinese
language has made this study on the one hand more difficult and on
the other hand more interesting. It 1s hoped that it will form a con-
tribution towards a better understanding of the Chinese religion.
I. INTRODUCTION
I. THE GEOGRAPHY OF SZECHUAN PROVINCE
Szechuan lies on the extreme west of China. It is a whole nation
in itself, having a population of over 60,000,000 and an area of over
. t
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECITUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM
os)
218,000 square miles. In the center of the province is the great red-
sandstone basin, in which the soil is exceedingly fertile. Here the
altitude varies from goo to 2,000 feet above sea level. Rainfall is
abundant, and it almost never snows. Trees and vegetables are green
throughout the year. The farms often yield four crops annually, and
a family can support itself on three or four acres of land. A part of
this basin is the Chengtu plain, where there is an extensive irrigation
system, and which is one of the most thickly populated country
districts in the world.
On the north and west of the province are high mountains, inhabited
for the most part by aborigines. To the west of Szechuan lies Tibet,
“the roof of the world,” and to the south are the mountainous prov-
inces of Kueichow and Yunnan. In Szechuan, Kueichow, Yunnan,
and Tibet, more than 100 tribes of aborigines inhabit the high, moun-
tainous districts, while the rich lowlands are in the possession of the
Chinese.
Great salt deposits that seem to be inexhaustible occur in some parts
of the province. Coal is found almost everywhere. It is known that
there are deposits of gold, copper, and iron, but, because of the lack
of machinery, mining is not a main occupation of the people. Silk-
raising is an important industry.
The word Szechuan means four rivers. The province contains
four great rivers and many tributaries that serve as arteries of trade.
There are also many overland routes, one leading through Yachow
and Tatsienlu to Tibet, one northward through Chengtu and Songpan
to the high grasslands on the northwest of Szechuan, one southward
from Suifu through Yunnan Province, and one overland to Peking.
Because of these and other trade routes, commerce plays a large part
in the lives of the people of Szechuan. The main occupation, however,
is agriculture.
Even in the red-sandstone basin, nature has been at work for
thousands of years, resulting in erosion and folding of the rock strata,
so that many natural wonders occur in the province. In places, the
rock strata have been twisted and folded almost beyond belief ; in
other localities the sandstone has been entirely eroded away, exposing
rugged limestone cliffs often abounding with natural caves. Beautiful
waterfalls are not uncommon. One often sees rocks that have been
washed or eroded into strange or striking shapes, or mountains that
tower majestically over surrounding valleys. On the borders of Tibet
are mountains capped with perennial snow. West China has some of
the most beautiful, most picturesque, and strangest scenery in the
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
world. ‘“ Szechuan is a spooky place ”’ is a proverb among the common
people.
2. THE HISTORY OF THE PROVINCE
In the past centuries there have been many floods and occasional
droughts. More than 1,000 years ago Suifu was destroyed by flood.
The city was then rebuilt on higher ground on the opposite side of
the Min River. This calamity has never recurred, and the city is
now again in the more favorable location at the junction of the
Yangtse and the Min Rivers. In the summertime there are terrific
thunderstorms. Pestilences sweep across the land, striking terror
into the hearts of the people, and killing hundreds and sometimes
thousands.
Into this fertile province the Chinese came about 300 years before
Christ. They soon took possession of the lowlands, although the
history of Suifu says that Chu Ko Liang finally drove the aborigines
out of that city after the time of Christ.
One outstanding event in the history of the province is its almost
complete depopulation, during the years 1643 to 1648, by Tsang Shien
Tsong, one of the most cruel rulers that ever lived. Killing off every
man, woman, or child who refused to join his ranks and many of his
own followers, he almost made that fair province a wilderness. After
the death of Tsang Shien Tsong, settlers came from other provinces,
so that Szechuan was soon again the scene of a thriving population.
3. CONTACTS WITH THE REST OF CHINA AND WITH OTHER RACES
There is a common conception that until very recent times China
has been isolated from the rest of the world. The great wall, the
Pacific Ocean, the plateau of Tibet, and the high mountains between
China and India are assumed to have been efficient barriers to inter-
racial contacts.
Among anthropologists, the fact that few if any groups of people
have long been isolated is gaining general acceptance. Diffusion of
culture, although it cannot explain all social phenomena, is receiving
a larger emphasis than before. Able sinologues have dwelt on the
isolation of the Middle Kingdom during the past milleniums,’ but
there is increasing evidence that this isolation has been more or less
fictitious.
* Pott, F. L. Hawks, A Sketch of Chinese History, 1915, pp. I, 3.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 5
In the year 65 A. D. the Emperor of China sent envoys to India to
learn about the teachings of Buddha.’ It is safe to assume that he
would not have done so had not China had previous contacts with
India. In A. D. 621 Zoroastrianism was introduced into China,
Muhammedanism in 628, and Nestorianism in 631.” There is evidence
of a Jewish community in China which disappeared in comparatively
recent times.
According to Gowen many foreigners were resident in China in
the ninth century.* Marco Polo arrived in A. D. 1271, remaining for
17 years and visiting many parts of the Empire.’ Wars have been
fought with Burmah, with the Turks, and with the Russians, and at
one time Chinese dominion extended to the shores of the Black and
the Caspian seas.”
The works of Dr. Berthold Laufer, the great American sinologue,
contain a large amount of evidence of diffusions of culture between
China and Japan, the Philippines, India, Persia, and even Europe.’
*Gowen, Herbert H., An Outline History of China, 1913, p. ro2.
Pott, F. L. Hawks, A Sketch of Chinese History, 1915, p. 38.
Li Ung Bing, Outlines of Chinese History, 1914, pp. 53, 84.
? Gowen, H. H., An Outline History of China, 1913, p. 1109.
® [bid., p. 132.
*Gowen, H. H., An Outline History of China, 1913, p. 156.
Williams, A History of China, 1897, p. 42.
Pott, F. L. Hawks, A Sketch of Chinese History, 1915, p. 80.
Li Ung Bing, Outlines of Chinese History, 1914, p. 220.
° Williams, A History of China, 1897, pp. 32-35.
Li Ung Bing, Outlines of Chinese History, 1914, p. 215.
*Laufer, Berthold, Ivory in China, 1925, pp. 14, 50, 56.
~ 4 Tobacco and Its Use, 1924, pp. 2-3.
eS * The Chinese Gateway, 1922, p. I.
4 nf Sino-Iranica, I919, pp. I, 376.
oe ee Chinese Clay Figures, 1914, Part I, pp. 231-4, 243-4, 246,
249.
* a Jade, 1912, Int., pp. 2, 5; pp. 23, 25, 292.
Norte.—Since the point we are making may be considered open to question, we
are adding other references showing inter-racial contacts between China and
other nations.
1. Cole, Fay-Cooper, The Tinguian, 1922, pp. 237, 241-2, 247, 260, 306, 413,
414.
2. Pott, F. L. Hawks, A Sketch of Chinese History, 1915, pp. 54, 58, 59, 73,
79, 80.
3. Williams, E. T., China Yesterday and Today, 1923, pp. 339-40, 341-44.
4. Parker, E. H., China Past and Present, 1903, pp. 6, 10, 13-14.
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
In Sino-Iranica he shows that a large number of cultivated plants
have been brought from distant lands and made to enrich the agri-
cultural life of China. To quote Dr. Laufer:
We know that Iranian peoples once covered an immense territory, extending
all over Chinese Turkistan, migrating into China, coming into contact with
Chinese, and exerting a profound influence on nations of other stock, notably
Turks and Chinese. The Iranians were the great mediators between the West
and the East, conveying the heritage of Hellenistic ideas to central and eastern
Asia and transmitting valuable plants and goods of China to the Mediterranean
area. Their activity is of world-historical significance, but without the records
of the Chinese we should be unable to grasp the situation thoroughly. The
Chinese were positive utilitarians and always interested in matters of reality:
they have bequeathed to us a great amount of useful information on Iranian
plants, products, animals, minerals, customs, and institutions, which is bound
to be of great service to science.’
Szechuan has been rich in racial contacts. Many wars have been
fought between the Chinese and the aborigines, and these continue to
the present day. The Chinese, being more numerous, better organized,
and more highly civilized, have always in the end been victorious.
There have also been wars between the inhabitants of Szechuan and
those of other parts of China.’
Commerce, perhaps, has been of even greater importance. Quanti-
ties of hides, medicines, and other raw materials are shipped from
Tibet and from the various aboriginal districts into the center of
the province, and thence down the Yangtse River. Rice, tea, clothing,
and other commodities are sent back in return. Before the completion
of the railroad from Haiphong to Yunnanfu, Suifu was the shipping-
place for most of the exports of Yunnan Province. When undis-
turbed by civil wars, the Yangtse River and its tributaries carry a
tremendous amount of commerce.
The language spoken by the Chinese of Szechuan is the mandarin,
which is used by about two hundred and fifty million Chinese people.
The written language is the same throughout all China. Until very
recent times the old system of examinations in the Chinese Classics,
and the appointment of officials from Peking, further served to con-
nect the lives of the Szechuanese with the rest of the nation. Chinese
scholars went from Szechuan to Peking to continue their studies or
to compete in the examinations. Officials from other parts of the
empire came to help govern Szechuan. Through these contacts,
through wars and pilgrimages, through commerce, and through the
* Pott, F. L. Hawks, A Sketch of Chinese History, 1915, p. 41.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 7,
interchange of literature, the people of Szechuan have been brought
into contact with the rest of China and with other parts of the world.
4. SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PEOPLE
It is a well-known fact that in China the family and not the indi-
vidual is the social unit. The rights of individuals are subordinated
to those of the family group. Property generally belongs to the
family. When a new couple is married, they do not live in a separate
house, but in a part of the groom’s family home, with his parents
and the families of his brothers. This principle affects the entire
social, ethical, and religious world of the Szechuanese. Religion is a
family and a community affair. Ethics are social. Engagements and
marriages are family affairs, contracted by representatives of the
families rather than by the individuals concerned.’
Filial piety is the cardinal virtue. One of the worst things that can
be said about anyone is that he is unfilial. Filial piety requires that
a child show love and respect to his parents and elders and to his
ancestors for three generations. This virtue has been the cement that
has strengthened and held together Chinese society for millenniums.
Many of the legends are such as will develop filial piety in the hearts
of the young. The results are partially manifested in elaborate funer-
als and in the erection of expensive tombs for the ancestors.
The dualistic yinyang conception, which has been a part of the
thought form of the Chinese for millenniums, vitally affects the social
life. The yin is the female principle, and is lower, inferior to, and
weaker than the yang, the male principle. Happiness and prosperity
depend on the keeping of this female principle subordinate to the
male. Women, therefore, have always been given a subordinate posi-
tion. The husband is master, and is morally and religiously ruler
over his wife. Women must accept the religion of their husbands.
5. THE UNIQUE OPPORTUNITY FOR THE STUDY OF RELIGION
IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE
In the preface of Dore’s monumental work, Researches Into Chinese
Superstitions, the following statement is made:
Real China exists little in the Open Ports. Civilization has there done its
work, and raised the Chinaman to a higher level than his fellow countrymen.
Whosoever, therefore, would study him in real life, must needs see him in
"There are great changes taking place in China which will profoundly affect
social life and customs, and in the end will affect religion.
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
the remote regions, the quaint old towns, and the secluded villages of some
distant province.*
The second sentence of this statement may be seriously questioned.
The fact that a Chinese wears foreign clothing, smokes foreign
cigarettes, plays foreign bogeh (poker), and drinks foreign liquor,
does not prove that he has been raised above his fellow countrymen in
a distant village. The first and third sentences are true, and Szechuan,
situated far from the seacoast, with only one treaty port and no
foreign concessions, offers an unique opportunity to study the Chinese
religion as it has been handed down through the past ages.
One day in Shanghai the writer heard a brass band in the street
below. Looking out of the window, he saw a great Buddhist funeral
procession. In front were two gigantic deities pushed along in carts
constructed for the purpose. The deities were to clear the road of
demons. Then followed six bands, three using Chinese musical instru-
ments and three foreign. For tunes the latter were using Christian
hymns. The mourners were riding in foreign cabs. Such a foreignized
religious ceremony is at present never seen in West China. The
student of religion has in Szechuan Province an excellent opportunity
to study the religion of the Chinese people, not to mention the nu-
merous tribes of aborigines about which comparatively little is known.
6. THE WRITER’S PREPARATION 7
The religious and social life of the Chinese people in Szechuan is
exceedingly complex, and one might well despair of becoming a master
of the Chinese language or of the Chinese religion, even in a lifetime.
The writer has had fair success with the Chinese language, and has
had 13 years of contact with the Szechuanese people. Most of this
contact has been very friendly, and has included all classes, from the
child and the coolie to the high official, the scholar and the priest. He
has spent weeks in Chinese villages where foreigners are seldom seen,
and, as zoological collector for the Smithsonian Institution, has
travelled beyond Tatsienlu in Tibet and as far north as Songpan. He
has spent several summers on Mt. Omei, and has visited Washan.
He has had contacts with the Lolo, the Chuan Miao and other abo-
rigines, and has crossed overland from Suifu to Yunnanfu and
*Dore, Henry S. D., Researches Into Chinese Superstitions, Vol. I, 1915,
Int., pp. i-ii.
* The written sources on the religion of Szechuan Province are so meager,
and some of them are of such questionable value, that it has been necessary
to secure most of the material for this paper at first hand in Szechuan Province.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 9
thence to Haiphong in Indo-China. Among the Chinese whom he
has met are many well-known Christian leaders, army officials,
Chinese government officials of influence, one of the leading Bud-
dhists of China, a Da Yung Fah Si, and many others.
The following pages are an attempt to present objectively the
religious life of the Chinese of Szechuan.
7. THE RELATION OF RELIGION TO THE BASAL HUMAN NEEDS
The writer believes that the basal human needs are for food, pro-
tection or security, sex, and play or amusement. Although the soil is
very fertile in Szechuan, the density of the population makes the
procuring of food a great problem. If no rain falls for an unusual
length of time, people become panic-stricken, the prices of rice and of
other foods climb rapidly, and thousands of poor people are threat-
ened with starvation. This is also apt to be true in time of war. In
the summer of 1925 the price of rice was so high in Kiating and in a
number of other cities that only the rich could secure enough to eat.
Well-informed Chinese said that many became half-starved, and in
this weakened condition contracted disease and died. “ They were
half starved and half killed by disease.” In Suifu this happened to an
old church member. In time of threatened drought or of civil war,
the suffering on the part of the poor people is intense. All over China
one of the most common ways of greeting is by asking, ““ Have you
eaten your rice?”
Security is needed from the forces of nature, from wild animals,
from enemies, and from disease. Men build houses as a protection
from storm, from the heat and sunshine of summer, and from the
winter cold. In Szechuan occur floods, terrific storms with rain, wind,
and thunder, and droughts, and from these protection must be sought.
In the mountains there is danger from rolling stones. Wild leopards
and other animals roam in the woods.
The need of safety from disease is keenly felt by the Szechuanese
A common pimple or boil easily becomes infected and may cause
death. To this the writer can bear testimony, for he has had to be
lanced by a physician three different times. Two of his best Chinese
friends died of such infections. A physician who has spent many
years in West China printed the following paragraph in the West
China Missionary News:
Long experience in China has taught me the danger of face infections, espe-
cially those of the lip. The purpose of this short article is not primarily to
scare people. But there is such an element of danger in these infections that I
10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vot. 80
feel constrained to sound a warning about them. Not cnly are the Chinese
afflicted with these infections, but foreigners as well. We should know how
to care for ourselves and be able to give advice to the Chinese on this matter.’
Malaria spreads over communities, causing suffering to thousands.
Smallpox, typhus, typhoid, pneumonia, measles, and many other dis-
eases spread from district to district, filling the hearts of the people
with terror, and causing untold suffering and death.
The following story illustrates the fear of sickness and death on
the part of the Szechuanese. It was told by a Chinese preacher.
In ancient times there was a great Chinese warrior named Tsang Fei.
He was noted for his bravery. He was unafraid of most of the
things that cause ordinary or even brave men to fear. All efforts to
inspire fear in his heart were in vain. Finally, a friend wrote the
word bin, meaning sickness, on the palm of his hand and showed it
to Tsang Fei. The great warrior was speechless. Of that he was
afraid. Sickness is accompanied by weakness and pain, and is often
followed by death, and death is dreaded by all.
The fact that all diseases are supposed to be caused by demons
does not lessen, but increases the dread of disease. The demons are
thought to be frightful in appearance, and cruel and evil in purpose.
The sick man imagines himself to be the victim of a demon. Some-
times the demon is inside him, and native doctors sometimes puncture
the bodies of the patients with needles to let the demon out.
As a respite from worry and toil, the Chinese in Szechuan feels
the need of, keenly desires, and enjoys amusements, play, and recrea-
tion. This is true of men and women of all ages. With the grownups
it finds expression in the popularity of the theatricals, of gambling, and
of feasts. Often this need is met by a social visit with a friend in
the teashop. We shall see later that this is an important element
in the religious festivals, and in the ordinary programs of Buddhist
and Taoist temples.
One will not be long in Szechuan before he realizes that everybody
is seeking happiness. In many important places he sees the word
fuh which means happiness. If he questions one of the many pilgrims
on the way to or from Mt. Omei, the conversation may run approxi-
mately as follows: ‘“ Where are you going?” “TI am going to Mt.
Omei.” “ Why do you go there and worship the idols?” “I am
seeking happiness.” ‘‘ What do you mean by happiness?” “ That our
family may prosper, that we may be protected from diseases and
calamities, that our crops may be good, that we may grow wealthier,
*West China Missionary News, May, 1925, p. 37.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM fae
and that we may have many children.” In other words, happiness, as
used in Szechuan, is an inclusive word, meaning the satisfying life.
All are seeking it, and the religious rites and ceremonies are the
techniques for its attainment.
One is impressed with the fact that in Szechuan religion is very
closely and vitally related to human life and human needs. This is
expressed in Dore’s Chinese Superstitions, Vol. III, preface, page ix,
in the following words:
Religion in China is not an effort to apprehend the Infinite, love and enjoy
it; it is not man’s nature clamouring for food necessary for life and perfection;
nor is it a duty to serve the deity directly. So far as these three volumes im-
press us, it yokes rather the spiritual world, the superhuman element in which
man believes, to the needs and welfare of humanity.
fo ThE ANCESTRAL, CULT AND DEMONS
I. THE IDEA OF THE SOUL
We have seen that in China the family and not the individual is
the social unit. Newly married couples generally do not establish
separate homes of their own. They become a part of a large family
group, of which the oldest members are the heads. The individual
earnings are often shared with the family. If a member of the group
acquires wealth, it may be necessary for him to assume the support
of his parents and of poorer relatives.
The deceased ancestors are considered a part of the family group.
They are the most honored members. There is a state of interde-
pendence between the dead and the living. The living descendants
provide food, clothing, money, and other necessities, and in return
receive the help and the protection of the departed ancestors.
Sometimes a person is scared by a mad dog and takes a certain
kind of medicine which destroys the kidneys and causes death. The
popular explanation is that the dog has stolen his shadow and that
this is the cause of his death. A variation of this explanation is that
the dog has bitten his shadow. Here we have the conception that the
shadow is a vital part, if not the soul or a soul, of the human being.
The Chinese have the idea of a multiple soul, three wen and seven
peh. This makes it possible for them to commemorate the dead person
at the grave and also at the ancestral tablet, considering that the
deceased is present in both places and also in hades. For all practical
purposes, however, we may speak of one soul or spirit as representing
that which is most vital and valuable in the individual.
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
In ancient China there was a custom, which probably exists in some
parts of China to-day, of calling the soul, soon after death, to come
back. In Szechuan there are ceremonies by which the soul is enticed
into the ancestral tablet, which becomes its dwelling place. After-
wards the ancestral tablet is regarded as the ancestor himself, and is
treated as such. The writer once offered a poor woman, who was
having much difficulty in making ends meet, a good price for her
ancestral tablet. She exclaimed in surprise, “Do you think I would
sell my parents? ”’ Several years ago an enquirer applied for baptism.
The foreign pastor asked, ‘“‘ Have you discarded your housegods? ”
A Chinese Christian added, ‘‘ Have you destroyed your ancestral
tablets?” The man was really interested in Christianity. With tears
in his eyes he said, “‘ My dear old mother, do you think I would reject
her?” He never united with the church.
The ancestral tablets are carefully preserved either in the homes or
in ancestral temples. At the middle of the seventh moon, at the
winter solstice, and on the anniversaries of the births and the deaths of
both parents, the ancestors are “ worshipped.” That is, food is offered,
money is provided, incense is burnt, and there are the usual prayers
and prostrations.*
There is a tendency in Szechuan to connect snakes with ancestors.
If a large snake appears in a Chinese home he is not killed, but incense
is burnt to him, and the inmates prostrate themselves before him.
They regard him as the ancestor who has returned to visit his
descendants.
A visit to a Chinese graveyard will furnish a probable explanation.
Many of the old tombs are open. Into them broken dishes, bones,
stones, and other débris have been thrown, so that they become
excellent hiding places for the snakes. Serpents of different sizes, and
their skins and skeletons, are often seen in and around the tombs, so
that it is easy and natural for the primitive mind to regard snakes as
souls of the dead.
2. THE ANCESTRAL CULT
The Chinese word which is translated as worship is gin. It means
to honor, respect, venerate, or worship. It is often used in conjunction
with the word bai, which is similar in meaning. These words vary in
meaning from common respect paid to a friend or to an object to
the idea of worship paid to a deity. What the Chinese think about is
reverencing their ancestors. What the typical occidental thinks of
* West China Missionary News, September 1917, pp. 22-23.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 13
when speaking of ancestor worship is venerating the ancestors as
deities. Instead of misunderstanding and mislabeling these rites as
“ancestor worship,” it might be better to speak of the ancestral cult.
The Chinese regard the ancestors with loving reverence, of which the
burning of incense, the prayers, the offering of food and spirit money,
and the prostrations are the outward expressions.
The memorial ceremonies of the ancestral cult are performed by
the oldest son. They cannot be performed by a girl or by a woman.
It is exceedingly important that the ceremonies be performed at the
proper seasons. For these reasons every family is very anxious to
have sons, and, once they are secured, to protect them from harm.
Failure to give birth to sons is a sufficient reason for divorce. Often
the solution is found by the taking of a second wife, or a concubine.
Sometimes sons are adopted into the family.
3. THE BELIEF IN DEMONS
If due reverence is offered to the ancestors, and the needed food,
money, and other articles are provided, the ancestor is beneficent, and
aids and protects his descendants. If he is neglected, he does harm
to his descendants and others. He becomes a demon. In the course
of time, there are naturally many without descendants who can con-
duct the’ funeral rites, and others who are neglected by their unfilial
descendants. They then become demons, and demons are the causes
of all diseases and calamities.
Dangerous rivers are supposed to be the abode of demons who try
to drown other people. When drowned, the victims become demons
dwelling in the water. The natives explain that the only way in which
they can escape their demonic condition is to cause others to drown.
When a person is drowning, it is thought that a water-demon is
responsible, and is trying in this way to escape the demonic state. If
one rescues the drowning person, he will incur the displeasure of the
demon, and may himself be drowned instead of the original victim.
For this reason it is sometimes hard to get a native of Szechuan to
save a drowning person.’
The tiao gin kuei are those who have died by hanging, and can only
escape their demon existence by causing others to be hanged. Women
who die in childbirth are called ts’an lan kuei, and to escape their
*One day I was crossing a stream near Uen Chuan Shien. We had just
passed a village of Wasi aborigines. The bridge gave way, and one of our
coolies fell into the swollen stream and was soon drowned. We appealed to the
villagers to assist us, but not one of them would move, fearing that if they
tried to save the coolie the demon would drown them.
I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
condition and to become reborn as human beings they must cause
others to die in childbirth. Jo gin kuect have been killed by having
their throats cut, and try to cause others to die in that way so that
they can escape from their condition.
Als ELE: CH’IN MIN CEREMONY
On the fifteenth day of the seventh moon, there is what corresponds
to the All Saints’ day as it was originally observed in Europe.’ Elabo-
rate ceremonies are held. Amid the beating of gongs and the playing
of musical instruments, much paper money is burnt. At night lights
are set floating on streams or rivers. Having received the money and
other offerings, the demons are expected to follow the lights away,
leaving the community free from their danger.
5. DEMON POSSESSION
An insane person is thought to be possessed or controlled by a
demon. That is why Europeans and Americans sometimes confi-
dently assert that there is demon possession in China. Near Li Duan
Ts’ang lived a girl who had spells of insanity. Her relatives believed
that she was possessed by a demon, and were afraid of her. They
began to talk of putting her to death. She heard them, and was wise
enough to know what it meant. She said, “If you kill me, I will
come back and harm you as long as you live.” Thereafter they were
afraid to harm her, and treated her with much consideration.
There was a robber who lived at Huen Kiang. He robbed and killed
a rich acquaintance. Later the spirit of the victim haunted him in
his dreams. He became ill and died, asserting that he was being done
to death by the spirit of the victim. Then the son of the robber also
began to have bad dreams, and saw the spirit of the victim coming to
injure him. He felt that the spirit of the victim was near him all
the time trying to harm him. He sought the aid of priests, but all to
to no avail. Finally he secured the help of a local magistrate, a man
of considerable influence. This man said to the spirit, “ Come, now,
you have done enough harm already. Go away and let this man alone.”
The spirit obeyed, and the son was saved.
In Suifu a merchant named Ch’en had two daughters and a son.
Three years before the events we are about to relate, Mrs. Ch’en had
died in Chungking. At the time of the death of his wife, Mr. Ch’en
had opened a shop in Suifu, and on account of his business was unable
*Dore, Henry S. D., Researches Into Chinese Superstitions, 1915-22, Vol. I,
p. 62.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 15
to attend the funeral. He sent thirty dollars for the funeral expenses
in care of a friend who was to make the proper arrangements and
pay the bills. The friend did things very poorly, merely covering the
coffin with a little dirt. The money he saved he used himself. The
second daughter married, but her husband soon died. later she
married a man named Tsu. This man Tsu previously had a wife, but
it is thought that he made away with her in order to marry the second
daughter. The oldest daughter married a man named Tsao. Mr. Tsu
died at Chungking and the second daughter came to Suifu. Her father
was about to remarry when a curious thing happened.
The second daughter became black in the face and began to utter
words incoherently. She then began to talk as though she were her
mother. She said that the reason her mother had not complained
before was that in hades when she first intended to complain the god
told her that she should first suffer misery three years in hades, then
make her complaints; that Mr. Tsu, on hearing that the second
daughter was about to be married, seriously objected, and raised a
row with the dead Mrs. Ch’en; that since Mrs. Tsao was unable to
bear children, Mrs. Ch’en demanded that a second wife or a concubine
be found for Mr. Tsao so that he should not be without descendants ;
and lastly, that the grave of Mrs. Ch’en must be put in first-class
condition.
Mr. Ch’en proposed that much paper or spirit money should be
burnt for Mrs. Ch’en so that she should have plenty of money to
spend in hades. Mrs. Ch’en replied that this was not a matter of
primary importance, but that she would permit Mr. Ch’en to spend
much money in this way. She said that the king told her in hades
that within three days she must compel Mr. Ch’en to agree to carry
out all these matters. If Mr. Ch’en did not, the god would rob him of
his soul so that he would die.
Mr. Ch’en agreed to all these conditions, and secured two middle
men who were to guarantee the execution of all these demands. They
were all carried out, so that Mr. Ch’en suffered no harm.
It was believed that Mrs. Ch’en had come from hades, and taken
possession of the second daughter, Mrs. Tsu, and had used Mrs. Tsu’s
mouth so as to be able to speak. It was asserted that spirits cannot
speak audibly because they have no bodies.
6. SUMMARY
So prominent is the belief in and fear of demons in Szechuan that
one is tempted to say with Dore that the essence of the Chinese
>
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
religion is the belief in and fear of demons, who are thought to be
the cause of all diseases and calamities, and the attempt to ward them
off and secure safety and happiness by means of marvellous, super-
human power that is made available through charms, amulets, incan-
tations, priests, and gods.’ This, however, would be an exaggeration.
We merely note that protection against demons is a very important
part of the religious technique in Szechuan.
II]. BIRTH, MARRIAGE, DEATH, AND BURIAL
I, VARIETY OF CUSTOMS IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE
To most individuals, birth, marriage, and death are the outstanding
events of human life. It is natural that many religious rites and
ceremonies group themselves around these events.
While general resemblances between the birth, marriage, and burial
customs are noticeable throughout all China, there are also many
variations. These are evident even in different parts of Szechuan
Province. Adam Grainger, in a little booklet entitled Studies in
Chinese Life, describes in detail birth, marriage, and burial customs
in Szechuan. Mr. J. Mortimore, in a series of short articles, has also
described the burial customs. A book entitled Chinese Culture and
Christianity, by J. L. Stewart, and based primarily on conditions in
Szechuan, has recently appeared. In these descriptions one is im-
pressed more by the differences than by the resemblances.
It is probable that the religious and social customs of Szechuan
are a blend of the old Chinese culture with other elements that are
aboriginal, or have been brought in from India, Tibet, or possibly
other countries. It is not always possible to distinguish between them.
The Miao and the Chinese of Szechuan both have the Pan Ku myth,
monosyllabic languages with five tones, and many customs in common,
but it cannot always be ascertained which has borrowed from the other.
It seems wise and necessary to limit ourselves to those elements which
are probably general in the province, and to pay special attention to
certain burial customs which can be traced back into antiquity, and
which throw light on the development of the Chinese religion.
2. THE DESIRE FOR AND THE METHODS OF SECURING CHILDREN
Like other branches of the human race, the Chinese desire a
numerous posterity. This is intensified by the need of sons to conduct
the ancestral ceremonies.
* Dore, Henry S. D., Researches Into Chinese Superstitions, Vol. IV, p. 431;
ee fee
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 17,
There are several ways by which people believe that they can secure
sons. A common way is to pray to one of the goddesses who gives
sons, either the Song Tsi Kuan Yin or the Song Tsi Niang Niang.
The Goddess Of Mercy is sometimes entirely consecrated to this pur-
pose, and holds a child in her lap. Sometimes the priests are hired to
read the sacred scriptures in the homes.’
Sometimes a person will pray for a son, and if the prayer is
answered he will present a wooden image of a child as a thank-offering
to the deity. If a good number of these are at the feet of the god,
it adds considerably to his prestige. If a barren woman steals one
of these wooden images, she will surely give birth to a son, after
which she is supposed to return the image. The stealing of other
sacred articles will cause the mother to bear a son. Among these are
the headcloth of an idol, sacrificial food, or eggs at a marriage feast.’
In some parts of the province one will occasionally see a round hole
in the rock resembling the female sex-organ. It is believed that if a
person succeeds in throwing a stone into certain of these holes his
wife will give birth to a son. One of these holes is at Tao-si-kuan, on
the Min River between Suifu and Kiating. Two others are near
Suifu, one across the Min River near Tiao-huang-lo, and the other
beyond Lankuang at Da Er O, or Strike Son Hole.
3. BIRTH CUSTOMS
Before a child is born, a priest or “ sorcerer ” is generally called to
exorcise demons or other influences.’ At birth, firecrackers or other
means may be used to scare away evil spirits.“ At a later time the
goddess of progeny is worshipped, and a feast is held.’
Those who have the advantage of modern hospitals, with trained
physicians and nurses, and anesthetics, can hardly appreciate the
excruciating pains suffered by Chinese mothers. Sometimes delivery
is impossible, resulting in the death of both mother and child. At
other times the suffering is multiplied many fold by a slow and
difficult delivery. The only duty of the female deity, the Tsua Sen
Niang Niang, is to secure quick and safe delivery. The spirit tablet of
When a Buddhist or a Taoist priest reads his scriptures ceremonially, it is
customary for foreigners to say that he is praying. He is really reading his
sacred scripture, which is considered an act of great virtue that will move
the gods and bring good fortune.
* West China Missionary News, January, 1921, pp. 9-II.
* Grainger, Adam, Studies in Chinese Life, 1921, p. 5.
*Tbid., p. 5.
° Tbid., p. 6.
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
the Tsua Sen Niang Niang is brought to the home when necessary.
There are many other methods. A charm may be written and pasted
on the body of the mother. A priest may come to the house and read
scriptures or perform ceremonial rites. If a mother dies in childbirth, |
she is not admitted into hades, but becomes a demon called a ts’an
lan kuci.
After the child is born, there is something dangerous or unclean
about the mother. [or this reason she is not allowed to leave the
room of her confinement for a month. Some of the ideas concerning
childbirth are given in the Classic Of The Bloody Basin, the writer’s
translation of which is given below in full:
THE TRUE CLASSIC OF THE BLOODY BASIN
(Outside Title)
THE TRUE CLASSIC OF (OR FOR) THE SAVING OF MOTHERS
BY Di TSANG FouUSsSAr
(Inside Title)
Reprinted in the fourth moon of the fourth year of the Republic.
From Shansi Province, Shanuen Shien, published by the disciple of Li Yin
Lin. The printing boards at the T’ong Yih shop in Suifu.
The True Classic Of The Saving Of Mothers From The Bloody Basin.
Correct words for purifying the mouth.
Shiu li shiu li mo ho shiu li shiu shiu li so p’o ho.
Correct words for cleansing the body of impurities.
Shiu do li shin do li shiu mo li so p’o ho
Correct words for pacifying the Tu Di gods.
La mo shan man do mo t’o lan ngan du lu du lu tsae wei so p'o ho.
For respectfully calling the eight gods.
La mo Kuan Si Yin P’usah mo ho sah,
La mo Mi Leh Fuh P’usah mo ho sah,
La mo Shu K’ong Chang P’usah mo ho sah,
La mo P’ushien Fuh P’usah mo ho sah,
La mo Gin Kang Seo P’usah mo ho sah,
La mo Miao gih Shiang P’usah mo ho sah,
La mo Ch’u Tsai Chang P’usah mo ho sah,
La mo Di Tsang Wang P’usah mo ho sah.
Verse for beginning the Classic—
O marvellous way, so lofty and so deep,
A myriad ages one can hardly meet;
But now I see and hear, can grasp and keep ;
With joy I'll tell the truth to others as is meet.
NO. 4. RELIGION IN SZECHUAN® PROVINCE—GRAHAM 19
The True Classic For The Saving of Mothers By Di Tsang Wang P’usah.
Reverently calling the gods.
Shi T’ien Fuh P’usah,
Mi T’o Fuh P’usah,
Ru Lai Fuh P’usah,
Shih T’ien Nien Wang Da Di P’usah,
Th Ch’ih Gieu Lan P’usah.
La mo Gieu K’u Gieu Lan P’usah who pronounces the following incantation :
“Do ch’ueh lan ngan do fah lu lai t'ang shuen i ho gieu lan uin t’o sen.’ I now
will cultivate and preserve and always read and chant (this classic) in order that
I may save my female relatives from that punishment which befalls them when
after ten months of pregnancy they have given birth. I will constantly chant
with my mouth this classic for the rescuing of mothers. When Nien Wang in his
dwelling brings the women to him and reproves them for their sins, if one
chants the True Classic it interferes with the star of calamity. I pray that
my female relatives may early escape from the calamities, and I, the son,
receive the punishment, which I should. | have already prayed and obtained
the saving from calamities by the goddess Kuan Shi Yin who by the pure
water from her vial washed away the body of evil sins from all people. The
female relatives do not understand the meaning of this, but let all kinds of sin
and evil be upon me. Every day I will chant this classic which frees from
calamity. May my mother escape from all earthly evils, and our family culti-
vate themselves in mercy and righteousness.
A chant to be accompanied with the burning of incense.
Ti Tsang P’usah, the merciful gods of the ten courts, the gods of the three
terraces, and of the eight thrones, the nine ministers, the rulers of hell and
Tsen O. If you invite the Buddhist priests to proclaim abroad this classic,
hell will change into heaven.
La mo Di Tsang Wang P’usah mo ho sah (repeat three times).
The Faith Oi The Bloody Basin Classic Explained By The Great Tibetan
Orthodox Religion Which Was Spoken By Buddha.
Once upon a time the god Muh Lien went to U Tseo Tsua Yang Shien, and
saw the hell of the bloody basin pool eighty-four (probably li) wide, in which
there were one hundred and twenty things, iron crossbeams, iron pillars, iron
cangues, and iron locks, and saw a multitude of the non-Buddhist women of
the earth with unkempt hair all dishevelled, and long cangues and bound hands
being punished in hell. The keepers of hell and the king of demons three times
daily took bloody water and ordered the women to drink it. The sinners did
not dare to obey, therefore they were beaten with an iron club by the Lord of
Hell until they screamed. Muh Lien had compassion and asked the Ruler of
Hades saying, “I do not see the non-Buddhist women’s husbands undergoing
this punishment. I only see many women suffering this bitter pain.’ The Ruler
of Hades replied to the Learned One, “ This does not concern the husbands,
but it is simply that women in giving birth allow the bloody dew to defile the
gods in the earth. Ii the unclean garments are taken and washed in creeks or
rivers, the water carries the defilement and injures all the righteous men and
women of the faith who secure water and boil tea to offer to all the holy ones
(gods, saints, etc.), causing it to be unclean. The Great General of Heaven
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
writes down their names, records them in the book of good and evil, to await
until, within a hundred years, life is ended, when they receive this bitter recom-
pense.” Muh Lien was very compassionate, and quickly asked the Ruler of
Hades, “ How can we reward the virtue of mothers in bearing children so that
they can escape from the hell of the bloody basin pool?” The Ruler of Hades
replied, “Only by carefully being filial, and men and women respectfully wor-
shipping the Three Precious Ones and by observing the three years bloody basin
fast, and assembling the festival for succeeding over the bloody basin, inviting
Buddhist priests to chant this classic once, and when the time is fulfilled the
repentance observances are completed, and then a boat of mercy will bear her
over the River of Purgatory to the shore, and it will be seen that five lotus
flowers appear in the bloody basin pool. The sinners will be glad, and will
develop shame in their hearts, and they will be able to rise to the Buddhistic
land. Then all the great gods and Muh Lien will inform and respectfully urge
the unbelievers and the men and women who believe righteousness to quickly
learn and cultivate virtue so as to remove the punishments and greatly alter
the future course of events. Do not lose this teaching, for in ten thousand years
you will not easily get it back.” Buddha said, “If the people who believe in the
classic of the bloody bowl write it and keep its instructions, it will cause them
to secure the ascension to heaven of all their parents for three generations,
and their enjoying all blessings—clothing and food of course, long life, wealth,
and honor.” Now, at this point (in the reading of this classic), the Heavenly
Dragon, the eight grades of men, and the non-human beings are all filled with
great joy and believe, receive, and obey this book, give a salute, and depart.
The Completion Of The Classic Of The Orthodox Tibetan Religion Explain-
ing The Faith Of The Bloody Basin.
The Classic That Buddha Spoke Of The Great Grace Of Fathers And Mothers
And Of Bones Of Unborn Babes.
I have heard thus, that once upon a time at Tsisou in the Kingdom of Shaewae,
Buddha spoke to the gods of Kuh Duh Uen and to the 1,250 priests of Dae Pi
Ch’iu, at which time the divine Ho Lan arose from his throne, with his hands
offered obeisance to Buddha, and spoke these words: “ What is greatest in the
universe?” Buddha replied, “In the universe that which is weightiest and of
most importance is the grace of fathers and mothers.” Ho Lan asked Buddha,
“Will Buddha mercifully and kindly explain?” Buddha said, “ When the child
is in the womb of the mother for the first month, it is like pearls of dew on
blades of grass.” Ho Lan asked Buddha, ‘“‘ Why do you say pearls of dew on
blades of grass?” The Universally Honored One replied, “In the morning it
collects, but at noon it evaporates. It is present only in the morning. It is not
present in the afternoon. When the child is in the mother’s womb for two
months, it changes like snow crystals.” Ho Lan asked Buddha, “ Why do you
say snow crystals?” The Universally Honored One replied, “ Like snow crystals
in the air falling down. When the child has been in the womb for three months,
it changes into a lump of blood six and three-tenths inches long.” Ho Lan asked
Buddha, “ Why do you say a lump of blood?” The Universally Honored One
said, “In the first place, it may be called a lump of blood. In the second place
it may be called a snow mountain. In the third place it may be called blood
collected together. When the child has been in the mother’s womb four months,
it develops the four limbs.” Ho Lan asked Buddha, “ Why do you say four
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 21
limbs?” The Universally Honored One replied, “ First two hands appear like
spring and summer. Later two feet appear like autumn and winter, and finally
you call them four limbs. When the child has been in the mother’s womb for
five months, it develops the five lumps.” Ho Lan asked Buddha, “ Why do you
call them five lumps?” The Universally Honored One replied, “First, the
skull develops, then the fanbones develop, then the two kneecaps, so they are
called five lumps. When the child has been in the mother’s womb for six months,
it develops the six senses.””’ Ho Lan asked Buddha, ‘‘ Why do you say the six
senses?” The Universally Honored One replied, “ Eyes can see color, ears can
hear sound, the nose can smell all fragrances, the tongue can taste flavors, the
body feels fineness and smoothness, and the mind can understand all things, so
they are called the six senses, and are also called the six thieves. When the
child has been in the womb of the mother seven months, it develops the seven
kinds of bones.” Ho Lan asked Buddha, “‘ Why do you call them the seven kinds
of bones?” The Universally Honored One replied, “ My mother bore me having
bones of diamond that would not decay. Kuanyin P’usah was born having red
lotus bones. Shen Uen Lohan when born had bones that are sacred relics. Wan
Shen Di Wang was born having bones like the womb of a dragon and the body
of a phoenix. The imperial officers and the prime minister are born with keo
lien shiao (meaning not clear) bones, and the generals of war are born with
bones of tigers and wolves. We, whether we are men or women, are born with
three hundred and sixty joints. The bones of men and women are different.
Bones of men develop from the head down. Bones of women develop from the
soles of the feet upward. The large intestines are twelve feet long, just as a
year has twelve months. The small intestines are twenty-four feet long, as
the year has twenty-four semi-lunar periods. When the child has been in the
womb of the mother eight months, it daily suffers eight kinds of hellish torments.”
Ho Lan asked Buddha, “ Why do you call them eight kinds of hellish torments? ”
The Universally Honored One replied, “ When the mother eats hot food, it is
called the hellish torments of (boiling) kettle soup. When the mother eats cold
food, it is called the hell of cold ice, When the mother is full (that is, when
her stomach is full), it is called the hell of crushing stone. When the mother
is hungry, it is called the hell of hungry demons. When the mother eats hard
things, it is called the hell of the sword mountain. When the mother travels or
is weary of labor, it the called the hell of pounding and beating (with pestles,
mallets, etc.). When the mother is sitting down, it is called the hell of the
iron bed. When the mother nods her head, it is called the hell of hanging upside
down (the idea is that the nodding of the head causes the child to be turned
upside down). When the child has been in the womb of the mother for nine
months, it will daily turn over three times, and with both hands take hold of its
mother’s heart and liver, and twice (daily) turn its body and tread on the mother’s
backbone and thighs so that it tires her four limbs painfully, and all her joints
are tightly stiffened. When the child has been in the mother’s womb for ten
tonths, you can see that it is about to be born. Daily it comes and congeals
the mother’s abdomen, and nightly it comes and congeals the mother’s womb.
When the time of birth arrives, then you should fear four kinds of evil birth.
The first to fear is the grasp-dry-wood birth, the second to fear is the birth of
stepping on the lotus flower (feet appearing first), the third dreadful birth is
being born crosswise, and the fourth to dread is that of begging salt (probably
with the hands appearing first). The middle fingers of filial children are hot
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
when they are born. When an unfilial child is born who in past existences has
been your enemy, in two or three days of travail he will still be unborn, the
whole family will be alarmed, and the mother’s life will be lost because of the
child. If men and women who believe wish to recompense their parents, they
should copy this book, and with it exhort the people all around, spread abroad
the teaching of filial piety, and contribute to the support of Buddhist priests,
and they will secure the good health of their parents in this world, and cause
them after death to rise to the land of Buddha. At this point the Heavenly
Dragon, the Eight Divisions of Gods, and all men will greatly rejoice, believe,
obey, perform a courtesy, and disperse. This is the end of the classic which is
Buddha’s words about the great grace of parents in regard to pregnancy.
The Words Of Buddha Which Are The Marvellous Classic Of Di Tsang
P’usah For Salvation From Torments.
Once upon a time Di Tsang P’usah dwelt in the everbright land in the south,
and used his pure, heavenly eyes, and saw in far away hades all human creatures
who were undergoing torments—iron pestles and beaters, iron grinders, iron
saws, kettle soup (boiling), fierce fire reaching to heaven, hungry people swal-
lowing hot iron, thirsty people drinking melted brass, receiving all bitterness and
vexations, having no rest. Di Tsang P’usah could not bear to see it, so he came
from the south to the midst of hell, and was in the same apartment with Nien
Wang, but slept in another bed. They discussed all the reasons: first, that
possibly Nien Wang might not have judged justly; secondly, that possibly the
documents of accusation were disposed of wrongly; thirdly, that possibly the
god had wronely caused individuals to die; and fourthly, that possibly sinners
were allowed to suffer punishment beyond their due. Therefore, for these four
reasons, if a good man or a believing woman has images made of Di Tsang Wang
P’usah and causes the classic of Di Tsang P’usah to be read, calling out to
Di Tsang P’usah, this person can certainly reach the western paradise before
the face of O Mi T’o Fuh (Amitabha), and his body become pure like the lotus
flower, which cannot be explained, and his six souls will become intelligent and
can go anywhere, from Buddhaland to Buddhaland, and from one heaven to
another. Any person who causes images of Di Tsang P’usah to be erected, and
this classic to be read, and protects the name of Di Tsang P’usah, after he dies
Di Tsang P’usah himself will come to welcome this person to be forever with
Di Tsang P’usah. All divine creatures and men of the universe, and O Shiu Lo
when they hear this classic which Buddha spoke, will rejoice, believe, obey,
make an obeisance, and depart.*
After the month of confinement is over, the relatives and friends
who have been given presents are invited to a feast.”
4. MARRIAGE
Up to very recent times it was customary in Szechuan for all mar-
riages to be arranged by the parents through go-betweens. Even
1 The above “classic” is evidently a translation into Chinese of a Tibetan book,
and the incantations are transliterations of incantations used by the Tibetan
lamas, having no meaning in the Chinese. This book, although it has sometimes
been prohibited by progressive officials, is widely used and its ideas are generally
accepted in West China.
? Grainger, Adam, Studies In Chinese Life, 1021, p. 6.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 23
now the exceptions are few. The consent of the young couple was
not asked, and they were not permitted to see each other until they
met at the marriage ceremony. Social conditions are now in a process
of change, and sometimes young people find a way of choosing their
own life partners, but on the whole the old customs are still in vogue.
A family will generally resort to divination before approaching
another family about the marriage of their son to a young woman.
If results are assuring, a middle man is found. The middle man or
woman takes presents when approaching the parents of the young
lady. If the parents are willing to negotiate, they produce the girl’s
horoscope, with which the go-between returns to the boy’s parents.’
Again divination is resorted to. If the result is favorable, an authority
on horoscopes is called, and the horoscopes of the two young people
are compared. If the results indicate that the marriage would be
unlucky, the matter is dropped; if the opposite is true, there are
further negotiations, and a lucky day is set for the exchange of
horoscopes. Presents, and sometimes money, are given to the parents
of the young lady, who in turn provide a feast for all the guests.’
On the day of the wedding, which must be on a lucky day, there
is a procession, and the bride is carried to the home of the groom
in a hua giao, or flowery sedan chair, which is red in color and
beautifully decorated.’
The bride says farewell to her parents, and departs with weeping.”
The procession is led by musicians with gongs, drums, flutes, and
other wind instruments.’ Banners and other paraphernalia are carried.
On the back of the bridal chair one or two lighted lanterns are
hung, although it is broad daylight, to keep the demons away. Old
bronze mirrors, glass mirrors, and other charms are used. The
bride is often clothed in special garments that are supposed to protect
her from evil spirits.
On arriving at the home of the bridegroom, a cock is killed, and
the blood is sprinkled in a circle around the flowery chair.” This is a
*Grainger, Adam, Studies In Chinese Life, 1921, pp. 8-0.
Stewart, James Livingstone, Chinese Culture and Christianity, 1926, pp. 144-5.
* Grainger, Adam, Studies In Chinese Life, 1921, p. 0.
*Tbid., p. 9.
‘Tbid., p. 9.
*Tbids pet2:
Stewart, James Livingstone, Chinese Culture and Christianity, 1926, p. 102.
° Grainger, Adam, Studies In Chinese Life, 1921, p. 12.
*Tbid., pp. 11-12.
*Tbid., p. 13. e
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
further protection against demons. Then the bride enters her new
home.
The bride is led to her place beside the bridegroom. Their first
act is often to face the front door and worship heaven and earth.’
Then they worship the housegods and pay their respects to the bride-
groom’s parents and ancestors. Finally, they bow to each other.’
Most of the guests bring presents to the new couple, and the cus-
tomary wedding feast is held.
A widow does not generally remarry. A man may take several
wives if he wishes and is able to support them. There is little
ceremony when a widow is remarried or when a man, while his wife
is still living, takes a second wife or concubine.
5. DEATH AND THE FUNERAL PROCESSION
Soon after death cash paper is burnt to provide the spirit with
travelling expenses for use on the way to hades. This is bound in
small, square bundles. Mortimore has translated the inscription on
the last bundles :
The recently deceased .... (name) .... whose earthly life began in (the
feten Of) *. S41. such and ‘such ‘a. year ..... .).\amenth): "9 day ys. noun we
. « « provinee........ prefecture . .. . county..... . township... section at
the place called .... grew to manhood; enjoyed .... years of life; the
great sphere (of earthly existence) closed in (the reign of) . . . . such and such
ayear .;... month |... day... . hour's: «= while living at... 4 pprovinee
.... prefecture .... etc., death took place due to illness. This is personally-
prepared cash paper for use en route, packet number... . to defray expenses
in the spirit world.
(To whom it may concern:) At each of the barriers by land and water and
at fords, examine and take note and allow to pass without obstruction.
On the last package must also be written:
The year that the sky disappears;
The month when the fixed time is fulfilled ;
The day that the end has come;
The hour when a standstill is reached.
Transform (that is, the paper is to be burnt and transmuted into paper
currency).
The first two paragraphs correspond very closely to what the Chuan
Miao K’a Gi, who opens the way for the spirit of the dead person to
hades, says as a part of the Chuan Miao funeral ceremonies. Mr.
Mortimore also says that a careful watch is kept so that no one can
1 Ibid., p. 13.
2 [bid., ‘pe 13:
3 West China Missionary News, April, 1915, p. 26.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 25
throw pieces of iron into the coffin for that would cause disaster
to come to the descendants of the deceased. This also corresponds
to one of the customs of Chuan Miao.
A priest or geomancer cfoses the coffin. He must also choose a lucky
burying site where the fengshui is good. If it is not good, the descen-
dants of the dead will have calamities and reverses and surely decline.
If it is good, the descendants will prosper and be happy. A lucky day
for burial must also be chosen.
It is believed that the soul goes to hades to be igen and that
there, in contrast to earthly conditions, judgment is just and in accor-
dance with one’s conduct on earth. In many Buddhist temples are
scenes that portray judgment and punishment in hades. Sometimes
hades is also represented in Taoist temples.
Before the funeral, Buddhist or Taoist priests are called to “ open
the way” for the soul to hades. This involves much ceremony,
including the reading of scriptures and the worship of gods. The
spirit is generally provided with a road-guide or passport to heaven.
Friends of the family send gifts in the form of tua tsis, or double
scrolls, which have written on them sentiments that are complimentary
to the deceased. In return they are invited to the funeral and to the
funeral feast, and provided with a white cloth of mourning to wear
on the head during the ceremonies.
In the funeral procession the oldest son of the deceased walks in
front of the coffin, dressed in sackcloth and supported by friends.
A live cock is generally perched on the coffin to keep away demons.
Firecrackers are set off at the beginning of the funeral procession
and at the grave.
6. THE BURIAL AND GRAVE CUSTOMS
At the grave the customary scenes of mourning take place, including
weeping and prostrations. Paper cash, gold and silver ingots, a gold
hill and a silver hill, and paper images of human beings, of houses,
furniture, boxes, weapons, and even opium pipes are burnt. They
are transformed by burning into cash, gold and silver ingots, a gold
hill and a silver hill, living servants, sedan chairs, houses, etc., for the
use of the departed spirits in the land of shades. Actual food is offered,
incense and candles are burnt, there are prostrations and mourning,
and the coffin is covered with dirt. Usually the hole is not dug very
deep, and the dirt is heaped up in a mound over the coffin.
To explain the custom of burning paper money, paper images of
human beings, houses, furniture, and other articles, we must go back
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS volt. 80
thousands of years into ancient Chinese history. In the sixth section
of the history of Si Ma Ch’ien, it is stated that 177 persons were
killed and buried with the emperor. The following quotation is from
the journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
for TOLO:
From the Chinese classics we know that, in remote antiquity, a straw figure
of a man was placed in the grave with the dead. Confucius himself commended
the act in preference to a later custom of substituting a wooden image with
moveable joints. His counsel, however, went unheeded. It is not certain, but
presumably he was aiming at stopping the immolation of human beings at the
tombs of the great. The burying of wooden men was, in all likelihood, the bogus
form of this savage reality. Later history contains many examples of it. To
quote from Professor Kid: “ When Woo—king of the state Tsin—died sixty-six
persons were put to death and buried with him. One hundred and seventy-seven
ordinary individuals, together with three persons of superior rank, were devoted
by death to the service of Muh-kung in the other world; a monody still exists
lamenting the fate of these three men. Tsin-shih-huang-ti, who flourished about
two hundred years before the Christian era, commanded that his household
females and domestics should be put to death and interred with him.” The custom
long survived this period, “and when persons offered themselves voluntarily
to die, from attachment to their masters and friends, such sacrifices were
esteemed most noble and disinterested.” *
In the Encyclopaedia Sinica there is a similar statement :
Sacririces, Human. This title should more properly be reserved for the
killing of men as offerings to the Deity, as in the case of Abraham and Isaac,
or the religious ceremonies of the Aztecs. In default of a more convenient term,
it is used for the burial of living slaves, concubines, and others, with the rich or
royal dead; though the idea of providing companionship and service in the
other world is more prominent than that of appeasing anger or seeking favor.
The practice must have been established in China in very early times, but the
first example recorded in Chinese history was at the burial of the Ch’in ruler
Wu Kung, B. C. 678, when sixty-six persons were buried alive to keep him
company in the other world. In Ch'in again, when Mu Kung died in B. C. 621,
there were buried with him one hundred and seventy-four people. This caused
the Ode called Huang niao to be made (Legge’s She King, p. 198). The fact
itself is recorded in the Ch’un Ch’iu. The practice had been forbidden by Hsien
Kung on his succeeding to the Ch’in earldom in B. C. 384, but at the death of
Ch’in Shih Huang Ti in B. C. 210, all his wives and concubines who had not
borne him children were buried with him, and the workmen who had made his
tomb were also walled up alive in it.’
In North China many old graves have been unearthed, and their
contents are in the world’s great museums. Some of them go as far
‘ Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XLI,
IQI0, pp. 63-4.
* Encyclopaedia Sinica, 1917, p. 493.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 27
back as the Han Dynasty. A number of large cases of these relics are
in the Field Museum in Chicago.
In Szechuan Province are thousands of caves that were chiseled
out of the soft red-sandstone many centuries ago. Perhaps most of
them are around Kiating and Chengtu, and all of them seem to be
near rivers and streams. There are fewer around Suifu, possibly due
to the facts that the sandstone is much harder and the Chinese secured
possession of Suifu at a later date than Chengtu and Kuating. The
larger of these caves are nearly a hundred feet deep and contain many
relics. The most extensive collections that have been made are in
the British Museum and in the Museum of the West China Union
University. Many Chinese and foreigners assert that these caves were
the homes of the aborigines who lived in these districts before the
arrival of the Chinese. Rev. Thomas Torrance, I. R. G.S., was one
of the first to assert that they were burial tombs of wealthy Chinese
who probably lived from the Ts’in Dynasty I. C. to the time of the
Three Kingdoms. Mr. Torrance has spent years in the study of these
caves and their contents, and the collections in the British Museum and
in the Museum of the West China Union University were made almost
entirely by him. The following quotation is from a letter received
from Mr. Torrance, written at Kuanshien, Szechuan, China, July 12,
1925:
The cave tombs are found all the way from the Hupeh-Szechuan border
westwards as far as Lifan. Ninety-nine per cent of them are in low altitudes.
Their age is from the end of the Ts’in Dynasty B. C. to the time of the Three
Kingdoms. The people were in the Pa, Shuh (Szechuan), and Chinese territories.
My own opinion is that the people were Shuh-Chinese or Pa-Chinese, mixed
blood. There are only a few inscriptions in seal and common Chinese character.
There is no evidence at all that they were originally for anything else than tombs.
Later they were used for different purposes, that is, some of them, notably near
Kiating. The goods found in these caves correspond closely to goods found in
tomb mounds of the same date and in underground graves all over China, that is,
China north of the Yangtse. The carvings are distinctly of Han type and are
all in close correspondence. The carvings often follow the appearance of Han
houses, showing they were built of logs.
Volume I of the Supplementary Papers of the Royal Geographical
Society, published in 1886, contains an article entitled “A Journey Of
I¢xploration in Western Ssu-ch’uan,” by EF. Colborne Baber, Chinese
Secretary of Legation, Peking. This article tells of a visit to West
China in 1877, when a number of caves between Kiating and Suifu
were inspected. Mr. Baber found what he decided were cisterns inside
the caves, and so concluded that the caves were dwelling-places.*
* Supplementary Papers, Royal Geographical Society, 1886, Vol. I, pp. 131-2.
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
A sad AICTE RT TNO TA AUC THAN HANES Nt
UTE re
JUCO ETE th:
Erm | | | | |
ity Ani hh
WV
07) NCUA CCEA
itt yt
MTPUTEL TL nah
yay aner ity t(| enue
ve
Fic. 1.—Diagram of a carving on the wall of a cave above Suifu on the Min
River. Copied from a drawing by E. Colborne Baber.
Fig. 2—Diagram of a carving on a wall of a cave three miles west of
Kiating, China.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 29
Fic. 3.—Copy of carvings of an ancient teapot and a teacup on the wall of
an old burial tomb in a cave at Song Tsua, near Li Chuang, about fifteen miles
east of Suifu.
Fic. 4.—Copy of a carving on the wall of an
ancient Chinese tomb in the sandstone at Song
Tsua, near Li Chuang, about 15 miles east of
Suifu. The instrument probably represents a
loom. The tomb is a cave in a solid rock.
Fic. 5.—Diagram of a
carving on a pillar at the
entrance of an ancient
Chinese burial cave near
Kiating, Szechuan, China.
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
The writer has visited the caves about Kiating and Suifu a number
of times, and is convinced that Mr. Torrance is right, and that these
are burial tombs of the early Chinese. The reasons, briefly stated, are
as follows:
lirst, the relics found in these caves very closely resemble those
in the tombs of North China which belong in the Han and the Tang
Dynasties. The watchdogs look so much alike that one could believe
that they came from the same tomb. The articles found are very
similar, from earthenware images of houses, human beings, and
chickens to the coins and the jade cicadas that were placed on the
tongues of the dead. Evidently, they were the work of the same
civilization.
Secondly, the coins in the Szechuanese tombs are all Chinese coins.
The dates of most of them can easily be determined.’
Thirdly, large numbers of these caves still have remnants of coffins
in them. Some caves have places for several coffins, indicating that
they were probably used by a family. Some of the coffins have been
found with skeletons in them. Baber’s “cisterns”’ are the places
where the coffins are found.
Fourthly, the caves are so well made that they are evidently the
work of a people who were in a high state of civilization,
Fifthly, we know of no tribe of aborigines in West China that is
accustomed either to live or to bury its dead in artificial caves of this
kind. ;
We believe that the weight of evidence is strongly in favor of the
theory that the caves of Szechuan are Chinese burial tombs dating
approximately two thousand years ago.
All the images yet found in these caves are of unglazed, burnt
clay, of a gray color. Later the Chinese of Szechuan ceased the bury-
ing of their dead in caves, and buried them in tombs covered by
mounds. Many of the images found in the later tombs are beautifully
glazed.”
* Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XLI,
IQILO, p. 69.
“Some diagrams are appended that the writer has made of carvings on caves
near Kiating, and also copies of some pictures that he found on the side of a cave
at Song Tsui, near Li Chuang, east of Suifu. The hat worn by the man whose
picture is carved in the cave near Song Tsui resembles those on clay images,
unglazed.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE-—GRAHAM 31
Mr. Torrance gives the following list of the articles which he has
gathered in the caves of Szechuan:
Instead of straw or moveable wooden figures of men you will find them of
burnt-clay, grey and terra-cotta in color, glazed and unglazed, from a few inches
high to nearly full life-size. They represent persons of both sexes and various
ranks and callings. There are besides models of houses, cooking-pots, boilers,
rice-steamers, bowls, basins, vases, trays, jars, lamps, musical instruments, dogs,
cats, horses, cows, sheep, fowls, ducks, etc. Standing with your reflector lamp
in the midst of a large cave it seems verily an imitation of Noah’s Ark.
It is true that the Chinese believe that the caves of Szechuan were
made and used by aborigines, and call them Mantsi caves. This is
explained by the fact that the old Chinese population was practically
exterminated by Tsang Shien Tsong, and the new immigrants would
naturally know little about the past history of the province.
We therefore advance the following theory: In early Chinese his-
tory men provided food for the dead as the Chinese still do to-day,
and also placed in the tombs weapons of war, money, and articles of
everyday use. They killed human beings, including wives and ser-
vants, to put in the graves with the deceased leaders. The moral
development of the people led to the substitution of burnt-clay images
for human beings and the fowls, animals, and the articles of everyday
life. The clay images were at first unglazed, but later were glazed.
The placing of quantities of money in the graves took it out of circu-
lation, and with other valuables tempted the robbers to loot the graves.
In time people began to substitute paper money for real money. The
paper was burnt, and was transformed by the flames into spirit money
that could actually be used by the departed spirits in the land of
shades. Now nearly all the articles are burnt, so that very little 1s
placed in the tombs. Actual food is still offered at the graves and be-
fore the ancestral tablets so that the spirits of the dead will not hun-
ger. The food offered is not destroyed. The spirit must be sup-
posed to in some way secure the essence of the food, and the descen-
dants of the dead are permitted to eat what is left.
After burial, the grave is revisited on occasions, food is offered to
the departed soul, and the ordinary acts of reverence are performed.
Mourning for one’s parents is kept up for three years, and the
ceremonies usually included under “ancestor worship’ are per-
parents, grandparents, and
formed for three generations of ancestors
great-grandparents.
1 Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XLI,
1910, p. 68.
3
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
On Chin-min, or Tsin-ming, which comes on the third day of the
third moon, all who are able to do so go to the tombs, burn paper
money and incense, offer food, light candles, and repair the graves.
While all the seasonal festivals are occasions of family reunions
and ancestral ceremonies, this is the great Decoration Day of the
Chinese people.
Two peculiar practices should be noted. One is that if a person dies
away from home he is not removed to his home for the funeral ser-
vices, for it would be unlucky to take him into the house after he
has died elsewhere. Grainger mentions this custom, which is ap-
parently general." In the summer of 1925 the writer saw a woman
hastening to a doctor with a sick child in her arms. A little later she
returned, still carrying the child, which had just died. On being cer-
tain that the infant was dead, she threw it into the Min River. The
explanation given was that it was unlucky to take the child into the
home after it had died elsewhere.
We sometimes hear of the custom of making a hole through the
wall of a house, through which the dead person is taken for burial,
and later sealing up the hole, so that the spirit cannot find the way
back, which it could do if it were carried through a door. There is an
example of this among the Wasi aborigines at Kuan Tsai, near Uen
Chuan Shien, where a great hole was made through the wall of the
temple-yamen to bury an attendant who had died inside. Later the
hole was sealed up.
IV. YINYANG AND FENGSHUI
I. THE YINYANG CONCEPTION
The conception of yinyang permeates and saturates the mental,
moral, and social life of the Chinese, affecting every phase of their
existence. Dr. Arthur H. Smith, in what is perhaps an overstatement,
describes this conception:
This Chinese (and Oriental) habit is at once typical and suggestive. It
marks a wholly different conception of the family, and of the position of woman
therein, from that to which we are accustomed. It indicates the view that
while man is yang, the male, ruling, and chief element in the universe, woman
is yin. “dull, female, inferior.’ The conception of woman as man’s companion
is in China almost totally lacking, for woman is not the companion of man, and
with society on its present terms she never can be.”
* Grainger, Adam, Studies In Chinese Life, 1921, p. 35.
* Smith, A. H., Village Life in China, pp. 302-3.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 33
According to Chinese philosophy death and evil have their origin in the yin,
or female principle of Chinese dualism, while life and prosperity come from the
subjection of it to the yang, or male principle; hence it is regarded as a law of
nature to keep woman completely under the power of man, and to allow her
no will of her own. The result of this theory and the corresponding practice
is that the ideal for women is not development and cultivation, but submission.
Women can have no happiness of their own, but must live and work for men,
the only practical escape from this degradation being found in becoming the
mother of a son. Woman is bound by the same laws of existence in the other
world. She belongs to the same husband and is dependent for her happiness
on the sacrifices offered by her descendants.*
This statement of Dr. Smith is extreme in some respects, but he
is right in his description of the ymyang principle, and of its vital
connection with Chinese social customs and conceptions.
The yin and the yang have their source in the great extreme, or
the f’ae gih.
2. FENGSHUI
In China a great deal is heard about the fengshui. Sometimes you
see a peculiar rock in the river, interfering with traffic and causing
wrecks. You look at the great line of boats that is passing by, realizing
that every boat is endangered by the rock. You think of the constant
loss of life and property. You know that it would be easy to destroy
or to remove the rock in low water. To your suggestion that this
be done, your Chinese friend answers, “ P’ang puh teh.’ That is,
it must not be touched. Why? Because it is a fengshui stone.
Near Gioh Ch’i is a place where a creek makes a great bend,
returning practically to its starting point before proceeding again in
the general direction of the stream. By cutting through an earth bank
less than 15 feet thick, the stream could be made to flow in a straight
line, and acres of land could be saved for cultivation. To the sug-
gestion that this be done, the farmer replied that someone had at-
tempted to do this, but that the neighborhood had objected on the
ground that it would injure the fengshut, causing all to suffer.
There is a fengshui stone at Ngan Bien or An Pien, a town about
20 miles up the Yangtse River from Suifu. Some Chinese would like
to remove the stone, but the general sentiment of the town will not
permit it, although every year boats are wrecked and people are
drowned. If that stone were injured, all sorts of calamities might
occur in Ngan Bien.
Fengshui stones occur on dry land. About 20 miles up the Min
River from Suifu, at Kiang Gioh Ch’i there is such a stone on the
2 Ibid., pp. 305-6.
34. SMITHSONIAN: MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
north bank of the river. It is peculiar in shape, being high, round,
and pointed.
Many fengshui stones are vitally related to the welfare of certain
towns, cities, or districts. Below the city of P’in Shan, on the bank
of the river, is a round stone that is the fengshui stone of P’in Shan.
The injury of this stone would cause ill-luck to the city of P’in Shan.
There are also fengshwi trees. A great tree at Shin Kai Si on
Mt. Omei is the fengshui tree of Chien Way. Another tree on Mt.
Omei is the fengshui tree of Omeishien. Both are great, majestic
trees.
Families also may have fengshu: stones or trees. Between Ngan
Bien and Leo Dong on the Yangtse River, a strange-looking stone has
been for many generations the fengshwi stone of the powerful Lin
family of Leo Dong. At Shuin Gien Si, close to the Golden Sands
Cave, is a family fengshui tree.
Between Suifu and Li Chuang, on the south bank of the Yangtse
River, is a large stone that is the fengshui stone of the Lo family, who
for generations have lived on the north side of the river opposite the
stone, and who in the past prospered and accumulated great wealth
through the help of this wonderful stone. It is said that formerly
when wood was split in the home of the Lo family the rock would
move. The Tsang family lived on the opposite side of the river
and owned the land on which the fengshwi stone is situated. The
Tsangs were jealous of the prosperity of the Los, so they chiseled and
“broke” the stone whose power and influence helped the Lo family.
Thereupon the Lo family accused the Tsang family at court, and a
long period of litigation ensued, consuming much of the wealth of
both families. No satisfactory solution was reached at court, so the
two families agreed to settle the matter out of court by each family
throwing silver into the river. The family throwing in the most silver
would be considered the strongest and the greatest. The Tsang family
threw in pewter, but the Lo family threw in silver. Both families are
now poor. Because the stone was chiseled or broken, it has lost its
power to benefit the Lo family. ;
In 1924 the magistrate of the Lan Ch’i Shien district issued a
proclamation forbidding the cutting of fengshui stones lest calamity
fall upon the people.
Practically every large town or city has a pagoda that has been
built in some prominent place, and some cities have more than one.
The pagoda must be correctly situated, and affects for good or ill the
fengshui, and, through the fengshui, all the important interests of
a city.
NO. 4. RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 35
About $0 li up the Min River from Niating is Shiang Pih Si, or
Elephant’s Nose Monastery, where there is an unfinished pagoda.
When the pagoda was being constructed, two noted scholars suddenly
died, and it was concluded that the pagoda was injuring instead of
helping the fengshui. Work was discontinued, and the pagoda has
never been finished. If it had been in the right spot, it would have
improved the fengshui, and a result would have been that more
scholars would be born and developed, and that scholarship in the
district would be generally improved.
Before a house is built or a grave is dug, it is necessary to have
a specialist tell whether or not the fengshui is good. If the fengshu
of the ancestral grave is good, the family will increase and prosper.
If it is bad, the family will decline. The same can be said of the house
in which the family lives. Merchants are more apt to enjoy financial
prosperity if the fengshui of the store is good.
In the summer of 1923 | took a trip to Tatsienlu, which is often
called the gateway of Tibet. On the way I saw where the robbers had
attacked the home of a wealthy farmer. The father and another rela-
tive had been killed, the house had been badly smashed up, and a
servant had been wounded, although the robbers had been driven off
and no money stolen. The farmer was asked why he did not move
into a city where the militia could protect him. The reply was that
the fengshui of that place was good, so that anybody living on that
farm would get rich.
What is this mysterious power or force called fengshiu? Feng
means wind, and shui means water. The expression stands for mys-
terious forces that operate for good or evil on families, cities, and
districts. It is apt to be localized in strange or peculiar trees and
stones.
Let us note that the man who in English is generally called a
geomancer is in Szechuan called a yinyang shiensen or a fengshu
shiensen, the two terms being interchangeable. The former term is
commonly heard, and means a professor of yinyang. The latter term
means a professor of fengshui. This suggests a close and vital rela-
tion between yinyang and that strange, mysterious force known as
fengshut.
So far the writer has drawn entirely from his own experience. A
quotation from Mr. Mortimore and another from the Encyclopaedia
Sinica will further elucidate the meaning of fengshui and its con-
nection with the yinvang.
It is now high time that the location of the grave be determined. In the case
of the more wealthy, such an important matter will probably have been attended
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vot. 80
to by the sons years in advance; and good reason why, for upon the direction of
the grave, the surrounding landscape and a score of other circumstances will
the future wealth, happiness, or even the life of the descendants, depend. But
let us suppose that in this case it remains yet to be done, while, at the same time
the family purse is full enough to meet the expense of securing a lucky site.
One of the sons deputed by the others, engages a geomancer and sets out with
him on the momentous search.
Now, to understand what follows, we must remember that, geomantically
viewed, mountain ranges (or, in a flat country, the higher levels) if of a certain
conformation are to be regarded as dragons, and the parallel hills with the
valleys: or depressions on either side of the range constitute the sandy banks
and the water, in which the dragon swims forward. Even to the western mind
an undulating mountain ridge does not lack the suggestion of being a vast
reptile; but to the Chinese, that is to the great majority, this is far more
than a mere metaphor, for within the range is believed to flow, like an under-
ground stream, the dragon’s vital force or energy and wherever this collects
or becomes concentrated deposits of gold, silver, or other precious metals occur.
The secret to be discovered then is the exact spot where this throbbing force
comes near the surface, or, as it is called, the Dragon’s pulse so that when the
remains of the parent are lowered into the earth, they will be in a perfect line to
receive through the head and into the whole body this wealth-accruing energy.
This accomplished, it must naturally follow that his posterity, who are the bone
of his bone and flesh of his flesh, will abound in riches. There may be other
theories propounded for this belief, but this is the one I have heard#
FEenc SHur, wind and water. (The outward and visible signs of celestial
Yang and Yin.) The art of adapting the residence of the living and the dead
so as to co-operate and harmonize with the local currents of the cosmic breath
(Yin and Yang q. v.) ; often incorrectly called “ geomancy.”
It is believed that at every place there are special topographical features
(natural or artificial) which indicate or modify the universal spiritual breath
(Chi). The forms of hills and the directions of watercourses, being the
outcome of the moulding influences of wind and water, are the most important
but in addition the heights and forms of buildings and the directions of roads
and bridges are potent factors. From instant to instant the force and direction
of the spiritual currents are modified by the motions of the sun and moon,
(see Astrology), so that at any particular time the directions of the celestial
bodies from the point considered are also of great importance.
The professor of Feng Shui employs a Lo-pan (graduated astrolabe with
compass) to observe directions and astrological harmonies, while at the same
time he notices the forms which the spiritual forces of nature have produced.
By talismans (dragons and other symbolic figures on roofs or walls, pagodas
on hills, or bridges) and charms (pictures of spirits or “words of power”
inscribed on paper scrolls or stone tablets), the unpropitious character of any
particular topography may be amended.
Artificial alteration of natural forms has good or bad effect according to the
new forms produced. Tortuous paths are preferred by beneficent influences,
so that straight works such as railways and tunnels favour the circulation of
maleficent breath.
* West China Missionary News, Oct. 1915, pp. 27-28.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 37
The dead are in particular affected by and able to use the cosmic currents
for the benefit of the living, so that it is to the interest of each family to secure
and preserve the most auspicious environment for the grave, the ancestral
temple and the home.*
We should note especially the phrase in parenthesis, “ The outward
and visible signs of celestial Yang and Yin.’ Under the heading
“Yrtn and Yane,” the following lines are also found in the Ency-
clopaedia Sinica:
Yin and Yanc, The negative and positive principles of universal life.
These words meant originally the dark and bright sides of a sunlit bank, and
occur on the Stone Drums (8th century B. C.). By the time of Confucius
they had acquired a philosophical significance as the two aspects of the duality
which Chinese thinkers perceived in all things. Traces of the dual notion
occurred in the “Great Plan” of the Shu Ching, but the actual words Yin
and Yang as used in this sense occur first in the pseudo-Confucian commentaries
on the I-Ching. ;
In this way Yang came to mean Heaven, Light, Vigour, Male, Penetration,
The Monad. It is symbolized by the Dragon and is associated with azure colour
and oddness in numbers. In Feng Shui raised land forms (mountains) are
Yang.
Similarly Yin stands for Earth (the antithesis of Heaven), Darkness,
Quiescence, Female, Absorption, the Duad. It is symbolized by the Tiger and
is associated with orange colour and even numbers. Valleys and streams possess
the Yin quality
The two are represented by a whole and a broken line respectively, thus :—
Yang Yin
Groups of three such lines are known as “trigrams,” groups of six as
“hexigrams,” and the I-Ching is classified under the sixty-four possible
hexagrams.
In connection with the five elements, the Vin and Yang have been for
at least two thousand years used to interpret the processes of nature and they
are the fundamental feature in the theories which underlie Feng Shui, Astrology,
Divination and Medicine.
T’ai (Great) Yang means the Sun, T’ai Yin the Moon, Shao (Lesser) Yang
the fixed stars and Shao Yin the planets, these four being supposed to be the
four primary combinations (Hsiang) of Yin and Yang.
Yin and Vang are themselves supposed to have proceeded from a “ Great
Ultimate.” ?
Fengshui, then, is the outworking of the yin and the yang elements
in nature. It is a mysterious potency that affects for good or evil
the welfare of families, cities, and districts. It is often localized in
strange and awe-inspiring trees and stones. It works according to
definite laws which the professor of yinyang and fengshui can inter-
* Encyclopaedia Sinica, 1917, p. 175.
*Encyclopaedia Sinica, 1917, pp. 615-616.
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vo. 80
pret by the help of his instrument, the lopan. There is a book or
classic which explains the use of this instrument. It is based on the
Book of Changes, and the writer has been told that it takes about three
years of study to master the science of fengshut.
V. INCANTATIONS, CHARMS, AND AMULETS
We are beginning to see that the Chinese of Szechuan Province
believe that there is a mysterious potency about them that may do
good or evil. This potency is differentiated into the yang and the yin.
The yang is good and helpful and the yin is evil and harmful. Incan-
tations, charms, and amulets are means by which one endeavors to
use this power for his good, especially in keeping away demons, the
source of most evils.
I. INCANTATIONS WIDELY USED
Incantations are often used by Buddhist and Taoist priests as parts
of their ceremonies, or by the tuan gong, a term generally translated
by the word sorcerer. The tuan gong, like the Buddhist and the Taoist
priests, also exorcises demons. In the True Classic of the Bloody
Basin we have examples of incantations that are merely transliterations
of incantations in the Tibetan language which probably have meaning
in the Tibetan, but have none in the Chinese. They are considered
very potent, probably the more so because they are mysterious and
not understood. Similar incantations are found in the classic of the
Gin Gang P’usah, which is Buddhist.
2. NEW YEAR MOTTOES SUPPOSED TO BE POTENT
There are a number of mottoes which are written on colored paper
and hung up in the homes on New Year’s Day. The Chinese do not
consider them to be charms, but regard them more as expressions of
their dearest wishes. Yet they have the feeling that expressing the
wish will tend to cause the wish to come true. Below are a few
examples :
Nien Nien Fan Ts’Aq, “ Grow rich year by year.”
Sen I Sun Lone, “ May our business prosper.”
Fu Kurt SHuanc CHuEN, ‘“ May wealth and honor be complete.”
CHEN Tsae St Tsone, “ Right in the very time” of luck and prosperity.
These express the wishes of the family, and there is also the belief
that the expressing, reading, and hanging or pasting up of the wishes
tends to cause them to be fulfilled.
NO. 4. RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 39
3. CHARMS TO TRANSFORM UNLUCKY DREAMS TO LUCKY ONES
The people of Szechuan take dreams very seriously. They are much
troubled if they have bad dreams, and of course happy to have good
ones. There is a charm that is written on red paper and hung on the
east wall of a city. By shining on it, the sun transforms a bad dream
into a lucky one. The charm is given below:
Translation :
At night I had an unlucky dream.
I paste this on the east wall.
When the sun shines on it,
It will be changed to a lucky omen.
4. CHARMS TO CAUSE BABIES TO SLEEP AT NIGHT
There is evidence that many Chinese parents do not enjoy having
their sleep disturbed by crying babies. Charms to cause the child to
sleep soundly until daylight are often seen pasted up on the highways.
They are written in verse, and show many variations in their wording.
They are always written on red paper. It is thought that if the traveler
reads the charm it will cause the baby to sleep soundly until daylight.
The following is a free translation that gives the sense of these
charms :
The sky is bright, the earth is bright.
We have a baby that cries at night.
If the passerby will read this right,
He'll sleep all night till broad daylight.
5. CHARMS WRITTEN ON PAPER
The above examples furnish points of departure in discussing
written charms, whose kinds are unnumbered and innumerable. In
volumes I to III of Researches Into Chinese Superstitions, Dore has
given illustrations of a large variety of written charms. They are
written by Buddhist and Taoist priests, and by tuan gongs. They are
usually given to the user in return for financial contributions which
vary according to the size and condition of one’s purse.
These paper charms are of all sizes. Some are hung up above the
front doors to keep the demons from entering. Others are hung
up in the middle of the front room. Some are pasted up on the four
sides of the room. Some are pinned on the bed to protect the sleeper.
Some are pinned on one’s clothing. Some are burnt, the ashes mixed
with water, and the water drunk. Nearly all of them are to protect
from the various attacks of evil spirits.
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vol. 80
The characters of the written charms are often so fantastically
written that an ordinary Chinese scholar cannot decipher them. This
creates an air of mystery that increases the belief in their potency.
Frequently the name of a god is used, indicating that the power of
the god is made available in the charm. The paper on which the charm
is written is almost always yellow, because Chinese official proclama-
tions are on yellow paper, and the charms are meant to be in the
spirit world a kind of official proclamation. This idea and appear-
ance are enhanced by the fact that in Szechuan the written charms are
practically always stamped with the official temple seals resembling
in color and shape official seals of Chinese magistrates. The official
proclamation of the magistrate, stamped with his official seal, is
extremely important, and not to be lightly disregarded or disobeyed.
The yellow paper and the official seals of the temples are meant to
convey the same impression to the demons, thus making the charms
more efficacious.
The name of Buddha is often seen on written charms. The word
thunder, which is also frequently found, could mean just thunder or
the god of thunder, since thunder is thought to be the work of the
thunder-god.
6. THE USE OF BLOOD ON CHARMS
If feathers are pasted to a charm by means of chicken blood, it will
be more efficacious. Blood is considered very potent. First in efficacy
comes human blood, which is seldom used. Second is chicken blood,
which is generally used. Third comes duck blood, which is more
rarely used because chicken blood is easily obtained.
The writer saw a hunter who had pulled some feathers off one of the
birds that he had killed and stuck the feathers to the gun by means of
the blood of the bird, believing that this would make the gun shoot
more accurately.
7. OTHER CHARMS
Sometimes a boy whose mother is dead will take a lock of her hair
and wear it around his neck. The lock of hair is supposed to protect
him from evil spirits.
Small images of Buddha are used as trimmings on the hats of boys,
and they are believed to protect the boys from harm.
There is a special kind of a brass or copper coin called happiness
and long-life money, which is suspended from the backs of boys’ hats
as charms or amulets. They often have on them the eight figures
called the bah kua, or images of the 12 creatures that determine lucky
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE
GRAHAM 41
or unlucky days. Very often they have on them mottoes in four large
characters which express the wishes of the parents for their sons.
Among these mottoes are the following:
How Urn Lin SHEn, “ Good luck fall upon his body,” or befall him.
Gin Luu Jia Kuan, “Enter into fortune, advance in official rank.”
One of these coins bears the following inscription:
The order of Laotsi. Use this to kill demons, subjugate spooks, behead
phantoms, avoid evil influences, and forever guarantee safety.
The newest kind of a charm that the writer has seen in Szechuan
Province is the Red Cross emblem. He noticed it first in 1925. Before
the Chinese revolution of 1911, the Red Cross and its emblem were
practically unknown in this province. Since then the people have seen
hospitals and Red Cross Societies marvellously healing the sick, and
have assumed that there was mysterious power in the Red Cross
emblem. The emblems are used as a protection to boys and are sewed
into the garments.
Old bronze mirrors are very efficacious in keeping away demons.
The glass mirror, which is comparatively new, is used for the same
purpose. It is hung up above the entrances to the homes, or is placed
inside the front doors so that a person going into the house will see
his own image. The demon who is trying to enter the house sees his
own image and becomes frightened at it, for he is a horrible-looking
creature, so that he turns and flies away.
The bah kua, or eight figures, has come down from the most ancient
times, and is considered very efficacious. It can control any calamity,
including fire, flood, or pestilence. This is because the demons cause
these calamities, and the bah kua has power to control demons.
The crow of a rooster frightens away demons, who scamper away
when the cocks begin to crow at daylight. In some places geese are
raised because their cry is supposed to frighten away demons.
Pieces of amber are worn as charms. The facts that amber when
rubbed will pick up pieces of paper, that it sparkles, and that it some-
times has particles of grass or leaves or even insects in it, would
naturally tend to set it aside as having unusual power.
Charms of jade are used, especially in the burial of the dead. In
the ancient tombs of Szechuan are found jade cicadas that were placed
on the tongues of the dead. In northeastern China they are also found
in tombs of the same period.
Swords made of old Chinese coins are used as charms in the homes.
They have power to keep away evil spirits. Ordinary swords are
sometimes used for the same purpose. One old sword of this kind
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vot. 80
that the writer had in his possession (it is now in the U. S. National
Museum) has the seven stars of the great dipper on its blade.
Nearly every Tibetan has a charm-box that he wears suspended on
his chest. In these charm-boxes teeth, hair, nailfilings, pieces of
clothing, and even the excretions of the lamas are placed. It is thought
that anything from a lama possesses wonderful power.
The incantations, charms, and amulets that have been described are
illustrations of one of the methods of the natives of Szechuan for
procuring happiness, good fortune, and the securities of life. Through
them a strange, supernatural power is used to exorcise or keep away
demons, who cause diseases and misfortunes.
VI. PUBLIC CEREMONIES AND RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS
I. IMPORTANT PUBLIC CEREMONIES
Through certain ceremonies, the social group seeks to secure the
primary needs of life. A few will be described by way of illustration.
As would naturally be expected among a people depending primarily
on agriculture, the coming of spring is exceedingly important.
It is a well-known fact that before the Chinese Republic, the
Emperor of China, at Peking, took part in a ceremony to bring back
or welcome spring, and that as a part of that ceremony he ploughed
the first furrows. It is not so well-known that the magistrates observe
this custom in other parts of China.
The following is a description by Mr. Grainger of this custom as
it is practiced in Chengtu :
The solar period known as the Beginning of Spring commences about
Feb. 5. On the first day preparation is made for the ceremony. Very early
next morning a large paper effigy of an ox drawing a plough is exhibited on
the Ox-beating Ground somewhere outside the city. The magistrate attends
in person accompanied by actors representing the Star of Literature and his
monkey Sen. After some mountebank performances with the monkey the Star
of Literature exclaims :—
“May the land and the people be peaceful:
May the wind and the rain be propitious:
May the fruits of the earth be abundant.’
The magistrate thereupon rises, puts his hand to the plough, and waves
the ox-goad. This is the signal for a general assault on the ox, which is torn
to pieces, and the little ox effigies with which it had been filled are scrambled
for by the crowd. Those who are fortunate enough to secure them take them
to well-to-do farmers who give presents of money in return for them. HUES
little oxen are supposed to bring luck to the farm_ for the ensuing year.’
ee aineer Agia Studies in ‘Chinesé juige: IQ2I, p. 49.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 43
In 1925 this ceremony was performed in Suifu on the tweny-first
and twenty-second days of the twelfth moon. In the magistrate’s
yamen a large paper water-buffalo, and also a paper boy called a ngao
mer had been previously prepared. Over one hundred small water-
buffalo made of clay had been placed inside the paper water-buffalo.
On the morning of the twenty-first, the magistrate first worshipped
the two paper images in the court of his yamen to the accompaniment
of horns that sound a little like Scotch bagpipes. Then the magistrate
joined in a procession going out of the North Gate to a special plot
of ground where a plow and a live water-buffalo were waiting. In
the procession the paper images were carried in front of the magis-
trate. On reaching the plot of ground, the magistrate again worshipped
the two paper images, which had been brought along in the procession,
then ploughed three furrows with the plow and the live water-buffalo.
The magistrate and other dignitaries drank tea together, after which
the procession returned to the yamen through the East Gate. This
day’s ceremony is called welcoming spring.
The next day the two paper images were again taken in the proces-
sion to the plot of ground, which is called the Yin Ch’uen Ba, or the flat
where spring 1s welcomed. The magistrate again did obeisance to the
two paper images. There were about 20 officers called the ch’uen kuan
or spring officials. After the magistrate had worshipped or kowtowed
to the two paper images, the 20 spring officials fell upon the paper im-
ages with clubs and beat them to pieces. At this point the onlookers
rushed up and tried to secure one of the mud images of the water-
buffalo. Those who were not successful snatched pieces of the paper
images. I was told that these relics were taken by the lucky ones to
their homes where they were supposed to protect the inmates from
evil spirits. The second day’s ceremony is called da che’uen, or beat
spring. The main object of the two days’ ceremony is to induce spring
to come so that the crops may grow and prosper.
Rain and fair weather are of great importance. When rain does
not fall for a long time, and the hot sun dries up the soil, then the
people begin to fear a failure of crops and famine. The price of rice
begins to soar, and the people become anxious, if not panic-stricken.
Many go to the temples and pray to the dragon god, for it is his
duty to give rain. The south gate of the city is closed. Wet weather
comes from the north, and the opposite influences from the south.
Usually a fast is proclaimed, which means that animals must not be
slain or eaten.
In case rain is not forthcoming, the people try a new strategy. They
take the dragon god and the water god out of the temple and leave
44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
them in the open to roast in the hot sun. Their own sufferings will
cause them to exert their powers and cause rain.
Sometimes there are processions in which a straw image of the
dragon is carried. Water is thrown on the straw image, on the par-
ticipants, and on others who may come within reach.
In the summer of 1923 the writer witnessed a procession of this
kind, in which there were more than 20 men and boys. They wore
only shoes, trousers, and a wreath or cap made of green willow twigs
with the green leaves still on the twigs. Near the center of the proces-
sion were a long straw dragon and a water-buffalo on which a boy was
riding. Those who were on foot had dippers and were throwing water
on each other, on the straw dragon, on the water-buffalo, on the houses,
and on anyone who happened to pass by. At the end of the procession
they were to pay their respects to one of the gods in a local temple.
There is a ceremony called the yang miao huet, which is performed
in some districts by Taoist priests at the time of rice-planting. Classics
are read or chanted, and there is a procession. The priest pronounces
incantations, and papers are hung up on sticks in the rice paddies.
When these are finished Ti Kong or Earth Prince and Ti Mu or
Earth Mother are worshipped. This ceremony is to encourage the rice
to grow.
A picturesque rite is practiced to drive insects away from the fields.
After the young vegetables come out of the ground, destructive insects
begin to appear. After dark lanterns are carried through the field,
and gongs are beaten. This ceremony is supposed to lessen the danger
to the crops from insects.
In the spring when the weather grows warm, pestilences are apt
to appear. In almost every city or village are held ceremonies to
clear the streets of the evil spirits which cause disease.
2. THE GREAT FESTIVALS
Throughout the year there are many calendar festivals, most of
which escape the notice of foreigners. Dore has given a calendar for
1The following paragraph is taken from the Herald-Examiner, Chicago,
Ill, August 10, 1926.—
“ Japs Drench Yank as Part of a Prayer. Tokio, Aug. 18.—The secretary
of the American embassy, motoring through Hachioji, near Tokio, on
Sunday, was suddenly drenched with water by a crowd before a wayside
shrine. Believing an insult was intended, the secretary reported the incident
to the foreign office. Investigation reveals that the crowd was performing a
ceremony, praying for rain, this ceremony including throwing water on the
first passerby.” :
It seems that such ceremonies to pray for rain-are widespread throughout
Asia.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 45
the entire year in which every day is either a festival, a birthday of
a god, or a lucky or an unlucky day.’ Grainger enumerates 16 calendar
fetes.” A writer in the West China Missionary News of November,
1926, describes seven, and states that on all of them there are family
reunions and ancestral worship.’ In the following list of calendar
festivals, only those that seem of greatest importance are included. In
all of them the ancestral ceremonies have a prominent part.
On New Year’s Day all business is discontinued, the best clothing is
worn, social calls are made, and in the homes there is feasting and
worship of the housegods. The ancestors are commemorated. Some
go to the temples and worship the deities there.
The Feast of Lanterns is on the fifteenth of the first moon. At night
there are many lights and illuminations. In the homes there are
feasts and ceremonies.
Between the tenth and the twentieth of the third lunar month is the
Ch’in Min festival, when people visit the graves and remember their
dead. Paper money is burnt, food is offered to the dead, the graves
are repaired, and the living do obeisance to the spirits of the departed
ancestors. ;
On the fifth day of the fifth moon is Tuan Yang, often called the
Dragon Boat Festival. This day commemorates Ch’ioh Uen, an ancient
hero who drowned himself because the emperor would not heed his
good advice. The festival has practically become a great social holiday
when many thousands gather on the banks of the rivers to watch
groups of men in dragon-boats chase ducks that have been released in
the water by the spectators.
The fifteenth day of the seventh moon might be called the festival
of the orphan spirits. Much paper money is burnt to the dead
ancestors. The spirits who have no filial descendants have been re-
leased from hades. Much spirit money is burnt for their use, after
which floating lights are placed on the streams to entice the spirits
away.
The Mid-autumn or Chong Ch’iu Festival is on the fifteenth day of
the eighth moon. Probably in some parts of China this is the harvest
festival, but in Szechuan there are crops all the year, so that at least
in some parts of China this seems to be little more than a day to have
a good time.
In the eleventh moon there is the feast of the winter solstice, with
special offerings to the dead.
* Dore, Henry S. D., Chinese Superstitions, 1915-1922, Vol. V, pp. 565-616. -
* Grainger, Adam, Studies in Chinese Life, 1921, pp. 49-56.
* West China Missionary News, November, 1926, pp. 5-12.
46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
On the night of the twenty-third or twenty-fourth day of the
eleventh month the Kitchen God ascends to heaven and reports to the
Pearly Emperor the conduct of the family during the year. During
the appropriate ceremonies for the Kitchen God, there are burnt for
him paper money, a chariot for his conveyance, and a letter requesting
him to forget the evil deeds of the family and to graciously make a
good report to the Pearly Emperor.
In the following words Sven Hedin describes a religious festival
in Tibet:
The jugglery we had witnessed was in every respect brilliant, gorgeous, and
splendid, and it is easy to imagine the feelings of humility such a performance
must inspire in the mind of the simple pilgrim from the desolate mountains
or the peaceful valleys. While the original significance of these dramatic
masquerades and their mystic plays is the exorcising and expelling of inimical
demons, they are in the hands of the clergy a means of retaining the credulous
masses in the net of the church, and this is a condition of the existence both
of the church and of the priests. Nothing imposes on ignorance so thoroughly
as fearful scenes from the demon world, and therefore devils and monsters play
a prominent part in the public masquerades of the monasteries. With their help
and by representatives of the King of Death, Yama, and the restless wandering
souls vainly seeking new forms of existence in the sequence of transmigrations,
the monks terrify the multitude and render them meek and subservient, and
show many a poor sinner what obstacles and what trials await him on the rough
road to Nirvana through the valley of the shadow of death.”
H. B. M. Consul Ogden, who witnessed at Tatsienlu one of the
great Tibetan festivals called by foreigners the Devil Dance, said that
the dramatization of the religious history of |-amaism, the inculcation
of religious instruction and the arousing of feelings of religious devo-
tion and awe in minds that would otherwise find it difficult to receive
such instruction, are primary elements in the “ Devil Dance.” He said
that at times the simple Tibetans were so overcome with awe that they
would fall upon their faces in worship.
In Szechuan some of the greatest religious festivals are on the
birthdays of leading deities, and center about the temples. I have
witnessed several, and they are very awe-inspiring. There are pro-
cessions in which there are often more than 20 deities who are carried
in gayly-decorated sedan chairs or on platforms covered by beautiful
pavilions. The god in whose honor the festival is held of course has
the chief place in the procession. Sometimes soldiers carrying guns
are asked to join in the parade; many flags and silk banners are in
evidence, and sometimes large lanterns; actors dressed to represent
certain deities ride in beautiful sedan chairs, impersonating the deities ;
*Sven Hedin, Trans-Himalaya, 1909-1913, Vol. 1, p. 315.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—-GRAHAM 47
high officials ride on horses, and there are musicians playing on native
instruments. The streets, homes, and shops are packed with spectators.
As the great procession moves slowly along, people in the homes and
shops burn incense, candles, and paper money in worship of the deities,
and bow reverently to the gods and sometimes even to the actors who
impersonate the gods.
Elaborate feasts are held in the temples for those who have helped
or contributed. A company of actors may be engaged; who for several
days give free theatricals for the hundreds or thousands who flock to
see and hear them. The expenses of the feasts and theatricals are
borne by the temples, many of which are highly endowed.
There is a prominent social element in these festivals which should
not be overlooked. These are great occasions when one can meet his
friends and acquaintances, when he is released from the everyday
humdrum duties of life, and derives thrill, pleasure, and amusement
from the feasts, the procession and the theatricals. In other words,
there is the element of play. This is even more evident in the Tibetan
festivals which often include horseracing and other contests.
The religious importance of these festivals is also great, They
arouse a sense of awe and admiration, so that the simple people feel
that there is nothing so grand as their own religion and their own gods.
The festival takes advantage of crowd psychology, often teaches
religious history or religious ideals through the drama, and ties the
affections of the people firmly to the religion and to its gods, its priests,
and its temples.
VII. DIVINATION, LUCKY DAYS, VOWS, PRAYER,
RELIGIOUS OFFERINGS, AND WORSHIP
I. DIVINATION
Divination is frequently resorted to in Szechuan, and the ways
of divining are numerous.
One method is simply to consult a Buddhist or a Taoist priest. In
1925 there was civil war in the province between the numerous war-
lords. Before entering the war one of the generals consulted a Taoist
priest, while another obtained the opinion of an old Buddhist priest
who is considered an authority in occult matters.
A way of divination commonly used in the temples is the yinyang
kua. A bamboo root is split into two halves in such a way that each
half has a flat side and a round side. These two pieces are the yinyang
kua. In divining, both pieces are thrown on the floor. If two round
sides turn up, it is unlucky. If both flat pieces turn up, it is lucky or
|
48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
favorable. If one round and one flat side turn up, it is neutral, and
may be considered tolerably good.
In many of the temples are also what look like chopsticks in a
round tube. In all there are one hundred of these sticks. After
bowing to the god, the person interested shakes the tube containing
the sticks until one of the sticks falls out. These sticks are numbered
from one to one hundred. Nearby in a convenient place are also
one hundred sheets of paper with numbers from one to one hundred.
After the stick has fallen out of the tube, the paper with the corres-
ponding number is found. The inscription on this paper tells the
fortune of the enquirer.
Sometimes a Taoist priest goes into a trance and while apparently
unconscious utters incoherent words. They are supposed to be com-
munications from the spirit world. Others interpret his words.
2. LUCKY AND UNLUCKY DAYS
Lucky and unlucky days are of primary importance, and can easily
be determined. It would be disastrous to have weddings or funerals,
to make sales or purchases, or to begin an important journey or other
undertaking on an unlucky day.
There are two ways of explaining lucky or unlucky days. One is
described by Mr. Grainger :
There are minor deities that rule the sixty years of the cycle, the months
of the year, the days of the year, and the twelve Chinese hours of the day.
Certain gods are credited with being better rulers than others, and when one
of these gods is in office the occasion is auspicious for commencing any under-
taking, such as starting on a journey, beginning to build a house, burying the
dead, opening a new shop, or going to school. These lucky days are all fixed
by the compilers of the National Almanac, a copy of which is to be found
in almost every house. The days are classed according to the cycle and the
five elements, and what works may be done, and what may not be done are
fully indicated.
Fortune-tellers are often asked to select specially fortunate days for weddings,
and geomancers choose good days for funerals, and for commencing building
operations.”
The explanation that has been given the present writer by both the
Chinese and the Chuan Miao aborigines is that there are 12 creatures,
the rat, the water-buffalo, the tiger, the hare, the dragon, the snake,
the sheep, the monkey, the chicken, the dog, the horse and the pig that
in turn dominate the days. Certain creatures are lucky and others are
unlucky. The days dominated by the unlucky animals are unpropitious,
* Grainger, Adam, Studies in Chinese Life, 1921, p. 76.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 49
and vice versa. Lucky and unlucky days are clearly indicated in the
Chinese almanac, which is sometimes used as a charm, and which is
possessed by nearly every family.
3. OATHS
Oaths are generally made to and in the names of deities, and there
are few of the unsophisticated who will break such an oath. The
following is an example. The writer was crossing a pass west of
Yachow. He had stopped to rest in an inn, for the day was hot and
the road was steep. The carriers had drunk some tea and eaten some
food purchased in the inn. When they were settling their accounts,
the wife of the innkeeper, who had been waiting on them, asserted
that one of the coolies had paid for less than he had eaten. The coolie
declared that this was untrue. A lively dispute ensued. The head
coolie finally took up the matter. To the wife of the innkeeper he said,
“Are you telling the truth?” She declared that she was. ‘“ Then,’ he
asked, “ Will you swear by a certain god, and agree that if it is not
true the god may burn down this house?” ‘‘ No,” she said, “I will
not swear that oath.” The coolie did not pay the extra money de-
manded, and all were convinced that the woman had been telling a lie.
4. VOWS
Vows are almost inseparable from prayers, expressed or implied,
so they will be briefly treated under the discussion of prayer.
5. PRAYERS
The simplest kind of prayer possible is illustrated by that of the
magistrate of Chengtu in the ceremony to cause the coming of spring,
which has been given on another page. A simple wish is expressed,
and no deity is addressed or mentioned. The prayers of many wor-
shippers go just a step beyond this. They burn incense, respectfully
bow or kowtow, name or call upon the deity, and express the wish.
The writer was in a rowboat, being ferried across the Min River.
A woman was holding a little girl in her lap. As they were passing
a Goddess of Mercy who was in a shrine on a cliff overhanging the
river, the woman looked up reverently and said, “ Kuanyin P’usah,
bao fu wa wa,” or “ Goddess of Mercy, protect this child.”
Most vows are practically bargains with the deities. They are
promises to do certain things if the god will grant the worshipper’s
desires, expressed or implied. A sick person may beseech a god
to heal him, and promise if healed to make a pilgrimage to a certain
50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
mountain and burn so many sticks of incense and so much paper
money. If healed, the supplicant fulfills his vows.
In the country districts south of Suifu one often sees in the wayside
shrines straw images of human hands or human feet that have been
placed before the idols in fulfillment of vows. A person having a
sore hand will beseech the god to heal the hand, promising that if he
will the supplicant will present a hand to the god. The same course
may be taken in case of sore feet.
The following is the writer’s own translation of a prayer to the
Kitchen God, which is sealed in an envelope like a letter and burnt on
the twenty-third day of the twelfth moon, when the Kitchen God
ascends to heaven. Similar letters are often sent to the deities by
burning, for they consider that burning them is equivalent to delivering
them to the gods:
I, So-and-So, representing the whole family, reverently and sincerely come
and beseech you to hear us. You have great merit in saving the world and
nourishing all people. You protect us with virtue and mercy. You control
and judge the good and evil deeds of our family. In our cooking, and in our
eating and drinking we depend on your mercy. Through all the year you care
for us. But we are uncleanly in our habits, and think unclean thoughts, and
trouble you. We write you this letter, hoping that you will forgive our sins,
and not report them to the Pearly Emperor, thus causing the whole family
to be grateful to you.
Date.
We have seen that the prayer often includes the vow, and is a sort
of a bargain. The prayers of the people of Szechuan are very prac-
tical. They generally express desires for things considered of use in
their everyday lives—food, protection, healing, or prosperity—in other
words, they are expressions of the universal desire for a happy or
satisfying life.
6. RELIGIOUS OFFERINGS
Food and other necessities are offered to the deceased ancestors,
who are supposed to need nourishment and money after death precisely
as they did while living. The other world is a counterpart of this
world, but more shadowy.
The deities also need food and money. Sometimes a whole pig is
taken to the temple and offered to the gods. The money is generally
paper cash, paper ingots of gold or silver, or paper dollars, These
are burnt, and thus made available in the spirit land.
Very little of value is burnt or destroyed. After being offered to the
gods, the food is consumed by the priests or by the givers themselves.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM SI
We do not find the idea of vicarious sacrifice for others. In what
are generally called sacrifices by western writers there is the idea of
providing food, money, and other necessities for the ancestors and
the gods. The writer has seen idols who are supposed to be addicted
to the opium habit, and to whom the worshippers are accustomed to
offer opium by smearing it on their lips. Again, there is the idea that
gifts will establish friendly relations with the ancestors or the gods
and dispose them to deal kindly with the giver and help him in case
of need. An element that shoukl not be overlooked is the very natural
tendency to sacrifice something valuable or useful to a friend or to a
superior. This custom or habit is carried over into religion from the
social life and customs of the Chinese.
It is the usual practice, when making social calls, to take gifts to the
friends on whom one is calling—cookies, candies, eggs, nuts, a chicken,
a duck, or the like. A poor Bible woman in Suifu said that she could
not make calls on the church members and enquirers because it would
be necessary for her to make presents to those on whom she called,
which she could not afford to do. Twice I have returned from Suifu
to America on furlough. Both times a large number of Chinese
friends gave farewell presents. They varied from beautiful pictures,
embroideries, old bronzes and vases to native candies, eggs, and pieces
of sugarcane. Even when calling on magistrates on official business
it is advisable and often necessary to take a gift. Presents are given
at engagements, weddings, and funerals. It is natural for people with
such social customs to make gifts to the ancestors and the gods. In
Szechuan the killing of the victim is a non-essential part of the
ceremony of worship, and the “ sacrifices’ are gifts rather than sac-
rifices. They are made to satisfy what are considered real needs of
the ancestors and the gods, to establish a friendly relationship or
communion, and sometimes merely in accordance with a natural
tendency to contribute something valuable to an esteemed friend or
to a superior.
7. WORSHIP
The religious acts and ceremonies that we call worship are practiced
in the homes, at the graves, at the wayside shrines, and in the Con-
fucian, Buddhist, Taoist and ancestral temples.
Sometimes there are group ceremonies at the wayside shrines, but
they are essentially the same as the rites in the homes and in the
temples. Often an individual will go to a shrine, light a few sticks of
incense, burn some paper money as,an offering, make obeisance, utter
a prayer or request, and depart.
52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
The burning of incense is to some extent a complimentary act, but
incense is pleasing to the smell, and is calculated to put the ancestor
or the god in a good humor. As a part of the writer’s early language
study he had to read with the Chinese teacher the account in the
Chinese Bible of Noah’s flood. After coming out of the ark, Noah
offered burnt-offerings to Jehovah, “And Jehovah smelled the sweet
savor”; which apparently caused Jehovah to be in a good humor and
therefore more propitious, so that Jehovah determined not to curse
the ground any more for man’s sake, nor again ever to smite all the
living.” As the writer read that passage, it came to him that this
is exactly the conception that the Chinese worshipper has of what
occurs when he burns incense before his ancestors or his gods.
The first and fifteenth of each month are special times for cere-
monies of respect and commemoration to one’s ancestors in the homes,
where at dusk every day the people worship the housegods. A bell
is struck to awaken the gods and to notify them of the presence of
the worshipper. A few sticks of incense are burnt. Very often not
a single word is uttered. The worshipper simply bows his respects
and departs.
In the temples there is “ worship” by individuals or by groups.
Every day at daylight and at dusk a priest goes to each god, lights a
stick or two of incense, strikes a bell or gong, bows to the deity, and
goes on. A worshipper who is not a priest may enter a temple and
worship all the idols as described above without uttering a word. His
worship is merely establishing friendly relationships and expressing
reverence—-but of course he expects this to be beneficial to him. If
there is something special on the heart of the worshipper, then he is
apt to utter a prayer and perhaps burn paper money.
More elaborate worship is performed by a number of priests for
the individual or for the community. Portions of scriptures are
generally chanted, and musical instruments—bells, gongs, and some-
times drums and horns, are used. At times these ceremonies are
beautiful. At other times they sound monotonous and discordant to
the foreign ear. One of the most beautiful and impressive ceremonies
that the writer has heard was that of an evening worship in the lower
Wan Nien Si Temple, or the Monastery of Ten Thousand Years, on
Mt. Omei. It was performed by the temple priests before the god
P’ushien who rides on the bronze elephant.
In the temples there is much reading or chanting of scriptures.
This is considered an act of great merit, helping the individual to secure
‘
"Genesis, chapter VIII, verses 20-22.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 53
the approval and favor of the gods and prosperity. It is not at all
necessary that the priest or the person for whom the scriptures are read
understand. In Tibet the “prayer wheel” and the “ prayer flag ”
have been invented so as to accommodate the masses who cannot read
and write, and to enable a person to acquire a maximum amount of
merit with a minimum amount of effort.’ While reading, the Chinese
priest beats a wooden fish with a wooden mallet, one stroke for every
word. There is a legend that the Buddhist scriptures were once lost
in a sea or in a river, and were swallowed by a great fish. The fish
was caught, and by beating compelled to give the scriptures back. The
wooden fish is therefore beaten, even by Taoist priests, when scriptures
are ceremonially read.
While affection, awe, and reverence are strong motives in worship,
fear also has a prominent place. Many of the gods are so made as
to inspire fear.” Near Ch’anglinshien is a wayside shrine in which is
a terrible-looking god. In his hand is a club, which is raised as if to
strike. On the shrine these words are inscribed:
What audacity you have, that you dare
come and look at me.
Quickly repent. Do not go and harm people.
Children are taught to fear the idols. Mothers tell them that if they
do not worship the gods they will get the stomach ache.
One day in the city of Ngan Lin Ch’iao the writer visited one of the
largest temples in company with a high school student. Both the
student and his parents were Christians, and the student’s father was
one of the leading merchants of the city. That day the temple was
nearly deserted. A carpenter was working in a distant room, and
occasionally he would hit a board with a loud bang. As they walked
among the deities, some of which were fearful in appearance, the
student was evidently frightened. He started at every loud noise, and
would not let his foreign friend strike any of the gongs or bells in
front of the idols. He expected the writer to be frightened, and asked,
“Are you afraid?”* Many of the Chinese fear the gods, and because
they fear they worship. Some of the gods are purposely made terrible
in appearance so as to inspire fear. This story is also of interest
"The writer was told by Tibetans at Tatsienlu and by aborigines at Songpan
that the so-called prayer wheels and prayer flags are not really for prayer,
but primarily and almost entirely for reading scriptures, and to secure the help
of gods and prosperity.
* The fact that terrible gods are very efficacious against demons is doubtless
an important reason for their development, especially in Tibet.
*
54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
because the student, who worshipped only the Christian God, con-
sidered the idols in the temples to be real gods, and was afraid of them.
In Szechuan the motives for the worship of the gods are fear, awe,
reverence, affection, and the desire to secure the help of the divinities
in living a happy and successful life.’
VIII. TEMPLES AND SACRED PLACES
I. THE RELATION OF THE TEMPLE TO THE COMMUNITY
Temples are considered more or less the property of the com-
munity. Practically everybody contributes towards their support—in
fact, they must contribute. At stated or at special times the priests
go from house to house, leaving at each home some evidence that
the inmates have contributed. Sometimes the different temples divide
a city into districts, each temple collecting in its own district. At other
times one temple will collect over the whole city. In one town, if a
family refuses to contribute, the priests will place an image or some
other evidence before the door of the house. This is considered a
great disgrace. People begin to crowd around, and finally in self-
defense the family is compelled by general disapproval to make the
contribution.
2. CONFUCIAN TEMPLES
Most Confucian temples have in them only the tablets of Confucius,
his disciples, Mencius, and other noted Confucian scholars. Occa-
The following event took place at Ch’anglinshien. There had been no rain
for so long that the crops were in danger. The people and the priests had been
praying for rain. The magistrate went for a visit to the P’utaogin Temple
outside the city, where there are several dragon gods. He remarked that if the
gods would send a heavy rain that night he would thoroughly repair the temple,
a thing which was much needed. It was not stated whether or not the magis-
trate prayed to the gods, but it was assumed that the gods knew what he had
said. Possibly the priests prayed especially to the dragon gods to send rain so
that the temple might be repaired. At any rate, there was a great rain that
night, and the crops were saved, and the magistrate repaired the temple.
Additional note on vows.—At K’ai Shan Ch’u Dien, on Mt. Omei, which
means the first monastery opened on the mountain, I saw a farmer and his
wife worshipping. They were pilgrims who were visiting the temples on the
mountain. Before a famous bronze image of Mi Leh Fuh, the Buddhist Messiah,
they divined by means of the yinyang kua. Twice they consulted, but both
times the result was unlucky. The pilgrims were frightened. Then the priest
said, “ Quickly make a vow.” I could not hear what was said, but the lips ot
the woman moved as she made her vow. Then the divination was repeated, and
the results were “lucky” or good. They felt that because of her vow, which
we may regard as a bargain with the deity, the god changed her luck from bad
to good.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—-GRAHAM
Sal
on
sionally one will see an image of Confucius, resembling the ordinary
images or idols found in the Buddhist and Taoist temples. The
greatest ceremony in the Confucian temples comes on the birthday
of Confucius.
3. CONTENTS OF THE BUDDHIST AND TAOIST TEMPLES
The Buddhist and Taoist temples are really homes for the gods
and for the priests. They also contain rooms’ for the entertainment
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of guests, who are generally given a cup of tea, a large kitchen where
feasts can be prepared, a goodly number of square dining tables,
dishes, seats, and benches, besides large and small drums and bells,
ceremonial robes, and scriptures and instruments of worship used
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4. SOURCES OF TEMPLE INCOMES
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56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
because of the possession of farms or houses. Practically all temples
occasionally ask for contributions. Adherents give according to their
ability when the priests conduct funerals, exorcise demons, or help
by reading the scriptures.
5. TEMPLES AS SACRED PLACES
Temples are sacred places. Often the trees in the temple enclosures
are also sacred, and must not be cut down. Occasionally sacred
groves or trees are to be found near and on the grounds owned by
the temples. Sometimes the temples are built in ordinary places in a
city or village, or by the roadside, and the places are apparently holy
for no other reason than the presence of the temples. Yet there is
a very noticeable tendency to build temples, when possible, in places
where the natural beauty or the strange scenery arouse the feelings
of wonder and awe. Such places are apt to be sacred spots or hoiy
mountains, though not always. Very often where there are imposing
hills inside of the city walls temples will be found on their summits.
At Suifu the Taoist temple called Pan Pien Si is situated on the
side of a very steep hill overlooking the Min River. The situation
is so beautiful that practically every artist who comes to Suifu paints
the temple and its surroundings. Across the Min River from Suifu
is a large, cracked rock through which Chu Ko Liang is supposed to
have marched his soldiers in order to deceive the aborigines who then
were in possession of Suifu. This is also the scene of a temple.
Up the Min River from Suifu is Tao Si Kuan, a Taoist temple. It
is situated on a tremendous rock that reaches half-way across the
river so that it changes the direction of the stream. In this rock there
is a deep natural cave that is exposed in low water, but covered in
high water. The river rushes fiercely past the rock, especially in
high water, and part of the year there is a strong eddy on the opposite
side of the stream flowing in the opposite direction from the main
current. Boats are sometimes wrecked here. The place is such a one
as will naturally arouse fear, wonder, and awe.
At Shuin Gien Si or Shiong Gien Si there is a Buddhist temple in
a cave half-way up a perpendicular cliff. The rock is limestone, and
the cave is a natural one inside which there is dripping water which
is believed to have power to heal diseases. This cave can be reached
only by means of steps hewn out of the solid rock. A tree which stands
very near the steps is a fengshui tree. The temple has several stories,
the first story being on a level with the flat ground under the cliff,
and the last story being in the cave itself. The stone of the cliff is
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Fic. 7.—Diagram of the famous Gieu Lao Dong, or temple of the
nine old hermits, Buddhist, on Mt. Omei, Szechuan, China.
58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
slightly yellow, so that it is thought to resemble gold dust. The temple
is therefore named Gin Sha Dong, or the cave'of golden sands. On
the top of the cliff trees of a forest can be seen, but the sides are so
steep that they are bare of vegetation. Here again a place of marvel-
lous beauty that naturally arouses feelings of wonder and awe has
been chosen as the location for a temple, a holy place set aside for
the worship of the gods.
At Ch’anglinshien there is a temple in which is a mineral spring.
Because of the mineral in the water, groups of air-bubbles come up
from the bottom which to the Chinese seem to resemble bunches of
grapes. They call the temple P’utaogin, or grape well. The hill back
of this temple is verdant with beautiful bushes and trees. In the
temple grounds are a pond and several large trees. Across the plain
from the temple high mountains rise to the sky. Here again a scene
of marvellous natural beauty that arouses feelings of admiration,
wonder, and awe has been chosen as the place for a temple.
Another illustration is Huang Long Si or the Yellow Dragon
Gorge, which is reached from Songpan by crossing a mountain pass
over 14,000 feet high. Beginning at the base of a snow mountain
called Shueh Bao Din Shan, the stream flows down a canyon for
about ten miles, when it joins another stream that flows at right
angles to it. The water in this stream is so full of mineral that the
mineral substance is deposited all the way down the canyon, forming
a bright yellow stone. In many places the water trickles down into a
series of terraced pools resembling rice paddies on a hillside, with
the outer banks rounded into irregular shapes. Similar pools are
found in the Yellowstone Park, but there are many more of them in
the Yellow Dragon Gorge. The crystal-clear blue water and the bright
yellow stone give these pools a beautiful appearance, which is en-
chanced by the surrounding forests that cover all the hillsides, and
by a wonderful variety of flowers. At the head of the gorge are lofty
mountain peaks that are perpetually covered with snow, and great
ribs of white snow reach far down the mountainsides.
This district would be very interesting to the geologist. In one
place the stream has deposited so much of the mineral that a waterfall
has been formed. Along the stream the mineral substance is deposited
mostly near the edge where the water flows less swiftly, so that the
stream constantly builds up banks for itself. There are places where
the stream bed is from five to thirty feet higher than the surrounding
land. The lowest spots are old, abandoned beds of the stream.
Leaves, sticks, and trees that fall into the water are encased in the
mineral and buried deeper and deeper.
59
GRAHAM
SZECHUAN PROVINCE
IN
RELIGION
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the boatmen’s god,
This is a Taoist temple.
Vang E Miao, or temple of Wang FE,
Szechuan, China.
at Li Chuang,
Fic. 8.—Diagram of the \
60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
Several temples are situated in the Yellow Dragon Gorge, the most
important being the three temples at the head of the canyon called
respectively the Lower, the Middle, and the Upper Yellow Dragon
Temples. In the upper temple is the Yellow Dragon God himself,
called Huang Long Tsen Ren, or Yellow Dragon True Man. He is
not a real dragon, but an old man with a long white beard, and with
bright yellow clothing resembling in color the yellow rock of the
stream bed. He is the chief god or ruler of the district. Outside the
temple and in front of it is a large stone altar where the aborigines
worship, using cedar twigs as incense. The Chinese do not use this
altar, but worship inside the temples.
The official who was overseeing the temples when I visited them in
1924 said that the first temple was built in the time of Tao Kuang,
who ruled China from 1821 to 1850. I was unable to get any informa-
tion about the origin of the worship of the Yellow Dragon God at
this place. The existence of the stone altar used only by the aborigines
suggests the question, did the aborigines first worship the Yellow
Dragon God here on an altar under a clear sky, and the Chinese come
later, build temples, and unite with the aborigines in the worship of
the Yellow Dragon God?
Now Chinese and aborigines alike worship at these temples. Streams
of pilgrims are constantly coming and going and there is a great
annual festival attended by thousands, and which lasts for three days.
The Yellow Dragon Gorge, with its temples, its sacred places, and its
deities, now holds as large a place in the religious life of the Songpan
district as Mt. Omei does in central Szechuan. It is a place of many
natural wonders that has become a holy of holies.
6. SACRED MOUNTAINS
From very early times the emperor of China has visited the four
great sacred mountains in the four districts, and on their summits
performed the official worship of heaven. Mountains have been
the natural elevations on which the cult of heaven was performed.
Mt. Omei is a sacred mountain in Szechuan that is famous among
both Chinese and foreigners. There are three smaller sacred moun-
tains, and possibly others. One is south of Suifu near the Yunnan
border. It is called Gien Feng Shan, or Sharp Wind Mountain. This
has long been a sacred place. It stands out higher than the surround-
ing mountains, and is pointed. Because it is higher than the neighbor-
ing peaks, it is apt to be windy. Hence its name, sharp or pointed
windy mountain. Formerly the Taoists were in possession, and had
6
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM
DOOR
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Fic. 9.—Small temple in the country near Suifu, Szechuan, China.
First the white stone was worshipped as a god. Later the temple
was built and other gods added.
62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
two temples. Now the Buddhists are in control. Pilgrims from the
surrounding townships go to this mountain to worship.
East of Suifu near Ngan Lin Ch’iao is Fuh Lai Shan, a Buddhist
sacred mountain. Its name means the mountain to which Buddha
came. A legend relates that one of the Buddhas in a temple on this
mountain flew there. Large numbers of pilgrims go to Fuh Lai Shan
from nearby districts. The mountain stands out conspicuously above
the surrounding hills, and its top is covered with trees.
Washan, possibly the highest mountain in central Szechuan, is also
a sacred mountain with many natural wonders. On every side is a
sheer precipice, with only one path over an unbelievably narrow
ridge by which one can ascend to the summit. Near the top one can
only proceed by climbing perpendicular cliffs by means of ladders.
This beautiful and majestic mountain stands out above its neighbors,
and has long been a sacred mountain. In former years three temples
were located on the top, but now there is only one, which is visited
by pilgrims from nearby towns and farms. Mt. Omei has over-
shadowed Washam as a sacred mountain.
Virgil C. Hart, in “* Western China,” says that Mt. Omet 1s a center
of natural wonders the like of which may not be found elsewhere on
the globe. On the Chinese map of Mt. Omei prepared for pilgrims
there are three short poems or verses expressing the profound feelings
and emotions that stir the hearts of the worshippers because of the
wonderful natural beauties of the mountain and its religious associa-
tions. Free translations are given below:
The land of the eastern dawn is near heaven.
At the parting of the clouds P’ushien is visible.
The picture revealed cannot be fully comprehended,
But many glorious peaks can be seen.
To here the Kuen Luen Range extends its veins.
A great marvel is this.
Heaven borrows the stars to display it,
And in all the seven layers (of the mountain) the caves open (to display
wonders).
P’ushien came out of the west.
The King of Han named this spread-light precipice.
Uen Gioh of the T’ang Dynasty was here exalted (to divine rank).
In the Manchu Dynasty there appeared here a living P’ushien.
May his majesty reveal himself on this mountain-top.
Ten thousand bright lights fly over the abyss to welcome him.
One of the earliest Iuropeans to travel in west China was I. Col-
borne Baber, whose article, Travels and Researches in the Interior of
NO. 4. RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 63
GREAT TREE
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Fic. 10—Diagram of the Ta O Si, or temple of the great goose, a Buddhist
temple on Mt. Omei.
64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
China, was published in the supplementary papers of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society in 1886. He vividly described his impressions of Mt.
Omei:
The plain begins to break up into hills a few miles below Mei-chou. Some
hours before reaching that point my attention had been attracted to a dim but
sharp-edged object rising high above the southwestern horizon, which I took
to be a cloud; but at last noticing that its profile did not change, I pointed it
out to a boatman, who replied with a certain contempt. ‘Don’t you know
Mt. Omei when you see it?” From the point where I first caught sight of it,
its distance was more than fifty miles. There must be something in the con-
ditions of its position which greatly exaggerates its size, for when it is seen
across the level country from the edge of which it rises, the mind at once refuses
to believe that any mountain can be so high. How it looks from a nearer point
of view I cannot affirm, for I have ascended it, travelled all round it, and
three times passed close under it, without ever seeing it again, as it was always
clothed in mist. Perhaps the mirage of the wide plain lends it an illusive
majesty which is enhanced by its remarkable outline. Its undulating ridge
gradually rises to the summit at the southern end, where, from its highest
knoll, it is suddenly cut sheer down to the level earth—or nearly so, for the
lower fourth part was hidden by clouds—forming a precipice, or, it may be,
a series of precipices, which it is disagreeable to think of.
Mt. Omei is visible on clear days from distant parts of the province.
Clear mountain streams, waterfalls, rugged limestone cliffs, forests
of evergreen trees, natural caves, and a precipice six thousand feet
high and almost pependicular make this mountain one of the most
beautiful in the world. Little wonder that it is sacred and is the
religious center of millions of people, a mecca to which pilgrims go
from all over China and from Tibet.
These illustrations are sufficient to show that in Szechuan there is
a tendency to erect temples and shrines in places whose natural
beauty or strangeness arouse feelings of awe and wonder; that such
places often become sacred, the seat of superhuman power ; and that
magnificent mountains which stand out prominently in the landscape
and possess exceptional beauty or marvellous scenery are apt to
become sacred.
IX. THE GODS IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE
The study of the gods in China is not a simple task. While some
are primarily Buddhist and others Taoist, many of them are found in
both Buddhist and Taoist Temples. Distinct, clearcut classifications
are nearly impossible. One god may have several functions. Amitabha
is a god of compassion who also protects from demons and gives
1 Baber, E. Colborne, Travels and Researches in the Interior of China,
Royal Geographical Society, Vol. 1, 1886, page 30.
n
GRAHAM 65
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE
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Fic. 11.—Diagram of the O Uin Ngan temple, Buddhist, on the summit of
Mt. Omei.
66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
happiness. Kuanyin is in Tibet a male god, and in China generally a
female known as the Goddess of Mercy. She can undergo almost
any transformation that will enable her to help men. Often she is
represented with a vial of magic water in her hands. The number
of her arms varies from two to one thousand. Sometimes she holds
a baby in her lap, and is called the Song Tsi Kuanyin, or the Goddess
of Mercy who gives sons. She may even transform herself into an
odd-looking demon-god who rescues the suffering souls in hades.
I. DIFFERENT REPRESENTATIONS OF THE GODS
A god may exist without any visible representation. Occasionally
the images have disappeared from the shrines, but often the worship
goes on just the same. T’ien Lao Yeh, or the Old One in Heaven, is
a well-known god, but there seem to be no images of him.
To the Chinese worshipper it seems desirable, if not necessary, to
visualize in some way the god who is worshipped. Sometimes this
is accomplished by merely inscribing the name of the deity on paper,
wood, or stone. The commonest housegod consists of a red scroll
of paper hung on the wall in the most prominent place, on which
are written in large characters T’ien, Di, Guin, Ch'in, Si, Wet,
or the throne of Heaven, Earth, Rulers, Relatives, and Scholars.
This really includes the enlarged family of superiors or elders to
whom one owes filial piety or gratitude. From heaven or the sky
come rain and sunshine, two things that are indispensable to liie
and happiness. Earth yields coal and other minerals, vegetables,
fruits, grasses, and trees. Guin really signifies the emperor and
his rulers so that it indicates the imperial government. There has
therefore been a tendency in some localities to substitute the word
kueh, or country, which is more in harmony with the new patriot-
ism. In general, however, the use of the word guin, has been
continued, giving it the meaning of rulers, those who are the par-
ents and protectors of the people. The word ch’in means relatives
or elders, and particularly one’s ancestors. Si signifies scholars or
teachers, most highly respected because of their learning and because
they are the educators of the young. This is one of the most difficult
gods for a Chinese to give up on becoming a Christian. It is wor-
shipped as a god, incense is burnt to it, and people pray and make
obeisance to it. Sometimes the name of a god is written on a board
and set up to be worshipped.
A further stage beyond this is the drawing, painting, or printing
of the image of the god. In wayside shrines round stones will some-
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 67
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Fic. 12.—Buddhist Ti-Tsang temple east of Suifu
between the villages Gi-Tien-Pa and Muh-Jia-Pin.
68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
times be seen on which a picture of the god has been painted. They
are recognized and treated as real gods. The pictures of the door
gods are printed or painted on paper and pasted on the outsides of
the doors. At Chengtu a number of gods are printed in bright colors
on paper and distributed or sold to the people at New Year time.
They are pasted up in the homes to help protect them. The image of
the Kitchen God, which is found in practically every kitchen, is gen-
erally printed on paper. On Mt. Omei there are three advertisements
of a prepared food that have been framed and are worshipped as
gods because they have on them excellent images of Buddha. They
were probably brought up from India or Burmah. A well-known
biscuit company also has an advertisement on Mt. Omei that has been
framed and is treated as a god.
The next step is the making of clay, wooden, stone, or metal images.
Some of these are only a few inches high, but others are gigantic
in size. The stone image of Buddha across the river from Kiating
is probably two hundred and fifty feet high. Many of these images
portray the characteristics that the god is supposed to possess. Some
are like fierce warriors, but others, like Kuanyin and Amitabha, are
more kindly in appearance.
Is the god really present in the image? Is the image to be regarded
as the deity himself? In Szechuan Province the answer is yes. When
the people or the priests pray to an idol they feel that they are
praying to a real god who can understand and help them. Beyond
this they do not think. They simply regard the image as the god
himself. The following explanation, given by a priest on Mt. Omei,
is of special interest. The god is only one and invisible, but in each
temple may be an image of the god. He is in space, but he is capable
of being anywhere, and when the people worship him in the presence
of the image, he is there, and becomes actually embodied in the
image, so that the image is the god. Probably the images were first
made for commemoration, but they have come to be regarded as the
gods themselves. The common people treat them as living and effica-
cious beings.’
*One day the writer was sitting on a sandbank beside the Min River.
He took a stick and drew in the sand a picture of the Goddess of Mercy. A
farmer boy came along and looked at the picture. He was told, “ This is Kuanyin
P’usah. You had better worship her.” He looked at the picture a moment,
and then worshipped it.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 69
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Fic. 13.—Diagram of the main floor of the Shih-Wa-Tien, or pewter tile temple,
on the summit of Mt. Omei, Szechuan Province, China.
70 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
To the common people of Szechuan Province the presence of the
image of a deity suggests the actual presence of the deity who is
imaged.”
2. THE LIST OF GODS
This enumeration, which can be only a partial one, will begin with
those which are distinctly Taoist or Buddhist. U Huang Shang Ti,
the Pearly Emperor, and Lao Tsi or Li Lao Guin, the reputed founder
of Taoism, are primarily Taoist gods, although both are sometimes
found in Buddhist temples. Kuanyin P’usah, while she was brought
into China and is widely used by the Buddhists, is now as commonly
seen in Taoist as in Buddhist temples. The Buddhists have a medicine
god, Yoh Si Fuh, while the Taoists have one called Yoh Wang or
Medicine King. Both are miraculous healers, and are probably the
same god with different names. Amitabha, Sakyamuni, Wei To
and Jia Lan, the two protectors of Buddhist temples, Mi Leh Fuh,
the Buddhist messiah, the eighteen Lohans or Arhats, and many
others are seen only in Buddhist temples. With many of the gods,
however, it is impossible to say whether they are primarily Buddhist
or Taoist, for they are found in the temples of both religions.
Some of the gods are highly specialized ; that is, they have only one
or two duties to perform for the worshipper or for society. The
buffalo god cares for the water-buffalo, which is the principal animal
used in farming. There is a horse god who cares for horses, a sheep
god, and a medicine god. The Kuh Wang, or grain god, causes the
rice to grow abundantly. The Song Tsi Niang Niang is a goddess who
*In a Doctor’s thesis, The Origin and Development of T’ien and Shangti,
Mr. Kuen Ih Tai states that the Miao and the kindred tribes of aborigines in
China are ghost or demon-worshippers (p. 92). The writer has had several
years of contact with the Chuan Miao and some with Hua Miao. The evidence
is that the Miao, like the Chinese, fear demons as the source of diseases and
calamities, and that they exorcise them, but do not worship them. The following
lines from Among the Tribes in Southwest China, by Samuel R. Clarke, are
illuminating.—
At first we were inclined to think that the Miao worshipped demons, but
when again and again they denied this, and seemed unfeignedly amused
at the idea of worshipping demons, we concluded that we were mistaken.
The performances they go through, which seem to us like religious rites,
are done to drive away or keep away the demons, and to counteract their
evil influences. If a man is ill, or his cattle sick, if he has had bad luck, or
any misfortune befalls him, he attributes this to demons; and a wizard
or exorcist is summoned. (Pp. 67-60.)
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 71
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Fic. 14.—Diagram of the Buddhist temple Lui Tong Pcin, or thunder cave
flat, Mt. Omei, Szechuan, China. Thunder, which echoes loudly from the sides
of the mountain, is thought to emanate from a nearby cave, hence the name of
the temple.
72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
does nothing else but give sons. The Deo Ma Niang Niang heals mea-
sles and smallpox. The Tsua Sen Niang Niang aids in securing a quick
and safe delivery at childbirth.
' A few gods are found in almost every home. One has already
been described—the red scroll that is hung up in the central and most
important place in the main room. Merchants sometimes substitute
for this the god of wealth, who is also represented by appropriate
characters on a scroll of red paper. There are also two door gods.
The main entrance of a Chinese home generally has double doors which
open inward, and one god is pasted or painted on each door. They
are guards of the home to keep demons from entering. Every home
also has a Kitchen God. He is painted or printed on paper and pasted
up near the kitchen stove where he supervises the household economy,
preventing extravagance. The classic to the Kitchen God also indicates
that he looks after the moral conduct of the inmates of the home.
His position in the kitchen would make it very convenient for him to
do so. On the twenty-third day of the twelfth moon he ascends to
heaven and reports the conduct of the household to the Pearly Em-
peror. He returns and is formally welcomed and his image pasted
up on New Year’s Eve. The classic of the kitchen goa, while in
many respects similar to that of the bloody basin, has a higher moral
tone, and more nearly represents the moral and religious ideals of
the Chinese people.
There are five gods that are often found in shrines, or unprotected
from the weather, at intervals along the roadsides to protect the
travelers from the demons that might do harm. One is the Goddess
of Mercy who is apt to be found anywhere that people are in need
of her help. The second is called T’ai Shan Shih Kan Dang, or the
T’ai Shan stone that dares. It is generally made of stone, and the
inscription is meant to imply that the stone is from the sacred Mount
T’ai Shan, and therefore surcharged with power. The image of a
fierce being having four tusks and holding a dagger in his mouth is
carved on the top of the stone. He is made terrible in appearance
so as to inspire fear in the hearts of the demons. A third deity is Lin
Kuan, or Deo K’eo Kong, the prince whose mouth is like a peck-
measure. He wields a club, and in his fierce wrath opens his mouth
so wide that it resembles a peck-measure. He is primarily a demon-
chaser. Under one of these images the writer saw an inscription
which means. “ When he points with his finger the demons depart.
At a glance of his eye all diseases are healed.” A fourth wayside god
is the Tu Di P’usah or the local god of earth. He is a minor official
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 73
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Fic. 15.—Diagram of the Buddhist temple on Mt. Omei called Wan Fuh
Din, or peak of 10,000 Buddhas. The temple is supposed to contain 10,000
Buddhas.
74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vot. 80
who controls a limited territory. His spouse is generally with him.
The inscription most commonly seen on his shrine is
Bao ih fang ch’in Gih,
Yu si giai ping an.
This means. “ He guarantees that it is lucky all about, and protects
the peace in all directions.” Finally, there is Amitabha, or Omeitofuh,
as he is called in Szechuan. He is a kindly, loving savior of men who
in his compassion will help them whenever they call on his name.
His earlobes are long, indicating Indian influence. Omitofuh and
T’ai Shan Shih Kan Dang often have no shrines, but stand exposed
to the weather. In Szechuan Province philosophical Buddhism has
practically no place. The Buddhism of Amitabha, who rules the
western heavens which is a paradise for the souls of the dead, is the
Buddhism that has won the hearts of the people. As the Tibetans
repeat over and over “ Om-mani padme-hum,” so the most devout
Buddhists repeat as they tell out the beads of the rosaries, “ Lan
u Omitofuh.” On Mt. Omei the pilgrims greet each other with
“QOmitofuh.” In the numerous places by the wayside Amitabha
stands ever ready to help the traveler who is in need.
Some of the gods are apparently nature deities. All of them are
propitious if reverenced and worshipped. Some have very definite
functions. The Sun God and the Moon Goddess have doubtless come
down from antiquity. There is a water god who controls rain, and
a mountain god who controls mountains. There are idols representing
the seven stars of the, dipper, heaven, and earth. The Fire God
prevents disastrous fires. There is a lightning goddess who carries
a looking-glass, the thunderer who carries a hammer and chisel and
whose nose and mouth hook downwards like a semi-human creature,
and the Lord of Thunder, who controls the lightning goddess and
the thunderer. There are also the Earth Prince and the Earth Mother,
and many others. On Mt. Omei, in the temple of Gieu Lao Dong, are
two gods called Sunlight and Moonlight.
A large number of the gods are deified heroes. Among these are
the God of War who was a famous warrior in Szechuan; Ch’uan
Chu, the Lord of Szechuan, who is given the credit for the develop-
ment of the great irrigation system on the Chengtu plain; Wang E.
P’usah, the god of boatmen, and Lu Ban, the god of carpenters. A
very interesting trio are Fuh Shi, Shen Long, and Shuen Uen Shang
Ti, who are always found together. The first two wear leaves instead
of clothes. They are legendary heroes who lived before the Chinese
learned to make and to wear clothing. Shuen Uen Shang Ti, who is
NO.
4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 75
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Min River at Suifu, Szechuan Province, China.
76 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vot. 80
very well dressed, is reputed to have taught the Chinese how to make
and to wear clothing.
At the gateway of the Ta O Si temple on Mt. Omei is an idol
which is the image of a man who is still living—at least, he was in
the summer of 1925. He is an old man who is deeply devoted to
Buddhism, and who has given much money to the Ta O Si temple
He was therefore deified while he was still alive. The writer has heard
of a similar case in Yachow.
The mummified priest is a peculiar form of a deified hero. The Wan
Fuh Din temple and the Ch’ien Fuh Temple on Mt. Omei each have
one of these. They were priests who in their respective temples went
into seclusion until they died, when they were mummified and wor-
shipped as gods. Another god who is said to be a mummified priest
is across the river from Kiating near the Great Buddha. Still another
is the principal deity of the T’ai Tsi Miao, a temple near the summit
of Mt. Omei. It is claimed that the last one is the mummified son of
an emperor. He helps the worshippers secure the birth of sons.
In Tibet there is another form of the deified man, the Hoh Fuh or
Living Buddha. He is thought to be a reincarnation of a god. Tradi-
tion says that there was once such a reincarnation of P’ushien on
Mt. Omei. That is what is meant by the sentence quoted on a pre-
vious page. “In the Manchu Dynasty there appeared here a Living
P’ushien.”
Not a few of the gods in the Buddhist and Taoist temples are great
religious leaders who in the past have rendered distinguished service
to their religious organizations, and who consequently have been
deified.
Every occupation has its patron deity. Scholars worship Uen
Ts’ang P’usah, the God of Learning, expecting that he will assist
them in acquiring knowledge. Merchants worship the God of Wealth
who helps them secure financial prosperity. Lu Ban is the God of
Carpenters. Rice planters worship Kuh Wang. There is a God of
Brewers. No boatmen will begin a journey without first worshipping
Wang E. Physicians and owners of medicine shops worship Ioh
Wang, the God of Medicine. There are gods of butchers and of cooks.
At Li Chuang there is a god of the coolies who carry water, and one
for people who gather leaves and twigs for fuel on the river banks,
on the hillsides, or in the forests. In a temple at Ngan Lin Ch’iao
there are two idols who are worshipped by thieves, and who assist
them in their undertakings. They themselves are said to be experts
at stealing.
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM Wed.
Near Suifu on the Yangtse River is a small temple known as the
White Stone Temple. Originally there was only a large, white stone,
taller and whiter than the others. People began to worship it, and
ascribed to it the power of healing. Later a temple was built around it,
and a few common idols were added. The stone is still worshipped,
and for a few cash one can purchase a tiny bit of the rock, which will
cause him to recover from illness if he will grind it to sand, soak it
in water, and drink the water. Probably the process began with the
natural sense of awe aroused because of the size and whiteness of the
stone. This stone is not worshipped because a deity has taken up
his abode in it, but because the stone itself is thought to be a god with
beneficent power that is more than human.
Near the town of Shuin Gien Si, south of Suifu, there formerly
lived a man who ran an oil factory. He had some large, fine bulls to
run the stone rollers. He prospered, and the value of his bulls in-
creased. Finally he burned incense to his largest bull and worshipped
it as a god. His action was, in his own mind and those of his Chinese
friends, the natural result of his growing sense of gratitude, wonder,
admiration, and awe towards the bulls that contributed so much to
his prosperity. I have heard Chinese make a similar explanation of
the development of the worship of the Sun God, the Moon Goddess,
the Fire God, the Thunder God, and of other deities.
At Suifu, two old cypress trees are worshipped as divinities. It is
not that gods dwell in them, but that the trees themselves are gods.
They are said to have been planted in the Ming Dynasty, or possibly
earlier. It is asserted that they once made a pilgrimage to Mt. Omei
Two men giving their names as Beh, or White, worshipped at the
different shrines and temples on the great sacred mountain, and
promised contributions. They said that they were brothers from
Suifu. Later a priest came to Suifu to collect the money. He could
not find any brothers named Beh, but when he heard of the two
cypress trees, beh sou, he knew at once that the two pilgrims were the
two cypress trees. I have been told by aged priests who were experts
in such traditions that very old trees, especially cypress trees, are
able, after many years, to develop into tree-deities. There is a tendency
in some localities to burn incense to aged trees or to the stumps of
these trees. This is especially noticeable on Mt. Omei, on Washan,
and at the Yellow Dragon Gorge.
Near Kiang K’eo is a large banyon tree that is worshipped because
a spirit or ghost has taken its abode in the tree. The people began
to worship it about 1917. It is called a Huang Geh Giang Guin,
or “ General Banyon.”’ Its leaves are used to heal all kinds of diseases.
78 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
Incense is burnt to it. [i one’s feet ate sore, he can ‘get, well by
hanging a pair of straw sandals on the tree.
In the region between Kiating and Chengtu turnips often grow
to a very large size. The Chinese say that they sometimes weigh from
twenty-five to a hundred pounds, requiring two men to carry them.
When such a turnip is found, it is called a Turnip King, and is re-
garded as a god of turnips. It is placed on a table or on a platform,
divine honors are paid to it, and a company of actors are engaged to
give theatricals in its honor. Then there is a great feast to which the
neighborhood is invited. As a result of thus honoring the Turnip
King, it is thought that turnips will prosper in that locality. But the.
high cost of living may destroy this custom. All the expenses are
borne by the farmer on whose land the Turnip King develops. Prices
are rising, so that the farmers feel that they cannot afford to pay the
expenses of the ceremonies and of the feast. Therefore, when a turnip
develops beyond a certain size, the farmers are apt to pull it up and
sell it or throw it into a ditch.
At Ngan Lin Ch’iao, near Suifu, there is an idol called a Yinyang
P’usah, which is half male and half female. It represents the impor-
tant yin and yang forces, the male and female principles in nature.
The left side is male, the right side is female. The left eye and ear
and the left side of the mouth are large, and the right small, so that the
face has a lopsided appearance. The left foot is natural, and the right
foot bound. The left side is dressed like a man, and the right side
like a woman. On the whole, this is one of the queerest deities that the
writer has seen.
One god that is worshipped in Szechuan is called the T’an Shen
Den Den. It is really a foundation-stone such as is used under the
wooden pillars of houses and temples. The climate is very damp,
especially in the summer, and wood decays easily. It is therefore
customary to put foundation-stones under the wooden pillars to keep
them from rotting and to protect them from the ravages of white ants.
For some reason these are occasionally worshipped as deities, set in
places of honor, and regarded as very efficacious. Wealthy people
spend much money in their worship, and in return it is thought that
they will cause one’s family to prosper. However, the poor people
believe that they have bad tempers, and that if worshipped too
economically they will become spiteful and do injury in the homes
where they are kept. Some poor families that cannot afford to worship
with elaborate ceremonies simply throw the idols away, but the ma-
jority carry them to a temple where priests and pilgrims can accord the
worship that their majesties demand. Foundation-stones hold up tre-
NO. . 4. RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 79
mendous weights, and seem to exhibit a peculiar power to preserve
the wooden pillars from decay and from the attack of white ants.
It is not strange, therefore, that the untutored have marvelled at the
qualities displayed, and have come to treat the foundation-stones as
beings with superhuman power.’
The gods of Szechuan present a wonderful variety in form and
character. They vary from the invisible T’ien Lao Yeh to written
characters representing the gods, pictures painted or pasted on wood
or paper and images of all kinds in the homes and in the temples.
They are thought to have marvellous intelligence and superhuman
power which they use to help the faithful against demons and in their
struggle for a full and satisfying life. The practical nature of the
religion of Szechuan is shown by the fact that every occupation has
a patron deity and every god has some task or tasks that are beneficial
to men. In Szechuan Province the gods are means or agencies for
securing the satisfactions of men’s fundamental needs, his helpers in
the quest for a happy, safe, and satisfying life.
xX. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
In the study of the popular religion in Szechuan Province, the mana
concept, that of a strange and mysterious potency permeating all
striking, powerful, strange, and mysterious things is a primary key
for the understanding and interpreting of that religion. In the popular
reaction this mysterious potency is connected with an emotional re-
sponse to the unknown, danger-filled or helpful environment. When
men philosophize about it, it is differentiated into the yin and the yang,
which are included in the fai gih or great extreme.
Demons also play a large part in the lives of the people of Szechuan.
They are disgruntled spirits of the dead who must be appeased and
exorcised. They are the causes of all diseases and all other calami-
ties. Many of the gods and most of the charms are to furnish pro-
tection from demons.
* There is evidence that in earlier Chinese history it was customary for the
Chinese to bury human beings or animals under foundation-stones. In some
countries such practices have given an awed attitude and a sense of holiness
to the corner-stone. In some old Chinese legends kuei are associated with
foundations. This may have given the T’an Shen Den Den its spiteful and
dangerous character. In Szechuan the foundation-stone is sometimes wor-
shipped as a god, but the writer has so far been unable to trace any connection
between the old custom of burying people under foundations and the present
worship of foundation-stones as deities. Not all foundation-stones are wor-
shipped, but some are.
80 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
The element of luck, which is greater in primitive life, does much
to maintain if not to create the belief in a mysterious potency, lucky
days, and various customs generally classed together as superstitions.
One day everything goes well: game is killed, and all have plenty. At
other times the boats get wrecked, no game is found, people become ill,
and all goes wrong. To the more primitive mind, unable to give scien-
tific explanations, and lacking scientific methods and means of con-
trolling nature about him, the things that we have been describing
seem perfectly natural.
The emotions of awe and wonder, and the emotional thrill, allied
to the mana reaction, are elements that are exceedingly important, and
which lie near the heart of the primitive religions. The organized
religions of Szechuan, perhaps more or less unconsciously, have
become past-masters in arousing these emotions. In large temples,
located on hills that are seen far and wide or on spots noted for the
wonders of their natural phenomena, great deities, wearing the cloth-
ing of temporal rulers and often wearing crowns and covered with
gold-leaf, priests with beautiful official robes and masters of the rites,
incantations, and ceremonies, and great festivals that are the crowning
religious and social events of the year—all these arouse wonder,
admiration, and awe, and result in the loyalty of the common people
to their religious organizations.
The social customs, ideals, and conceptions are clearly reflected in
those of religion. The attitudes, customs, and practices that have to
do with priests and gods are duplications of those of the Manchu
Dynasty. The customs of this world are carried over into the world
of the departed spirits, so much so that the souls of the dead must be
given food and money. China is now being swept from end to end
by democratic ideals, so that anything that even smacks of monarchy
is taboo, but there has so far been almost no effect on religious ideals,
rites, and ceremonies.
Under Tsang Tao Lin and other leaders Taoism, many centuries
ago, gained the adherence of the masses in China by identifying itself
with the popular religion that has come down among the lower classes
of the Chinese from ancient times. Buddhism came to China from
India, a high, philosophical religion, but for centuries was unable to
win the masses until it, like Taoism, identified itself with the religion
of the common people. Today it is a rival of Taoism as a popular
religion of Szechuan. The Chinese love life in this world, and nirvana
has no appeal to them, but the religion of Amitabha, the merciful ruler
of western heaven, with Kuanyin, the merciful goddess, has won
the hearts of the people. Many of the indigenous gods of China are
NO. 4 RELIGION IN SZECHUAN PROVINCE—GRAHAM 81
found both in the Buddhist and in the Taoist temples. There has
been a great deal of mutual borrowing. Even the Pearly Emperor is -
found in the Buddhist temples, and in Taoist temples can be found
pictures or images representing the transmigration of souls, a con-
ception which the Buddhists brought with them from India, and
scenes representing the judgments and punishments of hades, which
were originally Buddhist.
Religion in Szechuan is exceedingly practical. Every phase of it,
every rite and ceremony, every god or temple, has to do with the satis-
fying of some human need that is felt to be important. They are the
techniques that have been worked out and used during the past
centuries by the masses of untutored people as a means of securing
satisfaction of the primary needs of man—food, sex, protection from
enemies, from the forces of nature, and from disease, and play. To
these people in their environment, such techniques have seemed and
still seem most natural and reasonable. They are facing many diffi-
culties and perplexities, but they are as capable as any other race of
people on earth, and the writer ventures to hope and to believe that
in the centuries to come they will make educational, social, moral,
and religious contributions that will enrich the civilization of the
whole world.
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SNOILO31109 SNOANVIISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 4, PL. 7
1. A large white stone near Suifu that is worshipped as a god. The idea is not that a
deity or a spirit has taken up its abode in the rock, but that the stone is a god. A
temple has been built around the stone, and other idols have been added.
ae?
es
we. *
2. Part of a great retreating army trying to cross the Min River at Kien Wei, Szechuan,
China, in 1925.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOES 60; NO. 4), PE-"s
¥.
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1. A poor widow and her son carrying coal at Nan Kuang, near Suifu, Szechuan
Province, China
2. Chinese dragon boat at the annual dragon-boat festival. A dragon’s head is on the
front of the boat. These boats pursue and capture ducks that have been released
by the spectators.
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SNOILOA1100 SNOANVIISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 4, PL. 10
1. A grave at Suifu, Szechuan, China, erected by a student for his deceased grandmother.
A house and lot were sold to pay the cost of this tomb.
2, A view of Washan or Tile Mountain, a sacred mountain in Szechuan Province.
The top of the mountain is flat, and on every side is a sheer precipice several thousand
feet high. The only path leading up the mountain is over the narrow ledge on the right.
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 4, PL. 16
1. View of Mt. Omei from Shin Kai Si. Mt. Omei is one of the four great sacred
mountains of China and has many Buddhist temples and monasteries. There is a sheer
precipice of 6,000 feet from the ‘‘ Golden Summit.”
2. The most sacred shrine on Mt. Omei, that of P’ushien, the patron deity of this
mountain. P’ushien’s image is back of the glass windows and is invisible.
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SNOILO31100 SNOANVITISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE. 805 ,NO. 4, FEDS
1. A view of Tatsienlu from the compound of the China Inland Mission. The Catholic
cathedral can be seen in the foreground.
2. One of the greatest of living Tibetans, a “‘ living Buddha,’ who is worshipped as a
god. He is the head of one*of the three great religious sects in Tibet, and is thought to
be the ninth reincarnation of the chief disciple of the founder of lamaism in Tibet.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 4, PL. 19
1. .\ Tibetan lama performing a religious dance. Beyond the lama a large trumpet
15 feet long may be seen.
2. A great bridge made of large bamboo ropes or cables at Kuanshien, Szechuan, China.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 4, PL. 20
1. Aborigine stone buildings at Kuan Tsae, or Ts’ao P’o, near Wenchuanshien, Szechuan,
China. The building in the foreground has been used as a magistrate’s yamen, a
lamasery or temple, and a fortress.
2. Shifan aborigine pilgrims at the Yellow Dragon Gorge, near Songpan, Szechuan
Province, China.
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Zo “Id ‘b “ON ‘08 “10A SNOIL931109 SNOANVIISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 4, PL. 23
1. Four Wasi aborigine hunters from Kuan Tsae, near Wenchuanshien, Szechuan, China.
2. Aborigine women of the Ch’iang tribe, at Wenchuanshien, near Mowchow, Szechuan,
China.
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ve “Id “¢ ‘ON 08 “10A SNOILOA11090 SNOANVIISOSINW NVINOSHLIWS
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOES SOMINO = 4, IPES25
1. Natural terraces in the Yellow Dragon Gorge made by the deposit of mineral
substances in the water. There are hundreds of these terraces, which are very
beautiful,
2. The Smithsonian collecting expedition leaving the Yellow Dragon Gorge for Songpan
in 1924. On the extreme left is Yang Fong ‘Isang, a Chuan Miao aborigine hunter.
Near the center is D. C. Graham. Other members of the party are an escort of six
soldiers, one netter, two taxidermists, and coolies who have charge of the pack animals
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 80, NUMBER 5
DRAWINGS BY A. DEBATZ IN LOUISIANA,
1732-1739
(WiTH SrIx PLATEs)
BY
DAVID I. BUSHNELL, JR.
(PUBLICATION 2925)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
DECEMBER 1, 1927
The Lord Waltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.
DRAWINGS, BY A. DEBATZ, UN E@UNSIANA, 1732-1735
By DAVID I. BUSHNELL, JR.
(WitH Srx PLaTEs)
A. DeBatz, by whom the drawings were made, appears to have been
an architect or engineer and he may have been connected with the
military forces of France then stationed in Louisiana. The time of
his arrival in Louisiana is not known, nor has it been ascertained
when, if ever, he returned to France. But a document recently dis-
covered in New Orleans may reveal the location of his earlier home,
before he came to America. This is a marriage contract, dated New
Orleans, October 27, 1736. It is written in French but the first part,
translated, reads: “‘ There were present in their own persons sieur
Adrien de Bat called Ricard a master mason of New Orleans, son of
Sieur Alexander de Bat and Jeanne Ricarde the wife and mother,
Native of Montaterre in Picardy, diocese of Beauvaise, party of the
npstspatt. 2. 2 — (Numbered 6100;,)
Alexander de Bat, the father, mentioned in the contract, is believed
to have been the author of the sketches. The spelling of the name
differs but that is of little importance. Consequently it may be
assumed he migrated from Montaterre in Picardy to Louisiana, and
that he arrived soon after the settlement of New Orleans. Dates and
legends attached to drawings and documents make it possible to trace
his movements during a brief period. Thus he was at the Acolapissa
village, on the Mississippi above New Orleans, April 15, 1732; in the
Natchez country May 13, 1732; in New Orleans June 22 and July 29,
1732; in New Orleans January 24 and April 30, 1735; in Mobile
Septembers7, 1737-
In addition to the drawings belonging to this collection, five docu-
ments bearing the signature of DeBatz are known. These are:
Plan of a church in New Orleans. Original drawing is now in the
National Archives, Paris. Dated New Orleans, July 29, 1732.
Petition to sell a piece of land in New Orleans. Original now in
the Louisiana State Museum, New Orleans. Dated New Orleans,
January 24, 1735. (Numbered 5202.)
Marriage contract witnessed by DeBatz. Original now in the
Louisiana State Museum, New Orleans. Dated New Orleans, April
30, 1735. (Numbered 5294.)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VoL. 80, No. 5
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
Two maps, redrawn by DeBatz from sketches by Indians, were
reproduced in Journal de la Société des Ameéricanistes de Paris,
Nouvelle Serie, Tome XIII, Fasc. 1. Paris, 1921. The two drawings
by DeBatz are now in the National Archives, Paris. Dated Mobile,
September 7; 1737.
His name has not been discovered in any of the numerous manu-
scripts relating to the troubles with the Natchez, Chickasaw, or other
tribes with whom the French came in contact during the years men-
tioned. The few drawings known to exist prove him to have been a
careful observer and to have been interested in the manners and cus-
toms of the Indians. His sketches are crude but graphic. The draw-
ings now reproduced for the first time are the earliest known to have
been made in Lower Louisiana, and they are likewise believed to be
the oldest pictures existing of members of the Acolapissa, Atakapa,
Choctaw, Fox, Illinois, and Tunica tribes.
The paper has turned yellow with age but the colors remain clear
and bright, and many details are shown with great exactness, some
of which, unfortunately, are lost in the photographs.
The work of DeBatz in the lower Mississippi Valley compares with
that of Jacques Lemoyne de Morgues in Florida, and of John White
in Virginia, during the latter part of the 16th century. And although
the drawings were made by DeBatz at a much later day, the natives
with whom he came in contact were no less primitive in their manners
and ways of life; consequently the three groups of pictures are of
equal interest and importance. The six pictures now reproduced are
in the private collection of the author.
eve fer Pub lame bets, ore Ga2—
pL SAE FOOL
49 dye po Bite We 1926, oe
Petition (5202) dated Jan. 24, 1735. Signed DeBatz.
NO. 5 DRAWINGS BY A. DEBATZ IN LOUISIANA—BUSHNELL 3
1
TEMPLE, AND CABIN OF THE CHIEF. ACOLAPISSA. 1732
Two centuries and more ago, when the French entered Lower
Louisiana, many tribes occupied the region near or bordering the
Mississippi. The scattered native villages differed in size and im-
portance but may not have varied greatly in general appearance. One
custom was followed in common for as DuPratz then wrote: “All
the people of Louisiana have temples, which are more or less well
cared for according to the ability of the nation.” Some were quite
simple in form and resembled the habitations in the nearby or sur-
rounding villages, others were more elaborate and of greater size, and
such was the temple which stood in the village of the Acolapissa
during the spring of 1732. This settlement was probably a short
distance up the Mississippi from the site of the earlier village of the
same tribe which was visited by Charlevoix just 10 years before when
he described it as ‘“‘ the finest in all Louisiana.” Three carved and
painted figures of birds, probably quite similar to those so clearly
shown in the sketch of the Acolapissa temple, are mentioned as having
surmounted like structures which had formerly stood in the villages
of the Taensa and Natchez. These and other temples in Lower
Louisiana served as burial places for the chiefs of the tribes.
The cabin of the Acolapissa chief, as given in the sketch, was
probably a typical habitation of the region and time, but among some
tribes rectangular cabins were also erected.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
Temple of the Savages, constructed of posts in the ground, covered with mats
of cane, and roofed with same, ending in three [stakes] of Wood, 35 feet long,
18 inches [wide] and 4 inches thick, crudely colored and [sculptured]. The 3
pyramids [are of] reedwork trimmed with pointed canes [to] prevent one
climbing to the 3 figures, the body and tail of which represent turkeys and the
head that of the eagle, which seemed to us the most like it.
Cabin of the Chief, of posts in the ground plastered with clay or earth mortar,
also covered with mats.
n* The temple is 22 feet long and 14 feet wide; it serves as the sepulcher for the
chiefs of the nation.
All the Cabins of the savages are of similar construction, all being round, this
one is 18 feet in diameter.
Surveyed and sketched at the Village of the Acolapissa the fifteenth of
April of the present year. Redrawn at New Orleans the twenty-second of June
1732. DeBatz.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS WP [ks £300), INO pq Lees. 1
TeMPLE des itl constuit dé Poteaux en_
terre, revettt dess AS. eSas Nate de.came, ey
Couvert de méme; ¥
de. Bois, de 3: pied
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Size 122 by 9 inches
NO. 5 DRAWINGS BY A. DEBATZ IN LOUISIANA—BUSHNELL 5
?
BUFFALO TAMER, CHIEF OF THE TUNICA. 1732
The spring of 1731 found the Natchez scattered and wandering
as a result of the destruction of their villages during the wars of the
preceding years. Soon they appealed to the French for a pardon, and
asked that they might settle near the Tunica; permission was granted
them to erect a village not less than two leagues from that of the
Tunica, but they were to come unarmed. Later a large number of
Natchez arrived at the Tunica village where they were received and
given food, and Charlevoix related how the Tunica and their new
guests “ danced till after midnight, after which the Tonica retired to
their cabins, thinking that of course the Natchez would also go to
rest. But soon after—that is to say, one hour before day, for it was
the 14th day of June [1731]—the Natchez ... . fell upon all the
cabins and slaughtered all whom they surprised asleep. The head chief
ran up at the noise and first killed four Natchez; but, overborne by
numbers, he was slain with some twelve of his warriors. His war
chief, undismayed by this loss or the flight of most of his braves,
rallied a dozen, with whom he regained the head chief’s cabin; he
even succeeded in recalling the rest, and after fighting for five days
and nights almost without intermission remained master of his vil-
lage.’ The name of the Tunica chief killed in this encounter and
whose wife and child escaped was Cahura-Joligo, and evidently Bride-
les Boeuf, or Buffalo Tamer, was his successor. Buffalo Tamer may
have been the war chief mentioned by Charlevoix.
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
Savage adorned as a Warrior, having taken three scalps, that is to say having
killed three Natchez men. A. Buffalo Tamer Chief of the Tunica, he takes
the place of his predecessor whom the Natchez killed in the month of June
last. B. Woman chief widow of the defunct. /. Jacob son of the defunct.
H. Scalps ornamenting the staff likewise drawn from nature on the spot.
Redrawn at New Orleans the 22 June 1732. DeBatz.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE; 80; NO: 5; PL. 2
‘ = f ; ’
SAUVAGE matachez en Guerrter, ayant fait trois Chevelw
@est 2 dire ayant tuez rrois Hommes Natchez.
\ Brida tlesBeufs Chef des Thonicas, il vem ply ta place des
Son predecesseur q ueles natchez Tu poo aw mots de qture
%. de Funt a Tac v> fils
fe baton
dernien 2 Femme chef Veufue du-
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Es |
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desinez apres nature Suv fff ~ Cex, |
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Redigaz ala n& orleans te 22.
ora
Size 122 by 93 inches
NO. 5 DRAWINGS BY A. DEBATZ IN LOUISIANA—BUSHNELL 7
3
TREE NEAR SITE OF THE NATCHEZ TEMPLE. 1732
This tree, considered a great rarity by the French and evidently
regarded with awe by the Natchez who “held it in great veneration,”
is believed to have been an Osage orange, Toxylon pomiferum.
The tree probably stood near the temple and not far from the
Village of Valleur, therefore in the immediate vicinity of the severe
fighting between the French and Natchez during the latter part of
February, 1730. The French were intrenched near or surrounding
the temple while the Natchez held the village, having constructed
what the French termed Fort de la Valeur. The great Natchez temple
was destroyed at that time, on or about February 23, 1730.
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
Unknown Tree. This Tree is now standing among the Natchez. The Savages
preserved it and held it in great Veneration, taking from it some branches or
twigs to cast into the Sacred fire which they maintained perpetually in their
Temple which was built near the said Tree. The French burned and destroyed
this Temple in February 1730. According to the report of the most ancient
of this Colony this Tree is the unique and only one in this Province. A. Branch
covered with these Leaves of the natural size and Color. B. Flower of pale
White color. C. The starting point of the leaf, a scar remains when the leat
falls, which forms a Bud and it may be seen how many leaves it produced.
The Tree is always Green.
Sketched from nature at the village of Valleur the 13 of May later Redrawn
at New Orleans the 22 June 1732. DeBatz.
25 feet high.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOEW SO MNOS or Plas
ABBRE inconas Cet Arbre est actuefllement Sur pied aux natchez,
Les Sauvages le Conservoient et fe tenoient en Grande Veneration, en prenoien
q celque Branches ou Rameawx, pour mettre dans le feu Sacré:, quils ent
-tenoient perpetuelement dans leur Temple. qui éroit Construit prochs ledia
Arbre, Ces Francois gh ates detruirent ce oe en Pats Suiun
Wiler sx
o~ Juan
SE ile ke: qui Farge ‘5 i Gate prea 2 areal
ee WWouton et mee ‘ a we 5 lean Yi
‘ combien ila pence Fou ie
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J ty-may #ernicr eee Ce : n“oleans &ask m 1732
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Size 128 by 9} inches
NO. 5 DRAWINGS BY A. DEBATZ IN LOUISIANA—BUSHNELL 9
4
ILLINOIS, FOX, AND ATAKAPA. 1735
During the year 1735 the French took many Illinois Indians to
Lower Louisiana, probably to New Orleans, to assist in the war
against the Chickasaw. From the interesting drawing made at that
time it is evident that not only warriors but women and children made
the long journey down the Mississippi. In the sketch the chief, on
the extreme left, is shown with his right hand resting on the head of
a Whooping Crane, Grus americana, which may indicate that the
bird had been domesticated. This would agree with a statement by
Lawson, who, when referring to the Congaree of North Carolina,
wrote: ‘they take storks and cranes before they can fly and breed
them as tame and familiar as dung-hill fowls.”
The Fox woman was evidently a captive taken by the Illinois in
their then recent war with that tribe.
The Atakapa is represented holding a calumet in his right hand
and a small pipe in the left, with a quiver filled with arrows on his
back, but no bow.
The sketch was probably intended to represent the bank of the
Mississippi, and at the bottom appears the words: “ Balbahachas.
Missysipy ou fleuve St. Louis.” DuPratz described the Mississippi
and mentioned the various names by which it was then known, and
continued: ‘“ Other /ndians, especially those lower down the river,
call it Balbancha; and at last the French have given it the name of
Si Louis.”
ie)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
Drawing of Savages of Several Nations, New Orleans. 1735
Balbahachas. Mississippi or River St. Louis.
VOL.
So
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NO. 5 DRAWINGS BY A. DEBATZ IN LOUISIANA—BUSHNELL II
5
CHOCTAW WARRIORS, NATCHEZ CHIEF
The massacre of the French by the Natchez occurred late in the
year 1729. A large number of Choctaw warriors soon joined the
remaining French and late in January, 1730, Le Sueur reached the
scene of devastation accompanied by a force of many hundred Choc-
taw. The warriors sketched by DeBatz may have been some of that
wild group.
Two young children are shown playing a game.
The seated figure, on the right, evidently represents a Natchez chief,
wearing a crown of feathers as described by DuPratz. Early in the
spring of 1725 the great Natchez chief Stung Serpent died at the
principal Natchez village. When prepared for burial the body was
viewed by French officers. DuPratz then wrote: ‘we found him
on his bed of state, dressed in his finest cloaths, his face painted with
vermilion, shod as if for a journey, with his feather-crown on his
head.” And when describing the dress of the Natchez he again
mentioned the feather-crown in these words: “ The chief ornament
of the sovereigns is their crown of feathers ; this crown is composed
of a black bonnet of net work, which is fastened to a red diadem
about two inches broad. The diadem is embroidered with white
kernel-stones, and surmounted with white feathers, which in the fore-
part are about eight inches long, and half as much behind. This
crown or feather hat makes a very pleasing appearance.”
”
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
Choctaw Savages painted as Warriors, carrying Scalps.
Awe Debatzule
VOL. 80
soyoul FP1 Aq 1g 9ZIS
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G “1d ‘SG ‘ON ‘08 “10A SNOILOS 1100 SNOANVIISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS
NO. 5 DRAWINGS BY A. DEBATZ IN LOUISIANA—BUSHNELL 13
6
WINTER COSTUME
Buffalo skins, dressed so as to allow them to become soft and pliable
and without removing the hair, were used by the Indians throughout
the Mississippi Valley to protect them from the cold of winter. Such
robes were often decorated on the inner side by designs painted in
several colors. This sketch shows a robe decorated with a simple
design in red and black.
The drawing has not been identified but is believed to have been
made to represent an Indian belonging to one of the tribes living at
that time in the vicinity of New Orleans. The figure suggests the
sketch of the “Atakapas ” shown in Plate 4, and it may have been
intended to portray one of that tribe in winter dress.
14
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
A Savage in winter dress.
VoL. 80
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLES SOFINO] Sm PEn 6
r EN chine Le VED: 2 fiver cs
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Size 9} by 4} inches
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 80, NUMBER 6
YAKSAS
(WITH 23 PLaTEs)
BY
ANANDA K. GOOMARASWAMY
Keeper of [ndian, Persian, and Muhammadan Art
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
(PUBLICATION 2926)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
MAY 8, 1928
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
YAKSAS
By ANANDA K. COOMARASWAMY
(With TWENTY-THREE PLATES)
1. INTRODUCTION
In centuries preceding the Christian era, when the fusion of races
in India had already far advanced, the religion of India passed
through its greatest crises and underwent the most profound changes.
Vedic ritual, indeed, has survived in part up to the present day; but
the religious outlook of medieval and modern India is so profoundly
different from that of the Vedic period, as known to us from the
extant literature, that we cannot apply to both a common designation ;
medieval and modern Hinduism is one thing, Vedic Brahmanism
another. The change is twofold, at once inward and spiritual, and
outward and formal.
No doubt we are sufficiently aware of the spiritual revolution indi-
cated in the Upanisads and Buddhism, whereby the emphasis was
shifted from the outer world to the inner life, salvation became the
highest goal, and knowledge the means of attainment. But while this
philosophic development and spiritual coming of age have gradually
perfumed (to use a characteristically Indian phrase) the whole of
Indian civilization, there are here a background and ultimate signifi-
cance given to the social order, rather than the means of its actual
integration; the philosophy of the Upanisads, the psychology of
Buddhism, indeed, were originally means only for those who had left
behind them the life of a householder, and thus in their immediate
application anti-social. But few in any generation are ripe for the
attainment of spiritual emancipation, and were it otherwise the social
order could not survive. The immediate purpose of Indian civiliza-
tion is not Nirvana or Moksa, but Dharma; not a desertion of the
household life, but the fulfillment of function. And here, in Karma-
yoga, the spiritual support is found, not in pure knowledge, but in
devotion to higher powers, personally conceived, and directly ap-
proached by appropriate offices (paj@) and means (sadhanad). In
the words of the Bhagavad Gita: “ He who on earth doth not follow
the wheel (of activity) thus revolving, liveth in vain. ... . He that
doeth that which should be done, he is the true Monk, the true Yogi,
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, No. 6
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
not the recluse who refrains from actions. .... Whatsoever thou
doest, do thou that as an offering to Me; thus shalt thou be liberated.
. . . . He who offereth to Me with devotion a leaf, a flower, a fruit,
or water, ithat' 1 accept... .42 Howsoever men approach Me, even
so do I welcome them, for the path men take from every side is
Mine.”
In the earlier Vedic books there is a total absence of many of these
most fundamental features of Hinduism properly so called ; it is only
in the Brahmanas and Upanisads (and afterwards, much more defi-
nitely in the Epics) that the ideas of Savisara (the cycle of birth and
rebirth), Karma (causality), religious asceticism and Yoga, and
Bhakti (devotion to a personal deity) begin to appear, and the same
applies to the cults of Siva, Krishna, Yaksas, Nagas, innumerable
goddesses, and localized deities generally. It is natural and reason-
able to assume that these ideas and deities derive, not from the Vedic
Aryan tradition, but, as De la Vallée-Poussin expresses it, from “ un
certain fond commun, trés riche, et que nous ne connaissons pas
parfaitement.” *
There is much to be said for Fergusson’s view (Tree and Serpent
Worship, p. 244) that “ Tree and Serpent worship,” 7. e., the worship
of Yaksas and Nagas, powers of fertility and rainfall, “ was the primi-
tive faith of the aboriginal casteless Dasyus who inhabited northern
India before the advent of the Aryans.” But in using language of
this kind, a certain degree of caution is necessary; for, in the nature
of things, it is only the popular and devotional aspect of these “ primi-
tive faiths ” of which we are able to recover the traces, and there may
well have existed esoteric and more philosophical phases of the same
beliefs. We do not know how much of Indian philosophy should
really be traced to Agamic rather than Vedic origins. Indians them-
selves have always believed in the existence of theistic scriptures, the
Agamas, coeval in antiquity with the Vedas; and if the existence of
1For these groups of ideas as foreign to the Vedas, and for their indigenous
source, see De la Vallée-Poussin, Indo-Européens et Indo-Iraniens; L’Inde
jusque vers 300 av. J. C., Paris, 1924, pp. 303, 315-6, 320, etc.; Senart, E,,
Castes, pp. xvi-xvii; Jacobi, H., The Gaina Sutras, S. B. E., XXII, p. xxi;
Keith, A. B., Religion and philosophy of the Veda, Harvard Oriental Series,
vols. 31, 32, pp. 132, 193, 258; Macdonell, A., Vedic Mythology, pp. 153, 154;
Vogel, J. Ph., Indian Serpent lore, 1926; Charpentier, J.. Uber den Begriff
und die Etymologie von pija, Festgabe Hermann Jacobi, 1926.
It is to be noticed that all the clans particularly associated (so far as the
materials here relied upon are concerned) with Yaksa worship, are by no means
completely Brahmanised, and probably are not of Aryan origin (De la Vallée-
Poussin, Lelnde, <1, 4 /D: 182).
NO. 6 YAKSAS—COOM ARASWAMY x
such scriptures is beyond proof, it is at least certain that religious
traditions, which must be spoken of as Agamic in contradistinction
to Vedic, are abundant and must reach far back into the past. This
past, moreover, has been proved by recent archeological discoveries
to have been much more ancient and to have been characterized by a
much higher culture than had been formerly recognized. And we
know so well the continuity of Indian racial psychology during the
historical period, that we cannot but believe that long before this
period begins the Indians had been, as they are today, essentially
worshippers of personal deities.
In the beginning, when Aryans and non-Aryans were at war, in
the period of military conquest and greatest social exclusiveness, and
before the two elements had learned to live together, or had evolved
a conception of life covering and justifying all its phases, a divergence
between the two types of religious consciousness had been profound ;
in those days the despised worshippers of the Si{na (phallus) might
not approach the Aryan sacrifice. As time passed the dividing lines
grew fainter, and in the end there was evolved a faith so tolerant and
so broad that it could embrace in a common theological scheme all
grades of religious practise, from that of the pure monist to that of
savages living in the forests and practising human sacrifice.
Now, regarding the accomplished fact, it is not always easy to dis-
tinguish the separate elements that made so great a creative achieve-
ment possible. We are apt both to over- and underestimate the sig-
nificance of what we describe as primitive animism.
Hinduism, quantitatively regarded, is a worship of one deity under
various aspects, and of genii and saints and demons, whose aid may
be invoked either for spiritual or for altogether material ends. This
Hinduism, in the period we have referred to, broadly speaking, that
of the last three centuries before Christ, was not so much coming
into existence for the first time, as coming into consciousness and
prominence, ;
Dr. Vogel, in Indian Serpent Lore, has very recently and very
admirably studied the old Indian (or perhaps we ought rather to say,
the Indian aspect of the widespread Asiatic) cult of Nagas or Dragons,
guardian spirits of the Waters.
In the following pages I have attempted to bring together, from
literary and monumental sources, material sufficient to present a
fairly clear picture of an even more important phase of non- and
pre-Aryan Indian “animism,” the worship of Yaksas and Yaksis,
and to indicate its significance in religious history and iconographic
evolution.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
2. YAKSAS AND YAKSATTVA (“GENI-HOOD”)
The status of a Yaksa as typically represented (1) in the later
sectarian literature and (2) in modern folklore will yield an imper-
fect, and indeed an altogether erroneous idea of the original signifi-
cance of Yaksattva if not examined with cautious reservations. As
remarked by Mrs. Rhys Davids: *
The myth of the yakkha, and its evolution still, I believe, await investigation.
The English equivalent does not exist. “Geni” (djinn) is perhaps nearest
(cf. Pss. of the Sisters, p. 30). In the early records, yakkha as an appellation is,
like naga, anything but depreciative. Not only is Sakka so called (M. 1, 252),
but the Buddha himself is so referred to in poetic diction (M. 1, 383).?
We have seen Kakudha, son of the gods, so addressed (Kindred Sayings,
II, 8); and in D. II, 170 the city of the gods, Alakamanda, is described as
crowded with Yakkhas (“gods”). They have a deva’s supernormal powers.
.... But they were decadent creatures, degraded in the later era, when the
stories of the Jataka verses were set down, to the status of red-eyed cannibal
ogres.
And it may be added that it was only natural that in losing their
importance as tutelary deities, the Yaksas in popular folklore, influ-
enced no doubt by the prejudices already referred to as apparent in
the sectarian literature, should likewise have come to be classed with
the demoniac Raksasas.* Their fate in this connection may be com-
pared with that of the Devas at the hands of Zoroaster, or that of the
older European mythology under the influence of Christianity (e. g.,
in Saxo Grammaticus). Notwithstanding this, it is quite possible to
gather both from the sectarian and the semi-secular literature a great
deal of information incidentally presenting unmistakable evidences
of the Yaksas’ once honorable status, their benevolence toward men,
* Book of the Kindred Sayings, 1, 1917, p. 262. In the above citation, M. is
Majjhima Nikaya and D. is Dialogues of the Buddha, An excellent article on
Yakkhas in Buddhist literature will be found under Yakkha in the P. T. S.
Pali Dictionary.
* Elsewhere the Buddha finds it necessary to say that he is not a Deva,
Gandhabba, or Yakkha (Anguttara Nikdya, II, 37).
*For gigantic or cannibal Yaksas see Kathdsaritsagara, Tawney, I, pp. 127,
337, Il, p. 504. For the cult of Yaksas (Simhalese, Yaka@) surviving as
“devil-worship ” in Ceylon see Callaway, Yakkun Nattanawa, London, 1829;
Upham, E., History and doctrine of Buddhism, 1829; Parker, Ancient Ceylon,
London, 1909, Ch. IV and Yaka, Yakkhas in Index (p. 153, a dead man speak-
ing in a dream says, “I am now a Yaka”). For an excellent general account
of non-Aryan deities, local and tutelary, beneficent and malevolent, see White-
head, H., The village gods of South India, Oxford, 1916 (“in many villages
the shrine is simply a rough stone platform under a tree”), also Mitra, S. C.,
Village deities of Northern Bengal, Hindustan Review, February, 1922, and
Enthoven, R. E., The folklore of Bombay, Pt. III, Tree and snake worship.
NO. 6 YAKSAS—COOM ARASWAMY 5
and the affection felt by men toward them. As remarked by Levi
(loc. cit. infra), “le Yaksa est essentiellement un personage divin
étroitement associé par la tradition aux souvenirs locaux ... . ils
rappellent de bien prés nos saints patronaux.”
The word Yaksa’ is first found in the Jaiminiya Brahmana (111,
203, 272), where, however, it means nothing more than “a wondrous
thing.” In the sense of a “ spirit” or genius, usually associated with
Kubera (the chief of Yaksas) it does not appear before the period of
the Grhya Siitras where Yaksas are invoked together with a numer-
ous and very miscellaneous host of other major and minor deities, all
classed as Bhiitas,” ‘‘ Beings,” in the Grhya ritual at the close of Vedic
studies; in a somewhat later book they are possessing spirits of
disease.’ The Sankhayana Grhya Siitra mentions Manibhadra.
In the Satapatha Brahmana, Kubera is a Raksasa and lord of rob-
bers and evil-doers: this may only mean that he was an aboriginal
deity, alien to Brahman orthodoxy. In the Sitras he is invoked with
Isina for the husband in the marriage ritual, and his hosts plague
children (cf. Hariti in her original character).
The following Yaksas and Devatas are represented and named at
Bharhut: Supavasu Yakho, Virudhako Yakho, Gangita Yakho,
Suciloma Yakho, Kupiro Yakho (Kuvera), Ajakalako Yakho;
Sudasana Yakhi, Cada (Canda) Yakhi; Sirima Devata, Culakoka
Devata, Mahakoka Devata.
Yaksas by name or as a class are much more familiar figures in the
Epics. In the Ramayana, 3, 11, 94, we find yaksattva amaratvam ca,
“spirithood and immortality ” together, as boons bestowed by a god
or gods. Men of the Sattvik (“pure”) class worship the gods
(Devas), those of the Rajasik (‘‘ passionate”) class, Yaksas and
1The word Yaksa occurs in the following forms, which are here retained
in citations:
Sanskrit, Yaksa, (f.) Yaksi, YVaksini: Pali, Yakkha, Vakkhi, Vakkhini:
Prakrit, Jakkha, Jakkhini; Simhalese, Yaka, Yaki.
The word is perhaps of indigenous non-Aryan origin. The later Ramayana
proposes an explanation which looks like mere folk etymology: Brahma
created beings to guard the waters, and of these some cried “ raksamah,” “ let
us guard,” and others “ yaksamah,” “let us gobble,’ becoming thus Raksasas
and Yaksas. The idea is perhaps derived from the big belly which is the most
constant feature in Yaksa iconography.
* Siva is “ BhitteSvara,”’ and Yaksas are often called Bhitas; the word Bhuta
may mean “those who have become (Yaksas),” cf: Mahavamsa, Ch. X, verse
yakkha-bhita, “those that had become Yaksas.”
* Sankhayana Grhya Sitra, 1V, 9; Asvalayana G. S., II, 4; Paraskara G. S..
II, 12. (Keith, Religion and philosophy of the Veda, p. 213.)
* Manava Grhya Sitra, II, 14: Keith, ib. p. 242.
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vol. 80
Raksasas, those of the Tamasik (“dark”) class, Pretas and Bhttas
(Mahabharata, 6, 41, 4) ;in other words, the Yaksas are ranked below
the Devas, but above the goblins and ghosts and here distinguished
from Bhiitas. But very often they are not clearly distinguished from
Devas and Devatas. The Yaksas are sometimes sylvan deities, usually
but not always gentle, like the Vanadevatas (Hopkins, Epic Myth-
ology, p. 57; Atdanatiya Suttanta).
Kubera or Kuvera (Vaisravana, Vaisramana, also in Buddhist lit-
_ erature Vessavana, Paficika, Jambhala, etc.),’ is one of the Four
Great Kings (Maharajas), or Eight’Great Devas, a Lokapala, Regent
of the North (sometimes, with Indra, of the East), and the chief of
all Yaksas, whence his epithets Yaksendra, Deva Yaksaraja, etc. He
is a god of power and productivity: worshipped especially for trea-
sure (as Dhanada, Vasuda, giving wealth).? His city Alaka situated
on Mt. Kailasa (also the abode of Siva) is a magnificent walled town,
where dwell not only Yaksas, but also Kimnaras, Munis, Gandharvas
and Raksasas. Very possibly, as M. Goloubew (Ars Asiatica, X) has
suggested, the whole of the ceiling of Cave I at Ajanta may be re-
garded as a representation of the Paradise of Kuvera. When Kubera
repairs to a convention of the gods, he is accompanied by a great host
of Yaksas, collectively designated Vaisravana-kayika-devas.
Kubera has many beautiful palaces, groves, gardens, etc., on
Mt. Kailasa. These need not be referred to in detail, but it may be
remarked of the grove Caitraratha that its trees have jewels for their
leaves and girls as their fruits.”
The cult of the Lokapalas or Four Great Kings (N. Vaisravana,
E. Dhrtarastra, S. Virtdhaka, W. Virtipaksa) was extensively devel-
oped in Khotan, where they are represented as standing on demon
vahanams. Vaisravana is here very frequently represented with
*For Jambhala see Foucher, L’/conographie bouddhique de I’Inde, I, p. 123,
and II, p. 51; his Sakti is Vasundhara, the Earth-goddess. He may be sur-
rounded by eight Yaksinis, Bhadra, Subhadra, etc. (ibid., II, 85).
*He might be styled Mammon: but not in a bad sense of the word, for
from the Indian point of view wealth, prosperity and beauty are rewards of
innate virtue, of which, according to the doctrine of Karma, Mammon could
only be the dispenser. Cf. Mahabharata, 12, 74, 3 f.
* Both motifs are of interest on account of their occurrence in decorative art,
the Bharhut coping reliefs showing many forms of jewel-bearing creepers
(kalpa-lata), and medieval art, especially in Ceylon (ndri-laté designs, plate 22,
fig. 3) many examples of creepers with girls as their flower or fruit. The latter
motif, too, may have some connection with the later Arab legends of the
W aqwagq tree.
“Stein, Ancient Khotdn, figs. 30, 31, and pl. II; Serindia, p. 870.
No. 6 YAKSAS—-COOMARASWAMY a
shoulder flames. In this connection it should be safe to identify the
flaming Kankali Tila figure (pl. 16, fig. 2) with Vaisravana; the
corpulent body in any case is that of a Yaksa, and the flames repre-
sent the fiery energy inherent in a king.
Of Kubera’s Yaksa followers we learn a good deal: they possess
the power of assuming any shape, the females particularly that of a
very beautiful woman (so that an unknown beauty is asked if she be
the goddess of the district, or a Yaksi) ;* they are kindly, but can
fight fiercely as guardians (Kubera himself is a ‘‘ world-protector,”
and it is chiefly as attendants, guardians and gate-keepers that the
Yaksas appear in Buddhist art, equally in India and in the Far East) ;
they are sometimes specifically grouped with Nagas, more often with
gods, Gandharvas and Nagas; they are known as “good folk”
(Punyajana) and appear to be countless in number, though few are
individually named. Manibhadra (Manivara, Manicara, Manimat)
in the Mahabharata (5, 192, 44f.) is a Yaksaraja, and Kubera’s
chief attendant. He is invoked with Kubera as a patron of merchants ;
this may be the explanation of the statue at Pawaya, set up by a guild
(gostha) (pl. 1, fig. 2).’
Ganeéga is undoubtedly a Yaksa type, by his big belly and general
character: but he is not cited by name in any lists. He is effectively
and perhaps actually equivalent to Kubera or Manibhadra.’ But the
earliest representation of an elephant-headed Yaksa seems to be that
of the Amaravati coping, Burgess, Stupas of Amaravati and Jaggay-
yapeta, plate XXX, 1 (here pl. 23, fig. 1) ; and this is not a Yaksaraja,
but more like a guhya or gana. GaneSa is son of Siva, who is him-
self called Ganesa (Lord of hosts) in the Mahabharata. Ganesa as
elephant-headed deity does not appear in the Epic except in the intro-
duction which is a late addition. The figure of GaneSa begins to appear
quite commonly in Gupta art, about 4oo A. D., e. g., at Bhumara, plate
18, figure 1; at Deogarh (pilaster left of the AnantaSayin panel).
There is some confusion of Yaksas and Raksasas, who according
to one tradition have a common origin ; both have good and evil quali-
ties, benevolent and malevolent as the case may be; very often the
same descriptions would apply to either, but the two classes are not
identical, and broadly speaking we find the Yaksas associated with
+ Mahabharata, Vana Parva, Ch. CCLXIII (Draupadi).
* There exists a “ story of the Mahayaksa Manibhadra” in MS.; see Hoernle
in Congr. Int. Orientalistes, 12, Rome, 1899, Vol. I, p. 165.
° Cf. Scherman, Dickbauchtypen in der indischen Gotterwelt, Jahrb. as. Kunst,
I, 1724. Also M. F. A. Bulletin, No. 154.
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
Kubera, the Raksasas with Ravana, who is their chief. Yaksas as a
rule are kindly, Raksasas bloodthirsty.’
Yaksas are not only the attendants, but also the bearers of their
Lord Vaisravana. They play, indeed, the part of bearers or sup-
porters in all kinds of situations where their attitude is one of friendly
service ; thus, they are constantly represented as supporting the four
legs of Kanthaka, on the occasion of the Abhiniskramana (Great
Renunciation, or Going Forth of the Buddha).* They bear, too, the
pavilion in which the Bodhisattva descends to take incarnation in the
womb of Maya Devi (pl. 21, fig. 1). In connection with Vais-
ravana, and other deities, the Guhyas appear in crouching dwarf-
ish forms as supporters; in fact, as “vehicles” (vadhanam) as in
plate 3, figure 1, etc. Some of these types have been preserved with
remarkable fidelity in Far Eastern art, in the case, for example, of the
Jikoku-Ten of the Kondo, Nara, Japan, so closely resembling the
Kubera from Bharhut (pl. 3, fig. 1), and the Siva figure of the
Gudimallam lingam (pl. 17, fig. 1). In the case of Siva, the Yaksa
vehicle in later images ( Nataraja, etc.) has come to be regarded as a
demoniac symbol of spiritual darkness (apasmdara purusa, or mala).
Kuvera is also “ Naravahana,” but the Naras here in question are
not men, but mythological beings variously described, sometimes as
bird horses, which may possibly explain the occasional representation
of winged Atlantes (pl. 13, figs. 2 and 3, also Foucher, L’art gréco-
bouddhique .. . ., fig. 314). The interpretation Naravahana=borne
by men, is later.
As Atlantes, supporters of buildings and superstructures (pl. 13,
figs. I, 2, 3), and as garland-bearers (pl. 23, figs. 1, 2) Yaksas are
constantly represented in early Indian art (Bharhut, Safici, Gandhara,
etc.). Those who support Kuvera’s flying palace are designated
Guhyas (Mahabharata, 2, 10, 3) ; Kuvera is Guhyapati. The Guhyas
are essentially earth-gnomes (cf. pl. 13, fig. 1). The Yaksini of
Kathasaritsagara, ch. XX XVII, who carries a man through the air,
is called a Guhyaki.
Some Yaksagrahas (demon possessors, causing disease) are at-
tendants of Skanda, who is sometimes called Guha, a name which
* For a detailed summary of the Epic accounts of Kubera and the Yaksas, see
Hopkins, Epic Mythology, p. 142 ff., also pp. 30, 38, 57, 67 ff., 145, 148, etc. See
also Waddell, Evolution of the Buddhist cult, J. R. A. S. Any connection with
the Greek Kabeiros is very improbable (Keith).
*E.g., Foucher, L’art gréco-bouddique du Gandhara, 1, pp. 357, 554 ff., and
figs. 182-4, ch.; Stein, Serindia, p. 858.
*For the Nara figure see Nara Horyitji Okagami, Vol. 38, pl. 7, or Warner,
Japanese sculpture of the Suiko period, fig. 35.
NO. 6 YAKSAS—COOMARASWAMY 9
may be related to the Guhyas, attendants of Kuvera (Hopkins, E pic
Mythology, pp. 145, 229).
Yaksas (like Nagas) are sometimes regarded as constructive or
artistic genii: thus Hstan Tsang, Bk. VIII, speaks of the Asokan
remains at Pataliputra as having been built by genii (Yaksas).’
Kubera himself can be regarded as the first smelter of gold’
Comparatively few individual Yaksinis are mentioned by name;
the Mahabharata (3, 83, 23) speaks of a Yaksini shrine at Rajagrha
as “ world-renowned.” But it is beyond doubt that Yaksinis were
extensively worshipped, in part as beneficent, in part as malevolent
beings. In the latter aspect they do not differ essentially from their
modern descendants, such as the Bengali Sitala, goddess of smallpox,
or Olabibi, goddess of cholera. The Seven Mothers (who are in part
connected with Kubera), the Sixty-four Joginis, the Dakinis, and
some forms of Devi, in medieval and modern cults, must have been
Yaksinis. In Southern India, indeed, to the present day, nearly all
the village deities are feminine. Minaksi, to whom as wife of Siva,
the great temple at Madura is dedicated, was originally a daughter of
Kubera, therefore a Yaksini. Durga was originally a goddess wor-
shipped by savage tribes.
The case of Hariti is too well known to need a long discussion. To
sum up her story, she was originally a Magadhan tutelary goddess,
wife of Pafcika and residing at Rajagrha; she was not ill-disposed,
for her name Nanda means Joy. She was called even in Hstian
Tsang’s time the Mother of Yaksas, and the people prayed to her for
offspring. But Buddhist legend has it that she had begun to destroy
the children of Rajagrha by smallpox, and so earned the name of
Hariti, “ Thief,” by which she is known to Buddhism ; metaphorically,
she was said to “ devour ”’ them, and is represented as an ogress, and
it was as an ogress that the Buddha encountered her. The Buddha
adopts the expedient of hiding her last-born child (Pingala, who had
been a human being in a previous life, the Yaksa birth being here a
penalty) ; she realizes the pain she has been causing others, and be-
comes a convert; but as she can no longer seek her accustomed food,
the Buddha promises that she shall receive regular offerings from
pious Buddhists, as a patroness of children and fertility. This reads
more like an explanation or justification of a cult than a true account
*Beal, Buddhist Records, Il, p. 93. Cf. also Laufer, Citralaksana, pp. 180,
190, where a late Tibetan author ascribes Asoka’s works at Bodhgaya to Yaksas
and Nagas, and speaks of certain Indian medieval sculpture and paintings as like
the art-work of the Yaksas.
* Hopkins, Epic Mythology, p. 146.
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
of its origin; probably this was the best way to provide an edifying
sanction for an ancient animistic cult too strong to be subverted.
Hariti is also constantly represented together with Paficika, forming
a Tutelary Pair (Gandhara, Mathura, Java, etc., pl. 15, fig. 1; pl. 21,
figs. 3-5).
A Yakkhini by name, or rather, epithet, Assa-mukhi (“ horse-
faced”) plays an important part in the Padakusalamdanava Jataka.
There may be specific reference to this Jadtaka whenever a horse-
headed Yakkhini is represented on the medallions of Buddhist rail-
ings (pl. 12, fig. 1). But the Kimnaras and Kimpurusas, and Gand-
harvas too, typically half-human, half-equine, are a class of beings
frequenting forests and mountains (cf. the valava-mukha Cetiya, of
Pandukabhaya, infra, p. 16) and as such are sometimes naturally
represented as a part of the scenery, and in such cases there need be
no reference to the Jataka.”
In the Maniciida@vadana a Yaksini undertakes to bring about a
marriage, and to this end has the marriage “ represented ” (mirtivai-
vahikam karma, presumably in a painting) .°
In the Jaina Bhagavati Sitra (Hoernle, Uvasagadasdo, Appendix)
Punnabhadda and Manibhadda are called powerful Devas, and they
appear together to those who practise certain austerities. Another
work gives the following list of “ Devas ” who are obedient to Vaisra-
mana: Punnabhadda, Manibhadda, Salibhadda, Sumanabhadda,
1 For H§ariti see Foucher, The Buddhist Madonna, and Tutelary Pair, in The
beginnings of Buddhist art; L’art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhara; Vogel, The
Mathura school of sculpture, A. S. I., A. R., 1909-10, p. 77; Watters, On Yuan
Chwang, I, 216; Beal, Records ...., I, 110; Waddell, Lamaism, p. 99;
Chavannes, in T’dung Pao, 1904, p. 496 f.
* Mitra, R., Buddha-Gayd, pl. XXXIV, 2; Foucher, in Mem. conc. |’Asie orien-
tale, III, ro10, pl. 1; Waddell, Report on excavations at Pataliputra, pl. I.
Perhaps also Ajanta, Cave XVII (Griffiths, pl. 142, b).
* At Bhaja, HIIA, fig. 27, lower r. corner; Mandor, HIIA, fig. 166. Kimnaras
in Indian literature and art are of two types (I) horse-headed, as above, and
(2) half bird, half human (siren type). Both kinds are musical, and may be
classed in this respect with Gandharvas. The masculine horse-headed type is
rare: examples in Cat. Ind. Collections, Boston, V. Rajput Painting, No. CLIX
(called Gandharvas, one Narada), and in Arts et. Archéologie khmérs, II,
fig. 56, bis. Most likely the horse-headed type is not a Kimnara at all.
*In the Svayambhu Purana, De la Vallée Poussin, J. R. A. S., 1894, p. 315.
Here we have the normal connection of Yaksinis with human marriage. The
miurti-vaivahika motif appears also in Bhasa’s Svapnavasavadatta, and is repre-
sented in a Rajput Painting of the eighteenth century (Cat. Ind. Coll., V,
Rajput paintings, p. 189).
No. 6 YAKSAS—-COOM ARASWAMY II
Caksuraksa, Purnaraksa, Savvana, Savvajasa, Savakama, Samiddha,’
Amohe, Asamta. It may be remarked incidentally that nearly all
these names of Yaksas are auspicious, implying fullness, increase,
prosperity, etc.
As we have seen, Yakkhas are often called Devas in the Jaina
books, where, as Sisana Devatis, they are usually guardian angels.
But it is not at all clear whether the “ false and lying Devas ” who
persecute the followers of Mahavira in the Uvdasagadasdo, §§ 93 f.,
224, etc., are to be regarded as Yakkhas or not. That they should be
so regarded in one case at least (§ 164) is suggested by the fact that the
Deva here appears in an asoga (aSoka)-grove and takes possession of
objects laid on an altar. It may also be remarked that the Deva of
§ 93 is an expert shape-shifter, which is a characteristic power for
Yakkhas ; the text speaks of the ‘‘ Pisaya (Pisaca) form of the Deva,”
and it may be that the Yakkhas, like the more orthodox Brahmanical
deities had their Santa and ugra forms. But even if these false and
lying Devas are Yakkhas, it need not be forgotten that their objection-
able qualities are emphasized in the interests of Jaina edification.
The Atanatiya Suttanta (Digha Nikaya, III 195 £.), however,
speaks of good and bad Yakkhas, the latter being rebels to the Four
Great Kings (Kubera, etc.). If any of these assail a Buddhist monk
or layman, he is to appeal to the higher Yakkhas ; Vessavana himself
supplies to the Buddha the proper invocation, and gives a list of the
Yakkha chiefs; the Jist includes Ind(r)a, Soma, Varuna, Pajapati,*
Mani (-bhadda), Alavaka, etc. It will be observed that the first four
mentioned are orthodox Brahmanical deities ; but this is not the only
place in which Indra (Sakka) is spoken of as a Yakkha. Vessavana
(Kubera) goes on to say that there are Yakkhas of all ranks who do,
and others who do not believe in the Buddha, “ But for the most part,
Lord, Yakkhas do not believe in the Exalted One.” *
Another list of Yaksas is to be found in the Mahamayiivi,* a work
which goes back to the third or fourth century A. D. In this list we
‘In Mahdavaiisa, 1, 45, the Deva Samiddhisumana inhabits a rajayatana-
tree in the Jetavana garden at Savatthi: he had been a man in Nagadipa.
*S. B. B., vol. 4 (Dialogues of the Buddha, 3). This text contains much valu-
able information on Yakkhas.
* With Pajapati, cf. Prajapati, name of a Jogini, Pataini Devi temple (A. S. I.,
A. R., Western Circle, 1920, p. 109).
* A similar distinction of good and bad Yaksas is made in Mahavaisa, XXXI,
81, “ Moreover, to ward off the evil Yakkhas the twenty-eight Yakkha chief-
tains stood keeping guard.” The twenty-eight Yaksarajas are again referred to
in Lalita Vistara, Ch. XVI.
° Lévi, S., Le catalogue géographique de Yaksa dans le Mahamayiiri, J. A.,
IQI5.
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
find Nandi ca Vardhanascaiva nagare Nandivardhane, “ Nandi and
Vardhana, these twain, have their seat in the city of Nandivard-
hana ’”’; a Chinese commentator on the Avatamsaka Siitra has stated
that this city was in Magadha, as indeed the Sttra itself implies. All
this is of interest because two Yaksa statues (pl. 2, figs. 1 and 2)
have been found near Patna, and they bear inscriptions of which one
reads yakha ta vata namdi. The conclusion arrived at by Gangoly,
that the pair represent the tutelary Yaksas of Nandivardhana may be
correct. But the Mahamdayiiri list has also a Nandi Yaksa of Nandi-
nagara, separately mentioned. There are several Nandinagaras
known; one is frequently mentioned in the Safici inscriptions. It
seems to me that the Patna figure designated as the Yaksa Nandi in
the inscription may just as well be Nandi of Nandinagara as Nandi
of Nandivardhana; this would leave the second statue unidentified,
as it is not named in the inscription. In the same list Manibhadra and
Purnabhadra are called brothers. Others mentioned include Visnu,
Karttikeya, Sankara, Vibhisana, Krakucchanda, Suprabuddha, Dur-
yodhana, Arjuna, Naigamesa (tutelary Yaksa of Pancali), Makarad-
hvaja (=Kamadeva, the Buddhist Mara), and Vajrapani. The last
is said to be the Yaksa of Vulture’s Peak, Rajagrha, where is his
krtalaya (“ made abode,” evidently a temple) ; in the Yakkha Suttas
Sakka (? Indra), who is called a Yakkha of Mara’s faction, may not
be the same as the Yaksa Vajrapani. Naigamesa is the well-known
antelope-headed genius, Indra’s commander-in-chief, who both in
Brahmanical and Jaina mythology is connected with the procreation
of children.”
*Gangoly, O. C., in ‘Modern Review, Oct. 1919. Also Chanda, R., Four An-
cient Yaksa statues, Univ. of Calcutta, Anthropological Papers, 3 (Journ. Dep.
Letters, IV, Calcutta, 1921), and references there cited.
2 It will be seen that the list includes the names of orthodox Hindu deities,
Epic heroes, and others. Suprabuddha in Buddhist legend is the father-in-law
(rarely the grandfather) of the Buddha, and is one of the five persons who
suffered condign punishment for crimes committed against the Buddha or the
Order, one of the others being the Yaksa Nandaka. Krakucchanda is a former
Buddha. :
Sankara is one of the well-known names of Siva, whose close connection with
Yaksas is shown in many ways, inter alia, by the existence of numerous tem-
ples dedicated to him under names which are those of Yaksas, e. g., the Viri-
paksa temple at Pattadkadal. Siva’s followers called Parisadas are huge-bellied
like Yaksas. Cf. Hopkins, Epic Mythology, pp. 221-222.
For Naigamesa(ya) (Nejamesa, Naigameya, Harinegamesi) see Winternitz
in J. R. A. S., 1895, pp. 149 ff.; Keith, Religion and Philosophy of the Veda,
p. 242. Naigamesa in the Epic is generally a goat-faced form of Agni. As
Harinegamesi he plays an important part in the conception and birth legend of
No. 6 YAKSAS—-COOM ARASWAMY 13
In Buddhist works the Yakkhas are sometimes represented as
teachers of good morals, and as guardian spirits. Thus in Thera-
thert-gatha, XLIV, Sanu Sutta,’ Sanu had been the son of a Yakkhini
in a former birth; now this Yakkhini ‘ controlling ” (as Spiritualists
_ would say) Sanu, warns and advises his present human mother as
follows:
‘
Your son has a tendency to roam, wherefore bid him rouse himself. Tell him
what the Yakkhas say:
“Do nought of evil, open or concealed,
If evil thou doest or wilt do,
Thou shalt not escape from evil e’en though thou flee.”
But more often, as in the Atdndtiyad Suttanta, the Yakkhas are said to
be unbelievers, to whom the ethics of the Buddhas are distasteful ;
they “ haunt the lonely and remote recesses of the forest, where noise,
where sound, hardly is, where breezes from the pastures blow, hidden
from men, suitable for meditation. There do eminent Yakkhas dwell,
who have no faith in the word of the Exalted One.” ’
In the Vijaya legend the aboriginal inhabitants of Ceylon are called
Yakkhas.* One of Vijaya’s men follows a bitch, who is the Yakkhini
Kuvanna in disguise; she bewitches him, and all those who follow
him, but cannot devour them, as they are protected by charmed
threads. Vijaya follows, overcomes the Yakkhini, and obtains the
release of the men; Kuvanna takes the form of a beautiful girl, and
Vijaya marries her (almost the Circe motif !). She enables him to
destroy the invisible Yakkhas who inhabit the land, and he becomes
Mahavira (in the Kalpa Siitra, see Jacobi, S. B. E., XXII). In the Antagada
Dasao we find him worshipped (Barnett, Antagada Dasdo, p. 67, cited below,
p. 25). He is represented in an early relief from Mathura (Smith, Jaina stupa
of Mathura, pl. XVII) with an inscription in which he is designated Bhagava
Nemeso; also in some other early but mutilated reliefs in the Mathura
Museum., and regularly in the illustrations to the Jaina manuscripts of the
Kalpa Siitra (Coomaraswamy, Cat, [ndian Collections, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston, pt. IV).
Mara, and his hosts of deformed demons, is brilliantly represented at Saiici,
north torana, middle architrave, back (pl. 23, fig. 3). In a medieval relief
at Sarnath he is provided with a makaradhvaja (Ann. Rep. Arch. Surv. India,
1904-05, p. 84): as Kamadeva, with Rati, at Eltra, in the Kailasa shrine, he
also has a makaradhvaja.
*Rhys Davids, Psalms of the Brethren, p. 48. Cf. ibid., p. 245, the older and
later attitude side by side, the Yakkha, though a cannibal, being invoked as the
guardian of a child.
* Digha Nikaya, II, 195 (Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, Part 3, in
§; BAB lV).
* Mahavamsa, Ch. VII.
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
king. Later, he repudiates her and marries a human princess. She
returns to the Yakkhas, but is killed as a traitress. Her two children
became the ancestors of the Pulinda (perhaps the Veddas, who are
still worshippers of Yakkhas; perhaps as ancestors’). In this story
the Yakkhas, though credited with supernatural powers, seem to be .
regarded as aborigines themselves.
Not only may a human being be reborn as a Yaksa, but vice versa.’
A very interesting case of such a rebirth appears in the Indrakila
inscription, near Bezwada, of the ninth century. This inscription
occurs on a stele, sculptured with reliefs illustrating the Kiratarjuna
episode of the Mahabharata; the stele was set up by one Trikotti-
Boyu, who regarded himself as an incarnation of the friendly Yaksa
who at Indra’s behest guided Arjuna to the inaccessible Indrakila hill,
there to wrestle with Siva and to receive the Pasupata astram. Extant
texts of the Epic do not mention any Yaksa, but some version of the
story must have known him, and Trikotti-Boyu regarded him as an
ancestor.”
3. YAKSAS. AS. TUTELARY DEITIES (PATRON SAINTS) 2 ANG
GUARDIAN ANGELS
In many cases Yaksas have been human beings attached to the
service of a community or individual, and, reborn as a spirit or geni,
continue to watch over those whom they had formerly served. Thus,
from a Tibetan source ° we get the following story connected with the
times of king Bimbisara, a contemporary of the Buddha:
At that time one of the gate-keepers of Vaisali had died and had been born
again among the demons. He gave the inhabitants of Vaisali the following
instructions: “As I have been born again among the demons, confer on me the
position of a Yaksa and hang a bell round my neck. Whenever foe to the inhabi-
*The doctrine of reincarnation is not Vedic, and in view of the suggestions
of indigenous origin that have been plausibly made, it is of interest to note how
constantly the idea of rebirth is connected with the Yaksa mythology, in which
a Yaksa may have been, or may again become a human being. Hodson, T. C.,
The Primitive Culture of India, p. 7, and Lecture V, passim, shows that a
belief in reincarnation is widely spread amongst primitive tribes in India
(Khonds, Bhuiyas, Garos, etc.). The Lushais (p.-105) desire to escape from
the mortal coil of reincarnation. Santals say that “good men enter into fruit-
trees” (Sir W. Hunter, Annals of Rural Bengal). According to a Buddhist
tradition Kuvera himself was once a very charitable Brahman (S. B. B., IV,
p. 193, note 4).
*Sastri, H. K., The sculptured pillar on the Indrakila hill at Beswada,
Ann. Rep. Arch. Surv. India, 1915-16.
* Schiefner, A., Tibetan tales from the Kah-gyur (Ralston, p. 81).
NO. 6 YAKS AS—COOMARASWAMY 15
tants of Vaisali appears, I will make the bell sound until he is arrested or has
taken his departure.” * So they caused a Yaksa statue to be prepared and hung
a bell round its neck. Then they set it up in the gatehouse, provided with obla-
tions and garlands along with dance and song and to the sound of musical
instruments.
The same Tibetan sources show that the Sakyas honored a Yaksa
by name Sakyavardhana (“He who prospers the Sakyas”) as a
tutelary deity. This tradition is recorded in the Tibetan Dulva;
we need not believe in the miracle, but there is every possibility that
there was a tutelary Yaksa of the Sakya clan, and that the Sakyas
presented their children in the temple. Moreover, the Presentation is
four times illustrated at Amaravati (pl. 20, also Fergusson, Tree and
Serpent Worship, pls. LXIX, XCI, 4, and Burgess, Buddhist stupas
. ., frontispiece, detail left of center, and pl. XXXII, 2). Accord-
ing to the text,
It was the habit of the Sakyas to make all new-born children bow down at
the feet of a statue of the Yaksa Sakyavardhana (Sakya-sphel or spel); so
the king took the young child (the Bodhisattva, Siddhartha) to the temple, but
the Yaksa bowed down at his feet . . . . and when the king saw the Yaksa bow
down at the child’s feet he exclaimed, “ He is the god of gods,” and the child
was therefore called Devatideva.
The same tradition is found in the Chinese Abhiniskramana Siitra
(the late sixth century Chinese version by Jnanakuti),° but the temple
is called a Deva temple, and the Deva’s name is Tsang Chang, for
which the equivalent Dirghavardana is suggested. The story is much
more elaborated in the Lalita Vistara, Ch. VIII, where the temple is
full of statues of gods (Siva, Sarya), and all bow down to the child;
this is obviously a later development.
In the Jaina Uttaraddhyayana Siitra, Ch. III, 14-18, it is stated
as a general rule that Yaksas are reborn as men when their stock of
merit (acquired, of course, in a previous life on earth) is exhausted.
Not only human beings, but even animals may be reborn as tutelary
Yaksas. The following story of the Jaina saint Jivaka is related in the
Tamil classic, the Jivaka-cintémani:* Jivaka rescues a drowning dog,
*As regards the bell; it should be observed that the voice of Devas and
Yaksas is often said to be like the sound of a golden bell (e.g., Samyutta
Nikaya, Yakkha Suttas, §8 (Commentary), and Sakka Suttas, II, § 10 (Com-
mentary). For Yaksas with bells see plate 12, figure 2; plate 13, figure 3; and
plate 18. For a very similar story from the Divydvadana see Appendix.
? Rockhill, W. W., Life of the Buddha from Tibetan works in the Bkah-Hgyur
and Bstan-Hgyur, p. 17; Csoma de Koros, Analysis of the Kah-Gyur, Asiatic
Researches, XX, p. 289. Cf. Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, 13, 14, with some
other references, including Divyadvadana.
* Beal, S., Romantic history of Buddha, p. 52.
‘Vinson, J.. Légendes bouddhistes et djainas, Paris, 1900, t. 2, p. 43.
2
160 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
or, to be more exact, recites to it the mantra of the Five Namaskaras,
whereby it is reborn as a deity, a chief of the Yaksas; as such it is
called Sutanjana and lives in Candrodaya (‘ Moonrise”) on the
white Mt. Sanga. Later, Jivaka is imprisoned by his enemies ; he calls
to mind Sutaijana, who immediately experiences a trembling which
brings Jivaka to his mind (cf. the heating or quaking of Indra’s
throne when good men are in distress), and he hastens to the rescue.
He produces a great storm, and under cover of it carries off Jivaka
and takes him to his heavenly palace. Later, he bestows on Jivaka
three great spells (mantras) which bestow marvellous beauty, destroy
poison, and give the power of shape-shifting, and finally takes him
back to earth. There Jivaka erects and endows a temple and sets up
a statue in it.
A detailed story of Yakkhas is given in the Mahdavamsa, chapters |
IX, X. It may be summarized as follows:
Prince Gamani had two attendants, Citta and Kalavela, respectively a herds-
man and a slave. He fell in love with the Princess Citta; but it had been prophe-
sied that the latter’s son would slay the Prince’s uncles, who were then in power.
However, the Princess became enceinte, and the marriage was permitted; but it
was decided that if a son should be born, he should be put to death, and mean-
while Citta and Kalavela were executed for their part in the affair. ‘‘ They were
reborn as Yakkhas, and both kept guard over the child in the mother’s womb.”
The child, a son, was duly born, and was called Pandukabhaya; he was ex-
changed with the new-born daughter of another woman, and thus brought up in
safety away from the court (cf. the story of the infant Krsna). When the
young prince was once in sudden danger, the two Yakkhas appeared to save him.
Later on, Pandukabhaya captured a Yakkhini mare, described as valava-
rapa or valava-mukha, “ mare-shaped” or “ mare-faced” (cf. Assamukhi,
discussed below) ; her name was Cetiyad, and she used to wander about the
Dhimarakkha mountain in the form of a mare, with a white body and red feet.
Pandukabhaya bored her nostrils and secured her with a rope; she became his
adviser, and he rode her in battle. When at last established on the throne (in
Anuradhapura), Pandukabhaya “ settled the Yakkha Kalavela on the east side
of the city, the Yakkha Cittaraja at the lower end of the Abhaya tank. The
slave-woman whoa had helped him in time past (as foster-mother) and was
(now) reborn as (or of) a Yakkhini, the thankful (king) settled at the south
gate of the city. Within the royal precincts he housed the Yakkhini having the
face of a mare. Year by year he had sacrificial offerings made to them and to
other (Yakkhas) ; but on festival days he sat with Cittaraja beside him on a
seat of equal height, and having gods and men to dance before him, the king
took his pleasure in joyous and merry wise. .... With Cittaraja and Kalavela
who were visible,’ the prince enjoyed his good fortune, he that had those that
had become Yakkhas for friends.” ?
"T.e., were represented by statues.
* Alternatively, ‘had Yakkhas and Bhittas for friends.”
No. 6 YAKSAS—COOMARASWAMY 7
4. SHRINES AND TEMPLES (CAITYA, AYATANA)
The haunt or abode (bhavanam) of a Yaksa, often referred to as
a caitya (Pali, cetiya, Prakrit, céiya) or ayatana (Prakrit, d@yayana)
may be outside a city, in a grove, on a mountain or at a ghat (shrines
of Punnabhadda and Moggara-pani; those of the Indra’s Peak
Yakkha, and the Yakkha Suciloma near Rajagaha mentioned in the
Samyutta Nikaya, Yakkha Suttas (Kindred Sayings, 1, p. 264) ; and
the Yaksa shrine and image of Uttaradhyayana Sitra, ch. XII,
S. B. E., XLV, p. 50, note), or by a tank (the Yakkha Cittaraja,
Mahavaimsa, ch. X); or at the gates of a city (slave woman reborn
as a Yakkhini, Mahdvaiisa, chapter X, and the tutelary Yaksa of
Vaisali mentioned above) ; or within a city (shrine of Manibhadra,
Kathasaritsagara, ch. XIII) or even within the palace precincts
(shrine of the Yakkhini Cetiya, Mahavamsa, ch. X). These shrines
are constantly spoken of as ancient, magnificent, famous, or world-
renowned.
The essential element of a Yaksa holystead is a stone table or altar
(veyaddi, mafico) placed beneath the tree sacred to the Yaksa. The
bhavanam of the Yakkha Suciloma at Gaya is particularly described
as a stone couch (better rendered as dais or altar) by or on which the
Buddha rested; the words used are tankita maiico, explained in the
commentary to mean a stone slab resting on four other stones (Sam-
yutta Nikaya, Yakkha Suttas, ch. X, Kindred Sayings, 1, p. 264). At
the Punnabhadda céiya described below there were not only altars
(and probably an image) in an elaborate temple, but also a decorated
altar beneath an asoka-tree in the grove.
It was just such an altar beneath a sacred tree that served as the
Bodhisattva’s seat on the night of the Great Enlightenment ; Sujata’s
imaidservant, indeed, mistakes the Bodhisattva for the tree-spirit him-
self (Niddnakatha). It is very evident that the sacred tree and altar
represent a combination taken over by Buddhism from older cults,
and in the case of the Bodhi-tree we see the transference actually in
process.
How often the bhavanas of the Yaksas mentioned in Buddhist and
Jaina’ literature should be regarded as constructed temples it is hard
to say. Some, like the Punnabhadda céiya, were certainly buildings,
independent of the altar beneath a sacred tree. In references to con-
structed temples supposed to have existed in the latter centuries pre-
ceding the Christian era there is nothing at all improbable; some of
the dyatanas and caityas of the Epics are certainly buildings, and
sometimes contain statues. So, too, in Manu, 4, 39. The Candala
temple of Mahabharata, 12, 121 (post-epical) has images and bells,
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
and may have been a Yaksa shrine, or the shrine of a goddess.
Structural temple architecture was already far advanced iniand before
the Kusana period.’ The existence of images (and Yaksa images
are the oldest known images in India) in every case implies the ex-
istence of temples and a cult.
On the other hand it is quite certain that the word caitya some-
times means no more than a sacred tree, or ‘a tree with an altar; such
are designated caitya-vrksas in the Epics, and it is stated in the
Mahabharata, Southern Recension, 12, 69, 41 ff., that such holy trees
should not be injured inasmuch as they are the resorts of Devas,
Yaksas, Raksasas, etc. Even when as so often happens in Buddhist
literature, the Buddha is represented as halting or resting at the
bhavanam of some Yakkha, it does not follow that a building is meant ;
the bhavanam may have been only a tree sacred to a Yaksa, and such
sacred trees are natural resting and meeting places in any village, as at
the present day. But in Samyutta Nikdya, Yakkha Suttas, IV, it is
expressly stated that the bhavanam of the Yakkha Manibhadda was
called the Manimala caitya (the Jaina Sirya-prajfiapti says that the
Manibhadda céiya lay to the northeast of the city of Mithila). As the
shrines of Manibhadda and Punnabhadda seem to have been the most
famous of all Yakkha shrines, it is most likely that the former as well
as the latter was a real temple, and indeed it is described as a temple
with doors and an inner chamber in Kathdsaritsdgara, chapter XIII.
We know, too, that a statue of Manibhadda was set up at Pawaya,”
and this must have been housed in some kind of structure. Sakyavar-
dhana’s shrine, too, in the Tibetan text and in one of the Amaravati
reliefs, is a temple: so also the krtalaya of Vajrapani in the Maha-
maytri list.
On the whole, then, we may be sure that in many cases Yaksa
shrines, however designated, were structural buildings. What were
they like? The passages cited in the present essay tell us of buildings
with doors, and arches (torane, which may refer either to gateways
like the Buddhist toranas, or, as the text has, “on its doorways,”
probably to stone or wooden pediments, with which we are familiar
from the Maurya period onwards) ;* and of images and altars within
* Cf. HITA, figs. 41, 43, 45, 62, 69, 70, 142: M. F. A., Bulletin, Nos. 144, 150:
Parmentier, L’Art khmer primitif, p. 349, and Origine commune des architec-
tures dans I’Inde et en Extréme-Orient, in Etudes Asiatiques.
* See Garde, M. B., in Arch. Surv. India, Ann. Rep. 1914-15, Pt. I, p. 21 and
The site of Padmavati, ib. 1915-16, p. 105 and Pl. LVII. See also p. 28.
*Cf. Smith, V. A., Jaina stupa of Mathura, pls. XIX, XX; Coomaraswamy,
in M. F. A. Bulletin, No. 150 (August, 1927).
NO. 6 YAKSAS—COOMARASWAMY 19
the buildings. Indian styles of architecture, of course, are not sec-
tarian ; the style is that of the period. So that to discuss this question
fully would involve a discussion of all structural temple architecture
from the Maurya to the Kusana period inclusive; which would not
be altogether impossible, on the basis of literary references, and
representations in reliefs. This would take up too much of the space
at present available. But it may be observed that the Gujarati com-
mentators gloss the word jakkhayayana by ayat thanak dehro, a little
demed temple." This description would very aptly characterize the
little domed pavilions which are represented on Audumbara coins
from Kangra about the beginning of the Christian era, and on some-
what similar coins from Ceylon,’ while a more elaborate structure of
the same type is seen in the Sudhamma Deva-sabha in the well-known
Bharhut relief (early second century B. C.). Another example of a
“little domed temple ” is the fire temple of the Saiici relief, east torana,
left pillar, inner face, second panel. Cf. also HIJA, figure 145.
One of the detailed descriptions of a Yaksa holystead may be quoted
in full: this is the famous shrine of the Yaksa Parnabhadra (Punna-
bhadda) of which a long account is given in the Aupapdatika Sitra.*
Near Campa there was a sanctuary (céiya) named Punnabhadde. It was of
ancient origin, told of by men of former days, old, renowned, rich, and well
known. It had umbrellas, banners, and bells; it had flags, and flags upon flags
to adorn it, and was provided with brushes.°
* Barnett, Antagada Dasao, p. 13, n. 5.
* Audumbara coins, Smith, V. A., in J. A. S. B., LXVI, pt. I, 1897; Cunning-
ham, Comms of Ancient India, pl. IV, 2; HIIA, figs. 116, 117. Ceylon coins,
Pieris, P. E., Ndgadipa. . ..... , J. R.A. S., Ceylon Br., XX VII, No. 72, 19109.
* Cunningham, Stupa of Bharhut, pl. XVI; or HIIA, fig. 43.
*Leumann, E., Das Aupapatika Siitra, erstes Upanga der Jaina, Abh. Kunde
des Morgenlandes, VIII, 2, 1883. The same account is implied in the Antagada
Dasao, the quotation above being taken from Barnett’s rendering inserted in his
translation of the latter text.
The Jaina canonical works, like the Buddhist, may be regarded as good evi-
dence for the centuries immediately preceding the Christian era.
It may be remarked that Jaina céiyas are distinguished (from those of Yak-
khas) as Grhat céiya.
, Loma-hattha: it seems to me that the rendering “ brushes” may be due to
the translator’s preoccupation with Jaina ideas.
Pali Joma-hattha means “with hair erect” (horripilation) in fear, astonish-
ment, or joy. May not the suggestion be here simply “ marvellous to behold,”
rather than the designation of an object? or could yak-tail fly-whisks (court),
more appropriate in a Yaksa shrine, have been meant?
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
It had daises (veyaddi)* built in it, and was reverentially adorned with a
coating of dry cow-dung, and bore figures of the five-fingered hand painted in
gosirsa sandal, fresh red sandal, and Dardara Sandal. There was in it great
store of ritual pitchers. On (? beside, or above) its doorways were ritual jars
(vandaraghade) and well-fashioned arches (torané). Broad rounded long-
drooping masses of bunches of fresh sweet-smelling blossoms of the five colours
scattered therein. It smelt pleasantly with the shimmering reek of kdalaguru,
fine kundurukka, and turukka (incenses),’ and was odorous with sweet-smelling
fine scents, a very incense-wafer. It was haunted by actors, dancers, rope-
walkers, wrestlers, boxers, jesters, jumpers, reciters, ballad-singers, story-tellers,
pole dancers, picture-showmen (mankhé),* pipers, lute-players, and minstrels.
.... This sanctuary was encompassed round about by a great wood..... In
this wood was a broad mid-space. Therein, it is related, was a great and fine
ASoka-tree. It had its roots pure with kusa and vikusa grass..... Under-
neath this fine ASoka-tree, somewhat close to its trunk, was, it is related, a large
dais of (? resting upon) earthen blocks (pudhavisila pattac). It (the dais)
*Veyaddi; an earthen or stone slab altar for the reception of offerings is the
essential part of a shrine. Sometimes a symbol is placed on it. Later, when
images come into general use, it becomes the dsana (seat or throne) or pitha
(pedestal) of the figure. Altars are generally plain and smooth; but beautifully
ornamented examples are known, particularly one, Jaina, from the Kankali Tila,
Mathura (Smith, Jaina stupa of Mathura, pl. XXII), and the outer vajrasana,
Buddhist, at Bodhgaya (Cunningham, Mahabodhi, pl. XIII), both of pre-
Kusana date.
In the Uvdasagadasdo, 164 (Hoernle, p. 107) the altar is called a masonry
platform (pudhavi-sila-pattae = Sanskrit prthvi-sila-pattaka or pattaya, cf.
the sila pattaam of the Malavikagnimitra, I11, 79) ; Hoernle discusses the terms
at some length. Pudhavi-sila might mean laterite. The words tankite-maiico
are used in the Pali Vakkha Suttas, and rendered stone couch, but “altar”
would be better.
? The five fingered hand design is mentioned also elsewhere; e. g., Mahavainsa,
XXXII, 4 (paicangulikad pantika). Perhaps a five-foliate palmette would have
been thus designated.
* Picture-showmen; probably those who exhibited scrolls (yamapata) illus-
trating the rewards of good and bad actions, to be realized in a future life. In
the Jaina Bhagavati Sitra, XV, 1, there is mentioned the heresiarch Gosale
Mankhaliputte, whose second name refers to his father’s trade as a mankha
(cf. Hoernle, Uvdsagadasdado, pp. 108, 121, notes 253, 273 and Appendix, p. 1).
Patanjali, Mahabhdasya, 111, 2, 111, refers to the exhibition of paintings of the
Krsna Lila, and to the use of the historical present in verbal explanation of
them; see Liiders, Sitz. k. Ak. Wiss., Berlin, 1916, pp. 608 ff.; also Keith, A. B.,
The Sanskrit drama (but Keith’s rejection of the spoken explanation is probably
mistaken). In Visakhadatta’s Mudraraksasa, Act. 1, Canakya’s spy adopts the
disguise of an exhibitor of yamapata (Prakrit, jamapadaam). Cf. the modern
Javanese Wayang Beber (Groeneveldt, W. P., Notes on the Malay Archipelago
and Malacca, compiled from Chinese sources, Batavia, 1876; Krom, N. J., in Ars
Asiatica, VIII, pl. LIX, and the similar Siamese exhibitions cited by Kram-
risch, Visnudharmottaram, Calcutta, 1924, p. 5, from the Siamese Saratha
Pakasini, pt. Il, p. 308).
—————
No. 6 YAKSAS—COOM ARASWAMY 21
was of goodly proportions as to breadth, length, and height; and it was black
. . smooth and massive, eight-cornered, like the face of a mirror, very de-
lightful, and variously figured with wolves, bulls, horses, men, dolphins, birds,
snakes, elves, ruru-deer, sarabha-deer, yak-oxen, elephants, forest creepers, and
padmaka creepers..... It was shaped like a throne, and was comforting
. comely. |
In those days, at that time, there arrived the reverent elder Subhamme.... .
amidst a company of five hundred friars he travelled on and on, journeying in
pleasantness, he came to the city of Campa and the sanctuary Punnabhadde he
took a lodging such as was meet, and abode there. People came out from
Campa to hear his preaching.
The Antagada Dasdo, chapter 6, in connection with the garland-
maker Ajjunae provides interesting details regarding the cult and
shrine of the Jakkha Moggara-pani. The following abstract includes
all that is pertinent to our study :*
Outside the city of Rayagihe (Rajagrha) Ajjunae possessed a beautiful
flower-garden. Some way from this garden there was a shrine (jakkhayayana)
sacred to the Jakkha Moggara-pani; this shrine “had belonged to Ajjunae’s
grandfather, great-grandfather, and great-great-grandfather, and had passed
through a line of many men of his race” (by whom it had been supported in
past generations). “In it there stood a figure of the Jakkha Moggara-pani
holding a great iron mace a thousand palas in weight.’’ Every morning, before
plying his trade, Ajjunae would go to the garden with baskets and cloths to
gather flowers; then ‘‘ with the chiefest and best flowers he would approach the
jakkhayayana of the Jakkha Moggara-pani, fall upon his knees, and do rever-
ence.’ On a certain festival day he took with him his wife Bandhumai.
Meanwhile a certain gang of roughnecks from Rayagihe had made their way
to the shrine to take their pleasure there; seeing Ajjunae and his wife, they plan
to bind him and take possession of her. To this end they hid themselves behind
the doors; when Ajjunae had made his offerings, they seized him as arranged,
and worked their will on his wife. Ajjunae reflected, ‘ Verily I have been from
childhood a worshipper of my lord the Jakkha Moggara-pani; now if the
Jakkha Moggara-pani were present here, could he behold me falling into such
ill-fortune? Then the Jakkha Moggara-pani is not present here: ’tis plain this
is but a log.” Moggara-pani, however, became aware of Ajjunae’s thoughts, and
took possession of his body; having done so he seized the iron mace, and smote
down the six villains and the woman.
Ajjunae, still possessed by the Jakkha, now went about killing six men and a
woman everyday. The matter was brought to the king’s notice. He proclaimed
that people should stay at home, and not go out of doors about their usual tasks.
* A Jaina ascetic then arrived. Despite the king’s orders and the danger, the pious
merchant Sudamsane cannot be dissuaded from going out to pay his respects to
the ascetic. The Jakkha meets and threatens him; but Sudarnsane, without fear,
immediately makes full profession of the monastic vows, and thus, as it were,
armed in the Lord, the Jakkha cannot approach him, but comes to a halt, staring
* Translation by Barnett, 1907, p. 86. I have restored the original jakkha and
jakkhayayana in place of Barnett’s “ fairy” and “ fairy-shrine.”
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
fixedly at him; then he abandons the body of Ajjunae, and returns to his own
place with the mace. Ajjunae falls to the ground, but on recovering himself,
accompanies Sudamsane and likewise takes the vows.
Here we find both the cult, patron-saint, and possession features
well displayed ; it is also clear that the Jakkha shrine is a building
with doors, and it is of interest to note that the statue is of wood,
and that it is provided with a club (cf. pl. 12, fig. 3). It is hardly
necessary to point out that the statue is not the Jakkha; the latter
appears suddenly, and carries off the club with which the statue is
provided. The name Moggara-pani signifies, of course, “ Club-~
bearer.” The antiquity of the shrine and simple nature of the cult
remain, and so, too, the fact that the worshipper regards the Jakkha
as his natural protector; but the Jakkha is represented as a fierce
creature, without the sense to know when to stop—rather like the
giants of European fairy-tales. But he is easily subdued by the new-
made Jaina monk; and from the Jaina point of view the story is a
highly edifying one.
A characteristic and almost essential Hehe of Hindu and Buddhist
shrines is an enclosing wall or railing (prakdra, vedika, etc.). The
following story related in the Dhammapada Aithakatha (Burlingame,
E. W., Buddhist legends, H. O. S., Vol. 28, p. 146) refers to the
building of such an enclosure in the case of a tree worshipped with
desire for children:
At Savatthi, we are told, lived a householder named Great-Wealth Maha-
Suvanna. He was rich, possessed of great wealth, possessed of ample means
of enjoyment, but at the same time he was childless. One day, as he was on his
way home from bathing at a ghat, he saw by the roadside a large forest tree
with spreading branches. Thought he, “This tree must be tenanted by a
powerful tree-spirit.” So he caused the ground under the tree to be cleared,
the tree itself to be inclosed with a wall (pakara), and sand to be spread within
the inclosure. And having decked the tree with flags and banners, he made
the following vow: “ Should I obtain a son or a daughter, I will pay you great
honor.” Having so done, he went on his way.
Another story, in the Kah-gyur (Schiefner, Tibetan tales, IX) re-
lates how
a childless Brahman had recourse to the deity of a great nyagrodha-tree
(banyan), near the city called thence Nyagrodhika. He caused the ground
around it to be sprinkled, cleansed, and adorned. He then filled the space with
perfumes, flowers, and incense, and set up flags and standards. Then, after
having entertained eight hundred Brahmans and bestowed upon them material
for robes, he prayed to the tree-haunting deity, “ Be pleased to bestow on me a
son.” In case the request were granted, he would continue to offer the like
honors for a year, but if not, he would cut down the tree and burn it. The tree
deity, who was in favor with the Four Great Kings, betook himself to the
Maharaja Rastrapala, Viriidhaka, Virapaksa, and Vaisravana; and the matter
was ultimately arranged by the aid of Sakra and Mahabrahma.
No. 6 YAKSAS—COOM ARASWAMY 23
Another and later instance may be cited in the Mdlavikagnimitra,
V. 1, where a Dilutti-bandho, or bhittivedikabandha is built round an
aSoka-tree.
Elaborate structures built round the Bodhi tree are represented in
numerous reliefs from Bharhut, Safici, Mathura, and Amaravati,
and there is no reason to suppose that structures of this kind were
made for the first time after the Yakkha bhavanam (for such it was)
at Uruvela became the Bodhi tree of Gautama.
Yaksa caityas, etc., are constantly described as places of resort, and
suitable halting or resting places for travellers; Buddhist and Jaina
saints and monks are frequently introduced as resting or residing at
the haunt of such and such a Yaksa, or in such and such a Yakkha
céiya (Punnabhadda céiya, ut supra; the Buddha, in many of the
Yakkha Suttas of the Samyutta Nikaya). Amongst other caityas or
groves mentioned in Buddhist literature, the following may be cited
as having been in all probability sacred to the cult of a local divinity:
(1) the Capala caitya given to the Buddha by the Vajjians (Lic-
chavis) of Vaisali (Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, 78) (2) the
Supatittha cetiya in the Yatthivana or Staffwood, where Buddha
stayed on his first visit; it is stated, indeed, that this was the ancient
place of abode of Supatittha, the god of a banyan tree ( Watters, ibid.,
II, 147), (3) the grove of sal-trees belonging to the Mallas, where the
Parinibbana took place. Here the couch (uttarasisakam) on which
the Buddha lay must have been a dais or altar originally intended for
the reception of offerings. In some reliefs, tree spirits are seen in
each of the two trees. (4) The Vajjian (Vaisali, Licchavi)
caityas referred to by the Buddha (Mahda@parinibbana Suttanta, and
Anguttara Nikaya, VII, 19) when he repeats the conditions of future
welfare for the Vajjians, exhorting them not to allow the “ proper
offerings and rites as formerly given and performed at the Vajjian
cetiyas to fall into desuetude.” Buddhaghosa (Sumangala Vilasini)
regards these as having been Yakkha cetiya, and it can hardly be
doubted that this was so in most or all cases. With reference to the
Saradanda cetiya at Vaisali, where the Buddha was staying on the
occasion of stating the conditions of Vajjian welfare, he says that
“this was a vihdra erected on the site of a former shrine of the
Yakkha Saradanda.”
In the same way Gujarati commentators of Jaina texts interpret,
no doubt correctly, the céiyas referred to, as Jakkha shrines. But the
Diuipalasa céiya N. E. of the Vaniyagama suburb of Vaisali may be
separately mentioned. Here, in the Uvdsaga Dasdo,’ § 2f., we find
*Hoernle, Uvasagadasao, II, p. 2.
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
Mahavira’* in residence. The same céiya is called a park (wjja@na) in
Vipaka Siitra, lect. 1, § 2, and elsewhere a céiya of the Nala clan.
As Mahavira was a son of the chief of this Ksattriya clan, Hoernle
assumes that the céiya must have been sacred to the previous Jina
Parsvanatha. But even if we regard this Jina as historical, there
could have existed no Jaina cult (piija@) in the time of Mahavira, and
it is much more likely that this was a Jakkha shrine or park. When,
further, the son of a pious householder of Vaniyagama takes the vows
of a lay adherent, and renounces willing offerings to “ the Devas, or
objects of reverence to a heterodox community,” it is probable that
Jakkha céiyas are included. But here the commentory cites céiya as
“idol,” and mentions Virabhadra and Mahakala.
5. WORSHIP (PUJA) IN YAKSA SHRINES
Offerings to Yaksas, with a long list of other beings, are referred to
in several Grhya Siitras as being made at the close of Vedic studies ;
the Sanikhayana Srauta S titra, I, 11, 6, mentions Manibhadra. The
Asvalayana Grhya Siitra, I, 12, describes what is called a caitya-
offering (vandana) by householders. Hillebrandt,” followed by Keith,
assumes that caityas erected as funeral monuments to teachers and
prophets are intended, but it is much more likely that the reference is
in the main to Yaksa caityas.
The Mahabharata mentions that the flowers offered to Yaksas,
Gandharvas, and Nagas make glad the heart, hence they are called
sumanasas, eumenides; such flowers being other than the sharp-
scented, thorny and red flowers used in magical rites (Hopkins, Epic
Mythology, p. 68). The incense made from deodar and Vatica
1As remarked by Hoernle the terms céiya and ujjdna, vana-sanda, vana-
khanda = grove or park, are interchangeable.
* Ritual-Literature, Grundriss, III, 2, p. 86. It is quite possible that Hille-
brandt (like the author of the P. T. S. Pali Dictionary) ignores here the com-
mon meanings of caitya, other than funeral mound. I cannot help suspecting
too that when Keith (Religion and Philosophy of the Veda, p. 73) remarks
that “ Buddhist literature knows .... Yaksas who live in relic mounds,” a
pre-occupation with the idea of funeral mounds (which are but one kind of
caitya) underlies the statement, which seems to be founded only on a misinter-
pretation of the collocation Yakkha-cetiya.
It is true that the word caitya is said to be derived from a root ci meaning
to build or heap up; but as used in the Epics and early Buddhist and Jaina
literature, it means any holystead, altar, shrine, grove, temple, etc. May it not
be derived from cit, with the sense therefore of an object to be meditated upon
or attended to?
The Epic uses the word ediika when Bauddha cetiyas (stupas) are specifically
meant; and in Jaina works, Jaina céiyas are distinguished as Arhat céiya.
No. 6 YAKSAS—-COOM ARASWAMY 25
robusta is liked by all deities ; but sallakiya incense 1s disliked by the
gods and suitable only for the Daityas. Milk and flowers should be
offered to the gods, who take only the perfume of the latter. The
appearance of flowers is acceptable to Raksasas, but the Nagas use
them as food. On the other hand the food of Yaksas and Raksasas
is meat and spirituous liquor (Hopkins, ibid., pp. 68, 69). Here
again, as is generally the case, the Yaksas are given a spiritual rank
intermediate between that of the gods (Devas) and the lower spirits.
Manu (XI, g6) says that meat and intoxicating drinks are the food
of Yaksas, Raksasas and Pisacas. In the Meghadiuta, II, 3, Yaksas
are described as drinking wine produced from kalpa-trees, in the
company of fair damsels: cf. the Bacchanalian Yaksa groups of
Mathura (pl. 14, fig. 1) and those of the ceiling of Cave I at Ajanta.
The prospector, before digging for treasure in Northern India,
makes offerings of meat, sesamum seeds, and flowers, to Kuvera,
Manibhadra, etc. (Mahabharata, 14, 65, 11).
In connection with a Yaksini shrine at Rajagrha it is mentioned in
the Mahabharata (3, 84, 105) that there was a daily service.
A passage omitted from the description of the Punnabhadde céiya
cited above.informs us that this sanctuary
was meet for the prayers and supplications of many prayerful folk; meet for
worship, celebration, veneration, offering, largesse, and respect; meet to be
waited upon with courtesy as a blessed and auspicious sanctuary of the gods,
divine, truth-telling, truth-counselling (or, surely satisfying the desires of its
worshippers). Miracles were manifested therein, and it received shares in thou-
sands of sacrifices. Many people came to worship the sanctuary Punnabhadde.
In the Antagada Dasdo, loc. cit., pp. 86 ff., the garland-maker
Ajjunae every day, before practising his trade, repairs to the temple
(jakkhayayané) of the Yakkha Moggara-pani, with flower-offerings
of great worth, falls upon his knees, and does reverence.
Harinegamesi (see note on p. 12) is represented in the Antagada
Daséo (loc. cit., p. 67) as receiving piija:
Sulasa was from childhood a worshipper of the god Harinegamesi. She
caused to be made an image of H., and every morning she bathed .. . . per-
formed the customary lustratory rites, and with a still moist robe made flower-
offerings of great worth, fell upon her knees, did reverence .... By the lady
Sulasa’s devotion, veneration, and obedience the god H. was won over. So in
compassion for the lady Sulasa the god H., made both her and thee to become
pregnant at the same time.*
* Here “thee” refers to Queen Devai, whose living children are given to
Sulasa. Later, when Queen Devai longs for children of her own, her husband
Kanhe (Krsna) Vasudeva worships Harinegamesi; the latter’s throne quakes,
he looks down, and sees Vasudeva whose mind is fixed on him. He appears
to Vasudeva, “clad in robes of the five colours bearing bells,’ and promises
that Devai shall bear a child.
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
In the beautiful Jaina Tamil classic, the Jivaka-cintamani (Vinson,
J., Légendes bouddhistes et Djainas, Paris, 1900, t. 2, p. 43) the
grateful Jivaka erects a temple for the Yakkha Sutafijana, sets up a
statue, and dedicates a town (the rents whereof would support the
service of the temple) ; then he has prepared a drama relating to the
history of the Yaksa, and most likely we should understand that this
drama was presented in the temple on special occasions for the
pleasure of the deity.
The tutelary Yaksa at Vaisali, as we have seen, was worshipped
with oblations, dance and song, and the sound of musical instruments.
Later books appear to show that Yaksa worship and some par-
ticular Yaksas retained their prestige throughout the medieval period.
In these texts we find a cult of the same general character, and can
glean some further details. In the Kathdsaritsagara, part I, chapter
XIII, we find:
“Tn our country, within the city, there is the shrine of a powerful
Yaksa named Manibhadra, established by our ancestors. The people
there come and make petitions at this shrine, offering various gifts,
in order to obtain various blessings.” Offerings (of food) are re-
ferred to, which it was the duty of the officiating priest to receive and
eat. The anecdote turns upon the interesting fact that the Yaksa
temple was regularly used as a temporary jail for adulterers.
Numerous other and incidental references to Yaksas and Yaksinis
will be found in the same work, passim (e. g., in ch. XXXIV, story of
the Yaksa Viriipaksa).
The equally late Parisistaparvan of Hemacandra (thirteenth cen-
tury) Canto 3, has a story of two old women, Buddhi and Siddhi:
“ Buddhi had for a long time continued to sacrifice to a Yaksa, Bhola
(or Bholaka), when the god, pleased with her devotion, promised her
whatever she should ask,” etc. A little further on we find a human
being, Lalitanga, “disguised as a statue of a Yaksa.”* The same
text, Canto 2, eighth story, describes an ordeal undergone by a woman
justly accused of adultery. “ Now there was a statue of the Yaksa
Sobhana of such sanctity that no guilty person could pass through
between its legs.” The lady (like Guinevere in a similar predicament )
frames an oath which is literally true but essentially false. ‘“ While
the puzzled Yaksa was still at a loss to know how to act,” she passed
through his legs.
Devendra, in the Uttaradhyayana tika (Jacobi, p. 39, Meyer, Hindu
tales, p. 140), Story of Domuha, tells of a lady named Gunamala
* Jacobi, H., Sthaviravali Charitra, Bib. Ind., Calcutta, 1891, pp. 33, 37-
No. 6 YAKSAS—COOMARASWAMY 27
who “ was unhappy because she had no daughter. And she vowed an
oblation (uvaiyam) to the Yaksa called Mayana ... . a daughter
was born of her... .. She gave the oblation to the Yaksa.”
In the Prabandhacintaémani, another Jaina story book, about 1419
A. D., we find a Yaksa by name Kapardin invoked by a Jaina layman,
acting on the advice of his Guru.’ The Yaksa bestows wealth on his
supplicant, and then relates the circumstances to his sons, “in order to
manifest in their hearts the power of religion”; the Yaksa himself
is a worshipper of the fina. It is clear that Jainism and Yaksa wor-
ship could be as closely interrelated as Buddhism and Hinduism have
often been.
Rites for attracting Yaksis are mentioned in the Kathdsaritsagara,
chapter XLIX. These rites are performed in cemeteries, and are
evidently Tantrik. The beautiful Yaksis Vidyunmala, Candralekha,
and Sulocana are said to be the best among them. A certain Adityasar-
man, living in Ujjayini, obtains the last as his wife, and lives with
her in Alaka ; their son Gunasarman is sent back to the human world,
and becomes a great king.
6. YAKSA WORSHIP A BHAKTI CULT
The reader cannot fail to have observed that the facts of Yaksa
worship summarized above are almost identical with those charac-
teristic of other and contemporary Bhakti (devotional) cults. It is,
' in fact, a great error to assume that the term Bhagavat (“ worship-
ful’) applies only to Visnu, and Bhakta (“ devout worshipper ”’) only
to worshippers of Visnu.* The rise, or, as it would be better to say,
the coming into prominence of Bhakti cults in the centuries immedi-
ately preceding the beginning of the Christian era was not an isolated
sectarian development, but a general tendency. All forms of belief
were involved, Buddhism no less than others.
Not only is Vasudeva (Visnu) styled Bhagavat, but also the Four
Great Kings, the Maharajas, Regents of the Quarters, amongst whom
* Prabandhacintamani, Trans. by C. H. Tawney, London, 1901, p. 203.
* As might be gathered from Bhandarkar, R. G., Vaisnavism, Saivism, and
minor religious systems (Grundriss indo-arische Ph. und A.).
* For the Bhakti character of even early Buddhism, see De la Vallée-Poussin,
loc. cit. pp. 334 ff. The Mayjhima Nikdya, 1, 142, has “He who has faith
(Sraddha) in Me and love (prema) for Me will attain to heaven.” So too
Saivism, ‘“ Even after committing all crimes, men by mental worship of Siva
are freed from sin” (Mahabharata, 13, 18, 65). Both assurances are altogether
in the spirit of the Bhagavad Gita.
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
is Kubera, Regent of the North, himself a Yaksa* (and, as Vais-
ravana, frequently styled Bhagavat in the Mahabharata), a Naga,
and the Buddha himself.” The Pawaya image of the great Yaksa
Manibhadra has a dedicatory inscription, in which the deity himself
is styled Bhagava and the members of the gostha (corporation) for
whom the image was set up speak of themselves as Mdanibhadra-
bhaktas. Nemesa, too, is called Bhagava (Mathura inscription al-
ready cited). Thus, both the designation Bhagavat and the use of the
term Bhakti are seen to be common to most, as they probably were
to all of the contemporary faiths.’
Apart from these questions of terminology it will be evident that
the facts of Yaksa worship correspond almost exactly with those of
other Bhakti religions. In fact, the use of images in temples, the prac-
tice of prostration, the offering of flowers (the typical gift, constantly
mentioned ), incense, food, and cloths, the use of bells, the singing of
hymns, the presentation of a drama dealing with the Lila of the
deity, all these are characteristic of Hindu worship even at the present
day.’ Only the nature of the food is peculiar, and this may be attrib-
uted to the relationship of Yaksas with Raksasas; nor will it be for-
gotten that animal sacrifices and the use of strong liquors still per-
sists in some Sakta cults. Nothing of this cult type is to be found in
the Vedas.
7. YAKSA SOURCES IN BUDDHIST ICGONOGRAPB®
Yaksas, as we have seen, may be represented by independent cult
images, or in connection with other sectarian systems, as attendants,
‘Panini, IV, 3, 97, speaks of Bhakti directed towards Maharajas, not in a
political sense, but with reference to the Four Great Kings (see Bhusari
in Ann. Bhandarkar Inst., VIII, 1926, p. 199). For Manibhadra as a Lokapala
see Vogel, Indian Serpent Lore, p. 10.
“The Naga Dadhikarna, in an inscription at Mathura, Luders’ list, No. 85.
* Already at Bharhut, in the inscription Bhagavato Saka Munino Bodho, and
on the Piprahwa vase, Bhagavato sakiyamuni.
*Garde, M. B., The site of Padumavati, A. S. I., A. R., 1915-16, Gangoly,
O. C. in Modern Review, Oct. 1919; Foucher, in J. B. O. R. S.; Chanda, Four
ancient Yaksa statues. Text of the Brahmi inscription: .... gausthya Man:-
bhadrabhaktagarbhasukhitah Manibhadrasya pratima pratisthapayamti. ....
° For the meaning of Bhagavat, “ Adorable,” ‘‘ Blessed,” “ Worshipful,” etc.,
see Grierson, The translation of the term Bhagavat, J. R. A, S., 1910;
Schrader, ibid., 1911, p. 194; Hopkins, Epic use of Bhagavat and bhakti, ibid.,
1912; Govindacharya Svamin, ibid., p. 483.
°*For an admirable account of the daily office in a modern temple, see
(Burgess, J.), The ritual of Ramesvaram, Indian Antiquary, XII, 1883.
No. 6 : YAKS AS—COOMARASWAMY 29
guardians, and worshippers. But not only have both classes of figures
their own intrinsic and aesthetic interest (pl. 1, fig. 1, and pl. 8, for
example, are magnificent works), they are also of importance as fac-
tors in the development of Indian iconography generally. The force
of tradition is strong, and Indian art like other arts has always by
preference made use of existing types, rather than invented or
adopted wholly new ones. The case is exactly parallel to that of
religious development, in which the past always survives. We have
to do with a conscious sectarian adaptation, accompanied by.an uncon-
scious, or at least unintentional, stylistic evolution.
In early Indian art, so far as cult images are concerned, one icono-
graphic type stands out predominant, that is the standing figure with
the right hand raised, the left on the hip. Sometimes the right hand
holds a flower, or cauri, or weapon; sometimes the left grasps the
robe, or holds a flask, but the position of the arms is constant. We are
here, of course, concerned only with two-armed images; those with
four or more arms do not appear before the second century A. D.,
when the fundamentals had already been established. Stylistically, the
type is massive and voluminous, and altogether plastically conceived,
not bounded by outlines ; the essential quality is one of energy, with-
out introspection or spiritual aspiration.
Of this type are the early images of Yaksas, and Yaksis, whether
independent or attendant. And it is also this type which provided the
model for the cult images of other deities, such as Siva or Buddha,
when the necessities of Bhakti determined the appearance of all dei-
ties in visible forms.
Making only a passing reference to the close formal relationship
recognizable between the oldest known Siva image, that of the Gudi-
mallam lingam (pl. 17, fig. 1), and the Yaksas of Bharhut and Sanci,
and to the facts that the Nyagrodha, Udambara, or Asvattha tree may
be identified with Visnu, and that Siva, Sarnkara, Karttikeya, etc.,
are all Yaksas in the Mahamayiri list, I propose to speak here only
of the part played by the Yaksa type in evolution of Buddhist types.
In the case of the Buddha figure, as I have recently treated the sub-
ject at length in the Art Bulletin (Vol. IX, pt. 4), I shall only point
out the stylistic continuity presented in the series: Parkham image
(pl. 1, fig. 1) ; one of the Yaksas from Patna (HIJA, fig. 67) ; Buddha
in the Lucknow Museum (HIJA, fig. 79) ; Bodhisattva in Philadelphia
(Art Bull., loc. cit., fig. 50); Friar Bala’s image at Sarnath (pl. 17,
~ fig. 2); Gupta image in the Mathura Museum (HIJA, fig. 158). In
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vot. 80
such a series the relationships are very evident, and there is no room for
the insertion of any Hellenistic type.
The Bodhisattvas Padmapani, Vajrapani and Maitreya may be dis-
cussed in greater detail.
The earliest Buddha triads are represented, as in plate 9, by a
Bodhi-tree supported by two Yaksas, each with an expanded rose-
lotus (padma) in hand, or by a symbol (the wheel) between similar
Yaksas with a cauri (pl. 10, fig. 1). Yaksas with a lotus in hand
appear as guardian figures (dvGrapdlas) at Safici (pl. 8) and else-
where (pl. 7). Now, a Yaksa with a padma in hand can only be
described adjectivally as padma-pani; can it be doubted that the
Bodhisattva Padmapani (a form or designation of Avalokitesvara),
whom we find a little later attendant on the Buddha or as an inde-
pendent Buddhist deity, is the same historically and iconographically,
as the padma-pani Yaksa of the earlier sculpture? The cawri-
bearing Yaksas (HIJA, figs. 84, and 85 right), too, are the same as
those of the earlier compositions, but we cannot as a rule give them
a name.
The case of Vajrapani is more involved.’ The one obvious vajra-
pani of Indian mythology is Indra, whose weapon is the thunderbolt
already in the Vedas. In Buddhist mythology Indra is known as
Sakka (San. Sakra), and he plays a conspicuous part in the Buddhist
legend visiting or aiding the Buddha on various occasions.” Buddha-
ghosa * tells us that Vajrapani is the same as Sakka ; and Sakka, upon
occasion (Yakkha Suttas, 2) may be called a Yakkha. But Sakka is
never himself a Bodhisattva.
On the other hand Vajrapani, independently of Indra, is called a
Yaksa in the Mahamayiri list, where he is said to be the Yaksa of
Vulture’s Peak, Rajagrha (the work krtdlaya seems to imply that
there was a temple). A Tibetan version of the Vinaya speaks of a
Yaksa Vajrapani (Gnod-sbyin Lag-na-rdo-rje). And in the Lalita
Vistara, XV, 66, we have a “benevolent lord of the Guhyakas,
*For Vajrapani in addition to references cited below, see also Vogel, Le
Vajrapani gréco-bouddhique, B. E. F. E. O. XI, roti, p. 525, where it is ob-
served that Vajrapani and Indra are not necessarily always one and the same
persons. M. Foucher has already fully established the Yaksa origin of the
Bodhisattva Vajrapani (L’Art gréco-bouddhique ... ., II, pp. 48-64). See also
Senart, E., Vajrapani dans les sculptures du gandhara, Congr. Int. Orientalistes,
14, Alger, 1905, pp. III-13I.
* For a full and valuable discussion of Indra as Sakka, see Mrs. Rhys Davids,
Introduction to the Sakka-paiha Suttanta, SBB., III., p. 294.
Waddell, Evolution of the Buddha cult, p. 118, citing Csoma de Ko6rds,
Analysis of the Dulva, Asiatic Researches, XX, 64.
*Commentary on the Ambattha Sutta, cited SBB, II, 117.
NO. 6 YAKSAS—COOM ARASWAMY 31
Vajrapani”’ who appears in the air on the occasion of the Abhinis-
kramana (Going Forth of the Buddha), and who, as remarked by
Foucher, “ desormais le quittera pas plus que son ombre,” becoming,
in fact, the Buddha’s guardian angel.’ This Vajrapani is not the same
as Sakka, who is independently present on the same occasion.
This Vajrapani is constantly represented in Gandharan reliefs, and
sometimes in those of Mathura, illustrating scenes from the Life, sub-
Sequent to the Going Forth, e. g., Foucher, Joc. cit., figs. 191, 195, 197,
199. At his first appearance he is called a “ benevolent Lord of the
Guhyakas, vajra in hand.” Sometimes he holds a cauri as well as a
vajra; moreover, this Vajrapani is generally represented as nude to
the waist and without any turban or crown, thus not as a great king,
as Indra should be. Moreover, this Vajrapani and Sakka are often
present together in one and the same scene (pl. 21, fig. 2).
Perhaps the earliest appearance of a Vajrapani in a Buddha triad
may be the example in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (HIJA,
fig. 85, left) ; and here we are in doubt whether to call him Yaksa or
Bodhisattva. It may be doubted whether the Bodhisattva Vajrapani
had been recognized so early. The only early independent image which
may be a representation of the Vajrapani, who is not Indra, is a frag-
ment from Mathura, illustrated in plate 15, figure 2.
Thus there was actually a Yaksa Vajrapani, not identical with
Indra, but having an independent, pre-Buddhist cult; this Yaksa be-
came the Buddha’s guardian angel and attendant, and finally came to
be called the Bodhisattva Vajrapani, who sometimes appears in
Buddha triads, and is sometimes the object of separate worship
(HIIA, -fig. 299).
As regards Maitreya, the earliest of the Bodhisattvas to be desig-
nated as such, there is less to say. His characteristic emblem is the
amrta (“‘ nectar”) flask, held in the left hand. It will perhaps occur
to the mind of the reader that there are both Bacchanalian Yaksas,
and Bachhanalian Nagas, who hold a cup or flask in their hands ; and
as in verbal imagery nothing is more characteristic of Buddhism
than the reinterpretation of an old phrase in the interests of present
edification (cf. Lalita Vistara, VII, 91, “with the Water of Life
(amrta) shalt thou heal the suffering due to the corruption of our
mortal nature”), so here, perhaps, we have a literal example of the
pouring of new wine into old bottles.
*Foucher, L’Art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhara, I, 368: and cf. ibid., II,
pp. 48-64.
* Vogel, The Mathura school of sculpture, A. S. I., A. R., 1909-10, p. 76 and
pl. XXVIIIb.
3
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS vot. 80
8. WOMAN AND TREE MOTIF
Enough has been said in the course of the present article, or will be
found in the accompanying illustrations, to indicate the intimate con-
nection subsisting between spirits and trees.’ For the. rest it will
suffice in the present connection to recall the Epic passage, “ god-
desses born in trees, to be worshipped by those desiring children,”
such goddesses being designated as dryads (Vrksaka, Vrddhika).
There is no motif more fundamentally characteristic of Indian art
from first to last than is that of the Woman and Tree. In early
sculptures (reliefs on pillars of * gateways and railings at Bharhut,
Bodhgaya, Safici, and Mathura) the female figures associated with
trees are voluptuous beauties, scantily clothed, and almost nude, but
always provided with the broad jewelled belt (mekhala) which ap-
pears already on the pre-Maurya terra-cotta figures of fertility god-
desses, and which the Atharva Veda (6, 133) tells us was a long-life
(ayusya) charm. Sometimes these dryads stand on a vehicle (vaha-
nam) such as a Yaksa (Guhya), elephant, or crocodile (makara).
Sometimes they are adorning themselves with jewels, or using a
mirror. Very often they hold with one hand a branch of the tree
under which they stand, sometimes one leg is twined round the stem
of the tree (an erotic conception, for laté is both “creeper” or
“vine,” and “ woman,” and cf. Atharva Veda, VI, 8, 1, “ As the
creeper embraces the tree on all sides, so do thou embrace me”).
Sometimes one foot is raised and rests against the trunk of the tree.
Sometimes there are children, either standing beside the dryad
mother, or carried astraddle on her hip. Of the trees represented the
*For pre- and non-Buddhist trees, tree-spirits, and sacred groves generally,
see Hopkins, Epic Mythology, p. 6f., and Keith, Religions and Philosophy of
the Veda, pp. 184, 185. Trees and tree-deities play but an insignificant part in the
Rg Veda and even in the Atharva Veda (Macdonnell, Vedic Mythology, p. 154)
but even here they are connected with human life and productivity; the beings
inhabiting trees being called Gandharvas and Apsarases. The Atharva Veda,
of course, contains many elements incorporated from aboriginal non-Aryan
sources. It is perhaps also significant (in view of possible Sumero-Dravidian
connections) that in Babylonian tradition immortality and productiveness are
original functions of the tree of Fortune (Ward, Seal Cylinders of Western
Asia, pp. 233, 237, etc.).
* Platevay hie. 23 ply.s)2 pls Otis en sis oplse rie ties else ena cep me amor
pl. 19; pl. 22, figs. 1, 2.
* Also the so-called Earth goddess of Lauriya-Nandangarh (HIIA, fig. 105) :
this nude goddess, who is represented also in very early terracottas (see M. F. A.
Bulletin, No. 152), may not be a Yaksi.
NO. 6 ; YAKSAS—COOMARASWAMY 33
asoka and mango are most usual. At first sight, these figures seem to
be singularly out of place if regarded with the eyes of a Buddhist or
Jaina monk." But by the time that a necessity had arisen for the
erection of these great monuments, with their illustration of Buddhist
legends and other material constituting a veritable Biblia Pauperum,
Buddhism and Jainism had passed beyond the circle of monasticism,
and become popular religions with a cult. These figures of fertility
spirits are present here because the people are here. Women, accus-
tomed to invoke the blessings of a tree spirit, would approach the rail-
ing pillar images with similar expectations ; these images, like those
of Nagas and Yaksas often set up on Buddhist and Jaina sites, may
be compared to the altars of patron saints which a pious Catholic
visits with prayers for material blessings.
From these types of Yaksi dryads* are evidently derived three
types iconographically the same, but differently interpreted: the
Buddha Nativity, the asoka-tree dohada motif in classical literature,
and the so-called river-goddesses of medieval shrines.
1The array of dryads at Mathura produces on the mind an effect like that of
Asvaghosa’s description of the beautiful girls in Siddhartha’s palace garden,
who “with their souls carried away by love... . assailed the prince with all
manner of stratagems” (Buddhacarita, IV, 40-53).
But it may be said to be characteristic of Indian temples that the exterior
displays the world of sensuous experience (cf. Konarak), while the interior
chambers are plain and severe, or even empty (cf. the air-lingam at Cidam-
baram): and this arrangement, even for a Buddhist shrine, is not without its
logic. ;
I have scarcely mentioned and have not illustrated the many interesting
reliefs and paintings in which tree spirits are represented, not by a complete
figure beneath a tree, but as half seen amongst the leaves, patresv ardhakayan
abhinirmaya (Lalita Vistara): a face, hand, two hands, or half body emerging
from the branches. Representations of this kind occur already at Bharhut, and
survive in the eighteenth century Buddhist painting of Ceylon. The spirits
thus represented may be male or female as the case requires.
* That the Vrksakas of the railing pillars are properly to be described as
Yaksis is proved by the inscriptions accompanying the similar figures at Bharhut
(cf. Vogel, in A. S. L., A. R., 1906-07, p. 146). Vrksaka is, of course, legiti-
mate, but hardly more than a descriptive term. Some with musical instruments
should perhaps be described as Gandharvis, or even Apsarasas, but none are
represented as actually dancing, and to call them dancing girls is certainly an
error.
HoySala bracket figures, however, which preserve the motif of woman and
_ tree, supported by a dwarf Yaksa, are often in dancing positions, and accom-
panied by drummers (Smith, H. F. A., fig. 163; others at Palampet and Belir).
34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
1. The miraculous birth of the Bodhisattva Siddhartha,’ as is well-
known, took place in the Lumbini garden near Kapilavastu and on
the road between that city and Devadaha. The tree of which the
branch, “‘ bending down in response to her need,” served Mahamaya
as support, is variously called a sal-tree (Niddnakatha), mango
(ASokavadana), plaksa (Lalita Vistara)* and asoka-tree (Divya-
vaddana, and here plate 20). In the Divyavadana Asoka himself is repre-
sented as visiting the site and conversing with the genius of the tree,
who had been a witness to the Nativity ; so that the tree had originally
been, or at least had come to be regarded as having been the abode of
a tree-spirit when Mahamaya halted beneath it. It is, no doubt, the
spirit of the tree that bent down the branch to meet Mahamaya’s
hand ; indeed, in the drawing of a relief almost identical with our
plate 20, reproduced in Burgess, Buddhist stupas of Amaravati and
Jaggayyapeta, plate XX XII, a hand appears visibly from amongst the
branches of the Nativity tree. The Buddha himself is sometimes aided
in just this way, by a hand put forth from a tree, for example, when
he emerges from the waters of Lake Panihata (Lalita Vistara,
Ch. XVIII), and after crossing the River Nairafjana (Amaravati
relief, Vogel, Indian serpent lore, pl. VII, a).
We certainly need not and should not regard Mahamaya, consid-
ered from the point of view of the literature, as having been herself
a Vrksaka; but iconographically, as she is represented in Gandharan
* The Nativity is a stock subject in Buddhist art, Gandharan, Amaravati,-and
later. Cf. Foucher, Beginnings of Buddhist Art, pls. III, IV; L’Art gréco-
bouddhique du Gandhara, I, pp. 300 ff. and II, pp. 64-72; L’Iconographie boud-
dhique de I’Inde, I, p. 163 and fig. 28: HIIA, fig. 104, upper right hand corner:
Krom, Life of the Buddha, p. 74 (with complete list of representations ).
The Amaravati reliefs not only come nearest to the Vrksaka type, but also
suggests that the Nativity had been represented in Indian art (without the
child) previous to its occurrence in Gandhara (with the child).
Another version of much interest appears at the back of a Chinese Buddha
image of date 457 A. D. (Northern Wei) (Burlington Magazine Monograph
on Chinese art, Sculpture, Pl. 4, D). There are two ranges; above we
have the tree, female attendant, Maya standing, the child emerging from her
side, and three Devas, one with a cloth, ready to receive it; below, the First Bath
and the Seven Steps. As the First Bath is here performed by polycephalous
Nagas, which are rarely met with in Gandhara, but are highly characteristic for
Mathura, there is a probability of direct dependence on an Indian original.
*In the Lalita Vistara version, the tree is evidently regarded as a caitya-tree,
for it is adorned with coloured cloths and other offerings.
NO. 6 YAKSAS—COOMARASWAMY 35
and Amaravati reliefs and elsewhere, the step is very easy from a
Vrksaka holding the branch of a tree and in the hanché (“hip-
shot’) pose, to that of Mahamaya giving birth to the child, who
was miraculously born from her side.” The addition of attendant
deities and later a further complication of the scene by a repre-
sentation of the Seven Steps, etc., would present no difficulty. The
literary versions are probably older that the oldest known sculptures
of the Nativity;* how far each may be dependent on the other can
hardly be determined. In any case, it is certain that the sculptor had
ready to hand a composition almost exactly fulfilling the require-
ments of the text, so far as the principal figure is concerned.
2. The dohada motif. The, in India, familiar conceit that the
touch of a beautiful woman’s foot is needed to bring about the blos-
soming of the asoka-tree seems to be equally a form of the Yaksi-
dryad theme; one railing pillar, J 55 in the Mathura Museum, repre-
sents a woman or Yaksi performing this ceremony * (pl. 6, fig. 3) and
the motif survives in sculpture to the eighteenth century (pl. 109,
fig. 2), if not to the present day. In Kalidasa’s Meghadiita the exiled
Yaksa speaks of himself as longing for his wife no less than the
asoka-tree desires the touch of her foot. Even in the MGlavikagni-
*The formula was certainly not, as suggested by Foucher, L’Iconographie
bouddhique, I, 164, created “par l’art superieur des artistes Indogrecs”’; it is
only possible that they were the first to put in the attendant figures, but we can-
not be sure of even this. Even the crossed legs, described by many European
writers, grotesquely enough, as a dancing position, are taken over from the
Yaksi-dryads. Le Coq, Bilder-Atlas, figs. 153 and 156 not only describes Maha-
maya as being in “ Tanzerinnenstellung,” but also a dryad from Bharhut, who
with both arms and one leg is clinging to her tree, while her weight is rested on
the other foot (pl. 4, fig. 2) ; to dance under either of these circumstances would
not only be a remarkable acrobatic feat, but in direct contradiction to the whole
pose. To stand with crossed legs, particularly when leaning against a tree, is in
India a position of rest and therefore not inappropriate (as a dancing pose
would be) to the representation of a miraculously painless parturition.
The motif has been well discussed (with reference to this and other misunder-
standings) by Berstl, Indo-koptische Kunst, Jahrb. as. Kunst, I, 1924; where a
Western migration of the motif is also recognized.
*It is perhaps worth remarking that Cunningham once “ erroneously identi-
fied” one of the Mathura railing dryads “ with Maya standing under the sal
tree” (Vogel, Cat. Arch. Mus., Mathura, p. 6).
* The legend of the miraculous birth is found already in the Acchariyabbhita
Sutta, No. 123, in the Majjhima Nikdaya, thus considerably antedating the
Nidanakatha version (Chalmers, in J. R. A. S., 1894). The Four Devas are
mentioned.
-* Vogel, Catalogue, pp. 44, 153; La belle et l'arbre agoka, B. E. F. E. (Ole
to1r; Cf. [Gangoly, O. C.], A brass statuette from Mathura, Ripam, 2, 1920.
‘
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
mitra, where Malavika, a mortal woman, is to perform the ceremony,
the scene takes place beside a “slab of rock” under the asoka-tree,
and this shows that the tree itself was a sacred tree haunted by a
spirit.’
The word dohada means a pregnancy longing, and the tree is repre-
sented as feeling, like a woman, such a longing, nor can its flowers
open until it is satisfied. Thus the whole conception, even in its latest
form as a mere piece of rhetoric, preserves the old connection be-
tween trees and tree spirits, and human life.
3. The River-goddesses.” The dryad types with makara vehicles
(pl. 6, figs) 1 and. 2; pl. 14, fig..2, and. pl. 10, figs. 1 and#2) bear
an intimate relation, not amounting ta identity, with the figures of
river-goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, with makara and tortoise vehicles
placed at the doorways of many northern medieval temples. I pro-
pose to discuss this subject more fully elsewhere.
CONCLUSION
The observations collected in the foregoing pages may be sum-
marized as follows:
Kuvera and other Yaksas are indigenous non-Aryan deities or
genii, usually beneficent powers of wealth and fertility. Before
Buddhism and Jainism, they with a corresponding cosmology of the
Four or Eight Quarters of the Universe, had been accepted as ortho-
dox in Brahmanical theology. Their worship long survived, but in
purely sectarian literature they appear only to serve the ends of edifi-
cation, either as guardians and defenders of the faith, or to be pointed
to as horrible examples of depravity.
Yaksa worship was a Bhakti cult, with images, temples, altars, and
offerings, and as the greater deities could all, from a popular point of
view, be regarded as Yaksas, we may safely recognize in the worship
of the latter (together with Nagas and goddesses) the natural source
of the Bhakti elements common to the whole sectarian development
which was taking place before the beginning of the Kusana period.
The designation Yaksa was originally practically synonymous with
Deva or Devata, and no essential distinction can be made between
Yaksas and Devas ; every Hindu deity, and even the Buddha, is spoken
* Malavikagnimitra, Act. III; cf. Raghuvamsa, VIII, 62.
* River-goddesses: Smith, V. A., History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon,
pp. 160, 161 and figs. 111, 112; Maitra, A. K., The river-goddess Ganga, Ripam,
6, 1921; Vogel, Ganga et Yamuna dans liconographie bouddhique, Etudes
asiatiques, 1925 (the best discussion) ; Diez, E.. Zwei unbekannte Werke der
indischen Plastik in Ethnographisch Museum, Wien., Wiener Beitrage zur
Kunst und Kultur Asiens, I, 1926.
No. 6 YAKSAS—COOM ARASWAMY 37
of, upon occasion, as a Yaksa. “ Yaksa’”’ may have been a non-
Aryan, at any rate a popular designation equivalent to Deva, and
only at a later date restricted to genii of lower rank than that of the
greater gods. Certainly the Yaksa concept has played an important
part in the development of Indian mythology, and even more cer-
tainly, the early Yaksa iconography has formed the foundation of
later Hindu and Buddhist iconography. It is by no means without
significance that the conception of Yaksattva is so closely bound up
with the idea of reincarnation.
Thus the history of Yaksas, like that of other aspects of non-
Aryan Indian animism, is of significance not only in itself and for
its own sake, but as throwing light upon the origins of cult and
iconography, as well as dogma, in fully evolved sectarian Hinduism
and Buddhism. And beyond India, if, as is believed by many, charac-
teristic elements of the Christian cult, such as the use of rosaries,
incense, bells and lights, together with many phases of monastic
organization, are ultimately of Buddhist origin,’ we can here, too,
push back their history to more ultimate sources in non- and pre-
Aryan Indian pijas.
Adherents of some “higher faiths’ may be inclined to deprecate
or to resent a tracing of their cults, still more of dogmas, to sources
associated with the worship of “ rude deities and demons ” (Jacobi)
and “ mysterious aboriginal creatures’ (Mrs. Rhys Davids). But if
the Brahmans in fact took over and accepted from popular sources
the concept of devotion to personal deities, and all that this implied,
do we not sufficiently honor these thinkers and organizers of theo-
logical systems in recognizing that they knew how to utilize in the
service of more intellectual faiths, and to embody in the structure of
civilization, not only their own abstract philosophies, but also the
“forces brutes mystiques” (De la Vallée-Poussin) of pre-Hindu
Hinduism? And if some elements of ancient Hindu cult, perhaps of
millennial antiquity, are still preserved in the Christian office, this is
no more than evidence of the broad unity that underlies religious ten-
dencies and acts everywhere and always; pagan survivals in all cur-
rent faiths are signs of fulfillment, rather than of failure. And in
India it becomes more than ever clear that thought and culture are
due at least in equal measure both to Aryan and indigenous genius.
’
"See Garbe, Indien und das Christentum; Berstl, Indo-koptische Kunst, Jahrb.
as. Kunst, I, 1924.
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
EXPLANATION OF PLATES
PLATE I
1. The Yaksa Kunika (the Parkham image now in the Mathura Museum) :
height 8’ 8”. Photo by Johnston and Hoffmann.
The date and identification of this figure have been matters of great con-
troversy.” All that can be safely said is that the inscription is in charac-
ters generally corresponding to those of the ASokan and Piprahwa vase
inscriptions. Almost the only significant part of the text in the reading
of which all students agree is the name Kunika. This name has since
been found on the so-called statue of Manasa Devi at Mathura,” which
is named in the inscription as that of a Yaksini, sister of Kunika. These
data appear to confirm the view long held, that the Parkham image
(so-called from the place of its discovery) represents a Yaksa and dates
from the Maurya period. When first discovered, the Parkham image
was being worshipped by the villagers as a Devata, the Baroda fragment
(HIIA, fig. 15) as a Yakheyad. See also Chanda, R., in Mem. A. S. L.,
vol. 30.
The Parkham image is of great importance as the oldest known Indian
stone sculpture in the round; it establishes a formulae which can be fol-
lowed through many succeeding centuries. A female statue from Besna-
gar, now in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, height 7’ 7”, and perhaps repre-
senting a Yaksi, is also contemporary (see HIJA, fig. 8), so too, or but
little later, is a colossal female cauri-bearer from Didargafij near Patna
(HIIA, fig. 17). There is, or was, another Yaksa (or king) figure at
Deoriya, near Allahabad (see reproduction in my Origin of the Buddha
Image, Art Bulletin, 1927, Pt. 4, fig. 47) ; here it can be seen clearly that
the left hand is placed on the hip; further, the figure wears a turban, and
is sheltered by an umbrella. The Deoriya figure must be of about the
same (Maurya) date as the Parkham image.
The Yaksa Bhagavata Manibhadra, set up by a guild of Manibhadrabhaktas,
at Pawaya, Gwaliar State, now in the Gwaliar Museum, First century
B. C. Photograph by the author.
iN)
PLATE 2
2. The Yaksa Nandi, and another Yaksa or king; perhaps the Yaksi Nandi
of Nandinagara, or the pair may be the Yaksas Nandi and Vardhana of
Nandivardhana. Patna, second century B. C., now in the Museum at
Patna. A. S. photographs.
Lal
‘Mr. Jayaswal (J. B. O. R. S., V, 1919) attempted to prove that the inscrip-
tion included the name of King Kunika Ajatasatru, and he identified and dated
it accordingly about 618 B. C. (according to others this Saigunaga king died
about 459 B. C.). Fatal objections to Mr. Jayaswal’s views are raised by
Chanda, Four Ancient Yaksa statues, in the Journal of the Dept. of Letters,
Calcutta University, Vol. IV, 1921, where other references will be found.
* For the figure of ‘“‘Manasa Devi,” probably also of Maurya date, see Ann.
Rep. Arch. Surv. India, 1920-21, pl. XVIII, and ibid., 1922-23, p. 165.
No.6 YAKSAS—COOMARASWAMY 39
RATE SS
1. The Yaksa Kuvera (Kupiro Yakho), Bharhut, second century B. C., now
in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. The vahanam, not well seen, is a crouch-
ing dwarf demon (Guhyaka?) with pointed ears. India Office photograph.
2. The Yaksa Supavasu, Bharhut, same date; vahanam, an elephant. Now in the
Indian Museum, Calcutta. India Office photograph.
PLATE 4
1. A Yaksi or Devata from Bharhut, found at Batanmara: vahanam, a running
dwarf. India Office photograph.
2. Culakoka Devata, from Bharhut: vadhanam, an elephant. Now in the Indian
Museum, Calcutta. India Office photograph.
PLATE 5
1. Yaksi or Devata from Bharhut; vahanam, a horse accompanied by a dwarf
with a water-vessel. Now in the Indian Museum, Calcutta.
2. Yaksi or Devata: human (?) vahanam. Bodhgaya. India Office photograph.
PLATE 6
1. The Yaksi Sudarsana, from Bharhut: vahanam, a makara. Now in the In-
dian Museum, Calcutta. India Office photograph.
2. Yaksi under aSoka-tree; vahanam, a makara. From Mathura, now B. 51
in the Lucknow Museum. L. Mus. photograph.
3. Yaksi under aSoka-tree, with one foot pressed against its stem (dohada
motif). From ‘Mathura, in the Mathura Museum. A. S. photograph.
PLATE 7
Yaksa with padma in hand (padma-pdni); and auspicious pair (mithuna,
Yaksa and Yaksi?). At Amin, near Thanesar. Second century B.C.
A. S. photograph.
Prate 8
Guardian Yaksa at the base of a pillar, north torana, Saici. The panel above
shows the worship of a sacred tree (caitya-vrksa) in a grove (the
Venuvana at Rajagrha) ; though the theme is here Buddhist, the relief
serves very well to illustrate some of the descriptions of Jakkha céié
cited above. First half of first century B. C. India Office photograph.
PLATE 9
Part of the north torana, Safici. The three uprights of the lower series consti-
tute a Buddha triad, with, in the center, the Buddha represented by the
Bodhi-tree, and on each side a padmapani Yaksa (prototype of the
Bodhisattva Padmapani). First half of first century B. C. Photograph
by Johnston and Hoffmann.
PLATE IO.
1. West torana, Safici, showing Yaksa (Guhya) Atlantes. Two panels of the
right hand pillar show the worship of caitya-trees. India Office photograph.
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
2.
Upper part of north torana, SAafici, with a cauri-bearing Yaksa; showing also
a symbol (often but wrongly styled vardhamana). There was originally
a Buddha triad consisting of a Dhamnacakka between two Yaksas. First
half of first century B. C. Photograph by Johnston and Hoffmann.
PLATE II
1,2. Front and rear views of a dryad bracket (Vrksaka and mango-tree) east
3
torana, Safici; first half of first century B. C. Photographs by the author.
Dryad (Yaksi or Vrksaka) putting on an earring; with banyan (?) tree.
Framed in a “ caitya-window ” niche. Amardavati, second century A. D. or
earlier. British Mfiseum? India Office photograph.
. Yaksa bearing a garland, from rail-coping, Amaravati, second century A. D.
British Museum? India Office photograph.
PLATE I2
. Kusapadalamanava Jataka, with the Yaksi Assamukhi. Railing medallion
from Pataliputra, early second century B. C., now in the Indian Museum,
Calcutta. There are similar medallions at Safici (Stipa II) and
Bodhgaya. Indian Museum photograph.
. Yaksa (?) with bell (cf. fig. 20, right). Terracotta, about first century
A. D. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. M. F. A. photograph.
. Yaksa (?): held by the right arm, not seen in the photograph, is a broad
club; thus the Yaksa might be described as mudgara-pani (cf. the Yaksa
Moggarapani, supra). Terracotta, Maurya or earlier? Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston. M. F. A. photograph.
. Yaksa (?) holding a ram; perhaps a bucolic divinity, a kind of Ksetrapala.
Terracotta, from Ujjain, probably Kusana, first or second century A. D.
Author’s collection. M. F. A. photograph.
PLATE 13
. Yaksas (Guhyas) as Atlantes, Bharhut, Ca. 175 B. C. Indian Museum,
Calcutta. India Office photograph.
. Winged Yaksas (Guhyas) as Atlantes; from a railing pillar at Bodhgayi,
about 100 B. C. Photograph by Johnston and Hoffmann.
. Yaksas as Atlantes, Graeco-Buddhist, from Jamalgarhi. One is winged, and
provided with a bell. In Lahore Museum. India Office photograph.
PLATE 14
. Bacchanalian Kuvera, Kusana, late second century A. D. From Mathura, in
the Mathura Museum. A. S. photograph.
. Yaksi or Vrksaka (so-called river-goddess Ganges) originally one of a pair
from a doorway (forming the upper parts of the jambs): vdahanam,
a makara; tree, a mango. Gupta, about 4oo A. D. From Besnagar, now
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. M. F. A. photograph.
PLATE I5
. Paficika and Hariti, the Tutelary Pair, patron deities of wealth and fertility.
Graeco-Buddhist, from Sahri-Bahlol, now in the Lahore Museum.
Early second century A. D. A. S. photograph.
No. 6 YAKSAS—COOM ARASWAMY 41
2. Yaksa (?) Vajrapani from Mathura. Kusana; early second century A. D.?
Height of the fragment, 1’ 9”. Now E 24 in the Mathura Museum. A. S.
photograph.
PLATE 16
1. Yaksa, on railing to pillar, Kankali Tila, Mathura. Probably first century
/\. 1D)
2. Yaksa, probably Vaisravana, with flames, from the Kankali Tila, Mathura,
same date. Both after Smith, Jaina stupa of Mathura. Both in the Luck-
now Museum.
PLATE 17
1. ParaSuramesvara lingam (Siva), Gudimallam, about 100 B. C. For com-
parison with Yaksa types from Bharhut, etc. A. S. photograph.
2. Colossal Bodhisattva (Buddha), of Mathura manufacture, set up by Friar
Bala at Sarnath, 123 A. D. For comparison with Yaksa types, plate 1,
figure 1, and plate 2, figure 1. A. S. photograph.
PLATE 18
1. Ganesa, with chain of bells; from Bhumara. Gupta, about fifth century.
A. S. photograph.
2. Dvarapala, a Yaksa, with chain of bells. South Indian, Cola, about the tenth
century. Property of C. T. Loo.
PLATE 19
1. Yaksi, on door-jamb at Tadpatri; makara vahanam. The tree is now
much conventionalized and proceeds from the makara’s mouth.
The parrot (Kamadeva’s vahanam), perched on the Yaksi’s arm, is
a further indication that the makara in these associations is rather to be
connected with Kamadeva than regarded as a river-symbol. Parrots or
parrokeets are represented already on the shoulders of the voluptuous
Yaksis from the BhiteSar side in Mathura: and in the Lalita Vistara.
Ch. X XI, some of the apsarasas, Mara’s (Kamadeva’s) daughters, tempt-
ing the Bodhisattva, are said to have parrokeets or jays perched on their
heads or shoulders. Smaller Yaksa (Guhya) Atlantes on right side
(cf. plate 13). A. S. photograph.
2. Yaksi, on door jamb of the Subrahmaniya temple at Tanjore, eighteenth
century. Makara vahanam; the tree much conventionalized; the Yaksi
holds a parrot and is pressing one foot against the trunk of the
(presumably) aSoka-tree (dohada motif). Photograph by the author.
PLATE 20
The conception and nativity of Siddhartha. Upper right, the Dream of Maya
Devi (Mahamaya) (Incarnation of the Bodhisattva in the form of a
white elephant) ; one female attendant also sleeping, and the Four Great
Kings, the Lokapalas (Kubera, etc.), occupying the four corners of the
chamber, on guard. Upper left, The Interpretation of the Dream; Maya
Devi seated, King Suddhodana enthroned, two Brahman soothsayers
42
Ll
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
seated below. Lower right, the Nativity; Maya Devi under the aSoka-
tree, supporting herself by one hand (woman and tree, or yaksi motif),
with one attendant; to her proper right, the Four Great Kings holding
a cloth on which the presence of the infant, miraculously born from her
right side, is indicated by two small feet. The stool represents the First
Bath. Lower left, Presentation at the Shrine of the Yaksa Sakyavard-
hana, as related in the Tibetan Dulva; Mahaprajapati, aunt of the child,
holding the infant in the cloth, where its presence is again indicated by
the two small feet; two female attendants, one with an umbrella. The
shrine of the tutelary Yaksa consists of a tree and altar, the Yaksa
visibly emerging from the altar and bowing to the child. From Amara-
vati, late second century A. D.; now in the British Museum.
Another representation of the same subject, also from Amaravati, is illus-
trated in Fergusson, J., Tree and Serpent Worship, Pl. LXIX; here
the Yaksa is leaning forward from a sort of booth which may be called
a temple, and bowing to the child. A third example (Burgess, Buddhist
stupas of Amaravati and jagayyapeta, frontispiece, detail) resembles that
of our Plate 20. A fourth, 7b. Pl. XXXII, 2, differs from our Plate 29
only in minute details.
PLATE 21
. Maya Devi’s dream, Descent of the Bodhisattva, in the form of a white
elephant. The elephant is seen in a pavilion, supported by four Yaksas.
Amaravati, late second century A. D. India Office photograph.
The visit of Indra. On the right, the Yaksa Vajrapani above, Indra stand-
ing below. Kusana, second century A. D., Mathura. Property of
L. Rosenberg, Paris.
3, 4. Paficika and Hariti, from door jambs. Kusana, Mathura, first or second
oN
=
as
Lal
-
century A. D.
Pafcika and Hariti. Kusana, Mathura, first or second century A. D.
Scene from the Buddha’s life: the Buddha, nimbate, in center, the Bodhi
tree above him; on the proper right, four women, of whom two at least
are represented as tree spirits. I cannot identify the scene. Amaravati,
late second century A. D. British Museum? India Office photograph.
PLATE 22.
. Yaksi (vrksaka, dryad) bracket, from the Kankali Tila, Mathura. Kusana,
first century A. D. Lucknow Museum. L. Mus. photograph.
Yaksi, Madura, seventeenth century. Photograph by Dr. Denman W. Ross.
. NaGri-lata, ivory, Ceylon, eighteenth century. Colombo Museum. Author’s
photograph.
Yaksa, probably Kubera; now C 18 in the Mathura Museum. Author’s
photograph.
PLATE 23
2. Yaksa (gana) garland-bearers. One with an elephant’s head, suggesting
Ganega. Amaravati, late second century A. D. Madras Museum? India
Office photographs.
3. Palace of Kamadeva, a dance of Yaksas. Central architrave, back face of
“north torana, Safici, about 100 B. C. India Office photograph.
NO. 6 YAKSAS—COOMARASWAMY 43
APPENDIX
I
I owe to Professor Walter Eugene Clark the following tale of a Yaksa, found
in the Divydvadana, 275, et seg. A certain man was the keeper of a Sulka-
$al@ or toll-house. When he died, he was reborn among the Vyada-Yaksas. He
appeared to his sons in a dream and told them to make a yaksasthana and attach
a bell. He said that the bell would ring if anyone tried to smuggle merchandise
past without paying toll. A man tried to smuggle in a yamali of fine cloth con-
cealed in the stick of his umbrella. The bell kept ringing and the merchants
were detained till he confessed.
This is very like the Vaisali story cited above, pp. 14, 15. The yaksasthana
may have been a separate shrine, or more likely a shrine made within the toll-
house: presumably there was an image, and the bell was hung round its neck.
II
The well-known Besnagar kalpa-druma capital, representing a banyan having
below its branches three money bags, and a conch, lotus, and jar, from which
square coins are welling up, probably represents Kubera in his capacity of
Dhanada, “ Wealth-giver.” The banyan-tree is mentioned in Mahavamsa, X, 89
as specifically his abode. Sankha and Padma personified as lords of wealth are
amongst the eight treasures of Kubera (Harivamsa, 2467 and 6004, and
Visnudharmottara, III, 53). The conch with coins or vegetation rising from
it occurs as a symbol elsewhere.
Ill
Page 2, note 1, add: It is perhaps significant of the orthodox Vedic Brahman-
ical attitude towards the Yaksa cult that in Baudhadyana Dharmasastra, I, 5, 9
caitya-vrksas are mentioned in a list of objects of which the touch causes
defilement requiring purification.
IV
Yaksa of the Kirataérjuniya story (p. 14): The Yaksa, described as a follower
of Kubera, appears in Bharavi’s drama Kiratarjuniya, guiding Arjuna to the
Indrakila (see H. O. S., Vol. 15).
¥
The shrine of Kamadeva in Mrcchakatika, I, 32, is situated in a grove
(Kamadeva adanaujjana = Kamadeva ayatana udhyana).
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 6, PL. 1
1 2
Yaksas, from Parkham and Pawaya.
(For explanation, see pages 7, 29, 38)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 6, PL. 2
Yaksas, from Patna.
(For explanation, see pages 12, 38)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOER SO NOG Rees
Yaksas, from Bharhut.
(lor explanation, see pages 8, 30)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 6,¢PL. 4
1 2
Yaksis or Devatas, from Bharhut.
(For explanation, see pages 32, 35, 39)
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1 2
Yaksis or Devatas, from Bharhut and Bodhgaya.
(For explanation, see pages 32, 39)
VOL. 80, NO. 6, PL. 6
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE 80) NO, 6, RES tid
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(For explanation, see pages 32, 40)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 6, PL. 12
3 4
Yaksa. Yaksa.
(Por explanation, see pages 10, 15, 22, 40)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE CO; NOG; PE ads
Yaksas as Atlantes or Caryatides.
1, Bharhut. 2, Bodhgaya. 3, Jamalgarhi.
(For explanation, see pages 8, 40)
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 6, PL. 16
Yaksas from Mathura
(lor explanation, see pages 7. 41)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS WOJES TUR INOS Ga tetas al 7/
Siva-lingam ; Gudimallam. Bodhisattva (Buddha), from Mathura, at
Sarnath.
(For explanation, see pages 8, 29, 41)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL: 80; NO: 6, (PESiis
Ganesa; Bhumara. Yaksa dvarapala, S. Indian.
(For explanation, see pages 7, 15, 41)
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Descent of the Bodhisattva.
Amaravyati.
VOL. 80, NO. 6, PL.
Visit of Indra: Vajrapani above;
Mathura.
2a
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(For explanation, see pages 8, 9, 10, 31, 42)
Scene from Buddha's life; Amaravati.
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(For explanation, see pages 7, 8, 13, 42)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 80, NUMBER 7
THE ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF
AMERICA NORTH OF MEXICO
BY
JAMES MOONEY
(PUBLICATION 2955)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
FEBRUARY. 6, 1928
|
The Lord Baltimore (Press
BALTIMORE, MD., 0. S. A.
THE ABORIGINAL POPULATION ‘OF AMERICA
NORTH OF MEXICO
By JAMES MOONEY
PREFACE
BY JOHN R. SWANTON
When the Handbook of American Indians (Bull. 30, Bur. Amer.
Ethnol.) was in course of preparation, the article on “ Population ”’
was assigned to Mr. James Mooney, and he entered upon the inves-
tigation of this problem in his accustomed serious and thorough man-
ner. Soon, however, he found that the task grew to unexpected
proportions, his interest growing with it, and finally it was decided
to prepare a short article for the Handbook, embodying the main
results of his researches, and to publish a more complete statement
in the form of a bulletin. Mr. Mooney’s untimely death in 1921
prevented the completion of this latter project, but he had made
provisional detailed estimates which, fortunately, have been preserved.
The region covered by this projected bulletin was naturally that
which the Handbook had undertaken to treat, all of America north
of the Mexican boundary. Mr. Mooney planned to divide this into
a certain number of natural sections, discuss the population of each
in turn, first generally and then tribally, and conclude with a detailed
table giving figures at the period when disturbances from European
sources began and again at the period of writing or some nearby
date for which census figures were available. The discussion of the
first two sections then contemplated by him, the New England area,
and the territory covered by New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania,
was completed and typewritten, as was the table to accompany the
study of the former, but at this point Mr. Mooney’s work seems
to have been interrupted and all that remains of the other sections
of the more comprehensive undertaking is contained in loose notes,
with which practically nothing can be done.
But, whether for use in the Handbook or for some other urgent
purpose, Mr. Mooney decided to prepare (1908-9), a briefer state-
ment of the Indian population embodying the principal results of
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 80, No. 7
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
his investigation. The general plan of this was the same but the
number of sections seems to have been reduced since New England,
New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania were put together as the
region of the North Atlantic States. The preliminary discussion of
each was reduced to two or three pages, but the tables of figures,
which, after all, constitute the most important element in the under-
taking, were given in full.
To his discussion of the 14 areas into which he finally decided to
divide the territory under consideration, Mr. Mooney evidently in-
tended to supplement a chapter on the causes of the decline of Indian
population as indicated by his figures, including such factors as war,
spirituous liquors, and disease. He attached the greatest importance
to the last mentioned, particularly contagious diseases introduced by
the whites.
The accompanying bibliography, reproduced from Mr. Mooney’s
manuscript, will indicate in some measure the extent of his reading
in connection with the present work. It is known that, in some
cases, he carried his investigations back to the original census rolls.
Mr. Mooney would have been the last to maintain that his figures
are final; modifications will from time to time be found necessary.
Indeed, there is a considerable difference between his own earlier
and later estimates of the aboriginal population of New England,
the former being 32,700 and the latter 25,100, but it is impossible to
say whether this represents a general modification of his position
or not. Isolated investigations of others seem to indicate that his
figures, though conservative as compared with most earlier under-
takings of the kind, are still somewhat high.
Mr. Mooney’s work does, however, supply a want long felt by stu-
dents of the American Indian: a set of detailed figures that give an
approximate understanding of the relative strength of the several
tribes, an understanding of the Indian population of the region taken
as a whole, and the approximate losses and gains of both. In justice
to the author it must be remembered that it represents the advance
results of a more extensive but never completed enterprise.
POPULATION
NORTH ATLANTIC STATES
In this section we include New England, New Jersey, New York,
and Pennsylvania—excepting the western portions of the two latter
states formerly held by the Neutrals and the Erie, but including
NO. 7 ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA—MOONEY 3
that portion of Quebec Province lying between New York and the
St. Lawrence. The period of disturbance and colonization for this
region began about the year 1600, at which time the Indian popu-
lation was probably about 55,000, reduced now to about 22,000 or
about 40 per cent in the United States and Canada. Of the latter
the Iroquois make up nearly 18,000, largely of mixed blood, while
the rest consist of Abnaki, also much mixed, and mongrel remnants
of the coast tribes, hardly deserving the name of Indians.
The original Indian population of New England was probably
about 25,000 or about one-half what the historian Palfrey makes it.
The first great cause of decrease noted here was the epidemic—ap-
parently some previously unknown fever—which swept the whole
southern New England coast in 1617, almost depopulating eastern
Massachusetts. Then followed the Pequot war of 1637, the terribly
destructive King Philip’s war of 1675-6, and the later border wars of
Maine, each with its accompaniment of enslavement and head or scalp
bounties. In 1632-3, only 19 years after the fever, smallpox ravaged
southern New England, killing, as is said, 700 of the Narraganset
tribe alone, and destroying all of the Massachuset that had survived
from 1617. With the subjection of the tribes began an era of dissi-
pation which continued almost unchecked until the tribes had lost
all importance and survived only as half-negro mongrels. The single
exception is the Abnaki tribe, which still keeps an independent exis-
tence with fairly healthy blood, owing to the watchful care of devoted
missionaries.
In New York the Iroquois, from being rather a small confederacy,
as compared with other noted historic groups, rapidly grew in strength
from earlier possession of firearms and singular compactness of
organization, until by successful, aggressive warfare and wholesale
incorporation of aliens, chiefly of cognate stock, they had doubled
their number within a century and are now probably three times as
many as in 1600. This increase, however, has been at the expense
of the tribes which they have destroyed—Hurons, Neutrals, Erie and
Conestoga—and has been aided also by intermixture with the whites.
Smallpox epidemics in 1637-8, 1663, 1717, 1755 and later, only
temporarily checked the general advance.
The Conestoga, formerly the dominant southern tribes of the re-
gion, after steady decrease by Iroquois invasion and smallpox were
finally destroyed as a people by the Iroquois about 1675, the survivors
being mostly incorporated with the conquerors. The power of the
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
Mahican, Wappinger, Munsee and Montauk tribes and their asso-
ciates of the Hudson River and Long Island, was broken in the wars
with the Dutch in 1640 and 1664, by local epidemics, and by the utter
demoralization which came upon them with the completion of the con-
quest. On Long Island in 1658 an epidemic visitation destroyed one-
half of the Montauk and a proportion of the smaller tribes. The
Delaware (Lenapé) bands of New Jersey had become almost ex-
tinct from the use of spirituous liquors and general dissipation before
1720, while the main body of the tribe has steadily decreased from
wars, removals, and the same dissipation, until less than one-fourth
remain.
New ENGLAND 1600 1907
Abnaki tribes (including Passamaquoddy)...... 3,000 1,400
iPennacoule aches ea eh eR ee Ee wee or eos 2,000 Extinct
Miatssachiise ta garte.scss oh cvon cain eraticienks erent ater 3,000 Extinct
INI pIMItie Ind EpeMGentinra si ciioreelefeteventericl ls rettene seers 500 Extinct
Pocomtucvetcs (central) Miass.)= sean erences on 1,200 Extinct
Widiripamoae.teten nati pistsu slate nqeeeesscre yaa ee i 2,400 Extinct
DNV STS: Sok 00 "6 Riee ak REAM ROE eM Se You eee Pie Pea 1,200 50 (2) mixt
Nantucket sewn se oe niciccsanc cee tre sie aa eoniieicaarete 1,500 Extinct
Marthas: Vineyard «1.x t-ceosb ites en euehas oetiye s 1,500 50 (?) mixt
Narraganset, ete, and E. Niatitie: . «2. 4a. <2. 2 4,000 30 (?) mixt
PeGUGE Bats attai ate cette Bc hee RT pete 2,200 25 mixt
Moheoantes item cist San ote orem es okie wie 600 75 (2) mix
INT antICAVWWieSteria th one ae re ote cian ee cine 250 Extinct
Podunk (E. Windsor, E, Hartford): ...25...... 300 Extinct
QOuinnipiac- CNew Haven) o<)an etwas 6 ere nae 250 Extinct
Paugusset and Wepawaug (Milford, Bridgeport) 400 Extinct
Absaoanso(Aehmosneeyay) GAs aaoocodgdacuenocuonce 400 Extinct
Wengunk (Wethersfield, Middletown) ........ 400 Extinct
New York
Iroquois confederacy (excluding Tuscarora).... 5,500 17,630
Malticani Wir acsncen coe scot Shee ne eeere scat (?) 3,000 760
Wappinger tribes (excluding Conn.).......... (?) 3,000 Extinct
Montauk, Canarsee, etc., of Long Island........ 6,000 Some)
New JERSEY AND PENNSYLVANIA
Melawaneaandie Vitnseeee meee rnin (?) 8,000 1,850
Wonestora ees 6 hh s eee eee ea ae (2?) 5,000 Extinct
55,000 21,900
SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES
In this section we include most of Delaware, Maryland, Virginia,
West Virginia and the Carolinas, with the exception of the Cherokee
NO. 7 ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA——-MOONEY 5
territory. At the beginning of the colonizing period, say about 1600,
this region was well populated with numerous tribes which dwindled
rapidly by wars, disease, dissipation, and dispossession, so that, with
the exception of the Tuscarora, there exist of them today not 20
fullbloods keeping their own language, although a thousand or more
of mixed Indian, white and negro blood, still claim the name. All
of the so-called “ Croatan Indians” of North Carolina worthy of
serious ethnologic consideration are included within this number.
Leaving out of account the early Spanish expeditions and slave
raids along the Carolina coast, we may gate the beginning of the decline
with the founding of the Virginia colony in 1607. The ensuing wars
with the Powhatan and other Virginia tribes were of such an ex-
terminating character that already in 1645 it was reported that they
were “so routed and dispersed that they are no longer a nation,” and
by 1705 they were reduced to about one-seventh of their original
strength. Some mixed blood bands keep the name. The interior
Virginia tribes disappeared unnoticed. The ‘unceasing attacks of the
well-armed northern Iroquois constantly weakened the southern
tribes, while systematic slave captures throughout the whole region
had also much to do with their extinction.
The Charleston colony (S.C.) was founded in 1670 and the Albe-
marle settlement (N.C.) a few years later. Here, smallpox and
gross dissipation, introduced by degenerate whites, so rapidly thinned
the native population that Lawson, writing about 1710, said that
through these means there was not left within reach of the frontier
one-sixth the number of 50 years before. The Piedmont region was
still populous, with small towns thickly scattered. He speaks of
earlier repeated visitations of smallpox, of none of which record
seems to have been preserved, excepting for 1696, when it swept the
Albemarle region. In 1738, 1759 and 1776, the same disease again
ravaged Carolina. The Tuscarora war of 1711-2 and the Yamasee
war of 1715-6 nearly completed the destruction of the Carolina tribes,
which, with the exception of the Cherokee, are represented today
only by about 700 Tuscarora and less than 100 mixed blood Catawba,
with a few scattered mongrels in the eastern counties.
North of the Potomac the chief causes of decrease were smallpox
and other introduced diseases, and dissipation, which prevailed to such
an extent that not a single fullblood survives. The decrease for the
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
whole South Atlantic region has been at least 96 per cent, even includ-
ing the surviving mongrel claimants.
MaryLAnp and DELAWARE aging 1907
Conoy om seiscatawaya seaAtiixent mele emcrnite 2,000 Extinct
Rocworshmand Oziniesaumese ae tere eee 700 Extinct
INE RITES US ann pooped oes rec seoued ose 1,600 80 (?) mixt
IWCOTMOCO: We stersua ones une isdocrle ioe ne cine eeu Orie 400 20 (?) mixt
VirGInia (West Virginia probably not occupied *)
Powhatanveonted eracvarn see eee cee ere iar 9,000 500 (?) mixt
Monacan confederacy ‘ 1,200 Extinct
Manahoac confederacy Hater Saponi and Tutelo hee Extinct
Nottoway. (Mangoac of 1585). .@.. 2. scr 2 -- 1,500 Extinct
Mccanee chit ts emis ie hs On ee eae 1,200 Extinct
Mile hre teria! eas foe na hracneyaconthe tects vote soho tons cdsiotereteretenens 700 Extinct
NortH CAROLINA
Yeopim, Pasquotank, etc. (Weapemeoc of 1585). 800 Extinct
KEORVATIOG ste caste Se rtare ScteLa cee aise te ire crea ala ob 1,500 80 (?) mixt
Machapunga, etc. (Wingandacoa of 1585)...... 1,200 Extinct
Pamptico and Bear River (Pomouik of 1855).. 1,000 Extinct
Neus and Coree (Nusiok and Cawruuock of
TG SG Leste ee acted hasrerove cer etna cdetiovancnonet> le raie tele separ 1,000 Extinct
Tuscarora (now in N. Y.‘and Ontario)......... 5,000 700 about
OG EOI cee fregaee a cieie ctor hav teeeek shoes cere teienaeleiaoaee rene 600 Extinct
Sara, (xamia, w500s) Cleraw)) = o:c edie s: ac)em are 1,200 Extinct
ISENENUN UGOn aio Deku a da cecee crecloimee Een otnac ote 500
Eno, Shoccoree and Adshusheer............... 1,500
Sissipahaw: | (Saaxpar 0570) 2 ..ksi. veles,c che sane 800 ova) (2) Sabb
Cape ear Aniitanis settyert es aisr-, wiplaleveyaGueke alike Fane 1,000
Waxhaw and "Suceneeses ccc cis slsiiete aletsiaere= 1,200
SourH CAROLINA
Catawba (Issa 1579; Ushery 1670; Esaw been 5,000 90 (?)
Peder iets crtatacn actors ote olelstetnus ercior eevee estes 600
Waccamaw
Winede Bloat ere goo noe. (2) Malet
Sewee oo os cccnteitac cn Son beaevos ote aie are can cocks 800
Saniteery Rete. Wed isch cCee esac ae aed tale cole terete emorene 1,000
Conwareey acne sees 2 co een te ind eee ee a 800 Extinct
Waterees (Guatart 1570) 22 ae oe eet aon oe 1,000 Extinct
Dye A ehh RASS Bln BN na bie oetchar ciciesctn notion stoic alte 600 Extinct
Edisto (Audusta 1562; Orista 1570).........-- 1,000 Extinct
WUESEO AT pv tea ts Xe Sonat ae, ee 1,600 Extinct
Stono f :
Cusso (Couexi 1562; Cogao 1569; Casor 1675). 600 Extinct
Gusabo tribes (GCorsaboy 705) eerie ernest: 1,200 Extinct
52,200 2,170
1 There seems to have been one very small tribe called Moneton on Kanawha
River in the latter part of the 17th century.—J. R. S.
NO. 7 ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA——-MOONEY 7
GULF STATES,
In this section we include Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Mis-
sissippi, most of Louisiana, Arkansas and Tennessee, with some out-
lying territory, and the whole Cherokee country.
In the Gulf States the Indian population seems to have decreased
by nearly one-half since the beginning of regular white colonization.
If the percentage of alien blood in the survivors could be segregated
a much greater decrease would be apparent, the great majority now
existing being mixed bloods. The chief causes of decrease have been
smallpox, dissipation, wars, slave raids, and removals. The destruc-
tion accomplished by De Soto and other Spanish adventurers is of
too early a date to be estimated, and the tribes had probably recovered
from its effects before the beginning of regular occupation by the
whites, about the end of the seventeenth century for most of the
region, excepting east Florida where it began a full century earlier.
For convenience of treatment, however, we have made one date for
the whole region. A great smallpox epidemic in 1698 is on record as
having destroyed the larger part of the Quapaw and about the same
proportion of the Tunica, lower down the river, and the Biloxi and
others about Biloxi Bay. It probably swept the whole lower Missis-
sippi River. During the same period, or about 1690-1720, slave
raids organized by the English of Carolina were very destructive
of Indian life, the Chickasaw and Creeks, armed with guns furnished
for the purpose, being the principal agents in the destruction. In
1702 the Chickasaw admitted to Iberville that in 12 years they had
killed or captured for slave traders 2,300 Choctaw at a cost to them-
selves of over 800 men. Moore’s expedition against the Apalachee
missions in 1703 was practically a slave raid, 200 Apalachee being
killed and 1,400 carried off into slavery. In one raid in 1723 the
Choctaw killed or brought back for sale to the French 400 Chickasaw.
After the final defeat of the Natchez, in 1731, 500 were sold by
the French into West Indian slavery. The populous tribes of Florida
seem to have dwindled rapidly under Spanish rule, and their de-
struction was completed in the eighteenth century by irruptions of
the Creeks, who were armed with guns by the English of Carolina,
while the Spanish government refused firearms to its own Indian
dependents. They long since became entirely extinct. Several de-
structive smallpox visitations are recorded for Carolina and the
adjacent region before the Revolution, while intoxicating beverages
and general dissipation were constant demoralizing forces. Over
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
1,600 Creeks were slaughtered within a few months in the Creek
war of 1813-4, besides those who must have died from starvation
and hardship. It is claimed that the Cherokee removal in 1839 cost
the lives of 4,000 Indians, while the disturbances in the Indian Ter-
ritory during the Civil War cost thousands more. The apparent
increase in the five civilized tribes of Indian Territory since then
is almost entirely from white intermixture. The ordinary figures
for these five tribes cannot be taken as ethnologically correct, as
they include as “ Indians” fully 10,000 claimants with so little, if
any, of Indian blood as to have been repudiated by the Indian tribal
courts while those courts were still in existence. Other thousands
are still clamoring for admission to land and money privileges. Over
7,000 of these repudiated claimants are now upon the Cherokee roll
together with some 1,600 adopted Shawnee and Delawares not sepa-
rately noted. Nevertheless, there can be no doubt but that both
Cherokee and Choctaw have increased within the historic period,
although, as has been said, this is due largely to white intermixture,
as also to absorption of remnant tribes.
GeorctiA, ALABAMA, TENNESSEE 1650 1907
WHEHO Kee Nees Sch cee ee enlace chatate iene arcane tess ohate 22,000 25,000
AVA CIT ee peter ae ee es ci stom Seno ae pee Einetenere 1,500 700
Creek confederacy iu puget 18,000 f 11,000
Seminole (later offshoot from Creeks) { 2,200
WVAIMASCE ee ery nce lacTAes Tieton amie eIaa eile 2,000 Extinct
LAOS fs el hay ny a ORM ont ake Ve To 2,000 Extinct
Tohome f
FLoRIDA
PNMAIAGMEE ELE sci: cinta sens eee ee ae ee tate 7,000 Extinct
[RAal ela Orme ee eer eee ERE a cenit, once ao Aeuan Sse: 3,000 Extinct
Vilistagan sa emai oe rales oat ORL Oot cee EL OOO Extinct
Timuctay Cte. enon women eee eee 8,000 Extinct
‘Tocebasas iste hae ts oie 2 ees ee eee 1,000 Extinct
CalooSas cers anton es aad Cia ee Ee 3,000 Extinct
Ads, Tegesta mete, “iss stiacicile cece cise erate 1,000 Extinct
MISSISSIPPI
Chickasaw zx i reepavtals cael sos erst ete ee ee ronets 8,000 5,000
Choctaw, oes acy saree nesting Seotee tee eee ere 15,000 18,000
INatehes. fo 2.2 sONGT Pan etc eee me ee 4,500 25 (?)
Tunica 50 (?)
Yazoo owenazoonivertnc see 2,000 Extinct
Koroa Extinct
Ofogoula Extinct
Naalebinie (ebanladl wWopeyenGlagauacnooochoceadc 99,000 61,9075
NO. 7 ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA—-MOONEY 9
Mississippi—C ontinued 1650 1907
Amount brought OnwWand + eerie sell ete ae 99,000 61,075
Chakchiuma
Tbitoupa lain perm vazoon Ravencrest 1,200 Extinct
Taposa
Tiou
Biloxi
PASCAL O tMlam temas tai iereve hie a neraihine close eae area 1,000 Extinct
Moctobi
ARKANSAS
OnapaweoOmArkansdews.tcome ate eneeran seis e et: 2,500 200
LouIsIANA (excluding Caddo tribes)
AB ASIRI CURT Fe Ns yew ios Saves ave Fete eae ates Hee hie 1,000 350
Ghaitimachatenr cha scitne ores ee cisions tiers oer nieoressic eee 3,000 60 (?)
EN EMEIORY, Gdns qokagola.cl ROOTS OT CIS oro 1,500 As (Cg)
Acolapissa (including Tangipahoa)............ 1,500 Extinct
Bayogoula
Maro tilasia. os rrsceer tr Tere coy kee era ae, os 1,500 Extinct
Quinipissa
Chawasha
Washa (“les Gens de la Fourche”)?........ 1,400 Extinct
Opelousa
RGR TSG, GUCE ae nin Gia es 1 Lic ree aC eee eee 800 Extinct
114,400 62,700
NOTE
In Bulletins 43 and 73 (Bur. Amer. Ethnol., 1911, 1922) I gave the following
estimates of population of tribes considered by Mooney in this section, the -
supposed date being near 1700, or about fifty years later than that selected by
Mooney. For purposes of comparison I repeat Mooney’s estimates in the
second column.
Swanton Mooney
GreekaGomiedenacyancnncdes acon cat eens 7,000 18,000
Wiamier anne hahome aie cos oecce «olds Ge cece cates 1,225 2,000
Ghiuckasawgarscrs noses cc earn ciaieret nate stehoniciaawetia citenide 3,000—3,500 8,000
OUNole ac) ae Ut Ano age, RS Re 15,000 15,000
INGE CMG zmaeenretes rears erate pe haces a icis pci eon peter eo 3,500 4,500
‘anicayYiazoo. KMoroavand: ©forolaa.nesc cece 2,450 2,000
Chakchiuma, Ibitoupa, and Taposa (Mooney places the
Tiou here but I put it with the Natchez)...... 750 1,200
AIMOUNt CALMICd POLWALG Ar. c ois ae eae re 32,025-33,425 50,700
*Houma: The so-called Houma of today include remnants of most of the
Louisiana coast tribes, in all degrees of mixture, Indian, white and negro.
The state census recognizes about 350 as Indian. They claim over 800 of all
‘ mixtures and intermarriages.—J. R. S.
* There has been a confusion here between two tribes, one called Okelousa,
which was in fact one of “les Gens de la Fourche,” the other the Opelousa
living farther west. Both were, however, comparatively insignificant—J. R. S.
16) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS — VOL. 80
Swanton Mooney
Amott DrOushtylonwatdaee ease anes 32,025-33,425 50,700
Biloxi) (Pascagoula,vand Moctobi..)- 24h ee 875 1,000
ElOumala Hien cai eee eee ee ee ae 1,225 1,000
Ghitimlachanpere sew sce coolers ese pee te chee 2,625 3,000
Atakapa (subtracting the population of the Texas
tribes from my original estimate).............. 2,000 1,500
ACOLA MISS ay hemlet ce eae re a es oo Eee ees 1,050 1,500
Bayogoula, Mugulasha, and Quinipissa............. 875 1,500
Washa, Chawasha, and Okelousa (Mooney gives
Opelousa erroneously for Okelousa)............ 700) tes 4
ODEO HSac era Bie eT a Uke ce eR rates eee eR RE ogee 455 f 4
Maensassanidl gAvevyel: cae ve neon eee tereneorec teres 1,155 800
43,885-44,385 62,400
While the discrepancy between the totals seems to be considerable, it will
be noticed that it is due almost entirely to the rather wide differences in
the estimates for the Creeks and Chickasaw. The numbers of Chickasaw
appear to have varied greatly owing to their constant wars, while those of
the Creeks were affected by this cause and by. the adoption from time to time
of independent tribes. I was mainly influenced by a particularly careful esti-
mate made under the auspices of the colony of South Carolina in 1715, but
it is quite possible that it was too low. It did not include the Yuchi, Natchez,
Shawnee, and probably some other tribes which came to be parts of the
Confederation. If we omit the figures for these two tribes the estimates fall
very close to each other.—J. R. S.
CENTRAL STATES
In this group we include the native tribes of the Ohio Valley and
lake region from the Alleghenies to the Mississippi, together with
the territory held by the Ojibwa in Canada, north of the Great Lakes.
The Ottawa and Wyandot (Hurons), long identified with this region,
entered it within the historic period from eastern Canada and are
considered under that section, while the equally prominent Dela-
wares came from east of the mountains and are treated under the
North Atlantic section, The Shawnee, although part of them lived
for some time in South Carolina and Alabama, had their principal
early residence within the Central region.
The best calculation possible seems to make the native population
of this section in 1650, the period of first disturbance, about 75,000
as against about 46,000 existing today in and out of their original
territory, a decrease of about 39 per cent. The French statements
ascribing to the ancient Erie a population of from 7,000 to 10,000 souls
are evidently based upon insufficient acquaintance with the tribe. It
is impossible to arrive at very close figures for the present popula-
tion for the reason that probably one-half of the great Ojibwa tribe
is not officially differentiated from intermingled Ottawa and Cree.
NOL 7 ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA——-MOONEY 1
On the whole the Central tribes have held their own comparatively
well. The chief causes of decline have been: The Iroquois inva-
sions of the seventeenth century by which the Erie were destroyed
and the Illinois, Miami, and Mascouten greatly reduced; the war
waged by the Foxes and their allies against the French from about
1712 to 1740, by which the Foxes were nearly destroyed; liquor
and wholesale dissipation introduced by the French garrisons and
traders and continued through the later treaty and removal period,
the prime cause of the extinction of the Illinois and Miami; the
almost continuous border wars from 1774 to 1815; local epidemics
and removals. No widespread epidemic visitations are on record,
although smallpox has several times visited particular tribes, notably
the Mascouten, Ottawa, and Ojibwa. The great smallpox visita-
tion of 1781-2 ravaged the Ojibwa territory as far east as Lake
Superior. There have been no great losses front mission confine-
ment, as in Texas, from blood-poisoning as on the Columbia, or
from wholesale massacre as in California. Several tribes have re-
cruited their number by intermarriage with the whites, particularly
the Ojibwa, who appear to be more numerous now than at any
earlier period.
1650 1907
EELS ache igen eerie ae to Ra tn Cl eR Ree ee 4,000 Extinct
Fox (now represented by a band in Iowa)......... 3,000 * 345
Illinois confederates (now about % of Peoria, etc.,
row OLA ENSEW)s -opoaeodoe soca IaAecen berm dar 8,000 50
Kickapoo (including perhaps 350 or more in
IMEI COMMEOOT) here covert e ia s sais eee hele 2,000 830
IMixSC Olena a rye tae orto Cin ores ors oe ae ts 1,500 * Extinct
IMIGGiaaT Ue, orice fae he cere ae pce Biel Laie 3,000 1,375
Miami (including Wea and Piankashaw)......... 4,500 530
Ojyibwa.( United: States and! Canada) <.. 2.2.25... 35,000 36,000 (?)
Potawatomi (including 180 in Canada)........... 4,000 2.555
SRS ie ot dd ca raed aie we Hews lala sulk BOs 3,500* 608
SUE TAS San SR Perey ene tren elem ae ec eae eae eee 3,000 1,500 (?)
Win ne Damme siren cic cals sien evan eet siae ene oO ls 3,800 2,333
75,300 46,126
* Michelson (Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci., Vol. 9, No. 16, Oct. 4, I919, pp.
489-494) tells us that the most reliable early estimates of the population of
the Foxes and the Sauk are those of Lewis and Clark which would make
the numbers of the former 1,200 and of the latter 2,000 in the year 1806.
Allowing for the losses which the two tribes suffered between 1650, the date
taken by Mooney for his first estimates, and the time of Lewis and Clark,
there would still seem to be a discrepancy of perhaps a thousand in each case
between Mooney’s figures and the figures indicated by Michelson’s researches.
Dr. Michelson also considers it certain that the “ Mascouten” of Mooney were
identical with the Peoria.—J. R. S.
12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
THE PLAINS
At the beginning of regular white occupancy the Plains territory,
from the Canadian border to the Gulf, with some overlapping on
the east into the timber land, was held by some 32 tribes, confed-
eracies or tribal groups. For convenience these may be classified as
Northern and Southern; the first including all those south of the
Red River of the North within territory dominated in the early
period by French and English influence, while the second includes
those of Texas and adjacent regions formerly subject chiefly to
Spanish influence. In the southern area the breakdown of aboriginal
conditions may be considered to have begun about 1690. In the north
it began nearly a century later, when many of the southern tribes
were already practically extinct.
A detailed study for each tribe and group shows an aggregate
original population for the whole region of about 142,000 souls as
against the present official enumeration of about 53,000 souls, a
decrease of some 89,000 or about 60 per cent. The Sioux alone
have not only held their own, but have largely increased, by reason
of their greater resisting power and the adoption of numerous cap-
tives from weaker tribes. Leaving them out of both calculations
we should have for the others an original aggregate of about 117,000
souls as against about 25,000 souls today, a decrease of nearly 80 per
cent. It must be remembered that the original Indians were all full-
bloods, while whole tribes of today have a large percentage of
white blood.
The chief causes of decrease have been smallpox or other epi-
demics of white origin; removals, and restraints of mission and
reservation conditions ; liquor and general demoralization from con-
tact with civilization, and wars with the whites. The largest factor
has been smallpox, while the actual destruction by warfare seems of
minor importance, as the hostility of the warlike tribes saved them
from the demoralizing influences of intimate contact with the whites.
The great epidemics in Plains history are as follows:
T1691. Epidemic of unknown character throughout east Texas and adjacent
Louisiana, officially reported to have killed 3,000 of the southern Caddo
alone.
1778. Smallpox ravaged same territory and nearly destroyed several small tribes.
1781-2. Smallpox over whole upper Missouri, Saskatchewan, Columbia and
Great Slave Lake region, paralyzing the fur trade for two years.
180r. Smallpox swept the whole Plains, together with Louisiana from the
Gulf to Dakota, with especial destruction in Texas and among the
Omaha (see Sibley, and Lewis and Clark).
NO: 7 ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA——-MOONEY 13
1837-8. Smallpox swept whole Plains from Saskatchewan to Red River or
further ; practically exterminated the Mandan.
1849. Cholera in central Plains; killed about one-fourth of the Pawnee.
1870-1. Smallpox very destructive among Assiniboin, Blackfeet and Cree.
PiLains ( NorTHERN ) PLAINS (SOUTHERN )
1780 1907 1690 1907
INGEYIEIG) on goo o mor 3,000 1,774 INIGMNSCY Bs es nooee 500 Extinct
Arikaray coccs co 6 3,000 389 Arananian none cer 200 Extinet
ANSSiniboi 24... 10,000 2,080 Bidai-ye nen tee: 500 Extinct
IATSINA ee ete rae 3,000 553 Caddo (incl. Hasi-
Blacktoote as. 214. 15,000 4,560 Nat) Vets eens 8,500 555
Cheyenne, etc. .... 3,500 Beri Comanchemeaaesaes 7,000 1,430
(CROW Ratan sgn 4,000 1,787 Karankawa, etc. .. 2,800 Extinct
idatsasys etc =... 2)500 468 isichais eines. coe 500 30
OWA peetoet ene sack: 1,200 339 A Panigeess. pate oce te 500 25
esi Saleh oases cao ht a 3,000 1906 Miescaleronaneee ae: 700 466
RG O Wadler sos On aronys 2,000 1,220 Coahuiltecan Tribes 15,000 Extinct
Kiowa-Apache .... 300 156 Tonkawa, etc. .... 1,600 45
Mandatnererrs cee 3,600 263 Wichita, ‘etc. --. 4. 3,200 310
IMESSouniEea see 1,000 Extinct
Omahaeeermeccle. 2,800 1,246 41,000 2,861
Osarevtea pcos: 6,200 2,156
Oloverea tet ee: 900 3900
PAWMEE rss. S 290s os 10,000 644
IB OTCaes cc sr creme 800 845 ‘
Siotix eee ieccet. 225-000 28,060
100,800 50,477
THE COLUMBIA REGION
Under this heading we may include Washington, most of Oregon
excepting the southern part, north and central Idaho, and northwest
Montana; embracing all of the Salishan, Chinookan, Shahaptian,
Lutuamian, north-central Athapascan and neighboring small stocks,
within the present United States but excluding the Shoshonean and
Shastan peoples. The population of this section was probably at its
highest about the year 1780, when it may have numbered nearly 90,000
souls as against about 15,000 at present. About 1782-3 the whole region
was swept by the great smallpox epidemic which had started on the
Missouri a year earlier and extended from Lake Superior to the
Pacific and northward to Great Slave Lake (see Plains Region).
From all accounts it destroyed from one-third to one-half of the
Indians within its area. Lewis and Clark in 1806 noted its effects
at the Willamette mouth and on the coast, and it is apparent from
their statements that the tribes were still far from having recovered
Iq SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
their losses. Their estimates for the principal groups at that period
seem very nearly correct as compared with later statements of the
Hudson Bay Company officers, Hale and others. They give the
Shahaptian tribes 17,960; Chinookan tribes 16,640; the Kalapuyan
tribes 2,000; Yakonan 5,700; the Kusan 1,500; etc., each of which
was probably from one-fourth to one-third less than the corresponding
number before the epidemic of 1782-3.
The beginning of regular trade with ocean vessels at the mouth
of the Columbia in 1788 marked the introduction of sexual diseases
from sailors and traders which soon poisoned the blood of practically
all the Indians west of the Cascades, resulting in a constant and
rapid decay even without the agency of epidemics or wars. Liquor,
introduced in large quantities by Russian traders, despite the efforts
of the Hudson Bay Company officers to prevent it, is also said to
have been a potent destroyer along the coast and the Columbia
(Farnham). In 1823 (Hale; others make it as late as 1829) an epi-
demic of fever, said to have been due to plowing operations by the
whites at Fort Vancouver, spread along the whole Columbia region
below the Dalles, the whole Willamette Valley, and apparently also
the coast and central region as far south as California. Over much
of this area, according to Hale, it destroyed four-fifths of the natives,
practically exterminating the Chinookan tribes, leaving only about
1,300 out of the thousands found by Lewis and Clark. The Kalapuya
and Oregon coast tribes seem to have suffered in nearly the same
proportion, but the Salishan and Shahaptian tribes of Washington,
eastern Oregon, and Idaho appear to have escaped. In 1846 the
Columbia tribes, including the Nez Percés, suffered another visitation
of smallpox. In 1847 a measles epidemic, also originating with the
whites, spread over much of the same territory, being particularly
fatal to the Cayuse and associated tribes in eastern Oregon. In 1852-3
smallpox, introduced from San Francisco among the Makah, spread
with its usual destructive effect among nearly all the tribes of Wash-
ington and northern Idaho, wiping out whole villages in some tribes.
The Indian wars and conflicts with new settlers from 1840 to 1855
contributed also to a large decrease in the tribes concerned, while
the removal to reservations about the latter date proved in many
cases more fatal even than smallpox, the small tribes of western
Oregon especially losing over half their number within a few years.
The decrease continued until they are now almost extinct. The larger
tribes of eastern Washington, northern Idaho and western Montana,
having been less exposed and of healthier blood, have suffered less,
INC. 7 ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA—MOONEY 15
and perhaps in some few cases may actually have increased through
improved food resources and protection from outside enemies.
WASHINGTON, WEST 1780 1907
Wakashan
Makaha (@ uimnechant))) a yyroctacectere- acerca cert 2,000 438
Chimmesyan
(@iitvaaell ech aa ee ceteris o ease Shao en a eny for ee eTo ee 400 Extinct
Gintetiey and ed Olteme cise cn de riers 8 ae eoie fe © o estalcoeeg 500 205
Salishan
Clallainipeercmrmermetee ot hoc ee ies Ce gens wens.2 2,000 327
Ouinaielt and Quaitso............ Loe LO ee eae a 1,500 196
Chehalis, Cowlitz, etc. (including Humptulip)...... 1,000 170
GummiarsamishandNooksaksr mer ae ees ae see ees 1,000 (oni) ((33)))
SlaoitesSwitomish. ietCaee seisccrkikack ee sce eco 1,200 273
Snohomish, Snoqualmu, Tulalip, etc................ 1,200 200 (?)
Suquamish, Dwamish, etc. (Port Madison, etc.).... 1,200 AO) (C2)
Nisqually, Puyallup, etc. (including Muckleshoot
PESEMVALIOND) A Serie cent CP tiene ic Ginnie vee ei elaks 1,200 780
Sikelkoratign, Ieziali@n iSaberGinis sug ouneueconeeeeaes 1,000 200
Chinookan
Echeloat (Dlagilurt, Wishtam') 60 ic65ts6.e8 665.5 te ae
Chiluktkwa (Chilluckittequaw) and Smackshop...- 3,000
Shahala 7
Skilloot hoartty shih, COXA AOIO LO: Oh Rots cla niode Chico
SINOWO)E ty Gab Mahtoeatcions GBI GOLtOn SOR Oo OIE aoe 600
Onathlanatlemerecs vasa earbae cate ears toners 1,300 150 (?)
GallamaksGialamea)) ene sa. 4 octets ce ioe dees 250
VWVEI a EMail <2 OBS Be CR OT ere on coed a ae seen 300
Gliinooksa metre ie see cue ie eta aro reac Oral ies 600
Rollaxthokle CShoalwater- Bay )) iiccacc.es oageenen 200
Athapascan
Keyra iO Gtaten rte rai [ita ee emia mina taelate ee sersiar eho rats 200 Extinct
Shahaptian
“ Sokulk ” of Lewis and
Klikitat and Taitinapamd Clark; now with “ Ya-
kima,” q. v. from whom
they had branched off.
probably included “a
600 Extinct
WASHINGTON, EAST
Salishan
(eoleer pre Semijertce A vee ee as sone oN)’ 500 268
Colville (Wheelpoo, Shwoyelpi).................. 1,000 334
Sanpoil (Hihighennimo) and Nespelim............. 800 358
Spokan (Lartielo; part on Flathead reservation,
IU GV tits 4 12) 1 Pa a me le ER 1,400 760
Amount catried forward... 24..6. 0.06. fdiscs.s 26,450 5,072
\
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
WASHINGTON, EAST—C ontinued 1780
Amountsbroucht onwards. e--rirnaeeaee aie cee 26,450
Okinagan, etc. (Lahanna) (not including those in
British Columbia) coseseecuee nee mene ene 1,000
Methow and Isle de Pierre (Columbias, Moses’
oe ata Ip Muley ernie. noire Sea oreo Imo cro Mate 800
including Wenatchi, Kititas (Shan-
wappom), Skautal (Skaddal), |
|
Piskwau, etc. Wshanatu (Shallatoo), (Skwa-} 1,400
nana ? (Squannaroo), Kahmilt-
pah, Siapkat (Seapcat).
Shahaptian
Palas @eelloatpallah) earners see cee eee ele 1,800
Wanapum (Sokullk, see Klikitat)o..42-.5-.-22-% = 5: 1,800 |
Chamnapamy¢Chimnaliptna) eee tee selene re 1,800
Yakima proper (Pishquitpah, Cutsahnim ?)....... 3,000 |
including Kowassayee, Skin- |
Tapanash (Eneeshur) pah, Uchichol, Hahaupum
(Wabowpun), Tapanash. fi
PN CANT IIS errors Fa Ee NANT RMN eer ee
MOoNTANA, WEST, AND IDAHO, NORTH
Salishan
Salishvore blatheadhyy.cc2.c co rhe ote ehcp eee eee cetens 600
Kalispel or Pend d’Oreille (Coospellas)........... 1,200
Skitswish or Coeur d’Aléne (Skeetsomish)........ 1,000
Shahaptian
Neze Perce (Chopunmish)) wee ase cleo se eee 4,000
OREGON, WEST :
Chinookan
Skilloot (Calooit, Kreluit, Cooniac; partly in Wash-
AE] COM) a esac cree te oes Aiea cto vtuchona de tevecaucen eh evecare 3,000
Glatisop! siceses fea ote eat ete eee rates 300
Cathlamet: > LS ah aceon cect oe crete cession nuereese 450
Wappatoo Indians (including later Namanamin, |
a. Nechacokee™ ti. 2.2 eer cues oes ayer eee
ba Mialtnommalanee ss rceegees ee tare cca tenets ler coat kere esas
Ee Clannahquali. © emencco ee aire teeta peor
ad Nemalquinnerns i... one moatye tami eae rea ' 3,600
en Gathlahcommahtipeaneenaee reenter ene tit
f Cathlannahquialy 22. ccs aon oe 2 eee ee
gq) Claninnatay 2. 2 lela eae sins bere eileen
eM Cridaielebtobh) Apouaasasasannscadoocodcchascue
i Clannaminnamun (Namanamin) .............. |
@lackamase (Clatkams) e-eiaceee eee tein ie 2,500
Charcowah (Clowwewalla, Willamette, Willamette
TPuamwaten))|, i.e srenkrerere/ ose rcrSuerottheselenohet sonst sega oeere tes 300
Amount carried) torwarder. chee eileen eres 57,200
VOL.
1907
5.672
348
324
2,002
623
943
506
1,563
Extinct
Extinct
Extinct
10
18
Extinct
12,009
So
INO 7, ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA——MOONEY 17
OREGON, WEST—C ontinued 1780 1907
Atndounte brouehity LonwaLdre sre vere scence: 57,200 12,009
Cushook (probably included later with Willamette
Muiiwatet) mers cae eee variate cls ocan sant goo Extinct
partly in Washington; including later Wat-
lala, Cathlakaheckit, Kigaltwalla, Kwik-
wulit or Dog River, Cascade, Wasco,
Wahlala, Tumwater, etc. t 3,200 170 (?)
Dalles band of Wasco, Dalles Indians,
Wasco Wascopam, probably in 1780 included ;
with Shahala on Washington side.
Shahala
Salishan
Tillamook
Nestucca
Salmon River
Siletz, etc. J
Waiilatpuan
Molalla (probably in 1780 with Cayuse)........... Liss Extinct
Athapascan
slatskanaige cere ne tera ect asia 1,600 Extinct
Yakonan
Luckton
Yaquina (Youickcone, Yakone)
Alsea (Ulseah)
Siuslaw (Sheastuckle) J
Kusan .
Coos (Cookkoo-oose) | alesse 2,000 50 (?)
Mulluk (Lower Coquille of Siletz agency) f
Takelma
Takelma (Rogue River) :
ee ae Borne ee Paine stars ces 500 Extinct
Athapascan
Chocreleatan (Upper Coquille)
Quatomi (Six, Flores creek, Sucquachatany )
Cosuthenten (Port Orford, Kusochatany )
Euquachee (Euchre, Uka)
Yahshute (Joshua, Lower Rogue River of Siletz
agency )
Chetléssentun (Pistol River)
Wishtenatin (Naltunatunne, Nultnatna ?)
Chetco (Cheattee, Chata)
Tototin (Tootootena)
Mackanotin (Mecanotany, Rogue River of Siletz
agency )
Shistakoostee (Shishequittany, Chasta Costa, Illinois
River )
Umpqua (Upper Umpqua of Grande Ronde Agency )
Nahankhuotané (Cow Creek)
Taltushtuntudé (Talhushtany, Galice Creek)
Dakubetedé (Upper Rogue River, Applegate Creek)
Pe datoieo Oe e BOE Core OE ER IES 1,500 Extinct
Se ses ee 6,000 100 (?)
5,600 250 (°)
3,200 100 (?)
ATTOMUtRCAL ICC LOL WAL Cis slaratelaicret aici isc eve = syerctealerers 81,700 12.670
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
OREGON, WEST—C ontinued 1780 1907
Aniount) broushti fOtwand acceler tense asec 81,700 12,679
Kalapooian
Atfalati
Calapooya
Lakmiut
Mary's Rivet. ia. oc watts catmants oe dew nme 3,000 49
Santiam :
Yamhill
Yonkalla
Shahaptian
Wallawalla
Umatilla } SEB COT 6 OSC OEIC, FUTPSMEL TOON Ge 1,500 612
Tenino
Tilqtuni (Warmspring )
Tai-aq (Taigh, Upper Des Chute Wallawallas )
Tiiksptish (Dockspus, John Day River)
Waiam (Wayyampa, Lower Des Chutes Walla-
1,400 750 (?)
wallas)
Waiilatpuan
PEAVUISE are ack siesta tacl te, sun ole Seatste wre eich oii eae Ge I IR 500 405 (?)
Lutuamian
lea ranean trosanhed as ats ee asec enna Ua rcerh cae cee te ae 800 665
Modoc (partly in: Calitoriay —.fatesae hae aes 400 270
Slmasial (Garenvalhy sim (Czuliniefpare), ch We )aancccacchooocne
89,300 15,431
CALIFORNIA
In treating California we include the border tribes, Shasta and
Yuma, but exclude as extra-limital the Modoc (Ore.), northeastern
border Paiute (Nev.), Chemehuevi and Yavapai (Ariz.). Through-
out most of California tribal organization was so loose, and the
bands so many and their names so little known, that it is almost
impossible to differentiate by tribes, and we are forced to deal with
linguistic stocks or territorial groups. The population cannot be
tabulated by tribes, but there can be no question that it was several
times larger than i? any other area north of Mexico and that the
destruction has been correspondingly greater. The period of dis-
turbance may be said to begin in 1769, the date of the beginning of
Spanish occupation and the establishment of the first mission.
Estimates of the original population for the whole state have been
made by Powers (Tribes of California, Contr. N. Amer. Ethnol.
III, 1877), Merriam (Indian Population of California, Amer. An-
throp. (n.s.) VII, Oct. 1905), Kroeber (Inds. of Calif., in Handbook
I, 1907) and S. A. Barrett (personal letter, Feb. 5, 1908). Powers,
INOea 7, ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA——MOONEY 19
who had extended opportunity for observation, but little scientific
training or knowledge of earlier history, estimated it from 500,000
to 700,000 stoutly refusing to lower his figures when challenged.
Merriam, after close investigation of every section of the state, both
from the ethnologic and the biologic or subsistence standpoint, makes
it 260,000 in 1800, at which time, however, 18 of the 22 missions
were already in operation, resulting in a steady thinning out of the
natives within their jurisdiction. Kroeber makes the original num-
ber “ perhaps 150,000.” Barrett, basing his opinion upon close study
of the Pomo region, is ‘‘ inclined to support Merriam’s view ” and
estimates it at “upwards of 200,000.” In view of Merriam’s oppor-
tunities and detailed investigation we may take his figures (beginning
with 1800) as the best approximation for the whole region, although
the known decrease among the Mission Indians, almost from the start,
would seem to make even his figures conservative.
In 1853 the Indian population of the state was officially estimated
at 100,000; in 1856 at 48,100; in 1864 at not more than 30,000 ; and
in 1906, exclusive of 200 Paiute in the northeastern corner, and less
than a dozen Shasta in Oregon, at 19,014, a decrease of nearly
93 per cent.
Among the principal causes of decrease may be noted: evil effects
of unaccustomed confinement, and a number of epidemics including
smallpox, together with widely prevalent infanticide, among the Mis-
sion Indians from 1769 to 1834; a great fever epidemic throughout
the whole central region in 1833, officially estimated to have killed
70,000 Indians and reported to have come from the “ English settle-
ments” (7. e., Hudson’s Bay Co. posts) in the north, and possibly
connected with the great fever epidemic of Oregon in 1823 and later ;
dispersal and starvation of surviving Mission Indians after confis-
cation of missions in 1834; wholesale massacres, clearances, and
robberies of food stores by American miners and settlers from 1849
to the close of the Modoc war in 1873, together with the general
demoralization consequent upon association of the two races. For
details and special instances see Powers, Merriam, and Bancroft.
1769 1907
Total of state, Merriam estimate for 1800.............. 260,000 * 18,797
‘A careful and very detailed estimate of the Indian population of California
in 1770 has been made more recently by Professor Kroeber and incorporated
in his Handbook of the Indians of California (Bull. 78, Bur. Amer. Ethnol.,
1925, p. 883). This is only a year later than the date selected by Merriam for
his earliest estimate, the one which Mooney adopts, but the figure which
Kroeber fixes upon, 133,000 is scarcely more than half of Merriam’s.
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
CENTRAL MOUNTAIN REGION
Under this designation we include all of Nevada and Utah, with
western Colorado and Wyoming beyond the main divide, southern
Idaho, southeast Oregon and southwest Montana, with small por-
tions of New Mexico and Arizona, being the central territory of the
Shoshonean tribes, together with the Washo and Jicarilla.
The aboriginal period for this region may be considered to: culmi-
nate in 1845. Previous to this time there seems to be no record of
any epidemic or other destroying agency but by the opening of two
emigrant trails—to Oregon and California—within the next five
years, and the subsequent opening of the Southern Pacific railroad,
each crossing the territory from east to west, the seeds of disease
were scattered broadcast, murders and larger massacres became com-
mon, starvation resulted in consequence of eviction from old homes,
and a chronic and wasting warfare, involving most of the bands,
was inaugurated, lasting until 1868. In one notable fight, at Bear
River in 1863, the Indians engaged lost 308. The short Bannock
war in 1877-8 destroyed at least 200. In 1853 a smallpox epidemic,
possibly the same which ravaged the upper Columbia about the same
time, spread among the Shoshoni and Bannock, and is said to have
“more than decimated”’ the latter tribe. The official reports. still
show a steady decline. On the whole, however, the Indians of this
region, have suffered less than those of any other large section of the
United States, the rough and desert character of the country having
served as a protection from disturbance.
1845 1907
IBAnNOGK SA erga Bees cies ek Te ee CT ETS ere ete oars 1,000 530
Shoshont and Sheepeatenz,e-i6 noe, cee ee eiree ee oe eee 4,500 2,265
UiterGneludine iGosinteyandseahvant)eeeemeerie seca ene eere 4,500 2,068
Paiute (including Paviotso and “ Snake” Oregon).......... 7,500 5,605
NEY nol ee meml ari: Gee outa etc Ok oe e anc romry a Reena ps omen eke 1,000 300
Vacate 5S .eieece's rors eek eee ata one ekg eR Beem eae ea woh 800 776
19,300 11,544
NEW MEXICO AND ARIZONA
In this group we include the tribes of these two States, with the
exception of the border tribes, Yuma, Paiute, Jicarilla and Mescalero,
credited to adjoining sections. The Cocopa are omitted as extra-
NOs, ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA—~MOONEY 2M
limital, but some 1,000 Papago in Sonora are included with the Indians
of Arizona.
The first invasion of this section, by Coronado in 1540-1, resulted
in the destruction of perhaps a thousand Indians, chiefly of the Tigua
tribe, but as it was not followed up by permanent occupation on a
large scale until nearly a century later, we may assume that the Indians
recovered from the blow and continued to increase, without special
loss through mission establishment, until the general upheaval of the
great Pueblo revolt and reconquest, 1680-1692. This struggle prac-
tically wiped out the two largest Pueblo tribes, reducing the Pueblos
by at least one-third, and inaugurating a decline which has steadily
continued to the present day. The Yuman and Piman tribes were not
affected, the former wasting chiefly through tribal wars or perhaps
also by unrecorded epidemics, while the Pima and Papago apparently
continued to increase until the American occupation about 1850, since
when there has been a sharp decline among nearly all the tribes, due to
introduced diseases and dissipation, and starvation consequent upon
deprivation of water rights. Epidemics, especially of smallpox, have
been almost periodical for nearly a century, the last notable outbreak
among the Pueblos in 1898-9 resulting in the death of over 500.
Our Pueblo figures are largely based upon the investigations of Mr.
F. W. Hodge.
The cognate Navaho and Apache seem to be an exception to the
general rule, due to the fact that they have kept themselves free from
blood contamination and excesses, and, like the Iroquois, have re-
cruited their war losses by wholesale incorporation of captives and
broken tribes. For 50 years, beginning about 1835, the Apache were
in constant warfare with either Mexico or the United States, or
both, standing bounties being paid by Mexico for Apache scalps
during most of that period, resulting in a total recorded loss of at
least 2,000 killed. They were probably at their highest point about
1850, when they may have numbered 5,500 or even 6,000. The Navaho
have suffered much less in proportion in warfare, and very little from
other causes, and by reason of healthy blood and incorporation of
aliens, have probably increased steadily from the beginning of the
historic period. Their present number is given officially as 26,626, but
8,000 of this is reported as “‘a mere estimate.” It is a mistake to
suppose, as has been claimed, that they have reached this number from
a total of less than 9,000 when released from military confinement in
1868, as evidence shows that only about half the tribe had surrendered.
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
Shoshonean 1680
Ghemehweva. 0% 3 aise vite atau eaites ala <elouie oe
Yuman
niavasipar(oup pals @ohonino) americas 300
Wavapar (Mohave Apache) serrate ee san eer eee 600
WALA lh aida pytcs ctctdueperee eek te ote ee et tin eee ena, 700
Mohave gta tk Soren ae eee OE oe 3,000
INU Ee exoyofeTh Mes eenine ka Rimes re aeitrA | RE AAS rn Hu Wa Meta puna SD 2,000
Onigyuma, Clalliquamay,) ov i000. oc osc dees dela ane 2,000
Cajuenche m(Cawinay) oy. eek. sree eae: eee 3,000
Al Chedorna aie rs oe os Gee ok oT eel tS ene Ricteae: 3,000
Piman
SYOVO/2 V1 015 | 3) cg oe een NORMS a ead enn Oe PRU ey. RGA et BE}. Hl 600
EPAERLE Fonte orale ac sal cies, sha ae eee eee ke eee cate ae ee 4,000
PAD ARO Aiea ooh deer Remon ae Finatthe cs cme Meee 6,000
Athapascan
APACHE DE OME Tes. Cremeans salt wEcus a latne BGS wwe eae I 5,000
IN aiviella Or pecepalsiecs Ome Senet he caulk ee Upcit cmucee or mre 8,000
Pueblo
Hopi “ province” (incl. Awatobi; but excl. Hano)... 2,800
Zuni: proyance’? (modern Zant) 2.2.24. sees ees es 2,500
ANG SAPTOVAINCE! nue dome tacks vel ere ani eee tee le 4,000
Piros “province” (modern Senectt, Mex.).......... 9,000
Tewa “ province” (modern Nambe, San Ildefonso, San
Juan, Santa Clara, Tesuque, Hano of Hopi group).. 2,500
Tigua “province” (modern Isleta, Sandia, and Isleta,
AGRE) esi yah ate sarap a ments, 6 eae Oh eae ake iia S eae eas ee 3,000
Taos © province’ (modern ‘Taos, Picuris)).........+-+ 1,500
CCGG i> RONINC Es une Nita dona aN ae ned nore her 2,000
Jemez “province” (modern: Jemez) )..4 5.22.4... 2,500
Keres “ province” (modern Cochiti, San Felipe, Santa
Anas Santo; Dominso Stayicn occ suche eee 2,500
Acoma “ province” (modern Acoma, Laguna)....... 1,500
72,000
GREENLAND
voL. 80
1907
144
172
655
525
1,309
383
Extinct
Extinct
Extinct
Extinct
4,037
5,800
4,500
25,000 (?)
1,970
1,682
Extinct
60 (?)
mens
1,108
590
Extinct
521
1,971
2,190
53,832
Greenland was originally colonized by Scandinavians, about the
year 1000, but the colony dwindled and became extinct shortly before
1500, owing chiefly to the inroads of the Eskimo. The existing Danish
colony was established in 1721.
The aborigines are all of Eskimo stock and number altogether about
11,000, including a very large proportion of mixed-bloods, who, as a
rule, adhere to Eskimo custom and language. This number seems to
be considerably higher than in 1721, but the difference is largely, if
not entirely, to be accounted for by the increase of the mixed-blood
stock from European intermarriage. In addition the Danish govern-
ment and the resident missionaries have been particularly careful and
NO. 7 ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA——-MOONEY 23
successful in shielding the natives from outrage, liquor, and other
destructive agencies so common elsewhere in the contact of the savage
with civilization. According to Rink, the Eskimo of the Danish dis-
tricts, during the eighteenth century—the colonizing period—seem to
have greatly decreased, then “ for a long period ” again increased, and
again since 1855 to his writing, in 1875, had remained almost sta-
tionary at between 9,400 and 9,700 souls. As those outside the Danish
district number about 800, there seems to have been an increase
since then.
1721 1907
1 EBS) Lehfa VG) PS vs ies ORR EA GAS eR RCE RSTO POLIO SER ICTR 10,000 11,000
EASTERN CANADA
In this section we include Newfoundland, Labrador and the Ungava
district, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec,
Ontario north and east of the watershed of Lake Superior, Keewatin
east of the Severn River watershed and a small extension into western
New York, formerly a part of the Neutral Nation territory." The
shores of Lake Superior, Rainy Lake, etc., held by the Ojibwa, are
treated in connection with the Central States (U. S.).
Throughout a large part of this region tribal organization is so
loose and dialectic variation so slight, that it is impossible to make
close tribal distinctions. With the Monsoni, classed indifferently with
the Ojibwa or the Cree, we have included all the bands of the
Canadian Treaty No. 9 (1905-6) in southeastern Keewatin and
northern Ontario, together with those of southwestern Ungava. Under
Algonkin and Ottawa we include all the former and present bands
of the Ottawa and St. Maurice River basins, most of these being now
resident in the United States under the name of Ottawa. Under
Montagnais and Nascapee we have included the bands thus officially
designated in eastern Quebec, including the Saguenay River and the
St. John Lake basin, together with those of the interior of Ungava.
The standing official estimate for Ungava district comprising all of
Labrador excepting the Atlantic coast strip, has been kept for some
years past at 5,060, with no differentiation of tribes, comprising, ac-
cording to Turner, Eskimo, Nascapee, Montagnais and Monsoni. The
proportion here made is therefore as arbitrary as the official estimate,
1 Since this paper was written the Ungava district has been incorporated in the
Province of Quebec, Ontario expanded toward the northwest, and Manitoba,
Saskatchewan, and Alberta extended northward to the 60th parallel of latitude.
Athabaska and Franklin districts have been effaced and Keewatin greatly
curtailed.—J. R. S.
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80 .
but is based upon a study of probabilities. The Indian and Eskimo
population of Newfoundland and the eastern Labrador coast is not
noted in the Canadian report. The original population for the whole
section was probably about 54,000, which has been reduced about
one-half. ;
The: period of first disturbance for Eastern Canada may be con-
sidered to begin shortly after 1600, although an active fishing business
began along the coast nearly a century earlier. The first great destruc-
tion in this region was accomplished by the Iroquois, who, having pro-
cured guns before their neighbors, proceeded to exterminate or drive
out all the surrounding tribes, and between 1648 and 1675 successively
destroyed or reduced to refugee remnants the Hurons, Tionontatt,
Neutrals, Erie, Algonkin, Montagnais and Conestoga, several of which
tribes at the start outnumbered their destroyers, but lacked firearms.
Next in destructive importance comes smallpox, of which the prin-
cipal early visitations were in 1636-9 among the Hurons, Neutrals, Al-
gonkin, etc., and again in 1670 among the Algonkin and Montagnais,
when it was said that it destroyed almost all of those who remained
after the Iroquois wars. Later local smallpox epidemics were in
1702-3 in Quebec and in 1799 among the Ottawa of lower Michigan,
killing about one-half of those at their main settlement of Arbre
Croche. Liquor and general dissipation have also been responsible for
a part of the decrease, though not to the same extent as in some other
sections. The Eskimo tribes have probably remained about stationary,
while the Micmac and Malecite show a credible increase, chiefly, how-
ever, of the mixed-blood element. The Algonkin of Canada have in-
creased rapidly also in recent years, and with the Ottawa of the United
States have probably more than made up their earlier losses. The
small Beothuk tribe was practically exterminated by the Micmac early
in the last century.
1600 1906
Eskimo—a. Labrador coast, Newfoundland............. 1,800 1,500 (?)
b; Ungaya district, Canatla proper. «..... <2 2.00 1,800 1,250 (C2)
Monsoni, etc. (Ungava, Keewatin, Ont., Que.)......... 5,000 4,800 (?)
Montagnais and Nascapee bands (Quebec, Ungava).... 5,500 5,400 (?)
BGpot baa bee oe sh Reha ee ree eho doch aA eto eran 500 (?) Extinct
Mitemae-\". heen a et ie taeas sa ee eee ee eee 3,500 4,500 (?)
Mialecitie Aicisc kia theta cel anecore ce eratauedsade caale, ome tetoiees ayers bays mecerarecd 800 900
Algonkin and Ottawa bands (incl. Ottawa in U. S.).... 6,000 7,000 (?)
Eluron ‘confiedétates <tr eis mines el ciao) miokabtoion irate 10,000
Ten ontati y contederated remnant known as Huron in 840
\ Gansand Wyandot in"UaS. 5:25 eee sae 8,000
Netitrall IN atioi ot cats tartch vce ayoiuen etiam aon ioen moet eioens 10,000 Extinct
Missisatioal® oo iciaitae cae ase snsierene eater sie eee net ete te 1,300 810
54,200 27,000
NO. 7 ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA—MOONEY 25
CENTRAL CANADA
In this section we include the “ Northwest Territories’ of Canada
and other Canadian territories of the great central region between
Ontario on the east and British Columbia and Alaska on the west,
together with the Arctic shores and rivers, but excluding small
portions of Keewatin and Manitoba (Canada, Eastern, and Central
States) and larger portions of Alberta and Saskatchewan (Plains ).’
The several jurisdictions are officially designated as Manitoba, Al-
berta, and Saskatchewan provinces, Keewatin, Athabaska, Mackenzie,
and Franklin districts, and Yukon territory. The original population
may have been about 51,000. It is now about 28,000, of which one-
half belong to the Cree tribe ; about 5,500 are Eskimo and the rest are
of Athapascan stock. The period of first disturbance may be con-
veniently put at 1670, the date of the charter of the Hudson Bay Co.,
which until recently controlled the whole vast region. Along the
Eskimo coast in the Mackenzie region, however, there was no essential
change until after 1800.
For lack of data it is impossible to make any close reliable estimate
for the earlier period, but reasoning from the known to the unknown
there appears to have been a decrease over the whole region, greatest
among the Eskimo and among the southern Athapascan tribes. The
destruction of the Eskimo has been accomplished chiefly through new
diseases and dissipation introduced by the whalers and by starvation
consequent upon the dwindling of the food supply through the same
agency. In the lower Mackenzie region an epidemic of scarlatina in
1865 is estimated to have killed about one-fourth of the population.
Further south the Athapascan tribes were greatly reduced early in
the eighteenth century by destructive wars waged against them by
the Cree, who were the first to procure guns from the Hudson
Bay Co. traders. In 1781-2 the great smallpox epidemic already noted
in treating of the northern Plains, swept over the whole central Canada
region as far as the Great Slave Lake and across the mountains into
British Columbia. The Cree and Chipewyan were among the chief
sufferers. In 1837-8 the Cree and perhaps others lost heavily by the
same smallpox epidemic which nearly destroyed the Mandan, and
again to some extent in 1870-1. As in the cases of some others of
our largest tribes, the Cree seem to have made up their losses and
are now probably as numerous as ever before in their history. A part
of their recovery is due to intermarriage with whites. The Sarsi who
*See footnote, page 23.
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
branched off from the Beaver tribe some time before 1790 have de-
clined rapidly almost since first known.
1670 1906
Pskimo—c. Bathe lands Eranklim Districts creme 6,000 1,100
Pea Western canlclinte istics rere aaa 6,000 1,400
oe; Nukoneernitonyns o donationc spel cute scree 2,200 1,000
d-iMackenzierDisthicteaad. 1 ssn ctn eee 4,800 1,300
2) Notthesnt Keewatine Districtasseen cece nee 3,000 700
f. Southampton Island, Keewatin Dist......... 300 Extinct
Kutchin tribes—a. Yukon Territory (Voen K., Tukkuth
HK. eR UtCOnte, SRS) ecccerecroe ate 2,200 1,700
b. Mackenzie D. (Thetlet K., Nakotco-
ONG ake, whcwitqak: Kehna ecer 800 600
Sheep (Esbathaotinne), Mackenzie Dist., etc............ 300 200
Mountain Inds., Mauvais Monde (Etquaotinne) Macken-
ZACH IDISE AH IEUCE, Seton oesy aie Crore ete ee eRe CHE POe oas eaee toe 400 250
Nehane tribes of Yukon Ter., etc. (excl. those of
BritisheColumbia)e..* a. cosas ce he ees oS ee eee 800 600
Hare 750 450
Salle Mackenziemistrict tee cre eceee ees. eae B50
Slave 1,250 850
Yellow-knife 430 250
Beaver Athabaskambistuandub Grease ch cee ieee 1,250 700
Chipewyan, etc., Athabaska and Mackenzie Dist., etc..... 2,250 1,520
Caribou-eaters, Athabaska and Keewatin Dist.......... 1,250 900
Sarsie Alberta, (Provicemmes peat cee sce ree olan 700 200
Saskatchewan 5,300 |
Manitoba 4,000;
Cree & Muskegon (Swampy Cree)~ Alberta 1,680 ; 715,000 14,200
Athabaska 1,220;
Keewatin 2,000.
50,950 28,770
BRITISH COLUMBIA
The present population of British Columbia, including Vancouver
Island, is about 25,000, as compared with an original population of
about 86,000, at the period of earliest disturbance shortly after 1780,
being a decrease of about 70 per cent. This is a very conservative esti-
mate, authorities generally putting the original population much higher,
and Hill-Tout estimating it as at least 125,000. The estimate of
the Hudson Bay Company officers makes it approximately 41,000 in
1857, exclusive of the Nootka tribes of Vancouver Island, which
would probably make about 6,000 more, or a total of about 47,000
some 50 years ago.
NO. 7 ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA—-MOONEY 27
The first great disturbing influence was the great smallpox epidemic
of 1781-2, which swept over the whole country from Lake Superior
to the Pacific (see Plains). There is traditional and archeologic evi-
dence that this epidemic was very destructive throughout British
Columbia, but the tribes may be assumed to have nearly made up the
losses from this cause in the 70 years or more that elapsed thereafter
before the permanent occupation of the country by the whites. The
coast trade, inaugurated about 1785, marks the beginning of steady
decline, which proceeded rapidly to almost complete extinction of the
coast tribes after the advent of the miners about 1858, and the con-
sequent wholesale demoralization of the natives. The interior tribes
have suffered much less in proportion from this cause, but these, how-
ever, have been greatly reduced by repeated visitations of smallpox
and other epidemics, of which the most destructive was the smallpox
epidemic which swept the Fraser River country and northward along
the coast in 1862. In 1852-3 the Nootka tribes of Vancouver Island
also lost heavily by this disease. Famine and intertribal wars have
also been important factors in the decrease, although the tribes of
this section have almost entirely escaped the evils of removal and
war with the whites.
Athapascan 1780 1906
““ Naanees,” cae
“Tahltans” of
Nahane tribes, excl. of those of Babine andilseo00 a4
Yukon Territory, etc. Gasser one:
l cies. }
SEL OMA DO Wee rere eraser reso Suan aie neta eels aray diction ay sere 500 350
Beaver—see Canada, Central
Sekani tribes (only 212 attached to an agency, 1. e.,
Haida (Masset & Skidegate tribes of Queen Charlotte 500 (?)
IBalbinemunil bes reer aeres claet ave Oe sie ker eee Ete re a Oo nae 3,500 600
GanmettitOes nce t.s es as Paes eee een rerre Coie 5,000 876
(Ghileotintescer tte A clot ts ee ee ere see ea aetna eto: 2,500 400
Tsetsaut (Nahane tribe, Iskoot River & Portland canal ) 350( ?) Extinct
Stiwaihamugu(ot Nicolatvalley ine. se eeeecis cee 150 Extinct
Ikitunahan
KACteTiAT oe ee eee PMTs Mer hayes eb ee ayaa) cel conte, ee 1,200 Ta
Skittagetan
Haida (Masset & Skidegate) tribes of Queen Charlotte
TSTati cd SHS Cele cetera eens erate ch ote roca tate ahs eh tor ee 8,000 509
Haida (Kaigani) of Prince of Wales Island, Alaska.. 1,800 200 (?)
Amount Canned tOonwatdies smueciac vie ceucivie te crore 28,200 5,021
* Of these 573 were in Montana, U. S., and 549 in British Columbia.
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
1780 1906
JNEROLSLMME LOTKOWENTE OAV. \dooabSbdosoooeagodade 28,200 5,021
Chimmesyan
Tsimshian—a. Kitsun or Kitksan tribes, Babine and
Upper Skeena River Agency........ 1,500 1,130
b. Tsimshian proper tribes of B. C., North- |
west Coast agency, Port Simpson, |
Metlakatla, Kitkatla, Kikatla, Kitkaata
or Hartley Bay, Port Essington, Kit-
sumkalum, Kitselas. 5,500 1,383
c. Tsimshian of New Metlakatla, Alaska. { 400 (?)
d. Niska or Nishgar tribes, Northwest
Coast agency, B. C. (Kincolith, Kit- |
tex, Andegulay, Lackalsap, Kitwin- |
tshilth, Aiyansh, Kitlacdamax. ) 814
Wakashan
Heiltsuk tribes (incl. China Hat, part; Kitlope, Kiti-
mat, Bellabella, Oweekayno or Wikeno, of North-
Westul@oastuy AEM eVs ketene tam ie iatoerel shot epee erate 2,700 852
Kwakiutl tribes—a. On Vancouver Island, Kwakewlth }
agency (incl. Koskimo, Kwatsino,
Kwawkewlth or Kwakiutl proper,
Nimkish, Nuwitti). | 376
b. On Mainland, Kwakewlth agency |
(incl. Klawitsis, | Kwawshela, 4,500
Kwiahkah, Mamalillikulla, Ne-|
wakta, Tanakteuk, Tsawantiano,
Wawalitsum, Wiwaiaikum, Wi-
waiaikai). 881
Aht or Nootka tribes of Vancouver Island (West
Coast Agency, 18 tribes, besides others extinct).... 6,000 2,159
Salishan
Songish tribes of Vancouver Island (Cowichan agency,
incl. Sooke, Cheerno, Esquimalt, Songhees, Tsehum,
Panquechin, Tsartlip, Tsawout, Mayne Island, Dis-
covery Island). (See also Semiahmoo)............ 2,700 488
Puntlatsh tribes of Vancouver Island (Cowichan
agency, incl. now only Qualicum, others extinct)... 300 13
Comox tribes of Vancouver Island (Cowichan agency,
. incl. only Comox). (See also Comox tribes of main-
Delticdh)! ssrdie a rutes ates eater olen ATR Reape ee 400 59
Cowichan tribes of Vancouver Island (Cowichan
agency, incl. Malahut, Kilpanlus, Comeakin, Clem-
clemaluts, Khenipsin, Koksilah, Quamichan, Somenos,
Hellelt, Siccameen, Kulleets, Lyacksum, Lilmalche,
Penelakut, Tsussie, Nanaimo, Snonowas, Galiano
Is.) (See also Cowichan tribes of mainland)...... 5,500 1,208
Amount (canned OnWandee sein seeiktde ieee 57,300 14,874
NO. 7 ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA—MOONEY
Salishan—Continued
Amonntyprousht fotwatd .. 0.0. <. ok sees bees
Cowichan tribes of mainland, Fraser River mouth, etc.
(Fraser River Agency incl. Coqu‘tlam, Katsey,
Langley, Matsqui, Musqueam, New Westminster,
Nicomen, Skweahm, Sumass, Tsawwassen or Se-
wathen, Wharnock, Langley and Wharnock-Kwant-
ESA) ce gear oneucae ere avea MMIC RCPENG IS 1B CaCHRMC EP etc eet eT NF
Cowichan tribes: Chilliwack dialect of mainland
(Fraser River agency, incl. Aitchelitz, Kwawkwawa-
pilt, Skwah, Skway, Squiahla, Skulkayu, Soowalie,
Mzeachten,, NukikwelkwiOOse)) sas sce sas cee ake:
_Cowichan tribes: Tait group of mainland (Fraser
River agency, incl. Cheam, Chehalis, Ewawoos, Hope,
Ohamil, Popkum, Scowlitz, Squawtits, Texas Lake,
Skwawalookss Vale)iweasnins sue ete rod hues oes
Semiahmoo tribe (Fraser River agency: Songish lang.
See also Songish tribes of Vancouver Island).......
Comox tribes of mainland (Fraser River Agency incl.
Homalko, Klahoose, Sliammon; see also Comox
joes On Welateomnise IEG) seustaconsnesendannunee
Secheltitribe(G@irasern Rivem Agency) sass. ...6e sso ee
Squawmish tribes (Fraser River Agency, incl. Burrard
Inlet No. 3, Kapilano, Skwamish or Howe Sound,
Seymour Creek, Mission or Burrard Inlet, False
(COREL Fe okie ko oid ete Ane ARE RC kite ar Re eee eg
Okanagan tribes (Kamloops-Okanagan agency; incl.
Okanagan, Osoyoos or Nkamip, Penticton, Upper and
Lower Similkameen. (See also Columbia Region for
THOSERM NW i Se == 348) ccioe ose oe eis oie ei dole ile cae
Shuswap tribes (incl. Adams Lake, Ashcroft, Bona-
’ parte, Deadman’s Creek, Kamloops, Neskainlith or
Halant, North Thompson, Little Shuswap Lake,
Spallumcheen of Kamloops-Okanagan agency; Al-
kali Lake, Canoe Creek, Clinton, Dog Creek, High
Bar, Pavilion, Soda Creek, Williams Lake, of Wil-
liams Lake Agency ; Kinbasket of Kootenay Agency )
Thompson River or Ntlakyapamuq (Kamloops-Okan-
agan agency; incl. Ashcroft, Boothroyd, Boston Bar,
Coldwater, Cooks Ferry, Kanaka Bar, Lytton, Nico-
men, Lower Nicola, Oregon Jack Creek, Siska Flat,
SKUp pas ODUZZUIM) le aeerae reece rere aa syaio slo aree «
Bellacoola tribes (incl. Bellacoola, Kinisquit, Tallion,
ov Northwest «CoasteAcencyw isis. ead genitsre ses oe
Amott CanGied: ehOLWanGa. «aes cece a cae cilseek«
2,000
1,300
3.200
300
1,400
1,000
1,800
1,200
5,300
1906
14,874
516
315
205
634
2,109
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
Salishan—C ontinued 1780 1906
Amount brought torwardeecs +. 4460.0 sneabem ee 81,800 22,210
Lillooet or Stlatlumq (incl. Anderson Lake, Bridge
River, Cayoosh Creek Nos. 1 and 2, Fountain, Kenim
Lake, Lillooet Nos. 1 and 2, Seton Lake (Mission,
Enias, Schloss, Necait), of Williams Lake Agency,
Douglas, Pemberton Meadows, Skookumchuck, Sa-
mahquam, of Fraser River Agency)................ 4,000 1,228
Nomadic Indians, “about 3280,” unclassified, probably
includes nearly 1200 Sikani, Nahane, Chilcotin and
Strongbow, already noted. Deducting these leaves
unclassified and unattached about.................. - 2,150
85,800 25,588
ALASKA
Alaska was discovered by the Russians under Fedorov in 1732 and
the first permanent settlement was made in 1745, which may be taken
as the date of the earliest disturbance of the coast population. Through
the cruelties of the soldiers and irresponsible Russian traders it was
estimated that within about 20 years of the Russian advent the Aleuts
had been reduced at least one-half, and when the Russian government
interfered for the protection of the natives about 1795-1800 it was
said, although probably with exaggeration, that the Aleuts had then
been reduced to one-tenth of the original number. Dall thinks they
may have numbered originally 25,000. The same causes tended, in
less degree, to reduce the Tlingit.
The Eskimo tribes, farther north, were not greatly disturbed until
about 1848 when whalers began to frequent the arctic coasts, intro-
ducing whisky and disease, and destroying the native food supply.
In the winter of 1878-9, some 400 natives of St. Lawrence Island
starved to death in consequence of the introduction of a cargo of
whisky in the preceding summer, causing them to neglect their hunt-
ing through continuous drunkenness.
The interior (Athapascan) tribes have probably suffered less in
proportion, but have been reduced by epidemics of smallpox and fever,
usually entering from the coast. The first recorded smallpox visitation
occurred in 1775 among the Tlingit. It is not known whether the
great epidemic of 1781-2, which ravaged the Plains and Columbian
region, reached Alaska, In 1836 or 1837, and continuing four years,
smallpox introduced from the south ravaged the whole coast north-
ward to include the Aleutian Islands and spread eastward among
the interior tribes, everywhere with desolating effect. It is said
to have killed from 3,000 to 4,000 of the Tlingit and to have been
of almost equally fatal consequence along the Eskimo coast and
NO. 7 ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA—MOONEY 31
in the interior. Between 1855 and 1860 scarlet fever also wasted the
Yukon tribes, entirely wiping out several small bands. In 1843-4 the
Aleut were again visited by smallpox and about 1900 by a destructive
epidemic of grip, so that they number now only about 2,000, nearly
one-half of whom are mixt-bloods.
The latest Alaskan census of tribes is that of 1890, which takes
separate account also of mixt-bloods. The census of 1900 gives only
the total by districts, without distinction of tribes, and there are no
official figures of later date.” In some districts there appears to be a
considerable increase of late years, owing to improved living condi-
tions, but a large part of this increase is of the mixt-blood element.
The original population of at least 72,000, and possibly much more,
is now reduced to about 28,000, or about 40 per cent.
Eskimo 1740 1900
Arctic Coast to Norton Sound
Kan cimaliounitityet@a en: cca cect oor ccs aoe aes): ) 490
INT URRUULOTaNIONR. Het Gi AVS ol Baie tien Sonoran oreo cena eee a 1605
WWGhede Vile tl Rect ts Sawn a ethene ahe ae hs dada ese 230
Sidantt (On sezanok a7 wae ets ye Pele ah co eee dew 9 70
Wirkayandslkakpannrtinenitte sa sae seemes coe oes 130
merit pars PaKkChd oie StsGk ae. he oe Scie as ers & a5 350
INGER ESTE ENN a owes onic baecs MON OP Gane nae | 8,000 60
Kuangmiut (= Kowagmut and Selawigmut of Dall) | 110
Man emiitttemepens. eras oerence eee acter Aco he i See 720
Kingegan or Kingigumiut (incl. Little Diomede 730
island part Okeeorsmiut 0) inall)i cana... > 4
Reaver Utes eerie ic siehos wets otske! sve mista ler sic eletetereraretehcoek 6 \ 490
Umudjek (St. Lawrence Island; Kikhtogamut of
ID EU eee Atta hie iat Sirah recat oer eC Pe ee caine are ees 315
Ukivokmiut (King Island; part of Okeogmut of
IDEN): sete ae BSS cere erate rac ee Een eee Pico mites eee HES J 240
Norton Sound to Bristol Bay
Vie eNiiitin’ Lee on nea BeY be tee Rem ACEror Ronee ee 140
OSCE STE a le pO Onn rec PER aD Eras 720
Kwikhpagmiut or Ikogmiut (Ekogmut of Dall).... 210
Macennittsinclasicialicmittts : . tae ceric sania | 2,620
Nunrvasmint (Nunival: Island), ete:) .<...........- \ 17,000 S10
RTS ey OPIATE Pie Asis eo oe Memes ETOP orem actions aituar hers 4,000
“LUCoyeeTet hiTaUTT a} Rags eee Ps Peper erg i est ee re ee 230
Nushaeasminut or Tahlekukmiut.. . 2.40.2 520046.5-'| 210
Gea SINT ere en Melewa aes tenes Sete iol ets. cllce ahs 250
NOMOUIts Canned MOLWALGs wes seiemee ae selelsis ee ti ciere,§ 25,000 13,200
*The 1910 census gave 12,636 Eskimo, 1,451 Aleut, 3,916 Athapascans, and
4,426 Tlingit, but the stock of 1,640 individuals was not reported.—J. R. S.
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
Eskimo—C ontinued 1740 1900
Amount broucht torwatdnc.) aces satis coerce 25,000 13,200
South of Bristol Bay
Aclemint(OsulmiutiormDalll))\menecede ce rieeneee 870
Kantaemint (incl madtake Ustad i.e eee Pe inet ae 1,280
Chugachiomrity caciericce csi devote oe are ereaee 15,000 410
Wealakminteon Wi aalentzaecrewmern rice teeters or 200
Kaniagmut, etc., mixt-bloods, separately noted....... | 800
MentossUnanganeinibesie. a os-mimertono ee ek okGicioci: 16,000 1,060
Aleut mixt-bloods, separately noted.:.................. 830
Athapascan
ieaivankhotana, Or ln@alilesssc oss.c.o cone et aaee 1,800 930
Koyukukhotana ....... Sscicte sa ce Oar hii eee 1,000 580
Wnhakhotana ers Kiallchatta ee citad wins 6 ote walne ater 500 360
Knaiakhotana (Kenaitz, Tehanin-Kutchin)......... 1,200 890
SONteN ar Ore AN til atscnys cc aise eter ore lags acre arteries 500 17
IMinxt=5 OodSwesepanatchy snOtede sarin cere crises . 160
MenniithskKcutchiny eeerse eoeeis ate crews ace eucene ioe 100 Extinct
Datsahakutchinin Meio Se ves ce hoStiela. Seeley 100 Extinct
ieirtotra -atelninen(s i.a6cto)s 2 teste Soe Pee x es 500
IN ati =eitehiimy aiaseacg Seiya ce cein ute occas oer 200 675
15 choc A bedel abbey mao med og BEKO eto nom Sind oam soa rbod oc Evel
eman= Kartel (eae sccnssuste rahe wuseckayoraees settoreesieets 500(?) 370
Tlingit tribes
AY AKHAG ce ine cu SIRS © os. MO nee eed notes ters ~ 100
AGE (D1 | ae OA OE, SER RB cara ENGR OIO LG | 420
Ghai eater aes cape cata eaves ialaeaeiten aimere stores 930
| Urbis ERA Are erties tA 15.6, Glo cite rey thor conan ANE ECT IC hos 680
DNANDD eS aroragest ie a 10 ROS MOREE ce ao ne AS eRe ITE 335
RakauvandsS umd tiabe:. ears cee enlace aoe eiae iat 270
FLUTSIILW Uy eves hehehe © Seed oa Sena aes . 10,000 490
Sila eel ites rg ae cia elk ee eat cas On cima oo hes 925
Kealkes Set etitte ys seaalic sate ho atone: aie OE ore eases 285
Stikamet sch c score seactee ate ae Seneca eon ten eee 285
TONeass) andi Saiyainsc suite ome emer eee ere 285
Panegaormukleriva: civior testes tiers reer ates eters letra 285
Mixt-bloods, separately noted, about............... : 145
Kaigani and New Metlakatla (Tsimshian)
See British Columbia
OtaLE oh Sei raiee oh eine aleierinaie McLee ER eee 72,600 28,310
NO. 7 ABORIGINAL POPULATION OF AMERICA—MOONEY 33
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
The totals for the several areas are brought together in the follow-
ing table:
Early figure Late figure
INortiheAtlantionstatessascascmrmniaceris cae: 55,000 21,900
Southe Atlantica Statestiia teenie sieeiaeits ora 52,200 2,170
GuliaStatesinais. dressers wer earaetoisette siaieiei erecta ts 114,400 62,700
Gentrall® States: x; eo See oer eae beakers 75,300 46,126
The Plains ‘
INonthermeGe ads wae fetes ues dee ens 100,800 50,477
Southern csacrtoce soso epee enles 41,000 2,861
iheaGotampia RESON) cite. Jaae ea vee aio 88,800 15,431
Calitonniay ee ese ee ee ee eo eilvae te 260,000 18,707
Central Mountain: Region... 56 «i - 19,300 11,544
News Mexicorand Aipizonaice.. aos ces os oe 72,000 53,832
Greemlanncl per srry caracrehnntcheoinetro a see sree sats 10,000 11,000
Basten Gata dam marek teenie oer ener 54,200 27,000
Centrale @anadapys nem ctas acces os oo 50,950 28,770
Batttshis Goltmbiameee tee mere aiem eee: ee 85,800 25,588
JM EYS) eel Rate Se aaa, 8 Sd ee te atten 72,600 28,310
1,152,950 406,506
Allowing for overlappings between the United States and Canada,
the following estimates of population in the several political divisions
concerned may be given: *
Early figure Late figure
WnrtedeStates Proper os tonceeisee cece 849,000 266,000
Bettis ee NIme TI Came yee rane erie 221,000 101,000
JANI EES ce RO 0 i RPSL AE en BR RE 73,000 28,000
Greenlanders eg hey ayes eo ane 10,000 11,000
1,153,000 406,000
The figures in the second columns of these two tables are of approx-
imately the same date, usually 1907. Those of the first column apply
to very different dates but agree in that they are intended to represent
the population just before it suffered the first disturbance from
Europeans.
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ings and Collections, VIII, Wilkes-Barre, 1904.
ZEISBERGER, D., AND Mack, J. M. Journal of 1748. In Penn. Mag. Hist. and
Biog., Vol. XVI, No. 4, Phila., 1892.
Numerous private letters from ethnologists in various parts of the country
are also noted.
This sheet to be inserted in Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
Volume 80, Number 7, The Aboriginal Population of America North
of Mexico, by James Mooney (Publ. No. 2955).
ERRATUM
Page 27, 7th line in table, reading:
Haida (Masset & Skidegate tribes of Queen Charlotte 500 (?)
should read:
ADIT Ree ence error en emcee iat. ora on Rica ale ot trees 3,200 500 (?)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 80, NUMBER 8
FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS FROM THE
GRAND CANYON: THIRD
CONTRIBUTION
(WitTH Five PLATEs)
BY
CHARLES W. GILMORE
Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology,
United States National Museum
“800000088?
(PUBLICATION 2956)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
JANUARY 28, 1928
TBe Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.
FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS FROM THE GRAND CANYON:
THIRD CONTRIBUTION
By CHARLES W. GILMORE
CURATOR OF VERTEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
* (Wir Five PLatEs)
INTRODUCTION
A third visit to the Grand Canyon in the late spring of 1927 enabled
me to collect additional fossil footprints, some of which are unde-
scribed species. Since there is no immediate prospect of acquiring fur-
ther specimens, it seems important that these, together with a speci-
men presented to the Museum by Mr. G. E. Sturdevant, naturalist
of Grand Canyon National Park, should be described, in order to
perfect .as far as possible the record of the ichnites of this region.
While the above mentioned specimens from the Hermit and Supai
formations form the basis of the present paper, attention is also given
to a fourth ichnite fauna recently found in the Tapeats sandstone
of the Bright Angel section. These materials are fragmentary and
do not warrant systematic description. All are trails of invertebrate
animals, probably trilobites, a conclusion reached by the late Dr.
Charles D. Walcott from his study of similar trails from this same
formation 1n other parts of the Grand Canyon.
I wish here to express to Dr. John C. Merriam and his associates
of the Grand Canyon Exhibit Committee of the National Academy of
Sciences my appreciation for the financial assistance which made this
third trip possible. I also wish to acknowledge again the help given
by various members of the Park organization. Superintendent M. R.
Tillotson furnished equipment and assistance of personnel; Mr. James
Brooks, chief ranger, detailed ranger assistants; and Mr. G. EF.
Sturdevant, Park naturalist, as on previous visits, contributed freely
of his time and energy to the successful outcome of the work in hand.
NEW OBSERVATIONS ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
OF TRACKS IN THE GRAND CANYON
The geographical range of fossil tracks in the Grand Canyon was
considerably extended through the opportunity offered of exploring
new localities. It would seem that on the south rim of the Grand
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS, COLLECTIONS, VOL. 80, No. 8
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
Canyon, tracks can be found in the Coconino, Hermit, and Supai
formations wherever local conditions permit of search being made
for them.
In the Coconino, footprints were found in débris at the base of the
Coconino cliff on the west side of the Bright Angel Trail, and were
also noticed by Dr. E. F. Miller of the Marlin Oil Company, on the
Grand View Trail where he was engaged in measuring the geological
section. Their presence here is further substantiated by a specimen
(No. 2367, U.S. N.M.) collected in this same locality in 1903 by the
late Dr. Charles D. Walcott. This is some 20 miles east of the nearest
known fossil footprint locality, and thus considerably extends their
previously recorded range.
Accompanied by Dr. David White and Mr. G. E. Sturdevant,
I visited the Dripping Springs locality at the head of Hermit Gorge
and, although only a short time was spent there, we observed tracks
in great abundance on the sloping ledges immediately to the north and
east of the spring, thus fully verifying earlier reports of their
occurrence.
Considerable time was spent in searching the track-bearing horizon
in the Coconino formation where it is crossed by the Yaki Trail, and
although numerous tracks and trails were found, with one exception
their preservation was so poor that none was thought to be of suf-
ficient value to collect.
In the Hermit formation, Dr. David White discovered tracks of
extinct animals in association with fossil plants in two distinct and
widely separated localities—on the Bright Angel Trail and on the
Yaki Trail. In both of these localities the preservation of the plants
was far superior to that of plants found in Hermit Basin, but the ani-
mal tracks were inferior in that only a few imprints were found,
never a trackway of any extent. Neither of these places, therefore,
seems to be a promising locality for further work, their chief interest
being in extending the known geographical distribution of the Hermit
ichnites.
In the Supai formation Mr. Sturdevant, as previously mentioned,
found a slab of well preserved tracks on the Bright Angel Trail, and
numerous footprints were observed by us on blocks that had fallen
down from the more or less perpendicular face of the track-bearing
bed of sandstone on the point which projects into the Canyon immedi-
ately below Yavapai Point.
Several days prospecting in the Supai formation along the western
side of O’Neill Butte on the Yaki Trail disclosed a considerable abun-
No. 8 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 3
dance and variety of tracks. Those found were on blocks lying on
the hillside, though a few were preserved in situ. That this forma-
tion has a large undescribed ichnite fauna is plainly evident, but it is
difficult to obtain specimens for study because of the inaccessibility
of the perpendicular track-bearing cliffs, and because the tracks usually
occur in massive blocks of sandstone that do not readily cleave into
layers. If adequate study specimens are to be secured, specially trained
stone workers with proper equipment must be employed.
In the Coconino on the south rim of the Grand Canyon, tracks are
now known at Dripping Springs on the west, and on the Grand View
Trail to the east, an extent of about 29 miles. In the Hermit and
Supai, tracks have been found from Hermit Basin on the west to the
Yaki Trail on the east, a distance of about 11 miles. That further
exploration will greatly extend these ranges is now plainly evident.
Tracks have not yet been found in the rocks of the north rim of the
Canyon, but it is confidently expected that their discovery there will
* be one of the early announcements.’
SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF GENERA AND SPECIES
Under this heading are included notes and new observations on
described genera and species as well as descriptions of a few that are
new to the ichnite faunas of the Grand Canyon. They are discussed
in the same order as in the preceding papers on this subject, com-
mencing with those from the Coconino formation and following suc-
cessively with the Hermit, Supai, and Tapeats footprints.
ICHNITES FROM THE COCONINO FORMATION
Genus LAOPORUS Lull
Mention was made in my previous paper’ of the similarity exist-
ing between the tracks of Laoporus and those figured by Hickling *
from the British Permian. Further study and comparison deepens
my conviction that these tracks are congeneric. Their close similarity
in size, number, relative lengths and arrangement of the digits is
clearly indicated in the illustrations (compare figs. 1 and 2). The
*Under date of Dec. 14, 1927, a letter from Mr. G. E. Sturdevant announces
the discovery by him of fossil tracks in both the Supai and Coconino forma-
tions on the north rim of the Grand Canyon.
* Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 80, No. 3, 1927, p. 17, footnote.
®* Manchester Lit. and Philos. Soc., Memoirs, Vol. 53, 1909, Art. 22, pl. 2
figs. Io and It.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
British tracks are referred by Hickling to Chelichnus ambiguus Jar-
dine, but examination of Jardine’s original figures of this species’
leaves much doubt as to the correctness of this assignment. If cor-
rect, it is of interest to note Hickling’s observation that in Jardine’s
A
IV B W
Wh |
c
Vv
(\A\ pNaers
aa —
| C=
\ MS
Fic. 1.—Footprints from the British Fie. 2-—Laoporus noblei Lull. A,
Permian which can be properly re- outline of manus track. Paratype.
ferred to the genus Laoporus. A, fore No. 8422, U. S. N. M. B, C, manus
and hind tracks; B, manus. All after and pes track of No. 11,122, U. S.
Hickling. About 4 natural size. - N. M. All about $ natural size.
specimen, “the fifth digit is nowhere shown,’ and it is a condition
often observed in the trackways of the American Laoporus.
OCTOPODICHNUS DIDACTYLUS Gilmore
Octopodichnus didactylus Gilmore, Charles W., Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
Vol. 80, No. 3, 1927, p. 31, pl. 10, fig. 2, text fig. 13.
Recently in bringing together all of the miscellaneous fossil foot-
print materials in the U. S. National Museum, the accumulation of
many years, a small slab (No. 2367) was found on whose surface
there was a trackway that is clearly referable to the genus Octopo-
dichnus and provisionally to the species O. didactylus Gilmore. The
specimen is of interest as being the third recognizable specimen found
of this species and also from the fact of its coming from a new locality
for tracks, thus greatly extending their known geographical range.
The specimen was collected by the late Dr. Charles D. Walcott
from the Coconino sandstone on the Grand View Trail, Grand Can-
yon National Park, Arizona, in 1903. This discovery antedates by
12 years the finding of quadruped tracks in the Grand Canyon by
Schuchert and by nearly a quarter of a century the discovery of the
type specimen (No. 11,501 U.S.N.M.) on which the above genus
and species was established.
The considerably smaller size of the trackway and slight differences
noted in some of the individual imprints suggest the possibility of
*TIchnites of Annandale, 1853, pls. 6 and 11.
no. 8 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 5
the specimen representing a distinct species, but more perfectly pre-
served material is needed to determine that point. The trackway
shows two parallel lines of imprints arranged as in the type in groups
of four, the groups of the two sides alternating. These groups have
the usual arrangement of a row of three regularly spaced tracks with
the fourth offset inward.
After a study of the type specimen, it was my conclusion that the
trackway was probably made by some Permian crustacean. In con-
firmation of the probable correctness of that conclusion, Mr. Reming-
ton Kellogg, of the U. S. Biological Survey, calls my attention to a
considerable similarity between these tracks and trails made by the
living sand crab Ocypoda albicans, recently observed by him in the
sands on Hatteras Island, North Carolina.
ICHNITES FROM THE HERMIT FORMATION
Genus HYLOIDICHNUS Gilmore
Hyloidichnus Gilmore, Charles W., Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 80, No. 3,
1927, p. 5I.
Generic characters —Quadrupedal, semi-digitigrade. Both manus
and pes have five digits. Manus smaller than pes and placed in front
of hindfoot. Toes either terminated with pellets or having bifur-
cated ends.
HYLOIDICHNUS WHITEI, new species
Plates hoa 1
Type.—Catalogue number 11,692, U.S. N. M. Consists of a small
slab on which are four imprints. Collected by Dr. David White,
June, 1927.
Type locality—Yaki Trail (“‘ Cedar Ridge ” 500 feet west of trail),
Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona.
Geological occurrence —Hermit shale, 30 feet above Hermit-Supai
contact, Permian.
Description —Stride estimated to be about 106 mm., width of
trackway about 45 mm. Forefoot slightly smaller than hind and
placed almost directly in front of it. Hindfoot: Length about 24 mm.,
width about 22 mm. [ive toes. The toes are long and especially
slender, fourth longest, others growing progressively shorter toward
the inside of the foot. First only faintly impressed, but apparently
about the same length as the fifth. Digits II to V having terminations
slightly enlarged, the first apparently having bifurcated ends. The
toes have the following lengths: I=7.5 mm., II[=11.1 mm.,,
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
Iil=13 mm., 1V=16mm., V=8 mm. Sole not sufficiently impressed
to show its outline ; it seems to be short and broadly rounded behind.
Forefoot: Length about 18.5 mm., width from tip of first to tip of
fifth digit 17 mm. Five digits which increase in length from first to
fourth, Fifth about one-half as long as the fourth, but longer than
first. First and fifth directed strongly forward and outward respec-
tively from the median digits. Digits I and I] terminated by pellets ; IIT
Fic. 3.—Hyloidichnus whitei, new species. Type. No. 11,692,
U. S. N. M. Diagram of trackway. About natural size.
and IV by asymmetrically bifurcated ends resembling those of the pes
in H. bifurcatus. All toes especially slender. The digits have the
following measurements: I[=6 mm., II=12 mm., IIl=13 mm.,
of the manus. Forefoot: Length about 30 mm., width about 30 mm.
IV=13.5 mm., V=5 mm. The palm failed to leave a distinct impres-
sion and thus its size and contour are unknown.
The general resemblance of the foot plan, the same relative length
of toes, and the presence of both bifurcated and pellet toe termina-
tions as in the feet of Hyloidichnus bifurcatus Gilmore from this same
no. 8 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE Fi
formation, indicates that its affinities fall within that genus. Its
specific distinctness, however, is shown by its much smaller size, in
having the bifurcated toes on the manus, and the more slender form
of the toes as a whole.
The species is named in honor of Dr. David White who collected
the type specimen.
PARABAROPUS COLORADENSIS (Lull)
Plate 1
Megapesia ? coloradensis Lull, R. S., Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. 45, 1918, p. 341.
Parabaropus coloradensis (Lull), Gilmore, C. W., Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
Wola SOne Non 361027) peis3t
On the track covered surface of a large slab (No. 11,707,
U.S.N.M.) of impure Hermit sandstone of the collection of 1927,
obtained from the fossil track locality one-fourth mile west of the sign
“Red Top” on the Hermit Trail, is a trackway identified as Para-
baropus coloradensis (Lull). This trail, the most perfect yet dis-
covered, shows the trackway to have a width of about 190 mm.
On this same slab are numerous trails of Holopus hermitanus anda
single trackway of Collettosaurus, probably C. pentadactylus. The
large size of this slab, with its undulating surface covered with foot-
prints, presents an interesting section of the old mud flat over which
these animals walked and which has preserved a plain record of their
ramblings. A view of this specimen is given in plate I.
The stride of the Parabaropus tracks’ varies from 260 to 340 mm.,
whereas in specimen No. 11,598, described in my previous paper,’ the
stride is about 240 mm., and it is quite apparent from the measure-
ments of the foot impressions that the two animals were of about the
“same size.
In the specimen now before me, the pes impressions lack the
elongated sole which is such a distinctive feature of the hindfoot in
the tracks previously referred to.” The difference noted is due, as
is clearly apparent from a comparison of specimens, to the difference
in depth to which the feet impressed themselves into the mud. In the
specimen under discussion, the posterior part of the heel did not regis-
ter, whereas in the trackway previously described, the whole foot sank
deeply into the muddy surface. The proportions of the feet, number
of toes, their form and close similarity of arrangement, leave no
‘Fossil footprints from the Grand Canyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 80,
No. 3, 1927, D. 57.
2 Op. cit., p. 56, fig. 27.
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
doubt as to their being cospecific. The differences noted in a compari-
son of these two specimens illustrates the need of an abundance of
material in the study of fossil tracks if an investigator is not to be
led astray by differences that are more apparent than real.
In the normal relationships of the tracks, the forefoot is placed in
front of the hind, but in the trackway now before me the forefoot is
occasionally found in the rear of the hindfoot.
COLLETTOSAURUS PENTADACTYLUS Gilmore
Plate 1
Collettosaurus pentadactylus Gilmore, C. W., Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 80,
No. 3, 1927, p. 60, text fig. 32, pl. 10, fig. 1.
A trackway 1300 mm. in length, on slab No. 11,707, U. S. National
Museum (see pl. 1) seems to be clearly referable to the above genus
and species. While this specimen adds nothing to our knowledge of
the feet impressions, the presence of a deep, continuous, but slightly
undulating, tail drag is of interest, since the type specimen ( No. 11,527,
U.S. N.M.) showed none. A second specimen (No. 11,710, U.S.
N.M.) identified as pertaining to the same species, although 530 mm.
in length, gives no evidence of a dragging tail. Study of these three
specimens confirms my previous conviction that the presence or
absence of a tail drag has but little significance as a diagnostic charac-
ter for distinguishing fossil tracks.
ICHNITES FROM THE SUPAI FORMATION
Genus AMMOBATRACHUS, new genus
Generic characters——Quadrupedal. Five digits in pes, four in
manus. Forefoot smaller than hind, with the latter placed in front
of the former. Digits of both manus and pes widely separated, outer
toes of both much reduced in size, fifth of pes widely divergent.
Genotype—Ammobatrachus turbatans, new species.
AMMOBATRACHUS TURBATANS, new species
Plate 2
Type.—Catalogue number 11,691, U.S. N.M. Consists of a slab
of sandstone 380 mm. long having a trail traversing its entire length.
Collected by G. E. Sturdevant, 1927.
Type locality—Bright Angel Trail, Grand Canyon National Park,
Arizona.
Geological occurrence.—Supai formation, Pennsylvanian.
no. 8 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 9
Description—Stride about 80 mm., width of trackway about
115 mm. Hindfoot: Length about 40 mm., width about 40 mm. Five
digits. The first toe is short. Third slightly the longest while second
and fourth are subequal. All three acuminate. The second and third
curved slightly outward. Fifth toe, short, stout, with bluntly rounded
Fic. 4.—Ammobatrachus turbatans, new genus and species. Type.
No. 11,691, U. S. N. M. Diagram of trackway. About 3 natural
size.
extremity. This digit is directed strongly outward, its longer axis
standing nearly at right angles to those of the other toes. In the im-
prints of the pes on the left side the fifth toe is longer, more slender,
and directed more forward than on the right side. The imprint of
the second toe is lacking in most of the tracks of the left side. The
sole of the foot is relatively long, exceeding the length of the toes,
is rounded behind, and had palmar pads. The toes have the following
sae) SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
lengths: Ll=15 mm., 11l=17:5:mm,, [V=15 mm.) V =7-5mm.bind=
foot regularly placed in front of fore, but usually clear of the toes
of the manus. Forefoot: Length about 30 mm., width about 30 mm.
Four toes. Toes lengthening toward the outside of foot, the outer and
inner being short and subequal in length. The outer toe originates well
backward on the side of the palm, and is directed forward and out-
ward. Median toes widely separated and divergent anteriorly. All
of the digits of the manus have subacute terminations (see fig. 4).
The foot as a whole is much smaller than the’pes. Sole relatively
short, being broader than long and broadly but regularly rounded
posteriorly. Length of toes as follows: I1=7.5 mm., II[=12.5 mm.,
IV=14.5 mm., V=7.5 mm. The digital formula of five and four
at once distinguishes this genus from all described forms of the Supai
ichnite fauna. Batrachichnus of the Hermit, Laoporus and Agostopus
of the Coconino, have a similar number of toes, but here their resem-
blance to Ammobatrachus largely ends. The intermediate size of the
footprints under discussion, the wide spreading of the toes, and dif-
ferences in length and other proportions effectually distinguish these
from all other Grand Canyon tracks.
Hickling * figures a pes track from the Permian of Corncockle Muir,
Scotland, which bears certain resemblances to the pes, but his details
of foot plan are uncertain and thus a closer comparison is of little
importance.
INVERTEBRATE TRAILS FROM THE SUPAI FORMATION
During the field work of 1927, a considerable number of trails
evidently made by invertebrate animals, were observed in the track-
bearing horizons of the Supai formation. Owing to the lack of proper
facilities, only a few of these were collected. Although many of them
clearly show that the impressions were made by animate creatures,
their details are not sufficiently clear to depict their principal charac-
teristics, and on that account they seem unworthy of generic and
specific designation, but in order to advance our knowledge of the
Supai ichnite fauna as far as is consistent with the character of avail-
able materials, a few of these specimens are briefly described and
illustrated.
In figure 1, plate 4, is illustrated a trail (No. 11,740, U.S. N. M.)
found lying on the slope west of O'Neill Butte. A second specimen
found later on a massive block of sandstone at the base of the track-
* Manchester Lit. and Philos. Soc., Memoirs and Proc., Vol. 53, 1909, Art. 22,
pp. 6 and 7, pl. 3, fig. 20.
no. 8 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 1p
bearing sandstone in the middle Supai appears to be identical, but
the extreme hardness of the sandstone resisted all attempts to collect it.
These were the only trails of this particular kind observed in many
days of prospecting in this formation. The trail illustrated (see fig. 5)
is impressed on the surface of a pinkish sandstone and has a length
of approximately 370 mm. The specimen, which is the positive slab,
a
—
Gi ONCE Toe
\
\.
\
%
Y
.
N
Fic. 5.—Invertebrate trail from Supai formation. No. 11,740,
U. S. N. M. About 4 natural size.
has been cast, and the replica affords all the evidence of the original.
The trackway as a whole is asymmetrical, brought about, it would
seem, by the failure of the appendages of the right side to leave their
imprints. Two faint impressions on the right side near the midlength
lend support to this view. (See pl. 4, fig. 1.) These are elongated
depressions set diagonally to the line of movement, and in nearly every
way conform to those forming the outer row on the left side of the
trackway. If this supposition is correct, the normal trail would have a
width of about 46 mm. The longitudinal row of tracks of the left
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
side consists of a uniform series of elongated depressions that stand
diagonally to the line of direction. These are quite regularly spaced,
averaging about 15 mm. apart. The outer ends of the diagonal tracks
are somewhat enlarged backward, whereas the inner end gives off
a sharp spur that is directed forward and inward. Over all, these
diagonal impressions have an average length of about 27 mm. A
second, and supposedly median row of elongated impressions, but
less clearly registered, parallels those just described. They also have
a diagonal trend, paralleling in direction but usually alternating with
those of the outer row.
This trail seems to be undescribed and when more perfect examples
are found, there will be little difficulty in fully characterizing it. The
character of the trackway points clearly to its invertebrate origin,
though at this time I have no suggestion to offer as to the particular
group of animal life to which it may be attributed.
A second trail, No. 11,693, U.S. N. M. (see pl. 4, fig. 2), collected
by Mr. G. E. Sturdevant in 1927, from the uppermost track-bearing
horizon of the Supai formation, on the west side of O’Neill Butte,
represents another undescribed trackway of peculiar kind, the details
of which, as in the preceding, are not altogether clear. This trackway
has a total length of 330 mm.; width about 65 mm.; length of stride
about 25 mm. It consists of two parallel rows of curved, pointed,
finger-like markings, between which are irregularly shaped, subround
impressions of spasmodic occurrence. The tracks of opposite sides
seem to alternate, although in some few instances they are opposite.
The finger-like impressions stand diagonally to the line of movement
and seem to be directed forward, though from this specimen alone
one cannot be sure of the direction of movement. The irregularity
of the impressions (see fig. 6), especially of the two rows, does not
permit of a satisfactory diagnosis, and for that reason I refrain
from naming it, though it undoubtedly represents a form new to this
ichnite fauna.
In plate 3, figure 2, is illustrated a kind of track that has been
observed on numerous occasions in the Supai formation, but which
has not yet been found in the form of a definite trackway. While
this type of track may be easily recognized, none of the examples
found gives any idea of a continuous trail, the individual tracks being
placed here and there and apparently without rhyme or reason. Occa-
sionally two and three will be found, one placed behind the other.
no. 8 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS—GILMORE 13
Some of the imprints are tridactyle, others didactyle. The toes are
usually sharply pointed and widely divergent. These tracks vary
from 14 to 16 mm. in length and from g to 12 mm. in width. They
Fic. 6.—Invertebrate trail from Supai formation. No. 11,693,
U. S. N. M. About 3 natural size.
give every evidence of having been made by an invertebrate animal to
whose identity we have no clue at this time. It is anticipated that
sooner or later well-defined trails of this animal will be discovered.
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
ICHNITES FROM TAPEATS SANDSTONE
Plate 5, figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4
In a previous paper* mention was made in a footnote of the dis-
covery by Mrs. G. E. Sturdevant on the Bright Angel Trail of a
small section of a trackway which at that time was thought to come
from the Bright Angel shale. More extended search of this locality
by Messrs. G. E. Sturdevant and Edwin D. McKee has brought to
light several additional specimens, and Mr. Sturdevant writes me that
all of these specimens, including the one previously found by Mrs.
Sturdevant, are from the Tapeats sandstone.
The correctness of his observation is fully confirmed by comparison
of the specimens with trails figured by the late Dr. Charles D.
Walcott * from the Tapeats sandstone of other parts of the Grand
Fic. 7.—Trilobite ? trail from Middle Cambrian; Tapeats sand-
stone on Bright Angel Trail. About 4 natural size.
Canyon, several of which are identical in character. That there was
an extended ichnite fauna in this formation is abundantly shown by
the many different kinds of trails figured by Walcott, and by the
specimens more recently collected.
Walcott attributes all of the various kinds of trails illustrated by
him as being made by trilobites. He points out that the known genera
and species of trilobites from the Middle Cambrian give a wide varia-
* Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 80, No. 3, 1927, p. 9.
* Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 67, No. 4, 1918, pls..37 to 42.
No. 8 GRAND CANYON FOSSIL FOOTPRINTS
GILMORE 15
tion in size, and in ventral appendages, quite sufficient perhaps to
account for most of the trails found.’
While I have no intention of giving a detailed description of these
recently discovered trails, a few of the more characteristic specimens
are illustrated here, especially those that differ from the trails pub-
lished by Walcott, and these figures tell the story of the kinds found.
The discovery of these trails in the Tapeats of the Bright Angel
section is especially interesting as recording a fourth track-bearing
horizon in this one geological section.
A CORRECTION
In the faunal list of the Coconino, Smithsonian Mise. Coll., Vol. 80, No. 3,
1927, p. 4, a third species of Agostopus, A. robustus is listed. This name was
inadvertently included, but it has no standing and should therefore be dropped
from further consideration, as a nomen nudum.
Attention is also called to the misspelling of the species Hylopus hermitanus
in the same publication. In the list of Hermit ichnites, page 7, H. hermitus, and
on page 78, H. hermitensis both should be Hylopus hermitanus Gilmore.
*Idem, p. 175.
to
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
EXPLANATION OF PLATES
PLATE I
PAGE
Large track-covered slab (No. 11,707, U. S. N. M.) from the Hermit shale,
showing trackways of Parabaropus coloradensis (Lull) (large
track forming the diagonal trail across left side of slab) ; Col-
lettosaurus pentadactylus Gilmore (trail with distinct tail drag
to right of center) ; and Hylopus hermitanus Gilmore (all other
tracks on the slab). This slab has a greatest transverse diameter
of 6 feet and 5 inches; a greatest vertical diameter of 3 feet and
TOMITICHIOS) a5, ace ocd eho AO Or ok ROR one te Sp ID ee Cee ree
PLATE 2
Ammobatrachus turbatans, new genus and species. Type. No. 11,601,
U.S. N. M. Trackway from the Supai formation, Bright Angel
Trail, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona. About one-half
jatuipall SIZE “aco ache tas ceca reves ieee aie COIN sie Onn ee ne
PLATE 3
Fic. 1. Hyloidichnus whitei, new species. Type. No. 11,692, U. S. N. M.
About snaturalisizess.csdctaete cee e een ERIE Oe ee IOene
Unidentified tracks (invertebrate) from the Supai formation,
O’Neill Butte, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona. About
MatamalllSiZee oe ce usd Shaan eke recat ee Ee
Fic.
tN
PLATE 4
Fic. 1. Unidentified trail (invertebrate). No. 11,740, U. S. N. M. From
the Supai formation on west side of O’ Neill Butte, Grand Canyon
National Park, Arizona. About one-half natural size..........
Unidentified trail (invertebrate). No. 11,693, U. S. N. M. From
the Supai formation (upper track-bearing horizon), on west side
of O'Neill Butte, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona. More
than one-halii natural Sizes. 6.6 ee oo eee eee
Fa.
No
PLATE 5
Trilobite tracks and trails. All from the Tapeats sandstone, Middle Cam-
brian, as exposed in the Bright Angel section, Grand Canyon
National Park, Arizona. Figs. 1, 2, and 4, about three-fourths
inkhyborall Bigot Ieee, 2h saenibirall GO. peso none Be te Sn ae
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VOL. 80, NO. 8, PL. 2
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
formation.
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VOL. 80, NO. 8, PL. 4
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
formation.
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 80, NUMBER 9
abORIGINAL WOODEN OBJECTS
Pi Oni SOUR ENN we bO@iRip A
(WiTH THREE PLATES)
BY
J. WALTER FEWKES
Chief, Bureau of American Ethnology
(PUBLICATION 2960)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
MARCH 26, 1928
The Lord Gattimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A
ABORIGINAL WOODEN OBJECTS FROM SOUTHERN
FLORIDA
By J. WALTER FEWKES
CHIEF, BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
(WitrH THREE PLATES)
In 1895 the late Mr. F. H. Cushing, for many years connected with
the Bureau of American Ethnology, made some very remarkable dis-
coveries of aboriginal remains at Key Marco, on one of the chain of
islands that fringe the southwest coast of Florida, forming the coastal
border of the Florida Everglades on the Gulf of Mexico. Cushing
described and illustrated in a preliminary report on his work some of
the most important objects found at that time.” Among the char-
acteristic artifacts obtained by him were several wooden objects so
radically different from any found elsewhere in Florida shell heaps
that he regarded them as typical of an aboriginal culture theretofore
unrecorded. He thereby opened up a new chapter of archeological
research in Florida.
The author has desired for several years to obtain-more specimens
of this work in wood and although he has not been successful in his
search for them in the field, a few have come to light in other ways.
Through the kindness of Dr. Walter Hough, Head Curator of
Anthropology of the U. S. National Museum, he is able to present
figures of two “altar slabs ” and a wooden “idol” found near Fort
Myer and Lake Okeechobee. There is good reason to believe that as
exploration in southern Florida progresses other wooden images will
be brought to light.
The idol (pl. 1, Cat. No. 316254, U. S. N. M.) is cut out of lignum
vitae. It is said to have been plowed up on the north shore of Lake
Okeechobee and was shipped to the U. S. National Museum by Mr.
M. A. Miller, artesian and deep-well constructor of that vicinity. The
De Soto County News of March 25, 1921, published an account of it
by Mr. Miller in which he states that “where Mr. Miller plowed up
the idol, Lake Okeechobee waters formerly stood six feet deep. The
‘
1Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., Vol. XXXV, No. 133.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 80, No. 9
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
land is muck that has been reclaimed by drainage.” The account con-
tinues: ‘Additional strength is lent to the theory that some race
antedating the Indians lived along the shores of the lake by the finding
of fragments of pottery in the same vicinity as that in which the idol
was plowed up. It is also stated that there is a large shell mound in
the vicinity of Lakeport which is believed to have been thrown up by
the vanished race.”’ The form and technique of this idol would seem
to leave little doubt of its having been made by Indians, although a
similar wooden idol found in Cuba is regarded by some ethnologists
as African. The latter, now in the Museum of the Havana University
at the Verdado, has been figured by Dr. Montone and also by M. R.
Harrington of the Museum of the American Indian. The two speci-
mens differ in form and in the position of the legs, that from Cuba
resembling a sitting figure, with the legs bent at the knee, while in
the Florida specimen the figure is squatting. The hair of the latter
is cut in such a way as to remind one of the Muskhogean stone idols.
Both seem to have been made of the same kind of wood and they are
weathered to the same color.
Cushing associated certain wooden slabs that he discovered in the
muck at Key Marco with altars and suggested that they were used in
worship. The two specimens here illustrated (pls. 2 and 3) are made
of soft wood (cypress or pine). They were presented to the U. S.
National Museum by Mr. George Kinzie. One of them (pl. 2) is
incised on the surface with a circle and cross, as 1f to represent the
sun and a cosmic direction symbol. The form of the other (pl. 3)
is different from that of any known wooden object from the region,
but it is likewise decorated with an incised cross and straight and
curved lines.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 9, PL.
Front and side views of Wooden Idol, North Shore Lake Okeechobee, Florida.
Cat. No. 316,254, U. S. National Museum.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 9, PL. 2
Front and back of Wooden Ceremonial Slab from Florida. Cat. No. 329,599,
U. S. National Museum.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO: 9, PL. 3
Wooden Ceremonial Slab from Florida. Cat. No. 320,508,
U. S. National Museum.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 80, NUMBER 10
DRAWINGS BY JOHN WEBBER OF
NATIVES OF THE NORTHWEST
COAST OF AMERICA, 1778
(WiTH 12 PLaTEs)
BY
DAVID I. BUSHNELL, Jr.
(PUBLICATION 2961)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
MARCH 24, 1928
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.
DRAWINGS BY JOHN WEBBER OF NATIVES OF THE
NORTHWEST COAST OF AMERICA, 1778
Isr IDV WALID) 1, IBIUSISUNIEILIL, [IRE
(WiTH 12 PLATEs)
The third and last expedition commanded by Captain James Cook
was one of the most remarkable voyages of discovery in the history
of the world. .
Early in the year 1776 the two ships—the Resolution and the Dis-
covery—were, as Captain Cook wrote: “‘in the dock at Deptford,
under the hands of shipwrights ; being ordered to be equipped to make
farther discoveries in the Pacific Ocean, under my direction.” Every-
thing was supplied and furnished that was believed essential or that
would, in any way, aid in the fulfillment of the great undertaking.
When all was ready they sailed from England about the middle of
July, 1776. Captain Cook was on the Resolution which carried a
crew, officers and men, of 112. The Discovery, a sloop of 300 tons,
had 80 men on board and was commanded by Captain Charles Clerke.
After many eventful experiences the two ships returned safely and
arrived at the Nore, October 4, 1780.
Very extensive and valuable collections of ethnographical material
were made during the voyage, and many of the objects are now to
be seen in the various European museums. Thirty-four specimens
are in the Anthropological Museum, Florence, Italy. Twenty-three of
these were secured at Nootka and include garments, ornaments,
weapons, and ceremonial pieces. The remaining 11 examples were
gathered at Prince William Sound, Oonalashka, and Norton Sound.
All were described, and many figured, by Giglioli in 1895.
Doctor Anderson, surgeon on the Resolution, who had attended
Captain Cook on a previous voyage, probably collected many speci-
mens ; he likewise made several vocabularies, one being of the natives
of Nootka. After a lingering illness Anderson died August 3, 1778.
His death proved a great loss to the expedition.
To quote again from Captain Cook’s own narrative: “And, that
we might go out with every help that could serve to make the result
of our voyage entertaining to the generality of readers, as well as
instructive to the sailor and scholar, Mr. Webber was pitched upon,
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 80, No. 10
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
bo
and engaged to embark with me, for the express purpose of supplying
the unavoidable imperfections of written accounts, by enabling us to
preserve, and to bring home, such*drawings of the most memorable
scenes of our transactions, as could only be executed by a professed
and skillful artist.” This tends to prove with what great interest the
drawings were accepted, how very important they were considered,
and how skillfully and accurately they must have been prepared.
John Webber, to whom the preceding notes refer, was born in Lon-
don in 1752. His father was a Swiss sculptor whose name, Weber,
became Anglicized to the form used by the son. When quite young
John Webber was sent to Paris where he studied under J. G. Wille.
He also went to Berne, Switzerland, and there became a student under
J. L. Aberli. After an absence of about five years he returned to be
with his family in London. He then became a student of the Royal
Academy, and the next year, 1776, through the influence of Doctor
Solander, was appointed draftsman to accompany Captain Cook on
his last voyage. The expedition returned in 1780, and Webber then
superintended the engraving of the collection of drawings and sketches
which he had made for the Admiralty. The majority of his original
sketches were quite large and it became necessary for him to make
replicas, reduced to the proper size for the engravers. These were
“engraved by the most eminent Artists” and appeared in 1784 to
illustrate the narrative of the expedition, entitled: A Voyage to the
Pacific Ocean, undertaken by the Command of His Majesty, for mak-
ing Discoveries in the Northern Hemisphere... . . Published by
Order of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. It was issued
in three volumes, the first two having been prepared by Captain James
Cook, the third by Captain James King. Having completed his work
for the Admiralty, Webber prepared a series of the more important
and interesting views, etched and colored, which he published pri-
vately. During the years 1784, 1785, and 1786 he exhibited pictures
made on the voyage. He was elected A. R. A., 1785, and R. A., 1791.
He died at his home in London, May 29, 1793.
The twelve drawings reproduced at this time are believed to have
belonged to the Admiralty. Later they were owned by Sir William
Campbell who was Governor of New Brunswick, 1831-1835, from
whom they passed to his descendants. Five of the original sketches
are reproduced for the first time; others were greatly changed by the
engravers when first published. The 12 drawings are now in the
private collection of the author.
NO. 10 DRAWINGS BY JOHN WEBBER
BUSH NELL 3
NOOTKA. MARCH—APRIL, 1778
The expedition reached the Northwest Coast of America late in
March, 1778, and found safe anchorage in an inlet which was named
King George’s Sound, Intercourse with the natives later revealed the
name by which it was known to the inhabitants of the villages which
stood on its shores and since that day the native name, Nootka, has
been applied to the sound. It is about midway on the west coast of
Vancouver Island. Captain Cook then wrote: “ Were I to affix a
name to the people of Nootka, as a distinct nation, I would call them
Wakashians; from the word wakash, which was very frequently in
their mouths. It seemed to express applause, approbation, and friend-
ship.” The name Wakashan is now applied to the linguistic group
to which the Nootka belong.
During the spring of 1778 there were two native villages on the
shores of Nootka Sound. One, and evidently the more important,
stood near the entrance of the sound, on the northwest shore, “on
the side of a rising ground, which has a pretty steep ascent from the
beach to the verge of the wood, in which space it is situated.” The
second village was far distant from the first, in the northeastern part
of the sound. Between the two was the site of another, with many
houses in ruins but none occupied. The total population of the two
occupied villages was estimated at approximately 2,000.
Describing the village near the entrance Captain Cook wrote: “ The
houses are disposed in three ranges or rows, rising gradually behind
each other ; the largest being that in front, and the others less ; besides
a few straggling, or single ones, at each end. These ranges are
interrupted or disjoined at irregular distances, by narrow paths, or
lanes, that pass upward; but those which run in the direction of the
houses, between the rows, are much broader. Though there be some
appearance of regularity in this disposition, there is none in the single
houses; for each of the divisions, made by the paths, may be con-
sidered either as one house, or as many; there being no regular or
complete separation, either without or within, to distinguish them by.
They are built of very long and broad planks, resting upon the edges
of each other, fastened or tied by withes of pine bark, here and there ;
and have only slender posts, or rather poles, at considerable distances,
on the outside, to which they also are tied ; but within are some larger
poles placed aslant.”” Such was the construction of the native habita-
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
tions. Only slight evidence of divisions within indicated the part
occupied by different families. Large chests served to hold “ their
spare garments, skins, masks, and other things which they set a value
upon ;” their various utensils, “mostly square and oblong pails or
buckets to hold water and other things; round wooden cups and
bowls ; and small shallow wooden troughs, about two feet long, out of
which they eat their food; and baskets of twigs, bags of matting, etc.
Their fishing implements, and other things also, lie or hang up in
different parts of the house, but without the least order; so that the
whole is a complete scene of confusion; and the only places that do
not partake of this confusion are the sleeping-benches, that have
nothing on them but the mats; which are also cleaner, or of a finer
sort, than those they commonly have to sit on in their boats.”
The interiors of the native houses evidently proved of great interest.
Captain Cook referred twice to drawings of interiors having been
made by Webber. Fortunately, both of the original pictures are in this
collection and are reproduced. The first was made April 22, 1778. On
that day Cook visited the village at the entrance of the sound and
wrote: “ During the time I was at this village Mr. Webber, who had
attended me thither, made drawings of everything that was curious,
both within and without doors.” The sketch reproduced in plate 2
is believed to have been made at that time. Much interesting detail is
shown, including “ the construction of the houses, household furniture
and utensils, and striking peculiarities of the customs and modes of
living of the inhabitants.”
After mentioning the condition of the interiors Captain Cook wrote,
‘
that, notwithstanding the confusion, many of the houses “‘ are deco-
rated with images. These are nothing more than the trunks of very
large trees, four or five feet high, set up singly, or by pairs, at the
upper end of the apartment, with the front carved into a human face;
the arms and hands cut out upon the sides, and variously painted ; so
that the whole is a truly monstrous figure. The general name of these
images is Klumia; and the names of two particular ones, which stood
abreast each other, three or four feet asunder, in one of the houses,
were Natchkoa and Matseeta. Mr. Webber’s view of the inside of a
Nootka house, in which these images were represented, will convey
a more perfect idea of them than any description.” The original view
or sketch to which Captain Cook referred is reproduced in plate 3.
The natives were described as being rather short but not slender.
“The women are nearly of the same size, color, and form, with the
men; from whom it is not easy to distinguish them.”” Men and women
NO. 10 DRAWINGS BY JOHN WEBBER—BUSHNELL 5
wore similar garments, the principal of which was “a flaxen garment,
or mantle, ornamented on the upper edge by a narrow strip of fur,
and, at the lower edge, by fringes or tassels.” It passed under the
left arm and was fastened over the right shoulder. ‘ Over this, which
reaches below the knees, is worn a small cloak of the same substance,
likewise fringed at the lower part. In shape this resembles a round
dish cover, being quite close, except in the middle, where there is a
hole just large enough to admit the head; and then, resting upon the
shoulders; it cover the arms to the elbows, and the body as far as
the waist. Their head is covered with a cap, of the figure of a trun-
cated cone, or like a flower-pot, made of fine matting, having the
top frequently ornamented with a round pointed knob, or bunch of
leathern tassels, and there is a string that passes under the chin, to
prevent its blowing off.” Elsewhere Cook wrote: “ We have some-
times seen the whole process of their whale-fishery painted on the
caps they wear.” Garments, similar to those just described, are repre-
sented in the two drawings reproduced in plate 4 and plate 5. “ The
flaxen garments,’ mentioned above, were made “of the bark of a
pine-tree, beaten into a hempen state.’” The account continues: “It
is not spun, but, after being properly prepared, is spread upon a stick,
which is fastened across to two others that stand upright. It is dis-
posed in such a manner, that the manufacturer, who sits on her hams
at this simple machine, knots it across with small plaited threads, at
the distance of half an inch from each other. Though, by this method,
it is not so close or firm as cloth that is woven, the bunches between
the knots make it sufficiently impervious to the air, by filling the
interstices ; and it has the additional advantage of being softer and
more pliable.” A frame of this sort is shown at the extreme right in
plate 2. Similar garments were made of wool, which “seems to be
taken from different animals, as the fox and brown lynx.”
A curious custom prevailed among the men for on certain occasions,
so wrote Cook, the face “is variously painted, having its upper and
lower parts of different colors, the strokes appearing like fresh gashes ;
or it is besmeared with a kind of tallow, mixed with paint, which is
afterward formed into a great variety of regular figures, and appear
like carved work.’’ This is shown in plate 4. ‘* Sometimes, again, the
hair is separated into small parcels, which are tied at intervals of about
two inches, to the end, with thread.”
The drawing reproduced as plate 1 1s a beautiful example of the
artist's work—a man of Nootka, with the characteristic cap and
wearing a heavy skin over his left shoulder, armed with bow and
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
arrows. The quiver, in which are resting several arrows, opened
lengthwise, not at one end. This was not described in the narrative
and thus tends to prove the value of Webber’s drawings, produced
“for the express purpose of supplying the unavoidable imperfections
of written accounts.” The bands over the ankles conform with Cook's
statement that “ about their ankles they also frequently wear many
folds of leather thongs, or the sinews of animals twisted to a con-
siderable thickness.”
The food of the people living on the shores of Nootka Sound con-
sisted, as Cook then wrote, “ of every thing animal or vegetable that
they can procure.” But “ their greatest reliance seems to be upon the
sea, as affording fish, muscles, and smaller shell-fish, and sea animals.”
The smaller fish were not only eaten fresh, when taken from the
water, but were also smoked and dried, thus preserved for future use,
and “‘ sewed up in mats, so as to form large bales, three or four feet
square.” Broth was made by placing pieces of fresh meat “ in a square
wooden vessel or bucket, with water, and then throwing heated stones
into it. This operation they repeat till they think the contents are
sufficiently stewed or seethed. They put in the fresh, and take out the
other stones, with a cleft stick, which serves as tongs ; the vessel being
always placed near the fire for that purpose. This operation is repre-
sented by Mr. Webber, in his drawing of the inside of a Nootka
house.”” This refers to the group shown surrounding a fire, in plate 3.
‘
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLES 805 NOS 10; PEN 1
Size 17 by 12 inches Signed J. Webber, del.
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 10, PL. 4
oe
Size 17 by 12 inches
Nootka
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 10, PL. 5
Size 15 by 12 inches
Nootka
NIOAe LO DRAWINGS BY JOHN WEBBER—BUSH NELL
“Sy
PRINCE WILEDTAM SOUND: MAY 1778
Continuing along the coast the expedition arrived at another inlet
to which the name Prince William Sound was given. Here were
encountered the first Eskimo to be met when coming from the south-
ward, and they were easily recognized as differing in appearance from
the people of Nootka Sound.
Evidently the habitations were away from the shores of the sound,
or possibly in some protected cove, as none was seen and consequently
no description of a native settlement was given in the narrative. But
many of the people visited the two ships, coming in boats of their
own make, some of which held more than twenty persons each.
Men, women, and children were dressed alike. All wore “a kind
of close frock, or rather robe ; reaching generally to the ankles, though
sometimes only to the knees. At the upper part is a hole just sufficient
to admit the head, with sleeves that reach to the wrist. These frocks
are made of the skins of different animals. . . . . When it rains they
put over this another frock, ingeniously made from the intestines of
whales, or some other large animal, prepared so skilfully, as almost to
resemble our gold-beaters’ leaf. It is made to draw tight round the
neck ; its sleeves reach as low as the wrist, round which they are tied
with a string. . . . . Those who wear any thing on their heads, re-
sembled, in this respect, our friends at Nootka; having high truncated
conic caps, made of straw, and sometimes of wood, resembling a seal’s
head well painted.” One of the sketches by Webber, made at that time,
shows a man wearing a waterproof garment, such as was mentioned,
and also a characteristic hat with figures painted in red and black. The
second drawing is that of a man wearing a fur garment, “ worn with
the hairy side outward,” and ornamented with a fringe which appears
to have been formed of many small tails.
To quote again from Captain Cook’s narrative: “ The men fre-
quently paint their faces of a bright red, and of a black colour, and
sometimes of a blue, or leaden colour ; but not in any regular figures ;
and the women, in some measure, endeavoured to imitate them, by
puncturing or staining the chin with black, that comes to a point in
each cheek.’’ Men wore their hair short, “ cropt round the neck and
forehead,” but the women allowed theirs to grow long. Both men
and women perforated their ears in several places, “in which they
hang little bunches of beads, made of the same tubulose shelly sub-
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
stance used for this purpose by those of Nootka. The septum of the
nose is also perforated, through which they frequently thrust the
quill-feathers of small birds, or little bending ornaments, made of the
above shelly substance, strung on a stiff string or cord, three or four
inches long, which give them a truly grotesque appearance. But the
most uncommon and unsightly ornamental fashion, adopted by some
of both sexes, is their having the under-lip slit, or cut, quite through,
in the direction of the mouth, a little below the swelling part.
In this artificial mouth they stick a flat, narrow ornament, made chiefly
out of a solid shell or bone, cut into little narrow pieces, like small
teeth, almost down to the base or thickest part, which has a small
projecting bit at each end that supports it when put into the divided
lip; the cut part then appearing outward. Others have the lower lip
only perforated into separate holes; and then the ornament consists
of as many distinct shelly studs, whose points are pushed through
these holes, and their heads appear within the lip, as another row of
teeth immediately under their own.” These curious ornaments are
clearly shown in the two sketches by Webber.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 10, PL. 6
Size 15 by 12 inches
Prince William Sound
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 10, PL. 7
i
Size 17 by 12 inches
Prince William Sound
NO. 10 DRAWINGS BY JOHN WEBBER—BUSHNELL 19)
NEAR-ICY CAPE. AUGUST, 1778
By the middle of August, 1778, the two ships were in the far
northern waters, beyond Bering Strait in the Arctic. At noon on the
18th they were in latitude 70° 44’. To quote from the narrative:
“We were, at this time, close to the edge of the ice, which was as
compact as a wall; and seemed to be ten or twelve feet high at least.
3ut, farther North, it appeared much higher. Its surface was ex-
tremely rugged ; and, here and there, we saw pools of water.
“We now stood to the Southward ; and, after running six leagues,
shoaled the water to seven fathoms; but it soon deepened to nine
fathoms. At this time, the weather, which had been hazy, clearing up
a little, we saw land extending from the South to South East by
East, about three or four miles distant. The Eastern extreme forms a
point, which was much incumbered with ice; for which reason it ob-
tained the name /cy Cape. Its latitude is 70° 29’, and its longitude
198° 20’. The other extreme of the land was lost in the horizon; so
that there can be no doubt of its being a continuation of the American
continent. The Discovery being about a mile astern, and to leeward,
found less water than we did; and tacking on that account, | was
obliged to tack also, to prevent separation.
‘‘ Our situation was now more and more critical. We were in shoal
water, upon a lee shore ; and the main body of the ice to the windward,
driving down upon us. It was evident, that, if we remained much
longer between it and the land, it would force us ashore; unless it
should happen to take the ground before us.’’ This was the scene
sketched by Webber, the Resolution leading with the Discovery
“about a mile astern.”
The following day, August 19, the ships were in the midst of much
drift ice, with great masses just beyond. “ It was not so compact as
that which we had seen to the Northward; but it was too close, and
in too large pieces, to attempt forcing the ships through it. On the
ice lay a prodigious number of sea-horses ; and, as we were in want
of fresh provisions, the boats from each ship were sent to get some.”
A small group of ‘‘ sea-horses’’ may be seen on the ice to the right
in the drawing.
The ships were turning southward, to avoid the ice and to seek
other lands. On September 2, they passed Eastern Cape and con-
tinuing down the coast of Asia arrived in the Bay of St. Lawrence.
Io SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
Thence they “ steered over for the American coast ; and, at five in the
afternoon, the next day, saw land bearing South three quarters East,
which we took to be Anderson’s Island, or some other land near it.
... . On the 6th, at four in the morning, we got sight of the Ameri-
can coast near Sledge Island; and at six, the same evening, this island
bore North, 6° East, ten leagues distant ; and the Easternmost land in
sight North, 49° East. If any part of what I had supposed to be
American coast, could possibly be the island of Alaschka, it was that
Mow DElorewuS. =. 2
The expedition soon reached Norton Sound. Here they remained
several days and had intercourse with the friendly natives from whom
they secured a quantity of fish, both fresh and dried. “ The dwellings
of these people were seated close to the beach. They consist simply
of a sloping roof, without any side-walls, composed of logs, and
covered with grass and earth. The floor is also laid with logs; the
entrance is at one end; the fire-place just within; and a small hole is
made near the door to let out the smoke.”
Sailing from Norton Sound, “on the 17th in the morning, with a
light breeze at East,’”’ they sighted many islands, encountered shoal
water, and after an uneventful voyage “at length, on the 2d of Octo-
ber, at day-break, we saw the island of Oonalashka, bearing South
Fast.”
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NO. IO DRAWINGS BY JOHN WEBBER—BUSHNELL II
OONALASHKA. OCTOBER, 1778
The ships touched at Oonalashka on the voyage northward, and
just three months later again came in sight of the island. This was
October second when they reached a bay some ten miles west of
Samganoodha, “ known by the name of Egoochshac.” Many natives
lived on the shore of the bay, they visited the ships “ bringing with
them dried salmon, and other fish, which they exchanged with the
seamen for tobacco.” The following day, October 3, the ships con-
tinued on to Samganoodha Harbor where they remained until the 26th
of the same month. There was a small village a short distance from
the harbor where, it is quite probable, Webber made his drawings.
Describing the people of Oonalashka, Captain Cook wrote: “ These
people are rather low of stature, but plump and well shaped; with
rather short necks; swarthy chubby faces; black eyes; small beards ;
and long, straight, black hair; which the men wear loose behind, and
cut before, but the women tie up in a bunch.” And referring to the
dress: “ Both sexes wear the same in fashion; the only difference is
in the materials. The women’s frock is made of seal skin; and that
of the men, of the skins of birds ; both reaching below the knee. This
is the whole dress of the women. But, over the frock, the men wear
another made of gut, which resists water ; and has a hood to it, which
draws over the head. Some of them wear boots; and all of them have
a kind of oval snouted cap, made of wood, with a rim to admit the
head. These caps are dyed with green and other colours; and round
the upper part of the rim, are stuck the long bristles of some sea-
animal, on which are strung glass beads, and on the front is a small
image or two made of bone. They make use of no paint; but the
women puncture their faces slightly ; and both men and women bore
the under lip, to which they fix pieces of bone. But it is as uncommon,
at Oonalashka, to see a man with this ornament, as to see a woman
without it. Some fix beads to the upper lip, under the nostrils; and
all of them hang ornaments in their ears.” Many of the peculiar
details of dress, mentioned in this brief description, are shown in
Webber’s graphic sketches.
The habitations of the natives evidently proved of much interest.
“ Their method of building,’ so wrote Cook, “is as follows: They
dig, in the ground, an oblong square pit, the length of which seldom
exceeds fifty feet, and the breadth twenty, but in general the dimen-
12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
sions are smaller. Over this excavation they form a roof of wood
which the sea throws ashore. The roof is covered first with grass, and
then with earth; so that the outward appearance is like a dunghill.
In the middle of the roof, toward each end, is left a square opening,
by which the light is admitted; one of these openings being for this
purpose only, and the other being also used to go in and out by, with
the help of a ladder, or rather a post, with steps cut in it. In some
houses there is another entrance below; but this is not common.
Round the sides and ends of the huts, the families (for several are
lodged together ) have their separate apartments, where they sleep, and
sit at work; not upon benches, but in a kind of concave trench, which
is dug all round the inside of the house, and covered with mats; so
that this part is kept tolerably decent. But the middle of the house,
which is common to all the families, is far otherwise.”
Although the majority of their bowls, spoons, baskets and other
objects of daily use were of their own make, bits of metal and iron
kettles and pots were obtained from the Russians with whom they had
been in contact some years. The women made “ mats and baskets of
grass, that are both beautiful and strong.”
Fire was produced in two ways, “‘ by collision and by attrition ; the
former by striking two stones one against another ; on one of which
a good deal of brimstone is first rubbed. The latter method is with
two pieces of wood; one of which is a stick of about eighteen inches
in length, and the other a flat piece. The pointed end of the stick .
they press upon the other, whirling it nimbly round as a drill; thus
producing fire in a few minutes.” But although fire was so easily
obtained, fire places were not seen “in any one of their houses. They
are lighted, as well as heated, by lamps; which are simple, and yet
answer the purpose very well. They are made of a flat stone, hollowed
on one side like a plate, and about the same size, or rather larger. In
the hollow part they put the oil, mixed with a little dry grass, which
serves the purpose of a wick. Both men and women frequently warm
their bodies over one of these lamps, by placing it between their legs,
under their garments, and sitting thus over it for a few minutes.”
The boats, many of which are shown in plate 10, were described
as “the smallest we had anywhere seen upon the American coast ;
though built after the same manner, with some little difference in
the construction.”
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 10, PL. 9
Size 17 by 12 inches
Oonalashka
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VOL.80, NO.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
Signed J. Webber, del. 1778
9 inches
Size 12 by 1
Oonalashka
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 10, PL. 12
Size 17 by 12 inches
Oonalashka
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 80, NUMBER 11
THE LEGS AND LEG-BEARING SEGMENTS OF SOME
PRIMITIVE ARTHROPOD GROUPS, WITH
NOTES ON LEG-SEGMENTATION
IN THE ARACHNIDA
(WITH 12 PLATEs)
(PUBLICATION 2962)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
APRIL 23, 1928
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.
tiie LEGS AND LEG-BEARING SEGMENTS OF SOME
PRIMITIVE ARTHROPOD GROUPS, WITH NOTES
ON LEG-SEGMENTATION IN THE ARACHNIDA
By H. E. EWING
FEDERAL BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY
(WITH 12 PLATES)
CONTENTS
PAGE
PraerCNT LOTT sy tnd anes = micas eras ia Mn NGL UCL fe oie ie iat Tn ey 2
The pamitive arthropod jappendage ics \tedcid sec oes neres Sas la ee 3
tem RUM IC LACK ANC: Legs trust tos oe sei cicld ooh oad ces bl carastaty eagetton 4
Re earenity SU PItaner tn tele i Geto Lica hy cee Uae tr we Ota) ope, 4
he les "segments of primitive, phalangids os oi.) 0s 4 ow eed we! 6
ihelep sepments in.some or the A caritials. ¢ sce sev sic e-eiied duces eta 7
Leg-segmentation in various arachnid groups with special reference to
THEM ESCUCOSCOnPLON I atm 4 rer CRE paki cee ON Cas am rr ee 8
The Pycnogonida and Ricinulei
Ne eT ee ere sik the isk os auohaaee oe aa on 10
Conclusions, im resard, torarachmaidl) lambs? o4) 5 25.5 lh whi dace» aterceae 8 11
Leg-segmentation and musculature in the Protura...................... 12
Leg-segmentation and musculature in Pauropoda.....:....0...00.0+200% 14
The so-called coxal appendages in Pauropus.........0..2..-0.00r000 15
MN eR AUZOP Usa ty DOr OTMLEOAG Rta crce hie sto itis Garo cc 3 teh oleae ies eee 16
Leg-segmentation and muscle attachments in Symphyla.................. 16
ihescoxaluappendacepinms yanpliy lacus seiiece ose aetna 18
siltemlecsmainypluny Santina ctr oa vc mineuiece ee ae ee a= G5 HOMES DEORE OCS 18
Remar csconmtnexthysantnanntypevOr LEG aeeccins css ci ciara siecle se erie 20
The nature of the coxal appendage in the Machilidae................. 20
iitiemlersrsesmentsmon, Collembolakjaisus cerevisiae: a miaeteieie sete tenon late 20
iemncollembolanktypenon legs. ance eat emote ae ethane oir ara sarees ses 22
Mhesprimitive type omstansaleclaws ims lmSectaniyaiescvspeiesiets citer ate) eet: 22
Postcephalic body-segmentation in Arthropoda........................- 24
ihe first body ‘seement.of Symphyla. in... aes ss a2 eearters sie lel 25
‘ihe mest body, sermentsth Payropodal .j.). co. 2 ces cele tase cjubicoe sees 25
Evidence of a cervical segment among insects.............-...--..-- 26
ihe segments. included, im. the insect. thorax. s.6.5 5 2.24 ceciceaie's nia 26
Alana SSE THETtATLOI (civiasian eg cstas coxreia te sie earns catia aha cial sreiers Ror ata 27
‘tie doubling: Of DOGY. SESINENUS': << e's a\neet wis Sawclsieiaie anley oa wale lare a 8 27
Embryonic feduction ot abdominal Sexments: 2/5 0) -trce sae as «siesta 28
The tergal plates of the leg-bearing segments..............000cccceesees 28
Conclusions regarding the terga of leg-bearing segments of primitive
AVAIACINOLERS. odowercuse AorAau aya ceb USS oN POOCN CoO AoOMmObA oAoOacoL 30
SMITHSONIAN IMISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 80, No. 11
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
PAGE
The sternal ‘plates of the leg=bearine Segments... se cci<lo-isieeiete cieie eiaieioieieiere 30
Sterna’ din, Arachinidasccie cl ae Sacto oe ese eae ee te Eee 30
Sterna sine Parra poda etic erick ele the eleieic ere ENO eit eo ae 31
Sternavam): Sy mip liylatyage)s yc stecrs Sic ete ot acters iacatel cloves mlsiaroeie Craton bie eras 31
Mhoracic: sterna anboRrotuica cst siteo asietoae ome cit ciremreretereis ose ton etre 32
Thoracic sterna/in) Vhysanura and ‘Collembola:.<). 0.0.32 0-5) aves eee 32
Pleunites) ins les-hbearinowseaimentShar aac eet tion ener heii teen tere eee 34
‘The origin of iMsect plemmites:. 45/000. s/h oi ce athe aie ieee erie nee 35
General. Gotichisions' “25-5 soc tie noes eieto gr oe ey Seed area oer omeeteke cere 36
Referencesmtor Literate’ sinc ssi ae ie bets i elatee oneal clos eksneccnneces elere reba renee 37
IN PEND OU KA ral DWIENUESs aco ctoncadas dcgucAnc oan bocobn boot oupocane 39
Explanation ots platesvi. ast seen Asm cisei ee ant eveeotaene arn la clam eee 40
INTRODUCTION
In attempting to work out the homologies of leg segments in a num-
ber of the different groups of arthropods, an effort has been made
to find the generalized type for such classes as the Crustacea, the
Arachnida, and the Insecta, and by comparing intergrades with these
established types to interpret the homologies as far as possible for
each group. In such a comparison the position of the segment in the
series is determined, but the procedure of prime importance is the
definite establishment of a known segment in the series which may
be used as a point of reference. Different methods have been em-
ployed for the establishment of a “land mark” segment or, what
amounts to the same, a “land mark” articulation. Borner (1921)
lays great stress on the bend of the leg at the knee, usually regarding
such a bend as taking place at the distal articulation of the femur.
Snodgrass (1927) uses chiefly the trochantero-femoral articulation in
insects as a starting point.
In the Arachnida, where legs appear to show the maximum number
of true segments, eight in addition to the claws, it is assumed that all
segments are present. Such being the case one may begin at the base
of the leg in legs of this sort by calling the first segment the subcoxa.
Where there is a reduction of the number of leg segments, it may
yet be possible to establish the homology of the remaining segments
if the method of reduction can be established. In insect legs it appears,
according to the results of recent investigation, that the tarsus never
gives rise to muscle fibers, the extensor claw muscle having been lost,
and the flexor taking its origin from the tibia or from the tibia and
other segments proximal to it. Using this as an established principle
the writer has in many instances regarded the last segment giving
rise to muscle fibers as the tibia in the case of insects and also in
NO. II LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—EWING 3
primitive groups related to the insects. Nevertheless the trochantero-
femoral articulation should be regarded as a “landmark” of great
importance in interpreting the segmentation of insect legs.
The question of the segmentation of the body and the segmenta-
tion and musculature of the legs in primitive arthropods has been
approached from the standpoint of a taxonomist, using that term in
its broadest sense as applying to one who has been interested in classi-
fication primarily as bearing on natural relationships and evolution.
It is lamentable that there is so frequently shown a lack of coopera-
tion and helpfulness between the taxonomist and the morphologist.
The separation between these two groups of workers has in some
instances become so great that not only is there a lack of the proper
cooperation in conducting the investigations, but the taxonomist does
not even read the literature dealing with the morphology of his own
group, and the morphologist seldom consults taxonomic papers, even
outstanding monographs. The result is that taxonomy and gerieral
entomology have suffered greatly from a multiplicity of terms, from
the use of several terms to indicate the same structure, and in con-
sequence many have become befogged in regard to obvious facts in
evolution and relationships.
Before passing to the results of this investigation the writer wishes
to express his indebtedness to R. E. Snodgrass, whose recent treatise
on the “ Morphology and Mechanism of the Insect Thorax ” (Snod-
grass, 1927) has been of great help to him in undertaking this in-
vestigation.
THE PRIMITIVE ARTHROPOD APPENDAGE
Two questions of importance arise concerning our concept of the
primitive type of arthropod limb: Was it a simple, filiform, un-
branched structure or was it biramous; and how many true segments
did it contain? There has been a general tendency to look to the
Crustacea in searching for the answer to these questions, and doubt-
less with much reason, yet the writer is of the opinion that a study
of the arachnid limbs is equally important if not more so. Probably
the Crustacea have been chiefly considered because of their supposed
relationship to that very large and very important class, the Insecta,
and because of their evident affinity with the much studied, ancient
and extinct group, the Trilobita.
Hansen (1893 & 1925), in two highly important papers, has led
the way in his investigations in regard to the search for the generalized
type of appendage for the Crustacea. He pointed out that an addi-
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
tional segment should be recognized in the unbranched base of the
typical crustacean limb, and he recently (1925) holds to the possibility
that in a primitive state the crustacean limb was uniramous. He
states: “ But it seems to me impossible to deny the possibility that
the exopod may be anologous with the epipod, and if so the primitive
appendage is uniramous.” Hansen’s contention that the basal or un-
divided part of a crustacean limb should be considered as three-
segmented instead of two-segmented is recently criticized by Bor-
radaile (1926) who states in his paper: ‘‘ From the foregoing con-
siderations it is evident that the recognition of a three-segmented
protopodite in the Crustacea is purely empirical, for the actual third
segment is not homologous in all cases, being sometimes the third
segment of the primary series, sometimes compounded of the third
and fourth, sometimes the fourth alone, and probably in a few in-
stances compounded of the fourth and fifth, the actual second segment
in the latter two cases being compounded of the primary second and
third.”
According to Hansen (1925) the crustacean limb is composed of
eight true segments which he names as follows from the body: Prae-
coxa, coxa, basis, ischium, merus, carpus, propodus and dactylus.
If the old terminology were employed these would be: Pleuropodite,
coxopodite, basipodite, ischiopodite, meropodite, carpopodite, propo-
dite and dactylopodite.
THE PRIMITIVE ARACHNID LEG
Because the ancient group Arachnida has apparently evolved from
extinct types of the same sort as those that gave rise to the Crustacea,
it is apparent that a study of the appendages of the more generalized
arachnid groups should throw light on the controversy in regard to
the leg type for the primitive Crustacea. In working on the homology
of arachnid legs the writer follows Hansen’s interpretation of the
Crustacean leg by calling the first segment in the generalized leg the
subcoxa.
LEGS OF SOLPUGIDA
The Solpugida, or sun spiders, have long been considered as being
one of the most generalized of the arachnid groups. This is due
particularly to the fact that in this group some of the cephalothoracic
segments remain free and movable. Much research has been done
on the body segmentation in the solpugids and on the morphology
of certain specialized organs. The legs, however, have not attracted
the attention that they deserve, although it has long been known that
NO. II LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—EWING 5
the number of segments in a solpugid leg is high, being seven or eight
in addition to the claws.
In eight-segmented legs (pl. 1, fig. 1) there is a somewhat flat-
tened, short basal segment, then three short doubly-hinged cylindrical
segments, followed by three long segments and lastly by the terminal
claw-bearing segment, which has two or more false rings. According
to Bernard (1896) the basal segment represents the coxa, but others
have regarded this segment as a sternite. Bernard is inclined to follow
Gaubert in accounting for the extra segment in the eight-segmented
legs through a division of the femur. Yet in regard to this point he
remarks, “ I am unable to judge, having never seen the animals alive.”
S¢érensen (1914) regards the first long segment (the fifth of an eight-
segmented leg) as the femur, which has been the customary practice.
When the musculature and the movements of the third or fourth
leg (pl. 1, fig. 1) are studied, a very interesting and unusual condi-
tion is revealed. Each of all four of the basal short segments bears
the segment distal to it by means of a double hinge, and all of these
hinges work along a more or less vertical axis; no two, however, are
in the same plane. The type of musculature for each of these seg-
ments is the same. There are two powerful muscles in each that arise
from the base of one segment and attach to the basal apodeme of the
next. One of these muscles moves the segment distal to it backward,
the other forward. The first and second long segments each has its
interior almost completely taken up by a powerful flexor muscle
moving the segment distal to it.
The writer has been unable to detect in the solpugid leg any muscle
in the first five segments that passes through more than one segment.
Do we not here have another condition, the type of musculature of
the legs, which shows a primitive condition? The sixth segment not
only gives rise to powerful flexor muscles going to the seventh but
sends strands to the flexor of the claws. The seventh gives rise
dorsally to the extensor of the claws and ventrally to a flexor of the
eighth segment and in addition sends powerful strands to the flexor
of the claws. There is some indication of additional strands of muscle
fibers going to the flexor of the claws from the basal part of segment
eight. If the segment just proximal to the first knee bend be regarded
as the femur, or if the basal segment be regarded as the subcoxa, the
following names may be applied to the leg segments beginning at the
base: Subcoxa, coxa, coxal trochanter, femoral trochanter, femur,
patella, tibia, tarsus, foot (pretarsus). It should be added that the
tarsus has two or more pseudosegments and that the claws them-
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
selves are segmented near the end. Barrows (1925) states that the
tendon: of the flexor of the claws divides, and each element traverses
the long proximal part of the claw to attach to the terminal part. The
writer has been unable to find a division of this tendon and is of the
opinion that it attaches in the usual manner at the claw bases. It
was noted, however, that a tracheal branch traverses most of the
length of the basal element of each claw. When a solpugid leg is
compared with that of a primitive mite, a tick or a primitive phalangid
or with certain other arachnids, the homology of the leg segments is
indicated.
While discussing the legs of solpugids it is pertinent to recall
that Bernard (1896) concluded, “ that the ‘ sterna ’ along the abdomi-
nal segments represent rudimentary limbs which have simply flattened
down.” He claimed that the two pairs of stigmatic opercula repeat
the genital opercula so chosely that they must also be vestigial appen-
dages ; that the abdominal vestiges are often covered with hair differ-
ing from the hair on the rest of the abdomen; that the same differ-
ence applies to color; that the vestiges meet in the middle line
like the coxae of the functional legs; and finally that the stigmatic
apertures, which are always associated with rudimentary legs, have
moved into the ventral middle line.
THE LEG SEGMENTS OF PRIMITIVE PHALANGIDS
The phalangids with which most American entomologists are
acquainted are called daddy-long-legs. They are quite different in
appearance from the most primitive members of the group which are
placed in the suborder Cyphophthalmi. Members of this suborder do
not have the long many-ringed legs of the familiar daddy-long-legs.
They are much smaller and in appearance are mitelike. The resem-
blance to mites is more than superficial. According to the writer
(Ewing, 1923) it is from very similar arthropods that the mites have
evolved.
The leg of one of the Cyphophthalmi, as represented by Holosiro
acaroides, has been regarded as seven-segmented with the addition of
the foot. However, the first two legs have a divided basal segment,
the most proximal section being known as the maxillary lobe. In
Holosiro acaroides (pl. 1, fig. 2) there are rudiments of this lobe of
the basal segments to all the legs though they are very small for the
last two pairs.
Unfortunately the writer has had only two specimens of this primi-
tive group for study and these are balsam-mounted types. It may
NO. II LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—EWING 7
be added incidentally that they are the only two individuals ever taken
in the New World. Under these conditions it has been impossible to
study the muscles, hence the following homology, that is given only
as a suggestion, is based on a comparison of the Holosiro leg with
that of a solpugid and of a primitive mite genus, both of which have
the same number of segments.
The basal segment, the so-called maxillary lobe, is probably the
subcoxa, the next is a large coxa, flattened so as to be platelike at
the base, then follows the first trochanter, a short segment, pedicellate
in the first two pairs of legs. The next segment is the longest of
all and in size and position suggests the femur. A comparison, how-
ever, with the leg of*the related primitive mite genus Labidostomuma,
the musculature of which was worked out, shows that this long seg-
ment probably represents the second trochanter. The fifth segment
is short in the first legs but is one of the longer segments in leg IV.
It should be regarded as the femur. It is a more important segment
than the femur of Labidostomma (pl. 2, fig. 3). There follow three
somewhat similar segments, the last bearing a single claw. These
should be regarded as the patella, tibia and tarsus respectively. The
homologizing of the leg segments of Holosiro with those of the more
highly developed phalangids is not attempted.
THE LEG SEGMENTS IN SOME OF THE ACARINA
Probably the most nearly related to the generalized phalangids of
all the mites, and hence the most primitive, are those placed in the
rare and little studied genus Labidostomma. The writer is fortunate
in possessing a number of mites of this group representing several
species.
In recently transformed adults with a thin coat of chitin the muscle
attachments may be made out without difficulty. In the front leg
of Labidostomma (pl. 2, fig. 3) there is a broad basal platelike seg-
ment with hinged articulations for the second short, stout segment.
The latter bears a pair of hinged articulations for the third reduced
segment. The third small segment is immovably joined to the fourth,
which is femurlike and the largest of all. Then follows a short
movable segment, two long movable ones and a long terminal claw-
bearing segment. If the basal, platelike segment be regarded as the
subcoxa, then there follow a rather small but fairly typical arachnid
coxa, a very large divided trochanter, a reduced femur and another
segment which is here regarded as the patella, and lastly the tibia
and claw-bearing tarsus.
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
When a comparison is made between the leg of Labidostomma and
that of a free-living member of the family Gamasidae (pl. 2, fig. 4)
the homology of the segments is easily determined. In a gamasid mite
there are also the eight full rings to a leg but here the last two are
immovably joined. It has been customary to consider these two
together as a divided tarsus, but this practice appears to be without
justification. A comparison, segment for segment, between the leg
of Labidostomma and that of a gamasid indicates that the short
penultimate segment of the latter should be the tibia. The other
segments of the gamasid leg are almost identical with those of Labido-
stomma except that the precoxa is more coneshaped than platelike.
An excellent intergrading of connecting specie’ exists between the
Gamasidae and the Ixodoidea, hence a comparison of the leg of the
latter with that of the former should be illuminating. This is given
in plates 2 and 3. Here again the homology is clearly indicated. The
subcoxa has become platelike, the femur is somewhat larger, and the
penultimate segment is better developed, giving rise to most of the
muscles moving the claws. In the tick leg both an extensor and a
flexor muscle of the claws is present (pl. 3, fig. 5), the latter arising
chiefly if not entirely from the patella.
It appears that in the Arachnida a segment additional to any found
in insects must be recognized. It is here regarded as the patella. The
patella, whatever its fate among the immediate ancestors of insects
may have been, appears to be totally lost in that class. Not even a
rudiment of it has been successfully accounted for. In the Arachnida,
a group much more nearly related to the Crustacea, it remains, repre-
senting probably the meropodite of a primitive crustacean leg accord-
ing to Hansen’s interpretation.
Among the orders of Arachnida, the mite leg, be it of the eight-
segmented or the five-segmented type, is characterized particularly by
the passing of the large flexor muscles entirely through one segmént
to the base of the next. This condition is especially apparent in the
leg of a cheese mite, family Tyroglyphidae, as shown by Michael
(1901). In part it may have been brought about by the shortening
of the segments of the legs but probably also by a shifting of the
position of the origin of the flexor muscles entirely to the dorsal wall
of the segments.
LEG-SEGMENTATION IN VARIOUS ARACHNID GROUPS WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO THE PSEUDOSCORPIONIDA
Three well-known Arachnid groups have a leg that is typically
seven-segmented, not counting the foot. They are the scorpions, the
NOS mt LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—EWING 9
spiders and the pseudoscorpions. In the spiders there are two short
basal segments, followed by the largest segment of the leg, then a
short and a long segment usually fused together, and finally two long
segments, the distal one bearing the claws. Comstock (1912) regards
these as follows: Coxa, trochanter, femur, patella, tibia, metatarsus
and tarsus respectively.
In the pseudoscorpions, a leg typically consists of six segments in
addition to the pretarsus. However, in the genus Obisium all the
legs show seven segments. Borner (1921) has described the seg-
mentation and musculature of the leg in this group. In a typically
six-segmented leg there is a fixed platelike basal segment that meets
its fellow from the opposite side of the cephalothorax on the median
line. This basal segment is attached to the second, short, ringlike
segment with a double hinge set almost vertically. The third segment
is short and moves on a double horizontal hinge upon the second.
This third segment may be free or it may be immovably fused with
the fourth. When fused with the fourth (pl. 3, fig. 6, A), as it has
been in the hind legs of Chelifer, the fourth is much enlarged. Distal
to the fourth are two long slender segments and then the terminal
claws and pulvillus. Where the legs are seven-segmented there is a
suture in the last true segment beyond the muscle attachment (pl. 3,
fig. 6, B).
In the six-segmented leg, the last true segment (pl. 3, fig. 6, A)
giving rise to some of the claw-moving muscles is the last segment
of the leg. It should be regarded as the tibio-tarsus, as its derivation
through a union of the tibia and tarsus is made clear through a series
of intergrades.
The next segment proximal, which is the first beyond the knee and
is always present and well developed, should be regarded as the patella.
Proximal to the patella is the femur. It is sometimes cylindrical and
sometimes enlarged, usually the latter in the case of the hind legs.
The segment just proximal to the femur varies greatly. In the
hind legs of Chelifer (pl. 3, fig. 6, A) it is completely fused with the
femur, and has no special muscle inserted on it. In the first and
second legs, however, of the same genus, this segment is free, and
the femur is attached to it by a double hinge which works in almost
the same plane as the hinge at the base of this short segment. The
fact that this segment comes next to the femur and is frequently
fused with the same indicates that it is one of the trochanters.
There remains the platelike basal segment and the one next to it
which is hinged to the short femoral trochanter. Does this platelike
10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
basal segment represent the coxa, the name by which it has gone in the
past, or is it in reality the subcoxa? If it is a true subcoxa, the
second segment becomes the coxa, instead of the first trochanter, as
it is commonly regarded. Evidence as to the homology of these two
basal segments is wanting, hence no serious objections should be
raised to the prevailing practice of calling them the coxa and first
trochanter.
The legs of scorpions appear to be seven-segmented, not counting
the claws, but in reality are only six-segmented. The bend of the leg
takes place between the third and fourth segments, while in pseudo-
scorpions it is between the fourth and fifth. The scorpion leg seg-
ments have not heretofore been homologized.
The leg of a thelyphonid shows a large number of rings, but three
of these represent subdivisions of the tarsus. Borner has worked out
the muscles. Judging from the muscle attachments figured by Borner
the present writer would regard the leg of a thelyphonid of the
genus Thelyphonus as composed of the following segments: Subcoxa,
coxa, trochanter, femur, patella, tibia and tarsus, in addition to the
foot. The tarsus itself has false segments, and the first trochanter
is vestigial. The thelyphonid leg is, therefore, more like the leg of a
solpugid or a phalangid than like one of a scorpion or pseudoscorpion.
THE PYCNOGONIDA AND RICINULEI
Mention should be made of two arachnid orders in which the legs
show a large number of segments. In the Pycnogonida the legs afe
very long and are composed of eight segments in addition to the
claws. Borner (1921) has worked out the musculature. The writer
has also done the same for Colossendies macerrima and finds prac-
tically a complete agreement in regard to the facts presented by
3orner, but a different interpretation is made of them. The wall of
the body extends outward in the form of a cylindrical process for
the articulation of the first leg segment. This first segment is very
short and similar to the next two short ones, which possess dicondylic
hinges. The fourth and fifth segments are very long and have dicon-
dylic hinges. The very long sixth segment has but a single hinge and
only a flexor muscle. The short seventh segment is immovably hinged
to the short eighth and has no muscles originating in it. The eighth
bears alone the extensors and flexors of the claws. Each of the first
five segments is provided with a levator and a depressor muscle. In
no instance does any muscle in the pycnogonid leg pass entirely
NOS Tt LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—-EWING II
through a single segment. Although segment seven has no muscles
originating in it, it should be regarded as a true segment because the
flexor muscle of the sixth segment inserts on its base and its articula-
tion with segment eight indicates that the hinge was once functional.
The conditions of this segment are entirely analogous to those of the
trochanter in a lepismid leg where the muscle is usually lacking. The
writer finds the leg segments of Pycnogonida entirely homologous
with those of other generalized arachnids and consisting of the fol-
lowing: Subcoxa, coxa, trochanter I, trochanter IT, femur, patella,
tibia, tarsus and pretarsus.
In the Ricinulei, according to Hansen and S¢rensen (1904), the
second and third pairs of legs have eight segments. These authors re-
gard the basal segment as the coxa and allow for two trochanters, a
patella and a metatarsus. Their figures would indicate that the leg of
a member of the Ricinulei is entirely of the type found in the solpugids,
the primitive phalangids and primitive mites. This being the case, the
first segment should be regarded as the subcoxa, the femur would
become the trochanter and the other segments would be renamed
according to their positions, the term metatarsus being discarded.
CONCLUSIONS IN REGARD TO ARACHNID LIMBS
It appears, therefore, that the generalized arachnid limb is com-
posed of eight segments in addition to the foot or claws. This is a
condition found today in the Solpugida, the Phalangida, the gen-
eralized Acarina, the Ricinulei and the Pycnogonida. Such a con-
dition gives much weight to Hansen’s contention that eight segments
should be recognized in the crustacean limb. Since the foot, or claws
in Arachnida, as in all arthropod groups, should be considered as a
segment, one segment more in this class is to be reckoned with than in
Crustacea, Insecta, gr apparently in any other arthropod class. This
segment should be called the patella. It is situated between the femur
and the tibia.
The subcoxa is evident and well developed in most arachnid groups.
The Arachnida thus shows in this respect a condition not found in
the Crustacea and a more primitive one.
The tarsus, although frequently possessing a number of false seg-
ments, as in insects, is of a more primitive type than the insect tarsus.
This is particularly true in regard to its musculature, there being an
extensor of the claws present, while the flexor of the claws sends
fibers to attach to the segment proximal to the tibia.
[2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
LEG-SEGMENTATION AND MUSCULATURE IN THE PROTURA
Leg segmentation in the Protura was first described by Silvestri
(1907), while the musculature was first studied by Berlese (1910).
More recently Prell (1912) made the leg segmentation and muscu-
lature in this order the subject of a special paper. In regard to the
segmentation of the movable limb there has been agreement among
these three workers. All recognize the large somewhat triangular
basal segment (pl. 4, fig. 7) as the coxa, the small ringlike second
segment as the trochanter, the next and largest of all the segments
as the femur, the two ‘following smaller segments as the tibia and
tarsus respectively. Prell also calls the foot the pretarsus. In regard
to the musculature there are some differences in the results of these
workers, the chief of which has to do with the tarsus. Berlese (1910)
figures a conspicuous muscle arising from the dorsal wall of this seg-
ment and attaching to the dorsal aspect of the foot in Acerentomon
doderot. The action of such a muscle would be to extend the claw.
Also in the same species both a levator and a depressor muscle of
the femur are represented. Prell, who worked with the same species
and also with Eosentomon germanicum, finds no such extensor of
the claws in any of the tarsi. In all legs he found a levator of the
femur but no depressor.
Prell’s paper is so complete that the writer has done but little
beyond verifying his results except with regard to structures and
muscles that occur about the base of the leg. Here in front of the
coxa the present writer has always found two crescentic sclerites as
represented by Berlese (1910) for Acerentomon doderot, but a some-
what different interpretation is placed on their homology and func-
tion. Berlese regarded the more ventral sclerite as the subcoxa or
trochantin and the more dorsal as the epimeron. The present writer
would consider the two together (pl. 4, fig. 7) as a real subcoxa which,
however, has largely lost its function. The shape and position of these
sclerites indicate that they are more of the nature of leg structures
than body structures. Berlese (1910) shows no articulations between
the more ventral one and the coxa, but Prell (1913) finds the coxa
articulating dorsally with the ventral sclerite near its middle and
anteriorly with the anterior end of the same. Although the writer
has always found the dorsal articulation he has failed to verify Prell’s
results in regard to a ventral articulation.
The musculature of the legs of Acerentulus barberi will now be
described (see pl. 4, fig. 7). From the dorsal walls of the third and
fourth complete segments arise the fibers of the most distal muscle,
NO aenled: LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—EWING 13
the flexor of the claws. This muscle is attached to the claw base. It
can be traced backward as a minute, poorly chitinized tendon which
passes very soon into the strongly chitinized end of the tendon of
the muscle proper (pl. 4, fig. 7). As the muscle is followed proximally
through the tarsus it enlarges until about half of the area of a cross
section is occupied. The most of the fibers attach dorsally to the wall
of the tibia, but in the second and third pairs of legs some strong
strands extend into the femur attaching dorsally near the tip of this
segment. In neither Acerentulus barberi or Eosentomon vermiforme
or any of the other American species examined were muscle attach-
ments found on the tarsus. The next (proximally) muscle is the
powerful flexor of the tarsus. It arises, as far as could be ascertained,
entirely from the femur. The flexor of the tibia follows. It has also a
powerful muscle arising from the chitinous ring of the base of the
trochanter and attaching to the ventral side of the base of the tibia.
Prell (1912) finds extensor muscles attached to the femur. In Acer-
entulus barberi such a muscle could not be detected. However, a small
flexor muscle was found as represented by Berlese (1910) for Acer-
entomon doderoi except that it arises from the base of the trochanter
instead of the base of the coxa. Two powerful muscles are situated
in the coxa, one a levator of the trochanter and the other a depressor.
The coxa, which is hinged above to the lower sclerite of the subcoxa
and below to the sternum, is rotated by two powerful muscles arising
from the dorsal wall of the thorax, the anterior being the protractor
of the coxa and the posterior the retractor of the same.
Snodgrass (1927) has emphasized the similarity between the mus-
culature of the proturan leg and that of a caterpillar. These resem-
blances have to do with the simplicity of the musculature, the almost
complete absence of extensor muscles and the passing of strands of
several muscles through more than one segment. In the leg of a
caterpillar the flexor muscle of the claw sends some fibers to attach
to the base of the coxa. Here, therefore, is an instance of a muscle
passing through the entire length of a leg.
The presumption is frequently made, and doubtless with reason,
that in the leg of a proturan and that of an insect larva we have not
only a simple type of musculature but also a primitive one. If this
is a primitive insectan type, and the present writer believes it is,
it is quite different from the primitive type for the Arachnida. In the
Solpugida and other primitive arachnids the legs are composed of a
large number of segments and but few of the muscles pass through
more than one segment, and there are several extensors. The
Arachnida are believed to have had their descent from ancestors
I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
similar to those from which the Crustacea descended. If the insects
have descended from Crustacea-like ancestors, a primitive condition
in Insecta should simulate some condition evolved in the Crustacea ;
but in the Arachnida it should simulate a condition established among
the ancestors of the Crustacea.
LEG SEGMENTATION AND MUSCULATURE IN PAUROPODA
Because of their relation to the Crustacea on the one hand and
to the Protura on the other (see Berlese, 1910) the Pauropoda should
be considered as a likely group in which to increase our knowledge
as to the typical form of an insectan leg. According to Kenyon (1895)
all the legs in pauropods are composed of six segments except the
first and last pairs which have only five segments. Kenyon called
the basal segment the coxa and believed that the fifth and sixth seg-
ments in six-segmented legs equalled together the last segment in the
five-segmented legs. After studying specimens prepared in various
ways the writer has concluded that two additional rings should be
recognized in all legs of Pauropus. Near the base of the segment
regarded as the third by Kenyon there is a small rudiment of a seg-
ment which in some of the legs has considerable size (pl. 4, fig. 8,
trI1), and his sixth segment shows an incomplete division near its
middle (pl. 4, fig. 8). Thus the writer would recognize eight rings to
the generalized Paurdpus leg ; however, as we shall see when the muscle
attachments are studied, not all of these are to be considered as true
segments.
In well-mounted specimens of Pauropus all the legs except the first
and last show the following segmentation (pl. 4, fig. 8) :
The basal segment is barely a completed ring. It is more or less
triangular in shape and ends in a long apodeme which extends upward
in the lateral body wall. The next segment is short and stout and
sets on the first by means of a rocking hinge. The third segment,
never a completed ring, is fused with the fourth, which is short. The
fifth is the longest leg segment. It is singly hinged dorsally to the
fourth and bears the sixth by means of a similar hinge. The seventh
and eighth segments are not completely separated by a suture, which
is always evident along the ventral margin of the leg. The claws set
directly on the end of the last segment without any interpolated
chitinous piece.
When the muscles are studied it is found that there are no fibers
originating in any of the last three segments. Segment six is a com-
plete ring and is movably fastened to seven by membranous tissue
yet gives rise to no muscle fibers. All three, of these segments
NO. II LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—EWING 15
should, therefore, be regarded as the tarsus. In the first and last legs
the last two segments only are without muscle origins. Apparently
segment six of the generalized legs has fused with seven to make the
single but very long sixth segment, in the first and last legs as claimed
by Kenyon (1895).
Next to the three-segmented tarsus is the last segment giving rise
to muscle fibers. It is the longest segment and should be regarded as
the tibia. Proximal to the tibia is the stouter and shorter femur with
its adhering incomplete ring at the inner basal aspect. This rudiment
of a segment gives rise to no muscles. Such a condition, as well as
its fusion with the femur, indicates that it is the trochanter, yet con-
cerning this point there is not conclusive evidence. Dorsally the
femur gives rise to powerful flexor muscle fibers, some going to the
claws and some to the tarsus. Between the third segment and the
incomplete basal segment is a short but very broad segment which
bears ventrally a clavate appendage, regarded by some as being
analogous with the stylus of Thysanura. When this large segment is
compared with the coxa of a proturan leg it is observed that it not only
has a similar position in the leg series of segments but has the double
rocking type of hinge at both ends just as the proturan coxa has;
however, the first segment is also decidedly like the coxa of many
generalized insects. Although the writer is inclined to recognize this
second segment as the first trochanter we are not sure that it is such.
Regarding the subfemoral segment as the true coxa leaves only the
decision that the incomplete basal segment is the subcoxa, yet if so
it is more completely developed than in any insect. In pauropods
this first segment is an integral part of the leg, although barely a
complete ring and with only a few levator muscle strands. The de-
pressors, however, are large and powerful (see pl. 4, fig. 8). Although
the first segment is a movable segment in Pauropoda, at the same
time it partakes of the nature of a body sclerite by sending upward
a long apodeme which rests vertically in the body wall, rotating slightly
when the subcoxa is moved.
THE SO-CALLED COXAL APPENDAGES IN PAUROPUS
In Pauropus the two proximal segments of the legs bear on their
ventral surfaces conspicuous spatulate structures. In the posterior
legs these structures appear to be forked. A closer inspection, how-
ever, shows that those on the posterior legs bear laterally a clublike
appendage and are hardly biramous. These appendages have been
regarded by some as true vestiges of real segments and as homologous
with the coxal appendages of Symphyla and Thysanura.
2
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
The writer has made a special attempt to locate muscle fibers pass-
ing to these clavate structures (pl. 4, fig. 9) but has failed in every
attempt although the muscular tissues in the segment from which
they spring were clearly revealed. In some instances a few minute
strands (sensory nerve?) were found passing into the coxa from the
clavate structure, but in no instance did these reveal the striations
characteristic of muscles. Probably the more plausible explanation
of these clavate structures is that they are modified setae. Somewhat
similar pectinate setae are found on the body in Pauropus. But these
specialized body setae all possess a seta pit, or alveolus ; such a struc-
ture is wanting at the base of the clavate structures.
DHESPAUROPUS 1. eE Ob VEG
The question may be asked: How does the leg-segmentation and
musculature of Pauropus compare with that of primitive insects?
Compared with that of Protura the following differences are noted:
The tarsus is three-segmented instead of one-segmented, two tro-
chanters may be regarded as present instead of one, and the subcoxa
exists either as a ringlike, functional, movable segment, instead of
being represented by two motionless plates, or according to the other
interpretation shows no vestige. In Pauropus, also, more of the
muscles pass through two or more segments. Compared with the legs
of Thysanura and Collembola, and of insect larvae a general cor-
respondence is indicated. In one respect the pauropods appear to be
more primitive in their leg characters than most insects, 1. ¢., in the
great length of the flexor muscles, which pass through two or more
segments.
LEG-SEGMENTATION AND MUSCLE ATTACHMENTS IN
SYMPHYLA
In Symphyla the generalized legs, 7. ¢., the ambulatory appendages
except for the first pair, show five complete and movable segments
and in addition an immovable basal sclerite with a hinge for the
first complete segment. The muscle attachments for these segments
are shown in pl. 4, fig. 10. According to the musculature the long
penultimate segment should be regarded as the tibia since it gives
rise to the flexor muscles of the claws. The last, claw-bearing seg-
ment is the tarsus. The antepenultimate segment, the one proximal
to the tibia, is very short and is at or beyond the bend of the leg. It
has the size and function of a patella in the Arachnida. Furthermore,
this is the segment that is eliminated in the four-segmented front
NO? EL LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—EWING 7
legs of certain genera. Its position as well as its rocking hinge and
attached levator muscle fibers indicate that it is the femur. The next
proximal segment is the largest of all and suggests a true femur.
However, its position in the leg series and its musculature indicate
that it is only a much enlarged trochanter. There remains the basal
segment, always short and stout and nearly always bearing an un-
segmented appendage, the stylus, at the base on its ventral side. This
segment should be regarded as the coxa, on account of its position
in the leg series, its musculature and its bearing of the so-called
stylus. In addition to these complete, or ring segments, there is a
chitinous plate of varying shape to which the coxa is attached and
on which the coxa moves by means of a rocking hinge. This is the
subcoxa. I have failed to find muscles attached to it although power-
ful depressor muscles arising from the postero-ventral angle of the
coxa pass inward to attach somewhere in the body.
The segmentation here described at first seems to be out of harmony
with that of any of the other groups of primitive arthropods, but
when articulations and muscle attachments were studied, the very
unusual size and position of the femur became evident, thus making
the homology of the segments clear. Of all the leg segments the
femur is the least liable to be greatly reduced in size or to drop out
entirely, yet in the legs of symphylids apparently both of these things
have happened to it.
In all the symphylids the first pair of legs has undergone a reduc-
tion in size. In Scolopendrella the front legs are about three-fourths
as long as the others and have the typical number of segments, 1. ¢.,
five. The shortening has been brought about by a big reduction in
the length of the second segment which is but slightly longer than
the third. In Scutigerella and Hanseniella the front legs are further
reduced, but in these genera are only four-segmented (pl. 5, fig. 11).
Here the short third segment has either dropped out or has been
incorporated with the fourth which has been much reduced in length.
In Symphylella only papillalike remnants are left of the front legs
which do not show segmentation.
The symphylid leg, characterized by the presence of an appendage
on the coxa, a platelike subcoxa and a greatly reduced femur situated
at the bend of the leg, is probably nearer to the leg of Machilis than
to that of any other group. It differs from the leg of Machilis par-
ticularly in the small size of the femur and the large size of the
trochanter.
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
THE COXAL APPENDAGE IN SYMPHYLA
The coxal appendage in Symphyla arises in nearly all the species
from the coxa on its inner side very near the articulation of the latter
with the body and the subcoxa. In a few species it arises from the
body proper near the origin of the coxa, but in such instances moves
with the coxa. It is a small, slender, cylindrical appendage, and is
clothed with minute setalike projections (pl. 5, fig. 12). On the tip
of the appendage these setalike structures are longer than the width
of the appendage, but on the body of the latter are only visible with
very high magnification. The writer has not studied stained sections
of symphylids, but since these setalike structures lack seta pits he
is inclined to consider them as scobinations. It is possible that the
longer terminal ones are different from the minute lateral ones, in
which case they should be regarded as true setae.
All efforts to locate muscle fibers passing to the coxal appendages
have failed, although such fibers do pass from the body wall to the
chitinous base ring of the eversible sac.
In the Lepismatidae Escherich (1905) has found muscle fibers
passing both to the eversible sacs and the styli of the abdomen. It is
probable that the coxal appendages in Symphyla are not true seg-
mental appendages. They may or may not be homologous with the
coxal appendages in Pauropoda and Machilidae. Their position on
the inside of the coxa indicates a homology with the appendages of
Pauropoda rather than with those of Machilidae, which are external.
THE LEGS IN THYSANURA
The Thysanura have long been an interesting group for the student
of the phylogeny of insects. Their primitive wingless condition, their
possession of vestigial abdominal appendages and several other mor-
phological characters have stamped them as an outstanding gen-
eralized group among their class.
An examination of the legs of each of the four families of Thysa-
nura, the Machilidae, Lepismatidae, Japygidae and Campodeidae
shows that they all have the same type of segmentation and muscu-
lature and the same number of true segments. For this reason the
leg of Machilis, the first to be here considered, may be taken as a
type. Borner (1921) has described the musculature of Machilis.
In Machilis the first movable segment of the leg (pl. 5, fig. 13) is
the largest. It has the general shape of a femur but is placed in a
reverse position, i. ¢., it hangs downward and outward from the
body. At about one-third the distance from its proximal to its distal
NO. II LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—-EWING 19
end there is a very strong, transverse apodeme on the outside margin.
The apodeme does not extend entirely across as an unbroken ridge,
but in it there is a gap. At this gap there is situated a prominent
fusiform appendage, the much discussed “ coxal appendage.” The
second segment is small and much curved. It is hinged to the first
by a rocking double hinge. It extends upward and outward. The
third segment is large and long and is immovably attached to the
second. Distally it supports the fourth by means of a double hinge.
The fourth is about as long as the third but is smaller. Beyond the
fourth segment are three small ones that move together as one. The
distal one of these bears the two equal claws. An examination of the
attachments of the muscles shows that the fourth segment gives origin
to the last muscle of the leg, the flexor of the claws. It should,
therefore, be regarded as the tibia. Then the three small ones distal
to it should be considered as the tarsus and the large one proximal
the femur. Because the small second segment is immovably fused
with the femur, gives origin to muscle fibers that flex the tibia, and is
moved by a double hinge on the first segment, it must be considered
as the trochanter. The basal segment is regarded as the true coxa.
Although it is very large its musculature and the attachment of the
appendage to it indicate clearly its homology. The coxa itself is
hinged to an incomplete segment which has a stout apodeme. This
incomplete segment gives rise to levator muscles of the coxa. It
should be regarded as a functional subcoxa.
In the Lepismatidae, Thermobia is taken as the type. In this genus
the leg (pl. 5, fig. 14) is similar to that of Machilis, but lacks first
of all the appendage to the coxa. The subcoxa here is a complete
segment, and frequently shows two pseudosegmental sutures on its
antero-dorsal aspect. The coxa lacks not only the appendage of
Machilis but also the conspicuous transverse apodeme. The trochanter
differs from that of Machilis in two ways; it frequently gives rise
to a very short muscle going to the base of the femur as shown by
Escherich (1905) or again it may be entirely without muscles, even
without fibers from the flexor of the tibia. Such a trochanter has
been drawn by Carpenter (1916). The femur, tibia, and tarsus are
essentially the same as in Machuilis.
The legs in Campodeidae and Japygidae are essentially the same
in segmentation and musculature. Those of Campodea are taken as
the type (pl. 6, fig. 15). The Campodea legs are very slender as
compared with those of Machilis and have the following outstanding
differences: The coxa is greatly reduced, very short and is without
the transverse apodeme and appendage; the trochanter is a free-
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80
moving segment and in it arise the levator and depressor muscles of
the femur; the tarsus is only two-segmented (false segments). The
other segments have the same relationships as in Machilis.
REMARKS ON THE THYSANURAN TYPE OF LEG
A comparison of the thysanuran type of leg with those of other
primitive groups indicates its closest affinity with the pauropod type.
In fact there appear to be a similarity and homology throughout the
segmentation series of both groups. If the first segment of the pauro-
pod leg be regarded as the coxa, however, instead of the subcoxa, the
small third segment of the pauropod leg should be regarded as a part
of the femur.
THE NATURE OF THE COXAL APPENDAGE IN THE MACHILIDAE
For years after Verhoeff (1903) claimed to have demonstrated a
muscle attached to the coxal appendage the belief grew that this
appendage should be regarded as a true branch of the limb. By some
it was considered as a homologue of the exopodite of crustaceans, and
exponents of the crustacean theory of the origin of insects seized
upon this bit of evidence in support of their contentions. The writer
has examined this structure with care and has noted the following:
1. It arises at a break in the transverse apodeme of the coxa on
the outside of this segment (pl. 5, fig. 13).
2. It has no muscles in it and no muscles passing to it and none
having any relation with it.
3. Muscle fibers do pass from near the base of the appendage and
extend distally. These are probably the ones figured by Verhoeff
(1903), but they are clearly a part of the conspicuous levator muscle
of the trochanter.
4. The appendage can in no way be considered as a modified seta,
since it possesses a lining.of hypodermis with many cells from which
several complete and typical setae themselves have been developed.
5. The appendage is a development from the outer wall of the
coxa of which it is a direct continuation.
THE LEG SEGMENTS OF COLLEMBOLA
In general form and position the collembolan legs have been modi-
fied somewhat by the fact that the body is compressed and locomotion
is greatly aided by a powerful springing organ, the furcula, near the
end of the abdomen. The compression of the body has frequently
brought the legs of a pair into a contiguous position at their bases.
NO. II LEGS OF PRIMITIVE *ARTHROPODS—EWING Zit
The great thrusting power of the furcula has been matched to a
certain degree by the superior development of the posterior legs and
their backwardly appressed position. This peculiarity of the legs is
probably an adaptation to receive the shock of alighting after each
spring into the air.
According to the external sutures collembolan legs are six-, or
seven-segmented. The seven-segmented legs are particularly evident
in the family Entomobryidae and such legs have been figured by
Carpenter (1916) and by Folsom (1924). The more common type,
here regarded as six-segmented, has been considered as five-segmented.
Such a leg according to Guthrie (1903) is composed of a coxa, tro-
chanter, femur, tibia and tarsus. Borner (1921) has figured this
type of a leg in Orchesella.
The seven-segmented leg will be taken here as a generalized type
for the order, and the third leg of Tomocerus arcticus will be de-
scribed. According to external sutures there are five short basal
segments all of about the same length. The most proximal is the
stoutest, and the most distal the longest. The sixth segment is long
and straight, the seventh is of similar length but tapers distally to the
base of the two unequal claws which it bears directly on the end of
the segment. An examination of the muscles (pl. 6, fig. 16) shows
that this seventh segment bears powerful strands going to the base
of the claws. It, therefore, should be regarded as the tibia. The
sixth segment becomes the femur, and has the femur type of muscu-
lature. Segments four and five, each very short and each with a
dicondylic hinge at the base and apex, should be regarded as the two
trochanters. They both have the articulations and musculature of a
primitive type. There remain the proximal three segments. Muscle
attachments show that the first external suture produces only a false
segmentation, hence one and two together form the basal segment
which should be regarded, mostly on account of its position, as the
subcoxa. There remains the third ring, or segment. It is very short,
has a dicondylic articulation with the first trochanter and an oblique,
incomplete apodeme for the attachment of powerful muscle fibers
of the depressor of the second coxa. Although this segment is far
from being typical of an insect coxa, it should be regarded as such
because of its dicondylic articulation and its position in the segmental
series,
The peculiarities of such a leg are evident ;a falsely divided subcoxa,
a reduced and modified coxa and a missing tarsus.
In most collembolan legs, particularly in the six-segmented legs
(pl. 6, fig. 17), there is a small but complete ring inserted between
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
the claws and the tibia. This ring varies from a length equal tg about
a fourth that of the tibia to zero. Distally the two claws are inserted
into the membrane and about completely fill up the unchitinized space.
There is attached to the unguitractor plate, which possibly is attached
to the ventral wall, the tendon of the flexor of the large claw, which
muscle may also in some instances lift the smaller claw. By compar-
ing the legs of various species it is observed that as this unguitractor
plate disappears the tendon of the flexor of the claws shifts over
until it comes to attach to the enlarged base of the large claw. Such
a shift indicates, it is believed, an obliteration of a tarso-pretarsal
articulation rather than the tibio-tarsal articulation. The tarsus,
therefore, has either fused with the big claw or has dropped out
entirely. The writer believes that in some instances it has done the
one and in others the other.
The subcoxa not only frequently shows an external division into
two false segments, but many possess a transverse apodeme (pl. 6,
fe hese)
THE COLLEMBOLAN TYPE OF LEG
Although much variation is encountered in the legs of Collembola,
some of them being much modified and showing special adaptation
and some of them the loss of the tarsus, in general it may be stated
that they are of a very primitive type. The possession of a complete
and functional subcoxa and two typically articulated and muscled
trochanters is certainly a rare, primitive condition for the group
Insecta. While being of a primitive type the collembolan leg is of
somewhat unusual position and conformity.
THE PRIMITIVE TYPE OF TARSAL CLAWS IN INSECTA
The general belief among many entomologists has been that the
foot of a generalized insect possessed typically but a single claw. As
evidence for such a belief it has been pointed out that in certain prim-
itive insects, the Protura and certain springtails, there is but a sin-
gle tarsal claw. Also in most insect larvae and in centipeds such a
condition exists. It would appear, however, that much other evidence
is somewhat at variance to the one-claw theory. As pointed out by
Ischerich (1910), the Lepismatidae have a three-clawed tarsus.
Many other Thysanurans also have the same type. As for the one-
clawed Collembola (pl. 7, fig. 19 B), such a condition is clearly sec-
ondary and not primitive. In all the two-clawed Collembola the second
claw is much reduced and modified (pl. 7, fig. 19, A), in many species
NO. II LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—EWING 23
it is vestigial and in some few clearly wanting. A complete series
exists among the various species showing the reduction from the
normal condition for the group to the smallest vestige and to a one-
clawed condition.
The best evidence as to the nature of the primitive type of insect
claws is to be found, it is believed, by a comparative study of the
claws of primitive insects with those of the primitive arthropods most
closely related to them. When this is done we find in all instances,
the present writer believes, that either the three-clawed type exists,
as found in most Thysanurans, or a two-clawed or one-clawed type
the origin of which may be clearly traced from the three-clawed type.
In pauropods the generalized legs all show a tarsus (pl. 7, fig. 20)
terminated by a large central claw and two small, lateral and fre-
quently unequal, claws which spring from a basal foot-pad at almost
right angles to the central claw. There is a tendency among the
generalized legs in Pauropus for one of the lateral claws to become
vestigial, and this tendency reaches a climax in the last pair of legs
of Pauropus (pl. 7, fig. 20, C) where one claw is entirely lost.
In Symphyla the different genera show a marked similarity in re-
gard to the tarsal claws. The prevailing type is a tarsus with two
unequal claws (pl. 7, fig. 20, D), a type comparable with that of the
posterior legs of Pauropus. However, the tarsi of the first pair of legs
in some symphylids as well as those of some of the other legs show
three claws, one of the lateral ones being reduced and modified so as
to be somewhat setiform.
In the Protura only a single claw has been described, but Berlese
(1910) pointed out that there exist rudiments of a second claw on
the first tarsus of Acerentomon doderot. It is observed, further, that
in one of our American proturans, Acerentulus barberi, two func-
tional claws are present on tarsus I (pl. 7, fig. 23). In this species
the large claw is posterior in position, the small one is middle, and
a claw rudiment is anterior. This small claw is somewhat setiform,
but its position and articulation indicate its homology. In those tarsi
that have only the single claw, this claw usually occupies a posterior
position indicating its homology with the large claw of the first tarsus.
The dominance of the posterior of the three primitive claws in the
Protura appears to be quite a different condition from that which is
found in the Collembola.
The two-clawed tarsi of Campodea and certain other thysanurans
are explained by Snodgrass, (1927) as being a derivation from the
three-clawed Lepismid type. Here it appears evident that the middle
claw has disappeared. In some members of Campodea the middle
24. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
claw has become transformed into a featherlike empodium. In Japy«
it is reduced almost to a vestige (pl. 7, fig. 22), while in some Cam-
podea no vestige remains (pl. 7, fig. 22).
A peculiarity in the two-clawed Collembola is that the smaller
element, which may or may not be a true claw, occupies a ventral
and a reversed position to the large claw. This smaller element is
referred to as the unguiculus by Folsom (1916), as the inferior claw
by Guthrie (1903) and as the empodial appendage by Carpenter
(1916). De Meijere (1901) has discussed its homology and calls
attention to the fact that it is not entirely ventral median in position.
Hansen (1893) considers the smaller claw a true claw and a primitive
condition from which type the two-clawed pretarsus of higher in-
sects was developed by a shifting in position and enlargement of this
element. By comparison with the claws of Symphyla and Pauropoda
one would be inclined to consider the inferior pretarsal element in
Collembola as one of the persisting lateral claws of the three-clawed
type of tarsus. In Symphyla the smaller lateral claw stands at about
right angles to the large claw. But in Collembola the inferior ap-
pendage is usually reversed and in some instances is detached from
the chitinous base of the large claw which alone usually bears the
tendon of the flexor muscles. Furthermore there exists a type of pre-
tarsus in Tomocerus (pl. 7, fig. 23) in which the large dorsal claw is
accompanied by two lateral claws springing from its base, in addi-
tion to the ventral appendage. These -facts would indicate that the
so-called unguiculus, or empodial appendage, is not the true claw
but a secondary development, possibly only a modified seta.
In the Crustacea, as stated by De Meijere, several genera of isopods
show the presence of a large and a small tarsal claw, as is commonly
found in Symphyla and Collembola. A drawing is here given of a
sow-bug tarsus showing the second claw (pl. 7, fig. 24). That the
two-clawed condition in: the Crustacea should develop among land
forms is significant in considering the evolution of terrestial arthro-
pods. Probably it is correlated with the habit of crawling about
objects in a nearly vertical or even in an inverted position. The
almost universal presence of two tarsal claws among insects speaks
much in favor of this arrangement for an efficient clinging organ.
POSTCEPHALIC BODY-SEGMENTATION IN ARTHROPODA
Theoretically arthropods, as we know them today, have been con-
sidered as descendants from a type in which the whole body consisted
of a series of similar segments arranged end to end along the body
NO. II LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—EWING 25
axis and each bearing a pair of similar segmental appendages. [volu-
tionary forces have not only tended to bring about diversity among
these different segments and their appendages but have caused cer-
tain segments either to fuse or to act together more or less as a unit
in performing certain classes of functions. Thus in certain arthropods
a group of the most anterior segments became fused to form the head,
in which most of the special senses were lodged, others posterior to
the head in certain arthropods became grouped or fused together to
form the thorax which became chiefly devoted to locomotion, and
lastly the remaining segments became an abdomen, a unit having to
do largely with digestion and reproduction.
In the insects alone do we find these three body regions completely
developed and students of the evolution of this class are particularly
interested in finding out how many and what segments of the prim-
itive arthropod enter into the formation of the insect head, thorax
and abdomen.
That the head was the first of these three body regions to become
differentiated appears evident, for in a number of classes of land
arthropods it is completely formed while the remainder of the body
is composed of many segments, the most of which are very similar and
have each a pair of similar appendages.
In discussing the origin of the thorax we are particularly inter-
ested in the origin of certain structures found in the insect neck re-
gion. If the so-called cervical sclerites are true sclerites, could they
have been derived from the basal segments of an arthropod appen-
dage, and if so does the neck itself represent the rudiments of a
postcephalic segment ?
THE FIRST BODY SEGMENT OF SYMPHYLA
In the Symphyla it is observed that the first pair of legs are always
reduced. In some instances this is due only to the shortening of cer-
tain segments, particularly the femur. In Hanseniella, however, one
segment, the femur, has dropped out entirely. In other symphylids
the leg becomes quite rudimentary.
THE FIRST BODY SEGMENT IN PAUROPODA
The evidence of a much reduced first body segment with vestigial
legs is very convincing in the case of pauropods. Not only is there
a complete suture setting off a neck region but on the sternum there
is a pair of very short disclike structures that should be regarded as
leg rudiments. Kenyon (1895) pointed out that these structures each
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 8o
bear a pair of clavate organs (pl. 8, fig. 25) similar in shape and
position to those on the basal segment of the legs. Kenyon refers to
these structures as “ papilliform processes,’ but the present writer
regards them as exceedingly short, cylindrical segments, so short in
fact that they are like discs.
EVIDENCE OF A CERVICAL SEGMENT AMONG INSECTS
But we do not have to turn to Symphyla or to Pauropoda to find
structures that indicate the existence of a cervical segment. In Japyx,
as is indicated by Snodgrass’ drawing (Snodgrass, 1927, p. 16), there
is a repetition of the Y-shaped thoracic sternal apodeme on the ventral
aspect of the neck. Enderlein (1907) has figured this structure for
Japyx japonicus, but he regarded it as being comparable to the seg-
mental folds of the meso-, and metathorax and called the same
a prothoracic apotom. The writer has made a special examination of
it and here gives a detailed drawing of the same (pl. 9, fig. 26). The
Japyx species studied is the large eastern Japyx bidentatus. This
Y-shaped sternal apodeme is indeed very similar to the one found
on each of the three thoracic sterna. From the fork of the Y, a
median process passes backward, as in the case with the others, to
the base of the following sclerite. The branches of the Y, however,
do not end in a headlike condyle as in the case of the thoracic apodemes
but become fused with the lateral angles of the included sternite, and
the sternite and the apodemes together form a more or less hingelike
fulcrum for the head.
In Japyx isabellae (pl. 12, fig. 38) no cervical Y-shaped apodemes
are noted, but the cervical region is well developed. In, this species
the same sternite that is included between the forks of the Y in biden-
fatus is enlarged and strengthened. This sternite bears an articulating
surface with a condyle from the head at the median line. Thus a
similar function is performed in the absence of any apodemes.
THE SEGMENTS INCLUDED IN THE INSECT THORAX
It might appear, therefore, that the insect thorax is composed of
the second, third, and fourth body segments behind the head, and,
if so, further evidence would be found in some of the primitive
insects. The most primitive group of arthropods to show the thorax
developed is the Protura. In the Protura we have true hexapods,
although in this group a number of myriapod charaeters are retained.
Unfortunately in proturans the first pair of legs have been de-
veloped as feelers, and the prothorax accordingly modified and re-
NO. II LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—-EWING 27
duced. The first legs of proturans have more of a lateral than ventral
position and are held over the body, not under it. Consequently the
muscles and the sclerites have become so shifted that their homologies
cannot with definiteness be worked out.
It may be also that the first postcephalic segment of Symphyla and
Pauropoda becomes incorporated with the head in Insecta; possibly
becoming or in fact being the labial segment. If so the head of Pauro-
poda and Symphyla should have one less segment than an insect head,
which appears contrary to known facts.
ABDOMINAL SEGMENTATION
In this paper, abdominal segmentation will only be touched upon.
Of special significance among primitive land arthropods is the occur-
rence of double segments which characterize particularly the Diplo-
poda. The opinion has been frequently expressed that such a con-
dition is brought about by the pairing or coupling of two contiguous
segments.
THE DOUBLING OF BODY SEGMENTS
In pauropods there is some variation in regard to the individual
dorsal and ventral segmentation. The genus Eurypauropus shows
what Kenyon (1895) regarded as an indubitable diplopod condition,
but the same authority held that in Pauropus (pl. 8, fig. 25) about
half of the legs came in between the dorsal plates. Kenyon even de-
scribed and figured intersegmental pleural areas bounded by con-
spicuous folds over the so-regarded intersegmental legs. Although
the diplopod condition is not so evident in Pauropus and does not
hold for the first two body segments, the present writer has failed
to substantiate Kenyon’s contention that pronounced intersegmental
pleural regions exist. It does appear, however, that some of the legs
arise almost directly below the dorsal segmental sutures.
In Symphyla the diplopod condition does not exist, although there
is evidence, as in Symphylella, that small legless segments have united
with legbearing segments. According to Muir and Kershaw (1909)
the young of Scutigerella have seven pairs of legs, twelve tergites
and nine sternites when newly hatched. When adult they have twelve
pairs of legs, sixteen tergites and fourteen sternites. It is important
to note that Scutigerella has the same number of body segments when
hatched that proturans have, but, according to Muir and Kershaw,
must add one more than proturans do during postembryonic de-
velopment.
bo
00
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
EMBRYONIC REDUCTION OF ABDOMINAL SEGMENTS
Of much interest and of somewhat uncertain significance is the
embryonic reduction of abdominal segments. It has appeared to be
a general law that in insects the maximum number of abdominal seg-
ments is to be found at the time of hatching from the egg; and that
postembryonic changes, if there are any, are toward the reduction
in the number possessed at hatching.
The Protura, of all the hexapods, show both a reduced number of
abdominal segments (nine) at hatching and add segments during
postembryonic development. It was largely for this reason that Ber-
lese (1910) regarded them as occupying a position between the true
insects and the myriapods and gave to them the name Myrientomata.
The Collembola show a reduced number of abdominal segments
at hatching (six) but do not add segments during their postembryonic
development.
It may be that in both of these groups, the Protura and the Collem-
bola, the reduction during the embryonic development of the number
of abdominal segments is an inherited condition from myriapodlike
ancestors and, if so, should indicate a closer affinity between these
groups than has been suspected. In this connection, however, it should
be noted that some or all of the abdominal segments of Collembola
may in certain genera remain fused throughout life. This suggests
the possibility of an adaptive reduction during the embryonic life,
possibly during a deutovum stage. Such stages, or instars, inside of
the eggshell are very generally met with in arthropods and are typical
of arachnids. A reduction of abdominal segments during a deutovum
or a tritovum stage or during both of these stages should not be
regarded as in any way indicating a primitive condition for insects.
The deutovum and tritovum instars are comparable to the proto-
nymphs and deutonymphs of arthropods undergoing a normal de-
velopment.
THE TERGAL PLATES OF THE LEG-BEARING SEGMENTS
Examinations of insect larvae and apterygotan insects have re-
vealed the presence of a very simple dorsal plate, or tergum, for most
of the body segments. The simplest type consists of an undivided
plate, without ridges, sutures or apodemes, which does not fully
occupy the dorsal surface of the segment. Snodgrass has very fully
described the types of terga found in winged insects (Snodgrass,
1925). More recently he has described a type among wingless insects
(Snodgrass, 1927) which is considered as showing certain features
found in the thoracic terga of most winged insects.
NOw LL LEGS OF PRIMITIVE -ARTHROPODS—EWING 29
In Pauropus the tergites (pl. 9, fig. 27) are simple, oval-shaped
plates, seven in number, which fit the lateral curvature of the body
and extend down less than half way on the sides of the same. There
is no tergum over the first body segment. The first tergal plate
covers dorsally the second body segment. The next four tergal plates
are allotted to body segments 3-10, all of which bear legs. The last
two tergal plates cover roughly the remainder of the body. In Pau-
ropus the tergites do not cover entirely the dorsal surface. There
is present between adjacent tergites a considerable area that is mem-
branous (pl. 9, fig. 27).
In Symphyla the terga are very similar to those of Pauwropus, being
simple plates that do not completely cover the dorsal surface. These
plates may be variously shaped. In the genus Symphylella the tergum
of the first body segment is reduced and divided both transversely
and longitudinally, making four smaller plates (pl. 9, fig. 28). Terga
vary in size in Symphyla according to the size of the segment each
covers.
In the Protura the terga no longer have the simple structure found
in Pauropoda and Symphyla. Typically each of the thoracic, as well
as the abdominal, terga possesses a strong transverse apodeme near
the anterior margin. This apodeme (pl. 10, fig. 29) may be simple
or may be singly or doubly branched laterally. The writer (Ewing,
1921) has utilized this variation as a generic character. Just posterior
to this apodeme is a transverse groove. Prell (1913) has represented
both this transverse suture and the apodeme, but he also shows two
poorly chitinized regions posterior to the terga proper. The writer
has not located such regions in our American proturans. Snodgrass
(1927) considers the apodeme as representing the antecostal suture
and the small area in front of it as being the precosta, and both
structures as being typical of an insect tergite.
The tergal region of the prothorax is much modified, suggesting a
condition found in the tergal region of the first body segment of
Symphyla. The tergum proper (pl. 10, fig. 29) is reduced and poorly
chitinized in front, while laterally there is a prominent fold over the
coxa. This fold corresponds to the intersegmental lobe of the neck
as regarded by Berlese (1910).
In Eosentomon a median apodeme is present on the thoracic
tergites. This median ridge is found in many pterygote insects.
The thoracic terga of Japy. are taken as a sample representing the
Thysanura for two reasons. They have been much discussed pre-
viously, and they show considerable variation. In Japyx isabellae
(pl. 10, fig. 30) the thoracic terga are oval plates that-almost join
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
each other at the intersegmental sutures. The tergum of the prothorax
is without apodemes or sutures, but each of the other two possesses
three longitudinal internal ridges (pl. 10, fig. 30). One of these is
straight and median ; the other two are lateral and outwardly curved.
In Japyx bidentatus the median ridge is wanting, but a transverse
groove divides the tergum proper from an anterior region termed the
precosta by Snodgrass (1927). This area is very large in Japyx biden-
tatus, being about one-fourth as long as that of the remaining part of
the tergum.
In the Collembola the thoracic terga extend far down on the sides
of the body, reaching in some instances the bases of the legs (pl. 10,
fig. 31). The tergum of the prothorax is always reduced and may be
almost obliterated in certain genera. In /sotoma only two minute,
transverse strips of chitin remain as vestiges of the first thoracic
tergum. In general the collembolan thoracic terga may be said to be
of the simplest type, being without apodemes or sutures.
CONCLUSIONS REGARDING THE TERGA OF LEG-BEARING SEGMENTS
OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS
The prevailing type of terga found on the leg-bearing segments of
Pauropoda, Symphyla, Protura and Apterygota is the simplest type
known—a tergum without apodemes, sutures or specialized areas
of any kind. This is the type found in the larvae of many insects.
The presence of an anterior, transverse apodeme dividing the tergum
into a very small anterior area and a very large posterior one is
noted in the Protura and the Thysanura. This area, which has been
termed the precosta, and the apodeme which has been termed the
antecostal suture, appear to be structures fundamental to the terga
of winged insects.
THE STERNAL PLATES OF THE LEG-BEARING SEGMENTS
STERNA IN ARACHNIDA
In the more generalized arachnids like the Solpugida, Cyphoph-
thalmi, and Pedipalpida, sternites are frequently wanting from some
or all the cephalothoracic segments. In such cases the basal seg-
ment of the leg, the subcoxa, usually is flattened and more-or-less
platelike. These subcoxae are liable to be fixed and fused each with
its fellow of the opposite side along the median plane. Such a con-
dition is found in the Cyphophthalmi (pl. 11, fig. 32). In the Pedipal-
pida, as illustrated by Mastigoproctus giganteus, the giant whip-
scorpion of the South, the first and last cephalothoracic segments are
NO. II LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—EWING Axa
each provided with a triangular sternite, situated between the subcoxae
of these segments. The second and third cephalothoracic segments
are without a sternite, the subcoxae of each practically touching on the
median line. This condition of the second and third segments is rather
remarkable in this group, as the subcoxae of these segments, like
those of the first and last, are movable and undergo a rolling motion
while the arachnid is walking.
In tarantulas (Araneida) the movable basal segments of the legs
(coxae?) come close together on the median line. The first three
pairs are separated by a sternal ridge, but the coxae of the last pair
are contiguous. Muscle attachments in the cephalothorax of spiders
are largely from an elaborate endosternite, the origin of which in the
Solpugida has been worked out by Bernard (1896), who finds that
it results from the fusion of infolding apodemes, particularly between
the third and fourth segments.
In the Solpugida the subcoxae meet on the median line, but are
not movable. They retain the shape and the function of a basal leg
segment. Bernard (1896), as already quoted, believed that the so-
called abdominal sternites of solpugids represent the rudiments of
a flattened leg. Holding such a view it is interesting to note that
in the same paper he describes and figures a hypothetical primitive
arachnid as having typically a sternal plate between each pair of
coxae. If abdominal sternites in the Solpugida are derived from
the appendages why not the thoracic sternites, not possibly in this
group but in many other arthropods?
STERNA IN PAUROPODA
In Pauropus there are no sternites to the leg-bearing segments
except for the segment bearing the last pair. This segment has an
anterior and posterior plate (pl. 11, fig. 33). From each subcoxa
there extends upward along the pleuron a long rod-like apodeme
(pl. 11, fig. 33). During leg movements the subcoxa rocks, or rolls,
along the axis of this apodeme. On the first body segment there is
a pair of ventral discs, believed to represent vestigial legs (see
page 25), and the last visible body segment is covered below with
a very large sternal plate.
STERNA IN SYMPHYLA
There is a marked contrast between the Symphyla and the Pauro-
poda in regard to the sternal region. In the genera Scutigerella,
Symphylella, and Hanseniella, not only is there always a pair of
3
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
sternal plates just in front of the coxal bases, but a curved, rodlike
apodeme extends outward and forward from the median line to
articulate with the front margin of the coxa. In addition to these
structures in Scutigerella (pl. 11, fig. 34) there is an unpaired ante-
rior sclerite and a pair of smaller lateral ones. In Scutigerella and
Hanseniella (pl. 11, fig. 35) the eversible sac is surrounded at its
base with a chitinous ring. This ring is broken in Symphylella pro-
ducing two crescentic pieces (pl. 12, fig. 36).
THORACIC STERNA IN PROTURA
Berlese (1910) was the first to describe the sternites in the Protura.
He found that each thoracic sternal region was covered by two large
sternal plates. The anterior one he called the sternum and the pos-
terior one the sternellum. On the lateral margin of the sternellum
near its anterior corner is an articulating condyle for the coxa. The
present writer has worked out the sternal region for Acerentulus
barberi (pl. 12, fig. 37). He has little to add to that found by Berlese,
but suggests the term basisternum for the more anterior of the two
sternites.
In Eosentomon the second and third sternella have developed a
median apodeme which shows an anterior forking. This is doubtless
a structure found better developed in many insects, being particularly
conspicuous in Japyx. In Eosentomon ribagai, Berlese (1910)
represents the third sternellum with the forks of the Y passing later-
ally to the articulating condyles for the coxae. In Eosentomon vermt-
forme, an American species, the forks of the Y are found only on
the third sternellum. These pass outward to the articulation condyles
for the coxae but do not quite meet inwardly on the median line.
THORACIC STERNA IN THYSANURA AND COLLEMBOLA
In the Collembola the legs are brought so close together that the
sternal characters cannot be made out satisfactorily.
The sternal plates of Thysanura differ radically from those of
Protura in their musculature. In this order the ventral longitudinal
muscles extend between the posterior parts of the thoracic sterna
as they do in pterygote insects. This condition is radically different
from that found in the abdominal sterna and the terga of probably
all insects where the longitudinal muscles attach to the anterior ridges.
Carpenter (1916) has figured the sternites of Lepidocampa. In the
case of the meso-, and the metasternum, each is provided with a
single plate, which has a posterior chitinized ridge and an incomplete
median apodeme.
NO. II LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—EWING 33
In Japyx (pl. 12, fig. 38) the meso- and metathoracic sternal
regions each is covered by a large plate which is heavily reinforced
by a Y-shaped apodeme. The base of this Y rests against the anterior
margin of the following sternal plate, and the forks pass outward to
articulate with the condyle of the coxa. In Japysx isabellae, how-
ever, they do not stop here but extend forward to the lateral margins
of the plates. The prothoracic sternal region of Japyx is provided
with two sternal plates, and in front of these there is a neck region
that has already been discussed (page 26).
In Japyx solifugus according to Borner (1903) and in Japyx jap-
onicus according to Enderlein (1907) and in certain other Japyx
species there are found posterior to the large sternal plates of the
pro-, and mesothorax two or three broad folds which in Japyx
solifugus are provided with ventral plates. These conspicuous folds
indicate what has been termed the intersegmental region. Verhoeft
believed that they represented true body segments and called the
mesothoracic folds the stenothorax and the metathoracic ones the
cryptothorax. Enderlein (1907) holds that they represent only a
semidetached part of the true meso-, and metathoracic segments and
calls them the “ mesothoracical-apotom”’ and “ metathoracical-apo-
tom” respectively. Crampton (1926) refers to them as “ interster-
nites,’ and Snodgrass (1927) states that they belong to the sternum
following as “is shown by the fact that the anterior margin of the
first one of each thoracic set, as seen in side view, coincides with the
line of antecostal suture of the tergum of the same segment.”
The thoracic stigmata are situated ventrally in Japyx, although
this point appears to have been overlooked by most workers. Borner
(1903) represents the anterior pair as being situated in the membrane
near the posterior corners of the prothoracic sternite, while the
second pair is represented as being in the membrane, laterally be-
tween the “intersegmental folds ” behind the mesosternite. In Japyx
isabellae (pl. 12, fig. 38) the anterior thoracic stigmata are situated
in the chitinous shoulderlike areas in front of the mesosternum, while
the second pair of thoracic stigmata are situated in a pair of diamond-
shaped platelets at the corners between the meso-, and metasterna.
The trochantin (subcoxa) appears to be wanting in Japy., but con-
stitutes a condyle-bearing plate in Machilis (pl. 5, fig. 13) and an un-
articulated crescentic plate in Campodea (pl. 6, fig. 15). In Thermo-
bia there is a true subcoxa, a segmentlike structure (pl. 5, fig. 14),
present instead of the trochantin. It has been previously discussed
(page 19).
34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
PLEURITES IN LEG-BEARING SEGMENTS
The method of origin of the pleurites of insects has been an in-
teresting subject for speculation to students of the phylogeny of
arthropods. The theory put forth that they represent the residual
chitinous elements of a subcoxal segment of the leg present in ances-
tors of insects has been recently supported and reviewed by Snodgrass
(1927).
Although most attention has been focused in the past on the pleural
region in the study of more primitive types of crustaceans and in the
study of millipeds, it would appear that the evidence found either
for or against this theory in pauropods and symphylids would be
even of more importance since these arthropods are more nearly
related to insects.
In Pauropus (pl. 8, fig. 25) it is observed that the pleural region
is entirely membranous, there being no pleural plates of any kind.
The tergal plates in this genus are curved down laterally but a
short distance, leaving a large unchitinized area. The need of plates
in this region is met in a way by long dorsal apodemes, one of which
passes upward in the body wall from each basal leg segment.
In Symphyla similar conditions are found but in this class the
coxae are supported and hinged to a subcoxal plate. In Symphylella
(pl. 12, fig. 36) the pleural regions are bare and membranous as in
Pauropus. In Hanseniella (pl. 11, fig. 35) the subcoxal plate is not
differentiated laterally, so that the pleural region becomes well chiti-
nized ventrally and anteriorly but passes gradually to a membranous
state at the posterior margin of the body segment. In Scutigerella
(pl. 11, fig. 34) a definite pleural plate is developed. Dorsal to this
plate the body wall is membranous, ventrally it is chitinized. There
is little evidence to show how this plate originated or what it
represents.
The pleural region of proturans has been investigated by a number
of entomologists. The so-called subcoxal plates have already been
discussed (page 34). In addition to these plates others have been
described (Prell, 1913; Crampton, 1926). The writer must confess
that he has never found such additional plates. Slides cleared in
potassium hydroxide and mounted either in balsam or glycerine show
only the two crescentic sclerites represented in plate 12, figures 37
and 39. The same is true of specimens mounted in glycerine jelly,
of specimens mounted in the glycerine + chloral hydrate + gum
arabic + water mixture. This latter mixture is one of the very best
of media for observing such structures. It has been extensively used
NO. II LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—-EWING 35
by Berlese for various minute arthropods, and by Walch for mite
larvae to excellent advantage, also by several other workers. Speci-
mens stained with acid fuchsin after proper caustic and other treat-
ment show the same conditions.
The pleural regions of the thorax in Protura are not bare and
membranous as in Pauropus and certain symphylids, but are almost
completely covered by the downward continuation of the tergal plates
(pl. 12, fig. 37). These may actually reach to the sternites.
In the Collembola (pl. 10, fig. 31) the pleural regions of the thorax
are very similar to those of Protura. Pleural plates appear to be
absent. Crampton (1926) has figured several thoracic pleural plates
for collembolans. The writer has not verified his results, but in
Isotoma finds only the subcoxal plates. The pleural region of the
prothorax in Jsotoma is membranous, but that of the mesothorax
and metathorax is covered by the downward continuations of the
large tergal plates, which actually reach to the subcoxae of the legs.
THE ORIGIN OF INSECT PLEURITES
Snodgrass (1927) has presented an excellent exposition of the
possible method of the origin of the thoracic pleurites from the sub-
coxae of the legs. Those desiring a summary of this theory are re-
ferred to his paper. The evidence presented in the writer’s investi-
gations in general strongly supports the theory of subcoxal origin.
However, the writer is inclined to hold the view that the first process
toward the production of the eupleural sclerite and the trochantin—
fundamental elements found in many generalized insects—was the
formation of a pseudojoint in the primitive subcoxa. A divided,
functional and almost complete subcoxal segment is found today in
certain collembolans (pl. Io, fig. 31) and in certain thysanurans
(pl. 5, fig. 14). As such subcoxal segments became reduced, they
probably lost their cylindrical shape by their inner parts being ob-
literated, which would leave them crescentic; and at the same time
the chitinous part of their outer walls became reduced forming
crescentic plates. Such plates exist today in Japyx and certain other
thysanurans; are found fused in certain springtails (pl. 10, fig. 31)
and are particularly characteristic of the Protura (pl. 12, fig. 39).
Some would evolve the trochantin from a primitive sclerite which
had both a dorsal and a ventral condylic articulation with the coxa.
In fact Prell (1913) holds that the Protura have such a primitive
trochantin. In this contention, however, there may be an error. Ac-
cording to the writer’s observations the ventral articulation of the
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 8o
coxa in the Protura is entirely with the sternum. It is probable that
the ventral trochantinal articulation found in many insects is a sec-
ondary development.
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
Some of the more important conclusions resulting from this in-
vestigation may be enumerated as follows:
1. The generalized type of an arachnid leg appears to possess one
more segment than the maximum number of eight allowed by Hansen
for the Crustacea, but this point needs further investigation. An
arachnid leg so constituted should have the following segments,
named from the base to tip: Subcoxa, coxa, coxal trochanter, femoral
trochanter, femur, patella, tibia, tarsus, and pretarsus.
2. The generalized pauropod leg is composed of eight rings, which
represent, however, only six or possibly seven true segments, the first
three of which probably represent the coxa, first trochanter, and
second trochanter. The last four true segments of the pauropod leg
are the femur, tibia, tarsus, and pretarsus.
3. The generalized symphylid leg is composed of seven true seg-
ments, the first being represented by a condyle-bearing plate. They
are: Subcoxa, coxa, a greatly enlarged trochanter, a much reduced
femur, a tibia, tarsus, and pretarsus.
4. The generalized thysanuran leg is completely homologous with
the pauropod type, with the exception that it possesses a subcoxa,
usually in the form of a platelike structure.
5. The typical collembolan leg possesses ‘a subcoxal segment and
either lacks the tarsus entirely or has it represented by a short rudi-
ment at the base of the claws.
6. The so-called coxal appendages in the Pauropoda, Symphyla,
and the Thysanura are not true appendages and have no muscle fibers
attaching to them. They are probably not homologous among them-
selves. Some may represent structures analogous, or possibly even
homologous, with either the epipods or the exopods of Crustacea.
7. The primitive insectan type of tarsus was three-clawed. Two-
clawed or one-clawed types found in the Thysanura or the Collem-
bola are clearly not primitive but evidently were derived from the
three-clawed type as found today in the Pauropoda, Symphyla, and
certain Thysanura.
8. Much evidence exists indicating the presence of an additional
segment to the insect thorax, which should probably be called the
cervical. It should be considered as being homologous with the legless
postcephalic segment of pauropods and certain symphylids.
NOW LL LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—EWING 37.
g. The so-called intersegmental region of certain thysanurans
should not be regarded either as a distinct segment or as an interseg-
mental structure but each region as an integral part of the segment
bearing the adjoining posterior sternite.
10. The primitive thoracic tergal plates are simple structures with-
out condyles or apodemes and did not completely cover the dorsal
surface of the segments on which they were situated.
11. The primitive thoracic sterna of an insect were probably trans-
versely divided into two sternal plates, the posterior of which articu-
lated laterally with the inner condyles of the coxae.
12. In general, all vestiges of pleural plates are wanting in those
arthropods which have a cylindrical and functional subcoxa. As the
subcoxa becomes reduced and its inner (ventral) walls obliterated,
two outer crescentic plates persist as body sclerites. They appear to
have resulted from the development of a pseudosegmentation of the
subcoxa. The distal one of these two sclerites becomes the trochantin
of generalized insects and the proximal one the eupleuron, or
“mother ” pleural plate from which certain others were later derived
by “ fragmentation.”
13. The subcoxal theory of the origin of the pleural plates of in-
sects 1s sound, and receives further support because of this investi-
gation.
REFERENCES TO LITERATURE
Barrows, W. M.
1925. Modification and Development of the Arachnid Palpal Claw, with
Especial Reference to Spiders. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. xviii,
pp. 483-516, pls. xxxv-xliii.
BErLESE, A.
1910. Monografia d. Myrientomata. Redia, Vol. vi, Fasc. 1, pp. 1-182,
pls. i-xvii. j
BERNARD, H. M.
1896. The Comparative Morphology of the Galeodidae. Trans. Linn. Soc.
Lond., 2d Ser., Vol. vi, Pt. 4, pp. 305-417, pls. xxvii-xxxiv.
Borner, C.
1903. Kritische Bemerkungen iiber einige vergleichend-morphologische
Untersuchungen K. W. Verhoeff’s. Zool. Anz., Bd. xxvi, pp. 290-
315, figs. I-11.
1921. Die Gliedmassen der Arthropoden. Lang’s Handb. Morph. d. wir-
bellosen Tiere, Bd. 4, Arthropoda, pp. 649-604, figs. 1-57.
BorrRaADAILE, L. A.
1926. Notes upon Crustacean Limbs. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 9,
Vol. xvii, pp. 193-213, pls. vii-x.
CARPENTER, G. H.
1916. The Apterygota of the Seychelles. Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., Vol.
xxxiii, Sect. B, No. 1, pp. 1-70, pls. i-xviii.
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
Comstock, J. H.
1912. The Spider Book, 707 pp., 770 figs. Doubleday, Page & Co.
Crampton, G. C.
1926. A Comparison of the Neck and Prothoracic Sclerites through the
Orders of Insects from the Standpoint of Phylogeny. Trans.
Amer. Ent. Soc., Vol. lii, pp. 199-248, pls. x-xvii.
DEMETJERE, J. C. H.
1901. Ueber das letzte Glied der Beine bei den Arthropoden. Zool. Jahrb.,
Bd. xiv, pp. 417-476, taf. xxx-xxxXvii.
ENDERLEIN, G.
1907. Uber die Segmental-Apotome der Insekten und zur Kenntnis der
Morphologie der Japygiden. Zool. Anz., Bd. xxxi, pp. 629-635,
figs. 1-8.
EscHErIcH, K.
1905. Das System der Lepismatiden. Zoologica, Bd. xviii, Heft 43, 164
pp., 66 figs., 4 taf.
ENWaNGe le:
1921. New Genera and Species of Protura. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol.
XXIil, Pp. 193-202, pl. xvi.
1923. Holosiro acaroides, New Genus and Species—the only New World
Representative of the Mite-like Phalangids of the Suborder
Cyphophthalmi. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. xvi, pp. 387-390,
ME Re Sopie
Fotsom, J. W.
1916. North American Collembolous Insects of the Subfamilies Acho-
rutinae, Neanurinae, and Podurinae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol.
1, pp. 477-525, pls. vii-xxv.
1924. New Species of Collembola from New York State. Amer. Mus.
Noy., No. 108, 12 pp., 33 figs.
GuTHRIE, J. E.
1903. The Collembola of Minnesota. Geol. & Nat. Hist. Sur. Minn., 110
pp., 16 pls.
HANSEN, H. J.
1893. A Contribution to the Morphology of the Limbs and Mouth-parts
of Crustaceans and Insects. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 6, Vol.
12, Pp. 417-434.
1925. Studies on Arthropoda. II, 176 pp., 8 pls. Gyldendalske Boghandel,
Copenhagen.
HANSEN, H. J., AND SGRENSEN, W.
1904. On two Orders of Arachnida, 182 pp., 9 pls.
‘Kenyon, F. C.
1895. The Morphology and Classification of the Pauropoda, with Notes
on the Morphology of the Diplopoda. Tufts Col. Stud., No. 4,
146 pp., 2 figs., 4 pls.
MicwHaet, A. D.
1901. British Tyroglyphidae, Ray Soc., 291 pp., 22 pls.
Mur, F., anp KErsHAw, J. C.
1909. On the Eggs and Instars of Scutigerella sp. Quart. Jour. Mic. Sci.,
N. S., Vol. liti, pp. 741-745, 5 figs.
NOw iL LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—EWING 39
PrReELL, H.
1912. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Proturen. III. Gliederung und eigne
Muskulatur der Beine von Acerentomon und Eosentomon. Zool.
Anz., Bd. xl, pp. 33-50, figs. I-11.
1913. Das Chitinskelett von Eosentomon, ein Beitrag zur Morphologie des
Insektenkorpers. Zoologica, Bd. xxv, Heft 64, pp. 1-56, taf. i-vi.
SitvEsTrI, F.
1907. Descrizione di un novo genere d’insetti apterigoti rappresentante di
un novo ordine. Bol. Lab. Zool. Gen. e. Agr., Vol. i, pp. 296-311,
figs. 1-18.
Snoperass, R. E.
1925. Anatomy and Physiology of the Honeybee,
McGraw-Hill Book Co.
1927. Morphology and Mechanism of the Insect Thorax.
Misc. Coll., Vol. 80, No. 1, 108 pp., 44 figs.
S@RENSEN, W.
1914. Recherches sur l’anatomie, exterieure et interieure, des Solifuges.
Oversigt K. Danske Videnskab. Selsk., 1914, No. 3, pp. 131-215,
pls. 1-ii.
VERHOEFF, K. W.
1903. Zur vergleichenden Morphologie der Coxalorgane und Genitalan-
hange der Tracheaten. Zool. Anz., Bd. xxvi, pp. 60-77, figs. I-15.
ABBREVIATIONS USED ON PLATES
ac, anterior tarsal claw
ant, antenna
ap, coxal, or trochantal appendage
bs, basisternum
cl, claw
cx, coxa
dc, depressor of coxa
dt, depressor of trochanter
evs, eversible sac
extc, extensor of claws
extf, extensor of femur
extt, extensor of tibia
extp, extensor of patella
fe, femur
fic, flexor of claw
fif, flexor of femur
fip, flexor of patella
fit, flexor of tarsus
fitb, flexor of tibia
h, head
intl, intersegmental lobe of neck
l, leg
U, leg I
lap, lateral apodeme
Ic, levator of coxa
ls, laterosternum
It, levator of trochanter
map, median apodeme
pat, patella
pc, posterior tarsal claw
plp, pleural plate
prec, precosta
pt, pretarsus
rc, rotator of coxa
rt, rotator of trochanter
s, sternum
sI, first body segment
scx, subcoxa
sl, sternellum
sp, spiracle
Sps, specialized seta
stn, sternite
ta, tarsus
terg, tergite
thI, prothorax
ti, tibia
tr, trochanter
trl, first trochanter
trII, second trochanter
un, unguiculus
utr, unguitractor plate
x, Y-shaped sternal ridge
y, sternal rod
327 pp., 108 figs.
Smithsonian
40
Fic.
Fic.
Fic.
Bic
Fic.
Ere:
Fic.
Fic.
Fic.
Fic.
Fic.
Fic.
Fic.
FIG.
Fic.
Fic.
Fic.
Fic.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
EXPLANATION OF PLATES
(All drawings are by the writer )
PLATE I
The third left leg of a solpugid, showing muscle attachments.
Leg I of the primitive phalangid, Holosiro acaroides, with segments
labeled.
PEATE 2
Front leg of Labidostomma sp. showing muscle attachments.
Third leg of the gamasid mite, Macrocheles tridentifer, showing
muscle attachments.
PLATE 3
Front leg of tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus, showing muscle attach-
ments.
A, hind leg of pseudoscorpion, Chelifer cancroides, showing muscle
attachments; B, end of hind leg of pseudoscorpion, Obisium mari-
timum, showing same. .
PLATE 4
The second leg of Acerentulus barberi showing segmentation and
musculature.
Leg IV of Pauropus sp. showing segmentation and musculature.
Coxal appendage of last pair of legs of Pauropus sp.
Antepenultimate leg of symphylid, Scutigerella immaculata, showing
segmentation and muscles.
PLATE 5
Front leg of a symphylid of the genus Hanseniella showing segmen-
tation and musculature.
The region about the coxa in a symphylid of the genus Hanseniella,
showing muscle attachments.
Third leg of Machilis sp. showing segmentation and muscles.
Middle leg of lepismid, Thermobia sp., showing segmentation.
PLATE 6
Second leg of Campodea sp., showing segmentation and muscles.
Third leg of the collembolan, Tomocerus arcticus, showing muscula-
ture.
The musculature of third leg of the collembolan, Aphorura ambulans
(Linn.).
Prothorax, with attached leg, and neck region of collembolan (Jso-
toma sp.). Specimen cleared with KOH and stained with acid
fuchsin.
NO.
Fic.
Fic.
Fic.
Fre.
Fic.
Fic.
Fic.
II
10.
. 20.
220)
LEGS OF PRIMITIVE ARTHROPODS—EWING 4I
JeAe Nap. 77
The two types of tarsi found in the generalized Collembola of the
family Poduridae: A, Achorutes; B, Podura.
The evolution of the two-clawed tarsus in Pauropus and its com-
parison with the two-clawed tarsus in Symphylella. A, B & C;
tarsi I, III and last tarsus of Pauropus; D, tarsus of Symphylella.
(All views from above.)
Vertical “optical section” of tip of tarsus I of proturan, Acerentu-
lus barbert.
The evolution of the two-clawed type of tarsus in Thysanura and
the one-clawed type in Protura.
Dorsal view of feet of collembolan, Tomocerus arcticus, showing
variation in claws; I, IJ, IJ] =tarsi I, II and III respectively.
Two-clawed tarsus of isopod crustacean of family Oniscidae.
Pate 8
Lateral view of Pauropus huxleyi showing body segmentation, chiti-
nized parts and specialized setae.
PLATE 9
Prothorax and neck region of Japyx bidentatus,
Dorsal view of first six segments of body of Pauropus sp. showing
chitinous plates.
Dorsal view of first five segments of body of Symphylella sp., show-
ing chitinous parts.
PLATE I0
Dorsal view of thorax of Acerentulus barberi showing chitinous
parts.
Dorsal view of thorax of Japyx isabellae showing sclerites.
Lateral view of thorax of a springtail, /sotoma sp., together with
proximal parts of legs.
PLATE II
Ventral view of cephalothorax of Holosiro acaroides.
Ventral view of last leg of left side of Pawropus sp. and the sclerites
of body segment it is attached to.
Ventral view of left half of body segment of Scutigerella sp. show-
ing chitinizations.
Ventral view of left half of body segment of Hanseniella sp. show-
ing chitinizations.
PLATE 12
Ventral view of left half of body segments of Symphylella sp. show-
ing chitinizations.
Ventral view of thorax of proturan, Acerentulus barberi.
Ventral view of thorax of Japyx tsabellae, showing sclerites.
Lateral view of left side of mesothorax of Acerentulus barberi.
On tA
Re atts
tril
\
K
|
|
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 11, PL. 4
Nk
dc
(For explanation, see page 40.)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 80, NO. 11, PL. 5
SS
—Ss
2
Ss,
~<Z
———
———F
——
EBB
Za
J
=
ae
Lee
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 80, NUMBER 12
(End of Volume)
Sea Nees OOOLT TLE WALCOTT
SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
1907-1927
(WITH ONE PLATE)
MEMORIAL MEETING
JANUARY 24, 1928
(PUBLICATION 2964)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
MAY 12, 1928
The Lord Waftimore (Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
In Wemorp
OF
CHAREES DOOEITTLE.WALCOTTL
Born In New York Mitts, N. Y., MARCH 31, 1850
Diep In WaAsHINGTON, D. C., FEBRUARY 9, 1927
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
CITY OF WASHINGTON
THE REGENTS AND ACTING SECRETARY OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
INVITE YOU TO ATTEND A MEETING
TO COMMEMORATE THE LIFE AND SERVICES OF
CHARLES DOOLITTEE WALCOTT
SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FROM 1907 TO 1927
TO BE HELD IN THE AUDITORIUM OF THE
NATURAL HISTORY BUILDING
TENTH AND B STREETS NORTHWEST
TUESDAY MORNING, JANUARY TWENTY-FOURTH
NINETEEN HUNDRED AND TWENTY-EIGHT, AT I1I.00 0’CLOCK
THE CHANCELLOR OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
THE HONORABLE WILLIAM H. TAFT
CHIEF JUSTICE OF THE UNITED STATES
WILL PRESIDE
ADDRESSES WILL BE DELIVERED BY
THE FOLLOWING REPRESENTATIVES OF ORGANIZATIONS
WITH WHICH SECRETARY WALCOTT
WAS ACTIVELY AFFILIATED:
DOCTOR JOHN C. MERRIAM
THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
DOCTOR JOSEPH S. AMES
THE NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS
DOCTOR GEORGE OTIS SMITH
THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
DOCTOR CHARLES G. ABBOT
THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
AND
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
g TOE 8
Pa
Al
» i ’ del ¥
. aa
CONTENTS
PAGE
Introductonysremarks, byathe Elon Wink Elsdiatt.. 2. ..+ sca .c cee oosee + cee 3
Doctor Walcott as a paleontologist, and his relations with the Carnegie
Institution’ of Washineton by john ©. Merriam.)...............+...<- 5
Doctor Walcott and the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, by
WESE gh ASS FAY TOES tee tcherony.c Ricicvoyeid old SRR gene ee ee eae pO II
Charles D. Walcott and the United States Geological Survey, by George
O tise Smiithiorse Saree CrP eRe cn eae IT ON tle aon Lae 17
Doctor Walcott, the Smithsonian Secretary and National Academy Presi-
dent bya CoG ADbOtse retin reer sice a oe Se anites vais, senor enh oo meaty cies 19
Conimuunications sromrscientiiensocleties/a. sae = ac es seis iene sees nestle 21
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE. 80), NO: 12) PEs a
CHARLES DOOLITTLE WALCOTT
Fourth Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1907-1927
CHARLES. DOOLITTLE..WALCOTT
MemoriAL MEETING, JANUARY 24, 1928
(With ONE PLATE)
At the meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution on February 10, 1927, the Chancellor announced the death, on
February 9, 1927, of Charles Doolittle Walcott, Secretary of the
Institution from 1907 to 1927. The following resolutions were
adopted by the board: 3
The Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution have received the
intelligence of the death, on February 9, 1927, of Charles Doolittle Walcott,
Secretary of the Institution since 1907. It is thereupon
Resolved. That the board record both their sense of personal bereavement
and their keen realization of the loss sustained in the death of their distin-
guished secretary, whose geological researches and varied scientific attainments
have brought him eminence in the world of scholarship, and whose administra-
tion as the executive officer of the Institution has made it more than ever a
predominant force in scientific thought and achievement, and enlarged its in-
fluence for the attainment of the founder’s purpose—“ the increase and diffusion
of knowledge among men.”
Resolved, That the executive committee be requested to arrange for a
memorial meeting to be held in Washington and for the submission at such
meeting of a suitable record of the life and work of Doctor Walcott.
Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be transmitted by the chancellor
to Doctor Walcott’s family, with an expression of the sense of the heavy loss
sustained by the Institution, and of the sympathy of the Regents with the
family in this the hour of their bereavement.
In accordance with these resolutions, a memorial meeting was held
in the auditorium of the U. S. National Museum on January 24, 1928,
which was attended by a large number of Dr. Walcott’s friends and
official associates. The Chancellor of the Institution, the Honorable
William H. Taft, Chief Justice of the United States, presided.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 80, NO. 12 (END OF VOLUME)
I
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
BY THE HON. WM. H. TAFT
Charles Doolittle Walcott was Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, and served for twenty years. Like his predecessors, Henry,
Baird, and Langley, his activities in behalf of the Institution were
so comprehensive and constant that he typified, and with many,
he was, the Institution itself. Doctor Walcott was one of the few
leaders in the field of science who had no collegiate or scientific
education. As early as his thirteenth year he had manifested his
interest in fossil collecting and local geology. His circumstances
required him to act as a clerk in a hardware store in early life, but
at twenty-three he sought to study at Harvard under Louis Agassiz,
whose death defeated his purpose. His interest in geology led him
to become an assistant to the New York State Geologist, James Hall,
at twenty-six years of age, and three years thereafter he joined the
staff of the United States Geological Survey.
His original researches in paleontology in Eastern and Western
United States and in Wales gave him a reputation, and thereafter he
pursued his investigation into the fossil life of the earliest geological
eras, and led in that field, so that much of the general knowledge in
that field came from him. To win such a position in science without
preparation in a scientific institution was remarkable, and the branch
of science that he embraced he carried on to the end of his life, in
spite of the heavy duties he discharged not only in the Smithsonian
but in the government and in the care of the National Museum. He
was a marked administrator.
In 1894, at its head, he reorganized the United States Geological
Survey, and greatly expanded its usefulness in the thirteen years of
his control, during which the Reclamation Service, the Forestry
Service and the Bureau of Mines were all founded and bore the
effect of his shaping hand.
During his administration of the Smithsonian, the Freer Gallery
and the National Gallery of Art became part of the greater Institution.
He was a leader, full of suggestion. He was sought for by scientific
institutions as trustee or director. He was a leading spirit among
the trustees of the Carnegie Institution, and he established the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, and was its leader
3
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
until his death. He became first a member, then a Vice-President,
and then President for five years of the National Academy of Sciences.
Doctor Walcott was of substantial assistance in promoting coopera-
tion among the many agencies which were called upon to prepare the
enormous material which the country produced and the War de-
manded. He made the supreme sacrifice of a son in that great conflict.
Toward the close of his association with the Smithsonian, he saw
the necessity for increasing its usefulness by a large private endow-
ment, and he himself contributed substantially, both in life and by
will, to that endowment.
Doctor Walcott made himself. His career is a long list of arduous
deeds done in helping the cause of geological science and in helping
the government by a disinterested devotion to its usefulness in many
scientific avenues. He was a civil servant of the highest value.
Our government of course is made up of a great many different
personal factors. We cannot escape in our minds giving to it a quasi
personal character which it derives mainly from those whose relation
to it in its administration is non-political but constant in carrying on
its activities, with no ambition moving them except the country’s
progress toward better things. Through all the departments of the
government will be found men who have given their lives to the
cause, without publicity, without advertisement, without profit. Their
happiness and their reward are in the achievements of the govern-
ment itself and its departments in which they play a part. Walcott
was a leader of this kind among such men.
The authorities of the Smithsonian have felt that this meeting
should be held in memory of a man whose work promoted real
scientific investigation and discovery in his particular field, who was
a shining example of a government civil servant of the highest ideals
and success, and who for twenty years gave greatly of his energies
and the hardest kind of labor to expanding the usefulness of the
Smithsonian Institution.
DOCTOR WALCOTT AS A PALEONTOLOGIST, AND
HIS RELATIONS WITH THE CARNEGIE
INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON
BY JOHN C. MERRIAM
Of many relationships to Doctor Walcott those which I shall cherish
most in memory are the two concerning which I am privileged to
speak on this occasion. One relates to the closely binding tie of
common interest in a fundamental subject of research to which his life
and mine have been in part devoted, namely, the real significance of
the paleontological or life story. The other concerns one expression
of Doctor Walcott’s interest in creative work, as illustrated in his
twenty-five years of service as an organizer and leader in the program
of a research agency with which I am connected, that is, the Carnegie
Institution of Washington.
It was a mutual interest in the importance of paleontological prob-
lems that brought about my first conference with Doctor Walcott.
The discussion related to the future of research on the history of life
in America. It was by reason of our common interest in application
of research results for the benefit of the people that I worked with
Doctor Walcott on many enterprises of national scope. It was
through a realization in my mind, as in Doctor Walcott’s, that the
lesson of evolution of the living world suggests the importance of
continuing investigational or creative effort, that I came into continu-
ing touch with administration of research problems.
Doctor Walcott’s personal contact with research questions, his
effective practical grasp of methods of investigation, and his recogni-
tion of the meaning of creative effort in terms of human service,
made him a critical figure in the initial planning, as through all stages
of organization and development, of the Carnegie Institution. The
statement in the charter of the Institution defining its purposes, which
reads— to encourage in the broadest and most liberal manner in-
vestigation, research, and discovery, and the application of knowledge
to the improvement of mankind ”—expressed the specific interest of
Doctor Walcott in this agency.
As one of the original incorporators and a member of the first
Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Institution, Doctor Walcott served
continuously from the time of organization until his death. He was
its first Secretary, was a member and Chairman of the Executive
5
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
Committee, and Vice-Chairman of the Board. As a member resident
in Washington his advice and counsel played a large part throughout
the twenty-five years of his membership. His wide contacts with
government departments, universities, and research agencies of all
types, his exceptional range of interest in the various fields of science
gave him a point of view and a quality of judgment of inestimable
value. The Institution owes much of' its accomplishment to his
conscientious adherence to a program of high ideals based upon
practical, intensive study of facts.
I know that I express the wish of the trustees, directors, and
members of the staff of the Carnegie Institution in voicing on this
occasion our heartfelt gratitude for Doctor Walcott’s contribution in
the building of many departments, as Mount Wilson Observatory,
Geophysical Laboratory, and others, and his assistance and advice
on nearly all of our greater projects.
The major research efforts of Doctor Walcott’s life were directed
toward the earlier portion of the historical record of the earth.
Though he contributed much toward our understanding of general
geological phenomena, his interest centered upon the earlier chapters
of the history of life.
One source of Doctor Walcott’s power in research lay in his never
losing sight of the fact that there is really only one history, which
includes the record of physical phenomena and the relation of the
story of life to the sequence of events in their environment. Whether
he happened to be concerned with determining the sequence of strata
necessary as the guide to succession of events in time, or with inter-
pretation of great gaps or erosional intervals between such series,
or with details of structure in any of the many groups of trilobites
or other invertebrate animals which he loved to study, there was
always before him the idea that the facts fitted into one scheme of
interlocking events in earth history.
As another aspect of the attitude toward his subject which gave
Doctor Walcott exceptional power in furtherance of the study of his
subject, one may note that he had at the same time a reputation as
a collector with rare penetration of vision, and as a generalizer with
almost superhuman judgment as to where in the geological or geo-
graphical scheme of things new data would have .exceptional inter-
pretive value. The relation between these two characteristics ex-
presses in a manner the breadth of his view and the keenness of his
perception. He found types of life new to science in unexpected
places, not because of luck or mere persistence. His success was
partly due to exceptional keenness and alertness, but largely to his
NO. - 12 CHARLES DOOLITTLE WALCOTT 0,
having a picture of the kind of thing that it would be important to
find and of the place where if found, it would be especially significant.
This is not the time or place to discuss in detail the contributions
Doctor Walcott made to the study of the early life of the earth, as to
the structure of ancient animals, their biological classification, their
faunal grouping, or their succession in time. It is, however, important
to note that in all of these aspects of the problem his accomplishments
belong in the first rank of the world’s researches. In studies ranging
from a fundamental investigation of structure and habits of many
groups of trilobites and other crustaceans, of the mollusca and the
mollusk-like brachiopods, the early coral-like forms, the simple pro-
tozoa, and the bacteria, his work was of the pathfinding type.
In the whole range of researches of the world Doctor Walcott’s
studies of the earliest known assemblages of life, and his working
out of the facts relating to the earliest traces of life upon the earth,
constitutes the most important single contribution. It marks his
greatest achievement in contribution to knowledge and to constructive
or interpretative thought.
In his work on the “ Origin of Species,” Charles Darwin gave large
value to certain evidence against his theory of evolution which is
presented by the earlier part of the geological record of life. With
that perfectly balanced judgment which characterized his work, Dar-
win discussed the fact that a full representation of highly developed
and widely differentiated life beginning in the formations known as
the Cambrian at the bottom of the geological column, did not give
the picture of beginnings of life that his theory of evolution seemed
to require. Darwin considered (to quote his words) that ‘‘ The diff-
culty of assigning any good reason for the absence of vast piles of
strata rich in fossils beneath the Cambrian is very great.....
The case at present must remain inexplicable, and may be truly urged
as a valid argument against the views here entertained.” He believed,
however, that many existing factors opened the way for satisfactory
interpretation of the situation and that it would (to quote him) “be
about as rash to dogmatize on the succession of organic forms as it
would be for a naturalist to land for five minutes on a barren point
in Australia, and then to discuss the number and range of its
productions.”
It was this field which Darwin considered so difficult and so
important, extending from the better understood ancient or “ Pale-
ozoic’”’ rocks through to the lowest known strata, in which Doctor
Walcott planned his attack and made his outstanding contribution.
His full description and interpretation of the earliest faunas, and his
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
suggestions as to the significance of the preceding record, or absence
of record, have not only given a clear understanding of what we see,
but have led us to appreciate as well the true significance of those
portions of the record for which we have as yet no complete
interpretation.
Doctor Walcott recognized that, of all the ideas in the field of
knowledge, there is none more important than the suggestion that
the life world as we know it in paleontological history has tended
definitely to build itself forward from age to age. He realized that
this principle furnishes one of the essential elements for belief in
the possibility of continuing progress in the living world as a whole
including man—a belief or faith which is clearly an indispensable
ingredient of human happiness whether it be expressed in our
philosophy, in our religion, or in the affairs of everyday life.
But Doctor Walcott did not assume that science can present a
complete explanation of everything that is, or was, or that will be.
He saw the long story spread before us, as we trace the intricate and
fragmentary records through the rocks. He understood its meaning
to us, as have few students whose privilege it has been to walk back
along the path of history. On the basis of his experience he visualized
more clearly than Darwin the two terminal fields of our historical
series—the future, of which we can judge mainly by the past, and
at the other end the seemingly abrupt initiation of the living world.
His effort was consciously directed toward attainment of an inter-
pretation of the beginning of our record as we find it, and on the
basis of facts and reason, rather than upon purely mystical construc-
tion of a sequence without data.
His work, together with that of the many others who have helped
in the initial unravelling of the tangled threads, has shown in large
measure the correctness of Darwin’s assumption that while the long
record from present back to Cambrian and earlier time serves to
define certain general principles of primary importance, we are not
yet permitted to see the whole of the panorama. But this situation
need not today serve as an argument against the idea of organic
development which Darwin discussed with such marvelous honesty.
in presentation of argument. It means only that time is vastly longer
than Darwin saw it, and from the wreckage of the most ancient stages
of the world, the changing story may be hard to read or may perhaps
have been erased completely from the book.
It is not an uncommon belief that the fortunes and achievement of
outstanding characters in history depend in large measure upon
chance. The incident which seems to turn the trend of life, as we
NO. 12 CHARLES DOOLITTLE WALCOTT 9
see it in the history of a great character, seems to the purposeless
individual an accident which provides a way not possible to others.
But frequently the thing which seems so easily, and yet so oddly to
open the door, merely represents one of many avenues which might
have led to the same goal. The fact that a particular individual has
used it to advantage is likely to be dependent in larger measure upon
interests or attitude of mind, than it is upon the particular oppor-
tunity. Had he perhaps waited, with the stimulus of his pressing
interest he might have found another way much easier.
Perhaps it is merely in support of a desire to feel that the universe
is dependable, and that directed human effort may be fruitful, that
we take the view that life can be guided and determined, rather than
be the result of fortuitous influences.
The achievement of Doctor Walcott’s researches in the unbelievably
difficult field which he chose indicates that luck comes to the man with
penetrating vision and unceasing industry. The major contributions
which Doctor Walcott made to the story of earth history, bring a
deepening of our faith that in the sea of time, behind the froth and
broken waves that may deceive us, there is a moving tide—controlled
by law—that we begin to understand.
DOCTOR WALCOTT AND THE NATIONAL ADVISORY
COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS
BY JOSEPH S. AMES
The relations of Doctor Walcott with the National Advisory Com-
mittee for Aeronautics differed in several important respects from
those which he had with the other institutions referred to today. The
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics owes its origin to
Doctor Walcott, and whatever success it has achieved is due in a large
degree to his personality and influence. When one speaks of the
Committee or its work, one thinks instantly of Doctor Walcott.
In tracing the origin of the Committee one is struck with the fact
that a man of vision, of judgment and of scientific talent may plan
with success an organization to consider problems in a field quite
remote from his own. Few branches of science are as far apart as
geology and aeronautics. I doubt if Doctor Walcott knew the meaning
of such words as lift and drag, thrust and torque, pressure distribu-
tion, scale-effect, etc., words occurring in the every day language of
those engaged in aeronautic research. Yet Doctor Walcott organized
successfully a committee whose fundamental purpose is the study of
aeronautic problems. By his vision he saw the need of systematic
investigation of these, by his judgment he was able to draft a measure
to establish the Committee which met the approval and support of the
Congress and the President; his own standards of scientific work
were so high that all those working for the Committee were impressed
from the beginning with the need of making their researches reach
the same standards. :
But Doctor Walcott’s wisdom extended much further. While he
recognized the importance of the scientific investigations to be under-
taken by the Committee, he knew that it would be at least two years
after it was organized before a staff of workers could be collected
and even simple laboratories equipped. He felt the need of having
at once an organization under the President, and reporting to him
directly, made up of men high in the service of the government and
of others drawn from civil life, who commanded the respect of the
country, an organization able and willing to give advice on aeronautic
matters to all branches of the government, one which even on its face
had such a standing that it could invite to conference any group in
the United States and be sure that the invitations would be accepted.
II
12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
These matters may be made clearer and Doctor Walcott’s farsighted
wisdom may be better understood if a chronology is introduced, for
times and seasons have an important part in the history of any idea.
From the time when Doctor Walcott became Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution in succession to Samuel P. Langley, he was in-
terested in aeronautics, desiring specially to reopen the aeronautic
laboratory of the Institution. He realized the need, however, of
obtaining government grants for its support and did not see his way
to securing them. He had formed a committee to advise him, but
soon disbanded it. Then the Great War came, and with it the realiza-
tion of the existence of a new weapon, and, in fact, a new military
arm. It was also realized by a few that those countries which had
studied aeronautics scientifically were at a great advantage with
reference to those countries which had not. Doctor Walcott was one
of these few; and so strongly did he feel the need of this country
beginning such work that he secured the passage in 1915 of an enabling
act establishing the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,
the bill being immediately signed by the President. The essential
features of this legislation were the constitution of the Committee,
its members serving without compensation ; the statement of its duties
as an advisory body; and its freedom of action, subject only to the
President.
At the organization meeting of the Committee Doctor Walcott was
elected Chairman of the Executive Committee, a position which he
filled till 1919, when he was elected Chairman of the Main Committee.
He honored the Committee by remaining its Chairman till his death.
In 1915 the question of preparedness for war was uppermost in
the minds of everyone, specially those responsible for the state of the
army and the navy. Doctor Walcott made himself familiar, by con-
versation, by study and by correspondence, with the existing situation
so far as aircraft were concerned, and with the needs and plans of the
two military arms of the nation; and, then, as the day of our own
entry into the war was seen to be approaching rapidly, he called, in
the name of the Committee, a series of conferences with those in-
terested in the construction of airplanes, conferences which are of
historic importance, because it is as a result of them that the airplane
industry is in the condition it is today, and that the army and navy
are as well equipped as they are.
To the first of these conferences representatives of the aircraft and
aircraft engine industry were invited to meet with the Executive
Committee of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.
The needs of the army and navy were stated fully, and the repre-
NO.. I2 CHARLES DOOLITTLE WALCOTT 13
sentatives of the industry explained their difficulties. Three notable
results followed ; first, the representatives, who had seen each other
as a group for the first time, became acquainted ; second, the industry
began to work on definite problems; and last, the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics saw the need of a sub-committee on power
plants, and one was formed immediately so as to supervise systematic
investigations on the subject. When the demand arose for the Liberty
Engine, the way had been cleared.
The second conference, or rather, series of conferences, was called
to discuss the difficulties which had arisen out of the patent situation.
The army and the navy were in despair over the failure to have their
orders for airplanes filled. This was in January, 1917. The immediate
result of the conferences was the creation of a “ cross-license agree-
ment,” under which the industry began to operate and has continued
to do so.
The third conference referred to was in March, 1917, when the
days before the declaration of war could be numbered. The outstand-
ing problem then was production ; the capacity of the existing plants,
their capability to expand, the supply of raw material, etc. The
immediate result of the meeting was the formation by the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics of a sub-committee on produc-
tion, to cooperate with the industry. It soon became evident that the
task of organizing production was a gigantic one ; and, on the initiative
of Doctor Walcott, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
adopted a resolution, recommending to the Council of National
Defense that it form an Aircraft Production Board. This was done;
and later, when the magnitude of the undertaking was appreciated
more fully, this board was made an independent organization and
called the Aircraft Board.
These conferences are mentioned particularly to show Dr. Wal-
cott’s grasp of the situation, the use he made of the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics, and his power to secure results. He was
indeed a wonderful chairman of a conference. He could state a
question clearly, and could by his courtesy, fairness and eagerness to
help, secure the cooperation of all present. Discordant elements came
together under this influence ; all agreed to help. Most important of
all, results were always accomplished.
Before speaking of the scientific work of the committee, which was
in the end Doctor Walcott’s chief interest, reference should be made
to the fact that it was he who first clearly formulated a policy for the
control and encouragement of commercial aviation. This was in 1919;
and his work bore full fruit in the Air Commerce Act of 1926.
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
Since the organization of the National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics in 1915, it has published 282 Technical Reports dealing
with original investigations conducted under its direct supervision
and, for the most part, in its own laboratories at Langley Field,
Virginia. In addition, it has issued 266 Technical Notes on what may
be called matters of secondary importance. No one can estimate the
value of these scientific papers to engineers, designers and manu-
facturers. But there is a more important side to the matter. Each
of these papers was a distinct contribution to knowledge; not a few
were of fundamental importance in the theory of aeronautics. In this
side of the Committee’s work Doctor Walcott took keen interest ;
not that he ever read the papers themselves, but he was eager to
know their content and to be told how they were received by those
competent to pass judgment on them. In a very real sense, too,
he inspired the men responsible for the research work, because they
knew that not alone was their reputation at stake, but his too, because
he was the Chairman under whom the laboratories operated.
~ Not the least of Doctor Walcott’s services to Aeronautics and to
the Committee was his insistence upon the location of the laboratories
of the Committee in the closest possible proximity to a fully equipped
aviation field. He secured the agreement of the army and navy to
a plan for a joint experimental field and proving ground for aircraft
upon which would be placed the research laboratory of the Com-
mittee, and he was Chairman of the committee for the selection of
the site. This ended in the establishment of what is now known as
Langley Field, a few miles from Hampton, Virginia. As plans finally
shaped themselves, the navy did not join in the project; but the
army has developed on this site one of their largest aviation posts,
and the Committee occupies an allotment on the field. The cooperation
between the Army Air Corps and the Committee has been close and
unbroken, and the importance of this in the latter’s development cannot
be overemphasized. All this Doctor Walcott in some way foresaw.
This condition is unique in the world so far as governmental aero-
nautical research laboratories are concerned.
Doctor Walcott watched with the deepest pleasure the expansion
of the Committee’s laboratories at Langley Field; the construction
of new pieces of equipment, new wind tunnels, new testing mecha-
nisms. He was gratified at the constantly widening scope of the
research problems, and at the ever increasing interest in these taken
by the army, the navy and the industry.
The success of any institution, especially one under the government,
depends upon two factors. The more important is its personnel,
NO. 12 CHARLES DOOLITTLE WALCOTT 15
including both the board of directors and the employees. The other
is the financial support it receives. The underlying reason why the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics has continued to grow
from year to year is that Dr. Walcott has been trusted absolutely by
three Presidents, by the Congress and by the Bureau of the Budget.
When he said that the Committee needed a certain appropriation to
carry on its work, he was believed; everyone felt that he could be
trusted. He himself always presented the formal requests for grants,
each year with greater confidence and enthusiasm.
Such were Doctor Walcott’s relations with the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics. He created it; he planned its duties
wisely ; he guided and inspired it ; he secured the appropriations for its
support. Each year he took more interest and pride in its operation.
There can be no doubt but that from all this he himself received his
reward of pleasure and satisfaction.
CHARLES D. WALCOTT AND THE UNITED STATES
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
BY GEORGE OTIS SMITH
In 1879 Charles D. Walcott and the United States Geological Sur-
vey began their service to the nation together. Young Walcott had
already been an assistant to James Hall, the State Geologist of New
York. Even before that he had been an enthusiastic student and
successful collector, so that he brought to the position of assistant
geologist maturity of mind and seriousness of purpose. Unlike most
of his associates in the new Survey he had not been connected with
any one of the four pioneer organizations that for 10 years or more
.had so vigorously competed in the field of Western geologic explora-
tion. He was therefore relatively immune to the keen and at times
bitter feelings of rivalry and partisanship that persisted even after
the four illustrious leaders, Wheeler, Hayden, King, and Powell,
had passed from the stage.
During 28 years of active connection with the United States Geo-
logical Survey Doctor Walcott demonstrated his exceptional capacity
for the dual duties of research and administration. The earlier years
were crowded with field excursions and laboratory study—researches
alike extensive and intensive. He was not only the specialist among
specialists, concerned, for instance, with the concealed appendages of
the earliest crustaceans, but also the broad-minded geologist whose
vision comprehended the most ancient seas, teeming with primitive
forms of life, and the beginnings of continents being prepared for
the advent of man. It is the linking of the name of Walcott with
Cambrian stratigraphy and paleontology that gave him international
fame as a contributor to geologic and biologic science. Even after
administrative responsibilities demanded more and more of his time
the eagle-eyed collector and painstaking student continued his pro-
ductive investigations on a scale unrivaled by most other workers far
less burdened with conflicting duties. In those days the Director of
the Geological Survey might commonly be found closeted with his
beloved trilobites in the back room, though always ready to turn aside
from these messengers from the dim past and equally interested to
discuss and decide questions relating to present procedure for the
Survey or to the future coal supply for the nation. This devotion to
research while under stress of administrative duties was a source of
17
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
both inspiration and dismay to some of his associates; he did both
jobs so well.
The period of 13 years, from 1894 to 1907, in which Doctor
Walcott was Director, was the period of the Geological Survey’s
greatest growth. The large increase in Congressional support and
the continued advance in popular appreciation of its varied activities
in fact-finding together gave this scientific bureau an ever-expanding
sphere of usefulness. As defined by Director Walcott, the public to
be served included Western rancher and miner, Eastern landowner
and investor, as well as student, teacher, and research specialist. He
united the scientific and the practical, without compromise, in effective
service of a type that won acceptance and approval by the many even
if not by the few.
With his rare combination of executive ability, business sense, and
personal tact, Director Walcott let his talents contribute to larger
endeavors connected with the work of his bureau. In the fashioning
of government policy bearing on the settlement of the public domain
and the wise utilization of its great resources, he was the trusted
adviser of Presidents and Congresses—a wise counselor, for he knew
his West at first hand. Reclamation projects, national forests, national
parks, fuel-testing plants, and mine-safety stations—all these were
the visible evidence of new activities in federal engineering that
benefited by Director Walcott’s early sponsorship and became great
national undertakings as they were later expanded under four im-
portant federal bureaus—in a way, children of the Geological Survey.
It was fortunate for the nation that the obvious genius for business
early displayed by Charles Walcott had been turned into channels of
public service.
This notably successful career in which scientific endeavor and
public service were happily and fruitfully combined also had its
personal side; after all, it is the man behind the career that counts.
Charles Walcott was great as the scientist famed the world over;
he was great as the public official honored the length and breadth of
his own country ; he was also great as the man in his home, among his
friends, in this community. His record in the United States Geological
Survey as scientific worker and executive head will stand, but it is
most of all to the man his associates would pay tribute. His inspiring
fellowship and his helpful friendship have left us his debtors.
DOCTOR WALCOTT, THE SMITHSONIAN SECRETARY AND
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESIDENT
BY) €.*G. "ABBOT
In Secretary Walcott we found a chief who was cheerful, patient,
serene, unostentatious, easy in manner, yet every inch an adminis-
trator. Walcott left every responsible subordinate to carry on his
problem in his own way, watching unobtrusively till the worker
wished to report, needed help, or had gone wrong. Thus the Secre-
tary tested his men and developed their responsibility. He acted
decisively when there was occasion, praised and loyally supported all
who did well. He never wasted his own or anybody’s time with
prolonged or needless conferences, and was amenable to good sug-
gestions. In short, he was the ideal administrator from the point of
view of his subordinates.
From long and varied experience he drew wisdom for every emer-
gency, and said many words to mean little, or few words to mean
much, as the occasion demanded. He knew men and how to deal
with them. "I attended him once at a Congressional sub-committee,
when, as we were leaving, a prominent representative said to me that
he thought government should not support science except for fully
developed utility. As I was arguing the contrary, my chief casually
interrupted with what seemed a complete change of subject. The
Congressman was interested and Walcott led him on, until, in a
moment, my antagonist was facing the proposition that a research
which had been begun with no thought of utility five years before,
now saved the government millions. As we drove away, I ventured
to express my admiration of his adroitness. Doctor Walcott replied,
“These lawyers can beat you in argument, but they can’t beat
plain facts.”
He schooled us that the way to get action is fully to prepare the
case. The estimates must be complete, the reasons succinctly plain,
the authorizing letter ready for signature. Confidence that schemes
so thoroughly prepared will be strongly executed, nine times out of
ten causes your man to sign on the dotted line.
Doctor Walcott was highly influential, but not by oratory. His
way was to invite a man to dinner, and have a cozy talk before the
fire, or to look in, bright and cheery, upon some busy Senator at
19
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
breakfast, after taking a brisk walk in the park. A little word or two
in a magnetic moment was all he needed to clear the situation.
In recognition of his great attainments in the sciences of paleontol-
ogy and geology, Doctor Walcott was elected to the National Academy
of Sciences in the year 1896. He served continuously on committees
of the Academy, and much of the time in high office from 1899 to
1927. He was Treasurer 1899 to 1902, Vice-President 1907 to 1917,
and elected President in 1917, serving in that highest office until 1923.
The full list of his services with the Academy is as follows:
MSASUIT OL ices cee LHe ree eee eT apo cu terieponehe MMe coumkc yas Pas etter edanetemer obs 1899-1902
Membernzote Council ais scy. on esse isaeneat ede Cr eee ee 1902-1905
Witscal Borate snl See aA ERE ae Me istioen odenes seen Mn on caiman kode Dace 1907-1917
TOY eS Ca (Sh 11 aR a Hide Ala ee PE a ee Oe WR ROA aici 1917-1923
Comimitteecon) Publications! seen ee ase eoete heen eee Rte 1903-1913
Committee on Historical Documents (Chairman)................. IQ15-1925
Committee ons inane s tyson. acct oes rie eles cane treet ce mannrremor 1916-1925
Committee on» Daniel Giraud-Elliot, Mund): io.5<555,< aco oe. 5 oe le lernrele ve 1917-1927
Committee on Mary Clark Thompson Fund (Chairman).......... 1924-1925
Member of Building Committee and Committee on Exhibits.
Awarded the Mary Clark Thompson Medal in 1921 for distinguished
contributions to the sciences of Geology and Paleontology.
Thus, although he never received collegiate or technical scientific
education, Doctor Walcott attained through merit the highest of
scientific positions.
As Secretary of the Smithsonian, his principal monument is the
Freer Gallery, and the outstanding enterprise while he was President
of the Academy was the achievement of the palatial Academy building.
In both, his share was highly important. The good judgment of the
man, expressing itself in the control of situations in business meetings
will be long remembered by his associates on the Council of the
Academy. The shaping up with Mr. Freer and Colonel Hecker of
the conditions of the great Freer gift and bequest was a far reaching
accomplishment, of which the beneficent unfolding is only just begun.
The great War hurt him sorely, in that it took a much loved son.
Yet he did not repine, but carried on cheerfully, with the very many
and intricate enterprises which he was then engaged in for the
national safety and success. Religious faith comforted him, and
family affection supported him. He told me on two occasions that
he had no dread of death. That just as he stepped upon the train here
and soon arrived in the Canadian mountain field to take up his summer
work, just so simply he expected to pass by death to a life of new
satisfactions.
NO. 12 CHARLES DOOLITTLE WALCOTT 21
Doctor Walcott was very helpful in securing the endowment of the
National Academy and its National Research Council. He greatly
desired to obtain also a largely increased endowment for the Smith-
sonian. He sought many times to interest wealthy friends to assist
in this. Being unsuccessful, he proposed the establishment of a Society
to befriend the Institution, but this has not as yet been accomplished.
Two projects which are now in progress he actually initiated, and
himself by personal gift and bequest added all he could to the
endowment.
Honored with the presidency of several of America’s foremost
scientific societies, holding numerous honorary degrees and member-
ships in societies at home and abroad, and awarded many medals of
highest rank for his pre-eminence in paleontology and in administra-
tion, the Smithsonian Institution may well be proud of its fourth
Secretary, and the National Academy of its ninth President.
COMMUNICATIONS FROM SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES
Among many communications from scientific societies and indi-
viduals received on the occasion of the Memorial Meeting for the late
Secretary Charles Doolittle Walcott, were the following:
“Musée Royal de Histoire Naturelle de Belgique salutes the
glorious memory of Charles Doolittle Walcott.”
(Signed) VAN STRAETEN.
Director.
“Vienna Academy of Sciences joins you in honoring the memory
of the great geologist Walcott, pioneer promoter of international
scientific cooperation.”
1875.
1875.
1875.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1877.
1877.
1877.
1877.
1879.
1879.
1870.
1880.
1881.
1881.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PUBLISHED WRITINGS
OF CHARLES D. WALCOTT
Description of a new species of Trilobite. Cincinnati Quart. Journ.
Sci., Vol. 2, No. 3, July, 1875, pp. 273-274, figs. 18 a-b.
New Species of Trilobite from the Trenton limestone at Trenton Falls,
N. Y. Cincinnati Quart. Journ. Sci., Vol. 2, No. 4, Oct., 1875, pp. 347-
349, figs. 27 a-b, A.
Notes on Ceraurus pleurexanthemus, Green. Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y.,
Vol. XI, Nov., 1875, pp. 155-159.
Description of the interior surface of the dorsal shell of Ceraurus
pleurexanthemus, Green. Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. N. Y., Vol. XI, Nov.,
1875, pp. 159-162, pl. XI.
Preliminary notice of the discovery of the remains of the natatory and
branchial appendages of Trilobites. Advanced print, Dec., 1876. 28th
Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist., Albany, 1879, pp. 89-92.
Description of new species of fossils from the Trenton limestone. Ad-
vanced print, Jan., 1877. 28th Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist.,
Albany, 1879, pp. 93-97.
Notes on some sections of Trilobites, from the Trenton limestone.
Advanced print, Sept. 20, 1877, pp. 3-6, pl. 1. 31st Ann. Rep. N. Y. State
Mus. Nat. Hist., Albany, 1879, pp. 61-63, pl. I.
Note on the eggs of the Trilobite. Advanced print, Sept. 20, 1877,
pp. II-12. 31st Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist., Albany, 1879,
pp. 66-67.
Descriptions of new species of fossils from the Chazy and Trenton
limestones. Advanced print, Sept. 20, 1877, pp. 13-17. 31st Ann. Rep.
N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist., Albany, 1879, pp. 68-71.
Note upon the legs of Trilobites. Advanced print, Sept. 20, 1877, or later,
exact date not known. 31st Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist.,
Albany, 1879, p. 64, pl. I.
Descriptions of new species of fossils from the Calciferous formation.
Advanced print, Jan. 3, 1879, pp. 1-4. 32nd Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus.
Nat. Hist., Albany, 1879, pp. 129-131.
The Utica slate and related formations of the same geological horizon.
Advanced print, June, 1879, pp. 1-17. Trans. Albany Inst., Albany,
Vol. X, 1879, pp. I-17.
Fossils of the Utica slate and metamorphoses of Triarthrus becki. Ad-
vanced print, June, 1879, pp. 13-38, pls. I and II. Trans. Albany Inst.,
Albany, Vol. 10, 1879, pp. 18-38, pls. I, II.
The Permian and other Paleozoic groups of the Kanab Valley, Arizona.
Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XX, Sept., 1880, pp. 221-225.
The Trilobite: new and old evidence relating to its organization. Bull.
Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard College, Vol. VIII, No. 10, March, 1881,
pp. 191-224, pls. I-VI.
On the nature of Cyathophycus. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XXII,
Nov., 1881, pp. 394-395.
23
24
1882.
1882.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1884.
1884.
1884.
1884.
1884.
1885.
1885.
1885
1885.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1886.
1886.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS voL. 80
Notice of the discovery of a Poecilopod in the Utica slate formation.
Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XXIII, Feb., 1882, pp. 151-152.
Description of a new genus of the Order Euripterida from the Utica
slate. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XXIII, March, 1882, pp. 213-216.
Injury sustained by the eye of a Trilobite at the time of moulting of the
shell. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XXVI, Oct., 1883, p. 302.
Descriptions of new species of fossils from the Trenton group of New
York. Advanced print, Oct. 15, 1883, pp. 1-8, pl. 17. 35th Ann. Rep.
N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist. Albany, 1884, pp. 207-216, pl. 17.
Pre-Carboniferous strata in the Grand Cafion of the Colorado, Arizona.
Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XXVI, Dec., 1883, pp. 437-442, 484.
Fresh-water shells from the Paleozoic rocks of Nevada. Science, Vol. II,
No. 46, Dec. 21, 1883, p. 808.
The Cambrian system in the United States and Canada. Bull. Philos.
Soc. Washington, Vol. VI, 1884, pp. 98-102. (Separates in Dec., 1883.)
Appendages of the Trilobite. Science, Vol. III, No. 57, March 7, 1884,
pp. 279-281, figs. I-3.
Note on Paleozoic rocks of Central Texas. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser.,
Vol. XXVIII, Dec., 1884, pp. 431-433.
Paleontology of the Eureka District. Monogr. U. S. Geol. Surv., VIII,
1884, pp. 1-298, pls. I-X/XIV, figs.1-7.
Report of Mr. Charles D. Walcott, in Administrative reports of chiefs
of divisions. 4th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. 1882-1883, 1884, pp. 44-48.
On the Cambrian faunas of North America: preliminary studies. Bull.
U. S. Geol. ‘Surv. No. 10, 1884, pp. 1-74, pls. I-X.
Deer Creek coal-field, White Mountain Indian Reservation, Arizona.
Report and Appendix. U. S. Senate, Ex. Doc. No. 20, 48th Congress,
2d Sess., Jan., 1885, pp. 2-7.
Paleontologic notes. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. X XIX, Feb., 1885,
pp. 114-117, figs. 1-8.
Paleozoic notes: new genus of Cambrian Trilobites, Mesonacis. Amer.
Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XXIX, April, 1885, pp. 329-331, figs. 1-2.
Note on some Paleozoic Pteropods. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol.
XXX, July, 1885, pp. 17-21, figs. 1-6.
Report of Mr. Charles D. Walcott, in Administrative reports of chiefs of
divisions. 5th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. 1883-1884, 1885, pp. 52-55.
Report of Mr. C. D. Walcott, in Administrative reports of chiefs of
divisions. 6th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. 1884-1885, 1885, pp. 74-78.
Department of fossil invertebrates (Paleozoic section), in Report of
the Assistant Director of the U. S. National Museum, together with
the reports of the curators, for the year 1883. Ann, Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1883, 1885, pp. 261-263.
Department of invertebrate fossils, Paleozoic, in Report upon the con-
dition and progress of the United States National Museum in 1884.
Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1884, Pt. 2, 1885, pp. 203-209.
Classification of the Cambrian system of North America. Amer. Journ.
Sci., Vol. XXXII, Aug., 1886, pp. 138-157, figs. I-9.
Second contribution to the studies on the Cambrian faunas of North
America. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 30, 1886, pp. 1-222, pls. I-XX XI,
figs. I-10.
NO. 12 CHARLES DOOLITTLE WALCOTT 25
1886.
1886.
1886.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1888.
1888.
1888.
1888.
1888.
1888.
1889.
1880.
1880.
Description of a Pteropod from the Upper Cambrian. Bull. U. S. Geol.
Surv. No. 30, 1886, pp. 223-225, pls. XX XII-X XXIII.
Report on the Department of Invertebrate Fossils (Paleozoic) in the
U. S. National Museum, 1885. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1885, Pt. 2,
1886, pp. 129-132.
Cambrian age of the roofing slates of Granville, Washington Co., N. Y.
Advanced print, Salem Press, December, 1886. Proc. Amer. Assoc.
Adv. Sci., Vol. XXXV, Jan., 1887, pp. 220-221.
The Taconic System. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. X XXIII, Feb,
1887, pp. 153-154.
Note on the genus Archeocyathus of Billings. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser.,
Vol. XXXIV, Aug., 1887, pp. 145-146.
Fauna of the “ Upper Taconic” of Emmons, in Washington County,
N. Y. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XXXIV, Sept., 1887, pp. 187-
199, pi. I.
Section of Lower Silurian (Ordovician) and Cambrian strata in central
New York, as shown by a deep well near Utica. Advanced print,
Salem Press, Dec., 1887. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Vol. XXXVI,
March, 1888, pp. 211-212.
Discovery of fossils in the Lower Taconic of Emmons. Advanced print,
Salem Press, Dec., 1887. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci.. Vol. XXXVI,
March, 1888, pp. 212-213.
The Taconic System of Emmons, and the use of the name Taconic in
geologic nomenclature. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XXXV,
March, 1888, pp. 229-242, figs. 1-9; Apr., 1888, pp. 307-327, figs. 10-13;
May, 1888, pp. 394-401, pl. III.
Cambrian fossils from Mount Stephens, Northwest Territory of Canada.
Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XXXVI, Sept., 1888, pp. 161-166.
Synopsis of conclusions of Mr. C. D. Walcott on the “ Taconic System
of Emmons.” Amer. Geol., Vol. II, No. 3, Sept., 1888, pp. 215-219.
Congrés Géol. Intern., Compte rendu, 4me sess., Londres, 1888, 1801,
App. A, pp. A III-I15.
Report of Mr. C. D. Walcott, in Administrative reports of chiefs of
divisions. 7th Ann, Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. 1885-1886, 1888, pp. 113-117.
The stratigraphical succession of the Cambrian faunas in North America.
(Abstract of remarks made by Chas. D. Walcott, of the U. S. Geol.
Surv., before the meeting of the Internat. Geol. Congr. in London, in
the course of discussion on the Cambrian system, on Sept. 18, 1888.)
Nature, Vol. 38, No. 988, Oct. 4, 1888, p. 551.
On the relations and nomenclature of formations between the Archzan
and Cambrian, and the use of the term Taconic. Congrés Géol. In-
tern., Compte rendu, 4me sess., Ann. A, Reports of Amer. Comm.
1891 [1888], p. A 60.
Stratigraphic position of the Olenellus fauna in North America and
Europe. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XX XVII, May, 1880, pp. 374-
392; Vol. XXXVIII, July, 1889, pp. 29-42.
Description of new genera and species of fossils from the Middle Cam-
brian. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1888, Vol. XI, 1889, pp. 441-446.
A simple method of measuring the thickness of inclined strata. Proc.
U. S. Nat. Mus. 1888, Vol. XI, 1880, pp. 447-448.
26
18809.
1880.
1889.
1889.
1880.
1880.
1890.
1890.
1890.
1890.
1890.
1890.
1890.
1890.
1890.
1890.
18901.
1801.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
A fossil Lingula preserving the cast of the peduncle. Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus. 1888, Vol. XI, 1889, p. 480, figs. 1-3.
Report of Mr. C. D. Walcott, in Administrative reports of chiefs of divi-
sions. 8th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. 1886-1887, Pt. 1, 1880, pp. 174-
178.
Report of Mr. C. D. Walcott, in Administrative reports of chiefs of
divisions. 9th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. 1887-1888, 1880, pp. 115-120.
Report on the Department of Invertebrate Fossils (Paleozoic) in the
U. S. National Museum for the year ending June 30, 1886. Ann. Rep.
Smithsonian Inst., Pt. II, pp. 215-227.
Report on the Department of Invertebrate Fossils (Paleozoic) in the
U. S. National Museum, 1887. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst., Pt. II,
pp. 139-141.
Description of a new genus and species of inarticulate Brachiopod from
the Trenton limestone. Advanced prints, Dec. 10, 1889, and March 4,
1890. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1889, Vol. XII, 1890, pp. 365-366, figs. 1-4.
The fauna of the Lower Cambrian or Olenellus zone. 1toth Ann. Rep.
U. S. Geol. Surv. 1888-1889, Pt. 1, 1890, pp. 509-774, pls. 63-08.
Report on the Department of Invertebrate Fossils (Paleozoic) in the
U. S. National Museum, 1888. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1888, Rep.
U. S. Nat. Mus., 1890, pp. 183-185.
Descriptive notes of new genera and species from the Lower Cambrian
or Olenellus zone of North America. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1880,
Vol. XII, 1890, pp. 33-46.
Study of a line of displacement in the Grand Cafion of the Colorado in
northern Arizona. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. I, Feb., 1890, pp. 49-64,
figs. I-12.
A review of Dr. R. W. Ells’s second report on the geology of a portion
of the Province of Quebec; with additional notes on the “ Quebec
Group.” Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XX XIX, Feb., 1890, pp. 1or-
II5.
The Hercynian fauna of the northern Harz in Germany. A brief note
suggested by J. M. Clarke’s article on “ The Hercynian Question” in
42d Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser.,
Vol. XX XIX, Feb., 1890, pp. 155-156.
The value of the term “ Hudson River Group” in geologic nomencla-
ture. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. I, Apr., 1890, pp. 335-355, fig. 1.
Discussion of paper by Ezra Brainard and Henry M. Seely on the cal-
ciferous formation in the Champlain Valley. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.,
Vol. I, Apr. 29, 1890, pp. 512-513.
Description of new forms of Upper Cambrian fossils. Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus., Vol. XIII, 1890, pp. 267-279, pl. XX.
Report of Mr. Charles D. Walcott, in Administrative reports of chiefs
of divisions. roth Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. 1888-1889, Pt. 1, 1890,
pp. 160-162.
La succession stratigraphique des faunes cambriennes dans 1’ Amérique
du Nord. Congrés Géol. Internat. Compte rendu, 4me sess., 1891,
Pp. 223-225.
Discussion of paper by C. Willard Hayes on the overthrust faults of the
Southern Appalachians. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 2, Feb. 5, 1891,
p. 153.
NO. 12 CHARLES DOOLITTLE WALCOTT 27
1891.
18o1.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1892.
1892.
1802.
1892.
1892.
1892.
1802.
1803.
1893.
Discussion of paper by H. R. Geiger and Arthur Keith on the structure
of the Blue Ridge near Harper’s Ferry. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 2,
Feb. 11, 1891, pp. 163-164.
Discussion of paper by H. M. Ami on the geology of Quebec and envi-
rons. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 2, Apr. 30, pp. 501-502.
Discussion of paper by Robert T. Hill on the Comanche series of the
Texas-Arkansas region. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 2, May 5, 1891,
pp. 526-527.
Discussion on the geological structure of the Selkirk Range. Bull. Geol.
Soc. Amer., Vol. 2, Aug. 7, 1891, p. 611.
. Report of Mr. Charles D. Walcott, i Administrative reports of chiefs
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. Correlation papers—Cambrian. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 81, 1891,
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. The North American Continent during Cambrian time. 12th Ann. Rep.
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. Report on the Department of Paleozoic Fossils in the U. S. National
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Report on the Department of Paleozoic Fossils in the U. S. National
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Preliminary notes on the discovery of a vertebrate fauna in Silurian
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Notes on the Cambrian rocks of Virginia and the southern Appalachians.
Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XLIV, July, 1892, pp. 52-57.
Note on Lower Cambrian fossils from Cohassett, Mass. Proc. Biol.
Soc. Washington, Vol. VII, July, 1892, p. 155.
Notes on the Cambrian rocks of Pennsylvania and Maryland, from the
Susquehanna to the Potomac. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XLIV,
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Systematic list of fossils of each geological formation in the Eureka
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Report of Mr. C. D. Walcott, in Administrative reports of chiefs of
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Report on the Department of Paleozoic Invertebrate Fossils in the U. S.
National Museum, 1891. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1891, Rep.
U. S. Nat. Mus., 1892, pp. 245-248.
The Natural Bridge of Virginia. Nat. Geogr. Mag., Vol. V, July 10,
1893, pp. 59-62.
The geologist at Blue Mountain, Maryland. Nat. Geogr. Mag., Vol. V,
July 10, 1893, pp. 84-88.
28
1893.
1893.
1893.
18093.
1893.
1893.
1893.
1894.
1894.
1894.
1894.
1894.
1894.
1894.
1894.
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Correlation of Cambrian rocks of North America: Discussion. Congrés
Géol. Intern., Compte rendu, 5me Sess., Washington, 1891, 1893, pp.
168-170. ;
Silurian vertebrate life at Canyon City, Colo. Congrés Géol. Intern.
Compte rendu, 5me Sess., Washington, 1891, 1893, pp. 427-428.
Niagara Falls to New York City. Itinerary. Congrés Géol. Intern.,
Compte rendu, 5me Sess., Washington, 1891, 1893, pp. 459-463.
Discussion of paper by J. W. Spencer on terrestrial submergence south-
east of the American Continent. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. V,
Nov., 1893, p. 22.
Geologic time, as indicated by the sedimentary rocks of North America.
Journ. Geol., Vol. I, No. 7, Oct., 1893, pp. 639-676. Amer. Geol., Vol.
XII, No. 6, Dec., 1893, pp. 343-368, pl. XV.
Report of Mr. C. D. Walcott, i Administrative reports of chiefs of
divisions. 14th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. 1892-1893, Pt. 1, 1893,
Pp. 252-255.
Report on the Department of Paleozoic Invertebrate Fossils in the
U. S. National Museum, 1892. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1892,
Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1893, pp. 191-194.
Notes on the Cambrian rocks of Pennsylvania, from the Susquehanna
to the Delaware. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XLVII, Jan., 1894,
pp. 37-41.
Paleozoic intra-formational conglomerates. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol.
5, Feb. 9, 1894, pp. 191-198, pls. 5-7.
Note on some appendages of the Trilobites. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
Vol. IX, March 30, 1894, pp. 89-97, pl. I.
On the occurrence of Olenellus in the Green Pond Mountain series of
northern New Jersey, with a note on the conglomerates. Amer. Journ.
Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XLVII, April, 1894, pp. 309-311.
Note on some appendages of the Trilobites. Geol. Mag., Vol. I, No. VI,
n. s., June, 1894, pp. 246-251, pl. VIII.
Discovery of the genus Oldhamia in America. Advanced print, Nov. 15,
1894. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XVII, 1895, pp. 313-315, fig. I.
Pre-Cambrian igneous rocks of the Unkar Terrane, Grand Canyon of the
Colorado, Arizona. 14th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. 1892-1893, Pt. 2,
1894, PP. 497-519.
Geologic time, as indicated by the sedimentary rocks of North America.
Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Vol. XLII, 1894, pp. 129-169. Ann. Rep.
Smithsonian Inst. 1893, 1804, pp. 301-334, pl. XVI.
Lower Cambrian rocks in eastern California. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser.,
Vol. XLIX, Feb., 1895, pp. 141-144.
The United States Geological Survey. Pop. Sci. Monthly. Vol. XLVI,
No. 4, Feb. 1895, pp. 479-498.
The United States Geological Survey. Geol. Soc. Washington, March,
1895, Pp. 3-24.
The Appalachian type of folding in the White Mountain Range of Inyo
County, California. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d Ser., Vol. XLIX, March,
1895, pp. 169-174, figs. A-F.
The United States Geological Survey and its methods of work. Proc.
Engineers’ Club Philadelphia, Vol. XII, No. 1, Apr., 1895, pp. 44-61,
3 pls.
NO. 12 CHARLES DOOLITTLE WALCOTT 29
1895.
1895.
1806.
1896.
1896.
1806.
1896.
1897.
1897.
1897.
1897.
1808.
1808.
1808.
1808.
1808.
1808.
1808.
1808.
1890.
1899.
Algonkian rocks of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. Journ. Geol.,
Vol. III, No. 3, April-May, 1895, pp. 312-330, pl. VI.
Report of Mr. C. D. Walcott, in Administrative reports of chiefs of
divisions. 15th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. 1893-1894, 1805, pp. 129-144.
The Cambrian rocks of Pennsylvania. Bull. No. 134, U. S. Geol. Surv.,
1896, pp. 1-43, pls. I-XV.
Fossil jelly fishes from the Middle Cambrian terrane. Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus., Vol. XVIII, 1806, pp. 611-614, pls. XX XI-XXXII.
Brief report on organic markings in Lake Superior iron-ores. Trans.
Amer. Inst. Mining Engineers, Vol. 26, 1896, pp. 532-533.
Sixteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to the
Secretary of the Interior 1894-95, 1806, pp. 1-130.
Seventeenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to
the Secretary of the Interior 1895-96, 1806, pp. 1-200.
Note on the genus Lingulepis. Amer. Journ. Sci., 4th Ser., Vol. III,
May, 1897, pp. 404-405.
The Post-Pleistocene elevation of the Inyo Range, and the lake beds of
Waucobi embayment, Inyo County, California. Journ. Geol., Vol. V,
No. 4, May-June, 1897, pp. 340-348, figs. I-5.
Cambrian Brachiopoda: genera [phidea and Yorkia, with descriptions
of new species of each, and of the genus Acrothele. Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus., Vol. XIX, 1897, pp. 707-718, pls. LIX-LX.
Eighteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to
the Secretary of the Interior 1896-1897, Pt. I, 1807, pp. 9-130.
The United States forest reserves. Appleton’s Pop. Sci. Monthly,
Vol. LII, No. 4, Feb., 1808, pp. 1-13.
Note on the Brachiopod fauna of the quartzitic pebbles of the Carbon-
iferous conglomerates of the Narragansett Basin, Rhode Island. Amer.
Journ. Sci., 4th Ser., Vol. VI, Oct., 1898, pp. 327-328.
Cambrian Brachiopoda: Obolus and Lingulella, with description of new
species. Advanced print, Nov. 19, 1898. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol.
XXI, 1899, pp. 385-420, pls. XXVI-XXVIII.
Fossil Medusae. Monogr. U. S. Geol. Surv., XXX, 1898, pp. 1-201,
pls. I-XLVII.
Nineteenth Annual Report of the Geological Survey, to the Secretary of
the Interior. 1897-98, Pt. I, 1898, pp. 1-143, pls. I-II.
Appendix to Secretary's Report. Appendix I. The National Museum.
Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1897, 1898, pp. 29-32.
Report on the region south of and adjoining the Yellowstone National
Park, with especial reference to the preservation and protection of the
forests and the game therein. Senate Doc. No. 39, 55th Congress,
3d Sess., Dec., 1808, pp. 3-6.
Report on a proposed Division of Mines and Mining in the United States
Geological Survey. Senate Doc. No. 40, 55th Congress, 3d Sess., Dec.,
1898, pp. 2-12.
Pre-Cambrian fossiliferous formations. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 10,
Apr., 1899, pp. 199-214, pls. 22-28, figs. 1-7.
The United States National Museum. Appleton’s Pop. Sci. Monthly,
Vol. LV, No. 4, Aug., 1899, pp. 491-501.
30
1899.
1899.
1899.
1899.
T900.
1900.
1900.
1900.
1900.
1900.
IQOI.
IgOI.
IQol.
Igo.
IQOI.
Igol.
1902.
1902.
1902.
1902.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
Cambrian fossils of the Yellowstone National Park. Monogr. U. S. Geol.
Surv., XXXII, Pt. 2, 1899, Chap. XII, Sec. 1, pp. 440-478, pls. LX-LXV.
Twentieth Annual Report of the Director of the United States Geological
Survey to the Secretary of the Interior 1898-1899, Pt. 1, 1899, pp. 9-200.
Report upon the condition and progress of the U. S. National Museum
during the year ending June 30, 1897. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1897.
Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1890, pp. 1-245.
Appendix to Secretary’s Report. Appendix I. The National Museum.
Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1898, 1899, pp. 31-35.
Correspondence relating to collections of vertebrate fossils made by the
late Professor O. C. Marsh. Science, Vol. XI, No. 262, n. s., Jan. 5,
1900, pp. 21-24.
Random, a Pre-Cambrian Upper Algonkian terrane. Bull. Geol. Soc.
Amer., Vol. II, Jan. 31, 1900, pp. 3-5.
Lower Cambrian terrane in the Atlantic Province. Proc., Washington
Acad. Sci., Vol. 1, Feb. 14, 1900, pp. 301-339, pls. XXII-XXVI.
Washington as an explorer and surveyor. Pop. Sci. Monthly, Vol. LVII,
No. 3, July, 1900, pp. 323-324.
Twenty-first Annual Report of the Director of the United States Geo-
logical Survey to the Secretary of the Interior 1899-1900, Pt. I, 1900,
PP. 9-204.
Report upon the condition and progress of the U. S. National Museum
during the year ending June 30, 1898. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1898.
Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1900, pp. I-149.
Cambrian Brachiopoda: Obolella, subgenus Glyptias; Bicia; Obolus,
subgenus Westonia; with descriptions of new species. Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus., Vol. XXIII, 1901, pp. 669-695.
Relations of the National Government to higher education and research.
Science, Vol. XIII, No. 339, n. s., June 28, 1901, pp. TOOI-1015.
The work of the United States Geological Survey in relation to the
mineral resources of the United States. Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining
Engineers, XXX, 1901, pp. 3-26.
Sur les formations Pré-Cambriennes fossiliféres. Congrés Internat.
Compte rendu, VIIIme sess., Fasc. I, 1901, pp. 290-312.
The geographic work of the U. S. Geological Survey. Verhandlungen
des VII Internationalen Geographen-Kongresses in Berlin, 1899, Pt. 2,
Berlin, 1901, pp. 707-713.
Twenty-second Annual Report of the Director of the United States
Geological Survey to the Secretary of the Interior 1900-1901, Pt. "1,
IQOI, pp. 11-207.
Outlook of the geologist in America. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 13,
Feb., 1902, pp. 99-118.
Vast extent of arid areas. Nat. Mag., XV, No. 5, Feb., 1902, pp. 571-572.
Cambrian Brachiopoda; Acrotreta; Linnarssonella; Obolus; with des-
criptions of new species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XXV, 1902,
pp. 577-612.
Twenty-third Annual Report of the Director of the United States
Geological Survey to the Secretary of the Interior 1901-1902, 1902,
PP. 9-217.
NO. I2 CHARLES DOOLITTLE WALCOTT 31
1903.
1903.
1903.
1904.
1905.
X 1905.
Y 1905.
1905.
1905.
1905.
* 1906.
1906.
1906.
1906.
1906.
1907.
1907.
New term for the Upper Cambrian series. Journ. Geol., Vol. XI, No. 3,
April-May, 1903, pp. 318-319.
Twenty-fourth Annual Report of the Director of the United States
Geological Survey to the Secretary of the Interior 1902-3. 1903,
pp. 1-302.
John Wesley Powell, in Proceedings of a meeting commemorative of
his distinguished services. Proc. Washington Acad. Sci. V, July 18,
1903, Pp. 99-100.
Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the Director of the United States Geologi-
cal Survey to the Secretary of the Interior 1903-1904, 1904, pp. 1-388.
Cambrian Brachiopoda with descriptions of new genera and species.
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XXVIII, pp. 227-337.
The Cambrian fauna of India. Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., Vol. VII,
July 24, 1905, pp. 251-256.
Cambrian faunas of China. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. X:XIX, 1905,
pp. 1-106.
Address of welcome on the part of the President of the United States.
H. R. Doc. No. 460, 1905, pp. 69-70.
Work of the Geological Survey in mapping the reserves. Proc. Amer.
Forest Congr., Washington, Jan., 1905, pp. 364-380.
Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the Director of the United States Geo-
logical Survey to the Secretary of the Interior 1904-1905, 1905,
pp. 1-322.
Cambrian faunas of China. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XXX, 1906,
PP. 563-595.
Algonkian formations of northwestern Montana. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.,
Vol. 17, May, 1906, pp. 1-28, pls. I-11.
Relation of Government reclamation work to private enterprise. Proc.
14th Nat. Irrigation Congr., Sept., 1906, pp. 50-54.
Principles which govern the United States Geological Survey in its
relations with other geological surveys and working geologists. Science,
Vol. XXIV, No. 622, n. s., Nov. 30, 1906, pp. 692-693.
The policy of the U. S. Geological Survey and its bearing upon science
and education. Science, Vol. XXIV, No. 623, n. s., Dec. 7, 1906,
pp. 722-725.
Geological work in Arkansas by Professor Purdue. Science, Vol. XXV,
No. 629, n. s., Jan. 18, 1907, pp. 109-110.
Dr. Hamlin’s relations to the temporalities of the church. In Memoriam:
Tribute to the life and character of Rev. Teunis S. Hamlin, D. D.,
Pastor of the Church of the Covenant, Washington, D. C. April 28,
1907, PP. 32-35.
. Louis Agassiz. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 50, Pt. 2, 1907, pp. 216-218,
pl. XXII.
. Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1907. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1907, pp. I-40, with Appendices.
Nomenclature of some Cambrian Cordilleran formations. Smithsonian
Misc. Coll., Vol. 53, No. 1. Cambrian Geol. and Paleont. I, No. 1,
Apr. 18, 1908, pp. I-12.
32
1908.
1908.
1908.
1908
1908.
1909.
1909.
1909.
1900.
IQIO.
IQIO.
IgIO.
IQIO.
IQII.
IQII.
IQII.
IQII.
IQII.
IQIT.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VoL. 80
Cambrian Trilobites. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 53, No. 2. Cambrian
Geol. and Paleont., I, No. 2, Apr. 25, 1908, pp. 13-52, pls. 1-6.
Mount Stephen rocks and fossils. Canadian Alpine Journ., Alpine Club
of Canada, Vol. 1, No. 2, Sept., 1908, pp. 232-248, pls. I-IV.
Cambrian Brachiopoda: descriptions of new genera and species. Smith-
sonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 53, No. 3. Cambrian Geol. and Paleont., I, No. 3,
Oct. 1, 1908, pp. 53-137, pls. 7-10.
Classification and terminology of the Cambrian Brachiopoda. Smithsonian
Misc. Coll., Vol. 53, No. 4. Cambrian Geol. and Paleont., I, No. 4,
Oct. 13, 1908, pp. 139-165, pls. 11-12. i
Cambrian sections of the Cordilleran area. Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
Vol. 53, No. 5. Cambrian Geol. and Paleont., I, No. 5, Dec. 10, 1908,
pp. 167-230, pls. 13-22.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1908. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1908, 1909, pp. I-35, with appendices.
Research and the Smithsonian Institution. Independent, March 18, 1909,
pp. 585-586.
Evolution of early Paleozoic faunas in relation to their environment.
Journ. Geol., Vol. XVII, No. 3, March-Apr., 1909, pp. 193-202.
Acceptance of Portrait of Admiral Melville. Trans. Amer. Soc. Mechan.
Engrs., Vol. XXXI, May, 1909, p. 261.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1909. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1909, 1910, pp. I-32, with appendices.
Olenellus and other genera of the Mesonacidae. Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
Vol. 53, No. 6. Cambrian Geol. and Paleont., I, No. 6, Aug. 12, I910,
Pp. 231-422, pls. 23-44.
Pre-Cambrian rocks of the Bow River Valley, Alberta, Canada. Smith-
sonian Misc. Coll. Vol. 53, No. 7. Cambrian Geol. and Paleont., I,
No. 7, Aug., 1910, pp. 423-497, pls. 45-47.
Abrupt appearance of the Cambrian fauna on the North American
Continent. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 57, No. 1. Cambrian Geol.
and Paleont., II, No. 1, Aug. 18, 1910, pp. 1-16, pl. I, text fig. 1.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1909. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1910, I9II, pp. I-39, with appendices.
Middle Cambrian Merostomata. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 57, No. 2.
Cambrian Geol. and Paleont., II, No. 2, Apr. 8, 1911, pp. 17-40, pls. 2-7.
A geologist’s paradise. Nat. Geogr. Mag., Vol. XXII, No. 6, June, 1911,
Pp. 509-521.
Middle Cambrian Holothurians and Medusae. Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
Vol. 57, No. 3. Cambrian Geol. and Paleont., II, No. 3, June 13, 1911,
pp. 41-68, pls. 8-13, text figs. 2-6.
Cambrian faunas of China. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 57, No. 4.
Cambrian Geol. and Paleont., II, No. 4, June 17, 1911, pp. 69-108,
pls. 14-17, text figs. 7-7a.
Middle Cambrian Annelids. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 57, No. 5.
Cambrian Geol. and Paleont., II, No. 5, Sept. 4, 1911, pp. 109-144,
pls. 18-23.
NO. 12 CHARLES DOOLITTLE WALCOTT 33
IQI2.
1912.
IQI2.
IQI2.
1912.
1912.
1gI2.
IQI2.
1912.
1912.
IQI2.
1912.
1913.
1913.
1913.
1913.
IQI3.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1911. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. I9II, 1912, pp. 1-25, with appendices.
Middle Cambrian Branchiopoda, Malacostraca, Trilobita, and Merosto-
mata. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 57, No. 6. Cambrian Geol. and
Paleont., II, No. 6, March 13, 1912, pp. 145-228, pls. 24-34, text
figs. 8-10.
Cambrian of the Kicking Horse Valley, B. C. Summary Rep. Geol.
Sury. Branch, Dept. Mines, 1911, Sessional Paper No. 26, Ottawa, 1912,
pp. 188-101.
Cambro-Ordovician boundary in British Columbia with description of
fossils. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 57, No. 7. Cambrian Geol. and
Paleont., II, No. 7, March 8, 1912, pp. 229-237, pl. 35.
The Sardinian Cambrian genus Olenopsis in America. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., Vol. 57, No. 8. Cambrian Geol. and Paleont., II, No. 8, March 8,
IQI2, pp. 239-249, pl. 36.
Notes on fossils from limestone of Steeprock Lake, Ontario. App. to
Mem. No. 28, Geol. Surv. Canada, 1912, reprint pp. I-6, pls. 1, 2.
Biographical memoir of Samuel Pierpont Langley, 1834-1906. Nat. Acad.
Sci., Biograph. Mem., Vol. VII, April, 1912, pp. 247-268.
Francis Davis Millet. Amer. Fed. Arts Memorial Meeting, Washington,
May 10, 1912, pp. 25-26.
Studies in Cambrian geology and paleontology in the Canadian Rockies,
in Expeditions organized or participated in by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution in 1910 and 1911. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 59, No. 11,
July 17, 1912, pp. 39-45, figs. 44-48.
New York Potsdam-Hoyt fauna. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 57, No. 9.
Cambrian Geol. and Paleont., II, No. 9, Sept. 14, 1912, pp. 251-304,
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Group terms for the Lower and Upper Cambrian series of formations.
Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 57, No. to. Cambrian Geol. and Paleont.,
II, No. 10, Sept. 16, 1912, pp. 305-307.
Cambrian Brachiopoda. Monogr. U. S. Geol. Surv., Vol. LI, 1912, Pt. 1,
pp. 1-872; Pt. 2, pls. I-CIV, pp. 1-363, text figs. 1-76.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1912. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst.
1912, 1913, pp. I-29, with appendices.
Geological exploration in the Canadian Rockies, in Explorations and
field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1912. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., Vol. 60, No. 30, 1913, pp. 24-31, figs. 22-23.
The monarch of the Canadian Rockies: the Robson Peak District of
British Columbia and Alberta. Nat. Geogr. Mag., May, 1913,
pp. 626-639.
New Lower Cambrian subfauna. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 57, No. 11.
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Cambrian formations of the Robson Peak District, British Columbia
and Alberta, Canada. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 57, No. 12, Cam-
brian Geology and Paleont., II, No. 12, July 24, 1913, pp. 327-343,
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34
* 1913.
1913.
1QI4.
IQI4.
IQI4.
114.
1914.
IQI4.
IQI5.
IQIS.
IQIS.
IQIS.
IQIS.
1916.
1916.
1916.
IQI6.
1916.
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The Cambrian faunas of China, in Research in China, Carnegie Inst.
of Washington, Vol. III, Pub. No. 54, 1913, pp. 1-375, pls. 1-29, text
figs. I-0.
An account of the exercises on the occasion of the presentation of the
Langley Medal and the unveiling of the Langley Memorial Tablet,
May 6, 1913, including the addresses. Smithsonian Inst. Pub. 2233, 1913,
Pp. 3-4, 5-6, 19, 20, 26.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1913. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1913, 1914, pp. I-35, with appendices.
Dikelocephalus and other genera of the Dikelocephalinae. Smithsonian
Misc. Coll., Vol. 57, No. 13. Cambrian Geol. and Paleont., II, No. 13,
Apr. 4, 1914, pp. 345-412, pls. 60-70.
The Cambrian faunas of Eastern Asia. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 64,
No. 1. Cambrian Geol. and Paleont., III, No. 1, Apr. 22, 1914, pp. 1-75,
pls. 1-3, text figs. 1-0.
Pre-Cambrian Algonkian algal flora. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 64,
No. 2. Cambrian Geol. and Paleont., III, No. 2, July 22, 1914,
pp. 77-156, pls. 4-23.
Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies, in Explorations and
field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1913. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., Vol. 63, No. 8, 1914, pp. 2-12, figs. I-14.
Atikokania lawsoni Walcott. Letter in Nature, Vol. 94, No. 2357, 1914,
Pp. 477-478.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1914. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1914, I915, pp. I-34, with appendices.
The Cambrian and its problems in the Cordilleran region, in Problems
of American Geology, Dana Commemorative Lectures. Yale Univ.
Press, 1915, Chap. IV, pp. 162-233, text figs. 1-8.
Discovery of Algonkian bacteria. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Vol. 1, 1915,
pp. 256-257, text figs. I-3.
Prepaleozoic algal deposits. Science, Vol. XLI, No. 1067, n. s., June 11,
1915, pp. 870, 879.
Geological explorations in the Rocky Mountains, im Explorations and
field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1914. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., Vol. 65, No. 6, 1915, pp. I-10, pl. 1, text figs. 1-10.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1915. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1915, 1916, pp. 1-27, with appendices.
Cambrian Trilobites. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 64, No. 3. Cambrian
Geol. and Paleont., III, No. 3, Jan. 14, 1916, pp. 157-258, pls. 24-38.
Relations between the Cambrian and Pre-Cambrian formations in the
vicinity of Helena, Montana. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 64, No. 4.
Cambrian Geol. and Paleont., III, No. 4, June 24, 1916, pp. 259-301,
pls. 39-44, text figs. 10-13.
Cambrian Trilobites. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 64, No. 5. Cambrian
Geol. and Paleont., III, No. 5, Sept. 29, 1916, pp. 303-456, pls. 45-67.
Evidences of primitive life. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1915, 1916,
Pp. 235-255, pls. 1-18.
NO. 12 CHARLES DOOLITTLE WALCOTT 35
IQ10.
1917.
1917.
1917.
IQI7.
IQI7.
1918.
1918.
1918.
IQIQ.
IgI9g.
1919.
1920.
1920.
1920.
1921.
Geological explorations in the Rocky Mountains, in Explorations and
field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1915. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., Vol. 66, No. 3, pp. 1-27, figs. 1-40.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1916. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1916, 1917, pp. I-33, with appendices.
Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies, in Explorations and
field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1916. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., Vol. 66, No. 7, pp. 1-10, figs. 1-24.
Nomenclature of some Cambrian Cordilleran formations. Smithsonian
Misc. Coll., Vol. 67, No. 1. Cambrian Geology and Paleont., IV, No. 1,
May 9g, I917, pp. 1-8.
The Albertella fauna in British Columbia and Montana. Smithsonian
Misc. Coll., Vol. 67, No. 2. Cambrian Geology and Paleont., IV, No. 2,
May 9, 1917, pp. 9-59, pls. I-7.
Fauna of the Mount Whyte formation. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 67,
No. 3. Cambrian Geology and Paleont., IV, No. 3, Sept. 26, 1917,
pp. 61-114, pls. 8-13.
The Life Story of an American Airman in France. Introduction to
extracts from letters of Stuart Walcott, Nat. Geogr. Mag., Jan., 1918.
Also, Above the French Lines, Introduction, Princeton Univ. Press,
1918.
Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies, in Explorations and
field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1917. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., Vol. 68, No. 12, 1918, pp. 4-20, figs. I-Io9.
Appendages of Trilobites. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 67, No. 4.
Cambrian Geology and Paleont., IV, No. 4, Dec., 1918, pp. 115-216,
pls. 14-42, text figs. 1-3.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1917. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1917, I919, pp. I-29, with appendices.
Middle Cambrian Algae. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 67, No. 5.
Cambrian Geology and Paleont., IV, No. 5, Dec. 26, 1919, pp. 217-260,
pls. 43-59.
Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies, in Explorations and
field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1918. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., Vol. 70, No. 2, 1919, pp. 3-20, figs. I-21.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1918. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1918, 1920, pp. I-23, with appendices.
Middle Cambrian Spongiae. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 67, No. 6.
Cambrian Geology and Paleont., IV, No. 6, 1920, pp. 261-364, pls. 60-90,
text figs. 4-10.
Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies: field season of 1919, im
Explorations and field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1919.
Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 72, No. 1, 1920, pp. 1-16, figs. 1-16.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1919. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1919, 1921, pp. I-23, with appendices.
36
1921.
1921.
1922.
1922.
1922.
1923.
1923.
1924.
1924.
1924.
1924.
1924.
1924.
1925.
1925.
1925.
1925.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL..80
Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies, in Explorations and
field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1920. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., Vol. 72, No. 6, 1921, pp. I-10, figs. 1-12.
Notes on structure of Neolenus. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 67, No. 7.
Cambrian Geology and Paleont., IV, No. 7, Dec. 20, 1921, pp. 365-456,
pls. 91-105, text figs. 11-23.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1920. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1920, 1922, pp. 1-36, with appendices.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1921. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1921, 1922, pp. 1-24, with appendices.
Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies, in Explorations and
field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1921. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., Vol. 72, No. 15, 1922, pp. 1-22, figs. 1-24.
Nomenclature of some Post Cambrian and Cambrian Cordilleran forma-
tions (2). Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 67, No. 8. Cambrian Geology
and Paleont., IV, No. 8, March 5, 1923, pp. 457-476, text fig. 24.
Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies, in Explorations and
field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1922. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., Vol. 74, No. 5, pp. 1-24, figs. 1-29.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1922. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1922, 1924, pp. 1-25, with appendices.
Cambrian and Ozarkian Brachiopoda, Ozarkian Cephalopoda and Noto-
straca. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 67, No. 9, Cambrian Geology and
Paleont., IV, No. 9, June 3, 1924, pp. 477-581, pls. 106-126.
Geological formations of Beaverfoot-Brisco-Stanford Range, British
Columbia, Canada. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 75, No. 1. Cambrian
Geology and Paleont., V, No. 1, June 28, 1924, pp. 1-51, pls. 1-8, text
figs. I-II.
Cambrian and Lower Ozarkian Trilobites. Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
Vol. 75, No. 2. Cambrian Geology and Paleont., V, No. 2, July 19, 1924,
pp. 53-60, pls. 9-14.
Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies, in Explorations and
field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1923. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., Vol. 76, No. 10, 1924, pp. 1-8, figs. I-11.
and C. E. Resser. Trilobites from the Ozarkian limestones of
the Island of Novaya Zemlya, in Report of the scientific results of the
Norwegian expedition to Novaya Zemlya 1921, No. 24. Published by
the Soc. Arts and Sci. Kristiania, 1924, 14 pp., 2 pls.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1923. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1923, 1925, pp. 1-26, with appendices.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1924. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1924, 1925, pp. 1-26, with appendices.
Relations of the Smithsonian Institution to the National Government.
Smithsonian Inst., Special pub., 1925, pp. I-5.
Science and Service. Science, Vol. LXI, No. 1566, Jan. 2, 1925, pp. I-5.
NO. 12 CHARLES DOOLITTLE WALCOTT 37
1925.
1925.
1925.
1925.
1925.
1926.
1926.
1926.
1927.
1927.
1928.
La discordance de stratification et le lacune stratigraphique Pré-Dévoni-
enne dans les Provinces Cordilleres d’Alberta et de Colombie Britanni-
que, Canada. Livre Jubilaire, Cinquantenaire fondation Soc. Géol..
Belgique, 1925, pp. I19-123, I text fig., 3 pls.
Joseph Henry. Science, Vol. LXII, No. 1610, Nov. 6, 1925, pp. 405-408.
Cambrian and Ozarkian Trilobites. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 75,
No. 3. Cambrian Geology and Paleont., V, No. 3, June 1, 1925,
pp. 61-146, pls. 15-24.
John Mason Clarke. Science, Vol. LXII, No. 1616, Dec. 18, 1925, p. 558.
Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies, in Explorations and
field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1924. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., Vol. 77, No. 2, pp. 1-14, figs. 1-21.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1925. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1925, 1926, pp. I-27, with appendices.
Samuel Pierpont Langley and modern aviation. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc.,
Vol. LXV, No. 2, 1926, pp. 79-82.
Geological explorations in the Canadian Rockies, in Explorations and
field-work of the Smithsonian Institution in 1925. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., Vol. 78, No. 1, 1926, pp. 1-9, figs. 1-13.
Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles D.
Walcott, for the year ending June 30, 1926. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. 1926, 1927, pp. I-33, with appendices.
Pre-Devonian sedimentation in southern Canadian Rocky Mountains.
Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 75, No. 4. Cambrian Geology and
Paleont., V, No. 4, Apr. 2, 1927 (published posthumously), pp. 147-173,
pl. 25, figs. 14-23.
Pre-Devonian Paleozoic Formations of the Cordilleran Provinces of
‘Canada. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 75, No. 5, Cambrian Geology
- and Paleont., V, No. 5 (end of-vol.). In press, April, 1928 (published
posthumously), pp. (estimated) 174-374, pls. 26-108, figs. 24-36.
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