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Schenck, Ferdinand

Schureman, 1845-1925.
The sociology of the Bible

THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

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THE SOCIOLOGY
OF THE BIBLE

FERDINAND S. SCHENCK, D.D., LL.D.

Professor of Practical Theology in the
Theological Seminary of the Re-
formed Church in America
at New Brunswick, N, J.

JUL 6 1909

THE BOARD OF PUBLICATION
of the Reformed Church in America
25 East Twenty-second St., New York

By the same author

Modern Practical Theology, 12mo,
cloth, 340 pp., $1.00.

The Ten Commandments and The
Lord's Prayer, l2mo, cloth, 240
pp., $1.00.

The Bible Readers' Guide, l2mo,
cloth, 340 pp., $1.25.

For sale by the

Board of Publication, R. C. A.

25 East 22d Street

New York

PREFACE.

The lectures on Sociology I have been giving the students of
our Theological Seminary for the past six years have been designed
to make them leaders of the church in a conscious and intelligent
effort to better society. I have tried to show them how the knowl-
edge of the laws of God as we discover them both in the social
life of mankind generally, and especially in the social life described
in the Bible, may be applied in establishing the Kingdom of God,
the highest ideal of society in each community and in the whole
earth. This book contains the substance of these lectures wrought
into form for popular reading.

It is sometimes said "There is more sociology than theology
in the Bible." Many books have been written upon Biblical
Theology, treating the subject in a great variety of ways. This is
the first book, as far as I know, upon Biblical Sociology. Books
on Christian Sociology are generally confined to the teachings of
Christ, or to a description of the Christian Society of today. In
this book I try to gather the most important facts and principles
of the society of the whole Bible from Genesis to Revelation, to
classify them in a sociological way, and to consider what light they
throw upon some of the social problems of today. The book must
be in the nature of an experiment both as to the subject and the
manner of its treatment. I must try what seems to me the most
attractive of the many possible ways of studying the matter. I
make no claim of its being the best way; it is only suggestive.
Others may have their attention awakened to this important and
fascinating field and give it far better treatment than I can do. I
send forth the book in the hope it may have some influence in
advancing the Kingdom of God.

F. S. S.

Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter

Chapter 5.

Chapter 6.

Chapter 7.

Chapter 8.

Chapter 9.

CONTENTS.

PART I.

Related Subjects.

Page.

The New Science and Socialism 7

Sociology and Evolution 14

Sociology and The Bible 27

Sociology of The Bible and The Higher Crit-
icism 37

The Bible, and The Church as a Social Force 52

PART II.

The General Society of the Bible.

The Origin of Society 57

Primitive Society 67

The Primary Classes in Early Society 88

The Dispersion of the Race 99

PART III.

The Kingdom of God, or
The Particular Society of the Bible.

Chapter 10. The Modern Sociological Point of View.... 113

Chapter 11. Heredity 129

Chapter 12. The Institution of the Family 152

CONTENTS

Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
Chapter 19
Chapter 20

Page.

Environment 175

The Land Laws of the Hebrews 193

The Institution of Industry 224

The Accumulation and Distribution of Wealth 245

The Institution of Culture 279

The Institution of Control 298

Social Pathology 320

The Ideal of Social Health 352

PART IV.

The Kingdom of God in the World.

Chapter 21. Christianity in the Advance of Civilization

from Ancient Rome 363

Chapter 22. Christianity in the Advance of Civilization

from our Barbarian Ancestors 376

Chapter 23. Christianity a Social Force in Foreign Mis-
sions 382

Chapter 24. The Further Advance of Christian Civiliza-
tion 397

Chapter 25. The Christian, The Church and The Univer-
sal Kingdom of God 403

THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

PART I. RELATED SUBJECTS.

CHAPTER I.

The New Science and Socialism.

We are a company of voyagers on a little planet called the
Earth, sailing with many sister planets in the immensity of space.
However great the value we may place upon individuality, what-
ever estimate we may have of the grandeur of personality, there is
not a single one of us who would be willing to make this voyage
entirely alone. Whatever we may believe about the life beyond
our present horizon, whatever lofty hopes we may have of personal
immortality, there is not a single one of us all who would be will-
ing to live the eternal life entirely alone. That which was said
in the opening pages of the Bible by the great Creator of the first
man is everlastingly true, for it describes the elementary nature of
man. "It is not good that man should be alone".

It is somewhat strange that in the noble sisterhood of the
Sciences and Arts, those two which so closely concern man's nature
and highest interests should be of such late birth; pedagogy, the
science of the child nature, with its art of developing the noblest
manhood ; and sociology, the science of man as a social being, with
its art of developing the noblest society. Science searches for the
facts in any great department of nature, contemplates what is
common to these facts, thus grouping them into classes, and then
tries to discover the forces and laws pervading these classes. The
Science of Sociology searches for all the facts of society; it treats

8 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

of the origin, nature, history, laws, forces and institutions of
society. With many sciences there can be little if any association
of art. Science is knowing. Art is doing. Astronomy tells us of
the fleet of blazing suns floating with our sun in the immensity of
space, but our small hands cannot change their courses, and well it
is we cannot. All we can do is to observe their places with relation
to each other from our earth, and so guide our little ships across
earth's little seas. Geology tells of the history and present condi-
tion of the earth upon which we are sailing, but we, with all our
great powers can only slightly scratch its surface. In some degree
we have harnessed nature's forces; we have "hitched our wagon to
a star"; still we cannot control a thunder storm, much less a
volcano or an earthquake. Biology tells of the grades of life at the
head of which man stands, and over some of these grades now
dwelling on the earth with us, man may have a large control.
Physiology tells of animal organs and functions, and man as he
knows himself may better pursue the art of living the animal life.
Psychology tells of sensation blooming forth in human conscious-
ness, and man learning of the nature of his mental powers may
advance in the art of living the mental life. Closer still man comes
to himself when Sociology tells of his powers as a social being; of
the wonderful combining power upon which the Creator relied
when he told him "to replenish and subdue the earth and have
dominion over every living thing upon it", and man learning the
facts of this science may advance in the art of forming alliances
with his fellows for the common good in the art of living the social
life.

So fully does this science describe the loftiest nature of man
who stands as the culmination of the magnificent progression of life
upon the earth, and as the regnant power over all lower creation,
that many of its students claim that it is the culminating and com-
bining Science. Theologj^ will of course contest this claim, holding
that all the Sciences lead up to and contribute unto the source of
our knowledge of the great Creator and upholder of nature, the
Infinite and self-existent God. But if Theology be regarded as the
Queen of the Sciences, Sociology may well be called the Princess

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIALISM 9

Royal, for not only do we know more deeply of God from our own
nature than from any other source but it is most deeply from our
social nature. And also the highest reach of our social nature is
that we may have fellowship with God. Still this noble science
concerning man's highest nature is the latest born of all the
sciences. Fifty years ago wise men began to gather and systema-
tize the facts of society, to study man as a Socius, and the many
combinations he has formed with his fellows. Theology was old,
Astronomy was gray when Sociology was born. In 1883 there
was not a chair of sociology in any University or College in the
world. In 1883 the first book on Dynamic Sociology was pub-
lished. Many men now living are older than the science of society.

Though late in birth it has grown strong through the studies
of many keen thinkers and great lovers of their kind.

Since Sociology is so young and perhaps not yet fully developed
it is not to be wondered at that it is often popularly confused with
Socialism. I have known many well educated men, men of wide
culture, to object to its claims and pursuit as they thought, when
really their objections were confined to the claims and pursuit of
Socialism. It is well to learn of socialism, as of other things, from
its own advocates rather than from those who represent it only to
antagonize it. Morris Hillquit, a leader among the Socialists, in
his "History of Socialism in the United States", gives a description
of socialism which may be considered as authoritative. He says:
"Socialism discerns the root of the evils of modern civilization in
competitive industr>^ and wage labor, and advocates the re-con-
struction of our entire economic system on the basis of a co-opera-
tive mode of production. It has passed through many stages of
development before it has reached this modern aspect".

Mr. John Spargo, a good authority, says:

^Socialism demands only the collective ownership of the princi-
pal means of production." I think I give a fair description of his
views as follows: Beneath competition is the real object of the
socialistic attack; they call it exploitation, the oppression of man
by man, often under the guise of personal freedom. Any employer
of his fellow men who pays for their services less than he would

lo THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

have to pay if he had no state created advantage, or any trader
v^rith such advantage is an exploiter. The fortunes such amass
are the earnings of the industrious wrongfully acquired by the
povi^erful.

The anarchist regards government and property under govern-
ment as the means by which exploitation is accomplished and would
do away with the whole system. The socialist regards competition
of natural and artificial persons as the means of exploitation and
would substitute collective for private ownership. Both claim
exploitation exists. The challenge to sociology is — Does exploita-
tion exist? Does the social order foster the economic and moral
enslavement of man by man? The "let alone" philosophy assumes
that every competitor receives the exact equivalent of what he
produces, or if he does not it is his own fault; that society cannot
remedy it. But the answer of socialism is prompt. Society is
wonderfully complex. In a community made up of strictly natural
individuals with unlimited natural opportunities, competition might
be let alone. But society has clothed some of these natural persons
with artificial privileges and powers. Society has also created
purely artificial persons, the corporations, and society has also
clothed these artificial persons with artificial privileges and powers
of such immense value that their exploitation of their employees,
their customers and the people generally cannot be estimated.
Society has given to a few, has taken away from the many the
earth itself with its unlimited resources, public utilities of its own
creation, and the exclusive right to use great inventions; and thus
allows the few to exploit the many, still further reducing them to
a state not to be distinguished from slaver}'. This has come about
gradually by allowing the competition principle, suitable perhaps
to a simple state of societ)^, to grow without check or hindrance
in a complex and crowded society to which it is utterly unsuited.
Socialism claims that some things can be done by natural indi-
viduals without state aid or authority. Other things can be done
only by combinations of individuals without special state given
powers. Other things can be done best by the State alone. Should
not complex society have complex ways of treating its problems?

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIALISM ii

Public exploitation is largely the purchase of Legislative favors
and comes from competition of seeking and maintaining franchises ;
and can only be cured by public ownership and conduct of all
public utilities. Private exploitation is the gain made by mis-
representing, extorting, cheating and swindling in the ordinary
process of industry and commerce. It is not often illegal, as the
law cannot keep up with the increasing craftiness of men compelled
to compete for the means of life. The ramifications of private
robbery extend through all business. What is robbery to the vic-
tim is usually "legitimate business" to the beneficiary. It reveals
itself in adulterating food, drink and medicine, especially for the
poor compelled to buy the cheaper articles. The extent of such
exploitations in making and selling commodities is great. The
incentive of gain is in the individualist competitive mode of pro-
duction and distribution, making things to sell for individual profit.
Socialism says the only cure is merging all such things in a common
interest, and society in its organized form must take to itself the
production and distribution of commodities not for sale but for use,
without any individual profit. James Mackaye says Socialism is
not opposed to the Institution of property but that it is opposed to
the Institution of profit — and he includes interest on money —
dividends and rent under the term profit. Profit seeking is the
root of all economic evil. The remedy of socialism is simply to
abolish individual or corporate ownership of capital and substitute
for it public collective ownership. Under public ownership indus-
try will be carried on not for profit but for use — as the post office
is to-day.

It is seen at once from these short descriptions by its leaders that
socialism is simply a theory of how society ought to be arranged.
Sociology on the other hand describes all the facts, laws and forces
of society. Socialism is however a challenge to sociology as a
theorjf in any depaFtment of nature is a challenge to the science of
that department, as the theory for example that the earth is the
center of the universe, is a challenge to astronomy. Socialism
claims that the present social order is a vast injustice productive of
great evils and that it is wrongly maintained by powerful class

12 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

interests. If the evils do not exist the charge must be refuted ; if
they do exist it must be shown that other causes produce them.
Earnest and enthusiastic lovers of mankind with insufficient obser-
vation ma}^ distort and magnify a class of facts to the discarding of
all others, and may attribute their existence to an apparent cause,
while ignoring many constant forces bearing in their direction.
On the other hand clear eyed science calmly views all the facts in
their proper relations, and places due value upon all the forces
bearing on the situation ; it does not quarrel with facts or forces
but tries to discover their meaning. The remedy suggested by the
enthusiasts may be destructive of the good with the evil, while
that suggested by science is the growth of the good to the dwarfing
of the evil. So instead of sociology being the same as socialism, or
in any way responsible for it, it may be said that it affords the only
complete answer to it, and remedy for it.

Socialism in its many theories has had a rapid growth and has
attained great power, it has many earnest and able advocates, and
many able papers and books are published setting forth its views
and claims. It has also entered into the political arena. There
is a large Socialistic party in the German Reichstag, there is the
beginning of such a party in the British Parliament, and the threat-
ened Revolution in Russia is not only political but social, aiming
specially at a new distribution of the land. In our own country
there is a Socialist Party which cast in the Presidential Election in
1900 one hundred and fifty thousand votes, in that of 1904, four
hundred thousand votes, and in that of 1908 over four hundred
and fifty thousand votes. At first this party antagonized the Labor
Unions, but recently it has sought to win their votes. In 1900 and
again in 1902 in the National Convention of the American Federa-
tion of Labor resolutions looking to socialist political action were
emphatically rejected ; and as far as I can learn Labor Unions still
stand as a barrier to the spread of socialism in our land today.
The Socialist vote in the world is now reckoned as about eight
millions. The International Congress of Socialists in 1907 repre-
sented its highest and rapidly growing strength. The people of this
country as well as the people of Continental Europe are facing

SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIALISM 13

fundamental questions, those underlying the existing social order
itself, the underlying S3'Stem of human forces and relations forming
the State, as distinguished from the particular form of Government
of that State. The rapid growth and increasing power of Socialism
show that it must be adequately answered and satisfactorily met in
its demands, lest it grow strong enough to force its theory into
practice to the great danger of the institutions of society. That it
may be so met and checked depends verj^ largely upon sociology.
Socialists frequently claim that the Bible, especially the teachings of
Christ and the practice of the early Christians, favor their theory
of society. A careful study of the Sociology of the Bible can of
course give the only possible answer to such a claim.

CHAPTER II.
Sociology and Evolution.

If it be asked what part the principle of evolution has in sociol-
ogy a judicious answer would be, "the same part it has in all the
other sciences." The sciences generally accept evolution in some
form, and to some degree not as explaining origins but as governing
modifications, but the form is not yet fully agreed upon nor there-
fore can the degree be always defined. We need not fear that na-
ture will ever overthrow revelation, — if they both come from the
same God they must sustain each other. If the time ever comes
when evolution is fully defined and it is seen to apply to all depart-
ments of nature, the religion based upon revelation will have no
more cause to distrust it than it now has to distrust the attraction
of gravitation. Until that time comes we should try to learn what
evolution is as held by its ablest advocates. It is foolish to imagine
what it is, and then bravely overthrow it, it is always an easy task
to construct a man of straw and then knock it over, but a man only
awakens ridicule for himself and his cause by such a contest. Her-
bert Spencer is a leading advocate of evolution and he has with
great pains constructed a definition of it which is not difficult to
comprehend and which as a whole is most too substantial to attack
rashly, though one may not adopt all its applications.

The formula he gives in his first book of The Synthetic Philoso-
phy— "The First Principles" is as follows: "Evolution is an in-
tegration of matter with a concomitant dissipation of motion, dur-
ing which the matter progresses from an indefinite, incoherent,
homogeneity to a definite, coherent heterogeneity, and during which
the retained motion undergoes a parallel transformation". He

SOCIOLOGY AND EVOLUTION 15

bases this upon his great generalizations, the indestructibility of
matter, the persistence of force, the continuity, direction and
rhythm of motion, and he traces it through all the astronomic,
geologic, biologic, psychologic and sociologic stages from the star
dust forming the first nebula to the highest stage of society reached
by the most enlightened civilization. The star dust of the nebula
from which arose the present solar system filled a space much
larger than that filled now by the sun and its planets. This glow-
ing gas in a process of condensation was in a swirl of motion. It
was homogeneous, indefinite, incoherent. As the integration of
matter progressed some motion became dissipated in space, it slowed
up and narrowed in its limits. Section after section of the gas
separated from the mass became more definite, coherent, hetero-
geneous, at length a planet, while the remaining mass through the
same process became our sun. So also we read the plan in the
geologic stages of the earth's history. The same process can be
traced through zoology, from the lowest form of life, something
like the present jelly fish, an indefinite, incoherent, homogeneous
mass to the fish, with head, eyes, backbone, fins, tail, a definite,
coherent, heterogeneous animal. So also the plan is seen in the
psychologic stage of life.

The same process can be traced through sociology, from the
savage or barbarian tribe, where all hunt and fish and fight, an
indefinite, incoherent, homogeneous mass to the modern city with
legislative, executive and judicial departments, with its merchants,
lawyers, teachers, ministers, a definite, coherent, heterogeneous
society. It is a wonderful generalization coming from the mind of
Spencer. But so far as it is true he did not originate it, he dis-
covered it. He did not form the plan running through creation
any more than Newton made the attraction of gravitation. New-
ton discovered the law of gravitation and formulated it. "Every
body of matter attracts every other body with a force that varies
directly as the product of the masses of the two bodies under con-
sideration, and inversely as the square of the distance between
them". This rules in the farthest star and in the particle of dust
that floats in the summer air.

i6 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

Newton did not make the rule; but he is to be credited with
discovering it. So with evolution and this great formulation of
its law. Herbert Spencer did not make the rule, but he is to be
credited with discovering it. Both gravitation and evolution do
not put God out of his Universe but show how He acts in and
upon it. Rightly considered, as far as investigation goes and finds
evolution rule in the history and present condition of the universe
it becomes one of the strongest conceivable evidences of the exist-
ence of God. It also shows His wisdom in forming and carrying
out the wonderful far reaching plan, and His goodness also since
the plan steadily makes for progress. Still even this widest con-
ceivable evolution does not account for the existence of the homo-
geneous atoms and of the all pervasive force in the beginning from
which the present universe has been developed.

All Spencer's great generalizations run far back and terminate
in the absolute, of which he reverently claims he can affirm nothing.
Concerning life, evolution traces the series of steps by which the
great variety of forms of life have arisen through many stages from
a single, simple or rudimentary form. Even if this sprung from the
original atoms and forces, and the evidence is far from conclusive,
it is so traced back to the absolute. Thus the plan which Spencer
describes with so much fulness leads the mind contemplating its
wondrous unfolding back to the absolute, with the conclusion that
the plan which can be watched and read with admiration by our
finite intelligence must have been formed and carried out and
watched over by an intelligence far greater than ours. Of the
mechanical instantaneous making of things there is little evidence
either in nature or the Bible, and it is almost impossible for us to
conceive of it. Still Paley's watch illustration as it calls for a
maker need not be set aside, only it requires a more wonderful
maker. Evolution says God made the eye not mechanically, he
implanted life in lowest form, it unfolded power in adapting
itself to its surroundings, at length it became sensitive to light,
after long ages its unfolding power became the eye, this long pro-
cess of development only forms a more wonderful eye by a more
wonderful maker. We can easily see with the mind's eye however

SOCIOLOGY AND EVOLUTION 17

the point of Spencer's comment on Paley's watch, that however
wonderful the watch as a time piece it could not be expected to
form an adequate conception of man, its maker. We should be
humble and reverential; we should not claim to know all about
God; but the mind is developed to know, and even when it faces
the absolute it must exert its power. We need not fear that the
race of mankind will ever become agnostics; that is not, and never
will be the ideal, the far ofif goal to which our intelligence is mov-
ing.

Neither need we conclude that all evolutionists are materialists.
There are materialistic evolutionists, it is simply the materialistic
philosophy adopting the evolution theory as a working hypothesis.
Materialism holds that matter is the only existence, that mind is
only refined matter. It runs counter to much in nature. The
materialistic evolution meets with great chasms in the history of
nature. It strives to account for vegetable life as coming from the
mineral kingdom, but there is a vast difference between the
material crystal and the living cell. It strives to account for the
sentient life as coming from the vegetable cell, but here also it
cannot account for the dififering life in the cells. The materialistic
philosophy adopting evolution thus runs counter with nature,
because the evolution in nature is not materialistic. The evolution
may be accepted, but the philosophy must be rejected.

There are also theistic and Christian evolutionists. The theist
regards God as transcendent above nature, and that He is also
immanent in nature. He is the plan and the working force, and
nature unfolds according to His unalterable law. The Christian
is a theist but he also holds that the transcendent and immanent
God implants new forces in nature as needed; that His own
immanence at any particular time in nature is not the full measure
of His being. He is infinite in His being, the Absolute. His
immanence must always be limited by the nature of the thing or
the person in whom He is immanent. He was immanent in what
we call dead matter and its unfolding forces and laws through
countless ages. There came a time when he implanted life in
matter prepared for it; He was then immanent in nature to a

i8 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

larger degree. There then came a time when he implanted a
higher life, a life in his own likeness, in the life prepared for it.
He was then immanent in nature in a still higher degree. His
coming into this higher life in the person of His Son, Jesus
Christ, is a still higher degree of His immanence, but we cannot
conclude that even this is the full measure of His being. The
Christian is humble and reverent, he does not claim either that
he knows, or ever can know all about God. He believes in God
over all. He believes also in God in all, in the earth, in man,
and in the Bible, but in all in such a way that He is still over
all, His personality not confused with or dependent upon His
works. He is also seeking to know of God through nature and he
honors and follows science in her untiring search for truth.
Agassiz said: "Science is the interpretation of the thoughts of
the Creator". Kepler explained devoutly: "O God I think Thy
thoughts after Thee". So the reverent christian follows evolu-
tion in an earnest seeking to discover and define the unfolding of
God's plan in Creation, in Providence and in Redemption.

While Spencer in his Synthetic Philosophy tries to trace evo-
lution through all nature, thus binding all the sciences together,
by this all pervading theory, each science in its treatment of its
own department of nature makes only such adoption of the
theory as it finds in that department. Both in the general and
in the particular evolution is powerless to account for origins, it
only tries to explain modifications of the original atom or
cell in its climbing the stairs of being. Evolution does not account
for the origin of life any more than it does for the origin of the
atom or the electron. Huxley and Tyndall and the scientists of
their day sought but could not discover spontaneous generation,
whenever they seemed to come near the discovery they only found
they had not succeeded in keeping out some living cell. There is
a theory held by some today, that nature under favorable condi-
tions evolves a living cell from dead matter just as she evolves a
crystal from lower forms of matter, that the mineral kingdom
under the conditions of warmth and moisture will evolve the veg-
etable and animal kingdoms. But this is only a theory, no one has

SOCIOLOGY AND EVOLUTION 19

ever had evidences of its workings, or seen it w^orking or been able
to arrange the conditions for its vv^orking. Imagination can see
the atom, even the electron, it finds it easy to see the favorable
conditions, the moist hot weather, but the average imagination
cannot see the cell in the act of forming. Nature more than inti-
mates, it asserts that life is the greater immanence of God, the
touch of the great Life Giver. The Biologist assumes the exist-
ence of the living cell before he begins to trace the evolutionary
process. He may see a great likeness between the crystal and
the cell but he never confuses them in evolution; the trouble
with the crystal is that it will not evolve in his line. He is
forced to admit even that the living cell, his unit of origin, is
as far removed from the inorganic crystal, as is the highest ani-
mal organism at the top of the stairs, in that it is alive.

There seems to be no evolution of life from dead matter but
there seems a marvelous evolution in the life when once im-
planted by the great Life Giver.

Evolution in life is based upon four great classes of facts.
The first is the prodigality of nature in the reproduction of life,
especially in the lower grades. These lower forms of life pass
quickly through the stages of their being and out of existence.
They seem to serve very largely as food for the higher grades,
but evidently this is not all the meaning there is in their living,
it is but the incident of their passing out of it. The Great Life
Giver is evidently a lover of life. He has given the joy of liv-
ing to the greatest possible number of beings by making the lower
grades prolific and short lived. The quickly succeeding genera-
tions of vast numbers of beings make a great sum of happiness
of these lower orders; they have no dread of death and death
itself is painless to them. As the rise is made through the many
grades of living beings, the prodigality in reproduction diminishes
and the length of life for each generation increases, and there
is a growing tendency to have life become more full and rich
in the individuals of each grade. Herein also is the greatest sum
of happiness, not now in large numbers of the lower order,
quickly passing, but in the many sided life lingering on the stage

20 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

of existence. The quantity of happiness in the lowest orders
slowly gives place through countless orders of being to the quality
of happiness in the highest orders of life.

The second class of facts upon which evolution is based is cov-
ered by the power in life of adapting itself to its surroundings, it is
found in low degree in the lowest orders, it increases in the
ascending scale of being and becomes marvelously varied and strong
in the highest orders. In all the orders some individuals have this
power slightly above the average, and some slightly below it, some
are more successful than the average in adapting themselves to their
environment and some are less so. From this there arises in every
order that condition covered by the now far famed expressions "the
struggle for existence" and "the survival of the fittest". This
power of adaptation is itself cultivated by exercise, and becomes
strong in each order of being; and it is claimed it may become so
strong in an individual case as to lift it above its own order and
make it become the founder of a new order. The Great Life
Giver has not only provided in the prodigality of life for the great-
est amount of the happiness of living, but in the power of adapta-
tion He has secured the preservation of the strongest life, and its
advance in the order of being.

The third great class of facts upon which evolution is based is
that of inheritance. No two individuals of any order are exactly
alike, there is wide variation within the limits of the order or
species, and the law of inheritance of likeness is crossed by the law
of variation. In the power of adaptation the strongest individual
not only secures the long and full life for himself but by the law
of inheritance is apt to transmit his attainments to his descendants.
This however may be checked by the law of variation of the other
parent. It however may also be fostered if the other parent be one
of the strong. By a long process of selection through many gener-
ations varied by possible checks and helps, a slight variation is pre-
served and made constant until a higher form or order of life is
reached, and a new species is evolved from an old. There is also
the possibility of freaks or sports and their preservation by inherit-
ance.

SOCIOLOGY AND EVOLUTION 21

The fourth class of facts is the growing power of living for
others in the upper ranks or life, this is found to some extent in the
bird life, and becomes especially strong in mammalian life. The
chief concern of life in lower forms is to multiply, to ruthlessly cast
aside its failures or have them for food for its successes, careless of
everything but its survival. But mere multiplication does not give
the greatest amount of life. Life must be enriched if there is to
be not merely more life but fuller life; more in quantit}^ not only
but more in quality. This life in its higher forms has the principle
of living for others in its nature.

The Great Life Giver has provided in the ceaseless and inevit-
able principles and laws of life, in its prolificness, its power of adap-
tation, its laws of inheritance and its premium to love, for its cease-
less and inevitable progress. Nature's purpose is abundance of life.
God's command, "Be fruitful and multiply" states the cardinal
principle of life. Still this includes not only more life but fuller
life. Abundance of life includes multiplication of lower forms and
rising forms in which more and higher life is crowded. Matthew
Arnold said: "Religion is morality touched by evolution" and
"there is a power not ourselves that makes for righteousness". This
morality and this righteousness that contain the principle of living
for others culminate in man, but their rudiments are found all
along in the ascending scale of life. The higher class of life is
called mammalian, and includes man. Whenever the breast is
found it adds nothing to its owner in itself, it rather is an encum-
brance and frequently a danger. Its use is entirely and only for
others, and in that use it undoubtedly brings happiness, perhaps the
highest physical happiness of which its owner is capable. Natural
selection so selects morality in the demand for fulness of life. The
struggle for life contains in itself the principle of the struggle for
the life of others, until we come to man not one solitary specimen
of whom has ever lived seven days without the aid of this mam-
malian morality, or some miserable substitute for it. The premium
of full life is given in nature to love, or to living for others.
Natural selection in seeking fulness of life more and more as
advances is made, demands love or morality of life. Man is

22 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

the product of morality. The facts of infancy proclaim "no
morals no man." Morality and righteousness as Arnold claims
are in the very nature of man.

The Biologist thus traces the evolutionary process through
all the grades of life. But he is dependent upon the Great Life
Giver for the implanting of the first living cell, and at every
step of the ascending way he is equally dependent upon the un-
folding power of the God given and God enfolding life accord-
ing to God enacted and God enforced laws, he is with Kepler
"thinking God's thoughts after Him."

God does not say in the Bible how he made man. If the
Biologist shows that He made him by a process of evolution
from protoplasm, it will still be true that God made him, a
wonderful being in a most wonderful way, by a wonderful plan
unfolding through countless ages until it culminates in man.
Even then it would seem that man is not fully accounted for,
he is not only from "the dust of the earth," but in "the likeness
of God." This spiritual likeness indicates that the transcendent
and immanent God implanted a higher life in the highest order
of the life evolved from the first living cell ; that evolution had
reached its loftiest attainment and could go no farther; and that
then God added His own likeness to the evolved man. This
evolved man was the highest of the animals and shared with
them their attainment of mental quality, and even social nature,
but lacked those qualities which lift man above the animals and
ally him with God. One of the main characteristics of this
added higher life, "in His likeness" — is its power of evolution
to ever higher degrees of mental and even social nature, of moral
and religious nature, until one can set no limits to what man
may become. It is upon this added life, "in His likeness" that
the nature of man as a Socius is most largely based. While
biology claims generally that man has been evolved from the
lowest animal life, it cannot be said that its claim is fully proved,
still should it ever be completely established it will be simply the
description of God's method in the creation of man.

In biology the magnificent procession of life culminates in

SOCIOLOGY AND EVOLUTION 2S

man. Sociology begins with man. Every science has its unit
of investigation. The Socius is the unit of the social group.
Society in its simplest form exists v^^herever a Socius has a com-
panion. Sociology does not explain origins, it starts with its
living cell, the Socius. The characteristic of the Socius is the
social nature. This has some features which are akin to the
social nature of animals and so far may have developed from
the purely animal nature. Still the social ties of animals and of
man with animals, especially with domestic animals, are so in-
ferior that they largely differ in kind. The means of com-
munication are so inadequate that the social life using and de-
pending upon them is of the lowest conceivable order. The social
nature consists mainly of the intellectual, moral and spiritual
elements, "the Likeness of God." If God's method of creating
and developing is evolution in the lower orders of life, it is not
likely that He will change it in this higher sphere.

It is one of the main evidences of evolution that it seems to
run with equal svray in the development of the social nature of
man and of society. The laws of Evolution in life generally,
have full sway in the life of man. The first law, that of prolific
life, is seen in the full and many sided life of the individual, and
in the great love and care of parents for children, and of one
generation for the next. The second law, that of adaptation is
seen in the ceaseless and inevitable struggle and competition. The
conflict waged from the beginning in all orders of life has not
been suspended in the case of man, he is as powerless to escape
from it as is the lowest organism; but the beneficence of the law
is seen in that here too the result is ceaseless and inevitable pro-
gress. The progress is in the nature of selection, those best
adapted to the condition of life in any land or age survive, and
have descendants, and the race advances.

The third law is equally manifest, that of heredity within the
limits of kind. The fourth law, that of living for others, finds
its highest manifestation in man.

Three important elements, traces of which may be seen in the
lower orders, come into prominence in man and have large in-

24 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

fluence in the adaptation of life to circumstances; they are rea-
son, combined action and afifection. Reason profits by the experi-
ence of past generations, takes a wide view of present condi-
tions and forms an opinion of the probable future, and from
many available forces selects those best adapted to produce de-
sired results. The power of combined action, man's capacity to
act in concert with his fellows in organized society, increases
the value of individual reason and enables man to rise out of
competition with animal life into its mastery, as well as into
mastery of many forces of nature, so man not merely adapts him-
self to his surroundings, but to a large extent he changes his
environment to meet his needs. The element of afiection is
found to some extent in the higher orders of animal life, and
wherever found it endows life with power. Birds and even
tigers risk life out of afifection for their young, and so preserve
life; it is a large element in the preservation of their species.
Nature in the struggle for existence develops love, she offers the
premium of continued existence to sympathy and helpfulness.
Man has in still larger and purer degree the love of his young,
and he has the capacity of love for his kind, he may develop love
for his tribe, for his nation, even love for humanity. Man with
his reason may consciously choose and foster love for a few, or
for the many or for the whole humanity as the controlling force
in his individual action. He may make it the controlling force
in his combined action with a large company of kindred spirits,
an awakened enthusiasm for humanity.

These three elements may largely modify the law of compe-
tition, or rather may lift it to a higher plane for the combined
good. If all the individuals of a generation could reason upon
a plan for the progress of the race their present interest in the
struggle for existence and enjoyment of it, would in many in-
stances probably over master the three combined elements; but
the majority adhering to the chosen plan would restrain and
master the revolting individuals. For instance we are cutting;
less timber and burning less wood now because we have con-
cluded that forests should be preserved to secure timber and rain

SOCIOLOGY AND EVOLUTION 25

for the coming generations ; but we have to guard the forests
against the individual selfishly seeking his own present welfare.
Thus civilization is not only the fuller and richer life of society,
but the environment as it has been changed by the succeeding
generations. The civilization of a great city includes the houses,
streets and parks as well as the social life of the citizens.
The third law, that of inheritance, covers both of these depart-
ments of society becoming civilized ; the civilized man and the
civilized condition. In the process of civilization each genera-
tion inherits inwardly and outwardly. Specially developed indi-
viduals give to their descendants some at least of their special
attainments, though here as in the lower grades the law of in-
heritance is crossed by the law of variation.

By process of education one increases not only knowledge but
mainly the intellectual acumen to discover and grasp it. So by
inheritance successive generations develop intellectual power and
keenness, and also large stores of knowledge.

But whatever may be said of highly developed individuals
forming new species in the lower orders, no one has ever yet
found a single hint of a new race being evolved in this way from
the race of man. Whatever progress is being made is wholly
within the limits of mankind. The 20th Century man is far
removed from the primeval savage, but he is still a man. The
constant factor in all this evolution is the presence and direct-
ing force of the great Creator. He introduced life in the pre-
pared earth and unfolded it. He introduced His likeness, a new
life, into the prepared life, and is still unfolding it. Christianity
is itself the introduction of a new life as needed. The super-
natural revelation of the Divine Life in human life in the per-
son of the Lord Jesus Christ, is preeminently the new life intro-
duced in the fulness of time. As this new life takes more and
more possession of human life it ushers in the society of the King-
dom of God on earth. The evolution may seem to eager minds
slow, but like all evolution it has the ages for its field and it is
sure the unfolding is ceaseless and inevitable progress. Here in
this highest sphere however it seems to be still within the limit

26 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

of kind. The 20th. Century man and the 20th Century society
give promise of a finer man and a better society, the advance
has been great but the end is not yet, the goal is still ahead, but
it w^ill be still within the limits of kind. The fully redeemed
man, perfect in Christ, and the fully evolved society, complete
in Christ, vv^ill still be human, within the limit of mankind. The
science of sociology simply studies how God works, what are
His methods of developing and moulding human nature in so-
ciety. The highest ideal of human society is found in the Bible,
the setting forth of the Kingdom of God, God the Father, Man
the Brother, Love the Law.

CHAPTER III.

Sociology and the Bible.

Sociology is the sum of our knowledge of society. This know-
ledge includes not only the facts as they have been discovered and
classified, but the laws and forces which underlie the facts. These
have produced the present condition of whatever particular sec-
tion of society may be considered, and these, together with new
forces from other sections, will produce whatever future condi-
tion that society may attain. Here as elsewhere man sees in
the present a product of the past and a promise of the future.
Thus Sociology has three great departments called Descriptive,
Statical and Dynamic; and sociologists while unable to neglect
either manifest their individual tastes by the emphasis they place
upon one or the other.

The Descriptive describes the present condition and how it
has been brought about, it includes therefore the historical. The
society of today wherever found has evolved from the society of
yesterday. The general society attained by man upon the earth
today has wide variety, but in every variety there are some com-
mon features, these are descriptive of the nature of man, as a
Socius. Sections of society which have advanced far beyond
others in all we call civilization may see in the present condition
of the others stages of development through which they have
passed. Whether the lower conditions can see in the higher a
stage to which they may attain, depends not only on the nature
of man as a socius, which would be hopeful, but upon the physi-
cal conditions of the portion of the globe he has for his dwelling
place. Much of the variety of social life upon the earth today,
of the various races and tribes of mankind, comes from the modi-

28 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

fication of the Socius by his environment, whether he lives in the
frigid, the temperate or the torid zone, in the orient or the Occi-
dent, on an island of the sea or in the heart of a continent, on
a plain or among the mountains. Man can modify his environ-
ment to a considerable extent, he can live in all these sections,
but they also modify him. From this modification of the Socius
himself a w^ider and fuller life is produced than would be pos-
sible did the whole race of mankind live under the same condi-
tions. Thus the Great Life Giver has provided as in the lower
grades, so in the higher, for the greatest fulness of human life.
The linking together of all lands and all climes which is the
growing characteristic of modern times, makes the special product
of one the possession of all. This includes the peculiar features
of society the product of many climes; desirable manners and
customes as well as other fabrics may be exchanged. Besides
the sociologist may take a wide view of the rich varieties of life
attained by the whole race, a view of the past and the present
and full of large hopes of the future. That which has been
attained by any particular section may not yet be the full attain-
ment possible, even to its unaided efforts. It has mainly been
attained by itself alone, but now it is brought into closer rela-
tions with other sections both to give and to receive desirable
things, and it may thus develop more rapidly. Besides the soci-
ologists, men of science, are now studying all the facts of society
of each section compared with all others, and may be able to
give such incentive and direction as shall lead to further and
better advance.

Statical Sociology takes the history and present conditions of
society given it by the Descriptive department, and in a critical
and constructive study seeks to discover what will be the prob-
able future. It takes the facts and forces of descriptive sociology
and regards them as containing social potencies determining social
possibilities. It wastes no time in fancying what society might
be if laziness was an element of progress. It discovers the powers
found in the experience of mankind as making for progress, and
considers what further progress they may promote. It discovers

SOCIOLOGY AND THE BIBLE 29

the powers which have limited progress and considers whether
they are exhausted or may be overcome. It patiently considers
the apparently conflicting powers to see if there is any promise of
their combining. It never quarrels with facts, but carefully
strives to discover their meaning. It forms ideals, not the ideals
of the visionary but of the scientists, it sees the ideals existing in
the powers working in society. It strives to catch a vision of,
and to fix its steady gaze upon the ideals of God as He is work-
ing them out in the laws and forces of societ>\ Enthusiasts some-
times disregard constant and ineradicable forces, and even regard
a conflict as inevitable and destructive, when a combination for
the highest good is within the range of the scientist's vision, the
ideal within the breast of the apparently conflicting forces. For
example, man's love of himself need not conflict with his love
of society, in fact only he who rightly loves himself can properly
love his fellow men. Egoism often does conflict with altruism,
but in such a case neither one is within its proper sphere, and
both are exaggerated in the conflict. True altruism must be
based upon and measured by true egoism. It is impossible to
make either the individual or the whole society the sole stand-
ard, both must be included, they are not in conflict but in har-
mony. He who truly loves humanity is himself included in the
humanity he loves. In low forms of society self interest is in
constant warfare with other self interest, in the ascending grades
its true interest is more and more found in combination for the
general welfare. We have not yet reached the grade when self
interest and collective welfare are one in fact but we can already
see the ideal written in the breast of humanity, and the reason-
ableness of it, that there is no real opposition between rational
egoism and rational altruism. This is surely God's ideal, and
here as every where the religious view is the highest view reason
can have.

Dynamic Sociology considers the possibility of intelligently di-
recting the action of the inherent powers of society to the attain-
ment of its ideals. It contemplates social phenomena as capable
of intelligent control by society itself in its own interests. It

30 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

strives to discover, enlist, and mass rational forces to the accom-
plishment of reasonable ideals. It seeks to arouse the intelligent
elifort of society itself to hasten the progress of its own evolution.
It is evolution coming into self-consciousness and striving to attain
its own ideals. Dynamic Sociology is the living science to which
the others are introductory.

It is the culmination of sociology and considers the available
forces for changing a latent ideal into a living realty. Present
methods of using fuel involve a large waste of energy, the state-
ment of that fact is quite independent of schemes for saving that
waste, though it may lead thoughtful men to devise such schemes.
So with the wastes of society. Statical sociology searches for
hopeful remedies. Dynamic sociology seeks to arouse society to
apply these remedies. Descriptive sociology has a brilliant
method of observation and generalization and fine descriptive
powers, but by itself it can have no more influence on human
progress than the description of the waves of the ocean and of
ships, can have on the progress of ships. Statical sociology is
like studying the force of the waves, the length of the trough
and its depth, and getting an ideal of a steamship so long and
heavy that it cannot be lifted in the middle by a big wave but
reaches from crest to crest, and rides steadily in the heaviest
storm. Dynamic sociology forms a company, builds and navi-
gates such a ship. Bliss Carmen in "A Coronation Ode," de-
scribes the Anglo Saxon character,

"They have visions of a country that sorrow never knew;

"They have rumors of a region where the heart has naught to rue ;

"And never will they rest

"Till they reach the fabled west

"That Is charted dim but certain in the Volume of the Breast,

"And forever they are dreamers that make the dream come true."

Statical Sociology discovers the ideal charted in the breast.
Dynamic sociology calls the dreamer to make the dream come
true, never to rest till he makes the dream come true.

SOCIOLOGY AND THE BIBLE 31

It is quite evident that the social condition of any particular
society at any particular time under consideration contained not
only the product of the past but the promise of its own coming
future, it contained the ideals written in its nature though it
was unconscious of them and had no purpose concerning them.
It is quite evident also that some peculiarly gifted and sensitive
individuals or even classes in such society may have felt vaguely
stirring within them the longings of their nature, may have caught
a glimpse of the ideal of this future coming into form, and may
have expressed this in such a way as to fix it in the attention of
their fellows and to leave a record of their hopes to he considered
by future ages. Whenever any particular society has produced a
literature it is apt to be more than a record of persons and events,
more than the basis of descriptive sociology, it is apt to contain
the ideals of that time coming into consciousness and even into
purpose, giving a basis for the statical and dynamic in sociology.
The sociologists of the future looking back upon the society of
England in the time of Edward VII will take into consideration
not only the coronation of the King over the vast empire, but
the Anglo Saxon character coming into consciousness in the Coro-
nation Ode of Bliss Carmen and in other pieces of literature.

The Sociology of the Bible may be considered as part of the y/
general science in that it describes a particular society, but the
distinctive element of this society is so peculiarly its own and
so vastly important as a contribution to the general society that
it is deserving of careful consideration by itself. The Bible "^
describes a society which groups itself around that supernatural
revelation and conception of God found only in the Bible. It i.
is true the God so revealed and believed in, is the God revealed
in nature, the God of all the sciences, and the God who formed
the nature, laws and forces of society. Still it is equally true <
that society in general, 'society in all other particular branches
has been formed without this special knowledge of the true God.
The Society found outside the Bible record, differs from the
special society of the Bible simply in not having this Bible con-
ception of God ; and this difference is one of vast influence. In

32 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

all civilized lands to-day men no longer believe in a particular
God for each particular nation, nor in many Gods. Some ques-
tion whether there is any God at all, but there are compara-
tively few, so few that they may be ignored. All agree that all
the evidence points to the existence of but one God. All the lines
of research of the various sciences run out beyond the gaze of
man, but they do not run in various directions, they converge in
the dazzling light of the absolute and eternal God. These sciences
flourish where the Bible flourishes. The society of these lands
)if is largely influenced by the Bible conception of God. The Bible
gives the account of the origin and growth of a society whose dis-
tinctive feature is that it has a special progressive conception of
the being, character and will of the True God, and it shows how
this society has been bound together and moulded by this concep-
tion. Whether this conception is based upon a progressive reve-
lation made by God in supernatural ways, or is the unfolding
of the human mind under the special training of the ever ruling
God, it is evidently one that must have large influence on social
development. In either case also it is evident that the concep-
tion may be inadequate of the truth either of the nature, char-
acter, or will of God, and then the mistaken conception will be
the one influencing the social development.

Biblical Theology is concerned with the statement in detail
with all possible fulness of this conception of God, what it is
^ / and upon what it is based. Biblical Sociology is concerned with
"^ tracing the influence this conception of God has had in the forma-
tion and development of the particular society whose history is
most fully recorded. It may borrow from Biblical Theology all
its vast treasure, and still it has a wide province of vast richness
distinctively its own.

The technical term Biblical Sociology, though as far as I am
aware it has not been specially used, at least I know of no book
with this title, would be restricted to this particular society, by
its likeness to the already well established and familiar term
Biblical Theology. The title I have chosen for this book, The
Sociology of the Bible, is not so limited.

SOCIOLOGY AND THE BIBLE 33

It includes the above as its main subject and it has four added
elements of great interest related with or growing out of it. The
first is the glimpse we have in the Bible of society in its earliest
stages. The Bible is an early literature comparing with the
Egyptian hieroglyphic and the Babylon cuneiform writings, and
less fragmentary than these. It gives a more connected and wider
and even clearer view of the earliest society than any other rec-
ord. It is nearer in some of its features to a contemporaneous rec-
ord of primitive society, its traditions and prospects, than we can
find even on stone or brick. This is a fascinating field for the
eager sociologist, which has not yet been fully explored. It is
from this early society that the particular society of the Bible
arises.

The second added element is the vivid pictures we have
sketched in the Bible of many features of the four great civiliza-
tions of ancient times, in whose midst or by whose side the par-
ticular society of the Bible runs its course. We see the magnifi-
cent life of Babylon, the ric)i life of Egypt, the cultured life of
Greece, the powerful life of Rome. These varied societies and
other lesser ones have varied conceptions of God, some of national
gods, some of many combining or conflicting gods, none the
same, many widely contrasted with that conception which is the
peculiar possession of the special society of the Bible. The atti-
tude of this favored society toward the others it touches or with
whom it mingles is of great interest, and is either that of con-
tempt and repulsion, or of pity and desire to help, or of tolerance
and yielding to or even being charmed by them; and whether
one or the other or all three upon different sections, it is largely
influenced by them, and it has also had large influence upon them.

The third added element is that this society grouped about
its peculiar conception of God does not end where the Bible
ends its history, but is at that time projected into the world's
society with all its accumulated force. A careful study of the
influence it has exerted in changing the natural development of
many particular societies by the introduction of its conception of
God and its spirit of loving obedience to Him is a somewhat

THE SOCIOLOGY (i)F THE BIBLE

difficult but a wonderfully interesting and stimulating part of
the Sociology of the Bible. This extends from the close of the
Bible history until the present time and it is still going on with
undiminished, even with increasing force.
/ The fourth added element is the bearing of the principles of

\ Bible Sociology upon the social problems facing the world today.
It is closely related to the last element stated, but may be separ-
ately considered as the influence of Bible Sociology upon the
general society of the present and the future. In the general
society of the whole earth today there is a distinct portion, wide
and ever growing wider which is to some extent an outgrowth
of and is to a large extent influenced by Bible Sociology. This
portion which is called Christian, exists contemporaneously with
other portions without this distinctive element which may be
called heathen. The comparison and contrasts are many of them
easily seen and full of instruction. It is of great interest also
to trace what is distinctively Biblical in the society of Christian
lands today; also what in such society is not Biblical or is even
anti-biblical; and also what is essentially a part of Biblical Soci-
ology, and yet is not present in Christian society today, or if
present is not pure or prominent. As every stage of society is
not only historical and descriptive but statical and dynamic as well,
the further question arises are the ideals and hopes Christian
society finds today written in its breast, in harmony or in dis-
cord with those of Bible Sociology'. Thus the Sociology of the
Bible contains all that is included in the technical term Biblical
Sociology and at least these four added elements; it has there-
fore a wide field of investigation distinctively its own.

The particular society of the Bible is based upon the entire
nature of man as a Socius, and recognizes especially the import-
ance of his religious nature as a combining force with his fellows.
The organization of this particular s6ciety begins with a family,
grows into a tribe or tribes, then into a nation, it then spreads
into a society unlimited by race or national bounds, and it strives
and promises to embrace the whole society of the human race.
The growing conception of God shows Him worthy of the su-

SOCIOLOGY AND THE BIBLE 35

preme love of every individual man, and of every family, tribe,
nation or race, worthy of the supreme love of mankind. Man is
cultured in this society until each one recognizes every other
member of the w^hole race as worthy of the love he bears him-
self. Other religions may be content with God and a soul, and
may aim at the rapture of adoration alone — the Bible religion
requires a third party, God, the soul and another soul; its rapture
of adoration must develop a spirit of brotherhood. As the brother-
hood draws close to God in adoration they are drawn closer to
each other in mutual love, and their desire and effort become con-
tinually stronger to draw the whole race of mankind within the
charmed circle of a worshiping society, an adoring brotherhood.
The religion of the Bible is theological, based upon the know-
ledge of God as worthy of supreme love; it is also sociological
based upon the knowledge of man as worthy of the love each
one gives himself; and as both it enters with controlling power
into all the relations of this earthly life. That is a mistaken idea
of religion which thinks only of its God-ward outlook; it must
have the manward attitude, or it cannot please God. The eter-
nal blessedness of which the Bible speaks is a social life, the
religion of earth is not limited by the earth life, but stretching
out into eternity it is still God, the soul and other souls. The
religion of the Bible in its highest unity is love. It is divided
into two parts, the love of God and the love of man; it is both
theological and sociological, neither part can be left out without
destroying the whole.

Thus the Bible clearly presents as the fundamental truth of
all sociology that man's like-mindedness with his brother man arises
from his like-mindedness with his Father God. The basis of the
solidarity of the race of man is the Fatherhood of God. Where-
ever man is found, even in the lowest savage, there is, though
in the lowest conceivable degree, a trace of this like-mindedness,
and there in its lowest form is a human society. However man may
develop, whatever lofty form of society may be reached, it is
only by this like-mindedness coming out in ever clearer features.

36 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

Bible Sociology culminates in the Kingdom of God, which is
the highest possible ideal society of the whole race of man.

Bible Sociology is then historical and descriptive from Genesis
to Revelation. At every stage it is also statical as it contains
this ideal coming forth into clearer and fuller vision, a most
reasonable ideal based upon the like-mindedness of God and man.
At every stage it is also dynamic as it provides the power to
realize this ideal in the growing immanence of God producing in
man a growing like-mindedness to Him, the Divine Father dwell-
ing in His children.

CHAPTER IV.

The Sociology of the Bible and the Higher Criticism.

The theistic and Christian evolution which we have seen in a
former chapter runs through the universe and man from the
far off star dust to the finest social development attained in mod-
ern civilization we may now trace through the Bible itself. The
two views of the Bible prevailing today will not be discussed
further than they have a bearing on our subject. The traditional
view holds that the Bible was largely written by eye-witnesses
of the events recorded, and that many of these events are con-
nected with a supernatural revelation of God. The Higher
Critical view holds that the Bible, especially the Old Testa-
ment, took its present form late in the national life of the He-
brews, many centuries after the actors in the earlier events had
passed away; that some of these actors and events are not strictly
historical, and that in these writings we have the conception the
Hebrew people formed of God. In considering Higher Criti-
cism one will do well, as in the cases of socialism and evolu-
tion, to take the description of it from those who hold and advo-
cate it. Driver holds that Moses did not write the account of
the events of his day, on the contrary that older written accounts
of those times worked up in the Bible narrative were first set
down at least five centuries after him. Budde claims that the
patriarchs are in reality nothing more than the ideal reflection
of the nation Israel thrown back upon the past. In the folk
stories and songs no mention of them is found. They never
existed. No nation knows the actual father from whom it takes
its origin. Day in searching for historical material says he is
forced to ignore almost the whole of Joshua, and can find little

38 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

of value in Judges, it has been so worked over by the priestly
writers of post exile times.

The theory of the Higher Criticism concisely stated is that the
first six books of the Bible were compiled from a number of
documents which are denoted by different symbol letters. First
in order of time was the J. document taking its symbol from
Jehovah, the name of the deity found in it. Following it was
the E. document, taking its symbol from the name of God found
in it, Elohim. The date of the origin of these documents is not
known, but the theory is that they were joined into one called
J.E. about 750 B. C.

The D. document takes its symbol from the book of Deuter-
onomy, claiming that book was discovered by Josiah and that it
originated in the time of Manasseh. Then J.E. and D. were
combined in J.E.D. known as the prophetical narrative. Side
by side with this prophetical narrative is a priestly narrative
known as P. — forming the basis of the six books — this arose in
the Exile in Babylon or after the Exile. In the final combination
into the present form the language of the different documents
were carefully preserved as far as possible, and may be traced.
The laws found in these documents, those in J.E., in D. and
in P., are the product of the different social and religious condi-
tions of the ages in which they originated, and are often incon-
sistent with each other. These documents also run through the
late history, though not so clearly.

While these conflicting views have their principal bearing on
theology it is quite evident they must have some bearing also
on sociology. Bible Sociology treats of that Particular Society
described in the Bible which is distinguished from society in gen-
eral in that it is grouped about a conception of God peculiar to
the Bible. It is true the supernatural revelation of God must
be received, that it must become a conception, before it can largely
influence society. The revelation may be perfect, and the con-
ception based upon it may not be in harmony with it in all re-
spects, still it is this imperfect conception which alone can influ-
ence either the individual or the social consciousness. But a

BIBLE HIGHER CRITICISM 39

conception of God based upon a supernatural revelation made
by Him starts at once with a degree of clearness and fulness
which cannot belong to a conception of God gradually forming
from observation and reflection upon the light of nature and the
history of man. The supernatural revelation may itself be pro-
gressive, but even the first unfolding of it, the lowest stage of its
beginning, must have a vividness and effect on the correspond-
ing conception which a conception based only upon reflection
upon nature and history could not have. Hence the society
formed around this conception based upon a supernatural reve-
lation of God would differ widely at the start from the society
formed about the conception based upon a simply natural revela-
tion.

Then too the view given of society especially of the early days
is much more vivid and reliable if written by eye witnesses ac-
cording to the traditional view, than if written long afterwards
by men however well informed. Much of the description of
society is in the one case historical, in the other it is necessarily
fictional. The writers in the time of the later Kings, or of the
post exile priests, in describing the life in Egypt and in the desert,
even though they had many traditions and even records as the
basis of their story must inevitably have added many details and
much coloring from their own surroundings. Take for instance,
the story of Joseph, if the traditions whether oral or written
upon which the record was based passed into final form under
the hand of Moses, he though living in Eg3'pt only a few gen-
erations afterward, would have had a difficult task to keep his
surroundings from coloring his story, but this would have been
as nothing to the task of writers living a thousand j^ears after-
wards in a far different civilization, and in a far distant moun-
tainous land. The sociological data of any particular time must
be far different whether found in the writings of the poets, ora-
tors and historians of that time or of those of times long after-
wards. In the first case there is but one environment that of
both the society and the writers ; in the other case there are neces-
sarily two environments, one of the society described and the

40 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

other of the writers describing it. The task of readers and care-
ful students in far after years is comparatively easy with the
first case, and extremely difficult with the latter case. The evi-
dence of a particular law, custom or institution in the one case
is clear, in the second case it is conflicting, one can hardly tell
whether the law, custom or institution is of the society described
or of the society in which the poets, orators or historians describ-
ing it, were living. In this latter case the story of Abraham as
far as the sociological data of it is concerned does not come from
his times alone but from that of writers many hundreds of years
after him, and this is still more markedly the case with the vague
traditions of the times before him. If we come down to the
time of Ruth, in the book we have a description of life as affected
by the laws of religion, the laws of marriage and the laws of
inheritance of the land prevailing in that day; but according to
the Higher Critical view these all took form long afterwards,
and the social life of Ruth's own time must be considered with-
out them. When we come to the post exile time, Ezra and
Nehemiah give an account of social conditions which are hardly
the proper background for the political, religious and literary
geniuses who gave the present form to the Bible narrative ; so
that social condition too has to be reformed and recolored. The
narratives of the early times if written in far later days will
aiiford of course some material for a picture of the later days, in
the necessary though unconscious coloring of the writers;
but the gathering of such material in our day will be a difficult
task dependent upon the arbitary judgment of the student. So
Day, in attempting to picture the social life of the Hebrews in
the time of the Monarchy, finds good material in the priestly
and prophetic narratives of Genesis, particularly in the patri-
archal stories. He says, "the social ideals, and religious practices,
the traditions and customs of the people of the ninth and eighth
centuries come strikingly to the surface of these narratives." He
concludes however that the unblushing disposition of Jacob to
overreach, and the economic and social policy of Joseph could
not have been heartily endorsed by the best men of the eighth

BIBLE HIGHER CRITICISM 41

century, as by Amos and Isaiah, by whom or among whom they
must have originated. While Day is a man of great ability and
wide learning much of the unsatisfactory nature of his book
comes from the unreliability of his materials. For the sociologist
therefore, whatever may be said of the theologian, the tradi-
tional view of the Bible is the easy view, and the Higher Criti-
cism the difficult one.

But the question is not of ease but of truth : though here as
elsewhere the presumption is in favor of the truth of the story
written on the face of the literature. The Higher Critical view^
may be said to be based upon the theory of evolution in social
life, but it is largely the materialistic theory and here also as in
nature that theory of evolution will not account for all the facts
in the case. The laws, customs, institutions and literature of
any nation are so far as our knowledge extends the result of its
growing social life. The experience of a people advancing in
numbers from family through tribe to nation, more fully occupy-
ing the land, becoming more complex in inner relations, and
growing more intimate with surrounding nations, is the source
of laws, gives rise to customs, forms, institutions, and in grow-
ing self consciousness flowers forth into its literature. This is
the history of all the nations of ancient and modern times, and
it is our own national history. When we come to the literature
of all these nations, to our own English and American literature,
that is the story written on its face. It tells no other story, no
one has the slightest cause to question the gradual formation of
our laws, customs, institutions and literature; they are the natural
expression of the gradual growth of the nation. Liberty loving
people from England and Holland settled in Colonies on these
shores, after long development they united in a war for inde-
pendence, then they formed a constitution, there has grown large
local self government, there has developed a strong central gov-
ernment respected the world over. That is the one and only
story of our poets, orators, historians, of our whole literature;
there is no other story, because there could be no other. To
reconstruct another story in after ages would be false. Now

42 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

when we come to examine the Hebrew people with this theory
of evolution in mind we would expect to see a family enlarging
into a tribe and tribes, these tribes are nomadic but finally leave
their wilderness wanderings, and enter the land of Canaan ; they
enter gradually in different portions, their little tribes being at
first hardly noticed by the original inhabitants; their intrusion
was permitted ; their growth leads to many a conflict with and a
gradual crowding out of these inhabitants or to a commingling
with them until they are in full possession of the land. During
this settling process their laws, customs, institutions are formed,
and as they advance in civilization their literature flowers forth.
They have varied experiences with other nations and at length a
great disaster from which they slowly recover; and in this recov-
ery their best literature takes its rise, and their laws, customs
and institutions become finally established. The early tribes
have traditions of their ancestors and the late literature elabor-
ates these legends. Most nations have their gods by inheritance
from their fathers. These tribes are peculiar in that they choose
their God, one they first heard of in their nomadic life in the
wilderness of Sinai, and in this choice there is an element of
voluntary and grateful service which makes the religion an ethi-
cal one, and which is the basis of their conception of the one
righteous God. The laws and customs of the worship of this
God are slowly formed during their life in Canaan. This is
the history of the Hebrew people as the materialistic evolution
theory would expect it, and as Budde, Cheyne and others recon-
struct it.

But in this case, unlike all others we know of, this is not the
story told in their own literature. The history written on the
face of their own literature has to be reconstructed to conform
to this materialistic evolution theory. On the other view the his-
tory as it appears has much evolution in it, but it also has a new
element introduced, the supernatural revelation of God. A fam-
ily becomes a nation, that is evolution ; but not exactly as other
families become nations; this organized society grows around a
supernatural revelation of God. In the early beginnings of this

BIBLE HIGHER CRITICISxVI 43

family God supernaturally revealed himself to their heads, and
the account given of these favored persons seems historical. They
may have had erroneous views of this revelation in some particu-
lars, that was their conception of God, and their lives may have
been influenced by it, still it was a conception based upon a super-
natural revelation. In the growth of a nation God gives fur-
ther revelations of Himself. He deals directly with them or
through chosen representatives; he disciplines them by his guid-
ance, sustenance, teachings, punishments until they are a compact
and large national organization. Through Moses He directs the
form and ceremonies of the worship they are to give Him, and
He gives also the general principles and many details of the laws
with which they are to govern themselves ; He through Moses also
gives them a moral law of such splendid perfection that it still
stands far ahead of the highest civilization of the world, beclcon-
ing on to even higher attainments. Of this whole supernatural
revelation the nation at particular times, or large parts of the
nation may have had erroneous views, and their lives may have
been wrong accordingly. Still it was a conception based upon
a supernatural revelation. This compact nation under another
God given leader, and with still supernatural revelations of God
directing them, enters and takes possession of their land. They
may largely have had erroneous views of God's nature and will,
and may have acted wrongly; still their conception of God gov-
erning their conduct is based upon a supernatural revelation.
This is the history in the form given it in the Bible, the history
written upon the face of the literature of the Hebrew people.
In order to reconstruct the history the literature itself tells
into a history to be like that of all other nations, the supernatural
revelation of God has to be left out. Now we concluded in con-
sidering the general theory of evolution that materialistic atheis-
tic evolution would not account for either the universe or man ;
that it gave no beginning of matter or force; no formation of a
plan or direction of it, that it did not account for life, for senti-
ent life, for human life. But we also concluded that theistic
and Christian evolution was the splendid unfolding of the plan

44 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

of the transcendent and immanent God, the God, who imman-
ent in all His works became more immanent as his unfolding
plan needed Him, as in implanting life in matter prepared for
it, and human life in life prepared for it. Now if this glorious
transcendent and immanent God, accounting for the existence
and moulding of the universe and man, wishes to make a further
revelation of Himself and to become still more immanent in
man we have sufficient reason for, and a reasonable probability of
a supernatural revelation of Himself; and also for the record
of it written from such special lives of men who received it for
future generations, and for conveying the continued imman-
ence of God in human life.

So the Christian Evolution theory fully considered accounts
for the ordinary development of national life, its laws, customs
and literature; and also account^ for a special national develop-
ment, with its peculiar laws, customs and literature embracing
a supernatural revelation of God in the particular society of the
Bible; a new inflow of His immanence for the further enrich-
ment and uplifting of human life. Theistic Christian Evolution
accounts for the universe, for man, for the general society of
the race, in all tribes and nations; and for the particular society
and literature of the Hebrews as well. The transcendent God
ever increases his immanence as this plan evolves. He is more
immanent in the plant than in the atom, in the animal than in
the plant, in the man than in the animal, in general society than
in the individual man alone, in the particular society of the Bible
than in the general society of the race. His immanence in the
society of the Bible is an ever increasing one, the progressive
supernatural revelation of Himself culminating in the Lord Jesus
Christ and His growing Kingdom. In the Bible there is a won-
derful amount of this theistic and Christian evolution, the un-
folding of that already existing in the social being according to
a well defined plan in accord with his nature, as there is in any
other library of history, poetry and oratory. This also accounts
for all there is in the Bible of a sociological character be\^ond
that which exists in other literatures. There is the importa-

BIBLE HIGHER CRITICISM 45

tion of a new element, a new force, a new life, there is in the
Bible that which is not found in other great national libraries, a
supernatural revelation of God, and the inspiration of the written
record bearing the correct account of this revelation, and of the
impression made upon those who originally received it, a record
made to convey both the revelation and the life broadcast to all
mankind, through all generations to the end of time.

Holding this Christian evolution theory we cheerfully accept
the methods of scientific historical investigation of the Higher
Criticism and many of the conclusions reached by it, and at the
same time retain the history of the Hebrew people written upon
the face of their literature, the history of a social development
in individual, family and national life formed around a super-
natural revelation of God, and described in the main by eye-
witnesses as the unfolding of God's plan. The methods of
Higher Criticism apply to all books as well as to the Bible. It
asks what is the nature of any book? It makes a careful study
of the language and style of its writers, of the manners and
customs described, of the historical facts mentioned, it compares
part with part, delights in fine agreements, detects slight dis-
crepencies and so reaches an opinion as to the origin of the book
or books. There appears no reason to exclude the books of
the Bible from such scientific investigation, nor that there should
be any change in the methods of investigations when directed to
the books of the Bible. The same may be said of the methods
of historical investigation, the search for and weighing of evidence
for the truth of the alleged facts mentioned in the books. There
seems no reason why there should be one kind of investigation
for books and events that are said to have happened in Italy, and
another for those that are said to have happened in Palestine;
one way of testing the genuineness of the books and the truth
of the events written by Greek and Roman authors, and another
for those written by Hebrew authors. Nor should the attitude
of mind which faithfully works out these principles and methods
of investigation be commended or condemned in one case more
than in the other. Such questions are perfectly proper concern-

46 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

ing any book, the mind naturally asks them and should honestly
and earnestly strive to secure satisfactory answers from the books
themselves. It is not a question of books but the search for
truth. Applying these methods to the Bible, its most prominent
feature seen at first glance must not be ignored. It is utterly
unscientific to ignore a prominent feature or claim of any book.
It is utterly unscientific to start an investigation of this litera-
ture with the conclusion that it cannot be different from other
literatures, when this its most prominent feature is itself largely
distinctive from all other literatures. This most prominent fea-
ture becomes more and more prominent as the investigation pro-
ceeds; it underlies all forms; it explains all peculiarities. It is
the supernatural revelation of God. The Bible tells of a society
holding a conception of God based upon that supernatural reve-
lation ; it shows the immanence of God advancing in events and
writings and culminating in the Lord Jesus Christ. The evolu-
tion found in this society and in its literature is the evolu-
tion that runs through all creation, that of the transcendent God,
immanent in all His work.

To ignore this requires an entire reconstruction of the society
and of its history and of its literature, a reconstruction so great
that it makes the present form of the Bible the most stupendous
piece of fiction the world has ever known ; a fiction absolutely
the only thing of its kind among all the vagaries of the human
mind ; there is nothing remotely resembling it in all the other
literature of the world. The first books of this history become
under this wizard wand very late books. They are cast in the
form of history by designing men though with a noble purpose,
by the late prophets and priests for the purpose of commending
the civil laws and religious ceremonies to the observance of the
people. The work is a compilation of stories, laws, ceremonies
and beliefs which have arisen from the experience of the people,
and it is cast in the form of early history to secure the sanction
of the legendary character of Moses, and still farther back of
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and through these the greater sanc-
tion of God Himself, a wonder working God. The main fea-

BIBLE HIGHER CRITICISM 47

ture of the Graf-Wellhausen conclusion are the creative func-
tions of the prophets in the Hebrew religion, the Josian date of
Deuteronomy and the exilean date of the priest code and docu-
ment, which is the basal document, and gives the bulk not
only but the main portion of the framework of the early books
of the Bible. They consider that the religious leaders of the
Hebrews from Gideon and Elisha behaved as if there were no
such laws in existence as those of Deuteronomy and the Priest
code, and then conclude therefore that these laws did not exist.
The prophets and priests of the later days are the real authors of
the early history, which is thus largely fictional. To make the
fiction still more astounding, it is held that it was made not by
a single wonderful genius, for the final redactor only smoothed
out a few wrinkles, but by large classes of men, schools of
prophets and priests. The story which this literature of the
Hebrews shows upon its face and which has been regarded so
long as the only story it told, is itself a fiction, and the real
history is as Graf-Wellhausen discovers and reconstructs it. Juda-
ism has been resting for over two thousand years upon this fic-
tion. This whole fiction is so marvelously well done that it
secures its acceptance by the people for whom it was made, and
by many successive generations of earnest souls, even down to
modern times. Moreover this stupendous fiction as a rule works
the intellectual and moral advancement of the race, and is the
basis of the highest knowledge of God and the finest social ad-
vancement the world possesses today. It is difficult to conceive
of the start of such a fiction, and of its acceptance till modern
time, more difficult to account for such excellent results flowing
from it through the ages. It is difficult also to conceive of the
discovery of the falsity of the original account both in form and
substance being made so late in time and by scholars of an
entirely different nationality and age. The Higher Critical
theory is based largely upon the vocabulary and style of writers
of a list of books finished over two thousand years ago, which
contains all the books . written in the language of that period
now existing. No comparison can be made with any other

48 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

books. The vocabulary can only be estimated by the works
in question, and as far as style is concerned the judgment
must be one of individual taste of scholars of a far different nation-
ality and age. It is difficult to conceive of the start, of the ac-
ceptance, of the results and finally of the discovery of this fiction.
It is almost as easy to think of the present order in nature coming
from chance. The attempt to get God out of His Book as that
to get Him out of His w^orld, only results in stupefying man.

The Christian evolution theory accounts for the order of
nature and for the literature of the Bible, and the substantial
truth of the history of the society gathered by the supernatural
revelation of God. Moses was a strong enough personality to
stand at the beginning of Hebrew literature, and to give it its
form. The form is that of the account of eye witnesses of its main
events. It is frequently a compilation of traditions or of docu-
ments, but these were made by eye witnesses, e. g. the books of
Genesis and of Kings and Chronicles. The moral law in full,
the general features of the civil law and of the laws of worship
were given by God through Moses, but in such a way that he
deserved the title, Moses, the Lawgiver; and the nation formed
by and possessing these laws enters and passes along in its event-
ful career. Moses was one of the greatest statemen, legislators,
organizers and leaders of men in the history of the race. He
dealt with many grave and perplexing problems facing him and
he also had a wise and far look ahead as statesmen must have, for
the solution of each present problem must have the future in its
vision. In the career of the nation arise poets, orators and his-
torians who tell of the varied experiences and the growing self-
consciousness of the people. For the same reasons therefore that
one is compelled to reject a godless evolution and to receive a
God full evolution in nature, one is compelled to do the same
in the Bible. The Bible is the continued revelation of God, and
the sociologj' of the Bible is the description of the laws and forces
of the society gathered around the conception of God based upon
this supernatural revelation. We shall look through the Bible
as written mainly by eye witnesses, to see the society they describe.

BIBLE HIGHER CRITICISM 49

Those who hold the Higher Critical view may make such cor-
rections as thej' may find necessarj'. It is certainly not amiss to
add that as far as I have been able to read the story told by the
recently deciphered hieroglyphic literature of Egypt and the cunei-
form literature of the Euphrates, books evidently written by eye
witnesses of the ancient scenes, it is confirmative of the view that
the writers of the Bible also were eye witnesses of the ancient
scenes they described.

The increasing immanence of God in the socety and in the lit-
erature will account for the miracles found in the narrative, and
will describe as well the nature of a miracle. It is that through
which a supernatural revelation of God is made either directly
as to Abraham, or indirectly as by Moses, in the latter case it
affords the sign to others that the man who speakcs or acts is
the authorized messenger of God. In either case it is not a
setting aside the laws of nature, or opposing them, as it is not
another God but the same God revealing Himself in natural law
who acts in the miracle. Only in the case of the miracle there is
greater power, a larger immanence of God in this particular
case then in the natural law. The natural law is therefore not
only the background but the basis of the miracle. God is in
both, only there is more of God in the miracle. More of His
immanence constitutes the supernatural revelation. Miracles are
believed therefore not because in the Bible record, that does not
account for the original belief in them, it only records it, but
because of the evident immanence of God in the event. We
believe them in our day because of sufficient evidence. This
evidence includes the original self-evidence, not only, but the
testimony of the original witnesses and the record of the results
following it. There is manifestly a variety of such evidence.
Some miracles have greater proof than others; some seeming
miracles have very little, if any, proof. For example, the Plagues
of Egypt are on a far different plain from the story of Balaam's
Ass. The first are suitable to the supernatural revelation of
God made to two great nations, are witnessed to us by Moses
and other eye witnesses, and are followed by results that cannot

50 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

otherwise be accounted for. While the last is conflicting with
the general revelation of God, is witnessed only to us by Balaam,
a questionable character, always condemned in Scripture refer-
ences to him, and is followed by no corresponding result. The
inherent probability, the truthful witness-bearing and the circum-
stantial evidence are in favor of the one, and against the other.

As with the miracles, so with the sayings and events in the
Bible record. The principles of historical investigation must be
faithfully applied to them all. The thing is true not because it
is stated in the Bible, but because the Bible evidence fully con-
sidered confirms it. "Thou shalt not surely die" needs to be tested
by "Who says it?" And is it in harmony with all known truth
in nature and revelation ? The immanence of God in the events
and in the narrative itself gives ample room for the human con-
ception. The human conception based upon the supernatural
revelation of God may not be always in full harmony with it.
Many of the sayings and deeds of men having such a conception
of God may be due to the error of their conception rather than
to the supernatural revelation upon which it is based. Many of
the deeds of men believing themselves to be acting under the
special direction of God are clearly seen to be entirely out of har-
mony with His character and will. The Bible does not approve
all it records, its faithfulness to truth is seen in the recorded evil
of some of its noblest men.

When all this is acknowledged it remains to be said that some
events connected apparently with both the revelation and con-
ception of God, seem out of harmony with the full and culmin-
ating revelation of God in Jesus Christ. The two principal
events of this character however, holding large sociological data
concerning the decadence and conflict of nations, have much
light thrown upon them as they seem to be in harmony with
the general philosophy of history, and show the immanence of
God in administering justice among nations. The first is the
deliverance of the Hebrews from Egypt, involving the horrors
of the plagues, the death of the first born, the spoiling of the
people, and the destruction of the pursuing army. The Egyp-

BIBLE HIGHER CRITICISM 51

tians had for several generations held the Hebrews in bondage,
a cruel slavery of long enduring horror culminating in the almost
inconceivable destruction of the male children. The fate of the
Egyptians was clearly in the nature of a retribution. Such re-
tributions are frequent in the history of nations; standing near to
us in point of time and contact are the bloody scenes of the
French Revolution, the destruction of the Kings and of the nobles
who had long oppressed the people; and also the terrible suf-
ferings and shedding of blood in our own Civil War which re-
sulted in the freeing of our slaves whom we had held in slavery
for generations. The second is the conquest of Canaan. Whether
God had ordered the extermination of the Canaanites or only
the Hebrews conceived He had, may be the subject of historical
investigation, the fact remains, one nation took possession of
the land belonging to another, and in such action there would
naturally be great harshness. Such conquests are however fre-
quent in the history of nations. A nation is incapable of advance,
or a nation becomes corrupt and enters upon a hopeless decadence ;
in the general advance of the race, such nations are conquered
and frequently destroyed. In the advance to our high civiliza-
tion there have been many such cases, notably the over running
of the superior but corrupt civilization of Rome by the Goths,
and the destruction of the American Indians by the English.
The races originally inhabiting Canaan have made no contribu-
tion to the civilization of the world, the Hebrews have con-
tributed the religion and the social advances which prevail in
the highest civilization the world has ever known. The appar-
ent favoritism of God for the Hebrew people is seen in the
philosophy of history, to be a gracious design for the blessing
of the whole race, just as today his apparent favoritism for the
Aryan race of northern Europe, for Crcrmany, England and
America, is doubtless a gracious design for the further blessing
of mankind.

CHAPTER V.
The Bible and the Church as a Social Force.

One need not go far to find good reasons for the fact that
Bible Sociology is now for the first time coming into prominence.
One such reason has already been considered, sociology is itself
a new science. Scientific investigation has only in recent years,
within the memory of many now living, turned its attention to
the facts and forces of society. Society has existed for ages, but
it has not been scientifically studied until in our day. So the
society of the Bible has been a matter of interest to earnest stu-
dents for ages, but it has only become the subject of special
scientific study in connection with the science of sociology.
Another reason is that the Church of Christ has had certain
striking features of her life and work drawn out into prominence
by her surroundings during the successive periods of her long
history. All these features have been present in all ages, but
often one has become so prominent among others as to charac-
terize the age. The Church has had her government forming
age, her creed making age, her worship developing age. Now
the prominent feature of her life and work make this her min-
istering age. She has always loved and studied the Bible, but
she would naturally in her government, creed and worship form-
ing ages pay special attention to the distinctive conception of God
found in the Bible. Now in what is becoming more and more
her ministering age, she is beginning to see that the society formed
about the peculiar conception of God is equally distinctive of the
Bible, and so she is beginning to pay special attention to the prin-
ciples, laws and forces of this society.

Still another reason is that the world looking upon the Chris-

THE CHURCH A SOCIAL FORCE 53

tian church is claiming that she shall show not only what to
believe, but how to live. This practical age claims that religion
shall not only worship God, but shall minister to the well being
of man, and it judges the sincerity of the worship by the earnest-
ness and wisdom of the ministry. It is also widely and keenly
intelligent and has come to recognize that this claim is not dis-
tinctively its own, but is that of the Bible itself. So instead of
spending all its force in finding fault with the shortcomings of
the Church, it is beginning to spend a part of it in admiration ot
some of the standards and principles of the Bible. Thus the
world-society coming into consciousness of itself is beginning to
see in the particular society of the Bible ideals and forces of vast
interest. This new view of the Bible, the sociological view, is
thus engaging the attention of the world. This of course stim-
ulates the Christian Church, already awakening to the interest and
importance of the subject.

These reasons show not only why Bible Sociology is just now
coming into some prominence, but they also give much ground
for believing that this prominence will be long maintained, and
greatly increased. The ministering age of the Church is dawning,
it bids fair to grow into a noon-day strength and splendor, and
that it will not cease until the Kingdom of God takes possession
of the whole earth. The Church with her rich attainments of
government, creed and worship is now becoming conscious of /^
herself as a social force. As this consciousness grows in clearness
and strength, she recognizes that it is in full harmony with four
great truths confirming and stimulating it. It is in harmony with \
the Bible, her standard of truth and duty, of belief and practice.
It is in harmony with her own nature, and influence as seen in
her long history in the wonderful changes she has already wrought
though unintentionally and often unconsciously in the society of
the world. It is in harmony with her missionary calling to pro-
claim and establish the Gospel of the Kingdom in all heathen
lands. It is in harmony with her great duty of transforming the
society of Christian lands into that of the Kingdom of God.
Each of these features deserves special consideration; the first

54 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

should be considered now, the remaining three further on in the
evolution of the subject.

s:^ The Church as a social force is in harmony with Bible truth
and duty. The Bible as giving instruction and inspiration to the
Church, as moulding her belief and life, and as affording her a
special message and inspiration to the world is as much sociolog-
ical as it is theological. It gives a progressive revelation of God;
this revelation is to be faithfully and fully received, forming a
progressive conception of God; and this conception of God forms
around itself a progressive society whose special characteristics it
inspires and cultivates to an ever increasing control. The Church
life is therefore the society of the Bible continued beyond Bible
times, the peculiar elements and living spirit of the Bible give the
Church life its general outline and growing force. Who ever
reads the Bible with this thought in mind wnll turn over page
after page of pure sociology, he may not fully accept the saying
"Where the Bible has one page of theolog)^ it has ten pages of
sociology", but he cannot fail to see much ground for it. He
may not and should not be any the less a theologian, but he
cannot help becoming more and more a sociologist; he will be
"^impressed with the fact that the religion of the Bible has its man-
ward as well as its God-ward side. He will be surprised at the
amount of sociological data given by the history and the poetry of
the Bible.

, He will be surprised as well at the large amount of sociological

instruction given by the great teachers of the Bible, prophet
matching apostle and Jesus Christ excelling all.

J Amos, the prophet of righteousness, teaches "to establish judg-

' ment in the gate". James, the disciple of righteousness denounces
the "rich for the hire of the laborer kept back by fraud". Micah,
the prophet of equality, says "religion is to do justly and love
' mercy". Paul, the great Apostle to the Gentiles, says that "love
worketh no ill to his neighbor". Jeremiah, the prophet of indi-
vidualism, commands "to execute judgment between a man and
his neighbor". Peter, the impulsive and devoted follower of
Christ, forbids that any one should "suffer as an evil doer or as

THE CHURCH A SOCIAL FORCE 55

a busy body in other men's matters". Isaiah, the evangelical
prophet, exhorts, ''cease to do evil, learn to do well, judge the
fatherless, plead for the v^^idow". John, the beloved disciple says
"hating one's brother is darkness". In Christ's day the expres-
sion, "The law and the prophets" was equivalent to "The Bible"
in our day, it referred to the whole Old Testament. Christ said
of the Golden Rule: "All things whatsoever ye would that men
should do to you, do you so to them"; that it was "the law and
the prophets". The New Testament comes from Christ. He
says thus in effect, that the Golden Rule, the heart of sociology,
is the whole Bible. Christ's interest is not alone in theological
truths; it is also deeply in sociological problems. He not only
seeks the salvation of the individual soul, but He rules this indi-
vidual as a social being for the salvation of society. His imme-
diate aim is a new man. Jiis mediate aim is a new church. His
ultimate aim is a new society, including the whole race of man-
kind. When one reads the preaching addressed to the men of
that day by prophet, apostle and Christ himself, he cannot help
feeling that the Church should address the same kind of preaching
to the men of this day, not less of theology than at present, but a
great deal more of sociology; something concerning the transac-
tions of the stock exchange, the action of great corporations, the
management of a factory, and the conduct of political affairs.
One's imagination does not have to take a vinld flight to conceive
Isaiah and Amos preaching today upon the trials and tempta-
tions of shop and factory girls, this does not seem too sensational,
for it is certainly within the range of the preaching of John and
Paul.

The Church in the training of her ministry should pa}'^ much
attention to their training in sociology'. It may be too radical
a statement that "there is more need of a Sociological Seminary
than there is of a Theological Seminary", but there is much
ground for the claim that a "Theological Seminary should devote
as much attention to Sociology as to Theology". The young man
in training to be a preacher of the Gospel should have a general
knowledge of the elements of sociology and a special knowledge

56 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

of the sociology of the Bible since a large part of his life work
is to apply the latter to the former. The study of human nature
surely includes the social nature, the study of individuals in order
to reach them, just as truly the study of society in order to reach
it. The Church as a social force is the society of believers gath-
ered so closely around their Lord Jesus Christ that His Spirit
thrills through their hearts and lives, and leads them to carry on
His work of ministry in the world. In seeking to reach individ-
ual souls and to reach society to save both, her distinctive life
and message are the gospel of Christ. Her distinctive mes-
sage is thus a living one, her force is a social force, she cannot
be content to preach about Christ, she must live the Christ she
proclaims. Neither the theology nor the sociology of the Bible
can abandon the other without itself dying. The religion of the
Kingdom of God is both theological and sociological, it brings
the truths and powers of the spiritual world to bear upon the
material world, of the heavenly life upon the earthly life, of
eternal things upon temporal things, it brings God and mankind
into a noble society, the Great Father dwelling with His Chil-
dren and making them a Great Brotherhood.

PART 11. THE GENERAL SOCIETY OF THE BIBLE.

CHAPTER VI.

Origin of Society.

The Hebrew conception of the race of man found at the begin-
ning of their literature was that it came from one head. All men
of whatever nation, tribe or family were descendants of one
father and mother. This made all the race of mankind brothers,
gave to all equal nobility of descent and equal standing in respect
to their inherent nature. This conception is the more remarkable
if we regard the first chapters of Genesis as of late origin in
their history, for at that time Hebrew pride had attained a degree
of exclusiveness and contempt for "lesser breeds that knew not
the law" that certainly could not have originated and would
hardly have accepted such a conception. Regarding it however as
one of the earliest traditions or documents and that it took its
present form at the hand of Moses, or that it was directly revealed
to Moses, the conception underlies all their after developed exclu-
siveness and is preserved in a form to rebuke it. A further
remarkable conception was that Adam and Eve were created in
the image of God. This certainly held in germ the thought that
God was the real Father of the race. This is clear in the earliest
statement of Genesis, but it was dim in the whole consciousness
of the people until the time of Christ, a glimpse of it is caught now
and then in psalm and prophet, only seven times, I think, is God
spoken of as Father in the Old Testament, and these mainly of
the Hebrew race alone, but the original germ conception is
brought out in its full clear statement by Christ in the prayer
he taught mankind. This gives the idea of brotherhood a higher

58 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

scope, all nations, tribes and families have a higher nobility of
descent, a nobler inherent nature, as they all alike have not only
one earthly father, Adam, but through him one Heavenly Father,
God. The like-mindedness of man with man which is the basis of
society comes from and is measured by the like-mindedness of man
with God. The Brotherhood of man comes from the Fatherhood
of God.

, The origin of society lies in the social nature of man, in man as
a complete socius. Herbert Spencer in his great work, "The
Synthetic Philosophy" begins his three volume treatise on sociol-
ogy with an elaborate treatment extending over many pages of
the factors of society. He enumerates them as External, land,
climate, flora, fauna, and Internal, primitive man physical, emo-
tional and intellectual. Whether he caught the classification from
the Bible or not, his method of treatment does not follow it
closely, for his evolution struggles on without recognizing the
immanence of God. The Bible says the first society starts in a
well watered garden, the land, the climate, the flora and fauna
r^ were of the finest, and the man and woman in physical emotional
and intellectual nature are highly endowed.
M The sociology of the Bible takes large account through all its
stages of what Spencer calls the external as well as the internal
factors of society. However gifted man may be in all social
elements, his individual existence and social welfare are dependent
upon conditions outside of himself the external factors of land,
climate, flora and fauna. Buckle says society is afiEected by four
classes of physical agents, soil, climate, food and the general
aspects of nature ; not only food but the general aspects of nature
are the bread that sustains and moulds society. The reason for
this is open to all, man is a part of the earth formation, "the
Lord God formed him of the dust of the ground". Man is the
culmination of a long process of creation. All that goes before
finds its full meaning and satisfactory end in man. The great
procession of the scenes of the creation of the earth and of the
myriad forms of life upon it found in the first chapters of Gene-

ORIGIN OF SOCIETY 59

sis, ends in the Garden of Eden and in Adam and Eve starting
society in that fair scene.

No other h'terature has anything to compare with the sublimity
and truthfulness of the Hebrew account of creation. The Baby-
lonian hymn is a contrast rather than a comparison, with its
multitude of gods, its lack of orderly progress and its want of
harmony with the teachings of science. In the Bible hymn of
creation visions of the successive stages of the great evolution pass
before us in the same order as the record of their succession in
the heavens and in the earth was long afterward discovered by
the researches of science. Some philosopher of the doctrine of
chances has applied that theory to the possibility of a writer of
that early age before the sciences were born, and without divine
aid, sketching so many stages of creation in the same succession
as science has now discovered and describes, and he contends that
the chances are away up in the millions of some glaring discrep-
ancy. He counts fifteen statements in the proper order: with
regard to the first two the chances are equal, with regard to
the first three the chances are one to six, and Moses
somehow struck the right one, with regard to the first ten there
was only one chance in three million six hundred thousand and
more, and Moses struck the right one, when you come to the
fifteenth statement in the right order, the chance is one to 1,307,-
674)367,999» and Moses somehow struck the right one, strange
to say the whole order is correct. The command goes forth from
one God whose plan unfolds from the beginning. The first
effect of the diffused matter condensing into orderly form is light,
the dawning not of the sun, that is long afterwards, but of the
widely diffused cosmic light. The second stage is the gaseous
partially becoming fluid in the slowly forming globe of the earth.
The third stage is the contracting fluid and gaseous globe becom-
ing fixed in form, the stiff earth into dryland ; with its oceans and
its still dense gaseous envelope. Now God implants the lowest
kind of life, the warm moist earth teems with vegetation so
abundant and rank that it clears the air of the dense gases which
have shrouded it, and prepares for other orders of life. The

6o THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

fourth stage gives us from the earth itself for the first time through
the cleared air a vision of its magnificent surroundings, the sun,
moon and stars, the immense universe of God of v^^hich the earth
itself is a part. The fifth stage shows God bringing in the new
life, the lower forms of animal life in water and air, swarming life
it might well be called, since now there is vegetable food prepared
for such life and the air can be breathed by it, and it can in its
turn prepare the air and food for higher forms of life. The sixth
stage shows God bringing in the higher forms of life, the mam-
malian life, being a full life in themselves, and in their successors
as well. Now also God creates man. the highest mammalian life
gifted directly by God himself with a new unheard of gift, "like-
ness to Himself". God transcendent over all becomes imminent
more and more in His works and this immanence finds its highest
manifestation in the nature of man. The seventh stage which is
still continuing shows God resting from the creative work of
earth. He is transcendent, separate from and above His work; and
ir> that resting He teaches man that he too being in the image of
God cannot be confused with or assimilated in his work but is in a
true sense separate from and above it.

In this great progression each stage becomes only so far com-
plete in itself that it forms the starting point for the next stage,
to this extent lower stages may coexist in time, and all gained in
prior stages is retained and further advanced in the next stage.
Man may have thus come from the earth itself through all the
successive stages, he is akin to the animals and may have developed
from them, but he is distinct from them in his higher nature. The
social nature of animals is rudimentary, of a low order, still it is
retained, the nature evolved needs and is adapted to receive the
further immanence of God and to become a high socius. It is in
the likeness to his real Father God that man's social nature largely
consists. In the British Museum in London there is a shelf of
sealed glass tubes properly labelled which contain in exact pro-
portion all the material elements necessary to the formation of a
man weighing one hundred and seventy pounds. All these elements
are found in the structure of the earth. More wonderful still, most

ORIGIN OF SOCIETY 6i

of these elements are found by the spectrum in the sun and in the
distant fixed stars, and in the nebula also. Only God however
could put them together into a living man. How He has done so
He has not told us. He might have put them together with a
flash; but He is never in haste; that was not His way in the lower
stages of creation. He may have begun the process when He issued
the first sublime command, "Let there be light", and have con-
tinued it through the successive stages of the great evolution of
His plan until Adam and Eve start society in the Garden of Eden.
The creation of Eve from Adam goes back to the earliest propaga-
tion of life before the dawn of the sexes, to the process of division,
and it is brought back in this supreme instance in the ascending
scale of life to emphasize the oneness of the race of man, from a
single head. The distinguishing characteristic of Adam as a
socius is likeness to God. Therefore only one having the same
likeness could by any possibility be a true companion to him. It
shows that the social nature of man is largely in the likeness to
God, and intimates the place of woman in God's plan. She is ^
taken as the equal, the help-meet of man, not from his head to be
his master, nor from his feet to be his slave, but from his side to
be his companion. Adam and Eve the two Socii form a complete
society. It was after the fall that God placed her in subjection.
"He shall rule over thee". It is the province of Christianity to do j
away with this, and all the effects of the fall, and in the growing
civilization woman is more and more rising to her rightful place,
the man and the woman are the true and equal socii in the coming
society. The oneness of humanity is also seen in the man and the
woman. "They shall be one flesh", the manly and the womanly
qualities are combined in forming a fully rounded human nature,
each is a fragment without the other, together they are the race of
mankind. The kinship of man with the earth and its living beings
frequently finds expression in the views of poets and orators of the
Bible. Ps. 104 the Song of the Cosmos and Prov. 8, the Speech of >(^
Wisdom are examples.

Another striking statement in the beginning of Hebrew literature v^
is that God who has thus created man in His own likeness has a

62 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

deep interest in him and in all that concerns him. His interest in
man is seen to be far different from His general interest in His
creative work. He holds communication with man and therein
secures the development of man's nature. Since man is created in
the likeness of God he is capable of having fellowship with God,
in reading His thoughts in the nature about him, and is capable
also of still more direct and complete companionship with God,
if He should make further communications to him. Thus this
highest being in the great creation of the earth, man, has before him
an evolution of all his powers to an inconceivable degree, a grow-
ing of "the likeness of God" itself in that he is especially under
the care and teaching and training of his Father God. God is the
Father of the race not only in the sense of origin but in the sense of
interest and feeling. He is an affectionate Father. This feature
of the primal revelation of God as an affectionate Father of the
human race is entirely absent from all other religions. We have
the idea of origin and authority in Zeus of the Greeks, in Jupiter
of the Romans, the father of gods and men, but we can find no
trace of affectionate father-hood in those religions. The idea of
God as an affectionate Father, though present at the beginning
of their religion was not largely or clearly grasped in the conception
of the Hebrew people, but was fully brought out in the culmina-
tion of the life and teachings of Christ.

We can now clearly distinguish six elements in this elemental
man, in this primeval and complete socius at the head of the Primi-
tive Societ)^ of the Bible: First, he is a religious being. He has
a sense of God, and of possible companionship with Him. He is to
that extent conscious of his likeness to God that he recognizes
His existence and presence, and experiences some communication
with Him. Second, he is an intelligent being. He has a higher
intelligence than the animals in that he has the power of speech,
of language, with all that implies. He not only sees things but
has the power to abstract certain qualities, consider these by them-
selves, form them into classes, and then put an articulate sound
upon them that will fix the classification in mind and express it
to others and preserve it for future generations. God brought

ORIGIN OF SOCIETY 63

this power into exercise, the wonderful power of abstraction issuing
in language, when he brought the animals to him to see what he
would call them; what name he would give them. Articulate
speech is not the main feature of language, it is the power of ab-
straction which voices itself in speech. A child, if untaught, would
thus form its own language today. This power of communicating
freely with each other is of vast value to man's social nature.

The third element is that he is a moral being. By the exercise Y
of his free will he may choose to obey or disobey the command
of God. He has the power of experiencing good and evil, of dis-
cerning right and wrong. In the exercise of this freedom of choice
he may pass from innocence to a virtue more and more confirmed
by obedience to the right, or he may sink to sin and vice by diso-
bedience to God, by casting off the sense of obligation, by repeated
choices of the wrong. Without intruding upon the realm of
theology, the fall of Adam has vast sociological bearing. We
cannot minimize It and there is no need to magnify it, the sole aim
should be to understand it. Adam did not fall from anything like
civilization; that can only be the result of long associated action,
the laws and customs, the arts and Institutions of society. Adam
did not fall from a fully rounded manhood; that can only come
from long and wide experience In all the relations of society. Adam
did not fall from virtue ; that too can only come from contact with
a many sided environment and with one's fellows In varied social
action. Adam is said to have had "knowledge, righteousness and
true holiness" ; this was in endowment. In capacity only, it might
be strengthened, confirmed and enlarged by exercise, by a series of
varied experiences into a fully rounded virtuous manhood. Adam
fell from moral innocency into moral perversity; this was con-
firmed by succeeding like experiences; this descended to his children
by the laws of heredity ; this is experienced by the race of mankind
today; we are moral beings but we have fallen Into moral per-
versity. The psychology of the trial, the temptation and the fall of
Adam Is true to the moral and social nature of man. It shows
how each sin, the first and all the long series up to the last sin of
all, is disobedience to a clearly understood law of God, is the act

64 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

of the will choosing wrongly, is a yielding to temptation ; how all
sins are linked together one leading to another and confirming the
perversity, and how all men are related to each other through
heredity and their social nature. In the evolution of sin
there was an advance in the knowledge of good and evil,
but also a deterioration of the physical, mental and moral nature;
of the whole social nature of man. The first sin, like all sin, leads
to the absence of the highest life, that is, to death.

The fourth element is the power of changing his environment.
An animal conforms to environment, his continued existence
depends largely upon this power. Man shares to a considerable
extent this power with the animals. Man in addition has a vast
power of conforming the environment to himself. This shows
in all the history of man upon the earth, and more than a hint
of it is given in the beginning of society in the Bible record. In
the development of society the earth itself upon which man dwells
has vast influence as man learns of the earth and adapts himself
to it not only but as he grasps the power of adapting it to him-
self. This he does as a socius, not as a lone individual, but with
the united efforts of his companions he advances in all that can
come from the earth. We grant inventions to the inventor today
by patents, but only for a short time, and hardly a single inven-
tor achieves alone, he draws upon his fellows, and soon the forces
of steam and electricity, of falling water and blowing wind belong
unto society. Man differs from animals in that he alone can
work a change in his environment; they cannot change the earth
at all but he can "dress it, and keep it" he can "subdue it, and
have dominion over it." This power follows the moral and relig-
ious element. Had man advanced from innocence to virture he
would have had larger knowledge and control over his environ-
ment. Even then thoughtful care and constant industry would
have been his relation to his dwelling place, he was put into the
Garden "to dress it and keep it." But man choose otherwise,
and now his knowledge and control over nature are to be attained
with greater eflfort. "The likeness of God," the basis of society
must now be exercised and developed in relation to the earth

ORIGIN OF SOCIETY 65

Itself and all ft can give, in recovery of virtue and perfection.
His nature still calls him to "subdue the earth and have dominion
over it," still calls him to learn of all its subtile forces and
grasp them, to rule by obeying God in nature, and so to rule with
God. The virtue of industry is a fundamental virtue in society.
To do something worthy, for the well being of all, is the way to
regain Paradise on the earth.

The fifth element is the power of heredity. The socius gives
all his distinguishing characteristics to his descendants. The
primal command written upon the nature of man is "to be fruit-
ful and multiply and replenish the earth." Eve means life. She
is the mother of all living; man, male and female, is to live on
the earth in successive generations. The solidarity of the race is
a matter of heredity, the race is intelligent, moral, religious and
controlling, whenever found the wide world over.

The sixth element is the capacity of holding the likeness of
God. It is so characteristic of man, such an element in him
that it cannot be destroyed, and he remain in any true sense a
man. It may be degraded, blurred, warped, as we all know it has
been, that is one of the marked features of heredity, but it also
may be restored and may attain its original clearness, and a bright-
ness even far beyond that it first possessed ; and in attaining these,
heredity must have a great part. The promise of recovery is in
this indestructibility, the everlasting struggle between the like-
ness of God and the principle of evil. God told the serpent in the
beginning that he had placed a conflict between him and the seed
of the woman ; that he had not conquered, and moreover that he
could not. The actual race has still the possibility of becoming
the ideal race, society may become the Kingdom of God.

In the development of society there is a possibility of a division
along the line of recovery, some portion advancing from the rest;
but this advance if real must be in the "likeness of God;" and
so must be for the uplifting of the rest. In the early revealing
of God's plan of selecting a portion of the race for restoration,
the portion was selected not to separate from and desert the
rest, but in order to best convey the restoration to the rest, to

66 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

the whole race. The great truth of the "likeness of God" in
mankind, of the brotherhood of the race was in the call of Abra-
ham out of his kindred, for the purpose of making "him a bless-
ing." "In thee shall all the families of the earth be blessed."
This early conception, though it grew faint in the Hebrews in
their selfish pride, was never entirely lost, it was brought out
clearly by Christ, and should always be bright in His people.
The recovery must manifestly be in the further immanence of
God taking place in the mankind He had already created in His
likeness.

CHAPTER VII.
Primitive Society.

The Bible gives us glimpses of the primitive society unfold-
ing from this elemental man, the complete socius, from Adam and
Eve, the father and mother of the race. The Hebrew literature
is peculiar among the literatures of the world in that it gives
this sane and connected account of the earliest society. Sociology
aside from this account, in its research for the nature and forma-
tion of primitive society is confined to other sources than liter-
ature, to remains of tools, vestiges of languages, to relics of cus-
toms, remnants of habits, and to probabilities and suppositions
from the conditions of certain portions of the race existing today.
It can find in the Bible account many features of rare interest
well worth its careful study, though largely differing from the
traditions of other nations, and from its own theories of what
primitive society must have been. The account is concise, the
narrative is rapid, the description is fragmentary, the statements
are bold, but the sense of reality is clear and the strong outlines
of the early society of the race stand vividly before us.

Five features are easily distinguished. The first is that of
Locality. The physical basis of society has proper attention paid
to it, and its locality was suitable to the society described. The
climate is warm and genial, fitted to primitive man in his first
attempts at living. The region is the northern tropic zone, east
and north of nearby great seas. The land is fruitful, the plains
of great rivers, bordered with hills. The flora and fauna are
both abundant and useful. It is no longer a garden, man has
forfeited that, but it is capable of being made a garden by suitable
industry. Not the frozen north, not the storm swept coast, not

68 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

the interminable forest, not the rugged mountain, not the dry-
desert, but rich, well watered river bottoms, formed the home of
this primitive society. Historical research while it has followed
many seeming clues in other directions has concluded that the
earliest civilization arose in the Valley of the Euphrates, the local-
ity of the Bible's primitive society. While this first home of
society was not harsh and fierce, threatening its early destruction,
while it was favorable to its first weak developments, to the
empty hands of its first co-operative industry, it still had enough
sterness to call out earnest effort and to awaken the attempt to
struggle for the mastery of some of nature's forces. Civilization
is the result of man's discontent with being empty handed in the
presence of nature, of his cautious but bold interference with
nature's ordinary workings. Our arts and sciences are the result
of man's warfare with nature, of man's wanting more than
nature's unaided forces provide, of his defending himself against
some of her assaulting forces. In the locality of this primitive
society there was a happy mingling of nature's smiles and frowns;
all smiles would enervate the early life of man ; all frowns would
have crushed it; mingled smiles and frowns set it on its way to
enduring existence and to a high civilization.

The second feature is that of Time. Co-existence in the same
territory for a sufficient length of time to secure the development
in numbers from a single father and mother, and in the com-
plexity of the society described, is fully stated in the account.
It is evident there were many centuries from Adam to Abraham,
but the exact number is not stated. There is no attempt made
in the concise narrative to give us the date of the creation of
Adam. The date of the beginning of the race of man is not
known. Dr. William H. Green, one of the ablest and most con-
servative Hebrew scholars, says: "The Scriptures furnish no date
for chronology prior to the life of Abraham." When it is said
in Gen. 5 :g e. g. "that Enos lived ninety years and begat Kenan",
the well established usage of the word begat makes this statement
equally true whether Kenan was the immediate or the remote
descendant of Enos, that is whether Kenan was then born or the

PRIMITIVE SOCIETY 69

ancestor of Kenan, one from whom he was born, with no hint
of the number of intervening ancestors. The structures of the
genealogies in Gen. 5, 10 and 11 favors the belief that they do
not register all the names in their respective lines of descent.
They were not given to indicate chonology but simply a line of
descent. These long lists of names whether we regard them as
names of individuals or of clans, are not chronological but genea-
logical. The time limits given in the account make it quite
evident that many centuries passed by while primitive society was
forming. There is room enough, and not a few indications as
we shall soon see, for the reasonable claims of the stone age and
the bronze age. At the same time it is apparent that the period
of man upon the earth is very short when compared with the
geological ages, it may better be estimated in thousands rather
than in millions of years. The dim ranks of the race of man
emerge from the mists of a near by past.

This also is the most reasonable conclusion of science concern-
ing the antiquity of man on the earth. Indications are many
that he existed at the close of the last glacier age in the northern
continents. How long ago that was cannot be definitely settled,
but one of the most satisfactory theories for its existence would
make its close not over fifteen thousand years ago, more probably
about twelve thousand. The earth has one motion, not easily
discovered, the swaying of the North Pole, tracing a great circle
around the north star, which occasions its great year, this motion
is completed in twenty-five thousand years. This movement makes
the rays of the sun fall more and more obliquely upon the northern
hemisphere for twelve thousand years increasing the length and
severity of the w^inters until they culminate in the creeping down
from the north of the glaciers, the accumulation of snow and
ice over the land. This together with certain other movements,
as the lengthening and shortening of the ellipse of the earth, and
the motions of sister planets, is sufficient to account for the glacier
age in the northern hemisphere, is the best reason for its existence.
The last glacier age must have closed much less than twenty
thousand years ago, probably its vestiges of the ice envelop passed

70 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

away about twelve thousand years ago. In accord with this are
the more recent calculations upon the recovered histories of the
civilizations of the Euphrates and the Nile. The wild calcula-
tions have been discarded and from eight to ten centuries before
Christ are now regarded as the probable birth days of their
national life.

The third feature is that of Endowment. The Bible gives
no hint of primitive society emerging from the condition of the
brutes; it is from the beginning much above anything remotely
resembling the brute condition ; it is even above the condition of
savagery in which some portions of the race are found on the
earth today. Evolution recognizes that man in his anatomical
structure is akin to the animals, that man may have been evolved
from the animals reaching up from lowest forms through the
ascending series to an animal nearly like man. Evolution today
holds that while many changes in the ascending forms of life have
been wrought by the insensible stages of long and gradual develop-
ment, many marked advances and great changes have been made
also by mutation, by a jump to a much higher form, by the sud-
den coming up of a freak or sport ; and that this first being of its
kind has been preserved, and become a fixed form in successive
generations under favorable conditions; thus man may have arisen
by mutation. Besides theistic and Christian evolution holds
that God when He made man in His own likeness, worked
such a change in him that he became at once different from the
animals in many particulars ; that he was at once lifted out of
the brute condition and became a full orbed socius. God is above
nature, God is also in nature and His being in nature is in ever
greater degree as his great plan of evolution is worked out; first
order, then life, then higher life, then man's life. The order is
based upon the atom, the life upon the order, the animal life upon
the vegitable life, man's life upon the animal life; but at each
stage of the greater immanence of God there is a wonderful change
wrought upon the prior condition, which cannot be confused with
it. The living cell cannot be confused with the dead crystal, the
sentient life cannot be confused with the vegetable life, and man

PRIMITIVE SOCIETY 71

cannot be confused with the animal. Man wherever known has
an intelligent, moral, religious and social nature which lifts him
above the animal. If the rudimentary gills found in his throat
seem to indicate that he is a descendant of the fish, the rudimen-
tary faith found in every human heart much more proves that
he is a child of God.

This God made change is so great that it worked a corre-
sponding change upon the structure of man. There are socio-
logists who miminize God or leave Him out of the evolution of
man and of society; but like all scientists of that kind there are
many great breaks in the process which they are powerless to
explain. In sociology for instance the emergence of society from
the brute has left no trace in history and no example in the present ;
the presence of savagery is more easily explained as a decadence
than as the basis of society, and even man's physical structure
shows no steps of gradual separation from the brute condition
in the present, or any vestiges of it in the past. L. F. Ward,
author of Pure Dynamic and Applied Sociology' saj's — "That
some ape-like animal developed into a man ; that the paleolithic
troglodyte rose through various stages of savagery and barbar-
ism to civilization and enlightenment, are simple facts in the his-
tory of the planet. How enormous were the transformations?
How immense the periods to effect them?" Immense periods
are required for the ape to go through the enormous transforma-
tions to the stone age cave dweller, and for the cave dweller to
become the civilized man. Far more time required than any
reasonable theory of the glacier age will give. The most satis-
factory theory of the glacier age gives no immense period at all.
Besides such a general, widespread, enormous transformation going
on through an immense period of time like a geological age, must
have left some record of itself; but the earth does not carry on
its broad bosom any such record. Then also the transition from
the ape to the cave dwellers should have left some living instances
or some relics of dead transition forms; but the earth has been
searched in vain for the "missing link." That phrase hardly

72 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

represents the need ; it is not a single link but a great chain of
links that is missing. This earth is encrusted with graves.

"All that tread

"The globe are but a handful to the tribes

"That slumber in its bosom."

But not only is it "The great tomb of man;" it is the burial
place of the countless beings of the lower orders of life which
have dwelt upon the earth during the long ages of its life bearing
conditions; but no skull of any being of the necessarily long series
of beings, between an ape and a man has ever been unearthed.

The comparative size of the brain and body in man and in
other animals existing today is marked. The size of the brain
compared with the body of fishes is as one to one thousand. In
that prolific form of life this is the highest average attainment,
in the tunny fish it is one to thirty-seven thousand, hardly any
brain at all in the lowest swarming life of the seas. In birds
it is one to one hundred, this is the highest average attainment,
the eagle one to one hundred and sixty, the pigeon one to one
hundred. In mammals it is one to two hundred, the highest
average, in the sheep it is only one to three hundred and fifty.
In man the size of the brain compared with the body is one to
fifty. There is very little difference in the size of the brain in
the various divisions of the race of man. The average European
brain weighs about fifty ounces, it is believed the average African,
Australian and Oceanic brain weighs about four ounces less than
the European. The Chinese brain about equals the European.
The only animals whose brain outweighs man's are those of im-
mense size, the elephant's brain weighs ten pounds, the whale's
weighs five pounds. The Siminae are creatures the most like man
of all the apes, and so are called the anthropoid apes, they are
the orang, the chimpanze, the gorilla and the gibbon. The gorilla
is the largest ape known, it is from five to seven feet tall and in
bulk of body is considerably larger than man, but his brain weighs
scarcely one third of man's brain.

PRIMITIVE SOCIETY 73

But it is in the kind of brain rather than in mere size that man
differs from the animals. The comparative size of the brain to
the whole nerve system in man and in other animals indicates w^hat
the brain is in man. It is the tent of the Commander in Chief
to which messages are brought where they are carefully considered
and from which commands are sent forth. Brains of animals are
more like telephone central stations, where messages from some
parts of the body are received and sv/itched over to other parts
or sent back, the consideration of the Commander in Chief's tent
is lacking, they are more automatic in action. The brain in
fishes is only one seventh of the entire nerve system. The brain
in birds is five times the size of the rest of the nerve system; in
mammals it is three times the size of the nerve system. The brain
in man is thirty times the size of the rest of the nerve system.
The outside layer of the brain^ the cortex is made up of nerve
cells, the inner part of the brain is made up of nerve fibers. In
man the cortex is much larger than in animals, the convolutions
give a larger surface space, and the layer of cells is also thicker,
and this is specially the case in the frontal regions where the power
of consideration chiefly resides. Man is the only animal the
frontal region of whose brain requires a real forehead. In ana-
tomical features man is like the animals, but in this culminating
part of sentient life he is like and yet unlike the animals. He has
a brain as they have, but it is a much larger and far different brain
than theirs. Now between their brains and his there is no evi-
dence in past forms, or in present forms of any transition stages.
When God created man in his own likeness he may have selected
the finest specimen of animal, or this intelligent Evolver may have
specially evolved a highly deveolped freak as man himself does
now in some of his experiments, as the basis for the superim-
posed higher life; but even then the gift of His own likeness
worked a marvelous change and prepared a form capable of being
its dwelling place. Thus a large consideration of all the evi-
dences in vestiges of the past and in forms of the present indicates
that man started out a full man, and that the first society was this
full orbed socius feeling his way to co-operative life, making a

74 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

first experiment with his untried powers ; but with all his inexperi-
ence and ignorance even of his own powers as well as of his
surroundings he was already widely distinguished from the brutes.
It deserves also to be said that all man's development within
historical records and all the development that now seems possible
to man is in the brain. The rest of the nerve system seems to have
reached its acme, perhaps in some respects to have passed it, but
the consideration center of the brain shows no sign of full attain-
ment.

The endowment of primitive societ}' consisting in man being
a complete socius, is seen further and markedly in the relation of
the sexes. The closest and most influential companionship is
between man and woman. They exist in about equal numbers,
they are complements of each other in many qualities and they
are capable of having a strong passion for each other. The regu-
lation of the relationship based upon the sexes is always a con-
trolling factor in the welfare of any particular society. The
subject will command full attention when we come to the laws
and customs of the particular society of the Bible grouped about
the revelation of God, and to their bearing upon some of the
important problems of society today. In this primitive society
we see the pairing of the race in single pairs, with the indication
of a tendency for a man to have more than one wife, and this
tendency springing up in connection with violence among the
males, resulting in death. The first bit of poetry found in the
Bible, probably the earliest bit of poetry in the world's literature,
is called the sword song of Lamech, it contains the first mention
of more than one wife though it refers to an earlier instance of
violence.

"Adah and Zillah hear my voice

"Ye wives of Lamech hearken to my speech;

"For I have slain a man for wounding me;

"And a young man for bruising me.

"If Cain shall be avenged sevenfold,

"Truly Lamech seventy and sevenfold." — Gen. 4:23-4.

PRIMITIVE SOCIETY 75

President Jordan has shown that war tends in some aspects to
race decadence. Fitting naturally with this condition is the insti-
tution of polygamy as the strongest males are reduced in number
more than the females, though of course there are other elements
that have large influence upon it. Monogamy according to the
account in the Bible is not an evolution from the herd condition
of brutes, but is based upon the nature of man as a socius.

This particular element in the nature of man is shown in
four striking features in the history of the race. The first is
that the sexes exist in nearly equal numbers. The records of
many millions of births in civilized Europe carefully kept through
many years show that the average of male children born to female
is one hundred and six to one hundred. When years of maturity
are reached, that is from seventeen to forty-five years of age the
average is slightly changed, there are one hundred males to one
hundred and three females. Above the age of fifty the number
of females exceeds the number of males in slowly increasing pro-
portion. Observation as far as it goes shows that among the
uncivilized where no records are kept the males and females are
nearly equal in the birth rate, but the dangers of male life cause
a greater decrease of males in advancing life. With all such
allowance fully made nature teaches monogamy.

The second feature is the capacity in man and woman for a
life long exclusive passion. This is a matter of observation in
any community in civilized lands, is found in all historical rec-
ords and in the world's literature, and is observed as well in the
uncivilized tribes. It is a capacity that gives rise to jealousy, and
that may be warped in strong temptations and unfavorable en-
vironments, and seems small and weak in particular cases, but
that it is a capacity in all and a ruling one in a multitude of
instances in all ages and in all lands cannot be questioned, and
it makes most marriages everywhere monogamous.

The third feature is the prolonged period of gestation. In this
man resembles the higher mammals. But there seems also a
curious unlikeness. The sense of paternity is quite rare appar-
ently among the animals. Some have seen indications that the

76 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

sense of maternity awakened in man before that of paternity, but
the tracing of relationship through mothers alone has other and
more obvious explanations, and at any rate the sense of paternity
was soon awakened and enlisted. In every man there is a capac-
ity of all the fine feelings embraced in the condition of father-
hood, and in every woman there is the capacity of all the fine
feelings embraced in the condition of mother-hood. These can
be drawn out only by the coming of a babe, their own babe, and
they are drawn out into a tender and strong existence by the long
anticipation of the coming child, and bind the man and woman
together in the tender and noble hopes centered in the child.

"Oh moment born of life, of love!

Oh rapture of all earth's high, high above!

Three lives in one,

By loving won!

My own, and thine

Oh bond divine!

Our little child! our little child!"

These are the peculiar and strong features of nature that tend
to monogamy everywhere and in all stages. The intrusion of
a third party either in polygamy, polyandry or licentiousness dis-
turbs and thwarts natures' plan and teachings.

The fourth feature is the prolonged infancy of man's progeny.
Man is the highest developed of all the animals, but the babe
of man is the most helpless of all creatures, and this helplessness
is most prolonged of all beings. Every breast in mammal life is
not for the one having it, it is an absolute disadvantage and a
frequent danger for the possessor, but it exists purely for the off-
spring. Thus nature teaches in its higher orders of life the
living not for self alone, but for others, the love of offspring. In
man this is found in its highest and best manifestation, but it is
not limited to the mother or to the father's interest through the
mother, for the helplessness of the child is prolonged a great
while after the time when he must be weaned from the mother's

PRIMITIVE SOCIETY 77

breast. The highest of the animals is soon weaned and frisks
about in full life caring for itself. But the man child when
weaned cannot be left to take care of itself, it is still dependent
upon the care of both parents. That which was awakened by the
long period of gestation, the love of offspring is now further de-
veloped and cultivated by the prolonged period of infancy and
childhood helplessness. This feature in the nature of man makes
for monogamy and is found existing strongly in the primitive
society we are considering.

It is also a feature of large influence in the advance of civiliza-
tion. John Fisk points out that the protracted helplessness of
children is a strong influence leading to permanent family rela-
tions, and is prolonged in advancing civilization. The savage
parents expect their son to take care of himself at an early age,
he is taught to hunt and fish and to depend upon his skill, and
they expect their daughters to be taken as wives when quite
young. The age at which woman marry advances with the rise of
civilization. Among savages women marry j^oung, and age very
young, and childhood is weak and easily swept ofif the stage of life,
only the strong survive, so savage races do not increase rapidly.
Sutherland found the average of forty-six races of savages the
men appropriated the girls of their tribes at the age of twelve,
while the average of fifty-eight races of barbarians the age of the
girls was not quite fourteen. In China and Japan the average
age of marriage of girls is sixteen. In Europe, according to
Ansell, the daughters of the unskilled laborers marry at twenty-
two, and those of the educated classes at twenty-six. So the age
at which men begin to earn their own living advances with advanc-
ing civilization. The savage and barbarian boy is soon thrown
upon his own resources, hunts, fishes, and picks up his living
of others. Among the very poor in civilized lands, in the slums
of cities, in factory towns, in mining regions, and on farms as soon
as a little strength is developed the boy becomes a bread winner,
and helps his parents in supporting the family. The presence of
want is so great that the State often has to interfere for the wel-
fare of the child, the parental instinct of care is not strong enough

78 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

to secure the best care for the child. When circumstances are
more favorable as civilization advances the parents give both
sons and daughters long training in school, college, profession and
trade to prepare for full living, and so the period of helplessness
or dependence is prolonged.

When we contemplate the condition of the race on earth today
we find savage and barbarian but no brute condition, no living
together of men and women as in the herd of animals. There
are hordes where there seems very little organization but in
them there is found the family, though in rudimentary form,
still father and mother and their own children. The simplest
form of family is in the savage horde, it is pairing for a short
time till the child is weaned and a little beyond that condition,
when the helplessness of the child lessens a little the public opinion
of the horde permits the husband to discard his wife and seek
another. Frequently by that time there is prospect of another
child which prolongs the relationship. This prevails among the
Amazonian Indians, the Black Men of Australia and the Eskimos.
In central and northern Asia a woman frequently has several hus-
bands, in Tibet the husbands are brothers. Polyandry had died
out largely even in Central Asia; it is said to have once prevailed
among the Irish. Polygamy still flourishes especially among the
well to do in China and Turkey. A strange combination of
polyandry' and polygamy is found among the Todas of India,
where a group of brothers marry a group of sisters, each woman
is a wife to all the men, and each man is a husband to all the
women. But even in the lowest savage condition that form of
pairing which most resembles monogamy prevails, based upon the
life long passion of one sex for the other, and giving rise to jeal-
ousy and resentment of all intrusion upon the relationship. In
some of these instances the relationship of the children must be
traced through the mothers, the father's side is almost ignored.
The matronymic group is frequently named from some plant
or animal from which the mother of the group is supposed to have
sprung. The plant or animal so regarded is a totem, is worshipped
as divine, and is protected by the horde or kindred, and is not

PRIMITIVE SOCIETY 79

to be slain or used as food. The finest instance of this is in the
fast vanishing North American Indians. The Congo tribes of
West Africa are also matronymic. It is thought that kinship
was originally reckoned through mothers in Egypt and Arabia.
In the matronymic horde marriage within the totemic kindred is
generally forbidden, it may be in the larger tribe. In the patrony-
mic tribe marriage is frequently required to be within the kindred,
certainly within the tribe. In the lowest hordes of savages now
existing there are no such distinctions as cousins, uncles, and
aunts, nephews and nieces. All men and women of the same
generation are called brothers and sisters, of the preceding gen-
eration fathers and mothers, of the younger generations, sons and
daughters, but these general designations are based upon the ex-
isting family relations. When the relationship of the children is
traced through the fathers each group was named from some real
or fictitious male ancestor, the head of a clan or tribe. In the
Greek and Roman tribes the kindred group was the gens. In the
ethnic society whether clan, tribe or nation the social bond is a
real or fictitious relationship, the pure ethnic nation is rare today
though tribes and nations at the beginning must have been based
on genetic relationship. Demotic societies are largely made up
with little regard to genetic relationship. Nations with long his-
tories are today made up of many gens. Our own nation, though
comparatively young, is probably the most demotic of all societies,
the mingled blood of many races.

In the primitive society of the Bible the endowment was that
of the full socius, the intellectual, moral, religious and social
being, and this is confirmed by the evidences of the structure and
quality of man wherever found, and by the history and present
condition of the relation of sexes in the race.

The fourth feature of the primitive society is that of Develop-
ment. Man's development, his advance in civilization has de-
pended largely upon his discovery and possession of three simple
things with which we are very familiar, fire, tools and language.
By the use of language he is able to enter upon associated action
and to keep the discoveries of his ancestors, and to form ideals

8o THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

and public opinion. The possession of this power we have seen
come from the mental power of abstraction, its first use was in
man's naming his surroundings, and in its continued use in ever
widening ranges has been its great development. If one were
asked upon what man's development depended, he would
of course say upon fire, tools and language, if further asked
where these came from he would be forced to say from his struggle
with his environment, not as the beasts to adapt themselves to
the environment, but in the effort to adapt the environment some-
what to himself. In the Bible account it is called "tilling the
ground, subduing the earth, having dominion over every living
thing." The first hint of man's life upon earth distinguishes him
from the animals in his power to change his environment, in the
call of environment upon the higher powers of the socious. By
fire and tools man grasps the powers of the universe. Man dif-
fers from the highest animals in these three respects, in fire, tools
and language; in having the mental powers to discover and grasp
these, herein lies his development. He develops by individual
but especially by associated action in struggling with his environ-
ment; the animals do not develop in this sense at all. How man
discovered fire we do not know but may easily imagine. It is
so easy for man created in the likeness of God but so absolutely
impossible for the animal without that likeness, however high
he stands in the ascending steps of evolution. One stone drops
upon another, tinder grass is around it, a spark flashes and sets
fire to the grass. The monkey may have thrown the stone, or a
man may have done so. Both see the fire, the one is astonished,
perhaps frightened ; the other watches it, sees some of its effects
that are worth while, controls it, puts it out, then sees if it can
be brought about again. Only a few generations ago our ances-
tors made fire by striking flint with iron in a tinder box. Now
we have a better way. Still it is the same thing. Man makes fire
whenever he wants it, and does with it a marvelous lot of things
worth doing. He adapts his environment to himself, the cold
winter is coming on, birds fly south, beasts seek their dens for
the winter's sleep, they adapt themselves to the winter; man

PRIMITIVE SOCIETY 8i

builds a shelter and a fire and does his best work in the winter's
cold ; he adapts the winter to himself.

So with tools. No animal ever makes tools, it is a question
whether any animal ever uses a tool ready made to his hand. The
beaver builds his dam, birds build their nests, they bite off sticks
or pick up loose ones and use them for their purposes. Wonderful
is dam and nest, but there is no development, the dam and nest of
today are like those of the earliest stages known, no improvement
has been noticed. The monkey is said to break cocoanuts with
stones, the gorilla is said to use a club; these are more like tools;
but no monkey ever shaped a stone to his purpose, no gorilla
ever made the club to his purpose, there has been no making of
tools by any animal of which we have any knowledge. There has
been no development in animal life, individual or associated ; they
have not the powers that discover and use language, fire and tools;
they cannot "till the earth" or "subdue it" or "have dominion
over it;" they were not endowed with the likeness of God; hence
they cannot develop, they cannot change their environment, they
cannot grasp the forces of nature.

The power to make and use tools must have awakened as
soon as man began to till the ground, as soon as man began to
hunt or fish, as soon as he began to have flocks and herds. To
change animals from wild to domestic, to protect man from the
fierce animals, or secure them for food, to raise any kind of grain
from the soil must have required more than an empty hand.
The empty hand would answer only for the first attempt. The
first use of a club found ready to the hand would suggest a
stronger club with a loaded head. The first throwing of a stone
would suggest a choice of stones and a lengthening of the arm.
The first scratching of' the soil with the fingers would suggest
something harder and sharper than the fingers. Now tools when
at first made would be of course rude but their improvement
would be quickly begun, and quite eagerly carried on, for the same
quality that discovered would improve them. There would be a
stone age, and a bronze age, there would be successive stages of
the improvement of tools and civilization would advance with

82 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

the improvement, as man became more successful in tilling the
ground and gaining dominion over the earth.

In the first four chapters of Genesis the concise description of
the beginning of primitive society includes many important items
showing man's rapid development in the discovery and use of
tools. There were two kinds of dress, one made from vegeta-
tion, the other made from the skin of animals; both required sew-
ing with twisted thread or throngs. Sewing and weaving formed
the beginning of an industry which has been carried on in the home
until within the memory of living man, but now is largely trans-
ferred to factories. There were two kinds of employments, one
the tilling of the soil, the other the tending of herds and flocks,
both requiring tools as we have just seen. There were two kinds
of dwelling places, tents and houses, two kinds of groups of dwell-
ings, camps and towns. The difference between a tent and a
house marks the difference of two civilizations. The one is
nomadic having many virtues and some refinement, having loyalty
to the condition and to broad ranges suitable to it, as the loyalty
of the sailor to the ship and the sea; but lacking in loyalty to
a special locality, it fosters a wandering, unstable character. The
other, the house, awakens love of country, of the dwelling not
only but of the dwelling place, the patriotism for the land; it
fosters a stable, firm character. In the primitive society those
two types quickly arise.

In the making of dress, in the employment of man, and in
the construction of either tent or house the development of a
wide variety of tools would be speedily brought about. In this
some excelled others, one gained such eminence that his name is
mentioned. Tubal Cain, the forger of every cutting instrument
of brass or iron, or the instructor of artificers in copper and iron.
In these four short chapters we have also the description of the
advance of richly endowed man in refinement. Tools are used
not merely for the necessities of life but for its adornment.
Earthen vessels become vases, plain dress or tent or house become
ornamented, and at length tools turn out instruments of music,
the wind and string instruments. Here too in the refinements of

PRIMITIVE SOCIETY 83

life some excel others and one arose of such eminence that his
name is given, Jubal, the father of such as handle the harp arid
the pipe. It was probably before the tents at the close of an excit-
ing day that Lamach told those gathered there of his great adven-
ture. It has the elemental features of poetry, short quick sen-
tences like the rapid breathing, the quick heart beats of the ad-
venture itself. It was caught up in the memory and frequently
repeated, so it comes down to us, repeated with appropriate action
in the cool of the day by the group of tent dwellers, the swing-
ing arms, the measured step, the involved movement of the
original conflict, ending in the dance of exhilaration and triumph.
The artificer, the musician, the poet, quickly arise, and primitive
society has not only toil but refinement and amusement.

Wonderful has been man's evolution in the development of
tools both those of use and of refinement. The brush of the
painter, the chisel of the sculptor, the baton of the orchestral
leader, the pen of the poet, all these are simply tools. The railroad,
the steamship, the factory, the electric plant, these too are tools.
The development of tools was gradual up until about a century
ago. Since that time it has been marvelously rapid. A great
change both in the character of the tools and in the manner of
their use has come about in modern times. Tools, generally
speaking, a century ago, were simple and cheap, now they are very
complex and expensive. Tools a century ago were generally
moved by man's muscle, and were used in the home. Now they
are largely moved by steam or electricity, and are located near
the steam power, in large factories. Tools a century ago were
generally owned by the artisan, and the workman was protected
by the law of the land in the possession of his tools, they were
his means of earning his living and could not be easily taken away
from him. Now tools are generally owned not by the workman,
but by the capitalist, the owner of the large factory, the workman
has no right to them, that is acknowledged by the law of the
land, he may be partially or entirely deprived of their use, and
thus of his means of earning his living, by the will of the capital-
ist, whether individual or company. The warfare so frequent in

84 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

modern society called the war between labor and capital would
be more vividly and truthfully described as the war between the
tool worker and the tool owner. To get to the bottom of the
difficulty one must recognize the fact that the opportunity of the
tool worker of earning a living is entirely in the hand of the
tool owner. One of the great problems of modern society is how
the laws which fitted the conditions a century ago, when the
workman owned his tools, should be changed to fit the conditions
of today, and of all the future. Some light may be thrown upon
this tremendous problem by the principles of the particular so-
ciety of the Bible which we are soon to consider.

The fifth feature of primitive society demanding our atten-
tion is the tendency to Deterioration. All society that has ever
been studied, even the highest civilization has had this tendency,
which has ever to be guarded against or degeneracy accumulates
force to destruction. In all orders of life there seem to be three
great tendencies which culminate in the prevailing conditions,
those of evolution, of balance and of deterioration. Balance is
hard to preserve, it is apt to be a slow almost impreceptible evolu-
tion or deterioration, still it is a condition that exists and in a
highly organized society may prevail for a long time as we count
the years of a nation's life. Darwin in his intelligent evolution
of pigeons noted that in any particular class, even the highest,
there would occasionally be an individual of a dark slaty blue
with two black bands across the wings, like the far back ances-
tor of pigeons, the rock pigeon. This was an instance of the gen-
eral principle of deterioration, the reversion to type. We may
reasonably suppose that if all intelligent oversight of the evolution
of pigeons, either by the great Creator or by man made in His
likeness, was removed, that if all the great variety of pigeons now
existing were gathered together on some great rocky island in
mid ocean, and left to become wild and take care of themselves,
in a few years the great diversities would vanish, and the de-
scendants of the different varieties would all become dark slate
blue with two black bands on the wings would all become rock
pigeons ; the tendency to deterioration, the reversion to type, would

PRIMITIVE SOCIETY 85

be triumphant. But God does not leave pigeons alone neither
does man, and the evolution goes on, balance when attained is
preserved, the tendency to deterioration is checked, at any rate
it is prevented from becoming triumphant.

The tendency to deterioration in primitive society is described
in the concise Bible account as wickedness, and it is particularized
as violence and lust, and a few striking instances of each are
given. The first instance of violence was the murder of a brother,
the violent taking of life in a rivalry with reference to fellow-
ship with God. The second instance is Lamach killing a young
man, and as he relates it to his wives we can reasonably see the
killing of a rival in the next highest relationship, that of man and
woman. Rivalry and conflict arose and violence of sudden quarrel
or deliberate plan flourishes until the concise description says,
"the earth was filled with violence." Man became a snarling,
fighting beast. There was the tendency to deterioration, the rever-
sion to tj^pe, the lower nature type, the animal condition.

The higher nature, the likeness of God, made its efiEort to
resist and had large success. There was a sense of justice aroused
in man to protect life and virtue, each instance of violence given,
hints at this strong power and fears it. It is evidently strong in
the breast of the murderer himself and he recognizes it must be
strong in the breast of all men, both Cain and Lamach show
fear of their own conscience and fear of the avenging conscience
of mankind. This feeling emerging in these two early instances
is purely human, there seems nothing in brutes remotely resembling
it. This must have prevailed wherever the earth was filled with
violence. The prevalence of lust is described in terms difficult to
understand. The sons of God taking wives of the daughters of
men because they were fair, is described in a way that shows
both knew it to be a wrong relation. It v/as a reversion to the
lower nature type, a deterioration in the relationship of the sexes
the reverse of evolution, resulting in the degeneracy of the race
in succeeding generations. The mere animal relation of the sexes
is today an element of deterioration in every society.

But God did not then nor has he ever given up the evolution

86 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

of the race, nor has man lost the likeness of God even where
violence and lust have most prevailed. The Bible gives the moral
reason for the flood, it was the righteous judgment of God upon
the prevailing violence and lust, it was the preparation for a new
start in the evolution of the race. All the features of the primi-
tive society we have been considering were preserved, and so the
new start would be greatly in advance of the old. While the
Bible gives the moral reason it also describes the physical reasons,
which aside from the Bible are not hard to find and whose fea-
tures are in harmony with the Bible description. Primitive so-
ciety was still limited in size to one locality on the earth, the
favored one by the seaside and along the river bottoms, some of
the rivers described seem to have vanished aw^ay, others are still
prominent features of that favored land and clime. Geology
says there are evidences east of the Great Sea of what we have
learned to call in these days a great geological fault or earth-
quake, and whose most recent terrible examples are found in
the destruction of San Francisco and of Messina. The remark-
able thing about San Francisco is that though so near the ocean
it was not followed by a tidal wave of vast destructiveness, as in
the case of the Lisbon earthquake in quite recent times. The
reason is that the fault, or slide of the rocks was confined to the
land, though on the edge of the ocean it was confined to the edge,
did not extend underneath it. In the case of Messina the tidal
wave was as destructive as the earthquake and was a part of it. In
the great fault or wrinkling of the earth on the east of the Medi-
terranean Sea and to the north of the India Ocean, when the
earth was so much younger, and so much nearer the great con-
vulsions of the geological ages, it extended beneath the seas, and
not only did the land quake but the fountains of the great deep
were broken up and washed over the great subsidence of the
earth. When the earth rose again and the waters flowed to their
appointed places traces were left upon the land itself in the land
locked seas, the Caspian to the north, the Dead Sea to the south,
in the deep depression of the Jordan Valley, along the western
wrinkle of mountains with its unmatched and uneven strata of

PRIMITIVE SOCIETY 87

rocks across the Jordan depression, and in the Great basin of
Mesapotamia, north of the Great Desert, the rivers flowing into
the southern seas. We may well call the ante-deluvian society
primitive, with its limited numbers, its limited locality, its un-
known length of days, its unity of language, its great endow-
ments and attainments, its vast deterioration, its great catastrophy ;
its vast treasure it passed over to the society of the varied and
scattered tribes and nations, its decendants and inheritors.

CHAPTER VIII.
The Primary Classes In Early Society.

The solidarity of the race of mankind now generally conceded
implies its descending from one source. The Bible describes its
earliest experiments in living made in a limited locality, and its
possession of one language. From this one place it spread over
the earth, from this one primitive society it scattered into many
tribes and nations, from the one language the many languages
and dialects spoken by man today branched forth. The earliest
known civilizations, described in their own literature, the cunei-
form Babylonian and the hieroghlypic Egyptian, and linked
with the following and neighboring civilizations by many his-
torical ties, arose in the locality from which the race scattered, and
may be traced back to the emigration described in the Bible.

The long lists of strange names given in the early chapters of
Genesis, especially those after the flood, and the vague descrip-
tions and general directions of the movements of their descendants
seem at first blush to give but little sociological material of any
value. Still it does not require great study to discover that they
throw much light upon at least three subjects of some importance
in the new science of sociology, and so in the development and
the welfare of the race of mankind in our modern times. We
shall consider these in a somewhat arbitrary order of succession.
First, the primary and secondary classes in society. Second, the
ancient scattering and the modern gathering of the great brother-
hood, the race of men. Third, the ancient shortening of human
life, and the modern lengthening of it in christian civilization.

First the primary and secondary classes in Society. In the pro-
gressive organization of society there are primar)^ classes which

PRIMARY CLASSES IN SOCIETY 89

are fundamental to its growth, and secondary classes which are
the result of its growth. The primary classes are elemental in
the evolution of society, the secondary classes are products of
evolution. The further evolution of society to ever higher and
nobler forms is absolutely dependent upon the presence and
strength of the primary classes. Whether further evolution of
society shall foster or diminish or eliminate the secondary classes
is a question to which many answers are given, most of them
obviously conjectural. The primary classes are three; the vital-
ity class, the ability class, and the sociability class. These are
essential to any growth of society. The secondary classes are
many, the most obvious are the political classes, rulers and ruled;
the industrial classes, the employers and the employees; the eco-
nomic classes, the rich and the poor. These are products of social
organization. There are lower groups of society in which these
classes hardly exist. Utopian schemes of society have been
imagined from which they have been eliminated. Whether so-
ciety will ever dispense with them or no, it is quite sure that
society should guard itself against their overgrowth, and that at
best they are secondary classes.

It is quite evident that in society in general and in any par-
ticular society each of the primary classes may have many grades.
In the vitality class there may be a strong and prolific life, where
there is much bodily vigor and mental power, where the birth
rate is high and the death rate low, and where this high degree of
vitality abounds, the outlook of society is hopeful. The highest
class of farmers, manufacturers and business men in our own
land are evidently the hope of the country. The medium vital-
ity class has a lower birth rate and a low death rate as well, it
has less bodily vigor though still a great deal of mental power,
it embraces the nervous people of country and city, swept
along by the rush of business and pleasure. This large class is
much in evidence in our American society. The low vitality
class embraces the ignorant and unclean people of both country
and city, the birth rate is frequently high, but so always is the
death rate, the many weak ones die, the few strong ones survive.

90 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

the average power of the class, both bodily and mentally, is low.
It is in the interest of every society to have the high vitality
class in the ascendency, so much so that it gives the prominent
character to society, and to have the low vitality class in the
smallest proportion possible, so much so that it can scarcely be
noticed. Now as with these modern ideas in our mind, we look
anew at these long lists of strange names found in the early chap-
ter of Genesis, we get the impression of a strong and prolific life,
that they the lists of the high vitality class. Do we read this
meaning into the passage or is it there in the nature of the
case, and have we only discovered it? Several reasons favor the
latter conclusion. The fact already alluded to in reference to
the fifth chapter applies as well to the several lists, they are
not chronological even where ages are mentioned but entirely
geneological. These far ofF men emerging from the mists of the
unknown were fathers of families, of tribes, of nations, men of
strong vitality projecting their lives into a future to them not
lighted up at all by any past experience. They were like the
voyagers and discoverers of our new world, like the pioneers of
our western lands, men of daring and vigor who did not and
could not ask what men had done but had the strength to do the
first things. Then also the frequently recurring phrase "sons and
daughters" would hardly describe some of our modern families
where the birth rate is small, a child or two, but evidently depicts
a condition of strong vitality, of large families, many sons and
daughters born not only but maturing, carrying on the current
of human life with ever increasing volume. It affords food for
thought when compared with last year's report of a large Fifth
Avenue Church giving a picture of the palace society of our great
city; it reports one thousand members, four hundred and eighty
families, and of these families only eighty-seven had any children,
and these average only two children to each family, only one
hundred and sixty children under twenty-one years of age in
the whole church. A third reason is given in the hints given
that these men were so strong that they founded families and
tribes not only, but subdued the wildness of nature, gave their

PRIMARY CLASSES IN SOCIETY 91

names to great sections of country, carried their life into unknown
regions in the face of difficulties and dangers, builded cities and
started civilizations. They were evidently of the high vitality
class, the hardy forefathers of a strong race. The race condi-
tion of these early times shows little of the medium vitality class,
it is not prominent, gives no outlines, hardly a shading or two to
the picture, there is not even a hint of the existence of a low
vitality class; but the high vitality class flourishes. The
start of the race confirms the sociological dictum that the wel-
fare of any society depends upon the marked ascendency of its
high vitality class. Any society that fosters the medium vital-
ity class is in a kind of balance, it may go down, if any large por-
tion steadily loses healthy vigor, as it is swept along in the rush
and swirl of high living, or it may go up, if a fair portion gains
bodily vigor by intelligently curbing and directing the flow of
nervous energy and by living a life morally high. There is abso-
lute certainty that any society that carelessly fosters the low
vitality class is degenerating. The society that allows its chil-
dren of early age to spend long hours in factories or mines should
see in their pallid faces and shrunken forms a picture of the con-
dition to which it is itself hastening, hastening all the faster
when the parents of these children are allowed to be over-worked,
poorly fed and badly housed. Such a society should quickly turn
over a new leaf.

The remaining two primary classes also have grades worthy of
mention. The abilitj^ class has three grades, the inventive, men
and women of genius and high talent, the formers of ideals, the
makers of public opinion, the creators of the useful and the
beautiful, those who take the initiative; the imitative, people of
average ability, who follow their leaders, the mass of ordinary
folk, to which probably the most of us belong; and the defective,
either in body or mind. The sociality class has four grades, the
high social, those of sympathy and public spirit, the low social,
those of narrow individualism, the pseudo-social, those who live
as parasites on society, paupers in spirit though often rich
in goods; and the anti-social, those who live by aggression on

92 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

society, the vicious and the criminal. It is quite evident the high-
est grades of these three primary classes may over-lap, and it is
to the interest of society that they should. The inventive, initia-
tive grade of the ability class is worth a great deal in itself, but
if it is also a high social grade of great public spirit, it is v^rorth
far more, and if it is also a high vitality grade it may prolong
its services to society for many generations. The men and women
of high vitality, ability and sociality are the God given aristocracy,
the true elite of society. The service of this preeminent class is
great, in all ages and climes it sets the examples and lofty stand-
ards for society, it does most of the thinking in science, philosophy
and religion, it organizes and directs the great enterprises and
achievements of society, it creates the higher forms of poetry,
music, art and the refinements of life, it gives much of the grace,
beauty and happiness to social life. To leave out any particular
grade from the combination weakens it almost beyond recogni-
tion, to leave out the high sociality grade especially turns the
combination from a blessing to an injury, it may be to a curse of
society. This God given aristocracy are the naturally distin-
guished in any time and clime, they arise from the primary classes
and their number is not large. Besides these is the man made
aristocracy, the artificially distinguished ; these are far more numer-
ous, they arise from the secondary classes. The kings and nobles.
The captains of industry. The wealthy. Even both kinds of the
distinguished are rare.

A curious study of the proportion of the distinguished and of
the production of great men has been carried on in recent times
with great research, and is of much interest. Galton estimated
that in 1868 there were in the British Isles 500 distinguished
people. Didot gives a list of the distinguished from the time
of Pericles to 1850 which includes 100,000 names, many of
these are the artifically distinguished, by the accident of hereditary
positions, as kings, leaders, rich. During this long time, prob-
ably a hundred billions of men had passed over the earth, giv-
ing about one distinguished man to every million who lived and
died in obscurity. Now comparing this with Galton where there

PRIMARY CLASSES IN SOCIETY 93

was one distinguished person in the British Isles to every sixty
thousand obscure people, the conclusion is reached that the society
of the British Isles fostered the over-lapping of the high vitality,
ability and sociality classes, and that the secondary classes also
were more fully developed than in the rest of the world as a
whole, to account for the far larger proportion of the distin-
guished. One can easily see that other elements enter the ques-
tion, publicity for one, still the calculation is of curious interest.
Prof. Cattell has made an earnest study of the production of
great men. From the biographical dictionaries of all languages
he selects the one thousand names having the greatest average
space and attention, and then classifies these according to his
skilled judgment. He finds France leads in the production of
great men, England comes next and America stands low in the
list. He finds that each nation has its own special kind of great-
ness, as for example, the great men of Italy are chiefly artists, and
poets. Of the names of the first one thousand, men of action
outnumber men of thought or feeling, but generally men of
thought and feeling outnumber men of action. The first ten
great names in the world's history he sets down in the order of
prominence as follows : Napoleon, Shakespeare, Mohammed, Vol-
taire, Bacon, Aristotle, Goethe, Caesar, Luther, Plato. They are
strangely distributed in time and among nationalities and nearly
equally as men of action, thought and feeling. He concludes that
great men are not produced by physical environment but by
heredity combined with political and economic conditions, and
thmks that further study may help to identify greatness in its
incipiency, and to encourage it soon enough to sensibly affect
civilization. Prof. Michand has confined his study of great men
to our own country and presents some remarkable facts. He
says that in New England out of every hundred thousand births
fifty-four are men of talent, that there is a steady fall in the pro-
portional birth rate of men of talent in passing westward, in
Ohio it is sixteen, Illinois ten, Missouri, six, Kansas two. Ohio
has eight times the number of colleges, much larger material pros-
perity, more and larger cities and a greater population than

94 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

Maine, but the proportionate birth rate of men of talent is more
than twice as great in Maine as in Ohio. So Tennessee has more
Colleges than South Carolina. Nashville is the educational center
of the South, but the proportionate birth rate of men of talent
in South Carolina is three times that of Tennessee. He gives
as a sufficient reason for these facts that the immigration to the
coast states was largely those loving religious freedom, while the
immigration to the western states was largely those seeking mater-
ial prosperity, and so concludes as the wider study did that
heredity is the controlling influence. This also is in line with
Lombroso, who shows the close connection between religious
ideas and the nervous temperament of genius; good thinking
leads to much thinking and to high thinking. Of the many names
in the Hall of Fame at University Heights, New York City, a
large proportion owe their nativity to Massachusetts. A large
proportion of our great men are sons of clergymen, nearly all our
great men are the sons of our best men. Blood tells. The Noble
Prize which has now been awarded for five successive years
combines the ability with the sociality primary classes and we can
see it includes, though not markedly, the vitality class, and it
utterly excludes the distinguished arising alone from the second-
ary classes. It awards $40,000 to the one in each of the five
following classes who has contributed most materially to the
benefit of mankind during the year, by the most important dis-
covery in physics, chemistry or physiology, by the finest piece of
literature, or by the largest influence upon the fraternity of na-
tions, the award to be made by the Swedish Academy without
regard to nationality. These prizes have been awarded to six
Germans, four Frenchmen, four Englishmen, two Hollanders, and
one each of other nationalities, all of Europe. We hope the
United States will win one this year. This hope has been realized
in the prize for promoting peace, the fraternity of nations, given
to President Roosevelt in 1907.

From this slight view of the distribution and uses of great men
in the advance of society, we turn again to the long lists of strange
names in the early chapters of Genesis, and at the beginning of

PRIMARY CLASSES IN SOCIETY 95

the history of society we find not only the first of the primary
classes, the vitality class, but the last two as well, the ability
and the sociality classes. The history is very concise the lists
at a hasty glance seem simply lists, but scholarship finds in some
of the names themselves much significance, and there are concise
descriptions added to a few names that are full of suggestion.
If one underscores these with a red lead pencil he will have a few
red letter names, the distinguished men and women in the early
dawn of society, the great men in the ranks of the race as it
emerges from the geologic ages upon the stage of history. At
the beginning the significance of the names Adam and Eve is seen,
somewhere near the middle stands the name Nimrod, the rebel-
lious, the domineering, and at the close of this dispersion period
are Abraham and Sarah, the father and the princess of multi-
tudes. Some of the concise descriptions added to the names have
already revealed to us the great architects and decorators of tents
and houses, the gifted designers and makers of various instruments
of brass and iron, the famed artists in music and dancing, and the
celebrated poets and actors. The general directions taken by the
three divisions of the race in the dispersion, is accounted for by the
coarseness of one of three brothers and the refinement of the
other two, and the story more than hints at the strength of the
heredity flowing from them to their descendants. One man stands
out with great distinctness, Nimrod. He rid the land of wild
beasts, as did the western immigrants in our new world, he was a
born leader of men and founded a kingdom, the first kingdom men-
tioned in history, he was aggressive, invaded other lands and held
them by building cities, was the first world Conqueror and Em-
peror, the first in a list of a few glittering names at the head of
which Cattell says, stands Napoleon, the worthy successor of
Nimrod. Another name becomes prominent in connection with
the dispersion. Wise men foresaw that the race was growing so
large that the tendency to disperse would soon awaken and grow
strong, they foresaw some of the dangers that would follow and
might prove destructive and they formed a plan to keep the race
together in one locality. It was to build a great city, whose high

96 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

tower could be seen at a great distance, and so to make for them-
selves a name that would hold them together. Peleg was the
great philosopher and leader in this grand ambitious scheme, and
was defeated by the course of events. In all ages of the world
some of the most distinguished men of the world have been men
of religion, their ability and sociality residing largely in that which
is common to all men, the religious nature. We see this in Cat-
tell's list of the ten great men of the world. We find it also in
these Bible lists. Abel who instinctively discovered the right way
to approach God. Enoch, whose whole life was a walk with
God ; the inference is fair that he had a good wife a real help-
meet, or he could not have walked with God so steadily so many
years. Noah whose faith discerned the coming judgment upon
the earth, full of violence, and resisted the scofiFs of the wicked
as he follows God's directions; and at the close of the dispersion
period Abraham, the father of the faithful.

Thus we find in these early chapters that which becomes the
striking characteristic of the Bible, the element of personality. It
is a picture of human life, many persons of varied ability and
character live upon its pages. In these early chapters also we
find much valuable sociological data, especially of the primary
classes of society, the classes from which society evolves. The
average reader may find little interest in these long lists of strange
names, they are without meaning to him, he wonders why they
should be in God's word. So in nature, God's other book, there
are waste places, deserts and ice zones. But the thoughtful are
slow in judging them of little value, the Desert of Sahara may be
the stove which warms civilized Europe, the ice cap of the north
may be the great condenser of vapors into the rain drops, which
water our land and make it the granar\' of the world. A
man can no more make an insect than he can make a sun. The
naturalist gives absorbing study to the insect, in its perfection there
is abundant evidence of God's handiwork, and also in its relation
to His works of greater size, and to the whole system of the vast
universe. So the etymologist and the sociologist may well study
these chapters and we may find in them lives joining that far

PRIMARY CLASSES IN SOCIETY 97

off early race of man to us in these modern times in one great
society. They are merely names of persons. But a great deal is
in a person, the power of serving God and man, the power of
aspiring to the good and of resisting temptations to evil, the vicis-
situdes of joy and sorrow, the home life of quiet ministries, the
activites of life in the exercise and growth of many virtues. The
pages of history are often lurid and bloody, states rise and fall,
but this is not all of history, the average person must be taken
into account. The newspaper tells of the acts of depravity, and
of unusual greatness and goodness, but it is read by the average
persons whose name never gets into its columns. The plain from
the Missouri River westward is an uninteresting country, but it
is an upward incline and at length the traveler sees snow clad
mountain peaks shining in the clear air. Ordinary lives may be
preparing the way and leading up to a grand life, like Enoch,
shining in white samite, mystic, wonderful. God regards and
remembers persons, not the race merely, not the great only, but
persons linked by ties of heredity, linked by spreading social
ties, each of value in himself and in his many ties to the great
society God watches over and guides. We sometimes need this
thought in our modern times to give us courage and good cheer.
God remembers and fulfils his promise. History is the unfold-
ing of a purpose, the carrying out of a plan, a great evolution
from one degree of God's immanence to another and much higher,
the highest yet attained or conceivable by us, the incarnation of the
son of God. The first promise in Eden was long delayed but
always remembered and always moving on to its fulfillment. The
genealogic lists are the record of God's faithfulness. Matthew
writing to the Jews traces the lineage of Christ back to Abraham.
Luke writing to the Greeks and all mankind traces his lineage back
to Adam, the son of God. The future is also covered by the
promise of God. The evolution of the race is the unfolding of
God's plan, the carrying out of his purpose, the establishment of
the Kingdom of the Lord Jesus Christ over the race of man. As
at the beginning so through all the stages of the evolution the
primary classes, the vitality, the ability and the sociality classes, are

98 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

elemental, and these will be striking elements in the great con-
summation when the Kingdom of God is spread over the whole
earth.

CHAPTER IX.

The Dispersion of the Race.

These early chapters of Genesis throw much light also upon the
ancient scattering and upon the modern gathering of the race,
the great brotherhood of mankind. The latter seems equally
brought about as the former was by the unfolding of God's won-
derful plans in His providence over the race. The Bible says
God scattered them, but the account shows that he scattered
them, not arbitrarily, He never acts that way, but by the natural
working of elemental forces. The race started in a most favorable
locality and living under the same conditions they of course
developed the same language. Now as the vitality class abounded
the locality however favorable, was bound to become too small for
their easy support, and as the ability class abounded and the
sociality class as well the discontent with narrowed conditions,
and the inherent restlessness of mankind would find in them a
leadership, based on service, out of the now and the here into
the elsewhere and the future. At first the race spread to the East
and swarmed upon the plains, here an effort was made to check
the scattering, but however bold the plan and energetic the attempt
it was doomed by these elemental forces to dismal failure. The
scattering was a matter of compulsion by these forces and it was
followed by a confusion of language and by the formation of
tribes; the first is stated in the narrative and was necessary; the
second is seen in the accompanying lists of names, and was equally
necessary. Associated families starting out in the same direction,
pressed out from within on the borders, drawn out further by
desirable prospects, soon became compact together as a tribe under
the leadership of some able man, having a sympathy for his kind

loo THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

and under the pressure of new circumstances. By the pressure
within of a crowded locality, and by the attraction without of
open spaces, the most enterprising and daring of the race left the
locality so favorable at the start, seeking something better, and
always finding something different, and this process went on until
the race was scattered over the earth.

Each tribe in finding something different found the need of
new words to describe the changed conditions and altered modes of
living. The mountaineer would not only have new words but a
different manner of speech from the dweller on the plain, the one
tilling the soil from the one caring for flocks, the one dwelling in
one locality from the nomads wandering over many places, the one
living in the cold north from the one dwelling in the warm south,
the one living in the shadow of great forests from the one living
on sunny slopes, the one living on the coasts or on the isles from
the one living inland. Words once arisen and manner of speech
once formed would become fixed through successive generations,
and in process of time one tribe would not be able to understand
the language of another. The basis of the language was the same,
the root forms of many words the same, but the new words and
new manner of speech had silenced the old familiar sounds so
long, that they were forgotten as though never heard. Thus the
race was not only scattered but divided. Speech, from being a
means of communication, became a barrier, and men of the same
race seemed to each other beings of strange races because of strange-
ness of speech. Tribes and nations had their separate localities
marked off from each other by mountain ranges, by great rivers,
by memorial stones or cities, but a stronger than any visible
boundary became the boundary of speech, the vocal boundary, a
mere sound in the air but difficult of crossing, awakening suspicion,
and fostering dislike.

In the growing civilization of some of these scattered tribes the
spoken language became a written one, the tribe itself became set-
tled in one locality, and enlarged into a nation and its language
became more fixed in its written form. In this way arose those

DISPERSION OF THE RACE loi

great languages and those large literatures so recently deciphered
by the scholars of our times.

The hieroglyphic writings on the stones and papyrus rolls of
Egypt had awakened the curiosity of ignorance for many ages until
the Rosetta Stone gave us the key opening this vast treasure to
our study. The cuneiform brick literature of the Euphrates was
not known even to exist for many ages until the vast libraries of
Nineveh and Babylon were uncovered with the ruins of those
cities in the last century. Then came the romance of the discov-
ery of cuneiform bricks on the banks of the Nile containing the
political correspondence when Egypt had extended her kingdom
far north over regions, once dominated by the Euphrates civiliza-
tion, and particularly the correspondence with Lachish when
Palestine was a dependency of Egypt. This correspondence was
finished and Egypt had withdrawn her power from the north
at least one hundred years before Moses. So these stones and
bricks tell the wondrous tale that written languages prevailed
long before Greek words were breathed upon the air, long before
the earliest records of Hebrew life were written by Moses. The
name of Moses himself has its root from the language written
on stone long before his day, the hieroglyphic word we have trans-
lated "the son of the water".

This Bible account of the rise of the various languages is strik-
ingly confirmed by the science of language prevailing today. It
compares the many languages and dialects spoken by man, and
through the over three thousand of them, some of the rudest, some
of the most refined, there is a strange though often faint memory
of a primeval sound. Through these kindred root sounds of
words it groups these many tongues into a few great classes. It
finds also that these great classes are not independent of and
strangers to each other, that they have some common root sounds.
The conclusion is not wild, that all the languages of the earth came
from one original language of a few sounds, the primal form of
speech, and that the vast variety has been builded up upon these
as the varied experiences of the scattering race needed new words.
Much of the accepted theory that the Aryan race had successive

I02 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

emigrations from its first home in Central Asia, that it gave its
intellectual superiority to India, to Greece, to Rome and to
northern Europe is based upon that thing as light as air, a mere
series of air vibrations, a word, a root sound in a v^^ord. Not only
the solidarity of the race in physical form and in psychical nature,
especially in the religious nature, the likeness of God that is
indestructible, demands its descent from one father, but the spoken
and w^ritten words of the various tribes of the race scattered
over all the earth tell the same story.

Not all portions of the earth are equally well adapted to become
the home of man. This is so even now. The tropic isles are some-
times swept by destructive cyclones, but their charms are many.
Many people would rather live in California with occasional
earthquakes than anywhere else without them. Besides portions
of the race have been crowded out of favorable conditions into
unfavorable ones. So there have been widely different
kinds of living according to widely different conditions.
Far north the struggle is with snow and ice. Far south
the struggle is with sunlight and heat. On fruitful plains the
ease of life grows upon the tribes, on rocky shores the difficulty of
gaining a livelihood moulds the tribes. These different kinds of
life produce in many successive generations changes in form, the
tall men of the mountains and plains, the stunted men of for-
ests and ice fields, and changes in color, as well as changes in
speech. Different ways of living, of forming and handling tools,
of thinking and speaking follow the scattering the race abroad
upon the earth.

All this variation of the race, the result of elemental forces
working freely, seems at first blush as militating against the brother-
hood of mankind. This first impression is confirmed by the fact
that each tribe or nation separated from others by marked dif-
ferences in race and language, regarded the others as aliens, as
Inferiors, as strangers, and after awhile as enemies. But taking a
larger view, trying to grasp the thought of varied evolution, striv-
ing to catch a glimpse of God's plan of brotherhood, it requires a
great variety of character together with a fellowship of spirit. In

DISPERSION OF THE RACE 103

the ideal family where many brothers and sisters dwell in the same
house there is not sameness of character and disposition, but a wide
variety, and the family rejoices in these differences and binds them
together in one fellowship. Now in the race the development of
great variety may incidentally and for the time being foster
suspicion and strife, but in itself it enriches human nature, makes
it many sided, and it tends also to make each striking variety a
peculiar power that may become enlisted for the service of the
whole. Different race characteristics thus arise : the materialistic
profusion of the rich river bottoms and lands cultivates the pas-
sion for luxurious living of ancient Babylon, Thebes and Carth-
age; the race characteristics of Greece, Rome and Judea are
developed by mountains and seas; thus many varied forms and
elements of the scattered and separated tribes of mankind have been
developed, and so contribute to the full many sided life of the
race.

The time of gathering and moulding together is therefore
involved in the scattering and separating of the race. In subdu-
ing the whole earth the idea is evidently contained that the dif-
ferent portions of the earth should make their varied contributions
to the common good. So in the scattering of the race the idea is
evidently contained that the cultivation of varied qualities should
not permanently separate but should make each cultivated tribe
give its own peculiar ministry to the common good. The modern
gathering of the race into a great brotherhood, that wonderful
evolution of the race now going on before our eyes, is the outcome
of the ancient scattering of the race over the whole earth. All
lands have been subdued and cultivated, each particular land has
had its own peculiar products, provides for its own inhabitants and
for the rest of the world as well. Means of communication have
been devised, in ancient times the caravan creeping over plains
and mountains, the timid sails sometimes venturing out of sight
of land, in our times the iron rails over all continents, the funnel
smoke on all oceans. Tools have been developed, and the raw
products of separate lands have been turned into fabrics for all
lands. Travel has been the handmaid of education, and all his-

104 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

tories, languages and conditions of the different branches of the
race have become the possession of mankind, the great brother-
hood. But not only has the world become small in our days, its dif-
ferent lands being brought together in close neighborhood, its dif-
ferent tribes becoming acquainted with each other and minister-
ing to each other, but the commingling of tribes and races which
soon followed the scattering, and became more manifest in the
middle history, has become a prominent feature of recent times.

In recent times too the character of this commingling of races
has been entirely changed. In the beginning of history and in the
middle periods it was largely a warlike process, in our times it
is largely a peaceful one. The separating tribes were genetic, the
few individuals who became absorbed from other tribes did not
change this character, the growth of the tribe was by the natural
increase of the birth-rate over the death-rate, the tribe was of one
blood. Then there may have flowed over this peaceful tribe a more
numerous tribe, or a more warlike one and the peaceful tribe
became absorbed in the stronger, the stronger thus became less
genetic, the commingling of blood went on and a demotic tribe or
nation arose. Even when it was an inundation of mere numbers
the element of war was prominent, generally it was a conquering
race, many males of the feebler race were killed, the women became
the mothers of a new race, and the demotic nation, the nation of
commingled blood, possessed the combined strength of both tribes.
There have been many such migrations and conquests in the past
and they have wrought wonderful changes in the history of the
race, generally the demotic nation has been a stronger nation or
race than either of the genetic ones. Civilization generally has
been developed by a genetic nation becoming largely demotic. It
is rare if ever that a civilization has grown in a genetic nation
occupying its own land. The original inhabitants of the Nile and
the Euphrates Valley, had a large inflow of other peoples before
their civilization flourished. The Aryans flowed down upon the
Dravidians and other native tribes before any civilization arose
in India. Other Aryan waves flowed over the original inhabitants
of Greece, and later on over the original inhabitants of Rome,

DISPERSION OF THE RACE 105

before Grecian and Roman civilizations sprang into their splendid
careers, and still another Aryan wave flowed over the native tribes
of Northern Europe before the French, the English and the Ger-
manic civilizations arose. Those comminglings of peoples standing
nearest to us and having most influence on the modern movements
of the race are the inundation of the native tribes of England by
the Saxons, the Danes and the Normans.

The present migration of nations is a peaceful one ; the inunda-
tion of Europe by the Goths and Vandals was with fire and sword ;
the migration of the nations of Europe to the New World, to
South Africa and to the Great Islands of the South Pacific is with
the sword beaten into the plow share. None the less, perhaps all
the more, it is a most remarkable and wide spread movement, and
fraught with mighty destinies. We see some of its most prom-
inent features in our own country. The largest and most varied
inflow of this great race movement comes to our own country, and
the experience of the past migrations and of the civilizations grow-
ing from them project a vision upon our future of a stronger race
and a more splendid civilization than the world has ever yet seen.

Our population increases in two ways: First, the genetic by
the excess of births over deaths. In this we do not rank as high
as some of the nations of Europe. Our birth rate is twenty-seven
per one thousand, and our death rate nineteen, our increase is
eight, while Great Britain has an increase of ten, Germany twelve,
Italy eleven, Norway has the largest increase of all, fourteen, and
France the smallest, only one. On the other hand we lose hardly
any by emigration, while Great Britain of its gain of four hundred
and fifty thousand a year loses thirty-two per cent, Germany loses
twenty per cent, Norway loses fifty per cent, and France loses
only five. The second way in which our population increases is
the demotic; by the immigration of other nationalities and the
commingling of races. The total population of the last census, that
of 1900 was over seventy-six millions. Of this number over ten
millions were white persons born in foreign lands, over ten mil-
lions were born of foreign parents, and over five millions were
born of mixed parents, foreign and native. About one-third of

io6 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

our total population was born in foreign lands or of foreign born
parents — one or both. Since the year 1820, when the first record
of immigration was made, up to 1906, over twenty-three millions
of immigrants have been added to our population. This is a much
larger immigration of the foreign born than that of the Goths and
the Vandals over Europe, or that has ever occurred before in the
history of the world, it is certainly a note-worthy movement of the
race. Our population therefore is largely demotic and presents
much unlikeness, it has great varieties of race qualities, still it is
a unity. This unity is not affected by any external pressure either
of oppression or of aggression, but by a consciousness of kind, a com-
pelling power from within which moulds the different race quali-
ties into a prevailing type approved by the social mind, into one
society. This is done through the genetic increase of the nation,
the population is perpetuated mainly by the birth rate. The great
majority of the seventy-six millions, the two-thirds of our popula-
tion were native born, and most of them had in their veins some
mixture of the blood of the colonists and of those coming here
before the year 1820.

But the colonists themselves were demotic, while we may regard
them as the genetic basis of our nation. The first settlements were
made by the English in New England and Virginia, by the Dutch
in New York, and by the Swedes in Delaware, in a short time the
English immigration preponderated, as it has done until recent
times. The English of Queen Elizabeth's time were an amalga-
mation of the races of northern Europe. The Saxons, Angles,
Jutes and other German tribes descended upon England soon after
the fall of the Roman Empire in the old war-like way and almost
exterminated the original British tribes, or drove them into Wales
and Scotland, "a Celtic fringe" Carlyle calls them. With these
the conquerors intermarried and also with the Celts of Ireland.
Then followed the invasion of the Danes and the Normans, and a
small but continuous peaceful inflow of Flemings, Dutch and
French. It was this English speaking amalgamation of the races of
northern Europe that settled the colonies of America. In the
eighteenth century there was a small immigration of Scotch, Irish,

DISPERSION OF THE RACE 107

Huguenots, and Germans. In the igtli century, from 1820 when
the records began to be kept, the immigration became large, espe-
cially of the Irish, the Germans and the Scandanavians. This
immigration to our land was from the very races from which the
English race had been commingled during a thousand years, it was
a reblending of the old original stocks, and nothing could be bet-
ter or more normal for the formation of a strong nationality from
a social point of view.

This continued up until 1880 when a great change began and
has ever since increased in the racial characteristics of our immi-
gration. Figures sometimes tell impressive stories even of race
movements. In twenty years from 1881 to 1901 — the change in
immigration is noteworthy.

Germany sent in 1881 — 210,000 — and in 1901 only 18,000.

Great Britain sent in 1881 — 150,000 — and in 1901 only 48,000.

Scandinavia sent in 1881 — 73,000 — and in 1901 only 28,000.

The decline through the twenty years was steady. On the
other hand the increase has been steady as follows:

Italy sent in 1881 only 5,000 and in 190 1 100,000.

Russia sent in 1881 only 10,000 and in 1901 90,000.

Hungary sent in 1881 only 27,000 and in 1901 114,000.

With the immigration from the south of Europe becoming
larger than from the north, with the immigration from Hungary,
Northern Russia and Italy supplemented by a growing number
from Greece, Syria, Armenia and the Levant, a new problem arises.
Ethnically these races are alien both to the ethnic basis and the
demotic character of our population up to a quarter of a century
ago. We are northern races and ours is an occidental civilization.
These are southern races, and largely theirs is an oriental civiliza-
tion. Whether the new amalgamation can be made or is worth
making may receive different theoretic answers ; but it is a race
movement that is seen to make its own answer. The immigration
last year was the largest in the history of the migration of the race,
over one million immigrants, a large proportion being from these
southern oriental races, entered our land.

Our land is nowhere near crowded. The New World can

io8 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

sustain a population equal to the present population of the entire
globe. We have in the United States, stretching across the broad
belt of the continent, a population of only eighty millions, when
we can easily support a population as large as that of Europe. We
are living in the midst of one of the mighty movements of the race.
It would be wrong to try to stop it, we would be fighting against
the manifest plan of God. But it is due to the waiting peoples, to
restless humanity, that we should intelligently make the best of it
and see that the commingling is an uplifting of the race toward
a spirit of brotherhood. Our present laws controlling immigration
are evidently running in wise directions. We are to guard against
such a large inflow of illiteracy as will lower the standard of our
citizenship, we should guard against such a designed importation
of cheap labor as will lower the standard of our living, we should
keep out the pauper and criminal classes, for surely those socie-
ties that have fostered these by indifference or unwise action should
bear their self imposed burden, and we should guard the health
of the nation from infectious diseases, for the same reason, since
God requires those who break His laws to bear their penalties.
The situation is certainly one of great hopefulness, for ourselves
and for the race. Hungary is perhaps the most progressive coun-
try in Europe. Italy once ruled the world, the strength of the
race has not run out. Greece has surely a future. The Russian,
especially the Russian Jew, is an element of force, and the Orient
gave us our religion, its reflective mind will make a good mixture
with our occidental energy. Great Britain has given us by far
the larger proportion of our immigrants. Germany and Scanda-
navia come next, now Hungary and Italy are coming to the
front. The children of these latter countries are as strong phys-
ically and as bright intellectually as those of the former. The
process of assimilation is amazing, first comes American dress,
then language, customs and spirit and in a couple of genera-
tions they are almost as Americanized as the rest of us. When
these strong races are thoroughly commingled into our strong
American race with one language, and one form of government,
really one nation, possessing this broad belt of the continent and

DISPERSION OF THE RACE 109

as large in population as Europe is now, it will be a nation of
great influence in the earth. Our separate states will give a large
local government of self controlled people, and our central gov-
ernment will combine these states into one Nation, where the
people are the rulers.

There is a problem which faces the American people of the
greatest import, that of the negro race. Other races have come
to this country voluntarily, -leaving their own lands because of
heavy pressure, or coming to our land because of great attrac-
tions, but taking the initiative themselves, and so showing at the
outset a strong and independent character. This can be said in
varying degree of all immigration, it takes enterprise, courage,
self-devotion and adventurous spirit to break away from the land
of one's birth, from the associations of many generations and start
out over the seas for a strange land and a new life. But the negro
was brought here against his will. The slave trade flourished
from 1650 to 1750. We can hardly understand how in the begin-
ning men having any Christianity at all could have engaged in a
trade of rum and guns for men and women, but the purchase
was made of captives taken in war and held by savage negro
tribes, and it was perhaps thought that the condition of slaves on
ship board or in the new land could not be worse than that kind
of captivity. But the trade was so profitable that it soon degen-
erated into stealing men and women from peaceful tribes, and
in organizing raids to capture such for slaves, and there could
not be any conceivable ameliorating influences in such a degrad-
ing business. Turner in his masterpiece, the great painting "The
Slave-Ship" makes all nature, the sky, the sea ablaze with the
wrath of God against this awful sin of man against his brother
man.

Under the retributive justice of God our nation has paid in
groans and blood a terrible penalty in the freeing of the slaves
and the preservation of the Union. At the close of the war it
was believed by some that the negro race would dwindle and pass
away. Instead it has greatly increased and will undoubtedly
remain. It was feared also by many that the negro would migrate

no THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

north, this was contrary to the race characteristic, a southern race
remains in the semi-tropic south. The center of the negro pop-
ulation is now in the north of Alabama having moved south-
westward since the war. The problem is one for the whole
nation, no part can be exempt, but it bears with the heaviest
weight upon the southern states, who should have the sympathy
and intelligent assistance of the whole nation. There are now
about ten millions of our negro population. About one-half of
the southern negroes are illiterate. In spite of the wrong done
to their ancestors in bringing them to this country it cannot be
questioned that these millions of their descendants are much better
off than had the race remained in Africa. They have the language,
the customs and many advantages of our civilization, they are
not barbarians but civilized, they are not pagans, fetish worship-
ers as they would have been, but are Christians, though not of the
finest grade. It cannot be questioned either that their labor has
enriched to a great degree and does still enrich the southern land.
It is better for them, it is better for our land in many respects that
they are here. But it is different with this race than all other
races in our land, they cannot and they should not be amalga-
mated into our race. It is alleged with much ground for it, that
amalgamation is rapidly going on, that one- third of the negroes
of the south are mulattoes, black blood mixed with white. But
this has been brought about in illegitimate ways, largely by the
wrongs wrought upon black women by white men, and the more
the negro race is elevated in morals and in economic conditions
the more black women will cease to yield themselves to this
degradation. Then too that which is so strong in the white race
will be equally strong in the black race, a race repulsion from
legitimate amalgamation. The further Christianizing the negro
race and the more Christian the relation of the white race to it,
the more impossible will be the commingling of the two Into one
blood.

Benjamin Kidd. the author of the great book, Social Evolu-
tion, has made a special study of the probable future of the negro
race, and he thinks that the negroes of the United States are in

DISPERSION OF THE RACE iii

a position to elevate themselves and to have a large influence
in the elevation of the race in its native home, Africa. He does
not have any wild idea of the migration of our negroes back to
Africa, the vision of the impossible that has claimed so many
philanthropic souls, but the sane view of a part being elevated in
favorable circumstances for the benefit of the whole. This would
be in the line of so much of God's plan for the whole race of
mankind, with His overruling the wickedness of men for the good
of their own descendants and of the rest of mankind. Mr. Kidd
concludes that there can be no colonization of the tropical lands
of central Africa by the white race. He concludes also that one
of the most significant phases of the future economic rivalry of
the peoples of the world will have its base in the tropics, and
largely in central Africa. This rivalry will be in providing the
two large essentials for the race, food and clothing. Rice is already
the principal food of one-third of the human race. The recent
war between Russia and Japan has shown the world the advantage
of the simple commissariat of Japan, that rice is a good food in
war as well as in peace. Cotton is becoming the principal basis
of clothing. European nations have nearly quadrupled their use
of cotton in the last century. China and other eastern nations
have greatly enlarged their demand for cotton. Already the nor-
mal demand for raw cotton is far in advance of the normal sup-
ply. The cotton area of the United States is large, but new
areas of cotton culture are demanded, and there are none better
than those of Central Africa. The cultivation of both rice and
cotton is largely in the hands of the negro race. The great prob-
lem of the world for its coming food and clothing supply is the
training of the negro race for industry and business in providing
rice and cotton for the whole race. Mr. Kidd says, "no more
powerful influence can operate in the elevation of a people than
race consciousness working towards a worthy ideal by clearly
conceived means". The quickening intelligence of the negro race
will see the opportunity before it, the door God is opening before
it. In our country this intelligence must first awaken. Here
the negro race is in contact with the energetic Anglo Saxon race,
with the strenuous enterprising American race, and in our southern

112 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

states it has splendid opportunities for the cultivation of the indus-
trial and business qualities it needs. The development of the
negro race consciousness, of negro race ethos around ideals of this
kind, has the intelligent energetic environment it needs in our own
land. This development can be in the United States, in our own
southern states better than anywhere else in the world. The com-
ing of the race to this land in the far away past may have had
this present bright outlook and the splendid future development
wrapped up in it as a magnificent plant is wrapped up in an
unpromising unattractive seed. The transfer and spread of this
race consciousness when once awakened to the home of the race,
Africa, the undeveloped continent of wonderful possibilities, will
follow naturally both by direct immigration and by direct influ-
ence. The rice and cotton of our land will not continue to
supply the world, the intelligent industry that cultivates these in
our land will seek the new fields, and will stimulate the kindred
race already dwelling in those fields of the rich tropics, the cen-
tral Africa land. In the scattering of the race Canaan was to be
a servant of servants. In the gathering of the race the curse
becomes a blessing as so often is the case, and Canaan has the
honor of feeding and clothing the race, of ministering to the
welfare of the great brotherhood of which he forms a part.

As the scattering of the races was not arbitrary but according
to natural causes so also was the shortening of human life. The
account given is remarkable. We may not fully understand the
extent of it but the causes are evident, the violence and lust, the
crowding together that forced emigration and the hardship of
such emigration, the careless indifference to the laws of health,
and the rise and spread of contagious diseases, all departures
from the spirit of brotherhood in the care of one another.

In modern days there is a marked lengthening of human life in
civilized lands and spreading to all lands. Contagious diseases
are checked, violence and lust are restrained, the community seeks
the health of the individual, attention is paid to the laws of health,
the spirit of brotherhood leads each individual to care not only
for himself but for all others, and each higher portion of the race
to care for all the race.

PART III. THE KINGDOM OF GOD OR THE PAR-
TICULAR SOCIETY OF THE BIBLE.

CHAPTER X.

The Modern Sociological View Point.

We are not to expect too much from the sociology of the Bible.
We are not to look for a society formed around a special revela-
tion of God and under His special care as being entirely different
in kind from all other society. All society is formed under the
laws of God in the nature of man as a social being. All society
is formed by the unfolding of man's powers in relation to his fel-
lows as they are drawn into exercise by the circumstances of his
life. The supernatural is never antagonistic to the natural, it only
goes beyond it and above it, it adds something to it. The basis is
always natural. God made the natural. He is in the natural.
He does not cast aside that which He made and that in which He
is present when He makes a special revelation of Himself, and
takes under His special care a certain portion of the race. Society
in general is natural. The supernatural revelation of God to the
particular society of the Bible does not set aside the natural society
but adds new principles and forces to it. Nor as we have already
seen, and should always bear in mind, does He, in giving a special
revelation and care to a certain portion of the race, cast aside the
rest of mankind. It is rather His way, and so conceivably the
best way, of giving that revelation and care to the whole race.
The portion selected for the special revelation and care are thereby
receiving a special culture not solely for themselves, nor mainly,
but especially that they may be God's messengers and leaders to the
highest well being of the whole race. Abraham is chosen that

114 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

through him God may bless the whole world, this is expressly
stated as God's plan. He said to Abraham at the beginning —
"Be thou a blessing. In thee shall all the families of the earth be
blessed".

In the evolution of society as in all evolution He who formed
the plan, watches its unfolding and when needed implants new
force. So vegetable life was introduced, and animal life, and man's
life, and in the unfolding of man's social life, in the evolution of
society, God as needed introduces the life that unfolds into the
Kingdom of God. Theistic and Christian evolution accounts for
the past and the present, but is not content with these, it looks
forward to the development of the society of the whole race of man
into that of the Kingdom of God. Because this is the claim of the
Bible, because this alone accounts fully for the past and has a well
grounded hope of the future, the science of sociology may find in
the society of the Bible wide information and lofty incentives.
The Bible supplements this science as it does all the other sciences,
it does not overthrow or change nature but it adds new views and
principles to it. The knowledge of general society thus becomes a
proper view point for the study of the particular society of the
Bible.

There is certainly a strong analogy between society and an
organism, strong enough to justfy the organic conception of society;
but it is only an analogy. The great lecturer from the old world
whose first lecture at one of our universities recently was upon
"Society is an organism", plunged over the verge of analogy into
open space. Society is marvelously like an organism, any animal
for instance, even a man, in at least six particulars.

Society in the first place is like an organism in that it is not
dead but living, it grows and acts. Any future progress must be
in the nature of growth. Any revolution, even if in but one
department, as in government, must be in the nature of evolution,
got of destruction, an evolution of government, not a bringing in
of anarchy. We may pull down a wall and build another, but
we cannot cut down a tree and set it up again. All we can do
with an organism is to foster its development. It may be pressing

MODERN POINT OF VIEW 115

an analogy, but it would seem as if anarchy in aiming to destroy
all government is like cutting off a man's head in expectation that
the body would be better without it.

Society in the second place is like an organism in that it is made
up of a multitude of living cells or individuals. The human body
has in its structure billions and billions of living cells. The life
of the body is in the cells, if these are in full vigor the body
thrives. A living body cannot be made of dead cells nor a strong
body of weak cells. Many are constantly dying and being carried
away and their places are being filled with new living cells, thus
the body lives and attains maturity, when the new cells do not
supply the removed ones the body declines. So society, the whole
race, and each smaller group, is composed of individuals, the race
of a billion and a half, our nation of eighty millions, our great
city of four millions. Here too the life is in the cells, the indi-
viduals. A living society cannot be made of dead individuals, a
strong society cannot be made of weak individuals. Many of
these are constantly dying but their places are filled with new indi-
viduals, thus society lives and attains maturity. If in any society
the supply of new individuals does not equal the removals by death,
the society diminishes and is in danger of decadence. So the city,
the nation, the race, grows or shrinks.

Society in the third place is like an organism in that these living
cells or individuals are arranged in distinguishable parts or organs.
The cells in the organism are said to be the same in kind and to
differ only in degree and in their relations to each other, some go
to form the bone frame and some the nerve system, some are in
the feet and some in the arms, some are in the heart and some
in the brain. So in society the individuals are the same in kind,
they too differ only in degree and in their relations to each other.
Some are farmers, some are manufacturers, some are merchants,
some are teachers and some are scholars, some are rulers and some
are ruled; some societies are far more complex than others, but
the cells are the same, individual men and women and children.

Society in the fourth place is like an organism in that these parts
or organs co-operate with each other. A Roman orator quelled

ii6 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

a mob eager to overthrow the nobility, and the army, by showing
that while the hands fight for the body the stomach must strengthen
the hands. The Apostle Paul said of the Church "The head can-
not say to the foot, I have no need of thee".

Society in the fifth place is like an organism in that its com-
plete life can only be realized by complete co-operation of all the
parts and organs. Life in the body is low if any organ or part
fails of its full co-operation. If a man's liver is sluggish his whole
body is affected. If a man has a paralyzed leg he is so much less
a full man. So in society a labor strike or a capitalistic lock-out
is the paralysis of an organ, and its lack of co-operation brings
the whole society into a limping condition. So an overgrowth
of wealth and learning or of poverty and ignorance that withdraws
individuals or classes from normal social co-operation affects the
general society as the sluggish liver does the body. If the organ-
ism has an intelligent oversight of itself as a man should have, he
will investigate the cause of the sluggish liver and of the paralyzed
leg, and correct them, he will foster normal brain and muscular
development, he will cultivate the healthy growth and the har-
monious co-operation of all his parts. So society may and should
exercise its intelligent oversight and care of all its parts and
organs, and secure their harmonious co-operation, for only in this
way can anything like an ideal society be reached. The easy
theory of "letting things alone" is not wise for man's full health
and development, for his body or any part of it, for his mind or
his soul ; neither is such a theory conducive to the welfare of so-
siety. Let the body alone and the liver is apt to become sluggish
and to stay so and grow worse; intelligently observe the laws of
health, of the kind and manner of taking food, of exercise, and of
rest, and the liver will probably keep in good order. Let society
alone and the growth of poverty and wealth may destroy its
welfare; intelligently observe the laws of social well being and
the abnormal will give place to the normal.

Society in the sixth place is like an organism in that its parts
and organs are arranged in at least four great systems and its full
welfare depends upon the complete co-operation of these great

MODERN POINT OF VIEW 117

systems. In a man's body the highest organism we know of, there
is the sustaining system, the stomach that receives food and ex-
tracts upbuilding properties from it; there is the transporting
system, the heart that sends nourishment to all parts of the body
through the circulation of the blood ; there is the communicating
system, the nerves that carry their messages and commands to all
parts of the body, making the various parts an organic whole ;
and there is the regulating system, the marvellous nerve cells
in the cortex of the brain, forming the tent of the Commander
in Chief, where all messages are delivered.

So in society there is first the sustaining system. Accordingly
the physical basis of society is the country where the society
dwells, this will include farms, mines, fisheries, and it includes
also all the manufacturing necessary to prepare the various
products of these for man's use, the preparing for future days by
the laying up of stores for man's need ; and the laying the basis for
wealth from the products of the home land. In society there is
in the second place the transporting system. The exchange of
the products of the soil and the handy work of man; the trades
located in the society or passing to and from it to other societies;
the stores, the factories, the roads, the water ways, the caravans
of old, the trains and steamships of today. The systems overlap
here as in the organism. For the freeness and fulness of exchange
it is necessary to have a universal standard of value, the money
of the market. It is proper also to have a plan for the trans-
mission of wealth from generation to generation. These must be
determined by the regulating system. While the medium of
exchange is fixed by the regulating system the judging of the rela-
tion of various products to this standard depends upon news from
various trading centers which come through the communicating
system. In society there is in the third place the communicating
system. It is like the nervous system in man. Simple it may
have been in former days, the rumor passing from neighborhood to
neighborhood, the postman's visit at rare intervals, but bewilder-
ing in its complexity in our modern days, as the modern especially
the American man's nervous system is high strung and complex

ii8 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

compared with that of the ancient, especially the oriental man.
The social nervous system has mails, telegraphs, telephones, teleg-
raphones. The marvelous daily press is itself a complex com-
municating system, it has its agencies for gathering all kinds of
news commercial, political, social, religious from all parts of the
world, it arranges the news and comments on it and directs
thought on all subjects in its editorial centers; and it then has its
many agencies for scattering the whole broadcast among the
people. An individual may be a part of several different channels,
a terminal cell and a mediating cell as well, a teacher, a preacher,
a writer of books, an editor of a paper, a member of various clubs
or associations for various purposes of influencing public opinion,
of communicating psychical influences.

In society there is in the fourth place a regulating system; it is
closely allied with the communicating system, may almost be
confused with it in many instances, as the brain is a central office
of the nerve system. But in the central office there is that mysteri-
ous force the commander in chief, the personality we call a man,
the man presiding over the nerves. This regulating system in
society is the power of control, the control by public opinion, by
the State, by the school, by the Church, by the parents. In every
highly organized society there are rulers and the ruled, leaders
and the led, we may call them kings and subjects, generals and
the army, governors or presidents and the people, makers of pub-
lic opinion and the holders of public opinion, we may call them
what we choose as long as we recognize something like a con-
trolling system, regulating the whole society as the brain unifies
and regulates the body.

These analogies of society to an organism belong to all society,
and of course to the particular society of the Bible. This like
all society will be composed of individuals arranged in groups and
systems, co-operating with one another for the common welfare,
and the degree of welfare will depend largely upon the degree of
co-operation.

A further element of general society applies equally to the
particular society of the Bible. When we go beyond the question

MODERN POINT OF VIEW 119

What? and ask the question How? of any subject, we find that
difficulties grow upon us. It is easy to recognize the cells in an
organism, the individuals in a society, and that they are grouped in.
difierent parts and systems, but when we ask How do they become
so grouped ? how do the living cells become grouped in the stomach
or in the nerves? how do individuals become grouped in the sus-
taining system or in the communicating system? we face a bewild-
ering but tascinating subject. The ceils in an organism are
grouped in two ways, either by spontaneous action that is by their
inherent nature, or by the necessity ot outward conditions. This
explains perhaps a little, but it is very little. Huxley quaintly says
"When we do not know anything about the cause of a phenom-
enon we call it spontaneous". Life itself has been described as
the harmony between the force within and the many forces without
our organism. So life builds up its own organism by the inner
force adapting itself to outward conditions.

When we come to consider how the many individuals group
themselves into the organs and systems of society, these two ele-
ments, the spontaneous and the coercive are supplemented with a
third, the intentional or voluntary. Man is said to be a "'bundle
of wants". He is certainly a bundle of needs; when he becomes
conscious of these they are wants, but frequently he wants greatly
the things he does not need, often wants most the thing he needs
least. The needs of his bodily and mental life are the spurs of
his activity, needs real or imaginary, become the wants that stir
to action. Wants arising from his bodily life seek satisfaction in
all grades from unrestrained animalism to perfect bodily health.
Wants arising from his mental life seek satisfaction in all grades
from the superstitious fear of the physical, to the large master>' of
it. Wants arising from his esthetic nature seek satisfaction of all
grades from pleasure in the hideous, in bold colors and loud
sounds, to delight in beauty and music. Wants arising from his
religious nature seek satisfaction of all grades from fetichism to
spirituality. Wants arising from his social nature seek satisfaction
of all grades from wolfishness to brotherhood. Wants arising
from his capacity to hold possessions seek satisfaction of all grades-

I20 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

from poverty to wealth, even to the highest satisfaction he is cap-
able ot in this line, to the trusteeship of wealth for the general
good. These varied wants of man are met by the provision of
the wide earth in which he dwells, or of the special part of the
earth a particular society makes its home, met to be lavishly or
grudgingly supplied. 1 he coercive force of circumstances by sat-
isfying and as well limiting these wants, has its binding power in
society. The intentional or voluntary element is also awakened
and grows influential as the other elements flourish.

In society, as in the organism welfare consists in a fair propor-
tion between the various systems, of course the sustaining and the
distributing systems are more bulky than the more delicate and
finer communicating and regulating systems. Of the population
of the United States 35 per cent, are engaged in agriculture, 24
per cent, in manufacturing and mining and 16 per cent, in trans-
portation and commerce. In Holland and in Germany about the
same proportion prevails. But in England only 10 per cent, are
engaged in agriculture, and 13 per cent, in commerce, while 59
per cent, are engaged in manufacturing, and in France the reverse
condition prevails, 44 per cent, are engaged in agriculture and 32
per cent, in manufacturing, and only 9 per cent, in commerce.
Both the intentional and the coercive evidently have a large effect
together with the spontaneous, in forming these important systems
of society.

But it is not alone in the great systems of society but in its
many complex and minor groupings as well that these three ele-
mental forces have their exercise. There are certain greater and
lesser aggregates, that the spontaneous and coercive elements rule,
those of race, of nationality, of common ancestrj^ of particular
families, of all blood relationship. There are other greater and
lesser aggregates that the voluntary elements rule, those of friend-
ship, clubs, societies, political parties, of religious bodies and par-
ticular churches. There are other greater or lesser aggregates
that all these elements, spontaneous, coercive and voluntary bring
about, the rich and the poor, the learned and the unlearned, the
socially high and the socially low.

MODERN POINT OF VIEW 12I

An organ of society differs from an aggregate in that it em-
braces the occupation of man, it performs a social task. A man
earns his living, if he earns it at all, by doing something for
societ}\ In the formation of organs all these elemental forces
generally continue though with varying degree of power. Men
enter their life occupation, their trade, profession, business of any
kind frequently by birth, spontaneously, sometimes by coercion,
they must do something and this is all that offers, often by choice,
of many employments they choose the one best adapted to their
taste. So farmers, storekeepers, factory workers, teachers, clergy-
men, judges, governors, are formed.

An individual is not confined to one aggregate or even to one
organ. So aggregates cross and over-lap each other, so organs are
interrelated with each other. In proportion to the many sidedness
of individuals and the interlacing of aggregates and organs is the
firmness of society against outward shock or inward disruption.
If, for example, the wealthy aggregate is bound together with the
poor by ancestry, friendship, political parties and church relations,
the whole society is much stronger than if each aggregate were a
class by itself. If the capitalist aggregate and the wage earner
aggregate are bound together in the organ of making or transport-
ing things by mutual respect, just dealings and in the conscious
purpose to serve the general welfare, they strengthen the bonds of
society and make it richer not only in material things but in the
higher values of manhood. So a church including all classes in
its membership or brotherhood, the rich and the poor, the capitalist
and the wage earner, the learned and the unlearned, is a strong
band of society, while the one having only the rich, or only the
poor, in its membership is a weak bond, does but little for society
as a whole.

While there is much ground for the view that the bodily
forces are the bond of society, it is quite clear that the social
nature of man lies in his like-mindedness with his fellows. The
bodily appetites of hunger and love are strong forces in the history
of man, in the maintainence and distribution of the race, in secur-
ing sustenance through industry, enterprise or migration, in seeking

122 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

the best health conditions, and in continuing the existence of the
race through the difference of the sexes. Whatever social theories
are being considered hunger and love are steadily at w^ork mould-
ing social conditions. Still the mind is the basis of personality.
The likeness and difference of mental characteristics in the social
persons are the ground and cause of unity in society. There is a
comity of interest in their free exercise and development, society
becomes more complex and fruitful in endowments and prospects
as this freedom is attained, as is seen in the social condition of free
United States compared w^ith that of restricted Russia. Special
individual tastes and aptitudes cultivate themselves by pleasure in
exercise, find the rewards of success and so combine in social
values, forming the organs of society and fully and freely carrying
on their functions. The regulation of the bodily appetites is by
the mental nature, and thus the two form the structure of society.

Sympathy, arising from resemblances and differences of the
mental nature, the like-mindedness of man, is the main force in
society. Drive a hundred discordant men and women of different
races, languages and religion into a small territory, as an island
in summer seas, and at first there would be no society, they would
hold aloof from or battle with each other. But all the elements
of society are there, coexistence in the same territory, upon which
they are dependent for continued existence, means of communica-
tion, they can speak their thoughts and feelings by common words
or signs. Like-mindedness springs into exercise, and sympathy
arises. Companionship is pleasurable in itself, besides it secures
safety- from common dangers, and increase of comfort by helpful-
ness and co-operation.

The sympathy which is the basis of society is evidently of three
kinds. It is first instinctive, drawn into exercise by common
wants and experiences. It springs from the association of beings
capable of it in circumstances calculated to draw it into exercise.
The exercise of sympathy awakens kindred tastes in certain direc-
tions, and powers of gratifying them are found in mutual encour-
agement and helpfulness. Thus not only aggregates but organs

MODERN POINT OF VIEW 123

arise, the skill in hunting, boating, riding, the making of tents and
houses, and their adornment.

The second kind of sympathy is the traditional. The American
society is largely bound together by the traditional sympathy for
our mode of government and life arising from past generations.

The third kind of sympathy is the rational and moral. The
progress of society depends largely upon the sympathy of all classes
for each other, as we discern that this is the only wise and good
outcome of man's like-mindedness. The like-mindedness of man
with man arises from his like-mindedness with God, it leads to the
real brotherhood by recognizing the true fatherhood of God, and
so brings in the Kingdom of God to the race.

It is evident that societies formed in different localities will have
similar features, that the spontaneous forces and the outward
conditions, together with the volitional forces will form all so-
sieties in large measure like each other. It is also evident that
different societies will have varied features, that the like-minded-
ness of man will take different exercises from varied surroundings,
that these peculiar sympathies will be handed down through suc-
ceeding generations and give the basis for varied national and
moral social ideals and growths. The Arj^an race is said to have
had various migrations into different lands, each migration con-
quered the original inhabitants, held them in subjection and took
possession of their land and made it the new home for many
generations. The varied societies thus formed men alike in many
features, and unlike in many others — unlike especially in the spirit
of life. The Hindu was contemplative, the Greek was active,
the Roman was domineering, the American today is enterprising,
and the spirt of the life in the society as in an organism, has large
influence in its bodily formation.

From this modern sociological standpoint we can take an in-
telligent view of the particular society of the Bible. It will be
in large measure like all other societies, but it will have also a
distinct spirit of its own which will give many features unlike the
varied societies with which it comes in contact.

Three of these prominent features peculiarly its own are easily

124 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

discerned in its earliest stages. The first is their conception of
God and of their relation to Him. This conception grew out of
the natural revelation not only, as all other human ideas of God
must grow, but especially out of a supernatural revelation He
made to men adapted to receive it. The supernatural revelations
recorded in Genesis were made to individuals largely for their
own sakes, and more in number and more striking, in character
were made to Abraham than to any other one person. Still only
eight were made to him and these at widely different periods of
his long life, and for the last fifty years of that life there is no
hint of any special revelation made to him. These varied revela-
tions were accompanied by commands and promises. Of Abra-
ham it may be said that he believed every revelation of God,
obeyed every command given him, and relied upon every promise
made to him, and that he had to sustain his faith for the last
fifty years of his life only the memories of former revelations, com-
mands and covenants. He well deserves the name, the father of
the faithful. Of him it must also be truthfully said that in many
of his social relations there were glaring defects according to all
modern ideas. He came out of the primitive society then prevail-
ing with many of its manners and ideals as part of himself. This
new revelation of God led him to govern his life and that of his
family by his faith. The supernatural revelation of God was
progressive. Abraham knew but little, he was at the beginning,
we are at the culmination, and even at the beginning and with
the little given him the social result began to be manifest. He had
a new sympathy for his family, an instinctive sympathy aroused by
his peculiar knowledge of God and his relation to Him, which
became a rational and moral sympathy as well and made the
family somewhat difFerent from all other families of that time.
The family itself soon found a new bond of sympathy for each
other under the influence and by the teachings of Abraham. This
clanish feeling grew with succeeding generations, the sympathy,
instinctive and rational, with Abraham became traditional as well
as the years passed on. In the particular society of the Bible we
find from this point on, that the family and national spirit had a

MODERN POINT OF VIEW 125

peculiar strength and quality from the knowledge they possessed
of God and from the relation He bore to them. They were from
the general family life originally, and were in close contact with
the general family and national life through their long history.
Many features of the general society were found in greater or less
degree and varying with times and circumstances in the particular
society, but this peculiar bond made the family and nation some-
what different in inner spirit and in many outward forms. They
regarded themselves the peculiar people of God, they therefore
bore peculiar relations to each other. The like-mindedness of the
race had an additional force, and quality in the like-mindedness of
the family of Abraham in successive generations and continues to
this day in the Jewish race.

With the peculiar bond of this like-mindedness there alas, grew
up also a separation in feeling from all the rest of mankind, a
disdain and contempt for others, foreign to, even the very reverse
of the feeling God designed when He made the special revelation
of Himself to Abraham. He told him plainly that He selected
him and blessed him, that he might become a blessing to all men.
This Abraham failed to impress upon his family and his descend-
ants, that the brotherhood formed in them was to be formed
through them among all men. The conception they formed of
God and of their relation to Him they were to hold in trust for all
mankind ; instead they grasped these alone for themselves. Mak-
ing a wrong application of the spirit of brotherhood it lost much
of its power, but still through all the particular society of the
Old Testament the tie of brotherhood among the Jews was strong,
and in the New Testament it became still stronger in those com-
ing out from the Jews into the Christian brotherhood. It is this
tie of brotherhood growing out of a peculiar knowledge of and
relation to God that characterizes the particular society of the
Bible in all its stages and that God by His dealings with the peo-
ple and by prophets and apostles, chiefly by Jesus Christ, His
Son, strives to purify and strengthen and broaden to take in the
whole race of mankind.

The second prominent feature peculiar to the particular society

126 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

of the Bible easily discerned in its earlier stages is the estimate
given to women, and the sanctity of marriage. The names of the
mothers of the Jewish race are mentioned in the concise history
as well as those of the fathers, and they are women worthy to
be named ; this fact alone distinguishes this early history from
that of other races and nations. Vivid glimpses are given of the
general society then existing in its estimate and treatment of
women which afford a dark back ground from the bright and lofty
place she holds in the new society, and also casts some shadows
upon it. Coming out of such social standing she does not at
one step reach her proper place, not even that given her in modern
Christian civilization, but she makes a fair start in that direction.
We may find much to criticise in the fathers of the race, Abraham,
Isaac and Jacob, and we are not at a loss for such material in
Sarah and Rebekah and there is some little fault to be found with
Rachel, but the life-long affection of each married pair gives to
woman and to marriage a new meaning and sanctity in the early
stages of the particular society of the Bible, which are cultivated
and developed by God in His training of the people through
prophet and apostle, and especially by Jesus Christ, His Son.

The third prominent feature of the particular society of the
Bible easily discerned in its earliest stages is the view taken of
material wealth, of worldly prosperity. Abraham was promised
a rich and beautiful country for his descendants. In his life of
wandering under God's direction he acquired great possessions.
When he feared these would pass from his family by the prevail-
ing laws of inheritance, God assured him they would descend
to his son. Isaac in the quiet life he led held and increased his
inheritance, and passed it on to his son. Jacob starting out with
comparatively little, promised God to give him a tenth of all He
should bless him with. He had his own way of getting and keep-
ing things, and when he returned to his home land he had great
riches, the tenth promised was doubtlessly given, we do not know
how, and it must have been a fortune of itself. That the service
of God was to lead to worldly prosperity, that the promises of
God included material wealth, is seen at the first glance; that

MODERN POINT OF VIEW 127

this view has never been lost sight of in that peculiar race goes
without saying, and that it is somewhat prominent in the ruling
spirit of Christian civilization today, must readily be acknowl-
edged. But that this view of wealth did not justify Jacob in some
of his "tricks of the trade" is equally evident; and also it is evi-
dent that properly held it is the very reverse of the modern say-
ing "business is business and religion is religion" ; that instead
of making business separate from and independent of religion it
makes business a part of religion and absolutely subject to it.
They regarded themselves as stewards of God with regard to
their wealth, in acknowledgment of this they gave a tenth of their
income to the Lord. The first trace we have of this striking fea-
ture is in the case of Abraham and Melchisedec. It may have been,
probably was adopted from some such custom in general society,
but here it is voluntarily made by Abraham in an important event
of his life, and of a large amount of wealth. So in the case of
Jacob. In later days we find the principle carried out by the
nation in supporting the government, a king being regarded in
later times as the vicegerent of God, in supporting the worship
of God and in the care of the poor. It prevailed from the begin-
ning of the particular society in the Bible throughout its long his-
tory, among all classes, the rich and the middle classes as well. If
it should prevail today the very rich would find in it an excellent
way to enlist their surplus wealth of income at least, in the ser-
vice of society. The thoughtful world has generally agreed that
while the Greeks excelled in the love of beauty and the Romans
in love of power, the Hebrews excelled in the love of righteous-
ness. This race characteristic is seen in its beginning and is fos-
tered by the three prominent features we have just considered.
Abraham and his descendants were governed largely by their
conception of God and their relation to Him.

Their views of right and wrong, their conduct with reference
to right and wrong, had to take in the supposed judgment of
God, and its bearing upon His relation to them, whether it would
alienate or please Him. Then too they in their common relation
to God were in a peculiar sense brothers to each other, and the

128 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

right and wrong of views and conduct has to take in the spirit of
brotherhood. The relation of the sexes in society and the place
accorded to woman-hood afford a standard for judging of the
righteousness of any social attainment, and according to this
standard the Hebrews began well and have continued well
through their long history. A club made up of university men in
all kinds of business in a large city recently concluded after a full
discussion that the Hebrews not only had business ability but
that righteousness was a very large element of this ability, their
word of description and of promise could be relied upon. The
popular opinion might not readily accept this verdict of men in
the higher ranks of business, but the great success of the Hebrew
race generally in the various lines of business, particularly in
banking, must be acknowledge as favoring this claim to their
credit, their righteousness in dealing. In the case of Jacob and
Laban we not only see wide knowledge and keen dealing on
Jacob's part, but that he cherished through the long experience,
as he claimed when he reviewed it as he parted from Laban, that
he had given him a square deal, that he only took away what
was righteously his own. That sense of righteousness may not
have been so fine as we would expect it in this day, but he shows
that it had a prominent place in that early and striking business
transaction.

CHAPTER XI.
Heredity.

Two great words in sociology are Production and Reproduction.
That the growth of any society depends upon the production of
food and the shelter of the land it inherits, is evident. If the land
is fully taxed to supply the needs of its people, some other land
must be taxed or the society becomes fixed. Lands that will sup-
port but small numbers of people can never become the seats of
high civilization, unless they make large drafts upon the produc-
tion of other lands. The effort to make these drafts may conduce
to civilization, as in Greece and Rome of the ancient world and in
England today. Reproduction, the society growing in successive
generations depends upon its being well fed and well housed;
and the kind of generations w^hether strong or weak, intelligent
or unintelligent, cultured or uncultured depends upon the native
stock in its treatment of its home land, and upon the kind of
new blood it drawls from other countries. The two words are
interrelated in so many ways that it is difficult to consider them
separately.

It is so also with the two kindred words Heredity and Environ-
ment. Each word considered separately seems to be the over-
shadowing word. Both must be considered in their relation to each
other. The Bible has large bearing on sociological questions and
has great sociological data of its own since these two great truths
run through it side by side. If evolution, as we have seen, is based
largely upon heredity and ever results in fulness of life, we may
be sure that the supernatural revelation of God, and His personal
training of a particular society, will not check but rather increase
this result. Since God has formed man a social being and has

I30 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

implanted in his nature and surroundings the forces and laws of
his social development, we may be sure that He will not set these
aside, but will rather bring them out into greater clearness in His
dealings with the particular society gathered and influenced by a
special revelation of Himself, and that He will thus more clearly
and fully set them forth for the advancing welfare of the race.
God having established the law of heredity will surely use it in
advancing the race, and will make specially clear and full use of
it in developing the particular society of the Bible. The more
fully we know what the law of heredity is, the more fully we will
be able to understand God's use of it in Bible sociology, and
what use He designs intelligent society to make of it in promoting
its advance in Christian civilization.

Students of the subject are far from agreement as to the ele-
ments of heredity. It is a confessedly difficult subject and requires
a wide range of investigation. Besides this law as other laws of
life, both of biology and of zoology, can never be found working
alone cannot be examined solely by itself but as it is mingled with
other laws. We recognize that marked race distinctions as for
example, those of the Arab, the Jew, the Roman, the Englishman
are largel}^ due to heredity, though there are many other strong
forces, such as the nature of the home country, the employment
in gaining a livelihood, the customs, language, government and
other kindred elements that have had great influence in the mat-
ter. We generally look backward on this subject, though the stim-
ulating way is to look forward to the coming race. But looking
backward to particular societies or races prominent in history we
may trace their growing prominent characteristics through heredity,
thus the Greeks preserved and fostered their intellectual culture
and their love of the beautiful, the Romans their dominant will in
the government of the world, the Jews the spirit of righteous-
ness in the social relations. We recognize that all mankind by
general heredity have faces, but that the color of the eyes, the
slope of the forehead, the color of the hair, the form of the nose,
mouth, lips and chin, the shape of the skull and the poise of the

HEREDITY 131

head are very largely matters of heredity from a particular and
quite near by ancestry.

We recognize also that we all have dispositions, but the par-
ticular disposition each one has, whether cheerful or depressed, he
has either cultivated himself, or has inherited from his parents,
probably both. We all have mental and moral tendencies, but
the particular tendency to mental dulness or brightness or to
moral order or waywardness comes from some nearby ancestor, or
we have cultivated it, or both.

There has been a discussion as to whether acquired characteris-
tics can be transmitted by heredity, and strange to say those drift-
ing toward materialism deny it. Weismann says that the basis of
heredity is a material substance carried in the reproductive organs
which he calls germ plasm. This germ is handed down from gen-
eration to generation without any possible change. The individual
cannot change it, no peculiarities he can develop can affect it in
any way. Hence environment plays no part in heredity, acquired
characteristics cannot be transmitted. Reed also claims that en-
vironment does not afifect heredity, that parental ill health due to
bad sanitation, want, hardship, intemperance, or disease does not
affect the children. He claims that those exposed through many
generations to malaria do not become dwarfed by it, that the weak
are swept away ; that the strong become resistant to it and immune
to it; but this was writen before it was known that malaria was
not evil air at all but a fever transmitted from victim to victim by
the festive mosquito who rather enjoys nipping the strong if he is
not too lively for him. On the other hand there are some writers
upon heredity who reduce it to a farce by applying mathematics
to it. Galton's famous Law of Heredity calculates it exactly as
we measure wheat or the sweep of a planet. The law is that the
proportion of the heritage contributed by a parent in the n*^
generation is (1-2) -"; each parent contributes on an average 1-4,
each grand-parent 1-16, and so on to the n^*'- generation. The
descendant of an officer in the Revolutionary War would thus
have only 1-256 part of his ancestor's patriotism, or according to
the fantastic theory of Oliver Wendell Holmes in "Elsie Venner"

132 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

that our ancestors take turns in controlling us, he would have just
enough patriotism for a Fourth of July celebration with a little
left over for Washington's Birthday. "In us mingles the blood of
a thousand generations", but this gives only general heredity as
that of the Anglo Saxon race. If we go to divide it up for partic-
ular heredity by the use of Galton's law we end in an absurdity,
we try to account for each drop of blood. But it is quite evident
that neither materialism nor mathematics have much to do with
such a problem.

On the other hand in favor of the transmission of acquired char-
acteristics Darwin says in his "Origin of Species" that "organic
beings must be exposed during several generations to new con-
ditions of life to cause any appreciable amount of variation ; but
when the organization has once begun to vary it generally con-
tinues to vary for many generations". Hugo de Vries in "Evolu-
tion and Mutation" shows that the processes by which new char-
acteristics are produced in living organisms consist often in leaps
and jumps, popularly called sports. These mutations play an im-
portant part in the evolution of species being matched by chance,
and then preserved by heredity through resulting generations.
Luther Burbank the wonderworker of science in plant life dis-
proves over and over again that acquired characteristics cannot be
transmitted, by transmitting them. He says: "Heredity is the
sum of all the effects of all the environments of all past generations
on the responsive ever moving life forces, it is a record kept by the
life principle of its struggle onward and upward from simpler
forms of life. Heredity is the sum of all past environments,
crossing goes beyond "survival of the fittest" and "natural selec-
tion" and is the principal cause of all the existing species, and
varieties of vegetable and animal life of earth and sea and air".
Burbank by substituting plan for accident, and artificial for nat-
ural selection and on a large scale copying the prodigality of na-
ture rather than the selection of a few changes as made by former
experimenters, and by selecting the results of mutation in evolu-
tion, is able to perfect in the course of a few years new varieties
of plant life that otherwise might take thousands of years to

HEREDITY 133

develop or by the doctrine of chances might never have developed
at all ; but it is by the heredity of acquired characteristics. Gid-
dings catches a glimpse of the same law in the higher ranges of
man's mental life when he says that "the gains of parents made
through the discipline of life are transmitted to their children,
much more the gains made by their own efforts and the good offices
of their fellowmen. By popular education civilization may not
only store the mind of one generation with knowledge but so
expand the intelligence of generations unborn". Whoever takes a
wide view must conclude that high civilization not only inherits
the stores of knowledge discovered in the past and the achieve-
ments of the acts, but that it is itself a quickened mind and an
advanced moral nature which it has become by heredity. The
gains of the past have quickened the power of gaining. The power
one generation possesses of finding out and controlling the forces
and laws of nature is an acquired characteristic transmitted by
heredity, it is impossible that the most intellectually gifted race
just at the point of emerging from barbarism should possess it.

But this general heredity is a more easy problem than the par-
ticular heredity of family life. A single generation does not ac-
quire characteristics sufficiently to transmit them, and the two
parents of any single generation are not generally alike. In the
case of intemperance there may well be room for discussion. Fre-
quently both parents do not become confirmed in intemperance
before the birth of the children; even if they do that is but for
one generation ; and the tendency may require several generations
to be transmitted. But if both parents are intemperate and these
come from several generations of intemperate parents the tendency
will be verj^ apt to be transmitted. Environment too, as we have
seen, enters into the problem, it usually is in the line of heredity
and then confirms it. Which is the stronger can never be decided,
we have already seen how absurd it is to apply mathematics to the
problem. If the children of virtuous and vicious parents are
interchanged the blood of each is not transformed by the changed
conditions, the novelists who know something of human nature
tell us that story often enough. If one adopts a baby into his

134 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

family he would be far from wise if he did not carefully inquire
into the parentage of the child. The far famed cases of the
Edwards and the Jukes illustrate both environment and heredity,
with the emphasis upon the latter. The father of Jonathan
Edwards was a minister and his mother was the daughter of a
minister, the home life of succeeding generations was Christian.
Of their descendants there are over three hundred college gradu-
ates, fourteen presidents of colleges, over a hundred college pro-
fessors, a hundred ministers, missionaries and theological pro-
fessors, a hundred lawyers, thirty judges, sixty physicians and sixty
authors who have published one hundred and thirty books and
edited many papers and magazines. There is evidently some intel-
lectual and moral heredity here. On the other hand the Jukes
family had descendants too, and of course an unwholesome home
life. Of their descendants over three hundred were paupers, four
hundred were physical wrecks by reason of vice, sixty-nine habitual
thieves, one hundred and thirty were convicted criminals, eight
were murderers, and of the twelve hundred descendants only
twenty learned a trade, and ten of these learned it in a state
prison. There is evidently some intellectual and moral heredity
here too.

The sayings, "To train a child you must begin a hundred years
before it is bom", and "To reform a man you must reform his
grand-father," have a large measure of truth in them. At first
sight they seem verj^ discouraging sayings, but if instead of looking
backward we look forward, if we have the far view of an ancient
Seer of Israel and the confidence in the laws of God taught by
Christ and His Apostles, if we look and work together with God,
using wisely heredity for future generations then they are sayings
full of incentive for the coming Kingdom of God. The law of
heredity is the same in the lower grade of vegetable life, in the
rising grades of animal life, in the rising grades of man's life,
physical, mental, moral and spiritual. It has been the law along
which great advances have been made. We cannot conceive how
advance could be made without inheritance of results and heredity
of powers. It is not conceivable that God's law of heredity should

HEREDITY 135

run through all grades and stop short of the highest grade of
man's life, his social life in fellowship with God and with his
fellow man, the life in the Kingdom of God.

There are some things indicated in the story of the fall of
Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden that are strikingly in line
with the principles of heredity. A striking feature in the account
is that they fell before they had any children. This fall, as we
have seen, was from moral innocence into moral perverseness. It
was accompanied at once as by its shadow, with a sense of guilt.
The first act of perverseness was followed, as cause by effect, by
acts of kindred perverseness, confirming the character as it adapted
itself to its changed circumstances. Thus an acquired characteris-
tic came into being, and grew stronger according to the sensitive-
ness of their fresh neu- nature. How long it was before they had
children we are not told, but the children when they came to
such parents would be like them not only in natural gifts, but in
acquired characteristics, and would be in the same general environ-
ment, and under the training and influence of parents having
such acquired characteristics. Now as we look backward from our
present condition it is very easy to see the working of the general
law of heredity; the passing on of acquired characteristics from
generation to generation, in the prevailing moral perverseness of
the human race. The generally recognized fact that a sense of
guilt follows the exercise of moral perverseness in new or extreme
ways, distinguishes it from a mere mistake of judgment, the one
is an error, the other is a wrong. Whence does this moral per-
verseness come? Each individual who carefully reflects recog-
nizes that it was present in the earliest dawn of his consciousness,
that he was morally perverse when he first consciously began to be.
Each individual who carefully observes learns that he is not alone
in having moral perverseness, but that all his fellows with whom
he comes in contact have it in some degree or other. Careful
observation has not been able to find any portion of the race exist-
ing today free from it. As far back as we may go in history we
find indications that moral perversity existed in the primitive man,
and in primitive society. The question is simply a question of

136 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

heredity, and it takes us back to Adam and Eve, our first parents,
they have transmitted their acquired moral perverseness to their
descendants. Had the result of their probation been the reverse,
had their moral innocency been confirmed into moral virtue by
prompt and repeated obedience to proper authority, the principle
of heredity would have transmitted that acquired characteristic
to their descendants. There are all degrees and directions of the
heredity of moral perverseness as of every thing else. In all the
works of God there is infinite variety, here, as in all other fields
where evolution can be traced, there are no two individuals exactly
alike in moral perverseness; but the variety is within the limits
of kind, all individuals have it in some degree or form. It is
also so wedded with physical and intellectual traits and it is so
influenced by changed circumstances and employments, that there
need be no wonder that from the same parents two such widely
different characters as Abel and Cain should have descended;
the different modes of living, tending flocks, the roving life, and
tilling the soil, the stable life, the source of so much antagonism
in the history of the race, simply confirmed the hereditary distinc-
tion ; nor that Seth should have been more like Abel ; nor that
from three such diverse parents as Shem, Ham and Japheth
widely divergent streams of descendants should have flowed so
they can be traced in history. Still this divergency is within the
limits of moral perverseness ; and it clearly indicates that by hered-
ity this moral perverseness may be changed in hue and intensity
but cannot be destroyed. There is however inspired a hope from
all the transcendence and immanence of God we have traced in
theistic and Christian evolution that the need arising here, as in
other stages of the upward progress in all nature, God may
become more immanent; and that then the principle of heredity
will be used to lift out of moral perverseness and confirm in moral
virtue through succeeding generations. That the fall of Adam
from innocency to perverseness has resulted disastrously, morally,
is consistent with its effect of intellectual advance in knowledge,
man has not become better by it, but he certainly has become
wiser; and it contains in its bosom the possibility of his becoming

HEREDITY 137

better by the inflow of the divine nature to save him. There
are certain virtues in a redeemed man whose existence cannot be
imagined in an unfallen man.

The mingled blessings and cursings by Noah of his three sons
need not be regarded as in any sense a God given prediction, they
were evidently based upon the traits of character revealed in the
preceding incident, but which existed prior to that and had been
long observed by the father, and they simply expressed his judg-
ment of the future career of the sons and their descendants. Many
a father today need not be as wise as Noah seems to have been in
many ways in order to make the same kind of prediction concern-
ing his sons, especially if they are already married and have families.
But all such human judgments of the future are based upon the
laws of heredity, if they have any probability or force in them at all.
In the case of Noah if we can be at all sure that Japheth includes
the Aryan race, that Shem includes the Hebrew race, and that
Ham includes the Negro race the human foretelling seems to have
been unusually wise, so remarkable in its long and wide sweep
as to become a God given prediction; and in any such case it is
a most remarkable instance of the permanence of the forces of
heredity, the law He had established ; and in such case it was much
clearer and more farseeing than it was possible for Noah unaided
to have, and so it becomes a prediction.

The supernatural revelation of God to man takes a new form
and makes a great advance in the case of Abraham. The history
shows God calling Abraham from his home land and from his
kindred in order to make a covenant with him, a covenant of
grace it may well be called, an all embracing covenant surely, for
"I will be a God to thee" includes all that God can be or do for
man, includes everything man needs, and it is most significantly
added, "and to thy seed after thee". This covenant of grace
embracing everything man needs includes God's use of His great
law of heredity, in nature which runs through all degrees of life
on the earth and finds its highest sphere in the life of man in
society. Two features are quite striking in the history of Abra-
ham and Sarah his wife in their bearing on the subject of heredity.

138 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

Abraham at the beginning was promised that he should be the
father of a great nation, that his seed should be as the dust of
the earth, as the stars of the heavens for multitude, that he evi-
dently through his seed, should be a blessing to all the families of
the earth. A very large element of the covenant, "I v^^ill be a God
to thee" vi^as that striking blessing to a man of great vitality and
noble ambition, "you shall be a father," and yet Abraham and
Sarah passed through their prime, and remained childless. Sarah,
whose remarkable beauty and charm more than once brought her
into grave danger, seems to have been protected by God from the
polluting touch of man, even of the arbitrary Kings, Pharoah and
Abimilech who sought her, each in turn for his wife, one in her
youthful days, one when age had not yet robbed her of her attrac-
tiveness; and so the life long wife of Abraham she passed beyond
the child bearing age, childless. The long delay in fulfilling God's
promise led them to try to fulfill it themselves in a way questiona-
ble even to them, though allowed by the customs of the age, and
Ishmael was born to Abraham by Hagar, Sarahs maid-servant;
but God assured Abraham that Ishmael was not the promised son.
The long delay often led Abraham to entreat God, but these
entreaties only led to the more emphatic renewal of the promise
and to further delay, until the laws of nature seemed to render
a child impossible; and still the promise was renewed. Thus
fatth in God was cultured by long and severe trial until at length
the son of God's promise, Isaac, was born of Sarah to Abraham.
Through the long lives of Sarah and Abraham, through God's
protecting, leading, blessing, trying them in the line of a promised
child, they had acquired a characteristic, faith, which in their
advanced age they transmitted by the God established law of hered-
ity to their son, Isaac. Had Isaac been born earlier, he could not
have had that bent of faith so remarkable in his life, by heredity
from his parents, for they would not have had it to give to him.

The second remarkable feature in the history of Abraham and
Sarah in its bearing upon the subject of heredity, is circumcision.
It is probable circumcision was observed by the Egyptians and
other oriental peoples in very early times, and probably for hy-

HEREDITY 139

gienic reasons, though it does not seem to have been necessary
for health in any clime, nor ever observed generally by any par-
ticular race. This circumcision God selected and appointed as the
sign of His covenant with Abraham. He made it a necessary
condition of the family and national life of the particular society,
He gathered about the special revelation He made of Himself.
The significance of it was with reference to the promised seed.
Abraham himself, though advanced in life, had to be circumcised
a year or more before the birth of Isaac, the son of the promise.
The rite, the sign of the covenant, emphasized that the propaga-
tion of the promised life which was to be a blessing to all the race,
must be pure. It fostered cleanness and purity, and especially
helped to secure the control of the sexual passions, these hygienic
ends were secured; in addition it secured a line of descent in the
covenant relation and symbolized both God's great gift of life in
succeeding generations, and specially the consecration of the par-
ticular society to God in the highest function of man and woman,
the propagation of their kind. This external token of the covenant
made by God with Abraham and his seed may well be called the
Patent of Nobility of the Jewish Nation, and its real significance
is in the line of heredity. That the rite has been abrogated by the
perfection of the promised life in Christ, and that Baptism has
taken its place in the Christian church, does not set aside the value
of heredity in the covenant of grace. Here as always God ad-
vances not by throwing away the past, but by building upon it;
the promise is still to His believing people and to their children
even to the thousandth generation.

It seems at first blush a little out of the line of heredity that
two such diverse characters as Jacob and Esau should have been
twins; but upon further reflection we see that it is a fine instance
of the "crossing of traits" — frequently a prominent feature of
heredity. That Isaac was inactive and contemplative is quite
evident, his getting a wife was put ofif a great while and was then
a very calm affair on his part. Rebekah on the other hand was
active and adventurous, she readily took a great risk in going to a
lover she had never seen. They too as with Abraham before them,

I40 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

were cultured in their faith by the long delay in the coming of the
promised child. Then came the twins. As is frequently the case
special love is given to the opposite qualities of character by parents
for their children, and often this is a reflection of their love for
each other. It was so in this case, the slow and meditative Isaac
admires and loves Esau the hunter, whose activity and daring are
a reflection of his wife, and Rebekah loves Jacob the reflection of
Isaac. It is a case of the crossing of traits; though we soon find
that Jacob has a good deal of the Rebekah mingled with the Isaac
in his nature

Jacob became the father of the twelve patriarchs the heads of
the twelve tribes of Israel. Abraham, Isaac and Jacob how dis-
tinctively their lives are pictured in the concise narrative, and
their traits of character, how clearly they rise in view as the men
face the varied circumstances of their lives. Sarah, Rebekah, Leah
and Rachel the mothers of a race are women of beauty and charm
and strength, who have left their impress upon their children to
the thousandth generation. What view shall we take of that far
gone day, and its Bible record ? Some students say that in the late
day of the nation's life the people became so conscious of their
peculiar traits of national character that their literary genius pro-
jected them back as belonging to a mythical ancestry. A whole
chapter has been given to this general theory, and it need not now
be discussed. But what a commentary it is upon the subject of
heredity. The traits of character not only in the late years of the
national life but prevailing today among a race scattered the world
over, are so marked and distinct from the race traits of other
nations that these men and women of that far gone age are
recognized as their ancestors, as being the source of the faith in
one God in convenant with them; of the clear line of descent
through pure marriage; of the business ability combining right-
eousness and shrewdness; and of the material wealth and the long
life as the favor of God to His acknowledged stewards.

Since God has established the law of heredity in nature it is not
to be wondered at that he should express it clearly in the moral
law. It is strikingly stated in the second of the Ten Command-

HEREDITY 141

ments and must be inferred in several others, notably in the third
and fifth. In the second commandment man is forbidden to prac-
tice idolatry in any form. In regard to the position of God it can
make little difference to Him what we think of Him.

"God doth not need either man's work or his own gifts.
"His State is Kingly, thousands at his bidding speed,
"And post o'er land and ocean without rest".

But in regard to the heart of God it makes vast difference
what we think of Him. The good father or husband is not jeal-
ous of his own position or honor, but mainly of the welfare of his
loved ones, his jealousy seeks to guard his children and wife from
the degredation and ruin of a fascinating corrupter. So God
jealously guards his people from the degradation of idolatry, which
has always been so fascinating to mankind ; and in order to do this
most effectively He appeals to them through the law of heredity.
It is the strongest possible appeal that can be made to man and
woman "for the sake of your children". Do not corrupt your-
selves for your corruption will descend to your children. Cherish
lofty and pure views of God and serve Him, for this uplift of char-
acter will descend to your children. The whole heathen world
and the whole Christian world today afford a striking commentary
upon this clause of the second commandment. Here also as in
nature everywhere it is difficult to separate heredity from environ-
ment, from the influence of parents over children in the most sensi-
tive period of their lives, and from the inheritance of conditions;
but here, as elsewhere, it is quite evident that heredity is a potent
factor.

But in this commandment a feature of the law of heredity is
brought to our attention which sociologists have not sufficiently
noted. God says He will visit iniquity to the third and fourth
and show mercy to the thousandth, the word generation must be
supplied in each case, both are indefinite numbers, but the thou-
sandth is the much larger number. The law of heredity has a very
decided leaning to the side of mercy. Here particularly as in evo-

142 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

lution generally the uplift of the race of mankind is designed,
and provision is made to secure it in the law itself. One is at
first inclined to say: "I see that heredity works with absolute
impartiality, but I find no trace of its leaning to the side of mercy,
to the advance of the individual or of the race". Let us look a
little deeper, first at the individual. A man chooses a vicious life,
revels in godlessness, ignorance and vice, his wife may be of the
reverse character, but we suppose she is like her husband. Their
child inherits an impaired constitution, and a tendency to vice.
Now if we look more deeply we see two elements of nature re-
spond at once : first the recuperative forces within the child, second,
the restorative forces without, the remedies in nature and the
skill to apply them in man. Their child inherits a dulled mind
and dense ignorance and godlessness. Two elements in nature
at once respond, first, the innate unrest of the soul for Grod which
may be touched into powerful action, second, the appeal and the
uplift of the surrounding Christianity.

Let us look now at the race. It may be said that the limit of
the degradation of mankind seems to be fixed, but the limit of
progress cannot even be imagined. How far the race will advance
in the knowledge and the control of nature, how far it will ad-
vance in social fellowship and in fellowship with God, all that is
involved in the Kingdom of God on earth and in the future life
the limit of all this cannot be imagined ; but it is evident that all
this is included in the "thousandth generation" of this law of
heredity. The two elements we have seen in the individual are of
course in the race. First, there is something in mankind which
can never be satisfied wnth sensual corruption, or with idolatry,
something that may be touched into strong and glorious life.
Second. There is something to touch this into life. The super-
natural revelation of God culminating in Jesus Christ, gathering
about Himself the Kingdom Society, this is preserved and ad-
vanced by heredity. Our fathers were idolators under the gloomy
German forests and on the storm swept shores of England, they
were rude savages. Their savage spirits were touched into new
life by the gospel of Christ brought to them by Patrick, Augustin,

HEREDITY 143

Willebrord, Boniface and other heralds of the cross. Through
many generations this new uplift of life has been preserved and
fostered, and so has come down to us in the elevation and happi-
ness of our Christian land. And the end is not yet. The theistic
and Christian evolution looks far ahead, the coming society is the
Kingdom of God; the heredity of the convenant of grace, of the
mercy of God is to the "thousandth generation".

That this view of the covenant of grace embracing heredity was
present in the conception of Moses is seen in his second oration
which he made on delivering the book of the covenant to the
elders. He says to them, and to all the people, "Know therefore
that Jehovah thy God, he is God, the faithful God who keepeth
covenant and loving kindness with them that love him and keep his
commandments to a thousand generations". That no man need be
a slave to his dead grand-father, that heredity is only a tendency
to vice or virtue, though often it is a strong one, but is never a
necessity, that it is only a living force but not a cast iron mould,
a force that may be changed in its direction, all this is clearly indi-
cated in this commandment, and is finely illustrated in the instance
of Abraham. The commandment appeals to a man however bad
his own heredity may be to change it for his own sake and for the
sake of his children. If he is an idolator from idolatrous parents,
he is commanded to stop idolatry at once for his own sake and for
the sake of his children. The command is addressed to the will,
and however enfeebled or depraved a will, one may have by
heredity, it is still capable of hearing the command and of trying
to obey; of hearing the voice of God calling to high duty and of
relying upon the grace of God to stir to lofty endeavor. So in
the case of Abraham he was called as the history narrates from a
bad heredity to form a good one. We have a glimpse of Terah
his father, and we see Abraham, the son, they are alike but there is
a striking difference. Terah had the emigrant spirit, he left Ur
to go to Canaan, but he got only half way, he came to Haran and
"dwelt there" ; his will did not hold out. Abraham and his fol-
lowers had the emigrant spirit, they started for Canaan and the
concise story shows the stuf? that was in the man, "and into the

144 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

land of Canaan they came"; they reached the place they started
out for, they got there. This breaking away from an old heredity
thus became the beginning of a new one.

The Bible has this spirit throughout, it shows the power of
heredity, calls upon one to break away from bad heredity, and
then calls upon him to form a new heredity. It looks forward,
seeking the uplift by the very power which without it may drag
down, and in this it is in full harmony with our consciousness, the
call of the natural as well as of the supernatural is to resist bad
heredity and form good heredity. Heredity has its tendency in the
will itself without doubt, but the clearer our grasp of its meaning,
the stronger becomes its appeal to the will to choose the good, to
break away from the bad heredity.

In the former part of this chapter a modern instance of heredity
was noted in the families of the Edwards and the Jutes. A still
more striking instance is afforded in the Bible history in the case of
the Kings of the line of David, and the Kings of the Northern
Kingdom. The Kings of Israel, that is of the Northern Kingdom,
belonged during the two hundred and eighty years of its existence
to several dynasties. The dynasties were started frequently by
usurpation and assassination. Some strong but unscrupulous man
grasped the power, generally the unscrupulousness can be traced in
his descendants who ascended the throne, though it assumed several
varieties of form and sometimes of strength as well. Always the
idolatry forbidden in the second commandment can be traced. This
came as did the other features to some extent from the prevailing
condition of the nation, but also and more largely by heredity.
Some of these kings were very great men, but whether great or
little they were bad men and idolaters, and a glance at the history
easily discerns that in the various lines the son bore a striking resem-
blance to the father.

Turning now to the Kings of Judah a single line of descent is
clearly described from David to Zedekiah for over four centuries,
one of the most remarkable and splendid genealogies in all history.
David himself came from a choice parentage, a family chosen by
God from the many good families of the nation, as the source of

HEREDITY 145

this line of kings. David was one of the very few^ men in the
world's history who deserved the title of "the Great," you can
count them on your fingers, Alexander, Caesar, Napoleon, David
the Great. He consolidated and established the Kingdom and
enlarged it, he organized the civil service and the army thoroughly,
he was on the eve of becoming a great world conqueror when God
interposed. He was a man after God's own heart as King, since
he always acknowledged in letter and spirit that he ruled only as
God's viceroy. As Moses was God's Lawgiver, so David was
God's King.

This strong king was the father of twenty generations of kings,
the kingdom he established was stable, the heirs he gave to the
throne were in the main strong characters, had many of his ele-
ments of strength. The concise narrative not only describes them
in such a way that we may trace their tendencies of character but
gives its own verdict on their reigns, some did evil in the sight of
the Lord, others did right in His sight as did David their father.

When we come to arrange these two classes by themselves and
examine them more thoroughly several strange features are seen.
The first is a commentary on the fifth commandment as well as
on the second. The honoring of father and mother in submis-
sion to proper authority as well as in cultivating tendencies of
character received from them, thus prolonging a godly seed, is
promised the reward of long life upon whatever land God gives
them. This remains as true in the United States today as it was
in Judea in the olden time. Of the twenty kings, twelve are
described as evil, but when we count the years of their reign
they reigned onFy a little over one hundred years; while the
eight kings described as good, reigned over three hundred years;
the average reign of an evil king was less than ten years, the
average reign of a good king was nearly forty years. The reign
of Manesseh seems an exception to the rule, he is pronounced as
evil and the description bears out the verdict, and he is said to
have reigned fifty-five years. But however this may be accounted
for in other ways, a large part of the reign must be taken away
from the years of evil bv the reformation of Manesseh described

146 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

in Chronicles, the reformation of a strong man followed by a life
of eager striving to undo the evil of his past. A significant fea-
ture of this line of kings in its relation to heredity, and peculiar
to the Bible in this respect, as w^ell as showing the prominence
given to woman in the Jewish life, is that quite generally the
mother's name of the new King is given as well as the father's,
and often we can account for the character of the son somewhat
by the character of the mother. The mother of one of the evil
kings is specially stated as a heathen, another is from an evil line
of kings in the Northern Kingdom, the names of other mothers
of evil kings indicate heathen origin, and the only exceptions to
the mention of the names of the mothers is in the cases of two
evil kings; the silence seems one of reproach. In one case a
good king deposed his mother from her queenly position on
account of her falling into idolatrj^ Of the good kings some
are very strong men having what may be called the Davidic char-
acter, both for strength and goodness, as kings ruling as God's
viceroys for the good of the people. It is quite evident that the
stability of the Southern Kingdom and its longer life were due
very largely to the heredity of the David line of kings. It was
a disastrous day when one of the good kings by an error of policy
made a marriage for his son with the strong though evil dynasty
of the Northern Kingdom ; it introduced usurpation and assas-
sination into the southern kingdom, and made the only break in
the line of the Kings of David ; it was hardly a break even for
while Athaliah had the power for six years and reigned as queen,
Josiah was the rightful king. The warning of this and other
misalliances must have been recognized by the people of that
time, as it is by us, of the danger of introducing a single impure
parent in the line of good heredity.

While one of the genealogies of our Lord Jesus Christ traces
his descent from Adam thus making him the child of the race,
another traces that descent from Abraham thus making him a
child of the particular people in covenant with God. Each family
of the covenant people must have cherished its own purity and
strength by the prospect of becoming the source of the Messiah.

HEREDITY 147

This would be the case not only of the mothers but of the fathers
as well, stimulated by the possibility of being the ancestors of the
Great King. The prophet Isaiah describes the hope of every Jew-
ish woman that she might be the chosen mother of the warrior
who would shed no blood, neither strive nor cry in the streets but
would reveal by his great counsels the universal fatherhood of God
and who would by his gentle and persistent might establish an
everlasting kingdom of light and righteousness over all the earth.
We need not venture on the domain of theology in accounting
for the human nature of our Lord, nor in any way try to explain
the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary
as held by a large portion of the Christian church, but every men-
tion made in the gospels of the mother of Jesus Christ describes
her as the culminating flower of a splendid heredity, the choice
daughter of the covenant people.

If we now try to account for one of most remarkable conditions
of the present day we find the principle of Bible heredity' strikingly
illustrated and the promise "to a thousand generations" still run-
ning along its unbroken course. Since the close of New Testa-
ment times, and the capture and destruction of Jerusalem by
Titus, the Jewish people have had no national organization and no
national home land, they have been wanderers over the face of the
earth, scattered among all nations, and they are so still today; but
they have not been and are not being today absorbed by any nation,
they are as separate and distinct a race today as when they were
driven out of their home land twenty centuries ago, and they are
still a strong race, showing no sign of being worn out by the hard-
ships and persecutions they have endured, or of being weakened
by the prominence and prosperity many of them have attained.
Our own country is the gathering place of many races, and all
who come are speedily assimilated, they become in a few genera-
tions Americans, and one cannot tell by dress or customs, by lan-
guage, or mode of thought, by feature of face or of character from
what race they originally came ; but there is no power in the
American nationality^ to assimilate the Jews. They come to us
Russian Jews, Polish Jews, German Jews, speaking various Ian-

148 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

guages and having various habits, the Russian, German and Polish
are speedily worn off but the Jewish is not touched, the only
change is that now they are American Jews. The features of the
face and of the character alike persist. They have ambition to
be leaders in all intellectual ranks, in politics, in financial affairs,
in social life, they are loyal and good citizens, but they have no
ambition to be other than Jews. They are believers in the one
God who made a special revelation of Himself to their fathers,
and entered into a covenant with them, and they regard them-
selves as His peculiar people. They do not marry with other races,
but continue their vigorous existence in growing numbers and
power by intermarriage as they were commanded. God in his
providence is preserving them doubtless for some wise purpose of
which there are many intimations in the Bible. How is He pre-
serving them? How do these principles manifest themselves?
There can be but one answer. It is by heredity. God is teaching
us the power and value of heredity in his treatment of the whole
race in general, and in his special care over and preservation of the
Jewish race in particular.

That feature of face and to some extent feature of character
may be a matter of heredity can no longer be doubted in the light
of science, but our faith is slow to acknowledge that there can be
any heredity in the spiritual nature. In this we show that we have
not studied our Bible well, that we have regarded it a book solely
of theology when it has much sociology also; that we have re-
garded the new birth of man as God's sovereign act entirely apart
and distinct from His acts in nature, when our own Bible shows
us that God's supernatural acts are based upon and take up in their
scope His action in nature. In seeking to honor God in emphasiz-
ing His sovereign grace in the regeneration of the individual we
have dishonored Him in limiting His covenant grace to succeeding
generations, virtually holding that the children of Christian parents
do not have by heredity any trace of a Christian nature. David's
exclamation "In sin did my mother conceive me" shows his con-
sciousness of having a sinful nature, was the truth uppermost in
his mind in the time of deep penitence, but it was not the whole

HEREDITY 149

truth even in his case; he had a godly parentage, and he had from
them a godly nature. He had penitence as well as sin. Heredity
is a tendency and there can often be traced conflicting tendencies,
but because one tendency appears to be the prominent one in a
man's experience at a particular time, is no reason to hold that
it is the only tendency in his nature, surely no reason to hold that
it is the only tendency in man's nature the whole time. Paul calls
Timothy "my true child in the faith", and that was true, but it
was not the whole truth, as Paul himself acknowledges, "being
reminded of the unfeigned faith that is in thee, which dwelt first
in thy grand-mother Lois, and thy mother Eunice" ; and both
truths only emphasize the need that Timothy should "guard that
which was committed to him", and gave confidence to the prayer
that "the Lord would be with his spirit".

It is not likely that any Christian parents have entirely cast out
the whole of their sinfulness, what is left will be inherited by their
children. But to the extent in which they are true Christians they
have a nature that cannot be called in itself sinful, and this by
heredity will become a tendency in their children. To hold the
reverse is to go against both nature and the Bible, is to hold that
God arbitrarily stops the law of heredity from doing any good in
the spiritual sphere, that he endows it only with tremendous
power for evil in that sphere ; when he who observes sees the very
reverse in nature, and he who believes the Bible sees that God's
mercy extends to "the thousandth generation", and that He has
absolutely set no limit to the covenant "to be a God to thee and
to thy seed after thee". Our God is our Father in Heaven, His
goodness extends to all the race, and in recovering mankind from
sin He makes use of the great law of heredity. The covenant itself
includes heredity as one of its great forces. The Bible shows it.
Christian civilization proves it. The coming Kingdom of God
will be its full manifestation.

Christians may well desire to be parents, may regard their
children as the most precious gifts of God to them, may be
assured that God's great laws in nature are in their favor and in
favor of their children, and that through them and their children

I50 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

he is causing to be established in the earth and to spread among all
the race of mankind the "kingdom which is righteousness, peace
and joy in the Holy Ghost" the only kingdom which is in its na-
ture eternal, the kingdom of a thouasnd generations. This should
lead young Christians of the opposite sex to be careful in falling in
love, and in entering upon marriage; they should have God's law
of heredity in view, and his covenant promise, and they should
wisely seek a godly seed.

Heredity, as we saw at the beginning of this chapter, includes
not only the sinful bent given to man by Adam's fall, but the
original tendency given to man in his creation in the likeness of
God. Man wherever found is a religious being. Paul says of him
he is by the constitution of his nature "a seeker of God". "He can
never be at rest until he finds his rest in God", is the true de-
scription of him given by Augustine centuries ago ; and this de-
scription is only made more clear by the most recent and thorough
researches in psychology. What may be called the psychology of
the religious nature of man is full of great interest in illuminating
the Bible teaching of heredity. The child in early years has a
tendency to believe in God as manifest in nature, and never ques-
tions the most wonderful powers as belonging to Him. So in the
childhood of the individual and also of every particular race and
nation, the wonder stories of nature find a ready credence. In a
few years the child sees something of the meaning in nature, the
care of God for His creatures. As the years go on the child dis-
cerns that there are laws in nature, forces working with the regu-
larity of uniform law, and thinks of the wonder working and car-
ing God as the great Lawgiver. Soon the child regards the law
as for him, and sees the ideals held before his own life by a right-
eous God. Now when the age of adolescence is reached when he
makes life choices of companions and of the objects of life, and
the manner in which he shall live, his conscience and will approve
the choice of God as his Father and Friend. Thus would the
deeper nature of the child develop if unfolding naturally without
the bent of sin. Sin distorts it and turns it aside. The tendency
by heredity is therefore toward God by the original nature, away

HEREDITY 151

from God by acquired characteristics. God now makes a further
revelation of Himself, and comes into closer relations with man.
When this revelation is received, this closer relation embraced, the
tendencies of the original and indestructible nature are reinforced,
and this renewed nature descends from father to son, as all
nature does by heredity. In a true sense he is now again a child of
God ; he is the same in nature with God as a child has the nature
of the father. Children of Christian parents should not be re-
garded by them as belonging to the world but as belonging to
Christ, as having by heredity Christ's nature. Still heredity is
only a tendency, but it may become a ver}'^ strong one. As no one
need be a slave to his dead grandfather, so no one is forced to
be a prince ; though descended from a long line of princes, he may
throw away his crown. But both for warning and for stimulus
God appeals to man, choose wisely for you are choosing not only
for yourself, but for your children.

CHAPTER XII.
The Institution of the Family.

In God's plan, as we study it, both in nature and in revela-
tion the Family is formed and guarded as the source of heredity.
The more importance we can discover in heredity the greater
becomes the value of the family to the welfare and progress of
society. That the family also becomes the radiating center of
many strong forces of environment to individuals and society is
also evident, and shows that its value cannot be over estimated.

Adam and Eve were married by God himself in a garden of
fruit and flowers. If we adopt the theory that Adam was
evolved from the highest form of animal life, as we have seen in
a former chapter there is much reason for believing, still we must
conclude that this could be only of a part of his nature. To
account for the fully rounded complete man there is needed the
special creative act of God endowing him with His own likeness,
by His own increasing immanence. This must have wrought a
great change in that part of man's nature evolved from existing
animal life giving rise to many striking features separating him
from the highest animal in physical, mental and social nature.
This spiritual nature, the likeness of God, becomes the main ele-
ment constituting man a social being. To constitute another
socius to form with Adam the beginning of human society there
would of necessity be a repetition of the special creative act of
God, which does not seem to be His way in nature, or the second
socius must come from the first, must come by an initial heredity
from the same complete nature in Adam. This is the way nature
intimates in evolution for at the beginninig of animal life on the
earth the propagation was by division, and sex arose from it, and

INSTITUTION OF THE FAMILY 153

this is the way clearly stated in the Bible account of the creation
of Eve. By this kind of propagation the heredity is complete, the
same life is passed on by division.

Grod found no suitable companion for Adam in the highest
form of animal life and formed Eve from his side. So Eve vv^as
of the same complete nature as Adam both as to the evolved ani-
mal life and as the specially in-breathed life, the likeness of
God. While Adam and Eve in their lower nature may have
evolved from the general animal life as originally implanted in
the earth by the Great Creator, their higher nature inbreathed
by God in a special creative act separated them from the highest
animals and made them peculiarly social beings.

Evolution often proceeds by jumps, it advances by marked
mutations giving rise to freaks and sports, and these by the process
of propagation and through increased power of adapting them-
selves to environment form new species in the ascending grades
of life. Such may have been the case in the last stages of the
evolution of the animal nature of Adam. From this highest form
of animal life the fairest specimen was selected for the inbreathing
of the increasing immanence of God, the creation in His like-
ness.

This highest form of animal life may have persisted and been
a form of life running alongside of that of Adam and Eve, until
for grave reasons God destroyed it. Many efforts have been
made, but none of them are quite satisfactory to interpret that
strange statement in the sixth chapter of Genesis; it may be that
evolution explains it. It is there stated that men, so the highest
form of animal life was called, multiplied upon the face of the
earth, and that the sons of God saw the daughters of men that they
were fair and they took them wives of all they chose. Two
comments are made in the chapter upon this statement. The
first is, The Lord said "my spirit shall not always strive with
man for that he also is flesh". The second is that when the
"daughters of men bore children to the sons of God they were
giants," mighty men, men of renown, their size and strength being
noted. In this connection it is also said that God saw the wick-

154 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

edness of men was great, wickedness specially of violence and
lust, and to destroy such a race of men He sent the flood upon
the earth, Noah and his family found grace in the eyes of the
Lord, there is more than an intimation that he had preserved
purity of descent in his family; and they were spared to continue
the race of the sons of God, the race of those having the like-
ness of God, upon the earth. The original race from which Adam
in his lower nature was evolved, here called the race of men, had
persisted till that time and was then swept out of existence by
the flood, and no remains of them have ever been discovered nor
has a single specimen of them survived. The destruction was
complete, and for a sufficient cause, worthy of God in both
respects. It was to prevent any mixing of blood of those having
the likeness of God with those not having that likeness, it was
to secure by heredity the pure descent of the likeness of God nature
of man through succeeding generations for all time.

While we have seen in a former chapter that monogamy is
taught in nature, and while this is clear m the creation of Adam
and Eve and the formation of the first family, it is quite evident
from the pictures of early social life given in Genesis that the
relation of the sexes has been from the first a difficult matter to
control, for the welfare of society in succeeding generations. The
excesses of lust were not only with the original race from which
Adam was evolved, and which was swept out of existence by the
just judgment of God, but raged among those who were created
in the likeness of God, and frequently broke through the family
lines as established in the first formation of that divine institution.
Polygamy in the family and licentiousness outside family lines pre-
vailed to a large extent when the special supernatural revelation
of God began to be made to Abraham, and when the particular
society of the Bible began to form around that revelation. The
societies of Bab3don, Egypt and Canaan, as we catch glimpses of
them in reading the life of Abraham, show some respect for wom-
anhood and for the laws of hospitality, but they also reveal
polygamy, concubinage and wide spread licentiousness.

The family of Abraham for many years flows on as an ideal

INSTITUTION OF THE FAMILY 155

family as far as husband and wife are concerned; they loved each
other; treated each other with gentle and stately courtesy; the
finer psychic feelings arising from the relation of the sexes evi-
dently found a healthful and beautiful growth in them both.
But there was one element of true family life that was lacking;
there were no children ; the father and the mother nature was
present and strong but was denied its exercise, there was a great
longing for children, but no children were given. The custom
which prevailed in the surrounding society suggested to Sarah
that she give Hagar, her Egyptian hand maiden to Abraham to
be his wife. Thus polygamy was introduced and brought only ,
misery.

The wonder is it was introduced so late, and to such a small
extent; there is no wonder that it was not blessed by God. We
have already noted that the marriage of Isaac and Rebekah was a
fine instane of monogamy in that early day and gave rise to
striking diversity in heredity in pure descent. Esau with much
likeness to the mother becoming the father of a strong race of
adventurous character, and Jacob, with much likeness to the father
becoming the head of Israel. When we consider this family of
Jacob we find polygamy, introduced again from the surrounding
society. There is a marriage of convenience without heart made
by the father of the bride according to the customs of his race,
followed by a marriage of true love ; these two marriages flow
along together in the family life, not always smoothly, sometimes
quite tumultously, and the heads of the twelve tribes of Israel
are born in a polygamous family, of one father from several wives.
The monogamous family as founded in Adam and Eve had been
corrupted in general society by polygamy, concubinage and
licentiousness; and now in the particular society formed around
a supernatural revelation of God in the first four generations the
monogamy was present and prominent as the source of family wel-
ware and polygamy was present too and prominent as the source
of much distress and also of some strength. The family cor-
responds closely with that in the general society but there is also
a prominence given to monogamy in the clearly described life long

156 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

affection of Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah and Jacob
and Rachel, the real and ideal fathers and mothers of the race.

With polygamy so firmly established in the general surrounding
society and having such a strong position in the beginning of the
particular society of the Bible, it is quite remarkable that instead
of becoming fully established and spreading in the growth of that
society it diminishes and at length vanishes away. The nation
arises from the family. In the concise history of the nation many
glimpses of family life are given, and generally it may be said that
the family is monogamous. Little is said of polygamy, it does not
seem to exist except among the kings and princes, even here the
largest and best family life seems monogamous, though there are
frequent instances of more than one wife and some striking cases
of a multitude of wives. Many of these wives of kings seem to
have been merely nominal wives, princesses of neighboring nations
having positions of honor and influence in the household of the
king as ties of allegiance with those nations. The picture of a life
in a polygamous family is truthfully drawn and frequently shows
in these later cases as in the earlier ones, that the rivalry of wives
and their children was a disturbing element productive often times
of disaster. The story of the patriarchal and royal families is so
told as not to encourage but rather to discourage polygamy. In
the laws given by God through Moses polygamy is not sanctioned
or protected, the sole exception being that the eldest son though
born of a hated wife shall inherit the first bom's portion, and this
provision itself warns against polygamy as introducing rivalry of
wives and children. In the land laws as we shall see the policy
was to provide small estates in each family and to foster a wide
distribution of wealth, and this policy was discouraging to polyg-
amy. So the policy of this particular society of the Bible in the
way the history is told, in the laws of the family and those laws
bearing incidentally upon the family, discouraged polygamy. So-
ciety was influenced to shake ofi polygamy which it had inherited
from the general society and to revert to monogamy as established
by God in the creation of Adam and Eve.

The prophets are silent as to polygamy, evidently it was not at

INSTITUTION OF THE FAMILY 157

all prevailing in their day; if it existed at all it was so outgrown
that it could well be ignored by these preachers of righteousness.
Hosea, whose prophecy is in some sense the very heart of the Old
Testament has a faithless wife; he is righteously indignant at her
infidelity but his love for her is quenchless, and he sees in these
conflicting feelings in his heart a revelation of the nature of God
in his relation to His people. God through the prophets fre-
quently charges His people with adultery, that they have been un-
true to Him ; but He loves them still, and the marriage He holds
before them as an illustration of His relation to them is always
and only of monogamy, and the ideal He pleads for is the lifelong
exclusive affection of one husband for one wife, and a true return
of Such an aiifection.

When we come to the time of Christ He moves among all
classes and conditions of men but He does not seem to come in
contact with polygamy at all; He chooses His illustrations and
parables from the life about him, but he has no picture of polyg-
amy, He teaches fully upon social problems but He has no teaching
upon this feature of family life. Evidently polgyamy was not a
live question in His day, it no longer existed in the particular
society gathered around the supernatural revelation of God. It
is not a live question in Christian lands. It has been outlawed
even by the Mormons.

The short utterances of Christ regarding the family place Him
in this as in all other respects at the head of all teachers on social
themes. Speaking, in the sermon on the Mount, of adultery. He
claims that the Commandments were spoken in the constitution
of man's nature, were written on the heart before they were
uttered on Sinai, or were written on the tables of stone ; and that
lusting after a woman not only leads to their violation but is itself
a sin. Speaking of marriage, he teaches that it is founded in the
nature of the sexes ; that it demands the exclusive affection of two
souls for each other, so that one leaves father and mother and
clings to his wife ; and that it results in the unity of nature, the
two becoming one flesh. Answering the Pharisees on the question
of divorce, He in His authority withdraws the permission of

158 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

Moses made on account of their hardness of heart, and brings out
again in clearness and fulness the original divine institution of
marriage in the creation of Adam and Eve. Following this
teaching is His blessing of the little children lovingly brought to
Him by their mothers, and pronouncing that of such is the King-
dom of Heaven. The Kingdom of Heaven will one day take full
possession of the earth, it will be by the heredity of a thousand
generations of those who love and serve God, and the old heredity
of the nature of Adam will be wiped out by the heredity of the
children of the covenant, the children of God. The striking fea-
ture of these teachings of Christ is that He states first principles,
that He goes back to the creation of the sexes and their meaning,
to the marriage of Adam and Eve in the Garden, and to the Ten
Commandments and finds in these the constructive lines of the
true family, and in it He provides for the welfare of the race in
successive generations resulting in the establishment of the King-
dom of God, the ideal society of the race of man on the earth.

The Apostles of Our Lord follow His teachings and bring out
in greater clearness the teachings of the prophets, that this highest
relation in society illustrates the relation of the church with God,
she is the bride of the Lord ; illustrates the relation of men with
God, he is their Father, they are His children. "Husbands love
your wives even as Christ loved the Church and gave Himself for
it. So ought men to love their wives as their own bodies. He
that loveth his wife loveth himself. Wives be subject to your
husbands as the Church is to Christ. Children obey your parents
in the Lord. Honor thy father and mother which is the first
commandment with promise. Fathers bring up your children in
the nurture and admonition of the Lord."

"The race of man as all other races of being on the earth is
existing in succesive generations through the relation of sexes;
and in the nature of man as seen in the creation of Adam and
Eve, and in the supernatural revelation of God to man, is clearly
seen that the successive generations of the race are to arise through
and be cared for in the family of one husband and one wife. The

INSTITUTION OF THE FAMILY 159

distinction of the sexes finds its scope and aim in the monogamous ^
family for the production of succeeding generations.

The marriage relation is the regulation of the relation of the ->(
sexes for the production and care of children. When Adam and
Eve were created and before sin had touched them, God blessed
them with the commission to be fruitful and multiply. After their
sin there was to be sorrow and also great joy and hope in the con-
ception of children, the great promise was wrapt up in the child
of their union, and Eve's name of honor was the "princess of life".
The first child born into the world was regarded as the special
gift of God, the great life giver. This original feature of mar-
riage, the gift from God of children, is very prominent in the
family life of the particular society of the Bible, gathered around
the supernatural revelation of God. We have just seen that the
adoption of polygamy in the family of Abraham came from the
desire of Abraham and Sarah for a child. God withheld the child
of promise from that device of theirs, and in the long delay He
cultured their faith in Him as the great life giver. There are
many hints given that the natural craving for children was fos-
tered in the Hebrew family by the special covenant of God with
them to be a God to their children, that children were regarded
peculiarly as gifts from their God, to be sought and eagerly wel-
comed and carefully brought up for Him. Whatever view they
may have had of the purpose of God to bless them and through
them to bless the world, it was to be through their children. As
those of keener insight discerned that the great blessing would
come through a special child the hope must have grown in such
hearts that he would be their child. The history of the Hebrew
people, though very concise, is not like so many far more elaborate
histories of other nations, mere records of the doings of great men,
mainly in battle, the story of a nation's wars and heroes, there is
much of this of course ; but there are also many glimpses given us
of the family life of the people. Polygamy we have already seen ^
diminishes and vanishes away. Divorce, while permitted by Moses,
does not seem to have largely prevailed and is withdrawn entirely
by Christ. Adultery and harlotry are frowned upon and driven ^

i6q the sociology OF THE BIBLE

out of sight. But family life abounds, father and mother and
brothers and sisters, parents and their children living together in
happy homes. It is in such a family, a typical Hebrew family,
that the Son of God, the culmination of the supernatural revela-
tion of God, spends the years of His youth and young manhood.
' This glance at the family in Bible sociology shows that in it
God cultures the social nature of man in the finest directions.
The monogamous family where there are many children is the
heart of social welfare; from it there pulsates through all parts
of the social organism the living currents of health. In every
man and woman there are complimental qualities which do not
find their full development, which cannot come into healthy exer-
cise until that man and woman become one in true marriage. In
every man there is the capacity of a husband, in every woman the
fine feelings of a wife, but these can never be brought into full
development until marriage joins the two in one. Purity, trust,
love, service, life long and powerful, the refinement of the womanly
nature, the strength of devotion in the manly nature, these can
grow only in the marriage of the two. The fine and noble psychic
feelings based on sex are developed only in marriage. Human
nature is not complete either in man or woman, nor in any other
relation they can bear to each other, it only becomes complete
when they are united in marriage. Through all the ages it is true
man is not made to live alone, it is true of both sexes, but man is
the specially dependent one. The more fully the kingdom of
God is established on earth the more will the ideal family flourish.
We are taught there shall be no marriage in Heaven, no successive
generations in that unending life, but doubtlessly the finer feelings
cultured here in the family will persist in the eternal life. The
family that is a bit of heaven in this life prepares for the Heaven
beyond ; from it shall go forth unending graces and virtues that
can find their true culture only in the family on earth ; heaven
will be richer through eternity by the outgrowth of the family in
time, richer in numbers not only but far richer in quality.

But the monogamous family is not complete, is far from ideal,
until children are born into it. In every man there is a capacity

INSTITUTION OF THE FAMILY i6i

for fatherhood, these great and noble qualities, so much like God,
can be brought into full development only by his becoming a
father. He cannot begin to understand much of God until he
becomes a father, all he can understand until that feeling is awak-
ened in him, must be in the nature of description, of hear-say evi-
dence, he knows by experience only when he becomes a father. In
every woman there is the capacity for mother-hood, there is no
love like mother love, there is no joy like mother-joy, but these
can be brought into full development only by her clasping her
babe to her bosom. In the long anticipation of the coming babe,
and in the mutual care of the child growing to maturity the
husband and wife are drawn together in the closest possible social
ties, and have joys all others must be ignorant of; though all
others are capable of them but only through God's gift to them
of their own child.

A single child is a great blessing to a father and mother, a
treasure beyond price, life of their life, but the family has not
reached the ideal when only one child is the sole treasure. Every
child has capacities for brotherhood, for sisterhood, all the noble
qualities we call brotherly, sisterly, are present in the child but are
dormant, and must to a large extent lie dormant until they find
their exercise awakened by another child born in that family.
The ideal family must consist of at least four children growing up
together, each boy having a brother and a sister, each girl a
brother and a sister. Then these noble qualities are called into
exercise in early life, in the most sensitive period, are cultured
through many years of formation of character and become fully
developed. The father and mother qualities are also greatly en-
riched and invigorated by the gift of these other children, their
lives in mature life are kept young by the young life about them,
and their advancing age becomes blessed in the welfare of their
children.

The ideal of the Kingdom of God is that of brotherhood, sister-
hood in the many relations of society, but the real spirit of brother-
hood and sister-hood is the spirit that arises in the family from
blood relationship, and can arise only in that wa3\ All these

i62 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

qualities, the finer psychic qualities of our nature can only be
brought from a dormant into an active state in the ideal family.
They are all embraced in the covenant God has made with man
in the supernatural revelation of Himself. But God never throws
aside, He always uses the nature He too made, and makes it more
plain to His intelligent children. In the particular society of the
Bible He fosters the growth of a family life which shall carry on
j „^ these qualities of heredity to the thousandth generation.

It is true as Spencer has discerned and described in his Princi-
ples of Biology that there is an antagonism between individuation
and genesis, the higher the individual life becomes the less prolific
it is, as the birth rate falls the quality of life rises. But there is a
limit to the small birth rate, it is quite obvious that the maximum
of the quality of life must be in no danger of extinction, it is also
obvious that the birth rate must not be so small that the individu-
ation itself is stunted. The maximum of life must include the
natural qualities we have been considering. The qualities of life,
the human happiness and well being, the inherent worth of life
includes the father and mother qualities, the brother and sister
qualities. The individual life is not as rich and full a life as it
might be if it lacks a single one of these. The individual worth of
life is in the social nature. The welfare of society is also found
in the fully rounded life of the individuals.

Without anticipating the Institution of Control which will de-
"^ mand consideration by itself, it may be stated simply that the
spirit of wise government must flow from parentage. The parental
qualities make the aim of family government to be for the welfare
of the governed, these may succeed or fail as they act wisely or
unwisely, but that is the aim, the welfare of the children. This
gives the best direction for all kinds of government, the welfare of
the governed. Then too the obedience of children in such a
family is not of fear but of love, recognizing the need of such
government, an obedience of loyalty to the parents. This spirit
becomes by natural growth the spirit of citizens in such a govern-
ment, the obedience of loyalty to the State. In the family where
there are at least four children, the brother and sister qualities

INSTITUTION OF THE FAMILY 163

being in full exercise, the living for self finds its proper develop-
ment and its healthy limits in living v\^ith and for others. Thus
the spirit of true citizenship is cultured in the family, the sharing
the opportunities, privileges and responsibilities of life in a brother-
ly spirit.

The policy of the particular society of the Bible grouped around
the supernatural revelation of God favored such family life. We
see it in the ideals of their being a people in convenant with God
through successive generations; we see it in the way the story of
the national life is told showing such families flourishing; we see
it in the provisions of the land laws providing for the existence of
multitudes of such families ; and we see it especially in the laws
God gave through Moses concerning the relation of the sexes
fostering and guarding such families. It needs no courage to
maintain that society and religion are alike dependent for their
existence and welfare upon the formation of the complete family.
When such families flourish in largest numbers the highest welfare
of the race is advanced.

Two growing tendencies in Christian civilization today may
demand comparison with the family life fostered by the sociology
of the Bible; they are the hesitancy of the cultured to enter
marriage, or when married to have children. It is asserted that
in 1907 thirty per cent of the surviving graduates of Harvard
of the classes of 1872 and 1877 inclusive, are unmarried, and
those who are married have an average of only two children in
each family; the assertion being attributed to the honored Pres-
ident of that University. In the whole United States, according
to the census of 1900, sixty-six per cent of the men between the ages
of seventeen and thirty-five were unmarried, and the average age
at which thirty-four per cent married was twenty-five years. In
Great Britain the marriages have fallen off in the thirty-five years
since 1872 about nineteen per cent. In France in 1893 Kidd
asserts that out of 1000 men over twenty years old only 609
were married. There is a foreign proverb: "The man without
a home is more dangerous than the asp or dragon". Bacon says,
"He that hath wife and children hath given hostages to for-

i64 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

tune". Parkhurst says, "The decadence of the home idea is the
sorest spot in New York City life." In the Senate of France a
bill was recently introduced to tax bachelors and spinsters, an
instance of seeking a remedy in legislation without searching for
the cause of the evil in society. Some have sought the cause in
industrial conditions, in the increase of occupations for women,
making them independent of marriage, increasing girl bachelors
and of course men bachelors, and reducing wages so it becomes
more difficult for men to earn enough to support wives. This doubt-
lessly has something to do with the tendency; but on the other
hand the low views of the family, leaving children out of the ideal,
and the accompanying low views of the nature of marriage and
the increase of divorce are much the stronger factors. The birth
rate is diminishsing in white civilized countries except Russia,
where the average number of children to a married couple is over
six. In France recent government investigations show that there
has been little change in the number of marriages in the last
seventy years, but that the excess of births over deaths has greatly
diminished; in 1830 it was 61 for every ten thousand of the pop-
ulation, while in 1900 it was only three. In France out of every
one thousand families, two hundred have no children, and six hun-
dred and forty have only one or two children apiece. French
thinkers mention among causes for this low birth rate the law of
equal division of real estate, the growth of poverty and of high
taxation. But here also the greater factor is wrong views of
marriage and the family relation. Much of the literature of that
highly cultivated people is the description or defense of elegant
libertinism. Many countries of western Europe are approaching
the condition of France, but in Germany and Great Britain, the
decrease, though great, is not so marked.

Bulletin No. 22 of the census of 1900 of the United States
deals with the birth rate and is more important than many pub-
lic documents on tarifif and currency. Prof. Wilcox of Cornell
finds by comparison of this with other census reports that in 1800
children vmder ten years of age constituted one-third of the pop-
ulation while in 1900 they constituted less than one-fourth the

INSTITUTION OF THE FAMILY 165

population. He also says that in i860 the number of children
under five years of age to one thousand women of the child bear-
ing age, was six hundred and thirty-four, while in 1900 it was
only 474. If foreign born women are excluded the decline is
much more marked. The decline varies in different States,
several States and those the richest in men of ability, in colleges
and universities, show a decline drifting perilously near that of
France. Prof. Karl Pearson whose statistics are of the best, says
that pairs of exceptional parents produce exceptional sons at a
rate more than ten times as great as others. At the same time
eighteen times as many exceptional sons are born to non-excep-
tional parents as to exceptional ones, as the latter form only
above one-half of one per cent of the entire population. This
benificent law of nature prevents the extinction of exceptionally
gifted men and women. But surely such when they come into
existence by this law, should not voluntarily cast away their
ten times as great probability of having exceptional children.

The natural decline of the birth rate, as we have seen, is not
either morbid or threatening, but the supplementing it by an
artificial decline is both morbid and threatening to the welfare of
society. The future of any country depends upon the character
of its population and this depends upon ancestry. Political forms,
educational methods, and social institutions are questions of minor
importance compared with the fundamental and determining one
of heredity. The vast importance of the matter is brought to the
attention of the American people by President Roosevelt who
says in his message to Congress Dec. 1906, "The one sin for which
the penalty is national and race death is wilful sterility, a sin for
iwhich there is no atonement, a sin which is more dreadful exactly
in proportion as the men and women guilty of it are in other
respects, in character, in bodily and mental powers, those whom
for the sake of the State and the race it would be well to see
fathers and mothers of many healthy children well brought up in
homes made happy by their presence. No man, no woman, can
shirk the primary duties of life, whether from love of ease and
pleasure, or for any other cause, and retain his or her self-respect."

i66 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

J^ The long and vigorous life of the Hebrew nation extending
over one thousand years, and the vigorous existence of that race
today, though it has had no national home for nearly two thousand
years, show conclusively that the Sociology of the Bible in foster-
ing the complete family fosters race and social strength.

While there was the fostering of family life there were also in
the laws and policies of the Hebrews some severe restrictions from
V entering upon such life. The people were discouraged from form-
ing marriage with the Canaanites, who remained in the land or
with their heathen neighbors. The influence of conflicting re-
ligious views in the family, the especially strong influence of the
mother over the children, are reasons sufficient to account for this
policy, but the reason of heredity also existed, it was not only
guarding against corrupt manners, but against corrupt blood, it
was guarding the covenant of "the thousand generations." The
rash entrance of marriage prevalent in our modern life should be
checked by wise foresight. Only those having supreme and ex-
clusive affection for each other should marry, but in addition
there should be a reasonable prospect of having healthy children,
and of the man being able to support a family in comfort, and
with some opportunity of culture. Sociologists today agree that
the human race may be improved by the wise selection of parents
and by favorable conditions for raising children. The two fea-
tures must go together, fostering right marriages and preventing
wrong marriages. The part heredit}^ works in the increase of
the feeble minded, the insane, the criminal and pauper classes is
acknowledged to be great. The weak and vicious lack the self-
control to prevent marriage and reproduction, and so are in special
need of State control. Many of our States have laws somewhat
in harmony with the restrictive laws and policy of the sociology
of the Bible. Connecticut probably takes the lead in this line;
it has this law on its Statute book. "No man or woman either of
whom is epileptic, imbecile or feeble minded shall intermarry or
live together as husband and wife, when the woman is under
forty-five years of age." There is a like law against the marriage
of paupers. The penalty is State Prison for not less than three

INSTITUTION OF THE FAMILY 167

years, and the one aiding the violation of the law may be fined or
imprisoned for one year. Ohio, by law passed in 1904, refuses
license for marriage if either party is an habitual drunkard, epilep-
tic or insane. Other States have kindred laws. Whether the
State can by law not only check the production of defective chil-
dren, but can intelligently and wisely provide for the increase of
sound children is a far more difficult question. This too is being
considered by our law makers, as incited by public opinion, but no
such law has yet been devised and enacted. The State of Wash-
ington last year considered such a law and came within a few votes
of enacting it, it provided for the appointment in each County of
a medical commission to pass upon all applicants for marriage
license whether they gave reasonable promise of having healthy
children. This seems to be far from ideal, and it is a question
whether any law can cover the case. It is a matter more for gen-
eral policy than for legal enactment. The ideal condition must be
one of enlightened and moral public opinion which shall recognize
the sociological and religious truth that marriage is the regulation
of the relation of the sexes for the continuance of the race in suc-
cessive generations, to the establishment of the ideal society, the
Kingdom of God on the earth. As the prophet Malachi insists \J
the Lord seeks, and would have his people seek, a godly seed.

There were very few capital crimes in the laws of God given by
Moses as we shall see when we come to the subject of social
pathology, but there was great severity in the laws protecting the
purity of family life; this is in line with heredity in nature, and
with the godly seed of the covenant of grace. God's teaching,
both in nature and in revelation is that the relation of the sexes
provides for a family, for the maintenance of the race in successive
generations, and that the purity of this family source of life is
for the highest welfare of society. The laws of Moses provided
that in both adultery and fornication both the man and the
woman guilty of the crime shall be brought to the door of the
damsel's house, or to the gate of the city, and sentence being pro-
nounced by the judges, the men of the city shall stone them with
stones until they die. A bastard was not allowed in the assembly,

i68 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

and harlotry was prohibited. The laws were, designed to foster a
public opinion that would frown upon lust, and would favor the
pure family and a pure seed to a thousand generations. The
history mentions even among its prominent people some trans-
gression of these laws, and barely hints of the infliction of the
legal penalties, though the natural penalties may frequently be
recognized, but the general impression of the history is that
womanhood was virtuous and honored and the family life strong
and pure. The literature always speaks of impurity with scorn
and warning, poets warn against the evil woman and orators de-
nounce adultery as a crime. We boast of our modern civilization
as Christian and are especially proud of our American reverence
for womanhood, but it is doubtful if a history of our times written
in the same frank spirit as the Bible history and any fair collection
of our literature would give such a fine showing. Adultery and
fornication are not generally regarded as crimes in our country,
very few States have so pronounced them on their statute books.
Mulhall estimates that 70 of every 1000 births in the United
States are bastards, that is not as bad as Austria with 145 such,
but it is bad enough, it is not quite as bad as France and about
equal with Scotland, and far worse than Ireland with only 26 such
births. The prevalence of harlotry in our modern civilization is
far greater than is generally recognized. The Prefect of Police
of Paris estimated a year ago that there were 100,000 prostitutes
in that city. It is estimated that there are at least 50,000 prosti-
tutes in New York City. Mr. Goodrich estimates that there are
five fallen men for every fallen woman, this would give a quarter
of a million such men in that city; but of course prostitution is
not supported by residents of the city alone. The Police often
protect houses of ill fame, a recent investigation showed that a
single house of such inmates paid $500. initiation fee to the wards-
man, and $50 a month for immunity. The committee of fifteen
citizens appointed a few years ago to investigate this vice, report
that the attempt to regulate the vice as practiced in some European
cities is no adequate remedy for even its physical effects. The
remedy they recommend is better housing of the poor, raising the

INSTITUTION OF THE FAMILY 169

condition of labor, especially of female labor, purer forms of
amusement, better hospital conditions, better moral education, and
strong condemnation of public opinion. Public opinion is evi-
dently far below the ancient Hebrew law, it does not prohibit
harlotry. The sternness and severity of the law were evidently ^
on the side of social wellbeing, and the purity of the family was
fostered, the source of pure and strong heredity. Modern laxness
is destructive of the family, and a weakening and corrupting ele-
ment in society.

While the laws of Moses allowed divorce there were restric- sC
tions imposed upon it, and the policy of the society throughout
the national history was against it. We find very few instances
of it in the history, it is hardly referred to in the philosophical,
poetical and oratorical literature, and it was a matter of theo-
retic discussion rather than of frequent practice in the time of
Christ. Christ's withdrawal of the permission given by Moses
is very decided, and seems to have awakened academic objection
in the College of the Disciples, rather than revolt upon the part
of the populace. The theory and practice of divorce are based
upon the theory and practice of marriage and the family in any
society. The policy of the sociology of the Bible favors such a
view of marriage and the family that the permission of divorce
was not valued or exercised and was at length withdrawn by
the final authority in the Kingdom of God.

As our modern civilization has wandered somewhat from the
theory of marriage and the family of the particular society of the
Bible, so the theory of divorce follows this wandering. The heart
of our civilization is strong and sound, the great majority of
marriages in the United States are life unions of love and fidel-
ity, the husband a true house-band, and the wife a true weaver
of love cords, binding husband and children in a pure home life;
in such marriages the theory of divorce finds no place. But as
we have already seen there is a tendency to lower such ideals, to
lower ideals of marriage, of children, of womanhood, of the fam-
ily, and this tendency includes divorce. Many of our State laws
are drifting away from Christian theories toward the old Roman

I70 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

theory. The Roman Law regarded marriage a sa civil contract,
the parties as simply partners, and the partnership dissolvable by
the parties under State regulation. The Christian law^ is that
marriage is a divine institution, the parties become one flesh, and
the union is permanent, can be broken only by adultery. The
former view fosters heedlessness in entering marriage, a spirit of
restlessness, discontent and strife in marriage, and neglects the
prospect and care of children, it ignores the interest of society in
the family, it is in wide contrast with the Christian theory of mar-
riage in all these respects.

Divorces are more prevalent in the United States than in any
other Christian nation. This is largely due to the great variety
of views held in the different states, to the laws flowing from
these views and to the many courts which grant divorce. In
some nations only the highest court can grant divorce while with
us hundreds of courts have that power. In some of our States
adultery is the only ground for divorce, in other States incompat-
ibility of temper is suflUcient ground, and in some States divorce
may be granted by the discretion of the judge of a county court.

In one of our States divorces have increased so that where
thirty years ago there w^as one divorce for every 25 marriages,
last year there was one divorce for every nine marriages. In one
of the counties of another State there was one divorce
for every three marriages, and the requirement of residence
was quite strict. Twenty years ago in a single year Great Britain
had only 475 divorces, France 6,000 and Germany about the
same number, while in that single year the United States had over
25,000 divorces. In the last twenty years 500,000 divorces have
been granted in the United States, and it may be that 1,500,000
children have had their homes broken up. Dr. Morgan Dix said
in 1906 that in the last twenty years Europe with a population of
380,000,000 had granted 214,000 divorces, while in that same
time the United States with a population of less than 80,000,000
had granted more than 500,000 divorces. It must be remembered
that it costs something to get a divorce, and sometimes a great
deal, there are lawyers' fees and court fees and in contested cases

INSTITUTION OF THE FAMILY 171

the great expense of a trial, so divorce can be obtained only by
those well off or the rich. Among the poor, separation without
legal sanction prevails, and living together without a second mar-
riage. The public opinion of one class is apt to follow that of
the other, if the well to do and the rich are indifferent to divorce
or favor it, the poor will grow indifferent to separation or favor
it. But separation while it thus flows from divorce laws must
also be under their frown, and so it is not a matter of state sta-
tistics. Settlement workers and those interested in the life of the
poor agree that while the heart of our civilization, the pure family,
is as strong among the poor as among the medium class and the
rich, there is still a large amount and a growing amount of the
breaking up of families and the scattering and desertion of chil-
dren by separation. The only remedy for the growing evil in all
classes is a public opinion firmly based upon the view of the
family in the sociology of the Bible.

Closely related to family welfare is the house in which the
family lives, so closely that though it belongs to the chapter on
environment, some reference must be made to it in any consider-
ation of the family. That loveliest spot on earth, a Christian
home, is composed of two elements, the family and the house. A
very important element in the sociology of the Bible in foster-
ing a pure family life was the land laws of the nation and the
policy arising from them in favoring the accumulation and the
wide distribution of wealth. The land of Judea became the
home of a vast and prosperous population, a crowded land to be
compared with Belgium today, but it was the policy of the nation
that every family should have a home of its own, a small estate
of land and a modest though comfortable home in village or town.
The house in sociology has a history. Man is a house builder. The
details of house building differ in different lands and ages, ancient
and modern, northern and southern, oriental and occidental.
There is a long line of changes, some of them very curious and
perplexing ones from the cave and the tent to the steel framed
sky-scraper. David found Jerusalem a cluster of hovels and left
it a city of palaces. An emperor found Rome brick and left it

172 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

marble. We are apt to grade civilization by its great structures,
its temples, capitols and palaces.

A more sensible way to judge of its advance is by the homes
p\ of its people. The greater the proportion of comfortable homes
the higher is the civilization. The pure family well housed speaks
well for the welfare of society. The house not only shelters the
family from the weather but from mankind as well, it gives
privacy, and there in virtue and refinement, the cultivation as we
have seen of the father and mother qualities, and the brother and
sister qualities, without the intrusion of any disturbing elements.
The principles arising in such a home of rights, duties, privileges,
of property in each member and of propriety among members, if
written into a code would make a large and valuable book. There
are other homes, the neighborhood or city, and each family while
isolated in its own house is related to all other homes, and the
neighborhood rights, duties, privileges of property and propriety
would make a code well worth study. The houses also are but
part of the country or city, the roads and streets, the landscape and
the parks, the light by day and night, the water and sanitary ar-
rangements are in common. It is quite evident that the policy of
any society for its own welfare, should be the fostering of the
greatest number of comfortable homes, and this is clearly the
policy of the particular society gathered about the supernatural
revelation of God described in the sociology' of the Bible.

There are at least two classes of houses in the United States
today, dwelling places of vast populations, the only homes they
know, which are a disgrace to our country. The one large class
is to some extent a relic of slavery. Our negro population in 1850
was three and a half millions. Today it is over ten millions.
Robert Ogden says that there are six million negroes living in one
room huts or cabins in the United States, and that the greatest
barrier in the way of improving the morals of the negroes is in
these one room dwellings, sties rather than homes. The other
large class of dwellings which are a foul blot on our American
civilization is the crowded tenement houses of the poor in our
large cities, especially in our great metropolis, the pride of the

INSTITUTION OF THE FAMILY 173

continent. In a single block in New York City not on the
crowded east side, but near the Hudson River, there are sixty-four
such tenement houses; in these houses there are 2639 rooms, only
1 1 96 of these rooms have windows opening on the outer air; in
these sixty-four houses 4000 persons live; it is a great commingling
of races, Negroes, Italians, Germans, Poles, and all are poor. It
is said there are only two bath tubs in the whole block. There
is an absence of the privacy demanded by primitive self respect.
The average of arrests in this block is one hundred a month, the
arrests fall below this in Summer and arise above it in Winter.
The death rate in the block is 27 per 1000, a much higher death
rate than prevails in the City, which is now about 18 per 1000,
over 430 of the more than 1200 families in this block are sup-
ported or aided by public charity. The block is a menace to the
city the breeding place of crime, pauperism and death. But it is a
very valuable block for renting purposes. Dr. Tolman describes
a room in another tenement house, a small room fifteen feet square
where five adults and as many children live and bend over their
work the day long, lining coats. The adults make a dollar a day
by working fourteen hours. This room and a small dark room
out of it just large enough to hold a bed are rented by a father and
mother and 5ix children, and in order to meet the rent they have
five boarders. There is but one cooking utensil used, a frying
pan. There is no room for privacy, refinement or morality. The
grinding toil, the crowded air space and the bad cooking drive
old and young, men and women, to the saloons which abound in
the neighborhood. There are said to be 350,000 dark interior
rooms in New York tenement houses. The causes of poor houses
are many, ignorance, poverty, greed for high rents for poor ac-
commodations, big percentage on small investments, and beyond
these the careless indifference of society. It is a grave fault of the
individual or corporate owner not only, but of society itself, to
make more of property than of people, to care more for money than
for souls, to ignore the Golden Rule in its application to landlord
and tenant. The remedy must be instruction on the value of the
house to social welfare, a public opinion leading to a minimum

174 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

standard of a house for dwelling purposes far above that which
now prevails. Every citizen should have a judgment of the
minimum standard of a house for health, decency and family well-
being, and so form a healthy public opinion. Within a few years
of this twentieth centurj^ much advance has been made in the
laws for tenement house building. By the tenement law of 1901
of New York every room must have light and no window must be
within twelve feet of the opposite window, and where before 26
families lived on a lot in a five story house now but sixteen
familnes could be accommodated. It is claimed the new tene-
ment house laws of 1901 and 1902 raised the sanitary condition
of the whole city as seen by the fall of the death rate from 20 in
1000 in 1901 to 18 in 1903; but doubtless there were other causes
entering also into this good result. The City itself is beginning
to take such interest in the homes of its people that it restrains
the greed for rent by the standard of a dwelling house. Much
still remains before Christian civilization will attain to the policy
of the sociology of the Bible.

In the coming Kingdom of God comfortable homes will pre-
vail. The policy will seek to secure a suitable house for every
family. The great King shows in the policy of the Bible that He
has not neglected the house, the dwelling place of the family.

CHAPTER XIII.

Environment.

The land where any society lives may well be called the
physical basis of that society; the first element we think of is its
productiveness, though with this, really a part of it, must always
be considered its climate. If it is a warm, fruitful land, the bot-
tom land along some great river, under sunny skies, with the
overflow of the river or a regularly returning rainy season assured,
it may support quite a large society without much care or labor
on the part of its members, a society of lazy, luxury loving men
and women. It was along such great river plains that the early
civilizations arose, in the valleys of the Nile and the Euphrates.
As the population increased, the tilling the soil, the special work
given by the great Creator to man, the improving his environ-
ment by united action began, and was with ever increasing force
carried on, and became largely the basis of the social order and its
advance. Such lands respond bountifully to such treatment, and
become the homes of a rich luxurious civilization. But reproduc-
tion outruns production and the growing population of the fruit-
ful land spreads up the river to the mountains, sideways to the
hills, down the river to the seas. Change of land and change of
climate work a change of employment and mode of living and
thus a vast change upon man himself and his society. Native
enterprise is developed, courage to face danger, the unknown, and
to endure hardship, perseverance beckoned on by hope, taking
risks, the spirit of adventure, all these make the men of the
mountains different in many ways from the men of the plains.
The man of flocks is a different being from the man of the fruits
of the earth, and frequently there grows up an antagonism between
them as in the case of Cain and Abel.

176 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

Productiveness of the land is still a strong element, perhaps the
strongest, but it is not the only element in the physical basis of
society. A scant living won by hardy toil makes different men
from a bountiful living won with ease. To seek shade from the
sun is a different thing from seeking shelter from the wintry
storm, and makes different modes of living necessary not only but
different kinds of races of men. Trade is the exchange of the
products of many lands and is carried on by many means, the
burden bearing horses of the hills, camels of the plains, boats of
the river, ships of the sea, caravans of the desert and fleets of the
ocean; and varied classes and characters of men are developed
by these varied means, and trade becomes also an exchange of
ideas and characteristics as well as of goods. Man in the pres-
ence of the sea was at first timid, would only sail his little ship
close to the shore, and the sea separated lands, soon he ventured
beyond the horizon, became the daring sailor facing mystery and
storm, and the sea became the highway of many lands, and the
man of the sea became far different than the man of the field.

Still there is much besides the productiveness of lands and man's
relation to it in the kind of country man inhabits. The land is
not only a stony field or a fruitful garden, it is a gallery of pic-
tures, ever changing in lights and shadows and ever present before
heeding or unheeding eyes, and working its subtile effects upon the
more or less sensitive minds of the succeeding generations of its
inhabitants. The Scotsman who takes off his bonnet every morn-
ing to the sunrise on the mountains, and the Arab who reads his
destiny in the silent stars passing over his desert land are the
souls poets are made of, and songs as well as laws, idle musing
as well as hard work have great influence in moulding society.
Then too with the passage of the years and of many generations
the land becomes a storied land and each bit of shore or mountain-
pass has its tale of love or daring. Emerson's saying, "where the
snow flies liberty flourishes" takes in not only the hardiness and
enterprise of stern climates but the defences of the hills and the
grandeur of mountain heights and storm swept horizons. Eng-
land has fostered its enterprise by looking over its island borders

ENVIRONMENT 177

to distant lands and has made its hardy, liberty loving race by
conflict with cold and storm and sea. It was the same Aryan
race that in successive waves of emigration swept down from the
mountain fastnesses of Central Asia upon the plains of India,
upon the promentories and isles of Greece, upon the rivers and
hills of Italy, upon the forests and stormswept shores of northern
Europe, in each case it mingled with the original inhabitants; but
the vast variety of the civilizations formed depends as much per-
haps upon the land possessed as upon its original inhabitants, and
much of both the likeness and the unlikeness of India, Greece,
Rome and England is due to both heredity and environment.

A thoughtful gaze upon the map of the world will endow any-
one with the spirit of reasonable prediction. The old world and
the new one are widely contrasted in several respects. The three
continents of the old world are massed together at the center.
The two continents of the new world are stretched out length-
wise upon the globe from north to south. The great mountains
of the continents of the old world are massed in their centers.
The great mountains of the two continents of the new world are
a long range stretched along the western border the whole distance
from north to south. The great plains of the old world run in
various directions sloping down from the central mountains and
some of them to the cold north are not well watered, and some
are vast deserts that we suppose can never be irrigated with flow-
ing waters. The great plains of the new world fall from the
western mountain range toward the East, facing the sun, there
are a few deserts between mountain ranges and bordering great
plains, but they are capable of easy irrigation. In the center of
the long stretched out new world and in the tropical region there
is a great opening, the Carribean sea and the Gulf of Mexico.
As the earth revolves from west to east, there arise the trade
winds along its broad belt and over its wide tropical ocean, winds
blowing steadily westward and heavily laden with moisture. These
blow into the great opening at the center of the new world,
strike against the western range of high mountains and turn to
the north and to the south and pour out their great riches of

178 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

moisture upon the great inland plains, and the mighty rivers, the
Mississippi and the Amazon carry back the waters to the sea,
while all along the eastern coasts the winds from the ocean,
warmed by the gulf stream and bearing moisutre distribute their
enriching gifts unchecked by high mountains, and make a very
fruitful land. From careful estimation and calculation it is con-
cluded that the new world because of its favorable position on the
globe can easily support a population equal to three times the
present population of the earth, and much exceeding that the old
world can possibly support.

Our own nation possesses the broad belt of the northern con-
tinent in the temperate zone. Though not quite as large an area
it is capable of supporting a population greater than that of
Europe. With fertile soil and healthful stimulating climate, with
natural communication by rivers, lakes and oceans and by artificial
means in this age of steam and electricity, with a people rapidly
becoming one race though made of the choice blood of many
races, with a strong central government and equally strong local
governments "of the people by the people and for the people",
many nations federated into one, with the broadminded men of
wide plains, the strong men of granite mountains, the daring
men of stormy seas, the enterprising men of a stimulating winter,
the heroic men of a noble past, what kind of a nation will this
become, with universal education and the Christian religion, to
face and influence the world and to solve the many great prob-
lems of sociology as they arise for her own good and for the good
of mankind? Who cannot make the reasonable prediction that
one of the chief seats of the Kingdom of God on earth will be
our own beloved land? Only we must carry on the principles of
the particular society of the Bible gathered around the super-
natural revelation of God, the principles of the Fatherhood of
God, the Brotherhood of man and of Love as the Law. A sel-
fish, self-seeking nation, power and luxury loving, will fall apart
into conflicting sections or become a curse to a contesting or a
subjugated world. Only a nation with Christ's spirit can bear

ENVIRONMENT 179

the prosperity and power evidently to be ours and make them a
blessing to the race.

But environment while largely physical is by no means only
that or even mainly that, there is an environment which is more
properly called social. The individual is of course a part of it,
and largely subject to it. It makes a wonderful difference to a
man whether he lives, either by choice or of necessity, in China or
America, in a large city or in a small village, on a farm or in the
slums, or on the avenue. The atmosphere of the place where he
lives is the air he breathes. The sciences and arts, the treasures
of literature, the achievements of invention, the form and spirit of
government, the kind of education, the accumulation of wealth
and of culture, the manners and customs of the people, the prevail-
ing religious beliefs and practices, all these are a part of the at-
mosphere one breathes, of the environment in which he dwells,
and by which he must be largely influenced. It is also a matter of
grave importance to a society, as well as to an individual, not only
where it lives but when it lives and who are its neighbors, in what
land not only but in what age and in what surrounding social
conditions.

It is certainly a far call from our own land and age to the time
of Abraham and the east, to the beginning of the particular society
of the Bible, and its onflowing development, but a gaze upon the
past is often a wise preparation for a look into the future and the
present is the only pomt of view for both. We must have the
sociological appreciation of environment in its influence on social
development before we can rightly estimate some of the particular
features of the strange and suggestive history. We are not to
conclude that because God made a special revelation of himself
and took a special care of this particular society that therefore it
was separated from and independent of its environment. God
does not throw away but uses the forces he has implanted in the
social nature of man. It is always a mistake and often a grave
one to hold that the supernatural is antagonistic to or independent
of the natural, it never throws away the natural, it adds to it,
builds upon it. God is more immanent, that is all. God is in all

i8o THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

society. God is especially in the particular society of the Bible.
The particular society of the Bible is of course and of necessity,
because it is a society, largely influenced by its home land and by
the society of its neighbors, and it of course must influence the
societies neighboring to it, or that may be reached by it. What
influences from others it shall welcome, and what influences upon
others it shall strive to put forth will depend not so much upon
the special revelation of God made to it as upon its conception
of this revelation, its extent and its depth in moulding the char-
acter of the people. When God covenanted with Abraham to
make him a blessing to all the families of the earth, he doubtless
included the then present and nearby neighborhood. Abraham
doubtlessly had a glimpse of this, and it influenced him to some
extent, though his main thought may have been the far ofE nations
in time and space. That he did not impress this glorious ideal
upon his descendants with regard to their nearby neighbors during
the successive stages of their history is quite evident; even their
thought of the far off blessing to all nations of the earth seems
to have been that they should rule over them. There are some
Christians even now who think more of the final triumph of Christ
in the ends of the earth, than of his triumph today in the social
conditions of their own town. It is with us as of old not so much
the full revelation of God in Christ, as our conception of Christ
that moulds character and social conditions.

The particular Society of the Bible had three homelands, and
then became scattered over the earth. Its ancestral home was the
valley of the Euphrates, the seat of probably the earliest civiliza-
tion of the world. Eber the son of Shem and the father of the
Hebrews lived in Ur of the Chaldees. From this land long after-
wards Terah emigrated to Haran, and from Haran Abraham
emigrated to Canaan. Many ages afterwards thousands of selected
men and women from the best of the nation descended from these
fathers, were carried captive back to the land of their original
ancestry. The valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris and the
broad plains between were during all these intervening years the

ENVIRONMENT i8i

home of a powerful and luxury loving people, the home of a rich
civilization, the great empires of Babylon and Assyria.

While the family of this early emigration was growing into a
tribe and nation, the people sojourned in Egypt, their second home
land for several generations. The valley of the Nile was the seat
of the next earliest civilization. It was a long but narrow valley
cut out of the surrounding desert by the river, the bottom land
between the bordering bluffs was only about ten miles wide, but it
was rendered very fruitful by the annual inundation of the river
and was canopied by a warm and almost cloudless sky. The
emigration from Ur was when the civilization there was already
well begun, when conditions favoring restlessness were already
reached, and the entrance and sojourn in Egypt was when the
civilization there was already well established. These were early
days, but they were by no means primitive days. We have several
glimpses given us of the social condition of Egypt in the stories of
Abraham, and especially of Joseph. The government of Pharoah
and his princes was arbitrary and powerful, they loved luxury
and pleasure and gratified their desires without much regard for the
rights of others. Abraham was right in fearing the laws of hos-
pitality would not guard his life if lust made it advisable to get a
jealous husband out of the way, though his way of protecting
himself savored more of the morals of his ancestral home than of
his new knowledge of and relation to God. The condition of
society in that early day made it easy to sell Joseph as a slave,
easy to throw him into prison without trial, and to keep him there
an interminable time, easy to advance him to the place next to the
throne. There were great cities, there were palaces and temples,
there were orders of nobility, grades among the people, much pros-
perity, and back of all was the source of prosperity, the fruitful
fields of the rich valley, making it a resort from other and less
favored lands in times of famine. After the administration of
Joseph the people of the land were mere serfs of the soil, both
they and their land belonged to Pharoah ; but the story gives hints
that their condition was not much better before, their property and
their lives were in the hands of an arbitrary king. Joseph's policy

i82 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

had saved the lives of the people at the cost of fastening these
chains on succeeding generations, the salvation was from God, but
the chains were from Joseph in yielding himself to the atmosphere
in which he lived, the social environment of Egypt, and cannot
be attributed at all to the teaching or revelation of God. In point
of poetic justice the Pharoah who knew not Joseph simply turned
the arbitrary power Joseph had confirmed upon him, in still
greater severity upon his kindred, and made them slaves of a very
bitter slavery.

The third home-land, the only home-land of the people as a
nation, was Palestine. It was a far different land from that of
their ancestors, and from that of their sojourn. The great civiliza-
tions of the great river basins still had these seats of empire, the
new land was a land of hills and mountains along the great sea,
a land specially favorable to become the home of a great civiliza-
tion, and to reach out and influence many nations. The great
desert extended to the east its many leagues of almost impassable
sand, and thus became a barrier between the world civilizations
of the Euphrates and the Nile. This desert at its western border
wrinkled up against the great sea into high table lands, great
mountains and narrow plains along the edge of the sea. It was a
very fruitful land, watered by the rains and the dews of heaven
arising from the nearby sea. It was a sunny land, the clear
Syrian skies bending over it. It was a land of great variety of
climate, its cool mountains and snow clad Lebanon and Hermon
tempering the air, the valley of the Jordan a torrid clime, the plains
and hills bordering the sea a temperate clime. It was a beautiful
land with much mountain grandeur, with broad outlooks, with
pleasant plains and valleys and lakes. It was both a secluded land
and a thoroughfare. It was as secluded as those dwelling upon
the hills and mountains a little way from the sea and upon the
eastern table lands, would choose to make it. There they could
peacefully work out their own social problems and attain to their
social destiny without much danger of being intruded upon by
very powerful rivals or foes. Jerusalem has become one of the
world's most influential cities; but unlike all other world capitals

ENVIRONMENT i8s

it is situated on a mountain and far removed from river, lake or
sea, on no thoroughfare of commerce or travel, alone, by itself,
remote, secluded.

But the land is also a thoroughfare. The great civilization of
the Euphrates and the Nile, the great world empires of Assyria
and Egypt, the great capitals Babylon and Ninevah to the north-
east, Thebes and Memphis to the southwest, could only hold com-
munication with each other, could only influence each other by
passing along the plains of this land near the sea. The sea itself
could not be a means of communication, it was too far away from
the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris. The land between
the Euphrates and the Nile could not be the basis of lines of
travel, it was the desert impassable but to a few hardy adventurers.
One of the famous rides of history is that of Nebuchadnessar
and a few attendants in a straight course from Jerusalem to Baby-
Ion, to reach the bed-side of his father who was reported to be
dying, filial affection and grave reasons of state led to the daring
deed. But all communication on any large scale between the two
great world civilizations could only be had by passing along the
plains and under the shadows of the mountains of Judea. Here
the caravans carrying the rich commerce of the east, here the great
embassies of power and ceremony, and pleasure, here the great
armies, the pomp and splendor of war passed to and fro between
the rival civilizations of luxury and power, and under the grace
and influence of the growing civilization of righteousness. It was
secluded enough for the undisturbed development of the particular
society' of the Bible, and it was thoroughfare enough for this
society to exercise its missionary calling, giving the supernatural
relation of God entrusted to it to all the nations of the earth, and
commending to them the society of brothers under the govern-
ment of God, their Father. The mountains of Judea were the
pulpit of the world. This was not so only at the beginning of
the national life, but during all its continuance and especially so
at its close. In the time of Christ the world empires had
changed. Babylon and the east were still seats of high civilization.
Egypt and the north of Africa still flourished; but the world

i84 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

empire of culture was Greece, the world empire of power was
Rome; and the very center of the civilized world, in the high-
est age of its civilization, the Augustan age, was the city of
Jerusalem, the Roman province of Palestine, the home of Christ;
still the pulpit of the world.

We have several glimpses of the social condition prevailing
among the original inhabitants of this land when Abraham, the
emigrant from the Euphrates valley, settled in it. It was not a
crowded land, there were still many vacant spaces, and Abraham
seems to have been not so much tolerated as welcomed as a new
and valuable settler. The laws of eastern hospitality find several
fine instances of their varied working. Profuse politeness seems to
have been the accompaniment of sharp bargaining even in the early
day, the generous offering being the introduction to a price not
to be refused, and the children of Heth conveyed land by deed
for a goodly number of shekels, the whole transaction indicating a
stable condition of society. There were many small cities and
petty kingdoms, a few of them rising to considerable prominence,
the more powerful and luxurious they became the more corrupt
were their morals, and the more arbitrary the power of their
kings. Again as in Egypt Abraham feared for his life on account
of the attractiveness of his wife ; and Sodom and Gomorrah, the
cities of the rich plain, are instances of almost inconceivable moral
corruption. We have the first instance of organized warfare in
the battle of the four kings against five; the cause of the war
does not seem clear but the usual plunder followed. Abraham
appears in a new character, that of a military chieftain, he makes
a well planned night attack upon the plunder laden victors,
defeats them, rescues his brother and recovers the spoil. This
earliest bit of warfare of the Hebrews shows them as regarding it
as the service of God, in rescuing the oppressed and in refusing to
receive any personal benefit from it.

Several centuries pass before the Hebrews take possession of this
land as their own. They have sojourned in Egypt and have been
welded together by its hard slavery, they have been trained in
the wilderness so that entering it a mob of freed slaves, they

ENVIRONMENT 185

come out of it a well ordered people, each tribe having its own
organization of thousands and hundreds and fifties under elected
leaders, and each tribe knowing its own place in the whole organ-
ization under the great leaders, Moses and Joshua. During these
centuries the Canaanites have advanced also in numbers and power,
but have become more corrupt, until, as the Scriptures describe,
their cup of iniquity was full. The Hebrew nation, a well organ-
ized army takes possession of this land, regarding themselves as the
executioners of God's justice, that He deprives the original inhab-
itants of it as unworthy any longer to hold it and gives it to them
as their home land, for a perpetual possession, while they remain
worthy of it. That they regarded themselves as the executioners
of the divine justice is evident, that they thought God ordered
them to exterminate the Canaanites seems clear; how far they
were justified in this latter view may be an open question. It is
certain they did not exterminate them, that they made treaties
with some of them and felt equally called of God to keep them.
So in reality their taking possession of Canaan was very much
like the Normans taking possession of England, they were intru-
ders, and in the long process absorbers, rather than exterminators.
From this time on through the Bible history the land of Judea is
the physical basis of the particular society of the Bible and is its
immediate environment, while its more general environment is the
civilization of the ages through which its history flows, the neigh-
boring nations and empires as they touch and influence it.

The moral questions arising from the subjugation of one race
by another, of the inundation of an already inhabited land by a
new and more powerful people, have already been considered.
This experience is a very familiar one in the development of the
general society of the race, and is an element in the growth of
several prominent civilizations in history. It is not therefore to
be marveled at that God who uses it in the general advance of
society should have employed it in the care of the particular
society of the Bible.

We cannot tell of course what might have been if the Indians
had been left in undisputed possession of the new world, but it

i86 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

is not likely that anything very valuable to mankind would have
resulted. We regard God as having given this nevi^ w^orld to us;
that does not involve His approval of all our actions in the mat-
ter, but it does appeal to us to use our possession for the good of
the race. We cannot tell of course what might have been, but
it is not probable that the Canaanites would ever have rendered
any important service to mankind, they certainly never did, and
they gave no promise of ever doing so. On the contrary the
Hebrews have contributed many elements of highest value to the
uplift of the race.

The land itself and its new inhabitants seemed well adapted to
each other. The land attained greater fruitfulness, a richer pros-
perity under the Hebrews than there is any record of its ever
attaining before or since. It is now in the hands of races kindred
to the Canaanites, but it has become impoverished, taxed and
stripped of its wealth, even the land itself contributes nothing
today to the welfare of the world. Perhaps it is only resting, the
long Sabbath of the land. There are many students of the scrip-
tures who interpret some of its predictions that the Jews will be
restored to their land and the Zionists are laboring to that end.
The land is still beautiful for situation and still of rich promise.
Some great dreamer may one day cut a canal from the Mediter-
ranean to the sea of Galilee and make an inland sea of the great
depression of the Jordan valley to the gulf of Akaba and the
Indian Ocean, and then the land will be not only beautitful and
fruitful, but a central land once more and on the great highway
of the world's commerce, once more the seat of a great civiliza-
tion.

The influence of the land on the character of the people is
seen of course in their literature. The outlook of the books of
Moses, that indefinable something in literature, the atmosphere
in which its writers live, the scenes upon which they look, is
largely of the rich valley and the desert. The remaining books of
the Old Testament and the Gospels and the Acts of the New
Testament belong to Palestine, were created there, breathe its air,
look out upon its scenes. The history is of a mountainous land.

ENVIRONMENT 187

with narrow ravines, rushing streams, small lakes, lofty heights
and fruitful plains. The poetry is largely lyric, the poet describes
the feelings that lie back of all action living in the breasts of the
actors, especially their feelings towards God ; he looks up into the
face of God and sings, but he looks out upon a beautiful and fruit-
ful land, a land of mountains and plains, of rivers, lakes and seas.
The orators are preachers of righteousness, according to the de-
mands of various circumstances; the application varies but the
righteousness itself is unchangeable, it is like the great mountains,
lights and shadows pass over them, storm sweeps or calm broods
upon them, but the mountains remain steadfast forever.

The character of the people in any particular period is very
largely a matter of heredity, but heredity we see is the sum of the
changes made by passing environments, not only the physical en-
vironment as it is met in valley, desert or mountains, but the social
environment as well ; in the views man holds of nature and of
God, in the manners, customs and laws of the people, in the large
influence of one man upon another, of one form of society upon
another. It is a marked feature of the particular society of the
Bible from its beginning, through its long history until it flows
out into the race of mankind to mingle with and mould the
whole race, that it is linked with many lands and climes with
many ages and peoples a society for the whole race and from the
whole race. The peculiar people for a long time forgot their mis-
sionary calling, and have forgotten it now, still it is in the charac-
ter of their existence; and it is the life blood of the society of the
Church of Christ, whose sole mission is to bring the Kingdom of
God into all lands and climes for the whole race. The three
homes of the particular society of the Bible, both in the physical
and in the social sense, the ancestral home, the sojourning home,
and the home land have accumulated their environment force by
the force of heredity, and each period of their history shows us the
great value of these forces in the moulding of individuals and the
structure of society.

With reference especially to the force of environment the Bible
has three distinct and significant classes of instances. The first

i88 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

class embraces many striking incidents of individuals and societies
successfully resisting very bad environments. In heredity there
were very many instances of individuals overcoming evil tenden-
cies; no one need be a slave to his dead grand-father. So here no
one need be a victim of circumstances. This is particularly true if
heredity is on his side. It is a much more difficult thing for an
individual to fight successfully against both a bad heredity and a
bad environment, evil grand-fathers and adverse circumstances
make a bad combination, but here also many instances of victory
are recorded. The grace of God wearies not with passing ages ; it
can in modern times, as of old, enable a Jerry McCauley to put
his foot upon both bad heredity and evil environment and stand
upright in his manhood. So the grace of God can enable a Hadley
to overcome, but the blood of the Edwards in Hadley's veins tells,
and that manhood coming up out of the gutter is of a loftier kind.
Some of the loftiest characters of the Bible are men who lived
their heroic lives in bad environments who fought against adverse
circumstances.
^_ Joseph, the slave boy of good parentage, spent the remainder
of his long and noble life in the surroundings of a heathen civiliza-
tion, among a race of gross idolaters. He was not crushed by the
hardships, he was not charmed by the greatest prosperity, he was
not swayed from his faith by prevailing customs and beliefs.
Whether as prisoner or as prime minister, he held fast his faith
in God. He faithfully attributed his superior knowledge to the
gift of God. Pharoah said: "Can we find such a one as this,
in whom the spirit of God is?" when he placed him next to the
throne, gave him the second place in Egypt. He discharged his
lofty duties as the servant of the most high God. He told his
brothers, "God sent me before you to preserve life". He sent
word to his father "Come to me for God hath made me Lord of all
Egypt". When he came to die after a long life, and still in great
power and honor, he exhorted to faith in the God who revealed
himself to Abraham, assured his brethren of God's faithfulness to
His covenant promises and directed that he should not be buried
in Egypt. Through the long days of the dark slavery the coffin of

ENVIRONMENT 189

Joseph their great leader preached with silent eloquence of his
great faith in God, and of the coming deliverance.

Moses also lived the first forty years of his life in an environ-
ment of idolatry, in the palace and the court of a heathen civiliza-
tion, but free from all its corrupting taint, as the writer to the
Hebrews describes him "he accounted the reproach of Christ
greater riches than all the treasures of Egypt."

Daniel, carried when a boy, by his triumphant foes a captive into
Babylon was brought up in the court of that great world empire,
by his great ability he became prime minister under successive
dynasties and spent a long life in honor and power in the world's
capital. The whole civilization was idolatrous; it seemed to have
swept the worship of the one true God from the face of the earth,
to be established beyond question, to hold sway without opposition.
Still in this triumphant idolatry Daniel was openly and at all
times the avowed believer and servant of the God of Israel. These
individuals do not seem to have been sustained by association with
kindred societies, the first two, not at all; in the case of Daniel,
he at first had associates, but soon it became an isolation of great-
ness. -"^ , ■

tJut the cases of associated resistance to evil envirpnment are
also many. The children of Israel in Egypt did not adopt the re-
ligion of their oppressors. When they were carried captives into
Babylon many remained true to their faith through the long cap-
tivity, though doubtless there were many who adopted the religion
and the customs and made the Euphrates valley their permanent
home. The exodus from Egypt was of a nation bound together
by the hard slavery, and their faith in God. They received also
special revelations from God and special help in their deliverance
from Egypt, and were guided and guarded by the manifest pres-
ence of God and so given the possession of the promised land.
The return from the captivity from Babylon was a marked con-
trast. A few thousand volunteers through their faith in God,
marched wearily along the edge of the desert under the protection
of a heathen emperor with no special manifestation of God's pres-
ence and at length reached thir home land to find they were un-

I90 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

welcome intruders, still needing the protection of the heathen world
power. The whole environment was unfavorable, but the faith
of the people flourished in it.

The same may be said of the first Christian church gathered in a
heathen city, it existed in an unfavorable environment. It taxes
our imagination to faintly realize the unfavorable environment of
the first church in Corinth, for example. When Paul wrote his
first Epistle to that Church it probably did not number five hun-
dred members, and it lived in a city of five hundred thousand
people. Gross idolatry, and licentiousness prevailed, Corinthian
manners and Corinthian morals embraced falseness and vice, ap-
proved as culture. In this environment Paul called for Christian
manners and Christian morals, lifted a lofty standard, and found
much to commend in the attainment of the Church in those bad
surroundings.
^ This first and large class of Bible incidents shows that while
^ environment is a powerful influence over both individuals and so-
cieties that the grace of God and the power of the human will
combined can triumph over it. When in the providence of God
and at the call of duty the individual or the society lives in a bad
environment all the brighter may shine the Christian virtues and
influences.

The second class of Bible incidents on this subject shows God
calling man out of a bad environment into a good one. He called
Abraham from his kindred to wander in a strange land. He
called the children of Israel from Egyptian slavery to dwell in
their own land. He called the captives of Babylon back to their
native land. He called Matthew from the seat of Customs to
the College of the Disciples. He called Paul from fanatical
associates and power to be the Apostle to the Gentiles. These are
but a few of the many incidents of this class. In all cases the call
of God must reach and arouse the will of man, and then generally
the struggle is severe to break away from the old life and its
chains and charms, to try a new, difficult and often dangerous life.
The third class of Bible incidents on this subject is by far the
largest and most important of the three; the other two are often

ENVIRONMENT 191

involved in it and lead up to it. It is the changing of a bad
environment into a good one. Abraham was called out of a bad
environment, out of idolatry — not for himself alone, but to be a
blessing to all nations, not simply to be free from idolatry him-
self but to free all men from idolatry, not simply from a bad
environment but to make a good environment where the knowl-
edge and worship of God should flourish. In proportion as he
was true to his calling this work of changing a bad environment
into a good one began at once and continued through his whole
life. So with Daniel, he resisted the bad environment success-
fully, but his faithful resistance must have had a large influence
on many others and a general influence of which there are many
glimpses given, leading to the honoring of the true God in a
heathen land. So with the Church in Corinth, it was largely for
the sake of Corinth that the Church was there, and its spreading
influence had some efifect not only on many individuals but upon
the city itself and upon Greece.

Matthew and Paul were called from bad environment to a good
one but not only or mainly for themselves, they began at once
and continued their lives long, wherever they journeyed, the
changing of bad environment into a good one. The Christian civ-
ilization we enjoy today is a changed environment wrought by
such lives as Paul, by such societies as the Church in Corinth.
There are many lives of influence starting from the Bible whose
aim is to change a bad environment into a good one.

Every missionary going into the darkness of heathen lands and
every Christian merchant and traveler as well, are carrying on this
Bible work, not merely to win here and there a soul for Christ,
but through those souls and their successors in many generations
to change the entire environment from heathen to Christian,
to form in all lands a Christian civilization. Every University
and church settlement in the slums of great cities brings learned
and Christian men and women with their culture and religion in
contact with the needy for the uplifting of their lives. When pub-
lic opinion is aroused by wretched tenement house conditions and
demands and enforces laws checking and changing such into far

iga THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

better conditions, it is the carrying out of the same principles.
When going beyond settlement workers and tenement house laws
social conditions include just wages, reasonable rents, and fair
prices, when the spirit of brotherhood between employers and
employees, landlords and tenants, storekeepers and customers shall
prevail it will be simply the changing of bad into good environ-
ment by carrying the golden rule into practice in all the relations
of life, by the spreading power of the kingdom of God. That
crowded block of wretchedness in New York City which has won
the hideous name of Hell's Kitchen will disappear long before the
Kingdom of Heaven takes full possession of the City. The chang-
ing of a bad heredity and a bad environment into good ones is
the mission of the Church in establishing the Kingdom of God.
Good parentage and a good neighborhood are the aim of the grace
of God in the revelation of Himself, and of His dealings with his
people. They may not insure the new birth but are very favorable
conditions for it, they give large promise of the permanency and
triumph of the Kingdom of God. The godly inheritance is not
only of tendency of character by heredity but of favorable sur-
roundings in moulding character by a good environment.

CHAPTER XIV.

The Land Laws of the Hebrews.

Since the country in which any society dwells is the physical
basis of that society, it follows that the distribution of the land
among the people is one of the most important elements of their
welfare. The fertility of the land, together with rivers, coasts
and other means of communication, limit the extent of the popu-
lation, determine largely their employments, affect race character-
istics and mould the form of government. The land that does
not produce food enough to support its own population must be in
such communication with other lands that this deficiency is met in
exchange for the service its people render. Even the manufactur-
ing or commercial nation generally has the basis of its food supply
in its own land. Beyond the question of food in these modern
days is the supply of coal and iron, the nearness and abundance
of these staples of our civilization are of utmost importance to
the welfare of society. The coming power to move machinery
promises to be electricity, even then the running water of the
country is needed to turn the dynamo, and its copper to convey
the force to the place of its action. The many means of communi-
cation have brought the fruits and grains of all lands to the table
of each, and clothe and shelter the people of each nation with the
materials grown in all climes. This is only extending the princi-
ple that the earth itself is the physical basis of society of the race,
and makes more clear the truth that the distribution of the land
among the people is one of the most important elements of their
welfare. The national problem of each country becomes the race
problem of the world. The fair and fruitful earth is itself the
home of the race of mankind, it provides the food, the clothing,
the shelter of the race.

194 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

r\ How shall the land be divided among the people is the problem.
Who has the right to the land? Some students of sociology claim
that man's right to the land can only be general, never individualj
it is like his right to air and water. Land, water, air belong to the
race and for any individual to claim and exercise an exclusive right
to either is a wrong to the whole race. But there is certainly this
difiference. Man cannot work much change upon the air, he may
pollute it but cannot improve it; there is abundance for all to
breathe and generally of good quality. With water it is somewhat
different; labor has frequently to be expended in order to get it of
sufficient quantity and of good quality for drinking purposes both
for man and for his flocks and herds. One of the frequent experi-
ences in the early life described in the Bible is digging wells.
Isaac, the peaceful quiet man, found the Philistines had stopped
the wells Abraham had digged, and when he digged others they
contended time and again for them, until at length he digged a
well for which they strove not, and he called that well, Broad
Places, for he had found room in the land. Many a time it is
said "they digged a well and builded an altar", the digging the
well required associated effort, they had a common right in the
water they had found, the gift of God to them, the well became a
gathering place for them and there they worshipped the great
Giver. Social union, labor and worship, the three distinctly
human elements are often found connected with wells of water.

With reference to land it also is unlike the air in that it may be
improved. Uncultivated land would support but a very small
population, and support that population very poorly, several square
miles would be needed to support the savage, where a few acres
will support a civilized family. The difference is cultivation.
Now cultivation is a matter of successive years, even of successive
generations. Appliances for tilling the soil, drainage, shelter for
herds, storage places for grain, means of communication, dwelling
places for man, all are a part of the way man must fulfill God's
commission given him "of tilling the earth and subduing it", of
doing man's peculiar work, changing his environment. By doing
this the individual or family acquires some special right to the

•:^

LAND LAWS OF THE HEBREWS 195

land he has cultivated, which society finds it to its own general
interest to recognize and guard. Other students of sociology
while acknowledging that the one who has improved the land has
a right to the land he has improved, question his right to values
beyond his own efforts, arising from the labors of his neighbors
and from the general advance of societ)'. The large increment of
value to many an acre of land as well as to many a city lot comes
not from the skill or industrj' of the owner but from the general
conditions. Various schemes are devised to calculate and turn to
the general wealth this unearned increment of the land.

Very many of the perplexing features of the land problem arise
from the fact that the very complex social life of today has rap-
idly developed in recent years from a much more simple one, and
the land laws are largely a growth of precedents made by courts
of law in the simple social condition. A crowded land, become
largely a manufacturing and commercial country, derives its land
laws, the distribution of land among its people from a simple
agricultural state of society. The accumulation of land by pur-
chase and descent under such laws with the immense increase in
value from the general conditions makes often a highly favored
class of land owners. Then also the title to land in many countries
does not seem to have been based so much upon the cultivation and
improvement of the lands as upon what may be called the right of
conquest; and it seems pretty late to undertake the solution of
it. The problem has solved itself, and the generation now on the
stage simply receive an established division, and hand it down to
the coming generations. If we undertake to formulate the prin-
ciple of division in most lands perhaps this will answer, — in
dividing the land, let each individual, family, tribe and nation take
what it can get, and hold what it can keep. As society becomes
organized it establishes its real estate laws and laws of descent
upon the principle of keeping up this division. Blackstone and
Kent do not base land titles upon the holdings of the early
British tribes, and if they did it would be largely the same thing,
but upon the division of the land by the Norman Conquerors.
The feudal principle was both for offense and defense. The king

195 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

granted land to the great nobles, and the great in their turn to the
lesser ones, on condition of service to be rendered, and as the
reward for military service already given. The king stood for
the state, for the social organization. When this new country was
settled, great grants of land were given by the king and dis-
tributed in much the same way.

When we trace our titles back to the original grants, we are
satisfied and secure. Who shall now raise the question, "What
right had the king to grant?" If it is raised in a purely academic
way, it is at once followed by the kindred one, "How should the
land have been divided among the original settlers and how much
among how many?" If the conclusion is reached that the grant
of a conquering king for military service is simply division of
plunder and an injustice, the grant of a discovered country grasped
from weak holders and given for favoritism is wrong, how shall
the reversal of the original injustice and wrong be brought about
without social upheaval and larger injustice still. If we go still
further back and consider settlers moving into an unoccupied
land, each taking what he needs and cultivating it for his family,
what right have his descendants to hold his large claim made when
there were few in the land, for their exclusive use, now that the
land has become crowded. The withdrawal of large tracts of
land from cultivation for the pleasure parks and hunting grounds
of wealthy land owners, where the land is crowded with the
unemployed and the poor, is a marked feature of some lands today,
and is growing in our own land.

The advance in civilization of any people is the general advance
of society as a whole and land values greatly increase in such con-
ditions making land owners a favored class. This is especially
seen in large cities, their favorable location for growth, the open-
ing of streets, the forming of means of transit over-head or under-
ground, the drift of business and population, all the conveniences
and advantages of city life make the land, worth a few thousand
dollars fifty years ago, worth as many millions today, and the
owner has done nothing special to increase the value he enjoys.

The theory of the United States in distributing unoccupied

LAND LAWS OF THE HEBREWS 197

land among new settlers now for many years Is that this land
belongs to all the people of the whole nation and the distribution
must give each settler a fair portion among others, and for the
betterment of all the people.

The homestead laws give to each settler a large enough farm
for the good support of his family on condition that he should
cultivate it, he must live on it, and thus make it add to the wel-
fare of all the people. So in mineral lands, the prospector is given
a right to the mineral he has discovered, provided he will develop
his claim, which is for the benefit of the whole nation in increas-
ing its store of iron or gold. But the desire of each section of
the country to hasten its own development and the desire of each
settler to improve his condition quickly leads to the sale of farm
or claim and to the accumulation of farms and mines in the hands
of a few, rather than their distribution among the people gener-
ally. After this the condition of newly settled lands swiftly fol-
lows that of the older lands. This change is hastened by the great
railroad grants and by the allotments of school lands to the vari-
ous states, so that what was once the public domain belonging to
all the people, has, even by society's endeavor to distribute it fairly
and for the public good, become very largely the princely domain
of a few private owners or companies. There is an immense
area yet undistributed but it is mainly of grazing lands in the
semi-arid belt. These many millions of acres where the rainfall
averages as high as twelve inches, may by the new process of dry
farming be made very productive, so that a farm of forty acres
may support a large family. Besides a ten acre patch of irrigated
land will yield a better living than the ordinary one hundred
and sixty acre farm of the Mississippi valley. Of the six hundred
million acres still unoccupied land in our country not ten per
cent is absolutely desert, but for much in the semi-arid belt, and
where irrigation may be used, somewhat different methods of dis-
tribution from our homestead laws must prevail.

The lands subject to the homestead laws are nearly exhausted.
The sharpest corner our American society has turned since the
destruction of slavery was turned when the homestead region in

198 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

the rain belt became exhausted, in the last decade of the last century.
The arrest of expansion was dramatic in its suddenness. During
1880-1890 the Department of Agriculture reports the annual
enlargement of our food bearing area averaged five million acres
a year. During the succeeding ten years it only amounted to
eight hundred thousand acres. The division of the land among
the people is more widely distributed in the United States today,
probably than in any other country. According to the census of
1890 over sixty per cent, of the farmers were the owners of their
farms, and a large majority of these owned their farms without
any encumbrance. Of the over twelve million families in our
countrj' over forty-eight per cent, owned their homes. Of these
twelve million families over five millions were farmers, and of
these, over sixty-four per cent, owned their farms. That the tend-
ency in our land is for the forming of large estates in the hands
of the few is very marked in the east by the desire of the wealthy
to have princely country seats, in the west by the desire of growing
sections to hasten their development. Besides, the great question
perplexing society today, of public franchises in the hands of
corporations is a phase of the land question, for franchises are
largely of the land granted by the people to their present holders,
the land taken from the owners by purchase or the right of emi-
nent domain for the use of the railroads, the streets of the city
granted for the use of the street cars, the right to mine coal and
iron placed often in the power of a transportation company.

The increase of the city population compared with the country
is a marked feature of our modern life. In 1800 in the United
States the city population was about five per cent, of the whole;
in 1900 it was about forty per cent.. In 1 900 in New York State
it was nearly eighty per cent, of the whole. Sociologists account
for cities in ancient days by the need of protection. In modern
days they are accounted for very largely by commercial and manu-
facturing interests. A large manufacturing plant employing a
thousand or more operatives creates a city in itself. In all times
moreover the social sympathies are at the bottom of city life. The
poor Irish woman sent to the country by charity and found back

LAND LAWS OF THE HEBREWS 199

in the city a short time afterwards, explained the whole matter
in her sharp answer "I would rather see folks than stumps".

Farm machinerj^ has lessened the number of men required on
the farm and steam, machinery has drawn laborers to the cities
and both have worked in line with the herding instinct of mankind
to foster the growth of cities.

Now however some elements are arising favoring country life.
The love of nature is in every bosom, not to see stumps but the
hills and the sky, the fields and the rivers. Besides some cities
are becoming too crowded for comfort ; there is not breathing
room. Then too in the country the church and school as social
centers, the traveling library, the university extension courses, the
rural mail delivery, the telephone and the trolley car are bringing
to the farm many of the social advantages of the city; now also
the transmission of electric power to the farm house makes manu-
facturing possible where individual taste and skill will have freer
scope than in the factorj% In France electric motors are furnish-
ing power to silk weavers in many private houses. With steam
the tools have to be located in great factories and largely owned
by the power owners. With electricity the power may be brought
to tools scattered in many homes, and the workers of the tools may
in many cases be the owners of them and so masters of their own
work.

Besides the love of nature which now takes many to the
countrj' for pleasure there is arising a condition which will demand
the more extensive and thorough cultivation of the land. Unless
the great race movement already considered ceases, and there
seems no indication or probability of such a thing for many years
to come ; the United States which now supports with ease its eighty
millions of people will in the next fifty years have to support a
population of two hundred millions, which will be a far different
affair. The tilling of the soil is the most natural calling of man
to which every other is subsidiary, to which all manufacturing
and trading must in the end bow the knee. We do not have to be told
by wise men that we must go back to the land. Every morning
when we pray for our daily bread our Heavenly Father teacher us

20O THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

that impressive lesson. The question of the distribution of the
land among the people is one not of diminishing but rather of
increasing importance to the welfare of mankind in our own as
well as in many other countries. In countries still newer than
ours new methods of distribution of lands are being tried. In
New Zealand, that country of advanced social ideas, the govern-
ment distributes the land not only but loans money on it at nom-
inal rates of interest so that poor settlers may make a more rapid
development of their own welfare and of the country. The Sal-
vation Army is also undertaking the removal of the unemployed
and discouraged from the crowded cities, especially from London,
and colonizing them, under its direction and care, in new countries
on farm lands, believing that habits of industry and thrift will be
awakened by the sure rewards nature gives to labor ; it is going
back to the land that God's teachings may then be learned as at
the beginning.

This slight glance we have been able to give to this all impor-
tant subject in many countries and in many ages enables us to
appreciate some of the peculiarities of the Land Laws of the par-
ticular Society of the Bible. It may be said that the land laws of
Judea are of their own kind, they differ from those of all other
lands in at least three important particulars, and so widely as to
be worthy of the careful study of all sociologists. These three
peculiarities do not include the claim that these laws were given
by God himself, but they are of such a nature as to corroborate
that claim.

We may well consider this claim first, what is its nature and
extent, how are we to understand it; and what bearing has it, as
so understood, upon the perplexing problems relating to the divi-
sion of the lands in our modern times? The careful student will
find the laws of the Hebrews concerning the land as well as con-
cerning many other subjects, are said to have arisen under various
circumstances recounted in the history of the people at Sinai, and
in the desert before the people came into Canaan. Most land
laws, we have seen, as other social laws, have arisen from the ex-
perience of the people, have been an evolution during the unfold-

LAND LAWS OF THE HEBREWS 201

ing of their history as their needs have called them from customs
into laws. Much of this is not excluded by this claim from the
laws of the Hebrews. We must not think of them as such a new
people that they had had no experience, such an uneducated people
that they knew nothing of the experience of other peoples. Such
view^s have long been made impossible, the records of surrounding
civilizations written on stone and brick by actors in them are a
part of the world's literature, as the Bible itself is to be considered.
We have already considered a real estate transfer when Abraham
purchased a plot of ground from the children of Heth, the field is
described and located and the cave and the trees on the borders;
probably there was a written deed of conveyance. A strange
discovery has been made recently by the researches in the East,
showing that such transactions were not rare and that codes of
laws existed in that early day. There is now in the Louvre Palace
in Paris one of the most interesting historical objects on earth, a
diorite stela about ten feet long covered with fine cuneiform in-
scriptions. It was dug up in this twentieth century on the site of
ancient Susa where it had been taken as a trophy of war from
Babylonia. The stela is the acknowledged work of Hammurabi
who according to the Babylonian chronology was a contemporary
of Abraham. This slab affirms that it was set up in the public
place of the city that the people might read the laws of the land.
The inference is natural that there was a general intelligence
which rendered such an act useful, that many of the people in the
valley of the Euphrates could read the cuneiform inscription. This
code of Hammurabi is a civil code. The domestic relations take
about a third of the space of the tablet, professional ethics, special-
ly of medicine nearly another third, and various contract forms
some for the conveyance of land, complete the laws on this partic-
ular stela. It is not improbable that Abraham saw and read the
code of Hammurabi before Terah became an emigrant. The
case of the Hebrews thus becomes something like the long voyage
of the Mayflower, the pilgrim fathers had the experience of Eng-
land and Holland behind them and could forecast general laws
and compacts suitable to the life in the new world which awaited

202 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

them. The Hebrews were an intelligent people, they had not
suifered with their eyes closed and their brains dulled in Egypt;
their slavery had not been long enough to make them only slaves.
The accumulated experiences of their free nomadic life and of
their slave life were carried with them into Sinai and the desert.
They could reflect, they could forecast, they had had a history and
wide experience, they had hopes and ambitions, and could plan for
the new home they sought.

Then too they had a great leader, Moses, one of the greatest
men in all history, he knew the lore of Egypt, this of course
includes the laws and customs of Egypt, and especially the land
laws his great predecessor Joseph had fastened upon Egypt; the
customs as we saw which arose from the nature of the government
and which Joseph simply crystalized into laws. God's supernat-
ural revelation here as any where is simply his greater immanence.
He did not cast aside all the experience of his people, all the
knowledge and ability of Moses, but used them and added to them.
Moses reflected, considered, planned for the future welfare of
the people not during a few months of an ocean voyage as the
Mayflower, but during the long years spent in the wilderness;
and he did this in fellowship with God, in a communion with
Him of which he was fully conscious and upon which he depended.
Moses was the lawgiver, the laws are spoken of as given by him,
as the laws of Moses, but only in such a way that God made His
special will known through Moses. The recurring phrase, "The
Lord spake unto Moses" has the same meaning the title to our
national laws has. "Enacted by the Senate and House of Rep-
resentatives"; it shows the authority of the laws; but it does
not minimize the children of Israel or Moses, but rather magnifies
them.

Then too these laws, as all the civil laws so made, were to be
enforced b)'^ the people themselves. They must be practical, that
is, must so approve themselves to the present and best judgment
of the people that the public opinion of the day would enforce
them. Christ himself said that these laws of Moses, that is laws
of God through Moses were not perfect, not ideally right, that

LAND LAWS OF THE HEBREWS 203

the laws of divorce for example were given on account of the
hardness of their heart. Still the law had the ideal in its scope,
the laws of divorce as we see them were different in purpose
from those prevailing in some of our western states today; they
were intended to promote the sanctity of marriage. So with the
land laws we are now to consider, the details may be largely lim-
ited to the conditions to which they were adapted, to the Judea
of the long past, but the principles underlying them may have a
much wider and more lasting scope, and a large application to the
present conditions in all lands. They are therefore the laws
which God taught the people through their own experience and
especially through the wisdom and foresight of Moses were suit-
able and practical for their new home. We may also conclude
that the principles underlying these laws have an element of jus-
tice in them and a promise of prosperity which commend them to
the consideration of all who seek the welfare of the race of men
as it engages in its primary and all important work of subduing
the earth — in changing and making the most of its environment.

While the principle of dividing and holding the land even as
coming from God may have been for that land and time alone,
still it may give valuable instruction on this basal question which
like all lesser ones can never be permanently settled until it is
settled according to the principles of everlasting righteousness.

The first peculiarity that distinguished the land laws of
Judea from those of all other countries is that the land was orig- /
inally divided by lot equally among all the tribes and families.
Our recent distribution of choice land in Oklahoma was the fairest
modern civilization could devise. After due notice had been sent
to all portions of the United States the prospective settlers gath-
ered on the borders of the land, a signal was given and then there
was a grand rush from all sides ; the quickest in observation and
action and the strongest got the choice sections and the rest took
what was left; and when all was taken the disappointed ones,
the slow and the weak went back to their former conditions, or
formed new ones as best they could. The most recent distribu-
tion of land has been copied in a few particulars from the Hebrew,

204 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

a distribution by lot, though among a very few families, them-
selves selected by their enterprise or favorable location from the
multitude of the whole nation ; the rush to have their names
enrolled for the drawing simply took the place of the rush for
the land. The people of Israel in that early day avoided such a
scramble by agreeing beforehand that when they took possession
of the land they would divide it equally by lot among all the peo-
ple. The census of the people described in the closing chapters
of the book of Numbers was a very careful one, by their father's
houses, according to their families. At its close the Lord said
unto Moses, "Unto these shall the land be divided for an inherit-
ance according to the number of the names, the land shall be
divided by lot according to the names of the families of their
fathers". A few instances where a cast iron rule would have
worked injustice as where there was no father of a family, and
only daughters to inherit, were adjusted by the leaders. The case
when certain kinds of land were specially adapted to certain
kinds of employment was also provided for by agreement, those
having large herds of cattle having the grazing lands east of the
Jordan. Certain rewards for very special virtue as in the case of
Caleb were properly distributed. But the need of numbers rather
than the strength of individuals was considered in the distribu-
tion, the lot was to be by numbers, the Lord said to Moses, "Ye
shall inherit the land by lot according to your families. To the
more thou shalt give the more inheritance, to the fewer thou
shalt give the less inheritance, to every one according to those
that were numbered of him, shall his inheritance be given, where-
soever the lot falleth to any man that shall be his". There was
„ a great effort made at justice, to give every one a fair start.
Incentive to special effort was not overlooked. Caleb the old
man had the spirit of his youth, then he had urged the people to
advance, in his old age he took his mountain inheritance from a
warlike clan. But there is nothing to be seen in this early dis-
tribution of land that resembles settlers in a new country taking it
all and leaving little or nothing for later immigrants, nothing
that resembles a conqueror giving to his great generals large tracts

LAND LAWS OF THE HEBREWS 205

while holding the largest portion still for himself. The settle-
ment of Judea was a far different thing from the settlement of
England by the Normans, from the settlement of America by the
English, there was an effort made at just distribution, to treat
all the people fairly and equally.

This plan which had been devised beforehand, which God had
given to Moses was carried out as soon and as thoroughly as
possible by Joshua. The book which bears his name and recounts
his acts is generally regarded as a book of conquest, and it deserves
the title. But a part of the book of less stirring interest is still K
of great importance, it recounts the division of the land among
the tribes and families, and may well bear the title, "the book
of deeds" — the real estate record. Not every family could imme-
diately take possession of its own homestead, but it had the title.
It was in the plan of God that the land should gradually come
into their possession, the conquest was not to be a sudden exter-
mination. He said to Moses at Sinai "I will not drive them out
before thee in one year, lest the land become desolate and the
beasts of the field multiply against thee. By little and little will
I drive them out before thee until thou be increased and inherit the
land". The Canaanites were to be gradually expelled from the
land, and the action of the whole nation and of each tribe in its
own possession was to result in each family having a homestead
of its own ; and this homestead was given to each family according
to its numbers by lot. The title was in each family, and each
family was to come into possession of its own home as soon as the
general conditions would allow.

A very large proportion of the land of Judea could be culti-
vated and eventually become so, and in a great variety of ways,
the hills were terraced with vineyards and olive groves, the
plains were covered with corn and flocks. There must have been
over fifteen millions of acres available for productive purposes
and this would make available for each family a home farm of
twenty or thirty acres according to the number of its members.
There were to be in the whole country a large number of small
estates given to all the families of the Hebrews by lot. This was

2o6 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

the design of God, this was the plan of the people as provided
for in the original distribution of the land by lot. This plan was
not only for the start, it had a far look ahead through all the
coming generations.
I The second peculiarity that distinguishes the land laws of
Judea from those of all other countries is the provision made for
the alienation and descent of the land titles. Frequently the laws
of other lands so restrict alienation in reference to descent as to
provide for the perpetuation of great estates, as in England. In
other lands the laws promote alienation and so foster the growth
of great estates while the laws of descent intended to divide great
estates are subject to evasion, as in our own country. The laws
of both alienation and descent in Judea are so interwoven that
they have to be considered together and their design is evidently
to preserve small estates, to perpetuate among the succeeding gen-
erations the equal possession of the land as provided for in the
original distribution. Since the tendency is for reproduction to
outgrow production, for the population to increase more rapidly
where the land under thorough cultivation increases in fruitful-
ness, this design becomes a very difficult one to accomplish. Since
also there are two tendencies of human nature, one of deteriora-
tion, of some men to become lazy and inefficient, the other of evo-
lution, of some men to become energetic and efficient, and since
it is a wise policy of any society to discourage the deterioration
and to encourage the evolution, to give opportunity to individual
initiative in holding and cultivating the land as well as in other
matters, the design of perpetuating small holdings becomes still
more difficult.

Still it cannot be questioned that the thorough cultivation of
any country, the intensive farming as it is called, depends upon
small estates. It is equally evident that the proper thing to do
with the lazy and inefficient is not to kill them off by slow starva-
tion, but to stimulate them out of their degeneracy. That the
land laws of Judea were wisely adapted to both these ends becomes
quite evident as we study them.

The laws of both alienation and descent of land titles combined

LAND LAWS OF THE HEBREWS 207

to hold the land originally given to a certain family, in that family,
for succeeding generations. Each family was to have its own home
to start with and the whole policy of the laws rendered it difficult
for that family to either dispose of it or to lose its home. The
laws of inheritance seem to have come down from an earlier age
in their leading principles, and to have been modified and adapted
to the changed conditions according to this policy.

Sociologists generally hold that the head of a family owes his
position of headship originally to physical superiority; that the
headship descends from father to eldest son for the same reason;
that the younger sons and the daughters are generally not as
strong ; that where this reason no longer exists in fact, the superior-
ity is nevertheless acknowledged by the force of custom or by a
kind of hypnotic control of suggested authority; and that where
many families are combined in a tribe or society this original order
is simply recognized.

Positions of authority also frequently develop qualities of lead-
ership as is frequently seen in our free republic, and the headship
of a family thus becomes one of mental superiority and strength of
will. We have already seen that the early heads of families
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob were possessed of strong qualities which
have descended through many genefations, and that the law of
inheritance of the eldest son was in their day unquestioned; and
that with it there was the acknowledgment of the rights of other
children both sons and daughters. In the glimpse we have of a
still earlier family, no one can question the right of headship of a
family in Job, and in his family no eldest son is seen, but the sons
and daughters are on an equality, and he gave the daughters an in-
heritance among their brethren. There seems to have been in that
early day no such thing as a will, but the blessing of a father in the
closing scenes of his life seems to have been sacredly carried out,
and probably was in the nature of gifts to his children.

When we come to the division of Canaan among the tribes the
right of the eldest son is entirely lost in the policy of dividing the
land by lot. But when we come to consider the laws of descent of
the land titles so secured the right of the eldest son to be the head

2o8 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

of the family seems to have been the basis of keeping the land in
that family. The Lord spoke to Moses "If a man die and have
no son ye shall cause his inheritance to pass unto his daugh-
ter, if he have no daughter it shall pass to his brethren, if he
have no brethren it shall pass to his father's brethren, if his father
has no brethren it shall pass to his next of kin. If it passes to the
daughters let them marry to whom they think best, but only to the
tribes of their father shall they marry, so that no inheritance be
taken away from the lot of that tribe." It is also provided that
the father when he causeth his sons to inherit that which he hath
he shall acknowledge the right of the first born, the beginning of
his strength, by giving him a double portion of all that he hath.
When we come to the time of Christ while the Jews were still
living in their own land we may suppose the parable of the
prodigal or lost son is a true picture of the times. In that the
father gives his younger son the portion falling to him, he divided
unto him his living, but it was not real estate, for the younger son
took it with him on his wild career. When the father expostulates
with the elder son, he said: "Son thou are ever with me and all
that I have is thine". The real estate, the home was his by right.
It is to be hoped that before he came into possession of it his feel-
ings entirely changed towards his restored brother.

While the right of the eldest son to the land seems to be ac-
knowledged, it is only as he is head of the family, and with his
right go also duties to the younger sons and the daughters in the
home of their father. Much would also depend upon parental
affection in making provision by gift and direction for the younger
children ; also upon public opinion which in the village farm life
would be strong and fostered by the general tendency of the social
policy to the spirit of brotherhood. The holdings of land were
originally very small, and could not be subdivided, certainly not
to an infinitesimal degree during the passage of many generations.
Besides the policy of the social life was to the formation of new
families, marriages of both sons and daughters were fostered. In
the rapid development of the great prosperity of the nation a large
element was the initiative of many leaving homes to found new

LAND LAWS OF THE HEBREWS 209

ones. While these agencies were strong the stability of society
was greatly promoted by the stimulated industry and the quickened
sentiment which each family had for the homestead, the long asso-
ciations of many generations for the land originally given to the
fathers by lot.

As with the descent of the title so with the transfer the policy 4.
of the land laws was to perpetuate the original distribution of the
land. God said to Moses: "The land shall not be sold in per-
petuity, the land is mine and ye are strangers and sojourners with
me". When it comes to the application of this general law pro-
vision is specially made for those who might be forced by adverse
circumstances to sell their land. No provision is made for those
whose prosperity or disposition might incline them to sell. It is
evidently designed that the attachment to the land of their fathers
would lead all to hold fast their possessions. This, as we shall
soon see, was not always the case. With reference to the one
forced to sell there were two remarkable provisions. One was the
right of redemption, he, when he became able, or the next of kin
might redeem it at any time. The sale was alwaj's subject to the
right of redemption. If this right was not exercised then when
the fiftieth year came round, the year of Jubilee, all land titles
returned to the original family or head of the family. The price
of land therefore, and the price of redemption, were always to be
calculated with reference to the regularly recurring year of Jubi-
lee. The only exception was in the case of the sale of a house in a
walled city, the right of redemption was for only one year, and
there was no return in the year of Jubilee. This exception to the
general policy of the laws favoring the poor seems hard to explain
since the unearned increment of value would probably be greater in
large cities than in farming villages ; but the general result must
have been in favor of living in the country and tilling the soil, in
favor of keeping up the homestead.

The few incidents mentioned in the history show how the
working of the laws favored the poor. Two cases show families
driven away by hard times coming back after the hard times were
over and again receiving their own. In Christian lands today such

2IO THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

families would find their homesteads in possession of others, and
they would find it difficult to start again. Ruth and Naomi
would have probably sunk down in poverty in our rich country,
but in that day they were favored by provisions made for such
cases in the laws and customs of the land and the story of their
lives thus becomes one of the most beautiful and touching idyls
of love and home, of peace and prosperity. Their experience was
probably only a specimen of many such. The story of the Shu-
nammite women gives another very attractive picture of rural
life, and shows that even in the Northern Kingdom where the laws
were relaxed, and in spite of, rather than because of, the favor
of Elisha, the king acknowledged her rights and restored house
and lands to her. How strong these laws were even in the North-
ern Kingdom is shown in that Ahab an arbitrary king was baffled
and grieved because Naboth refused to sell his inheritance. Jezebel,
the unscrupulous Queen, has Naboth killed and seizes the coveted
land. Then Elijah denounces them both. "Hast thou killed and
taken possession, here dogs lick thy blood where Naboth was
killed, and dogs shall eat Jezebel by the rampart of Jezreel."

That many of the well-to-do left their homes inherited from
their fathers and from the worthiest motives, is plain from the
story of the division of the kingdom. When Jeroboam formed
the Northern Kingdom, and as a piece of wise state policy to keep
the people from worshiping at Jerusalem, set up a corrupted wor-
ship of Jehovah in the calves at the northern and southern borders
of his kingdom he lost many of the very best of his people who
in order to worship Jehovah purely, left their homesteads in all the
northern tribes and emigrated to the Southern Kingdom.

As the land became prosperous under the thorough cultivation
promoted by many small estates the tendency to form large estates
present there as in all lands and among all peoples, became stronger
and restive under the restraint, and in many cases cast off
restraint. So the rich purchased where they could and held as
long as they could, and waxing in power they forced the poor to
sell without redemption, and there arose a landed estate class
which the prophets time and time again denounce as land grab-

LAND LAWS OF THE HEBREWS 211

bers. Such a class could only exist by setting aside the laws fos-
tering small estates, by overthrowing the whole policy estab-
lished by God in the original gift of the promised land. Hosea
in the Northern Kingdom denounced those who removed land
marks and crushed in judgment. Micah in the Southern Kingdom
said of a large class: "They covet fields and seize them, and
houses and take them away, they oppress a man and his house,
even his heritage". Isaiah, the princely orator said "Woe to them
that join house to house and field to field to dwell alone in the
land, till there be no room for others". On the hills west of
Jerusalem and sloping off toward the great sea were many beau-
tiful country seats, splendid palaces and wide parks of the wealthy
nobles, but they were contrary to the policy of the laws of Moses
and their princely owners were denounced by the prophets as
deserving the righteous indignation of God.

The provision that the Levites should not be the holders of
productive lands or of country estates, but should be assigned to
certain cities, some fifty or more scattered over all the land of
Palestine, and should be supported by the whole nation is certainly
an important part of the land laws. The Levites were not only an
important class in the worship of the nation, but equally important
in the government and the education of the people.

The special service of the Levites was in worship ; but the God
the people worshiped was really their King; the Temple was not
so much a church as a palace, the palace of the King. The
people were taught and led to govern themselves, in the tribal
condition and under the judges and in the monarchy, there was to
be a large local self government. In whatever form of govern-
ment, the great God was the supreme source of authority, and
the Levites were to wait upon Him as the Great King. The
Levites lived in the fifty cities scattered throughout the whole land,
many beside Levites lived in these cities, and the cities themselves
were centers of influence in the land. In all stages of the gov-
ment the Levites were a class not supported in laziness or having
only small and rare duties at a central place of worship, but a
busy and influential class to administer justice, to advance learn-

212 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

ing, to promote religion. They were treasurers, they had the
oversight of Israel for all the business of the Lord, and for the
service of the King, for every matter pertaining to God and the
affairs of the King, they were judges in the land, set for the judg-
ment of the Lord and for controversies, were oflficers over the peo-
ple. With this there was connected the provision that they should
never hold real estate. The possibility of this learned and influ-
ential class becoming large land owners, and so entrenching them-
selves in political power in any portion of, or in the whole nation,
was thus effectively checked. That which in the history of man-
kind has crushed the liberties of many nations, the growth of a
landed aristocracy, claiming the right to rule in the nation was
discouraged by this feature of the land laws. The famous law-
givers of antiquity, Lycurgus, Solon and Numa and the more
modern ones Justinian and Napoleon with all their wisdom never
so checked the grasp which learning and property combined might
take of political power.

The Canaanites, the original inhabitants of the land, had neither
crowded it nor exhausted it. From the glimpses we have of them
in the time of Abraham they were an idle, indulgent population.
The land is described when given to the Hebrews as flowing with
milk and honey, an expression denoting an abundant beauty and
fruitfulness, a land of virgin fertility. Under the policy of small
land holdings with thorough cultivation the land could support
a large population, and would be preserved from exhaustion.
That in the time of Solomon when it was one kingdom, and in
the time of the great kings both of Judah and of Israel, and in
the time of Christ it held a vast and prosperous population is
quite evident from the narrative. But our own mode of living is
so superior to that of our fathers of a couple of generations back,
and their mode of living was so superior to that of a dozen gen-
erations ago, that we jump to the conclusion that the mode of
living in that far back age must have been very rude, little above
savages or brutes. Then also we learn that the mode of living
that prevails in eastern lands, even in Palestine today is very low,
and we infer that that which prevailed in those lands centuries

LAND LAWS OF THE HEBREWS 213

ago must have been still worse. To correct this wrong impression
we have only to exercise our historical imagination and to read
between the lines of descriptions of courts and armies, of cities
and country, of manners and customs, and to reconstruct the
background of the great luxurious civilizations of the Euphrates
and the Nile.

Palestine was a land of many cities, the fifty cities of the
Levites, if these were all in the early days, are a great number for
such a small countrjr. Josephus tells us that in his. day, a few
years after the time of Christ, there were two hundred cities in
the single province of Galilee, each having over fifteen thousand
inhabitants. The great capital cities of Jerusalem and Samaria
in the time of the great kings of Judah and Israel were seats
of political power and luxury. The prophets speak of ivory pal-
aces, their oratorical fervor may have led to rather high coloring,
our millionaires at any rate must be content with marble palaces.
Isaiah's description of the dress of the noble women of the capital
city compares favorably with Balzac's description of the dress of
the noble women of Paris, the modern capital of the world of
fashion. Cities were the great centers not only of political power
and social influence, but of supply and distribution of commodi-
ties, of clothing and varied kinds of food. Where cities flourish
the country must support them or they must be supported by
manufacturing and commerce. Manufacturing in those days was
largely an affair of the home the spinning and weaving of wool
and linen and silk, as easily carried on in the country as in the
city. Commerce then was a matter of caravans largely from the
two great valley civilizations, and passed along the land of
Palestine between the mountains and the great sea, and was sup-
plemented by the fleets of their northern neighbors sailing over
seas to many lands. But few cities comparatively were situated
along either of these highways of commerce. It is evident the
cities of Judea were supported by the country itself.

Besides the cities there were a multitude of farming villages.
The farms were small, from twenty to thirty acres, and a group of
farms surrounded the village. In the morning the farmers, men.

214 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

and women as well, quite largely went out to till their farms, to
care for the vineyards and olive groves on the hillsides, to sow the
seed or reap the harvest, to tend the cattle and the sheep, to the
care of the bees and the silk worms. In the evening they came
back to the village; each family had its own house. The policy
of the land laws was to foster the home, and in that day, as now,
and it will probably always be so, the home is composed of two ele-
ments, the house and the family, the house not only for shelter but
for seclusion, and the family, the parents and children developing
their individual lives in the seclusion of the house. But these
houses were in a village, so there was not the isolation of farm life
so familiar to us, the house in the center of a large farm, or along
the road side with no other house in sight or in speaking distance;
but the social life of near neighbors in a village. Of the many
cities Capernaum and Bethsaida are very familiar to us, of the
many villages Bethlehem and Nazareth are sacred places. Of
course in such villages there would be need of and opportunity for
other callings than that of farmer; though closely related to farm-
ing life, the smith and the wheel-wright, the carpenter and the
storekeeper, and in the homes the spinning and weaving of gar-
ments and making of various kinds of food for sale there, or in the
cities. This land policy of small holdings would thus lead to the
thorough cultivation of all the cultivatable land and also develop
the social life of the people. These villages were the homes of the
owners of the small estates, independent land owners with all the
social uplift of that position. Not like the villages of the hired
workers of great estates found sometimes in our own country, nor
like the villages of the renters of small portions of large estates
found in the old world, these villages had the social incentive of
individual ownership.

In the time of Christ it thus became easy for audiences of four
or five thousand men, besides women and children, to gather to
hear and follow Him, sometimes too far distant from any one vil-
lage large enough for them to buy bread for such a multitude.
And that the fertility of the land had been fostered and kept up is
clear since Christ could speak to an audience of farmers, of good

LAND LAWS OF THE HEBREWS 215

land bringing forth a hundred fold, and of the poorest cultivatable
land bringing forth thirty fold. Our own country is still new but
already by our method of farming large farms for present profit,
its productiveness has greatly deteriorated. Of new lands in the
west where once the wheat yield was thirty bushels to the acre,
it is now only from twelve to eighteen. Besides farms are being
abandoned not only by the drift to the city but by being exhausted,
when a farm properly cared for should grow in fertility and value.
The policy of the land laws to keep estates small, and to foster
permanency of holding these small estates fostered productiveness,
the home sentiment and a rich social life, and made Palestine,
though a small land, the prosperous home of a large population
and a great civilization. These two peculiar features of the land
laws of the Hebrews make the study of the particular society of
the Bible very instructive and stimulating to our society today.

The third peculiarity that distinguishes the land laws of Judea
from those of all other countries may be called the management of
the land for the common good of all the people. There are three
distinct elements of this perhaps the greatest peculiarity, each
deserving special attention; the required rest for the land; the
special provision made for the poor with intent to diminish and
eliminate poverty from the people ; and the raising of taxes.

The Bible has been so largely considered as teaching concerning
God, and religion has been so almost exclusively regarded as the
relation of man to God, that the teachings of God concerning man
in the Bible and the relation of man to man in religion have been
somewhat overlooked. The average reader of the Bible has hardly
noticed the laws requiring rest for the land. The average
student of the Bible, if we may judge by the many commentaries,
has given only a glance at these laws and that generally from a
purely religious standpoint, has perhaps concluded they were one
of the heavy requirements of the laws of Moses which the people
were hardly able to bear. When we begin to look at them from a
sociological standpoint and consider their intent with reference to
social development and realize the condition of society under their
operation they assume a new and great interest to us. The laws

2i6 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

given, as we have seen, by God through Moses required that the
land should rest completely every seventh year and that at the end
of each group of seven seventh years the land should rest com-
pletely for two successive years. The people were an agricultural
people, their prosperity depended upon the thorough cultivation of
the land, this was stimulated by small estates held by successive
generations of farmer families, this has been very plain and easy
to understand. But the present provision is certainly peculiar.
The law required that every seventh year should be a year of
solemn rest for the land ; that it should rest and lie fallow, that
they should not sow nor reap nor gather grapes nor prune their
vineyards nor olive trees. Then came the fiftieth year, following
upon a year of the land's rest. It was a joyous year, "Thou shalt
send abroad the loud trumpet proclaiming liberty through all the
land", the return of ever)- man to his possession, of every man to
his family. The trumpet was to sound this glorious, joyous liberty
on the day of the Atonement, a day far along in the year the tenth
day of the seventh month, but the whole year was a year of Jubi-
lee. This whole year was to be a solemn year of rest for the land ;
they were not to sow nor reap the harvest nor gather grapes, the
land was to rest and lie fallow. The narrative of the enactment
of the laws gives some of the purposes of them. The first, the
rest of the land, is involved in the Bible idea of rest, the Sabbath
v/as made for man. "Six years thou shalt sow thy field and six
years thou shalt prune the vineyard and gather in its fruits but the
seventh year shall be a solemn rest for the land, a Sabbath unto
Jehovah, thou shalt neither sow thy seed nor prune thy vineyard.
That which groweth of itself of thy harvest thou shalt not reap,
and the grapes of thy undressed vine thou shalt not gather, it shall
be a year of solemn rest for the land. And the Sabbath of the
land shall be food for you". The land was to rest, that it might
not be exhausted, that its productive powers might be recuperated,
that it might give food to all the people. The land was to be
in the possession of the people, their home for many generations,
one generation was not to exhaust it, not to so continuously get
all they could out of it that coming generations could get nothing

LAND LAWS OF THE HEBREWS 217

out of it. Each family on its small estate was required by this
peculiar law to so treat the land it had received by lot, and which
was to descend through that family to unnumbered generations,
that the land itself should not be worn out. God had a far look
ahead, and he required the people to look ahead with him. God
who made the earth knew best how to treat it and he teaches the
people that it needs a rest, it needs to lie fallow ; and he teaches
the present possessors that they have no right to exhaust the earth
itself, that there are generations coming after them who have as
good a right to it as they have.

The required rest for the land required also a rest for the
people ; and a rest for a purpose. Like all true rest this, rather
than mere idleness, was a change of thought, purpose and occu-
pation. It was a check to the inordinate grasping for oneself and
his immediate descendants, a self restraint and denial of present
profits, for the sake of the coming generations. Farmers, especially
those living in sunny fruitful lands, need a rest as much as any
class of men, that their life does not become a narrow round of
drudgery and toil. There was also the needed opportunity each
seventh year to gather up the odds and ends of the six years
continuous labor and to plan and prepare for the future.

Another purpose of these laws of the rest for the land especially
upon the character of the people is mentioned in one of the enact-
ments. "If ye shall say what shall we eat the seventh j^ear when
we gather no increase. I will command my blessing upon you
in the sixth year, it shall bring forth fruit for three years, until
the fruits of the ninth year come ye shall eat the old store." Here
as always the blessing of God is based upon character and conduct,
upon the obedience rendered to the laws of nature. They were to
be industrious and thorough farmers for the six years, and God's
blessing came through well cultivated land. They were also to
be provident men, and to lay up the surplus, that during the year,
or even during the two years of the land's rest they might eat of
the old store.

A third purpose of these laws requiring the rest for the land
every seventh year is found in another enactment, "Let the land

2i8 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

rest and lie fallow that the poor of the people may eat and what
they leave the beast of the field shall eat". They were to acknowl-
edge that back of the original ownership of the small estates lay
the ownership of all the people; that "the earth was the Lord's
and the fullness thereof", and that He had given certain rights in
it to all the people, what they could not use He gave to the beasts
of the field. The holders of the small estates had no inherent
right to the land, every seventh year it must lie fallow and its
spontaneous product was the common property of the poor and
the stranger, the holders of the estate must not touch it or inter-
fere with the rights of the poor. The poor too were taught indus-
try, they were to labor for all they gathered, and frugality also,
they could store up for the future need. In the line of this pur-
pose was the further provision, ''At the end of every seven years
thou shall make a release, every creditor shall release that which
he hath lent to his neighbor, he shall not exact it of his neighbor
and his brother, for the Lord's release has been proclaimed, "In
order that there shall be no poor with thee if thou dost obey, for
the Lord thy God will surely bless thee in the land He giveth
thee."

This shows clearly the intent of these laws, and it is an intent
which modern civilization may well adopt for itself, and with all
its wisdom try to accomplish, "that there shall be no poor with
thee", for one of its greatest reproaches is the prevalence of pov-
erty in its richest lands. These laws of the land rest are the first
element in this third great peculiarity of the land laws of the
Hebrews, that of the management of the land for the common
good of all the people.

The second element in the management of the land for the
common good of all the people was a provision for the landless
in the ordinary gathering of the harvests. It is in direct line
with the purpose for the poor we have just been considering, and
it is but one of the several enactments to relieve and do away with
the condition of poverty, which subject demands more careful
consideration by itself, and so this element needs only to be men-
tioned now. "When ye reap the harvest of your land thou shalt

LAND LAWS OF THE HEBREWS 219

not wholly reap the corners of thy field neither shalt thou gather
the gleaning of thy harvest or thy vineyard, thou shalt leave them
for the poor and for the stranger". While this is not merely a bit
of kindly counsel, while it is a law, it is quite evident it is one
that can be broadly or narrowly construed by each obedient sub-
ject. There were probably some very small corners in some
fields and very few heads of wheat after the regular gleaning in
the same fields, still the intent of the law is clear, and the pub-
He opinion of each farmer village would be in favor of its liberal
construction. Here also a gift is not given to the poor, a right
is acknowledged. Here also the poor must themselves labor for
what they get, they must reap the corners and glean the fields,
industry, thoroughness and frugality on their part are cultivated
by the law.

The third element in this great peculiarity of the Hebrew land
laws, that of the management of the land for the common good
of all the people, is the raising of taxes. That the government
of any country is for the common good of all the people is a
truism in America, and that its support should be equally dis-
tributed among the people is also admitted by all. The practical
carrying out of both accepted principles is however very difficult.
Some governments In the history of the race seem to have been
administered largely for the benefit of particular classes, rather
than for all the people, and in some ages and lands taxation for
the support of the government has been burdensome if not crush-
ing upon special classes, and light upon others. It is alleged even
in our land of freedom that some classes get far more from the
government than they contribute for its support, and some far
less, and various theories are devised to equalize both benefits and
burdens.

The land laws of the Hebrews aimed at the common good of
all the people and in no respect more so than in the raising of
taxes for the support of the government. Modern means of rais-
ing taxes sometimes disguise themselves, as in the indirect taxa-
tion of consumption, and in the questionable taxation along the
line of Napoleon's saying, "Making the vices of the people pay for

220 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

the government they tend to destroy". The Hebrew laws avoid
all these ways and made the support of the government come from
the production of the land. The government as originally estab-
lished was very simple and inexpensive. It was largely tribal, and
the elected officers of thousands and hundreds and fifties discharged
their duties of government without withdrawing themselves from
the ordinary employments of life and without salaries, the honor
and power being a sufficient compensation for the time and care
given. But there was always a binding together element in the
government, a centralizing force, flexible but powerful. There
was one tribe which we have seen had no lot in the land distribu-
tion, was forbidden to be land holders. Being exempt from the
ordinar>' duties of production they had peculiar duties of their own,
these we have seen were duties of worship, of education and par-
ticularly of government, "they had the oversight of Israel for
every matter pertaining to God and the affairs of the king".
While God was acknowledged as the only King the position of
the Levites was unquestioned. When David was king he ac-
knowledged he was God's viceroy and gave them the same position
in his government. Later kings introduced their own followers
and favorites more extensively into offices of trust and power; but
the Levites always remained prominent in the government.

The support of the government, the raising of the taxes was
by the system of tithes. We are accustomed to think of these
as devoted to religious purposes, of the tithes as a religious offer-
ing; but the whole life of the Hebrew was to be religious, and the
government was a large part of religion then as it is in the Chris-
tian ideal today. A great deal of confusion has existed not only
with reference to the purpose of the tithes but as to the number
of tithes; that which was very familiar to the Hebrews, is strange
to us and hard to understand. There are several enactments about
the tithes, all of them supposing the familiarity of the people with
the whole subject. That there were several tithes — some say
three, some even four is not such a reasonable conclusion as that
there was but one tithe, and the other enactments are simply

LAND LAWS OF THE HEBREWS 221

tithes of the tithe. The following seem to be the main statements
on the subject.

"All the tithes of the land whether of the seed of the land or
of the fruit of the tree is the Lord's, it is holy unto the Lord".
He is the King, He has given the land to the people by lot, this is
His reservation showing the final title is in Him, and that He rules.

"Thou shalt surely tithe all the increase of thy seed, that which
Cometh forth of the field year by year, the tithe of thy corn, of thy
wine, of thy oil, of the firstlings of thy herd and of thy flock".
You shall do this yourselves. It is the annual increase of the
ground you have tilled from which one tenth is to be set apart as
belonging unto the Lord, your great King.

"Unto the Children of Levi have I given all the tithe in Israel
in return for the service which they serve." The service they
render at the Tabernacle and Temple, which is the palace of the
King. The service they render in the cities scattered throughout
Israel, where they dwell and judge and instruct the people.

"And thou shalt say before the Lord thy God I have put away
the hallowed things out of my house, and have given them unto
the Levite according to thy commandment."

This is not a voluntary offering, which I commend but which
may be made or omitted as you choose, it is a command and must
be obeyed. I put it upon your conscience and you are to make
the division of the tenth fairly and to tell me solemnly as the
King who knows the heart, that you have done it. From this
tithe the Levites were to provide a tithe for the priests, a tithe for
the poor, and a tithe for the festivities of the people. That a whole
tithe of the whole land was to be given to the poor would indi-
cate there were a great many poor and would foster poverty, when
the whole policy of the laws was to reduce poverty, and the indi-
cations are there were very few poor in the land even when it
had a large population. That a whole tithe of all the land should
be devoted to the great festivals is absurd. The festival element
in the social life was a large one, but not so enormous.

Four tithes would have made an excessive burden, nearly one-
half of the product of each year's labor, but one-tenth for the sup-

222 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

port of the government, of the worship, for the care of the poor,
for the religious festivals, and for providing the many teachers of
a large educational system, was a light tax upon the resources
of the people.

This provision for the support of the Levites, a most useful
class, was usurped in some cases as the prophet said it would be
by the kings the people demanded to rule over them, and was
made the basis of further and new systems of taxation. The
support of the pomp of kings, and later the tribute paid to vic-
torious nations, and still later when the nation became subject to
other nations the taxation system of those ruling nations, all these
were added burdens the people brought upon themselves by want
of loyalty to God.

The system God gave them for raising taxes for the support
of the government, like the other elements of the peculiar land
laws of the Hebrews, was designed for the common good of all
the people. The Levites were not a privileged class, they existed
for the good of the people, the faithful discharge of their duties
would greatly promote the welfare of the people, and their sup-
port was provided in a way that distributed it equally among all
the people, from the increase from the tilling of the land.

How the land will be distributed among the people of the race
when the whole earth is the Kingdom of God, how this distribu-
tion will be maintained through successive generations while the
Kingdom of God flourishes in the whole earth, and how the gov-
ernment of the glorious time will be supported, we of course
cannot foresee. That the land in the universal and triumphant
Kingdom of God will not be divided altogether according to the
real estate laws of the highest Christian civilization of today, we may
acknowledge without question. While we have inherited our land
laws, while they have been a growth of precedents through long
history, there are certain manifest evil workings and injustices in
them which all readily acknowledge. While we may hold our
present laws the best practical under present conditions, no one
will claim they are absolutely just and ideally perfect. We may
learn much for their improvement from the land laws of the

LAND LAWS OF THE HEBREWS 223

ancient Hebrews given by God through Moses. That the land in
the Kingdom of God will not be divided according to the laws and
practices of semi-christian and heathen lands will be really admit-
ted. Surely not like Russia and Turkey and China. That the
land laws given by God through Moses may not be as well
adapted to the whole earth in this late day as they were to the
land of Judea in that early time is quite possible. Still that was
the Kingdom of God in its beginning with reference to the divi-
sion of the land among the people. It is quite likely that the
Kingdom of God in its culmination will divide the land among
the people according to the general principles of that early divi-
sion, though not according to all its details. The principle
changes not, though the application may vary. We can easily
see the principle, God gives the land to the people equally. He
calls upon them to exercise all their industry and skill in improving
the land, and he provides that a fair chance shall be long continued
to all. That the laws will provide a check to the immoderate
accumulation of great estates for selfish enjoyment of a few, and
that they will foster the use and enjoyment of all the land for the
common good, thus giving proper incentive to individual initiative
and proper reward to individual skill and ability may be easily
seen. In the Kingdom of God, righteousness, peace and joy in
the Holy Ghost, the highest culture and prosperity of mankind
will extend to the physical basis of society, the division of the
earth itself among the people. The principles of the real estate
laws will promote the welfare and culture of all the people.

CHAPTER XV.

The Institution of Industry.

Our modern Institution of Industry is so wide and complex,
and the ancient one of the Hebrews was so narrow and simple
that the two seem at first glance to have little in common. It is a
matter of the application of principles however that makes the
difference, the underlying principles are very much the same.
Today we have great combinations of capital and great combina-
tions of labor negotiating with each other in factory, railroad and
mine. In that day we see the small farmer negotiating with the
single laborer for the work of the farm. What is the need of and
how shall each regard the other is the underlying question, the
combination and the location are incidental matters.

Industry too however wide and complex is largely based upon
farming, is a development from the farm. An early settler on our
western prairies located his quarter section on the bank of a broad
river. The surplus of his farm he took once or twice a year a
hundred miles back to the nearest town and exchanged it for
needed articles. But soon other settlers came and some wished to
cross the river at his farm, he established a ferry, a wayside inn,
a store, a shop, sold some of his land to helpers, became a small
capitalist. The original quarter section is now in the heart of a
large city — many railroads cross the river by a bridge — there is a
large fleet of steamboats on the river, or rather was a few years
ago, and probably will be in a few years again when water ways
will be required to supplement the railroads; there are many fac-
tories using large quantities of wool from the west, of cotton from
the south, even of spices from distant islands of the far off seas,
there are great quantities of coal and iron and copper from far off

INSTITUTION OF INDUSTRY 225

mines, and there are multitudes of busy workers in this hustling
city. We see at a glance the development from farm life, and
the dependence of the varied industry of the bustling city upon
farms and mines widely scattered over the earth.

Industry is the effort of man to supply his needs from the earth
itself, he must live, and he needs bread to support his physical
existence. Soon he goes farther and strives to supply his wants,
he needs more than bread, cannot live by bread alone and where
the line is crossed from needs to wants is hard to tell. Industry
in civilized life is largely expended for wants that cannot be
classed as needs, wants they are and craving wants of some, but
surely not the needs of all, not the needs of humanity to make
the best and most of itself. Moderation of wants is said to be the
true wealth. The gratification of all the wants man can develop
has brought down many strong men and even strong nations
through luxur}^ and vice into degradation and ruin. Before the
particular society of the Bible, the society gathered about the
supernatural revelation of God, was formed man was given the
commission to change his environment, to cultivate the earth, to
labor to supply his needs.

To the particular society of the Bible God gave through Moses y
special laws directing the formation and exercise of the institution
of industry. These laws were adapted to their special conditions
in that early day. They were evidently designed to check certain
evil tendencies in their social nature, tendencies to laziness, to
indifference to the needs of others, to the inordinate cultivation of
wants, tendencies that have not entirely vanished away in our day;
and also to cultivate certain good tendencies in the social nature,
enterprise, consideration for the welfare of others, and self and
general culture, tendencies that happily still exist. The particular
details of these laws may not be adapted to present conditions,
but their principles may be worth our attention, and may also be /
greatly needed to the establishment of righteousness in the insti-
tution of industry today. This is surely a reasonable presumption
from the premise that these laws came in any way from God, that

226 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

this society was gathered around a special revelation He made to
them.

The Bible's statement of man's nature and mission on the earth
is still within the limits of the attainment and achievement of the
race. God commanded him to replenish and subdue the earth
H, and have dominion over it, and this command is written in man's
nature today as well as in the ancient book. Man is the only
being who can till the ground, who can subdue the earth, and all
his wonderful achievements in changing his environment can still
be covered by that simple description.

There are two things embraced in this concise and enduring
commission. Industry and combination. Man is a social being,
as such the race is to subdue the earth and have dominion over it.
Each individual by the constitution of his nature and the condition
of his environment is to enter the system of industry in some de-
partment or other. Still the individual alone cannot accomplish
this mission, his industry must be associated with the industry of
his fellows, there must be a system, an institution of industry. To
fill his commission each man must work and he must work with
his fellow workers for the common good. By this industry and
combination man not only will achieve great things in the earth
itself but he will attain great things in the development of his
own nature. Man cannot make the most either of the earth or
of himself by laboring or enjoying apart from his fellows, but by
combining with them. The development of the social nature and
the fruitfulness of the earth are interwoven in man's peculiar
power to change his environment. While all this is evidently em-
braced in the general commission of mankind the particular enact-
ment of laws and the establishment of customs in the particular
society of the Bible gathered about the supernatural revelation of
God, show how God sought to lead and develop man in the insti-
tution of industry. This particular society came into possession
of its own land after a long and varied experience in other lands,
and bringing with it many of the practices of those lands. The
land of Judea was a small land but it supported a large and flour-
ishing nation during many centuries, through twelve or fifteen

INSTITUTION OF INDUSTRY 227

hundred years. In the time of Christ Palestine was more densely
populated than any modern land. For much the greater part of
its long history, for ten out of its fifteen centuries it contained a
population denser per square mile than that of Belgium today.
A land not quite as large as either Belgium or Holland, its two
kingdoms in the time of Jehoshophat and Jeroboam II probably
contained a population as large as the combined population of
Belgium and Holland. The populations of Belgium and Holland
are largely supported by the products of other lands exchanged
for their manufactured goods and the profits of a large commerce,
while the population of Palestine was supported by its own pro-
ducts. It was not a particularly fertile land, not like the river
valleys of the earliest civilization, it had only that kind of fertility
which required a thorough and varied cultivation to bring it
to great fruitfulness. A tourist asked a farmer along the road-
side in a New England State "What can you raise on these stony
hills?" "We raise men" was the answer. The hills of Judea not
only supported a large population, but raised men who have given
to the race of mankind the highest ideals of righteousness and the
noblest religion they possess.

The first feature of the Hebrew institution of industry arises
from those peculiarities of the institution of the family and of the
land laws we have considered in former chapters. The land of
Judea was divided into many small estates distributed by lot to all
the families of the nation, and preserved in those families for suc-
ceeding generations. Large families and small estates combined V
to foster general industr)'. The owner of a large estate might
become a mere manager or an idler, and a part of his estate
might become idle too, but the head of a large family on a small
estate must be a wide aAvake, practical farmer, a leader of the
workers, and must make his whole estate productive. Small estates
to support large families must be worked intensively, and this
requires incessant care and many hands. Large families are
needed on small estates to make the most of them for the general
good. So many rural scenes on the sacred page show men,
women and children on the fields and in the vineyards. The

228 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

home too was a hive of industrj', the preparing food, the spinning
and weaving of flax and wool and silk, the making of rugs, and
curtains and tapestry as well as garments, required labor and taste
and skill. Some farms gave a surplus of wheat, some of grapes
or olives, and some of milk and cheese. Some home-workers
developed particular taste and skill in embroidered linen, others
in silken tapestries, and frequently these developed gifts were
handed down by heredity to successive generations, and now and
then a genius in such fine arts arose. Some families spun the
linen and silk, others wove and embroidered.
i. The farmer villages provided a social life and also a mart of
exchange. There were many cities scattered throughout the land.
The central city, and the clustered villages gave opportunity for
the exchange of the surplus of the farms and the products of the
homes. Many laborers were also needed to devote their care to
the collecting, transporting, and exchanging or selling products of
farm and home. Many also in village and city were needed and
devoted their labor to construction and repair of houses, and of
such tools as were used. The system of every family having a
small estate did not foster the growth of an idle class, but made
industry- necessary and stimulated it. The Levites were not to
hold land, but they were to be busy about the general welfare in
the important matters of government, worship and education.
All the people were to be industrious, to labor for the good of all.
This policy fostered the dignity of labor for the general wellbeing
of society.

Great changes came from within and from without during the
passage of the centuries, but it was certainly in harmony with the
original policy that the Christ when He came spent much of His
life in a farmer village, and labored there as a carpenter ; and
that when in His ministry He sought to prepare special men to
spread His teachings and carry on His work. He chose them from
such places and employments; and that one of His ablest fol-
lowers though himself of the class of teachers, should labor as a
tent maker to support himself, and should wax so indignant against
idleness that he said "If a man will not work neither let him eat."

INSTITUTION OF INDUSTRY 229

One of the striking characteristics of the Hebrews transmitted
by heredity we saw was the business capacity, based upon the
conviction that material prosperity came from the Lord. Time
and time again the Lord assured the people their land would be
a fruitful one by His blessing, but it was to be through their
obedience to Him. We have grown in the habit of tracing all
the evil that befell the Hebrews in their long history to sin, and
not to trouble ourselves much about analysing the sin. Perhaps
we have carried this habit of thought into our personal affairs.
Sin has become a very indefinite word, it covers a multiude of
sins. We have grown in the habit of thinking that the obedience
to God was mainly, almost only in the matter of worship, to
separate worship of God from living among men, the Temple
service from the land laws, or perhaps to ignore the land laws
altogether. There is of course a grievious error in such thinking.
False worship or no worship or sincere worship can never be
found alone. Prosperity comes not only from true worship but
from earnest industry, both are obedience to God, the prosperity
comes from Him through both. God through these laws developed
the business capacity and blessed it. Still in this society as in the
whole race there is not only the tendency to evolve energetic traits
of character, prudence, enterprise, and perseverance, but the ten-
dency to deterioration as well, to laziness and wastefulness. The
policy of the laws was to provide great prosperity and to dis-
tribute it generally among all the people by encouraging industry
among all the people.

While the land owners were the main class of the people and
generally worked their own small estates there was a class of hired
laborers, also a class of slave laborers which are specially treated
in the laws. Each of these classes was very small and the whole
policy of the social life was to keep them small and to eliminate
them entirely. They were both recruited from the class of the
poor, and we saw the policy of the land laws was as God said:
"that there shall be no poor with thee in your prosperous land,
if you observe all the commandments of the Lord". Poverty
which is fearfully prevalent in Christian lands today comes

230 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

from two sources. Social conditions and individual deficiencies.
The social laws of the Hebrews were to so form social conditions
that no poverty would arise from that source, and to so treat
individual deficiencies that in the coming day no poverty would
come from that source. The land laws with small estates kept
in large families, and the provisions made to stimulate the poor
out of their discouragement, laziness and thriftlessness, were aimed
at both sources of poverty. This general aim of the laws could
only be fully realized by the general social condition attaining
its full development and by the strict obedience to the spirit and
letter of the laws by society in general, and by every individual
in society, especially by every individual in whom the tendency
to degenerate was at all strong. It would be a long process requir-
ing the patience of God; and so he told the people, "The poor
will not cease out of the land", and "If there be with thee a poor
man, one of thy brethren, within any of the gates in thy land".
There may be a few such, the expression evidently contemplates
that there shall only be a very few. "Beware therefore lest there
be a base thought in thy heart, saying let him take care of him-
self, the seventh year will make it all right again," "but you
shall surely open thine hand to thy brother, to thy needy and to
thy poor in the land". So in addition to the requirements of the
law, the love of brotherhood was enlisted, remember he is thy
brother and give him all the help you can.

y- There are three simple things quite evident in the hiring of
V C; labor, in the relation of capital and labor, in the social life of the
Hebrews. The first is the relation of brotherhood. The separa-
tion in condition so far as land and money went, did not break
the relationship they held to each other and to God. The frequent
use of the word brother is marked in all the laws; even the king
when they should want one, must be a brother.

The second is that in the agreement for the amount of wages to
be paid and the amount of labor to be done there should be no
oppression of the weak by the strong.

The third is that the wages must be paid promptly, "in his day
thou shalt give him his hire, let not the sun go down upon it."

INSTITUTION OF INDUSTRY 231

In all these respects the weak and poor must have no occasion to
cry unto God "lest it become a sin to thee". Here as in the gen-
eral subject of industry, the hiring of the laborer is made a mat-'^
ter of religion, a part of worship, ,/

The prophets are righteously indignant against any transgression ^
of this law of the brotherhood of capital and labor. Jeremiah,
when the nation was tottering to its fall says boldly to the
unbrotherly wealthy men of his day, "Do you think you shall
prosper before God, because you dwell in great houses of cedar.
Your fathers did justice, they judged the poor and needy, and it
was this that God approved". "Woe to him that buildeth his
house by unrighteousness, that useth his brother's services without
wages, that giveth him not his hire". Another prophet says that
God gives this message through him, "I will come near in judg- i
ment and be a swift witness against those that oppress the hireling
in his wages." That this law of brotherhood holds over into New
Testament times is seen in that an apostle is no less indignant than
a prophet at its violation, "Behold the hire of the laborers who
mowed your fields which is of you kept back by fraud crieth
out, and the cries of them that reaped have entered into the ears
of the Lord". That the Christian pulpit does not frequently utter
the same indignant rebuke today, is no criticism of the law, nor
can one infer from the silence that there is no longer any oppres-
sion of the laborer by those who hire him either in the amount
of labor demanded, in the scale of wages given, or in the prompt-
ness and fulness of the payments made. The law could be strictly
or literally construed, but the spirit of brotherhood was to care-
fully guard against any oppression of the laborer.

The laws of the Hebrews discouraged slavery and so are in
broad contrast with the laws of other ancient nations which fos-
tered it. Slavery was a very small feature of the social life of
the particular society of the Bible, and grew constantly smaller
until it vanished away. The history of the Bible gives us many
scenes of the life, the manners and customs of the people, now and
then we catch a glimpse of slavery, but it is not a prominent fea-
ture of the background of striking events. What we do see is

232 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

far different from scenes in other ancient lands, there are no slave
markets, slave quarters, families torn asunder, women sold to
' shame, we do not hear the clank of chains, the crack of whips,
the cries of the tortured, the curses of the dying against the blind
cruelty of man. The prophets who do not hesitate to denounce
particular sins, and who frequently denounce the oppression of
the hired laborer, have little to say about the abuses of slavery.
We may infer either that the Hebrews w'cre good masters, or
what is more probable that there was little slavery existing. The
most marked instance of a prophet's speech about slavery is in
the time of the last king of Judah when the prophet denounces
the hypocrisy of the people, who, to secure the favor of God, had
freed their slaves when they feared the capture of the city, and
had enslaved them again when the enemy had departed ; and the
prophet denounced the sin not only, but the enemy returned to
triumph over the sinners, as the prophet said they would speedily
do. The whole incident shows that the slavery itself was known
to be wrong in God's sight.

The Gospels describe Christ in his relations to all classes of the
people, his teachings abound in figures of speech and illustrations,
his parables are vivid descriptions of scenes about him, but slavery
seems almost to have vanished away, it gives hardly a line, hardly
a shade of color to the scene, and what there is comes from Greece
and Rome.

The theory that slavery grew on such a gigantic scale that it
was the main element in the downfall of the great civilizations
of Egypt and Babylon, of Greece and Rome, only makes plain
that in that wide desert of man's inhumanity to man there was
an oasis of human kindness in the land of Judea. The policy of
the social development of the Hebrews as seen in the laws of God
given through Moses was to check and banish slaver}^ from their
land.

The rise and growth of slavery in all lands and ages has two

sources, one the captives taken in war, the other the oppression

of the weak by the strong, of the working classes by the wealthy.

J The oppression of hiring labor grows into enslaving labor. The

INSTITUTION OF INDUSTRY 233

Hebrews were not designed by God to be a warlike people. God
checked David's ambition to be a world conqueror in a most effec-
tive way. The long history of the people extending through many
centuries has the account of but few wars. This feature of their
social life worthy of more careful study in another place, dis-
couraged slavery by shutting off one source of supply of slaves.
The land laws we have seen fostered small estates, discouraged the
formation of large landed estates, the growth of vast wealth in
land in the hands of a few, this feature also discouraged slavery.
What room was there for slaves on a twenty acre farm, owned
by a large family and which must support that family? Slavery
on a large scale cannot exist where large landed estates cannot
exist. The laws of hiring labor we have just considered forbade
the oppression of the laborer, and insisted upon a brotherly treat-
ment of the poor who was dependent upon his daily labor for his
daily bread. This, and all the laws aimed to alleviate and do
away with poverty, discouraged slavery by shutting off the other
source of supply of slaves. Still the Hebrews coming out from an
early condition of slavery themselves, and surrounded by slavery
in other nations through all their history, and having the average
amount of human nature in themselves, a nature we have seen
inclined to start and maintain slavery, would, in spite of the dis-
couraging features of their laws already considered, have slavery
to some extent in their social life.

The laws of God given through Moses further discouraged
slavery in several striking features. Slaves taken in war were
protected from abuse, specified acts of abuse freed them, and all
such abuse as made their life oppressive was forbidden. They
were regarded as members of the family and shared in the Sabbath
rest and the festival occasions. No Hebrew could be made a slave
against his will, stealing and selling a man was a capital crime.
It was allowed to purchase slaves of strangers but they were
protected as v/ere the captives taken in war, they were to enter
the family life, they might be circumcised and share in the Sab-
baths and feasts. If they were abused or become dissatisfied and
ran away no one was allowed to return them, but they must be

234 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

treated kindly. So all these involuntary slaves must be mercifully
treated, and they shared in religious rights and their children w^ere
born free. The Israelite was not divided, as other ancient people
were, into two great classes, the free and the slave. Slavery
existed but in diminished condition compared with surrounding
people, and with ancient Greeec and Rome. There does not exist
the large class of born slaves, as in other nations, the slavery of
succeeding and endless generations. The Israelite was a born
freeman. The Hebrew waxen poor could sell himself as a slave,
but the ownership could not last longer than six years, and during
these six years the bondsman or his near of kin could redeem him.
He could not be sold from one to another. He chose his own
master, virtually hired out for a term of years, though the wage
element is not mentioned it embraced simply his keeping, and at
the close of the term liberal treatment. When freed at the end
of the six years, he might voluntarily remain for life, but if he
left he must be well provided for that he might have a fair start
for himself. That which was the underlying principle in the
hiring of labor, "thou shalt not distress thy brother" is em-
phatically stated in the slavery laws. The brotherhood was not
broken by the fact that one was so poor he offered to become one's
slave. The law of God through Moses provided in its terms the
spirit which should control in the whole relationship to its end.
"If thy brother be sold to thee and serve thee for six years, in
the seventh thou shalt let him go free, thou shalt not let him go
empty, thou shalt provide him liberally." The spirit running
through all these enactments of the Institution of Industry is
that of brotherhood, and this caused slaverj^ that flourished so
rankly in other nationalities to dwindle and vanish away from the
social condition of the particular society of the Bible.

It was the same spirit of brotherhood made more clear and
powerful now by both master and slave being brothers of Christ,
that entered the universally prevailing relation of slavery in
Roman and Grecian civilization in New Testament times, and
undermined its, until that time, unquestioned righteousness and
power. A runaway slave had been converted to Christ under the

INSTITUTION OF INDUSTRY 235

teaching of the Apostle Paul, while he was a prisoner in Rome.
By one of those romances so frequent in life the family owning
this slave had become an eminent and devoted Christian famdy
under the teaching of the Apostle at Colossae, while on one of his
missionary journeys. In harmony with the principle of obedience
to law Paul persuaded the slave to go back to his master, and that
he might be well received sent with him a letter. The spirit of
this letter is destructive of slavery. Paul calls the slave his
beloved child, a brother in Christ, and urges that he be received
back no longer as a slave but more than a slave, a brother beloved
in the Lord. Without directly attacking the institution so fully
and firmly established in society, without endangering society itself
by stirring up a spirit of rebellion, the relationship of brotherhood
of both master and slave and of the Lord Jesus Christ introduced
into the institution, caused it to dwindle and vanish away wherever
Christianity gained the control of society.

That the whole institution of industry should as far as pos- ^.^ ^
sible come to a full rest one day in every seven, was an estab-
lished law of the Hebrews. The whale land was a busy hive of
industry, for six days on farm, in home, in shop. Leisure classes
were not encouraged. "Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy
work". Each one was commanded to have something to do and
to do it. Then came the day of rest, every one was commanded
to rest. The lesson is plain. Man is separate and distinct from
his work, cannot be identified with it, he may lay it aside, may
rest from it. The higher religious meaning belongs to another
place. Here the economic view of the rest must be considered
alone. The rest is in order to work. The man whether the owner
of the farm, the hired laborer or the slave, needs the rest. He
recruits his physical strength, he restores his spirits, is invigorated,
enlivened by rest. An incessant daily grind wears him out. A
weekly recurring rest harbors and renews his strength and spirit.
He can do more and better work by the weekly rest. Students
of this special subject say this is a wise provision of the Hebrew
Law. This view seems confirmed by the fact that Sabbath keep-
ing lands are generally prosperous lands. The reverse side of the

236 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

truth is also valuable. Industry is needed for rest, work six days
that you may have the chance and opportunity to rest. Life is
not all work. Industry is not everything. Rest, opportunity for
something higher and better than material prosperity is itself a
valuable asset. Perhaps Americans as much as any class in the
world need the incentive in the direction of rest, need the insistence
of the law of God given by Moses that rest is a valuable element
in the institution of industry.

All that we cover in modern times with the name of business
belongs to the institution of industry. Many of our business
men are proud of the title Captains of Industry, and they deserve
it, with much of the great quality of leadership and with some of
the spirit of warfare it implies. The raising of the products of
the earth from field and mine is but the beginning, the manufacture
of these products into needed forms and combinations, their trans-
portation to markets of trade, their buying and selling with the
buying and selling of the implements and agencies of making and
distributing them are all important parts of business and industry.

The whole system today is vast and complicated, in the begin-
ning and growth of the Hebrew nation it was in its rudimentary
form. The laws of God given by Moses had much to do with
business in the rudimentary stage, and however much it may have
grown until it is world wide, and however much it may have
evolved from simple to complex forms, it is a fair presumption
that it has not evolved beyond God's thought, or beyond the need
of His laws, beyond the principles of the relationship of man to his
fellow man in God's sight.

There are many enactments concerning the conduct of busi-
ness. Their large number and great variety endeavored to check
the strong tendency to wrong doing in business transactions and
the shrewdness in devising ways to accomplish it. It is said that
in the lower departments of business today in the crowded tene-
ment districts of our great cities, there is large use of short weights
and measures. It is even alleged that it is not confined to such
districts. This is not a modern invention, the laws of the
Hebrews prohibited false weights and measures, and the prophets

INSTITUTION OF INDUSTRY 237

denounced their use as a peculiar abomination to the Lord. Money,
the medium of exchange, was always to be of the right standard.
There was to be no deceit practiced, no advantage taken of the
ignorance or need of a brother. The details are so many that
they cannot well be counted or even classified in our necessarily
brief consideration of the subject. There is however one important
law which covers all the rest, and whose spirit runs through the
minutest details of business.

It is popularly assumed that the summary of the Ten Com-
mandments was made by our Lord Jesus Christ, He rather adopted
it from Moses, and one part of it from the laws of God given
through Moses. The first part of the summary, "Thou shalt love
the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul and
with all thy might", is found in the first oration of Moses to the
people on the plains of Moab, it is an absolutely correct summary,
but it was made by Moses. The second part of that great gen-
eralization is "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself". This sec-
ond part was made by God himself as part of the laws he gave
the people through Moses, it is not found in the speech of Moses,
but in the civil laws of the Hebrews. A still more striking truth
to our modern business spirit is that this law of God given by
Moses, "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself", is given in
connection with and as a part of the laws regulating business.
We sometimes engrave it upon our church walls, and it is surely
appropriate there, in our worship, in our Christian fellowship, in
our domestic and social life we acknowledge, it is good law. If
we followed the example of Moses we would startle the busi-
ness world, with what many would regard an intrusion and some
a desecration, we would engrave this law on the walls of the
Chamber of Commerce, we would illuminate it as the most?
prominent rule of the Stock Exchange. Regarding it as we must
in connection with other laws, as given by God through Moses, it
is evident that He designed that this law should control business,
the rudimentary' business in the time of Moses, and this vast and
complicated business that has evolved from it in our day, but which
has not evolved beyond His design. The statement frequently

238 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

heard "that business is business and religion is religion, they cannot
mingle", finds no sanction in the Bible, is the direct opposite of
its whole teaching and spirit, is opposed to the letter and spirit of
the law of God.

There is a proper love of oneself, each one is made in God's
likeness, is his child, and should value himself aright, but for
that very reason and to that degree, he should love his neighbor
as himself, this extends to all business transactions. Take care
of your own interests, and make that a standard for caring for
the interests of your neighbor, this is God's law of business. We
are forced to acknowledge that even in business the law appeals
to our conscience, it is a good law. This law runs through all
the particular enactments. "Ye shall not steal, nor deal falsely,
nor lie, nor swear falsely by my name, nor oppress, nor rob, nor
curse the deaf, nor trip up the blind, nor take vengeance, nor bear
a grudge, nor be a tale bearer, but in righteousness shalt thou deal
with thy neighbor". All very good for the ancient Hebrews;
but just as good for store and factory, railroad and steamship,
Chamber of Commerce and Stock Exchange today. This law is
the summary of the second table of the Ten Commandments and
it was made by God himself, and the application to business fol-
lows naturally, but "lest we forget" or worse yet, should
evade it, God through Moses makes it apply directly and emphat-
ically to all business matters.

As the centuries passed by there were many breakers of this law
in this prosperous land, the land flowing with milk and honey,
and many accumulated fortunes by breaking the law, but their suc-
cess though often great did not blind the eyes nor silence the
tongues of the prophets. Those bold preachers of righteousness
taught that such apparent prosperity was hollow, that breaking
God's law would eventually bring disaster, and that those who
disobeyed not only but the society which allowed it, and in its
public opinion even applauded it, would together be punished by
the just God. The punishment was not all attributed vaguely
to general sin, but they specified special sins, sins of business.

Amos coming from the southern kingdom had a difficult task to

INSTITUTION OF INDUSTRY 239

win a hearing in proud Samaria, the rival of Jerusalem in luxur-
ious living. The first tw^o chapters of his book are a masterpiece
of oratory, one of the finest introductions, if not the finest, in the
vrhole history of oratory. But having won a hearing his righteous
soul burned within him and he held his audience by the very
strength of his indignation. "Ye lie upon beds of ivory, stretch
yourselves upon couches, ye sing idle songs, ye drink wine in
bowls, ye anoint yourselves with chief ointments. I despise your
feasts, saith the Lord. Take away from me the noise of your
songs. I will not hear the melody of your viols. Ye swallow up
the needy, ye cause the poor of the land to fail, ye trample upon
them, ye take exactions of their wheat, ye make the ephah small
and the shekle great and deal falsely with the balances of deceit,
ye sell the refuse of the wheat, ye afflict the just, ye take a bribe,
ye turn aside the needy. Therefore I will cause you to go into
captivity beyond Damascus".

It was no better in Jerusalem. About the same time Amos was
preaching in Samaria, Micah preached righteousness in Jerusalem.
He had lived west of the City where the hills sloped off to the
Great Sea and his heart had waxed hot within him as he saw the
princes and the rich men grab the small estates to form their
princely domains. When he came to the City, the Holy City, the
great capital with his complaints, he found matters there still worse
than in his country home. "Your rich men are full of violence,
they have spoken lies, their tongue is deceitful in their mouths,
therefore I will make them desolate because of their sins. There
is none upright, they hunt every man his brother with a net. Ye
have the treasures of wickedness, the scant measure which is
abominable, the wicked balances, the deceitful weights. Ye build
up Jerusalem with iniquity. Therefore shall Zion for your sake
be plowed as a field, saith the Lord". There was little possibility
of evading such preaching, it was sharply directed to the conduct
of business, and the greater the success the stronger the denuncia-
tion. And the preachers had the law of God back of them.

Isaiah, one of the princes, the polished orator, the Wendell
Phillips of his day, was a stem preacher of righteousness; though

240 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

we are accustomed to think of him almost entirely as the evangeli-
cal prophet, we will have to go far to find a keener sword driven
more closely to the heart of business wrong doing. "Woe unto
them that decree unrighteous decrees, that turn aside the needy
from judgment, that take away the right of the poor, that make
the fatherless their prey and widows their spoil. The Lord will
enter into judgment with the princes, the spoil of the poor is in
your houses, no man spareth his brother," Crowds assembled to
hear him whenever he spoke in the Temple Courts, his eloquence
stirred the hearts of the guilty as well as pictured in glowing
colors the golden age of the coming Messiah.

V Our Lord Jesus Christ not only gave this summary of the
second table of the Ten Commandments, but he taught the Gold-
en Rule. "All things therefore whatsoever ye would that men
should do unto you even so do ye also unto them, for this is the
law and the prophets". The "therefore" refers to Christ's teach-
ing that God is the great and glorious giver of all good things.
Therefore we are to be like Him and show this in our treatment
of our fellow men. His saying "The law and the prophets" in
the general usage of his day was about the equivalent of "the
Bible" in our usage. So Christ virtually says. The strong faith
in God brings one into likeness to Him and results in the Golden
Rule, which is "the Bible". It is difficult for us to conceive of
any stronger way, in which Christ could have shown his view of
the utmost importance of this rule. The Golden Rule is simply
Christ's practical and strikingly clear direction of the way in
which the law, "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself" is to
crystalize itself into the acts of our daily life. It is His condensa-
tion and way of putting the second table of the Ten Command-
ments, it is obedience to God that discharges duties to man, it ful-
fills the whole law, it is "the Bible". The preaching of the
apostles likewise enforced the law of love. James says: "If ye
fulfill the royal law, thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself, ye do
well". John says: "He that saith he is in the light and hateth
his brother is in darkness even until now". Peter says: "Let none
of you sufFer as a murderer or as a thief or as an evil doer". Paul

INSTITUTION OF INDUSTRY 241

says: "Love worketh no ill to his neighbors, therefore love is the
fulfilling of the law." '"If ye love not your brother whom you
have seen how can ye love God whom ye have not seen" is as true
today as when first written. The man who thinks he loves God
and in his business takes advantage of his fellow man, his brother,
is evidently fooling himself, the love of God is not in him.

I recently asked an association of ministers in New York City
if any of them had ever preached a sermon on the Golden Rule
in its application to the conduct of business. None of them had
ever done so. I have no reason to believe that this was an excep-
tional body of ministers. I have frequently looked over the topics
of sermons for the next Sunday published in the Saturday New
York papers, but I have never seen "The Golden Rule in its appli-
cation to business" in such lists. The novelty of such a title
would awaken much interest. I have asked many intelligent and
regular attendants upon Church services whether they had ever
heard a sermon upon that subject, and much to their surprise as
well as to mine they could only answer that they never had. I
received a further surprise when I looked over my own record of
sermons, of the over three thousand sermons I have preached I
have only three upon the Golden Rule. I have looked up the
sketches of these three sermons and found to my further surprise
that I had applied the Golden Rule mainly to the family, the
social and the church life, and but little, hardly at all, to the
business life. In the further investigation of this question I then
turned to the published sermons of the eminent preachers of the
past centurj^ and of today. Of course I could not examine them
all but I spent a little time in looking over the subjects of perhaps
thirty volumes of the great masters as Robertson, Beecher, Brooks,
McClaren, Parker of the recent past, Edwards, Davies, Emmons,
Hall of the more remote past, and Morgan, Campbell. Parkhurst,
Hillis and Burrell of today. In all these thirty books of great ser-
mons I found only one upon the Golden Rule, and that was not
especially applied to the conduct of business. The conclusion is
certainly fair that the neglect of the Golden Rule has characterized

242 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

the preaching of the last one hundred years, and characterizes it
today.

This neglect is certainly condemned by the practice of Bible
preachers, of prophets and apostles and especially of our Lord
Jesus Christ himself. This neglect can only be justified by such
preaching being no longer needed, by the standard and practice
of modern business being already a fulfillment of the Golden Rule.
On the contrary we often hear that the Golden Rule cannot be
carried out in business, that it is visionary and impractical. That
business is sharp competition, "Do others before they get a chance
to do you", and that it is becoming more fierce as the years go by.
Even those who take the sane view that business to be successful
must be a service of the public, as providing railroad transporta-
tion, steel for the many uses of a high civilization, oil for illumin-
ating the homes of the people, even these men in building up these
great enterprises often apply the Golden Rule to the far off vision-
ary masses and reverse it with ruthless cruelty to their nearby
flesh and blood competitors. The betrayal of even Life Insurance
Trusts, the development of monopolies even in providing food,
the corrupt purchase and use of public utilities, the growth of
immense fortunes by selling watered stock to the deceived public,
corporate morals and practices utterly unchristian though the
board of directors may be wholly Christian in name, these things
together with the prevalence of deep poverty in our rich land, and
the prevalence of strikes and lockouts oftentimes in the spirit of
savage warfare, all these things are known to us all, and show
that on a large scale the conduct of business is the reverse of the
fulfillment of the Golden Rule.

Christian men are not checked by their religion from adopting
unchristian standards in business. Everything seems to be justi-
fied, deceit, cruelty, all selfish grasping, if the success is only large
and showy.

By failing to preach the Golden Rule we are in silence helping
the growth of strife and hatred. That which is ignored by the
preachers is likely to be regarded of little importance by the
people. Our silence allows the world to hold that Christ's religion

INSTITUTION OF INDUSTRY 243

is unable to rule in that large department of life we call business.
The lamentable conditions so prominent in the business world
today may be attributed to some extent at least to the culpable
silence of the Christian pulpit on the Golden Rule. The preacher
of the Gospel is not leaving his high calling, is not intruding where
he has no call, is not going away from his special studies into
regions where he can have no knowledge of any value, is not
showing how little he appreciates the circumstances and how little
force he has, when he preaches righteousness in the marts of com-
merce, the law of love in the stock exchange. There is no great
department of human life where the gospel ought not to go, where
the preacher of righteousness ought to keep silence. If the Golden
Rule is to be preached at all in these modern days when so much
of our life is devoted to business, it must be preached specially in
its application to the conduct of business.

It may be and should be preached in its full demands so clearly,
frequently and forcefully that it will have its three divinely
designed effects.

First, that it will awaken conviction of sin. Many a man relies
today upon his morality for his salvation because the standard of
morality in business is so low. If Christ's standard is faithfully
applied to such a man's conscience he cannot help approving it,
and his candid examination of his life will show him how far
short he falls of it. Such an one will be convinced of his sin of
unbelief in Christ in that he has not adopted and lived up to His
standard. He will be convinced of his sin against God the
unseen, by recognizing his sin against his brother whom he has
seen, by his taking the advantage of him, by his crushing, wrong-
ing, defrauding his brother in his conduct of his business with
him. He will recognize that in wronging man he has wronged
God, the Father and Savior of man. We preachers of the Gos-
pel should no longer fail to use this most effective means of
awakening conviction of sin.

In the second place such preaching upon the Golden Rule will
show what faith in Christ is in the conduct of business. If we
believe in Christ to the salvation of our souls from sin, if we have

244 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

gratitude to Him for His blood bought salvation, we will make
His commandments the rule of our lives. Anything short of this,
however much of knowledge and acceptance of great truths, how-
ever much of observance of religious ceremonies there may be in
it, anything short of this obedience to Him is after all far short
of saving faith in Him. If this is faithfully preached there will
be less opportunity of self deception and of that remarkable blind-
ness and walking in darkness of wide awake Christian business
men which has recently astounded the world.

In the third place, such preaching upon the Golden Rule will
place before the Church of Christ and before the awakening world
the glorious coming of the Kingdom of God. When the Kingdom
of God shall be established in the whole earth not only will the
curses of sin against God give place to the praises of loyalty to
Him, but the wrongs of man against his fellow man will give
place to the loving service of brothers. In the Kingdom of God
business will be conducted according to the Golden Rule.

CHAPTER XVI.

The Accumulation and Distribution of Wealth.

The original commission God gave to the race of man to sub-
due the earth and have dominion over it would secure to them
through their obedience the possession of wealth. Their work
was to be social, no man could subdue the earth alone, it was only
possible by combined effort. The God given power to man dis-
tinguishing him from all other races of life was the ability to
change his environment, this could only be accomplished by com-
bined effort, that is by the social element in the race, and changed
environment is wealth. The principle of evolution, uniting man
with the whole creation, making him no exception but rather the
culmination of the long progression, gave to him that which was
present in small degree in the lower grades of life, but which was
to be his crowning power and to control his life, the principle of
love of his kind. The struggle for existence shot through with
love of kind was to be the struggle of the race for human welfare,
and this would result in wealth, the accumulation of the results
of the struggle made by one generation for all succeeding gen-
erations. When God through a further revelation of Himself
gathered a particular society about Himself, one of the concep-
tions of that society was that large material prosperity would be ^
theirs from their loyalty to God. When that society came into
possession of their God given land their obedience to the laws of
God given to them through Moses, secured to them vast wealth,
great material prosperity. Now for many centuries the Jews have
been scattered through many nations, they have been preserved
in race purity, this is their main characteristic, another is that
though frowned upon by law and public opinion, though often

246 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

persecuted and cast out with cruelty and great hardship, they
have always had wealth, they have been "lenders and not bor-
rowers" as Moses foretold, and though a small race compara-
tively today, they are still a very rich race, the bankers, the money
lenders still in all lands.

The particular society of the Bible gathered around a super-
natural revelation of God has now for nearly twenty centuries
been spreading in all the earth until some nations of the world
can well be called Christian. The remarkable fact in this line is
that these Christian nations are the wealthy nations of the world,
and the more Christian they are, the more wealthy they are.
Gladstone said a few years before he died that more wealth had
been accumulated in the Nineteenth Century, more material
riches that could be handed down from one generation to another,
than in all the centuries that had gone before in the history of the
race. This vast accumulation has been almost entirely made in
Christian lands.

There is of course a great principle running through these
seven or eight statements which accounts for them, makes them
a class of their own kind. Following it out into the future one
does not need to be a prophet, to have any special revelation of
God's will, to predict that when the Kingdom of God is estab-
lished in all the earth there will be an accumulation of wealth in
all lands and climes such as we can hardly dream of today. It is
easy to recognize that this great principle is the social nature of
man, and that the clearest statement of it is in the law of God
given through Moses "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself",
and that the Golden Rule of Christ, which some wise men have
declared impractical in business is to the degree in which it has
been carried out, the source of the wealth of the world, especially
of the wealth of Christian lands, and that when it is fully carried
out it will be the source of the stupendous accumulation of wealth
which will characterize the Kingdom of God. We have just con-
sidered some of the special laws of the Hebrews when they formed
a distinct nation and were in possession of their own land. These
laws had for their policy evidently not only the accumulation of

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 247

wealth but the distribution of it as well. We recognize how the
race working together, and in proportion as they work together
accumulate wealth, that industry, persistent and intelligent, and
co-operation, widespread and hearty, form the power of chang-
ing environment in all lands and climes ; and changed environment
is wealth.

The great problem now is the distribution of this growing ^
wealth. Where the environment is most changed, as in our own
land of farms and mines, of railroads and telegraphs, of manufac-
turing towns and commercial cities, there the accumulation of
wealth is apt to be most unequally distributed among the people.
The natural law, "love of kind", the revealed law, "love thy neigh-
bor as thyself", Christ's Golden Rule, is the principle that works
for the general good ; but man everywhere and in all ages finds
it more difficult to apply this principle to his next door neighbor,
to his nearby fellow worker in farm or shop or store, to the real
individual, than to the visionary mass of men.

The policy of the Hebrew laws was an intelligent effort to "^
secure that the accumulated wealth should be as widely dis-
tributed as possible. There were four particulars of these laws
given by God through Moses applicable to that people and land,
having this evident policy. The first was the policy of small ^
estates, each family was to have a small estate secured to it as
far as possible through out succeeding generations.

The second was the policy of equal taxation, a certain proper- ^(^
tion of the income of the land equal for all, was to support the
government, including the general worship and education of the
people.

The third was the policy of just means of exchange. The >
weights and measures and coins were to be according to the stand-
ard of the sanctuary, right in Grod's sight.

The fourth was the policy of insisting that the law, "love thy j
neighbor as thyself", should control in all hiring of labor, and in
every business transaction.

This social policy evidently was not designed to foster what we
call individualism, or the formation of large private fortunes.

248 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

That the individual aione b}^ himself can accomplish little and
amounts to little is clear, he may raise wheat, but some one must
grind it and bake it for him or he will raise very little. Indi-
viduals are rrequently endowed with qualities of leadership. The
general run of men would accomplish comparatively little without
the initiative of leaders, and the leader would accomplish little
without his followers.

The leader is rewarded and stimulated by achievement, by the
exercise of power, by the pleasure of doing things; he is also re-
warded and stimulated by attainment, by the work done; he is
also rewarded by securing things for himself, his personal posses-
sions; but the real leader, the Heaven born leader is rewarded by
the satisfaction of leading his followers into their ovvn well being.
The only one of these four possible rewards that social policy finds
it at all dangerous to give, is that of securing things for himself,
and this frequently takes the vitality from the leader by dwarfing
the other rewards. As we saw in an earlier chapter the true
aristocracy, that which is a benefit to any society must combine the
highest of each of the three primary classes of society, the high
vitality, the high ability and the high sociality classes ; to leave out
the last is to turn a beneficial aristocracy into an injurious one.
Now the policy of a society which gives large possessions as the
reward of leadership and secures the descent of such rewards to
succeeding generations is apt to foster the spirit of selfishness
against the spirit of sociality, by dwarfing the other rewards. The
leader himself ceases to work for the good of society by working
only or mainly for the reward, the accumulating a private fortune,
and his descendants are apt to degenerate into lazy indulgence and
selfish indifference to the general welfare. Moses, Joshua, Sam-
uel did not acquire wealth, and hand it down to their descendants.

The question is often asked in these days can a single man ever
fairly earn a million of dollars, can he ever give to society the
fair equivalent of a million dollars, can he ever serve his fellow
man a million dollars worth. It is quite evident of these three
men, and it is just as evident of many men in the history of our
own nation, that their services to mankind were worth far more

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 249

than can be estimated in dollars. It is just as evident that all
such men were influenced by their vitality, their i^bility and their
sociality, and if either of these three were in the ascendancy it was
the sociality. It is hence also evident that it would be very bad
policy for society to in any way undermine the power of sociality
in its leaders in any sphere of action, and the attempt to reward
service by personal possessions tends to this undesirable end.
The wisdom of Solomon was not sufficient to keep him from
degeneracy when he allowed his early ambition to serve his people,
to be dwarfed by his growing desire to be rich himself. The high-
est individualism is that which seeks the social welfare. Not great
riches but great service is its reward.

It was possible to secure personal wealth under the Hebrew
laws, but it was against their policy. The laws were clearly de-
signed to promote a vast accumulation of wealth, and also its wide
distribution.

This social policy was also evidently not designed to foster
what we call paternalism. That one should think for and pro-
vide for and so rule for others was a condition possible under the
Hebrew laws, but it was not encouraged, it was against their
policy. We have already seen that large slave holding could not
possibl}'^ exist with a system of small estates. The bond of force
however is not the only kind of slavery, an equally strong bond is
that of starvation. This bond was reduced to the smallest possible
power by the wide distribution of the small estates, by the pro-
visions made for labor, by the acknowledging of the rights of the
poor in the gleanings, by the tithes and the festivals, and by the
general law of love to the neighbor in all business dealings. The
same policy that discouraged the accumulation of vast private for-
tunes, discouraged the growth of a large dependent class.

The social policy of the Hebrews evidently fostered what we
call fraternalism. The intensive culture of the land, the free
interchange of the products of the soil and of the handiwork of all
classes, the general incentive to initiative enterprise and industry
and to righteous dealings fostered the social welfare, and the
resultant wealth was widely distributed. The policy of the insti-

250 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

tution of industry was to check the tendency of individualism to
selfish lawlessness thus leading to the paternalism that enslaves
and degrades the many to lift up the few, and to foster the growth
of fratemalism by making the labor of all for the service of all,
and distributing the rewards of labor as widely as possible. The
competitive motive stirs to leadership and activity selfishly, leads
to large success in business and politics and at the same time to
great defeat, gives immense wealth and great honor to the few suc-
cessful ones and much distress and poverty to the many defeated
ones, is the source of pride and envy and hatred. On the other
hand the social motive stirs to leadership and activity as well, but
for the common good, and awakens feelings that are a credit to
our humanity. Bible sociology favors the social motive and checks
the competitive one.

In reading the history of other ancient civilizations one does not
have to read much between the lines to be forced to live awhile
where there are vast private fortunes and much general poverty,
palaces and broad estates and much slavery and many dependents.
Our pleasure is to live with the princes, statesmen, scholars,
generals and great merchants, and our forced glances at the
masses of the people fill us with compassion. The policy of those
civilizations was towards individualism and paternalism. Such
civilizations were builded upon slavery, the toil of the multitude
for the few, the palaces, the works of art, the refinement and cul-
ture, the literature were of the small leisure classes, whose leisure
was maintained by the toil of the masses. While this seems the
general condition in those civilizations, there were many homes of
comparative comfort and many individuals of such strong virtue
that they lifted themselves above the great mass of the dependents.
No general policy of any society can be entirely bad, nor can it
crush all members of any single class.

In reading the Bible history which runs along through many
centuries we of course pass through many stages of social develop-
ment. In all these stages the evolution is of the masses, the ad-
vance of the common people in general welfare and culture fos-
tered by the policy of their laws. There are princes and rich men

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 251

but they are not so separated, so lifted up from the multitude.
When they tend to separate themselves and to lord it over the rest
they are checked by the policy of the nation's laws, by the public
opinion of the people in harmony with that policy and by the fear-
less preaching of the Prophets of Righteousness. Boaz may have
had rather more land than his share though that is not clear, but
the whole scene of the harvesting is in the spirit of fraternalism.
The family of Jesse, the source of the great line of kings in the
Southern Kingdom was evidently like the other families of Judah,
prosperous but not more than others, and all bound together in the
spirit of brotherhood. David found Jerusalem a town of hovels
and left it a city of palaces, but the palaces were not owned by
masters nor builded by slaves. The splendid Temple of Solomon,
as the Tabernacle before it, was builded from the voluntary con-
tributions of the leaders and of the people.

That there was vast accumulation of wealth and also wide dis-
tribution of it in the days of Solomon and in many periods after
him are by no means the main features of that high civilization,
other things besides wealth were fostered in the spirit of fraternal-
ism.

It cannot be claimed that the Hebrews excelled in art as did
the Greeks, at any rate no remains of their art have been recov-
ered, but they were not deficient in it. Some hold they were
checked by thinking God had prohibited the making of images
in the Ten Commandments, but they were wise enough to know
that the prohibition was not of making, but of worshiping images
as representing God.

At any rate, the Temple, as the Tabernacle before it, was highly
ornamented. Workers in the fine arts were acknowledged as
specially gifted of God, and this palace of their Great King
belonged to the whole nation who frequented it, and must have
been greatly impressed and cultured by its grandeur and beauty.
Some have held that the Hebrews had no dramatic development;
true they have left no ruins of great theatres; but the dramatic
instinct is strong in the race today, some of the finest authors,
actors, singers and managers of operas and theaters are of that

252 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

race; and one of the greatest dramas in all literature, Job, and
two of the finest librettos of all operas, "The Song of Solomon",
and the "Prophecy of Joel", and that oratorio that needs only to
be set to music, the "Rhapsody of Zion Redeemed" by Isaiah, are
in their literature, and show a dramatic development of great
worth. That they excelled in music is unquestioned. Many
psalms are arranged for solos and chorus, and for antiphonal
singing; and tunes are mentioned and many kinds of instruments.
It is doubtful if the world has ever heard such grand music as
ascended in praise to God from the Temple courts when the great
orchestra and the splendid choir led the chorus of all the people,
thousands of voices in the open air. That they excelled in oratory
no one can question who reads Moses' orations on the plains of
Moab, Isaiah's great speeches in the Temple courts, and Paul's
speech in Athens. The book of Ecclesiastes will rank with the
works of the greatest philosophers of the world on the meaning
of life, on the relations of God, man and the universe, the great
problems of thought. That they possesed great practical wisdom
is shown in that the Book of Proverbs is the best manual of bus-
iness directions to be found in any language, setting forth the wis-
dom that holds in her hand both riches and honors.

This high civilization was a high civilization of fraternalism,
not based upon slavery that a leisure class might be civilized ; but
here where wealth was widely distributed a civilization arose of
the masses of the people in appreciating the harmony in the world
we call beauty, in recognizing the order in the world we call
truth, in following the right in the world we call morals, and in
combining beauty, truth and morality into a religion binding man
to God. This high civilization of fraternalism was the civiliza-
tion of righteousness, the right relation of man to his brother
man, to the wide star canopied earth his home, and to God his
Father.

It was not a perfect civilization but the fault was not in the
policy of the laws given by God through Moses, but in their not
fully obeying them. The nation experienced frequently great
prosperity, and it frequently was exposed to great disaster; its

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 253

later history is the checkered scenes of the book of Judges enacted
on a larger scale and depicted in deeper colors. We are prone
to account for the grave colors of great disasters by their disloy-
alty to God, and to think of their disobedience as simply idolatry.
But idolatry, as sin generally, involved a great deal more than
worshiping the gods of the surrounding nations, it involved the
morals and customs, the adoption of the policy of those nations.
Generally the encroachment of the heathen policy toward man
preceded and led to the departure from God. The idolatry that
eventually brought disaster, the disobedience to God that brought
punishment, was a gradually increasing sin against God by break-
ing his laws given through Moses concerning man, until it became
a repudiation of God himself. The account of the long history is
so rapid and concise that we neglect to count the many centuries
of gradual departure from God in sinning against man.

When however we come to the speeches of the prophets in their
effort to secure prosperity and save the nation from disaster, we
recognize at the first careful reading how large attention they
paid to the relation of man to man. They warned the people,
especially the rich, not to be so charmed with prosperity that they
wronged their fellow man; they denounced the practice of self-
ishness, cruelty and lust ; they accounted for the shadows of
coming disaster, for the withdrawing of God's favor and the
threatening of His wrath by the growth of their unrighteousness
toward their fellows, by their sins against the fraternal policy of
His laws. Where a few eloquent sentences are devoted to idol-
atry purely, its folly and sin, a multiude of flashing denouncia-
tions are hurled against the unfraternal spirit and conduct that
led to and was associated with idolatry. Still during all these
checkered scenes, that which has already been noted goes on, there
is much wealth and it is widely distributed, the policy foster-
ing fraternalism has its fine results that distinguished this from
all other histories, from all other civilizations.

When we come to the time of Christ Judea is still a fruitful
and prosperous land. The many tributes it has paid to passing
conquerors, its long experience of captivity, its being for genera-

254 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

tions a province of great empires; the taxes it has paid to Egypt,
Babylon, Greece and Rome have not yet impoverished it. The
scenes in which Christ lives are scenes of general wealth widely
distributed, the scenes he depicts in his parables are those of
plenty, the people that gather about him are not divided into
castes; there is a marked feature of fraternity. This is the gen-
eral scene, brightness and prosperity, the parable of Dives and
Lazarus, the caste of the Pharisee are rare and small shadows upon
it. Christ's disciples were some of them poor men, some rich
men, all were brothers in Him. Christ's friends in Bethany were
rich, but eager to entertain the poor among his disciples. Christ
himself had no worldly possessions as divided from his fellow
man, he was the possessor of the heavens and of the earth, and He
called all men to share His riches with Him.

The teachings of Christ about wealth are well worth a careful
study by themselves, and should have special attention in these
days of great riches. How large a proportion of His teachings
were sociological as distinguished from and still closely related to
theological is seen in many a chapter of his life. Take the tenth
chapter of Mark's Gospel for example. He teaches about mar-
riage, about children, about riches, about His sacrifice upon the
cross, about true greatness being the spirit of serving, and then
He lays all His omnipotence at the feet of a blind beggar. The
connection of the domestic relations and of the economic is not
only in the chapter, but in the nature of the case. Restlessness in
the marriage relation, dislike of children and the wrong view of
wealth are closely related. It is quite evident the rich young man
both in acquiring and in using riches loved them more than he
loved his neighbor, his keeping of the second table of the law
had been in letter more than in spirit. Christ loved him and
pointed out to him his grave defect. He warned his disciples of
this tendency of riche? to lead to selfishness, and so shut out from
the Kingdom of God, from the brotherhood of mankind. He
showed them that love to God and love to one's neighbor would
bring an abundance of riches and of friends. He tried to replace
their self seeking with the spirit of service, the spirit of true great-

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 255

ness. Then he gave them His example both in teaching and in
action.

There are four features of Christ's teaching about wealth, and
his whole attitude toward it which can be easily traced and are in
full harmony with the general teaching of the scriptures.

The first is its source. God is the giver of wealth, material
prosperity comes from Him. God calls to account for the gain-
ing and the using of wealth. God is the owner, man is the stew-
ard. Some of the parables giving pictures of wealth treat among
other things of wealth itself. Man's varied talents are to be used
in God's service. In gaining and using wealth man exercises his
gifts as a servant of God, is acting with God. He as a steward
must be always ready to give an account, must use his powers, and
acquire and use wealth always in a way pleasing to God. The
size of a modern fortune therefore does not count in Christ's
sight, except as it answers the questions, did the millionaire gain
his millions fairly as God's steward, and does he use his millions
wisely in God's service.

The second feature is the law of acquirement. This is the law
"love thy neighbor as thyself"; this is the Golden Rule. It ap-
plies to all hiring of labor, to all business transactions, to all en-
terprises great or small. The principle of love is not to be shut
out of business, but is to control it. The accumulation of wealth
goes hand in hand with the distribution of it. The great modern
corporation is subject to the rule as well as the smallest individual
with which it deals. It strives to secure only those dividends that
are a fair equivalent for service rendered. A railroad corporation
with the labor it hires and the general community it serves, is to
love its employees and patrons as it loves its board of directors
and its stockholders, and is to seek a mutual advantage for all as
nearly equal as possible. This makes all business a matter of co-
operation, a mater of fraternalism, it strives to be just and fair,
to seek the good of others as it seeks its own. Adam Smith's rule
"Let each individual and each nation seek for self, and a pre-
established and divine order will make selfishness bring about the
greatest good of the greatest number", overlooks the element of

256 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

love in the highest stages of evolution. Christ's insight into "the
preestablished and divine order" is finer and deeper. The love of
self is to be kept within bounds for the "greatest good of the great-
est number", by being made the standard of the love for others,
then competition for self grows human by becoming competition
for the service of others, and enthusiasm for self which is animal
becomes enthusiasm for humanity which is social, and accumula-
tion of wealth is secured in highest degree, together with its widest
distribution. The competitive motive of Adam Smith does not
bring about the greatest good of the greatest number — the social
motive of Christ captures it and transforms it for the good of
humanity.

The third feature of Christ's teaching about wealth is the com-
parative value of wealth and manhood. Christ never says any-
thing against wealth itself, much of his teaching is in approval of
the proper accumulation and distribution of wealth, but he never
for an instant loses sight of the fact that a man is worth more than
a sheep. He is never confused as to the relativity of values. A
fortune, however great, the whole world itself, is as nothing when
compared with man. Adam Smith's political economy makes
wealth the center, and man revolves around it. Christ's political
economy makes man the center, and wealth revolves around him.
Like the ptolemaic theory of the solar system Adam Smith is mis-
taken ; he is behind the times ; and is being set aside. Like the
Copemican theory, Christ is correct, and is being more widely
adopted, and holds the future in His grasp. Manhood is the
supreme product of the institution of industry. The policy of
any society should be the production of manhood. The accumula-
tion and distribution of wealth is not the end in view, it is only
a means to the end, the end is manhood. Man is worth more
than a railroad, a coal mine or a bank vault, he is worth more
than a palace or a church, he is worth more than a painting or a
poem. Christ would ask of a modern factory not how much
money does it make but how much manhood, of modern civiliza-
tion not how rich it is, but what kind of men and women does it
have. Christ's teaching will not allow us to consider wealth as

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 257

an aim. Business for profit only is essentially immoral. Wealth
must not be considered by itself but as a part of a great whole, it
must be in harmony, for instance, with psychology, man's mental
powers, and with ethics, man's moral nature, it must be in har-
mony with government and religion. Manhood produces wealth,
but weath does not produce manhood. Honesty, industry, skill,
self-control, obedience to law, willingness and ability to co-operate
are the sources of wealth; these create wealth. Deceit, trickery,
fraud, self-seeking do not create wealth; they rob and destroy.
Christ's teachings of wealth are a part of a complete whole, they
cover the fulness and harmony of man's powers in the Kingdom
of God. It is misleading to enumerate land, labor and capital
as the factors of wealth production, the formula should include
mental and moral character, the fully rounded manhood of
Christ's Kingdom. Let barbarians have all the capital and land,
all the mines and farms, all the factories and railroads of our
civilization, and let them labor with all their might and they
would produce not wealth but ruin. They would seek to enjoy,
not to serve. A wonderful amount of the spirit of service has
sway in Christian civilization, it is only where man has learned to
serve his brother man that it is at all safe for him to hold the great
forces of nature in his grasp.

There may be some civil war in the social science of Christian
lands today, but political economy is the rebel against the rights
of man, not Christ. Government may say. Democracy, the power
is in the people. Political Economy may say Aristocracy, the
power is in the few. Jurisprudence may say, Justice is the equality
of rights, the law of love, the law of service. Political economy
may say, Self interest is the law, the conquest by the few in com-
petition with the many. Christ is evidently on the side of the
Government, and of Jurisprudence. Manhood is the supreme
product of a wise social science, it is the final object of all laws
and policies, including all political and industrial institutions;
and wealth in its accumulation and distribution is of value only
as a means to this end. Christian industrialism produces and dis-
tributes v^ealth without wasting more than it produces or destroy-

258 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

ing values higher than it creates, it makes manhood the ultimate
object of thought and labor. It is far better for the Christian pul-
pit to preach and for the Christian church to live according to the
Golden Rule of Christ, than according to the Political Economy
of Adam Smith.

The fourth feature of Christ's teaching about vi^ealth is found
in his uniform conduct to the wealthy men of His day, and to the
poor. The Pharisees were, as a rule, a wealthy class. Christ
never criticised them for their wealth in itself, though he was
very severe against such as in gaining wealth had devoured widows
houses, or had forgotten judgment mercy and faith in their busi-
ness dealings, or those that made a show of their wealth in build-
ing monuments. He went freely to the homes of the rich, socially
and on missions of love, he feasted with them, taught them and
healed their sick, he comforted them in their sorrow and rejoiced
tvith them in their joys. He selected some of his disciples from the
wealthy class. Capernaum is called his city. He selected it as
the center of His activity when in Galilee, it was a wealthy city
whose marble palaces were reflected in the waters of the beautiful
lake, and whose marts were frequented by the merchants of many
lands; He chose it as His home rather than the wilds of Gadara.
Some of his closest friends were wealthy. He loved Mary and
Martha and Lazarus who were rich, and their home of luxury at
Bethany was always his home when He visited Jerusalem ; in the
seclusion of its richness and love He spent the day of silence in
passion week, and from it he passed with His disciples to the upper
room of some wealthy friend in Jerusalem ; and then on alone to
the cross.

While he had relations of helpfulness and friendship with the
rich he treated the poor with equal kindness. He went to the
houses of the poor as freely as to those of the rich. He gave His
gracious ministeries to the poor as lovingly as to the rich, his
teachings were as full and frank with the poor as to the rich.
It was suffering humanity that appealed to Him, and He cured
the poor as freely as the rich. You cannot tell simply from His
action or from His speech whether He is associating with the rich

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 259

or the poor, with master or laborer, mistress or maid. He made
no distinction between the rich and the poor. He treated all alike.
He attached no moral quality to the condition of either the rich
or the poor. He was always attentive to the needs of manhood.
That His conduct was such a contrast to that of other teachers
may account for His reply to John the Baptist, bewildered and
cast down in prison, but it is more probable that the nature of his
message and the special attention He gave to the more needy are
involved in it. At any rate His answer to John was that one
of the evidences that He was the Messiah was that He preached
the Gospel to the poor, the good tidings of the Kingdom of God
to the poor.

It is quite evident that if the Church is anything like her Lord
there will be little cause of calling her a partisan of either the
rich or the poor. She will seek to minister equally to both, she
will cordially welcome in her membership both, the one as cor-
dially as the other, she will try in both cases, equally, to cultivate
the true manhood in Christ. Still there is something of a kindred
condition existing today as in Christ's time, and if she is chal-
lenged by any of the bewildered and oppressed she aught to be
able to reply as Christ replied, "The Gospel is preached to the
poor", freely, lovingly as Christ preached it. The apostles car-
ried on the teachings of Christ concerning the supreme values
of manhood and the fraternal spirit in business and the accumu-
lating and distribution of wealth. The early disciples in Jerusa-
lem tried the experiment of voluntary holding of wealth as a
common possession in their own little circle. The quickly arising
case of Ananias and Sapphira taught them the supreme value of
truth in individual and social character, the worth of manhood,
and that their holding wealth in common was of secondary im-
portance. On the other hand there arose the spirit of giving
special honor and privilege to the rich In the little circle of the
disciples, and this was sternly rebuked by James to the Jewish
Christians and by Paul to the Corinthians. The spirit of fra-
ternalism found unchecked and wisely directed exercise in the
loving care of the poor in each little circle of disciples, and in the

26o THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

sympathy and help of one section to another though widely sep-
arated in space and in race, so the world was amazed and said,
"How Christians love each other".

When we consider the great accumulation of wealth in modern
time in Christian lands, especially in our own land, we see at a
glance that there is much of the spirit of fraternalism in it. It is
astonishing that so much has been accumulated in a century or
two as to give ground for the opinion that the world is now at
least twice as wealthy as it was two centuries ago, from the re-
sults of man's gaining dominion over the earth in all the former
centuries. This modern wealth as distinguished from the former
wealth of the world arises almost entirely from two things, dis-
covery and invention. The main discoveries have been of coal,
petroleum, the expansive powers of steam and the positive and
negative properties of electricity. The inventions have been of
mechanical contrivances for utilizing these great discoveries in the
service of mankind. It is with discovery as with invention, both
are for the race. He who discovered the expansive power of steam
discovered it not for himself but for the race. He who invented
the steam engine invented it not for himself but for the race.
The laws of society give the discoverer and the inventor some
reward, but at best it can be but a very small share in the results
of a great service of mankind.

So the wealth of today while the greater part is still in land
values, differs in kind also from the wealth of past centuries.
That was largely in houses, in garments, in the precious metals
and in jewels. These have not lost any of their value, through
all the changing centuries jewels are still sought and cherished.
But all these things that may be grasped and used by the few are
but a very small part of the wealth of the world today. Today's
wealth is largely in railroad and steamships, in telegraphs and tele-
phones, in things that are of use to all, and virtually belong to
mankind. While not quite as free as the air, they are about as
common as the air, they may be used by all the people at small
charge, and some of the greatest at no charge at all, they are
virtually owned by all the people. The railroad magnate may

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 261

ride in his private car; but it is generally concluded that the
ordinar}^ cars are more comfortable, and a ride in them is more
entertaining. The palace on the avenue may be ablaze with light
and the robes and jewels vie with oriental splendor, but the lights
on the street are also bright and the crowds there are better
clothed than the wealthy of former centuries, and far out in the
dark country there is a room more cozy and a light better to read
by than the palace can afford. The vast accumulation of wealth
is in its nature far more widely distributed than of yore, and than
is generally recognized.

Still no one can fail to see that there are shadows, and some of
them very black ones, that there is a spirit abroad different from
the spirit of service, that Adam Smith has followers as well as
Jesus Christ. There is great cause for the terms so prevalent to-
day, swollen fortunes, predatory wealth, ostentatious riches,
while there is also abundant cause for the term beneficient for-
tunes, serving wealth and adorning riches. The wealth of the
United States in 1850 was seven billions of dollars, in 1900 it was
ninety-four billions of dollars, an immense accumulation. Nearly
one-half the wealth is in land values, and much of this has made
its great increment by the means of railroads. The ownership of
the farm lands is still widely distributed, though a marked tend-
ency prevails toward large estates.

But concerning the general distribution of the vast accumula-
tion of wealth in our country some startling statements are made
by careful students. It is claimed by these careful students that
one per cent, of the families of the United States own over one-
half of the whole great wealth, one-half the ninety-four billions
of dollars ; and that less than ten per cent, of the families own over
three-quarters of the ninety-four billions of dollars. On the other
hand these students say that ten per cent, of the people of these
Vv^ealthy United States are in poverty. They support themselves
with great difficulty and at the best cannot maintain their lives
in healthy efficiency, they are underfed, underclothed and under-
housed, and are constantly affording many recruits to the ranks
of pauperism, to be supported at the public expense. It is said the

262 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

average income of the average family of five in the United States,
is less than seven hundred dollars a year. That surely is not far
removed from poverty, it is on the verge of it; except of course in
minister's families where high thinking makes them skillful in
plain living. The unskilled laborer earns less than four hundred
and fifty dollars a year in the north, and less than three hundred
dollars in the south; that is the average laborer can support a
family only in poverty, he must be helped by women and young
children. Many wage earners certainly can live only from hand
to mouth; they must necessarily do so, if, as Adam Smith's fol-
lowers say, the price of labor is measured by the lowest cost of
living. To solve the problem of living not only must the income
be considered but the outgo, and bare subsistence is certainly not
the ideal in the Kingdom of God ; even in that stage of it already
reached in a Christian land. Dr. Devine, Secretary of the Charity
Organization of New York City, says that for a family of five
persons the minimum income to maintain "any approach to a
decent standard of living is $600. a year." Prof. Small of the
University of Chicago says " no man can bring up a family and
enjoy ordinary human happiness on a wage of less than $1000. a
year". John Mitchell estimates the minimum wages that will
maintain a working man and his family "in the coal regions ac-
cording to the American standard" at $600. a year. Many promi-
nent social workers in New York and Chicago agree that $900.
was the minimum wages to support a family of five in decency.
The Maryland Bureau of Statistics puts the minimum amount at
$750. a year and places the figures as follows. House rent $i8o.,
Market and groceries $364., Clothing $85., Insurance $18.
Amusements, papers, books and incidentals $10. Doctor and
medicine $20. Coal and light $35., carfare, as only such low
house rent can be obtained in the suburbs of Baltimore, $30. If
the average income of a family of five in the United States is less
than $700. a year, there must be many families below the average,
below the power of decent living. The cost of living is variable in
different sections and in different times. The United States
Bureau of Labor shows the relation of the cost of living to average

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 263

annual incomes in the year 1905 as compared with the ten years
period 1890 and 1900; the cost of living in 1905 was 16 per cent,
higher than the average for the ten year period, while the wage
earnings in 1905 were only 14 per cent, higher than the average
for the ten year period. This shows that Christ's standard of
wages "Love thy neighbor as thyself", that is, what is he worth
to me, has not gained but rather lost a little in the last fifteen
years, if such general statistics have only one cause, which of
course is improbable; but these fifteen years have been years of
great prosperity and the showing ought to have been on the other
side, making due allowance for all conceivable causes.

By the census of 1900 there were more than 18,000,000 wage
earners in the United States, not salaried men nor business men,
nor professional men nor proprietors but those employed and paid
wages; as these of course are mostly adults, and a large majority
men, they form a large proportion of our population which in that
year was 76,000,000. The wage problem is certainly worthy of
thoughtful consideration of all lovers of mankind. The size of
the problem comes largely from the largeness of modern enter-
prises. They cannot be divided up among a great number of small
proprietors each doing largely for himself and family, and having
few employees, they must be carried on by a few directors with a
vast number of wage earners.

The sources of modern wealth we saw were mainly discovery
and invention. Tools in ancient times were simple and largely
worked by man's muscles. The policy of laws generally protected
the owners of tools in their possession as the only means they had
of gaining a livelihood. The creditor could not take from the
carpenter his tools in payment of the debt, he would be taking
away from him the power of earning his livelihood, and of paying
this, and all other debts. We find the same principles in the laws
given by God through Moses to the Hebrews. "No man shall
take the mill or the upper millstone to pledge; for he taketh a
man's life to pledge". With the discovery of coal and the ex-
pansive power of steam and the inventions based upon them tools
became wonderfully complicated and expensive and are now

264 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

largely worked by steam power and must be combined into great
enterprises. Railroads at first were short one track lines, even
then men had to combine in companies to build and work them,
now they are immense systems of many tracks stretching across
the continent and can only be builded, kept in repair, and worked
by large corporations. Mills at first were small affairs, a few
horse power engine and a few men to control it and use it. Now
a large factory uses an engine of hundreds of horse power and
employs under one roof or series of roofs a thousand or more em-
ployees. 7 he coal to be mined at first was to supply small needs,
a small mine owned by one man and employing a few helpers
could supply a neighborhood ; now the demand for coal is immense
and vast companies are needed to mine and transport coal to sup-
ply the nation. All this has been a rapid development and it has
brought about a condition when one set of men own the tools and
another set of men work them. The tool owner and the tool
worker was up until recently but one man, and the laws of society
protected him in the ownership of the tool. Now suddenly and
on a large scale the whole condition is changed, the tool owner
and the tool worker are two different sets of men, and the change
has been so rapid that the laws of society have not had time to
adapt themselves to protect the interests of both classes. Both
these classes are dependent upon each other. The tool owner,
frequently a corporation, can give the opportunity of earning a
living to a large number of tool workers, can also at will deprive
them of that opportunity, and many a lockout, many a closed fac-
tory has reduced thousands of tool workers to the verge of starva-
tion. On the other hand tool workers can give the opportunity
to a large capital corporation to make profit on its enterprises;
can also at will deprive it of that opportunity, and many a
labor strike has turned a profitable enterprise into a loss of divi-
dends, and sometimes into a loss of capital.

One other thing of immense importance accrues from the great-
ness of modern enterprises. In the old relation of hiring labor
there was a large amount of the personal element, the proprietor
r:-:"t the wage earner face to face, man with man ; the brother ele-

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 265

ment could easily be brought into the transaction, could not be
kept entirely out. In the new relation the corporation hires a
great number of laborers, frequently hires them by agreement
with a great organization and the personal element is pushed al-
most out of sight, the brother element can be brought in only by
an effort of will and imagination, by faith and conscience. Still
it is there and is of the very essence of the relation. The Christian
conscience and imagination of tool owners, tool workers and of
society generally should be constantly instructed and stimulated
by the Christian pulpit to see the value and the rights of manhood
in the modern accumulation and distribution of wealth.

Ancient civilization was based very largely upon slavery, the
slavery of man. Modern civilization is based very largely upon
slavery, but now it is upon the slavery of the forces of nature man
has learned to use. It is estimated that the steam power and the
electric power in use in civilized lands today is equal to the labor
power of a billion men. The policy of enlightened Christian civil-
ization should see to it that mah is never brought into slavery
again. To allow a large portion of the population to be on the
verge of starvation is to allow them to be on the verge of slavery,
and that too when the accumulation of wealth is piling up on the
largest scale.

Society should carefully frame laws and pursue the policy not /
only of protecting tool workers and tool owners in their rights,
but to bring them into loyal obedience to Christ's Golden Rule.
There is a very large element of fraternity both in the combina-
tions of capital called corporations, and in those of wage earners
called labor unions, in fact both are based upon fraternity, they
could not exist in civilizations where fraternity was a small ele-
ment. Both also are of great use to the general society, minister
to the general welfare. Corporations are the creations of state
laws and they have created the vast enterprises that characterize
our civilization, and have been the source of great wealth and of
its wide distribution. The great central part of our country now
immensely wealthy would have lingered long in its development
had not railroads bound it to the coasts, and steamships to the

266 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

world. These have hastened its population not only but have
been the means of exchanging its surplus w^ith the surplus of Europe,
China and Japan, with the products of the whole earth and so
have served mankind generally. Corporations have projected not only
railroads but many great enterprises, and now carry them on to
the benefit of mankind. Capital is said to be sensitive, but capital
cannot be considered separately from capitalists, and capitalists are
of all grades, big and little. A corporation could not be formed or
carried on, capital could not be gathered in any amount without
man s confidence in man, in his ability, his truthfulness, his hon-
esty, his integrity. Neither could capital be gathered in large
amounts without a reasonable prospect of a suitable return and
without the general prospect of being useful to the welfare of man,
which only can insure a suitable return. Then these men who
have confidence in each other act together, co-operate in the spirit
of fraternalism among themselves and of service of man. The
capitalization of our railroads alone is nearly fourteen billions of
our ninety-four billions of wealth, and the railroads give employ-
ment to nearly a million and a half of our eighteen millions of
wage earners. Of course there must be leadership in such large
cooperative organizations, and the mass of incorporators must have
confidence in the leaders, this is an extension simply of the spirit
of fraternalism. It is said that one-tw^elfth the wealth of the
whole United States is represented at a full meeting of the Board
of Directors of the United States Steel Corporation. These
twenty-four men are influential directors in more than two hun-
dred other corporations which operate nearly one-half the rail-
roads of the United States, and many mines, oil w^ells and re-
fineries, telegraph and express companies, banks, trust com-
panies, these twenty-four men control companies whose capital is
over nine billion of dollars. But they do not own, they simply
control this great wealth, they control it largely for the benefit
of the stockholders, the owners, and these are numbered by the
thousands, big and little among all the people, and the various
enterprises so controlled and owned to be successful must serve
in many ways the general interests of society.

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 267

There is great danger of course in these vast combinations, dan-
ger that these men of great leadership will develop an arrogancy ot
power and a cruel proud selfishness which shall lose sight of the
interests of stockholders, employees and the general public in their
own aggrandizement. There are four checks to this evil develop-
ment. First. If allowed it will undermine the confidence in
mankind upon which the whole system is based, and so topple itself
over into destruction, a desperate cure dangerously verging on
anarchy. Second. The evil can be held in due bounds by a wise
policy in the state, in limiting and controlling the corporations it
creates. It can in the third place be checked by the faithfulness
of the Christian pulpit in applying Christ's law to the conduct of
business. This will lead to the growth of the reverse spirit, the
spirit of service. These leaders can grasp and culture themselves
in their great opportunity of wide service. The public opinion
may become in harmony with the spirit of service, and hold corpor-
ations to the service of mankind. Both leaders and public opinion
may come to recognize that the rewards of service are nobler than
the grasping of riches, that enthusiasm for humanity is nobler than
ambition' to be rich. The Christian pulpit may incite in men of
leadership the direction to start and carry on great enterprises, not
so much for the money they can get as for the good they can do,
the ambition to be Christlike. It can lastly be restrained to some
extent by the combination of wage earners upon whose co-operation
great corporations of railroads, mines, factories and all industrial
enterprises depend.

The combination of wage earners into labor unions is also v
based upon the spirit of fraternity, and these Unions also are of
great use to society and minister to the general welfare. They,
like corporations, have arisen from modern conditions. They are
composed as far as possible of all the wage earners in a particular
line and the union negotiates with the employers of labor in that
line for the wages to be paid, and the time and other conditions
of labor. They have other features of brotherhood and helpful-
ness but their main object is to have the union negotiate, to take
the place of individuals competing with one another for wages.

268 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

The man who has only his labor to sell has the following point of
view, and the Adam Smith capitalist has very much the same view
from the opposite side. Workers dependent upon their work from
day to day bid for work against each other. If there is a great
supply no one can get more than the nearest starved consents to
work for, thus the lowest grade of living becomes the standard of
wages. This is bad enough when the personal element in the
negotiation is large, when the employer meets his employee face to
face, as man with man ; but it becomes intolerable, when, as in
modern conditions, an impersonal corporation is the employer,
made worse still by its paid agent to employ, finding his success
as a money maker for the corporation consists largely in employing
labor at the lowest possible wages.

While there has been much tumult and strife in the growth of
labor unions, there are certain general principles now established
and acknowledged in the laws and policy of society. They may be
concisely stated as the right of labor in any line to combine and
negotiate, that is the right of fraternity, the right to negotiate with
all wage earners to get them to enter the union, and the right to
negotiate with employers as to wages, hours and conditions. The
line between negotiation and coercion is often difficult to discern
and define, and the tendency to cross the clearly defined line into
unquestioned coercion has been and still is great. But the right of
negotiation alone is claimed by labor and acknowledged by society,
and a faithful effort is being made by all to bring practice within
the bounds of theory. At the first employers generally resented
the attempt of a union to negotiate for wages as an interference
with what was solely their own business, they would set their own
prices according to the supply in the market. It is said there is not
a single case on record where the adoption of the negotiation has
not been forced on the employer by a strike, or the general experi-
ence of strikes; but this of course cannot be determined, the gen-
eral influence of strikes being a vague quantity. In this day how-
ever of social enlightenment and brotherhood employers are rare
who claim that anyone may conduct his business exactly as he
pleases, he is responsible to the public, there must be fraternalism

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 269

in some degree, and the larger the business as the mining of coal
or the running of a railroad the greater the responsibility. The
employer may adopt negotiation with the union at first as a
choice of evils as preferable to a strike, but he soon learns there are
many advantages in it, and he may be intelligent enough and fra-
ternal enough to see these, and to adopt it without the fear of a
strike. It is recognized now that strikes grow out of intelligence
and fraternity. Fools do not strike, only those who have intelli-
gence to recognize their conditions and tendencies, and what may
be justly claimed and reasonably aspired for, enter upon a strike.
So avoidance and adjustment of strikes must come from increased
intelligence and fraternity, to recognize the view of the intelligent
wage earner, and respond to it ; and to see that manhood is needed
to carry on successfully any worthy work, and it should be fostered
by that work. When negotiations are heartily and harmoniously
made mutual good comes to employer and employee, to the em-
ployer in the stability of his business and the quality of the labor
secured, and to the employee in a higher standard of living and of
working.

A glance at the historj' of strikes and their results gives ground
for this view, and shows the growth of the spirit of fraternity not
only in the combinations of capitalists and of wage earners them-
selves but in their relations with each other. Dr. Carroll D.
Wright, United States Commissioner of Labor estimates that dur-
ing what may be called the era of strikes in the United States, the
twenty years of strikes from 1880 to 1900, there were in our
country 23,000 of these industrial wars, over one thousand a year.
Of these 51 per cent, were entirely successful, both in the claim
of wages and the hours of work; 13^^ per cent, were partially
successful, and the remaining 36 per cent, failed completely. The
strikes lasted on an average about twenty-four days and more than
six million of wage earners were out of employment. The wage
loss was over $250,000,000. and the employers loss was over
$120,000,000. The strike period was one of development not only
in the general large increase of wealth and the raising of wages
and standard of living of wage earners, but in the growth of the

270 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

fraternal spirit and plans of negotiation. In England earlier than
with us the organization of boards of negotiation had resulted
from strikes. In i860 and following years after a long era of
strikes a board of an equal number of operatives and of manufac-
turers was created in the hosiery trade, in the building trade, in
iron ship building, in coal mining, and other trades, and since the
formation of such boards disturbances have been rare. In 1885
this kind of negotiation boards was introduced in the United
States in the iron and steel industry, and there have been few in-
terruptions in that industry since, and it has followed in many
other lines of industry. It is said that the most magnificent speci-
men of this kind of fraternalism in the world is found in the great
bituminous coal industry of the four States, Illinois, Indiana,
Ohio and Pennsylvania, and extended in some features to the an-
thracite coal mining since the great strike of 1900, where annual
conferences of delegates from miners unions and mine owners fix
the scale of wages for the year. Whenever it is found by the war-
fare that the labor union is too strong to crush, wise employers
learn to deal with it on a frank business basis of brother consulting
with brother. The warfare is the reverse of brotherhood, but in
it both parties frequently learn not only to respect each other but
that each needs the other. The conflict arises from the political
economy of Adam Smith; the resulting fraternity is the reason-
ableness of the political economy of Jesus Christ.

There are various means society is devising to diminish and do
away with the warfare. Compulsory arbitration has proved of
value during live years of trial in New Zealand. No man
can be compelled to work, no business can be compelled to go
on, the compulsion is not in that line, but the compulsion Is
that if the work and the business go on they must go on accord-
ing to the decision of the court; and all disputes must be refer-
red to the court. In the United States the National Civic Fed-
eration in 1 90 1 appointed a committee to promote the peaceful
settlement of disputes between labor and capital. The character
of the members of this committee or court was calculated to
win the confidences of the disputing parties and to voice the

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 271

opinion of society demanding arbitration rather than warfare. It
consisted of twelve great emploj^ers of labor, twelve great labor
leaders, and twelve neutrals from the general public; among
these latter were such men of eminence as Ex-President Cleve-
land, Arch Bishop Ireland, Bishop Potter and President Elliott
of Harvard. Beyond these devices of society the main reliance
must still be on the growth of a spirit of fraternalism as taught
by Jesus Christ. The Hon. Carroll Wright, U. S. Commissioner
of Labor said in a speech recently, "Religion is the only solution
of the conflict between labor and capital. The Decalogue is a
good platform. A new law of wages must grow out of religious
thought. The old struggle was for existence, the new struggle
is for a wider spiritual manhood. Out of this struggle is grow-
ing a new political economy looking to the care, comfort and
culture of man. Religious education must bring about an alli-
ance of ethics and economics in the welfare of mankind."

The growing intelligence and fraternal spirit forming labor
unions and fostered by them, and the higher standards of living
resulting from them are being recognized by society in general,
not only but by the combinations of the employers of labor as
well. Mr. J. Schonfarher, the leader in the investigation by the
Maryland Labor Bureau, says: "It is easily seen that where
there has been an increase of wages approximating anything like
the increase in the cost of living, it has been mainly in those
trades which were thoroughly organized and could by universal
force and combination enforce their demands. The increase has
been mainly in the organized railroad employees, textile workers
and building trade mechanics." The general rise in wages while
not so marked has been largely brought about by these organized
trades. Not only the rise in wages is to be credited largely to
the organizations of labor, but these also by influencing public
opinion and legislation have largely brought about laws regulat-
ing the hours of labor, and laws requiring sanitary conditions and
reasonable conditions of safety, and especially laws regulating the
employment of children in mines and factories.

The greed of capital in individual hands to some extent, but

272 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

especially in corporate hands, tends not only to starvation wages
but to long hours of labor and to carelessness with regard to
health and life, and together with the need of parents, to force
children into labor that stunts their physical, mental and moral
growth. This greed is frequently checked by a growing of the
fraternal spirit in the individual and company employing labor,
and more frequently by the growing fraternal spirit in society
itself; and generally in both cases the fraternal spirit in labor
organizations has directed attention to the abuses of greed and
aroused opposition to it. Still ceaseless vigilance is needed to
guard life against greed. Elbert Hubbard says that in 1906 there
were twenty thousand little children working in the cotton mills
of the southern states, mills largely controlled by northern cap-
ital, working twelve hours a day for ten cents a day wages. He
describes them as having dull, heavy eyes, great pallor, aged
looks, as knowing nothing of play and dying off rapidly. The
Child Labor Commission of the State of New York reported in
1904 to the Governor that in a single city in the center of that
State there were three hundred children under six years of age
working ten hours a day in factories. Greed for money will
dwarf childhood, degrade womanhood and crush manhood, if left
to itself it is as cruel as the deep mines it works, as the heavy
machinery it runs, but there is the growing spirit of fraternalism
that values childhood, womanhood and manhood above gold to
meet and check the grasp of greed.

The growing spirit of fraternalism that we have traced in the
formation of great combinations of both capital and labor, and
though through their frequent conflicts still in the spirit of nego-
tiation between the two, and in many advances through public
opinion of the condition and rewards of labor, may be further dis-
cerned also in the schemes being devised nowadays in both profit
sharing and in co-operation.

One of the greatest combinations of capital existing in our
country, the United States Steel Corporation offers its employees
a share of its profits. The man earning two dollars a day and buy-
ing a share of the preferred stock at the market price from the
corporation has a bonus of five dollars added. This is but a small

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 273

sharing of profits, on a yearly wage of six hundred dollars of
less than one per cent, but it recognizes by a large corporation that
wage earners may have further interests in their work than their
wages. The largest share in profits I believe is given by the
Baker Windmill and Pump Company. The plan was devised by
a Mr. Baker, a student in Sociology in Wisconsin University
when he came into full control of the Company. Rule II of the
bylaws provides: "The net profits shall be divided between the
preferred stock and labor in proportion to the earning capacity
of each". The money paid to the preferred stock and to labor
as wages is in each case treated as earnings on capital. The cap-
ital of the stockholder is the total of money invested. The capital
of the laborer is the total of his strength, character and skill put
in the work. The money capital is paid the yearly dividend of
five per cent. The man capital is paid the current wages. The
current wages at two dollars a day is six hundred dollars a year
and that is five per cent on twelve thousand dollars. So in further
dividing the profits the one who owns twelve thousand dollars
of preferred stock, and the two dollars a day laborer have equal
shares. There is provision made for enlarging the plant by the
creation of common shares divided among preferred stock holders
and laborers on the same principle. This plan lifts up the laborer
from a mere seller of muscle to the position of a capitalist, and it
is claimed intensifies and develops his manhood. The company
has been very successful. As I am able to calculate had the
United States Steel corporation divided its profits in 1906 on
the same plan with the Baker Company each two dollar a day
laborer would have received over four hundred dollars in addi-
tion to his wages instead of five dollars. How the profit sharing
shall be conducted is difficult to decide but that there should be
some profit sharing is certainly demanded by a growth of the spirit
of fraternalism in business.

The co-operative movement has made greater progress in the
old world than in the new. Demarest Lloyd says that more than
one-sixth the population of England are enrolled in the co-oper-
ative movement. There are many towns where the principal fac-

274 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

tories, stores and banks are co-operative and where the majority
of the citizens are in co-operative employments. There are over
twenty thousand working men and women in England who act
as directors and managers of successful co-operative enterprises.
The co-operative movement has increased rapidly also in Ger-
many, and is also growing in Belgium, France and Italy. The
rise of wage earners into the position of capital owners is the pro-
cess of evolution going on in those lands, where the workman is
again becoming the owner of his tools.

Individual enterprise must be protected and fostered but only
so long as it works for the good of society. Stirred by wrong
motives and unrestricted in its action it may work great injury
in any sphere. "We must not restrict individual enterprise" is
the cry of business. Ages ago civilization restricted individual
enterprise to slay and rob. In our Civil War we restricted indi-
vidual enterprise to make fortunes by the labor of slaves. When
individual enterprise clothing itself with corporate privileges
makes gigantic fortunes by the monopoly of natural resources, or
by the corrupt grasping or using of legislative franchises, surely
society may wisely restrict it.

While the wise policy of society must be to devise schemes to
check the grasping of greed the ideal must be the replacing of
greed as a motive by the love of humanit}^; by an enthusiasm
which will arouse the great powers of leaders and masses into the
service of their kind, the enthusiasm of the social spirit. The
covetousness Christ constantly rebukes is the desire for more than
one's due, for more than properly belongs to one in any busi-
ness. In the great enterprises of modern business and the great
combinations carrying them on there are abundant opportunities
for the business management to grasp more than its due. A suc-
cessful captain of industry has wisely said that industrial condi-
tions are like a three legged stool, labor, capital and business
management, all three are needed. But then the stool should have
legs of somewhere nearly equal length, to be of any value as a
stool, while in some cases, his own notably, the business manage-

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 275

ment leg seems at least a foot longer, and the capital leg several
feet longer than the labor one.

Monopoly is not a purely modern growth. Before the time
of Christ, the King of the Chorasmi ruling over a range of moun-
tains discovered that the river that made the plain above a fruitful
kingdom, and the plain below another fruitful kingdom flowed
through his mountain range. He was a sharp business man, he
builded a great dam across the river and defended it in his mountain
fastness. He levied tribute on the upper kingdom by the threat,
tried once and found successful, of turning their fruitful land into
a swamp. He levied tribute on the lower kingdom by the threat,
tried once and found successful, of turning their fruitful land into
a desert. He became immensely rich by simply letting the river
flow in its natural way ; he had a monopoly of the river. Monop-
oly of iron, coal or oil in modern times is a monopoly of natural
resources as much as the ancient monopoly of the river. It is
formed by shrewd business management crushing small competi-
tors, forming great combinations, making money by discounting
the future in watering stock, and when formed it makes its own
prices and the people can buy or not as they choose. Of course
the price is a buying price, since the people must live, but the
main spirit is greed, covetousness, getting more than one's dues.
Men will form these schemes who would not steal a dollar under
any circumstances, they do not seem to see that their successful
scheme is stealing small amounts from great multitudes.

Another successful captain of industry has illustrated the growth
of his great wealth by the growth of the American Beauty Rose.
The great size and beautiful color of the Rose has been developed
by- picking off a multitude of buds and throwing the whole
strength of the bush into a single flower. The illustration is both
cruel and conceited; cruel, as the buds crushed are human com-
petitors, and conceited, that his enormous fortune is anything like
the American Beauty Rose. It is questionable whether the modem
gigantic fortunes could be gathered without society unduly encour-
aging individual enterprise by giving it corporate privileges and
public franchises, without duly considering and carefully guard-

276 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

ing the rights of all the people, without ignoring the equality of
all its citizens before the law.

Still another successful captain of industry has intimated that
the Lord God had selected him and his associates to gain and
control great wealth in natural resources; and he said this not
while he was striving to give labor as much as it earned and the
people coal as cheaply as he could, not while he was acting as
God's steward for the good of others, but while he was accumu-
lating millions for himself and his associates in a great monopoly.
The true ideal of being God's steward is to use the wealth and the
ability He entrusts to one in serving mankind, in giving others
the opportunity ot exercising their talents and using their posses-
sions to secure the common good, it is the reverse of monopoly, it
is fraternal ism, the reverse of greed, it is the enthusiasm for
humanity.

The pleasure of accumulating for one's self is sometimes con-
trasted by a wealthy man in his own experience, with the pleasure
of serving mankind. After accumulating a fortune, and while it
is accumulating itself still more by the impetus he has given it,
he gives much of his thought to the distribution of a large part of
it or of his income, by gifts to the people in promoting educational
and philanthropic enterprises. This of course can never atone for
any wrong done the people in the accumulating the fortune, such
motives of buying an entrance into Heaven belong to medieval
superstition, but can give very little ease to a guilty conscience in
modern enlightenment. In the pleasure such an one finds in ad-
vancing schemes for the betterment of mankind he may find also
how much pleasure he has missed in his struggle to gain wealth,
which he might have had by being just and generous not only in
his dealings, but in having the enthusiasm of serving mankind as
the incentive of all his effort.

It is a difficult if not impossible thing to give away a large
fortune for the welfare of society, since a gift in such conditions
tends to undermine the self-respect and self-reliance of the society
accepting it, such giving will be futile not only in atoning for any
wrong in gaining the fortune, but will not be an unmixed blessing

DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH 277

to society. The service to society is far better rendered by the
conduct of business in the spirit of service rather than of greed.

As we have seen monopoly is not a modern discovery so giving
large gifts is no new device of great fortunes, whatever the motive.
Counting the weight of gold to a dollar as the same then as now
and estimating the purchasing power of a dollar as ten times
greater in ancient days, we have an authentic account of a gift of
Croesus, King of Lydia, to the Temple of Delphi of one hundred
million dollars, and that he gave the same amount at the same
time to the Temple of Branchidae; these were both foreign
divinities to him, in whom he was only remotely interested, but he
gave at this single time not less than two hundred million dollars,
a gift rivaling the combined gifts of all kinds made during many
years up to this time of both Carnegie and Rockefeller. That
Croesus was generous, that he gained pleasure and fame by his
large gifts, leads us to hope that he gained and held his immense
fortune without wronging a single one of his fellow men ; but it
is hardly conceivable.

In the Kingdom of God greed can find no abiding place. The
incentive to the use of individual ability and in the combination
of many individuals in great enterprises must be other than covet-
ousness. In bringing in the Kingdom of God the Christian min-
istry and the Christian church whatever attitude they may assume
toward tainted money can never give the slightest countenance to a
tainted spirit without injuring the cause of Christ, which is the
cause of humanity. The covetousness the Saviour denounced can
never advance His kingdom, nor be a welcome element in it. This
covetousness is mean and small when it looks upon some little
thing belonging to another with lustful eyes. It is just as mean,
and meaner still because much larger, when it stirs a corporation
to look with greedy eyes upon its smaller competitors and to form
a monopoly to levy tribute upon the people ; such a corporation has
no right to the name Christian in any sense. The ministry in the
pulpit should detect covetousness under whatever guise it hides
itself, and should teach the people to detect it even when it is
masked as the only possible spirit in business, and whenever it is

278 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

discovered it should be denounced as Christ denounced it. The
Christian church is far away from the spirit of her Lord when
she welcomes success in accumulating a fortune when she knows
the spirit that accumulated it and continually enlarges it, is the
spirit of greed. The Christian pulpit and the Christian church
should not be afraid of following the teachings of her Lord. We
do not need to apologize for Him as an impractical man. The
enthusiasm for Him and for His brother man, the enthusiasm for
humanity should be steadfastly held up in the pulpit and in the
practice of the Church as the proper incentive for life in all its
directions, and especially in the carrying out of the original mis-
sion of man, in subduing the earth and having dominion over it,
especially in the large department of life called modern business
enterprise. This policy of society, this policy of the Kingdom of
God will secure a great accumulation of wealth, the changed en-
vironment wrought by man in his social action, and it will secure
its wide distribution also. The refinement, the comfort, the cul-
ture will be of the many, including the few, and the uplift will
be not of only a few, or a small portion, but the uplift of society
itself, of the people, of the mass of mankind.

CHAPTER XVII.

The Institution of Culture.

Edmund Burke's saying, "A disposition to preserve and an
ability to improve, taken together, would be my standard of a
statesman", affords a high standard of social culture. President
Butler's description of education, "The adaptation of a person, a
self conscious being, to his environment and the development of a
capacity in a person to modify and control that environment",
affords a fine description of social culture. But disposition and
ability, adaptation and capacity are much more easily recognized
and estimated in a person than in a society. Social culture is a
combination and modification of the ideals and feelings of the
individuals, high and low, wise and unwise, composing the society.

The social culture of any particular time embodies the collec-
tive judgment and taste, intellectual, moral and practical of
many generations preserved and enjoyed by the present genera-
tions, together with the power of conveying this inheritance modi-
fied and improved to the coming generations. The true culture
of any societ}' is the development of all its powers harmoniously
and in due proportion for its complete living. How clearly the
social consciousness sees this ideal, how firmly and wisely the
social will proposes to attain it, are subjects of vast interest in
the study of any particular society. The evolution of society
through adaptation to and modification of its environment ever
tends to such a social consciousness and will, or it ceases its
advance and gives place to stagnation or retrogression.

The institution of culture in any organized society embraces
all those agencies and forces which are in line with the arousing
of the social consciousness and will to the development of all the

28o THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

powers of society to its highest possible well being. The general
tendency of a society in the kind and degree of culture it develops
grows out of heredity of race traits and the influence of its
environment, of the land and neighbors. The world generally
concedes that the tendency of Greek society was the culture of
the sense of the beautiful and a life of sensual enjoyment; that
the tendency of Roman society was the culture of the sense of
power, and a life of dominion. The Greeks had a love of power
but it was subordinate to the enjoyment of the senses. The
Romans had a love of the beautiful but it was subordinate to the
ambition for dominion. The policy of each society arose out of
the growing social consciousness and will in the line of its pecu-
liar tendency and controlled its laws, manners and customs.

So the world generally concedes that the tendency of Hebrew
society was the culture of the sense of righteousness and a life of
self control. This does not conclude that either Greek or Roman
was without the sense of righteousness, but with them it was
subordinate to their special tendencies. This does not conclude
that the Hebrew was without the sense of the beautiful or of
power, but these were subordinate to his special tendency. Back
of these civilizations toward primitive society were the civiliza-
tions of the Euphrates and the Nile. The tendency of the society
of Babylon and of Egypt as we have seen was toward easy and
luxurious living, they were not destitute of the sense of beauty
or power or righteousness, but held these subordinate to their
special tendency of culture, the sense of ease, which their environ-
ment fostered.

We see at a glance that the culture of righteousness is more
fully in line with the ideal culture already described than either
or all of the others, it develops all the powers of society harmon-
iously and in due proportion to its complete being. The policy of
either of the other societies may tend to the culture of a few
of its members to the neglect or injury of the mass of its members,
the culture of the few may be very high, but it is at the
expense of the many. The culture of ease of living may be the
accumulation of wealth for the few alongside the sordidness of

INSTITUTION OF CULTURE 281

poverty of the many, the palace of the noble alongside the hovel
of the slave. The culture of the beautiful may result in artists,
poets, orators and philosophers whose works charm the world, the
few supported in leisure by the daily grind of the multitude.
When Athens was the glittering splendor of the world four men
out of every five were slaves. The culture of the powerful may
result in a triumphal entry into the capital of the world, the
Roman populace welcoming back a great Emperor and his army
from the conquest of a nation, but the slain on the battle fields,
the captives sold as slaves in the market place, the plundered
people in the far off land to be further impoverished by severe
taxation, and the nation losing its independence and being absorbed
into the great empire are the many at whose expense the few have
power. The evolution of such a society resulting in a social con-
sciousness and will neglecting or oppressing the many of its mem-
bers for the sake of the few ceases at length to advance and gives
place to stagnation or retrogression.

It is quite evident the ideal society according to nature and
revelation, the Kingdom of God in the whole earth, cannot find
its loftiest culture in either ease, beauty or power, the evolution
that leads to it must be in the line of righteousness. A marked
feature in the culture of righteousness is that it must be the culture
of the masses, of all the men and women composing the society.
The individual most highly cultured in righteousness is thereby
placed in right relations with all his fellows in that society, and
his influence is to bring them into right relations to himself and to
each other. Such culture is not of the few at the cost of the many,
the more the few are cultured the better it is for the many. The
culture in righteousness will not neglect but will foster in proper
degree the other kinds of culture, they will have their important
though subordinate positions, and the culture in ease, in beauty
and in power will also be for the many. Wealth, art and do-
minion will also prevail in the Kingdom of God beyond the high-
est dreams of the present, all that can possibly be made from the
culture of the earth itself will be attained only by the highest and

282 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

widest culture of the social nature of man, by society cultured in
righteousness.

The science of sociology will do well to make a careful and
special study of the particular society described in the Bible, the
society gathered around a supernatural revelation of God, since it
is generally conceded that the marked feature of this society is its
culture in righteousness.

It is difficult to consider any institution of society by itself alone
since all the institutions of society interblend with each other.
We have already considered the institution of the family, and that
the family and the house in which it lives constitute the home;
now the home is the seat of culture. Dike says "bad homes are the
most potent cause of ignorance and crime". On the other hand
good homes are the most potent cause of light and virtue. De-
grade the home and heroes cannot save the state. Elevate the
home and the state is secure. The laws and customs of the par-
ticular society of the Bible protected the family and were aimed
to secure each family a comfortable house, to that extent to provide
good homes. The spirit of that society valued highly the gift of
children, and in the home fostered obedience, self control and un-
selfish devotion to the common interests. That society was gath-
ered around a supernatural revelation of God. The kind of lan-
guage used in the home, the religious feeling that prevailed, the
manners and customs of the home afforded an atmosphere of cul-
ture in which the child lived while taste and character were form-
ing. The Hebrew home life was pervaded by a sense of God's
presence and reverent speech concerning Him, and the Hebrew
mother thought of the child as God's gift and taught the child at
her knee to pray to God and to obey Him. The policy of that
society fostered the greatest possible number of homes of excellent
character, it was a policy of fine culture.

We have already considered the institution of industry, that
labor w^as regarded as honorable and that the rewards of labor
were widely distributed. The Particular Society of the Bible
gathered around a special revelation of God found in its relation
to Him the spirit in which its members should regard and treat

INSTITUTION OF CULTURE 283

each other. They were to cultivate the earth and have dominion
over it and in the exercise of this God-given commission they
found the dignity of labor, and in working together they were to
be governed by the law, "Love thy neighbor as thyself". The
institution of industry interblended with the institution of culture
in that the quality of righteousness was held uppermost, filling
labor with obedience to God and service of one another.

In addition to the family and industry though working with
and through them, as well as through the institution of control
still to be considered, were two elements of the institution of cul-
ture well worth our careful consideration.

The first is the agency of education, fostered by the particular
society of the Bible. We in America may well be proud of our
system of education. We have adopted the principle that the
money of the people should educate the children of the people,
and the public schools of all grades from the kindergarten to the
city college and state university are open to rich and poor alike.
In all our towns one of the prominent buildings is the school house,
on every country side there is the school house, and the flag of
the nation floating in the breeze indicates that the school of the
nation is in session The report of the Commissioners of Educa-
tion for 1906 shows that about $400,000,000 were expended for
education, over $300,000,000 of which came from the public
funds. More than one-fifth the entire public expenditure of the
nation, more than two-fifths the public expenditure of states,
counties, cities and townships was paid for common schools. The
enrollment In schools of all sorts for the year 1906 was about
18,500,000. One In five of our population Is In a school of some
sort and the average attendance of those enrolled was over one
hundred days. How much this tends to the culture of our society
cannot be over-estimated, the widespread education of the people.
From such a modern standard It would be dangerous to go back
to the ancient history of any society other than the particular
society of the Bible, it would be a contrast rather than a com-
parison.

In the very beginning of this society stands Abraham, and it is

284 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

said of him that God knew he would teach his children after him.
When the society grew into a nation God directed through Moses
that this spirit of the father of the race should be fostered in every
family, "Ye shall lay up my words in your heart and in your soul,
and ye shall teach them your children, talking of them when thou
sittest in thine house and when thou walkest by the way, when
thou liest down and when thou risest up." God further directed
through Moses, that some part of the ornamentation of the dress
of the people, and especially of the houses, and cities in which they
dwelt should be significant of His commandments and His deal-
ings with them. He further provided that books should be writ-
ten and preserved, and that they should be read, telling of His
revelation of Himself to the people. It was also provided that the
land itself which was their home, should be a great and constant
teacher. Monuments of great events were to be erected, signifi-
cant names were given to many places telling the story of many
notable deeds, and in the center of the land visible from almost
all its borders were the mountains of blessings and cursing, their
mountain gloom and grandeur teaching the most valuable lessons.
But not content with the best of all teachers, the parents in the
homes, and with the impressive lessons of a storied land a class of
men were set apart, one of whose most important duties was the
care of the books of laws and history, and these were not only to
be preserved and transcribed but they were to be read and ex-
plained to all the people. The Levites were to live in cities scat-
tered throughout the whole land, and had a wide and strong in-
fluence in the education of the nation. David carried on the work
of Moses in the most complete organization of society. The
Levites were arranged in twelve courses. One course ministered
at Jerusalem, the new capital of the nation for a month, and then
returned to their own cities, while another course came to the capi-
tal. Thus in each year all the Levites came in touch with the
court life for a month, while the rest of the year they ministered
in the whole land. Music has always been regarded as having
great value in the culture of both mind and heart; while music
itself is the language of the heart it is frequently wedded to

INSTITUTION OF CULTURE 285

poetry which conveys thought as well as feeling. Some one has
said, "Let me make the songs of a people and I care not who makes
their laws." A part of the exercises in our common schools today
is that of song. David organized the service of song in the wor-
ship of God in a way that spread the culture of music among all
the people. The great choir of the Temple of four thousand
voices together with an orchestra of three hundred instruments
was assembled only on the great feasts. On such occasions the
choir alone, and also at times leading the chorus of all the people,
must have made the Temple music surpass in thrilling grandeur
anything our modern ears have ever heard. This choir was kept
in fine training and their influence was spread throughout the
nation by being divided into twelve courses, one course served for
a month at the ordinary Temple service and the rest of the year
remained at home, except when all gathered at the great feasts.
Thus each city of the Levites had constantly its share of eleven-
twelfths of the great choir, and became a center of musical cul-
ture ; and the music of the great feasts must have been well worth
a journey from the remotest part of the land to hear, and to jom
in the great chorus of the people.

The Psalms arose largely for use in the Temple service, and
many of them are songs of patriotism as well as of religion. Their
beauty of expression and depth of religious feeling, each song a
word picture charged with the spirit of devotion to God and
native land, make them precious in all ages and in all climes. It
is difficult to over estimate their power of culture in their own
age and clime.

It is unquestioned that this particular society of the Bible
excelled in patriotism. It is not so generally recognized that they
at one time were on the verge of becoming world conquerors.
David was a great king, his organization of the whole nation
into an army secured military training for all and at the same
time did not withdraw the men of the nation from their homes
and the ordinary employments of life. The soldiers were divided
into twenty-four courses and only one course was called into
active service at the capital for a single month at a time. Thus

286 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

the military spirit and training of the whole nation was kept
up and the institutions of industry and the family were not
demoralized. It is doubtful if the German system today has any
advantage over David's organization. The great mystery of
David's census shows two things ; the enormous army he could
call into the field, and that the Kingdom of Righteousness was not
to become a world kingdom by physical force, not by the tramp of
armies. Still in estimating the institution of culture due atten-
tion must be given to the spirit of patriotism and to the training,
discipline and powers of the soldier. We are a peaceful nation,
our culture is not in the old Roman line, but among our educa-
tional agencies we have West Point and Annapolis, we have a
small army and a large voluntary militia.

Oratory cannot be over estimated as an expression and a means
of culture. Philosophy also cultures the mind in trying to solve
the great problems of existence. Long before Plato taught in
the groves of philosophy in Athens, long before Demosthenes
swayed the people from the rostrum, long before Cicero charmed
the Roman Senate, there were schools of the prophets in Judea
and great orators and philosophers arose and influenced the cul-
ture of the nation. The mission of the prophets was to lead the
people to recognize that the God who in earlier days had made
special revelations of Himself had not withdrawn or lost His
interest in them ; that He was present with them at all times, and
that they were living under His watchful and loving gaze. These
prophets were preachers of righteousness and their method of
reaching the people was by public address. Many of them were
brave men and risked their lives in rebuking arbitrary kings.
Many of them were eloquent men assured of the attentive hear-
ing of large crowds whenever it was announced they were to
speak. Many of them were men of wide culture and deep
philosophy and it v/as an education to hear them. Others were
men of little learning and of great earnestness, of natural poetic
and oratorical gifts, and their strong and lofty though rugged
eloquence swayed the multiude. As we catch a glimpse of the
early school of the prophets in the time of Samuel we are reminded

INSTITUTION OF CULTURE 287

of the camp meetings in the west of our own land less than a
century ago, and of the great political gatherings for feasting and
debate; and as we listen to the fervid exhortations of Methodist
and Baptist preachers, and to the virile discussions of great issues
by Douglas and Lincoln and other giants of debate we recognize
a powerful agency in the institution of culture of our own nation.
As we stand with the multitude in the courts of the Temple after
the morning sacrifice and listen to the lofty eloquence of Isaiah,
to his nicely balanced and richly ornamented periods, to his deep
philosophy, strong reasoning, to his beautiful imagery and deep
earnestness we are reminded of Wendell Phillips in Fanuel Hall
and of Henry Ward Beecher in Plymouth Church and recog-
nize what an agency of culture we have in the lecture and
pulpit oratory of our own land. The concise history of the
Hebrew people gives many glimpses of the great Order of the
Prophets, in the early time, in the time of great prosperity, in
the time of gathering adversity, in the time of restoration, all
through the history, the people were under the spell of oratory
on the loftiest themes; the prophets were a large agency in the
institution of culture in rightousness.

The means of communication in any land properly belong to the
institution of industry but not exclusively; they tend to the cul-
ture of the people. Our railroads convey the products of all sec-
tions to the centers of population, manufacture and commerce,
but they also carry the mails, the books and papers, and they
afford means of travel to our people. The boorish person is one
who lives separate from his fellows, the narrow life of his little
glen.

Traveling in other scenes, meeting with other people are means
of culture. There were several features in the Hebrew life which
fostered these agencies of culture. Even in the early days of the
Judges, in the times of Deborah and Barak, one of the elements
of oppression was the closing of the highways, restricting travel to
the byways of the land. The life of Christ discloses his constant
journeying with His disciples and often with large masses of peo-
ple over the highways of the land with utmost ease and freedom.

288 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

The more pious of the people found in their yearly journeys to
the capital city, the culture of travel, and of mingling with people
of other places, and in later times with people of other lands.
When a suitable age was reached the young of these families
joined in the journey from their own small village, passed along
the storied land and the many flourishing cities and for a while
staying at the homes of friends or camping on the surrounding
hills of the city of David they saw the splendid Temple of God
and the magnificent Palace of the King, and all the greatness of
the Capital City, and life was changed for them, enriched and
ennobled by the culture of travel. The feasts at Jerusalem cul-
tured not only devotion to God but the social nature of the peo-
ple, old friends met, new friendships were formed, acquaintances
were made among all classes, famous men from separated portions
of the land were seen, and the feast was with each other as with
God.

It has been held by many that the Hebrews were deficient in
the fine arts. Such have thought that the second commandment
prohibited the making of images. This arises very largely from
our efifort to shorten the already short commandment, to think
of even fewer words as being written on stone than the full com-
mandments. But in modern times we have learned that the
ancient civilizations wrote whole books on stone, and the com-
mandments are no longer at all wonderful as being written on
stone, but their wonder grows as a complete code of laws for
mankind. The second commandment prohibits not architecture,
sculpture or painting, but the worship of any work of art as a
representation of God. It does not prohibit dramatizing the
actions and sayings of men but the bringing of God into the
drama of human life, as represented in an actor. The taste and
refinement of Christian lands, loving art for art's sake, are in
harmony with the commandment. The Hebrew people in our
day and in their whole history since they were expelled from
their own beautiful land, excel in the artistic sense and power.
Many of the finest musicians, sculptors, painters, architects and
dramatists belong to that race. It hardly is conceivable that this

INSTITUTION OF CULTURE 289

excellency has been evolved from a deficiency. When we read
the Bible a little more carefully w^e see that the general impres-
sion of the people was based upon God's saying and directions
that fine artists as well as fine orators were specially inspired of
God. In building the Tabernacle, the Temple and Solomon's
Palace great men are named as being filled with the spirit of God
for various w^ork and ornamentation of these great buildings, and
images and colors are fully described. It is quite evident that
the culture of righteousness was not bare and cold and stiff; that
it loved grace and beauty, that it delighted in the adornment of
life.

A large element in the institution of culture is the impressive-
ness of buildings suited to their purposes. In our large cities we
have the court house, the city hall, maybe the capitol of
the state or nation, we have the library building, the school
house, maybe the college or university, we have the churches,
maybe the cathedral. These are made of the finest material, are
of great size and of proper proportions and in architectural form
express the great ideas of government, of law and justice, of edu-
cation and worship. These great buildings tell their own story of
culture, and impressively train the passing generations by their
unchanging beauty and grandeur. The Temple of Solomon fairly
dominated the thought and feeling of the people as successive
generations came up to the feasts. Even when the religion itself
became corrupted, the great building unchanged in its silent
impressiveness gave its unfailing culture. When it was destroyed
its memory lingered from father to son until an effort was made
to rebuild it. Through successive stages the rebuilded Temple
grew until Herod's Temple, vied with Solomon's in mag-
nificence and grandeur. The culture of the people was further
advanced by the fact that the Temple was their own, they could
frequent its courts, rich and poor alike, the learned and unlearned,
those from remote places in the land as well as the dwellers in
the capital city, all had equal rights in the Temple of God.

It is not known when the synagogue first came into prom-
inence, but it is popularly believed that it was introduced after

290 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

the exile. Certain it is that in the time of Christ every consider-
able village had its synagogue just as today every town in the
land has its church and school house. There are a few hints in
the Old Testament of places of assembly where the prophets were
accustomed to address the people. There certainly was the need
of assembly places in the towns and villages of the land for
services of prayer and praise and religious instruction from the
sacred books, as much need in the time of Solomon as in the time
of Christ. Solomon's Temple, the great central place of worship
no more supplied this need than did Herod's Temple in the time
of Christ. There was no greater need of such places to re-estab-
lish the worship of Jehovah after the exile than there was to
foster this worship in the time of the Judges. That such fre-
quent mention is not made of them in the history of the kings
as is made in the Gospels may arise from the fact that the life
of Christ was so largely one of teaching in the synagogues. The
assemblies of the people in the gates and streets of cities, by the
road side and by the sea side would be frequently and generally
pleasant under the Syrian skies, but in addition to these casual
assemblies to listen to a great prophet or to consider subjects of
exciting importance there would naturally be places of regular
assembly for the speakers, and for the consideration of matters of
ordinary interest. That from earliest times the Levites were
teachers and lived in all portions of the land, and that from
earliest times there were schools of prophets in various parts of the
land, seem to require places in all parts of the land where they
could regularly meet the people. Recent investigations along the
Nile and the Euphrates and in Palestine have discovered many
evidences that books were not so rare in ancient times as was
once supposed and that the ability to read flourished as books
flourished. The worship by sacrifice must necessarily ha\T been
infrequent, even after the central worship of the temple was fully
established, people could assemble there only rarely. That in
times of depression when the Temple itself was neglected,
the sacred books would be also neglected is not to be wondered
at; the picture of such times might indicate that such books were

INSTITUTION OF CULTURE 291

very rare, almost unknown. But such times of great depression
were themselves rare. In ordinary times the assembly of the peo-
ple in the many towns of the land for instruction, prayer and
praise would be the ordinary custom, not strange or unusual
enough to receive any mention in the concise history of national
affairs.

It certainly cannot be very wide of the mark to consider the
synagogue as described in the time of Christ as a culmination of
a long history, a history extending far back of the exile to the
early times of the Judges.

The assembly of the people of a town or village or section of
a city regularly once a week on the sacred day and frequently on
other days in an appropriate place or building for the purpose of
considering important matters in their relation to God and to
each other, is seen at once to be an agency of vast influence in
the culture of a society. No more democratic institution could
be devised than the synagogue. It belonged to all the people, their
place of regular assembly. While there were leaders, the Levites,
or prophets, in Christ's time the Scribes and Pharisees, while these
were to be listened to as Christ directs in his saying, "the Scribes
and Pharisees sit on Moses seat; all things therefore whatsoever
they bid you, do and observe" — the people were to think and to
discuss matters for themselves as Christ further says, "but do
not ye after their works, for they say and do not". They love to
be called Teacher and to have the highest seats in the synagogues,
so honor them, but judge for yourselves. Questions, the discus-
sion by others than the leaders of the subject in hand, the appli-
cation of the law to the regulation of the daily life in the home,
in society and in business, in village affairs and in the affairs of
the nation, this discussion every week in every village of the land
was an education and culture constant and powerful and in the
direction of righteousness.

The literature of the nation was a growth, and of various kinds.
Much of it was history of the early times, of the beginning of
national life, and of the later times, of its unfolding and advancing
national life. In this history were recorded the laws God gave

292 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

them through their great law givers; and the manners and cus-
toms of the passing periods, and the explanation of God's dealing
with them and with the surrounding nations. Then there was a
large element of poetry, much of it was lyric, but there was some
epic and not a little dramatic, and considerable didactic poetry,
and all of it earnest and lofty with the religious spirit. In the
later stages of the nations' life there arose also a large literature
of oratory, probably sketches made by the great orators of their
most effective speeches. This rich and varied literature arose from
the culture of the people in righteousness, it gives us a picture of
the culture of the times, of rich color and varied beauty. It was
this literature that was read and discussed in the assemblies of the
people, so the people of all classes and conditions in the whole
land became familiar with it and were cultured by it. In other
nationalities the literature generally indicated the culture of the
few and ministered to the culture of the few, the epic poetry was
recited in the houses of the nobles, to the nobles and their friends,
the orations were delivered and recounted to the citizens, and
the vast number of slaves had no advantage of it, the great ques-
tions of philosophy were discussed by the philisophers and their
few scholars, while the masses had no part in it. But the litera-
ture of Judea was of the people and for the people, in the assem-
blies of the people it was treated as the common possession of all,
and was read and discussed freely and constantly.

If now w^e try to trace the history of our common school system,
schools for all classes of children, the children of the people, of
the masses of the people, we will find it difficult to find any trace
of such schools in the history of any ancient civilization other than
that of the particular society of the Bible gathered around the
supernatural revelation of God. In the beginning He com-
manded the education of all the children by the parents, but also
as a general society interest, to be fostered by the tribal and na-
tional spirit. He also provided a class of teachers, the Levites
who were to be learned in the law and to teach it to all the people.
In the general policy of the national life which fostered the as-
sembly of the people for consideration of important matters the

INSTITUTION OF CULTURE 293

children were not to be excluded. The early covenant made in
Moab under the spell of the eloquence of Moses was a striking
instance of the presence of children, which would be an inciting
example for all lesser assemblies. In the later times of the regular
weekly and semi-weekly assembly of the people in the synagogues
of villages and towns for worship and consideration of duties to
God and man, the children were welcome members of the gather-
ing. In addition to this general education there are glimpses given
of the leader of the synagogue as also the teacher of a school for
children and youth, and of the synagogue building being used
for the double purpose of the assembly place of the people at cer-
tain stated times on sacred and week days and also as the school
house for the daily use of the children and youth. There were
also men who acquired great reputation for teaching, and who had
schools of their scholars in Jerusalem and other large cities. The
title of teacher was prevalent and greatly honored and coveted in
the time of Christ. Thus the synagogue becomes the forerunner
not only of our church but of our school house, and in both cases
was for all the people, and a wide and strong agency in the general
culture of righteousness.

In considering these many features of the agency of education it
must be noticed that all were open to and adapted to the women
as well as to the men. A marked feature of the culture of right-
eousness is that it must be for all classes not only, but for both
sexes. Other lands may have had a disregard for women. Other
kinds of culture, as of Greece may have neglected women, may
have even dishonored them in the general estimation when they
sought some degree of culture for themselves, but that was the cul-
ture of sensual pleasure, of beauty of form, rather than of char-
acter. Other kinds of culture as of Rome may have disdained
women, may have regarded them as unfit for soldiers, for gaining
dominion, for ruling the world.. But righteousness consists largely
in the right relation between men and women, and any real cul-
ture in righteousness must include women. So the agency of edu-
cation from childhood to old age was adapted to girls as well as
to boys in the family, and in the school, to women as well as to

294 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

men, in the travel through the storied land to the Temple worship,
in the social feasts, in the assemblies of the people and in the regu-
lar synagogue services.

The second special element in the institution of culture in the
particular society of the Bible gathered around the supernatural
revelation of God, was the agency of religion. The influence of
worship in the culture of any society must always be very large.
It is one of the laws of psychology that we imitate the qualities
of character we admire. If the admiration is great, so it may be
called adoration, if it is fostered by special ceremonies and carried
on in the most sensitive moments and experiences of the soul, if it
is incited by association with those of like feelings, if it is charged
with the purpose of honoring the person in whom the admired
character shines, then the culturing power of such adoration be-
comes one of the strongest forces in our lives. The saying, "Imi-
tation is the sincerest flattery", only brings out the force of our
English word worship, it is bringing the whole man the physical,
mental and spiritual nature into a shape worthy of the being
worshiped; it is that imitation that is the sincerest worship. The
only way we can honor God is to grow like Him.

We need not intrude upon the domain of theology to recognize
that the worship of God cultured righteousness in the worshipers.
The supernatural revelation of God made in the Bible is progres-
sive, but the progress ever brings out in greater clearness the
worthy character of God. He ever desires more and more the
adoration of man, and man's adoration of Him ever makes himself
a more worthy being. God revealed himself in Genesis to Abra-
ham as the Almighty, choosing him from the race that He might
make him a blessing to the race. He revealed himself in Exodus
as Righteous, giving a code of law that calls for righteousness in
man to secure his well being. He revealed Himself in Leviticus as
Holy, to be worshiped by growing in holiness. He revealed
Himself in Numbers as Just, seeking the welfare of all in their
true obedience. He revealed Himself in Deuteronomy as Love,
appealing to the people to establish a covenant with Him in love.
He revealed Himself in all His dealings with His people in their

INSTITUTION OF CULTURE 295

unfolding history as loving righteousness. The people were always
taught to regard God not so much as above them in power and
authority, but as Infinite in righteousness.

The sacrifices at the Altar and before the Tabernacle and Tem-
ple were not to propitiate Him, except for their sin, the reverse
of righteousness, or lack of it; and this sin was not only toward
Him, but included their sin against their fellow men. The sacri-
fice was in effect their confession of their unrighteousness either in
general or in some particular, their sense of its desert of punish-
ment, and their sorrow for it and abandonment of it, and it as-
sured them on His part of their forgiveness and of their restora-
tion to fellowship with Him. The feasting upon the sacrifice was
the fellowship of restored righteousness. The sacrifice of whole
burnt offering was the expression of entire devotion to God, and
this could be only in the way of righteousness. We find in Moses
and Samuel as well as in Isaiah and Malachi, in the earliest times
of the worship by sacrifice in Tabernacle and Solomon's Temple
as well as after the exile when they rebuilded the Temple, that
the sacrifices did not accomplish anything in themselves, that their
value was only in expressing penitence, fellowship and devotion,
and that the people always understood that obedience was better
than sacrifice, that righteousness, judgment and mercy were the
only way in which they could worship the righteous God. Through
the sacrifices God taught the people His holiness, and that they
must be holy to honor Him; this is the unfolding of His progres-
sive revelation of Himself as found especially in Leviticus, the
book of worship. The animals of the land were to be divided
into two classes, the clean and the unclean, and the division was
not arbitrary, but in the nature of the animals. Only the cleanest
of the clean animals could be offered to God in sacrifice. This
clean animal might not be offered by the worshiper in person,
but only by a member of a set-apart class of men, clean men in
clean garments; not in any place that might happen but only in a
consecrated place, a clean place; not in any way that might be
devised but only by cleansing fire. The idea of cleanness was
lifted up by a series of comparisons, and the one who felt unclean

296 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

in an unrighteous life might hope for the cleanness of righteous-
ness by following God's teachings and directions in His worship.

The revelation of the righteousness of God culminated in His
Son Jesus Christ. We are to think of and to love God as our
Father, and the very first petition of our hearts in prayer is that
His name is to be hallowed, that is that He is to be regarded as
holy by us and by all men. We are to worship God in Christ,
and this worship must be true imitation — such an adoration of Him,
that we by the laws of our nature grow like Him. There is no
sincere worship of Christ without some degree of Christ-likeness.
The more worship of Christ the more Christ-likeness. WTien
we describe Christ we say "He is a lover of mankind"; to the
extent of the strength and sincerity of our worship of Him we
must be lovers of mankind. The worship of God as fully revealed
in Christ regards Him as our Father and man as our brother, and
to the extent and sincerity of our worship we become lovers of
God and of men, we grow in righteousness towards God and man.
Where there is filial love toward God there must be fraternal love
toward man, and the degree of intensity in the one case is the
exact measure of the intensity in the other. The man who thinks
he loves God and does not love man, fools himself.

The institution of culture includes all these agencies that tend
to the development of all the powers of any society harmoniously
and in due proportion to its complete being. It includes the fam-
ily, industry and especially education and religion. Through all
the relationships of their social life, for all classes and conditions,
for all ages and for both sexes the policy of the Hebrew nation
was through all the agencies of the institution of culture to
develop righteousness. In our own land the institution of culture
embraces both the school house and the church, they are free for
all the people, they are not for one class more than another, and as
they combine their influence, the culture in righteousness advances
and society becomes better qualified for complete living. Among
all the agencies of culture the worship of the Righteous God
according to the laws of the mind works steadily and powerfully
righteousness of character, a character that like Christ loves and

INSTITUTION OF CULTURE 297

strives to bless all mankind. In the Kingdom of God the
righteousness of love, that seeks the true well being of all the
members of society will be the highest and strongest culture, the
culture of the masses of mankind in righteousness. There will be
the culture of wealth, of beauty, of dominion, a culture of all
man's powers and of all the arts, the richest enjoyment and widest
possession of all the forces and the products of earth, but these
will be only parts in the wide culture of righteousness, for all men
Will then feel and act as children of God and brothers of each
other.

CHAPTER XVIII.
The Institution of Control.

The particular Society of the Bible gathered around a super-
natural revelation of God differs somewhat in the form and spirit
of its government from the general society of the race. This is
seen in its beginning and in its advancing stages until it culminates
in the teachings of our Lord Jesus Christ concerning the King-
dom of God. It is not to be wondered at also that the spirit and
form of government prevailing in the general society of the race
should frequently influence to a greater or less extent the particu-
lar society of the Bible, as they meet and even mingle with each
other. The first form of government both in time and in the
nature of the case, the fundamental form, was probably that of
the family. The father of the family being the strongest member
of it during at least the formative stages was the unquestioned
head. When he grew feeble in age the custom of loyalty to him
was too firmly established to be lightly cast aside, the sense of
origin and of gratitude confirmed it, and his rule continued after
his superior strength had vanished. The patriarchal stage of the
Bible sociology is true to nature.

The supernatural revelation of God added to it a distinctive
feature. It made plain that the source of authority was God him-
self, and that the head of the family clothed with authority from
Him was responsible for the exercise of it at all times to God. It
made plain also that the giver of life was God himself, and that
the children of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob were first of all God's
children and should be governed as such, they were entrusted to
the parents to be brought up for God. The spirit of a father
may sometimes be tyrannical, and this may be strong enough to

INSTITUTION OF CONTROL 299

over-ride the parental instinct, such a father may exercise his
power of control for his own profit and pleasure rather than for the
welfare of the children. This was checked by the supernatural
revelation of God. The form of government was the same but
the spirit of government in the patriarchal family of the Bible
was somewhat different from that ruling in the patriarchal fam-
ilies of the race.

The development of the head of the family into the chieftain
of a tribe or tribes was generally brought about by pressure from
without as well as by growth from within. We catch a glimpse
of this in the case of Abraham rescuing Lot, and in the later
meetings of Jacob and Esau, but this development was rudely
checked by the slavery in Egypt. Here the government was that
of Egypt and it was cruelly for its own benefit, instead of seeking
the welfare of the governed, it sought to check their growth and
to crush their spirit for its own prosperity. The slaves themselves
seem to have had through all the cruel years a pride of race which
secured as far as possible race purity, maintained family life and
traced descent carefully and proudly through the twelve patriarchs
to Jacob, Isaac and Abraham. The traditions of the supernatural
revelations of God made to these fathers of the race, including His
promise to bring them out of their slavery, were cherished by them
and gave to the family government it helped to preserve the con-
tinued spirit of responsibility to God, trust in Him and hope in
His promise. The striking feature of the long slavery was that
the family was not broken up as it is in slavery generally, but at
the end of several hundred years comes out clear and distinct.
The great host of slaves Moses led out of Egypt was not an un-
organized mob freed from the only government it had known,
that of its masters, it had the fundamental form of government in
itself, it was twelve tribes of families of one race, more like an
army than a mob.

The supernatural revelations of God renewed in bringing them
out of slavery and training them in the wilderness tended to in-
crease the peculiar spirit of responsibility to God in their family
government, quickened now by gratitude to Him for the marvelous

300 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

deliverance He had wrought from the long and cruel slaver}^ and
for the equally marvelous care His presence afforded them. The
form of government now evolved under the direction of God
himself was suitable to tribes grown too large in themselves for
merely tribal government, and too many to dwell together in in-
dependence of each other. They had become a nation and though
a nation in migration they must have some national government
for the present, and that too a government which will enable
them to take possession of and hold the land of promise. Here as
in the patriarchal stage the Bible sociology is true to nature. A
government must arise suitable to the present environment with
an outlook upon the hoped-for future. But here also the super-
natural revelation of God adds its own distinctive features. God
in his great plan of evolution in nature does not throw away the
elements of past growth but conserves them, builds upon them and
when necessary adds to them. So in the evolution of the social
nature of man in the institution of government it is the unfolding
of God's plan wherever formed, whether limited in small groups,
hemmed in by high mountain ranges, or large groups limited alone
by broad continents. The evolution in each case will depend
much upon its environment of land, of neighbors and communica-
tion with them, and also upon the purpose and will of man. It
is obvious that a small departure taken at first from the lines of
family development may lead in several generations to wide and
fixed results in the form and spirit of government, foreign to the
true idea of family welfare. A tyrannical head of a family, of
great force of mind and will, may become the chieftain of a tribe
in the time of a dangerous assault from without, and by his suc-
cessful leadership in conflict may entrench himself as permanent
chieftain of the tribe. This power may be held so firmly for so
long a time that when he dies his son equally strong and head-
strong may grasp and hold it, and the chieftain becomes a king.
The ruling of the family for the welfare of the family is often
defeated by the tyrannical spirit of the father. So the ruling of
a nation for the welfare of the nation is often defeated by the
tyrannical spirit of the king.

INSTITUTION OF CONTROL 301

All government is an evolution. There must be the institution
of control in any society. Government of some kind vi^herever
men in considerable numbers dwell together arises at once. That
the government should be for the welfare of the governed will be
acknowledged as a theory at once, and without question. It may
be acknowledged even that all government has this ideal in its
static form, and is evolving with greater or less force to its attain-
ment. But it is also to be confessed without question that many
governments in the history of the past and even existing today
fall far short of the ideal, and this is true whatever form the
government may take whether monarchial, autocratic or demo-
cratic. Frequently a democratic government has been a large
autocracy, as in ancient Greece and Rome, a government by the
whole body of citizens, but beneath them was a large body of
slaves, who were governed with very little regard for their wel-
fare.

There are several features in the sociology of the Bible which
are worthy of special attention. These mark the evolution of gov-
ernment under the special direction of God as like and still unlike
the usual evolution of the institution of control under man's
direction. We cannot say that they afford for us today a clear
direction of what the evolution should be with us, of what form
it should take or what spirit it should possess, of what ideals we
should consciously form and wasely and earnestly strive to attain.
Circumstances and conditions are far different, the whole environ-
ment of land and age and other institutions has greatly changed.
Still we may be able to gain some valuable lessons from the way
God sought, in that early time and with the material he had, — a
race of slaves just freed from slavery, and living a migratory
life, — to develop a government for the welfare of the governed, a
government under which the recent slaves would become a race of
freedom-loving citizens occupying and developing their own
national domain.

Three distinct features are added to the human development by >*
the special revelation of God; it must be remembered that the
distinctive features first added to the family control remain, the

302 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

distinctive features now to be considered do not take the place of
the first or in any way diminish their force, but are added to them.

The first to be noted is that many important offices were to
be filled by popular suffrage. God adopted the suggestion of the
father-in-law of Moses which arose from the felt need of the case,
and when Moses took his farewell of the people he gave them
under the direction of God a large privilege and duty of self
government. He told them God commanded them "Judges and
officers shalt thou make thee in all thy gates according to thy
tribes and they shall judge the people with righteous judgment".
These elected officers were very close to the people in their gov-
ernment, it was a very effective system of local self government,
they were to be rulers of thousands, of hundreds, of fifties and of
tens. Bryce, in The American Commonwealth has said of our
own government that the most powerful legislative body in the
state or nation is the Town Meeting or Council, that the most
important court is that of the Justice of the Peace, these are pow-
erful because they stand so near the people, to influence and rule
the people, and by their elective appointment they express the will
of the people for their own government.

God prescribed also the character of the men the people should
elect to these offices, "They should be able men, such as fear God;
men of truth, hating unjust gain". "Thou shalt not wrest judg-
ment, thou shalt not respect persons, neither shalt thou take a
gift". These qualities meet our own Thomas Jefferson's tests.
"He must be just, honest, capable" — and add the one that inspires
the others, "he must fear God". It would certainly be well for
the American people if they elected to office only men who could
measure up somewhat to this lofty ideal.

It is quite evident that this large element of elected officers in
every part and division of the land had a very large control under
God ; that they formed not only courts to try contested cases
and interpret laws in their application to persons and events ; but
were administrative officers as well, to enforce laws, to secure the
orderly conduct of life in villages, and towns and cities; and
there are frequent indications of their possessing legislative powers

INSTITUTION OF CONTROL 303

also, to make enactments to meet new needs, of course within the
sphere of their discovery of God's will for his people. That there
were grades or ranks of these elected officers in all these respects
is evident from the directions given by God through Moses to
carry appeal cases, or cases too difficult for satisfactory decision,
to the great central court of the nation. The decision of that
highest administrative, legislative or judicial body was to be final.
"Thou shalt do according to the tenor of the law which they
shall teach thee, and according to the judgment which they shall
tell thee". So the large local self government was a part of the
strong central government, it arose in the need and use of the
migratory life in the wilderness and it became established in the
occupancy and control of their later home land.

A strange feature of these elected officers is that no mention is *^
made of their term of office. This may arise from the concise-
ness of the historical narrative, and it was not needed as the peo-
ple were well acquainted with this detail. It seems certain how-
ever that the people could depose an officer who did not measure
up to the character prescribed by God himself, by electing a succes-
sor. And it may be that the elected officer retained the office
while he possessed the required character. Good behavior and
efficiency in office were thus secured and rewarded by the indef-
initeness of the term of office. Another striking feature is that
no mention is made of any compensation for the service, there ■'
may have been such, but the silence indicates that it was not an
important motive to office, that the officers were to be of such pub-
lic spirit that the rendering of service was the motive to office.

Of all the republics we have any knowledge of in the ancient - 0
world this Republic instituted by God himself gave the most
power to the largest number of the people, and was most sensi-
tive and flexible to the will of the people. Slavery was so small
an element in the social life of the Hebrews, as we have already
seen, that it could be ignored, and this feature of government was
therefore by all the people for their own welfare.

Two elements enter into good government, the stability of the
state, of the organized form of social order, and the liberty of

304 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

the individual. These two, social order and individual liberty
as related to each other and as one or the other flourishes or
decays make up the history of nations. When individual liberty
is crushed it either tamely submits and the citizens deteriorate, or
it rises in rebellion to cast oiif its chains and civil war results, or it
grows into the consciousness of its wrongs and into intelligent
and wise efforts to peacefully secure its rights. It is quite evi-
dent that God provided in this government He directed, a way in
which individual liberty and social order could regulate and foster
each other.

The second feature of the institution of control secured by
the supernatural revelation of God was his direction that a large
and important class of officers should be supplied by heredity.
These hereditary officers were united with the elected officers in
one out of the three divisions of the government. The service of
the priesthood could only be rendered by the hereditar}' officers,
the service of the army by elected officers, but the civil service was
to be rendered by both elected and hereditary officers together.
The tribe of Levi was selected by God instead of the first born
of all the families of all the tribes, and set aside for certain defi-
nite and clearly defined purposes. This secured the preservation
of the family life in its strong organization and purity, each first
born being directed to care for the family welfare, and while his
position secured him the respect of all and a large influence, his
only direct influence upon the larger social control was in being
elected himself or in electing others to the elective offices. The
Levites thus became a special class, and provision was made for
their support by the nation as a whole. But we are not to think
of the Levites as a privileged class supported in ease and luxury,
that was carefully guarded against, they were rather a class set
apart to a constant, important and difficult service. They were
to minister for all the people at the central Tabernacle or Temple.
This was not at all like a modern church set apart only for wor-
ship and used only at a few stated times. The Tabernacle, and
after it the Temple, was the palace of the Great King, where he
dwelt in the midst of the people. God dwelling in this palace

INSTITUTION OF CONTROL 305

could be consulted by the people through the Levites. He was
the source of all authority and the Levites were the interpreters
and conveyors of this authority. The service of the priesthood
included the worship of God, they represented the people to God,
this could only be rendered by a family of the tribe of Levi ;
but the priests also represented God to the people. When David
and Solomon and the succeeding kings had their own palace and
court still they w^ere only vice-roys, the real King was God. The
Levites were members of the court of the Great King, they cared
for and ministered at the Palace.

But the whole tribe of Levi was not needed at all times at the
central Palace, only selected ones and successive portions of the
Levites ministered at any one time in the Capitol. The tribe
was scattered among all the tribes of the people, their cities were
scattered through the whole land. The whole tribe was kept in
constant touch with the court life at the capital by the successive
delegations taking their turns in ministering there. For the larger
portion of the time the Levites dwelt in their own cites among the
people of the whole land. This portion of their time and strength
was not to be spent in idleness, they were constantly to be engaged
in teaching the people how to live and in ruling and judging the
people. In this large civil service in the institution of . control
they were associated with the elected officers. There seems no
indication that these two classes of officers were each organized
by itself in either the legislative, administrative or judicial depart-
ments of the government, there was no upper or lower house, no
legal or lay bench either in the lower grades of local government,
or in the higher grades at the many centers of tribal government,
or at the one center of the national life.

While the two classes of officers were not separated the Levites
must have secured the stronger influence had it not been for two
provisions wisely adapted to check their grasp of power. The
Levites had the advantage of greater familiarity with the princi-
ples of government, cultured by the heredity of the leadership
quality and by the spirit and training of family life in official
relations. This was fostered largely by the special service all

3o6 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

were in their turn required to render at the central court. This
advantage of skill and permanency of office was met by the elected
officers living closer to the people, coming from them as chosen
by them. Staid experience and culture belonged to the Levites.
The fresh blood and enthusiastic spirit belonged to the elected
officers. The institution of control thus secured the advantage
of both.

The second provision checking the Levites from grasping un-
due power was that they were expressly debarred from holding
real estate. The elective officers of all grades were unpaid, they
could hold property and carry on the ordinary employments of
life, and served in the government for the honor and privilege of
service. The Levites were learned and skilled in government
but they were restricted in holding property^ they were supported
by the people generally, they could never be a rich and inde-
pendent class, could not domineer over the people, must be the ser-
vants of the people, must use their learning and skill not for self
aggrandizement but for the welfare of the governed. Where
learning, official power and wealth combine an autocracy is apt
to arise, living for itself. Licurgus, Solon and Numa with all
their wisdom never devised such a way to check the grasp which
learning, office and property combined might take of political
power, to use it for the oppression rather than the welfare of the
governed. God guarded against this in the government he di-
rected, securing by the check of the elected officers and by the
prohibition of wealth of the hereditary officers, all the cultured
skill of the one and the vigor of the other for securing the welfare
of the governed.

The third distinct feature of the institution of control secured
by the special revelation of God was their choice of God as their
King, the source of supreme authority. Astounding as it seems
to the ordinary way we have studied our Bibles for theological
truth there stands forth the great sociological truth that at the
close of the training in the wilderness God submitted Himself to
the suffrages of the people and asked them to elect Him as their
sovereign. The book of Deuteronomy has been studied a great

INSTITUTION OF CONTROL 307

deal in modern times and widely different views have been taken
of it, but we must not lose sight of the great election it describes,
the election by a nation of its Sovereign. The last four of the
five books of Moses may be called constitutional history. Who
should govern and how, the various departments of government,
the laws which were to be the fundamental principles of the na-
tional life, the formation of new laws, the interpretation of law,
the enforcement of law, the maintaining of social order are re-
counted, and all this culminates in the book of Deuteronomy.

In the book of Numbers the orderly conduct of camp and march
is fully described, the impression this made upon Balaam is told,
showing to him the controlled power of such complete order: the
swift punishment inflicted upon those attempting to break this
order is told, thus guarding the host from becoming a powerless
mob. The Tabernacle, the Palace of God their King is in the
center of the camp, on each side are the nearby tents of the Levites.
Further removed but arranged in complete order are the tents
of the twelve tribes. In front of the Tabernacle is the first
division of three tribes, on the right side the second division of
three tribes, on the rear the third division of three tribes, on the
left side the fourth division of three tribes. When the signal is
given to break camp and take up the march there is no confusion,
every family of the Levites knows its prescribed duty, every divi-
sion and every tribe knows its right place, all is complete order.

The first division takes up its march, the leading tribe at the
head. Then follow the families of the Levites with the outer
curtains of the Tabernacle. The second division of the tribes
falls in line. Then follow the Levites with the carefully guarded
holy place of the Tabernacle. The third division of the tribes
follows, and the fourth division of the tribes brings up the rear.
When the next camping place is reached and the signal is given
to pitch tents the same order is observed. The first division en-
camps. Then the outer curtains of the Tabernacle are set up.
The second division of the tribes encamps to the right of the
Tabernacle. Then the carefully guarded holy of holies, the
dwelling place of the great King is brought into the curtained

3o8 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

Tabernacle, and no eye has seen its mysterious mercy seat. Those
who at breaking camp took down the great curtain carried it
forward and covered the mercy seat, the same ones now at the
forming the camp lifting the curtain from the mercy seat, walked
backward and hung the curtain before the Holy of Holies. The
Holy of Holies was a cube, its boards covered with gold and it was
absolutely dark, in it was the Mercy-Seat, the golden chest contain-
ing the Ten Commandments and covered with the adoring figures
of the Cherubim, fit dwelling place of the perfect, infinitely rich
in His nature and mysterious King, the Merciful and the Just,
the Sovereign of the nation. Then followed the third division of
the tribes and encamped at the rear of the Tabernacle, and the
fourth division encamped at the left side. All was complete order,
a social order in camp and on the march and again in camp. Thus
they come to the plains on the north end of the Dead Sea and are
ready to enter the promised land, when the signal is given and once
more they form a camp.

The book of Deuteronomy is sometimes called the book of
great orations, it might rather be called the book of the great
election of God to be the King of the nation. Much pressure is
brought to bear upon the people to make the choice, all the deliver-
ance, training and discipline of the past few years are pressed
home by Moses, the great orator, in four masterly orations; but
after all, the election is the main thing. After a week or so is
passed in camp the people begin to wonder why there is such de-
lay, when one morning the silver trumpets give the signal for an
assembly of the people at the door of the Tabernacle. The
meaning of the signal is well known and the heads of the tribes
and the elected officers of the tribes, the representatives of the
people, take their way from the various camps and gather, perhaps
a thousand men, at the door of the Tabernacle, while all the
people watch and wait in great suspense. Then Moses their
revered leader comes out from the Tabernacle and speaks to the
assembled heads and officers of the tribes his first great oration.
A greater occasion, a greater oration, a greater orator it will be
hard to find in all the history of delegated or popular assemblies.

INSTITUTION OF CONTROL 309

The oration over the representatives who have been duly im-
pressed return to the people, and the report spreads through the
w^hole camp. The burden of the report is startling. Moses says
he is deposed, he viall not be allowed to lead us to the capture of
our promised land. A week or so passes and the signal of assembly
is again given and the same delegated assembly hears the second
oration of Moses, while the suspense in the camp becomes intense.
Now the report of the oration spreads through all the camp.
Moses says he has arranged and written all the laws God gave
him, and has given them to the officers, and that God will still
be with us if we obey Him. Again a week or so passes, time for
reflection, for deliberation is given when another assembly is
called and Moses makes his third oration, that upon the blessings
of obedience and the curses upon disobedience, and of the great
ceremony to be observed by all the people when they obtain
possession of the land, and the eternal mountains are to be the
witnesses of the eternal nature of obedience and disobedience.
Again time is given for reflection, and a fourth signal of assembly
is given. A fourth oration of Moses is given to the officers of the
people, this is the climax of eloquence to which the others have
led ; this leads to the eloquence of action. The officers of the
people representing all the people are called upon to elect God to
be their King and to promise to obey Him: and all the people
standing at the doors of their tents in all the camp, with their
children, are to take part with, to approve and sanction the vote
of their officers, and the whole nation is thus to choose God for
their Sovereign.

That which was made plain to the family organization at the
beginning by the supernatural revelation of God that the source
of authority was God Himself is now acknowledged and adopted
by the national organization in choosing Grod as their King, the
elected Sovereign. The election is after long experience of God's
dealings with them, under the appeal of their grand old man
eloquent, and after due and deep deliberation; it is unquestioned,
it is fully decided, and for all time, decided by all the people
directly, that God is the Sovereign.

3IO THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

There follows from this decision as in the family organization,
a relation to each other as well as to God, that all the people
have equal rights and duties, that since God is their Sovereign,
they are all His loyal subjects, since God is their Father they are
ail brothers, and should treat each other as equals, as brothers.
The consideration of the laws given by God through Moses as the
fundamental principles of the social order has already been given
as applied to the family, to industry, to culture, and will be con-
tinued in relation to pathology and social health; but their equal
bearing on all classes may be noted in this connection. It is some-
times said that modern laws favor the strong rather than the
weak, that laws of divorce, of the employment of labor by capital,
of creditor and debtor, of the administration of criminal law give
opportunities and privileges rather than equal rights. It is a large
question and difficult to decide, it is in the administration rather
than in the making of law that the inequality is most easily dis-
covered. But while, to take a single instance, the modern laws
protect the creditor rather than the debtor, the laws of Moses pro-
tected the weaker, the debtor rather than the creditor. The con-
dition itself is one of inequality. Modern laws make the inequality
greater, they guard the money; the laws of Moses tried to dimin-
ish the inequality of the condition, to make the men equal, they
guarded the man. God was the elected, the acknowledged Sovereign ;
this tended, in giving all the right to vote, in the result of the
vote to make all men equal before Him, and the fundamental
laws from Him were in line with this equality.

These main features of the institution of control can be traced
through all the vicissitudes of the long national history. In the
several hundred years of absorbing the original inhabitants of the
land and in settling the social order there were a few great leaders
drawn out by emergencies. Military dictators we would call
them, heroes in battle who secured power among one or two or a
few tribes and then over all the tribes, they arise, fulfill their
tasks and pass away, leaving little or no effect upon the general
government, other than securing safety and peace. They cul-
minate in Samuel, a military chieftain but chiefly a religious

INSTITUTION OF CONTROL 311

reformer, the greatest and best of the Judges, he also founds the
schools of the prophets, and becomes the maker of kings.

The kings are chosen under God and by His direction. He
remains the Sovereign, they are vice-roys. Over the king is the
law of the Great King himself. These kings of the nation in the
theory of the government are not above law, as the arbitrary
kings of neighboring nations, are not even makers of law, whose
word was law, as the neighboring kings were the law-making
power. The Hebrew king was under a law, he was to enforce
the law of the real Sovereign of the nation. The kings were good
in proportion as they lived up to this theory, they were evil Kings
when they acted as did the kings of other nations, independently
of this theory, ignoring the chosen Sovereign. The Kingdom
brought with it a growing court made of the princes of the royal
blood, and other nobility created sometimes from statesmen, but
generally from the leaders in warfare. The maintenance of this
nobility and of the luxurious court of the king created a demand for
money which the instituted tithe system did not afford, and so it
became oppressive ; it is probable also that much of the tithe was
diverted from the support of the Levites to the support of the
court. This additional burden not contemplated in the consti-
tution of the nation seems however to have been kept within mod-
erate bounds except in the case of Solomon. The only time in
the long history of a thousand years any considerable mass of peo-
ple arose against the established government was at the close of
his reign. Then led on by a designing politician seeking the king-
ship for himself, the ten tribes set up a kingdom of their own, the
kingdom of Israel. The divided kingdom lasted for nearly three
hundred years, and the kingdom of Judah a hundred years longei.
In the Northern Kingdom there were many changes of dynasty and
but little carrying out of the theory that God was the true Sov-
ereign. There was at the beginning a large migration of those
loyal to God, the King, to the Southern Kingdom, and this was
constant in less degree during the whole history. The Southern
Kingdom was ruled by the single line of kings, the line of David,
and many of these were true to the real Sovereign, were vice-roys

312 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

of God as was David, their father. After the return from the
Babylonian captivity there was a dual government, that of the
ruling nation, the Persian, the Greek and the Roman Governor
with his court and army, and the self government of the Hebrews
by the Levites and the elected officers, with generally the High
Priest at the head. During the reign of the Maccabees, they com-
bined the two forms in themselves, acted as kings and priests.

During all this varied history the institution of control near-
est to the people, was the tribal government. This was the gov-
ernment by the elected officers and by the Levites together with
the heads of the tribes. In the concise history little mention is
made of these officers but their vast influence in preserving the
social order must be regarded as fundamental. The central
government was largely representative of these officers, in the earl-
ier history the Levites were the most prominent and influential,
and the national tie was the race unity and religion, in the later
history the kings, the vice-roys of the real Sovereign and the
elected officers with the nobility and Levites were influential, the
national tie still being race and religion. There was a large local
self government, and the comity of interest was to develop each
individual as equal with all others in rights and privileges before
God, the King.

When we consider the United States, it is one nation made up
of forty-seven different states; a concise history of the nation
may make little mention of state action, but their self goverment
is fundamental, a large element of the institution of control.
When we consider the State of New Jersey, it is one state made
up of twenty-one counties, a large element of the institution of
control is the county and township goverment, that nearest the
people and most sensitive to the changes of popular opinion ;
though this may not receive large mention in a concise history
of the state, it is the fundamental principle in the organization
of the state. So when we consider the nation of Israel it is
one nation made up of twelve tribes, a nation about the size
of New Jersey and instead of twenty-one counties we have twelve
tribes, the organization of these tribes, the elected officers and

INSTITUTION OF CONTROL 313

the hereditary officers together form the fundamental element
in the institution of control, touching the people most closely
and intimately and fostering both government and liberty.

This small national domain under the institutions of the family
and of industry we have described became very thickly populated and
there were in it many large and flourishing cities. There does
not seem to have arisen any special municipal problem, there
was no separately devised form of government for cities large or
small, the general government by the elected and hereditary offi-
cers was flexible enough to cover the need of town as well as
country, the hereditary officers formed a civil service of vast ex-
perience cultured in government, and the elected officers formed
an element of vigor and enterprise fresh from the people.

That which we saw was the aim of the institution of culture,
the development of righteousness, is also insisted upon in the
institution of control. The source of all authority is the righteous
Sovereign of the nation, God himself. Not only the kings as
we have seen were under His law, a law that had been delivered
by Moses and was in their possession but all the officers both
elected and hereditary of all grades were amenable to God and
were to rule under His laws. Whether in the legislative, inter-
pretative or administrative departments all were under the law
of God. That which He had at the beginning set forth as the
qualities of good officers, "ability, justice, no respect of persons,
not taking a gift, not lovers of gain" was insisted upon in all
stages of the nation's life.

It was the province of the prophets to teach the people that the
God who had made supernatural revelations of Himself to their
fathers was present with them and was unchanged. This truth
they enforced with great bravery to the most arbitrary kings.
This truth they also held before the conscience of the rulers of the
people. They denounced bribery, injustice, all unrighteousness
in no measured terms, and they were just as severe to those high
in office as to the mass of the people. Micah says "Ye rulers are
to know judgment, yet ye hate the good and love the evil. Ye
judge for reward. Therefore shall Zion for your sake be plowed

314 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

as a field and Jerusalem shall become heaps". Malachi says
"Have we not one Father? hath not one God created us? Why
do we deal treacherously every man against his brother, profaning
the covenant of our fathers". Unrighteousness is the real re-
bellion against the chosen King, the Sovereign God.
^I_ The Lord Jesus Christ is popularly supposed to have said but
one thing about the secular government, "Render to Caesar the
things that are Caesar's" — to have done but one thing directly in
the support of the secular government, paid the tribute money
Peter found in the mouth of the fish. Surely a pregnant saying
and a much embracing deed. But one may not make light of the
atmosphere he breathes and that presses equally upon all parts of
his body, and our whole life on earth is passed in the atmosphere
of secular government. This popular opinion shows how much
we have sought theology and how little we have studied sociology
in our Bibles. The characteristic term of Christ is the Kingdom
of God. Each Gospel may be divided into two parts. The first
part covers the year of obscurity, and the year of popularity, two
of the three years of our Lord's ministry and ends with the con-
fession of the disciples that Jesus was the Christ. In this first
part the preaching of the Kingdom characterized His ministry.
The second part began with the transfiguration and embraced
the whole year of opposition ending in the cross. In this second
part he added to His preaching of the Kingdom the astounding
teaching that the King would die for His people. Many kings
do not seem to think very much of the welfare of their people, do
not even live for their people, but in this case the gospel of the
Kingdom was preached specially to the poor, and the great King
was to die for His people.

In our contemplation of the Kingdom of God as held before us
by the great King Himself we show again how much we have
sought theology and how little we have studied sociology, we have
located the Kingdom in the far ofif eternal heavens and have seen
only its faint reflection on the earth. The Jews in the time of
Christ looked for a purely secular kingdom, they had lost sight of
righteousness In their dream of power. We have gone to the

INSTITUTION OF CONTROL 315

other extreme and look for a purely spiritual kingdom, in our
dream of righteousness in the heavens we have lost sight of the
power of righteousness on the earth, of a righteous secular govern-
ment. It is quite evident that Christ did not exclude the heavens
from the Kingdom of God ; it is equally evident that he did not
exclude the earth.

The Sermon on the Mount may be regarded as the inaugural
proclamation of the King. In His sending out His disciples to
preach "The Kingdom of heaven is at hand" He gave them the
rules of self-government. In His parables of the Kingdom He
describes it as taking possession of the whole earth and reaching
out into eternity. Evidently the Kingdom of heaven is to rule the
earth. Christ surely had not the discouraging views some of His
followers seem to hold that righteousness in government cannot
be looked for to control the whole race of mankind on the earth.
Christ's term of highest good to the race is an ideal society, con-
trolled constantly and in all its parts by righteousness, the King-
dom of God.

In the very nature of the case such a Kingdom must evolve
slowly only as the righteousness which is to be its controlling
power takes possession of and rules individual lives. Christ's
teachings and influence were to establish righteousness in individu-
als. But the individual to be righteous at all must be righteous in all
his relations with his fellow men. This secures a social order
growing in righteousness, and also growing in extent. Christ's
teachings and influence were thus to establish righteousness in the
whole social order of the race, to bring in the Kingdom of God
not only on the mountains of Judea but on all mountains and
plains, on all continents and islands, on all lands and in all climes,
to hold sway over land and sea, over all the race of mankind in the
whole earth.

It is generally conceded that the Jewish race whose history is
recorded in the Old Testament had as the outcome of their long
national life an expectation that their Sovereign King, God Him-
self would raise up a great leader like Moses, their revered law-
giver, and like David their great king, and that this leader would

3i6 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

gain and hold a world empire. That instead of Judea being a
province of Egypt, Babylon, Greece, or Rome, these great world
powers would be mere provinces of Judea. It was a magnificent
dream. There was much to justify it in the visions of psalmists
and prophets, and still more in the provisions of the institution of
control we are now considering, and in the laws given by God
through Moses, and in the all embracing feature that God had
offered Himself, and that they had elected Him their Sovereign.
The great flaw in their cherished ambition was they had more
thought of power than of righteousness. Some seem to have had
the thought that power would establish righteousness, an idea that
has not yet vanished entirely from the human mind ; a very few
had grasped the glorious truth that righteousness would establish
power.

The Lord Jesus Christ in proclaiming the Kingdom of God, in
claiming Himself as the King, in offering Himself to the choice
of the people always insisted on the righteousness which should
hold sway in the social order. His great follower the Apostle
Paul in writing to the Christians at Rome the capital of the
world power, insisted that the Kingdom of God was "righteous-
ness, peace and joy in the Holy Spirit". Righteousness first in
heart and life, in individuals evolving and moulding such right-
eousness in the social order; then peace the end of selfish strife,
the soundness of social health; then joy, the race of man having
the joy of a full healthy individual and social life on the fruitful
beautiful earth, the joy designed and brought about by the Holy
Spirit. The effort of Christ, the magnificent dream He had,
and that we may catch from Him, was a universal world power,
the establishment of an ideal society as an outcome of ideal indi-
viduals, the first through the last, and the ideal was righteousness.
He always insisted on the dignity and worth of the individual.
But the worth of the individual did not consist in being self-
centered, an isolated being, or one making all others revolve about
him. The individual is in his nature social. Whatever dignity
and worth he has he must acknowledge as belonging equally to
every other man. This dignity and worth belong not to a special

INSTITUTION OF CONTROL 317

few, not to a special class but to human nature as such, to every
man, woman, and child equally. Righteousness is the only princi-
ple that should control the social order.

The special features of the institution of control in the partic-
ular society of the Bible arising from the supernatural revelation
of God seen in the national history are seen to be the characteris-
tic features in the teaching of Christ concerning the Kingdom of
God. Men electing God as their Sovereign, and these men equal
before God, are righteous in the relations to one another. Gibbon
in the "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" gives five causes
for the early spread of Christianity, the last and probably the cul-
minating one of these causes he describes as the union and discipline
of the early churches, they were Christian republics. The princi-
ples of righteousness were the fundamental laws, principles coming
to them from their Sovereign Lord, their chosen King. Among
themselves, the local government was a representative one, their
officers were elected from the people. The spirit ruling in each
church was that of equality and fraternity. All the members had
equal rights, privileges and duties, and were filled with the fra-
ternal spirit. "Behold how these Christians love one another"
was the admiring commendation of the surrounding heathen
world. The people organized into a society called a church chose
their teachers, chose their rulers, chose men to take care of the
common funds and administer them for the common good. When
neighboring churches formed an association of churches, it was by
means of delegated officers and for the common good, and for the
increase of their efficiency in establishing the Kingdom of God
in the world. Thus the church started under the personal direc-
tion of those who had been with Christ, had caught his spirit and
been trained under his government. He who would be great was
to excel in ministering to others.

The followers of Christ in those early times were loyal to the
established government, though often it was intrenched in wrong
and fearfully oppressive. Still it was a government, an estab-
lished institution of control in the existing social order. It
was a hard duty "Let every soul be subject to the higher powers,"

3i8 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

it was a hard teaching, "there is no power but of God, the powers
that be are ordained of God." Still this duty, this teaching the
great apostle to the Gentiles wrote to the Roman Christians, who
soon passed under the reign of Nero. This of course was true
since that government had evolved in the social nature of man as
God had made it, and bad as it was it was far better than
anarchy; the absence of the institution of control would be con-
trary to the nature and the welfare of man. Besides under the
worst central government it was still true as is generally the case
that the various local governments "the rulers are not a terror
to the good work but to the evil." So Christians were not to be
anarchists even in Rome, they v^ere to obey God, to have right-
eouness in life, to have large self government in their local so-
cities, and thus to start a new force of evolution to spread in all
society.

A glance may be taken beyond New Testament times, though
V a more close study of such times belongs to another division of
this book. Sartell Prentice in his article "The Claims of the
Church based upon History" concisely describes the case as fol-
lows, "When barbarians invaded Italy, and Rome was helpless
the church faced the barbarians and saved what could be saved.
When Europe was threatened with a caste system, when knight
and churl were born to inalienable estates, the church stood for
absolute democracy. In the church slave and master sat side by
side, they confessed to the same priest, and performed similar
penances. Within the church birth was no barrier, there men
were equal, and the idea of democracy entered the world through
the church. When learning was highly esteemed schools were
maintained within the churches and the only learning the world
possessed was offered to all by the church. When might was right
and men were throwing the sword into the scales of justice the
church used its power for equity and right for those who had
no defender". Another glance may be taken at the trend of the
institution of control In our day toward the fraternalism of the
Bible. When our government was set up it was in large degree a
protest against certain evils prevailing in the nations of the old

INSTITUTION OF CONTROL 319

world. The original American idea was the less government we
have the better. Now we recognize that the government may and
should exercise many beneficent activities for all the people. The
old idea was, government is a necessary evil, let us have as little of
it as possible; the new idea regards it as an agency for the good
of all the people, let us have as much of it as possible. The last
century was one of political reform aiming at the equality of the
citizens. The present century is one of social reform aiming at
the service of all the citizens. The national government provides
the post office for all the people and contemplates giving all the
parcel post, the telegraph post and the postal savings bank. The
state government gives the free school to all, and combines with
the nation or neighboring states in quarantine, sanitary and com-
municating control. Light is the best policeman, and an excellent
servant, and every city government in the land now provides it for
all the people, so the streets are as safe and convenient in the
night as in the day. The city government owns or controls rapid
transit and low fares for the welfare of the masses. Not content
with school house and libraries, the city often opens the school
houses beyond school hours and in vacation times to all the people
for social recreation. The parks are not merely to be looked at
but for the rest and recreation of all the people. The city fol-
lows state and nation in seeking the physical, mental and moral
welfare of the masses. The trend of the institution of control
today is toward ministering to the needs of mankind, is toward
Bible ideals.

CHAPTER XIX.
Social Pathology.

While society is not an organism it is still marvelously like
one in several important features, as we have already seen in a
former chapter. We have now to consider some of those features
of society which may be covered by the general name of dis-
ease, which produce more or less suffering in the social organ-
ism, or which hinder it from attaining its full health and hap-
piness. We will find that the particular society of the Bible
grouped about a supernatural revelation of God is not exempt
from these diseases. No condition of society yet attained by
mankind in any age or clime of which we have any knowledge
has been exempt from them. Various societies have had various
diseases, or general diseases in various degrees of strength, and
have had various policies concerning them, from intentionally or
ignorantly cultivating them, through many degrees of the "let
alone policy," to, in some instances, the rash and brutal attempt
to cut them out with the knife, though the patient may be in dan-
ger of bleeding to death. One of the great lessons sociology is
teaching mankind today comes from its wide study of these var-
ious diseases and policies.

The modern physician while he observes the fever and tries to
alleviate it, does not confine his effort to the symptoms of the dis-
ease, he searches for its cause and tries to remove that, he observes
the complications and tries to avoid stimulating a more deadly
disease than the one he is trying to cure; he avoids hindering and
tries in every way to help nature bring up her reserve forces of
health. The still more modern physician, the one thoroughly up
to date, strives to awaken in his clients a wise observance of the

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 321

laws of health so that they do not become his patients at all, he
labors for the maintenance of health rather than for the curing of
disease in his clients and as far as possible in the community.

This great lesson sociology is teaching intelligent society con-
cerning its diseases, to search for the causes of disease and to try
to remove them, to avoid dangerous complications and especially
to maintain a high ideal of health and a constant effort to attain
it. The limitation of sociology, as of the modern physician, is first
in their own ignorance, and secondly in the ignorance, stubborn-
ness and self-indulgence of their clients. But both are investiga-
tors and enthusiastic lovers of mankind, they will learn more and
more as the years go by and will increase their power to teach
and to influence as their knowledge and devotion grow. That
which has been said so often concerning other things needs to be
said here. Sociology will find the more thorough study of the
particular society of the Bible a great help and incentive in in-
creasing her knowledge, and widening her influence for good.

Sociology generally agrees that social diseases have in the main
two fundamental causes, namely, abnormal individuals and abnor-
mal conditions. But these causes overlap, and it is difficult after
one has separated them in thought to strike a just balance between
them. Do abnormal individuals produce the abnormal conditions
or the conditions the individuals, or do both co-operate, and if so
which to the greater degree.

First we must tell what the disease is, describe it, set it apart
from all other diseases ; but this too is difficult, for as in individuals
so in society diseases awaken and foster and become complicated
with one another. For instance if we describe poverty as a con-
dition in which the total earnings of the individual or family are
not sufficient to provide the minimum necessaries for the main-
tenance of mere physical efficiency we have an unquestioned dis-
ease ; if we say these earnings are insufficient to maintain a mod-
erate degree of physical, mental and moral well-being it is a dis-
ease of less degree : this disease is present in modern society in vari-
ous degree?, and in various combinations with kindred diseases.
If we seek causes, one will be abnormal individuals, — laziness, in-

322 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

efficiency, unfaithfulness, wastefulness, intemperance, dishonesty
in individuals. Another cause will be abnormal conditions, — low
wages, unsteady employment, high rents, high cost of living, facili-
ties and incentives for intemperance and gambling, all these are
economic and social conditions. However difficult it may be to
strike a just balance, all see at once that the abnormal individuals
are not the only ones, or even the main ones that form the abnor-
mal conditions, and that there is a possibility that a normal indi-
vidual, an industrious, efficient and faithful individual may be-
come permanently enrolled in the ranks of poverty by the working
solely of the abnormal conditions ; and that there is a tendency for the
abnormal conditions to develop abnormal individuals, while society
should develop normal individuals by fostering normal conditions.
It is in society as it is in individuals, disease germs have a tend-
ency to grow and multiply. This affords an incentive to the wise
physician and the wise individual to guard against their introduc-
tion, to check their growth, to cast them out, and especially to so
foster the introduction, growth and vigor of health germs that the
disease germs cannot fasten themselves upon the individual. So-
ciology is teaching the same lesson to society, and society will
under such teachings come to pursue the same policy. While it is
not the first aim of society to care for the disease of any particular
class of its members but for the health of the whole, not the first
aim to improve the lot of any particular class but to attain the best
life the general society is capable of, this general aim at the same
time includes and secures the best life for the particular class as
well. The social policy must seek health conditions. The health
individuals must be so socially active that there is no room or culti-
vation of the disease individuals. While conditions must be fully
considered, at the same time individuals are therein considered.
Society must become strong and well through the health germs
being in the ascendancy, and so much in the ascendancy that dis-
ease germs find no entrance, certainly no welcome, no cultivation.
The "let alone" policy will not cure poverty because it will not
touch the cause with the wand of health, it will not bring either
individual or condition from the abnormal to the normal.

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 323

While we will not he able to follow the classification of social
pathology thoroughly in our study of the pathology of the Bible
it may be well for us to be familiar with it that we may see
how the general policy of the Bible bears upon it, it is certainly
not in harmony with the "let alone" policy so often found in
society. The most clearly marked classes of social disease are these
four — Poverty, a class without the means of approaching a com-
plete life; Vice, a class injuring itself directly, and society indi-
rectly by the violation of some natural law; Crime, a class injur-
ing society directly by violation of state law ; Inactivity, a class
withholding from societ}^ any service, and living upon the social
body as parasites.

The abnormal individuals forming as one cause these social
diseases are in three obvious classes — The Dependents, having a
dependent spirit and lacking the initiative of the primary ability
class, one cause of the condition of poverty; The Delinquents,
casting ofi obedience to law and all sense of responsibility, one
cause of vice and crime ; The Deficients, those having such phys-
ical, mental or moral deficiency that they are forced, or selfishly
choose to live in idleness, one cause of the socially inactive. The
abnormal conditions are such political, vital, industrial and social
customs, laws, conditions and arrangements as cultivate abnormal
individuals, and create social tendencies that result in the four
classes of diseases. '

In our study of the social pathology of the Bible we will con-
sider mainly these four abnormal conditions, and try to discover
the policy of the particular society of the Bible grouped around
the supernatural revelation of God, with reference to dwarfing
and destroying them.

First — There were many unhealthy political conditions in the \
early society of the race. There are many such conditions in
the society of the race today in all climes, conditions which lead to
war among nations, to disturbance and conflicts within nations,
to the crushing of classes of citizens into weakness and distress, to
the prevalence of injustice and the triumph of wrong in many

324 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

lands. We do not find the absence of such unhealthy political
conditions in the particular society of the Bible, but we do find
that the policy of that society was to check them, and that under
that policy they did not flourish so rankly as in society generally.
With regard to war with other nations we find very few wars
^in the history of the Hebrews and that these few were in the main
righteous wars. This perhaps may not be the impression given
by the ordinary reading of that history, the pages often seem
fierce and cruel, it seems that the Hebrews revelled in almost inces-
sant warfare. But if we remember that the history extends over
a thousand years, that these thousand years are described in a most
concise way, making the record a very short one, that a battle is
described vividly, that one campaign is but an incident of a war,
that many battles and campaigns of Joshua are described even in
the short history, but that the whole war of the conquest lasted
only seven years, as did our war for independence; and that a
thousand years of national existence followed, while we have had
only a little over a hundred years of national life so far ; when we
thus look at that ancient concise history with modern eyes and
with modern comparisons we will drift to the conclusion that the
Hebrews were as peaceful, perhaps more peaceful than we are;
and we call ourselves a nation capable of fighting, brave and strong
in war, but still a peaceful nation. The Book of Judges seems to
resound with the shouts of battle, it sketches a succession of
heroes, it describes servitudes and deliverances as the Hebrews
became settled in the possession of the land, but the book describes
four hundred years; we did quicker and less gentle work in our
dealings with the Indians. After the division of the nation there
were frequent jealousy and antagonism between the two kingdoms,
but they rarely flamed forth in war, and there were long periods
of fellowship and allegiance. The whole nation seldom engaged
in war with other nations, and when it did the war was gener-
ally in self-defence. There was very little of predatory war, wars
of conquest and plunder such as were frequent among other
nations of antiquity. David the great organizer and general
evidently had the ambition and opportunity of becoming a world

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 325

conqueror but God showed him that a kingdom of force was not
in harmony with His plans for the nation. The situation of the
nation gave it a fine position to levy tribute upon the world's
wealth and power. Entrenched upon the mountains with the only
highway between the civilizations of the Euphrates and the Nile
running along the shore of the Great Sea and within easy reach,
both Babylon and Egypt were at the mercy of the nation had its
policy been one of plunder and conquest. In after ages when the
sea was becoming the highway of the nations, when great Beets
contested for its mastery, and carried armies over its waves, when
Greece and Rome flourished these nations conducted many wars
of plunder, conquest and revenge. With Babylon and Egypt to
some extent, with Greece and especially with Rome, war came to
be regarded as the normal condition of those civilizations, but it was
never so with the Hebrew nation. In the seven hundred years of
Roman history wars were almost innumerable, in the thousand
years of Hebrew history wars were comparatively few. If you
compare their history with some long lived modern and even
Christian nation, with England, France, Russia or Germany the
comparison is still in favor of the Hebrews.

The policy of the nation under its chosen Sovereign God, was
the policy of righteous dealings with other nations, the policy of
the society grouped around the supernatural revelation of God
regarded other people as brothers to be treated in a brotherly
spirit, this policy held in check the tendency to plunder and
revenge, it did not destroy it but kept it from such rank growth
as it would otherwise have attained. The bearing of many of the
laws given by God through Moses tended further to check the
military spirit. The man was not regarded by these laws as first
a soldier and all other relations secondary, but he was first a head
of a family, the man recently married was specially exempted from
military service, the wife, the child, the home was not to be
deprived of his presence; military service was secondary. Loyalty
to native land was fostered not by the spirit ever ready to fight,
but by the values of that land to the family, the land of one's
fathers, the land of one's children.

326 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

The unhealthy political conditions as the cause of disease in
society when they flame forth in war with other societies are
attended with a multitude of evils in each society so engaged in
conflict. The weaker society may lose its independent existence,
and its after development be only such as is permitted by its
conqueror. The stronger society arrogant in wrong doing and
swollen with plunder plunges into reckless courses of vice, and
treats classes of its own citizens unjustly and contemptuously.
There are social virtues which are classed as military, obedience
to duty in the discipline of the army, endurance of hardships,
bravery in face of danger, sacrifice of property, ease, even life for
the common good, living, suffering, dying for one's native land.
These are drawn out specially by a righteous war, when conscience
calls for man to devote himself to the right, and a contagion of
conscience stirs a whole nation and men generally are lifted out
of living for self alone and live for the common good, are stirred
by an enthusiasm for their country, its life and its rights. But it
is an unhealthy political condition that seeks war for war's sake,
for love of conflict, plunder or conquest, and such wars demoral-
ize and disintegrate society, the conqueror as well as the victim.
Wars even for righteousness' sake awaken fierce passions, are
attended by much corruption and always result in agony and death
and broken homes.

There is much war spirit prevailing today. Christian nations
have heavy armaments on land and sea. The United States is
drifting in the same direction. We are compelled to describe
Christian nations as armed to the teeth, and thus as ready to
spring at each others throats. But it must also be said that they
do not fight. Something restrains them. It cannot be said to
be always or mainly money, these are rich nations in themselves,
though nowadays the world is so linked together by business enter-
prise that the wealth of any nation is largely invested among other
nations. Should a German fleet bombard New York City it
would thereby destroy much German wealth. But the main rea-
son is that righteousness is becoming more and more a controlling
force among nations, that there is a strong sense of justice in the

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 327

public opinion of Christian lands, a sense of righteousness that
demands that a nation should be so strong in its righteousness that
it will do rightly not only, but that when injured or insulted by
another nation it will endure much before it will fight. Righteous-
ness must always be opposed to wrong. Christ said He came not
to bring peace but war. But righteousness will bear much injury
and insult rather than fight. The spirit of fighting is not the spirit of
brotherhood. A brother will bear much from a brother, and will
try by just and kindly dealings to win the brother from a fighting
spirit. So Christ taught His disciples to forgive, taught them to
control the fighting spirit, to turn the other cheek for another
blow rather than to strike back. The strike back precipitates a
fight, the brotherly bearing of an injury takes the fighting spirit
out of the aggressive brother. Thus Christ's teachings and exam- \
pie which have done so much to civilize individuals, are beginning
to have large influence in civilizing nations. The policy of Bible
sociology is productive of peace, and social peace among nations
is fraternal co-operation and welfare. Christ is called the Prince
of Peace. The Kingdom of God is righteousness, peace and joy
in the Holy Spirit. This Kingdom is sure to prevail, and is hav-
ing large influence among nations today.

If we turn now to the second class of diseases fostered by un-
healthy political conditions, those disturbances and conflicts within
each national organization, conflicts of individuals and of classes
with each other and with society itself we face a force bewildering
in its details and threatening the disintegration of the social organ-
ism.

Leaving other details for the present we confine our attention at
first to crime ; and leaving other ways in which unhealthy political
and vital conditions foster crime we confine our attention largely
to their direct treatment of the disease itself. Here as in so many
other cases sociology would do well to make a special study of the
particular society of the Bible and may in so doing find principles
which might be wisely applied in the far more complex society of
the present day. The extent in which unhealthy political and
vital conditions have fostered crime in our day and especially in

328 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

our country must be acknowledged by the most conservative stu-
dent as very great. After all due allowance is made for abnormal
individuals the extent of the disease we call crime, is seen to be
largely due to abnormal conditions.

One of the most glaring facts in the criminal customs and laws
of our land today is that the use of jails and prisons is not founded
on justice so much as it is on the convenience of society for the
holding of prisoners awaiting trial or the execution of the sen-
tences of the courts. Many of our states have several state
prisons. Nearly every one of our over twenty-seven hundred
counties in the United States has a jail and some have several jails
or places of detention; large cities have many police court jails.
Nearly a million men and women pass through our jails yearly.
Records show that nearly half these prisoners are under twenty-
five years of age. To pass a night in a police court jail is an edu-
cation in crime, the disgrace of it, the associations, the motley
array in the police court the next morning go far to smirch the
life of the one who is pronounced by such a court free from all
blame. Many are confined in jail waiting their trial for several
months. The enforced idleness of these jails, in many cases the
meeting of the young and inexperienced with old and experienced
criminals as the only companions for weeks and even months at a
time, and the disgrace of being in jail at all, make these places of
detention schools of crime.

Another glaring fact in the penology of our day is that penal-
ties for crime are not founded on justice so much as upon caprice,
there is no standard of righteousness in defining crime or grading
punishment, and more attention is often paid to the crime than to
the criminal. In Illinois a certain offense brings a man ten times
the punishment the same offense brings in New Jersey. In an-
other offense New York requires five times the length of imprison-
ment possible for the same offense in Tennessee. Know all about
a criminal act and still the degree of guilt in the criminal is un-
certain. A hardened criminal and a youth who has yielded to
impulse and has repented instantly, are treated alike, both go to
prison, though for different terms. Many times the term of

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 329

imprisonment depends more upon the temper and digestion of a
single judge than upon the justice in the particular case. If
sending to prison is not graded by justice it is graded still less by
the protection of society. Society is not safe with the criminal at
large so we shut him up in prison, and then we inconsistently let
him out in three months whether he is a tiger or a lamb, with the
probability that the one entering a mild tiger is a more fierce one
now, and the one entering a lamb has now acquired some of the
tiger nature.

A third glaring fact in the penology of our day, closely related
to these two, to the first one especially, is that the trial for crime
is not prompt and thorough and that the infliction of punishment
is frequently uncertain and often long delayed. This flows not
only from having jails as a convenient way of holding those
charged with crime but from courts being crowded with cases,
from professional advocates and defenders in the administration
of justice, and from a sickly public opinion with reference to the
whole subject and especially to certain crimes. It is often said
"Murder will out" and "the guilty cannot escape" — these are
proverbs of the olden time, they could not have their origin in our
country and in our day. In one of the basest crimes the United
States makes a bad showing compared with other nations. There
were in 1905 in England 318 homicides and 151 convictions for
that offense, in Germany there were 567 homicides and 476 con-
victions, while in the United States there were 9,212 homicides
and only 160 convictions for that offense. The New York Inde-
pendent of Januarj% 1906, says, "We kill more people by violence
in proportion to our population than any other so-called civilized
country in the world. And let it be considered that killing is not
seriously punished by our courts, only one legal hanging to sixty-
four homicides". This great and growing indifference to the
value of human life so cultivated, is further seen in the vast num-
bers killed and injured by our railroads, our mines, our iron foun-
dries and other industrial enterprises, with little or no holding the
corporate or individual takers of life to any real responsibility.

We turn now from our complex civilization with our many

330 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

prisons and multitude of criminals back to the Hebrew policy with
reference to crime; it was evidently designed to check political and
vital conditions from fostering the growth of crime; it had a
strange commingling of severity and humanity in dealing with
crime.

The first notable thing is the provision made for the administra-
tion of speedy and sure justice, sure in the main because speedy.
The community was itself held responsible to the one injured, so
the members of each community were interested to prevent injury
of any of its members, and when a crime had been committed the
community was interested and it was made its duty to arrest the
offender and bring him to trial. The court to try him was imme-
diately convened, it was composed in each community of the
elected officers and of such hereditary ones as were in that place at
the time, combining the two elements, as we saw in the institu-
tion of control, of sensitiveness to popular opinion and skill in
legal matters. The court met in public, generally in the open air
at the city gate or in the market square. The accused was pro-
tected by the provision requiring two witnesses to convict. The
promptness of the trial was a means of securing witnesses. There
seems to have been no provision for appeal to a higher court except
through the action of the lower court itself, "if the matter is too
hard for thee" they were to ask of the elders at the capital, but
the accused had no right to appeal in himself alone. When one
was found guilty the sentence was immediately passed upon him
and then it was at once executed; and the executioners were the
members of the court themselves who had condemned the offender,
sometimes the witnesses were also executioners. This doubtlessly
had the effect of making the court exceedingly cautious to convict
only when the case was clear, it increased their sense of responsi-
bility. This speedy trial did away almost entirely with prison life
and its many perplexing problems. There were prisons in Egypt
in the time of Joseph, and in Jerusalem in the time of Jeremiah,
and in Judea in the time of Herod but they were the outgrowth
of arbitrary power, and were not fostered by the policy of the crim-

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 331

inal laws, they were not a prominent feature of the organization of
society.

The second notable thing in the laws given by God through >^
Moses is the clear description of crime and the efifort made to suit
the punishment in each case to the crime. Instead of one policy
of imprisonment alike for all crimes, the element of time being
the only variety, there were four classes of penalties suited to
different crimes, and imprisonment was not included in either of
the four. If the injury was mainly to a man through his prop-
erty, an injury to property, there was to be full restitution with
some additional compensation, and if the offender was unable to
pay at once he was bound out to labor till the full amount was
paid. If the injury inflicted was a personal one, through the -
person or the relation of persons, there were two classes of penal-
ties, one was stripes limited to forty save one, the other was
retaliation, "An eye for an eye". In both classes the penalty was
to be inflicted by the members of the court who had given the
sentence. In all times and classes there has been the sense of the
justice of retaliation, but the trouble has been that the person
injured was not in a fit frame of mind to inflict it, would inevit-
ably go beyond the bounds of the crime. Some have carried this
objection to the Hebrew law, but the retaliation there directed was
not allowed to be inflicted by the person injured, but by the court
that tried the case and passed the sentence. This secured the
infliction of both stripes and retaliation only as a matter of stern
duty, and removed both from the domain of mere personal feeling,
securing only the feeling of an indignant public opinion and of a
court of righteous judges.

The last class of penalties was that of death. The death pen-
alty, too, was to be executed by the members of the court of trial.
The judges who had tried the man, who had passed sentence of
death upon him were to be themselves his executioners. This pro-
vision of the law secured here, as in the lower crimes, the most
cautious but firm judgment of the officers of the court.

There were only four classes of crimes punished with death, and
it was only in the first class that there could be any considerable

332 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

number of different crimes. This is far different from the popular
impression ; the Bible has been studied so much theologically
that many sociological facts of importance have been unnoticed.
This small number of crimes punished with death is also in strik-
ing contrast with the laws of other ancient nations, and even in
contrast with the laws of Christian nations of a very recent past,
and in a few cases of the present time. In England less than two
centuries ago there were over one hundred crimes with the death
penalty. The four classes of crime punished with death in the
particular society of the Bible were murder, adultery, enslaving
an Israelite and treason. The whole policy of the Hebrew laws
was strong to guard life. The inflicting the death penalty, that
is the judicial taking of life was only directed in the guarding of
life. Murder, was then as now — the intentional and wrongful
taking of life, with malice prepense. Adultery was the crime aimed
at the family, and polluted the source of life. Enslaving an
Israelite was spoiling the life of a brother. Treason was aiming at
the social organization a deadly blow, endangering individual life
and the life of society itself. In adultery it was expressly pro-
vided that both parties were to be regarded as equally guilty, and
both were to be stoned to death by the judges. It was only in
treason that there could be a variety of acts embraced in that
crime. Blasphemy, idolatry, witchcraft and Sabbath breaking
were crimes of treason. We are not accustomed to regard them
as such, we have studied our Bible for theology rather than
sociology, and we have regarded these as offences against religion,
and have thought the laws were so severe as to be justified only
by the circumstances of that early day. But we have seen in our
study of the institution of control, that God was the chosen
King of the nation, that underlying the whole government was
the authority of God, the Supreme Ruler. Blasphemy, idolatry
and witchcraft were thus insulting, rebelling, and undermining the
King, and through Him the whole national life. Sabbath break-
ing was also in the nature of treason. The Sabbath showed the
relation between God and His people, was its symbol, was the
national banner. In the early days of our civil war General

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 333

Dix issued an order "If any man hauls down the American flag
shoot him on the spot", and it met with the universal approval
of the loyal nation, it was in the nature of treason to insult the
banner of the nation. The other classes of crimes in the nature
of treason were ofFences of children against their parents, the
parental relation and authority being regarded then as it must be
regarded still as the foundation of all authority in the state.

The six Levitical cities set apart by Joshua as Cities of Refuge
in obedience to a command of God through Moses were to be
used to guard the unwitting slayer against the quick exercise of
the natural law of retaliation, but were not in any way to be the
refuge of the murderer, he was to be delivered up on demand to the
elders of the city where the crime had been committed. They
soon passed out of use. Much use, perhaps too much, has been
made of them to enforce religious lessons ; they seem to have had
little or no use sociologically.

It is quite clear from this concise description that modern pen-
ology can learn at least two principles from Hebrew policy of
great value to society today, the first is that of speedy administra-
tion of justice, the second is that of adapting the penalty to the
nature of the offence, perhaps a third is a more simplified defini-
tion of particular crimes. How these principles may be applied to
the complex conditions of society will be a comparatively easy mat-
ter if their nature is once fully recognized. But the all embracing
principle is that running through all Hebrew social life, the
principle of righteousness in the relation of man to man. The
state is to seek the good of all its members. All the citizens of the
state are equal before God, the Supreme Ruler, and are to treat
one another as brothers. This spirit checks the growth of
abnormal individuals, and also of abnormal conditions, and wisely
and efficiently seeks nothing less than the removal of crime.

Within the last few years there has been great advance made
in penal reform in our land, and it has been in the line of evolu-
tion through the thought of lovers of mankind, through the action
of judges in administering their courts, along the line of such
advancing thought, and at length this has become crystalized in the

334 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

laws of several of our states. This evolution has been along the
Bible lines of righteousness between the state and man its member,
and of brotherly treatment of man by man. The Hon. S. J.
Barrows, Commissioner for the United States on the International
Prison Commission makes the startling statement that Jesus Christ
is the greatest Penologist of all the ages, and says we need not
"Go back to Jesus" so much, as "Go forward to Jesus". It may
be adding a great deal to this, but yet it is not too startling to say,
that Jesus Christ is the greatest Social Pathologist of all climes
and of all times. He describes himself as coming to save sinners,
and all men are sinners against their fellows as well as against
God. He is the King of Righteousness, and His Kingdom is to
be one of social health.
pt. There are at least five principles in the teaching and practice of
Christ which apply to pathology in general and have a special
application to penology.

First — His theory was reformative rather than punitive, surely
rather than vindictive. It is more important to save men than to
destroy them. He said to the punitive and vindictive John, You
know not my spirit, the spirit you should have. Society brutalizes
itself and its victim unless it seeks to save.

Secondly — Jesus dealt with the offender rather than with the
offence. He had one mode of dealing with the woman of Samaria,
another for the rich young man, one with Mary Magdalene,
another for Matthew, the publican, another for Zacheus. He
tells society to enlist the power of love as a redemptive force, to
bring to bear some personal consideration and brotherly dealing
with each offender.

Thirdly — He used, and commends the use to society, the prin-
ciple of probation, saying frequently even to old offenders "Go and
sin no more". He gave them another chance, a new trial, with
the memory of his loving help to inspire them with hope and
courage.

Fourthly — In his direction to His disciples for their self-gov-
ernment in their social relation He taught that all discipline should
seek to win the offender to a brotherly life, it should be adminis-

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 335

tered when necessary, but only in a brotherly spirit. There should
be the forgiving spirit for all and every sign of repentance.
There should be the utmost consideration for the brother, and the
utmost pains to make him see his error, there must not be the
indulgence of any grudge, or any vindictive spirit. Think not
about the injury done to you but about the injury the offending
brother has done to himself, and strive to win him from his hate
by the considerate exercise of your love. All discipline should be
the loving administration of righteousness for the brother's good.
In His description of the last Judgment He makes this standard
of character the basis of judgment, and social character is com-
posed of individual character, and He at the same time shows
His sympathy for the needy as He represents Himself sharing
their hard lot, "I was hungry and ye gave me to eat, I was thirsty
and ye gave me drink, I was a stranger and ye took me in, naked
nad ye clothed me. I was sick and ye visited me, I was in prison
and ye came unto me". "Inasmuch as ye did it unto one of these
my brothers, these least, ye did it unto me".

Fifthy — He made a difference between the first offence and the
persistent and determined offender. He was the greatest child
savior of the world, and child saving is one of the marked features
of modern penal reform. He was the most patient, watchful and
faithful probation officer of all the ages, and probation and parole
are marked features of penal reform. But persistent and deter-
mined offenders, offenders in the face of all light and knowledge,
against all warning and pleading, offenders who would destroy the
moral and spiritual life of their fellow men, all these found in His
denunciation of the Pharisees a tone of voice and an indignant
righteousness that made them tremble.

The two simple principles of modern penal reform are found
in the line of Christ's teachings, the only wonder is that they
are so late in being adopted. The first is that the object of the
treatment of the criminal is not his punishment, but the protection
of society by changing him to a law abiding citizen. The second
is that it is possible to change old habits and create new ones by
coercive measures long enough applied, to produce what physiolo-

336 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

gists and psychologists call structural changes, physical and mental.
The first leads to the maxim, "never imprison a man but as a last
resort". The second leads to the maxim, "as a last resort imprison
him until he is fit to be freed," until he gives fair promise of being
a self-supporting and law abiding citizen. The first is the prin-
ciple of probation, the second is the principle of indeterminate
sentence, the prison a reformatory and industrial school, and the
freedom on parole as an incitement to good behavior while in
prison and a help to good conduct when released. The old idea
that severity of punishment acts as a deterent of others from com-
mitting kindred offences is almost discarded, entirely discarded at
the beginning of minor offences, and accepted only in the gen-
eral treatment of the hardened cases by the indeterminate sen-
tence.

New York State in 1900 had no parole law, sent its criminals to
prison for fixed terms, then set them entirely free ; and reports that
seventy per cent of them returned at once to lives of crime. That
same year ten other states had parole laws. Nine of them report
that over ninety per cent of those paroled became law abiding
citizens. Connecticut reports that all became such, one of these
ten states, Pennsylvania, reports that eighty-five per cent became
good citizens. New York in 1904 adopted the parole system for
its young criminals. Judge Cleland of the Chicago Police Court
heard of a church that looked after its weak brothers by appointing
an elder brother for each tempted man ; and began to apply that
principle in the conduct of his court. A man was tried for drunk-
enness and convicted. The Judge inflicted the maximum sentence ;
then considered a motion made to vacate the sentence. He post-
poned action on the motion for two weeks, and released the man
on his own word, having secured his promise not to drink, and to
work faithfully. There were four hundred men, who voluntarily
assisted the Judge as parole officers, true elder brothers. If the
paroled man forfeited his bail he was sent to jail. If he came
back in two weeks and reported all well, and his parole officers
so reported, he was released for another two weeks; and so indef-
initely. So a Judge with the modern spirit and without a special

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 337

State law pursues the teachings of Christ. Of the one thousand
and more cases passing through his court in 1905 nine hundred
and thirty were recovered to society, the other seventy were sent
to the county jail for the maximum term. The Judge holds over
them the sentence, and enforces it when they fail to keep their
parole, and though drunkards are a hard class to reform this suc-
ceeds in reforming a great majority of those who have gone so
far down as to come before a police court.

But of course it is in the formative period of manhood that the
most efficient work is done. The most notable development in
judicial methods in the last five years has been in the establish-
ment of juvenile courts. A children's court is a criminal court
with a new function, that of salvation. Children have before
been judged by the same laws and in the same spirit with adults,
and often sent to the same jails, confined in the same tiers and
even in the same cells with hardened criminals. The main ques-
tion has been, did he know a particular action was wrong, and how
much shall he be punished for doing it ; the attitude of society
has been punishment and repression. The juvenile court does not
have its main purpose punishment, it holds that no child should
be punished as an example, its main purpose is not even reforma-
tion, it hesitates to send him to a juvenile reformatory, but its
main purpose is formation, to guide the child to become a man.
The first children's court was established in Chicago in 1899;
the juvenile court law of Illinois was passed as a protest against
educating the children in crime. Such courts are now in many
cities of at least eight states. The children's court tries admonition
and probation. It has paid and volunteer probation officers, the
women probation officers of Chicago are supported by the Chicago
Women's Club. The court dispenses as far as possible with
elaborate and technical procedure, it finds the personality of the
judge and of the probation officer the highest elements of its
success. Judge Tuthill of Chicago says "I try to act in each case
as I would were it my own son before me in my library at home
charged with misconduct". Judge Stubbs of Indiana says "It is
the personal touch that does it. If I can get my hand on the

338 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

boy's head and my arm around him I can in nearly every case win
his confidence". Judge Lindsey of Denver may be called the
father of the juvenile court, though he began his tactful and
beneficent treatment of young offenders under the old lav^^s. At
the last election he, a Democrat was not only nominated by his
own party, but by all the other parties in the heartiest manner;
this shows the popular approval of a Judge not because of the
number he has condemned but of the number he has saved. In
Denver for the last few years out of over seven hundred brought
before the court it became necessary to commit only ten per cent
to the State Industrial School, while before at least seventy-five
per cent were sent to such schools and reformatories. Of the
nearly six hundred children placed on probation of whom thirty-
nine were girls, only thirty-one, all of them boys, were returned
to the court, and these because of hopeless home surroundings.
The economic gain was also great. The Governor of Colorado
declared that in a year and a half the Juvenile Court in Denver
had saved the State nearly one hundred thousand dollars. In
New Jersey there has also been a decided decrease in the number
of children brought into court, showing the deterent effect of the
system.

With the whole system of modern penal reform the need is made
manifest of expert probation officers, prison officers and judges.
Men with the ideal of saving, and culturing themselves in the
art of saving, and acting according to the principles, spirit and
practice of the Savior of the world.

There are three vices fearfully prevalent in our Christian civiliz-
ation, which have been and still are prevalent generally in pagan
lands, but which do not seem to have flourished at all in the par-
ticular society of the Bible. It may be assumed that these preva-
lent vices have been fostered by the vital, industrial and social
theories, customs and practices which may be called abnormal con-
ditions. It may be of some profit to compare somewhat these
vices and to estimate how the policy of Bible society has checked
both the abnormal individuals, and the abnormal conditions fos-
tering them.

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 339

The first is the vice of sexual impurity. Mulhall says the pro-
portion of illegitimate births has not varied much in the last thirty
years, that in Ireland it is 26 to every 1,000 births, in England it is
42, in Scotland it is 72, in France it is 88, in Sweden it is 107, in
Austria it is 145, and in the United States it is 70. Difficulties
attending legal marriage account to some extent for the large
proportion in Austria. The report of the Committee of Fifteen
in New York City states that in 1893 in that city, now the Bor-
ough of Manhattan, there were 40,000 prostitutes. The Prefect of
Police of Paris estimated there were 100,000 prostitutes in that city
in the same year. Mr. Goodchild of the committee estimates that
there are five fallen men for every fallen woman, which would
make 200,000 fallen men in Manhattan ; but prostitution is not
supported by residents alone. The committee says the police often
protect houses of prostitution, and gives as an example that a
house of ten inmates paid $500 initiation fee to the wardsman and
$50 a month for immunity; and estimates the amount of ill busi-
ness done in that single house. The District Attorney of New
York City recently declared that 2,000 of the 2,509 hotels of
New York City were open houses of prostitution ; and that this
condition had been fostered by the Raines Law, designed to check
intemperance, a law designed to check one vice resulting in foster-
ing another. The committee says the system of regulating the
vice practiced in some European cites is no radical or adequate
remedy even for the physical evils of the vice.

An investigation in Massachusetts of nearly 4,000 pros-
titutes shows that 1,200 came from home liife having no
other occupation, 1,100 had been servants, 500 had been dress-
makers and seamstresses, 300 had been in factories, 100 in stores
and offices and 50 had been upon the stage. There is a class of
men called cadets, who lure girls to their ruin and then are sup-
ported by their ill-gotten gains. The charity organization states
that thousands of immigrant girls landing at Ellis Island are
annually forced or lured into habits of harlotry. The committee
agree upon five or six remedies, better housing of the poor, raising
the conditions of labor, better mora) education, purer forms of

340 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

amusement, contagion checked by more adequate hospital condi-
tions, and strong condemnation of public opinion. The public
opinion evidently needs correcting and stimulating which ignores
the sin on man's part and visits its severe condemnation on the
woman ; the social and business code that does not frown upon the
man but casts out the woman needs the tonic of the Hebrew law.
The poem of Brooke has the lightning of God's wrath in it —

"Three men went out one summer's night
No care had they or aim
And dined and drank, e're we go home
We'll have, they said, a game;
Three girls began that summer's night
A life of endless shame.
And went through drink, disease and death
As swift as racing flame; —
Lawless and homeless, foul, they died ;
Rich, loved, and praised the men;
But when they all shall meet with God
And Justice speaks: What then?"

That sexual impurity existed but did not flourish in the par-
ticular society of the Bible seems quite evident; though the his-
tory is concise several glaring instances are given, but the whole
back ground seems one of prevailing virtue. When we look at
the laws given by God through Moses we find two marked
features, first, harlotry was prohibited, second, the man was
regarded as equally guilty with the woman in the case of adultery,
and both were punished with death. When we look at the policy
of the society lying back of and nourished by these and other laws
of the family we see the honorable position of woman, the sanc-
tity of the sexual relation in marriage, and the guarding its purity
as the source of life. The Committee of Fifteen call for better
conditions of labor and living, we have already seen such condi-
tions were fostered in Hebrew practice. The moral education
and the public opinion recommended by the committee must follow

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 341

the Bible policy of subordinating the sexual instincts, to the ideal
of life and of the marriage it inculcates. They must awaken and
foster that kind of idealism which starts into life all the springs
of self-respect, of chivalrous and generous feeling toward woman,
of desire for and consideration for offspring, and of that mutual
love at once passionate and spiritual, which alone can give sac-
redness to the relation of man and woman in marriage, and which
guards against all improper relation out of marriage, which
makes impure indulgence impossible both by outward law and
by inward spirit.

The second vice prevalent in our Christian civilization is intem- ,
perance in intoxicating drinks. Since the discovery of alcohol and
the art of distilling it, stronger drinks than could be obtained by
fermentation have been common, and modern intemperance has
had possibilities of indulgence ancient intemperance did not pos-
sess. If is claimed that one reason why American workmen sur-
pass those of other lands is that they drink less intoxicants. The
average drink of the Englishman, Frenchman, and German is
over thirty gallons of spirits of all kinds each year, while the
American drinks only a little over fifteen gallons. This is a
tremendous amount of drink for each drinker however, whatever
nationality we consider, when there are so many in each who do
not drink at all. Intemperance is a large cause of poverty beyond
doubt, and it is equally clear that poverty is a large cause of intem-
perance. The insufficient food and lack of comfort and healthful
condition in the home lead the way to the saloon. The saloon has
Its attraction of warmth, comfort, music, games, freedom from
restraint, equality, democratic privilege, many social allurements,
with drinking expected and provided. .Many ways have been
devised by society in different climes and times to check the grow-
mg vice. The Bible policy of self-control, the true temperance
m all things, and of high views of life and responsibility to the
Supreme King checks the abnormal individual; and the policy
that fosters industry and its rewards and sociability of equals in
pnvilege and duties checks the abnormal conditions fostering this
vice.

342 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

The third vice prevalent in Christian lands is gambling. A bill
recently introduced in Congress and now in the hands of the
judiciary committee declares against some features of business
conducted in our stock exchange as disguised gambling, an intense
and bad kind, all the v^^orse for the disguise. Many students of
the subject charge that the churches often awaken and foster
gambling in their fairs and other devices for raising money. There
is much gambling in social games, often involving large sums of
money. Besides there is the large and enticing gambling business,
where men of all classes, and women too, in betting in one form
or another risk a little that they may win much. The fever grows
and in many cases becomes a craze, when the risk is no longer
little but involves business and home and the future in time and
eternity. The race track may do a great deal of good in fostering
the finest breed of horses, and may have in itself a great deal of
healthful excitement but when betting is associated with it and
freely indulged there rises a brood of evils hard to estimate and
sure to degrade the breed of men. Race track gambling becomes a
mania, converting men from useful and honorable into useless and
dangerous members of society, and causing a wail of despair from
ruined lives, wasted fortunes and destroyed homes that lingers long
after the shouts of the race course have died away. It is said that
$80,000,000 are invested in race tracks in New York City alone,
and that in 1906 the receipts of the tracks of the State of New
York were over $4,000,000, and that race track gambling as
allowed in the State rages fearfully; and Governor Hughes is try-
ing to awaken public opinion to abolish it. The vice while asso-
ciated with things not vicious in themselves, the spirit of play, the
taste for excitement, the love of taking some risk, is after all
clearly seen to be in its desire to get something for nothing. The
fact that the one who loses agreed to take the risk and wanted to
win, and that all have the excitement of the risk, does not change
the fact that the winner gave no equivalent for the thing won.
The whole policy of the particular society of the Bible as we have
seen fostered industry and honesty, the getting things needed by
giving a fair equivalent for them, and so antagonized the gambling

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 343

spirit. While gambling was not entirely absent we find hardly a
trace of it in the frankly clear pictures of social life given in the
Bible. It was Roman soldiers who gambled over the robe of Christ.

We of course must regard the political corruption when wealth
tries to buy votes, office, legislation and judicial favors, and police
corruption when vice and crime try to buy immunity from the
penalty of violated laws, as forms of vice in themselves, and it
cannot be questioned that they are deadly blows to good govern-
ment in city, state or nation, and that they already exist to such an
extent as to form a serious menace to our republican form of gov-
ernment and to our social welfare; and that an enlightened and
vigorous public opinion should be aroused against them. It would
be difficult to find better material and spirit to enlighten and stim-
ulate public opinion to antagonize and banish these vices than can
be found in the institution of control we have just considered,
and the moral law and the religious teachings prevailing in the
particular society of the Bible.

One of the most obvious social diseases is social inactivity.
There are many divisions of the class of the socially inactive, those
who are deficient in physical, mental or moral health, deficient
acutely for a little while, or deficient chronically for all time.
There are said to be 100,000 imbeciles in the United States, and
that seventy per cent, of these are children of imbecile parents.
Society is trying to prevent the marriage of imbeciles, but there
are so many degrees of imbecility above that of absolute helpless-
ness, and some are so nearly normal that the problem seems almost
insolvable.

Dr. White of the Government Hospital for the Insane says that
insanity is curiously proportioned in the United States. In the
New England and Middle States there is one insane person to
ever}/ 400 of the population, in the Western States there is one to
every 700, in the Southern States one to every 900, in the Rocky
Mountain division one to every 1,200, and along the Pacific Slope
one to every 400. The intensity of the climate and of the excited
life along the shores of oceans, and that these shores were settled
at first by people of high enterprise and nerve stress account per-

344 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

haps for the double proportion, while closeness to the soil makes
hardy sober-minded men, and mountain grandeur calms man's
wild fancies and ambitions. Perhaps also density of population
and the excitement incident to it doubles the proportion of the
insane.

A very large proportion of the socially inactive at any particu-
lar time are those laid aside on sick beds, the deficient in physical
strength for a little while, the individuals of this class are con-
stantly changing, but the class itself remains quite constant. Gen-
eral sanitary conditions are so thoughtfully and considerately
administered by society that this constant class shall be as small
as possible and constantly diminishing.

But the two class of the socially inactive much larger than all
the others combined are at the two extremes of society, the paupers
and the idle from choice, we may call them the idle among the
well-to-do and rich, those who constantly live upon society without
contributing anything to its welfare, parasites on the social body.

The policy of the particular society of the Bible fostered social
health and reduced the elements of sickness whether of body or
mind to the smallest extent possible. The most modern and
scientific medical advice for the preservation of the general health
would say "Be free from anxiety, be occupied, be temperate". So
the Bible would check disease from spreading widely and wildly
by saying "Be not anxious for the morrow. Be diligent in busi-
ness. Be temperate in all things". The law requiring rest one
day in seven is generally conceded to be for the good of body and
mind, guarding against their exhaustion. If our overworked pro-
fessional and business men and our absorbed society women would
obey this law, and if in addition they would observe the Sabbatical
year, would one year in seven take relief from mental strain, we
may be sure nervous prostration would not have so many victims
nor our asylums be so greatly thronged. The Bible long before
the circulation of blood was discovered, long before the microbes
of disease were known, directed attention to the all embracing
truth of modern medical research — "the blood is the life". The
Bible taught and practiced in leprosy that the proper treatment of

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 345

contagious diseases was by isolation. The laws of Moses required
the most sanitaiy disposal of refuse and secured a supply of pure
water and pure air. Dr. Richardson in "Diseases of Modern
Life" says "From some cause or causes the Jewish race presents
an endurance against disease that does not belong to other portions
of our civilized communities". This is attributed by medical
judges to the laws of diet given by God through Moses. Renouard
in his "History of Medicine" says "The writings of Moses consti-
tute a precious monument in the history of medicine, for they em-
brace hygienic rules of the highest sagacity. Those precepts de-
signed to regulate the relation of a man to his wife have a wisdom
and foresight becoming extracts from a modern work on hygenics".
Dr. Clarke in his work on "Sex in Education" says "The instruc-
tors, the homes and the schools of our country's daughters would
profit by reading the old Levitical law. The race has not yet out-
grown the physiology of Moses".

When we consider the large class of the socially inactive who
are idle from choice, those of the well-to-do and the rich — many of
whom do not know what to do for the good of society — and many
of whom do not care enough for their fellow man to do anything
however much it may be needed, those features of the institution
of industry in the particular society of the Bible which give
employment to all, which foster such general distribution of
wealth that there shall be no large leisure class, and which culti-
vate an enthusiasm for social welfare, afford a check to the growth
of these parasites of society. Wm. J. Bryan in one of his great
orations makes a plea for the dignity of labor: he says "The odium
which rests upon the work of the hand exerted a baneful influence
the world around. The theory that idleness is more honorable
than toil, that it is more respectable to consume what others have
produced than to be a producer of wealth, has not only robbed
societ}'^ of an enormous sum but it has created an almost impassable
gulf between the leisure class and those who support them. Be-
cause some imagine themselves above work while others see before
them nothing but a life of drudgery there is constant warring and
much bitterness. When men and women become ashamed of

346 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

doing nothing and strive to give to society full compensation for
all they receive from society, there will be harmony between the
classes".

One of the most distressing and wide spread disease of society,
ancient and modern, is poverty, and Bible sociology has some very
striking principles tending to reduce it, if not entirely to banish
it. Poverty is the condition in which the total earnings of the
individual or family are insufficient to obtain the necessaries of
merely physical health, it covers a class without the means of
approaching a complete life, it describes a deficient rate of con-
sumption of general wealth per capita for the general welfare. It
must be distinguished from pauperism which describes a class sup-
ported, not by its own efforts but by society. Poverty supports
itself, it earns its living, but it is an insufficient living, it lives, but
at a poor dying rate, without ministering to the health of the gen-
eral society of which it is a part but rather causing it weakness and
pain. Society should cultivate happiness and avoid pain in its
members. Poverty is the condition that falls short of this, it
diminishes happiness and fosters pain from insufficient means of
living. Poverty we sometimes call the industrious self-respecting
poor, while pauperism describes the poor lacking in industry and
self-respect, but this is unjust to many in the latter class. Poverty
the most industrious and self -respected, is often crowded over the
verge into pauperism; it has little or nothing laid up for a rainy
day, it cannot have for at best it has not had sufficient support on
the clear day. When the rainy day comes and is a long one, when
there is no work to do, when there is sickness or death and the
bread-earner falls, or when he is entirely disabled, maimed by his
work or worn out or infirm with age there is nothing to do but to
go over the verge into pauperism, he or she or both and their little
or sickly children with them.

Poverty is the chronic condition of the great majority in heathen
nations. It is probably true that the majority in many heathen
lands do not know what it is to have a full meal or a comfortable
bed. Poverty is the chronic condition of a large minority and a
growing one in Christian lands. Even in our new country, where

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 347

the soil is unexhausted, where there is enormous wealth and great
enlightenment and much brotherly love, poverty is a wide spread
and distressing disease. Charles Booth, the London Statistician,
says that twenty per cent, of the population of London live on the
verge of starvation. In 1904 the number of paupers in London
was over 127,000, 28 persons out of every 1,000 were receiving
relief. Mr. Rocontree in "Poverty, a Study of Town Life" says
that in York, England, 20,000 out of a population of 75,000 are
in poverty. Prof. R. T. Ely and Mr. Charles D. Kellogg, Sec-
retary of the Charitiy Organization Society of New York City,
estimate that at the close of the last century there were over
3,000,000 paupers in the United States, supported by society.
Mr. Robert Hunter in his book on "Poverty" estimates that at
least 10,000,000 people in the United States are in poverty, and
that of these 4,000,000 are paupers, dependent upon some form of
public relief.

That society provides such relief is to be acknowledged as the
outgrowth of the brotherly spirit. But it surely would be more in
line with Christian love to search for the causes of this wide spread
and distressing disease, and then to carefully and faithfully remove
them. We are to remember that both pagan and Christian Rome
fed vast numbers of the poor but thereby they fostered the growth
of poverty, pagan Rome fed the poor from fear. Christian Rome
from love, if you choose to so describe the motives, but in both
cases they treated poverty unwisely. If as is alleged twenty per
cent, of the people of Boston and New York are supported by
public and private charity, if ten per cent, of all those who die in
New York City have pauper burials, if the poverty class from
which the pauper class is so largely and constantly recruited is at
least ten per cent, of our entire population, then there must be
some cause or causes of these conditions, causes which if allowed
to continue and grow will make such conditions worse rather than
better as the years go on. The present must be cared for by the
tenderest and strongest brotherly love the conditions demand, but
the future must be made better by the wisdom of love. Abnormal
individuals doubtless contribute much to the poverty class but the

348 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

larger factor must be abnormal conditions. By the census of
1900 the wealth of the United States was over $1,200 per capita,
which would give the average family of five about $6,000 of wealth.
Charles Spahr in his book "The Present Distribution of Wealth"
says that less than ten per cent, of the families of the United
States possess $5,000 of wealth. If this deficiency is to be attrib-
uted to abnormal individuals, to indolence, inefficiency and extrava-
gance then ninety per cent, of our American people are chargeable
with these defects. Evidently much of the deficiency, much of
the poverty it foreshadows, must be due to abnormal conditions,
such as low wages, irregular employment, unsanitary labor, high
rents, high cost of living and the whole political economy of "each
man for himself, first and always".

Now on the principle that the cultivation of the general health
is the best way to prevent the growth of disease we catch a glimpse
ot the way the policy of the particular society of the Bible checked
the growth of poverty. There are three causes of the general
prosperity of any society.
^ First, a sufficient rate of the production of wealth per capita to
supply the general needs. By the proper cultivation of the soil,
the manufacture of commodities and the facilities for exchange
through the institution of industry, a sufficiency of material wealth
must be provided to give to every member of society enough to
sustain complete life, his physical, mental and moral welfare. The
society of the Bible followed the policy of widely directed and
thorough industry, which as we have seen in a former chapter
resulted in a vast accumulation of wealth. The institution of the
family also secured a vigorous race in successive generations, a
race that filled the land with hardy manhood and virtuous woman-
hood but did not overcrowd it with vast numbers of weaklings.
According to the law of evolution the complete life of man, the
highest reach of life on earth will be prolific enough to maintain
and advance itself but will not have such an excessive birth rate
as to overcrowd the earth itself or any land thoroughly cultivated,
and living in right relations with other lands. The life complete
in physical, mental and moral welfare will maintain itself but

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 349

there need be no fear of its ever destroying itself by over-produc-
tion. Malthus and Darvvin in their fear that the earth w^ould not
have standing room for man's progeny, if prosperity v^^as general,
lost sight of or had not yet discovered this law of evolution. The
idea that there must be a large death rate based upon war, disease,
poverty, starvation and such abnormal conditions to prevent over-
crowding, is utterly unscientific.

The second cause of general prosperity is a substantially equal
distribution of wealth per capita so that all the members of society
may attain complete life. If some classes of society consume more
than they produce or hord,e it for their own purposes other classes
must consume less than they produce. Since according to the first
cause enough for all must be produced and since the policy of the
Bible society was that all should be producers, all except of course
children, the sick, the aged and the defective, the policy of distri-
bution of wealth must be based upon the principle of righteousness.
Carroll D. Wright, U. S. Commissioner of Labor, says "Religion
is the only solution. The Decalogue is a good labor platform.
We are to have a new law of wages grown out of religious
thought. The old struggle was for mere existence, the new strug-
gle is for a wider spiritual manhood. Out of this struggle is
growing a new political economy. With the process of the new
thought there will be an alliance of ethics and economics".
There is no conflict between God's law of righteousness and the
fertility of the earth. As was so often said in treating of these
subjects the policy of the Bible society protected and fostered the
man, while our modern laws and customs often seem to value
money more than manhood. The political economy of Adam
Smith made man revolve about capital, the political economy of
Jesus Christ makes capital revolve about manhood. That indus-
trial system is not in accord with the mind of Christ that grinds
up men and women to make money. Christ gave to every man the
privilege of complete life, physical, mental and spiritual, and com-
plete life is subject to but one rule, "Love thy neighbor as thyself".
The society that permits or encourages capital to take the lion's
share of the profits made by the combined efforts of capital and

350 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

labor, thereby transgresses that law and necessarily promotes
poverty. All it can do afterward to alleviate poverty, and all that
capital can do, cannot in any way atone for the violation of the
law of righteousness. The cultivation of poverty is thus seen not
to be God's plan for man's life on earth, but a great wrong
inflicted by man upon his brother. Markham in "The Man with
a hoe" says:

"Who made him dead to rapture and despair
A thing that grieves not, and that never hopes
Stolid and stunned, a brother to the ox?
Who loosened and let down this brutal jaw?
Whose breath blew out the light within this brain?

Oh masters, lords and rulers in ail lands —

Is this handi-work you give to God

This monstrous thing distorted and soul quenched —

Oh masters, lords and rulers in all lands

How will the future reckon with this Man,

When this dumb Terror shall reply to God

After the silence of the centuries"?

^ The third cause for general prosperity is such a rational devel-
opment of man's wants and tastes that they can be supplied by the
actual production of wealth per capita. Man has a great tendency
to cultivate his wants and tastes irrationally until they become
abnormal and extravagant, until they debase rather then ennoble
him. The Bible society was educated, as we have seen in the
institution of culture, to excel not as the Greeks in love of the
beautiful, nor as the Romans in love of power, but in the love of
righteousness. There was a relative value of things, each at its
proper valuation, first righteousness, then a proper value placed
upon the beautiful and the powerful. The luxury of the senses
whenever it has been fostered by society has proved disintegrat-
ing, it has ministered to classifying the rich and the poor, often
making the rich very rich, and the poor very poor. The policy

SOCIAL PATHOLOGY 351

of society that cultivates the wants and tastes of men toward
rational rather than sensual development lifts up society as a
whole. Christ taught, "seek first the Kingdom of God and His
righteousness and all these things shall be added to you", it is for
the individual not only but for society as well, beauty and power
added to rigteousness, an enthusiasm for humanity that seeks a
widespread culture in righteousness will incidentally clothe man-
kind with the beauty and power as yielded by the fertility of the
earth itself; this is the rational policy of society. The policy that
makes individual wealth the measure of success cultivates poverty.
The worship of the rich is the degradation of the poor.

The remedy for poverty so fearfully prevalent in Christian lands
today must be found in these three causes of general prosperity as
found in Bible sociology. That which we call charity, the giving
of alms, the higher charity, the giving of friendship, can at best
only alleviate the distress, only the love of humanity that insures
justice can cure poverty. Trade itself can only alleviate poverty.
A railroad magnate says that if he gave all his wealth it would
feed the poor of China only a little while, but that his railway
and steamships carry the food raised in the central United States
and thus feed the poor of China for all time; but the accumu-
lation of great wealth in the hands of a few does not do away with
poverty itself either in China or the United States. The three
sources of general prosperity as found in Bible sociology will pre-
vent poverty itself. This is the hope before humanity. Instead
of the despair of political economy, instead of the incomplete life
of vast multitudes in the most prosperous lands in ancient and
modern times, the Kingdom of God will make the earth itself
exceedingly fruitful and will secure all men, its subjects, a complete
and full life, a general prosperity.

CHAPTER XX.

The Ideal of Social Health.

Society may be evolving from past conditions to future ones, it
may advance from one degree of attainment to another, and still
better one. This evolution is itself healthful, may be called social
health, it even may be acknowledged the best health of which
society at present is capable; and it also points to a higher degree
of health in the future which society is capable of attaining. If a
particular society stands still or goes backward, evolution for that
society has ceased, balance exists or deterioration, and the future
threatens stagnation or death. But the standing still or going
backward may be only temporary, society may arouse itself out of
such conditions by its inherent force, or be aroused by some
incursion of new force, grown weary or fallen asleep it may
wake up or be awakened to new, and perhaps even refreshed life,
and so enter upon a new and perhaps more rapid evolution. A
particular society may also grow old, it may pass its maturity and
while it still exists, it lives in decrepitude, still this may be the best
possible health of old age, and even old society may be renewed
by the incursion of new life. It is with society as with the indi-
vidual, very difficult to describe health, the health of the grow-
ing boy is not the health of the mature man. Besides it is with
society as with the individual, the standard of health is not always
the same. A man may have the most buoyant health physically
and very poor health mentally and still worse, may even be a
very sick man morally. Some classes of a particular society may
be out of harmony with the health of that society, and not recog-
nize themselves or be recognized by society as being elments of
weakness or disease. One of the difficulties of considering social

IDEAL OF SOCIAL HEALTH 353

pathology as we have seen is the absence of a fixed standard of
health.

It is with society very much as it is with the individual, health
depends upon many things, upon heredity, and environment, upon
education and training, upon exercise and sustenance. Still all
these many things may be modified by the will, and the will may
be consciously and steadily choosing an ideal. This ideal the
social consciousness may have evolved from its past history or may
have caught from other societies, or may have made a composite
from many sources, but as it is firmly and clearly held before
the will and eagerly and constantly chosen it has a controlling
influence on the social health. The ideal of democracy for exam-
ple, has a vast influence on the social health of our own country.

The literature of any society, if it has one, gives as we have seen
a description of society ; in every stage of the society so described
there was an ideal in the nature of the society which found more
or less clear expression in the literature, and there were possibili-
ties of arousing society to exercise its inherent forces to attain its
ideal, that is, the literature would give the data of descriptive
static and dynamic sociology. The Bible is a vast literature, a
single book — we may well call it, "The Book", but it is also a
library of books. These books are of several kinds, they were writ-
ten by many men of various ability and culture, and were writ-
ten in different periods during a long national history.

We have thus far gathered and arranged some data of descrip-
tive sociology. We now turn our attention to the static and
dynamic data that we may catch a view of the Bible ideal and
standard of social health. The literature of the Bible is of three
distinct kinds, narrative, poetry and oratory. It may be said in
general that narrative gives descriptive, poetry gives static and
oratory gives dynamic sociological material ; but in general litera-
ture these would necessarily overlap, and this therefore would be
only a vague and most general classification. In the Bible lit-
erature there is in addition a new and a unique feature, dis-
tinguishing it from all other literatures as we have already fully
considered, that of the supernatural revelation of God the basis

354 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

of the Hebrew conception of God. This is found largely in the
narrative, and it largely influences both the poetry and the oratory.
God is the Father of the whole race of mankind, God is the chosen
King of the particular society of the Bible. This is the revelation
and the conception combined. Hence all men are equal before
God, hence all men are brothers in ideality; and in the society
choosing God as Sovereign, all men are equal before the King,
and all men are brothers in reality; the ideal is to some extent
realized, at least all are acknowledged brothers.

This progressive supernatural revelation and this growing con-
ception are found in the narrative literature of the Bible, but the
conception there is general, and varies with changing conditions.
The narrative gives the revelation, the commands and the promises
of God, and describes how the people lived who received these,
but it is the people in general, in the life they attained, the concep-
tion they formed of God, the obedience they gave to Him and the
trust they placed in Him. We may discern the social condition
and may see something of the standard of the social health pre-
vailing as we read the narrative; but to attain a glimpse of the
social consciousness as it discerned the ideal of social health we
look to the poetry of the Bible, we turn to those gifted souls whose
keen insight of both the revelation of God and of the conception
of God, and also of the possibilities growing out of the social
conditions based upon them, made them the interpreters of the
yearning and hoping of the social life. In the oratory- of the Bible
we find further the wise and burning souls who not only dis-
cerned the ideal of social health but who sought to arouse the
society to strive to attain it, they rebuked with fearless indignation
its short comings, and strayings, they sketched in glowing colors
the vast alluring possibilities, and they exhorted with loving
earnestness society to arouse itself in its full vigor and to take
hold of the great dynamic help of God, to attain the ideal of social
health.
i— In the narrative portion of Hebrew literature we find three dis-
tinct settings forth of God's ideal or standard of social health ;
they are parts of the supernatural revelation of Himself. When

IDEAL OF SOCIAL HEALTH 355

we come to estimate the conceptions the people formed of this ideal
or standard we recognize they were largely erroneous; but still
the erroneous conceptions were a peculiar and rich endowment of
the social life and gave promise of casting off its errors and attain-
ing to the ideals of God.

The first of these ideals of social health is the Ten Command- "^
ments. The literature shows the source of the Ten Command-
ments as God Himself, and that He gave them directly to the
people; not as He gave the civil and ceremonial laws through
Moses. Moses can in no sense be called the law-giver with
regard to the Ten Commandments, as he may be in reference to
other laws. The Ten Commandments in their mode of giving
not only but in their nature show they came from God. No one
can claim this perfect law was evolved from the social condition
of mankind attained by the civilization of the Euphrates or of the
Nile in that early day, it surely did not evolve from the social
condition the Hebrews had attained at that time. Coming from
God it is His ideal or standard of social health. It is His authori-
tative statement of man's social nature, the nature He made is
defined by the Creator Himself. When society keeps this law it
will attain to the ideal of its creator, will attain to the highest
possible social health. Each commandment states an element of
man's nature which man's study and effort however thorough can
neither exhaust nor improve; and each element while it magnifies
personality links man with his fellow man as a social being. The
individual man and society can find health only as these elements
attain their right development. The first table of the law is
sociological, as well as theological. Man is to give the true God
the highest place in his heart, he is to worship Him in spirit, and
so grow like Him, he is to honor Him in thought and speech,
he is to be like Him in being above and separate from his work,
and he is to give honor to all authority coming from Him. Thus
the elements in man's nature described by the Creator in the first
table of His law show man as a social being and set forth the
standard and ideal of social health. The second table is equally
sociological. Man is to reverence as coming from God, and to

356 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

sacredly guard life, and sex, and property, and reputation, and his
own spiritual nature, he is not to injure himself spiritually by
thinking, planning or desiring to violate any law of his being as
given by God. The whole law is God's ideal and standard of
social health. That the people formed erroneous conceptions of
this ideal, that they were so bound and limited by the interpreta-
tion they put upon the letter of the law that they lost sight of
much of its spirit must be readily acknowledged, and this is carried
on to some extent by many reverent students of the law to this day.
Still they had the law, many of them formed conceptions more
closely conformed to its spirit; and our Lord Jesus Christ in His
inaugural proclamation as King gave clear teachings concerning
its real meaning, removed the erroneous traditions that had fas-
tened to it, and brought out with force its divine ideal of social
health.

The second of the God given standards of social health is found
in the ideal man. The life of Jesus Christ is pictured to us in
those wonderful narratives, the four gospels. That life has been
standing in a blaze of light now for nearly twenty centuries, and
has been and is being scrutinized intently during those many years
years by the ablest minds, of all races, and of both His friends and
foes. Those who have thought they had discovered some flaw in
Him have not been able to point it out to the conviction of any
considerable portion of mankind, and even His bitterest foes
acknowledge His general worth. The general verdict of the ages
is that Jesus Christ is a perfect man. If all men lived as He lived
society would attain to the ideal and standard of social health.
That many formed erroneous conceptions of this ideal, is seen in
that the leaders of the people crucified Him, but this only served
to bring out clearly His matchless perfection in dying for His
enemies. Though not yet fully appreciated He is honored wherever
known as teaching the loftiest truths, giving the example of the
purest morals, putting forth the noblest influence, leading the
thought and the life of mankind into increasing likeness to His
own splendid manhood.

The third of the God given ideals or standards of social health

IDEAL OF SOCIAL HEALTH 357

IS found in what we may call the hope of Israel. Many literatures
show that the golden age of the nation has been left behind, the
literature of the Hebrews even in their most prosperous times
shows the golden age was still ahead, that all the prosperity
attained was but the foregleam of the coming brightness. This
strange feature of the literature even of the narrative kind, that
has been noticed so often, is worthy of the study of sociologists.
The narrative of law-givers, of kings, of manners and customs,
of ceremonials of religion, of development of government, of
relations with other nations is so constructed and is so filled with
anticipation and hope that it points forward to a great King and
a nobler kingdom still to come. Even the New Testament while
a fulfillment of the hope of the Old has its glowing hope, the King
has come but in His humiliation. He is coming again in glory, the
kingdom is at hand, but its triumphant universal and everlasting
establishment is in the future. This feature of the narrative
shows that the particular society of the Bible always had an ideal,
it was often vague, it was frequently erroneous, it was sometimes
almost lost, but it was always present and frequently it was very
bright. When we seek to account for it we can only trace it to the
revelation of God, it was the God given ideal. The assurance
God gave to Abraham was cherished by His descendants to the
thousandth generation, that God would bless them and make them
a blessing to the world. That they were to bless the world some-
times became dim, almost vanished from their view, but they
were sure God would bless them. We can now see with the light
of Christ's teaching that the blessing others was to be the result
of God's blessing them, that the highest ideal of social health is
to be like the Heavenly Father, the great lover of mankind, the
great giver of good and perfect gifts; that true greatness is not
in being served, but in serving others.

The poetry of the Bible is lyric, didactic and dramatic and each
kind has its own special way of setting forth the ideal and standard
of social health in the consciousness of the poet, and as his insight
enabled him to discern it in the consciousness of society, dim often
times and vague, but existing. The Psalms give expression to the

358 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

varied experiences of individuals and of society, and voice these in
private or public adoration of God in prayer or praise. Some
psalms were evidently arranged to sing in the Temple worship, by
single voices, by the great choir, by the whole congregation, other
psalms were for the family worship, many for the soul alone with
God. Some of these psalms are in praise of the law, very little
mention is made of the civil law, though national songs are fre-
quent, still less mention is made of the ceremonial law, though
Temple songs are many, but frequent praise is given to the moral
law, the perfect law converting the soul, and to the law as cov-
ering all the revelation of God in His righteousness.

Psalms are many concerning the Kingdom of the present and the
future concerning the coming King, the greater than David
though of David's line. In these songs of praise to the righteous
God the spirit is that of righteousness, and this righteousness,
the ideal in the song poetry, is both toward God and man. The
kingdom is a righteous kingdom, the King is the king of righteous-
ness, and the man who stands in the presence of the King must
have clean hands and a pure heart, must love righteousness and hate
iniquity, must bless the poor and help the needy. In the wisdom
literature, the didactic poetry, we see that true wisdom consists
of two things, the conduct of life and the aim of life, all we can
know, the vast stores of knowledge, must have practical value in
wisdom. The Proverbs show the value of righteousness in self-
control, keeping one from wasting vices and directing one in
relation with his fellows in business affairs and the affairs of the
state. "The statesman's manual," "the business man's code,"
"the young man's guide," are titles that will fairly describe dif-
ferent portions of the book. The Ecclesiastes warns against mak-
ing the pursuit of riches, wisdom, power or pleasure the aim of
life, but promises all these to the one who directs his life to honor-
ing God in righteousness, acting in real wisdom as a responsible
being. The Song of Songs, the true love song of all the ages,
whatever view we may take of it, speaks of the spirit of life, true
love that resists all allurements to falseness, true wedded love, true
love without regard to luxury of life, the love that responds to

IDEAL OF SOCIAL HEALTH

359

the love o God and loves Him with unwavering ardor and for
Hraself alone, ,n poverty or in riches, in the palace or in the
shepherd s hut, the undying faithful love. Job, the great drama
of all the ages the pyramid in the literature of the world, depicts
the suffenng of a good man under the government of a righteous
God, and shows how this suffering is a test of character- an
mstance of punishment; an effort to train and discipline; a'part
o. the great mystery of existence; and how it prepares one for
and leads out mto great prosperity. This glance at the poetry of
the Bible sees many flowers of rare beauty, some are brighter in
color and more beautiful in form than others, bu, they are all
flowers of righteousness. This listening ,o the music of the Bible
hears many songs of power and sweetness, some stir the soul, some
soothe ,t, there are minor notes and exultant strains, but all the
music IS in praise of righteousness. The ideal and standard of

:S~t '' ™'"'' '° "^ ■■" -"- ' ^-'V - » be
In the oratory of the Bible there is some prediction; but in
modern times we have come to recognize that the prophets are
firs of all preac ers of righteousness; they spoke a message
righteousness to the men of their own times, and because it was so

fromToH T T"" " ™"''"'"'' '■' ™"" '^"•^ "-e only

from God, 1 cannot be accounted for by ,be foresight of men in

ts road outline and its many details it shows supernatural know"

edge. The wise men of Babylon and Thebes saw a far different

future from that seen by the see,, of Jerusalem; but our present is

as the seers saw it. The wise men of Athens and Rome slw

Patmos, but our present is as the seer saw it. Even the prediction
however ,s the prediction of righteousness. Self-seeking on b
arge as well a.s ,n the small, in great empires as in individuals

and ruin. The life of service on the large, as well as in the small
m great empires as in individuals leads to self-control and rightZ :
nes^, and ,„ the long run to prosperity and security. As Lgland

36o THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

and the United States serve the world they will escape the fate
of Babylon and Rome. The prophets looked at the future from
God's standpoint, they were seers of righteousness, their ideal,
even in prediction, was righteousness. Aside from prediction they
were preachers of righteousness. They looked upon their own
times and rebuked them or praised them as measured by the stand-
ard of righteousness. Much of their oratory is that of denuncia-
tion ; the policy of the practical politician, the success of the
business man, the pleasure of the prosperous if they were at all
unrighteous, never blinded the eyes of these preachers, never
silenced their tongues. The men of their day were not allowed
to deceive themselves, their wickedness was stripped of all its
clothing, and help up in its naked hideousness to the contempt of
mankind. Still denunciation was only a means to an end, they
used it fearlessly and faithfully, but only for the purpose of
awakening society to an earnest pursuit of righteousness. Isaiah
begins and closes one of his most scathing denunciations with pic-
tures of the golden age. Ezekiel sees with his magnificent imagi-
nation the vision of the glory of God departing from Jerusalem,
because of its great corruption ; and the same glory of God com-
ing back again to penitent and reformed Jerusalem to bless the
city, and make it the source of rivers of blessing to all the earth.
Prosperity, great riches, vast power, these are not denounced ; but
the wickedness that lived for them ; these also are seen to be great
blessings, when righteousness is so great as to be worthy of them.
It will be hard to find in any oratory of the world more glowing
descriptions of the fruitfulness of the earth, of abundant riches, of
great culture than are given by the prophets of righteousness ; these
are promised blessings of God upon the social condition that is
essentially righteousness. The greatest orator the world has ever
known, the finest preacher of righteousness of all the ages, said,
"Seek ye first the Kingdom of God and His righteousness and all
these things shall be added unto you."

But there vv^as not only the ideal of righteousness in the social
life of the Hebrews there was the power that could be evolved to
attain it, there are static data not only but dynamic as well in the

IDEAL OF SOCIAL HEALTH 361

oratory of the Bible. The prophets were not only or mainly the
preachers of righteousness as the principle of life; they were
preachers of the righteous God ever present with His people, and
that they had likeness to Him and might have a growing fellow-
ship with Him. Because their nature was so like His the guilt
of their betraying it and degrading it was forced home upon them,
their unrighteousness was itself their own degradation. They
might have been righteous like their God, they deliberately chose
or allowed themselves to be drawn into hideous unrighteousness;
when they might have lived as brothers recognizing each other as
worthy of love ; when they might have lived as sons of God recog-
nizing Him as worthy of their supreme love ; they chose to live as
brutes dishonoring their Father and degrading themselves. But
God had not cast them off, He who had revealed Himself to their
fathers had not retired into the immensities, He was present with
them. Their God was not to be regarded as a memory, ever
growing more dim as the years rolled on, He was just as really
present as ever, and He was unchanged. Hosea judging that his
own love for his way^vard wife and his straying children came into
his life from God's nature, spoke with all the eloquence of deep
emotion of God's righteous indignation against them as untrue to
him, and at the same time of his quenchless love for them. The
appeal of the prophets was to arouse the people to recognize their
own nature, the nature akin to God, and to cast themselves in
penitence and trust upon His fatherly heart for help to recover
themselves, and to attain the righteousness He held before them.
The static ideal was clearly discerned and glowingly set forth;
no less the dynamic sufficient to attain to it was lovingly and
earnestly presented. While their likeness to God was not entirely
destroyed and while His loving presence was not withdrawn there
was no cause for despair, there was abundant cause for hope.

While the Epistles of the New Testament were letters written
to distant peoples they still have much of the oratorical spirit of
direct and personal address. They set forth the great truths of
God's existence and character and of man's relation to Him; they
appeal to man to cast himself in penitence and trust upon the

362 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

fatherly heart of God to recover His nature, and to attain the
righteousness He holds before them. They then direct this right-
eousness in the social life we are now living on earth, becoming
in this way the renewers of the social health of mankind, they
apply righteousness to the relation of parents and children, brothers
and sisters, masters and servants, employers and employees, gover-
nors and subjects, rich and poor, learned and unlearned. Well it
would be if the orators in the Christian pulpits today caught the
spirit of the orators of the Bible, and every sermon had not only
its subject but its object, not only the setting forth of the great
truths but the application of these truths to the conduct of life,
not only the setting forth of the principles of righteousness, but
the dynamic appeal that righteousness may advance in all the rela-
tions of life, in the family, in the state, in industrial relations and
economic classes, that all men may live as children of God, and as
brothers to each other.

This then is the social health of the Kingdom of God. The
righteousness of love. Any stage of society that has this ideal and
is advancing to it, that is calling up all its own powers and is obey-
ing and trusting God, is attaining social health. Any society not
having this ideal, however seemingly cultured and prosperous it
may be, whatever other ideals it may have is far from social health ;
it can only attain the real health and welfare of which society is
capable by adopting the ideals and standards of the Kingdom of
God. Any society, no matter how low in condition, how degraded
in its ideals and standards, even though it be below the barbarian
stage and must be called savage, still its members are in the like-
ness of God in that they have the capabilities of righteousness, they
have hearts capable of love, even these low savages may be lifted
up by the ideals and the power of the Kingdom of God.

PART IV. THE KINGDOM OF GOD IN THE WORLD.

CHAPTER XXL

Christianity in the Advance of Civilization from Ancient

Rome.

The growing consciousness of the Church that she is a social
force, is in harmony with her nature as seen in her past history.
While she did not plan it, or even dream it, while she was not
conscious of what she was doing she has in her whole history been
lifting and remoulding the general society of the world. Sociology
illuminates church history which is no longer a mere record of her
growth in numbers, and designed power and of her development
of creeds, government, worship and morals but becomes a careful
estimate of the spreading power of the Kingdom of God in the
whole earth as the centuries have passed in changing the manners,
customs and spirit of the surrounding society. In doing this church
history is compelled to discriminate between an organization and
a life. A life may build up an organization and mould it to its
purposes and then other forces may take such large possession of
the organization and call themselves by its name that their usurpa-
tion gives a distinction to it foreign to its real nature. It is
alleged that one of the great political parties of our nation, a thor-
ough organization for noble purposes, is being thus warped at the
present time.

A worldly spirit has at times obtained control of the organization
called the church and has professed to be Christian but has been
foreign to the Christian life, has warred against it, abused it and
even tried to destroy it. In the darkest days, however, when
worldliness was most powerful in the church organization, the real

364 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

church life existed in the humble lives of many sincere followers
of Christ. Someimes church influence has not been Christian but
worldly, and still Christian influence has gone on from these
humble lives. The real church history is therefore the history of
Christianity, the Christ life in the lives of sincere followers of
Christ. Christ "began both to do and to teach," and, as the first
verse of Acts of the Apostles hints, He continues His work of
renovating society by the life of His body the church through the cen-
turies, his real church of sincere followers living His life. Much
criticism has fallen upon the Christian church for its superstition
and ignorance in the dark ages and for its cruelty in persecution,
which rightly belongs not to Christ or to His religion at all but to
the worldly spirit of those dark and cruel days. Just so today
the newspapers say that "Christians are massacring the Jews in
Russia" when we all know it is not the real Christians but the
non-christians that are doing the criminal work.

Buckle and Draper in their works upon the intellectual devel-
opment of Europe have often failed to make this distinction and
have attributed to the Christian church what really belonged to
the worldly spirit of the age in the church, and have failed to give
due credit to the sincere Christian life which was also in the
church not entirely crushed out by the usurping world. This
Christian life has owed its existence to the church and has found
its dwelling place in that church and has been the reforming
power in it. Originating it in the first place, it has both been
preserved by it and has in turn preserved it, though worldliness
seemed to have full possession of it. This Christian life has lived
according to the principles of Bible sociology, and its spreading
social influence is to be credited to those principles.

Christianity is the truth of Christ manifested in the life of true
believers. The nature and extent of the changes Christianity has
wrought in the world show its divine origin and undying power.
The highest civilization of the world today embraces the nations
of Northern Europe and the United States. This civilization is
called Christian and there is good reason for it. It is true we are
the inheritors of the civilizations of Greece and Rome. It is true

CIVILIZATION OF ROME 365

also we have inherited many vigorous traits of the younger races
which overran Greece and Rome. Much credit must also be
given to the passage of long centuries in race development, to the
enlarged communication with the world by the commerce of ideas
as well as of goods, to the great advance in the development of
the intellect by the many kinds of education, to the multiplication
of the useful arts in enlarging the wealth of mankind; and after
all the due credit is given these elements there is still much rea-
son to call our civilization Christian. After all allowance is made
for our rich inheritance and for the development of race charac-
teristics, President Roosevelt is right in saying "Christianity is so
inwoven with our social condition that it is impossible to imagine
what the condition would be without it". It is quite certain no
thinking man would be willing to take out the Christian element
from the present, surely not from the hope of the future, for her
civilization is characterized not only by rich attainment but still
more by lofty ideals, by noble ambitions. Christianity is still young
as the morning, it is not yet "weary of its mighty wings".

While our plan is to consider the sociology of the Bible mainly
in its reference to the present and the future and our limits will
not permit a full consideration of the social service that Chris-
tianity has rendered the world from the time of Christ, still the
subject is so interesting in itself and so related to the future that
we must take a passing glance at its bold outlines. Buckle claims
that "the progress Europe has made from barbarism to civilization
is entirely due to intellectual activity", it has been not at all by
moral feelings nor moral teachings but solely by the activities of
the intellect. That Christianity has given food, stimulus and
liberty to the intellect is certainly true, and Buckle should have
frankly acknowledged it, but still its power is largely in the moral
and religious spheres. It is not difficult to see that many of the
advances from the ancient civilization and from the barbarism of
the new races have been such as can be fully accounted for only
by the sociology of the Bible, by the influence of a particular
society growing round the supernatural revelation of God.

It is difficult for us to place ourselves back in the surroundings

366 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

of Christ and His disciples; the distance through time and space
is so great that we can but faintly realize only the broad features
of the social condition of mankind then existing.

The first prominent feature is that it was a pagan world. Only
the Jews worshiped the one true God, all others were idolaters.
In the prevailing paganism there was a dim conception of a
supreme God but He was almost lost in the multitude of gods.
Some of the features of paganism were refining and elevating, but
other essential features were degrading and corrupting. Pagan-
ism never satisfied the keenest minds, the masses were grossly
superstitious while the educated were generally skeptics. Look
now at a few of the most prominent features of the social condition
of man under this combined sway of false religion and no religion.
It was the highest civilization ever reached by man without the
Bible revelation and conception of God. Roman strength was
clothed with Grecian culture. Both Grecian and Roman were of
the noblest blood the world has ever known, the old Aryan race
of highest intellectual endowment. Both races were possessed of
many natural virtues. The Greek had keen intellect, nervous
energy, love of freedom, taste for the beautiful. He looked upon
the world, upon man, his actions and thoughts almost entirely upon
the side of the beautiful. Here he fell, magnifying the beautiful
above the good, sensualism led him down through elegant volup-
tuousness into grossest licentiousness; his virtues became his vices.
The Roman, too, had early virtues, manly courage, physical
strength, love of order, taste for power. He looked upon the
vv^orld, upon man, his actions and thoughts, almost entirely upon
the side of power. Here he fell, magnifying power above right-
eousness, pride and cruelty led him down through the empire of
the world into the grossest selfishness; his virtues became his vices.
At the time of Christ Greece was a Roman province and had
been for a century and a half ; but Greece was charming rich and
powerful Rome by her culture and voluptuousness into a licen-
tiousness as deep as her own. Now as we look upon the broad out-
lines of that boasted civilization we see how little human develop-

CIVILIZATION OF ROME 367

ment has to be proud of in this its highest achievement in the his-
tory of the race.

In the first place war was regarded as the healthy condition of
the empire. No rival civilization could be endured, the highest
only awakened the cupidity of the Roman. Wars of conquest and
plunder were approved and unhesitatingly and relentlessly pursued.
Only one thing could awaken greater interest, that was a war of
revenge. War was conducted with remorseless crueltj-. Captives
were either slaughtered or held as slaves. The Roman was more
cruel than the Greek, and Alexander the Great after the capture
of the City of Tyre ordered two thousand of the inhabitants to be
crucified, and the remainder of the population were put to death
or sold into slaver)^ Nearly one hundred thousand Jews were
sold in the slave mart at Rome by Titus after the capture of Jeru-
salem, and the average price was less than Judas received for
betraying the Savior. Even the leading generals of the enemy
when captured were tortured, killed or enslaved. Zenobia, Queen
of Palmyra, one of the noblest women in all history, was brought
to Rome as his captive by the mighty Aurelian. The nation con-
quered was held as a province of the empire. War was the rule.
Peace was the exception. The gateway of Janus in the city was
closed when Rome was at peace with all nations. It is said this
occurred but four times in the history of the city extending nearly
a thousand years, and these four times were such short periods that
it is estimated there were only about ten years of peace for each
century of war. Rome became rich by the plunder of all nations,
the plunder not only of wealth but of lives, she became a treasure
house of jewels, a palace of slaves. To have a triumphant entry
into the city was the highest ambition of the noble Roman, his
army laden with the spoils of the conquered and accompanied by
the great host of enslaved captives; that high civilization gloried
m deeds and scenes which are not possible today in any Christian
land. War flourished in paganism and was nourished, certainly
not checked by it, for it was one way of pleasing certain gods,
the worship of the gods of war could only be by cultivating a
likeness to them, by the exercise of warlike qualities ; and also the

368 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

war of men was often the war of the gods, the god of one nation
warring with his nation against the god of another nation and his
nation.

A second prominent feature of Roman civilization was the
prevalence of poverty. Rome was immensely rich by the plunder
of nations and by the taxation of the world. But it was the riches
of the few, of the nobles having a share in the central and provin-
cial government. Labor was degraded in comparison with mili-
tary life, and was despoiled by a system of taxation the like of
which can only be found in Turkey today. To be a farmer, a
mechanic or a merchant was frowned on by public opinion and by
the government alike. So side by side with the almost incredible
wealth and extravagance of the nobles, of soldiers and statesmen,
existed a poverty sinking down into a pauperism wide spread and
deep such as one can scarcely imagine. Roman pride neglected,
disdained and cast off the poor and then grew to fear and feed
them, not from any brotherly love but contemptuously as one
throws a bone to an ugly dog: in both respects it cultivated the
pauperism it contemned. Roman emperors frequently kept the
populace quiet by gifts of bread, and if the corn ships from Egypt
were delayed they trembled for the security of the throne. Under
Augustus, in the palmy days of Rome, over two hundred thousand
of the inhabitants of the city were supported the year round by
the public distribution of bread. Under some of the other em-
perors it was still worse, and at one time one-third of the city
was supported at the public expense. The proud contempt of the
rich Roman made the condition of the poor peculiarly trying.
There was no charity for them in feeling or deed. One of the
hard features of the lot of the poor was their helplessness in sick-
ness, they were left to themselves, left severely alone to suffer and
die. The lack of sympathy for human suffering in lowly condi-
tions seems unaccountable to us today. There were no such things
as hospitals for the sick, asylums for the insane or orphans,
homes for the aged and for paupers. The helpless were left by
Greek and Roman society to their hard fate. Fortunately for
Rome she was located in sunny Italy; under our snowy northern

CIVILIZATION OF ROME 369

skies she could not have long existed. The multitude of clients
who were supported by their rich patrons often fell through the
spirit into the reality of pauperism.

Another prominent feature of that ancient civilization was the
universality of slavery. It was a system as ancient and as firmly
rooted as the seven hilled city itself. It flourished in the Grecian
civilization as well. In Athens when she was the glittering splen-
dor of the world there were nearly five times as many slaves as
there were citizens. There was no indication of any lack of per-
manency in the system, no criticism of it as wrong: on the con-
trary the civilization was based on slavery. The many must work
as slaves in order that the citizens, the masters, might have the
leisure and the means of culture. The slaves were often of the
same race blood. The poor Greek and Roman often sold them-
selves as slaves for mere subsistence. The poor also frequently
sold their children into slavery, and the many exposed and deserted
children of the rich were held as slaves. Besides captives taken in
war constantly increased the number of slaves. Paullus brought
at one time one hundred and fifty thousand slaves to the city.
The number of slaves was immense. Gibbon says that in the time
of Claudius the slave population of the empire equalled the free,
there were sixty millions of each. The conditions of the slaves
was most degraded. The proud and cruel Roman was a bad
slave master, and the laws gave the slave almost entirely into his
hands. With awful prodigality of life the slaves built the temples
and palaces whose ruins still charm mankind.

There are three prominent features of the home life of the
Roman that arrest the most rapid glance over the civilization of
that distant day and land.

The first is the position of woman. The spirit of the laws for-
bade the independence of woman. The father, after his death,
the son who happened to be the head of the family, had her under
his full control. After her marriage the husband was the master
of her person, property and even life. This habitual and con-
temptuous distrust of woman had its two extremes of strictness
and laxness upon the marriage relation. In the early days the

370 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

marriage tie was strictly kept, the tradition is that it was not dis-
solved in a single instance for one hundred and seventy years of
the city's history. The history of its later and luxurious life is
one of growing laxness. Divorce was easy, either husband or wife
could give a writing to the effect and the tie was dissolved. The
satirists tell us that women told their ages not by the number of
their years, but by the number of their divorces. The sanctity of
the marriage tie being destroyed sensuality swept woman into
utmost and unspeakable degradation. The slave women in the
palaces of the rich often lived in moral debasement as the vivid
description of Roman palace life in "Quo Vadis" shows us, and
as slavery in its nature degrades both sexes.

The second striking feature of the home life seems to us almost
incredible, the cruel indifference to children, which was permitted
by the laws, sanctioned by public opinion and frequently found
in practice. The father being the magistrate of the family had the
right to accept or reject his child, or one born in his family. First-
born sons, and generally strong and healthy boys were welcome;
but sickly children, especially girls could be and frequently were
rejected even by the noblest and best citizens. Such rejected
children were exposed in public places to whatever might befall
them, often to death, generally to slavery, for whoever took the
exposed child held it as a slave, and took the risk of making
something out of it, the risk frequently resulted in the delayed
death of the child. The abandonment of a sickly babe along the
highway by parents of good standing is not conceivable today.
That high civilization thought such a child would be of no use to
the state, and luxury among the rich had eaten into and in many
cases almost destroyed the strongest of the natural affections. Deep
misery among the poor and the contaminating influence of the
rich and noble, wrought the same effect, so the poor often sold
or abandoned their children, even the healthy boys, to slavery.
There were no schools for the children of the common people and
slaves in Rome. There were private teachers for the rich but no
such thing as a college, even for the rich or well to do. There
was a great mass of illiteracy in the Roman populace and no public

CIVILIZATION OF ROME 371

spirit to remove it. The pagan religion did not support schools
at all. The state made no provision for the education of all classes
or for any class of its children. That civilization v^^as entirely
without anything remotely resembling our public schools or our
religious schools. It paid no attention to children.

The third striking feature of home life vv^as connected w^ith
slavery. The homes of the rich were filled with slaves, and lux-
urious cruelty and licentiousness abounded. The home of the rich
abounded in slaves, was the scene of woman's degradation and
childhood's neglect. In the homes of the poor the most abject
poverty took the place of slavery, and made the condition of women
and children worse rather than better.

It only remains to glance at the amusements of the people.
Licentiousness and cruelty here revelled. The most licentious
plays in the theatres were thronged not only by the masses, but by
the refined and noble. Cruelty must have culminated in the spec-
tacle given by Trajan when for four months ten thousand gladi-
ators shed their blood in the arena to the fierce joy of the rich
and poor alike.

These are the main features of the social condition of Roman civi-
lization. It is to the credit of humanity that there are so many
lofty lives of great virtue standing in shining white against this
dark background. Some stand aloof in proud and silent con-
tempt. Others try to drive back the rising tide of corruption.
There were also systems of philosophy teaching comparatively
pure morals, and many earnest philosophers; but singing birds
could as easily stop the rush of a tornado as for philosophy to
quiet the raging lusts of man. All honor be given to these shin-
ing lives and teachings, their effort was splendid though vain.

Into this corrupt pagan world there entered at the time of Christ
a society grouped around Him. It was the particular society of
the Bible gathered about a supernatural revelation and conception
of God. This society was not large in numbers, nor strong in
learning, wealth or influence, the only power it possessed was in
its distinctive nature as gathered about Christ, the culmination of
the supernatural revelation of God. He was the supreme object

372 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

of their affection. His teaching was with authority. His pres-
ence and grace were recognized as being always with them. Here
there was a society of pure morals supported by supernatural sanc-
tions and centering in the most loving devotion to a Divine Per-
son. The influence of this particular society upon the general
society was of course slow but it was progressive, a steadily
spreading and increasing force. The changes that have been
wrought upon the prominent traits of the world's social condition
are in line with this spreading force; and its nature and strength
are sufficient to account for them.

It was a pagan world. This particular society believed in
Christ as the revelation of the one true Grod, righteous and mer-
ciful. God manifest in the flesh, His life was a divine revelation
of love and self-sacrifice, of a God seeking the highest welfare of
mankind. Selfish gods, cruel lustful gods, limited and conflict-
ing gods, passed from the minds and hearts of men before the one
true God worthy of the highest thought and affection of man.

War prevailed. This Divine Being taught that God was the
Father of the race, that all men were brothers and should love
and help, not hate and slay each other, those believing Him
obeyed Him and their lives worked peace. Under such teaching
and lives war must cease, not at once but as the influence prevails.
It has not yet entirely ceased but it is no longer the normal condi-
tion, it is not the rule but the exception. Our own United States
is about one hundred and thirty years old. Since the Revolution
we have had only four great wars, their combined length was not
over ten years. We have had twelve years of peace for every year
of war. Rome had twelve years of war for every year of peace.
The horrors of war have also been greatly mitigated. The smoke
of battle lifts and the flag with the red cross that knows neither
friend nor foe hastens to succor the wounded: prisoners are
treated with kindness and life-long slavery is unknown. Contrast
the conduct of Titus toward the conquered Jews with Gen.
Grant's treatment of the defeated Confederate army. Besides pub-
lic opinion is growing to demand arbitration. Within a quarter
of a century many international questions that in the days of

CIVILIZATION OF ROME 373

Rome would have caused war have been settled by arbitration, and
the Peace Court of the Hague gives hope for the large disarma-
ment of Christian nations.

Poverty prevailed. This Divine Being lived and died a poor
man. He proclaimed his mission was to the poor. In describing
the last judgment He determines destiny not by rank or worldly
wealth but by character, and the standard of character is the con-
sideration of the needy, the love that sees the person rather than
the condition. At the same time Christ by His example and teach-
ing and in selecting His disciples and in their lives taught the dig-
nity of labor. His charity, and the charity of His society is coming
ever closer to Him, never fostered pauperism but industry and
manly independence, the doing away of poverty by giving every
man just dealings and loving incentive. In Christian lands poverty
is still present, but it is no longer fostered as it was in Rome. The
problem still confronts us, but Christianity has already relieved
much of its darkness. The sympathy of whole communities is
enlisted by the sickness of the poor, and institutions for their
benefit unknown in that ancient civilization flourish in town and
city,— the hospital for the injured, the sick and the insane, the dis-
pensary for the poor and homes for orphans, the aged and paupers.
There is still a "submerged tenth" in London and New York, but
it is not so large a proportion of the whole, nor is it so deeply
submerged as in ancient Rome.

Slavery was universal. This Divine Being has been criticised for
not saying a word against slavery. He did something far better,
He counted the slave as His brother, and taught His followers the
same, and the system melted away in the atmosphere of Divine
love. An iceberg a mile long and hundreds of feet high may bar
the way of humanity across the sea. Try to overturn it, there is
a larger mass beneath the waves than above them. Fire cannon
balls into it. Run the steamship against it, the ship will be
destroyed. The plan of nature is to float it into summer seas and
it soon melts away. So slavery melted away when floated into
the summer sea of Christ's love for all mankind as His brothers.
The home life was degraded. This Divine Being blesses moth-

374 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

erhood and childhood. Children were neglected, even abandoned.
Then came this Divine Being, born a babe. Angelic hosts sing
the praises of a child. The wise men bring costly oblations to
the feet of a child. This Divine Being when held in highest
adoration, takes little children in His arms and instructs His dis-
ciples of their intrinsic worth, that of such is the kingdom of
heaven. Woman is distrusted and degraded. This Divine Being
provides for His mother when enduring the agony of the cross.
He through His life lifted fallen woman to pure devotion to the
good. He counted pure women among His best friends. His
church is likened to a woman, the radiant Bride of Christ. So
from Him the change goes on as His followers increase in numbers
and in His spirit until today our Christian American home is as
heaven compared with the best Roman home. There were no
schools for the children of any class in Rome. Now not only the
church but the state provides schools for all children.

Cruel and licentious amusements shrink abashed from this
Divine Being of loftiest personal purity and deepest self-sacrificing
love. And He demanded of His followers likeness unto Himself.
The stage in Christian lands has not yet reached its own ideals,
but it aims to afford recreation stimulating to the intellect and
uplifting in moral and spiritual nature; to this it is held by its
greatest actors and by its best dramatic critics and this too is
becoming the demand of public opinion.

Thus these prominent features of that ancient civilization were
directly opposed by Christianity and were gradually changed by
its growing influence. At the same time Christianity has not pre-
vented but has aided us in preserving and inheriting many of the
choice attainments of both Greece and Rome. In the barbarism
of the dark ages Christianity preserved much of the rich litera-
ture of those cultured lands, the record of heroic deeds and great
achievements, the inspiring poetry, lofty philosophy, noble oratory,
of the world's great minds. Not only have we the rich legacy of
thoughts written in books but those carved in stone as well ; and
also those grown into the fabric of society. The world could not
afford to lose the body of Roman law gathered in the institutes of

CIVILIZATION OF ROME 375

Justinian, but we remember he was a Christian emperor reigning
nearly six hundred years after Christ, and the code made by his
direction was of the Roman law when it was already largely puri-
fied and humanized by Christianity.

We are the successors in the world's histor)' of that ancient civil-
ization, we are possessed of much of its rich achievements while we
have discarded many of its evil features. We no more grovel in
paganism, we no more count warfare the highest employment of
man, we do not at once cultivate and contemn pauperism, we do
not foster and approve slavery, we do not degrade woman, scorn
children, revel in cruelty and licentiousness. Christianity has
taught us better and inspired us to nobler living. Vice still exists
in Christian lands but it exists without repute. Christianity has
not yet banished iniquity from the earth but it has that high
ambition, and it has already branded vice in whatever station with
the indelible mark of disgrace and made it skulk in shame from the
indignant gaze of mankind. Cruelty and licentiousness still exist
but they are no longer crowned and enthroned in the daylight,
they are felons hiding themselves in the night.

CHAPTER XXII.

Christianity in the Advance of Civilization From Our
Barbarian Ancestors.

In trjang to estimate aright the service the church has rendered
human society, that is the service Christianity has rendered the
race, we must consider also the changes wrought upon our ances-
tors the new races which overran the Roman empire. At the time
of Christ our ancestors lived in the central and northeastern parts
of Europe. They were the later emigrants of the Aryan family
having its native home in Central Asia, whose earlier emigrants
became the Greeks and Romans. The earlier emigrants settling
on the sunny and fertile slopes of the Mediterranean formed the
civilization we have just considered. Our ancestors having the
same race traits settled in far different surroundings, in the forests
and along the stormy seas and in the bitter cold of the northland.
They were a vigorous and intellectual race but they were bar-
barians, the rudest and most savage of which we have any knowl-
edge. The class of virtues they possessed was the warlike, — cour-
age, endurance, fidelity, indifference to death to attain their pur-
pose. Having these warlike virtues their life was almost a contin-
ual conflict, the most cruel and savage with hardly a shade of
mercy. This character and life gave rise to their religion and this
in its turn fostered that character. They were not fetich worship-
ers; their gods were not stocks and stones, but rather the grand
features of nature personified. The conflict thej'' witnessed in the
winter's storms on sea and in forest was the tame reflection of the
real conflict of their gods with each other and with giant evils.
Odin from the remains of a giant he conquered constructed our
world, he presided over inferior deities by virtue of his superior

OUR BARBARIAN ANCESTORS 377

strength: our Wednesday keeps his memory green throughout our
race. Even the heaven of our ancestors cultivated their savage
warlike qualities. Valhalla the great hall of Odin vi^as the scene
of feasting and drinking. No one could enter who had died a
peaceful death, to die on the battlefield was the only gateway to
Odin's feasting hall. When Odin and his warriors had feasted
to the full they went out into the court and engaged in combat,
many being slain, only to rise again to feast and fight. These
savage barbarians overthrew the Roman empire not on account of
their virtues but because of its inherent weakness, the weakness of
a corrupt civilization, and because of their overwhelming numbers
as wave after wave they flooded the land.

The danger, the probability was that the resulting condition
would be one of dense barbarism taking upon itself the vices of
the overthrown civilization. From this there would slowly arise
another civilization. The settled condition of tilling the soil, the
combined life in cities, the growing traffic on land and sea, the
increasing wealth and other causes would foster this growth. But
the civilization thus arising would have been like that of the
Roman, cruel and licentious, worse rather than better judging
from the nature of the new races and from the influences of the
old civilization.

The one influence to change the direction of this new civilization
was Christianity. A remarkable thing happened, the conquerors
embraced the religion of the conquered. It must have been due
largely to the peculiar appeal made by the new religion to the vig-
orous, intellectually gifted new races. Still the pure religion of
Christ was already greatly corrupted by a worldly spirit, It had
entered upon Greek disputations, it had grasped Roman power.
The creeds of councils and the growth of Papal dominion were
already overshadowing the Christian life.

The conquerors embraced this religion largely in a formal way,
satisfying themselves with a nominal acceptance of creeds and with
the growing ceremonies of worship. Still many humble lives and
not a few noble ones possessed the truth in Christ. They owned
Him as their Lord, the revelation of the one true God, righteous,

378 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

merciful, loving, they obeyed His commands, they were conscious
of His presence; they continued the particular society of the
Bible. Their growing and prevailing influence wrought a change,
gradual but ever uplifting in the growth of the civilization of our
barbarian ancestors.

We may trace this change in their three prominent characteris-
tics and may see how the peculiar elements of Bible sociolog}'
were adapted and powerful enough to bring it about.

The first is, their taste for conflict. This after it had gratified
itself in the succeeding incursions and the complete conquest of the
Empire, flamed out in private war. The invading chieftain became
a baronial lord, living in his fortified house or castle, surrounded
by many retainers, his feudal tenants, he quickly resented any injury
or slight a neighboring baron might give him, and nourished a
grudge or feud into savage warfare. Chivalry, the institution of
the Middle Ages so much admired in story and which has left
lofty ideals to the present day, seems to have been this race ten-
dency to conflict wedded to Christianity, an attempt to Christian-
ize warfare, a perhaps needed transition to the present age of
peace. The making of a knight shows that religion was an essen-
tial element in chivalry. The candidate was after long training
brought to the day of his knighthood. He spent the night in
prayer in the chapel of the castle. In the morning he confessed
his sins, he was then clothed in a white robe representing purity,
over this was a red robe representing the blood shed for him on the
cross and the blood he was to shed for the faith. He was then
armed by the noble knights, was led through the glittering throng
of noble men and fair women to the throne of the king. He took
the vow to defend the faith, to honor woman, to rescue the dis-
tressed, to be true, valiant, courteous, and the king with the touch
of his sword made him a knight. Race tendencies are strong:
so are the social ties wrought by Jesus Christ. Private war must
give way though it may be slowly when the Divine Being acknowl-
edged as Lord commands — "If thy brother sin against thee go
and tell him his fault between thee and him alone, if he hear
thee thou hast gained thy brother": to gain rather than to slay the

OUR BARBARIAN ANCESTORS 379

brother becomes the stronger propensity. The story of the Chap-
lain and the Baron may be a fiction but it is a picture of the times.
The Baron was bent on a war with his neighbor. The Chap-
lain tried in vain to dissuade him from it. As a last effort he
induced him to go to the chapel and before the altar to repeat with
him, clause by clause, the Lord's Prayer. At the petition 'Tor-
give us our debts as we forgive our debtors" the Baron was at last
won from cruel war to peace. The strong qualities which flamed
forth in warfare, the courage, the endurance, the perseverance of
the new races have not been destroyed but have been given a nobler
direction by Christianity, to subdue the earth and to serve man-
kind.

A second characteristic of our barbarian ancestry was their
cruel disregard for human life. They found slavery prevailing in
Rome; theirs not to check it in any way but to add to its rigor.
To be a serf of the land in the dark ages was equally a defense-
less condition with the slave in the Roman palace. The Roman
law in the administration of justice permitted the torture of
slaves, the new races inherited the practice and added many ele-
ments of cruelty in its administration to all classes of men and
for all offenses, and the corrupt church made dreadful use of it.
The disregard of life led wreckers along the coast of stormy seas
to decoy the tempest driven ship by false lights to its destruction
for the plunder it might provide. As national life began to be
marked by distinct boundaries and by different languages each
nation regarded all other races as enemies to be preyed upon,
without arousing a sense of wrong. But the growing society of
the Bible, the sincere followers of Christ in their treatment of
each other and of their fellows, humanized mankind. He taught
the worth of the individual man. He dignified the person of man,
showed it was the noblest thing on earth. He treated the poorest,
weakest, most defenseless as His brother, as His sister. His fol-
lowers became conscious of their inherent worth, the worth of
manliness, of womanliness, became self-respectful, and respectful
of others, and slowly slavery, torture, cruelty were frowned upon.

38o THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

It was recognized that each soul was responsible to God and of
great value in His estimation.

The third characteristic of our ancestors was toward intellectual
development. They were of the intellectual Aryan stock, the
brothers of the Greek and the Roman. They, as their brothers,
had dwelt under the shadows of many debasing superstitions, the
paganism that clouded their minds led to the warfare, the sla-
very, the many degradations of sensual life. When they became
the successors of the literature and the arts, the achievements and
attainments of the Mediterranean civilization the many gods and
the debasing beliefs and practices of their worship were being
removed by the revelation and conception of the one true God
found in the Bible, and by the society gathered about Him. They
started therefore on the intellectual development which has been
so generally diffused, so marvelous in its attainments, and which
is still going on with increasing force, they started with the inher-
itance of the old civilization not only but with the freedom from
debasing superstitions, Christianity had wrought in it. The new
races settling in the rich lands of Europe, and with their rich
inheritance were still in the vigor of youth when the shadows and
the chains were taken from the minds and hearts of men, and the
developing of the mind then begun is still going on and is bringing
to mankind large knowledge and power over the forces of nature.

Our civilization like all other is based upon slavery, but it is
not the slaver\' of man but of nature. Our steam power and
electrical power do the work for us of a billion of slaves that the
whole race may have the time and strength for mental and social
culture ; and the whole race relieved from debasing superstition
is beginning to use this vast power in the helpful spirit, the spirit
of brotherhood. It's in such an age that the church which has
done so much unconsciously is becoming conscious of her high
calling as a social force. The greatest work of Christ is Chris-
tianity, not long ago alone and afar off, but now and here. There
must always be due proportion between means and ends, between
cause and effect, instrument and result. We cannot drive back
the night from a broad continent by striking a match in a valley,

OUR BARBARIAN ANCESTORS 381

we must have the sun rise on the mountain ranges. To change the
traits of races of mankind and the customs of ages requires a most
powerful and constant force through long periods of time. As we
look at the pathway of light across the dark continent of the
world's history we know it comes from the rising sun, and gives
promise of a long and glorious day.

"The year's at the spring
"The day's at the morn".

CHAPTER XXIII.
Christianity a Social Force in Foreign Missions.

While our subject according to our plan of treatment must deal
mainly with the social force of Christianiy in its further influence
upon the civilization of our own and other Christian lands, still
the grandeur of the missionary work of the church in heathen
lands demands more than a passing glance. The church as a
social force must be stimulated to the enthusiasm of service of
mankind by her call to "make disciples of all the nations". The
view we have just taken of the influence of Christianity in uplift-
ing society, shows that the missionary work of the church in the
past has been largely, though unconsciously, sociological. She is
beginning to see now the grandeur of her Lord's design and to
recognize that her missionary work in the future must be inten-
tionally sociological. She is to form well considered plans and
persistently carry them out for the renewing of heathen society.
We must not confine our estimate of the value of missionary work
to the saving of single souls. That is noble, but not by any
means all, not even the larger part, in fact it is but a small though
necessary part of the grand result.

We see the importance of the salvation of a single soul in
Christ's estimation: listen to His teaching of single souls, of Nico-
demus, of the woman at the well: watch the souls coming out of
sin under His influence, the publican Matthew, the harlot Man,-
Magdalene, the selfish conceited man, Peter, the prosperous up-
right business man, John. But shall this bound our vision? Did
it bound Christ's vision ? Such souls at once were brought into a
new fellowship with kindred souls, and had new social ties with
all other souls. They formed the society about Christ. More,
these lives went out of this world after a few years to heaven, but

FOREIGN MISSIONS 383

they left the h'ght shining in other hves, the spreading light in so-
ciety, the continuing light and life more widely spreading in suc-
cessive generations. The vision of our blessed Lord, did it end
with Peter? Did it not include us in our day? Does it not take
in the generations succeeding us to the end of time? Money spent,
lives lost in foreign missions, a single soul saved. Is it worth it?
Yes, who can estimate the value of a soul? But that is but a
small part of the result. To save a soul in India today is like
Christ saving a soul in Judea twenty centuries ago. The soul
precious beyond price is saved; also through that soul countless
generations of souls are saved. Augustin brought the Gospel to
England, Wildebrord to Holland, Boniface to Germany: they
were the means of saving here and there one soul of the multitude
of pagans. Is that all ? That was but a small part of the result,
a necessary part, but to estimate their work aright we must con-
sider the present and prospective civilization of northern Europe
and America, and what they may still do for the whole world.

If Christianity has had a large influence in lifting the portion
of the race she has reached from a corrupt civilization and a savage
barbarism, then the barbarism still remaining in the earth as in
Africa, and the semi-civilization of the best heathen lands as in
Asia, alike call upon the church and Christian nations for Chris-
tianity, the only agency that can give a moral and spiritual uplift
to succeeding generations. The light from the sun it is said comes
through ether without lighting it up, it may be called the dark
pathway of light, only when it strikes an object, as the earth, does
the light become light. Not so the beams of light from the Sun of
Righteousness, their whole pathway through the generations has
been a shining one and they now shine on us. Not a narrow rib-
bon of light straight from Christ to us, but a spreading light ever
wider and wider in each generation. Ours is a Christian land,
though of its eighty millions only thirty millions are the professed
followers of Christ, the whole society is largely pervaded with
Christian ideas and practices. The church as a social force has
caught at last the vision of her Lord that her missionary work is

384 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

to save souls, successive generations of souls, to save society
through the coming ages.

The grandeur of this conception of foreign missions is directly
from Christ Himself. We may have thought that missionary
work originated in the last command of Christ, "Go ye therefore
and make disciples of all the nations". This command however
was only crystalizing the whole mission and spirit of our Lord,
only voicing the conception which from the beginning is found in
His teaching. Christ claimed to found a society in the nature of a
kingdom of which He was King. The outward organization was
only the expression of its inner life. His throne was to be set
up not in any particular country, but in the heart of man wherever
found. The laws of the kingdom are found in the Sermon on the
Mount. Matt. 5-8. The method of its establishment is described
in His charge to the apostles. Matt. 10. The providential devel-
opment of the kingdom is described in the parables found in Matt.
13. The institution of self-government of the kingdom is set
forth by the King Himself in Matt. 18. The source of its power
he discloses in his discourse at the last supper, John 14-16. He in-
stitutes two simple rites to distinguish this society from the world
and prescribes their continuance to the end of time. Then the
whole crystalizes in His last command "to make disciples of all
nations". The whole conception so familiar to us, came forth
complete from the lips of Christ. It is original, it is bold, there
is nothing experimental about it, no provision is made for correc-
tion, for any change, for a possible failure. And it is absolutely
without bounds, without any limits. It is for man wherever
found. A kingdom based on truth, righteousness, love, the partic-
ular society of the Bible to take possession of the general societv
of the whole earth.

Consider the two familiar sayings frequently on the lips ot
Christ, one of Himself "I am the light of the world", the other of
His disciples "Ye are the light of the world". It does not require
much courage to use them today, in the light of Christian civiliza-
tion which owes so much to Christ. But it was a brave thing for
Christ to say of Himself and of His disciples at first. What

FOREIGN MISSIONS 385

more absurdly improbable? The large number listening to Him
on the Galilean hillside are merely curious, the inner circle of
earnest learners is very small. Here on the outside of the crowd
of curious ones is a learned man from Jerusalem; we ask him
"What do you think of this saying of Christ"? His reply is
ready, "I admire His beautiful sentiments, but in saying this he
shows he is a mere provincial, he knows nothing of the great teach-
ers and schools of Jerusalem.". Here are two men evidently inter-
ested in the strange scene, a proud Roman, an officer of the army
of occupation, is talking with a learned Greek, who is traveling
in the East. We ask them, What do you think of this saying of
the young teacher? The Greek replies "He has never even heard
of the groves of philosophy in Athens, of Socrates and Plato".
The Roman with scorn says, "His world is a very little one
bounded by these green hills, he should see the Capital, he should
tread the Forum, then he would not say he was the light of the
world". The world is much larger today than the Roman thought
and much lighter too, and it is largely a Christian world. There
is still much darkness of heathenism and sin but there is hope that
it will be dispelled. The hope is in Christ's saying, for there is no
bound to it. The conception is original, bold, limitless. "I am
the light not of one tribe, one race, one land, one continent, but of
the world."

We recognize at once, and the world is learning to recognize it,
that the grandeur of the conception is in fine harmony with the
grandeur of the person, character and work of the Lord Jesus
Christ. It is impossible for us to conceive of His leaving any dif-
ferent final command to His disciples, such as "Take care of your-
selves", or "Confine your efforts to your own nation", the only
command fitting "the Light of the World" is "Make disciples of
all the nations". We recognize also that the missionary work is
not a mere incident of church life to be put on or off according to
circumstance, convenience or caprice, but it is the very essence of
church life, light must shine, it is the carrying out of the concep-
tion of her Lord.

This great command when first given was to a small group of

386 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

men, not a crowd, not an army, only a small group, these few men
were not distinguished in rank, they were of plain garb, nor in in-
fluence, no admiring throngs looked on, nor in culture, nor in
power of any kind. The young man who spoke it was of the same
general grade and character for all the eye could see. The world
they were to conquer, the nations they were to disciple were very
much in evidence, we can easily see the greatness of their task.
The Jew was satisfied with his formal religion, he was oppressed
but he despised the oppressor. The Greek was satisfied with his
culture. The Roman was satisfied with his power. Temples and
priests, palaces and armies, learning, luxury and cruelty, this was
the world: and beyond the limits of the empire were the barbarians
held in check by force. The command of this young man to these
few humble men to make disciples of all nations has grandeur in
it, but it is the grandeur of audacity, an audacity so great that it
is foolhardy, an audacity of supreme folly. Looking now beyond
the seen to the unseen, seeing in this young man the Son of God
triumphant over sin, death and the grave, and clothed with univer-
sal dominion the command has all the grandeur of that other com-
mand spoken by the same voice over the chaos of the world's be-
ginning— "Let there be light". The sublime account says, "and
light was". Not the full light we know, for sun, moon and stars
could not yet be seen from the earth, but the light from the con-
densation of matter, the glowing gases in the growing order. So
"light was" follows the divine order in this missionary commission,
not the light of today's civilization, but the light of a few Christ-
like lives entering and pervading society, the kindling, the dawn-
ing light, the light of the growing order of the Kingdom of God.

Those opposing nations, the opposing forces of the world were
more also than the eye alone could see. They were the manifes-
tation of the one all embracing force, a fundamental persistent
force, we call human nature. Human nature cultured and uncultured
loved self, lived for self, the society it formed was largely a selfish
society. Christ's Kingdom was the reverse of this, love of others,
a self-sacrificing love, to love Christ and grow like Him in loving
and serving others. To have Christ's spirit in their hearts and

FOREIGN MISSIONS 387

lives and to implant this spirit in others, even in all hearts and
lives was their commission. All the revolutions among nations,
changes of rulers, of forms of government, of systems oi religion
are as nothing to this, a revolution of human nature. Yet human
nature was capable of it and greatly needed it; the social nature of
man had degraded itself and needed to be ennobled. What power
though could work this marvelous change? To design this change,
to promulgate it at one stroke, this is the grandeur of the divine
conception. To give this command to these few men with the
sublime assurance that they would obey, with the sublime assur-
ance that they would succeed, this shows some little of the grandeur
of the conception ; and of Him who formed it.

During the passage of the centuries there have been many men
of many races who have grasped the meaning of Christ's command
and whose minds and lives have caught something of the grandeur
of Christ's conception. There is a certain element of persistency
about the missionary work that fills one with admiration. The
work is slow, it is not like putting up a tent, it is like building a
world temple. Men at times labor eagerly, at times they lose
interest, but the work never entirely ceases. The command goes
before. Men follow, sometimes faint, weary, but ever some are
still under its spell. Age follows age, generations come and go,
empires rise and fall, civilizations flourish and decay, but the
missionary work goes on. It has its lulls, but it does not die. It
faints sometimes, but it still lives. The work has gone on through
nineteen centuries, and it is larger, stronger, grander today than
ever before; for this is preeminently the missionary age of the
church.

It has been said that angels would be glad to be missionaries.
But angels however glorious they may be are not capable of such
exalted service. Men and women redeemed from sin are sent to
tell the story of redemption, having the Christ spirit they convey
that spirit to others. The King in sending them forth as His
Ambassadors with the proclamation of His Kingdom confers in
that act a title of nobility upon them, even confers upon them His
own kingly nature. They are the true nobility, not of a particular

388 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

nation but of the whole earth, of humanity itself, they are the real
noblemen and noble women of the-world. Names arise at once
in our memories of the leaders in the missionary work and we
recognize them as heroes, and we know that those whose names
are forgotten had the same heroic spirit. A great poet has written
this reply of Paul to one who asked his name —

"Christ's I am Christ's and let that name suffice you.

"Aye, for me too He greatly hath sufficed".

Many a man and woman alone in heathen lands today, not hav-
ing heard their own names in their own language for years, might
make the same reply. Carey, the father of missions in modern
times, labored long without a single convert, but never faltered.
Judson wrote home to the discouraged church "If I could go to any
part of the world and the ship was ready to sail, I would not leave
my field". His life was so noble that the natives called him
"Jesus Christ's man". Livingstone who died upon his knees in
the heart of Africa, and who lies buried with England's great in
Westminster Abbey, when he was once praised for his self-sacrifice
said "That cannot be called a sacrifice which is a payment of
but a small part of a great debt to God. It is a privilege, I have
never made a sacrifice." A young missionary in dying said "Had
I a thousand lives I would give them all for Christ". Our own
Dr. Chamberlain, several times broken in health, and having earned
a right to rest, went to India again when an old man to spend his
closing days. When he left us he said "Some men pity me. But
I pity the man that pities me. I am spending my life in the
grandest work on earth". Many at home have the same noble
spirit. A father whose son was about to sail wrote this touch-
ing sentence, "My gift to missions is my only son". He who
said "As my Father hath sent me so send I you", gives His own
spirit to His obedient people.

The grandeur of this conception gives a grandeur to the lives
of those who grasp it. The great characteristic of this the mis-
sionary age of the church is that for the first time in her history
the whole church is engaged in the work. Individuals in all ages
have gone out singly or in groups, but they have separated them-

FOREIGN MISSIONS 389

selves from the home church and have lived their lives in heathen
lands without other support or ties besides the consciousness that
the prayers and sympathy of their former associates followed them.

The mission work not only in heathen lands but now especially'
in the home church is sociological. Individuals have in all ages
caught the grandeur of Christ's conception and have been ennobled
by it. Now the whole church is attaining the same grandeur.
The church of Antioch in the early day sent out Paul and Silas,
and after their long absence received them again, they were as scouts
governing their own movements, cut off from their fellows, doing
the work, and returning, and starting out again. Now the mis-
sionary work is that of a great army sent out, directed and sup-
ported by the home church. The organization of Boards of Mis-
sions, men chosen by the church to look over and select the field
of work, to select and prepare the men for the work, to send
them forth, direct them and support them in the work, to call upon
the church with information and appeal and to devise channels of
constant communication and help between the home and the
foreign workers is itself a great sociological achievement. This
extends to every individual church in a denomination, giving a new
and large element of organization in each society and providing
an opportunity for any individual Christian to take a part in the
great work, to personally obey the great command. The Secre-
tary of each Board of Foreign Missions is a commander in chief
of a great force, he sees the need of any particular part of the field,
he calls upon the nation, in his case the church, for recruits and
subsistence and sends individuals and divisions where most needed.
In 1908 over $22,000,000 was raised in Christian lands to send
the gospel and over 19,000 men and women from Christian lands
were missionaries in heathen lands. This vast sum of money and
this large army of men and women were devoted to a purely
benevolent work with no thought of any recompense from heathen
nations.

Then, too, the boards of different denominations divide the
lieathen world between them, they labor in harmony with each
other to establish Christianity in the whole earth. This is an age

390 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

of organization and the church is in the van, is thoroughly organ-
ized to realize the grand conception of Christ. She is beginning
to feel her sociological capabilities, to realize something of the
grandeur of her social force. There is a masterpiece of painting
by one of the world's famous artists called "The Charge of the
Old Guard". Napoleon on horse back is on the brow of a hill
a little to one side and before him thousands of horsemen in wild
fury but in perfect order are rushing to the charge. Near his
own name at the bottom of the picture the artist has written these
words "They do his will". The picture thrills one with the sense
of vast and fully directed power, vast power organized, not a few
men but a multitude, with one spirit. So before Christ today
passes His missionary force, for the first time in history it is the
whole Christian church organized, only now let there be a little
more of the spirit of the picture, "They do His will." When
Napoleon ordered the old guard to charge it was at the crisis
of the battle, it was to sweep the field, and this painting shows
them rushing on to splendid victory. There are indications today,
it is a part of the world's outlook, that in the organization of the
Christian church there is a prospect of splendid victory, a victory
not shuddering with the groans of the dying but ringing with the
acclamations of the saved, the victory of the "kingdom which is
righteousness, peace and joy in the Holy Spirit".

The organized church has thrown a large and well-directed fora^
into the foreign field and has gained already a large promise of
coming success. It is not absolutely correct perhaps but still is a
reasonable and moderate estimate made by Dr. D. L. Leonard
from all available reports, that today there are in heathen lands
nearly twenty thousand missionaries, over one hundred thousand
native helpers, over two million church members converts from
heathenism, and nearly five million adherents of Christianity who
have so far renounced idolatry that they are desirous of learning
about Christ. There are also nearly thirty thousand schools of
all grades supported by the missions and in these there are over a
million and a quarter scholars. There are also over five hundred
hospitals maintained by missionaries in various heathen lands, and
also about fifty publishing houses.

FOREIGN MISSIONS 391

An attempt has been made to measure the progress of Christian-
ity through the centuries by the number of its adherents, and the
estimate is probably near the truth. In the year 313 when Con-
stantine was Emperor it is estimated the Christian population of
the Roman Empire, the then known world, was twelve million.
In 1000 it was fifty million. In 1800 it was 200,000 million, in
1900 it was five hundred million. Already one-third of the world
is Christian, and it is to be noted that the growth has been larger
in the last century than in all the preceding centuries. It has been
largely by the more rapid development of Christian lands, a better
sociological condition, as well as by the inroads made upon heath-
enism.

There are three elements of great strength in the sociological
aspect of missions as it concerns the church at home. The first
IS that this work is so largely in the hands of the intellectual and
energetic Arjan race, the northern races of Europe, and in the van
are England and the United States. The Jew as commissioned to
proclaim the one true God to the world has been so faithless to the
trust that he has fallen behind, and the wonderfully gifted Aryan
race has received the treasure and is springing to the fulfillment of
the great commission.

The second is that this intellectual race has already given so
many versions of the Scripture to the various races of the world.
We cannot estimate the influence of the English version of the
Bible upon English speaking peoples. At the beginning of the
last centurj' there were but tew versions of the Scriptures. Now
there are over two hundred and fifty versions into the main lan-
guages and dialects of the world. This great work has been well
and nobly done by the only race so intellectually gifted as to be
able to see the great need of so many various nations, and to supply
it. Had the heathen nations themselves had this work cast upon
them, as it was cast upon our ancestors, the Bible would have
remained for generations to many of them in an unknown tongue.

The third element is that this energetic race has by its daring
and enterprise discovered and opened all the world. Much of the
world at the beginning of the last century was unknown or closed

392 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

to the general intercourse of mankind. Now some doors have been
opened by pressure from without, some by invitation from within,
and the whole world is now known and reached. The great
oceans and highways, and isles and continents and lands in all
climes are known and open to the missionary work of the church.
Flags of nations, even of so-called Christian nations may often
denote selfish triumph, but the banner of the cross brings love and
blessing wherever it goes. From sick beds weary eyes look to it
for healing, from dense ignorance darkened minds look to it for
light, from the degradation of heathenism ruined souls look to it
for life. The grandeur of Christ's conception is now becoming
the grand outlook of His church. His vision is becoming her
vision. His lofty aim is lifting her to true nobility.

The sociological aspect of missions is in the organization of the
whole church for the purpose of establishing the Kingdom of God
in the whole world. Much success has been already attained. In
this world movement the laying the foundation for a world civili-
zation is already far advanced. We speak of Christian England
and of Christian America. Men will one day, and that not a
distant day, have as good cause, may it be far better cause, to say
this is a Christian world. The world will not be content with a
civilization like our American civilization as we are not content
with it. It is a great advance, we would far rather live in this
land and age than in any other. But the highest Christian civi-
lization has a still higher ideal.

The sociology of missions is seen also in the aims, methods and
results in heathen lands. Christ's aim was to save souls and
through saved souls to save society, to establish His kingdom in
all lands. The salvation of a soul in the life to come is the result
of salvation in the present life, the soul saved now is saved then.
Salvation on earth prepares for salvation beyond the earth. The
Kingdom of God on earth prepares for the Kingdom of God in
heaven, the society of earth for the society of heaven. The soul
that is not saved in its social nature is not saved at all, for the soul
is a social personality. That which the church has all along been
doing unconsciously, she now plans and intends to do. She aims

FOREIGN MISSIONS 393

to save a soul, a social soul, a successive generation of souls, a
growing society, the whole society of souls. The aim of missions
is Christ's aim, the church has caught His vision, the vision of a
saved society. The methods and means are also sociological. The
appeal is to the social nature of man. Christ did not leave the
choice of means to man, he prescribed them, to teach, to influence,
to persuade. Men have sometimes forgotten that to make a dis-
ciple by force was to make only a nominal one. Trying force has
been man's mistake, out of harmony with Christ's Kingdom in the
heart, and doomed to failure, being unadapted to the social nature
of man. But the means Christ directs when earnestly used even in
apparent failures are seen to be worthy of success, and generally
they win success. The revelation of God in the Bible commends
itself to man wherever found and becomes his conception of God.
And souls having this conception have their social nature swayed
by it, they come into the particular society of the Bible, the society
gathered about God : and it is the nature of this society to spread
and influence the general society where it dwells. Peace not war,
arguments not blows, books not guns, persuasion not power, love
not force, these means make disciples in all nations. The day when
might makes right passes when Christ comes. He brings in the
better day when right is the only might. These means change
the manners and customs, the standards and ideals, the laws and
the spirit of heathen society, and bring in a Christian civilization.
The methods of modern missions are directed to the general
welfare of mankind. We have medical mission work, to cure sick-
ness and relieve pain not only, but to discover and check the causes
of these ills and to teach and persuade men to obey God's laws of
health. We have educational mission work, to inspire and train
the mind of men and enlarge their vision beyond the narrow hori-
zon of the place and time where they dwell. We have charitable
mission work, to relieve present distress and to discover the causes
of distress and remove them. We have industrial mission work,
to teach industry and enlightened methods of carrying it on to
secure adequate results, to relieve in famine as is so often the
need in India, for instance, and to co-operate with the enlightened

394 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

government in methods to remove the cause of famine in the irri-
gation and sensible cultivation of the land. Hospitals and medical
schools, schools and colleges, industrial schools and relief stations
and commercial enterprises, as well as churches are included in
modern missions.

The results are also sociological. The soul coming into the
loyalty to Christ comes at once into a new view and feeling in
regard to all other souls, to those nearest to him in highest degree,
to all even the furthest removed in some degree. The converted
soul begins to pray as the Lord taught him, and he calls God by
the name of Father not only, he says Our Father : the brotherhood
of man comes from the Fatherhood of God. Our Father, how
many are there of us praying and being prayed for in the daily
prayer? The heathen mind begins to expand, it takes in the home,
the neighborhood, the race. We have contrasted the Christian
home with the old Roman home. Whenever a Christian home is
established in a heathen community the difference manifests itself
there, in the finer feelings, the higher standard of fidelity, in the
elevation of woman, the consideration of children, in the sweet-
ness, purity and strength of the family life; and the influence of
the changed home spreads into the neighborhood. So also with
the new standards and incentives to industry, and in all neighbor-
hood consideration and helpfulness. So the influence spreads, the
Christian home, the Christian village, and the larger community
feels the pulse of stronger and better life.

All portions of the race are lifted into a higher social life. The
lowest are of course changed in the most marked manner. The
wild nature and the ferocious customs of the South Sea Islanders
are so changed that the former cannibal becomes an angel of
mercy, rescuing and caring for the shipwrecked sailor. The nar-
row browed Hottentot grasps something of science and statesman-
ship and his community life takes on purer and nobler features. The
New York Tribune a few weeks ago said in one of its careful edi-
torials, "Since the days of Livingstone missionaries in Africa have
been busy preaching Christianity among the natives and teaching
them the wavs of humane civilization. Thus incalculable good has

FOREIGN MISSIONS 395

been done. Slavery and cannibalism have been abolished, the
offering of human sacrifices has become a thing of the past, and
populous tribes such as the Swazes, the Basutos, and the people of
Khama's kingdom have been elevated to a considerable degree of
civilization. But some evil threatens. The missionaries have
preached the religious equality of the races, that all are equal in
God's sight. The Basutos quickly reason that if they are equal in
His sight they must be equal in all respects, and they are begin-
ning to dream of "Africa for the Africans".

The pariah of India begins to have respect for himself and for
his kind, and to show qualities demanding the respect of others.
So also the highest of heathenism feel the change. The editor of
one of Japan's largest newspapers wrote a few months ago "Look
all over Japan. Our more than forty millions have a higher
standard of morality than they have ever known. Our ideas of
loyalty and obedience are higher than ever. And we acknowledge
that the cause of this great moral advance can be found only in
the religion of Christ".

So also all portions of human life are lifted up to higher wel-
ware. The Buddhist at the World's Parliament of Religion at
Chicago a few years ago who admired Christ's ministry to the
physical needs of mankind and challenged Christian missionaries
to follow his example, had failed to observe how closely they do
follow their Lord. The medical, educational and charitable work
of missionaries, together with the religious teaching, leave behind
them in heathen lands as Christ left behind Him in His journeys
through Judea and Galilee a wave of health and courage and new,
prosperous life, a society looking not backward but forward. The
people have caught a glimpse of the coming Kingdom of God, the
Kingdom in which the bodies, the minds and the souls of men are
made strong in the presence of the King. For the first time the
whole church thoroughly organized is carrying out her Lord's
command, is grasping His grand conception of a World Kingdom.
For the first time the whole world is known and open to the mis-
sionary work of the church. For the first time the church is
grasping the great conception of her Lord that society is to be

396 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

saved, all portions of the race, and all portions of human life.
The conception of Christ in all its grandeur is being recognized,
and since Christ is in it, the world's condition will one day be its
full realization. Kipling's stanza may be adapted to our thought —

"O East is East and West is West
And never the twain will meet
Till East and West stand presently
At God's great Judgment Seat.
But there is neither East nor West
Border nor breed nor birth,
When Christian men stand face to face,
For Christ's Conquest of the Earth".

CHAPTER XXIV.

The Further Advance of Christian Civilization.

The church in her growing consciousness of herself as a social
force must be further confirmed and stimulated by the consider-
ation of the great work that remains to be done in Christian lands.
Christian civilization, fine as it is, might and should be much finer
and better; it is not yet the civilization of the Kingdom of God,
the civilization of "righteousness, peace and joy in the Holy Ghost."
While a noble work is being done in heathen lands every reflect-
ing mind must recognize that the unchristian life and conduct of
Christian nations, soldiers, sailors, merchants, travelers, the so-called
Christian sword, scales, pleasure, have largely hindered it. When
Christian nations in national policy and the conduct of their rep-
resentatives of all grades shall be really Christian, the social ser-
vice of the church in heathen lands will be greatly advanced.
While the advance of civilization for twenty centuries from
ancient Rome, through our barbarian ancestors to the present day
has been marvellous, and is to be largely credited to Christianity
every reflecting mind must recognize that greater and better
advance could have been made had the church had a conscious
purpose, a well considered plan, and a persistent effort through the
centuries to elevate the social life of the people. Much more might
have been accomplished if the Christian church had always, or
even if she had at certain great critical stages consciously held this
as her aim and had intelligently and wisely directed her whole
power to its promotion. While the church has had her creed
making, government forming, and worship culturing ages, and has
now entered upon her ministering age, it would have been more
in keeping with Christ's great commission had she from the first and

398 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

throughout her whole history, devoted her main strength to minis-
tering to the social needs of mankind. Without question her pres-
ent privilege is simply to preserve all that is valuable in creed,
government and forms of worship, and in the spirit of genuine
belief, of good government and of sincere worship to devote her-
self to the uplift of society.

It must also be recognized that not only has her influence been
unconscious, unplanned and fitful, but that she has made many
mistakes due to ignorance of her mission and of the best ways of
carrying it out. The church as a social force must make today
conscious and intelligent effort to better society, and not be con-
tent with an unintelligent and unconscious influence. Piety is good
in itself and its influence is generally sweet and wholesome, but if
it is ignorant it is liable to make blunders, and to do much harm
without intending it. The church conscious of her purpose to benefit
society must be familiar with the delicate and complicated though
strong forces she wields, and with the equally delicate, complicated
and strong elements she wishes to improve, life forces upon life
elements. Blundering is surely to be avoided in using and influenc-
ing such forces and elements. The church should surely be
familiar with the sociology of the Bible, and with that also of gen-
eral society, if she would exercise her social force beneficently in
the world. Piety is of vast importance, but something more is
needed in the individual and in the church, it must be an intelli-
gent piety. Piety without scientific knowledge would work dis-
aster in a drug store or on a steamship, so piety without sociological
knowledge will often work injury in society. One need not go
far to discover some of the great blunders piety has made in its
ignorance. The charity of the church in the middle ages made
promiscuous alms giving a virtue, and canonized beggary, it
fostered the pauperism it sought to relieve. The charity of today
is "not alms but a friend", "not alms but justice by all to all", and
it aims to diminish and abolish pauperism. So justice in the mid-
dle ages was retributive, it regarded the crime as deserving great
penalties, and by its severity it fostered criminality. Justice today
seeks to grade penalties to the condition of the criminal, the newest

CHRISTIAN CIVILIZATION 399

penology seeks to save the criminal to society, it aims to do away
with crime, and has promise of large success. In many directions
an intelligent piety is needed to meet the present complex needs
of society. As with the church universal so each church in each
community should make conscious and intelligent effort to improve
the society of that community.

The knowledge of society, of the laws and forces, of the insti-
tutions, of the varied conditions of man's associated life is of the
utmost importance to the church for well-directed effort. The
great work of the church today may be generally described in
three particulars, and in each the need of sociological knowledge
is evident, a knowledge so fine that it becomes the basis of fine
instinctive action.

The first is the salvation of individual souls. The mission of 'Y
each church in each community is to do what Christ did while
He was upon the earth. He came to seek and to save the lost,
that must be the work of the church first and all the while. But
Christ had a great sympathy for humanity, it was instinctive with
Him to enter into a fellow feeling with mankind. Our love for
souls is apt to be somewhat vague, the soul is some invisible,
impalpable thing connected with man, and still separated from his
outward condition. With Christ the soul included the whole
man in his whole condition, it was equivalent to his life, "What
shall it profit a man to gain the whole world and lose his life",
his intellectual life, his moral life, his spiritual life, his social life,
his life in all departments, his whole life in time and in eternity.
Christ taught and healed in order to save life. He ministered to
all the needs of man that he might minister to the supreme need.
Our love for souls will become less vague when we consider the
social relations and the varied conditions of souls, of human life,
when we consider the influence of the past conditions of birth and
bringing up upon the present, and of the present upon the future.
"How the other half lives" is worth knowing by each half, and
each half must know, before it can take much interest in or be of
much service to the other half. The church in order to save
souls must have some of her Lord's deep sympathy for humanity,

400 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

for human life in its varied conditions, and this can only be brought
about by knowing all that can be known about society, by the
sociological knowledge that gives a basis for an intelligent appre-
ciation of each soul in its own peculiar social conditions.
/ ^ The second particular of the church's work is the salvation of
the whole soul, that is of the whole life. It is strange that any
one acknowledging Christ as his Lord should have any place for
the lurking thought that He was not Lord over the whole of him.
The church must not allow any single soul inside or outside of
her membership to feel that there is more than one moral standard.
Surely there are not as many standards as there are pursuits and
professions, as there are conditions and experiences of the laboring
man in his labor, of the business man in his business, of the director
in his corporation. Piety towards God leads to righteousness
toward men. Mr. Williams in his article on "The First Test of
Christianity" says "The church is to let the Christian conscience
out of its narrow limits. She is to teach men to do business, to go
to the polls and leigslative halls as they go to the sacrament, in the
fear of God. She is to speak as fearlessly from her pulpits against
the evils of commercial dishonesty and political corruption as she
does against those of open vice, let it cost her what it may in
patronage, gifts or social prestige. And until she does this she
will not commend her religion as valid or virile to this age."
JU The third particular of the church's work is to impress upon the
C f^ public mind precisely the same spiritual laws and sanctions it
impresses upon the private mind of its members. She must not
permit men to think that in any public act or capacity they are not
held by God and the people to as strict an application of religious
principles as in their private affairs. The sweeping generalization
is absolutely true, that "the Father's business is everything human",
it was the ideal of Christ, it must be the ideal of the church car-
rying on His life work to the general welfare of society. The
religious and secular life must merge in individuals in ever increas-
ing numbers until they merge in the life of society in general.
There must be room for God in private and in public life, in busi-
ness, in citizenship, in public office, in national life and in world
life.

CHRISTIAN CIVILIZATION 401

The sociology of the Bible, the particular society gathered about
the particular conception of God must be more fully applied to the
general society of today if Christian civilization is to be preserved
and advanced. By our knovi^ledge and command of the forces of
nature and of the resources of our new continent we have grasped
a vast store of material wealth. We have not yet fully learned
how to distribute this vast store justly nor to use it wisely. By
our republican form of government we have vast power in the
hands of the people of this great nation. We have not yet fully
learned how to use this power for the good of all the people of
our nation and of the world. The attempt of some to prosper at
the expense of the rest, ignoring the rights of their fellows, ignor-
ing the things of the mind and of the soul, the attempt to wrong-
fully grasp this vast store of wealth and political power is certainly
a possible peril of our civilization. By the legislative investigation
of police corruption and insurance corruption, by the further
investigation, though largely private, of many lines of trust com-
binations, stock manipulation and franchise purchase and abuse,
many eminent Christian men have been revealed as allowing and
doing in combined action what their conscience would have checked
in their private lives. The revelations of the greed, dishonesty
and dishonor so astounding today have opened the eyes of mankind
to the danger in America not only but in the whole civilized
world: and have also aroused the conscience of the people to
oppose and correct the evil tendency. The existing relations
between the individual and the industrial system and between the
industrial system and the state and the grave abuses they have
engendered call loudly for a remedy. Belief in God as the Father ^s
of all men is a belief that all men are brothers, this great truth
with its appropriate practice is the only available force capable of
preserving our government and our prosperity, of preserving our
high civilization.

As we advance in our study of the sociology of the Bible we
see many particular principles which may be applied to the many
peculiar problems of our modern society to preserve and advance
our Christian civilization.

402 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

"The best is yet to be
The last, for which the first was made".

The general principle of responsibility of each individual to
God, to God as the rightful Sovereign, the Great Father, the
heavenly King teaches authoritatively the brotherhood of man and
measures greatness by the service rendered by man to society.
Society has honored aggrandizement, has advanced to honor jus-
tice, is now advancing to honor service ; in the first there was the
prowess that harmed many; in the second this was restrained, or
became harmless at least; there is still an advance to be made,
the prowess must advance to helpfulness. The theory that idle-
ness is more honorable than toil, that it is more respectable to
consume what others have produced than to be a producer, has
robbed society of many values, material as well as in higher
spheres, and has created a gulf between the leisure and the labor-
ing classes, between the cultured few and the uncultured many.
When any imagine themselves above work they lose sight of
responsibility to God and of the nobility of service of man.
When all acknowledge the dignity of work and strive to serve
society and are proud only of the kind and amount of the service,
the classes combine in a general culture and welfare. The ancient
pagan civilization carved on the walls of the Temple of Karnak
the figure of a king holding a sword over a group of captives.
Our modern civilization carves on the walls of our Temple of
Law the figure of Justice holding a nicely balanced scale. The
sociology of the Bible has already taught two nations to erect on
a peak of the Andees marking their boundary line, the figure of
the Christ, the Prince of Peace, the King of Righteousness, the
Sovereign of Love, bestowing His favor equally upon both nations.
Not the sword, not the scales will be the symbol of the coming
civilization, but the cross, the symbol of self-sacrificing love. Not
how much can I get, but how much can I give. Not others
serve me, but I serve others, the highest culture therein a debtor
to Greek and barbarian alike; all men drawn by Him who was
lifted up and so sharing His drawing power for lifting up man
kind.

CHAPTER XXV.

The Christian, the Church and The Universal
Kingdom of God.

The truths of theology are found in the Bible as the facts of
any science are found in nature, not arranged in a system but as
data from which man forms a system. Sociology is found in the
society of any country or of the whole race, in the same way that
any science is found in nature. Sociology is found in the Bible
in the same way that theology is found there, the facts of the
particular society of the Bible are to be observed, classified and
the forces or principles common to the classification are to be
estimated in their general action and value. Christ taught sociol- '^
ogy in the same way he taught theology, not as a system, not
as a science but by His life and precepts, by the setting forth of
principles, by the giving of impulses, by the putting forth of
influences, by living, teaching, acting in the society of his day.
Theologically it is said He is the Son of God, the creator of
nature, the revealer of God. Sociologically it is said, He is the
Son of man, in Him the creature man comes to his full consum-
mation. He is the revealer of humanity.

The truths of the Bible, like the facts of nature are of great
variety and are scattered over its pages in perplexing and fasci-
nating confusion. Still there is order in the seeming confusion,
only it is not the order we would have made, not the order of
science, not man-made but God-made order, both in the Bible and
in nature. The flora of the earth are in fields and forests not in
flower gardens or in orchards, still there is a God-made order,
the long succession and outgrowth of evolution, the habitation of
soil and climate, of seashore and in-land, of mountain and plain,

404 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

and the commingling and developing of one another. So there is
a great order found in the particular society of the Bible, the long
succession and outgrowth of evolution, the habitation of time and
locality, the result of influencing other societies and of being
influenced by them, and the outflow of its special forces and prin-
ciples into the general society of the race. It ennobles the mind,
cultures its powers and widens its horizon to observe the vast
God made order in any department of nature; and it is in the
character of man's mind and generally adds to his power to form
a science; to form a man-made order of all the truths the
great creator has taught him. Man thus discerns, and arranges
tor his use the value and importance of things related to each
other, and so nature is no longer perplexing and bewildering to
him, but to the extent of his discernment and arrangement
becomes his companion and helper, even the fitful lightning
becomes his messenger and does his work. To find the relative
value and importance of forces and principles in the particular
society of the Bible is surely worth while, if we would yield our-
selves to them and transmit them to others.

The social consciousness is the result of social development, it
must grow out of the experience of society, out of the forces and
principles working in the social life, and this in its turn becomes
the transmitter of the ideals and standards which mould the forces
and conditions of the future of that society. The forces and prin-
ciples therefore which have the largest influence in awakening and
strengthening the social consciousness are passed on through this
consciousness into the future of that society. It is quite possible
however that through inattention by absorption in other things or
through willfulness in choosing other things important forces lose
their hold upon the social consciousness and the development of
society is warped from healthful conditions. Many students of
American society today fear that the ideals and forces of democ-
racy are growing dim and weak through our absorption in the
pursuit of wealth. It is so with the social consciousness of the
society of the Bible and of the society influenced by the Bible;
important forces and standards belonging to society as grouped

UNIVERSAL KINGDOM OF GOD 405

around a supernatural revelation of God may grow dim and weak
through inattention or willfulness. Many students of Christianity
today fear that some of her ideals and principles are growing dim
and weak through her magnifying other ideals, perhaps of equal
importance: that she fixes her attention so much upon the future
life that she neglects the present life; so much upon individual
salvation from sin against God, that she neglects social salvation
from sins against brothers; so much upon God's forgiveness of
sins that she neglects newness of life toward man ; so much upon
observances of religious privileges that she neglects social duties;
so much upon righteousness of relation to God in His sight that
she neglects righteousness toward man in the sight of both God
and men; so much upon theology that she neglects sociology, that
she leaves out of her religious life the life of service of mankind.
To take a careful view of the broad outlines of the God-made
order of the particular society of the Bible, to make a careful
estimate of the relative value of the ideals and forces arising from
the supernatural revelation of God in their designed bearing upon
the social consciousness must evidently be the safe course for
Christianity to pursue that she may carry out God's plan in the
world.

There are three main agencies God employed to arouse His
ideals in the consciousness of the particular society of the Bible.
These agencies are the same that are found in general society,
since the God of revelation and of nature is one God. Social
consciousness is always in need of leaders, and interpreters. The
first agency God employed was the prophet, the teacher of
righteousness. From Abraham through Moses and Isaiah, to
Malachi, from John, the Baptist, to Paul, there was the long suc-
cession of prophets. Social consciousness is always in need of
religious culture. Man is a religious being, and his social nature
particularly is religious; religion must always have large influence
on society. The second agency God employed was the priest. He,
with the prophet, awakened the consciousness of sin ; and when it
was awakened he directed it in securing the forgiveness of sin;
and furthered the removal of sin in the re-establishment of right

4o6 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

relations with God and man. The social consciousness always
recognizes the need of control, the welfare of society depends upon
the members co-ordinating with one another in ministering to the
common good. The third agency God employed was the king.
He was the vice-roy. God himself was the King. Neither agency
can be left out, either from the Bible, or from society in general.
Still it is quite evident the prophet and the priest lead up to and
culminate in the king. Man needs instruction, he needs to be
brought out of sin, and he needs to live aright in all the relations
of life, but he needs the first two in order that he may attain to
the third. The ceremony of anointing set apart each of these three
officers; but it is very faint, there are only traces of it with the
first ; more clear and marked Instances with the second ; while
with the third it is prominent and distinct.

Christ gathers in His person these three great agencies, in Him
they culminate. He is the Christ, that is the anointed prophet,
priest and king. This is true of Him in the general society of the
race as well as in the particular society of the Bible, the need of
mankind for teaching, for saving from sin, for right living, the
great democracy of need finds in Him its full supply. But here
in the culminating as in all the stages of the progressive experience,
the teaching, and the saving are for the purpose of the right liv-
ing. He is prophet, and He is priest, in order that He may be
King.

Each of the four gospels is divided Into two parts. In the first
part we have Christ's teaching for the first two years of His min-
try, it is about the kingdom, its establishment, its principles, its
practices. This part culminates with the confession of His dis-
ciples that He Is the Christ, and is immediately followed by His
transfiguration, in which He showed some of His disciples "the
Son of man coming in His kingdom" ; the kingdom of heaven
touches the earth and the mountain top shines In glory, a vision
of what the whole earth will be when His kingdom is every-
where established.

From this time He still teaches of His kingdom, but now a new
and startling truth Is brought before the bewildered disciples that

UNIVERSAL KINGDOM OF GOD 407

He, the Christ, the King, will die for His kingdom. Christ's
teaching concerning the meaning of His death is progressive.
There are four stages of the unfolding truth until the whole
meaning is clear. In each stage His teaching is followed by the
expression of the bewilderment of His disciples, they could not under-
stand that the Son of God, the great King would die. The first
teaching He gives is that He will die for a cause. They are to
follow Him. This is a common experience. His death was
according to a general principle, it belonged to a class of facts in
the moral world. Multitudes die for righteousness sake. The
second teaching was that He would die for persons. He teaches
the value of a soul. He is a shepherd going into the mountains to
seek the lost sheep. Death not for a cause alone, but to save a
person, the lost. This, too, is a common experience. Many a
physician, many a nurse, many a mother has so died. The third
teaching was that He would give His life a ransom for many, die
in a real sense in their place, death vicarious. This, too, is a
common experience. Not only spiritual progress is advanced by
sacrifice, but political as well. Many martyrs, many soldiers die
in the place of others, that others may live in political and spiritual
freedom. The fourth teaching was that He would die as a sacrifice for
sin. His death was sacrificed. His body broken. His blood shed for
the remission of sins. In this meaning the others culminate, and in
this He died alone, the lamb of God, the Savior of the world. In all
the meanings of His death as He himself teaches us it was that
His kingdom might be established, that men might live, live His
life, feeding upon Him, growing like Him, that He might be
their King. He is prophet, He teaches, He is priest, He dies, that
He may be King, may rule in the hearts of men, may be King of
all men. His Kingdom is for all. The democracy of ignorance,
of sin, of conflict is met by the King, and changed into the king-
dom of righteousness, peace and joy in the Holy Spirit, into the
true democracy, all equal before the King, equal in loyalty to the
King and equal as brothers in His kingdom.

The Kingdom of God is the dominant idea of the whole Bible.
In the consciousness of the society of the Bible it was largely

«7

4o8 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

political, a national conception of the dominion of power, like
other world empires. The teachings of the prophets added to this
certain essential features of righteousness, not to do away with
the world dominion, but to make it the empire of righteousness.
Each prophet had his special message. Amos put emphasis upon
the justice of God, Hosea upon his mercy, Micah upon his for-
giveness, Isaiah upon his redemption, Jeremiah upon his claim on
the individual, Ezekiel upon his regenerating power, Zephaniah
upon his judging, Joel upon his punishing, Habakkuk upon his
rescuing, Zechariah upon his upbuilding, as did Haggai and Mala-
chi, while Nahum and Jonah with Obadiah, speak of His dealings
with other nations, and Daniel shows forth His providence in the
rise and fall of nations and the increase of His Kingdom. In all,
spiritual blessings were not substituted for political welfare, but
were super-added, were made the soul animating the body politic.
The prophets taught of an ideal world of obedience to God, a
kingdom having universal blessings both material and spiritual.
Then Christ came, and began to preach "Repent ye, for the king-
dom of heaven is at hand". "I am come not to destroy the law
and the prophets but to fulfill." The ideal society is at hand. I
am come to make actual the prophets' vision of the Kingdom of
God.

Christ joined with His preaching of the Kingdom, His "heal-
ing all manner of diseases and all manner of sickness among the
people". We must not think of His working only a few miracles
of healing, those recorded are only a few specimens of the many
He wrought. His was a general mission of healing. As He passed
through the many towns and cities of the land disease fled before
Him and there followed Him a wave of general health, the health
of the kingdom. Christ insisted on the spiritual not in order to
be alone, or to be independent of the material, riches were not to
be despised but used, and the material was to be the servant, the
achievement and the adornment of the spiritual. Christ insisted
on the spiritual not that man might be transferred to heaven but
that He might live well on the earth, that He might subdue the
earth and replenish it as at the beginning He was commissioned

UNIVERSAL KINGDOM OF GOD 409

to do, and to do this socially for the good of all mankind. Man
was to be spiritual, not to win heaven but to win the world.
Christ taught the reality of heaven, the certainty and richness of
its blessedness, but heaven by itself occupied but little space in His
teachings; He dealt chiefly with life in this world. The blessed-
ness of heaven was never divorced from life here, or made a dif-
fernt thing from life here, it was doing the will of God, it was
being of the family of God, it was having His nature, being the
brothers and sisters of Christ, The meek were to inherit the earth,
the peace makers were called children of God, the disciples were
the light of the world. When we pray as He taught us "Thy
Kingdom come',, it is the heavenly kingdom, "Thy will be done
in earth as it is in heaven". The kingdom is in the earth, He who
does God's will is in the kingdom, wherever he is. God's will,
God's law obeyed in our bodies, then there will be no more sick-
ness. God's will, God's law obeyed in our treatment of the earth
and of each other, then there will be no more starvation — no
more poverty. God's will obeyed, this is the kingdom, the paradise
of health and plenty foretold by the prophets. The kingdom of
God is the kingdom of righteousness and love, it embraces the
home, the state, the economic system, the industrial life, the fel-
lowship of science, letters and arts, it embraces all that is human
and all humanity. The kingdom of God is the society of men
doing His will, it sheds its brightness over all of man's life whether
on earth or in heaven. It is the sphere of heavenly blessedness
transfiguring the earth with its glory, driving away all its shadows
and misery, as the mountain gloom was driven away by the trans-
figured Christ, and not only Moses and Elias, but the mountain
itself and those who had wearily climbed it, James and Peter and
John, were all flooded with His glory.

Christ was not visionary. He was the most practical of men. y^
He had an end in view, but also means to attain it. He had a
far oS goal but also successive steps in the way to reach it. He
had an ultimate aim, but also mediate and immediate aims. He
had the immediate aim of the conversion of the individual, the
immediate aim of a new man. Individualism rightly understood

410 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

is the basis of the kingdom. No one ever had a higher estimate
of the worth of the individual than had Jesus Christ. Christ's
teaching of the worth of the individual makes the poorest and the
meanest man upon the face of the earth the brother of the noblest
and the richest, since they are alike the brothers of the King. But
the salvation of an individual does not consist in individualism as
generally understood. Sin is departure from man as well as from
God. Salvation is fellowship with man as well as with God. The
union of the soul with God must bring that soul in union with
man. Man may try to isolate himself, if he succeeded he would be
no longer man. Man is a social being. Religion is a matter of
social relations, social relation with God, social relations with man.
The Ten Commandments are sociological. So is the Sermon on
the Mount. So is the Lord's Prayer. So is the new man.

Christ also had a mediate aim, the formation of the church.
The new man was associated with other men of like newness. But
here also the social nature of the individual was enlisted to be
fostered, trained and used. The church is a brotherhood, is to
cultivate fellowship, there is equality and fraternity in her life.
Happy would it be if this was so carried out in the practice of
today that all men should say "How these Christians love one
another", that there would be no need, not even the opportunity
for the orders and lodges based upon fraternity and helpfulness
that are as numerous as the churches in all our cities. The high-
est name given to the church is the body of Christ, the bride of
Christ. She is one with her Lord, and is to carry on His work
here on the earth. This is her mission, fellowship, the ideal fel-
lowship within herself, and service, the Christ service of mankind.
She is her Lord himself, represents him, is His life upon the earth.
Her life is to show His life — to do His work, to accomplish
His purpose on the earth. Her ordinances represent her as having
His life, and show forth His love. Her aim must be His. To
save souls ? Yes. To bring souls to heaven ? By all means. To
build up herself in numbers and power? Assuredly. But all these
are included and for the express purpose of establishing the
Kingdom of God on earth, the ideal society in the race of man-

UNIVERSAL KINGDOM OF GOD 411

kind. She is to pray constantly "Thy Kingdom come. Thy will
be done on earth as it is in heaven". And she is to live and labor
for that for which she prays. She is not the ultimate aim of
Christ. She is not an end in herself, she is not the far ofi goal, but
a necessary step in the pathway, a necessary and important means
to the end, a mediate aim of Christ.

Christ's ultimate aim, as we have seen is the Kingdom of God
on the earth, the society of the whole race living in righteousness
and love. This is the burden of His teaching, for this He died,
and rose from the dead, and ascended on high, for this He lives
and reigns, and this alone will satisfy His soul. The two terms
characteristic of Christ's teaching were the Son of Man, and the
Kingdom of Heaven ; His parables were largely about the King-
dom and the King; His commission to His church was to make
disciples of all nations; His method was to renew individuals by
His divine indwelling; His goal was the Kingdom; His imme-
diate aim was the individual; His mediate aim was the church;
His ultimate aim was the Kingdom. The Gospels give the prin-
ciples and impulses from Christ to establish His Kingdom. The
Acts and Epistles give the application of these to the conditions
of society then existing. The church in successive ages is to apply
them to the changing conditions of society until the Kingdom is
established in the whole earth. The church today is to apply them
to all the conditions of society existing today. The central theme
of both the Old and the New Testament is the King and His
Kingdom. The Kingdom of God is the ultimate aim of the Bible
culminating in Christ. Christ is prophet and priest that He may
be King. The Kingdom of Christ is the heart of both theology
and sociology. The individualism of Christ is the social man — the
Christ-like man; this secures the highest social well being, the
Christ-like society.

The duty and privilege of the church are to give the King-
ship of Christ the same prominence in her thought and life, in her
purpose and work that the Bible gives it, and in His name to
transform society everywhere into the Kingdom of God. The
church in her creed building, in her worship forming and govern-

412 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

ment establishing ages has not always held closely to the Bible
standard of truth and ideals of life; she is coming now in her
ministering age to recognize more clearly her duty and privilege.
There have been few books written upon the Kingship of Christ,
until in recent times few books have been written upon the King-
dom. In Shaft's catalogue of theological works there are pages
of books on Christ and His various titles, and only one book upon
His Kingship. In our great books on theology there are very
few chapters, and these few are often minor chapters, upon the
Kingdom of God. But the King and the Kingdom are beginning
to assume a more prominent place in the thought of the Church
and of the world today.

No single nation has yet been made entirely Christian, the
church in her action has not succeeded in doing this, the church
in her history has not shown the purpose of doing this. There
is such a thing as Christian civilization, a far different thing from
pagan civilization, but there never yet has been a civilization
entirely Christian, and there is none such today. There is not a
Christian nation that professes even to be fully guided by the
teachings of Christ either in its relations to other nations or in
its internal laws and customs. Heathen nations resent the approach
of Christian nations, for while some Christians bear the Book,
others bear the sword and the scales, largely against the spirit of
the Book, while some bear peace and good will others bear vice
and fraud and conflict, and the heathen find the exploiting and
destroying element as strong as or stronger than the saving, and are
confused and perplexed as to what is real Christianity. Christian
nations in their manners and customs, in their work and purpose
are governed largely by self-interest rather than by social interests ;
and members of the church are not clearly distinguished from
others in this regard. The church itself has many divisions each
governed in relation to the others by self-interest rather than by
the interest of all. But the church is now arousing out of con-
tentedness with such conditions, and the world is arousing, too, to
call upon the church to more closely follow and more fully repre-
sent her Lord. The church is beginning to recognize more fully

UNIVERSAL KINGDOM OF GOD 413

her glorious mission to Christianize herself fully, then to Chris-
tianize Christian nations entirely, and then and thus to Chris-
tianize the world. The teachings of Christ are not too lofty to be
put in practice, and the putting them in practice is the only
ground of commending them to others. The living the Christ life
is the mission of the church in each community. To minister
to all the needs of the community is the true representing of
Christ to that community.

The church thus awakens to a new purpose, to a new preaching
and to new methods of action, but in so awakening she is only
grasping at last Christ's purpose, and preaching and methods.

The days of pulpit eloquence are not passed, it will be a revival
of the eloquence of prophet and apostle, of the greatest preacher
of all, the Lord Jesus Christ. It will be the presentation of the
loftiest truths by one in whom those truths are incarnated. It
will be the preaching of righteousness in its application to present
day needs. The prophets denounced sins not generically but spe-
cifically, not afar off but near by, not of the insignificant but of the
prominent, the leaders, the rich, the governors, the kings, for these
lead public opinion. Christ exposed corruption of the rich, the
selfishness of the rulers, the hypocrisy of the Pharisees, these leaders
of public opinion were exposed and denounced. Paul gave an
indictment of Roman civilization but he gave it to the Romans:
it has a sting as we read it today, even when applied to that far
off time, or vaguely to human nature ; such an indictment of
New York civilization, that is, one equally true to the particular
case, given in a New York pulpit would be preaching after the
spirit and manner of the apostles. Paul was equally severe, the
severity of truth and righteousness in his indictment of Jewish
formality; such an indictment of Christian formality, if it was
equally true and kind would be sure to have a hearing, would
wake up the average congregation. There followed in the great
Epistle a full setting forth of the truths of the Gospel of Christ.
The preacher of today will follow the spirit of the great Apostle
to the Gentiles. The indictment of the sinner will be clear cut,
severe, intensely personal, but it will be for the purpose of making

414 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

him a new man, of making him a saint, a word largely gone out
of use today there is so little demand for it, and when used mean-
ing a mystic; but with Paul meaning a new man, now on the
earth in his acknowledged relation both toward God and man.
The preacher will so present the sacrifice of Christ that when
accepted by faith the man will come back to God and his fellow-
man, to give his entire allegiance to the King who died for him.
There followed in the Epistle to the Romans a clear presenta-
tion of the social duties of the renewed man. The indictment
of Roman civilization and Jewish formalism was to lead to Christ,
and through Christ to the Kingdom of God upon the earth, to a
Christian spirit and a Christian social life, to a civilization entirely
Christian: a civilization not yet reached but sure to come.

The preaching of social righteousness will not be generic but
specific if it follows that of prophet and apostle, neither platitudes
about sin, nor platitudes about righteousness, but forceful and
direct preaching of duty to God and man. There will be no
opportunity for confusion and bewilderment either about sin or
about duty, both will be seen to be largely social. There are in
American life special tendencies which need to be checked or
reversed. Other tendencies existed in Jewish life in the time of
the kingdom, others in the time of Christ, still other tendencies
existed in Roman and Grecian life: the prophets and apostles
directed their preaching to the tendencies of their times: the
American preacher to follow their example will direct his preach-
ing to the tendency of American times. In our Republic there is a
tendency to political corruption, the buying of votes at the ballot
box or in the legislative halls, the buying of office or of legislation.
Think you the prophets or apostles or Christ Himself would wit-
ness this and keep silence, would think of the dignity of the pulpit
and speak only platitudes of righteousness? There is a tendency
to police corruption in our larger cities and towns, vice and crime
buying immunity from violated law. Would Micah, would John,
in our city pulpits keep silence, or would they arouse a public
opinion that would sweep such corruption to destruction? In our
business life there is a tendency to corruption, to men in a large

UNIVERSAL KINGDOM OF GOD 415

corporation losing their individual conscience, to remorselessly
crush all competition, that is to crush into poverty or death their
brother men, flesh and blood competitors; to hire labor at starva-
tion prices ; to cheat the people as to the value of the stock of their
companies ; and to charge the consumer all he can be made to pay.
Through the corporation personality seems lost, it is not the indi-
vidual dealing with individual according to individual rights and
standards, not man with his brother man, but conscience is lost in
small masses of men dealing with large masses. The remedy is
not abolition of corporations, not only regulation of corporations
by state or national law, but such clear cut, Christ like preaching
that men leaving their pews and going to the board room of the
corporation will take their consciences with them. The eloquence
of the pulpit today will vie with that of any day in Bible times
when it treats the same subjects in the same spirit, when it preaches
the Ten Commandments, the Sermon on the Mount, the Golden
Rule in their application to the life of today.

The church as it advances in her ministering age has not only
new vigor in her pulpit but in her organization and work she is
adopting new methods to meet the present day needs. Old methods
are not discarded but are improved and new methods are added.
Her worship, her solemn feasts, her prayer meetings, her schools
are maintained ; they have the rich associations coming from a long
and noble past. In all her methods new or old she cultivates the
spirit of devotion, the loving adoration of Grod. She fosters the
spirit of fellowship, the brotherly love of those regarding Christ
as their Savior, and looking forward to living with Him and like
Him in the eternal life at His right hand in Heaven ; she seeks to
win converts to Him and to His service ; and to make her influence
felt for good in the community where she dwells.

The new methods of work have been evolved from the growing
purpose of the church to establish the Kingdom of Christ in the
whole earth, they have the two features of enlisting the member-
ship of the church in righteous living, showing to the world the
application of the principles of Christ to the snrial life, and of seiz-
ing the opportunity of reaching out to put forth a positive influence

4i6 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

in checking the evils in society, ministering to the needs of
men near-by and far off and of fostering the growth of the
good elements in the social life. Within the last century grew up
the great foreign missionary organizations of the church which
are changing far off lands. The organizations to minister in
Christian lands are vast, only we are so familiar with them that
we do not estimate them at their real worth. The Evangelical
Alliance, the Young Men's Christian Association, the Young
People's Organizations of various names, the Boards of Domestic
Missions, the Boards of Education, these are but a few organiza-
tions; to make an exhaustive list of new methods or new organiza-
tions would take up many pages. The Charities Directory of the
single city of New York is a volume of over six hundred pages,
these organizations of charities have grown out of church activities
and out of the public opinion fostered by Christianity.

Each church in each community is beginning to grasp the sub-
lime purpose of doing in that community the work of the body of
Christ, the work Christ would do were He here in person as He is
here by His representative, the work of helping all in need, physi-
cal, mental and moral as well as religious need. The church has
adopted the idea of the state of giving education to every child
in the state, and is adopting more and more the methods of
instruction, so that her instruction in religious truths shall vie in
quality with the education the state gives in secular truths.
Churches in country and village are seeing that there is a call for
ministering to all classes in all departments of life. Churches in
towns and cities are becoming more and more institutional. An
institutional church in New York City strives to provide for the
thousands within its reach everything which can render the daily
life of working people happy, refined, intellectually cultivated and
sociable. It does not wait for the people to attend upon the
church but it always attends upon the people. There are classes
and clubs of all kinds from cooking to dancing, through all grades
of physical and mental culture to spiritual, and for men as well as
women. A single rhurrh in that city has over two thousand people
attending daily its various agencies for advancing their interests.

UNIVERSAL KINGDOM OF GOD 417

The many college, university and church settlements have their
few paid and their many voluntary workers in various sections of
the great cities directing their life culture and influence to the
uplifting of humanity.

But not only in these many ways but by her life and influence
the church is seeking the causes of human ills and is trying to
remedy them. She is going down into the slums with her gracious
ministries not only, but she is beginning to see that her life and
influence should do away with the slums, should so mould public
opinion and direct private life that the Golden Rule should apply
to landlord and tenant, to employer and employee, to tradesman
and customer, that the Kingdom of God may be established both
on the East Side and on Fifth Avenue, in all parts of Christian
lands and in heathen lands also.

Thus Christ's aims are being adopted more fully by his body,
the church. She has her immediate aim the conversion of the indi-
vidual, a conversion from a self centered, isolated life to a Christ
centered life becoming social and brotherly, and she draws him
into her felloweship to develop that loyalty to Christ which has
Christ's feeling and purpose toward mankind. The church has
Christ's mediate aim also now growing more clear and controlling.
She is to be a brotherhood, a social organization in which the
righteousness toward God will show itself in righteousness toward
men. She is to exemplify the Kingdom of God in the life she lives
upon the earth, she is to culture her members to do the will of
God on earth in earthly relations and affairs before they pass on to
do the will of God in heaven. The church has at last grasped
Christ's ultimate aim, to turn the whole society of mankind into
the vast and Universal Kingdom of God on earth. She has
already by her unconscious and unintentional influence established
in large portions of the earth a Christian civilization. She now
sees that her great mission is to Christianize the world, not merely
certain portions of the race to a partial Christianity, but the whole
race to a complete Kingdom of God. When she grasps this ulti-
mate aim of Christ with clear understanding and full determina-
tion, when this becomes her one purpose of life, much of her dor-

4i8 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

mant powers will be aroused, and her whole conscious and inten-
tional influence as well as her unconscious influence, both her
shining life and her earnest effort, will magnify the Kingdom of
Christ, whose right it is to reign, and will render the highest and
best possible service to all mankind.

For this great consummation the world is waiting. When
Christ came to the earth, He was called "the desire of all nations".
It is as true today "The Kingdom of Christ is the desire of all
nations". The world is groaning for the "Kingdom of righteous-
ness, peace and joy in the Holy Spirit". The world is longing
for brotherhood, and knows not how to attain it. Societies are no
longer isolated, nations and races know of each other, the thought
of the whole race is being grasped by each portion of the race, the
ideal of the welfare of each portion is beginning to embrace the
ideal of the welfare of all mankind. The world's longing for
brotherhood finds in the Kingdom of God alone its full satisfac-
tion, men can only consciously be brothers when they are conscious
of being the children of God ; filial love is the source of fraternal
love. The Kingdom of God, the sociological ideal of the super-
natural revelation of God, the particular society of the Bible thus
taking possession of all the race of mankind, is thus not in conflict
with nature, but only adds to nature a needed force. There is
evolution in society as in all nature, it is not materialistic but
Christian evolution ; there is not only the plan running through all
nature but the great author of the plan and the director of it,
there is the transcendant God and He also is the immanent God,
becoming more immanent as there is need in the unfolding of the
great plan. In the ceaseless and inevitable progress of evolution
there at length comes forth the element of living for others, it is
seen most clearly in mammalian life, nature puts the premium of
highest and richest existence upon love of others. When man is
reached he is an intelligent being possessed of free will, he may
see this great principle in nature and may choose it as the controll-
ing principle of his life. The supernatural revelation of God
shows that this supreme element in man's life is from God Him-

UNIVERSAL KINGDOM OF GOD 419

self, is the likeness to God, and that He is revealed to awaken in
man this spirit of living for others.

The Lord Jesus Christ the ideal man, the supreme revelation
of God, fully grasped this principle of life. He lived. He died
for others. Now He lives and reigns giving to all His loyal sub-
jects His principle of living, being the source of their life, the
living for others, for God in loyal trust and loving obedience, for
mankind in loving service. Man following a lower element in
evolution, that of the struggle for self, degraded his intelligence
and dulled it, misused his will and corrupted it, and departing
from God and his likeness to Him, parted also from his fellow
man. From this there has come upon man in his social nature
much conflict and great wretchedness. The groaning of the world
in its self-seeking and the longing of the world for brotherhood
both show the cry of mankind for God ; and the Kingdom of God
is the gracious and forgiving response of the Heavenly Father.

This then is the condition awaiting society as foretold by both
nature and revelation, the Kingdom of God established in all lands
and climes, and for all time while the earth remains a fit dwelling
place for mankind even to a thousand generations. The prophets
of the Old Testament vie with each other in describing the fruit-
fulness and peacefulness of the earth when righteousness shall
hold sway. The apostle sees the perfect city of God coming down
from heaven to the earth. Various national and race traits and
organizations will be maintained, the Orient and the Occident, the
tropic and the temperate zones, the islands and the continents, the
mountains and the plains will still have their various kinds of men,
but they will vie not in conflict and strife but in ministering to
each portion's welfare. Peculiarities among races will be like
peculiarities in families not foes to but friends and promoters of
true brotherhood. Each nation will be Christian after its own
peculiar characteristics, and will be entirely Christian. All nations
will be Christian in the treatment of each other, and entirely Chris-
tian. The day is coming when the Kingdom of God will sway the
whole earth, and all men will dwell together as brothers of the
King.

INDEX.

Page.

Abraham 124, I37

Adam and Eve 61, 135, 152

Adam, nature of the fall of 63

Adultery and fornication, laws, public opinion 161

America, future of — from its position I77

Antiquity of man on earth 68

Apostles, preaching by, on business 231, 239

Aristocracy, God given and man made 92

Arts in Hebrew life 251

Aryan race loi, 391

Barbarian, our ancestors Zl^

Bible, God made order in the 403

Bible, many versions of 39i

Bible, religion sociological 35

Birth rates, various 164

Brain and body in man and animals T2.

Brotherhood of man from Fatherhood of God 57

Brotherhood enriched by variety in race 102

Brotherhood need and longing of the world for 418

Budde's view of the Bible Z7

Business principles of the Bible 236

Business, Golden Rule in 240

Cheyne's view of the Bible 42

Children's courts, modern ZZl

Children in the Roman world 370

Children in healthy marriage 75, 159

Chivalry, the Institution of 378

Christ, the Ideal Man 35^

Christ, the Light of the World 384

Christ, immediate, mediate and ultimate aim of 55, 409

Christ's teaching of His own death 407

Christ's teaching of the Kingdom of God 314, 384, 406

422 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

Page.

Christ's teaching of penology and pathology 334

Christ's teaching of sociology 55, 403

Christ's teaching on wealth 254

Christ Prophet and Priest that He may be King 406

Christianity defined 364

Christianity, changes in society wrought by 363

Christianity, advance of, measured by the centuries 391

Church, a social force 54, 397

Church, different ages and development of 52

Church, ministering age of 53

Church, commimity of goods in the early 259

Church, immediate, mediate and ultimate aim of 411

Church, new kind of preaching of 413

Church, new methods of 4^5

Church, organizations in foreign missions 388

Cities of Palestine 213, 228

City growth in modern times 198

Circumcision 138

Civilization generally of demotic races 105

Civilization of the masses 252

Civilization, Christian 364

Civilization of the future 397

Civilization of the world to be wholly Christian 405

Combination in industry 225

Combination of labor and capital in modern enterprises 262

Corporations and fraternity 265

Corporations, checks upon wrong action 267

Competition in evolution modified by reason and love 24

Co-operative movement, the 273

Conquest of Canaan 185

Conception of God, the Hebrew 38

Continents of old and new worlds 177

Covetousness in business 274

Creation, Bible account of 59

Crime, causes and treatment of 327

Culture and refinement in Hebrew life 251

Culture of righteousness for the masses 280

Culture, Hebrew, for all classes and both sexes 293

Culture and social consciousness 279

Day's view of the Bible 37

Deterioration in early society 84

INDEX 423

Page.

Development of man, means of 79

Dispersion of mankind 99

Diseases of society, causes of 320

Distinguished, The production of the 9^

Divorce, ancient and modern 169

Driver's view of the Bible 37

Education, Hebrew, and the United States systems 283

Election of God as King 306

Elective officers ' 302

Elements in man 62

Endowment of man, the original 70

Environment, man's power to change 64

Environment works changes in the race 102

Environment, physical, esthetic, social I75

Environment, good, bad, changed 187

Equality before the law 310

Evolution, Herbert Spencer's description of 14

Evolution, Theistic and Christian 17. 44

Evolution in life 19

Evolution of man and society 22, 70

Evolution in the Bible I53

Evolution in the Kingdom of God 25, 418

Family, many kinds of marriage 78

Family, marriage and children 159

Family for development of human nature 160

Farming, the basis of industry 224

Farming, Villages in Palestine 213

Fire, man's discovery and use of 80

Flood, the causes of the 86, 153

Foreign Missions, Sociological at home and abroad 388

Fraternalism fostered 249

Fraternalism and United States 318

Gambling 342

Genesis, the ist chapter of, and science 59

Geography, Lessons of Physical 178

God, the affectionate Father of the race 62

Golden Rule, Preaching on, in the conduct of business 240

Government of and from the family 298

Government for the welfare of the governed 301

424 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

Page.

Government for the common good 318

Government, Tribal, extent of Hebrew 312

Graf-Wellhausen, theory of the Bible 47

Greed versus love of humanity in business 271

Hammurabi, code of 201

Happiness, the aim in the evolution of life ig

Harlotry, ancient and modern 168, 339

Health, social 352

Heredity ■ 129

Heredity of acquired characteristics 131

Heredity of the kings of Judeah and Israel 144

Heredity of the covenant of grace 137

Heredity of the spiritual nature 148

Hereditary offices 304

Hilquit, Morris, description of socialism g

Higher criticism described by its advocates 2>7

Historical investigation, scientific 45

House and home, value of to society 171, 282

Hope, The, of Israel 357

Individualism, Limit of 247

Industry in primitive society 82

Industry, Principles of. Complex 225

Industry, small estates encourage 206

Infancy, prolonged in man 76

Intemperance 341

Intellectual development 380

Jewish race today 147^ 245

Justice, Administration of 330

King, the, was under the law 311

Kingdom of God in poetry and oratory 358

Kingdom of God, dominant in the Bible 407

Kingdom of God, need and longing of the world for 418

Kingdom of God, Christ's teaching of 314, 384, 406

Labor, Three Elements in Hiring 230

Labor Unions and fraternity 267

Land, the physical basis of society 67

Land, distribution among the people in the world 194

INDEX 425

Page.

Land, division by lot 203

Land, owners frequently a favored class 196

Land, rest for the 215

Land, small estates, inheritance, alienation 206

Land of Palestine supported large population 212

Language, origin of man's power of 62

Language, variations of 100

Language, rise of written loi

Laws, Origin of the, of Moses 202

Leaders of men, Incentive of, rewards of 247

Liberty, Individual — and stability of society 303

Life, maximum in quality and quantity of human 102, 348, 418

Life, shortening and lengthening of human 1 12

Life, value placed on human 329

Literature and social consciousness 31. 353

Literature of and for the masses 291

Lot, division of land by 203

Love, a strong element in evolution 21

Love, Law of, in business 237

Mackaye, James, on socialism 1 1

Man, distinguishing elements in 62

Marriage of the sons of God and the daughters of men 85

Marriage for the production and care of children 159

Marriage in modern life 163

Marriage, different kinds of 78

Marriageable age ^^

Masses, culture of the 280

Miracles, Grounds of belief in 49

Migration of nations 103

Missions, Sociology of foreign 382

Monogamy, fostered by nature 75

Monogamy, complete family life 160

Monopoly, ancient and modern 275

Morals of the Exodus and the Conquest of Canaan 50

Music, Culture by 284

Nation, genetic and demotic 104

Needs and wants of man 225

Negro race 109

Nile, civilization of 181

426 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

Page.

Office holder, kind of man required 302

Oratory, Influence of 286

Oratory of righteousness 339

Orations of Moses 308

Order in camp and march 307

Order in nature and Bible, God made 403

Organization of society 114

Paganism 366, 376

Palestine, Land of 213

Palestine, the third home of the Hebrews 182

Parasites on society 344

Paternalism discouraged 249

Pathology 320

Penal reform, modern 335

Penalties for crime 328

Philosophy of history 50

Physical basis of society 67

Polygamy 155

Poor favored by land laws 217

Poverty, Two sources of 229, 321

Poverty in the United States 262

Poverty, extent in Christian lands 346

Poverty in the Roman world 368

Poverty, care of 348

Poetry of righteousness 358

Prentice, Sartell, on influence of the church 318

Prisons and jails in the United States 328

Primary classes in society 88

Privilege classes 310

Preaching of social duties 54

Profit sharing 272

Prophets preaching on sociology 54

Prophets preaching on business 231

Psychology of the religious nature 150

Pulpit eloquence of the future 413

Prosperity, material and social causes of 348

Punishment of crime 331

Race movements 103

Refuge, cities of 333

Religion an agency in culture of the masses 294

INDEX 427

Page.

Religion, Bible, is sociological 35

Religious nature of the child 150

Rest days and years 235

Revelation of God progressive in the Bible 294

Righteousness characteristic of the Hebrews 280, 316

Righteousness, the ideal of social health 358

Roman cvilization 366

Sanitary rules and regulations 344

Service, the life of 402

Sexes, the relation of the 74

Sexual impurity 339

Schools in ancient and modern times 283, 292

Slavery, Hebrew policy to check and banish 231

Slavery and civilization 265

Slavery in the Roman world 234, 369

Smith, Adam 255

Social consciousness moulds future society 279, 404

Socialism described by its advocates 9

Socialism, spread of 12

Social consciousness in literature 31

Society of the Bible, Distinctive feature 31

Society, like an organism 114

Society, Salvation of 384, 392

Socially inactive, the 343

Sociology, Science of 7, 401

Sociology, discriptive, static and dynamic 27, 353

Sociology of the Bible, what it includes ;i2

Soul the whole life of man 399

Soul, salvation of a single 382

Spencer, Herbert 14

Spargo, John 9

Strikes, History of. Need of 268

Sympathy, or likemindedness, the soul of society 122

Synagogue, History and influence of 289

Taxation of the land by tithes 219

Ten Commandments and heredity 140

Ten Commandments, summary of, for business 237

Ten Commandments, God's ideal of social health 355

Tithe, the 127, 219

Tribal government, extent of 312

428 THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE BIBLE

Page.

Tools, man the only being making, development of 8i

Tools, owners and workers, diflferent classes 83, 263

United States, genetic and demotic 105

United States' position on the earth 178

United States, distribution of land in 196

United States, distribution of wealth 261

United States government and fraternalism 318

United States, crime in 328

Varieties of race from Environment 102

Vitality, high and low 89

Wages rise in modern times 271

Wages, Christ's and Adam Smith's conflicting views 255

Wants of man, cultivation of the 225

War, Hebrew policy against 324

War spirit in modern times 326

War in the Roman world 367

Wealth in Hebrew estimation 126

Wealth, social effort the source of 245

Wealth, four elements in its wide distribution 246

Wealth, Christ's teachings about 254

Wealth in modern times and in the United States 260

Woman in Hebrew estimation 126, 293

Woman in the Roman world 369

World longing for the Kingdom of God 418

Worship, effect of, on social character 294

Date Due

Wh- J, 4 4_q

*-— -^

JAM 1 0 )S

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