Soldiers Without Swords A History Of The Salvation Army In The United States

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Soldiers Without Swords

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK CHICAGO

DALLAS ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO

LONDON MANILA

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
OF CANADA, LIMITED

TORONTO

SOLDIERS

WITHOUT

SWORDS

A History of the. Salvation Army
in tJie United States

BY HERBERT A. WISBEY, JR.

New York THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

COPYRIGHT 1955 BY HERBERT A. WISBEY, JR.
PUBLISHED SIMULTANEOUSLY IN CANADA

All rights reserved no part of this book may be
reproduced in any form without permission in writ-
ing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who
wishes to quote brief passages in connection with a re-
view written for inclusion in magazine or newspaper.

First Printing

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Prcfc

ace

The Salvation Army is an organization familiar to most Americans.
Seventy-five years of unselfish service in the United States have
earned for it a reputation for "doing good." Beyond this general con-
cept few people know very much about the basic objectives, the
scope of activities, or the historical development of the organization.

The story of the Salvation Army in the United States forms a
distinct and unique chapter in the history of the international or-
ganization. This book was written to provide a concise, accurate,
objective history of the Salvation Army in the United States that
would be of use both to Salvationists and to students of American
social and religious history.

The research and writing that have gone into this work were
spread over a period of eight years, and during that time the author
received aid and encouragement from many quarters. Without the
cooperation of the Salvation Army, this book could not have been
written; and my greatest debt is to the many individual Salvation
Army officers who furnished information not available from printed
sources. The encouragement given by Professor Allan Nevins, of
Columbia University, was invaluable. The late Don Pitt, former
head of the Salvation Army National Research Bureau, read the en-
tire manuscript and made numerous helpful suggestions.

I wish to acknowledge the friendly and courteous assistance of
the staff members of the Columbia University Library, Union Theo-
logical Seminary Library, New York Public Library, Rose Memorial
Library of Drew University, the Library of the Salvation Army
Training College (Eastern Territory), and the editors and staff of
the Eastern Territory War Cry.

v

* < - i

VI PREFACE

Finally, I owe a special debt of gratitude to my wife, Adelia
Wagner Wisbey, who offered encouragement at each step of the
undertaking.

KEUKA PARK, N.Y. H. A. W., JR.

Contents

PREFACE v

CHAPTER

I THE INVASION OF AMERICA i

II PAVING THE WAY 10

III LAYING THE FOUNDATION 23

IV THE BRICKBAT ERA 32
V SECESSION THE MOORE SPLIT 45

VI REBUILDING FROM THE FOUNDATIONS 56

VII CARRYING THE WAR TO THE FAR WEST 68

VIII PERSONALITIES AND PROGRESS 76

IX WINNING NATIONAL RECOGNITION 86

X "IN HIS STEPS" 96

XI THE GREAT SCHISM 106

XII HEALING THE BREACH 118

XIII "THE LANDLESS MAN TO THE MANLESS
LAND" 129

XIV "SEND EVA!" 140
XV APPROACHING MATURITY 150

XVI DOUGHNUTS FOR DOUGHBOYS 159

XVII PROSPERITY AND PROHIBITION 170

XVIII HIGH COUNCIL 178

XIX DEPRESSION 188

XX THE ERA OF RESPECTABILITY 193

XXI WORLD WAR II AND USO 202

vii

viii CONTENTS

XXII "SERVICE TO MAN" 207

XXIII THE WORLD FOR CHRIST 213

APPENDICES 219

THE DOCTRINES OF THE SALVATION ARMY 219

ROSTER OF SALVATION ARMY COMMANDERS 221

NOTES 223

SOURCES 229

INDEX 235

Illustrations

Between pages 116 and uj

THE PIONEER PARTY IN NEW YORK, MARCH 10, 1880
MAJOR THOMAS E. MOORE
MAJOR FRANK SMITH
COMMANDER BALLINGTON BOOTH
MAUD BALLINGTON BOOTH
COMMANDER FREDERICK BOOTH-TUCKER
"THE CONSUL," EMMA BOOTH-TUCKER
COMMANDER EVANGELINE BOOTH

Soldiers Without Swords

The Invasion of America

A strange sight caught the attention of the small crowd that
gathered to watch the ships dock at Castle Garden on March 10,
1880. Eight uniformed figures a stocky, bearded man and seven
women came marching down the gangplank of the Australia* Over
their heads a crimson, blue, and gold banner whipped in the raw
March breeze, and they were singing hymns as they marched ashore
and knelt in a circle to pray. Gilt letters on the red bands of their
black derby-like hats spelled out the words "THE SALVATION ARMY."

The leader of the group, Commissioner George Scott Railton, was
interviewed by newspaper reporters who pushed their way through
the curious crowd that formed around the colorful detachment.
The Salvation Army, they were told, was a movement for the recla-
mation of working-class people not connected with any church.
This was the first group authorized to establish a branch of the
Salvation Army outside the British Isles, where William and Cather-
ine Booth had founded the organization fifteen years earlier, in 1865,
The next day, detailed accounts of the arrival of the little band ap-
peared in all of the New York daily newspapers.

These pioneer Salvationists came prepared to adapt themselves
to American customs. Their first official service on American soil,
held on the dock, began with hymns sung to the tunes of "The Old
Folks at Home" and "My Old Kentucky Home." Their banner, a
golden sun on a red background surrounded by a blue border, had in
one corner a small American flag. Within the sun was the motto of

2 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

the Salvation Army, "Blood and Fire," and "N.Y. No. i." Railton's
text for that first service was John 3:16, "For God so loved the
world . . ."

The ocean trip had been a difficult one. After a rousing send-off
from London on St. Valentine's Day, 1880, the passengers of the Aus-
tralia did not see land again for twenty-three stormy days. The seven
women were seasick for the entire voyage, and Railton himself had
one attack, although he held services three times daily and did his
best to keep up the morale of his seasick, homesick army. A cylinder
burst in the engine room, and the Australia nearly foundered in the
high seas. Some of the passengers were taken off by another ship,
but the Salvationists refused to leave. Finally, on March loth, the
vessel docked safely in New York.

The pioneer party was met at the dock by some friends of the
Salvation Army who had come to the United States earlier. The Rev-
erend and Mrs. James E. Irvine, who had been associated with Wil-
liam Booth in England, took the group to their home in Jersey City
for the night. The next day the group established "Temporary
Head-Quarters" at the Pickwick Lodging House at 130 Liberty
Street, New York City. Thirty-year-old George Scott Railton, the
Army's first "commissioner," headed a detachment consisting of
Captain Emma Westbrook, thirty-five years old and a veteran of
ten and a half years' service in the Army; and Lieutenants Alice
Coleman, Rachel Evans, Emma Elizabeth Florence Morris, Elizabeth
Pearson, Clara Price, and Ann Shaw, ranging in age from eighteen to
twenty-two. With the exception of Captain Westbrook, the girls
had little experience and no formal training, except for classes on
shipboard during the voyage.

American newspapermen made fun of their broad English accent,
their pronunciation, and their practice of dropping the aspi-
rate. They were described as "English peasant women of very
limited intelligence," "very plain, unattractive in appearance,"
and "wholly without grace or ease on the stage." But these seven
courageous young women with little education, inspired by a love
of Christ and of their fellow men, ignored the jibes of their critics
and marched into the slums of New York and other American

THE INVASION OF AMERICA 3

cities to carry the message of salvation to the "unreached and un-
churched." Before they had been in America a month a newspaper
admitted, "None of them can aspirate the letter h, but they man-
age to get on the inside track with a good many hardened sinners,
who would listen to some of our pulpit orators with deaf ears."
Despite some critical comments in the press, the Salvation
Army was given a cordial reception in New York. The New York
Herald, in an editorial welcome, expressed the hope that the Salva-
tion Army would find "aid, comfort and allies," and declared:

Its method differs widely from that of any other body of men and
women who have given battle to Satan in this city; but the plans of a
commander are entitled to respect until some one who has gone success-
fully over the same ground can be found to criticise them. If by march-
ing through the streets, with colors flying, stopping at corners to sing and
exhort, the Salvation Army can persuade any considerable number of
men to stop lying, stealing and cheating and to lead upright lives in the
future, no one has the slightest right to complain of the way in which
the work is done. Clergymen of various denominations complain fre-
quently that there is a general lack of interest in religious affairs; perhaps
if the Salvation Army gains some victories these gentlemen may gain a
practical suggestion or two about the way of getting at the non-church-
going class.

The newspaper publicity they received in the first few days
after their arrival made the pioneer Salvationists minor celebrities.
Mrs. Irvine took the group on a tour of the city, visiting the various
missions; and wherever they went they received a friendly reception.
So much interest was aroused that Railton knew that the opening
meeting in New York would attract a sizable crowd. He tried un-
successfully to get permission to use Union Square, and was unable to
secure a hall of sufficient size to hold the first meeting indoors.

At this point a man named Harry Hill, attracted by the news-
paper publicity, offered to let Railton and his lassies appear in his
variety theater as a prelude to the regular performance. The com-
missioner seized this opportunity to reach a large number of the type
of people the Army was dedicated to saving. When Railton went to
inspect the establishment, a combination theater and saloon at

4 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Houston and Crosby streets, a regular patron solemnly reassured
him, much to his amusement, that this was "a respectable place and
not like some." Here, he was informed, a person could drink until he
passed out without having to worry that his watch and money
would be gone in the morning. But a minister who learned of the
arrangement exclaimed to Railton: "It is the most disreputable den
in the country! In the worst slum in the city! Go there and your
reputation will be lost at once and forever."

"Then that's the place for us!" replied the Salvationist.

New York was placarded with posters announcing the event:

The Salvation Army Will Attack
the Kingdom of the Devil at
Harry Hill's Variety Theatre
on Sunday, March 14, 1880,
commencing at 6:30 P.M. sharp.
After which the panorama of
"Uncle Tom's Cabin."
Admission 25 cents.

The day of the attack was "cold, damp and foggy and the slimy
mud seemed to ooze up out of the sidewalks" as the small army left
their headquarters on Liberty Street, All were in uniform. Railton,
described as "a man of medium size with dark mustache and whiskers
thinly distributed," wore a "dark blue suit trimmed with yellow
cord about the collar upon which was embroidered the letter *S.' "
A patrol cloak and helmet-shaped hat with a crimson band bearing
the words "Salvation Army" in gold completed the uniform. The
women were dressed in plain black dresses with red cord on the
collar, and wore black straw hats with crimson bands similar to that
of the commissioner. Dividing his force into two parts, Railton sent
one down each side of Greenwich Street, stopping at the barber-
shops and barrooms that were open, and addressing the customers.
In nearly every instance they were treated with courtesy and re-
spect a circumstance that caused Railton to compare the civility
of everyone they met with the ruffianly conduct they had been
used to in England.

THE INVASION OF AMERICA 5

After lunch in their lodgings, they walked more than three miles
in the mud to hold a short service at the Hudson River Mission Hall
at West Twenty-ninth Street and Ninth Avenue. It was against
their principles to use the "trains" on Sunday. After this service
they tramped back downtown to Harry Hill's variety theater.

The house was crowded, and people were standing three deep
in the galleries when the meeting began. Out of deference to the
Salvationists no liquor was sold during the service, but the usual
mottoes lined the wall. 1 Harry Hill had offered to pay the Salva-
tionists for their appearance, and when Railton refused payment Hill
expressed his opinion that they were "a set of fools." Rail-
ton, however, was very satisfied with the bargain. He had what he
wanted: "as compact a crowd of thoroughly ungodly men and
women as could have been hoped for, with perfect liberty to do as
we liked whilst we were before them."

Railton led the service, following a familiar Salvation Army prac-
tice of singing a hymn and exhorting between the verses, taking a
line or two for his text. He knelt for prayer, the "female lieutenants"
kneeling in a semicircle behind him "in various and curious posi-
tions." Each of the women prayed in turn, while the commissioner,
who remained on his knees, "his body swaying to and fro, first one
arm working and then the other, continually ejaculated 'Amen!'
and 'Hallelujah!' " One of the young women "intoned a hymn in a
high tremulous voice, dropping her *hY and inserting 'ahs' with a
rising inflection as she raised herself on her toes in a manner that
made the irreverent audience laugh. The hymn as she read it invited
the i 'appy pilgrim' to go to Eden above, and the concluding refrain,
'We will go,' sung by the whole army was applauded with energy."
The audience became restless as the meeting went on. No one an-
swered the call to the penitent form, and when the Salvationists
marched from the theater at nine o'clock and the "panorama of
'Uncle Tom's Cabin' " went on, the meeting might have been counted
a failure.

But outside the theater a poor wretch who did not have a quar-
ter for admission but who wanted to see the Salvation Army accosted
the group. He was James Kemp, better known as "Ash-barrel

6 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Jimmy." This nickname had been fastened to him since a policeman
found his feet protruding from an ash barrel into which he had
fallen while looking for his hat during one of his drunken sprees. The
following day "Ash-barrel Jimmy" attended a meeting and was saved
the first official Salvation Army convert in the United States. The
former down-and-outer reformed, joined the Salvation Army,
and was a loyal soldier and officer until his death. 2

After winning the first convert, the Salvationists were more
successful. The meeting in Harry Hill's theater had dramatically
publicized the class of people whom they hoped to save, and several
missions opened their doors to them. At 44 Baxter Street, in the
heart of the slums of the Five Points, a former brothel now con-
verted into a mission was offered them. The Salvation Army con-
ducted several meetings there with favorable results. One such meet-
ing was described as follows:

A more motley, vice-smitten, pestilence-breeding congregation could
seldom be found in a house of worship. There were negroes, dancing
girls, prostitutes, and station house tramps sandwiched in between well
dressed visitors who had sauntered in merely out of curiosity. There were
young men with canes and eyeglasses; seedy old pensioners with faded
hair and stovepipe hats (that looked as if they had done service when
Jenny Lind sang at Castle Garden) walked in with catlike stillness and hid
themselves in the corners, while glossy young negresses took prominent
seats and stared at the modest English girls of the Salvation Army in an
impudent way. . . . The floors were as clean as the deck of a man-of-
war, but in a few minutes they were frescoed with tobacco juice, the
stench became overpowering and a yellow fever pest house could not
have been less attractive. It seemed as if the refuse of the Fourth ward
dance cellars had been emptied for this occasion. Heads peered from the
windows of tenements across the street, a hand organ wheezed on the
sidewalk, while up in the upper rooms, where shoddy clothing is made
for paupers, the clatter of a dozen sewing machines disturbed the peace
of the day.

To hear the service with satisfaction the windows had to be closed,
which nearly suffocated the inmates. But the Salvation Army did not seem
to mind the air, and the ladies knelt on the floor and took turns in pray-
ing.

THE INVASION OF AMERICA 7

Wherever the Salvation Army held a service, the hall was
crowded to overflowing. Two policemen had to be stationed in
front of the Hudson River Mission to keep people from breaking in
after the hall had been packed to suffocation and after the doors
had been locked. Railton was greatly disturbed to have to turn
people away because of the lack of a hall large enough to accommo-
date those \vho wanted to see and hear the Army.

The solution in England had been to hold outdoor meetings.
The commissioner therefore went to Mayor Edward Cooper, son of
Peter Cooper, the philanthropist, and asked permission to preach on
the streets, particularly at the corner of Ninth Avenue and Twenty-
ninth Street outside the Hudson River Mission. The mayor called
his attention to an ordinance which provided that only ministers
or licensed clergymen should be permitted to preach in the streets,
and then only with the consent of the authorities. Railton was
politely informed that because he was allegedly not an ordained
clergyman, the mayor could not in compliance with the law grant
him the permission he sought.

Railton's next move was to appeal over the mayor's head to the
people of New York. The next day he appeared at City Hall and
presented an announcement written and folded in the form of a
legal notice. Unless permission to hold street meetings was granted
within two days, the ultimatum read, Railton would move his
headquarters from New York to some other city "where equal
privileges are enjoyed by all citizens, ordained or not ordained, in
the matter of serving the Lord and saving souls." The ingenuity of
the appeal assured its publication in full in the city's leading news-
papers.

When the mayor, after re examining the ordinance on the sub-
ject, again decided that it was not within his power to give Railton
the permission he asked because he was not a regular clergyman, the
commissioner kept the issue in the newspapers by declaring the
whole Salvation Army in America was going to pray for Mayor
Cooper until he allowed street services. The idea of anyone praying
for the mayor of New York City amused many New Yorkers. The
Daily Graphic ran a cartoon of Mayor Cooper in a chair with the

8 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Salvation Army lassies kneeling around him, under the caption "Past
Praying For." The Herald, in an editorial, "Prayers for the Mayor,"
offered some suggestions:

Probably there are many people in this city, irrespective of creed, who
would gladly give the prayerful some pointed hints on the petitions float-
ing heavenward for the Mayor. For instance the Tammany General Com-
mittee would gladly give the supplicants points enough to keep them busy
for the remainder of the season. The Aldermen, with memories of sundry
vetoes and appointments still fresh in their minds, could do like wise.

While this was taking place, the Salvationists were filling mis-
sion halls at every service they held. Besides the Hudson River and
Baxter Street missions, they were given the use of the Siloam Faith
Mission at the corner of Dover and Water streets. At the end of
five days from the time they began their work, they counted four-
teen rescued sinners. These they classified as, "thoroughly saved,
two; saved, ten; entering the King's highway and nearly saved, two."
In addition to these they counted five persons who were "strug-
gling to escape the bondage of Satan." Four days after this report,
the number of converts was listed as forty-three.

As soon as it was clear that the authorities of New York were
not going to permit open-air meetings in the streets, Railton made
preparations to move his headquarters to Philadelphia. Captain
Emma Westbrook and Lieutenant Alice Coleman were assigned to
carry on the work in New York.

Before leaving New York, Railton wished to start a corps in
nearby Newark, New Jersey. He called on Mayor William H. F.
Fiedler of Newark for permission to hold meetings in the street.
When the mayor refused, Railton hired the Odeon Theater on
Market Street, a building of interesting ancestry. Originally a church,
it had lately been used as a variety theater, and was known as a "no-
torious resort." For a year it had been closed following the indict-
ment of its proprietor, and when Railton rented the structure its
windows and doors were broken and it was "in the last degree of dirt
and dilapidation." A newspaper commented: "There are sinners of

THE INVASION OF AMERICA 9

the worst kind dwelling in the immediate neighborhood, so that the
building would probably be filled at all the meetings."

The campaign in Newark began on Sunday, March 2ist. Com-
missioner Railton, with Captains Emma Morris and Elizabeth Pearson
and Lieutenant Ann Shaw, conducted the first service in the Odeon
at 3:00 P.M., and the rickety structure was full. On the stage with
the Salvationists were a number of Newark's "earnest Christian
and temperance workers." The audience was attentive, and it was
recorded that nearly everyone contributed when the collection
tambourine was passed.

An even larger crowd turned out for the evening service. Every
inch of standing room was occupied, and the galleries of the dilapi-
dated old building were so packed it was feared they might collapse.
Hundreds of persons were unable to get inside the doors, and police-
men were stationed outside to keep the crowd back. The meeting
was a thorough success. The audience joined in the singing and con-
tributed to the collection for the purpose of renting the building.
Sinners were saved on that first day, and the foundation was laid
for a flourishing corps.

With the work in New York and Newark inaugurated, Railton
turned to Philadelphia to pursue his dreams of a nation-wide Salva-
tion Army.

II

Paving the Way

The United States in the last two decades of the nineteenth century
offered a fertile field to the Church of the Poor, as the Salvation
Army was sometimes called. American Protestantism had largely
failed to meet the needs of the urban working class. Changes were
taking place in American churches that reflected the vital economic
and social changes of the times. It was a period of great material
wealth. As a leading religious historian observed, "The most signifi-
cant single influence in organized religion in the United States
from about the year 1880, to the end of the century and beyond, was
the tremendous increase in wealth in the nation." This increase in
wealth helped a more easygoing intellectual religion to replace the
hard, emotional religion which had characterized the American
frontier. Poorly dressed workingmen felt out of place in the smaller,
more costly churches where professional robed choirs and quartets
substituted for simple music and congregational singing.

Not only the physical surroundings but the attitude both of
the clergy and of the congregations of the Protestant churches dis-
couraged poorer people from attending church. They found no sym-
pathy or understanding for the problems of the poor or of laboring
people. Many Protestants persisted in believing that human suffer-
ings were "the penalties of idleness, disease or other similar causes, in
a great measure the fault of the sufferers." Yet, others were observ-
ing that "the suffering poor had rejected this view and along with it
the Christianity which championed it."

m

PAVING THE WAY II

This was the Age of Big Business, characterized by the consolida-
tion of industries and the growth of large corporations. Many of
the men who were leaders in the creation of the large business or-
ganizations were at the same time stanch churchmen. The success-
ful businessman became the symbol of modern America, and his
ideals and methods began to permeate every phase of American life.
Even the churches began to respond to this influence as successful
businessmen began to assume positions of authority on church
boards and as laymen exercised increasing influence in the operation
of the church. Complaints were made that business meetings were
taking the place of prayer meetings.

In their sermons ministers, increasingly influenced by contribu-
tions from the rich, ordinarily ignored or condoned the injustices
suffered by the wage-earning masses. Henry Ward Beecher, one of
the nation's leading clergymen, illustrates the popular attitude of the
era toward the problems of labor. "Is the great working class op-
pressed?" he asked. "Yes, undoubtedly it is. ... God had intended
the great to be great and the little to be little. ... I do not
say that a dollar a day is enough to support a working man," he
thundered. "But it is enough to support a man! . . . Not enough to
support a man and five children if a man would insist on smoking and
drinking beer. . . . But the man who cannot live on bread and wa-
ter is not fit to live."

Had the masses of people that lived crowded together in city
slums wanted to attend church, it would have been difficult to ac-
commodate them. In the cities the building of churches lagged far
behind the advance, of population, while the shifting of residential
districts left once prosperous houses of worship stranded and aban-
doned in factory and slum neighborhoods. It was generally true of
large cities that those parts which needed the most religious atten-
tion got the least.

This situation was challenged by a family of English immigrants
who had come in contact with the work of William Booth's Salva-
tion Army. The Shirley family were plain working people, more
deeply religious than average. In April, 1878, Amos Shirley, like
thousands of other English workingmen, had emigrated to the

12 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

United States, land of opportunity. He left behind his wife, Annie,
and their only daughter, Eliza. In that same year, 1878, sixteen-year-
old Eliza was converted at a Salvation Army meeting and soon after-
ward was induced to enter full-time Army work. In America,
Amos Shirley was successful in obtaining employment as a foreman
in a silk factory in a suburb of Philadelphia. He at once sent for his
wife and wrote to Eliza that Philadelphia was in great need of the
kind of work General Booth was directing in England; if she would
come with her mother they could all work together. "Come if the
Lord wills," he wrote, "and we will start a work in America some-
thing like the Salvation Army." 1

After prayer, Eliza Shirley decided to join her father, and wrote
to General Booth of her decision. The seventeen-year-old lieutenant
received in reply "a very solemn communication setting before her
her call, her vows, her precious work, the souls she had led to the
Cross, the possibilities before her. Dare she for the sake of the love
of father and mother give up?" It closed with the statement: "We
are not prepared to commence operations so far away. . . . But if
your letter is the final decision, if you must go, and if you should
start a work, start it on the principles of the Salvation Army, and if
it is a success, we may see our way clear to take it over."

Lieutenant Eliza was allowed to farewell in the regulation way,
and joined her mother in Coventry. Once again an attempt was
made to persuade her to remain in England. General Booth's young-
est son, Herbert, visited her. He bore the message: "Dissuade her if
you can, but if she will go, tell her to be careful about the princi-
ples of the Army, to start right. She may call it the Salvation Army,
and if it succeeds, report."

Mother and daughter were given a big farewell meeting in
Coventry. Together they sailed for America, and in August, 1879,
the Shirley family was reunited. Eliza Shirley, fresh from an active
ministry as a Salvation Army officer in England, found a ready wel-
come at the camp and revival meetings in Philadelphia. The attrac-
tive and zealous young warrior was in constant demand to speak
and sing at holiness and temperance meetings. Her sympathy, how-
ever, was with the "unloved, unreached masses." While Amos Shirley

PAVING THE WAY 13

worked at the silk factory, daughter and mother walked around
Philadelphia searching for a suitable place to initiate the Salvation
Army in the United States.

It was September when they found a "one-story, flat-roofed,
dilapidated, old chair factory. The unplastered walls were black,
there was no floor, old chairs were piled in one corner and an old
horse solemnly looked out of another, while patches of blue sky
showed plainly through the roof."

"Oh, Mother," exclaimed Eliza, "what a wonderful place for the
birthplace of the Salvation Army! Our Jesus was born in a stable,
and cradled in a manger; this is all right for us." The owner of the
building was willing to rent it for $300 a year, but was shocked at
the prospect of letting it to two female preachers. Amos Shirley
and a month's rent in advance, drawn from his wages, were required
to convince the landlord that his building would come to no harm.
The family set about to clean up the place, often working far into
the night. They whitewashed the walls and built a platform of
rough unplaned lumber. With a $50 contribution from a gentleman
whose interest was aroused, they had a patch of flooring laid and
secured benches to seat about fifty or sixty people.

At last everything was ready, and October 5, 1879, was c hsen
as the opening date. Scarlet posters were obtained bearing the in-
scription: "Blood and Fire. The Salvation Army. Two Hallelujah
Females Will Speak and Sing for Jesus in the Old Chair Factory at
Sixth and Oxford Streets October 5, at 1 1 A.M., 3 P.M., and 8 o'clock.
All are invited." After dark, Mr. Shirley set out with a bundle of
these posters and a bucket of paste, and posted them on conspicu-
ous billboards and wherever else he could find space. The next morn-
ing crowds of puzzled people were noticed where the bills had been
posted. The title "Hallelujah Females" was used because Mr. Shirley
objected to calling his wife a "lassie" and could not bring himself
to consider his seventeen-year-old daughter a woman.

Sunday, October 5th, was a beautiful fair day in Philadelphia.
Suppressing their excitement, the army of three set out. At a street
corner a couple of blocks from their "Salvation Factory" they sang:
"Will you go? Will you go? Oh, say, will you go to the Eden

14 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

above?" At that time the Salvation Army had not yet adopted uni-
forms, but Eliza Shirley wore a severely plain dress and the "little
close-fitting bonnet with strings, of Christian Mission days." The
tiny band attracted little attention, and when they reached the fac-
tory for their first meeting only twelve persons made up the con-
gregation.

Later that day, as they held an open-air meeting before march-
ing to the factory, they were pelted with mud, sticks, stones,
rotten eggs, vegetables, and refuse. This was the beginning of perse-
cution that grew fiercer as time went on persecution which had its
counterpart in England at the same time, and which the Salvation
Army had to face in the next few years in nearly every American
city in which it operated. When the two women mustered up their
courage and appealed to the mayor of Philadelphia for protection,
that august personage told them that they were the cause of the
disorder, and ordered them off the streets.

Four weeks passed without any success. Regularly the faithful
trio held open-air meetings in a dark vacant lot some six or eight
blocks from their factory, and conducted services in the build-
ing. One evening a crowd of mischievous boys rolled a tar barrel onto
the vacant lot and set fire to it. Flames shot up; the fire department
was called out and a crowd gathered. When the source of the fire
was discovered to be nothing important, many of the people turned
in curiosity to the embryonic Salvation Army.

Amos Shirley spoke. From out of the crowd "a poor besotted,
blear-eyed man, with ragged clothes, tousled hair, and unsteady
gait" approached the speaker. "Is it true what you say? Will your
God take the devil's leavings and make something of them? I'll give
him a chance." No one could have looked better to these earnest
seekers of souls. With their first captive securely in tow, they
marched proudly to their factory. The crowd followed and entered,
curious to see the outcome. For the first time the benches of the
old factory were filled.

After the meeting began, the man was allowed to sleep off some
of the effects of his drink for about an hour. Then he was awakened
and told that it was time to get on his knees and pray. "It was a

PAVING THE WAY 15

real battle for a soul; nearly an hour it lasted, but the man was in
earnest. He had got to the end of himself, and must be saved that
night. At last victory came, and he arose and told his story." Thus
"Reddie" became the first convert of the unofficial Salvation Army
in the United States.

When the news that "Reddie" had joined the Salvation Army
reached his old cronies, many of them came around to see for them-
selves, and the Salvation Factory was filled night after night and the
penitent form lined with seekers. Money poured in, and the old
building was made comfortable for the winter. A reporter from
the Philadelphia Neiv$ was sent to look up "the two Hallelujah Fe-
males" who were the object of so much commotion. He attended
one of the meetings, interviewed Amos Shirley, and wrote a long
account of the work of the Shirleys for his paper. The Shirleys' Salva-
tion Army was a success. Eliza Shirley was able to write to General
Booth, telling of their work and enclosing a clipping from the news-
paper.

Amos Shirley, in the meantime, had been paying the rent on the
Salvation Factory from his wages and leading the meetings on Sun-
days and after work in the silk factory. One day after the article in
the newspaper he was called into the office and told that while his
work was satisfactory he must either give up this Salvation Army
nonsense or lose his job. The courageous Englishman made his deci-
sion without hesitating, and came home to tell his family that now
he would devote his full time to leading the mission.

In January, 1880, two months after the opening of the Salvation
Factory, a second corps was established in a hall at Forty-second and
Market streets in West Philadelphia. It was an immediate success, and
the meetings conducted by Eliza Shirley and a girl convert were
crowded each night. It was not long before Eliza received word from
General Booth that she was promoted to the rank of captain. Amos
and Annie Shirley continued to lead the original corps at Sixth and
Oxford streets.

When the Shirleys' letters and newspaper clippings reached Eng-
land, William Booth was faced with a dilemma. With the Shirleys'
inauguration of the Salvation Army in Philadelphia an assured sue-

1 6 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

cess, he was forced to decide whether to lead his forces into foreign
fields or to lose control over this movement in the United States.
Because the need for the work of the Salvation Army in England
was so great, Booth hesitated to weaken his forces by expansion
abroad. In its short fifteen-year history the Salvation Army had
grown with amazing rapidity.

The organization was founded in 1865, when William Booth, ap-
palled by the misery of the East London slums, established a mission
known as the East London Christian Mission, later renamed the
Christian Mission. It seemed to him that the orthodox religious
denominations were failing to reach the multitudes that a grow-
ing industrial economy forced into the cities, where misery and
want nurtured all forms of vice.

William Booth himself was a victim of England's Industrial Revo-
lution. Born in Nottingham in 1829, the son of an unsuccessful spec-
ulative builder, he experienced want and privation throughout his
youth. As a pawnbroker's apprentice he came to know well the
misery of the city's poor. Even in his old age, when many of the ex-
periences of his early youth had been forgotten, he recalled memo-
ries of children crying for bread on the streets of Nottingham.

At fifteen, William Booth became a communicant of the Wes-
leyan Methodist Church, and by the time he was seventeen he was
preaching on the streets in his spare time. The tall gaunt youth with
piercing dark eyes and Hebraic features was singularly successful as
a lay preacher. Following a schism among the Wesleyan Methodists,
Booth joined the Reform branch of that church and in 1852 began
to devote his full time to lay preaching. Troubled by a lack of educa-
tion and status in the Reform group, Booth entered training for a
regular ministry in another Wesleyan sect, the Methodist New
Connexion. After a few unhappy months as a theological student,
and several spectacularly successful years on evangelical tours, he
was ordained in 1858.

One of the most fortunate events of William Booth's life was
the discovery of the woman who became his wife. Catherine Mum-
ford Booth was her husband's equal in Christian zeal, originality of
ideas, compassion for the distressed, and capacity for hard work and

PAVING THE WAY IJ

sacrifice. From the time they were married in 1855, she served both
as a stimulant and as a stabilizer to her talented husband. An inspir-
ing evangelical preacher in her own right, Catherine Booth worked
unsparingly at her husband's side as they ministered to the poor and
wretched. The Mother of the Salvation Army, as she came to be
called, was more than a partner to William Booth; she was a tender,
affectionate wife who made a home for him under the most diffi-
cult circumstances and who bore him eight children in the thirteen
years which encompassed the Army's formative era.

William Booth served as a minister in the Methodist New Con-
nexion until 1 86 1, when he withdrew from that sect. For four years
he and Mrs. Booth toured western England and Wales as independent
evangelists, until in the slums of East London they found the chal-
lenge that led to the founding of the Salvation Army.

Booth rejected the Calvinist doctrine of predestination and salva-
tion of the elect. "The Lord Jesus Christ has by his suffering and
death made an atonement for the whole world so that whosoever
will may be saved/' he proclaimed. To carry his message to "the un-
reached and unchurched," William Booth preached wherever he
could find an unoccupied place that would hold a crowd in tents,
sheds, stables, theaters, saloons, and even in a Quaker cemetery.
An integral part of his service was a call for those who were truly
penitent to come forward to seek forgiveness of sin and to signify
publicly their desire to serve God. From this practice developed the
penitent form of the Salvation Army. Converts were urged to testify
as soon after their conversion as possible. It was discovered that the
testimony of these crude and uneducated yet sincere Christians
made a far more effective appeal to their own class than did the
polished sermons of educated clergymen.

From its earliest beginning as the Christian Mission, the Salva-
tion Army was nonsectarian, and disclaimed any intention of be-
coming a competitor of the regular churches. It ministered to all,
regardless of sect, race or color, or depth of depravity. Converted
outcasts who desired to return to their original church or to join
an established denomination were returned to the faith of their
choice with the Army's blessing. William Booth was quick to see,

1 8 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

however, that some organization must be developed for those con-
verts who had no church or who felt out of place in the regular
churches. His success attracted many able evangelists who desired
to work with him, and among his converts were many who desired
to join him in serving others of their own class. Christian Missions
like the original one in East London were soon opened in other cities
in England, Wales, and Scotland.

A good illustration of the character of William Booth was the
form of government he established for his rapidly expanding organi-
zation. Conscious of having a divine mission, and convinced that he
was under the direct command of his Lord and Master, William
Booth was impatient of any human restraint and resentful of any
criticism or opposition. He demanded implicit, unquestioning obe-
dience of his subordinates, It was his boast that with a telegram he
could send any of his officers to the uttermost parts of the earth.

The basis of the present polity of the Salvation Army is a deed
poll filed in Chancery in 1878. This document invested the "over-
sight, direction and control" of the Christian Mission in one person,
the General Superintendent. It secured William Booth in that office
for life, gave him the power to appoint his successor, and complete
control of all the property and money of the Mission. In effect Wil-
liam Booth became absolute head of the Salvation Army, endowed
with dictatorial powers.

The Christian Mission developed gradually and almost imper-
ceptibly into the Salvation Army. When the name was first used in
May, 1878, the organization already had many of the characteristics
of an army. William Booth, George S. Railton, and Bramwell Booth
were reading proofs of the yearly report of the Christian Mission,
in which Railton had described the Mission as a "Volunteer Army."
William Booth objected to the use of the term "Volunteer" on the
grounds that the members of the Mission were "regulars"; then,
leaning over Railton's shoulder, he wrote in the word "Salvation,"
and the Salvation Army had its name. The two names were used in-
terchangeably for some time, until gradually the older name
ceased to be used.

As early as 1876, Elijah Cadman had begun to dramatize the

PAVING THE WAY 19

struggle against Satan as "war," and referred to himself and his
companions as "troops" and as an "army." He was the first Salva-
tionist to call himself "captain" and the first to advertise Booth as
the "General." As the Christian Mission became the Salvation
Army, the branch missions in various cities were called "corps," uni-
forms were designed, ranks and titles were made standard, and a
whole vocabulary of military terms came into use. General Superin-
tendent William Booth became the General of the Salvation Army.

The Salvation Army was an aggressive army seeking out sinners
and battling with Satan in his own strongholds. Any means was
justifiable, decided General Booth, if it would attract sinners to listen
to the message of salvation, and many special techniques were inau-
gurated to enable the evangelists to reach the hopeless, the debased,
and the neglected elements of the community. Brass bands and
street parades attracted crowds of persons who scorned the regu-
lar churches. Many to whom the toll of church bells meant nothing
followed the sound of the big brass drum and the tambourine into
Salvation Army meetings. William Booth believed that men and
women should be happy in the worship of their God, and Salvation
Army music reflected this belief. The brass bands played catchy
tunes that set the foot tapping and the hands clapping. "Why
should the Devil have all the best tunes?" replied Booth when chided
for appropriating the music of popular songs for his hymns. Sacred
lyrics were sung to the tunes of familiar sentimental "song hits,"
spirituals, and even well known drinking songs while tambourines
beat out the rhythm.

To reach those who would not come to the meetings, William
Booth followed the command, "Go out quickly into the streets
and lanes of the city, and bring in hither the poor, and the
maimed. . . ." The Christless were sought out on the streets, in
dives and saloons, and even in the hovels that were their homes.
Sweet-faced "hallelujah lassies" went into saloons to sing, to pray,
and to distribute tracts. Slum sisters visited the homes of the poor,
cared for children, nursed the sick and dying, then left after a short
prayer, letting their lives and deeds rather than their words tell
Christ's message.

2O SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

The theology of the Salvation Army was simple enough for the
least of its converts. It included the basic principles common to
most Protestant evangelical denominations, and ignored the con-
troversial issues that have caused factionalism and interdenomina-
tional strife. The doctrines held and taught by the Salvation Army
were recorded in the deed poll of 1878, and included belief in a di-
vinely inspired Bible, the Trinity, original sin, salvation for all who
will it, and immortality of the soul After observing baptism and
communion for a short time, these, as well as the other sacraments,
were abandoned by the Army as causes of dissension.

When the Booths began their work in the slums, they found
drunkenness a close ally of poverty and vice. From this they deduced
that liquor was a fundamental cause of poverty, vice, and sin. Total
abstinence was made, and remains, a primary condition of member-
ship in the Salvation Army. The use of tobacco was always dis-
couraged, and finally prohibited for officers. Catherine Booth proved
by her work that women could preach and win souls for Christ
as well as men. Thus, from the beginning, men and women served as
equals in the Salvation Army.

A magazine to acquaint the general public and the mission work-
ers with the progress of the organization began publication in
1 868. This periodical evolved with the Salvation Army until in
December, 1879, a weekly newspaper named the War Cry made its
first appearance. The news columns of the War Cry, a name that be-
came famous in many different languages in the various countries
where the Salvation Army was carried, helped to keep each officer
and soldier acquainted with Army activity and helped to build
morale. The sale of the paper also provided a source of income, and
served to introduce the Army and its work to the general public.

The increased militancy of the Salvation Army brought it
greater publicity and consequently intensified opposition. Queen
Victoria was greatly disturbed at the temerity of a clergyman who
dared assume the title of General and found an army within her
realm. The sensibilities of many respectable and well bred people
were offended by some of the actions of the Army's exhorters. These
people, including many clergymen, without bothering to look into

PAVING THE WAY 21

the Army's work, ridiculed it or denounced it, according to their
disposition, and wrote letters of ill will to The Times. Because the
brewer, the distiller, and the tavern keeper had real reason to curse
the Salvation Army as they watched some of their most profitable
customers leave them, they hired ruffians to beat Salvationists and
to break up their meetings. But the Salvation Army throve on per-
secution, as had Christianity itself eighteen centuries before. New
recruits were gathered; new corps were opened; and prominent
friends were made as the value of the work became evident.

Within a century the Salvation Army was to grow into a great
international organization, but in 1879, when the Shlrleys' request
for official recognition and support reached General Booth, it
seemed that the rapidly expanding work in Britain was taxing the
resources of the Army to the utmost. Only a few years earlier the
vitality of William Booth's movement had resulted in the estab-
lishment of a branch of the Christian Mission in Cleveland, Ohio.
From 1872 to 1876, James Jermy, a Christian Mission worker who
had emigrated to America, carried on mission work similar to that
in England. Although William Booth sent encouragement, the
Cleveland Christian Mission was not under his direct leadership and
the Salvation Army had not yet evolved a strong organizational
framework into which it could be drawn. Thus, this premature be-
ginning of Salvation Army work in America collapsed soon after
Jermy returned to England. 2

Other men influenced by contact with William Booth found
their way to America. In July, 1875, the Reverend James E. Irvine,
described as "a revival minister," came to New Jersey to engage in
evangelical work. During the previous year he had conducted meet-
ings at the Whitechapel and Chatham stations of the Christian Mis-
sion, and early in 1875 he married Miss Mary C Billups, a member of
the Booth household. Mrs. Irvine wrote from Jersey City in Decem-
ber, 1876, expressing her eagerness to have the Christian Mission ex-
tended to the United States.

In England one of the most enthusiastic advocates of expansion
abroad was George Scott Railton. If the Salvation Army recognized
sainthood, Railton would be assured of canonization. In an organiza-

22 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

tion where dedication, loyalty, self-sacrifice, and hard work are ac-
cepted as commonplace, Railton stands out above his comrades. More
than anyone outside the immediate Booth family, he was responsi-
ble for the early success of the Salvation Army. He had joined the
Christian Mission in 1873 as William Booth's secretary, and he con-
tinued to serve the General and the Salvation Army until his death
in 1913. Possessed of a simple and steadfast faith in God, by tempera-
ment impulsive, ingenious, and impatient of restraint, he frequently
required the steadying hand of his leader. But no man was a more
loyal or devoted follower and friend than Railton was to William
Booth.

While the General sought to reach a decision, Railton presented
the arguments for sending the Salvation Army to America, and
begged to be allowed to lead it. In a letter to Mrs. Booth he
pleaded: "I feel sure that our own affair in Philadelphia will go with
such a sweep that unless we get hold of it, and lead, and go in at full
speed at once, I doubt if we should ever be able to get the reins at
all. Then it will be a wild affair with no competent direction, and
there will be after a while as complete a lull as follows almost all
such things. ... I do not see why they should not let me go."

Somewhat reluctantly, General Booth announced his decision to
send a detachment to the United States. "We were anxious to avoid
this a little longer, seeing how much remains to be done for the mil-
lions who remain in utter darkness even in this land of light," he
stated. "We refused to allow the Shirleys formally to inaugurate our
work in the States; but we cannot blame the love and zeal which
has driven them without waiting for us, to open the attack."
When General Booth made up his mind to act, he moved quickly.
The first account of the meetings held by the Shirleys appeared
in the War Cry on January 31, 1880. Two weeks later Railton and
the pioneer band of seven women sailed from England. In less than
a month after his arrival in the United States, there were flourishing
corps in New York and Newark, and Railton had established his
headquarters in Philadelphia.

Ill

Laying the Foundation

In the period of less than a year during which George S. Railton di-
rected the Salvation Army in the United States, he laid the founda-
tion for an organization which steadily prospered and grew despite
adversity and temporary setbacks. His strength of character in-
spired those with whom he came in contact, and his influence was
felt long after he left America for a life of travel all over the world
in the service of the Salvation Army. As Eliza Shirley wrote, "His
influence was precious and fruitful, and while the fight was neces-
sarily slow for some time, the work was of a solid character a sort
of foundation-laying for the coming years."

The Salvationists in Philadelphia prepared a real hallelujah wel-
come for their new commander when he arrived to establish his
headquarters on March 24, 1880. Thanks to the Shirley family, the
Salvation Army was firmly established there, and during Railton's
command in the United States, and for more than a year after, the
City of Brotherly Love was the center of the Salvation Army in
America.

Amos Shirley had met Railton and the pioneer party at the ship
in New York and had been commissioned captain, the first Salvation
Army officer commissioned in the United States. He had then re-
turned to Philadelphia with two of the lieutenants, Rachel Evans
and Clara Price, while Railton and the five remaining lassies had
stayed behind to "open fire" in New York City.

Railton's first official act on the evening of his arrival in Philadel-
phia was to present the Shirleys with the flag brought from Eng-

2 3

24 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

land. Large crowds were attracted by this ceremony. A detach-
ment of police had difficulty in clearing a way for the procession of
Salvationists that marched from the old chair factory to Athletic
Hall on Thirteenth Street above Master. About two hundred Sal-
vationists, nearly all wearing red hatbands with "The Salvation
Army" lettered in gilt, escorted the commissioner to the hall
There was standing room only as fifteen hundred people filled the
auditorium. The service consisted of singing, short prayers by some
fifteen or twenty persons, and exhortations by Railton, Shirley,
and others. Many of those who testified were recent converts de-
scribed as "apparently thrifty young artisans."

Newspapermen who attended the meeting recognized Railton
as "a man of some education and considerable general knowledge.
. . . Mr. Railton is a youngish man of rather slight build, very bald
in front, with black hair, black whiskers and moustache and rather
sharp features. He is a ready and fluent talker, prompt, earnest
and to the point, seldom speaking over two or three minutes at a
time and not permitting the singing to go beyond a verse or two."

The Army's first National Headquarters was opened at 45 South
Third Street, Philadelphia. A sign reading "The Headquarters of
The Salvation Army for America" was painted across the full length
of the building, but the quarters in which the commissioner worked
and lived were in the basement. Railton, who endured privation and
discomfort cheerfully, remarked, "It was a delightfully cool place
that summer."

With headquarters established in Philadelphia, new corps were
opened in and around that city. The rank-and-file of the two original
corps established by the Shirleys served as a source from which new
officers were recruited. Lieutenant Jennie Dickinson, the first Ameri-
can officer commissioned in the United States, assisted Captain
Emma Morris in opening a corps in Frankford known as the 3rd
Pennsylvania. Germantown was "invaded" before the end of March,
1880, and another corps established there. In May, 1880, Railton
cabled to General Booth that the American forces consisted of eight
batteries, sixteen officers, forty cadets, and 412 privates, with sta-
tions in Philadelphia, New York, and Newark.

LAYING THE FOUNDATION" 25

In New York, Captain Emma Westbrook faced a real battle be-
fore a corps was established. Rowdies disturbed her meetings with
coughs and catcalls and mimicked the broad English accents of the
officers. When the sturdy captain marched to police headquarters
and brought charges against some of the leading culprits, the meet-
ings were more orderly and more successful. In April a new hall,
with a porch that could be used for open-air meetings, was secured
on Seventh Avenue. By the end of summer Railton was able to re-
port to London that the ist New York Corps was out of debt.

Across the river in Newark, the ist New Jersey Corps, in the
Odeon Theater, made rapid progress. Three weeks after the initial
meeting, Captain Pearson reported nearly seventy converts, seven
of them young women and the rest young men, "mostly of the
rougher classes." In addition to the regular schedule of meetings,
a direct appeal was made to workingmen at their place of employ-
ment. On March 30, 1880, three women officers visited Bannister's
slipper factory in Newark and held a short service on the third floor
of the building where about twenty men were at work.

Meanwhile, Railton was setting a pace that his small army was
not always able to match. This dynamo of energy wrote in April: "I
am all the time fretting and fuming because I cannot go at the same
speed and be in every way as big as a first-class concern. But it's no
use, a few weeks are not enough. Still, what am I here for but to
'fret and fume' if things do not go fast enough? It is surely not my
duty to set my affections on things beneath."

He visited many cities alone to investigate possibilities for start-
ing the work, and on these occasions he was "Captain, Lieutenant,
Sergeant-Major, Hall-Keeper, and Chucker-out!" Often he would
leave the platform in the middle of an address, put out some hope-
lessly unruly man, usually the worse for drink, and then go calmly
back to take up the thread of his discourse.

The spring of 1880 was unusually hot. In New York, on May
2yth, the mercury reached a record 96 degrees, while in upstate
New Jersey the temperature was 103 degrees in the shade. "Nothing
like such weather has been known at this season for twenty-five
years," declared a metropolitan newspaper. The oppressive heat was

26 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

particularly severe on the overworked women officers of the pioneer
party, who were used to the cooler, damper climate of England. In
October three of them returned to England with broken health.
Of these, two came back to the United States as soon as they
recovered. 1

Finance was Railton's greatest problem in America. He was never
able to collect enough money to make the work in the United States
self-supporting. His financial straits could be understood by every
Salvation Army officer who pioneered in the United States. Men and
women whose spirits soared to the heavens found that physical
necessities kept their feet firmly on the ground. The early Salvation
Army officers understood the problems of those to whom they
ministered because they too were plagued by the problems of meet-
ing the minimum requirements of shelter, food, and clothing. Con-
stant privation that struck hardest at the children in their family
drove some officers to leave the Army. For the majority, however,
no physical comforts could have compensated for the feeling of
spiritual satisfaction they received from their ministry. A soul
saved was adequate recompense for many a supper lost.

The first officers' councils held in the United States convened in
Philadelphia and in New York at the end of May, 1880, and were
very successful, according to Railton's account. In October the Salva-
tion Army in the United States celebrated its first anniversary, twelve
months after the Shirleys began holding services in Philadelphia.
At that time, only seven months after Railton's arrival, the Army
consisted of twelve corps holding 172 services a week. Over fifteen
hundred persons professed conversion at Salvation Army meetings
that first year.

During the summer Railton went West, traveling 4,200 miles in
forty-nine days. In this time he delivered eighty addresses and numer-
ous shorter talks. He wrote, "For fifteen days I was at it almost
without ceasing from 6 A.M. to 10 P.M.," yet returned to Philadel-
phia "not a particle worse in health. , . . I slept on straw, or on
railroad seats, or chairs, thirty-one nights out of forty-nine, and
lived altogether a real soldier life, and enjoyed it." 2

One result of Railton's Western tour was his decision that the

LAYING THE FOUNDATION 2J

young Salvation Army must "go West and grow up with the coun-
try." Filled with enthusiasm, the impetuous and often impractical
crusader resolved that he would carry the Army flag singlehanded
across the Mississippi. He chose St. Louis, Missouri, "the place
where I learnt most to fight alone," as headquarters for the West-
ern campaign. Much smaller than Chicago, St. Louis, with a popula-
tion of about 350,000, seemed large enough to support a Salvation
Army corps and was a central location for further operations. Al-
though all active forces of the Salvation Army were still confined
to the Philadelphia and New York area, Railton left the East in
November, 1880, and, all alone, carried his headquarters farther
west.

I shall never forget the cool November morning when the train
slowly pulled into my headquarters city. As I looked into the long line
of streets, while the cars were creeping over the Mississippi bridge, I
involuntarily asked myself, Who shall bring the light to this big city?'
and I had a glorious realization that through God we shall do valiantly.

But I had no idea how long it would take to do it.

The difficulties Railton faced in St. Louis were a real test of the
stalwart commissioner's faith. He lost the use of a hall placed at
his disposal when the audience at his first meeting spat on the floor
and caused a disturbance. A rumor spread around town "that the
men who spat on the floor also broke up the seats" made it im-
possible for him to hire any other building. He was prohibited
from preaching on the streets by the city authorities. "Surely if
ever Providence did its level best against anybody and anything
it's against me and this expedition," he wrote in despair. "If I am
to be crushed," he continued, "you may be sure I'll make the ma-
chinery pretty hot before it gets through!"

Railton was not crushed. With characteristic ingenuity he solved
the problem of reaching the citizens of a city apparently reluctant
to receive the message of salvation. "It struck me that the au-
thorities could have no power over the iced Mississippi, especially
on the Illinois side, so after distributing handbills to most of the
men hard at work breaking Sunday, cutting and hauling ice, I went

2 8 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

over to the part where the skaters were and began to sing. It was
quite a novelty to have a congregation come skating around me at
a speed that made it seem certain some would overturn others, but
they all seemed too much at home for that, and I spoke plainly to
them, urging them to seek pleasures from the Giver of all good and
perfect gifts." Ervine adds to this account, "Is not the picture of
this indomitable, ill-clad, impoverished man, who probably had not
had a proper meal that day, singing for the salvation of plump and
well-clothed people on the frozen Mississippi, immensely moving?
There is no saint in the Calendar of the Roman Catholic Church,
neither Francis of Assisi nor Ignatius Loyola, to both of whom he
was spiritually related, more worthy of a halo than this singular
Scot who thought it no hardship to starve for Christ."

Not until January i, 1881, was Railton able to begin meetings
in a hall. He secured a market hall with a balcony overlooking
Broadway and North Market streets. The invitation to the first
meeting, distributed at saloons, groceries, and from the street cor-
ners of St. Louis, was in the form of a railroad handbill:

$O.OO TO HEAVEN

(Limited)

BY THE OLD RELIABLE
REPENTANCE, FAITH

and

HOLINESS LINE

N.B, This is the real fighting line
that never gives up or breaks down.

No sleeping car or reclining chair
coaches on this line. For terms and
all particulars, apply to the Commissioner
of The Salvation Army at Headquarters:

STURGEON MARKET HALL

Sunday 7 A.M.; 3 and 7 P.M. Week nights,
every night, 8 P.M. Holiness meeting,
Friday, 3 and 8 P.M.

G. S. RAILTON

LAYING THE FOUNDATION 29

Railton seemed on the defensive as he wrote, "Everybody
[who] read the message, and who got it folded it up and put it in
their pocket. Let that be sufficient reply to any who might ask why
we have opened up in the West. The wisdom of the move was
demonstrated by the good number of the ungodly who attended
our first meeting." Subsequent events proved the overambitious
commissioner wrong. The small post established at the Sturgeon
Market, isolated as it was from other Salvation Army corps, dis-
appeared within a year after Railton left St. Louis. Railton's time
and energy might have been more profitably employed in the larger
Eastern cities and in working his way westward gradually. When
the Salvation Army reentered St. Louis in 1889, no trace of the
earlier effort remained.

Yet it was from St. Louis that Railton published the first
American edition of the War Cry on January 15, 1881. The first
issues of the War Cry distributed in the United States were brought
from England by the pioneer party, and additional shipments of
the English edition were made when this supply was exhausted.
This arrangement did not satisfy Railton, who began to publish
a paper, the Salvation News, on July 5, 1880, from Philadelphia.
This periodical suspended publication after a few issues when Rail-
ton left that city for St. Louis. The first issue of the War Cry re-
ferred to its predecessor with the statement, "The War Cry will be
supplied to subscribers like the News. $4 for 52 numbers." The
new publication had no regular schedule. "War Cry No. 2 will be
issued on the ijth of February or sooner if possible, but the trouble
is, the Commissioner's hands are full with St. Louis at present."

In St. Louis, Railton stayed in the home of a George Parker,
"who took me in," he wrote, "housed and fed me a whole winter,
simply because 1 was trying to get people saved." With Spartan
simplicity the commissioner cut his personal expenditures to an
absolute minimum. On one occasion he was tramping through the
snow so nearly barefoot that the owner of a shoe store whom he
approached for a donation to the Army insisted that he accept a
pair of overshoes instead.

While working alone and against heavy odds in St. Louis, Rail-

30 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

ton received word from General Booth that he was needed in Lon-
don. This soldier who never complained about the hardships he
endured was sorely tried at the thought of leaving his work just
when success seemed within reach. He wrote eloquent protests
against his recall, arguing that his departure from America would
have disastrous effects on a young and weak organization.

General Booth cabled, "Must have you here."

With visions of all of his hard-won accomplishments being lost,
Railton wrote again:

We are all, no doubt, outrageously overtaxed. . . . But the simple
truth is we cannot gain the apostolic results we desire without the apos-
tolic price. We are paying the price in full, I firmly believe, and if so,
God cannot fail to supply all our need. He satisfied me yesterday that
no matter what floods of anguish and shame we might have to go through,
He would keep us up, and give us according to our faith after it all.
It is not according to our strength or our wisdom or our ability, or even
our efforts, but according to our faith.

I hope you will not fancy I am preaching this to you, for you have
always been much more patient than I was. I am just telling you the lesson
I got here all alone yesterday morning so that you may understand how
I can be so hardhearted as to grasp in your letter an assurance that I may
dismiss all calculations of return and plan accordingly.

General Booth cabled, "Come alone."

The cablegram arrived on New Year's Day, 1881, the day he
began services in Sturgeon Market Hall, St. Louis. Argue and
plead with his General, Railton could do, but he never thought of
disobedience. When his arguments and appeals failed to move the
General, Railton left for England, sailing from Boston in March,
1881.

It was part of the genius of William Booth that he could remain
unmoved by the piteous appeals of a man he dearly loved. Booth
knew the needs of his Army better than anyone else, and put its
needs before all things. Railton's recall was not an arbitrary and
capricious act. The General shared Railton's belief that God would
provide for His own, and felt that if the United States was to be
saved the United States must do the saving. The Salvation Army

LAYING THE FOUNDATION 3!

was rapidly becoming an international force, and Booth desperately
required Railton's help at home. The Army had begun operations
in France and Australia, and other nations were calling to be in-
vaded. Catherine Booth was failing in health. The Salvation Army
was still persecuted in England. Never before had the General
needed Railton's unique assistance so much.

Once Railton reached England, he threw himself heart and soul
into the work there. His feelings found expression in a song he
wrote while crossing the Mississippi on his way back East. It was
characteristic of this man that in spite of his deep disappointment,
he should set the words to the rollicking tune "A Life on the Ocean
Wave":

No home on earth have I,

No nation owns my soul;
My dwelling-place is the Most High,

I'm under His control;
O'er all the earth alike

My Father's grand domain,
Each land and sea with Him I like;

O'er all He yet shall reign.

No spot on earth I own,

No field, no house be mine;
Myself, my all, I still disown,

My God, let all be Thine!
Into Thy gracious hands

My life is ever placed:
To die fulfilling Thy commands

I march with bounding haste.

With Thee, my God, is home;

With Thee is endless joy;
With Thee in ceaseless rest I roam,

With Thee, can death destroy?
With Thee, the east, the west,

The north, the south, are one;
The battle's front I love the best,

And yet Thy will be done!'

IV

The Briefest Era

The Salvation Army had no more than a precarious foothold in the
United States when Commissioner Railton was recalled to London
in 1 88 1. To succeed Railton, General Booth appointed Major
Thomas E. Moore commander of the forces in America. The three
and a half years of Moore's administration were difficult ones for
the Army in the United States. Writing of the Salvation Army in
this period, the New York Tribune declared, "The first few years
of its existence have been happily named the brickbat era of its
history. Few had a good word to say for it, and its members suffered
all kinds of personal violence from the vicious and depraved ele-
ments of society."

The years from 1881 to 1884 have been slighted or omitted in
many Salvation Army historical sketches because Major Moore re-
volted against the authority of General Booth at the end of his
term as head of the Salvation Army in America. A fair evaluation
of this important formative period in Salvation Army history can
be made only if this event is not allowed to overshadow Moore's
years of constructive work.

Major Thomas E. Moore was about forty-two years old when
he assumed command in America. He had been in charge of the
London and Southern divisions in England. Observers were im-
pressed with a soldierly bearing which enhanced his height of five
feet, eight inches. Penetrating eyes dominated a face whose fine
features were set off by dark curly hair and a large beard, tinged

THE BRICKBAT ERA

with gray. Possessed of seemingly boundless energy, he habitually
emphasized his points with dramatic gestures. When addressing an
audience his hands and arms were constantly in motion. His voice
was clear but marked by a strong cockney accent. He demolished
his hs as well as various "wicked" things, commented one observer.

Major Moore was a better spiritual than temporal leader. He
preferred the field the active struggle to save souls to the tedious
duties of headquarters, and most of his time was spent in active
campaigning, traveling from Canada to West Virginia, speaking
night after night. Although hampered by a lack of funds and in-
different or hostile public opinion, he led his small Army forward,
opening new stations, winning converts, and enrolling new officers.

The Salvation Army in the United States was confined to four
cities Philadelphia, New York, Newark, and St. Louis when Major
Moore arrived at National Headquarters in Philadelphia in June,
1 88 1. The American edition of the War Cry, an irregular monthly,
had appeared only five times since its inception in January, 1881.
Moore's first project was to begin to publish the War Cry as a
weekly with issue No. 6 in June, 1881. In that same month, new
corps were opened in Jersey City and Baltimore. To assist him in
his new command, Major Moore appointed Captain Amos Shirley
as his aide-de-camp. Shirley, who commanded the ist Pennsylvania
Corps, had been given the general supervision of the Army when
Railton returned to England. He was unable to get along with
Moore, however, and after a month as his aide he left the Army.
His wife, Annie, and daughter, Eliza, continued to serve as corps
officers. 1

The Army grew slowly in 1881. At the end of the year only
three corps operated in Philadelphia; a strong corps under Captain
Annie Shirley won converts in Baltimore; and a desultory work was
carried on in New York. Three posts, listed in St. Louis, Newark,
and Jersey City, were abandoned early the following year. But the
year 1882 saw successes which more than oifset these losses.

The Philadelphia corps were consolidated and new posts were
opened in Franklin, Allegheny City, and Easton, Pennsylvania.
New Jersey saw Salvation Army corps established at Paterson,

34 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Trenton, and New Brunswick. The Baltimore, Maryland, corps con-
tinued to flourish. The New York "Invincibles n were strengthened
and supported by four new corps in nearby Brooklyn. So important
did Brooklyn become that National Headquarters was moved from
Philadelphia to Brooklyn in July, 1882.

In addition to the fourteen corps active in the United States,
the Salvation Army entered Canada in 1882, when corps were
established in Toronto, London, Hamilton, and Chatham. These
Canadian corps were administered from the Brooklyn head-
quarters, with Major Moore assuming the title of "Commissioner
of the Salvation Army in the United States and Canada."

The growth during 1883 and 1884 was even more rapid. In
March, 1882, the Army had only five stations and eleven full-time
officers in the United States. In July, 1883, it operated forty-three
stations and employed seventy-nine full-time officers. By March,
1884, seventy stations were in operation, and two hundred officers
followed the flag. Salvation Army corps were active in most of the
larger cities of New England, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Ohio, Michigan, and West Virginia.

The Salvation Army's rapid growth in America was the result
of hard work by the officers in charge of the local corps. Each corps
held at least one meeting every evening in the week and three or
four meetings on Sunday. The schedule of meetings of the Balti-
more Corps is a study in human fortitude: Open-air meetings and
hallelujah marches every evening at 7:25 P.M., followed by in-
door meetings at eight o'clock; Wednesday was Soldier's roll call,
Friday a holiness meeting, and Saturday a "Hallelujah Free-and-
Easy." Services on Sunday included knee drill at 7 A.M., open-air
meeting at 10:30 A.M., and consecration service at 11:00 A.M. In
the afternoon another open-air meeting at 2:15 P.M. preceded an
experience meeting at three o'clock. Finally, a grand open-air
march at seven o'clock introduced a great salvation meeting at
eight in the evening.

Conducting public services by no means concluded the Salva-
tion Army officer's duty. He was expected also to devote several
hours a day in house-to-house visitation, to spend an hour a day

THE BRICKBAT ERA 35

drill marching, to train the corps' soldiers to play band instruments
and the lassies to beat tambourines, to visit all soldiers absent from
roll call, and to instruct young converts. Detailed weekly reports,
including the number of issues of the War Cry sold and the num-
ber of hours spent in visitation were required by Headquarters,
In addition, each officer was asked to send a weekly report on
"the State of the War" to the War Cry for publication.

Officers' incomes were modest: single officers received a weekly
allowance of five dollars, and married officers ten dollars a week
with an extra dollar for each child. Even this small amount was not
assured, but depended on the officer's collections, from which cur-
rent expenses had first to be met.

The rapid expansion of the Salvation Army would not have
been possible had not an increasing number of young American
men and women dedicated their lives to work as officers in the
Salvation Army. Although as many English officers were sent to
America as could be spared from the work there, recruiting in the
United States was so successful that Major Moore was able to an-
nounce in February, 1882, "There are just now equal numbers of
American and English officers in the Army with three more
Americans awaiting orders."

The Army in America was in some respects a youth movement,
for many of the officers responsible for its amazing growth were
young people in their teens, holding positions of responsibility be-
yond their years. Officers were usually assigned in pairs to open
new stations. With only a few dollars in pocket, they would visit a
strange city and hire a hall, part of which might serve as their
living quarters. Their first meeting might be announced by a "bom-
bardment" of posters proclaiming the opening of "Fort Salvation."
To attract a crowd to their service, the officers in their colorful
uniforms of blue and crimson would parade through the streets
with whatever musical instruments they could play. When they
enrolled enough of their converts as soldiers, the group was officially
recognized as a corps with the presentation of colors by the national
commander.

"Fort Salvation" was usually a small building in the poorest

36 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

section of the city. The well-to-do were welcomed at the meetings
if they chose to come, but their salvation was considered the re-
sponsibility of the established churches. It was to aid the people
who had no one at all to turn to for help and guidance that the
Salvation Army was founded. "Don't Despair! !" it advertised. "How-
ever POOR you may be, However WRETCHED you may be, However
BAD you may be, You have Two Friends! One is Jesus Christ, and
the other is the Salvation Army." Major Moore in his orders to his
officers cautioned, "Keep to the army plan of putting the poorest,
roughest looking in the best seats and nearest the Penitent form,
and while you treat everyone with respect avoid showing prefer-
ence for people richly dressed."

Salvation Army meetings drew large crowds in most cities.
Undoubtedly many people were first attracted by the novelty and
came to satisfy their curiosity. That many of these people were
spiritually touched, joined, and remained with the Salvation Army
may be attributed to its multiple appeal. Because its leadership
was young, a large number of the recruits and officer candidates of
the Salvation Army were young people. The Army seemed able to
touch a chord of idealism, that is inherent in youth. The use of
uniforms, military titles, and brass bands to "free souls from Satan
and sin" appealed to a generation a bit too young to have served
in the Civil War, but who had grown up in the atmosphere of that
semireligious crusade to free an unfortunate group of people from
physical bondage.

To many of the older people nearly crushed by the burdens of
life, the Salvation Army meetings of the i88o's offered release from
despairing reality from the stark, dull, dreary, monotonous every-
day world of the slums in which they eked out a miserable exist-
ence. At the evening hallelujah meetings they could lose them-
selves in the glory of a new world that was theirs if they but
confessed their sins and sought forgiveness through Christ. The
meetings offered entertainment, escape, security, fellowship, and
absolution from sin all wrapped in the one package "salvation." And
what must have seemed most miraculous, this salvation was for

THE BRICKBAT ERA " 37

those who were poorest in the world's goods and who were the
worst of sinners.

Not all Americans welcomed the Salvation Army's tactics, how-
ever. It is difficult today to comprehend the bitterness the Salvation
Army generated in the hearts of some people in the first few years
following its introduction in the United States. It was no surprise
that saloon keepers and their habitual customers hated the Army
and used all means in their power to combat its work. Such op-
position was expected and even welcomed by the Salvationists.
They were, after all, soldiers of Christ, and did not expect Satan to
succumb without a fight. But the attacks that must have perplexed
them came from a quarter where they had a right to expect to
find allies or at the least a benevolent neutrality.

Many of the Salvation Army's severest tribulations were caused
by people who considered themselves respectable Christians. The
mobs who attacked Salvation Army lads and lassies were not always
ragged hoodlums and roughs. At times well dressed men led or
joined the attackers. Christian ministers as well as tavern orators
inveighed against the Army and its methods. Policemen "looked
the other way" while angry crowds broke up street parades and
meetings and beat up the Salvationists themselves. When the Sal-
vationists turned to the police for protection, they found themselves
arrested for inciting a riot or disturbing the peace. Respectable
judges fined and imprisoned members of the Army for such offenses,
and mayors and members of city councils passed ordinances de-
signed to prevent or handicap Salvation Army work and to drive
out its workers.

Salvation soldiers everywhere here, as in England made close
acquaintanceships with mud, bricks, stones, tomatoes, rotten eggs,
dead cats and rats, and buckets of water. Yet the greater the
barrage and the louder the jeers and curses, the stronger became
their songs and prayers. Each evening before the regular meeting
it was the customay practice for the corps members to parade
with drum and songs to the barracks or hall. On one such march by
the ist Pennsylvania Corps of Philadelphia,

38 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

a young fellow sent an old washboiler, then came a brick or two, then
came a few large boulders, old tomatoes, cans, etc., and they kept coming
too, until we got into the barracks. The saloon keepers find that by plac-
ing bath tubs out in front of their rum holes and keeping them overflow-
ing, (wasting the city water) teams will stop. . . . Well there's a grog
shop at almost every corner, so as we came up to the tubs we found them
surrounded by gamins their hats dipped in full of water and didn't they
give us poor warm soldiers a decidedly cool, cooling off . . . . Then we
had the lassoe gang to contend with. . . . Then the trip rope squad was
on hand . . . but Hallelujah, we came through it all and soon were safely
housed in our barracks with joyous hearts, wet, tired, sore, and pretty
well mussed up, but went right in for a Hallelujah praise meeting.

The patient endurance of the Salvationists in the face of such
treatment could not fail to impress the general public and even the
tormenters themselves. Repeated time and again were cases like
that of Andrew Mohrant who, after accepting fifty cents from a
saloon keeper to go to a Salvation Army meeting while drunk and
break it up, was converted and became a corporal in the Army. As
long as "fools, who came to scoff, remain'd to pray," the Salvation
soldiers could not be daunted by physical attacks.

Even persons unsympathetic with the Army's methods found
themselves supporting the victims of such persecution. A Philadel-
phia newspaper noted that "the calm courageous bearing of the
'Army' under very trying circumstances when brutally attacked by
organized bands of ruffians has . . . compelled admiration and re-
spect even from those ready to accuse them of fanaticism," and
went on to say that "in spite of all its outlandish eccentricities
which shock not a little good, quiet, easy-going, orthodox people,
there can be no question but that the Salvation Arrny is doing a
wonderful amount of good among the class of society which or-
dinary preachers and preaching entirely fail to reach."

But more than moral support was needed: the police were not
only lax in protecting the Salvationists from attacks by hoodlums,
but they often did their best to discourage the Army from operat-
ing in their bailiwick. Incidents of police persecution of the Salva-
tion Army occurred in many cities in which the Army operated.

THE BRICKBAT ERA 39

In June, 1882, the "Blood-washed Warriors" of the 3rd New Jersey
Corps of Paterson were arrested for "making improper noises on
the street." The Salvation Army had been allowed to sing and to
exhort from the Brooklyn City Hall steps for a year when the "City
of Churches" began a series of retaliatory moves in June, 1883, by
arresting a group of eight men and three women. Arrests for parad-
ing, beating the drum, or singing in the streets were made in Syra-
cuse, Buffalo, Bridgeport, New Haven, Cleveland, Wheeling, and
other cities at about the same time. In each case the procedure was
similar. The Salvationists pleaded not guilty to the charges of dis-
turbing the peace. If fined they chose prison rather than pay the
fine, and appealed for a court trial.

The Salvation Army was not seeking a cheap martyrdom in its
fight for the freedom to call men to Christ in the streets of the
American cities. It asked no more than the traditional American
freedom of worship and speech provided. Actually, street parades
such as the Army staged were a common form of entertainment in
American cities and towns in the i88o's. Various fraternal societies,
the local militia, and labor organizations regularly had parades,
while the annual circus parade was a major event in all sections of
the country. In addition to these large processions, organ grinders
and occasional medicine men were also allowed to give their per-
formances on the streets. The Salvation Army felt with justification
that its marches prior to meetings were in accord with American
tradition. The bass drum and tambourine served them as church
bells to call their congregation to worship. As one newspaper no-
ticed:

That which many citizens, in their dislike for the Salvation Army fail
to perceive, is that the revivalists, in parading the streets, avail themselves
of a common American, privilege and that to arrest these missionaries is
to exercise discrimination in the treatment of religious bodies. In fact,
circus troups are permitted to march around, playing musical instruments,
but a company of evangelists is placed under arrest for walking and sing-
ing religious songs.

In its court fights the Salvation Army never lacked competent
defense attorneys who volunteered their services because they rec-

40 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

ognized the police persecution of the Army as an infringement of
the basic concept of freedom of worship. The defense lawyer of a
group of Salvationists arrested in New Haven in December, 1883,
for "making a disturbance in violation of the city ordinance,"
pointed out that the city soldiers marched through the streets on
Sundays with a brass band, that the police chief himself had
marched and sung with the Knights Templar organization, and that
a Temperance Society had used the State House steps for singing.
The Salvationists explained the purpose of the Army and demon-
strated their singing and regulation handclapping to the court. With
the courtroom crowded with a curious throng made up of "men,
Yale students, loungers, and women," the judge dismissed the case,
declaring that the Army's object was a good one and that the
Salvationists had not broken any law.

The liquor interests who had sponsored many of the attacks
by ruffians also initiated some of the attempts to drive out the
Salvationists by frequent arrests. A saloon keeper of Bridgeport,
Connecticut, complained that when the Army came along with its
drums his customers left the bar, went out to see them, and that
many did not come back. Because he paid for his license, he thought
he should be protected from such competition. In Bridgeport, as in
other cities, the liquor interests were well organized and had plenty
of money with which to exert political influence. The Marshalltown,
Iowa, Electric Light declared:

Take all the kicking against the Salvation Army and eliminate the saloon
element's part of the kicking, and you have none left. . . The saloon-
keepers are the only ones who are making the grand kick against the
Salvation Army, because it keeps their customers away and keeps the
crowd where they remain sober. . . . What this city needs is a few less
saloons, a little less hell in general, and more Salvationists.

Meanwhile, the arrests of Salvation Army officers and soldiers
not only failed to discredit the organization but actually increased
its prestige and widened its influence. When arrested officers were
acquitted or served their terms and returned to lead meetings, they
attracted far larger crowds than before. Captain Stillwell, arrested

THE BRICKBAT ERA 4!

in Booklyn, was introduced after his release as the "Hallelujah Jail
Bird," and told of his prison experiences to large crowds. The War
Cry ran a picture on the front page of the group arrested in
Brooklyn entitled "Salvation Jail Birds."

The sporadic mob attacks and arrests on trumped-up charges
that characterized the "brickbat era" continued with decreasing fre-
quency into the twentieth century. But despite the persecution,
or perhaps because of it, the Salvation Army's progress was rapid
and continuous.

An important strategic advance was the acquisition of the first
real Headquarters building the old Lyceum on Washington Street
in Brooklyn. During the early part of 1882, there was a lull in
Salvation Army activity in Philadelphia. Not until March did the
Philadelphia Press report, without great enthusiasm, that "the re-
cently allayed Salvation Army fever was again breaking out in the
city." By that time Major Moore was already planning to move his
headquarters to Brooklyn third largest city in the country, with a
population of over half a million, and aptly called the "City of
Churches." Each Saturday its leading newspaper listed as many as
ninety items in the Religious Notices column. The offerings were
varied. At Plymouth Church, Henry Ward Beecher preached to a
huge congregation. One of his sermons was described in a news-
paper headline as "An Argument that Poverty is Not a Divine
Blessing but Simply the Fault of Those Whose Curse it Is Pos-
session of Riches Commended." At the Roosevelt Street Ferry,
"weather permitting," Dr. John W. Kennion preached " 'Christ cru-
cified/ not 'Isms,' " and distributed coffee, bread, and soap to "drunk-
ards, tramps, outcasts, harlots, and criminals." Thomas De Witt
Talmage filled the Tabernacle each Sunday, and Charles Cuthbert
Hall, later president of Union Theological Seminary, served at the
First Presbyterian Church. Thus Brooklyn, as the home of some of
the nation's most influential clergymen and of several bizarre sects,
was inclined to pay little attention to the Salvation Army.

Nevertheless, in April, 1882, the following announcement ap-
peared in a Brooklyn newspaper:

42 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

THE SALVATION ARMY HAVING leased the Lyceum on Washington st, Major
Moore, commissioner, would be glad to meet Christians of all denomina-
tions there on Saturday evening at 8 o'clock, to lay before them the ob-
jects of the Army.

Major Moore himself led the attack. As his "chief executive
officer" he had Captain Emma Westbrook of the pioneer band.
Lieutenant "Hallelujah Abbie" Thompson, a recently converted vi-
vacious nineteen-year-old brunette, and Captain Frederick Schaff,
a middle-aged German, completed the force. On Tuesday,
May znd, they held their first open-air meeting in Brooklyn on
the City Hall steps. Their song, "Stop, poor sinner, stop and think,
Before you further go Can you sport upon the brink of everlasting
woe?" attracted a large crowd, a portion of which followed the
Salvationists down Washington Street to the Lyceum for an indoor
meeting. On Sunday the Army began its regular sabbath schedule
with meetings at seven, eleven, three, and eight o'clock.

The Brooklyn campaign was an immediate success. By the end
of 1882, nearly 1,200 converts were reported, and four corps were
operating in various sections of the city. The War Cry office was
moved from Philadelphia, and publication began in Brooklyn in
October, 1882.

Brooklyn got its first full-scale view of the Salvation Army when
about eight hundred Salvationists from the United States and
Canada "invaded" the city in March, 1883, for the third anniversary
celebration of Railton's arrival in America. This, the Army's first
real convocation in America, was such a success that for many years
after, the annual anniversary celebration was the biggest event on
every Salvationist's calendar.

Four thousand people paid an admission charge to the meeting
in the Brooklyn Rink that f olio wed a two-mile parade. Major Moore
led the services assisted by such pioneers as Captain Annie Shirley
and Captain Emma Westbrook, who was introduced as "the Stone-
wall Jackson of the Army." The national commander was able to
report that the Salvation Army in America had increased its stations
from five to twenty-eight in the past year and that the number of
officers had grown from eleven to sixty-four. During the same period

THE BRICKBAT ERA 43

the circulation of the War Cry had risen from 3,000 to 20,000 copies
a week.

A memorable event was the presentation of a flag to the first
Salvation Army missionaries sent abroad from the United States
Lieutenant Annie Hartelius, her sister Mary, and Anna Gabriel, all
bound for Sweden to aid in the evangelizing of that country, where
Salvation Army work had been begun by Hanna Ouchterlony less
than three months before. The three young women who comprised
the "Swedish Detachment" were accompanied to the boat on the
morning following the celebration, and sailed from the United
States on March 13, i883. 2 This early example of missionary in-
terest is significant in view of the fact that twice within the next
two decades the concept of internationalism on which the Salvation
Army was based was challenged by a nationalistic type of organiza-
tion. In both cases internationalism triumphed, and today a notice-
able characteristic of American Salvationists is their interest in mis-
sionary activities and their appreciation of their membership in an
international organization.

The Salvation Army Auxiliary League was an interesting in-
novation of this period. Formulated to combat the active forces who
opposed the Army in the "brickbat era," the League's express pur-
pose was "to link our friends in one united body to defend us and
assist us in supplying an increase of funds to carry forward the
precious work of saving souls. . . ." The first public announcement
of the organization appeared in the War Cry of July 26, 1883. To
become a member a person had to pledge himself to pray for the
Army, to speak in its favor whenever possible, and to subscribe
five dollars a year. In return he received a year's subscription to
the War Cry, a badge, a special pass to all meetings, and "a share
in the joy of helping men and women out of sin."

The Salvation Army Auxiliary League eventually became an
important means of organizing the support personal and financial
of many important Americans. However, its success came after
1887, and its initial progress was slow. A balance sheet for the
period of March 8, 1883, to June 23, 1884, listed only $343 under
"Subscriptions to Auxiliary League."

44 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Running apace with all these advances and innovations was the
rigorous schedule of Major Moore. Frequently he traveled all day
to address a meeting in the evening that might last well into the
night. Within a six-day period in November, 1883, he traveled two
thousand miles through Kentucky and Indiana and had nine speak-
ing engagements. In addition to his tours, which helped him to
know personally the officers of every corps, the commander wrote
an article or two for nearly every issue of the War Cry. Unfortu-
nately, the major's success as a field commander was marred by
certain inadequacies as an administrative leader which came to
light in the last year of his term of office.

V

Secession The Moore Split

In October, 1884, the world- wide unity of the Salvation Army was
endangered when Major Thomas E. Moore, in violation of orders,
sought to establish the incorporation of the Salvation Army in the
United States independent of General William Booth. Although it
took International Headquarters by surprise, Moore's action was not
hasty or precipitous but came as the logical culmination of a long
series of events. The storm clouds that broke in October had been
slowly gathering throughout the year of 1884.

The fourth anniversary celebration is an example of the strained
relations between the United States and London, The anniversary
program was planned for the usual date in March. Announcements
were made that General William Booth or Bramwell Booth, the
Chief of Staff, might visit America to attend the festivities. When
a cablegram announced "The General or Chief of Staff cannot come
in the Month of March," the celebration was postponed in the hope
that one of them would make the trip at a later date. Not until two
months later, on May i3th, was the celebration finally held with-
out the General or the Chief of Staff.

American Salvationists were disappointed at what seemed to
them to be a lack of appreciation on the part of their international
leaders. They were proud of the progress they had made in the
last year progress which was to be illustrated by events in the
fourth anniversary celebration. The Salvation Army in America had
grown to a force of about three hundred officers, with some five

45

46 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

thousand converts in the ranks, and more than a hundred stations.
Salvationists from as far as West Virginia, Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio,
and Michigan joined with others from New England, New York,
and New Jersey to attend the exercises. An excursion boat was
chartered to carry Salvation Army "troops" from Canada, upper
New York State and points west, down the Hudson River from
Albany to Brooklyn. No less than two thousand Salvationists, ac-
companied by several brass bands, marched in the big parade prior
to the evening meeting on May 13, 1884.

The War Cry account of the meeting declared:

The Army colors, the intense enthusiasm, the brass instruments, the wav-
ing banners and handkerchiefs, and the large audience reminded us of
scenes we had witnessed in Exeter and Congress Halls, London, and
proved how thoroughly the Army there and here is pervaded and
moulded by one Spirit.

General William Booth was personally unknown to all but the few
Salvationists who had come from England. Had he visited America
in 1884 and seen for himself the spirit of the American Salvationists,
and had they been given the opportunity to feel the influence of
his unique personality, it is probable that the course of events would
have been very different.

This convocation was also the last attended by Canadian Sal-
vationists as part of a combined United States and Canadian Sal-
vation Army. In a dispatch dated May 3, 1884, General Booth an-
nounced, "I have heartily concurred in the suggestion that Canada
should have a Major and Headquarters of its own, seeing that no
one man could possibly overtake the boundless opportunity, or en-
dure the enormous responsibility that must be involved in the de-
velopment and direction of our operations in two of the largest
countries in the world." Major Thomas B. Coombs was appointed
commissioner of the newly formed Territory of Canada. He was
given a gala welcome when he arrived in New York, and was ac-
companied to Canada by Major Moore, who installed him in his
new position.

SECESSION THE MOORE SPLIT 47

In the first years, as long as the American branch of the Salvation
Army owned no property, the problem of internal government was
not acme. Though Major Moore, acting as General Booth's agent,
carried out his general policies, he was allowed considerable auton-
omy in making decisions regarding local conditions with which he
was most familiar: he commissioned officers, assigned and re-
assigned them, and determined where new posts could be estab-
lished. Money collected or secured through the sale of the War
Cry or booklets was held by the major and disbursed according to
his direction.

When property such as barracks, halls, and the land on which
they were erected was acquired, however, questions of title in prop-
erty deeds became acute. In England, General Booth held all of
the real and personal property of the Salvation Army in his own
name, and he wished to have any property acquired in America
similarly deeded to him. This would have been very difficult, and
in some states impossible, because of the difference of the laws of
the various states regarding the rights of aliens to purchase and to
hold property.

Major Moore, having declared his intention of becoming a nat-
uralized citizen, was able to own real estate, and all of the property
of the Salvation Army in the United States was deeded in his name
as General Booth's representative. In the eyes of the law, how-
ever, the buildings and land of the Salvation Army in America were
the personal property of Thomas E. Moore. This situation was em-
barrassing, both to the officers of the Army, who were sometimes
taunted with the charge that they were making money for Major
Moore and General Booth in England, and to Major Moore, who
as the owner of all Salvation Army property might be held per-
sonally liable for any debt or suit for damages brought against the
organization.

The difficulty of Moore's legal position is illustrated by an in-
cident in New Brunswick, New Jersey. Leaders of the corps es-
tablished there became dissatisfied with the arrangements for hold-
ing property, and incorporated under the state laws as "The 5th

48 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

New Jersey Corps of the Salvation Army," a corporate body en-
tirely independent of the regular Salvation Army. Major Moore
became a subject for abuse when he refused to turn over to the new
corporation the funds held by National Headquarters in the account
of the former Salvation Army corps. In December, 1883, one of the
trustees of the New Brunswick corporation had Major Moore ar-
rested while the major was in New Jersey conducting a meeting
at Rahway. This unhappy experience, and a similar one at New-
burgh, New York, convinced the major that the only real solution
to the problem of holding the Army's property was to incorporate
the Salvation Army as a religious and charitable organization un-
der the laws of the various states.

This was not a new idea. Major Moore first proposed it to Gen-
eral Booth in the latter part of 1882 or early 1883. For nearly two
years before he secured the incorporation of the Salvation Arny in
the United States, the American commander not only openly ad-
vocated and planned the action, but also did everything in his
power to obtain General Booth's consent to the step.

At the third anniversary celebration in March, 1883, a news-
paper reported that just before the collection was taken, "Major
Moore stated that the property was deeded to the society, which
would be incorporated within the next few days." Application pa-
pers for incorporation had already been filed in July, 1883, when
Major Moore and two veterans of the American field, Captains
Jonas Inman and Emma Westbrook, went to England to present
the case for incorporation. These American officers failed to con-
vince the General that incorporation would not limit the authority
of International Headquarters, and on September 13, 1883, they
returned to the United States unsuccessful.

In the summer of 1884, two officers were sent from International
Headquarters to study the situation in the United States. After a
careful investigation they recommended to keep the property in
the name of Major Moore but to mortgage it for more than its real
value to General Booth. To help explain the situation a notarized
statement entitled "How the Army Property is Held, as Sworn by
the General," was printed in the War Cry of July 24, 1884. In the

SECESSION THE MOORE SPLIT 49

statement General William Booth quoted from the deed poll of

1878:

(i). That the Salvation Army was always to be under the control and
direction of one person myself this deponent.

(2). That all the properties of the Salvation Army were to be conveyed
to, and held by the General of the Salvation Army for the time being,
who was to have absolute liberty to deal with such properties as he might
think fit, provided only that he should use and dispose of them only for
the benefit of the Salvation Army, as defined by the said Deed Poll. . . .

Major Moore was confronted with a double predicament. On
one hand he was held responsible to General Booth for all the
property acquired in the name of the Salvation Army. On the other
hand, because the property was held in his name, he was also
legally responsible for any claims against the property of the Army.
The fact that General Booth asserted his claim to the property in
a notarized declaration meant nothing in the eyes of the law. Nor
did the fact that the property was mortgaged to General Booth
relieve Major Moore from his personal legal responsibility.

The representatives from International Headquarters, in addi-
tion to rejecting the idea of incorporation, reported unfavorably on
other aspects of Major Moore's administration. After examining his
books at National Headquarters, they informed London that the
accounts were in great confusion. Eight divisions had been created
in the summer of 1884, to facilitate the administration of the rapidly
expanding Army. The divisional officers (DO's) included several
who were dissatisfied with Major Moore's leadership and who
added their criticisms of him to those of the London examiners.

These reports convinced General Booth that Moore should be
replaced as national commander. Farewell orders were issued, and
Major Moore was ordered to take command of the Salvation Army
forces in South Africa, where the work had only recently been
inaugurated. Moore may have believed that if he went ahead with
the incorporation, and could show the General that he had the
support and confidence of the great majority of American Salva-
tionists, the General would modify his decision. On the other hand,

50 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

he may have recognized that incorporation would mean secession,
and decided to go ahead despite the consequences. Whatever his
motives, Major Moore took the preliminary steps toward incorpora-
tion.

News of his plans reached International Headquarters, and
Major Thomas B. Coombs, recently appointed commissioner of Can-
ada, was ordered by cable to hasten to Brooklyn to relieve Moore
of his command. When Major Coombs appeared at Moore's head-
quarters and demanded that all of the property and money of the
Salvation Army in the United States be turned over to him, he was
met with a flat refusal. Coombs then wired each of the field officers
that Moore had been removed by the General, and instructed them
to "hold all moneys." A few hours later the bewildered officers re-
ceived another telegram from Major Moore with the instructions:
"Disregard Coombs' message. Go on with your work as usual."

When a summons to attend an important council at National
Headquarters arrived a few days later, about 125 corps officers
hastened to Brooklyn with aroused curiosity. Major Coombs and
some of the DO's were not admitted. Moore, always an eloquent
and convincing speaker, told the group of his proposal for incor-
poration, of his efforts to secure General Booth's approval, and of
his recent order to farewell. So firmly convinced was he that incor-
poration was in the best interests of the Salvation Army in the
United States, he declared, that if the council approved of his
plans to incorporate, and the General accepted the decision, he
would acquiesce in his farewell and go wherever the General
wished to send him. In no case, he insisted, would incorporation
mean breaking away from the spiritual leadership of General Booth.

Most of the officers present were Americans, and few had ever
known General Booth personally. It is significant that the only op-
position to Moore came from those officers who had served with
the General in England. One of these, Captain William Thompson,
made a plea to accept the orders of International Headquarters.
A rising vote was taken, and of the 125 present all but four voted
to support Major Moore.

Notice of the council's action was sent to General Booth, and

SECESSION THE MOORE SPLIT 51

Major Moore continued the incorporation proceedings. Articles of
incorporation were signed on October 21, 1884, by Thomas E.
Moore and five other men. Three days later a certificate of the
incorporation of "The Salvation Army" was filed and recorded
in the office of the Secretary of State of the State of New York.
According to the certificate, the objectives of the organization were
"the evangelization of the masses, mutual improvement in religious
knowledge and the furtherance of religious opinion and benevolent
and missionary purposes."

Major Moore turned over to the new corporation the title to
land, barracks, musical instruments, books, hymnals, and uniforms
which had previously been held in his name alone. Even the
familiar insignia of the Salvation Army and the War Cry, which
had been copyrighted, became the property of the newly incor-
porated Salvation Army. Moore continued to publish the War Cry
from the Brooklyn headquarters, and used its columns to explain
his actions regarding incorporation.

His position seemed unassailable. His actions were entirely in
accord with the law. In fact, his incorporated Salvation Army could,
if it chose, obtain an injunction to prevent any other group from
operating under that name or from using the copyrighted title the
War Cry for a newspaper. As Major Coombs ruefully confessed
in an interview shortly after the incorporation, "Hat present Moore
'as rather the best of the fight."

Although Major Moore must have realized that his action in
direct violation of orders constituted insubordination, he stoutly
maintained his respect for General Booth's leadership. "In our pres-
ent attitude there is no spirit of self-seeking, no wish to separate
from the spiritual advice of General Booth, and no desire to create
a spiritual gulf between England and the United States. We were
incorporated in order the better to carry out the desires of General
Booth for the Salvation of sinners, in order also to adapt ourselves
to the customs of the people, and also for the better protection of
the property, and to prevent wicked men from assailing us by
slander and imprisonment on false charges," he declared.

But General Booth was firmly convinced that the Army's unity

52 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

and highest usefulness could be preserved only through the cen-
tralization of authority, with the final and supreme direction vested
in its ruling head. His opposition to incorporation appeared to be
from the fear that it would remove the individual corps from the
authority of International Headquarters. As he explained:

It having been represented to us that much of the persecution and
difficulty we encountered might be overcome if the Army were to be-
come incorporated as all religious denominations are under the laws of the
States, we sent out the heads of our foreign and property departments to
consult with Major Moore and the best legal advisers they could find on
the subject, and to try to arrive at some settlement of the property held
for the Army there, which would in every way be satisfactory and would,
if possible, put us on a better footing before the law, and also to see
whether there were not other causes for the general dissatisfaction.

We found, however, that incorporation, under the denominational
laws existing, would of necessity destroy the Army's very existence as
such, and would change it in fact into a sect, whose every congregation
would have power to determine more or less what would be the character
of their services.

Of course we could not for a moment consent to anything of the
kind, no matter what difficulties might still have to be faced. . . .

The difficulties still to be faced were many. Any possibility that
the situation could be settled by a compromise vanished soon after
Major Frank Smith arrived from London to take command of the
American forces. His first action was to visit Major Moore's head-
quarters in Brooklyn and to demand immediate and unconditional
surrender of the command of the troops and of all the money, prop-
erty, and supplies of the Salvation Army in the United States. He
was met with a firm refusal.

Major Smith made it evident that in his eyes Moore and all
those who followed his leadership were rebels unworthy of any
further trust or consideration. His arrogance and total lack of
understanding or tact alienated many Salvationists who were ready
to return to the parental body as soon as they saw that incorporation
was, in effect, secession. Many officers, among them Richard E.
Holz, who supported Moore in the incorporation but who had no

SECESSION THE MOORE SPLIT 53

desire to leave the leadership of General Booth, approached Smith
for information only to be denounced without an opportunity to
explain their position.

The situation confronting Major Smith seemed hopeless, yet he
faced the future with that confidence born of the strong conviction
that he was right and his enemies without virtue. Six of the eight
divisional officers supported him, but only seventeen corps ac-
cepted his leadership. A few weeks after Smith arrived, a group of
fifty or sixty officers recruited from the English field personnel was
sent to reinforce him. Frank Smith was typically and thoroughly
British, and so were nearly all his followers, a condition not calcu-
lated to win the support of the American public in the late nine-
teenth century.

John Bull and Brother Jonathan were not on the best of terms
in the i88o's. England was represented in Washington by the obtuse
Sackville-West whose thoughtless letter in 1888 aroused the country
and brought about his dismissal too late to undo the damage to
Cleveland's campaign for reelection. Canadian seizures of New
England fishing boats added fuel to the flames tended by a well
organized group of Irish-Americans whose undying hatred of all
things English was fully exploited by the newspapers and politi-
cians of both parties.

Major Moore was quick to seize the advantage of being
"American." While General Booth's system might be all right for
England, he explained in the columns of the War Cry, incorporation
was necessary in the United States to bring the Army's government
"into harmony with the laws, usages and Constitution of this
country, and to enable it to hold funds as provided for by law."
"To the Americans we have become Americans," he exclaimed, and
he promised that no longer would the Salvationists be looked upon
as "nomads, gypsies, wanderers, or foreign emissaries." Later he
announced that of the two hundred officers in his organization, he
and one other were the only two that had come from England, the
rest having been recruited in America.

When it became obvious that no compromise could be worked
out with General Booth, Major Moore determined to fight to the

54 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

finish. In January, 1885, he assumed the title of General, and in
March, 1885, he reincorporated his organization as "The Salva-
tion Army of America," a name designed to strengthen his appeal
to the American people. His "Incorporated" Salvation Army of
America and Smith's "World-Wide" or English Salvation Army
competed in a race to invade new territory a struggle that must
have seemed bewildering to an already confused public.

Although incorporation was the basic cause of the break be-
tween Moore and General Booth, other issues were injected to give
the dispute a bitterness that only intimate family quarrels can en-
gender. "We are not fighting him [Major Moore] so much as in-
corporation," Major Coombs admitted to the press in October, 1884.
But Major Smith had a different interpretation. In a War Cry
article published on November 2 2nd, he declared, "The Cause of
Estrangement Between Major Moore and The General was not
Incorporation, but Mismanagement and Insubordination." He
charged that the books had been found in "a hopeless state of con-
fusion," a condition which Major Moore had not been able to
explain. When about to be relieved of his command, the charge
continued, Major Moore "at the last moment" brought up the
incorporation "to cover his mismanagement." In an attempt to infer
that General Booth had not objected to incorporation, Smith added,
"The General is not opposed to any scheme that will promote the
glory of God and open the way for this movement on the lines it
has been working so successfully for the past nineteen years."

Such statements set the pattern for official writing on the sub-
ject ever since. In his report for the year 1885, Major Smith, in a
summary of the history of the Army, wrote that Major Moore had
been appointed in 1881 because he was "the only man available at the
time." With no mention of Moore's three and a half years of success-
ful labor, he declared, "Unfortunately he fell into financial fogs, and
after a time . . . was requested to resign, he at once founded
what is now known as the Incorporated Army." Implied in the ac-
count of Moore's break with General Booth, not by forthright ac-
cusation but by insinuation, was that Major Moore was dishonest,
had embezzled funds, and that incorporation was something he

SECESSION THE MOORE SPLIT 55

undertook on the spur of the moment just as his financial dis-
crepancies were about to be revealed.

Major Smith was a better soldier than a historian. Either he did
not know or chose to ignore the events preceding the incorpora-
tion. A more judicious evaluation of Major Thomas E. Moore seems
to be that he was a good spiritual leader but an inadequate ad-
ministrator. Many people who knew him personally have testified
to his splendid Christian character. His honesty seems to be unques-
tionable, although he was mistaken in his judgment that incorpora-
tion would in itself mean success for the Salvation Army in the
United States. Deprived of the inspired leadership of General Wil-
liam Booth and the Army's international kinship, Moore's "Incor-
porated Army" gradually declined, while the "World-Wide" Salva-
tion Army under Major Smith prospered and grew. 1

VI

from the Foundations

Jehovah is our strength, And He shall be our song;

We shall overcome at length, Although our joes be strong.

Salvation Army history has justified the ring of confidence in this
popular Army hymn. No episode better supports the true Salva-
tionist's faith in the destiny of his Army than the events that fol-
lowed the break between Major Moore and General Booth.

To the few American Salvationists still loyal to General Booth
and the international Army in 1884, the future looked dark indeed.
Major Moore, fortified with the support of more than 80 per cent
of the American officers and soldiers, and with all the property, sup-
plies, and equipment of the Salvation Army, seemed assured of vic-
tory; the War Cry, the uniforms, battle flags, insignia, and even the
very name Salvation Army were his by law. Familiar with conditions
in the United States, and aided by a liberal form of government,
Moore's Army could hopefully appeal to the American people, con-
fident of success. As General Booth's representative in the United
States, Major Moore had been amazingly successful for three and a
half years. But from the time he broke with General Booth, both
his personal influence and the organization he led went into a
steady decline.

As soon as news of the incorporation reached International
Headquarters, Major Frank Smith, then commander of the Lon-
don Division, had been ordered to the United States to replace

56

REBUILDING FROM THE FOUNDATIONS 57

Moore. He had little more than his title, General Booth's blessing,
and a few faithful followers when he arrived in New York on
November 3, 1884. But with confidence born of a conviction of
absolute righteousness, the newly appointed commissioner rallied
his forces and rebuilt the Salvation Army in America from its very
foundations to a position stronger than ever before.

The thirty-year-old commissioner was a man of striking appear-
ance. His picture shows a man with narrow face, bushy hair, a mus-
tache and goatee, and nose topped by pince-nez glasses. He was de-
scribed by a newspaper reporter as having "a long pinched nose,
looking as though it had been caught in the jam of a door, [and] hair
that stands straight on end." To another reporter, who complimented
his rich baritone voice, he appeared to be "tall, wiry, nervous; with a
face like a stage Mephistopheles, he moved about waving his long
arms and looking as if he were uttering an incantation."

This was the man, "capable but fanatical, aggressive and head-
strong," who rallied and rebuilt the Salvation Army in America. He
established headquarters in a few rooms of a small building in New
York City and took stock of his forces. No more than fifty officers,
out of nearly three hundred, and only seventeen corps remained
loyal to the international Army, and these were without meeting
places or supplies in fact, with literally nothing but their faith. 1

Among the loyal officers were Staff Captain Annie Shirley, who
as divisional officer of the Massachusetts and Maine Division added
another to her long line of "firsts" by becoming the first woman
DO. Other divisional officers who achieved prominence in Army
circles were Staff Captains Jonas Inman, Charles Wass, and William
Evans. Another pioneer who followed Smith was "Ash-barrel
Jimmy," Railton's first convert in the United States, now Captain
James Kemp.

The "World-Wide" Salvation Army, as it was called to distin-
guish it from Moore's "Incorporated" Salvation Army, was an extra-
legal organization plagued by various legal restrictions affecting own-
ership of property, liability to suit, and nonrecognition in the eyes
of the law ironically, the same issues that had hampered Moore
and led to the incorporation. Even the familiar crest of the Salva-

58 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

tion Army the sun containing the motto "Blood and Fire" around
an "S" intertwined with a cross and crossed swords and topped by a
crown symbolizing the Crown of Life was copyrighted by Moore.
Smith had to design another, different enough to escape infringe-
ment of copyright, yet similar enough to represent the insignia that
had already become traditional. He omitted the crown and placed an
eagle over the crest. This crest is official in the United States today,
although in the rest of the Salvation Army world the crest is
topped with a crown.

The new emblem appeared on Commissioner Smith's War Cry,
published for the first time from New York on November 22, 1884.
In size and format, the four-page paper resembled the War Cry
that Major Moore continued to publish from Brooklyn.

A major problem was the lack of suitable meeting places. Com-
missioner Smith advertised in the War Cry, "We are still in want of
more Barrack accommodation all over the country . . . keep a
sharp look out for buildings likely to suit such as empty churches,
skating rinks, music halls, theatres, circuses, markets, or ware-
houses."

The year 1885 saw the international Salvation Army regain lost
ground and forge ahead under the leadership of loyal native officers,
others sent from England, and new recruits from the United States.
On May i9th the one hundredth corps was opened in Newark,
New Jersey. Only fourteen months after Smith reorganized the Sal-
vation Army, it was stronger than ever before, with 143 corps and
290 officers.

Statistics cannot tell the full story of that reestablishment of
the Salvation Army in the United States. They can illustrate but
not explain why Moore's superior legal position and appeal to patri-
otism was defeated by William Booth's dream of a world- wide Salva-
tion Army in which men of all nations would be equal before God.
Perhaps the loftier ideals and harsher disciplines of the international
Salvation Army served to cull out all but the most zealous and
sincere. Certainly the more democratic government of the Ameri-
can Salvation Army, and the observation of the sacraments of bap-
tism and holy communion, did not hold the loyalty of the best

REBUILDING FROM THE FOUNDATIONS 59

officers, and many of these left Moore's Army to reenter the origi-
nal Salvation Army as soon as they were able.

The story of the first difficult year is told in a small book, The
Salvation War in America for 1885, written by Commissioner Smith.
Recorded in the thin volume are chronicles of progress and of per-
secution. Between the lines is the spirit of its author, later to be-
come one of the pioneers of Britain's Labor party. Commissioner
Smith's concept of the Army's mission was somewhat revolutionary.
"The Army after all," he wrote, "is but another phase of that
great advance of the people on to new ground, out of the restraints
which have been put upon them for thousands of years, and which
would continue upon them if they did not begin to think, and
preach and pray out their own deliverance."

The Salvation Army's advance in this period of rebuilding was
contested by the same forces that led the earlier opposition. In-
fluenced by saloon keepers and their customers, the police and
public officials continued their persecution. Not only did such
persecution fail to stop the Army's spread, but it probably con-
tributed to the spectacular growth of the organization. This was
the conclusion reached by the New York Tribune after a lengthy
speculation on the reasons for the persecution of the Salvation
Army:

Nothing that is persecuted perishes during the persecution. This is the
rule as regards all organizations, and therefore this craze . . . may be
kept from dying, and given a foothold at last, through the stupidity of
those who cannot restrain their inclination to make targets of the halle-
lujah lads and lassies.

The press sometimes condemned but more frequently supported
the Army. When nine Salvationists, including four lassies, were ar-
rested in Dayton, Ohio, the Dayton Syndicate came to their de-
fense. After describing the Army's good work in Dayton, the paper
declared, "The authorities should no more think of arresting these
people, than they would think of entering a church during service,
and landing the minister behind the bars." Plymouth and Sharps-
burg, Pennsylvania, were scenes of bitter persecution, as were Buf-

60 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

falo, Schenectady, and Utica, New York. When Captain Emma Jane
Bown was arrested in Taunton, Massachusetts, a distinguished
judge volunteered to act as her defense lawyer. The jury declared
her not guilty of the charge against her that of "committing a
nuisance by beating a bass drum." Another trial in Boston vindi-
cated the Salvationists there and confirmed their right to preach
on historic Boston Common.

Well might the Salvationists sing:

Serene 'mid angry, howling mob I stand,

Or lies and slander silently endure;
Contempt and scorn I meet on ev'ry hand.

But nought can touch my peace, in God secure.

Behind the bars for Jesus' sake I stand,

But though my body's chained, my soul is free;

And in God's time once more I'll walk the land,
To warn the heedless world from wrath to flee.

Although the initial objective of Smith's administration was to
win back the ground lost by the Moore secession, the Salvation
Army was not content with this achievement alone. A character-
istic of the organization has always been the tendency to expand
into new fields. Not always has this expansion been undertaken
cautiously. The early Salvationists never pondered the questions:
"Can we afford it? Do we have the funds and trained personnel?"
The main question they put to themselves was, "Is there a need?"
If a need was evident the Salvation Army did its best to meet it,
and trusted in the Lord for the means, on the premise that He
never failed to provide for His Army.

Having figured in one of the major social problems of American
life in the i88o's poverty and spiritual neglect of thousands of its
victims it seems natural to expect that Salvationists would catch
the flame of related problems of racial distress and discrimination.
Dedicated to the downtrodden and unfortunate, the Salvation
Army could not overlook the plight of the six and a half million
Negroes in the United States.

The Salvation Army's first American commissioner, George S.

REBUILDING FROM THE FOUNDATIONS 6 1

Railton, was greatly interested and deeply concerned about the
salvation of the "Africans," as he called them. In the northern cities
of New York and Philadelphia everyone was admitted to Salvation
Army meetings, regardless of race or color, as a matter of course.
Negroes who were converted were enrolled in the corps along with
whites. Brother Robinson, a Negro recruit, was reported taking an
active part in the campaigns in Philadelphia in March, 1880. On
October jth, 1884, just before the Moore split, a Negro corps was
opened in Baltimore, but disappeared in the subsequent contro-
versy.

In the early summer of 1885, an all-out campaign was launched
"to save the colored people, and to make that a living, practical
reality, which the grand deeds of twenty years ago [had] so far
only succeeded in making a 'written right. n This was no easy task;
popular prejudices were strong. As Commissioner Smith stated: "We
found much antipathy remaining, even between Christians and peo-
ple of color, and we determined, by the help of God to be among the
first white Christian communities of America, who would faith-
fully and wholly break down this wall of partition, separating the
white from the colored, whom the Lord has brought from a common
captivity and bondage. We desire, above all things, to exemplify
this true spirit of Christian republicanism on our own platform, by
looking only to the gift and grace within, and not at the externals
of any soldier, and we appealed to every Salvation soldier and every
lover of Christ to set their faces against any such discrimination.
Real Christianity demanding that circumstances outside the con-
trol of any individual should not be permitted to weigh against
his interest."

Salvation Army corps for Negroes were established in Washing-
ton, D.C., Fredericksburg, Alexandria, and Richmond, Virginia. At
Fredericksburg the officer in charge reported, "white and colored
are all on one level sitting together in our meetings, and testifying
of God's power to save." Among the Negroes who believed that the
Salvation Army offered the greatest opportunity to serve their
God and their race was Captain W. S. Braithwaite. This outstand-
ing officer, born and converted in British Guiana, had studied medi-

62 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

cine in England and in Boston, where he was aided by Wendell
Phillips and William Lloyd Garrison. He was an ordained minister of
the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church when he became ac-
quainted with the Salvation Army in Asbury Park, New Jersey, and
accepted a Salvation Army commission.

White officers as well as Negroes dedicated themselves to work
with the Negroes of the slums. One of these, Aide-de-Camp Joseph
Pugmire, cut himself off from the white community to make his
home in the colored districts, eating and sleeping with the Negro
families whose souls he sought to save. His sincerity and Christian
example won the affection of his chosen people, who called him
"the curly-headed white man," and flocked to his meetings.

This campaign illustrates how the Salvation Army, ridiculed
and scorned by the general public, could afford to treat with just
contempt un-Christian prejudices however popular they were. The
principle of racial equality, so well expressed by Commissioner Smith
in 1885, has been a basic ideal of the Salvation Army throughout its
history. Unfortunately, the pursuit of this ideal has wavered in the
face of "regional prejudices." As the Salvation Army spread into the
South, and as it became accepted by the public, it hesitated to
offend public opinion by emphasizing an ideal which could be easily
kept in the background. In the North, and wherever the mores
of the public permitted, the Salvation Army opened its corps and
social institutions without regard to race or color. In the South,
however, it accepted the prevailing social system and segregated its
work with the Negro. This is not accepted by the Army with an
easy conscience. While some officers would wait for the pass-
ing of time to solve today's social problems, others constantly
challenge the Army with the difference between practice and prin-
ciple. 2 In November, 1954, the Salvation Army Commissioners' Con-
ference endorsed the United States Supreme Court's historic deci-
sion outlawing segregation in the schools and stated: "A ruling so
soundly based on Christian principle cannot but receive understand-
ing and cooperation from all Salvationists dedicated to the ideal
that in Christ all are one. We accept our full Christian responsibility

REBUILDING FROM THE FOUNDATIONS 63

to work earnestly and sympathetically to the end that a practical
Implementation of the decision may be successfully effected." Thus,
the Salvation Army and the United States are both meeting the
challenge.

The Salvation Army was from the beginning, as it is today, an
urban organization. As early as 1885, however, the spiritual needs of
rural and village dwellers were recognized, and an attempt was
made to meet them. Meetings were held in some of the small vil-
lages of New York State which resulted in a religious revival in that
region.

The Salvation Army's program of social work in America grew
from a modest beginning in the administration of Commissioner
Frank Smith. Prison work was begun in 1885, and women's social
work in 1886. The details of their beginning and growth belong to
a later chapter.

In comparison to the anniversary celebration in 1886, that of
the previous year seemed very modest. Only three hundred loyal sol-
diers and officers gathered in New York to commemorate the Army's
fifth year in the United States on March 19, 1885. By the following
March the Army had expanded to the point where it was neces-
sary to observe the sixth anniversary in three different cities in dif-
ferent parts of the country. Celebrations were held in Boston,
Washington, D.C., and Chicago.

The Salvation Army had grown in prestige as well as in numbers.
In Washington, President Grover Cleveland received Commissioner
Smith and a group of Salvationists at the White House on March
23, 1886. Only six years after Railton explained the principles of the
Salvation Army at the Battery in New York, a group of Salvation-
ists marched up to the White House to be presented to the Presi-
dent of the United States. Cleveland was the first American Presi-
dent to recognize the Salvation Army, but every President who
followed him has endorsed the Army and its work.

The high point of a year that saw a huge tri-city celebration
and that brought official recognition from the President of the
United States came in September when General William Booth

64 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

made his first visit to America. His trip to inspect his overseas
forces in the United States and Canada was the first time the Salva-
tion Army's Founder had traveled outside the British Isles.

To hail his arrival a group of Salvationists waited all day Sunday,
September 26, 1886, at the Cunard pier in New York for the steam-
ship Aurania. Impatiently they watched the vessel dock and a
stream of passengers flow down the gangplank until they spied the
tall gaunt figure of their leader. William Booth wore the regulation
Salvation Army uniform topped by a tall black silk hat. He was
greeted by shouts of "Hallelujah!" from the Salvationists and by a
barrage of questions from curious reporters. The next day every
major New York newspaper carried a story about the General's
arrival and plans.

After a night in Brooklyn, General Booth left for Toronto to
spend four weeks in Canada before beginning his six- week tour of the
United States. The itinerary was a strenuous one for the fifty-seven-
year-old evangelist, and he was constantly troubled by ill health.
He went to Prince Edward Island, and traveled through New
Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Quebec before concluding his Canadian
campaign in Hamilton, Ontario.

Chicago, where he arrived on Saturday, October 30, 1886, was
the scene of his first important appearance in the United States.
The conditions which William T. Stead were to expose eight years
later made Chicago second only to San Francisco for organized
vice and corruption. Stead, an English journalist and friend of the
Salvation Army, listed in his book If Christ Came to Chicago the
names and addresses of the gambling dens and houses of prostitution
and their owners. He attacked the apathy of the majority of Chi-
cago's churches, which had "succumbed largely to the temptation
of 'being at ease in Zion.' " In the midst of conditions dreadful to
describe, he observed, "the various churches are wealthy, comforta-
ble, served by able and zealous ministers and sung to by choirs of
ecclesiastical nightingales." s

Such complacency came under attack when General Booth spoke
in Chicago. At his disposal was the Princess Rink, one of the best
known Salvation Army buildings in the country, secured by Major

REBUILDING FROM THE FOUNDATIONS 65

William Evans in May, 1886. Even this former skating rink, with a
capacity of two thousand people, was not sufficient for the General's
major meetings, which were held in Central Music Hall. The General
was described as "an excellent speaker as earnest as Mr. Moody
and as entertaining as Sam Jones, without the heaviness of the one
or the flippancy of the other." He spent three full days in Chicago
before continuing his tour.

An indication of the General's strenuous schedule may be seen
in a letter he wrote to his son Brain well from Chicago:

Do remember the whirl I am in. Today I had Officers two hours and a
half to plan the building of our Temple with architects . . . This after-
noon I had to speak to a great crowd on the laying [of the cornerstone]
in the open air. To-night, Tuesday, I have been interviewing people; then
big meeting; and at 10:30 same night go off for 500 miles to Kansas City.
Meeting there to-morrow, and come out next morning 675 miles, again
travelling till Friday to Dayton, and Columbus Saturday, Sunday, and
Monday.

The most difficult part of the journey for William Booth was
not the strain of innumerable meetings; not the hardship of contin-
uous and uncomfortable rail travel over long distances nor the in-
convenience of strange lodgings in various cities. It was the separa-
tion from his beloved wife, Catherine. She had been ill when he left,
and was in fact, although it was not known at the time, dying of
cancer and had but four years to live. His letters reflect his concern,
loneliness, and tender affection for the brave woman who was the
Salvation Army's Mother, his wife, and the love of his life.

General Booth was well received wherever he went. He liked
America and was greatly impressed by the vastness of the country.
"Oh what a future there is for us in this country, and oh what a
country it is!" he wrote to Bramwell. "The possibilities of this im-
mense Country are practically limitless!" From Washington he
wrote, "I like the 'South' so far better than the North. They told
me I should, and the farther South I go the warmer-hearted they
say the people are. Anyway, I like these Washington people. Oh
what a splendid City this is and is going to be. I have no doubt but
they will make it the finest City in the world."

66 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

The last week of the General's tour was spent in New York,
with a gigantic send-off meeting on the evening before he sailed
for England. Meetings were held in the morning and afternoon at
the West Twenty-fifth Street Presbyterian Church. After a "ban-
quet" of sandwiches and coffee was served at five o'clock, the Salva-
tionists marched to Steinway Hall, which was packed for the Gen-
eral's farewell address. General Booth spoke about the Army and its
work and his visit to America. During his eleven-week trip, he de-
clared, he had spoken for a total of 198 hours and addressed 180,000
people. At the end of his talk he introduced the collection with
the remark: "You say we are always after money. Well, we are
sorry; but we have to come after it. You don't come after us with
it, do you?" About $200 was contributed.

After the Steinway Hall meeting the Salvationists marched
back to the Presbyterian Church for an all-night of prayer which
lasted until 3:40 A.M., when the General was finally escorted to the
pier. The Servia, carrying General Booth, pulled out at 6:00 A.M.
on Saturday, December 11, 1886. As it proceeded down the harbor
it passed the Statue of Liberty, whose unveiling had taken place dur-
ing the General's visit in the United States.

General Booth's visit to America was an important stimulus to
the Salvation Army in the United States. His unique personality, his
vision, and his ideals inspired his American soldiers and officers. Many
Salvationists who had followed Major Moore realized their mistake
for the first time when they heard the General speak. America in-
fluenced the General as well. America had seen General Booth, and,
more important for the Salvation Army, General Booth had seen
America and liked it.

One immediate effect of the General's visit was his decision to re-
place Commissioner Smith. A logical choice to replace the ailing
leader was the General's twenty-seven-year-old son Ballington, who
had made a tour of the United States and Canada in the spring
of 1886. He made such a favorable impression that newspapermen
spoke about him when they interviewed his father, and others ap-
proached the General to inquire about him.

A cablegram from International Headquarters dated April 7,

REBUILDING FROM THE FOUNDATIONS 6j

1887, announced, "The General Salutes the American forces and has
consented in view of Commissioner Smith's physical condition and
call for relief to appoint Marshal Ballington Booth to command in
the States." The new commander and his wife arrived in America
soon after the cablegram, and began a tour of the country. Com-
missioner Smith relinquished his command with evident relief. In
his farewell message he declared, "It has doubtless been apparent to
you for some time past that I have been working under the disad-
vantage of a severe physical strain." The commissioner looked "exces-
sively haggard," according to the War Cry, when he sailed for Eng-
land. 4

Frank Smith, serving in an arduous crisis, had illustrated a Salva-
tion Army belief that God will provide the right type of man at
the right time for the job to be done. He had come to the United
States faced with a difficult job. When he left, the mission was ac-
complished, and a stronger Army was his monument.

"Two and a half years ago . . . we had a shattered remnant left
to us of twenty-one corps, sixteen of them in financial difficulties,
some of them so irretrievably shattered that they had soon to be
closed." Some fifty officers were loyal to the old flag. When Smith
left the United States, he turned over to his successor a Salvation
Army of 654 officers operating in 312 cities and towns. It was an
Army made wise by its experience with the Moore secession. Al-
though it was nearly to yield to an even greater temptation to
split asunder, never again were any large numbers to leave the
"World-Wide"' Salvation Army.

VII

Carrying the War to the Far West

The American West has a unique place in the history of the United
States. Spanish conquistadors, Anglo-American mountain men, sav-
age Indians, humble pioneers, cowboys and Forty-niners of gold-
rush days are but a few of the characters in the great drama of its
history. All of these elements helped to make up the character of
the West. Wherever the Salvation Army has gone, it has adapted its
program to peculiar regional or national characteristics of the peo-
ple. Nowhere in the annals of the Salvation Army is there a more
dramatic story than that of the impact of the Salvation Army and
the American West.

"I would shake the dust off my feet as a witness against them! I
would not stay here if I were you! I never saw such a wicked place!"
So a shocked Australian exclaimed on his first visit to San Francisco's
Barbary Coast in the mid-i88o's. He was speaking to a Salvation
Army officer he had buttonholed on the streets when it seemed
that he could no longer keep to himself his horror at the sights he
had seen.

"Shaking the dust off his feet as a witness against them" was an
easy way to get out of a disagreeable job, but it did not give prom-
ise of rescuing the lost, or making a bad mess better, thought the
officer. He explained that the Salvation Army did not flee from sin
but sought it out to battle and defeat it. But he must have thought
that God had indeed set him on a difficult battlefield. Was there a

68

CARRYING THE WAR TO THE FAR WEST 69

place in the country perhaps in the world where Satan reigned
with less restraint than in San Francisco's Barbary Coast?

The whole West Coast was still under the influence of the gold
rush of three decades ago. San Francisco was the metropolis of the
West, and its Barbary Coast was the moral cesspool of San Francisco.
In 1890, 3,117 establishments, or one for every 96 inhabitants, were
licensed to sell intoxicating beverages, and an estimated 2,000
speakeasies operated without a license.

Escaped or paroled convicts from Australia, known as Sydney
Ducks, first brought notoriety to the Barbary Coast. The word
"hoodlum" originated in San Francisco, and gangs of them terror-
ized the Chinese and anyone else who crossed their path. Prostitu-
tion was the Barbary Coast's largest vested interest. With it were
the inevitable by-products of pimps, white-slave traffic, and disease.
With the connivance of corrupt public officials, the worst forms of
vice were openly flaunted, to the despair of the few honest and
God-fearing people of San Francisco. No missionary going to a
heathen land faced a greater challenge than that which confronted
the Salvation Army as it launched its attack in San Francisco in
1883.

As the Shirley family paved the way for Railton to begin the
Salvation Army on the East Coast of the United States, so was
the trail broken for the official Salvation Army on the West Coast.
A small group of Christians living in Oakland, San Jose, and San
Francisco, California, was striving under the rather pretentious
name of the Pacific Coast Holiness Association to combat the gen-
eral immorality and godlessness that characterized California in the
i88o's. The band was led by the Reverend George Newton. In 1881,
one of the group received a copy of the Salvation Army War Cry
in the mail from England, The paper was passed around to the other
members of the Holiness Association, and all agreed that the methods
of William Booth, if applied to their own group, would enable
them to become more effective in their work. They proceeded to
collect uniforms, give themselves titles, and organize processions.
"Corps" were established in Oakland, San Jose, and San Francisco.

JO SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Then they wrote to General Booth for recognition and for officers
to lead them.

The Holiness Association "Salvation Army" struggled along un-
til 1883, until William Booth found the officer he wanted to send
to California. The young man he chose was twenty-four-year-old
Alfred Wells, then an aide-de-camp in Northern Ireland. Wells was
one of the first thirty "Training Home lads" to complete training
at the London Training Home, and he had spent most of his active
service as an officer in Northern Ireland. The request to go abroad
came to him without warning, but his answer was an unhesitating
"Yes." He had a few days to farewell in Ireland and to say goodbye in
England. Chosen to accompany Wells, who was promoted to the
rank of major, was Captain Henry Stillwell, twenty-two years old.
The two young men arrived in New York from Liverpool on the
steamship Wisconsin on May 16, 1883. Here they were met and en-
tertained by Major Thomas E. Moore, then commander of the Salva-
tion Army forces in the United States and Canada.

For six weeks the two pioneers waited in Brooklyn for word from
the Holiness Association, and when the desired information did not
arrive Major Wells decided to go to California alone. The "California
Expedition" was given an official send-off from the Brooklyn Ly-
ceum by Major Moore and the full staff of officers on Thursday, June
7, 1883. After a nine-day train trip with stop-offs to present colors
to newly established corps at Louisville, Kentucky, and New Al-
bany, Indiana, Major Wells arrived in San Francisco on July 21,
1883. On the following evening, July 22, 1883, he began the official
operations of the Salvation Army on the West Coast in a little hall
at 815 Montgomery Street. The Holiness band's "Salvation Army"
had about thirty members when Major Wells arrived in California
and accepted them into the real Salvation Army. The Army yoke
proved to be too galling to some of the unruly spirits of the group,
and by the end of the first month about half of the Association had
dropped out.

Major Wells was the only officer in California until October 6th,
when Captain Stillwell joined him. During this period he set up head-
quarters near the docks at 142-1/2 Fourth Street, and super-

CARRYING THE WAR TO THE FAR WEST 7 1

vised three corps, in San Francisco, Oakland, and San Jose. After
Stillwell arrived and took charge of the corps at San Jose, the two
friends saw each other only three times during the next year.
Wells, dividing his time between Oakland and San Francisco, con-
ducted a Salvation Army meeting every night for twelve months.

California was treated to a hallelujah double wedding a year
after operations began on the West Coast, when the first Salvation
Army lassies sent to California, Captain Polly Medforth and Captain
Mary Matthews, became Mrs. Major Wells and Mrs. Captain Still-
well. The two girls had made the long trip across the ocean alone
and crossed the continent in an emigrant train that moved so
slowly and stopped so frequently they were able to get out and
pick flowers along the way. Captain Matthews had lived in Canada,
and felt a bit more at home in America than did Captain Medforth,
who was an English lassie and who had known Major Wells, her in-
tended bridegroom, only a few days before he left England. Mary
Matthews had known Captain Stillwell before she entered the Army,
and the two had been engaged for five years. At last they reached
San Francisco on Sunday, July 6, 1884, and found no one to meet
them. They inquired directions to the boardinghouse where Wells
lived from a policeman who told them the trolley car to take. Hot
and tired as they were after the nine-day train ride, the two lassies
would not ride on Sunday, so they walked until they found the
boardinghouse. The two men got a tongue lashing for not meeting
them, until Major Wells explained how he had taken a boat to
Oakland and there waited until midnight to meet the overland
train on Friday night, when he expected the girls to arrive.

Finally romance prevailed, and the two couples were married on
the pth of July, three days after the girls had arrived. On the loth,
Captain and Mrs. Stillwell took charge of the Oakland corps. Mrs.
Major Wells and two girl cadets left San Francisco three months
after her marriage to open Sacramento, a city that had been too
tough for the men officers. The three lassies were adored by the
rough miners, pioneers, and gamblers who crowded the hall at
every meeting. Women were so scarce in California at that time that
it was said a man would walk five miles to see a petticoat on a

72 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

clothesline. The moral code of the men of the West demanded re-
spect for "good women," and every man of their congregation was
a self-appointed protector for the three lassies. Many converts were
won, and the whole moral tone of the community improved through
their efforts.

The work was advancing in the rest of the state. Major Wells
had purchased instruments for a brass band, and after only seven les-
sons the band was leading the regular processions, making up in en-
thusiasm what it lacked in harmony. Major Wells's 2nd California
Corps, in San Francisco, was a veritable Tower of Babel. Among the
members, in addition to Americans, English, and Scotch, were Ger-
mans, Swedes, Danes, a Norwegian, a Turk, and an Armenian. The
ist California Corps, in Oakland, led by Captain Stillwell, included a
Russian and a Greek among its members; and the 4th California
Corps, in Stockton, under the leadership of California-trained Cap-
tain Milsaps and Lieutenant Bird, reported two Chinese converts.

The Moore schism found the California forces loyal to "The
Salvation Army of the World." "We are grieved and shocked,"
wrote Major Wells, "at the idea of a part of the Eastern work seced-
ing from the 'parent Body.' " At the beginning of 1885, after seven-
teen months of action, the Salvation Army colors flew in five
different towns and one outpost village in California. Nine officers
had been enlisted. One of the greatest problems that faced the Army
was the "transient state of the inhabitants." It was considered fortu-
nate when a third of the converts settled down to become "Blood
and Fire Soldiers."

The first officer recruited and commissioned in California was
Captain John Milsaps a Texan whose grandfather had died in de-
fense of the Alamo and whose father had served in the Confederate
Army. As a young man he had wandered through the West working
as wagon-train cook, prospector, mule herder, railroad grader, team-
ster, locomotive fireman, and miner. He was converted in Texas at
the age of twenty-two, and when he met a procession of the
Holiness Association "Salvation Army" in San Francisco he joined
the group on January 15, 1883. When Major Wells accepted the

CARRYING THE WAR TO THE FAR WEST 73

band as members of the Salvation Army, John Milsaps was in the
group, and after a year and eight days as a soldier he accepted a com-
mission as captain, the first officer commissioned on the West Coast.
He was sent to open a corps in Stockton and later was in charge of
corps in San Francisco, Sacramento, Oakland, and Napa City. His
contributions to the Western War Cry were so notable that he
was appointed its editor in December, 1886.

The Pacific Coast edition of the War Cry began publication in
November, 1883, on a monthly schedule. At first Major Wells had to
use his pocket money to pay its way, but by 1887 it was well estab-
lished, being published twice a month in issues of 9,000 copies. Two
years later, in November, 1889, it became a weekly.

One of Captain Milsaps' converts from the depths of the Barbary
Coast became one of the Salvation Army's stanchest members and
most colorful officer. Joseph Garabed, or Joe the Turk, as he was
better known, stood six feet two inches, and had the build of a
prizefighter. He was a fighter, too, but for most of his long life he
fought for the Lord in the ranks of the Salvation Army.

The Turk was actually an Armenian, but he accepted the nick-
name and capitalized on it by wearing a uniform of crimson panta-
loons and jacket and a Turkish fez. The eccentricities of Joe the
Turk are still topics of conversation wherever older Salvationists
gather. He carried an ink pad and a stamp with the words "J esus
Saves," and wherever he stayed in private home or hotel he
stamped the motto on walls, furniture, and linen. Each week he sent
copies of the War Cry to prominent people with his compliments.
Included on his mailing list was Pope Leo XIII, at the Vatican.

It was this original, self-educated man who broke the police
persecution of the Salvation Army. "Arrested fifty-seven times
for Jesus" was his boast. Joe the Turk traveled on the West Coast and
across the country wherever Salvationists were arrested for holding
open-air meetings or parading. When arrested he would demand a
trial, and if convicted he appealed until he won his case. He always
won, and with each victory he obtained a judicial decision that pro-
tected the Salvationists that remained behind.

74 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

By the turn of the century there was no more famous Salvation
Army officer in the United States than Captain Joseph GarabecL Joe
the Turk, with his colorful uniform, his umbrella, and his bugle, was
already a legend in his own lifetime a dramatic contribution of
San Francisco's Barbary Coast to the Army and to the country.

Major Alfred Wells was the commanding officer of the Salvation
Army operations on the West Coast until May, 1886, when he was
relieved and with Mrs. Wells visited England to participate in the
celebration of an International Congress. Captain Stillwell was tem-
porarily in charge of headquarters until Major Britton arrived on
November 28, 1886, to assume command.

Meanwhile, Mrs. Captain Stillwell was sent to Oregon to begin
work in that territory. She left in August, 1886, to open a corps in
Portland. Haste was believed necessary because it was rumored that
Moore's American Salvation Army was planning to begin operations
in Portland ahead of the international Army. It was Christmas,
1886, before Stillwell, promoted to adjutant, was sent to join his
wife as the commander of the district consisting of Oregon and
Washington Territory.

Britton was recalled to the East early in 1887, an d Brigadier
Edward Fielding arrived to assume the command of the Pacific
Coast on April 8, 1887. The Pacific Coast lost its position as a sepa-
rate command when Ballington Booth became the national com-
mander of all of the Salvation Army forces in the United States.
Shortly after coming under the direct jurisdiction of National
Headquarters, the Pacific Coast celebrated its fourth anniversary.
At that time it was at work in twenty-five cities and had sixty-three
officers and cadets. A year later, in April, 1888, there were five dis-
tricts, thirty-two corps, thirteen outposts, and over one hundred offi-
cers in the West In addition, a Rescue Home and Training Garri-
son were in operation.

Although officially under the direction of New York since 1887,
the Salvation Army in the Far West never lost its unique identity. It
continued to publish its own edition of the War Cry. From Cali-
fornia and the Coast, the Army spread across the Rockies to Utah

CARRYING THE WAR TO THE FAR WEST 75

and Idaho, then to Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and Arizona. It
jumped the Pacific to Hawaii, and in the 1940*5 to Alaska and the
Philippine Islands, whose Salvation Army corps were administered
from the Pacific Coast.

VIII

Personalities ml Progress

The appointment of Ballington and Maud Booth as commanders of
the Salvation Army in America began a new era in Salvation Army
history. For nearly fifty years thereafter the command of the Ameri-
can branch of the Army was held by one of the children of William
Booth, the Founder. The period of nine years of Ballington Booth's
leadership was one of unchecked progress marred only by the cir-
cumstances of his estrangement from his father and his resignation
in 1896.

Ballington Booth, the second eldest child of William and Cather-
ine Booth, inherited from his parents a full share of that touch of
genius that was present to a greater or lesser degree in all of the
Booth children. Of the eight children, three boys and five girls, all
but one became evangelical preachers. 1 Ballington Booth was born
July 28, 1857, in Brighouse, England, while his father was still a
poor Methodist preacher. His mother, Catherine Booth, did not be-
lieve in exposing her children to the evils of the world by sending
them away to school, and directed their early education at home.

Because William Booth's dominating interest was his ministry,
and because his wife was as active as he in preaching and testifying,
the children were nurtured on a strong diet of evangelism. It is
not strange that their games often consisted of preaching and that
their talk was of the penitent form, backsliders, and sinners. Balling-
ton and his older brother, Bramwell, would preach to a congrega-
tion consisting of their younger brother and sisters and their dolls*

76

PERSONALITIES AND PROGRESS 77

As a small boy, Ballington with great enthusiasm would coax, drag,
and bang a poor reluctant penitent (usually a pillow) up to the
mercy seat, exclaiming, "Ah, this is a good case, bless him! Give up
the drink, brother!"

The Booth children were taught to shun tobacco and liquor
as the Devil himself. A Puritan simplicity in dress and appearance
was strictly enforced. On one occasion Ballington came in to tea with
a ring he had purchased for a shilling adorning his finger. His hor-
rified brothers and sisters began to chant, "Ballington's a back-
slider!" "Silence," commanded the father. "His mother will deal
with him later." The meal proceeded with great solemnity. When
it was over, Ballington and his mother were closeted for about ten
minutes. He came out with red eyes and without the ring.

Ballington was eight years old when his father began the work
of the Christian Mission. Like the other Booth children he grew up
with the Salvation Army. His entire education was aimed at making
an evangelist for the Army. At seventeen he was giving out hymns
and speaking a few words. Soon after he began to lead meetings
by himself. The youth was endowed with an extraordinary voice
and his father's powers of touching oratory. By his early twenties
Ballington was an evangelist of note with the ability to melt au-
diences. "He could play with an audience as a Paderewski can
with his instrument," commented an observer.

In 1880, at the age of twenty-three, Ballington Booth was placed
in charge of the first Training Home for men officers at Clapton.
One of the highest officials of the Army described Ballington as the
most human of the members of his family. Certainly he both in-
spired and won the affection of the trainees under his charge. He
worked with them in the field, where his powers as an orator and a
soloist won him great success. After three years in charge of the
Training Home, the young evangelist was sent to Australia as joint
commander of the work there. He served with Commissioner T. H.
Howard, later the international Chief of Staff. There his popular-
ity knew no bounds. He was the idol of Salvationists, and was well
received by the general public as well.

In the spring of 1886, Ballington returned from Australia to Eng-

78 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

land. On the way he made an evangelical tour through Canada and
the United States, and showed that there too he had the faculty of
winning the public's favor. On the eve of General Booth's de-
parture for his first visit to the United States, on September 16,

1886, Ballington Booth was married to Maud Elizabeth Charlesworth
in Congress Hall, Clapton. His father conducted the service.

The bride was as outstanding as Ballington himself. Born on
September 13, 1865, the year the Salvation Army itself was con-
ceived, Maud Charlesworth was the daughter of a well-to-do An-
glican clergyman, the Reverend Samuel Charlesworth. After the
usual education for a Victorian "gentlewoman," she showed her
independence and strength of character at the age of sixteen by going
to France in the company of Catherine Booth, the third of the Booth
children, known as "La Marechale." Maud was a member of the
group of Salvationists who braved severe persecution to bring the
Salvation Army to Switzerland. There, to the horror of her very
respectable father, she was arrested and expelled from the coun-
try.

The Reverend Charlesworth's strongest protests failed to prevent
his daughter from entering Salvation Army officership, and at eight-
een she held a roving commission. Her attractive personality and
resourcefulness contributed to her popularity and success. When in
England the young woman stayed at the Booth home. The General's
handsome son Ballington courted and won her affection, and their
engagement was announced. The two were an unusually attractive
couple. Ballington Booth his rank was that of marshal was a
handsome man with flashing brown eyes and dark black hair and
mustache. He was six feet four inches tall, and wore his uniform
with the air of a military commander. His ever present sense of
humor endeared him both to his followers and to the audiences that
he addressed. Maud was as sweet and feminine as Ballington was
manly. Only a bit over five feet tall, she was a woman of unusual
physical beauty, with an accompanying sense of spiritual goodness.

The new commanders arrived in the United States on April 21,

1887, and spent the first four weeks in continuous travel. They cov-
ered 4,540 miles, addressed seven councils, most of which lasted

PERSONALITIES AND PROGRESS 79

from five to seven hours, and thirty-three public meetings. On this
tour they made the acquaintanceship of many of the officers and
soldiers in their command and gained a personal knowledge of the
problems both local and national they faced. When they finally
settled down at National Headquarters in New York, it was not to
rest but to begin work.

One problem to which Ballington Booth turned his attention
was the healing of old wounds. Moore's Salvation Army of America,
although steadily declining in importance, was a constant source
of irritation to the international Army. Funds intended by donors
for the Booth organization were sometimes received by Moore's
Army. Within Moore's Army an increasing number of persons be-
came dissatisfied with his administration, and on January 10, 1889,
three of the trustees voted to annul his appointment. Colonel Richard
E. Holz was chosen as "Spiritual Director and Commander" pend-
ing a general election.

Colonel Holz had long realized the mistake of dividing the Salva-
tion forces. On one occasion soon after the split he went to see Com-
missioner Smith at his headquarters to seek information and guid-
ance and was brusquely told he could attend Smith's meetings at
the New York corps for information. In 1885, while on furlough to
Germany, Holz made a trip to London at his own expense to visit
International Headquarters. There he explained the attitude of
many of the officers of Moore's Army and indicated his desire to see
it reunited with the parent organization, but Holz had no position
of authority in the Salvation Army of America and nothing came of
his visit. When Holz finally became the leader of a portion of
Moore's Army, Ballington Booth was the national commander in
the United States. In contrast to Smith, Ballington was cordial and
conciliatory when approached by Holz. He treated Holz and his staff
with friendliness and courtesy even to the point of inviting them to
attend his meetings and giving them a place on the platform.

In the meantime other officers who had followed Moore found
that Ballington Booth had opened the gate for them to return to
the fold. The War Cry for April 6, 1889, announced, "Staff-Capt.
Emma Westbrook having expressed her sincere regret for having

80 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

severed herself from the Salvation Army has made arrangements
with the Marshal to take command of a corps." Thus a pioneer of
the original party returned to the ranks of the original Salvation
Army. Other officers applied for readmission, were forgiven and
assigned to positions in the Army commensurate with their ability.

Together Ballington and Holz worked out a reconciliation re-
uniting the officers of Holz's group with the parent organization. The
ceremony took place at the Town Hall in Saratoga, New York, on
October 16, 1889. Over a thousand people watched as Marshal
Ballington Booth publicly welcomed Colonel Holz, who was read-
mitted with the rank of major and given command of the New York
division. Some thirty-one officers followed Holz's lead and were re-
accepted into the world-wide Salvation Army.

The place and time were perhaps ironic: October iyth was the
anniversary of Burgoyne's surrender at Saratoga to the Americans
during the Revolutionary War, and signs appeared in the town call-
ing attention to the surrender of an American Army to the British.
Although the commander pointed out that six-eighths of the offi-
cers in the Army were American by birth or naturalization, anti-
English feeling was not difficult to arouse in the i88o's, and the
Salvation Army was primarily "English" to many Americans. In
vain could the War Cry exclaim, "Nobody knows Why certain par-
ties call our Army an English one when out of nearly 1,000 officers in
the States, over 800 have either been born here or became officers
after having been converted at some of our American stations."

Still, many Americans found it difficult to appreciate the inter-
national scope of the Salvation Army, even though reflections of
this internationalism could be easily found in its work in the United
States during this period. From 1887 to 1896 nearly four million im-
migrants from all over the world poured into the United States.
Many of these were attracted to the large cities, where they swelled
the slum areas. "The Poor Man's Church" was quick to see the need
of these people, and began to work among these new Americans in
whose homeland the Salvation Army was in many cases already at
work.

The most important Salvation Army work among non-English-

PERSONALITIES AND PROGRESS 8 1

speaking people in the United States was the Scandinavian work.
While not the first foreign-language work to be begun, the Scandi-
navian branch of the Salvation Army was long the largest and most
successful of the non-English-speaking groups in the United States.
Much of its stimulus came from Scandinavia itself, where the Salva-
tion Army was strongly established.

Scandinavian work in the United States began through the ef-
forts of Swedish immigrants who were Salvationists. In 1884 three
Salvationists from Stockholm Amalia Ljunggren, Mina Ekhmd,
and Anna Larsson emigrated to Brooklyn, where they were joined
the following year by Anna's sister, Mathilda. The four women at-
tended a Swedish Baptist church, but found it lacking in that sort
of lively, demonstrative quality of the Salvation Army with which
they were familiar. At last, in the winter of 1886-1887, they discov-
ered the Brooklyn No. i Corps of the Army and began to attend
meetings there. They had difficulty understanding what was said,
and noticed that there were many other Scandinavian people
there who understood even less English than they did. After the
regular service, they arranged to conduct a meeting in Swedish as
nearly like those in the old country as they could remember.

Larger and larger crowds were attracted to these Swedish-lan-
guage meetings, and several converts were made. Later, with the
proceeds from the collections taken at these after-hour meetings, the
four women rented a little store on Atlantic Avenue and began to
hold meetings in Swedish conducted along Salvation Army lines. In
the meantime Captain Annie and her sister, Lieutenant Mary Har-
telius, who had left the United States in March, 1883, to help open
Salvation Army work in Sweden, returned to America to see their
widowed mother. Though they were without assignment during the
summer of 1887, they conducted meetings in Brooklyn, gaining the
nickname of the "Singing Pilgrims." They met the four women who
were holding meetings in the Atlantic Avenue store, and after ob-
taining authorization from Commander Ballington Booth at Na-
tional Headquarters, the first Scandinavian Corps (known as Brook-
lyn No. 3) was officially opened on December 23, 1887, with
Mary Hartelius as its first captain, assisted by her sister, Annie.

82 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Thus the Hartelius sisters became not only the first Salvation Army
missionaries to leave America, but the first officially to open the
Scandinavian work in the United States.

The first such corps was an immediate success. Scandinavians
so crowded the small hall that non-Swedish-speaking visitors often
had to be turned away for lack of room. In the first twelve days
Annie Hartelius reported "the capture of thirteen souls." By March,
1888, the corps had moved to a larger hall and was filling this as it
had the former building. Other Scandinavian corps were soon
opened in Minneapolis, Chicago, Providence, and New York.

Copies of the Stridsropet (War Cry), published in Sweden, were
sold at the meetings of the Scandinavian corps in America and to
the Swedish-speaking public. The New York War Cry published a
Scandinavian column and an occasional hymn in Swedish, but by

1891 there was sufficient demand to make necessary the publication
of a Swedish-language paper in the United States, and the first issue
of the New York Stridsropet appeared on February 7, 1891. By
May of the same year, twenty-five copies or more were sold each
week by forty-three corps. Today, in the sixty-fourth year of pub-
lication, the New York edition of Stridsropet has a weekly circu-
lation of about 8,000 copies throughout the country.

The Scandinavian work in America was given an impetus in

1892 by the visit of Commissioner Hanna Ouchterlony, the pioneer
who began Salvation Army work in Sweden and Norway. About
eighty corps compose the Scandinavian branch of the Salvation
Army in the United States today. Most of these are Swedish, but
there are also Norwegian, Danish, and even one Finnish corps.

The large number of German-speaking immigrants were not over-
looked by the Salvation Army in the United States. In 1880, when
Railton arrived, there were nearly 2,000,000 Germans in the
foreign-born population, and by 1890 there were over 2,780,000.
Indeed, the first work in America with non-English-speaking people
was among the German-Americans. The first issue of the Salvation
News, published July 30, 1 880, carried a notice of "Our First German
Corps," the 2nd New York, and described meetings held at a hall
on west Fifty-third Street. This first German corps did not even sur-

PERSONALITIES AND PROGRESS 83

vive until Railton left America, and no extensive appeal was made
to the German-speaking population until 1887. By that time Rail-
ton, again the pioneer, was in Germany leading the Heilsarmee in
that country. His reports in the American War Cry were a challenge
to the Salvation Army in the United States. "What are we doing
for German America?" Ballington Booth asked himself and his fol-
lowers. The answer came quickly. On November 6, 1887, the first
German meeting since Railton's time was held in New York City.
The meeting was a success, and German-speaking officers were re-
cruited to form German corps.

On October 29, 1892, Der Kriegsrwf, a German War Cry, was
first published in New York. Even with the aid of the newspaper,
organization of German corps was slow. By the middle of 1895 only
nine corps were in operation. Even these did not flourish, and eventu-
ally the German work was given up. The New York edition of Der
Kriegsruf was published as a monthly until February, 1897, when
it came out twice a month until it was discontinued in January,
1903. There are no separate German-language corps in the United
States today.

Special appeals were made to other national groups. The slum
sisters, officers who substituted simple clothes for uniforms and who
lived in the slums, found that they had to learn Italian to help
effectively a large group of the slum dwellers. Evangelical work
among the Italian- Americans was not begun until 1894. Three sol-
diers of New York No. 4 Corps Louis and Erme Natino and Frank
Raggo held open-air meetings in Italian for about six months be-
fore they were arrested at Mulberry Bend on November 19, 1894.
The Italian-American campaign continued, but no large numbers
of Italian-Americans have been weaned from the church of their
ancestors.

The largest foreign groups on the West Coast, the Chinese and
Japanese, lacked the background to understand the Occidental and
Christian culture from which the Salvation Army came. Yet the
Army made surprising progress. In 1889 a twenty-year-old Chinese
boy, Fong Foo Sec, who had been seven years in America, was con-
verted at a Salvation Army meeting and entered a Training Garrison

84 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

as a cadet. On June i, 1889, he was promoted, and Lieutenant Fong
Foo Sec became the first Chinese officer in America. The first Chi-
nese corps was established at 25 Turk Street, in San Francisco's
Chinatown, in 1886. Captain Nellie Keefe was the first corps com-
mander. Today this Chinese corps (at Sacramento Street and
Waverly Place) owns its own property and carries on an active
program.

In addition to the Army work with various national groups within
the country, the Salvation Army in the United States aided the
world-wide missionary efforts of the international Army. Interest in
the Army's work in India was aroused by a visit from Frederick de
Lautour Booth-Tucker, son-in-law of William Booth and Commis-
sioner for India. This man, known to the Indians as Fakir Singh, gave
up a comfortable position in the civil service to live the primitive
life of an Indian in order to reach the masses with Christ's message.
Booth-Tucker arrived in New York on May 30, 1890, to tour the
United States seeking financial support for the work in India. He
was accompanied by Cadet Lord Ratna Pala, a converted Buddhist
priest; Captain Kantahella, a Hindu from Ceylon; Lieutenant Ab-
dul Aziz, a Persian "Mohammedan sheik"; and Staff Captain Jai Singh
and wife.

In the following year "La Marechale" Catherine Booth, the Gen-
eral's oldest daughter, made a similar tour on behalf of France and
collected $10,000. Between October, 1891, and January, 1892, she
appeared in most of the major cities in the East and Midwest.

Among the distinguished Salvationists who visited the United
States during this period was Herbert Booth, third son of the Gen-
eral, who was known as the "Commandant." He arrived at San Fran-
cisco while on a tour around the world, and was met there by Maud
Booth, who accompanied her brother-in-law across the country to
New York. Commissioner Frank Smith returned to the United
States at the same time and was present at the reception for Herbert
Booth on December 31, 1888. The beloved pioneer, Commissioner
George Scott Railton, visited New York in November, 1893, for
the celebration of the Columbian Congress.

These outstanding personalities gave an impetus to Salvation

PERSONALITIES AND PROGRESS 85

Army work in the United States. It was a period in which personali-
ties, particularly those of Ballington and Maud Booth, were far
more important than policy in the administration of the Salvation
Army. The physical growth during this era of personalities was
rapid. In March, 1887, the Army had 654 officers in action and its
flag flew in 3 1 2 cities and towns. By June, 1 890, the number of offi-
cers and cadets had passed the one-thousand mark. In January,
1896, just before Ballington's resignation, 1,778 officers and cadets
were active in 668 corps and outposts. During the nine years of Bal-
lington's leadership in the United States, the number of corps more
than doubled and the officers increased two and one half times.
These figures show the advance primarily in the evangelical work,
and do not indicate the amazing increase in training garrisons,
slum posts rescue homes, food and shelter depots, and other aspects
of the social work.

IX

Winning Rational Recognition

The Salvation Army in the United States steadily assumed a posi-
tion within the international Army second only to the work in Great
Britain itself. In America the Army was gradually being accepted
by the general public. Its sincere concern for the welfare of the
slum dwellers slowly won the grudging respect of the poorest work-
ers of the cities. Its success with the poor, its social work, and the
personalities of its leaders brought the approval and support of
the established churches, the press, and many of the wealthiest peo-
ple.

When General William. Booth made his second visit to the United
States in the winter of 1894-1895, he could not fail to notice the
changes that had occurred since his first visit. "The spirit is very
different from that displayed when I was here eight years ago," he
told reporters as he expressed his appreciation for the cordial recep-
tion he received from the American people and the friendly recep-
tion from the press.

This tour of America began in Canada, where the General
landed at Halifax, Nova Scotia, on September 20, 1894. He was
welcomed by the Prime Minister of Nova Scotia, William S. Field-
ing, whose guest he was during his stay in Halifax. For a month the
General traveled through eastern Canada before entering the United
States.

A grand Jubilee Congress opened in New York on October
22, 1894, to mark the commencement of General Booth's coast-to-

86

WINNING NATIONAL RECOGNITION 87

coast tour of the United States. The sixty-five-year-old patriarch had
arrived in the city on Friday evening, three days earlier. On Saturday
he held a press conference and on Sunday he rested at his son's
home in Montclair, New Jersey. With him on this trip were Colonel
John Lawley and Colonel Alex Nicol.

Carnegie Hall was filled for the General's first public appearance
at the opening of the Jubilee Congress. It was filled again on the
following night, when Chauncey M. Depew introduced the General
to a crowd of 4,500, including a number of wealthy men and
women. General Booth spoke of his "In Darkest England" scheme.

"It isn't wicked to be reduced to rags," he said. "It is not a sin
to starve, to pawn the few sticks of furniture to buy food and pay
the rent. It is a misfortune that comes to people, honest and good
people, in hard times or when work is hard to get. It is such people
that the social scheme means to help."

The tall gaunt man rocked on his heels and his fingers toyed
restlessly with the rack as he spoke. The prominent hooked nose and
long gray beard gave him the appearance of an Old Testament
prophet. His voice showed the strain of overuse. It was throaty, but
at times it rose clear and strong, with a timbre that sent chills down
the backs of his audience.

From New York to California, wherever the General spoke, his
meetings were crowded. Paupers and millionaires, the ignorant and
the educated, clergymen and sinners listened to his plea for the un-
fortunate. After an address by the General in Cambridge, Professor
Charles Eliot Norton, of Harvard, compared him to St. Bernard at
the time of the first crusade.

His itinerary included Washington, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, De-
troit, Chicago, St. Louis, Denver, San Francisco, and Vancouver,
whence he returned east by the Canadian Pacific. In all, he traveled
18,453 miles, held meetings in 86 cities, and addressed 340 meetings
attended by 437,000 people. About 2,200 persons came to the peni-
tent's bench. During his tour of twenty-four weeks he spent 847
hours on trains. These statistics the General held on the tip of his
tongue and rattled off with obvious satisfaction at his last press
conference in New York.

88 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Of his visit to America, the General declared: "I have been de-
lighted, more than delighted, with my whole experience. I do not
think that any plain Britisher was ever so cordially received; that is,
no man who has nothing but his social and religious character and
doings to commend him to the people. The American people re-
ceived me in a most hearty manner more than hearty sympathetic,
I may say. The press has been more than fair; it has been friendly.

"I found the Army here far beyond my expectations. I am more
than satisfied with the spirit of the officers and the soldiers," Gen-
eral Booth told reporters just before he sailed for England on the
Paris on February 27, 1895.

Well might General William Booth be proud of his American
officers and soldiers. Much of the early progress of the Army may be
credited to individual officers who noticed a need and did some-
thing about it. Such initiative among officers was encouraged, as an
editorial in the War Cry explained:

The Salvation Army is adaptive, and therein lies one of the secrets of
its success. Rules for the conducting of its operations remain only hard
and fast as long as they are successful; when a change is thought bene-
ficial, said change is tested and tried. No officer will exceed his authority
in indulging in an occasional change of tactics; in fact every intelligent
man and woman is cognizant of the fact that there is a great power in
fresh and attractive features, in the Salvation Army or out of it, and it
should be imperative to every officer that he endeavor to stir up life and
interest in this manner, without, of course, going in for anything gro-
tesque or unseemly.

Illustrative of this spirit is the action taken by some officers to
aid the destitute families of striking workmen. The Salvation Army's
position in the struggle between capital and labor that was particu-
larly bitter during this period was what would be expected from
an organization that recruited its members from the working classes,
from the downtrodden and poor. Officially the organization took
no stand in the great strikes, but quietly its officers worked to re-
lieve the suffering of the strikers and their families.

When Captain Alexander Lamb arrived in Fall River to take

WINNING NATIONAL RECOGNITION 89

command of the corps there, he found that a strike against the tex-
tile mills then in its seventh week was causing great suffering to the
children of the workers. When a merchant of the town offered
through the local paper to supply meat and vegetables up to $25 a
day if someone would prepare and serve dinners for the hungry
children, Captain Lamb was quick to act. He offered the Salvation
Army barracks as a dining room and secured a kitchen. He
laid the plan before the corps soldiers at roll call; since most of
them were out of work because of the strike he was able to obtain
a full contingent of cooks, dishwashers, waiters, doormen, and
other workers. On the first day about 500 children were fed, and by
the end of the first week 1,050 showed up for the meal.

In Chicago on the day Staff Captain Wallace W. Winchell read
Governor Peter Altgeld's expose of the suffering and destitution in
Pullman's model town caused by the Pullman strike, he went to the
governor and the newspapers with a plan to aid the workers. Hand-
bills calling on Chicagoans to donate food, clothing, fuel, or money
to aid the starving inhabitants at Pullman were distributed. The
Princess Rink was opened as a collection point for the donations.
A mass meeting was held to raise funds. Horses and wagons filled
Haymarket Square as the Salvation Army transported the materials
collected to Pullman, where Captain Winchell went from house to
house distributing supplies.

The same Captain Winchell, later to gain fame as the "Bishop
of the Bowery," was a man of great ingenuity. When he had hand-
bills printed in the form of subpoenas, he not only secured a crowd;
the Chicago newspapers also gave the story a big play. The "sub-
poena" read as follows:

You ARE WANTED to Appear at the court room (Princess Rink, 55$
West Madison Street,) on THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 8, A.D. 1894, at 8 P.M.
sharp, in the case of the Salvation Army, plaintiff, vs. Satan; alias the
"Devil;" alias the "Serpent;" alias the "Angel of Light," who has been
indicted in one thousand crimes for murder to petty larceny.

Robert Ingersoll is also subpoenaed.

W. W. WINCHELL, Sheriff.

90 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Colonel Robert Ingersoll, the famous lecturer and agnostic, was
also sent a separate subpoena, a challenge he did not accept. A
prominent clergyman acted as judge; and, as one newspaper re-
marked, there was some talk that the jury was packed. The judg-
ment was for the plaintiff.

It has been the official policy of the Salvation Army to avoid
entering any public controversy political, social, or economic.
The most notable exception to this general rule occurred in Lon-
don when Bramwell Booth, then Chief of Staff, joined by W. T.
Stead, the journalist, exposed the white-slave traffic in England and
the Salvation Army secured signatures on a petition two miles long
which, when presented to Parliament, stirred that legislative body
into raising the legal age of consent for girls from thirteen to six-
teen. In the United States the Salvation Army has not as an
organization officially concerned itself with the great political bat-
tles of the country, even those such as woman's suffrage and prohibi-
tion, which the Army might be expected to favor strongly. This rule
or tradition, of course, does not prevent officers from expressing
themselves on the political or social issues of the day as individuals.

Sometimes the line between a moral issue, on which the Salva-
tion Army feels compelled to express itself, and a political one is
difficult to draw. In 1892 the War Cry, official organ of the Salva-
tion Army in the United States, expressed itself editorially against
opening the World's Fair on Sunday and in opposition to the
presentation of the Oberammergau Passion Play at the fair on the
grounds that it might create a desire in its observers to see other
"less moral stage performances." It refused to back the candidates
of the Prohibition party, however, but made clear its position on
the "moral issue'* of prohibition. "We have frequently been asked
The Army's attitude to the Prohibition question. . . . While es-
chewing party politics, we must confess we look forward to the
time when every drop of rum, whiskey and lager in the Union shall
have been emptied into the right place the gutter." Public misun-
derstanding of the Army's position on this question continued, and
forty years later Evangeline Booth's fight against the repeal of pro-
hibition brought a charge of political interference. The Army has a

WINNING NATIONAL RECOGNITION 9!

good record of avoiding partisan arguments, although it has been
quick to take a stand on social and moral issues.

The Salvation Army not only took a stand against lynching in
the editorial columns of the War Cry, but the personal courage of
two of its officers made an even more effective protest against this
barbaric crime. In 1895 a frightened Negro named Jim Bowens lay
huddled in the jail at Frederick, Maryland, accused of the attempted
assault of a white woman. Outside, a sullen mob was forcing its
way in to lynch him. No voice was raised in his defense until Cap-
tain Eugene Mott and Lieutenant William Antrim of the Salvation
Army pushed their way through the crowd and began to plead with
the people to save the Negro's life. They were thrust aside, and
Jim Bowens was seized. The Salvationists followed the mob to the
scene of the lynching, and when it was evident they could do noth-
ing to stop it they wormed their way to the Negro's side and asked
to be allowed to pray with him. There in the eerie light they prayed
for God's mercy on Jim Bowens's soul. As they repeated the familiar
words of the Lord's Prayer, Jim Bowens repeated the words. In the
crowd of three hundred lynchers and spectators standing with un-
covered heads, others also joined in. The prayers over, the Negro,
vowing his innocence, was strung up in a tree, and the officers re-
turned to their barracks to pray for the souls of the lynchers as well
as for that of their victim.

The social problems of a rapidly growing nation were also the
problems of the Salvation Army, an American institution that was
growing with the country. The physical aspect of that growth may
be symbolized by the construction of the National Headquarters
Memorial Building. The idea of a memorial to his mother was
conceived by Ballington Booth after her death on October 4, 1890.
Detailed reports of Catherine Booth's courageous fight with cancer
had appeared in the War Cry throughout the year, 1 and when
death finally came Salvationists all over the world felt a keen per-
sonal loss. The plan to honor the memory of the beloved Mother
of the Salvation Army with a splendid new building seemed ap-
propriate. The Headquarters Building at in Reade Street had
proved to be too small within two years after it was first occupied

92 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

in April, 1888, and more space was necessary for the growing
departments of the Army.

Nearly five years of hard work elapsed before the Memorial
Headquarters Building materialized. First, fund-raising committees
were organized, and contributions began to come in. In May, 1893,
the site for the building was secured. The property had a frontage
of 75 feet on west Fourteenth Street some 200 feet west of Sixth
Avenue in all, about 12,000 square feet. The land was valued at
$200,000, and the estimated cost of the building to be built was
$80,000. An architect's drawing of the building appeared in the
War Cry in June, 1894. After an older structure on the site was
torn down, a cornerstone-laying ceremony was held on August 14,
1894. Work was being pushed on the interior construction of the
building during General Booth's second visit to the United States,
and the various departments began to move in from the old head-
quarters in May, 1895. On April 2jth the last issue of the War
Cry was printed at the old building, and the next week's issue came
out on time from the new headquarters.

The dedication of the new National Headquarters Building as a
memorial to Catherine Booth took place on June 3, 1895. The eight-
story building at 120-124 west Fourteenth Street was gaily decked
with bunting red, white, and blue, mixed with the crimson and
yellow representing the "Blood and Fire" of the Salvation Army.
Some two thousand Salvationists paraded to the ceremony. The
new building's final cost exceeded $350,000, including land. It re-
sembled a castle in style, and was quite similar to the Armory
across the street, which is still standing. 2 In the front of the building
were two stores which could be rented for income, and in back of
these was a meeting hall on the first floor that could seat 500 and
an auditorium on the second floor with a capacity of 2,500. The
remainder of the eight-floor building was used to house the printing
plant and offices.

Although the construction of the new building coincided with a
depression that had begun with the financial panic of 1893, funds
continued to be contributed. The substantial financial support of
the organization was an indication of the increasing prestige of the

WINNING NATIONAL RECOGNITION 93

Salvation Army in the United States. Commander Ballington Booth
was aware of the dangers of popularity. "The Salvation Army in
no sense desires to become respectable," he emphasized as he laid
the cornerstone of the Headquarters Building. "We are not going
to give up the ungloved hand for the kid glove; the drum for the
church bell; the cornet for the piano or organ." But, despite the
disavowal, the commander must have realized even as he spoke
that the Salvation Army in the United States was becoming more
respectable and less sensational. The most bitter persecutions had
ceased, and occasional attacks by roughs were the unusual rather
than the commonplace. In almost all places where the Army op-
erated, the police protected it and the public officials were sympa-
thetic. Even the newspapers were coming to the Army's support.
As the War Cry observed in 1889, "A great change is noticeable in
the attitude of American newspapers towards the Army. All the
'funny men 7 who used to write us up have apparently been dis-
missed. Serve 'em right. Anyway we get somewhat of a fair show
in the columns of the dailies and weeklies now, for which we are
thankful"

A New York Tribune of 1892 observed that public reaction to
the Salvation Army had first been violent persecution, then a period
of "contemptuous toleration." "The Army has lived through, or
rather lived down, that era of contempt, almost worse than the
former era of abuse, and today nearly all the people in and out of
the churches whose opinion is worth anything frankly acknowledge
the good it has done and is doing."

Two important factors in winning public support for the Army
were Maud Booth's drawing-room meetings and the activities of
the Auxiliary League. The Auxiliary League was begun by Major
Moore in 1883, but not until Maud and Ballington Booth began to
direct its operation did it become an effective means of winning
friends and financial assistance for the Army. Subscribers to the
League contributed $5 a year and were entitled to a year's sub-
scription to the War Cry, a small badge to wear, and a ticket to all
Salvation Army functions. They were asked to pray for the Army
(at twelve-thirty each day if possible), defend the Army when

94 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

they had an opportunity, and support it with gifts. Many ministers
who were sympathetic with the work of the Army joined as Aux-
iliaries, and many socially prominent people were included in its
ranks. The 2,oooth Auxiliary was enrolled on November 14, 1893,
and by 1896 the Auxiliaries numbered 6,000. Some of the prominent
members were the Reverend Josiah Strong, the Reverend Lyman
Abbott, Dr. Charles A. Briggs, Frances E. Willard, Edward Everett
Hale, Mrs. Cleveland Dodge, Mrs. W. K. Vanderbilt, and
Chauncey M. Depew.

Many of the recruits for Auxiliaries were drawn from Mrs.
Booth's famous drawing-room meetings, remembered to this day
by many of the older Army officers. The meetings, begun in 1888,
were held in the homes of socially prominent people. The War
Cry, in January, 1889, commented, "Mrs. Booth has been conduct-
ing some important drawing-room meetings in and around New
York, and has more important engagements in Boston to fulfill of
the same character." By February, 1889, the meetings were attract-
ing the attention of the major New York daily newspapers. Three
thousand invitations were printed for a meeting at Y.M.C.A. Hall
in New York conducted by Mrs. Booth. "As the meeting is strictly
for the class Mrs. Booth has lately been reaching in her drawing-
room meetings," the War Cry warned, "the invitations will be re-
stricted to them alone."

One of the most outstanding drawing-room meetings was held
in Washington in the home of John Wanamaker, Postmaster Gen-
eral of the United States. It was attended by Mrs. Benjamin Har-
rison, the wives of several Cabinet members, and some Senators
and Congressmen. At the meetings Maud Booth, dressed in her
uniform, quietly explained the aims and objectives of the Salvation
Army, and described its work in the slums. "Help us to lift them
up!" was her plea. From such meetings and from the Auxiliaries
much of the money for the Memorial Building was obtained. Mrs.
Booth became a celebrity and perhaps something of a fad among
the society of the East. She was invited to Wellesley College and
given a warm welcome there. Frances E. Willard, president of the
Women's Christian Temperance Union, invited her to address the

WINNING NATIONA3D RECOGNITION 95

national conference of that organization at Atlanta, Georgia, in
1890. Even more remarkable, while Maud Booth was raising money
and winning friends through her drawing-room meetings she was
at the same time directing the Army's slum work and visiting pris-
ons.

Coinciding with the increase of popularity of the Salvation Army
in the United States were the introduction and development of
the Army's social welfare program. Public interest in this branch
of the Army's program ran high, and the slum work brought with
it more favorable newspaper publicity and increased public sup-
port. The social work in the slums was the major topic of the
drawing-room lecture; nevertheless, while this aspect of the Army's
work was emphasized to the general public, the officers and sol-
diers were never permitted to forget the primary mission of the
Army saving souls.

X

"In His Step"

In 1897 ths Reverend Charles M. Sheldon, of Topeka, Kansas,
published In His Steps: "What Would Jesus Do?"z book that be-
came one of the best sellers of the next generation and that is still
popular today. For seventeen years before Sheldon wrote his novel,
the Salvation Army had been working in the slums of American
cities. Although their first efforts were devoted mainly to the spirit-
ual welfare of the poor, it soon became obvious that preaching was
not enough. Salvationists discovered many years before Sheldon's
book that if they were to follow "in His steps" they must minister
to the physical as well as to the spiritual welfare of their congre-*
gations.

In March, 1880, when "Ash-barrel Jimmy" a homeless tramp
became the Army's first convert in the United States, he was per-
mitted to sleep in the hall after meetings, in return for which he
kept the place swept out and clean. It was not just charity that the
Salvation Army dispensed. There were already many charity or-
ganizations in America. The Salvation Army offered its helping
hand to anyone who wanted to rehabilitate himself; but, more than
this, Salvationists worked to give those who had no hope the desire
to help themselves. This belief that only a person who wants help
can be benefited is the basis of all Salvation Army social activities
and a principle of modern scientific social work. Salvationists be-
lieve that to give a destitute man assistance without trying to reach

96

"IN HIS STEPS" 97

and cure the cause of his poverty may result in more harm than
good.

Even then, the Salvation Army refused to make the distinction
commonly accepted at the time between the so-called "deserving"
and the "undeserving" poor. In their eyes all men were deserving
of help. Had not Jesus Christ died for the Salvation of all men?
This was the message that these soldiers of Christ dispensed along
with soup and soap, shelter and clothing. To be sure, if a man did
not wish to help himself, there was little of lasting value that could
be done for him. But as long as there were life and hope in a man,
he might be convinced to let Christ guide his life and then he
would help himself. And who was qualified to judge whether a man
was "deserving" or "undeserving" of help? Not the Salvation Army.

The Army's social service had a dramatic beginning. General
Booth was crossing London late one night in 1888, when some-
thing he saw cost him a night's sleep and ultimately set in motion
the Salvation Army's program of social work. When his son Bram-
well came to see him the next morning, the General was half dressed
and pacing the room. "Bramwell, did you know that men slept out
all night on the bridges?" Bramwell knew but what could be done?
"Go and do something!" was the command. "We must do some-
thing! Get them a shelter. Get hold of a warehouse and warm it,
and find something to cover them." That such a project would cost
money did not trouble the General. Men were sleeping outdoors
in the cold on stone bridges. Something must be done! This
was the beginning of Salvation Army Shelters.

In 1888 a cheap Food Depot was established in Limehouse
where thousands of hungry people went for meals, and within
two and a half years three more depots were in operation in other
parts of London.

A Rescue Home for "fallen women" predecessor to America's
present Homes and Hospitals for Unwed Mothers was opened in
1884 under the direction of Mrs. Bramwell Booth. In the same
year a Woman's Rescue Home was opened and Prison Gate Rescue
Work was commenced in Australia. Wherever a need was discov-

98 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

ered, the Salvation Army set out to "do something." Slowly the
tradition developed that wherever there was human suffering it
was the duty of the Salvation Army to help alleviate it. No elab-
orate theory preceded the development of Salvation Army social
work. Like Topsy, the structure of social institutions and services
"just grew."

Salvation Army social work was brought forcibly to the attention
of the general public when General Booth's book In Darkest Eng-
land and the Way Out appeared in 1890. Capitalizing on the in-
terest aroused by Stanley's famous In Darkest Africa, which was
popular at the time, the book contained dramatic descriptions of
the poverty, misery, and vice of Englishmen living in the slums of
England's largest cities. According to Booth's figures, three mil-
lion people "the submerged tenth" of Britain's population were
homeless, starving, criminals, or inmates of state institutions, as
ignorant, superstitious, hopeless, and hungry as any savage in
"Darkest Africa!"

How long would Englishmen ignore these conditions? How long
would they look away from the homeless wretches who slept on the
bridges across the Thames, the growing number of prostitutes, the
poverty of the unemployed? When would the churches learn, as
William Booth and the Salvation Army had learned, that a hungry
man will instinctively think about his stomach more than about
his soul? "What a satire it is upon our Christianity and our civiliza-
tion, that the existence of these colonies of heathens and savages
in the heart of our capital should attract so little attention. . . .
Why all this apparatus of temples and meeting-houses to save men
from perdition in a world which is to come, while never a helping
hand is stretched out to save them from the inferno of their pres-
ent life?" challenged General Booth.

The book was written by journalist William T. Stead, who put
the General's detailed notes and ideas into a vigorous prose. The
title was arresting, the style clear and direct and, most of all, the
timing of the book was perfect. The plight of the English work-
ing classes had been troubling serious minds, and now In Darkest

"IN HIS STEPS" 99

England described in dreadful detail the social evils of the day. One
of its prime achievements was to shock the respectable middle class
out of its complacency*.

In addition to this, William Booth had a solution he offered
to point the way out. William Booth's plan was not Utopian. "I
leave to others the formulation of ambitious programmes for the
reconstruction of our entire social system," he stated. His "scheme,"
as it was called, was to begin at once; in fact it was already under
way on a small scale. The minimum standard he proposed to
achieve was dramatized by the illustration of a London cab horse.
When the horse fell down it was helped up, given shelter for the
night, food for its stomach, and, finally, work was allotted by which
it could earn its grain. This was the essence of William Booth's
plan for men help them to their feet and supply shelter, food, and
work. To carry out this objective three communities or colonies
were planned: a City Colony to gather the destitute and give them
temporary aid; a Farm Colony to train colonists in agricul-
ture; and Overseas Colonies in South Africa, Canada, Australia, or
other places where land was plentiful and cheap. The Salvation
Army, Booth pointed out, had the machinery for carrying out such
a plan and in fact was already at work on it. The scale on which
it could operate depended only on public support. Booth called for
/i 00,000 to begin the scheme. Four months later February, 1891
he had received ^f 108,000, and by September, 1892, the sum
had increased to ^ 129,2 88 125". 6d.

After 1890 and the publication of In Darkest England^ social
work was begun on a large scale by the Salvation Army in the
United States as in Great Britain. Social work here had begun on
a modest scale several years earlier, when the first of a vast network
of social institutions operated by the Salvation Army in the United
States was begun in New York City in a frame building three floors
high, known as Morris Cottage. The "Cottage" was open in Octo-
ber, 1886, when a notice of its opening, together with an appeal
for contributions in money or of parcels of clothing appeared in
the War Cry. The October 23rd issue carried a story of "Our

100 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

First Rescue Home in America," and a picture of Morris Cottage
appeared on November 6, 1886, together with the following no-
tice:

The Rescue Home for the fallen and the falling is now opened for
young women who desire and are earnestly seeking the salvation of their
bodies and souls. All Christians and friends desiring further information
or willing to help on this important undertaking in these earliest days of
its need are invited to communicate with the Commissioner.

The work with "fallen women" was directed by Maud Booth
after she and Ballington Booth assumed the command of the Sal-
vation Army in the United States in April, 1887. Week after week
the War Cry contained an appeal "For the Rescue Home." A sew-
ing machine was requested, and the receipt of one was acknowl-
edged in the column. "Officers having any of these dear girls saved
at their meeting, or being appealed to by any such to save them
from their lives of sin, should (if satisfied of their reality and anx-
iety to be good) beg their fare from friends and send them to us.
. . A loving welcome and happy home awaits them."

Every effort was made to maintain a home-like atmosphere.
Rules were kept to a minimum, and the girls were always free to
leave. Training in cooking, sewing, and other household tasks was
offered, and girls who were deemed reformed were found positions
as domestic helpers or maids in Christian homes. Constant effort
was expended to help the girls experience conversion, for it was
believed that only this would ensure their permanent reformation.

Rescue work on the West Coast began in April, 1887, under
the supervision of Mrs. Brigadier Fielding. A year later two homes,
one in Oakland and one in San Francisco, were in operation.
About sixteen nights in a month, Salvation Army lassies went out
into the depths of the Barbary Coast to rescue any of its inhabit-
ants if they could. Periodic visits were made to the county jail in
San Francisco where women inmates were offered the sanctuary of
the rescue home when their sentences expired. In 1888 a Michi-
gan Rescue Home was opened in Grand Rapids.

Meanwhile, work in the slums was moving forward in New

ESF HIS STEPS IOI

York City, where a "Garret, Dive and Tenement Brigade" was in
operation as early as March, 1889. Salvation Army slum work in
the United States is closely associated with the name of Emma Jane
Bown. The captain (later the first woman brigadier in the United
States) was a lassie from Liverpool who joined the Salvation Army,
went through the Training Home in England, and was sent to
America to reinforce Commissioner Frank Smith after the "Moore
split." At Taunton, Massachusetts, she was arrested for bearing
the drum during a wave of persecution. In the trial that followed,
the plucky English lass, defended by an able volunteer lawyer,
won the respect and admiration of the town. The "not guilty" ver-
dict was an important victory for the Army. By 1889, with five
years of service in the United States, Captain Bown had served
in Boston, Shenandoah and Plymouth, Pennsylvania, and had di-
rected the "Lyceum Training Garrison for female cadets" in
Brooklyn. After that year, her whole life during a long career in
the Salvation Army was devoted to social work.

In August, 1889, Emma Jane Bown and another girl traded
their blue and crimson uniforms and bonnets for patched rough
gowns, gingham aprons, shawls, and ancient hats and took a room
in the heart of Manhattan's notorious Cherry Hill district. Never
identifying themselves with the Salvation Army for fear of alienat-
ing those they sought to serve, these women lived a truly Spartan
existence. Their room was as void of luxuries as the rooms of their
neighbors, with cleanliness its only distinguishing characteristic.
Each day the two "Slum Sisters" or "Slum Saviours" or "Angels of
the Slums" (they were called by various names in the press, al-
though the official designation was Slum Officers) went out to visit
the tenement families in the neighborhood. In simple ways they
won the confidence of the wretched victims of the slums. They
bathed and cared for children, nursed the sick and the aged, and
spoke words of cheer and hope to all.

Thus slum work, while never conducted on a large scale, be-
came an important phase of the Salvation Army's activities. Slum
Officers without uniforms or brass bands were able to aid people
that even corps officers could not reach. The slum problem was so

IO2 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

critical that none but the most calloused could ignore it. Jacob
Riis, in a series of books beginning with How the Other Half
Lives (1890) and The Children of the Poor (1892), hammered
at the public conscience; journalists "exposed" the conditions of
the slums; government officials "investigated" them but the Sal-
vation Army went into the slums and really worked to make them
better. The work was well publicized by the press, and helped to
bring about the public approval and increase in financial support
that characterized the i89o's.

In March, 1890, a Day Nursery or "Salvation Army Creche' 7
was established in connection with the slum work in New York
City. At the end of a year of slum work in Manhattan, six Slum
Sisters were active. During the year they had visited 5,500 families,
assisted 613 families with food, and supplied 942 persons with
clothing; 777 babies were cared for in the nursery from 7:00 A.M.
to 6:30 P.M. Sixteen conversions were reported.

Salvation Army social work in the United States was given a
real impetus by the publication of General Booth's In Darkest
England and the Way Out. The first Food and Shelter Depot was
established in an old church building at Bedford and Downing
streets in New York in December, 1891. A second depot was
founded in 1893 in Buffalo, where Auxiliaries furnished funds for
the institution. The first cheap lodginghouse or Salvation Army Ho-
tel in the United States was also established during the adminis-
tration of Ballington Booth. The program was carried to comple-
tion under the direction of his successor, Booth-Tucker.

"Work for the workless" was one of the many mottoes of Com-
mander Frederick de Lautour Booth-Tucker. Soon after he as-
sumed command in the United States, men with pushcarts were
sent out to collect paper and salvageable junk. At first the base-
ment of the Dry Dock Hotel on Avenue D, in New York City, was
used as a depot, but by 1897 the Salvage Corps was moved to the
rear of 26 Cherry Street. By 1898 the Army had eight salvage
depots and five woodyards.

This activity proved to be an immediate success. Its philosophy
was simple. "The Army does not waste either precious time or

"IN HIS STEPS" 103

precious money inquiring into character," wrote Lieutenant Colo-
nel William Brewer in 1898. "It divides the people into two classes
only, the willing and unwilling to work. Wherever it finds the will-
ing, to the limit of its capacity, the Army gives them employment."
The Salvage Brigade aimed to furnish employment in unskilled
labor for a large number of men to tide them over until they se-
cured regular employment. Men could earn their lodging and
food at the salvage depot, and a small wage by collecting waste
paper, lumber, furniture, rags, clothing, and other articles which
were sold to make the project self-supporting. The main difficulty
was in acquiring capital to provide buildings and to purchase
horses and wagons.

Public cooperation was an important factor in the success of
the Salvage Brigades. In Boston, baskets were placed in five hun-
dred homes and periodically emptied. The Army contracted with
the City of Chicago to keep several of the city's wards free of waste
paper. The waste paper and cast-off articles collected were not the
most important material salvaged by the Salvation Army, for the
main object of the Salvage Brigades and their successors the In-
dustrial Homes and later the Men's Social Service Centers was the
salvage of men, who were given an opportunity to regain a position
as useful members of society.

In some cities woodyards were established for the same pur-
pose. The unemployed were put to work collecting, sawing, and
delivering wood. One of the first of these was in Waterbury, Con-
necticut. Others were operated in Boston, Houston, San Francisco,
and Seattle.

An important auxiliary of the Salvage Brigades was the Salva-
tion Junk Shop. Situated in or near slum districts, these stores sold
secondhand clothes at nominal prices, and in cases of extreme need
gave away clothing. Generally, shoes were repaired, clothing
mended, and furniture renewed and sold at prices within the reach
of the slum families.

Another in the growing structure of agencies devoted to the
service of mankind was the Labor Bureau or Employment Agency
These not only found more permanent jobs for the men working

104 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

in the Salvage Brigades and woodyards but served others of the un-
employed group as well.

After Commander Booth-Tucker spent a night in disguise in
one of New York's flophouses, he was a strong advocate of the
Salvation Army's economical hotels, which furnished clean, warm
shelters at moderate prices. Dormitory beds with mattress, pillow,
sheets, and blankets were available for ten cents, while fifteen cents
would secure a separate room. In addition, hot and cold baths
and delousing facilities were available (usually required before
registration), as well as washtubs and reading rooms. While most
of these shelters were for homeless men, several others were op-
erated for homeless women. Inexpensive hotels for working girls
were operated in many cities for the growing number of young
women who left home to work in stores and offices. In connection
with many of these institutions, cheap food depots provided whole-
some food at prices within the reach of the patrons. In other lo-
calities, "cent meals" were offered. For a penny, a person could
obtain a pint of coffee with a chunk of bread or a basin of soup
which he could consume there or take home to eat.

The first of the Salvation Army's homes for children was
opened on February 22, 1897, in Fordham, New York, and later
moved to Rutherford, New Jersey. It was called the Cherry Tree
Home, a name suggested to Consul Booth-Tucker by Mrs. Grover
Cleveland, who thought it appropriate because the home was
opened on Washington's birthday. By the turn of the century two
orphanages were operated by the Salvation Army, one near New
York and the other near San Francisco later to become the Lyt-
ton Home and School, and still in operation. Unlike many other
institutions, these could not be self-supporting, and limited funds
prevented their extension,

A Slum Maternity Nursing system was organized in 1897, anc ^
a training home secured in the following year. At "The Pines" in
Fordham, Salvation Army nurses were given a thorough theoreti-
cal training which was followed by a practical course under the
guidance of experienced nurses in the field. Prominent physicians
gave courses and lectures at the schools.

"IN HIS STEPS" 105

Less formal activities were also part of the social relief program.
Summer outings gave slum children and their mothers a day of re-
lief from the oppressive heat of the city. Penny ice wagons and
penny cold drinks were another popular form of summer relief. In
the winter, heated Salvation Army halls were thrown open to people
during prolonged spells of extreme cold.

All these Salvation Army services were offered, not as charity,
but always as a means of aiding the recipient to help himself. Sen-
sitive to the danger of pauperizing those It aided, the Army's gen-
eral rule -was to require payment in labor or cash for its services.
Even the low prices and the small amount of labor required en-
abled many whose pride balked at taking charity to receive the
Army's helping hand and to retain their self-respect. The major
exceptions to this rule -were the Christmas and Thanksgiving din-
ners. At these seasons large auditoriums were secured in the major
cities and luxurious dinners were served to the needy. Basket din-
ners, distributed to carefully selected families, enabled others to
enjoy the holiday in their own homes.

Thus the Salvation Army social program came to minister to
the needy of all ages from the cradle to the grave from slum ma-
ternity care to homes for indigent aged. By the turn of the century
the basic outline of the vast social program of the Salvation Army
was clear. As the twentieth century dawned, the Army, described
by England's Cardinal Manning as the "only considerable body of
Christians who had a passion for sinners as such," saw all grada-
tions of the poor benefit from their pioneer efforts as "the AjTmy's
example of heroic self-sacrifice encouraged Protestant Christianity
to redouble its efforts for the social salvation of men."

XI

The Great Schism

The prospects of the Salvation Army and its young leaders in the
United States never appeared brighter than on New Year's Day,
1896. General William Booth had received wide acclaim during
his visit to America; the new National Headquarters Building on
west Fourteenth Street, New York, symbolized the material prog-
ress of the organization; tributes from newspapers, churchmen, and
civic leaders showed that the Army had won the respect of the
American public.

Yet under the surface forces of dissension were at work. Sud-
denly, in January, 1896, the Salvation Army in the United States
was shaken to its foundations by the resignation of Maud and
Ballington Booth and the controversy that accompanied it. For
several months newspapers and magazines all over the country fea-
tured the story; mass meetings and protest parades were held. The
question of who was to command the Salvation Army in America
aroused national interest. Nothing, perhaps, could have better il-
lustrated how the Army had grown in prestige and importance. As
the Detroit Evening News observed, "It is less than 20 years ago
that the 'Salvation Army' consisted of a small group of religious
'fanatics' here and there, whose principal business seemed to be to
amuse a godless world and stir the contempt of the traditional
godly ones. Today the displacement of an officer in that Army is a
thing to be talked of and its significance to be debated around the
world."

1 06

THE GREAT SCHISM IOJ

Like each of the national commanders who preceded them,
Maud and Ballington Booth had taken out American citizenship
papers when they were assigned to the United States, and after
completing residents' requirements they became naturalized Amer-
ican citizens. That they liked and understood the country of their
adoption is evident; much of their success in winning public es-
teem and support from Americans of all levels of society may be
credited to their understanding and appreciation of the unique
American temperament. To the general public Maud and Ball-
ington Booth personified the Salvation Army. Within the Army
they were loved and respected by Salvationists of all ranks.

It came as a shock to Salvationists and the general public alike
when the New York Sun announced on January 15, 1896: "Com-
mander Ballington Booth and his wife have been recalled from the
command of the Salvation Army in the United States. In the
phraseology of the Army they have been 'ordered to farewell. . . .' "
This news was printed under the headlines:

RECALL OF THE BOOTHS,

The Commander and His Wife
"Ordered to Farewell."

A Story that Gen. Booth Thinks They Have Made the Salvation
Army Too American and Wishes to Anglicize It Again.

This announcement in the public press was the first hint either
to American Salvationists or to the general public that a change
of command of the Salvation Army in the United States was con-
templated. Many bewildered New Yorkers who were members or
friends of the Army hurried to the National Headquarters Building
for information. On the first-floor bulletin board was "A Statement
from the Commander and Mrs. Booth." The news was true!

It was unfortunate that this announcement of greatest impor-
tance to Salvationists should reach them through the public press
more than two weeks before the news appeared in the official War
Cry, and that coupled with it was the charge that General Booth
was attempting to "Anglicize" the American branch of the Army.

108 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

The order to farewell or to relinquish their command had been re-
ceived by Ballington and Maud Booth as a complete surprise on
January 6th. Four days later Ballington wrote to London question-
ing the wisdom of requiring him to leave the United States and
asking if International Headquarters had taken into consideration
all the consequences of a change of command at the time. He
mentioned the tense situation between the United States and Eng-
land over the Venezuela dispute; the heavy financial responsibility
of the new Headquarters Building; and his own strained relations
with his father, the General, from whom he had not heard in six
months. According to their testimony, he and Maud wrote other
letters following this, stating they were preparing to fulfill their
orders and to relinquish their command.

For several days the Booths told no one of the order they had
received. Then they called several high-ranking officers together
and told them of the order and their decision to obey it. The of-
ficers wanted to protest the recall but were forbidden to do so by
Ballington. It was decided to wait a few days before making the
announcement to the Army, but before the official announcement
was made the news leaked out to the press.

Official notice of the farewell order appeared in the War Cry
of February ist, accompanied by an editorial entitled "Our De-
voted Leaders Relinquish Their Command," in which the progress
of Maud and Ballington's administration was summarized. The
editorial ended with the statement:

There is only one thing to do when marching orders arrive and that
is to spring into readiness to obey. The Commander announces that he is
already preparing to convey Army properties in this country to his suc-
cessors when his name shall have been made known. Thus are our leaders
getting ready to put into practice the spirit of the same rule and regula-
tion that they have required of their subordinates. What an object lesson
to the world of fidelity to principle!

In the meantime, during the interval from the time the order
to move appeared in the newspapers and the announcement in the
War Cry, the American public had rallied to protest what ap-

THE GREAT SCHISM 109

peared to be an act of "British tyranny." According to the daily
newspapers, the General had been angry when his son and Maud
became American citizens. On his tour of the United States the
year before, he had been displeased by the "Americanization" of
the Army and was determined that "every Country should be un-
der English rule." American nationalism ran high, and the rela-
tively simple issue of replacing a Salvation Army commander be-
came entangled with the irrational but powerful emotion of
patriotism.

A public protest was organized by a group of prominent and
wealthy New Yorkers who were members of the Salvation Army
Auxiliary League. They drafted a letter which said, in part, "An
effort is being made by members of the Auxiliary League of the
Salvation Army and others to bring such pressure of public opinion
to bear upon the subject of the recall of Commander Ballington
Booth and Mrs. Booth from America as will induce General Booth
to reconsider their order to farewell." Carnegie Hall was se-
cured for a mass meeting on Monday, February jrd, to express
public opinion on the subject. The letter was signed by many
prominent people who had aided in the construction of the Me-
morial Building and who were strong supporters and heavy con-
tributors to the Army.

Carnegie Hall was crowded for the protest meeting. Chauncey
M. Depew presided with his usual store of wit and wisdom. Mayor
William L. Strong of New York canceled a meeting in Albany to
attend and to give a short speech. Among the clergymen who spoke
were Josiah Strong, Bishop E. G. Andrews, A. H. Bradford, and
R. Fulton Cutting, while William E. Dodge read letters of support
from Frances E. Willard, Lyman Abbott, Smith Agnew, John Ful-
ton, and others. A petition to General Booth requesting that Ball-
ington and Mrs. Booth be allowed to remain in America was unan-
imously adopted. In his speech, Chauncey M. Depew, noting that
Ballington Booth and his wife had become naturalized American
citizens, jokingly suggested that we assert the Monroe Doctrine on
their behalf, a suggestion that brought "cheers, laughter, and pro-
longed applause."

1 10 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

The international situation did play a part in the controversy,
and the Monroe Doctrine was involved. Anti-English feeling in
the United States in 1895 and 1896 was at a height over the Vene-
zuela boundary dispute. The dispute itself was one of long stand-
ing between Venezuela and British Guiana. England refused to
arbitrate the matter. When Secretary of State Richard Olney sent a
strong request for arbitration of the dispute, which he said con-
cerned the Monroe Doctrine, the British Government replied, after
a delay of four months, that it could not accept this interpretation
of the Monroe Doctrine. Again it refused to arbitrate. President
Cleveland was "mad clear through." On December 17, 1895, he
sent a message to Congress that in eifect asked the United States to
run the boundary line itself and if necessary fight to maintain it.
Congress responded by voting the appropriation for a commission
promptly and with great enthusiasm. A wave of jingoistic patri-
otism swept the country, and talk of war became common. With
diplomatic relations between the United States and England thus
strained almost to the breaking point, the news was made public
that the English General of the Salvation Army proposed to re-
move the naturalized American Commander of the Salvation Army
in the United States,

While the American press deplored their recall and public pro-
test meetings were held, Maud and Ballington Booth prepared to
relinquish their command. They felt the order to farewell was un-
wise and unjust, but there is no evidence to indicate that they ever
contemplated disobedience. In a joint letter that appeared in the
War Cry of February 8, 1896, the last notice written by them to be
printed in that paper, they declared, "We, who have required
obedience from others, are ourselves obeying. We are, therefore,
carrying out the instructions we have received, and shall be ready
to resign our Command at the appointed time or sooner, if neces-
sary." Carnegie Hall was secured, and a farewell celebration was
planned.

While Ballington and Maud Booth were willing and ready to
relinquish their command as ordered, they were unwilling to ac-
cept another command, for a number of reasons. These reasons

THE GREAT SCHISM III

they stated in a letter dated January 31, 1896, addressed to Bram-
well Booth, who was both Chief of Staff and Ballington's brother,
sixteen months his elder. The family relationship is important.
Bramwell appears to have been imperious and tactless both in his
method of issuing the farewell order and during the controversy
that followed. The General was in India, out of direct contact with
either Bramwell or Ballington when the order was issued and for
several weeks after the disagreement developed. When he did re-
turn to London the situation was beyond his control. What might
have remained a family quarrel had been aired before the whole
Salvation Army and the world, and bitter words had been spoken
from which the sting could never be extracted.

In their letter of January 3ist, Ballington and Maud plainly
stated their position. They declared their intention of relinquish-
ing their command as quickly and as quietly as possible and then
retiring from the Salvation Army. The principal reason that they
felt they could not conscientiously accept another command was
estrangement from the General. Certain actions and incidents of
his visit to the United States in 1894-1895 had caused them to lose
confidence in him and had alienated their affection from him. They
listed still other reasons: for four or five years they had been left
out of consultation on international policy; they objected to the
number of rules and "red tape" commissioners were required to
enforce without being consulted about making; and they com-
plained that social work was being pushed to the detriment of
spiritual work. Their course, they declared, was "to obey your or-
ders and resign our command, and then as quickly and as ex-
peditiously as possible, retire."

They proposed to farewell and to say nothing of their future
intentions so that their plans would not become public, and they
especially urged that no member of the family be sent to try to
talk them out of their decision. "It must not be said at any time
that we left the Army because we were unwilling to leave America,"
they wrote. "This would be untrue as we have made no remon-
strance, nor have we refused." Perhaps they were thinking of the
Moore schism when they further wrote: "We have not taken ad-

112 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

vantage of the confidence of the troops and the public and retained
this command, though, undoubtedly, many would have thought it
the wisest for the country and the Army here. ... If we can avoid
it, not a man shall leave. We shall be glad if you will have your
new Commissioners early on the ground, as we do not want a
prolongation of this unsettlement for the troops or for ourselves."

As soon as this letter reached London, Colonel Alex M. Nicol
was dispatched to the United States to attempt to persuade the
Booths to reconsider. Nicol arrived in New York on February 15,
1896. He was quick to see that American feeling had been aroused
by the newspaper reports of the order to recall the Booths and that
the full weight of public opinion was on their side. As a person
outside the family, Colonel Nicol was in a position to talk with the
Booths with as little emotion as possible. He entered objectively
into his job as mediator and he succeeded in getting Ballington to
agree to go to London and talk with his brother Bramwell before
making a final decision to leave the Army. At this point a cable
arrived saying that Ballington's young sister, Evangeline Booth,
was on her way to America to affect a reconciliation. This news
undid all of Nicol's work. From that time on, Ballington showed
no interest in further discussing the questions at issue.

The crisis was brought to a head during the week of February
ipth to 24th. Herbert Booth arrived on the scene from Canada.
It was an open secret in the Army that he was slated to succeed
to the command of the United States. The newspapers reported
that he was "eagerly desirous" of obtaining the position held by
Ballington. His participation in the dispute only increased the ill
feeling that had been generated and cost him whatever chance he
might have had of becoming an acceptable leader to the Ameri-
cans. Evangeline arrived soon after Herbert, the last of the prin-
cipals of the drama to reach New York.

On Thursday afternoon, February ioth, Ballington and Maud,
Herbert and Evangeline Booth and Colonel Nicol met at a fate-
fully critical conference. It is impossible to know what actually was
said at this meeting, so greatly do the reported versions vary.

THE GREAT SCHISM

The Important fact is that after a long and heated discussion, Ball-
ington and Maud left the meeting and spent the night clearing
their personal belongings out of their office In the Headquarters
Building. In the early hours of the morning they placed their keys
on their desks and left the building. They believed and main-
tained that Herbert Booth had ordered them by virtue of authority
from International Headquarters to turn over their command
and their keys by a certain deadline. The other participants of the
meeting later publicly denied that any such ultimatum had been
given. The Booths believed that they had been so ordered, how-
ever, and acted as though they had been.

Ballington Booth appeared in Salvation Army Headquarters just
twice after handing over his keys. Two days later, on Sunday, he
was present at a meeting held in his office on the fourth floor.
Among those reported to have attended were Evans, Fielding,
Stillwell, Taylor, Marshall, Damon, Eadie, and Nicol. Nicol left
the meeting and posted a notice that the General had appointed
Emma and Frederick St. George de Lautour Booth-Tucker to suc-
ceed Ballington Booth.

On the following day Ballington again came to Headquarters.
The public press reported only that he had been urged to lead a
revolt and had refused. This must have been the meeting described
by Nicol and mentioned in a recent biography of Evangeline Booth,
in which he relates that BalHngton had promised before he left on
Sunday that he would return the next day. A number of officers
Nicol puts the figure at ninety were ready to follow Ballington if
he would declare the Army in America independent of Interna-
tional Headquarters. Ballington would have been less than human
if he had not been pleased by this appeal from his close friends
and comrades. Yet there is no evidence to show that Ballington
and Maud Booth ever actively planned to lead a secession move-
ment. Had they been willing to be persuaded, the meeting on Feb-
ruary 24th would have been the time.

The situation looked serious enough to cause Nicol to call for
Evangeline Booth, who was ill and resting in her room after the

114 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

nervous strain of the past few' days. She rose and with Nicol pro-
ceeded to the fourth floor of the Headquarters Building where she
was refused admission. Nicol knew the building, and led her up a
fire escape and on to the floor where she dramatically appeared in
a room where the officers were waiting for a decision from Balling-
ton, who was then in another room with the leaders of the seces-
sion movement. Evangeline begged for a hearing and then, with
her simple eloquence and personal charm, won the support of the
group.

Had Ballington Booth taken a strong stand, and proclaimed
his intention to reconstruct the Salvation Army in the United States
as an independent, incorporated organization, Nicol declared,
"There can be no doubt that the eloquence of Miss Booth would
have been as water spilt on the ground." But he did not, and
when he did begin a new movement he and Maud publicly de-
clared, "We have not sought to call to our side any of the associ-
ates still standing and believing in the International Organiza-
tion." 1 Evangeline was tactful enough to offer forgiveness to the
officers who had contemplated secession, and nearly all of them
were glad to remain with the Salvation Army.

Although the danger of a major split was past, Evangeline
Booth and the Salvation Army faced many problems. The press
was indignant at the treatment of Ballington, and urged him to
start a new organization. The New York Tribune observed, "The
dismissal of Commander Ballington Booth and Mrs. Booth . . .
will seriously weaken the organization in its work, at least for a
time, and alienate from it the sympathy and support of many out-
side of it, who will conclude, whether rightly or wrongly, that Ball-
ington Booth and his devoted wife have been the victims of petty
jealousy and persecution."

Adverse press reaction and alienated public support were of
great importance to the Salvation Army, however, because it de-
pended on the public for much of its financial support. Almost all
of the Auxiliary League, composed of wealthy and influential
friends of the Army, supported Ballington Booth. One newspaper

THE GREAT SCHISM 115

estimated that they numbered about sk thousand and contributed
from $30,000 to $40,000 a year to the organization.

In this time of crisis, the Salvation Army was fortunate in hav-
ing at the scene a temporary commander of the caliber of Miss
Evangeline Booth. Her first public appearance in the United States
was on Sunday, March ist. Cooper Union was jammed for the
event. For several weeks the Salvation Army had been featured in
all of the metropolitan papers, and Evangeline had been charac-
terized as a "minion of British despotism." Foes as well as friends
crowded into Cooper Union. When the daughter of the General
arose to speak, boos and hisses drowned her voice. Hostile crowds
were not a novelty to this thirty-one-year-old veteran, and with the
quickness of mind and of action that characterized all the Booths
she seized an American flag and waved it above her head. "Hiss
that, if you dare!" she said. The crowd was silenced. Evangeline
spoke, and a victory was won.

What, after the smoke and heat of discord have waned, were
the issues behind this controversy? Perhaps the unhappiest aspect
of the controversy was the family quarrel But the family issue was
not the only one. Underlying both the Moore schism and the Ball-
ington Booth controversy was the question of polity. The General
of the Salvation Army was more powerful in his organization than
was -the Roman pope, for he could choose his own successor and
his fiat was law to Salvationists in every country in the world. Wil-
liam Booth as Founder was strong enough to make this system
work, but his successor was not so fortunate. At a High Council in
1929, in harmony with the 1904 supplementary Deed Poll, the Gen-
eral was elected and the principle of election established. Ballington
Booth could foresee the future more accurately than his father. As
he stated to Nicol at the height of the controversy:

A grave fundamental principle separates me from the International
Headquarters. Long experience on this continent has taught me that Eng-
land does not understand America any more than America understands
England. Yet we are being governed as if America was part of England.
It is true that we speak the same language, pay homage to the same lit-

Il6 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

erature, and profess the same religion; but there is as much difference
between the American and the English nation as there is between the
French and German. The one subject that separates me in spirit from
my father, as General, is the system that he persists in developing to the
detriment of the work in America. ... I have no quarrel against Mr,
Bramwell Booth. He is a gentleman, a competent executive officer, an
able administrator, a man of vast experience in handling men, and he is
a loyal son and soldier to his father and General. He is a thorough system-
worker. But mark this: it is not the system-worker I object to, it is the
system, and the author and upholder of that system is my father. My
quarrel is with him, and if he is not compelled to admit the despotism of
his system before he passes away his successors will live to curse it.*

This astonishing prediction, made in 1896, was quoted in a book
published in 1911, eighteen years before the fateful High Council
finally changed the system of appointing succeeding Generals.

On the other hand, once the order to farewell had been given,
the General could hardly compromise. If he were to insist on the
transfer of some twenty commissioners who did not bear his name,
and then permit his son to keep his post in the United States, it
would be a justification of the charges of nepotism that were fre-
quently hurled at the Army. To have recognized the demands of
nationalism in the case of the United States and Ballington Booth
would have seriously weakened and perhaps destroyed the Gen-
eral's vision of a truly international organization independent of
family influence, governed by one code of commands, no respector
of person or country, and determined to be in reality world-wide
in its unity with one faith, one aim, one flag, and one General.

The controversy is a tragic chapter in the history of the Salva-
tion Army. It was a personal tragedy for the General, who lost a
son; it was unfortunate for the Salvation Army, which lost the
services of two talented and able leaders. For Ballington and Maud
Booth it was a bitter experience that cut them off from family and
from old comrades in an organization they had faithfully served
and helped to build. But unhappy as it was, the controversy served
to strengthen rather than to weaken the Salvation Army. As Wil-
* Italics added.

THE PIONEER PARTY TX NEW YORK, MARCH 10, 1880

MAJOR THOMAS E. MOORE

MAJOR FRANK SMITH

COMMANDER BALLINGTON BOOTH

MAUD BALLINGTON BOOTH

COMMANDER FREDERICK BOOTH-TUCKER

f,- f l i ' '

K' ; V '"'

"THE CONSUL," EMMA BOOTH-TUCKER

COMMANDER EVANGELINE BOOTH

THE GREAT SCHISM II J

liam Booth wrote in reply to a question from the Independent
about the controversy, "The late events have forced all our officers
and soldiers to ask themselves why they follow the flag and the re-
sult has already been a greatly deepened resolve to devote them-
selves to a fuller consecration than ever to the Christ-like task of
seeking the salvation of the whole world."

XII

Healing the Breach

The new commanders of the Salvation Army in the United States
were courageous soldiers in the Salvation War. Emma Booth-
Tucker sailed for America with two small children, leaving a
third a sick infant behind in England in the care of a nurse.
The thirty~six-year-old woman who was the fourth child and sec-
ond daughter of General William Booth was known as "The Con-
sul'' Her husband, Frederick St. George de Lautour Booth-Tucker,
followed her on another ship and reached New York on April i,
1896, four days after his wife. Here he learned of the death of his
six-week-old infant son who had been left behind. The adminis-
tration of the Booth-Tuckers had begun as it was to end with
death and sorrow.

Frederick St. George de Lautour Tucker had been born forty-
three years earlier in Bengal, India, the son of a commissioner in
the Indian Civil Service. Young Tucker was educated in England
at Cheltenham College and entered the Indian civil service him-
self, rising to the position of assistant commissioner. In 1881 he
gave up his position to join the Salvation Army and to begin its
missionary work in India.

In India, Tucker and a small band from England adopted na-
tive dress and moved into the native quarters to live with the In-
dians as equals instead of preaching to them as Europeans. The
representatives of Her Majesty's Imperial Government were hor-
rified by this action, and set about to prevent it. Fined and jailed

118

HEALING THE BREACH Up

time and again, Tucker persisted in preaching Christ to the vari-
ous castes of India in their own language. He became Fakir Singh
who lived on a native diet, walked barefoot from village to village,
and everywhere won converts for Christ and for the Salvation
Army. From the pioneer party of four officers who landed in Bom-
bay in September, 1882, the Salvation Army in India grew to 479
officers at 250 stations and outposts; 3,666 converts were enrolled
as soldiers before Booth-Tucker left India in 1891.

This intrepid missionary became Booth-Tucker in 1888 when
he married Emma Moss Booth and, following the practice of all
the men who married into the Booth family, adopted the hy-
phenated surname, 1 When the ill health of his wife forced them
both to leave India in 1891, he was appointed Foreign Secretary
of the Salvation Army in -charge of the entire work of the Army
outside the United Kingdom. This was the position he was hold-
ing when the crisis of 1896 made it necessary for the General to
send the most outstanding officer available to assume command of
the Salvation Army in the United States. He made a wise choice in
Frederick Booth-Tucker and the Consul.

Commander Booth-Tucker was not long in showing the Amer-
ican public that he was like his predecessor a newsworthy per-
sonality, A man of striking appearance, he was also a successful
speaker.

Booth-Tucker had not been in New York a month before he
was the subject of a newspaper story. The new commander of the
Salvation Army set out one night in disguise to see for himself the
slums of New York. Rumor had it that the commander was recog-
nized by his flowing gray-blond locks at a seven-cent lodginghouse
where he went to spend the night, and was thrown out. Booth-
Tucker's own story of his first tour of New York's slums was
printed as a feature story of the New York Sunday Herald with a
picture of the commander in disguise. It ended with a description
of the Army's plan to aid the slum inhabitants and with an appeal
for funds.

This excursion set off a regular epidemic of disguises in the
ranks of the Army. A War Cry reporter donned a disguise to spend

120 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

a night In the Salvation Army's new Women's Shelter at 34 Bay-
ard Street. Commander Booth-Tucker set out again on a second
excursion in disguise that ended in jail.

"Who is Steve Brodie?" the commander inquired of his staff at
Headquarters. Information about the famous Brooklyn Bridge
jumper and East Side saloon keeper was promptly volunteered.
Brodie had apparently read of Booth-Tucker's desire to get "in-
side" the slums, and wrote offering his services. Not unmindful of
the potentialities of a person of such fame could he be "won to
the cross," the commander set off one evening for Brodie's saloon.
There he donned a wig and false whiskers offered by his guide and
then set off with Steve Brodie and his brother, Tom, for a tour of
Chinatown and the Bowery. Before they had gone far, the sight
of the striking tall thin figure in a set of "glossy brown Hester
street whiskers" attracted a policeman, who stopped the party and
took them to the station where Booth-Tucker was locked up for
going about the streets in disguise. Brodie furnished the necessary
bail, and the commander was released to face a battery of report-
ers. The next morning he appeared at Magistrate's Court and was
discharged.

As Booth-Tucker pointed out to the newsmen, this was not his
first arrest he had been imprisoned in Bombay for leading a Sal-
vation Army parade through the streets nor was it to be his last.
In April, 1897, he was brought into court on the complaint of
several residents of west Thirteenth Street near the National Head-
quarters Building on the charge of keeping "an ill-governed and
disorderly house." The long-suffering neighbors charged that in
the course of an "All Night of Prayer" on April i3th, two thousand
persons with five brass bands had "caroused" through the night. A
parade of witnesses led by the chief complainant, Phineas Smith, a
real-estate dealer, told of sleepless nights while bands played and
the Salvationists sang hymns to the tune of "We'll Never Get Drunk
Any More" and "We Won't Go Home Until Morning."

The trial lasted three days. A Salvation Army band showed up
in the courtroom to demonstrate the music played but was not
permitted to perform. Booth-Tucker and the Consul both testified

HEALING THE BREACH 121

that the band and bass drums were not used after midnight on the
night in question, but that from that time until four-thirty there
was only singing by the two thousand persons present.

Booth-Tucker was defended by A. Oakey Hall, former New
York City mayor of Tweed Ring fame, who volunteered his serv-
ices. "Twenty-five years ago," reminisced Mr. Hall, "I stood where
this man, my client, stands today. I was hounded into court by hun-
gry reformers, who sought to convict me of crime. The jury did for
me what I hope you will do for Booth-Tucker they acquitted me."

Mr. Hall was disappointed. The verdict the jury handed down
was "Guilty." After five hours of deliberation they found Booth-
Tucker guilty as charged of maintaining a public nuisance. As
the prosecuting attorney stated to the jury, Booth-Tucker was not
on trial for his religious convictions but "for disturbing the peace
of his fellow men." The commander protested the verdict in a
long statement given to the press. The action of the jury "jeopar-
dizes the religious liberties of tens of thousands of the best citizens
of the United States," he declared. Furthermore, the law under
which he had been convicted was "legislation of a class character,
prohibiting the workingman from meeting to pray, while the rich,
man is allowed to meet under precisely similar circumstances to
dance."

The verdict aroused little public sympathy. The newspapers
were unanimous in their editorial opinion that the verdict was
just, that it was not the result of prejudice against the Army, and
that it would do the Army no harm. After all, one paper pointed
out, the right to sleep was as positive as the right to worship. The
commander was released on $25 bail until sentencing, which was
postponed, apparently indefinitely.

Steve Brodie and A. Oakey Hall were not the only acquaint-
ances Booth-Tucker made in America. Just two months after his
conviction for "keeping and maintaining a common, ill-governed,
disorderly house," he had an interview with President William
McKinley at the White House. It was arranged by Vice President
Garret A. Hobart, who introduced the Salvationist leader. From that
time until his tragic death, McKinley was a good friend of Booth-

122 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Tucker and of the Salvation Army. Eugene V. Debs endorsed the
work of the Army in a letter for the Labor Day issue of the War
Cry, as did the president of the Typographical Union and the
United Mine Workers' secretary. In contrast to these labor leaders,
a number of New York's most socially prominent people were also
listed as patrons of the Army.

Meanwhile, the Army continued to grow in numbers. The Ball-
ington Booth schism failed to do more than momentarily halt the
rate of growth. As Evangeline Booth pointed out, "Our losses in
officers do not exceed about two dozen altogether out of a total of
some 2,000; and between 200 and 300 soldiers (so far as we can
tell) out of about 25,000." The total number of officers and ca-
dets dropped from a total of 1,952 in March, 1896, to a low of
1,921 in June; but by August of the same year the total stood at
1,967, and each successive month saw an increase. By January,
1897, there were over 2,100 officers, cadets, and accepted candi-
dates serving 685 corps and outposts and operating 34 units such
as slum posts, rescue homes, food and shelter depots, outrider
circuits and labor bureaus. The number of corps and outposts
grew at a less rapid rate than did the social institutions, as the
efforts were made to put the Army's entire "social scheme" into
operation.

To inspect his rapidly growing forces in the United States, Gen-
eral William Booth made his third visit to America in 1898. The
old evangelist, tall and gaunt, with flowing white beard and black
plug hat, arrived in New York on January 15, 1898, and two days
later left for Canada to begin his tour of the continent. Booth-
Tucker accompanied him as far as the border. After a month in
Canada, his schedule called for him to begin his American tour in
Washington, D.C., then to the Pacific Coast by way of Philadelphia,
Harrisburg, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Kansas City. After visiting
Los Angeles, San Francisco, Portland, and Seattle, his route took
him through Minneapolis, Chicago, Cleveland, Buffalo, Boston,
and Philadelphia to New York. In all, the trip took three months.

While General Booth was inspecting his Army, the country was

HEALING THE BREACH 123

mobilizing its army for a different sort of war. President McKinley,
harried by belligerent patriots, a jingoistic press, and a confused
Congress, moved slowly into war with Spain over Cuba. "It wasn't
much of a war," as Theodore Roosevelt ruefully remarked years
later, "but it was the only war we had." The country made the
most of it and it marked the beginning of the war services of the
Salvation Army.

A joint resolution that was the equivalent of a declaration of
war was passed by Congress on April 19, 1898, and signed by
President McKinley on April zoth. General Booth was in New
York ready to conclude his tour with a gala celebration before re-
turning to England. The war news nearly crowded him out of the
newspapers; nearly, but not quite.

On April 2 3rd customers and clerks emptied out of stores from
Broadway and Seventh Avenue along Forty-second Street and
down Sixth Avenue to Union Square as the sound of martial music
and the sight of mounted men started wild rumors. It was not New
York's sons off to fight the Spaniards, but the Salvation Army, men,
women, and children, two thousand strong, marching in review for
their General. Several novel floats and mounted men added to the
parade.

The sixty-nine-year-old evangelist showed the strain of his
American campaign at the final meetings in New York. His voice
was exceedingly husky, but when he raised it he could be heard
throughout the Academy of Music. At his farewell meeting he
talked for an hour and a half to a large crowd in the Metropolitan
Opera House. It was natural that the General should make some
reference to the war. The New York World quoted him as pre-
dicting victory over Spain. "This country is at war with Spain. Bat-
tleships will be lost; more Maines will be blown up, there will be
defeats. Give up then? Give up? No! This war will be won if it
takes the last dollar and the last drop of blood," cried General
Booth to an audience that stood up to cheer and shout "Amen!"

Before General Booth sailed on the liner Germanic on April
zyth, he wrote to President McKinley, offering to send a large

124 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

corps of trained nurses from the various branches of the Army in
Europe to serve in hospitals for the wounded in the war. Nearly a
thousand people gathered at the dock for a final farewell.

The Spanish-American War was a good opportunity for the Sal-
vation Army in the United States to show its Americanism. In
addition to the number of Salvationists who served as soldiers in
Uncle Sam's army, Salvation Army officers were sent to each of the
major military camps in the country. When war broke out, Briga-
dier Alice Lewis and Ensign Annie S. Anderson were sent to Tampa
and Key West, Florida, to work with the soldiers and if possible
to join the expeditionary force to Cuba. In Florida the two lassies
opened a free reading and writing room and supplied it with pa-
pers, literature, stationery, and cold water. They conducted meet-
ings with the aid of a United States Army band, but they could not
secure permission to join the troops for Cuba, and Brigadier Lewis
returned to New York to head the Salvation Army's Naval and
Military League.

The purpose of this League was "to visit sailors on board and
hold meetings among them on shore, and visit the camps of soldiers
and follow them into battle as far as possible. As the Red Cross
Society is so well organized for the latter work, the Salvation
Army's purpose is to keep more strictly to the moral, temperance,
and spiritual lines." The Salvation Army saw a need for spiritual
and moral guidance among the men and boys of the hastily re-
cruited army and, without attempting to compete with the Red
Cross or any other agency, set about to meet it.

At Camp Alger, near Washington, B.C., Major Edith F. Mar-
shall set up a tent seating over four hundred persons, purchased
with funds donated by friends of the Salvation Army. Among
the contributors was Mrs. William McKinley. Salvation Army of-
ficers served at Camp Tampa and De Soto in Florida, at Camp
Chickamauga, Tennessee, at Camp Thomas, and at other installa-
tions, conducting religious services, distributing literature, and lis-
tening to the thousand and one problems of homesick volunteer
soldiers.

For the West Coast, the Philippines were the center of interest

HEALING THE BREACH 125

In the war. As troops poured into the San Francisco port of em-
barkation, the Salvation Army erected tents at the various camps
and conducted services for the soldiers. Here, Major John Milsaps
became the first Salvation Army chaplain officially recognized by
the United States Army. The War Department gave the Salvation
Army permission to appoint an officer to go overseas to minister
to the spiritual and moral welfare of the troops that would sail to
Manila. Milsaps, the first Salvation Army officer commissioned on
the West Coast, and leader of the pioneer party that opened Ha-
waii, was a man well suited to work with soldiers. The sturdy
Texan, who had grown up on the frontier, was a man among men
whose sincerity and splendid Christian character won the respect
of those who met him.

The first Salvation Army chaplain sailed with Major General
Wesley Merritt and his staff on the Newport, leaving San Francisco
on June 29, 1898. Only his transportation was furnished by the
Army. The first night he borrowed a blanket and slept on the deck
until he found a bunk. He ate in the engineers' messroom. With
him he brought a phonograph, some records, and a supply of lit-
erature. He held meetings on the ship. The Spanish had not sur-
rendered Manila when the troops arrived on July 25th. General
Merritt gave Milsaps permission to visit all of the United States
regiments camped around the city. He ate where he could, slept
in a different place each night, and held meetings whenever the
men were not drilling. For a time he roomed with three war cor-
respondents and with Emilio Aguinaldo and General Merritt. He
was with the troops when they entered Manila, and he watched
the Spanish surrender.

In Manila, Major Milsaps set up the first Salvation Army serv-
ice center for United States troops abroad. He hired a seven-room
house in central Manila and set up a kitchen, shower bath, and
recreation room supplied with phonograph, records, newspapers*
and magazines from America. He furnished stationery, stamps*
wrote letters, and carried messages. The major held his religious
meetings at the center, and won twenty-two converts in the first
month.

126 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

In full Salvation Army uniform, his only dress in the eighteen
months he served in the Philippines, Major Milsaps traveled to all
the outlying camps and posts. He held the only Protestant serv-
ices on the ships of Admiral Dewey's fleet anchored in the bay.
When battle with the Filipinos broke out, Milsaps followed the
troops, worked in the hospitals, and conducted funeral services.
Wounded Filipinos were assisted as well as American soldiers. He
also worked with native Protestants, held a service in a leper hos-
pital, and many services in Bilibid Prison, where he used Salva-
tion Army songbooks and distributed the War Cry. Salvation Army
work in wartime had been ably inaugurated by Major John Mil-
saps when he returned to San Francisco on the troopship Hancock
on February 23, 1900.

Commander Booth-Tucker, in common with the great majority
of the Protestant clergy, had no doubts about the righteousness of
the war. It might be expected that this scion of a family of British
colonial administrators would support the United States' course of
imperialism after the Spanish-American War. In a poem published
in the War Cry that anticipated by two months Kipling's famous
"The White Man's Burden," he offered an answer to the question,
pondered by so many Americans: "What Shall I Do With the
Philippines?"

What shall I do with them? Methinks I hear the call
Of those who 'neath their load of sorrow staggering
fall!

I hate to cast my eyes beyond my borderland,
And yet, I would not fail to heed a higher hand
Which calls me, as it seems, the downcast to

uplift,
And share with those dear lands each Heaven-

proflFered gift.

****
What shall I do with them? Shall I refuse to roam
Beyond the borders of my present sea-girt home?

HEALING THE BREACH 12 y

I did not seek the task. I would, but durst not

shirk!
The destiny seems strange that doth these islands

bind

To us and we to them! And yet, and yet, and yet
These heathen millions mourn! Their cheeks with

tears are wet

With tears I know and feel my hand in God's can dry.
I know the task is hard and thankless, much abuse
Will make my pathway dark; but that is no excuse!

Booth-Tucker's position was a reflection of the popular "im-
perialism of righteousness" advocated by such men as Josiah
Strong and John W. Burgess. By this premise, it was America's duty
to spread the benefits of Christianity and of the Anglo-Saxon genius
for political organization to the barbarous or semibarbarous re-
gions of the world. Other individuals pointed out to the American
business community that imperialism could be profitable also. That
the "New Manifest Destiny" was supported by a majority of the
American people was shown by the election of 1900. In vain did
William Jennings Bryan and the Democrats denounce Republican
imperialism and inveigh against "American aggression" in the Phil-
ippines. William McKinley was reelected with a popular majority
of nearly a million votes.

Americans faced the future confidently at the turn of the cen-
tury. Faith in progress was strong as succeeding innovations made
drastic changes in everyday life. Electricity released factories from
dependence on steam engines, lighted homes, and made possible a
host of labor-saving devices. The automobile, probably more than
any other invention since the Civil War, changed the daily life of
the people, making Americans the most mobile people in the world.
The movement from farm to city continued at an accelerated pace,
but the farmer was no longer isolated. Rural free delivery put the
daily newspaper in his hands. The telephone kept him in contact
with his neighbors and with his relatives in the city. The mail-order

128 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

catalogue brought his family the clothing styles and conveniences
of city stores.

One of the new inventions which the Salvation Army was quick
to utilize was the stereopticon or magic lantern. Slides were proved
to be very effective in illustrating lectures, and in 1901 a stereopti-
con manufactured to the specifications of Brigadier Edward J.
Parker, then Trade Secretary, was put on sale by the Army's Trade
Department. The gramophone was adopted as a Salvation Army aid,
and through its use small groups in many places all over the country
heard the stirring exhortations of William Booth.

The period was one of political reform. Educational opportu-
nities were opened to more and more people. The spirit of pragma-
tism demanded that education should have an easily evaluated
usefulness. New fields of adult education were opened. Important
media of education and entertainment were the Chautauqua lec-
tures and lyceums that brought information and culture to multi-
tudes of Americans.

Commander Booth-Tucker of the Salvation Army became
known to thousands of Americans who attended these lectures or
who read some of the numerous pamphlets and magazine articles
he wrote as an authority on relief measures, especially on farm
colonies. No other American Salvationist was as prolific a writer
as Booth-Tucker. His Chautauqua address "The Salvation Army as
a Temperance Movement" was published in pamphlet form, as
was his address on "Our Future Pauper Policy in America." He
wrote one of a series of monographs on American Social Economics
for the United States Commission to the Paris Exposition of 1900
entitled "The Social Relief Work of the Salvation Army in the
United States." His pamphlet on "Farm Colonies of the Salvation
Army" was published as a Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor and a
House of Representatives Document. The farm colonies were his
pet project, and he wrote several other pamphlets and many arti-
cles about them.

XIII

"The Landless Man
to the Manless Land'

Booth-Tucker's knack for aphorisms was required to summarize the
farm colony plan. "Place the waste labor on the waste land by
means of waste capital, and thereby convert this trinity of modern
waste into a trinity of production," or in more direct form, "The
Landless Man to the Manless Land." It was the project foremost in
his mind as commander in the United States, and the one to which
both he and the Consul devoted much of their time and energy.

Farm colonies were part of General Booth's "In Darkest Eng-
land" scheme. His threefold plan included a city colony to "gather
up the poor destitute creatures, supply their immediate pressing
necessities, furnish temporary employment, inspire them with hope
for the future, and commence at once a course of regeneration by
moral and religious influences." From the city colony those who
could not be sent home to friends or placed in permanent jobs
were to be settled on farm colonies. "As the race from the Country
to the City has been the cause of so much of the distress we have to
battle with, we propose to find a substantial part of our remedy by
transferring these same people back to the Country." Here they
could be trained for agriculture and finally sent as an immigrant
to an overseas colony in some country where land was cheap and
man power was needed.

Industrial homes filled the place of city colonies in the plan,

129

130 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

and a farm colony was secured at Hadleigh, Essex, near London, in
1890. This colony operated at a substantial loss during its first few
years. It is still in existence today, however, as Hadleigh Land and
Industrial Colony. Other farm colonies were operated in Australia,
India, and South Africa.

Fort Romie, California, was the first Salvation Army farm col-
ony in the United States. Five hundred and twenty acres of land in
the Salinas Valley, four miles from the Southern Pacific railroad
station at Soledad, were purchased early in 1898. The San Fran-
cisco Chamber of Commerce, to whom Booth-Tucker explained
the farm-colony plan, joined with the Salvation Army to inaugu-
rate the colony. The land, purchased for $26,000, had been used
for dry farming. It was rich, light loam that needed only water to be
productive. Eighteen families of unemployed city people were
chosen to begin the colony, but they proved to be inept farmers and
were further discouraged by a drought that plagued the colony for
three years. Of the original group only one family stuck it out, the
rest returning to the haven of the more familiar city.

The Salvation Army provided for irrigation and in 1901 se-
lected new colonists, wisely drawn from the surrounding region
and all with farm backgrounds. Plots of about twenty acres were
sold to each family at $100 an acre, payable in equal sums over a
twenty-year period with a 5 per cent interest charge on the balance.
The necessary equipment (cows, horses, and implements) was sold
on a five-year installment plan. In 1905, when H. Rider Haggard
visited the colony, twenty families formed the colony, and none
had left since 1901. The colony, which the Salvation Army had
spent $64,000 to establish and maintain, not including a loss of
$27,000 suffered during the first three years of drought, was
now appraised at $113,280, most of the increment belonging
to the individual colonists. The initial failure cost the Salvation
Army $21,000, which was charged to the account of experience.

Critics of the plan pointed out that the Fort Romie farm
colony had not succeeded in returning the city's unemployed pau-
pers to the soil, but had merely given a few families of farm laborers
the opportunity to become independent proprietors. Probably

"THE LANDLESS MAN TO THE MANLESS LANB" 131

money expended In other ways might have benefited a much
krger number of people in the class of society with which the
Salvation Army worked most closely.

Fort Amity, the Salvation Army's largest farm colony, was ex-
hibited as the answer to these charges. After an extensive search
through the West, a tract of land was purchased in 1898 on the line
of the Santa Fe Railroad in Colorado a few miles from the Kansas
border. Though the land was 3,500 feet above sea level, it was
situated in the Arkansas River Valley, and had an adequate supply
of water for irrigation. The land was purchased from the Amity
Land and Irrigation Company on time, without a down payment.
By 1905 the colony consisted of 1,760 acres purchased at a cost of
$47,000.

In April, 1898, the first families were brought to the colony,
most of them from Chicago and a few from other cities. Only a
small number had fanning experience. The Salvation Army had to
pay the transportation costs of many of the families, and lend them
money for subsistence for the first year. The land was covered with
a heavy prairie sod that required considerable working. There were
no crops the first year and only fair ones the second, but after the
first two years crops were good. Seven years after the colony was
established, there were thirty-eight families in the colony, a popu-
lation of about 275 persons. Only sixteen to eighteen families had
left the colony during that period.

Amity had the appearance of a prosperous Western town in
1905. In that year the Santa Fe Railroad built a stone depot at
Amity with stone from Castle Rock, Colorado. The Salvation Army
contributed f 1,000 toward its cost. It was estimated that the town
business of over $200,000 brought the railroad $50,000 in freight
charges that year. The town had sixteen established businesses,
including a blacksmith shop, grain store, drugstore, two meat mar-
kets, a hardware store, grocery, a bank, newspaper office, barber-
shop, and mail-order house.

In the burst of enthusiasm for Fort Amity, Consul Booth-
Tucker determined to move the Salvation Army Cherry Tree Or-
phanage in Mount Vernon, New York, to the healthier climate of

132 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Colorado. A large stone building was erected at a cost of about
$20,000 (incidentally furnishing employment for the colonists to
supplement their income), and in 1901 the children were moved to
Fort Amity. Unfortunately, the venture was not successful; it could
hardly be expected that Eastern children taken from a beautifully
landscaped estate covered with trees and shrubbery of all sorts
could share the enthusiasm of the Booth-Tuckers for the barren,
treeless, arid region of eastern Colorado. Some eighty to one hun-
dred children were there in 1905, but when an estate was secured
in Spring Valley, New York, the Amity orphanage was given up.
For a time the building was used as a sanatorium for tuberculosis
patients, but by January, 1908, it stood empty.

Alkali was the chief curse of the Amity colony. Haggard on his
Inspection tour in 1905 criticized the land as not suitable because
of its tough virgin sod, lack of trees for lumber, and poor drainage.
Constant irrigation of the alkali land with no drainage resulted in a
concentration of alkali at the surface so that crops could not be
grown. The only solution was an expensive drainage system that
added an intolerable expense to the already overburdened colony.

The colony began to decline soon after Haggard's visit in 1905.
In January, 1908, the population of the colony was about two
hundred, and a number of the homes, many built of stone quarried
on the colony, stood empty. The colony was abandoned by the
Salvation Army in 1908, when nearly all the land was sold. The
Army aided the colonists in moving their families and goods to a
place of their choice and helped them to secure employment. Thus
ended what was described as "one of the most perfectly planned
and executed of the many agricultural colonies planted in Colo-
rado between the years 1854 and 1900."

Another product of the farm-colony plan was Fort Herrick. In
July, 1899, Myron T. Herrick, later Governor of Ohio and Ambas-
sador to France, and James Parmelee gave the Salvation Army a
z8o-acre tract of fine land in Mentor Township, only twenty miles
from Cleveland. Booth-Tucker accepted the land to begin a farm
colony in Ohio, and eight or nine families were put on the land to
start the colony. It was soon evident that the amount of land was

"THE LANDLESS MAN TO THE MANLESS LAND" 135

insufficient for a farm colony and that surrounding land was too
expensive to purchase. The settlers were disposed of, and a small
industrial colony similar to that in Hadleigh, England, was under-
taken. This did not work out well, and for a time an Inebriates'
Home was operated on the land. This experiment was an expen-
sive burden to the Army, and today Fort Herrick is a Fresh Air
Camp.

With all their failures, it is difficult to evaluate the benefits of
the farm colonies. The plan w r as one that even today seems sound
in theory, and it is not strange that it received the enthusiastic
support of many people when explained with enthusiasm by
Booth-Tucker. Why did the farm colonies fail? A number of rea-
sons may be suggested. First, the type of person whom the plan was
conceived to benefit the city slum dweller was not able to adjust
to an agricultural life. As an experiment to remove the surplus
population of the city to the country, the plan was certainly a
failure. Again, the expense of the colonies was out of proportion
to the number of persons benefited. The same amount of money
spent in assisting emigration might have been of greater benefit.
A man transported from the city and thrown on his own resources
in a favorable rural environment might be more likely to succeed
than a person who is part of a colony which has assumed the
responsibility for his success.

Some of the blame for the failure of the two colonies may also
be attributed to the poor selection of land, for both colonies
were in arid regions dependent on expensive irrigation systems.
The colonization plan suffered a severe blow when the leadership
of Colonel Thomas C Holland, national colonization secretary,
was lost when he suffered serious injury in a train wreck. When
Booth-Tucker left the United States, the farm colonies lost their
greatest enthusiast. His successor was not as interested in farm
colonies, and did not give them the same support.

Farm colonies were Booth-Tucker's first interest but by no
means the only innovation during his administration. The Harvest
Festival appeal, so familiar to Salvationists today, was conducted
for the first time in the United States from September 5 to 8, 1896,

134 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

when each of the Army's corps collected food, vegetables, fruit,
canned goods, drygoods, or almost anything of value, and sold it at
auction or to institutions of the Army. The money secured was
used for the operations of the Army.

In 1899 a step long postponed, but one that had become in-
creasingly necessary was taken: the Salvation Army was incor-
porated. A special act of incorporation was passed by the New York
State Legislature, avoiding the necessity of incorporating under
the more restricting general laws. Commander Booth-Tucker spent
a week in Albany meeting members of the legislature and explain-
ing the Army and its functions. The act provided for the incor-
poration of the Salvation Army as "a religious and charitable or-
ganization." The incorporated Salvation Army was to own the
property then held in the name of Booth-Tucker, and was given
the right to establish homes, shelters, hospitals, and other institu-
tions. The property of the Salvation Army was to be tax-exempt
in the State of New York. The passage of the act was the occasion
for expressions of approval of the Salvation Army by many of the
legislators. The act became law on April 28, 1899, when it was
signed by Governor Theodore Roosevelt. 1 Roosevelt met Booth-
Tucker in Albany, and was a good friend of the Salvation Army
later when he became President and after he left the Presidency.

To inspect the three farm colonies and other phases of Salva-
tion Army work in the United States, General William Booth
made his fourth visit to America in the fall of 1902. As the Salva-
tion Army expanded into a great international organization, the
General spent more and more of his time traveling all over the
world to keep in touch with the work and to offer his unique
inspiration to Salvationists of all lands. The seventy-three-year-old
evangelist had become a figure of international renown, an au-
thority on aiding the poor, to whom he had dedicated his life,
and a man received with honor by presidents, kings, and statesmen.

It was twentieth century America that General Booth saw on
his fourth visit. From the S.S. Philadelphia, on which he sailed, he
sent back to International Headquarters the first wireless telegram
the Army had received. On a later trip he was to have Marconi as a

"THE LANDLESS MAN TO THE MANLESS LAND" 135

traveling companion. When he was escorted to a waiting automo-
bile for a farewell parade, and the auto wouldn't run this was
1903 forty to fifty men had to push it, and the General soon
transferred to a carriage. It was the twentieth century, but only the
beginning of the century.

Once more the General was given a triumphant American
welcome. Nearly two thousand persons sailed down the bay in a
flotilla of eleven tugs and two sidewheel steamers to meet his ship at
quarantine. The vessels were decorated with streamers of "Wel-
come General," and on each a Salvation Army band played. After
a twenty-one-gun salute and seventy-three bombs one for each
year of the General's life the flotilla escorted the Philadelphia to
her dock. Booth-Tucker boarded the ship from a revenue cutter,
and the Consul was waiting at the dock. The Salvationists from the
welcoming fleet disembarked at the foot of west Twentieth Street
and paraded to the Headquarters Building, where General Booth
reviewed them. The General faced a battery of reporters and
photographers and told of his plans for the visit. All in all, as he
wrote back to London, "It was a day of days, one of the most
remarkable of my life."

General Booth arrived in New York on October 4, 1902. The
following day was Sunday, and the Salvation Army leader had no
rest. The Academy of Music was filled three times to hear him give
hour-long addresses. An estimated eight thousand persons heard
him speak that day and fifteen hundred were turned away from the
evening meeting.

"I belong to the poor," he told his audience. "My mission is to
the poor. I am glad to see the rich and well-to-do at my meetings;
but my eyes are on their pocketbooks. The poor are my people. I
have given my heart to them. I shall be true to my bride."

The General was so deeply serious about his work and his
mission that his sense of humor seemed incongruous at times. On
many occasions when pleading for funds he would turn to the
chairman and say, "Why bless your heart, Mr. Chairman, in our
Prison Gate establishments we have 300 ex-gaolbirds, and if the
gentlemen on the front row do not help the General, I'll give 'em

136 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

their names and addresses, let 'em loose, and send them to fetch It
themselves!" He was forced to explain in New York that the re-
porter who said he had threatened to turn loose 15,000 criminals
to plunder society unless the rich men of the country loosened their
purses had no sense of humor.

On Monday night Carnegie Hall was crowded, and fifty police-
men were busy handling the crowd that blocked Fifty-seventh
Street. Mayor Seth Low presided, and introduced the General with
a story that became one of his favorites. "Do you like the Salvation
Army?" inquired an English vicar of his bishop. To which the
bishop replied, "Well, I cannot say that I do, but to be honest 1
must confess I believe God does."

The crowds at the New York meetings were duplicated at the
other cities in the United States and Canada where General Booth
appeared. The itinerary included Buffalo, Columbus, Toledo, Chi-
cago, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Kansas City, Denver, Los Angeles,
San Francisco, Oakland, St. Louis, Birmingham, Cincinnati, Pitts-
burgh, Washington, D.C., Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York.

The high point of the trip came in Washington, D.C., when
General Booth had lunch at the White House with President
Theodore Roosevelt, Secretary of State John Hay, Secretary of War
Elihu Root, and Secretary of the Interior Ethan A. Hitchcock.
Senator Marcus Hanna was his sponsor in Washington. The Gen-
eral gave the opening prayer at the United States Senate and met a
large number of senators, congressmen, and other members of
Washington officialdom. Senator Hanna gave a dinner for the
General in the parlors of the Arlington Hotel.

Four thousand persons crowded the Metropolitan Opera House
for his farewell meeting in New York. The General had fallen on
the stairs at headquarters and sprained his knee. Despite this in-
jury and the fact that he had traveled sixteen thousand miles in
twenty weeks, visiting fifty-two cities and holding two hundred
meetings, the tall white-bearded leader spoke for nearly two hours.
On March 7, 1903, General Booth sailed from New York on the
Campania.

The year 1903, inaugurated so auspiciously by the General's

"THE LANDLESS MAN TO THE MANLESS LAND" 137

tonr, bade fair to be the most successful to date for the Salvation
Army in America. Commander Booth-Tucker toured the country
and was one of the speakers at the National Irrigation Congress.
He told fifteen hundred delegates from twenty-six states about the
Salvation Army's experience with colonization. In October, the
Consul began a tour, stopping at Buffalo to open a new Rescue
Home and at St. Louis for some important meetings before arriving
at Fort Amity, the Colorado farm colony. Here she spent a week
inspecting all aspects of the colony and discussing with Colonel
Thomas Holland, national colonization secretary, the problems of
colonization in general.

After a busy day on Tuesday, October 2yth, the Consul, Ensign
Danines, her secretary, and Colonel Holland boarded the Santa Fe
train for Chicago. It made a short stop in Kansas City, and she took
the occasion to pay a flying visit to a new Men's Industrial Home
before continuing to Chicago, where Commander Booth-Tucker
awaited her for a conference on the colonization project.

On Thursday morning Booth-Tucker arrived at the station to
meet the train carrying his wife. He was met instead by the Salva-
tion Army officers in charge of the Chicago work, taken to head-
quarters, and told, "Commander, your wife is dead; she was killed
in a wreck."

The train was passing the depot at Dean Lake, Missouri, when
it ran into an open switch. The last three cars of the train were torn
off, and dashed into a steel water tower on a siding. In the first of
these cars, the one that bore the brunt of the crash, were the
Consul and Colonel Holland. Both were removed unconscious
from the wreckage. Emma Booth-Tucker died two and a quarter
hours later, without regaining consciousness, on October 28, 1903.
Colonel Holland recovered and lived eight years longer, but never
completely got over his injuries.

Frederick Booth-Tucker was prostrated by the tragic news.
Here was a test of faith indeed. But God gave him strength to
accept his loss without bitterness and to face the ordeal of the
funeral services. The Salvation Army uses the phrase "promoted to
Glory" for the death of one of its members. Its funeral services are

138 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

supposed to be occasions for rejoicing over a Christian warrior gone
home. The usual black for mourning is discarded for white, and a
call to the penitent form is part of the funeral service. The body of
the Consul was brought to Chicago and placed in the Princess
Rink, where more than seven thousand persons viewed the body-
before the service was held in the evening. In New York a public
funeral service on November ist, in Carnegie Hall, attracted more
than fifteen thousand persons, only a third of whom were able to
gain admission to the hall. Ten thousand paid a final tribute to the
Salvation Army leader as the body lay in state in Memorial Hall of
the National Headquarters Building on west Fourteenth Street.
Interment was in Woodlawn Cemetery.

The loss of his beloved wife was a shattering blow to Booth-
Tucker. In addition to the six-week-old son who died in England
while he was en route to America, the commander had lost two
infant children born in the United States and his father during the
seven years he had served in America. Now left alone with six
children, all under thirteen years of age, Booth-Tucker tried to
carry on as commander of the Salvation Army in the United States
and act as both father and mother to his children. The strain was
more than any person could endure. Soon after the funeral he
visited England for a few weeks, but returned in time to help
distribute Christmas baskets in New York at the annual Christmas
dinner for the poor,

It was a heartsick commander who led the Salvation Army in
the United States in 1904. Evangelical campaigns, inspection tours,
and the routine office work that Booth-Tucker threw himself into
could not fill the aching void within him. The Salvation Army lost
a stanch supporter and its commander a personal friend when
Senator Marcus A. Hanna died in April, 1904. In June the com-
mander headed a delegation to an International Congress in Lon-
don. Before leaving he spoke in .Carnegie Hall on the subject "The
Landless Man to the Manless Land."

In London, General Booth gave his consent to Booth-Tucker to
leave the United States, and his farewell was announced, after his
return, in the War Cry of August 27, 1904. After a three-month

"THE LANDLESS MAN TO THE MANLESS LAND" 139

farewell campaign Booth-Tucker and his family left the United
States in November, igoq?

American Salvationists paid the man who had been their leader
for eight critical years a number of tributes in which they were
joined by many prominent public figures. At the last farewell
meeting in Grand Central Palace, New York, messages were read
from President Theodore Roosevelt, the Vice President-elect, two
Cabinet members, and twenty-four governors, with Governor Al-
bert B. Cummins, of Iowa, expressing the prevailing sentiment
when he said:

Those of us who have had something to do with public affairs, and
therefore, something to do with our social and industrial problems, have
come to look upon The Salvation Army and its eloquent and efficient
Commander as one of the most powerful allies of good government. I
have long recognized the Salvation Army as one of the most potent, if
not the most potent, force for the betterment of humankind now at work
for the safety of mankind.

XIV

Eva!

Booth-Tucker's successor to the command of the Salvation Army
forces in the United States has been described as "one of God's best
gifts to America." During an administration of thirty years, Evan-
geline Cory Booth, known to Salvationists as the Commander,
became for most Americans the personification of the Salvation
Army.

Born on Christmas Day, 1865, ^ e fourth daughter and seventh
child of William and Catherine Booth, Eva was one of the most out-
standing members of a remarkable family. When her older brothers
and sisters, with whom she was educated at home, went into active
service Eva was anxious to join them. She was only fifteen when
she donned a sergeant's uniform, less than a year after Railton and
the seven lassies sailed to America. From this lowest rank, Eva
Booth was to reach the highest position in the Salvation Army, and
America was to be her home.

If, as some have said, the stage lost a great actress when Evan-
geline Booth dedicated her life to the Salvation Army, it might also
be said that the Salvation Army gained a consummately dramatic
leader. At the age of seventeen, Eva Booth went into full-time
service. The teen-age captain was striking in appearance; her bon-
net covered a wealth of flowing auburn hair and framed a hand-
some face dominated by deep, flashing eyes; her figure was tall
ve feet ten inches and slender. The first woman Salvationist to

140

"SEND EVA!" 141

adopt the bicycle, an excellent horsewoman and an enthusiastic
swimmer and diver, Evangeline Booth was always active and kept
physically fit. She had the temperament of an actress. Dramatic,
Impetuous, headstrong, she would drive herself for weeks of strenu-
ous work until forced to retire completely for a period of rest. She
was gifted with a magic name and she lived up to it. Her biographer
has compared her voice with that of Sarah Bernhardt, and she
soon proved that she had her mother's and her father's gift of
stirring audiences both small and large.

Evangeline Booth suffered mob violence and police persecution
along with other Salvationists in the i88o's. She came to be used as
a trouble shooter sent wherever a critical battle was in progress.
On one occasion Gipsy Smith, later an internationally famous
evangelist, quit the Salvation Army when ordered to give up a gold
watch presented by the people of a town he had served. The order
went out: "Send Eva!" She faced a rebellious crowd and won it back
to the Salvation Army. When the Army faced a severe legal test in
Torquay, it was "Send Eva!" and again she won a victory. After
four years directing the International Training College at Clapton,
she was appointed field commissioner for the area around London.

In 1896, when Maud and Ballington Booth resigned as head of
the Salvation Army in the United States, and when it appeared to
London that a number of Salvationists would follow suit, still
again it was "Send Eva!" and the young trouble shooter arrived in
the United States for the most difficult job in her career. She was
successful, and able to turn over to her sister and brother-in-law,
the Booth-Tuckers, an Army of American Salvationists almost un-
broken by a very trying experience.

Evangeline Booth's next assignment was in Canada, where she
directed a successful eight-year administration following the rather
disturbed term of her brother Herbert Booth. When the gold rush
to the Klondike began, the Canadian commander ordered the ex-
tension of Salvation Army work to Alaska, and made three trips to
the Yukon to inspect the forces there. The successful commander
of a neighboring country seemed to be well qualified to succeed

142 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Booth-Tucker as commander of the Salvation Army in the United
States. Evangeline Booth assumed her new command just before
her thirty-ninth birthday, Christmas, 1904.

The position Evangeline Booth assumed in 1904 was one whose
duties and responsibilities previously had been divided between
two persons the national commander and his wife. The difficulty
that Booth-Tucker experienced during the months he commanded
the United States forces after the death of the Consul showed that
the job was too much for one alone. Since Evangeline was not
married, the General divided the United States into two depart-
ments. A Department of the West, with headquarters in Chicago,
was created, and the command given to Commissioner George A.
Kilbey. In addition to her duties as national commander, she
directly administered the Eastern States as well.

Thousands of Americans remember Evangeline Booth for her
unusual and stirring lectures. Perhaps her best known was the
lecture "My Father," presented in all parts of the country after the
death of General Booth. This dramatic presentation of the life and
ideas of her father became almost as famous and was repeated
nearly as many times as Russell BL Conwell's "Acres of Diamonds."
Another specialty of the Commander was to appear in a costume
of rags to deliver a presentation of the Salvation Army's social
work complete with tableaux, lighting effects, and dramatic delivery.
Her lectures were always crowded beyond capacity, and cities gave
her a royal welcome on her tours, urging her to return again and
again.

To the American public, Evangeline , Booth personified the
Salvation Army, and as its head she received the tributes paid to
the Army. Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, Taft, Wilson, Harding,
Coolidge, Hoover, and Franklin Delano Roosevelt each received
her and endorsed the work of the Salvation Army. But Evangeline
Booth was more than the head of a great organization; she was a
personality in her own right. One of the eminent speakers of her
day, she was recognized as a leader in the movement for women's
suffrage and prohibition legislation. Any list of outstanding Ameri-

"SEND EVA!" 143

can women in the first half of the twentieth century would certainly
include the name of Evangeline Cory Booth.

Less famous than the lectures of the Commander but perhaps
even more important in explaining the Army's work were the lec-
tures, illustrated by lantern slides and motion pictures, that a
number of officers presented to audiences at YMCA's and churches
all over the country. Five years before The Birth of a Nation,
Edward J. Parker had taken a motion-picture film and numerous
slides of the Salvation Army's social work in New York's East Side
and worked out an illustrated lecture entitled "Problems of the
Poor."

General William Booth, revered by Salvationists as the
Founder, was actively interested In the land where he had ap-
pointed his favorite daughter, and in less than three years after she
assumed command in the United States he visited the country to
inspect her forces.

General William Booth paid two visits to the United States in
1907, one a stopover on his way to Japan. The General reached
New York on March 5th and after three days continued across
Canada to the Pacific Coast. He sailed from Seattle, Washington,
on April ist. In Canada he was the guest of Earl Grey and met Sir
Wilfrid Laurier. In Japan he was accorded a welcome beyond
expectations both by the government officials and by the people.
The Emperor of Japan received him, and 25,000 people gathered
to see him off with a "banzai" that broke all records. The seventy-
eight-year-old patriarch was back in England no longer than two
months, during which time he received an honorary doctorate of
civil law from Oxford before he set out again for a full-scale visit to
America.

His sixth and last visit to the United States was plagued by
illness. The old man's physical body, weakened by thousands of
miles of nearly continuous travel and constant meetings and
speeches, could not keep the pace set by the still young mind and
spirit. The ocean trip on the Virginian was a pleasant one, with
Marconi as a fellow passenger and interested visitor to the Gen-

144 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

eral's shipboard lectures. The ship landed at Kimouski, Quebec, on
September 20, 1907. After visiting St. John, Halifax, and Moncton,
New Brunswick, the General began his tour of the United States
at Boston on September 2yth. The itinerary included the princi-
pal cities of the East and Midwest Pittsburgh, St. Louis, Des
Moines, Chicago, Cleveland, Columbus, Washington, Baltimore,
Philadelphia, and New York.

The General reached Chicago seriously ill with dysentery,
and for nearly a week submitted to the treatment of doctors and
nurses before setting out again on his tour. Several of his meetings
were postponed, but he made them all except Cleveland, which
had to be dropped from the itinerary, much to his regret.

In Washington, President and Mrs. Theodore Roosevelt had a
luncheon for the General and Evangeline. General Booth told the
President about his trip to Japan and about the work of the
Salvation Army with different nationalities. John Wanamaker, one
of the Army's stanchest friends and supporters, was chairman of
his meeting in Philadelphia. But as the General met emperors,
presidents, famous statesmen, and educators, he always thought
of the value of these contacts to the Salvation Army, and of how
they could be translated into tangible aid for the unfortunate and
downtrodden.

Throughout the trip there were reporters to face. In New York
he was so weak that several times during the interview he was
forced to put his head down on the table to get his strength.
Though he appeared to have broken down physically, with his
large frame fallen in on itself, the old air of command was still
there, and in appearance he resembled the prophet Moses more
than ever. One reporter wrote, "Feeble as he is, that little spark in
his eye that electrifies anyone he looks at tells the secret of his
endurance he is a human live-wire perpetually charged from
an inexhaustible storage battery of nervous energy."

The sense of humor was still keen also, as the old man told the
story of a new convert who confessed to him between sobs, "I'm a
convert, all right, General, but when I came into this place, I'm
damned if I had any idea of getting saved."

"SEND EVA!" 145

On Sunday, November 3rd, the General spoke at three meet-
ings before at least five thousand people. About 175 came to the
penitent form. At his meeting in Salvation Army Headquarters on
the preceding night, sixty-one were converted. He appeared to be
in better physical shape than when he had met the reporters on
Friday. His voice, although throaty, did not quaver, but was marred
by a breathless sort of delivery owing to lack of lung power. One
observer said:

The General's characteristic posture is with Ms hands clasped loosely
behind his back, his feet planted a little distance apart and his body tilted
backwards away from the hips. He makes no gestures at all, except to-
ward the end of an address when he thumps repeatedly the Bible lying
before him.

He is a very serious speaker. At one time last night he stopped in the
middle of a sentence, and, pointing to a woman in the front row, said
sharply: "You will kindly refrain from fanning if I am to keep on talk-
ing." Hand clapping he abided as little and always checked such applause
peremptorily.

The official farewell for the Founder was on November 8, 1907,
on the steps of the City Hall in New York City, where Railton had
been refused permission to hold outdoor meetings twenty-seven
years earlier. On this occasion a police inspector and fifty police-
men escorted the General and his party through the crowd of some
2,500 people while five Army brass bands played.

Because the old man's voice was too weak to be heard beyond
the steps, three officers with megaphones repeated his words:

Maybe I will see you again who can tell? I won't say good-by for
good then, but only for a little while. I will see you again if I live, and if
I am dead I will try to see you anyhow, if they let me. God be with you
till we meet. Hallelujah!

For five minutes the crowd cheered; then the bands began to
play and fireworks were set off . With a prophecy that was all too
true, a reporter wrote that this farewell in all probability "will
mark his last public appearance on this continent." On November
9, 1907, accompanied by his daughter Evangeline, the General

146 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

sailed from New York. The band played "God Be With You Till
We Meet Again" as General Booth bade farewell to America for
the last time.

Soon after returning from the United States, William Booth's
sight began to fail; but he refused to allow the affliction that
brought total darkness to him before his death to keep him from the
active life he had always led. Whenever he was able, he traveled
throughout England and the Continent conducting large meetings,
speaking to convicts in prisons, or addressing small groups from an
automobile. He planned still another trip to America in his eighty-
first year, but was forced to cancel it.

The old warrior was able to enjoy a huge celebration meeting
in honor of his eighty-third birthday. His daughter Evangeline was
in England in May, 1912, when he addressed 10,000 people in
Albert Hall, his last public appearance before "going into dry-dock
for repairs." They heard the bent and nearly blind old man de-
clare:

While women weep as they do now, I'll fight; while little children go
hungry as they do now, I'll fight; while men go to prison, in and out, in
and out, I'll fight; while there is a poor lost girl upon the street, I'll fight;
while there yet remains one dark soul without the light of God, I'll fight
I'll fight to the very end!

An operation to remove a cataract left him totally blind. For
three months this soldier of God fought for life because he felt it
was his duty to fight, but he longed for a rest. At last, at 10: 13 P.M.
on August 20, 1912, William Booth went home:

The hosts were sandalled, and their wings were fire!
(Are you washed in the blood of the Lamb? )
But their noise played havoc with the angel-choir.
(Are you washed in the blood of the Lamb? )
Oh, shout Salvation! It was good to see
Kings and Princes by the Lamb set free.
The banjos rattled and the tambourines
Jing-j ing- jingled in the hands of Queens.

"SEND EVA!" 147

And when Booth halted by the curb for prayer
He saw his Master thro' the flag-filled air.
Christ came gently with a robe and crown
For Booth the soldier, while the throng knelt down.
He saw King Jesus. They were face to face,
And he knelt a-weeping in that holy place.
Are you washed in the blood of the Lamb? *

The news was flashed around the world, and the world
mourned its citizen. "In the list of those who have unselfishly
devoted their entire lives to the uplifting of humanity, no name
stands higher than that of General William Booth. . . ." The
obituary in the New York Tribune sounded as though it had been
written several days before, yet it had the ring of true sincerity.
"His field of labor was the world, and the peoples of every race
and every clime had opportunity to hear the message of hope and
promise he so effectively preached to the downtrodden and un-
fortunate. . . ." President Taft sent a message of tribute and con-
dolence. The German Emperor, George V of England, the Prime
Minister, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and other officials of
church and state sent messages.

Commander Evangeline Booth in New York was prostrated by
the news, but caught the earliest ship and reached England in
time to attend the burial service.

On Friday and Saturday, August 2 3rd and 24th, 150,000 per-
sons filed through Congress Hall, where the body lay in state. Over
30,000 crowded the Olympia for the funeral service, which was
turned into a memorable revival. The funeral procession, solemn
yet triumphal, was led by banners of white. Forty bands played the
death march from Handel's Saul. The crowds that packed the line
of march from London to the Abney Park Cemetery in Stoke
Newington could not be estimated; streets, sidewalks, windows,
even the housetops were crowded. Business houses closed and flags
hung at half mast. Punch declared:

No Laurelled blazon rests above his bier,
Yet a great people bows its stricken head

148 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Where he who fought without reproach or fear
Soldier of Christ, lies dead.*

On the day after William Booth's death, August 21, 1912, an
envelope written and sealed twenty-two years earlier was opened
and the name of the General's successor read. No one was surprised
to note that William Booth had appointed his eldest son, William
Bramwell Booth, Chief of Staff for so many years, to succeed him.
Fifty-six-year-old Bramwell Booth, deeply moved, accepted the ap-
pointment and became the Salvation Army's second General

He had stood at his father's side devoting his life to the Christian
Mission and the Salvation Army since he was sixteen. The two
were of entirely different but complementary characters. It was
William Booth, inspired and inspiring others, who set the goals
and pointed the way for the Salvation Army, and Bramwell Booth,
utterly devoted, gifted with a legal mind, was the able administra-
tor who helped furnish the vehicle to carry forward his father's
ideals and keep them expanding. While William Booth was stirring
thousands of souls with inspiring sermons, Bramwell was seeing to
finances, sending out directives and orders, building up the or-
ganization necessary to run a world-wide Army. Bramwell Booth
could never have founded a Salvation Army, but it is also probable
that William Booth could not have built as efficient an Army
without the aid of his eldest son as Chief of Staff.

The United States soon had an opportunity to see the difference
between the two Generals. In November, 1913, General Bramwell
Booth paid his first visit to America. He arrived in New York on
Friday, October 31, 1913, on the Lusitania. In contrast to the head-
lines that his father had inspired, the new General of the Salva-
tion Army was given no more than a paragraph in a story on
arrivals on the Lusitania by the New York Tribune. It is charac-
teristic of Bramwell Booth that he made comparatively little im-
pact upon the American reporters, and that he spent nearly three
of his four weeks in America in Canada.

The Salvation Army in the United States tendered its General
* Reproduced by permission of the proprietors of Punch.

"SEND EVA!" 149

a loyal welcome, but the public was generally apathetic. Notices
advertising his meetings in New York were run in the papers, and
Carnegie Hall was filled for a Sunday-afternoon service. The brief
newspaper accounts described his talk as some eulogistic remarks
about his father and mentioned that American Salvationists were
disturbed by a rumor that their Commander, Evangeline Booth,
was soon to be transferred to head an international bureau in Lon-
don.

When General Bramwell Booth sailed from New York on No-
vember 26, 1913, many Americans would have agreed with the
description given by the London Times. Bramwell Booth "lacks the
personal magnetism, the apostolic fire of his father. His mind is
eminently cautious, conservative, lawyer-like. He is ... by nature
no lover of crowds and strange faces."

The contrast between the new General and his dashing, dra-
matic sister who commanded the forces in the United States was
evident. The fact that Bramwell Booth's entire experience was in
Britain while Evangeline was an adopted American served only to
accentuate the basic differences of personality that future events
were to magnify into a complete rupture.

XV

Approaching Maturity

The period from 1904 to 1917 in the history of the Salvation Army
in the United States is generally one of consolidation and advance
along lines already laid down. There were few innovations, and
these were not of enduring significance. Social institutions increased
in numbers and extended their service. Evangelical campaigns went
hand in hand with increasingly emphasized attacks on liquor and
tobacco. That the attitude of the Salvation Army toward intoxi-
cants coincided with that of a large portion of the American public
is shown by the fact that by 1916 three-quarters of the area of the
United States with half the population was legally dry and the
Eighteenth Amendment, passed by Congress in 1917, was ratified by
all but two states by January, 1919.

Soon after Evangeline Booth assumed command of the Salva-
tion Army in the United States, she borrowed from Canada a cam-
paign known as the "Siege." The first Siege in the United States,
announced by a Proclamation of War that took up the whole
cover of the War Cry, was scheduled from February 5 to March 14,
1905, and was outlined as a special campaign "to destroy every
kind of evil work resulting from sin, such as drink, blasphemy,
hatred, half-heartedness, shame, hypocrisy, cant, lukewarmness, jeal-
ousy, cowardice, fashion, pride, conceit, lies, and other enemies of
God and man."

The month-long campaign was divided into Backsliders' Week,
Juniors' Week, Notorious Sinners' and Drunkards' Week, and Hos-

150

APPROACHING MATURITY 151

pitals and Prisons Week. In 1918 it included a Week of Prayer and
Preparation, Reconciliation Week, Prisoners' and Notorious Sin-
ners' Week, Young People's Week, and Soldiers' and Candidates'
Week, a program that lasted from January jth to February nth.
The Siege was a purely evangelical effort, and its effectiveness is
difficult to assess. It was held annually until 1919, when it was re-
placed by the Flaming Revival, another month-long revival effort
held in that year.

Another, more spectacular, innovation was the Boozers' Con-
vention or Boozers' Day, an event featured in newspapers all over
the country, and one whose fame spread abroad. Colonel (later
Commissioner) William Mclntyre conceived the idea of collecting
as many drunkards as possible and making a special effort to aid
them.

The first Boozers' Day was on Thanksgiving Day, 1909. "Down
and out" alcoholics were attracted by the offer of a free meal and
by a novel parade that included a walking whisky bottle ten feet
high to which a man was chained, floats depicting scenes of a
drunkard's life, Men's Industrial Home wagons, Salvationists in uni-
form, mounted officers, and several Army bands. Another feature of
the parade was a city water wagon with a number of "bums" aboard
and with uniformed Salvationists alongside to keep them "on the
wagon." These tactics helped to fill Memorial Hall with twelve hun-
dred inebriates combed from the dives of the Bowery and brought
to the meeting in hired buses. Colonel Mclntyre directed the meet-
ing, but most of the speaking was done by reformed drunkards,
whose testimony had the most effective appeal. The men and
women on the platform had once been what the poor creatures in
the audience were now, and clearly there was hope for everyone.

One unhappy man at the Boozers' Convention in 1910 was a
former newspaper editor who had slipped down to the level of a
Bowery bum; doctors at Bellevue Hospital had pronounced him an
incurable alcoholic. He was Henry Milans, who was converted at a
Salvation Army meeting and who never again touched liquor nor
had any desire to do so. Until his death he conducted a lively minis-
try by writing and correspondence. Milans' case is probably the

152 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

most miraculous result of this program, but there were other, less
spectacular cases. Converts were carefully followed up, and if they
had no homes they were brought to Salvation Army Men's Hotels
and Industrial Homes until they could get on their feet and be
placed in jobs.

The Boozers' Convention became an annual event until the pas-
sage of the Eighteenth Amendment. It was given up, it was claimed,
because the advent of Prohibition cut off the supply of drunks. 1

An Anti-Suicide Bureau was opened at Salvation Army Head-
quarters under the direction of Colonel Thomas Holland on March
i, 1907. A new feature in the United States, this followed the ex-
ample of a similar movement in England that had proved to be
successful. Persons who contemplated suicide as the only solution
for their problems could tell their troubles to a trained Salvation
Army officer and receive understanding help.

America's greatest disaster since the Chicago Fire occurred in
the early morning of April 18, 1906, when an earthquake began in
the region of San Francisco, California. The quake destroyed water
mains and began a fire that raged for two days unchecked, de-
stroying most of the City of San Francisco. An area of 2,593 acres,
or more than four square miles of the city, was burned out. In-
cluded in the 28,188 buildings destroyed was the Salvation Army
provincial headquarters building, with all its equipment and rec-
ords and all of the social institutions, corps halls, and property
in San Francisco thirteen institutions in all, worth from $130,000
to $150,000.

In Oakland, across the bay, the Salvation Army was the first to
open a relief camp for some of the thousands of refugees that
swarmed out of San Francisco. The Oakland Citadel was thrown
open and meals were served. A camp ground at Beulah Park, three
miles from Oakland, was secured, tents were erected, and a relief
camp was set up. Clothing was distributed, and the homeless were
fed and housed. Chinese Salvationists served as cooks and dining-
room and kitchen help. A depot for lost and strayed children was
set up. As Colonel George French told a reporter from the San

APPROACHING MATURITY 153

Francisco Examiner, "We are always ready for an emergency," and
the work of the Army backed up his statement.

While relief work was carried out in the San Francisco area,
Commander Evangeline Booth held a mass meeting in New York's
Union Square to raise funds for the stricken city. Some $12,000
was collected as the gifts came in, including $1,000 from General
Booth in England, and pennies, nickles, and dimes collected in
unseasonal Christmas kettles. At the end of May, Miss Booth made
an inspection tour of the devastated region, traveling eight thou-
sand miles in twelve days.

The Salvation Army has not publicized its disaster work because
it has never felt that it has the financial resources to operate as a
Disaster Relief Agency. It emphasizes that its services are emergency
disaster services which it is particularly well qualified to provide,
As The Salvation Army Disaster Emergency Service Manual points
out, "Salvation Army personnel is a well-disciplined, cohesive, mo-
bile force. It is motivated by a love for God which expresses itself
in service to man, even to the point of sacrifice. It is this spirit that
makes our service so acceptable." The important thing to outside
observers about Salvation Army disaster work is that it is prompt
on the scene of disaster, efficient without red tape or formality, and
is not ostentatious.

Wherever a major flood, hurricane, explosion, fire, or other
disaster has hit any section of the country in the past forty years,
the blue-uniformed Salvation Army men and bonneted Salvation
Army lassies have been seen serving sandwiches, coffee, and dough-
nuts, and offering reassuring spiritual counsel. With a quiet cheerful-
ness that helps to restore calm, they act in the first hectic hours of
the tragedy before more extensive relief work is organized and
operating. The Salvation Army was first on the scene after the
Texas City, Texas, explosion on April 16, 1947, had wrecked most
of the community and taken nearly five hundred lives. When six
hundred tons of ammunition blew up in South Amboy, New Jersey,
at 7:26 P.M. on May 19, 1950, damaging the entire city, Salvation
Army units were on hand with coffee by 8:00 P.M. These are only

154 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

two dramatic examples; but the Salvation Army is also present to
serve at less publicized emergencies forest fires, tenement fires,
localized tornadoes, or floods.

Another innovation that developed into an important Salvation
Army service was the summer outing, added to the social welfare
program during this period. For a glorious day the Salvation Army
enabled thousands of children and their weary mothers to escape
from the oppressive heat of the slums into the country or to the
seashore. Not all the summer outings were on as grand a scale as
the one conducted by Major and Mrs. Wallace Winchell, of Jersey
City, but in all the larger cities New York, Chicago, San Fran-
cisco, and others the children had their day. The Winchells con-
ducted their eighth annual outing in August, 1911, when 4,200
children and mothers from Jersey City filled a steamer and two
barges for a cruise and visit to the seashore. Over four thousand
quarts of milk were provided for the children, and a doctor, ten
Salvation Army nurses, fifty Salvation Army guards, and three local
policemen were on hand to assure their health and safety. Local
businessmen contributed to pay the expenses of the trip.

A memorable Salvation Army highlight for 1914 was the grand
International Congress held during the summer in London, mark-
ing the beginning of the Salvation Army's fiftieth year. It was a real
Congress of Nations. Every country in which the Salvation Army
operated sent delegates each in special costume typical of the
country. The gala event was marred by a tragedy before it began
and ended in the shadow of an even greater tragedy. On a foggy
night in May, the Empress of Ireland, with 165 members of the Ca-
nadian delegation to the Congress on board, was cut in two by a
freighter. One thousand and twenty-four persons, including Commis-
sioner and Mrs. Rees of Canada, lost their lives. Only twenty Salva-
tionists, including young Ernest Pugmire, later to be national com-
mander of the United States, were saved.

Though the Empress of Ireland tragedy threw a shadow over the
Congress, it did not spoil its magnificence. The United States dele-
gation seven hundred strong crossed the ocean on the Olympic
with former President Theodore Roosevelt, long a Salvation Army

APPROACHING MATURITY 155

supporter, as a fellow passenger. In all, some forty thousand Salva-
tionists participated in the greatest Salvation Army international
gathering to date. About half of them were from the United King-
dom, but over fifty different countries and colonies were repre-
sented.

For two weeks in June, 1914, London was treated to an exhibi-
tion of Salvation Army strength and unity. An estimated fifty thou-
sand people filled the Crystal Palace building and grounds for one
ceremony when the flags of each participating nation were raised:
France, Germany, Sweden, Russia, Italy, Norway, Switzerland, Den-
mark, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, Argentina,
China, Japan, Belgium, Finland, and the United States were all rep-
resented. The costumes attracted much attention. The American
delegation with red cowboy hats were singled out for praise by the
London Times, but there were Swiss guides, Koreans, Indians in
turbans, Zulus, and Kaffirs with red blankets. Plumed and hel-
meted Germans marched beside French and British soldiers of Sal-
vation. Salvationists of all races and colors, white, brown, yellow,
and black, marched side by side; every continent was represented.
A babel of tongues ensued as the delegates marched with fifty-seven
bands to Hyde Park to preach in thek different languages from the
twelve platforms erected there.

Evangeline Booth, riding on a fine horse, led the American del-
egation. The London Times declared that she was the outstanding
woman of the Congress, and quoted some of the English Salvation-
ists as saying, "She's the old General come to life." Her oratory,
fire, and magnetic personality were a great feature of the gatherings.

But, like a nearing shadow, while Salvationists of all nations
marched side by side, singing praises to one King the King of
Kings other troops, devoted to other monarchs, inarched in Aus-
tria, in Serbia, in Russia, in Germany, in France.

The stage was set. Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria was
assassinated in the little town of Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, while
the International Congress was still in session in London. After the
Congress the American delegates scattered all over Europe to spend
furloughs visiting friends in Germany or France or to see the sights

156 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

of the Old World. World War I began in August, and a number
of American Salvationists were caught within the borders of the
belligerent nations on the Continent. Still others were in England,
and watched British mobilization. Colonel Mclntyre, Colonel Holz,
Lieutenant Colonel Parker, and Brigadier Barker all came home
with eyewitness accounts of the outbreak of the war.

The World War caught the Salvation Army in the dilemma of
all international religious organizations. Salvationists fought in
German uniforms as well as in French and British. With Interna-
tional Headquarters in London, the English Salvation Army offered
its humanitarian services to the British Government. In the United
States, where President Wilson in proclaiming neutrality urged
Americans to be "impartial in thought as well as in action," the
Salvation Army followed his injunction, at least in the columns of
its official publication, the War Cry. Each issue contained war news
with such articles as "With the Troops in France" and "Salvation
in the German Army," although more space was devoted to ac-
tivities with the Allied forces.

In America, Commander Evangeline Booth went into action
soon after war broke out in 1914, and organized the "Old Linen
Campaign." Old linen was collected, rolled into bandages, sterilized,
and baled to be shipped to Europe for the use of wounded soldiers
and civilians. The drive was such a success that on December 19,
1914, sixteen cases of bandages weighing nearly six thousand
pounds were shipped abroad, and the material poured into collec-
tion depots so fast that it became necessary to appeal for funds to
hire some of the unemployed to supplement volunteer workers. As
badly needed material piled up waiting to be processed, the Com-
mander became more forceful, heading one appeal for funds, "Pity
All You Like, but for God's Sake Give!'"

As 1915 gave way to 1916 and 1916 passed into 1917, event
after event brought the United States closer to involvement in the
conflict raging in Europe. President Wilson's head called for the
neutrality he had proclaimed, but his heart was with England, then
fighting "to make the world safe for democracy," Like Woodrow

APPROACHING MATURITY 157

Wilson, Evangeline Booth's heart and sympathy lay with England
and the Allies, but she, too, maintained a position of neutrality.

An interesting episode illustrative of American neutrality was
the visit of Major Wallace Winchell, of Jersey City, to Belgium in
1915-1916. International Headquarters had a fund contributed for
the purpose of feeding and clothing needy Belgians under Salva-
tion Army direction. Since Belgium had been occupied by the Ger-
mans, the Salvation Army units of that little country had been cut
off from communication with International Headquarters in Eng-
land. A neutral was needed to direct the relief work, and an out-
standing neutral was secured in the person of Major Winchell.

This outstanding and original officer was a truly representative
American Salvationist. In fact, his ancestors had been Americans
for two centuries. He had begun Salvation Army work in 1886 as a
youth of twenty, and his career was outstanding. Blessed by a very
capable wife, he held positions in Fort Romie, California; Chicago
and Springfield, Illinois; Milwaukee, Peoria, Boston, St. Louis, and
in Waterbury, Connecticut. His last and most successful position
was in Jersey City. It was Winchell who had subpoenaed Colonel
Robert G. Ingersoll to appear at a mock trial of the Devil, who had
organized relief wagons for the strikers' families during the Pull-
man strike, and who had operated one of the Army's first salvage
depots in Waterbury, Connecticut.

In Jersey City he had attended a Holy Name breakfast of the
Police Department and with a well worded speech won the sym-
pathy and support of influential Catholic politicians. When he left
for Belgium in October, 1915, Major Winchell carried letters of in-
troduction from many important political officials, including the
governor of New Jersey, the mayor of Jersey City, and political
boss Frank Hague. He knew the value of publicity, and proved to
be colorful copy for the newspapermen. His methods, often sensa-
tional, were usually surprisingly effective. He broke up a brawl be-
tween Irish and Poles in his district by distributing flowers, and his
work with the slum children of all nationalities in Jersey City was
especially outstanding.

158 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Winchell's assignment to Belgium came unbidden, and involved
considerable sacrifice; but once undertaken it was pursued whole-
heartedly. Mrs. Winchell filled the major's position in Jersey City
alone while he was gone. The story of Major Winchell's mission
to Belgium, written by a journalist and published in 1916 when he
returned, received considerable criticism from those who were work-
ing to involve the United States in the war because it exposed the
falsity of the Belgian atrocity stories then coming from the British
propaganda service, and called on America to hold fast to her
cause of neutrality.

There was no Pearl Harbor in 1917 to shock the nation into
solidarity. America, the melting pot of all nationalities, with the
advice of Washington backed by the tradition of generations, found
it difficult to contemplate the prospect of American boys on the
battlefields of Europe. Many German-Americans could not believe
that the Kaiser was determined to rule the world. Many Irish-
Americans, whose homeland had suffered for centuries from Brit-
ish exploitation and suppression, found it difficult to picture Eng-
land as liberty's sole defender. Although prominent statesmen and
clergymen, most newspapers, and many organizations were highly
articulate in their demands that the United States join England and
France in the "War to end Wars," many Americans actively op-
posed this policy and still others hoped against hope that we could
keep out of the war. Consequently, many Americans were caught
psychologically unprepared when war was declared against Ger-
many on April 7, 1917.

The Salvation Army in the United States and the Commander
were not unprepared, however, and with characteristic prompt-
ness moved to meet this new opportunity for service. The tradition
of service to American soldiers, established so firmly in the Spanish-
American War, was upheld and enlarged upon. World War I was
to open a new era in Salvation Army history*

XVI

Doughnuts for

"The die is cast! The tocsin has sounded, and our beloved land has
plunged into the unprecedented war that for the last two and a
half years has been rocking the world." The United States at last
had entered the battle at the side of England, but Commander
Evangeline Booth, in a War Cry editorial "The Salvation Army
and the War," showed no elation. She warned: "The Salvation Army
is ready for the emergency but the Salvation Army is an inter-
national organization; our flag is interlaced with flags of all
peoples. As our great Founder was, and bade us to be, we know
no man after the flesh, and yet recognize our brothers in all the
families of the earth; hence there is only one war in which we can
glory that supreme struggle in which we are ceaselessly and des-
perately engaged the struggle to triumph over sin and strife and
death, with purity, peace and life everlasting all other war we
deplore. But the Salvationist stands ready, trained in all necessary
qualifications in every phase of humanitarian work, and, to the
last man, will stand by the President for the execution of his orders."
World War I probably marks the climax of Salvation Army his-
tory in the United States. The Army had quite generally won the
confidence of the city slum dwellers and the respect and support of
many wealthy persons in the thirty-seven years before 1917. But
the great majority of Americans knew little and cared less about
the uniformed figures they saw in small groups on the street cor-
ners playing musical instruments or exhorting a lethargic group of

159

160 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

bystanders. World War I gave the Salvation Army the unique op-
portunity to demonstrate more fully to Americans the qualities that
were always part of the Army's tradition.

The popularity that came to the Salvation Army as a result of
its overseas work during the war was greatly out of proportion to
the quantity though not to the quality of its service. In France
the Salvation Army won the affection of the doughboy and the
gratitude and respect of the whole nation, yet the spirit of those
Salvationists who went to France was no different from those who
stayed in America and ran slum nurseries, homes for destitute men
and women, or other similar programs. But the eyes of the nation
were turned on France; the thoughts of the nation were with its
men on the battlefields; and there millions of Americans learned of
the spirit of the Salvation Army for the first time.

Before America entered the war, Evangeline Booth had pledged
to President Wilson the loyalty and service of the Salvation Army
in the United States, at the same time pointing out the part played
by Salvationists of other lands in support of the armed forces of
their countries. When war broke out, a Salvation Army National
War Council was called and a National War Board created to direct
Salvation Army war work. Edward J. Parker, then colonel, was
appointed national war secretary in addition to his position as head
of the Social Service Department. Lieutenant Colonel Arthur T.
Brewer was secretary for war work for the Department of the West.
Commander Evangeline Booth, as national commander, and Com-
missioner Thomas Estill, Department of the West, were codirectors
of the National War Board.

In the United States the Salvation Army set up service centers
outside but adjacent to the various camps. Known as "huts" or "huts
and hostels," these buildings contained canteens to furnish a change
from United States Army "chow," recreation rooms, writing facili-
ties, meeting rooms, and libraries. In some instances hotel facilities
were provided for soldiers and their friends and relatives. On Sun-
days religious services were conducted. In all, 19 huts, 6 huts and
hostels, 1 6 hostels, 17 naval and military clubs, 33 rest and recrea-

DOUGHNUTS FOR DOUGHBOYS l6l

tion rooms were established. Railway Canteen Service was carried
out at three stations in Chicago, and in Tacoma and Seattle, Wash-
ington.

The Salvation Army led a campaign against camp followers
and the diseases they spread, not only in the interests of the young
soldiers but to save and to help reform the girls themselves. In ad-
dition to the officers assigned to huts and special service centers,
the regular corps officers were ready to assist members of the armed
forces and their families.

However, it is not for its work in the States that the Salvation
Army won its recognition during World War I, but for its work
overseas. A happy choice for director of war work in France was
Lieutenant Colonel William S. Barker, who left New York with
Adjutant Bertram Rodda on June 30, 1917, to survey the situation
in France. Armed with a letter of recommendation from Joseph P.
Tumulty, President Wilson's secretary, Barker was received by the
American Ambassador to France, who arranged for him to see
General Pershing.

Meanwhile, in the United States, preparations were underway
to follow the boys overseas. Evangeline Booth borrowed $25,000
to finance the beginning of the work, and later another $100,000
was borrowed from International Headquarters. Financial support
for Salvation Army war work was slow at the beginning; but, as the
Commander said, "It is only a question of our getting to work in
France, and the American public will see that we have all the
money we want."

Colonel Barker cabled from France to send over some lassies.
Commander Evangeline Booth was greatly surprised but, having
confidence in Barker, she included some carefully selected women
officers in the first group sent to France. The work of the "Sallies"
justified Barker's wisdom in making the request.

The first group of Salvation Army officers to join the AEF left
New York on the Espagne on August 12, 1917. Six men, three
women, and a married couple formed the party of eleven, all from
the Eastern Department. A second party of eleven, that sailed on

1 62 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

September i3th, was composed mainly of officers from the West-
ern Department. Each Salvation Army officer accepted for war ser-
vice in France was carefully screened. It was determined at the
beginning to restrict the number to be sent overseas and to keep
the quality of the highest. Not one hint of scandal was ever as-
sociated with a Salvation Army lassie in France, although in nearly
all cases the girls were subject to a constant adoration from thou-
sands of homesick boys that might have turned their heads.

The Salvation Army in France first went to work in the area of
the ist Division. The first party landed in France on August 22,
1917, and work on the first hut began on September ist. The first
"hutment," as it was called, was a long sectional building, 40 x 1 50
feet, with ten windows on each side. It had a staff of five men and
six lassies, all of whom were musicians, who gave concerts and con-
ducted song services in addition to operating the canteen. The Sal-
vationists conducted Bible classes, but their building was available
to other denominations or fraternal orders. In it Jewish services
were held, and on one occasion the Loyal Order of Moose con-
ducted an initiation. A clothes-mending service was provided by
the girl officers.

Like the other organizations that operated canteens in France
during World War I, the Salvation Army sold candy, toilet articles,
and writing material to the soldiers at a nominal charge. It is hard
for veterans of the Second World War to imagine paying for ar-
ticles that were furnished to American soldiers overseas so freely
in the form of Post Exchange rations, but in 1917 the United States
Army had not assumed this obligation and the task was given to
private agencies, who were forced to operate on a budget and
whose canteen managers had to account for the material that
passed over their counters.

The Salvation Army might be criticized for its lack of business-
like methods, but it won the lasting affection and gratitude of the
doughboy. A soldier need not have the cash in hand to purchase an
article from a Salvation Army canteen; he could get "jawbone," or
credit No records were kept. The soldier was asked to remember

DOUGHNUTS FOR DOUGHBOYS 163

what he owed and to settle his account at payday. This trust in the
doughboy not only paid incalculable dividends in good will, but
proved to be sound business judgment as well. Although there was
no check on them, the soldiers paid what they owed and very
little was lost from bad debts.

One Salvation Army officer on occasion loaned money without
identification or receipt, asking only that it be returned to any
Salvation Army hut marked for his attention when the recipient
could pay. He claimed never to have lost by this policy.

It was the doughnut, however, that caught the doughboy's
fancy. The rations of the AEF were limited indeed. Four Salvation
Army "lassies" with the American First Division wondered what
they could do to supplement the chocolate bars in their canteen.
"Why not make doughnuts?" suggested Ensign Margaret Sheldon.
Flour and lard were secured, but because the girls had no rolling
pin the dough was patted into shape. The top of a baking powder
can served to cut out the doughnuts, and a camphor ice tube to cut
out the holes. The first doughnut was fried by Adjutant Helen
Purviance, and the first batch was an immediate success with the
soldiers.

Although the doughnut became the symbol of the Salvation
Army in France, pies and cakes were also baked by the girls iix
crude ovens, and lemonade was served to hot and thirsty troops
as well. It was not only the delicious home cooking but also the
spirit with which it was served that captivated the men. The
simple secret was that the Salvationists were serving not only the
soldiers but God, and they brought to mind thoughts of home and
of the people there. At the Salvation Army hut the men could
not only bring their uniforms to be mended; they could also bring
their problems to shaxe. As buttons were sewed on, a brief message
of help was offered.

Soldiers in France frequently had more money than opportuni-
ties to spend it. To discourage gambling and the purchase of wines
and liquors, and to aid families in the United States, the Salvation
Army officers encouraged the soldiers to take advantage of the

164 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Salvation Army's money-transfer system. In those preallotment
days soldiers would give their money to a Salvation Army officer,
who would enter the sum on a money-order blank and send it to
National Headquarters in New York. From there it went to the
corps officer nearest the soldier's home, who would then deliver
the money in person to the soldier's family or relatives. Often cases
of need were discovered through these visits, and other Salvation
Army services might be made available to help those in distress.
The money-transfer plan also worked in reverse on occasions when
friends sent money to soldiers overseas.

One of the things that the American soldiers marveled at was
the fact that the Salvation Army followed them right to the front.
The women as well as the men went where the troops happened
to be, and often were in danger from shells and gas.

Enthusiasm for the Salvation Army spread like wildfire through
the AEF in France, from the lowliest doughboy to General Persh-
ing himself. The stories of the work of the Salvation Army in France
first reached America through the letters of the men "over there,"
and then through the stories of war correspondents.

A special correspondent of the New York Times wrote, under
the heading "With the American Army in France": "When I landed
in France I didn't think so much of the Salvation Army; after two
weeks with the Americans at the front I take off my hat to the
Salvation Army. The American soldiers take off their hats to the
Salvation Army, and when the memoirs of this war come to be
written the doughnuts and apple pies of the Salvation Army are
going to take their place in history."

Received with an attitude of skepticism in the fall of 1917, the
Salvation Army soon became the most popular organization in
France. There were other agencies at work, and with these the Sal-
vation Army cooperated; there was no open competition and much
cooperation. On one occasion when a Salvation Army canteen ran
out of supplies with a long line of soldiers still unserved, a YMCA
truck drove up and pulled in beside the Salvation Army vehicle,
and continued serving where the Salvation Army had left off.
Many newspaper articles attest to the Army's popularity. While the

DOUGHNUTS FOR DOUGHBOYS 165

Salvation Army never made comparisons with other agencies, the
newspapers were bound to do so. As one paper editorialized:

Few war organizations have escaped criticism of some sort, but there
is, so far, one shining exception, and that is the Salvation Army. Every
soldier and civilian who have been brought into contact with its workers
sing their praises with enthusiasm. Wherever they have been they have
"delivered the goods" they have proved 100 per cent efficient as moral
and material helpers.

Some Americans were ashamed of their sneers at the Salvation
Army in the past and were quick to make amends. Under a cartoon
showing two soldiers at a Salvation Army canteen was the caption:
"Mmm. Some pie, Phil! 'Member how we used to guy the Salvation
Army?" "Yep. Never again."

Financial support for the Salvation Army's war program came
with a rush. A plea for a million dollars, endorsed by President
Wilson and Secretary of War Newton D. Baker in December, 1917,
was soon answered. In 1918 the Salvation Army joined the YMCA,
YWCA, War Camp Community Service, National Catholic War
Council, Jewish Welfare Board, and the American Library Associa-
tion in a United War Work Campaign to raise $170,000,000 of
which the Salvation Army was to receive $3,500,000. This drive was
under way when the armistice was signed on November 11, 1918.

Salvation Army war work in France did not end with the armi-
stice. Hospital visitation and nursing aid continued after the war,
as did other services for the troops in France and later in occupied
Germany. The Salvationists were frequently given a commission to
get a watch repaired or to buy a Christmas or birthday gift for some
loved one. They furnished paper and pens and urged soldiers to
write home.

A grim but tender Salvation Army activity was carried on from
headquarters in Paris in the form of grave-identification service.
Thousands of letters from the States with all available information
about lost ones were received. The service was to find missing men,
but it generally ended in the identification of their graves. By work-
ing from slim clues, Salvationists would often find a mound of earth

1 66 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

and cross with identification tags nailed on it. A photograph of the
grave, with a record of its exact location and all other available
data, would then be made and sent to the inquirer.

Lieutenant Colonel Barker returned from France in the summer
of 1919 after a job well done. He had been the first American
Salvationist to go overseas, and he was almost the last to return.
In addition to directing the work of Salvation Army activities with
the AEF, Barker had been the purchasing agent for all the material
used or sold through Salvation Army huts and canteens; some he
secured from New York, but most of it he had to purchase in Paris
or other large European cities. Transportation was always a diffi-
culty, and some of the supplies were carried a distance of fifty-five
miles.

The Salvationists in France were not many in number. The War
Service Report declared that there were never more than 500 offi-
cers and other workers under its control in France with the AEF.
Official figures vary, but the number of regular Salvation Army
officers and Salvationists commissioned as envoys sent from the
United States was close to 250. In addition, about 400 men and
150 women workers were secured on the other side.

When the doughboys began to return to the States, they found
the Salvation Army waiting for them at the docks with coffee and
doughnuts. Transports were met at the debarkation ports of New
York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Newport News, Virginia. Telegrams
were sent free of charge to the families of returning men, announc-
ing their safe arrival

A convalescent home for soldiers was established in Atlantic
City, New Jersey, and hospital treatment for servicemen's families
was provided in New York. Wounded and disabled soldiers were
visited regularly by Salvation Army women. In Chicago a Clothing
Bureau was organized, and several hundred needy men were as-
sisted in securing civilian clothes after their discharge.

For a quarter-century the Salvation Army had operated free
employment agencies throughout the United States. After the war,
preference in securing jobs was given to veterans.

DOUGHNUTS FOR DOUGHBOYS 167

Active domestically during the war was the Home Service
League, similar to the old Auxiliary League. A half-dollar member-
ship fee was charged, and members were asked to contribute money
and to work on such projects as knitting and sewing.

To the next of kin of war dead went a specially prepared card
of condolence signed by Commander Evangeline Booth, who was
active in directing and financing the war work of the Salvation
Army from the United States. Her picture in the uniform author-
ized by General Pershing and worn by Salvation Army workers
overseas was given wide circulation. Her official biographer states
that a planned trip to the battlefields of France in June, 1918, was
vetoed by International Headquarters.

A few months after the United States entered the war, an in-
teresting decision affecting the Salvation Army was handed down.
William Booth denied vigorously during his lifetime that the Sal-
vation Army was a denomination, and resisted incorporation for
this reason. In September, 1917, a declaration by the Judge Ad-
vocate General of the War Department, that the Salvation Army
was indeed a religious denomination, was welcomed by its leaders.
The Salvation Army offered the services of its officers as chaplains.
Among the qualifications of chaplains was the requirement that they
must be "a regularly ordained minister of some religious denomina-
tion." The decision stated in part:

It seems that the Salvation Army is a world-wide religious organiza-
tion, with followers in great numbers, property in generous measure, and
doing great good. It has distinct legal existence; a recognized creed and
form of worship; a definite and distinct ecclesiastical government; a formal
code of doctrine and discipline; a distinct religious history; a membership
not associated with any other church or denomination; a complete or-
ganization, with officers ministering to their congregations, ordained by a
system of selection after completing prescribed courses of study. In com-
mon with other churches, it has literature of its own; established places of
religious worship; regular congregations; regular religious services; a
Sunday-school for the religious instruction of the young, and schools for
the preparation of its ministers. The functions of its ministers seem to be

1 68 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

similar to those of the clergy of any other church. In addition to con-
ducting religious services upon stated occasions, they perform marriage
ceremonies, bury the dead, christen children, console the bereaved and
advise and instruct the members of their congregations.

In addition to making Salvation Army officers eligible for service
as chaplains, this decision permitted draft exemption for officers on
the same basis as that for ordained ministers of other denomina-
tions.

Five Salvation Army officers wore the uniform of United States
Army chaplains during World War I. The first to be accepted was
Adjutant Harry Kline of the Omaha Men's Industrial Home. He
was commissioned as First Lieutenant Chaplain of the 6th Ne-
braska Infantry. Kline was a veteran of the Spanish-American War
and had seen service in the Philippines, where he had worked with
Major John Milsaps, the Salvation Army chaplain of the Spanish-
American War. Born at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, during an In-
dian War when his father was in the nth Kansas Cavalry, Harry
Kline had been a cowboy and professional gambler throughout
the West before his conversion in 1891. After the Spanish- American
War, he entered the Salvation Army as an officer, devoting most
of his time to Men's Social work. It would be hard to imagine a man
better suited to work with soldiers than the first Salvation Army
chaplain of World War I.

Another chaplain, John J. Allan, reached the rank of major and
served at General Pershing's headquarters with the chaplain-general
of the AEF. Allan had been very successful in command of the
Bowery Corps in New York before his appointment. Other Salva-
tion Army officers who served as chaplain first lieutenants were
J. A. Ryan, Ernest R. Holz, and Norman Marshall.

In October, 1919, Commander Evangeline Booth received the
Distinguished Service Medal with the approval of the nation-
Though the honor went to the Commander, it was awarded to
America's own Salvation Army in appreciation for the self-sacrifice
and loving labor of Salvationists in France. It was a sign that the
United States had at last fully recognized its Salvation Army and
appreciated it.

DOUGHNUTS FOR DOUGHBOYS 169

As one writer confessed, "It took the great World War to open
our eyes to the fact that the Salvation Army is a vital force in the
community; it needed the testimony of our returning heroes to
convince us that its activities were by no means confined to stand-
ing on street corners and singing hymns."

During World War I America saw, as if for the first time, what
the Salvation Army had become in the United States. "The Salva-
tion Army has had no new success. We have only done an old thing
in an old way," declared Commander Evangeline Booth. The spirit
of the Salvationists in France was the same spirit that had been
seen in the slums of New York and Chicago, at the San Francisco
Fire, in countless smaller cities and towns, and at minor tragedies
without number. For decades men in crimson and blue uniforms
and women in poke bonnets had served wherever mankind suf-
fered, with quiet self-sacrifice. Always as they worked to alleviate
the physical sufferings they encountered, they presented the mes-
sage of salvation the cure for spiritual maladies. It was this con-
secration that made a difference in the service of the Salvation
Army in France, and brought out the similarity between this war
service and other services of the Army since its founding. The Sal-
vation Army was an American institution long before doughnuts
were made in France, but for the first time the American public as
a whole came to recognize and support its endeavors.

XVII

Prosperity and Prohibition

American Salvationists found themselves in a new position in the
postwar decade of the "roaring twenties.*' Their work in France had
won from a grateful public universal acclaim and liberal financial
support. The principle of equality of women, so long practiced by
the Army, was recognized at the polls when women received the
vote, and in the business world as women continued to hold the
positions they had assumed during the war.

The Salvation Army found its greatest satisfaction, perhaps,
when the saloons were closed with the adoption of the Eighteenth
Amendment. The outlook was not entirely favorable, however. Al-
though prohibition ended the saloon, it brought the speakeasy and
the hip flask. It was the age of the flapper, bobbed hair, and skirts
above the knee. The ascending hem line caught the eye of Com-
missioner William Peart. "Lassies' dresses must be seven inches
from the ground," he ordered from Chicago in 1922. Salvationists'
skirt hems would remain close to the ground and their feet firmly
upon the earth.

Commander Evangeline Booth was quick to recognize the Sal-
vation Army's new position in America and, deciding that this was
the psychological moment to put the organization on a sounder fi-
nancial footing, she sought to do away with tambourine collections
of nickels and dimes and to free corps officers from hectic days of
fund begging. In May, 1919, a Home Service Fund Campaign was
launched to raise $13,000,000. It was estimated that this sum

170

PROSPERITY AND PROHIBITION 17 I

would meet all of the expenses of the evangelical and social
branches of the organization.

The campaign was well planned by professional publicity men;
leading citizens served on the campaign committees; there were
no large-salaried officials. Most of the work was contributed, and
the campaign was run with strict economy. President Wilson, Gen-
eral Pershing, Marshal JofFre, and David Lloyd George were among
the statesmen who endorsed the Army's work in the war. Colored
posters by prominent artists advertised the campaign, as did a book-
let telling of the work of the Army. Publicity men furnished news-
papers with local copy, and the press responded with favorable
editorials and cartoons.

Salvation Army Sunday was observed in churches of many de-
nominations. A Doughnut Day was a great success, as doughnuts
were cooked and sold for various contributions. The first was cooked
by Commander Evangeline, and sold for $5,000. A total of
$16,000,000 was achieved, most of it in small contributions the
nickels, dimes, quarters, and dollars of people from all walks of
life and all social classes.

This successful campaign marked the first time Salvation Army
fund-raising activities were conducted on an organized basis. Un-
der the old system, where each unit financed itself as best it could,
some units suffered because they were inadequately financed. With
the introduction of budgetary procedure and organized fund rais-
ing, it was possible for the Army as a whole to ensure that all of its
operations were maintained at a more uniform standard.

The national campaign plan that proved so successful in 1919
was used again in 1920. When three territories were created in
that year, finances were no longer conducted on a national level
but by each of the territories. The Salvation Army today, unlike
many nonprofit organizations, does not have a national fund-raising
drive each year. Each community determines the type of fund-
raising activity to be conducted. In some cities the Salvation Army
is a member of the Community Chest; in others, such as New
York, an annual fund-raising campaign is conducted. Other funds
are obtained through bequests and endowments.

172 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

In 1920 Commander Evangeline Booth visited Europe while
General Bramwell Booth was on a tour of Australia. She returned
to New York in July in time to confer with the General on his way
back to London. On August 7, 1920, following the conference, an
important territorial reorganization was announced. The United
States was to be divided into three territories, each with a com-
missioner in command. Commander Evangeline Booth remained
as national commander supervising all three of the territories but
with no direct responsibility for any one.

Commissioner Thomas Estill left the old Department of the
West to assume command of the new Eastern Territory, which in-
cluded twenty-two Eastern and Southern states. 1 Commissioner
William Peart was the first commander of the newly created Cen-
tral Territory, consisting of fifteen Midwestern states with head-
quarters in Chicago. 2 To head the Western Territory with head-
quarters in San Francisco, Lieutenant Commissioner Adam Gifford
was selected. This territory recognized the distinct status of the
Western states for the first time since 1887, and included the eleven
Western states and the Hawaiian Islands. 3 The formal creation of
the new commands took place in October, 1920.

The administrative division of the United States was completed
in the form of its present status with the creation of a fourth
territory the new Southern Territory in 1926, including fifteen
states south of Mason and Dixon's line, and the District of Colum-
bia. 4 It began to function officially on January i, 1927. William
Mclntyre was promoted to lieutenant commissioner -and appointed
as the Southern Territory's first commander.

The Salvation Army had made less progress in the South than
in any other section of the country in the years before 1926, There
were few large cities in the South; the evangelical Protestant
churches were active in the South and nearly all the population
were devout churchgoers. Perhaps the Salvation Army tradition of
racial equality before God also acted as a handicap in the early
period. Commander Evangeline Booth, in announcing the formation
of the Southern Territory in 1926, explained that the Salvation
Army would "carefully regard Southern sentiment and its work

PROSPERITY AND PROHIBITION 173

among the negroes would be in the nature of missionary work" in
the new territory.

William Mclntyre was especially well qualified to command the
new territory. A Canadian-born Scotsman, Mclntyre had served
in the United States, pioneering in the Far West, since 1891. He
was a veritable dynamo who wore out his staff officers. The stories
of the originality and practicality of his ideas are today part of
Salvation Army folklore.

After a survey of the South, Atlanta, Georgia, was chosen as the
site of territorial headquarters. A training college was established,
and the publication of a Southern War Cry was begun. Under the
leadership of Commissioners Mclntyre, Alexander Damon, Ernest
Pugmire, William Arnold, Albert Chesham, and William Dray, the
newest territory has become an important part of the Salvation
Army in the United States.

Through these few decisive years of change and policy forma-
tion, the Salvation Army was keenly aware of social developments.
There was no stancher supporter of prohibition in the United States
than Commander Evangeline Booth of the Salvation Army. A cam-
paign in favor of the adoption of prohibition was conducted in the
War Cry throughout 1919. A column entitled "Strengthen America"
attacked the "liquor men" for wasting "food, labor, and life." The
adoption of the Eighteenth Amendment and the passage of the
Volstead Act was hailed by the Army as an example to the world,
and England was encouraged to follow Uncle Sam.

Throughout the fourteen years the Eighteenth Amendment was
in effect, the Salvation Army, and especially its dynamic Com-
mander, carried on an aggressive defense; not only was absolute
prohibition praised but all attempts to modify or repeal it were
strongly attacked. The Salvation Army, declared Evangeline Booth
on many occasions, through its close contacts with the poorer people
was better able to judge the effects of prohibition than most or-
ganizations. "Since the enactment of the Volstead Act drunkenness
among the poor has almost entirely disappeared," she stated in
1922. After the adoption of prohibition, the Army found it diffi-
cult to find men to do the work in their industrial homes where

174 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

19,000 men, 75 per cent of whom were alcoholics, had worked
before the war.

Commander Evangeline Booth was called upon to testify before
the Senate Judiciary Committee in 1926 and the House Judiciary
Committee in 1930 on the effects of prohibition. While unable to
attend in person on either occasion, she went on record in each
case with a strongly worded statement in defense of the Eighteenth
Amendment.

The core of the Commander's argument was that prohibition
had made liquor more difficult to obtain and more expensive, and
therefore largely removed it from the reach of the poor and the
average workingman. Boozers' Day in New York City was given
up because not enough alcoholics could be found where literally
thousands had been found before. Since prohibition there were
fewer women in Salvation Army homes for unmarried mothers,
fewer men in the industrial homes for destitute men, fewer cases
of drunkenness in the Army's cheap hotels. "Prohibition is here to
stay," declared Evangeline Booth time and again to audiences in
all parts of the country. Drinking in speakeasies by the "idle rich"
was merely a fad which would pass away, she maintained.

Attempts to modify the law to permit the sale of light wines
and beer were subject to a strong attack by the Commander; 90
per cent of the drunkenness before prohibition was caused by beer,
she declared. Modification means the return of the saloon, she as-
serted in Providence, Rhode Island, at the same time declaring
that those who advocated modification were frequently in partner-
ship with the bootleggers.

It was recognized that this position cost the Salvation Army some
financial support. On at least two occasions Evangeline Booth de-
clared she had refused contributions from wealthy men offered
with the condition that she modify her stand in public. When it
was discovered that James Speyer, a prominent banker who had
been chosen chairman of the Salvation Army fund-raising drive in
1922, was also an officer of an organization that staged a meet-
ing to protest the prohibition amendment, Commander Evangeline
Booth declared that he must recant his views or resign.

PROSPERITY AND PROHIBITION 175

When prohibition became a political issue, the Salvation Army
was placed in a difficult position. In the 1928 campaign, with
Alfred E. Smith, a well known "wet/* as the Democratic can-
didate, the Salvation Army's sympathy was with Herbert Hoover,
supporter of prohibition. In September, 1928, Lieutenant Colonel
Thomas Cowan was reported as declaring in a sermon in New York
that the Salvation Army preferred the election of Hoover. In Oc-
tober, when Wallace Winchell went too far in advertising an il-
lustrated lecture on "Six Months with Herbert Hoover in Belgium
Relief," followed by a talk on "Hoover the Man," at the Bowery
Corps, Commander Evangeline Booth ordered it canceled and is-
sued the statement: "The Salvation Army is not in politics and
neither our places of worship nor our officers are employed to take
part in the election."

Evangeline Booth became subject to much criticism on the
ground that her stand on prohibition constituted interference in
politics. Mayor James Curley, of Boston, not only refused to appear
at the opening of a fund-raising campaign, but declared he would
not contribute until there was "a return to the policy of non-par-
ticipation in matters political by the Salvation Army." Prohibition
is not a political issue but a moral one, replied the Commander to
her critics. "We must fight every enemy of the body and soul of
man," she told a Chicago audience in June, 1932.

On the following day she gave the opening prayer at the Dem-
ocratic National Convention. By a strange irony it was this conven-
tion that endorsed a repeal plank in its platform and nominated
Franklin D. Roosevelt, whose election ensured the end of the "noble
experiment." After the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment was
assured, Evangeline Booth made clear the position of the Salvation
Army. At a luncheon launching the 1933 fund appeal, she declared,
"Long before prohibition the Salvation Army was the greatest tem-
perance organization in this country and will continue its unalter-
able opposition to intoxicating liquors." The battle against alcoholic
beverages was to go on.

For many years it became increasingly evident that the Salva-
tion Army had outgrown its National and Eastern Territorial Head-

176 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

quarters in New York. From 1 895, when the building was so proudly
dedicated, to 1928, the Army had increased from 1,768 to 4,814
officers, staffing 1,735 corps. In the latter year plans were proposed
for a group of buildings that would serve the Salvation Army for
many decades to come. The old Headquarters Building was to be
torn down to make way for the new buildings. The plans included
an eleven-story office building for National and Territorial Head-
quarters, a large auditorium to seat 2,000, and a young women's
residence hotel with a capacity for housing 350 business women, a
gymnasium, and swimming pool.

Temporary headquarters were established for a year in a new
office building at Broadway and Fourteenth Street while the old
structure was razed and the new one erected. On October 5, 1929,
the new cornerstone was laid by Commander Evangeline Booth.
The original copper box from the cornerstone of the old building
was placed in the new cornerstone with its contents intact be-
side another with up-to-date photographs and data. About five
hundred Salvationists and their friends were present at the modest
ceremony.

The buildings were completed in 1930, the fiftieth anniversary
of Railton's arrival in the United States, which was celebrated as
the golden jubilee year. A Golden Jubilee Congress was held in
New York from May 16 to 23, 1930, the high light of which was
the dedication of the new Headquarters Building and auditorium,
In some ways reminiscent of the anniversary celebrations held an-
nually during the first few years of the Salvation Army in the
United States, the Golden Jubilee Congress summarized the prog-
ress made in fifty years.

President Herbert Hoover sent a message to the Jubilee Con-
gress at its opening meeting, on May 16, 1930, at the Seventy-first
Regiment Armory at Park Avenue and Thirty-fourth Street. A pag-
eant with a cast of three thousand depicted the history of the Army
during the past fifty years. The following day, after a service at
the Battery where Railton and the seven lassies had landed, a
parade of three thousand marched up Broadway in a shower of
ticker tape. Twenty Army bands and three floats were spaced be-

PROSPERITY AND PROHIBITION 177

tween the sixteen divisions headed by Commander Evangeline
Booth riding in an open automobile.

In the evening more than seven thousand people crowded into
the Seventy-first Regiment Armory to hear John Philip Sousa lead
the massed bands of the Salvation Army in "The Salvation Army
March," composed by him and dedicated to Evangeline Booth.

Another feature of the Congress was a women's meeting on
May 2oth, with Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt, wife of the governor of
New York, as chairman. Messages were received from Mrs. Herbert
Hoover, Mrs. Calvin Coolidge, and Lady Astor; 3,500 women filled
Carnegie Hall for the program, as Evangeline Booth gave the main
address, "Women Who Have Made History."

The climax of the Congress was the dedication of the new Na-
tional and Territorial Headquarters and the Centennial Memorial
Temple on May 18, 1930. Fifteen commissioners were present, in-
cluding the Chief of Staff, who came from England for the Con-
gress. Commander Evangeline Booth was decorated with the Order
of the Founder at the dedication ceremony. Only eleven others
had been elected to the order founded by General Bramwell Booth
in 1915. The John and Mary R. Markle Memorial Residence, better
known as the Evangeline Residence, was dedicated on June 14,
1930. It was made possible by a $500,000 gift from John Markle.

The attractive buildings of yellow brick and modern design,
erected at a cost of $2,500,000, still dominate West Fourteenth
Street today, a quarter of a century later. They are a fitting monu-
ment to the far-sighted planning of Commander Evangeline Booth.
Their construction coincided with the end of a decade of prosperity
in the United States. In this same decade other foundations were
laid. Reforms in the international government of the Salvation
Army were accomplished, and these too were the result of the
leadership of Commander Evangeline Booth.

XVIII

High Council

A High Council, called in 1929 to adjudicate General Bramwell
Booth's fitness to continue in office, was the climax of a long period
of agitation to reform the basic government of the Salvation Army.
The success of this reform movement made possible the continued
progress of the Salvation Army under democratic leadership. Much
of the impetus behind the movement came from American Salva-
tionists, particularly Commander Evangeline Booth, and the High
Council and its results must be considered one of the decisive events
in Salvation Army history.

The government of the Salvation Army in 1928 had not been
changed since it was set up by the Army's Founder, General
William Booth. According to the original Foundation Deed of 1875,
the organization was to be "under the over-sight, direction and
control of some one person." An advisory committee set up in the
same deed was abolished by another Deed Poll in 1878, at which
time William Booth was secured in office for life and given the
power to appoint his successor.

In addition to having absolute authority over all activities of the
Salvation Army, the General was the sole trustee of all the property
and monies of the Army, holding them in his own name. This
system proved unworkable when the Salvation Army spread over-
seas. In the United States the Salvation Army was incorporated
in 1899, and corporations were set up to hold the property of the
Salvation Army in other countries, although in England and the

HIGH COUNCIL 179

colonies property continued to be held in the name of the General
until 1930.

This autocratic system of government did not go uncriticized.
Many able officers, including three of William Booth's own children,
resigned because of disagreements over arbitrary orders. But no
organized opposition to the autocracy of the General developed
during the command of the Founder, William Booth. Instead, Sal-
vationists developed a certain pride in stories of the old General's
irascible temper and eccentricities. In his absolutism William Booth
resembled a prophet a man with a noble vision, divinely inspired,
and so utterly devoted to carrying out his mission that few as-
sociates questioned his methods.

The selection of Bramwell Booth to succeed his father as Gen-
eral was expected and virtually unanimously approved by the Sal-
vationist world, since it was conceded that no other individual was
so well qualified for the position. Though Bramwell Booth assumed
the same absolute powers of his father, he was unable to exercise
them as the Founder had done without breeding resentment.
Bramwell was an administrator who lacked the mystic command-
ing power of the prophet. Whereas William Booth had drawn his
contemporaries to him and dominated them by his personality,
Bramwell Booth in controlling his contemporaries alienated their
affection. Yet he might have continued in office until his death had
not the leader of the opposition against him been another Booth
his younger sister Evangeline.

The first important clash of wills between the two concerned
the subject of a change of command. It was customary to change
territorial commanders every five years, and in 1920 Commander
Evangeline was completing her sixteenth year in the United States.
In November and December of that year, General Bramwell Booth
visited Canada and the United States, appearing in Chicago, Bos-
ton, Philadelphia, and then in New York, where he talked to
Evangeline about a transfer. "You cannot expect to remain at the
head of the organization [in the United States] all the rest of your
life," the General warned his sister. Evangeline Booth had no de-
sire to leave the United States, and protested vigorously. Before

l8o SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Bramwell sailed for England, he and his sister talked it out for
twelve hours in the Algonquin Hotel in New York inner circles
knew the day as the Army's "Black Friday." The result was a res-
pite of two years.

The two years were up in 1922, and on Saturday, September
9th, the New York World, in an exclusive front-page story, said it
had learned of an impending announcement of the "promotion" of
Commander Evangeline Booth to some other station. The story
was sent to Commander Booth before publication, but she refused
to see a reporter. In London, General Booth could not be reached,
and Commissioner Higgins, Chief of Staff, refused to comment.
Two days later Commander Evangeline received a World reporter
in her office at National Headquarters and declared, in answer to
his question about a change of assignment, "I can only say I have
had no official orders as yet from the General."

She admitted that the question of her term as commander in the
United States had been discussed in 1920. "I was reappointed by
the General at that time," she said. "Before I received that definite
appointment something was said about my remaining on for an-
other two years or thereabout, but I do not think I have had any-
thing of a definite nature. . . . Whatever orders reach me will find
me a true soldier of the Salvation Army flag. I can obey orders as
well as give them. But I want to say there are no words to express
how deeply I would feel leaving America, You know I am an
American citizen. I have given the best years, the best energy and
the best gifts of my life to its betterment and its people."

The World scooped the New York press again on September
1 4th when it published an exclusive interview with General Bram-
well Booth, cabled from London the day before, confirming that
plans were being made to recall Evangeline Booth from her com-
mand in the United States and to eliminate the office of national
commander. "Commander Evangeline Booth's farewell to the
United States has been under consideration a number of years," the
General declared, "but the war made the change impossible. It is
not rny intention to re-district the United States. The present
three commands will remain, each of the three Commissioners be-

HIGH COUNCIL l8l

ing responsible directly to me, as Commander Evangeline Booth
hitherto has been."

Commander Evangeline Booth admitted to reporters that she
had received a radiogram from her brother with orders to farewell.
"I shall obey the order when the date is set for me to go. I have
cabled . . . for further information," she said. One reporter wrote,
"No reason for deposing her was given and she said she knew of
none." It was unfortunate that a routine order to farewell should be
interpreted by the press as a deposition, although the Commander
did not try to conceal her reluctance to leave the United States. To
a group of local officers and soldiers she declared, "If I must go,
ending my work here and leaving so many friends behind in
America, I will depart with a broken heart."

The announcement that Commander Evangeline Booth was
ordered to farewell produced a situation that was almost identical
with that in 1896. The newspapers were quick to make the com-
parison, and again American supporters of the Army organized to
protest the farewell order. The same dire threats of loss of financial
support that characterized the earlier protest movement were
voiced, and several important Americans wrote to record their ob-
jections to the order. One cable of protest was signed by twenty
prominent Americans, including Herbert Hoover, Thomas R. Mar-
shall, William G. McAdoo, Bishop William T. Manning, and Rabbi
Joseph Silverman.

"I am taking no part in any statement or protests that may be
sent to General Booth. I am simply a soldier in the Salvation Army
and feel that it is my duty to obey any order that is given to me, or to
go when he decides that I must relinquish my work here," declared
Commander Booth. The protest movement spread among the officers
and soldiers of the Salvation Army as well as among its friends.
American Salvationists were almost solid in support of the Com-
mander,

For the nearly three months that the newspapers reported the
controversy, the Army in the United States was kept in a state of
uncertainty. Protest after protest was dispatched to London, until
on December 3rd General Bramwell Booth receded from his posi-

1 82 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

tion. In a cable that was an attempt to back down and at the same
time to save face, the General declared:

I have been informed by my representatives in the United States of
America that the statement in the New York World on September 15
[sic~\ has been interpreted by a number of people as being an official in-
timation for my sister, Commander Evangeline Booth to farewell from
her present command. Those, however, who carefully read that statement
will remember that it did not contain such intimation, but referred to the
programme for future developments in the United States upon which I
had fully conferred with the Commander two years ago.

Certainly such information as deciding definitely upon the Com-
mander's removal would not have been conveyed to her through the
medium of the public press. As, however, I am given to understand some
uncertainty still exists upon this matter, I deem it advisable to say that
I have had no thought of an immediate farewell.

The failure to carry out the decision to change the command
of the Salvation Army in the United States represented a disinte-
gration of the absolute power wielded by William Booth as General
and claimed by his son and successor. As Evangeline Booth's official
biographer commented, "The prestige of General Bramwell Booth
was shaken." More than this, the power of Evangeline Booth was
shown and the long-smoldering disagreement between brother and
sister was brought to a head.

General Bramwell Booth's final visit to the United States in
1926 was marred by fears of his sister's actions. She was reported
to be sick during most of his visit, and yet he had great difficulty in
obtaining specific information about her health. In other respects
his visit was a success: his meetings were crowded, his talks with
the various officers encouraging, and he left the United States on
May 5, 19x6, with spirits improved.

Then in September, 1927, Commander Evangeline Booth went
to France to participate in an American Legion convention in Paris,
and on her return visited London. In an interview with her brother,
the last time the two were to meet face to face, she presented him
with a statement of demands known as the Fifteen Points. Although
there were indeed fifteen paragraphs, the actual statement con-

HIGH COUNCIL 183

tained only two major points: Bramwell Booth was asked to refrain
from exercising his right to designate his successor and to provide
a method for electing future generals of the Salvation Army. Bram-
well rejected emphatically any idea of a change in the Salvation
Army government as it had been handed down to him from his
father.

The reform movement led by Evangeline Booth aimed at two
major changes in the government of the Salvation Army. The first
of these was the practice of each General choosing his successor. No
one had objected to the choice of Bramwell Booth, but it became
evident that he intended to select his successor from his family. It
was commonly agreed that none of his sons or daughters had the
qualifications for the office and that the attempt to create a dynasty
would be harmful to the Army. Many felt that BramwelPs sons and
daughters already had too much influence and authority.

Then, too, the absolute power of the General was criticized.
The position of the General as sole trustee of all the temporalities
of the Army, and his authority to make all appointments, came un-
der attack; cases were cited where General Bramwell Booth con-
signed to the "cooler" (transferred to less favorable positions) those
who disagreed with him or who offered criticisms.

It soon became evident that the highest Salvation Army officers,
in England as well as in other countries, were in favor of these
organizational changes. Even Commissioner Edward J. Higgins,
Chief of Staff and General Bramwell Booth's closest confidant, be-
lieved these reforms necessary if the Army was to continue its mis-
sion of service most effectively.

In May, 1928, General Bramwell Booth, then seventy-two years
old, took his first vacation on the advice of his physicians. Chief of
Staff Edward J. Higgins was in charge during his absence. In No-
vember the General's illness became serious.

Under a supplementary deed poll drawn up by William Booth
in 1904, provision was made for a High Council with the power to
remove from office a General judged "unfit" and to elect a successor.
The High Council was to consist of the Chief of Staff, the Secretary
for Foreign Affairs, all commissioners not on the retired list, and all

184 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

officers holding territorial commands regardless of rank. A request
to call a High Council "for the purpose of adjudicating whether the
General for the time being is unfit for office" was presented to the
Chief of Staff on November 14, 1928. It was signed by seven com-
missioners, most of whom were associated with International Head-
quarters. On November i5th the call for a High Council to meet on
January 8, 1929, at Sunbury on Thames, twenty-three miles from
London, was cabled throughout the world.

General Bramwell Booth's serious illness, from which he had
nearly recovered by the time the High Council met, served as the
excuse for its formation, but the real reason was the almost univer-
sal desire on the part of the high-ranking officers of the Army to
elect the next General rather than to permit the selection by the
reigning General through a sealed envelope. They feared Bramwell
Booth might die and that his chosen successor would take office
before they could act. The New York Times described the situation:

What is described as the most serious crisis in the history of the Salva-
tion Army now exists as the result of the failure of eight years' effort by
a "reform" movement within the Army, headed by Commander Booth,
to persuade her brother to give up the autocratic and dynastic powers
now vested in him by the constitution.

The call for a High Council and its subsequent actions created
Indeed the most serious crisis in the history of the Salvation Army.
For nearly six months scarcely a day went by without a reference
to the affair in the newspapers. On five consecutive days stories of
the High Council were carried on the front page of the New York
Times.

The High Council met as scheduled. Leading the fight to pre-
vent the deposition of General Bramwell Booth was his oldest
daughter, Commissioner Catherine Bramwell Booth, although her
position as defender of her father was weakened by the fact that it
was commonly believed that she was Bramwell Booth's selection as
his successor.

On January lyth, just after midnight, a vote of the sixty-three
delegates was completed. By a margin of 55 to 8, General Bramwell

HIGH COUNCIL l8y

Booth was voted unfit to continue in command of the Salvation
Army. Four of the eight who voted to support the General were
his wife, his sister Lucy, and his two daughters. This first action of
the High Council was declared invalid by the courts because Gen-
eral Booth's request to explain his position before the council had
been refused. After the General's case had been presented by his
attorney, the Council voted again in February 13, 1929, to de-
pose the General by vote of 52 to 5. Four abstained from voting.

Immediately after deposing General Bramwell Booth for the
second time, the High Council proceeded to elect his successor.
Edward J. Higgins, Chief of Staff, was elected by 42 votes, with
Commander Evangeline Booth, who received 17 votes, second, and
the first High Council dissolved. It is interesting to note that Gen-
eral Higgins was elected with all the authority and powers formerly
held by Bramwell Booth.

After Bramwell Booth was deposed, it was said that he lost his
desire to live, and on June 16, 1929, he was promoted to Glory,
four months after his final deposition. Bramwell Booth had been
popular among the rank-and-file of British Salvationists, and a con-
tinuous line filed past his body as it lay in state in the Salvation
Army Congress Hall at Clapton. Vast crowds paid tribute as the
mile-long funeral procession, rivaling that of his father, wound its
way through London to Abney Park Cemetery.

Even the death of the old General failed to settle the contro-
versy over his deposition. Months of wrangling and litigation in the
courts followed before the property of the Salvation Army in Eng-
land and Northern Ireland was turned over to Edward J. Higgins
as General.

The reforms anticipated by those who led the High Coun-
cil were the subject of a Commissioner's Conference called by Gen-
eral Higgins in November, 1930. Forty-two commissioners from all
over the world met in London to revise the Salvation Army's con-
stitution, and after considerable discussion four major proposals
were approved: the General was no longer to choose his successor,
and future Generals were to be elected by the High Council; the
General was no longer to be the sole trustee of the Army's property,

1 86 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

and a board was created to serve as trustees of the property in
England and Northern Ireland, similar to boards already operating
in the United States and in other countries of the world; retirement
at the age of seventy was to be compulsory for a General; and a
board was recommended to arbitrate between the General and the
high officers, with the power to make decisions binding on each.

These last two provisions were stricken out by the British Par-
liament, and the remainder was passed as the Salvation Army Act
in July, 1931. Opposition to the bill was active, and came from two
very different sources. The family of Bramwell Booth, led by Com-
missioner Catherine Bramwell Booth, opposed the bill because it
proposed to change the autocratic system of government founded by
William Booth, while Commander Evangeline Booth opposed the
bill because it was not democratic enough.

Following the High Council of 1929, American-born officers be-
gan to be appointed to top administrative positions. The first
American-born commissioner was Samuel Logan Brengle, an evan-
gelist, who as National Spiritual Special had no administrative duties.
He had become a lieutenant commissioner in 1926. The first admin-
istrative officer born in the United States to reach commissioner's
rank was Edward J. Parker, national secretary, who was appointed
lieutenant commissioner by General Higgins in 1930. A territorial
commander, Massachusetts-born Alexander M. Damon, received the
same rank in the same year.

General Edward J, Higgins was well known to American Sal-
vationists. For nine years he had served in the United States as
chief secretary to Commanders Booth-Tucker and Evangeline
Booth. He left the United States in 1905 for a position at Interna-
tional Headquarters that led eventually to the highest office in the
Salvation Army. As General he visited the United States, and after
his retirement he made America his home until his death on De-
cember 14, 1947.

The significance of the High Council of 1929 can hardly be over-
emphasized. Personalities undoubtedly played a role in the con-
troversy. It is unfortunate that an aged and ailing man who had
devoted his whole life to the development of the Army had to be

HIGH COUNCIL 1 87

put aside in order that the Army might continue to grow. Unfor-
tunate, too, that a question of personal ambition should becloud
Evangeline Booth's leadership of the reform movement. But the
principles involved were more important than the personalities.
From the foundations laid at the first High Council, the Salvation
Army built a more democratic international organization. The prin-
ciple of the election of the General prevented the establishment of
a Booth dynasty, and enabled the Army to utilize its finest avail-
able talent as leaders. Events have proved that the future success
of the Salvation Army was not dependent upon any one family or
any one individual. Since 1930 the ministry of the Salvation Army
throughout the world has become increasingly effective under a se-
ries of able international leaders.

XIX

Dep

ression

"No man need steal, starve, or commit suicide; come to the Salva-
tion Army," a slogan that has become part of the Army's tradition,
was sorely tested in the depression that gripped the United States
in the 1930'$. In October, 1929, a few weeks after the cornerstone
of the new Salvation Army Headquarters in New York was laid,
the stock market crashed and the great depression fixed its grip on
the nation. The Salvation Army was faced with the dilemma of in-
creased demands for social service coinciding with a diminished in-
come from contributions and endowments.

No other organization was better situated to feel the first effects
of the depression than the Salvation Army. In June, 1930, the Army
commented on the serious unemployment in the country, but added
that indications pointed to better business conditions. While anxious
to support President Hoover, the Army soon realized that the policy
adopted by the Hoover Administration of radiating optimism while
waiting for the specter to go away was not working. The Army saw
its free employment service swamped with applicants for whom no
positions could be found; Men's Social Service centers filled up and
could take no more; the cheap hotels and food depots reported ca-
pacity crowds. A record number of 9,665 people passed through the
Salvation Army's thirteen food depots in New York City in one
twenty-four-hour period late in 1930. Similar conditions were re-
ported in the other large cities.

The winter of 1930 posed new problems for the millions of tm~

188

DEPRESSION 189

employed in the nation. As cold weather approached, public com-
missions were set up to shelter and feed the homeless unemployed.
In New York City the Salvation Army played an important part in
the over-all plans. In October, 1930, eight free food stations were
established as the beginning of the Salvation Army Emergency Re-
lief Program. "It is the aim of the Salvation Army," declared Com-
missioner John McMillan, "that no human being in the city shall be
without food and shelter this winter."

In New York City the Salvation Army cooperated to integrate
its services with the municipality's effort to solve its problems. As a
supplement to the Municipal Lodging House, crowded to overflow-
ing each night, the Salvation Army operated Gold Dust Lodge. This
was a six-story structure furnished by the Gold Dust Corporation,
with a sleeping capacity for 2,000 to 3,500 homeless men and
facilities for feeding about 10,000 a day. It was opened on Decem-
ber i, 1931, and in less than five months had sheltered 4,587 unem-
ployed men and served 429,318 meals. In one week 34,000 meals
were served at a cost of only $857.50. This average of two full meals
for a nickel was made possible by contributions of food from indi-
viduals and corporations. The Salvation Army Emergency Relief
Program was expanded as far as available funds would permit. By
February, 1933, in New York City, 26,161 lodgings and 106,771
meals were provided in one week by emergency institutions in ad-
dition to the regular agencies.

The importance of the Salvation Army program is made evident
by the editorial statement from the New York Times, endorsed by
the Commissioner of Public Welfare and the Police Commissioner
of New York City: "Any break in the program of the Salvation
Army would throw the city's welfare machinery seriously out of
gear and would entail an immediate menace of social disturbances by
the destitute unemployed." The service to New York City was re-
peated in the other cities of the country.

The expanded services in times of curtailed income from endow-
ments and contributions created a serious problem for the Salva-
tion Army. Emergency relief work in New York City increased 700
per cent in two years, declared Commissioner John McMillan at

190 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Founder's Day exercises in April, 1932. In June, 1932, with emer-
gency relief funds exhausted, the Army was forced to turn away
thousands of deserving applicants for relief. Brigadier Thomas Sea-
ver, of the Family Welfare Department, decried the situation as
"the first time in Army history that it could not provide immediate
relief to the needy."

To meet the crisis the Salvation Army took drastic steps. Offi-
cers' already low salaries were cut 10 per cent. As a further economy
measure, the four officers' training colleges, in New York, Chicago,
Atlanta, and San Francisco, were closed for one year. Field and so-
cial services were extended, especially in the larger cities.

The philosophy of Salvation Army Emergency Relief work was
enunciated in the War Cry thus:

The Salvation Army does not concern itself with politics or eco-
nomics. Causes and remedies of the present depression have little interest
except in so far as they materially affect the people who require aid. We
cannot manufacture employment on a larger scale. Our sole province,
therefore, is to minister to those who have been wounded in the struggle
for existence.

Throughout the great depression in the United States, the Sal-
vation Army demonstrated the same desire to serve and willingness
to self-sacrifice that was so evident on the battlefields of France in
1917-1918. As the federal government carne to take over the bur-
den that had been borne largely in the early years of the depres-
sion by local governments and private agencies, the Salvation
Army sought other ways to serve.

In December, 1933, and January, 1934, the Salvation Army
served sandwiches, doughnuts, and coffee to men who stood in line,
sometimes all night long, to register for CWA and PWA jobs. As a
factor in building morale, Cheer Lodge was established in New
York. It was a five-story building furnished with washtubs and iron-
ing boards, shower baths, game rooms, writing rooms, barbershop,
library, and gymnasium. Open from 10:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M.,
the only requirement for admission was to be unemployed. These

DEPRESSION 191

are typical of some of the simple but original services of the Salva-
tion Army during the depression.

Meanwhile, on the international scene, in May, 1934, General
Edward J. Higgins announced his intention to retire on November
10, 1934. There was no compulsion for a General to retire at the age
of seventy, but that age had been agreed upon at the Commis-
sioners' Council in 1930. The call went out for a High Council to
meet at the end of August to elect his successor.

Commander Evangeline Booth was a leading candidate despite
the fact that she was but a year younger than the retiring General.
"I should be prepared to take office if I was so honored," she replied
to reporters when asked if she would be willing to accept the Gen-
eralship.

The second High Council met on August 28, 1934, in Clapton
Congress Hall. Preliminary business occupied several days, and not
until September 3rd were the ballots cast. Five ballots were neces-
sary before a candidate received the required two-thirds vote. The
successful candidate was Commander Evangeline Booth, who now
added the title of General to her long list of honors earned in the
service of the Salvation Army.

America rejoiced with General Evangeline Booth. President
Franklin D. Roosevelt cabled his congratulations, and a New York
Times editorial expressed a popular sentiment: "She herself de-
clares that it gives her a 'pang' to think that she must leave Amer-
ica for a time. But whenever she returns she may be assured of a
welcome which her new honors may enhance but cannot make more
cordial or sincere." On her return to the city, Mayor La Guardia and
250 leading citizens formed a reception committee, as New York
gave her a hero's welcome complete with brass bands and ticker
tape.

Her public farewell was spectacular, with matching celebrations
in various parts of the country. In New York, twenty thousand per-
sons gathered in Madison Square Garden to honor her. United
States Attorney General Homer S. Cummings presided, as Helen
Keller, Bishop Manning, and Mayor La Guardia paid their tributes.

*9 2 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

General Evangeline Booth had completed thirty years of service
in the United States when she sailed for London on November
23, 1934, to assume the arduous duties of the highest office in the
Salvation Army. With her went the prayers and best wishes of
American Salvationists and the American public.

XX

The Era of Respectability

When General Evangeline Booth sailed from New York in 1934,
the Salvation Army in the United States was left without the direct
leadership of a member of the Booth family for the first time in
nearly fifty years. No national commander was chosen to succeed
her. Instead, the system proposed by Bramwell Booth in 1922 was
adopted, with each of the American territories governed directly
from International Headquarters. Commissioner Edward J, Parker,
as national secretary, was in charge of National Headquarters and
helped to coordinate the four American territories. As commander
in the United States, Evangeline Booth had pursued a policy of
subordinating the territories to the National Headquarters even to
the extent of attempting to secure the right to appoint the territorial
commanders. But as General she reversed this policy and adopted
one of decentralization weakening the National Headquarters to
the point where the territories became nearly autonomous.

For nine years there was no national commander. It became evi-
dent that the organization was handicapped in a legal sense and in
its relations with the public by the lack of a recognized national
leader, and in January, 1943, Commissioner Edward J. Parker was
appointed national commander, serving in that capacity until his re-
tirement in December of the same year.

In line with the policy of decentralization, a plan to rotate the
office of national commander among the four territorial commanders
each holding the office for a year was then proposed. Commis-

193

194 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

sioner Ernest I Pugmire, Eastern territorial commander, was the
first to assume the position under this system. He continued to hold
the two offices with the assistance of a national secretary, Commis-
sioner Donald McMillan, and an assistant territorial commander,
Commissioner Norman Marshall, until 1947, when he was relieved
as Eastern territorial commander and appointed full-time national
commander. Commissioner Pugmire's sudden death on June 24, 1953,
at the age of sixty-five, cut short an outstanding career. He was suc-
ceeded as national commander by Commissioner Donald McMillan,
member of a prominent family of Salvation Army pioneers.

After 1934 it is no longer possible to describe the growth and
development of the Salvation Army in terms of picturesque person-
alities. For thirty years Evangeline Booth was the Salvation Army
to millions of Americans. As national commander, she made and inter-
preted her own rules. Today the range for personal rule or arbitrary
judgment is very narrow indeed. Policy, not personality, has become
the basis for the operation of the Salvation Army in the United States
today.

William Booth frequently echoed the message expressed in the
prayer of Bishop Francis Asbury, "O Lord, save Thy now despised
Methodist children from the praises of this world." To some extent
his fears were realized. As the Salvation Army outgrew the persecu-
tions, scorn, and indifference of its early years, it lost some of the
vitality that caused its phenomenal growth. Its ideals and aims and the
spirit of consecrated service did not change. What was lost was
the daring and audacity of the early period.

It was not uncommon for a teen-age captain and a young cadet
with a few dollars in their pockets to "bombard" a town in the
i88o's and 1890'$ and in a few months have a flourishing new corps.
Others have borrowed Army methods with degrees of success.
Today, in the poorer sections of American cities, new churches for
spreading the old gospel have been organized in rented store build-
ings. In their simplicity and their spirit they are similar to the
Salvation Army of sixty and seventy years ago but they are not
Salvation Army corps,

William Booth feared the danger of acquiring property, and Rail-

THE ERA OF RESPECTABILITY 195

ton was ever apprehensive of "property and forms." One Salvationist
remarked jokingly, but with more than a grain of seriousness, that
organization and property were devices of the Devil to render a
religious group impotent. It cannot be denied that property has cut
down the mobility of the Salvation Army. Although officers could
leave a rented hall to move to any section of a city where the need
was indicated, once they owned the corps hall they were in a static
position similar to that of a church and must make the congregation
come to them. When the character of a neighborhood changes, as
it is bound to do in a period of fifty years or more, a Salvation Army
corps hall may find itself totally out of reach of the people that need
it most, and often the corps can overtake them only at great cost
in current property markets. But the acquisition of property was
inevitable, and the Army has had to face the dilemma of every cru-
sading religious order and church, a dilemma that none has yet suc-
cessfully solved the problem of acquiring property without loss
of mobility.

In its attempt to meet the problem the Salvation Army has be-
come three organizations in one a trinity of mission, church, and
social-service agency. On occasion this triune existence produces the
complex difficulties of split personality, but generally the three parts
complement and support one another.

The Salvation Army began as a mission devoted to the salvation
of the social and economic outcast. It is true that while many and
perhaps most of those who joined the Army in the United States
were from respectable, churchgoing families, others were unfortu-
nates whose inability to compete in a swift-moving industrial society
brought them to the bottom of the social scale, and still others were
victims of alcohol. Once they had been saved and had become mem-
bers of the Salvation Army, they found that the new habits they
adopted led to an improved economic condition* With little educa-
tion themselves, they were able to help their children through high
school and perhaps college. Some who had worked as laborers or at
unskilled or semiskilled jobs saw their children become skilled
workers, craftsmen, tradesmen, or white-collar and professional peo-
ple. Although these children were higher in social scale than their

196 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

parents with whom the Salvation Army had begun its work, they
grew up to regard the Salvation Army as their church, attending its
Sunday school, joining its youth clubs, Girl Guards, and Sunbeams,
playing in the band, and many of them finding Christ at the Army's
penitent form. Thus the character of a Salvation Army corps
changed from a mission for the salvation of the outcast to a broader
program, including the mission, but often with congregations of well
dressed, sometimes well-to-do people.

Today many Salvation Army corps are indeed corps-churches
whose members are almost entirely drawn from middle-class Salva-
tionist families whose economic status is secure, and who contribute
to corps support as members do in other churches. The Army still
maintains its original function as a mission, and in the slum areas of
the larger cities corps are operated at a financial loss to serve the more
unfortunate members of society.

The evangelical and church work of the Army is known as field
work, and the officers who direct the program of the corps are field
officers, each a clergyman engaged in an active evangelical ministry.
The Salvation Army corps commander is likely to be more fre-
quently called upon for social service than is the ordinary pastor,
however.

The social work of the Salvation Army is an outgrowth or
rather an expression of its religious work. The officers engaged in
social work have the same theological training and religious experi-
ence as the field officers. This spiritual motivation, the Salvation
Army feels, makes its social services unique and often more valuable
than those of purely secular agencies. As Colonel Holland French
explained; "The work of the Army, through the growth and de-
velopment of the organization, is carried on through various depart-
ments, but all the services are expressions or practical applications
of the dominating motives of the organization as one spiritual unit.
* . The use of our social-service program in connection with the
religious program is in reality 'Christianity ~in-action,' i.e., the social
forces of practical religion applied to the problems of day to day
living, . . , The greatest contribution we can make (in fact our
only reason for doing social work) is to demonstrate the dynamics

THE ERA OF RESPECTABILITY 197

of a vital religious experience in strengthening the inner resources
of the individual, changing behavior-patterns, breaking down atti-
tudes and in the development of personality. The Salvation Army
officer, along with all Christian social workers, has in his possession
resources not in the possession of the individual who does social
work from a purely secular point of view"

Although any officer is in theory capable of directing a corps,
doing mission work or working in some social branch of the organ-
ization; temperament, aptitude, training, and preference are con-
sidered in making assignments. Generally, successful social officers
are not transferred to the field nor are outstanding corps officers
assigned to social institutions.

Among Salvation Army officers an unusual spirit of comradeship
and brotherhood exists. A number of factors contribute to this esprit
de corps j which is international in its scope. In addition to a common
religious experience and dedication to the same goal, the mobility of
officers brings them closer to their fellow pilgrim travelers. Although
officers are not moved from station to station as frequently as they
were in the early period when six months was the average length
of a corps command, the policy of change remains. An officer who
has served at one corps for one or two years knows that he will soon
be moved. In many cases the bond between Salvation Army officers
is also one of family relationship. It is not uncommon to find Salva-
tionists of the third and fourth generations. The regulation that offi-
cers may only marry other officers has united the principal Army
families so that officers are likely to find cousins of some degree
wherever they go.

Perhaps the greatest factor in building the unique Salvation Army
morale is the training program that every officer in any part of the
world must undergo. In the earliest days outstanding converts who
were willing to devote their full time to Army work were commis-
sioned with more or less informality and went to work.

Some of the early officers were recruited from the slums; many
of them were reclaimed drunkards; and these converts, although
reborn in spirit, did not change their table manners nor their rough
language. The women who joined the Army, generally better bred

198 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

and of a gentler nature than the men, were naturally sensitive to
table manners and to other of the ordinary social amenities. Since
regulations required that they find their husbands among the men
officers, William Booth was forced to "tame" his men officers and
to teach them table manners.

A Training Home for Women Officers was established in Eng-
land in May, 1880, the year of the Army's establishment in the United
States, and in October of the same year a Training Home for Men
Officers was set up. The first training home in the United States was
for men in the Brooklyn Lyceum. In September, 1882, an announce-
ment in the War Cry stated, "We now have room for 6 young men
(who love God and souls so much that they are willing to sacrifice
everything to please the one in saving the other) to train as officers
in the Salvation Army. They must be able to give the best of refer-
ences and must be able to lead singing."

The training program in the 1 890'$ was a strenuous one. The study
day was from 6:00 A.M. to 10: 30 P.M. Included in the course of study
were "scrubology, sweepology, bootology, bed-makingology and
other household work." The quality of the meals depended on the
Training Garrison officer's ability as a money raiser. "Saloon bom-
barding," War Cry selling, and door-to-door visitation were also part
of the training course, and each night, rain or shine, hot or cold, the
cadets conducted an open-air meeting.

Today Salvation Army cadets undergo a concentrated nine-
month course designed to fit them to meet present-day problems.
There are four training colleges in the United States, one for each
territory, in New York, Chicago, San Francisco, and Atlanta. The
courses, prescribed by International Headquarters, are uniform in
each of the colleges.

Cadets are carefully selected. After six months' active service
as a soldier in a Salvation Army corps, a person may apply for
officership, although in almost all cases a prospective candidate will
have had much longer than this required minimum. Many applicants
are from Salvation Army families and are already steeped in the
tradition of the Army. In many cases a candidate has completed a six-

THE ERA OF RESPECTABILITY 199

year corps cadet course in Bible study and Salvation Army doctrine,
history, and discipline.

A detailed file is compiled for each prospective candidate. In
addition to his application he must write a narrative account of his
personal religious experience and sense of calling to officership. Six
endorsements are required. Medical forms, health history and dental
chart, educational transcript and summary of work experience, citi-
zenship questionnaire, birth certificate, and entrance fee complete
the file. The candidate's case is presented to the territorial candi-
date's secretary, who brings it before the Candidates' Board with his
recommendations. If accepted, the prospective candidate becomes
a candidate until he enters a training college as a cadet at the be-
ginning of a session.

Each session is given a name such as Peacemakers, Standard
Bearers, Ambassadors, which is the same at every training college
in the world. Into one academic year is crowded the basic training
for a lifetime of service. The basic course of the curriculum is Bible
study, to which the most time is devoted. Sermon preparation and
delivery, pastoral work and evangelism, and music are next in order
of importance. Courses on Salvation Army doctrine, corps accounts
(bookkeeping), and social work are given. Practical experience is
acquired by conducting open-air meetings, and through door-to-
door visitation. On week ends brigades of cadets visit nearby corps
and conduct the day's meetings from Sunday school through the
evening open-air and Salvation service.

The regular training college staff is headed by a principal who
directs the program, in which his wife also participates. The college
is divided into two "sides," each headed by a side officer. The
women's side officer is comparable to the dean of women of an aca-
demic institution, while the men's side officer supervises the men
cadets. An educational officer, general secretary (business manager),
and other officers bring the staff to about sixteen. In addition, other
officers from headquarters, social institutions, and the field give
lectures on missionary work, public relations, social work, and other
special phases of an officer's work.

ZOO SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

Each cadet is rated at three different times during the year by
each of the training officers. He is evaluated according to a scale
of characteristics under three major headings: spirituality, leadership,
and personality. At these intervals cadets who are not satisfactory
are eliminated. The emphasis in the training program and in the
rating procedure is on the whole person, and deficiencies in scholastic
ability may be offset by religious zeal or by some special aptitude.
The potential of an individual is weighted heavily; thus, usually less
than i per cent are "released" or "flunk out" in a session.

The commissioning, as Salvation Army commencement or gradu-
ation exercises are called, is the most colorful Army ceremony of the
year. The public services are preceded by private covenant services
at the training college at which each cadet makes a covenant for life
service in the Salvation Army. Later, at public dedication ceremonies,
the cadets make a more formal pledge.

The commissioning ceremony is full of color and suspense. A
brass band, flags, and uniforms contribute to the color. The suspense
derives from the fact that none of the cadets about to be commis-
sioned knows his destination. The speeches are very much like
other college commencement addresses. Commissioning is truly a
commencement the commencement of a career of service.

An officer's training does not end with his commissioning. Each
officer is pledged to a post-training college program of five years'
duration. Those few officers who may be deficient in their studies
must complete high school by correspondence course. Other cor-
respondence courses, on a wide variety of subjects and interests,
are administered by the territorial educational officer.

In addition, many officers continue with specialist training at
colleges or universities. Earlier, professional training was distrusted
by conservative officers who feared that it would lead to a reliance
on education rather than on faith; but the value of training in ac-
quiring knowledge and techniques that will supplement and
increase the Army's unique service is now generally recognized,
Many Salvation Army officers hold bachelors' and masters' degrees;
some are trained social workers, registered nurses, accountants, ed-
ucators.

THE ERA OF RESPECTABILITY 201

Young people contemplating officership are often encouraged to
attend college before entering training college. In each of the
four territories, scholarships are available for young Salvationists
entering college. If these later enter officership, only one-half the
scholarship loan need be repaid. A growing realization is evident
that modern education is an aid in meeting the changed condition
of the world.

The problems of the modern officer have been summed up in a
Salvation Army publication entitled: Pilgrim's Progress: 20th
Century, The Story of Salvation Army Officership. "He will find
the people he proposes to evangelize quite different from those
among whom the Officer of the first Army years began his warfare.
If not a more wicked world, certainly he may come up sharp against
a more perplexing one, more difficult to reach and influence. He
will sometimes find the acceptance of the Officer and his Army-
just as hard to bear as the imprisonments and riots of the first ad-
venturous years, because acceptance often implies complacency
and indifference, and these are not the stuff of drama and adven-
ture. Economically, he will face new complexities of the eternal
problem how to adequately finance his program. . . . The prob-
lems of an ultra-scientific age; of reaching unchurched masses, par-
ticularly youth; of new demands by the community to integrate his
program more closely, to conform it to the needs and rights of peo-
ple all these and more await tomorrow's Officer."

Time magazine called the present the "Era of Respectability,"
and observed, "The Army, taking on respectability in spite of itself,
has acquired property, a standing in the community, a connection
with community chests, advisory committees of distinguished citi-
zens. It has lost some of its old hoarse, street-corner fervor. . . . But
the Army had to change with the time as the Devil himself
changed, or lose the fight."

XXI

W<M War U ant USO

When Japanese bombs on Pearl Harbor brought the United States
into World War II, the Salvation Army was ready to repeat its rec-
ord of service in World War I. Under the leadership of Brigadier
Arthur Brewer, divisional commander for the Hawaiian Islands, all
Salvation Army institutions on the island of Oahu were put into
use to feed and shelter the evacuees from the attack on December
7, 1941. Emergency squads operated by the Salvation Army were
on duty in the bombed city; ". . . the first exploding bomb on
United States soil found the Salvation Army ready and on the
job."

Much of the story of the American Salvation Army in World
War II can be told in the three letters USO. The idea of bringing
together the agencies who were prepared to do welfare work for
servicemen so that they could work out a unified plan of coopera-
tion is claimed by Commissioner Edward J. Parker. Parker, who
had been the Salvation Army's national war secretary in the First
World War, remembered the experience in cooperation that had
been gained then. The first steps to form such an organization were
taken in the fall of 1940, after Congress had passed the first peace-
time draft in American history.

United Service Organizations for National Defense, Inc. better
known as the USO was actually incorporated on February 4, 1941,
and included the Young Men's and Young Women's Christian As-
sociations, Catholic Community Service, Jewish Welfare Board,

202

WORLD WAR II AND XJSO 203

Travelers Aid Association, and the Salvation Army. Bringing to-
gether as it did the three largest religious groups in the United
States Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish for a common program
of humanitarian service, the USO was a daring experiment in re-
ligious cooperation. "As a component part of USO," an Army publi-
cation announced with some justifiable pride, "the Salvation Army
is sharing in a noble inter-faith effort."

The purpose of the organization, as stated in the rather stilted
language of its constitution and by-laws, was "to aid in the war and
defense program of the United States and its Allies by serving the
religious, spiritual, welfare, and educational needs of the men and
women in the armed forces and defense industries of the United
States and its Allies in the United States and throughout the world,
and in general, to contribute to the maintenance of morale in Amer-
ican communities and elsewhere. . . ."

A board of directors composed of five representatives from each
of the six component groups supervised the activities of USO. Wal-
ter Hoving, prominent New York businessman and president of the
Salvation Army Association, was elected the first chairman of the
board. In addition, there were a president and three vice presidents
one representing each of three religious groups.

Plans for the USO were presented to President Franklin D. Roose-
velt through Paul V. McNutt of the Federal Security Agency. The
President endorsed the organization and agreed that the govern-
ment would furnish the necessary buildings. The organization's first
public appeal for funds in 1941 raised $14,000,000 to begin oper-
ations. At first, operations were at training camps in the United
States with the new army of draftees, but by the time the United
States was thrust into the war the Salvation Army itself was operat-
ing forty-three units in the USO, from Maine to Hawaii.

Much careful consideration was given in appointing Salvation
Army officers to duty with the USO. The officers chosen to direct a
USO club had an average of twelve years' experience in religious
and social work. They were carefully screened to assure that they
had the maturity, personality, and experience to work effectively
with the young men and women of the armed forces and their

204 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

families. A deep, motivating religious faith was required, because,
as a manual for Salvation Army officers in the USO stated, "THE
FUNDAMENTAL purpose of The Salvation Army in the programs of
the United Service Organizations for National Defense is to assist
the enlisted men of the United States war services to develop and
adhere to a true standard of Christian living and life purpose."

USO buildings were usually located outside, but in close proxim-
ity to, Army posts, Naval bases, and Marine barracks. They were also
found in the large cities where servicemen came on passes or trav-
eled through on furlough or leave. "A home away from home" was
the slogan used to describe these centers. "Meet me at the USO,"
was a common expression among G.I.'s to whom the USO was a
place to meet comrades, civilian friends, or members of the family.

It was a place for relaxation and recreation planned to satisfy
many different tastes. There was always ping-pong or shuffleboard
or darts, and on certain nights there were dances and planned en-
tertainment with local hostesses. A record player, albums of classical
and popular music, and a small library and easy chairs were stand-
ard equipment. For those who were interested, classes in languages
or handicrafts gave an opportunity to learn new skills. Desks and
plenty of stationery encouraged writing home.

These were the ordinary services of the USO. Many individual
servicemen, their wives, and members of their families can testify
to other functions performed by USO club directors: wedding de-
tails arranged, special medicine obtained, or money lent for train
fare for a wife. These and many other types of problems were
worked out for men in uniform and their families.

An integral part of every USO club operated by the Salvation
Army was the period devoted to religious services. The meetings
were voluntary, of course, and very simple. A familiar hymn, a Bible
passage, and a short testimony by the director was the usual pro-
cedure. Of course, no effort like that at regular Salvation Army
meetings was made to obtain conversions, but an opportunity to
find the way to a new Christian life was offered in these USO meet-
ings.

The USO continued for two years after the war, Its operations

WORLD WAR II AND USO 2OJ

officially ceasing on December 31, 1947. * In the seven years it oper-
ated, it received $236,000,000 in voluntary contributions and ex-
pended this sum for the benefit of American servicemen. The work
of the USO was done largely by volunteer personnel. In July,
1944, when the number of workers reached a peak of 675,000 indi-
viduals, only 16,000 were paid employees.

Although the bulk of Salvation Army war service in the United
States was routed through USO, the Army also operated about 250
war service centers in the country on its own. Aside from the Red
Shield clubs in the larger cities, most of these centers were in local
headquarters buildings.

The regular Salvation Army services continued to benefit the
nation in war as they had in peace. The Men's Social Service cen-
ters, in particular, made valuable contributions to the war effort.
Their primary function to rehabilitate men who are temporarily
down was to furnish man power for the armed forces and for de-
fense work. Still others worked in the centers to carry on the salvage
work so necessary to the nation in time of war. Waste paper, scrap
metal, old rubber all were salvaged for direct use in war industries.
The conservation of other products allowed new materials to be
used for defense purposes, relieving the burden on manufacturing
plants.

The Family Welfare Department of the Salvation Army served
the families of servicemen, as well as other families in need. Serv-
icemen could find a welcome at any one of more than a thousand
corps halls in every part of the country. In the United States alone,
at that time, more than four thousand Salvation Army officers were
ready to offer spiritual guidance to American men and women in
uniform.

In addition, Salvation Army officers served as chaplains in the
Armed Forces. Five Salvation Army chaplains had served in World
War I. Six times that number saw service in World War II, Highest
ranking of the thirty Salvation Army chaplains was John J. Allan,
veteran of the First World War. Called to Washington in 1940, he
served two years in the Office of the Chief of Chaplains in Washing-
ton, D.C. Chaplain Colonel Allan left the service in 1942 to as-

206 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

sume the command of the Salvation Army's Central Territory. In
1946 he was appointed Chief of Staff at International Headquarters,
an office second only to the General in importance. This recogni-
tion of his administrative ability made him the first American-born
officer to hold the position.

The Salvation Army was willing and ready to follow the Amer-
ican G.L overseas in World War II as they had served the dough-
boy in France twenty years earlier. The USO offered its service for
work overseas as well as in the United States. Despite the excellent
record of the other volunteer organizations in World War I, the
government gave to the American Red Cross a monopoly of the
service to American Armed Forces overseas.

Some American G.I.'s, however, had an opportunity to meet the
Salvation Army their fathers had talked about. More than three
thousand Salvation Army War Service units (including one thou-
sand mobile canteens) were strategically placed throughout the
world. Salvation Army canteens that had served the British Army
from the beginning of the war in fact, two of these canteens were
evacuated at Dunkirk and Salvation Army War Service units at-
tached to Australian and Canadian troops offered a welcome to all
Allied personnel. American troops in the South Pacific area might
have used any of the 845 Salvation Army War Service centers there,
and in the British Isles 669 centers were available to Allied men in
uniform. Not only did Commissioner Donald McMillan receive the
Medal of Merit from President Truman for Salvation Army work
during the war but also awards from the British and French govern-
ments.

The war services of the Salvation Army furnish an excellent il-
lustration of the international aspects of the Salvation Army. Amer-
icans found out that the Salvation Army was an international Army
whose spirit was the same wherever it was found.

XXII

"Service to Man"

The Salvation Army today has achieved a position as a recognized
and respected social welfare agency. The needs of the American
people have made its diversified program of social services neces-
sary in spite of the increased extension of governmental agencies in
the field of social welfare work. The variety of services offered by
the Salvation Army today is amazing.

Not all parts of the Army's humanitarian program are as color-
ful as the emergency disaster service. Much of it is done quietly; foi
example, the Homes and Hospitals for Unmarried Mothers that
carry on an unpublicized work to help solve a vital social problem,
One aspect of the work of the Men's Social Service centers is fa-
miliar to any person who has called the Salvation Army to take
away the accumulation cleaned out of a cellar or an attic.

Many social classes are served: , business and professional girls
away from home may find wholesome, home-like, inexpensive lodg-
ings at an Army Evangeline Residence; Emergency Lodges in many
cities offer a haven for homeless transients; day nurseries benefit not
only the youngsters but their working mothers; and orphanages,
youth programs, and summer camps meet other varying needs oi
children. Other Salvation Army agencies include the Family Serv-
ice bureaus that help needy families in a variety of ways; Voca-
tional Guidance and Placement bureaus for the unemployed; and
Missing Persons bureaus to trace lost relatives and friends. Special

207

208 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

assistance is given to immigrants, alcoholics, and men and women
in prison.

The wide range of Salvation Army social services makes the sub-
ject difficult to describe, a difficulty further complicated by the com-
plexity of the administrative organization of the Army. Although
the four nearly autonomous territories operate under the same
basic principles and perform substantially the same services, local
conditions and local personalities result in a variety of practices.
The central administration of social work within the various ter-
ritories varies. In all four territories there is a Women's Social Serv-
ice Department and a Men's Social Service Department. In two
territories (Central and Western) there are separate prison depart-
ments, while in the Eastern Territory bureaus for the inmates of
men's and women's prisons operate under the Social Welfare De-
partment. In addition to the activities directed from territorial
headquarters, some social services are under the supervision of di-
visional headquarters, and the duties of every corps officer include
some social work.

Although the Salvation Army divides its work into departments
for administrative purposes, it would be misleading to think of the
Army as carrying on a religious work and a social work in separate
compartments. As Colonel Holland French pointed out in a paper
on "The Spiritual Nature of Salvation Army Social Work": "Do we
not, when speaking of the branches of Salvation Army operations,
erroneously and harmfully make reference to our 'spiritual' or 'so-
cial' work? There must not be, if we are to retain our original pur-
pose, any division of the two. ... All of our program should be
social and all should be spiritual one acting as a complement to
the other."

A characteristic of the Salvation Army in the United States is
the ability to appraise itself and its services objectively and, when-
ever necessary, change to meet new conditions. As Brigadier Jane
Wrieden has pointed out:

The Salvation Army has had the courage, often a slow cautious cour-
age and sometimes an impetuous courage, to change some things that
need changing. In varying degrees in different departments, The Salvation

20p

Army is recognizing that education and training are indispensable factors
in working effectively with people; that staff must have a voice in the
program of the agency; that programs are "built up," "not handed down"
. . . that the insights which psychology has discovered are invaluable;
that citizen participation in agency program is essential; that no agency
can be isolated from the community. . . . True, in its changing pattern
of social work, The Salvation Army has met, and still meets, some re-
sistance from within the organization differences of opinion, conflicting
philosophies, immature and distorted concepts of God and religion, blind
clinging to traditions, unwillingness to consider new methods, fearfulness
about change, insecurities about scientific discoveries regarding human
behavior, and misconceptions regarding social case work.

Scientific social work has proven especially valuable in the Sal-
vation Army's thirty-four homes and hospitals where unmarried
mothers of all religions and races are given a "home" at a time
when sympathetic understanding and help is most important, and a
"hospital" to ensure the finest medical care at the time of delivery.
The necessity for professional training has been generally rec-
ognized, and several directors of homes and hospitals are officers with
master's degrees in social work. The Army's achievements in this
field were recognized when one authority, writing for a national
magazine, declared, "The Salvation Army, one of the first organiza-
tions to give asylum to unmarried mothers, is one of the most active
in departing from the rescue type of institution and adopting the
newer and sounder methods of hospital and home care."

The Salvation Army's Men's Social Service centers, in all of the
nation's major cities, are also good illustrations of that blend of
old-fashioned consecrated zeal and modern social-work techniques
that characterizes the Army's social-welfare program today. The
clients are men without homes, jobs, or resources, and frequently
with some deep-seated problem such as alcoholism. They may have
applied for admission in person or have been referred to a Social
Service Center by some other agency. While at the center they live in
a dormitory with facilities for sleeping, bathing and washing, eat-
ing, and recreation.

Every client is given something to do, such as driving a truck,

210 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

sorting clothes or rags, baling newspapers, refinishing furniture, or
any one of the many other jobs connected with the salvage of the
materials donated by people in the surrounding area. The proceeds
from this material finance the rehabilitation work of the center.
Each case is studied, and all available means are used to help him
find a place as a useful, independent member of society. Some of
the centers have chapters of Alcoholics Anonymous, for alcoholism
is a major problem among destitute men today. Other techniques
include counseling by professional caseworkers, and religious serv-
ices. A Social Service officer, supervising such a program, must not
only have the usual consecration but an understanding of the prob-
lems of the clients, a knowledge of how best to solve these problems,
and considerable business acumen.

The Family Welfare Bureau of the Salvation Army is one of
its most recent major social- work departments. Described as "the
effort to minister to the needs of individuals in families, consider-
ing the family as a unit and striving to maintain its solidarity and
well-being," Family Welfare service is not a separate enterprise
comparable to Men's and Women's Social services. It is carried on
at all levels, from territorial down to the corps, but varies consid-
erably in importance from city to city. In the most progressive Fam-
ily Welfare bureaus extensive use has been made of professional
social workers, psychologists, and psychiatrists. The trend is for the
Salvation Army to maintain the highest standards of scientific so-
cial work but to add the unique spirit of consecration that comes
from a dynamic religious experience.

One of the oldest services of the Salvation Army is its work in
prisons and with former convicts. It began in the United States in
the early years of persecution when Salvationists were jailed for "dis-
turbances of the peace." Their time in jail was spent in singing,
talking, and praying with their fellow prisoners. The Army came
soon to realize that persons released from prison needed special aid
to prevent them from returning to a life of crime. Prison Gate Bri-
gades met prisoners on the day of their release and brought them
to Prison Gate Homes through which they were helped to find

"SERVICE TO MAN" 211

employment. If they had families, the Army saw that these de-
pendents were provided with food and clothing until the head of
the family was rehabilitated. From the first Prison Gate Brigade
at Hartford, Connecticut, in 1885, the Army's prison work has ex-
panded to the point where the Salvation Army conducts its re-
ligious and welfare program inside some 1,200 penal and correc-
tional institutions in the United States.

The Army's prison program today is extensive and varied, in-
cluding prayer meetings, Bible classes, and clubs inside prison.
When called upon to do so, the Army supplies parole supervision,
gives vocational guidance and training, finds jobs, and provides
living quarters, food, and financial aid for released prisoners. The
families of men who are in prison are also given assistance in many
ways.

Another recent trend in Salvation Army social work, in addition
to the utilization of professional training, is cooperation with other
agencies private and public. In 1936 the Army was reporting to
the Federal Child Welfare Bureau, Crime Commission of the At-
torney General's Department, and other government departments
and agencies. Officers have joined, and are encouraged to join, the
American Prison Association, the National Chaplains' Association,
the National Prisoners' Aid Association, as well as the American
Association of Social Workers. Since 1936 the Salvation Army has
been an active, integrated Associate Group of the National Con-
ference of Social Work, and serves effectively as a member agency
of the National Social Welfare Assembly. Delegates from each of
the four American territories have held Salvation Army sessions at
the annual meetings of the National Conference of Social Work
since 1936.

The Salvation Army, accepting the challenge of its role as a
social agency, has acquired prestige as its professional standards
have risen, but the spiritual motivation of its social program re-
mains. General Wilfred Kitching emphasized this point on the oc-
casion of the seventy-fifth anniversary of the Salvation Army in the
United States. Paying tribute to the Salvationists whose service

212 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

over the years had won the admiration of Americans in all walks of
life, he explained their motivation with the words, "The heart of
the Salvationist has been touched by the hand of the compassionate
Christ, and for His sake we do it." For every Salvation Army officer,
"Service to Man" means service to God.

XXIII

The World, for Christ

The story of the Salvation Army in the United States would be
incomplete without reemphasizing the international character of the
organization. In a day when internationalism has come into its own
and "isolationist" is a term of reproach even the most hardened con-
servative would hasten to disavow, the Salvation Army is in step
with the times. Just as it pioneered in concern for the impoverished
slum dweller and blazed the trail for women's rights, so, as a world-
wide Army, it has stood from its earliest days for the principle of
the universal brotherhood of man. The average corps officer today is
likely to be more interested in and to know more about the Army's
work in foreign lands than about the Army's early history in the
United States.

"We are making our history now," exclaimed a young American
field officer recently. The main concern of the average officer is with
the present and with the future, as it was with his predecessors. The
urgency of the present and the dream of the future drove the Army
forward, and in the heat of battle the relics of its history were
scattered and lost Railton' remarked, when the first move was
made: u We turn with no small regret from the dear old birthplace
of The Army in America. Only the necessity of enlarging our
accommodation and securing a place capable of endurable use
during the hot months could reconcile us to change, and even then
we should certainly try to retain the old spot as well if we thought
the expenditure profitable. But we cannot afford to pay for venera-

213

214 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

tion at present." Even today there is no department or office in
national or in territorial headquarters to collect and preserve pa-
pers, documents, and Army publications. A museum of Salvation
Army relics in Eastern territorial headquarters was put into storage
for lack of space, and much valuable material was scattered and
lost. A National Research Bureau that put out several excellent
publications was abandoned because of a lack of financial support
as recently as 1950. Some of its functions were delegated to a Com-
mission on Research, composed of top echelon officers appointed by
Commissioner McMillan in 1954.

Although the history of the Salvation Army in America has been
neglected, the major exploits of the Army in other countries are
well known and often repeated. The successful campaign by Lieu-
tenant Colonel Charles Pean to liquidate the French penal colony
on Devil's Island is better known to Salvationists than many crucial
American campaigns.

In its missionary efforts, the Salvation Army is second to no
branch of the Christian Church. Its most extensive operations are in
India, the Army's earliest missionary field. In the eastern, northern,
southern Madras and Telugu regions of India, the Army has 5,193
centers. There are 734 additional centers in Pakistan, Burma, and
Ceylon. Native as well as white officers minister to the people,
preaching the Gospel in many languages and dialects. In addition
to evangelical work, the great need for social services to combat
famine, floods, epidemics, superstition and ignorance has made
necessary an amazing variety of services. For more than half a
century the Army has conducted medical missionary work operat-
ing hospitals, dispensaries, and even leper colonies. In its schools
all grades are taught from primary through industrial training.

Since 1894, when the Army began work in Java, a network of
Salvation Army social institutions has been established to supple-
ment the evangelical missionary work in the islands of Sumatra, the
Celebes, Borneo, and the Moluccas of Indonesia. Salvation Army
missionary work has been maintained in Japan since 1895, in Korea
since 1908, and in China since 1916.

The Army invaded South Africa in 1883, only three years after

THE WORLD FOR CHRIST 215

it began operations in the United States, and is now active in
South Africa, the Belgian Congo, Nigeria, and the Gold Coast. In
South America the Army has centers in seven countries. It also
functions in most of the countries and colonies of the West Indies
and Central America.

The Salvation Army in the United States contributes its share
to the support of these world-wide missionary activities, both in
money and in personnel. The Self-Denial Fund, collected each
year from Salvationists, is devoted to missionary work and is the
only money collected in the United States that is sent to Interna-
tional Headquarters for use outside the country. 1 Each year offi-
cers who volunteer for missionary duty are sent abroad from the
four American territories, and ach class of the training colleges usu-
ally includes volunteers for missionary service.

Several missionary areas are directly under the administration
of the United States. Salvation Army work in Mexico is adminis-
tered by the Southern Territory, U.S.A., and work in Hawaii and
Alaska is supervised by the Western Territory, U.S.A.

American Salvationists, from their membership in a great inter-
national organization, have tended to be international-minded. On
his visit to America in 1926, General Bramwell Booth urged the
United States to enter the League of Nations. Salvation Army offi-
cers were associated with the United Nations Organization since its
founding in 1945, first as accredited news correspondents for the
Salvation Army press and more recently as consultants in the Non-
governmental Organizations Division. In 1949 an official of the
UN declared that the Salvation Army had been doing for genera-
tions the kind of constructive work on behalf of unfortunate peo-
ple to which the UN is dedicating itself today.

The Salvation Army recognizes that it is part of the world-wide
Christian Church, and has shown its intention to cooperate with the
other branches of the Christian Church. Since 1916 the Salvation
Army has been associated with interchurch movements. The Salva-
tion Army was represented successively on the Council of the Chris-
tian Crusade, the World Alliance for International Friendship
Through the Churches, the Religious Organizations Committee of

2l6 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

the League of Nations Union, the Public Morality Council, the Coun-
cil of Christians and Jews; and in 1948 five Salvation Army commis-
sioners were official delegates to the first assembly of the World
Council of Churches in Amsterdam. Six Salvation Army delegates at-
tended the second assembly of the World Council of Churches in
Evanston, Illinois, in 1954, including Mrs. Commissioner Donald Mc-
Millan and Commissioner Claude E. Bates, of the United States.

The Salvation Army's representation as observers at the World
Council of Churches was spoken of by Commissioner Marcel Alle-
mand at the 1949 International Commissioners' Conference in Lon-
don. "Our presence was a gesture of Christian friendliness and
brotherly and spiritual fraternization," he declared. "While we in
The Army do not pretend in the general sense attributed to the
word, to be *a church,' yet we maintain that we are an integral part
of the great church of the living God and there is no doubt that we
have been accepted as such by the ecumenical movement."

The Salvation Army also cooperates with other agencies and
denominations on a local scale. Officers may be members of local
interdenominational ministers' councils. The Salvation Army social
branches frequently receive references from, and make references
to, Travelers Aid, municipal welfare bureaus, or similar agencies.
In some cities the Salvation Amy is financed through the Com-
munity Chest.

In the United States, as in the rest of the world, the Salvation
Army faces the future with anticipation. Popular acclaim and sup-
port have not led to complacency. Salvation. Army officers are
constantly subjecting themselves and their organization to a critical
evaluation and scrutiny, and adopting changes whenever they ap-
pear to be beneficial In 1924 two investigators who studied the
Salvation Army in the United States observed: u We have been im-
pressed also by the fact that there is within the Army an honest,
eager disposition to learn. We find a good deal of evidence that
whenever in the past the Army has detected in the criticism and
ridicule which has come its way, any constructive ideas, it has tried
to put them into effect" This disposition is still evident in the Army
today.

THE WORLD FOR CHRIST 217

With this attitude, it would seem that the problems of the twen-
tieth century, so different from those of the past, could be met and
conquered. Opportunities for the unique service of the Salvation
Army are not lacking, as Commissioner Norman Marshall noted in
a recent address. "People are the principal business of The Army, 7 '
he declared, "not properties, finance, institutions or social services
as such. God called William Booth to the unchurched. If then our
principal business is people unchurched people we cannot com-
plain of lack of raw material."

To its assistance, the Salvation Army has called all of the mod-
ern inventions available. Recently a fund appeal in New York City
was opened over a television network. In April, 1948, General Al-
bert Orsborn gave the first world-wide radio broadcast made by an
international leader of the Salvation Army. Speaking from New
York, the sixth General of the Army addressed an army in ninety-
two different countries and colonies led by 26,799 full-time offi-
cers.

In June, 1950, the seventieth anniversary year of the Salvation
Army in the United States, a person was "promoted to Glory" whose
life span covered the entire eighty-five years of Salvation Army
history. With the death of General Evangeline Booth, a link with
the past was broken and the last great representative of the "era of
personalities" in the United States passed into Army history.

Eighteen hundred persons filed past her bier in the Centennial
Temple in New York. The Army's past, to which Evangeline Booth
had contributed so much, was the theme of most of the tributes in
the funeral service. But there were also symbols of the future.
Among the flags that lined the rear of the platform was the blue
and white emblem of the United Nations, symbol of the hope for a
future "one world" of peace and brotherhood. From General Ors-
born came a tribute that was also a command to march on. The
past was dead the future lay ahead. "In personality unique, in
public gifts outstanding, in song excelling, she leaves an imperish-
able contribution to the world-wide Army. We must press forward*
The world for God!"

The same note was struck in 1955 by the Army's seventh Gen-

2l8 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

eral, Wilfred Kitching, in his charge to the Salvation Army in the
United States as it observed its seventy-fifth anniversary with a na-
tion-wide celebration. "Of that which has been done in your land
. . . others can tell better than I, but I feel it my bounden duty
to say at this time that it is not sufficient that we should live in the
past. The challenge of the present is that the spirit of the past should
live in us. ... I pray that in the coming years the flag of The
Salvation Army shall find more and more legions . , . striving for
victories. ... I believe that the contributions you are going to
make to those victories will be such that the pages of Salvation
Army history will be proud to bear them."

APPENDIX I

Tke Doctrines of the Salvation Army

1. We believe that the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments were
given by inspiration of God and that they only constitute the Divine
rule of Christian faith and practise.

2. We believe that there is only one God who is infinitely perfect, the
Creator, Preserver, and Governor of all things, and who is the only
proper object of religious worship.

3. We believe that there are three persons in the Godhead, the Father,
the Son, and the Holy Ghost, undivided in essence and coequal in
power and glory.

4. We believe that in the person of Jesus Christ the Divine and human
natures are united so that He is truly and properly God and truly and
properly man.

5. We believe that our first parents were created in a state of innocency
but by their disobedience they lost their purity and happiness and that
in consequence of their fall all men have become sinners totally de-
praved and as such are justly exposed to the wrath of God.

6. We believe that the Lord Jesus Christ has by His suffering and death
made an atonement for the whole world so that whosoever will may
be saved.

7. We believe that repentance toward God, faith in our Lord Jesus
Christ, and regeneration, by the Holy Spirit are necessary to salva-
tion.

8. We believe that we are justified by grace through faith in our Lord
Jesus Christ and that he that believeth hath the witness in himself.

9. We believe that continuance in a state of salvation depends upon con-
tinued obedient faith in Christ.

10* We believe that it is the privilege of all believers to be "wholly sane-

219

220 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

tified" and that "their whole spirit and soul and body" may "be pre-
served blameless unto the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ."
ir. We believe in the immortality of the soul, in the resurrection of the
body, in the general judgment at the end of the world, in the eternal
happiness of the righteous, and in the endless punishment of the
wicked.

APPENDIX II

Roster of Salvation Army Commanders

GENERALS OF THE SALVATION ARMY

William Booth 1865-1912

William Bramwell Booth 1912-1929

Edward John Higgins 1929-1934

Evangeline Cory Booth 1934-1939

George Lyndon Carpenter 1939-1946

Albert W. T. Orsborn 1946-1954

Wilfred Kitching i954~

NATIONAL COMMANDERS OF THE SALVATION ARMY
IN THE UNITED STATES

George Scott Railton 1880-1881

Thomas E. Moore 1 1881-1884

Frank Smith 1884-1887

Ballington Booth 1887-1896

Maud Charlesworth Booth 1887-1896

Frederick St. George de Lautour Booth-Tucker 1896-1904

Emma Moss Booth-Tucker 1896-1903

Evangeline Cory Booth 1904-1934

Edward Justis Parker 2 1934-1943

Ernest L Pugmire 8 1944-1953

Donald McMillan 4 I 953 W

1 Also Commander of the Salvation Army in Canada, 1882-1884.

* National Secretary, 1934-1943; National Commander, 1943.
*Also Eastern Territorial Commander, 1942-1947.

* Served as National Secretary, 1944-1947.

222

SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

DEPARTMENT OF THE WEST

George Kilbey
Thomas Estill

1904-1908
1908-1920

EASTERN TERRITORY

Thomas Estill
Richard E. Holz
John McMillan
Alexander M. Damon
Ernest I. Pugmire
Donald McMillan
Norman S. Marshall

19201926
19261930
1930-1935

1935-194*
1942-1947

1947-1953
*953-

CENTRAL TERRITORY

William Peart
John McMillan
William Mclntyre
Ernest I. Pugmire
John J. Allan
Norman S. Marshall
Claude E. Bates

19201926
1926-1930
1930-1939
1939-1942
1942-1946
1946-1953
*953-

WESTERN TERRITORY

Adam Gifford
Benjamin Orames
Donald McMillan
William H. Barrett
Claude E. Bates
Holland French

1920-1931
1931-1938
1938-1943
1943-1947

SOUTHERN TERRITORY

William Mclntyre
Alexander M. Damon
Ernest I. Pugmire
William C. Arnold
Albert E. Chesham
William J. Dray

1927-1930
1930-1935

1935-1939
1939-1948
1948-1952

1952-

Notes

CHAPTER I

THE INVASION OF AMERICA

1 Such as

"He who loves not women, wine, and song
Remains a fool his whole Hfe long."

2 James Kemp served as a soldier until Oct. 14, 1882, when he was
commissioned Lieutenant and sent to Jersey City. From there he was pro-
moted to Captain and sent to Boston, where he served until his death, on
March 10, 1895.

CHAPTER II
PAVING THE WAY

1 The account of the work of the Shirleys is based on articles written
by Eliza Shirley at different times, and published in the War Cry. The
first was on July 9, 1881. The second, entitled "Pioneering the Work in the
United States," was printed in serial form in the issues of Nov. 28, and
Dec. 5, 1908. The third was entitled "Born in American Stable," and ap-
peared in serial form in the issues of Sept. 12, 19, and 26, and Oct. 3, 1925.
Eliza Shirley, as Mrs. Commandant Symrnonds, lived to be seventy, and
died on Sept 18, 1932, in Racine, Wisconsin.

2 A complete account of the episode by the author of this book, en-
titled "A Salvation Army Prelude: The Christian Mission in Cleveland,
Ohio," was published in the Ohio Historical Quarterly, January, 1955.

CHAPTER III
LAYING THE FOUNDATION

1 Interview with Emma Morris Lambert. The officers who returned
to England were Morris, Pearson, and Shaw. Morris and Shaw came back
to the United States. Of the four women officers of the original pioneer
party that can be accounted for, three spent their lives and died in the
United States.

2 There is little available material on Railton's travels because he trav-
eled alone. The letters by which he seat his reports were used by his
biographers and are quoted by them in part. Unfortunately, these letters

223

224 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

were lost when International Headquarters, London, was destroyed by
bombs and fire during the Blitz on May 10-11, 1941.

CHAPTER IV
THE BRICKBAT ERA

1 Such a procedure would no longer be possible today, for husband
and wife are both expected to serve actively, and if one resigns the Army
careers of both are terminated. Amos Shirley was drowned at Asbury
Park, NJ., on Aug. 11, 1884. Major Moore conducted the funeral service,
which was attended by large numbers of Salvationists. About two years
later, Annie Shirley was remarried, to Staff Captain John T. Dale. Grand-
children and great-grandchildren of Amos and Annie Shirley are active
Salvation Army officers today.

2 The Hartelius sisters returned to the United States and helped begin
the Swedish work in this country in 1 887. An account of their experiences
in Sweden, told by Annie Hartelius after returning to the United States,
is in Frank Smith's The Salvation War in America for 188$ (New York,
1886), pp. 152-159.

CHAPTER V
SECESSION THE MOORE SPLIT

1 General Moore's Salvation Army of America was under the man-
agement of five trustees. Its doctrine included the observation of baptism
and the Lord's Supper. In January, 1889, "the gradual decline of the work
and general dissatisfaction and loss of confidence in the Army among
the officers and public at large" was blamed on "the mismanagement of
General Thomas E, Moore," and the board of trustees voted his deposi-
tion. Colonel Richard E. Holz was elected his successor. Moore resisted
his deposition and continued to publish the War Cry until March, 1890.
For a time three Salvation Armies, each publishing a different War Cry,
were in operation. Moore left Brooklyn in 1890 and entered the Baptist
ministry. He died on Jan. 7 or 8, 1898 at Harper, Kansas, where he was
pastor of the Baptist Church. Holz led the branch of the American Sal-
vation Army under his command to a reconciliation with the interna-
tional Salvation Army in October, 1889.

CHAPTER VI

REBUILDING FROM THE FOUNDATIONS

1 When Commissioner Edward J. Parker joined the Army in 1885,
he found no hymn books or flags* "Major Moore took them," he was
told.

2 See the articles on "Experiences in Lessening Race Tensions,** by

NOTES 225

Major M. S. Kimball, Ensign B. Mclntyre, and Adjutant L. Robb, in
Addresses Delivered at Salvation Army Sessions National Council of
Social Work, 194$, pp. 56-66.

3 William T. Stead, // Christ Came to Chicago (Chicago, 1894). In
contrast to the established churches, Stead noted, "The Salvation Army
lives among the poorest people, works with them, gathers them together
every night and contributes a valuable element to the building up of saner
and sounder citizens."

4 After returning to England, Smith worked with General Booth on
the "In Darkest England" scheme until he disagreed with the General and
left the Army. He entered politics as a pioneer in the British Labor party
and worked as a parliamentary journalist. For eighteen years he was a
member of the London City Council, resigning that position in 1901 to
re-enter the Salvation Army at the request of Bramwell Booth, After a
few years he left the Army again for the field of politics. After ten un-
successful campaigns, which earned him some fame as the most frequently
defeated candidate for Parliament, Smith was elected as a Labor party
member to the House of Commons in 1929 and served until defeated for
reelection in 1931. He was the author of a book, The Betrayal of Bram-
toett Booth, published in 1929. He died in London on Dec. 26, 1940, at
the age of eighty~six,

CHAPTER VIII

PERSONALITIES AND PROGRESS

1 William Bramwell Booth (1856-1929) was Chief of Staff and second
General of the Salvation Army; Ballington Booth (1857-1940) was
founder and General of the Volunteers of America; Catherine Booth-
Clibborn, "La Mar<chale" (1858-1955), established the Salvation Army
in France and in Switzerland; Emma Moss Booth-Tucker (1860-1903)
served as a leader of the Salvation Army in India and the United States;
Herbert Howard Booth (1862-1926) led the Salvation Army in Canada
and Australia, composed many outstanding hymns, and was an independ-
ent evangelist; Marian Billups Booth (born 1864) died at an early age
without distinction; Evangeline Cory Booth (1865-1950) led the Salvation
Army in the United States and served as its fourth General; and Lucy
Milward Booth-HeUberg (1868-1953) was a Salvation Army leader in
Scandinavia,

CHAPTER IX

WINNING NATIONAL RECOGNITION

1 The following pathetic appeal appeared in the War Cry for Oct.
IT 3, 1889: "CANCER CURE! The General invites communication, describing

226 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

any real cure of the above-mentioned disease, by any readers of the War

Cry "

2 The building was torn down to make room for the present National
Headquarters Building erected by Commander Evangeline Booth on the
same site in 1929.

CHAPTER XI

THE GREAT SCHISM

1 Maud and Ballington Booth founded the Volunteers of America in
March, 1896, and Ballington served as its General until his death on
October 5, 1940. Maud Ballington Booth devoted her life to prison
work and gained fame as the "Little Mother of the Prisons," succeed-
ing her husband as General of the Volunteers of America from 1940
until her death on August 26, 1948. Their son, Charles Brandon Booth,
elected to command the organization after the death of his mother, is
the present General

CHAPTER XII

HEALING THE BREACH

1 The husband of daughter Catherine became Booth-Clibborn, and the
husband of daughter Lucy became Booth-Hellberg.

CHAPTER XIII
"THE LANDLESS MAN TO THE MANLESS LAND"

1 The Salvation Army has since been incorporated under the laws of
several other states.

2 After a period of rest, Frederick Booth-Tucker was appointed for-
eign secretary at International Headquarters, In 1906 he married for the
third time and with his wife returned to India, where he had begun Sal-
vation Army work in 1882. From 1906 to 1919 he commanded the Salva-
tion Army in a very successful administration in the land he loved best.
A critical illness forced him to return to England; but until his death on
July 17, 1929, he continued to be an active Salvation Army officer.

CHAPTER XIV

"SEND EVA!"

1 From "General William Booth Enters Into Heaven" by Nicholas
Vachel Lindsay, Used by permission of The Macmillan Company.

CHAPTER XV

APPROACHING MATURITY

1 A network of "Harbor Light" Corps now serves an increasing num*
ber of alcoholics.

NOTES 227

CHAPTER XVII

PROSPERITY AND PROHIBITION

1 Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland,
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama,
Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, West Virginia, and Ohio.

2 Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri,
Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota,
and North Dakota.

3 California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Utah,
Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada.

4 Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Geor-
gia, Florida, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Kentucky, Vir-
ginia, West Virginia, and Maryland.

CHAPTER XXI

WORLD WAR II AND USO

1 The six member agencies were given funds to operate on their own
during the year 1948, and the Salvation Army continued its services under
the name Salvation Army Services to the Armed Forces (SASAF). The
USO was reactivated in Aug., 1948, and operated until Jan. 31, 1950. Its
services were continued after that date by Associated Services for the
Armed Forces (ASAF), in which the Salvation Army and two other of
the original six member agencies did not participate. In Feb., 1951, it
was announced that ASAF and the old USO had surrendered their char-
ters and united to form a new USO consisting of the original six member
agencies and a seventh USO Camp Shows. Thus, the Salvation Army
continued to provide the American fighting men of the Korean War the
services it had begun in the Spanish-American War.

CHAPTER XXIII

THE WORLD FOR CHRIST

1 The first Self -Denial Week in the United States was held during
Oct. 6-13, 1888, two years after it had been inaugurated in England. In
contrast with most Salvation Army fund-raising campaigns, it is almost
entirely an internal appeal to the members of the Army the money that
is collected coming from officers and soldiers who make some sacrifice to
save the money contributed.

Sources

GENERAL

The most important single source for Salvation Army history is the
file of the organization's official publication the War Cry. The Salvation
Army Eastern Territory Headquarters in New York has a complete file
of the War Cry published in New York since 1887. Many of the earlier
issues, published in Philadelphia, Brooklyn, and New York City from
1 88 1 to 1887, may be found in the Rose Memorial Library of Drew Uni-
versity, which has other Salvation Army material not available elsewhere.
Perhaps the largest single collection of Salvation Army material in the
United States is the Circle M Collection donated to the Houston, Texas,
Public Library by Major John Milsaps. Under the terms of Major Mil-
saps' will, much of this material was made available for the first time in
November, 1952.

The History of the Salvation Army by Robert Sandall is an official
mukivolume history of the international organization. Two volumes have
been published, Volume I (1937) and Volume II (1950). The Salvation
Army in the United States is treated very briefly. The Salvation Army
Year Book, published annually from London since 1906, contains some
articles about the work in the United States.

There arc numerous biographies of General William Booth. The best,
both from the point of view of scholarship and literary style, is God's
Soldier: General William Booth (2 vok, 1935), by St. John Ervine. The
official biography, The Life of General William Booth (2 vok, 1920), by
Harold Begbie, contains much valuable information. General Booth and
the Salvation Army (1911) by Alex M. Nicol is a somewhat critical biog-
raphy by a former Salvation Army Commissioner. William Booth, The
General of the Salvation Army (x898), by the General's son-in-law
Frederick Booth-Tucker; Authoritative Life of General William Booth
(1912), by George Scott Railton; and William Booth, Founder of The
Salvation Army (no date), by Minnie L. Carpenter, are useful short

* A completely documented copy of the manuscript of this book, indicating
the source for every important statement of fact, is catalogued at the Columbia
University Library under the title Religion in Action: A History of the Salva**
tion Army in the United States.

229

230 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

sketches. Two other biographies, The Prophet of the Poor (1906), by
Thomas F. G. Coates, and Blood and Fire (1925), by William H. Nelson,
have little merit. / Was a Stranger (1954), by Harold C. Steele, is a recent
sociological study.

Nearly all of the other members of the Booth family have had their
biographers. Frederick Booth-Tucker wrote The Life of Catherine Booth,
Mother of the Salvation Army (2 vols., 1892), and a brief biography of
his wife, The Consul, A Sketch of Emma Booth-Tucker (1903). The
story of his life is told in Booth-Tucker, Sadhu and Saint ( 1930), by F. A.
Mackenzie. Bramwell Booth (1933), by Catherine Bramwell Booth, and
Herbert Booth: A Biography (1928), by Ford C. Ottrnan, are sympathetic
accounts of the lives of two of General William Booth's sons. The Mare-
chale (1921), by James Strahan, tells the story of the GeneraPs eldest
daughter, Catherine Booth-Clibborn. General Evangeline Booth (1935)
and General Evangeline Booth of the Salvation Army (1948), both by
Philip W. Wilson, emphasize the early years of her life in England but
are of little help for the thirty-year period of her command in the United
States. Of the Booth children who were active in the Salvation Army,
only Ballington and Lucy have not been subjects of biographies.

Biographies of other Salvationists who contributed to the develop-
ment of the Salvation Army in the United States include Commissioner
Railton (1920), by Eileen Douglas and Mildred Duff; Samuel Logan
Brengle: Portrait of a Prophet (1933), and Out of the Depths, The Life-
Story of Henry F. Milans (1930), by Clarence W. Hall; William Me-
Intyre, God's Harvester (1948), by Catherine Baird. Some interesting
sidelights on Salvation Army history in the United States from 1885 to
1943 are contained in the autobiography of Commissioner Edward Jf
Parker, My Fifty -eight Years (1943).

THE EARLY YEARS, 1879-1904

Background material on the early development of the Salvation Army
in England may be found in the biographies of General Booth by Ervinc
and Begbie and in SandalFs history. Two pamphlets, Outlines of Sahation
Army History (1927) and The Salvation Army^ Its Origins and Develop-
ment (1945), are useful The Salvation Anny Handbook Doctrine (1947)
describes the theology of the Salvation Army. The Romance of 'The
War Cry* (1929), by William Nicholson, is the standard work on the
Army's official publication.

The general social and religious history of the United States during
the period of the formative years of the Salvation Army in this country is
described in The Story of Religion in America (1939), by William W*
Sweet; The Rise of the City, iSyS-tSpS (*933>* by Arthur M. Schlesingcr;

SOURCES 231

and The Urban Impact on American Protestantism, 1865-1900 (1943),
by Aaron I. Abell. The chapter "The Salvation Army in America, 1880-
1900," in the latter book, contains a few minor errors but is the only re-
cent scholarly writing on the history of the Army in the United States.

Contemporary newspapers are the major source for the first few years
of Salvation Army history in America. The story of the Shirleys is told
in a series of articles in the War Cry by Eliza Shirley. Twenty-One
Years' Salvation Army (1889), by George S. Railton, contains informa-
tion on his activities in the United States. The best published account of
the Moore schism is told by Clifford Brindley, "Commissioner Richard E.
Holz . . . ," the War Cry, April 13, 20, and 27, 1928. Considerable other
material on this episode is preserved in the Nels Erikson papers. The
Salvation War, 1884, by William Booth, and The Salvation War in Amer-
ica for 1885 and The Salvation War in America -for 1886-87, both by
Frank Smith, are important sources for these early years.

In addition to the War Cry, the major sources for the administration
of Maud and Ballington Booth as national commanders of the Salvation
Army in the United States are From Ocean to Ocean (ca. 1891), by Ball-
ington Booth, and Beneath Two Flags (1889), by Maud Ballington Booth.
The controversy over Maud and Ballington Booth's resignation attracted
considerable attention from the New York press. Information on the
event is included in NicoFs biography of General William Booth and
Wilson's biography of Evangeline Booth. Among the pamphlet literature
are The Resignation of Commander and Mrs. Booth (1896), by Emma
and Frederick Booth-Tucker; The Unpublished Letter (1896), published
by the Volunteers of America; Commander and Mrs. Ballington Booth's
Statement of Explanation Regarding the Causes Which Led to Their
Expressing Inability to Take Another Command (1896). Very useful in
evaluating press opinion was a scrapbook of clippings about the contro-
versy from newspapers all over the United States, owned by Miss Theo-
dora Booth.

The Barbary Coast (1933), by Herbert Asbury, describes the condi-
tions that the Salvation Army faced in San Francisco. Land of Liberty
(1947), by Fred Hamlin, contains a chapter on "Joe the Turk," a colorful
personality from the West. A series of articles about "Joe the Turk" by
Adjutant William G. Harris appear in the War Cry, December 23, 30,
1933; January 6, 13, 20, 27, and February 3, 1934.

Frederick Booth-Tucker, who was national commander of the Salva-
tion Army in the United States from 1896 to 1904, was the most prolific
writer to hold that position. In addition to his biographies of General
William Booth, Catherine Booth, and Emma Booth-Tucker already cited,
he wrote the following short sketches and pamphlets: The Salvation Army

232 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

in the United States (1899 and 1904 editions); The Salvation Army as a
Temperance Movement (no date); Our Future Pauper Policy in America
(no date); The Relief of the Poor by the Salvation Army (no date);
Friends of the Poor, or, The Winter Work of the Salvation Army (1902);
The Social Relief Work of the Salvation Army in the United States
(1900); Prairie Homes for City Poor (ca. 1901); "Farm Colonies of the
Salvation Army," Bulletin of the Department of Labor, No. 48 (1903).
Other sources for the farm colonies include H. Rider Haggard's Report
on the Salvation Army Colonies in the United States and at Hadleigh,
England, with Scheme of National Land Settlements, published by the
British Government in 1905; and the articles: "A Successful Farm Colony
in the Irrigation Country," by Albert Shaw in the American Monthly
Review of Reviews, XXVI (November, 1902); and "Fort Amity, The
Salvation Army Colony in Colorado," by Dorothy Roberts in the Colo-
rado Magazine, XVIII (September, 1940). A summary of Booth-Tucker's
achievements is made in "Commander Booth Tucker and His Work in
America," the American Monthly Review of Reviews, XXX (November,
1904).

THE MIDDLE PERIOD, 1904-1934

Some of the events of the administration of Commander Evangeline
Booth are described in The Times Between 1904-1926 (1926), by Agnes
L. Palmer. An undated pamphlet, with no author listed, entitled Where
Shadows Lengthen (1907) described Salvation Army work in that year,
A study by Edward G. Lamb, The Social Work of The Salvation Army
(1909), is useful.

The Salvation Army's role in World War I is told in The War
Romance of the Salvation Anny (1919), by Evangeline Booth and Grace
Livingston Hill. It is written in a style that was popular for moral stories
for girls about thirty or forty years ago and cannot be accepted as com-
pletely accurate. A valuable summary is the War Service Report of The
Salvation Army, i$ 17-1 $19, a fifteen-page pamphlet published by the
Army Headquarters in New York, The War Service Herald, published
monthly from 1917 to 1919, is an important source. An interesting account
of one American Salvation Army officer's work in Belgium during the
years of American neutrality is told in A Yankee Major Invades Belgium
(1916), by George Taggart and Wallace WinchelL

An important study sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation re-
sulted in Social Salvage: A Study of the Central Organization and Ad**
ministration of the Salvation Anny (1924), by Porter R, Lee and Walter
W. Pettit.

SOURCES 233

The controversy over the High Council that deposed General Bram-
well Booth has resulted in several published accounts. Two books pub-
lished in 1929, when the controversy was at its height, present the two
extreme positions. The Betrayal of Bramwell Booth, by Frank Smith, is
a defense of the deposed General; The Clash of the Cymbals., by Frederick
A. Mackenzie, is an apologia for the High Council. St. John Ervine, in a
2i2-page epilogue to his biography of General Booth, carefully examines
the facts and reaches a conclusion favorable to Bramwell Booth. Cath-
erine Brarnwell Booth's biography of her father presents the story from
his point of view. P. W. Wilson, in his biography of Evangeline Booth,
brings out the case against Bramwell. A chapter in Clarence W. Hall's
biography of Samuel Logan Brengle describes the part played by the first
American-born commissioner in the High Council. The newspapers, par-
ticularly the New York Timesj carried detailed stories of the High
Council.

THE RECENT PERIOD, 1934-1955

Every year since 1936, the national secretary of the Salvation Army
has published a volume of Addresses Delivered at Salvation Army Sessions
at the National Conference of Social Work. These are invaluable for the
recent history of the organization. They are indexed in a pamphlet en-
titled The Salvation Army at the National Conference of Social Work
(1948), published by the Salvation Army National Research Bureau.
Other publications of the bureau include: The Salvation Army and the
Alcoholic (1948) (no author given); Pilgrim's Progress: 2oth Century,
The Story of Salvation Army Offlcership (1950), by Don Pitt; and The
Prison Work of the Salvation Army (1948), by J. Stanley Sheppard.

For the work of the Salvation Army in World War II, the monthly
publication of National Headquarters is essential. It was entitled the Red
Shield from January, 1942, through December, 1943; War Service Bulle-
tin from January, 1944, to December, 1944; War Service Bulletin of The
Salvation Army from January, 1945, to February, 1946; and Service of
The Salvation Army from March, 1946, to February, 1947. Pamphlets
that are useful are Always Ready! The Salvation Army in War-Time
Review (1942), and The Salvation Army in the United Service Organi-
zations for National Defense (1942).

A pamphlet by Jane Wrieden, The Pattern of Social Work in the
Salvation Army (1946), illustrates the recent developments in Salvation
Army social work. The "Service-toMan" Program (1944), a report of
institutes held by the Men's Social Service Department of the Eastern
Territory, by A. E. Agnew, is an important source. There are a number

234 SOLDIERS WITHOUT SWORDS

of unpublished manuscripts relating to the recent social work of the
Salvation Army such as: The Unique Contributions of the Salvation
Army to the Religious Life of America (Andover-Newton Theological
Seminary, 1944), by John Baggs; A Study of Salvation Army Principles
and Practices Seen in Relation to Casework (New York School of Social
Work, 1946), by Grace Mehling; Growth of a Case Work Agency To-
ward Full Participation in the Life of the Community (University of
Buffalo, 1945), by Jane E. Wrieden; A Study of Professional Social Case
Work Practice in the Salvation Army Professional Social Case Work in
a Religious Setting (New York School of Social Work, 1946), by Zora
Thompson.

Index

Abbott, Lyman, 94, 109

"Acres of Diamonds," 142

Agnew, Smith, 109

Aguinaldo, Ernilio, 125

Alaska, 75, 141, 215

Albany, N.Y., 134

Alcoholics, work with, 151-152, 174,
210

Alcoholics Anonymous, 210

Alexandria, Va., 61

Allan, John J,, 168, 205-206, 222

Allegheny City, Pa., 33

Allemand, Marcel, 216

Altgeld, Peter, 89

American Association of Social Work-
ers, 211

American Library Association, 165

American Salvation Army. See Salva-
tion Army of America

Amity Land and Irrigation Company,
131

Anderson, Annie S., 124

Andrews, Bishop E. G., 109

Anti-Suicide Bureau, 151

Antrim, William, 91

Arnold, William C, 222

Asbury, Bishop Francis, 194

Asbury Park, N.J., 62

"Ash-barrel Jimmy." See Kemp, James

Astor, Lady, 177

Atlanta, Ga., 173, 198

Atlantic City, N.J., 166

Aurania, S.S., 64

Australia, 77, 97, 206

Australia, S.S., i, 2

Auxiliary League, 43, 93-94, 04, 167

Baker, Newton D,, 165
Baltimore, Md., 33, 34, 61, 136, 144
Barbary Coast, 68, 69, 73, 74, 100
Barker, William S, 156, 161, 166

Bates, Claude E., 216, 222
Baxter Street Mission, 6, 8
Beecher, Henry Ward, 1 1, 41

Belgian Congo, 215

Belgian relief, 157-158, 175

Billups, Mary C. See Irvine, Mrs.

James E.

Birmingham, Ala., 136
Birth of a Nation, The, 143
"Bishop of the Bowery." See Winchell,

Wallace W.
Booth, Ballington (son of William

Booth), 66, 67, 74, 76-78, 79, 80, 81,

85* 9 1 * 93 *o> 102, 106-117 passim,

122, 221, 225, 226

Booth, Maud Ballington (wife of Bal-
lington Booth), 76, 78, 84, 85, 93, 94,
95, 100, 106, 107, 108, no, in, 112,
113, 116, 141, 221, 226

Booth, Catherine Bramwell (daughter
of William Bramwell Booth), 184,
185, 1 86

Booth, Catherine Mumford (wife of
William Booth), i, 16-17, 20 3* &$>
76, 91, 92

Booth, Charles Brandon (son of Bal-
lington Booth), 226

Booth, Evangeline Cory (daughter of
William Booth), 90, 193, 194, 217,
221, 225, 226; part in Ballington
Booth dispute, 112-115 passim; com-
mand in U.S., 140-143, 144-149 P as ~
sim, 153, 155-161 passim, 167-177
passim; High Council, 178-187 pas-
sim; elected General, 191-192

Booth, Herbert (son of William
Booth), 12, 84, 112, 113, 141, 225

Booth, Marian Billups (daughter of
William Booth), 225

Booth, William (Founder of the Sal-
vation Army), i, n, 12, 15-22
passim, 24, 30, 31, 32, 69, 70, 76, 77,
78, 84, 128, 138, 167, 178, 179, 182,
194, 217, 221; Moore controversy,
45-58 passim; first visit to U.S., 62-
66; second visit to U.S., 86-88, 92,
1 06; social welfare program, 97; In

235

236 INDEX

Darkest England scheme, 98-99, 102,
129; Ballington Booth controversy,
106-109 passim } 116-117; third visit
to U.S., 122-124; fourth visit to U.S.,
134-136; fifth and sixth visits to U.S.,
143-146; death and funeral, 146-148

Booth, William Bramwell (son of
William Booth), 18, 45, 65, 76, 90,
97, in, n6, 149, 153, 172, 193, 215,
221, 225; becomes General, 148; de-
posed by High Council, 178-185,
passim

Booth, Mrs. William Bramwell, 97, 185

Booth-Clibborn, Catherine (La Mare-
chale) (daughter of William Booth) ,
78, 84, 225, 226

Booth-Hellberg, Lucy (daughter of
William Booth), 185, 225, 226

Booth-Tucker, Emma Moss (The
Consul) (daughter of William
Booth), 113, n8, 119, 122, 131, 137,

138, 142, 221, 225

Booth-Tucker, Frederick St. G. de
Latour, 84, 102, 104, 113, 119-120,
121, 122, 126, 127, 128, 129, 132-139
passim, 142, 186, 221, 226

Boozers' Convention, 151-152, 174

Boston, Mass., 60, 63, 94, 101, 103, 122,
157, 166

Bo wens, Jim, 91

Bown, Emma Jane, 60, 101

Bradford, A. H., 109

Braithwaite, W, S., 61

Brengle, Samuel Logan, 186

Brewer, Arthur T,, 160, 202

Brewer, William, 103

Bridgeport, Conn., 39

Briggs, Charles A., 94

Britton, Major, 74

Brodie, Steve, 120, 121

Brooklyn, N.Y., 39, 41, 42, 46, 50, 51,
52, 70, 81, 101, 198

Bryan, William Jennings, 127

Buffalo, N.Y,, 39, 59-60, 102, 122, 136,

*37

Burgess, John W, 127
Burma, 214

Cadman, Elijah, 18

Canada, 34, 46, 64, 70, 71, 78, 86, 87,

141, 143, 144, 206
Carpenter, George Lyndon, 221

Castle Rock, Colo., 131

Catholic Community Service, 202

Ceylon, 214

Chaplains, Spanish-American War,

125; World War I, 167-168; World

War II, 205-206
Charlesworth, Maud Elizabeth. See

Booth, Maud Ballington
Charlesworth, Samuel, 78
Chesham, Albert E., 222
Cherry Tree Orphanage, 104, 131-132
Chicago, 111., 63, 64, 65, 82, 87, 103,

122, 136, 137, 138, 144, 154, 157, 161,

1 66, 169, 170, 198
Children of the Poor, The, 102
Chinese, work with the, 83, 84
Christian Mission, 16, 18, 21, 22
Cincinnati, Ohio, 122, 136
Clapton, Training College at, 77, 141
Cleveland, Ohio, 21, 39, 87, 122, 132,

144

Cleveland, Grover, 53, 63, no
Cleveland, Mrs. Grover, 104
Coleman, Alice, 2, 8
Columbus, Ohio, 136, 144
"Commandant." See Booth, Herbert
Commissioner's Conference of 1930,

185-186, 191

Community Chest, 171, 216
Consul. See Booth-Tucker, Emma
Coolidge, Calvin, 143
Coolidge, Mrs, Calvin, 177
Coombs, Thomas B. 46, 50, 54
Cooper, Edward, 7, 8
Cooper, Peter, 7

Council of the Christian Crusade, 215
Council of Christians and Jews, 216
Cowan, Thomas, 175
Crest, 57-58
Crime Commission of the Attorney

GeneraTs Department, 211
Cuba, 124

Cummings, Homer S., 191
Cummins, Albert B, 139
Curley, James, 175
Cutting, R. Fulton, 109

Dale, John T, 224

Damon, Alexander M., 113, 186, list

Danish, work with the. See Scandl-

navian work
Day nursery, 102

INDEX

237

Dayton, Ohio, 59

Dayton Syndicate (Ohio), 59

Dean Lake, Mo., 137

Debs, Eugene V., 122

Deed Poll of 1878, 18, 20, 178

Deed Poll, Supplementary, of 1904,

115, 183

Denomination, 167-168
Denver, Colo., 87, 136
Depew, Chauncey M., 87, 94, 109
Depression, 188-191
Des Moines, Iowa, 144
Detroit, Mich., 87

Detroit Evening News (Mich.), 106
Devil, trial of the, 89-90
Dewey, Admiral George, 126
Dickinson, Jennie, 24
Disaster Emergency Service, 153
Distinguished Service Medal, 168
Dodge, Mrs. Cleveland, 94
Dodge, William E., 109
Doughnut, 163, 171
Dray, William J., 222

Eadie, Colonel, 113

East London Christian Mission. See

Christian Mission
Easton, Pa., 33
Eighteenth Amendment, 150, 152, 170,

173, 174, 175, See also Prohibition,

attitude toward
Eklund, Mina, 81
Electric Light (Marshalkown, Iowa),

40

Emergency Lodges, 207
Emergency Relief Program, 189, 190
Empress of Ireland disaster, 154
Espagne, S.S., 161
Estill, Thomas, 160, 222
Evangeline Residences, 177, 207
Evans, Rachel, 2, 23
Evans, William, 57, 65, 113
Evanston, 111., 216

Fakir Singh. See Booth-Tucker, Fred-
erick

Fall River, Mass., 88, 89
Family Service, 207, 210

Farm Colonies, 99, 128, 129-133, 137
Federal Child Welfare Bureau, 211
Fiedler, William H. F., 8
Fielding, Edward, 74, 113

Fielding, Mrs. Edward, roo

Fielding, William S., 86

Finances, 170-171

Finnish, work with the. See Scandi-
navian work

Fong Foo Sec, 83, 84

Food depots, 97, 188

Fort Amity, Colo., 131-132, 137. See
also Farm Colonies

Fort Herrick, Ohio, 132, 133. See also
Farm Colonies

Fort Leavenworth, Kan., 168

Fort Romie, Calif., 130, 157. See also
Farm Colonies

Foundation Deed of 1875, 178

France, 84, 160-166 passim, 169

Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, 155

Franklin, Pa., 33

Frederick, Md., 91

Fredericksburg, Va., 61

French, George, 152

French, Holland, 196, 208, 222

Fulton, John, 109

Gabriel, Anna, 43
Garabed, Joseph, 73, 74
Garrison, William Lloyd, 62
"General William Booth Enters into

Heaven," excerpts from, 146-147
George V, 147
Germanic^ S.S., 123
Germans, work with the, 82-83
Gifford, Adam, 172, 222
Girl Guards, 196
Gold Coast, 215
Gold Dust Lodge, 189
Golden Jubilee Congress, 176
Grand Rapids, Mich., 100
Grey, Earl, 143

Hadleigh, 130, 133
Haggard, H. Rider, 130, 132
Hague, Frank, 157
Hale, Edward Everett, 94
Hall, A. Oakey, m
Hall, Charles Cuthbert, 41
Hancock., S.S., 126
Hanna, Marcus, 136, 138
Harding, Warren G., H3
Harrisburg, Pa., 122
Harrison, Mrs. Benjamin, 94
Harry Hill's Variety Theatre, 3-6

238 INDEX

Hartelius, Annie, 43, 81, 82, 224

Hartelms, Mary, 43, 8 1, 82

Harvard University, 87

Harvest Festival, 133-134

Hawaii, 75, 202, 215

Hay, John, 136

Heilsarmee (German Salvation Army),

83

Herrick, Myron T., 132
Higgins, Edward J., 180, 183, 185, 186,

191, 221

High Council, 115, 178, 183-185, 186,

187, 191
Hill, Harry, 3
Hitchcock, Ethan A., 136
Hobart, Garret A., 121
Holland, Thomas C., 133, 137, 151
Holz, Ernest R., 168
Holz, Richard E., 79, 80, 156, 222, 224
Home Service League, 167
Homes and Hospitals for Unwed

Mothers, 74, 85, 97, 99-100, 122, 137,

207, 209

Hoover, Herbert, 143, 175, 176, 181
Hoover, Mrs. Herbert, 177
Houston, Tex., 103
Hoving, Walter, 203
How the Other Half Lives, 102
Howard, T. H., 77
Hudson Street Mission, 7, 8

If Christ Came to Chicago, 64

Incorporated Salvation Army. Sec Sal-
vation Army of America

Incorporation, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 134,
178

In Darkest Africa, 98

In Darkest England and the Way Out,
98-99, 102

In Darkest England scheme, 87, 129

In His Steps: "What Would Je$m
Do?>\ 96

Independent^ 117

India, 84, in, 119, 214

Indonesia, 214

Industrial Homes. See Men's Social
Service Centers

Ingersoll, Robert G, 89, 90, 157

Inman, Jonas, 48, 57

International Congress of 1914, 154-

55
Internationalism, 8o 213

Irvine, James E., 2, 21
Irvine, Mrs. James E., 2, 3, 21
Italians, work with the, 83

Japan, 143, 144

Jermy, James, 21

Jersey City, N.J., 2, 33, 154, 157

Jewish Welfare Board, 165, 202

"Joe the Turk." See Garabed, Joseph

Joffre, Marshal J. J., 171

John and Mary R. Markle Memorial

Residence, 177
Jones, Sam, 65

Kansas City, Mo., 122, 136, 137
Keefe, Nellie, 84
Keller, Helen, 191
Kemp, James, 5-6, 57, 96, 223
Kennion, John W., 41
Key West, Fla., 124
Kilby, George, 142, 222
Kipling, Rudyard, 126
Kitching, Wilfred, 211, 218, 221
Kline, Harry, 168

Kriegsruf, Der (German language
War Cry), 83

La Guardia, Fiorello H. 191

Lamb, Alexander, 89

Larsson, Anna, 81

Larsson, Mathilda, 81

Laurier, Sir Wilfred, 143

Lawley, John, 87

League of Nations, 215

Leo XIII, 73

Lewis, Alice, 124

"Little Mother of the Prisons." See

Booth, Maud Ballington
Ljunggreo, Amalia, Bt
Lloyd George, David, 171
Los Angeles, Calif., 122, 136
Louisville, Ky. t 70
Low, Seth, 136
LusitemM) S.S., 148
Lyceum ( Brooklyn, N.Y.), 41, 42,101,

198
Lynching, attitude toward, 91

McAdoo, William G M x8*
Mclntyre, William, 151, 156, 172*1 73,
222

INDEX

239

McKinley, William, 121, 123, 127
McKinley, Mrs. William, 124
McMillan, Donald, 194, 206, 214, 221,

222

McMillan, Mrs. Donald, 216

McMillan, John, 189, 222

McNutt, Paul V., 203

Manning, Cardinal Henry E., 105

Manning, Bishop William T., 181, 191

Marconi, Guglielmo, 134, 143

Markle, John, 177

Marshall, Edith F., 113, 124

Marshall, Norman, 168, 194, 217, 222

Marshall, Thomas R., 181

Matthews, Mary. See Stillwell, Mrs.
Henry

Medal of Merit, 206

Medforth, Polly. See Wells, Mrs. Al-
fred

Men's Social Service Centers, 102-103,
129, 137, 1 60, 1 68, 1 88, 205, 207, 209-
210

Mentor Township, Ohio, 132

Merritt, General Wesley, r 25

Methodist New Connexion, 16

Mexico, 215

Milans, Henry, 151

Milsaps, John, 72, 73, 125-126, 168

Milwaukee, Wis., 157

Minneapolis, Minn., 82, 122, 136

Missing Persons bureaus, 207

Missionary work, 43, 214, 215

Mohrant, Andrew, 38

Monroe Doctrine, 109, no

Montclair, N.J., 87

Moody, Dwight, 65

Moore, Thomas E., 56, 57, 70, 221, 224;
Commander of Salvation Army in
U.S., 32-36 passim, 41, 42, 44; led
secession movement, 45-55 passim

Moore schism, 60, 72, 101, m, 115.
See also Salvation Army of America;
and Moore, Thomas E.

Morris, Emma Elizabeth Florence, 2, 9,
24, 223

Morris Cottage, 99, 100

"Mother of the Salvation Army." See
Booth, Catherine

Mott, Eugene, 91

Music, 19, 72, 196

"My Father" (lecture by Evangelitie
Booth), 142

Natino, Erme, 83

Natino, Louis, 83

National Catholic War Council, 165

National Chaplains' Association, 211

National Conference of Social Work,
211

National Headquarters Memorial
Building, 91, 92, 93, 106, 108, 175-177,
226

National Prisoners' Aid Association,
211

National Social Welfare Assembly, 211

Negroes, work with, 60-63, 9 r r 73

New Albany, Ind., 70

New Brunswick, N.J., 34, 47, 48

New Haven, Conn., 39, 40

New York, N.Y., 1-9 passim, 57, 58,
61, 63, 64, 66, 79, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87,
91, 92, 93, 94, 99-104 passim, 106, 107,
109, 112-115 passim, 118-123 passim,
135, 136, 138, 139, 143, 144, 145, 146,
148, 149, 151, 153, 154, 161, 166, 169,
171, 172, 174, 175, 176, 177, 179, 180,
1 88, 189, 190, 191, 198, 203, 217

New York Herald, 3, 8, 119

New York 2/72, 107

New York Times, 164, 184, 189, 191

New York Tribune, 32, 59, 93, 114,
147, 148

New York World, 123, 180, 182

Newark, N.J., 8, 9, 24, 25, 33

Newport, S.S., 125

Newport News, Va., 166

Newton, George, 69

Nicol, Alex M., 87, 112, 113, 114, 115

Nigeria, 215

Norton, Charles Eliot, 87

Norwegians, work with the. See Scan-
dinavian work

Oakland, Calif., 69, 71, 72, 100, 136
Odeon Theater (Newark, N.J.), 8, 9,

25

Olney, Richard, no
Omaha, Neb., 168
Orarncs, Benjamin, 221
Orphanages, 104, 131-132, 207
Orsborn, Albert, 217, 221
Ouchterlony, Hanna, 43, 82

Pacific Coast Holiness Association, 69,

70, 72

240

INDEX

Pakistan, 214
Paris, S.S., 88
Parker, Edward J., 125, 143, 156, 160,

186, 193, 202, 221, 224
Parker, George, 29
Parmelee, James, 132
Paterson, N.J,, 33, 39
Pean, Charles, 214
Pearson, Elizabeth, 2, 9, 25, 223
Peart, William, 170, 172, 221
Peoria, 111., 157

Persecutions, 14, 21, 37-41, 59, 93
Pershing, General John J., 161, 164,

167, 171
Philadelphia, Pa., 9, 12, 13, 22, 23, 24,

25, 33, 61, 122, 136, 144, 166
"Philadelphia, S.S., 134, 135
Philadelphia News, 15
Philippine Islands, 75, 124, 125, 126, 127
Phillips, Wendell, 62
Pittsburgh, Pa., 87, 136, 144
Plymouth, Pa., 59, 101
Portland, Ore., 74, 122
Price, Clara, 2, 23
Princess Rink (Chicago, 111.), <$4 89,

138

Prison work, 63, 95, 97, 210-211
"Problems of the Poor" (illustrated

lecture), 143
Prohibition, attitude toward, 20, 90,

150-152, 173-175
Property, control of, 47-51 passim, 178-

179, 185-186-, effects of acquiring,

194-195

Providence, R.I., 82, 174
Public Morality Council, 216
Pullman, III, 89
Pullman strike, 89
Pugmire, Ernest I, 154, 194, 221, 222
Pugmire, Joseph, 62
Punch, 147
Purviance, Helen, 163

Raggo, Frank, 83

Railton, George Scott, 18, 32, 60-6 1,
63, 83, 84, 176, 213, 221, 223; leads
first group of Salvationists to XXS,,
1-9 passim, 21-22; Commander in
U.S., 2 3 -3 1 passim

Red Shield clubs, 205

"Rcddie," 15

Rees, David, 154

Religious Organizations Committee of
the League of Nations Union, 215-
216

Rescue Homes. See Homes and Hos-
pitals for Unwed Mothers

Richmond, Va., <5i

Riis, Jacob, 102

Rodda, Bertram, i6r

Roosevelt, Eleanor (Mrs. Franklin D.) t
177

Roosevelt, Franklin D., 143, 191, 203

Roosevelt, Theodore, 134, 136, 139,
143, 144

Root, Elihu, 136

Rutherford, N.J., 104

Ryan, J. A., 168

Sackville-West, Lionel, 53

Sacramento, Calif., 71

St. Louis, Mo., 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 87,

122, 136, 137, 144, 157

St. Paul, Minn., 136

Salvage Brigades. See Men's Social
Service Centers

Salvation Army, founded, 16; doc-
trine, methods, and government, 17-
20, 219-220; social program begun,
97-99; change in method of selecting
the General, 178-179, 182-186; inter-
national aspects, 213-215

Salvation Army, in U.S., arrival of first
group, 1-3; first meeting in New
York, 3-5; first convert m U.S., 5-
6; meetings in New York, 6-8; first
meeting in Newark, 8-9; work be-
gun by Shirley family, 11-13; Na-
tional Headquarters in Philadelphia,
23-24; Railton opens St. Louis, 27-
30; Railton recalled as Commander,
30-31; growth under Moore, 32-36;
persecutions, 37-40; headquarters in
Brooklyn, 41-42; third anniversary
celebration, 42; first missionaries sent
abroad, 43; fourth anniversary cele-
bration, 45-46; Moore's revolt, 49-
52; Smith appointed to command,
52-54; growth under Smith, 55-63;
Ballington Booth appointed to com-
mand, 67; on Pacific Coast, 68-75;
growth under Ballington Booth t 76-
85, 88-95; new National Headquar-
ters building, 91-93; social program

INDEX

2 4 I

begun, 99-105; Ballington Booth
schism, 1 06- 1 1 7 ; Booth-Tucker's
command, 118-122; Spanish- Ameri-
can War, 124-126; farm colonies,
129-133; incorporated, 134; Evange-
line Booth's command, 140-142, 150-
152; disaster service, 152-154; World
War I, 156-169; division into terri-
tories, 172-173; new Headquarters
building, 176-177; reform movement,
178-187; depression program, 188-
191; Parker's command, 193; Pug-
mire and McMillan's command, 194;
present organization, 194-196; social
program, 196-197, 207-212; training
program, 197-201; World War II,
202-205; missionary activities, 215;
cooperation with other agencies,
215-216; seventy-fifth anniversary,
218; statistics on growth, 24, 26, 33-
34 4*. 4S-4<$, 58, 67, 74, 85
Salvation Army of America, 53-55, 57,

597 74> 79

Salvation News, 29, 82
San Francisco, Calif., 68, 69, 70, 71,

72, 74, 87, 100, 103, 104, 122, 136,

154, 169,^ 198

San Francisco earthquake, 152-153
San Jose, Calif., 69, 71
Saratoga, N.Y., 79
Scandinavian work, 80, 81, 82
SehafF, Frederick, 42
Schencctady, N.Y., 60
Seattle, Wash,, 103, 122, 143, 161
Seavcr, Thomas, 190
Self-Denial Fund, 215, 227
Servia, S.S., 66
Sharpsburg, Pa., 59
Shaw, Ann, 2, 9, 223
Sheldon, Charles M., 96
Sheldon, Margaret, 163
Shenandoah, Fa,, 101
Shirley, Amos, n, 12, 13, 14, 15, 23,

24. 33> "4
Shirley, Annie (Mrs, Amos), 12, 13,

1*1 33i 4* 57> 2 H

Shirley, Eliza (daughter of Amos
Shirley), u, 13, 14, 15, 23, 33, 223
Shirley family, o, 22, 69, 223
Siege, 150-151
Siloam Faith Mission, 8
Silverman, Rabbi Joseph, 1 81

Slum work, 16, 19, 85, 94, 95, 101-102,

119, 122, 160
Smith, Alfred E., 175
Smith, Frank (Commander in U.S.),

52-63 passim, 66, 67, 79, 221, 225
Smith, Gipsy, 140
Social welfare services, 19, 63, 85, 95,

96-105, in, 119, 152-154, 160, 1 66,

188-191, 195, 196-197, 205, 207-211;

spiritual nature of, 95, 169, 196-197,

208, 211-212
Sousa, John Philip, 177
South Africa, 214
South Amboy, N.J., explosion, 153
Spanish- American War, 123-126
Speyer, James, 174
Spring Valley, N.Y., 132
Springfield, 111., 157
Stanley, Henry M., 98
Stead, William T., 64, 90, 98, 225
Stillwell, Henry, 70, 71, 72, 74, 113
Still well, Mrs. Henry, 71, 74
Stockton, Calif., 72
Stridsropet (Swedish language War

Cry), 82 <

Strong, Josiah, 94, 109, 127
Strong, William L., 109
Sturgeon Market Hall (St. Louis,

Mo.), 28, 30
Summer outings, 154
Sunbeams, 196
Sweden, 43
Swedish, work with the, 81-82. See also

Scandinavian work
Switzerland, 78
Syracuse, N.Y., 39

Tacoma, Wash., 161
Taft, William Howard, 143, 147
Talmage, Thomas De Witt, 41
Tampa, Fla., 124
Taunton, Mass., 60, 101
Territories, 172

Texas City, Tex., explosion, 153
Thompson, "Hallelujah Abbie," 42
Thompson, William, 50
Time, 201

Times, The (London), 21, 149, 155
Toledo, Ohio, 136
Topeka, Kan., 96

Training colleges, 70, 74, 85, 190, 197-
201

242 INDEX

Travelers Aid Association, 203, 216
Trenton, NJ., 34
Truman, Harry S., 206
Tumulty, Joseph P., 161

United Nations, 215, 217

United War Work Campaign, 165

Unwed mothers. See Homes and Hos-
pitals for Unwed Mothers

USO (United Service Organizations),
202-205, 227

Utica, N.Y., 60

Vanderbilt, Mrs. W. K., 94

Venezuela dispute, 108, no

Victoria, Queen, 20

Virginian, S.S., 143

Vocational Guidance and Placement

Bureaus, 207
Volunteers of America, 226

Wanamaker, John, 94, 144
War Camp Community Service, 165
War Cry, 42, 43, 56, 69, 82, 88, 92,
224; first published, 20; first Ameri-
can edition, 29, published as a
weekly, 33; copyrighted by Moore,
51; published by Smith, 58; Pacific
Coast edition, 73, 74
Washington, D.C., 61, 63, 65, 87, 94,
122, 124, 136, 144, 205

Wass, Charles, 57
Waterbury, Conn., 103, 157
Wellesley College, 94
Wells, Alfred, 70, 71, 72, 74
Wells, Mrs. Alfred, 71, 74
Wesleyan Methodist Church, 16
Westbrook, Emma, 2, 8, 25, 42, 48,

79-80

Wheeling, W. Va., 39
"White Man's Burden, The," 126
Willard, Frances E., 94, 109
Wilson, Woodrow, 143, 156, 160, 161,

165, 171
Winchell, Wallace W., 89, 154, 157-

158, 175

Winchell, Mrs. Wallace W., 154, 158
Wisconsin, S.S., 70
World Alliance for International

Friendship Through the Churches,

215

Women's Christian Temperance Un-
ion, 94

World Council of Churches, 216

World War I, 156, 157, 158, 159-169

World War II, 202-206

World-Wide Salvation Army, 54, 55,
57, 67

Wrieden, Jane, 208

YMCA, 164, 165, 202

134291

s

10