Victoria
of flDancbester.
LIBRARY EXCHANGE.
WITH THE COMPLIMENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY COUNCIL.
Acknowledgments and publications sent in exchange should
be addressed to
THE LIBRARIAN,
THE UNIVERSITY,
MANCHESTER.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER
ECONOMIC SERIES No. X.
GARTSIDE REPORTS ON INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. No. 7.
Some Electro-Chemical Centres
SHERRATT & HUGHES
Publishers to the Victoria University of Manchester
Manchester : 34 Cross Street
London : 60 Chandos Street W.C.
Some Electro-Chemical
Centres
A REPORT
To the Electors of the G art side Scholarships
^ ^
J. N. PRING, M.Sc.
Gartside Scholar
MANCHESTER
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
1908
UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER PUBLICATIONS
No. XLI.
THE GARTSIDE REPORTS.
THE Gartside Reports are the reports made by the
Gartside Scholars at the University of Manchester. The
Gartside Scholarships were established in 1902 for a
limited period, by John Henry Gartside, Esq., of
Manchester. They are tenable for two years and about
three are awarded each year. They are open to males
of British nationality who at the date of the election
shall be over the age of eighteen years and under the age
of twenty-three years.
Every scholar must enter the University of Manchester
for one Session for a course of study approved by the
electors. The remainder of the time covered by the
Scholarship must be devoted to the examination of
subjects bearing upon Commerce or Industry in Germany
or Switzerland, or in the United States of America, or
partly in one of the above-mentioned countries and partly
in others, but the electors may on special grounds allow
part of this period of the tenure of the Scholarship to be
spent in study and travel in some other country or
countries. It is intended that each scholar shall select
some industry, or part of an industry, or some business,
for examination, and investigate this comparatively in
the United Kingdom and abroad. The first year's work
at the University of Manchester is designed to prepare
the student for this investigation, and it partly takes the
form of directed study, from publications and by direct
investigation, of English conditions with regard to the
industrial or commercial subjects upon which research
will be made abroad in the second year of the scholarship.
Finally, each scholar must present a report, which will
as a rule be published.
The value of a Scholarship is about So a year for the
time spent in England, ^"150 a year for time spent on
the Continent of Europe, and about ,250 a year for
time spent in America.
PREFACE.
THE following report is based principally on information
acquired during visits to several countries on the
Continent of Europe and to the United States and
Canada, including British Columbia, during the years
1907 and 1908.
Though the electro-chemical industry is developing
rapidly in many directions, the various works in this
field are yet comparatively few in number and are
located in widely scattered centres. For this reason, a
comprehensive survey of the subject is made rather
difficult. Moreover, the majority of electro-chemical
works are still in a more or less experimental state,
and the details of the processes are usually held in
strict secrecy so that admittance is, in many cases, very
difficult and often quite impossible to obtain by out-
siders.
The developments of this industry, however, are well
recorded in several important publications, the chief
journal of this kind being the "Electro-chemical and
Metallurgical Industry " (New York).
In the compiling of this report I wish to acknowledge
my indebtedness to Dr. R. S. Hutton for his kind
assistance throughout and for furnishing me with
valuable introductions in the United States to the
leading people of academic and industrial electro-
chemistry, who gave me much information and kindly
extended several opportunities for inspecting works.
In this connection, I have specially to thank Prof. J. W.
Richards, Prof. W. D. Bancroft, Prof. S. A. Tucker,
Mr. E. R. Taylor, Dr. E. F. Roeber, Dr. H. N. Potter,
Mr. T. A. Edison, Mr. E. A. Sperry, and Mr. G. C.
\ III
PREFACE
Stone, in the States; Mr. W. H. Aldridge in British
Columbia; Major Stassano, of Turin; and Mr.
Schneller, of Harlem.
The statistics and data given in this volume have been
chiefly collected from existing publications, reference to
which is usually given, without further acknowledgment.
Finally, I desire to record my sincere appreciation of
the guidance and help I have received from Prof. S. J.
Chapman, Dean of the Faculty of Economics, who not
only placed me in a position of forming some judgment
of the economic side of the question, but has throughout
tendered me every encouragement and assistance.
CONTENTS.
CHAP. PAGE
Introduction - xi.
I. Cost of Power Production - - i
II. Niagara Falls - 7
III. The Copper Refineries of New Jersey - - 32
IV. Canadian Water Powers and Electro-
chemical Centres - - 38
V. Electric Smelting of Iron Ores and Steel
Production - - 65
VI. Ozone and Water Purification - - 81
VII. Gold and Silver Refining - - 88
VIII. Electrical Manufacture of Carbon Bisulphide 92
IX. Electro-chemical Industries in the Alps,
France, and Belgium - -96
X. The Electrical Fixation of Atmospheric
Nitrogen - 107
XI. Power Centres and Electro-chemical Works
in Great Britain - - - - - 115
INTRODUCTION
THE electrochemical industry is of comparatively
recent origin, since it is only within the last 20 years
that it has been possible to employ economically electric
energy on a sufficiently extensive scale. The rapid
progress which has been noticeable in recent years has
gone hand in hand with the general advance in electrical
engineering.
When electro-chemical processes were first exploited,
great difficulties were met with in obtaining the requisite
dynamos and other electrical machinery. Thus, so
recently as 1887, at the time of the installation of the
Cowles plant for the manufacture of alluminium-alloys
at Milton, in Staffordshire, the 500 horse-power dynamo
which was specially constructed for this process, was
considered so great an achievement that it was for some
time known as the ''Colossus", whereas to-day 10,000
H.P. generators are in quite common use at large power
stations.
The whole scope of applied electro-chemistry has thus
constantly expanded with the general developments in
electrical engineering and particularly with the cheapen-
ing in the cost of power generation resulting from such
advances.
Since these early days, the electro-chemical industries
have developed along very many different lines, and,
indeed, few chemical processes have escaped being
affected in a greater or less degree by the application of
electrical methods.
In examining the distribution of electro-chemical
works, it is very apparent on how many factors the
question of the location of an industry depends. One
has to consider chiefly the proximity of the market and
Xll
INTRODUCTION
of the sources of the raw material, the availability of
means of transportation, and the facilities for obtaining
labour and power. Another desideratum is the vicinity
of subsidiary industries, which facilitate co-operation
and, either by serving as a source of materials used in
the electro-chemical process, or by offering an outlet for
the products of the factory, give valuable economic
assistance.
In most cases it is found that electro-chemical works
gather around centres where cheap power is available.
This is due to the fact that in the majority of these
processes, the consumption of power is very great, and
the outlay for this amounts to a very large proportion
of the total working expenses. Another reason is
probably to be found in the fact that the supply of power
from an independent source, instead of generating it
inside the factory, saves the individual company a large
capital outlay; and as electro-chemical enterprises have
frequently to fight their way against outside interests, a
saving in this capitalisation is often imperative.
In this country no revolution has been caused in the
chemical industry by the introduction of electro-chemical
methods. The open competition of old established and
well developed methods makes the introduction of new
processes a very slow matter, and even in the case of
commodities which can only be prepared by electro-
chemical means, it appears to be more economical to
import these from countries like America where condi-
tions are especially favourable for the development of
new processes.
In America the electro-chemical industry has made
very rapid strides. Untrammelled by the existence at
home of chemical works on a sufficiently extensive scale
to provide the rapidly growing demands, the newer
processes have here found a very suitable locality for their
development, and during their infancy enjoy the foster-
ing influence of a protective tariff. The progress in
INTRODUCTION xiii
America is also due in no small measure to the great
enterprise and superior technical training of the people.
The existence of cheap water power may, in some few
cases, be imperative, and in others, advantageous for
the successful carrying on of electro-chemical processes,
but the relative power expenditure varies so greatly from
case to case that what is true of one product by no
means holds good for another. Gas and even steam
power, as will be shown later, frequently afford greater
general economy.
It is largely from these considerations that a study
of the economics of the electro-chemical industries
individually, possesses a growing interest in our own
country, and there can be no doubt that in the near
future many of these processes will undergo substantial
development in Great Britain.
CHAPTER I.
COST OF POWER PRODUCTION.
THE question of the cost of power production is a very
intricate one on account of the number of factors which
have to be considered in this computation. In many
cases the figures quoted have been vaguely and
erroneously estimated, either from interested motives
or through misunderstanding of some of the elements
which build up the total cost.
Even with all data at hand, the calculation of power
cost certainly becomes an involved problem.
The total cost of generating power by any means
consists of two portions :
(1) The " works costs," which include such items as
fuel, oil, water, etc., and their conveyance, and
the expenses of management, attendance, and
accessory duties.
(2) " Capital costs," which embrace the interest on
the outlay on machinery and buildings, to-
gether with an adequate provision for the
depreciation of plant, and also the rent of the
land.
These elements of cost are necessarily very variable,
depending on the locality, size of plant, perfection of
machinery, and cost of fuel and labour, and are con-
tinually being lowered through the refinement of
methods and improvement of machinery.
In the case of gas engines, the working cost is low
owing to the high thermal efficiency, though the capital
cost is higher than for a steam turbine plant owing to
the heavier initial expense. With water power, the
capital expenditure constitutes the bulk of the total cost
POWER PRODUCTION
on account of the expense of development and the fact
that no fuel is required.
Conclusions as to the cost of power are apt to be hastily
drawn from the results obtained by electric lighting and
power companies, although these are so very different in
character from those engaged in continuous power
generation on a large scale, which latter alone are of real
interest in dealing with this question.
It must be remembered that the load factor, or the
ratio of the average power to the maximum consumed, is
of great importance in determining the cost. Thus, in
the case of companies which supply electric current for
lighting and power purposes, a load factor of over
50 per cent, is very rarely obtained, whereas with purely
electro-chemical processes this will usually reach as
high a value as 95 per cent.
Steam Power.
The following table* contains estimates of power costs
at several large stations in this country where steam
power is used :
COST OF POWER GENERATION. STEAM. WORKS COSTS PER B.T.U.
Water
Coal Oil
Station Per ton Per unit Wages Stores
s. d. d. d. d.
Newcastle
(Carville) 5 6 0'078 0-022 0-004
Sheffield
(Neepsend) 5 8 0-096 0-072 0-003
Messrs. Watson
(Linwood) 8 0-148 0-022 0*013
CAPITAL COSTS.
Per unit
10 per cent, depreciation on 15 per kilowatt ... 0'042
5 per cent, interest
Repairs, Total
etc. per unit
d. d.
0-016 0-121
0-038 0-209
0-022 0-205
*R. S. Button. Engineering (Dec. 7th, 1906), vol. Ixxxii, p. 779.
POWER PRODUCTION 3
CONVERSION TABLE.
Cost per B.T.U. to cost per H.P. and K.W. year.
B.T.U. H.P. year K.W. year
d. 4
1-0 27-4 36-5
0-5 13-7 18-25
0-2 5-5 7-3
0-1 2-74 3-65
1 H.P. = -76 K.W.
Gas Engines.
Much may now be expected from the development of
large gas engines worked in conjunction with producer
or blast furnace gas, and, especially in the latter case,
it seems highly probable that use may be made in the
future of power generated in this manner for the
production of ferro-alloys and steel, which themselves
are so closely associated with the application of the
metallurgical products of the blast furnace.
An estimate of power costs in the case of gas engines
is as follows : *
For a power house generating 20,000 H.P. with a
load factor of 95 per cent., using blast furnace gas,
assumed to be obtained free of cost, the total capital cost
of machinery and buildings per brake horse power is
computed at 10. 135., and the total cost per H.P.
year, including interest on capital, labour, repairs and
depreciation of plant is variously fixed at i. 145. 4d.,
i. 175. 4d., and 2. is. iod., according to whether the
life of the plant is assumed at 20, 15, or 10 years. In
the case of producer gas, obtained from coal, and allowing
for the value of ammonia recovered, the estimated cost of
power is as shown in the table :
Price of Coal per ton Life of Plant
6s. 7s. 6d. 9s.
219 285 2 15 1 ... 20 years
260 2 12 8 2 19 4 ... 15 years
2 10 3 2 16 11 337 ... 10 years
* J. J. Robinson. Mech. Engineer (April 3rd, 1908), vol. xxi, p. 436.
4 POWER PRODUCTION
This estimate appears to be too low, though on the other
hand an important calculation made by C. E. Lucke* of
power costs in the States is probably too high. The
latter deals with oil and gas engines, and steam and
water power, and the results are as follow :
Gas Engines and
Water Power Oil Engines Producer Steam Engines
First cost $75-00-200-00 160 K.W. 600 K.W. 5000 K.W.
perKW. units $270-00 $110-00-150-00
10%
$217-00
10%
Fixed charges
rate per cent.
Fixed charges $7'50-20'00 $21-70
per K.W. year
Operating and 1 '00-5 '00 56 -94
Mfg. costs per
K.W. year
Total power 8-50-25-00 78'64
costs per K.W.
year
$27-00
38-54
65-54
10%
$16-50-22-50
52-56
69-00-75-00
Water Power.
The cost of water power varies within very wide
limits, and in some instances descends to an exceedingly
low figure. In other cases, however, water powers have
been developed at an expense which brings the cost of
supply almost to the level of that of steam power. In
the case of the most important water power companies
there is usually no information published with regard to
costs. Large profits are frequently made, and the price
is in a large degree adjusted in accordance with the
demands of the individual consumers. The following
examples will serve to show the wide variations which
exist in individual cases. Examples marked with an
*C. E. Lucke. Electrochem. and Metal! . Ind. (1907), vol. vi, p. 230.
POWER PRODUCTION 5
asterisk represent prices at which the power is actually
sold:
WATER POWER.
Total costs or charges per Electrical H.P. year to large consumers.
Niagara* ... ... ... 3
Niagara* (Ontario Power
Company, to municipalities)
Niagara* (Power delivered
to City of Toronto)
Sault Ste. Marie*
Cameron Rapids, Ontario
Montreal*..,
Kootenay Power Co., B.C. .
Mexico*(El Oro Gold Mines)
Kanawha Falls (Va.)
Horahora Eapids (New
Zealand ..
Svaelgfos, Norway
Notodden, Norway
Sweden
Austria (Meran)*...
Savoy (Bellegarde)*
Savoy (Chedde) ...
Tivoli (Italy)
Cost Remarks
s. d. s. d.
10 0-4 3
226
2 17 9
216
1 17 3 Total generating and
transmitting costs
allowing interest
at 5 per cent.
330
500
10
200
300 Proposal of Waihi
Gold Mining Co.
No transmission
costs included.
083
13 7
13 01 10
276
240
18 4
300 Delivered in Rome.
POWER PRODUCTION
ESTIMATED CAPITAL COST OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER STATIONS.
Situation
Lake Titicaca, Peru
Mexican Light and Power Co.
Cameron Rapids, Ontario ...
Augst-Wyhlen, near Rhein-
felden, Basle
Societa Idroelettrica, Ligure,
Milan
Aveto Riva ...
Societa Generale Elettrica
Adamello, Milan...
Horahora Rapids, Waihi,
New Zealand
Turin
Power Proposed Cost per H.P.
or Installed Total Cost Installed
8.
d.
2,000,000
8,000,000
4
>. 48,000
417,000
8
14
16,350
168,300
10
6
i-
30,000
360,000
12
2)
45,000
600,000
13
4
14
13
a
30,000
400,000
13
6
8
4,000
8,000
70,000
231,700
17 10
28 19
(including transmission lines)
Mech. Engineer, March 27th, 1908. XXI.
The importance of this question of the cost of power
in electro-chemical operations varies very much from
case to case according to the proportion the power-costs
bear to other operating expenses and to the value of the
product. The data available for individual cases are
somewhat scanty.
The following table serves to exhibit roughly the wide
differences which exist in some of the principal electro-
chemical industries:
Product
Copper (refined)
Caustic Soda...
Yield per H.P. year Approx. Value
in tons per ton
15 to 24 58
... 1-4 to 2-4 (75 per cent) 10 (caustic
also 3 to 5 soda)
Bleaching Powder.
Potassium Chlorate 0'5 to 0'8 32
Calcium Carbide 1'2 to 2'0 13
Ferro Chromium (70 per cent. Cr.) 0-8 45
Aluminium ... ... ... 0*25 110
Pig Iron (from Ore) 24 3. 5s.
Steel (from Pig and Scrap) ... 10
Lead (Bett's process) ... 60 15
CHAPTER II.
NIAGARA FALLS.
THE Niagara River, in its 25 miles course between Lakes
Erie and Ontario, has a change of level of 326 feet,
including a sheer drop of 165 feet at the Falls. The
energy obtainable from the Niagara River has been
estimated at 7,000,000 H.P., and since its recognition
by engineers as a possible source of power, many
schemes for utilising it in large quantities have been put
into practice.
At first, some hesitancy was felt since coal was very
cheap in this district (75. a ton), and there was great
uncertainty of being able to dispose of the power in such
large quantities, but the optimism of the promoters in
erecting very large plants has been more than justified ;
the demand for power continually increases, and is
indeed greater than the development of supply. As a
result of recent exhaustive international enquiry the
development of 750,000 H.P. has been fixed as a limit
by the American and Canadian Governments with a
view to preventing serious damage to the beauty of the Falls.
At present the following are the most important of the
power companies, a total of about 300,000 H.P. being
actually monopolised, so that only a small percentage of
the total flow of water has been diverted :
Additional Power
Power Developed development in
at end of 1906 course of construction
U.S.A. H.P. H.P.
Hydraulic Power and Manu-
facturing Co 34,000 100,000
Niagara Power Co. ... 110,000
CANADA.
Canadian Niagara Power Co. 50,000 60,000
Ontario Power Co 42,000 140,000
Electrical Development Co.
of Ontario ... 10000 100,000
Total 248,500 397,500
S NIAGARA FALLS
Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Co.
The oldest power project at Niagara Falls was that of
the Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Co., which
was incorporated as early as 1853, and steps were then
taken for the construction of a canal 70 feet wide by
10 feet deep, which was finally accomplished after many
delays and which has lately been enlarged to a width
of 100 feet and a depth of 14 feet. In 1881, power was
first supplied for commercial purposes, in 1885, 10,000
H.P. was in use, and in 1896 the erection of a second
power house was undertaken. The latter is situated in
the gorge below the Falls, an available head of 210 feet
being thus obtained. The plant has on several occasions
been enlarged, and at the present time there are in
operation in this power house 15 turbines, giving a
combined output of 34,000 H.P. The electrical
development of this company has been made to suit the
different industries which have located themselves close
to the power house, continuous and alternating current
being generated at voltages suitable for the requirements
of the consumers.
The Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufactur-
ing Co. has now erected an additional power house with
a capacity of 100,000 H.P., the water being taken from
the same canal.
There are separate penstocks to supply water to every
8,000 H.P. turbine. These turbines are of the horizontal
shaft type, and will run at 300 revolutions per minute,
the alternators directly coupled to the turbines giving
3 phase current at 1 1,000 volts 25 cycles.
Niagara Falls Power Co.
In 1890, plans for Niagara power development began
to meet with more general consideration, and the
question of the construction of a large central station
was discussed in detail. The project involved 'the
establishment and development of an industrial centre
NIAGARA FALLS 9
and concerned itself with the erection of a large power
house and the distribution of power to distant towns.
The leading American engineers and capitalists
interested themselves in this proposition, though little
experience was at hand on which plans could be based.
" The Cataract Construction Company " was formed in
1889, and the President, Mr. E. D. Adams, in 1890,
established at London an International Niagara Com-
mission with power to award large prizes.
Inquiries and examinations concerning the best known
existing hydraulic developments were undertaken, and
plans concerning turbines and other machinery incident
to the use of water power and its transmission, were
submitted to the Commission. The Commission con-
sisted of Lord Kelvin, Dr. Coleman Sellers, Colonel
Turrettine, Prof. E. Mascart, and Prof. W. C. Unwin ;
Prof. George Forbes, of London, served as the
company's chief electrical engineer. Rights to develop
200,000 H.P. on the American side w r ere obtained, and
the construction of a tunnel was commenced. The
erection of the power house was begun in 1891, a
short canal being made for this purpose at a point about
one mile above the Falls. Two power houses are now
situated on opposite sides of the canal, and the water,
after passing through iron gratings to remove any debris
or ice, is led through penstocks and thence vertically
downwards, a distance of 178 feet, to the turbines. The
turbines are installed near the bottom of two wheel slots,
excavated out of solid rock, under the respective power
houses.
After giving up its energy to the turbines, the water is
discharged into a tunnel about 21 feet in diameter, and
7,000 feet in length, which carries the water under the
city to the lower river. Each turbine is connected by a
vertical shaft to an electric generator installed above on
the ground level. The two power houses together
contain 21 vertical shaft turbines, each turbine being
IO
NIAGARA FALLS
directly connected to a 2 phase alternator giving
22,000 volts at 25 cycles, operating at a speed
of 250 revolutions per minute, and generating
5,000 H.P., making a total capacity for the two plants
of 105,000 E.H.P.
The flow of water on to the turbines is controlled by
a special form of governor, which is of the pendulum
type, and works in conjunction with a relay cylinder.
By this means a speed constant to within i per cent.,
is automatically maintained, when variations in load
occur.
There are three separate systems of transmission from
the power station. Firstly, there is the local transmission
of 2 phase current at 2,200 volts as generated, and
conveyed entirely by underground cables; secondly, for
intermediate distances the current is stepped up to
11,000 volts, 3 phase, and transmitted, first by under-
ground cables, and then by overhead conductors to a
transformer station about two miles from the power
house, where it is re-converted to 2,200 volts, 2 phase.
Long distance transmission, such as to Buffalo, about
1 8 miles distant, Tonawanda and Lockport, 35 miles
distant, is effected by 3 phase current at 22,000 volts
along bare overhead conductors.
There are three complete circuits to Buffalo, two of
copper and one of aluminium, and the loss amounts to
about 10 per cent, when 30,000 H.P. is transmitted.
One of the circuits is always in reserve.
After the completion of the second American power
house in 1902, a further intallation was commenced on
the Canadian side by the same company, operating
under the title of the Canadian Niagara Power Co.
This plant is situated a short distance above the Horse
Shoe Falls, and is in most respects similar in equipment
to the older power houses, but the units are here 10,000
NIAGARA FALLS u
H.P. machines, and have a total developed capacity of
50,000 H.P. with an additional 60,000 H.P. in course
of installation.
The two plants of the Niagara Power Co. are inter-
connected by heavy copper cables, so that when
necessary, the two stations can run in parallel for the
supply either on the American or on the Canadian side.
Largely owing to the financial success of these enter-
prises, within the last few years several independent
companies have come into the field and have installed
large hydraulic power stations on the Canadian side of
the Falls.
The Electrical Development Co. of Ontario.
This company was organised at Toronto by a
syndicate with Colonel Pellatt as President, for the
purpose of transmitting power to that city and other
places in Ontario. In 1903 rights were obtained for the
purpose of generating electricity to the extent of
125,000 H.P., and a site was chosen and secured for the
location of the power plant. The company also
purchased a right of way 78 miles in length between
Niagara Falls and Toronto, and 530 acres of land about
two miles from the Falls and fronting on the Chippewa
River, which communicates with the Welland Canal,
and here it is expected that industrial plants will be
established. The power house has been erected at
Tempest Point, about half a mile above the Falls. The
river has here a rapid drop, and a coffer dam was, with
great difficulty, constructed to divert the water toward
the power house, and thus raise the level of the water
within the dam about 18 feet. The power house is
500 feet long and of handsome architectural design ; it
will ultimately contain n generators, each of 10,000 H.P.
In order to get rid of the tail water a tunnel was made
I2 NIAGARA FALLS
under the upper rapids, terminating in the face of the
Horseshoe Fall, about midway between the Canadian
and American banks. This power station was opened
on November igth, 1906, when the first unit was brought
into operation and 10,000 horse power generated and
transmitted to Toronto.
Ontario Power Company.
The third power plant on the Canadian side is that of
the Ontario Power Co., which is at present generating
42,000 H.P. This power house is situated in the gorge,
near the base of the Falls, and the water is taken in at
a point above the upper rapids, where a large deep
forebay, with smooth water surface, and a series of ice
screens have been constructed. The water is led from
the forebay to the penstocks, a distance of about
ij miles, by three steel pipes, each of 18 feet diameter
and an effective head of 175 feet of water on the turbines
is secured. The turbines are arranged horizontally, and
are coupled directly to the electric generators. A
difficulty which confronted the Ontario Power Co. was
the prevention of water hammer in the 4,000 foot length
of pipes, through which water flows at 15 ft. per second.
The trouble was overcome in a novel manner by con-
structing an enlargement in the end of the pipe close
to the turbines opening into a weir, in which the water
rises and passes away down a by-wash. In this way a
free passage is given to the water when turned off at the
wheel.
At present four generators are installed, each being
driven by two turbines of the manufacture of Voit, of
Heidenheim. The generators are each 10,000 H. P., and
supply current at 12,000 volts, 3 phase, 25 cycles.
The general plan provides for 18 of these generators
when completed.
NIAGARA FALLS 13
The transforming and distributing station is erected
in a handsome stone building 500 feet away and 280 feet
higher up on the cliff. Communication between the
two is established by an underground passage and
elevator. The generators are all controlled from this
station and the current is here stepped up to 60,000 volts
for long distance transmission to Toronto. The manage-
ment is thus concentrated in a single operating room.
Hourly reports are sent from the engineer in charge of
the power house by the telautograph.
The Ontario Power Co. is under contract to supply
power to neighbouring municipalities for distribution
for lighting and power at a price of $10.45 (2. 2s.) per
H.P. year, though for industrial purposes a higher
rate ($18 $20) is charged. This company is now
transmitting, by aluminium cable, 25,000 H.P. to
Syracuse, where it is used in the electrification of the
New York Central branch lines.
It is contemplated to develop 250,000 H.P. ultimately
at this station, most of which will be available for use
in the States.
There have at different times been various projects
suggested for the transmission of the Niagara power to
still greater distances, such as to Chicago and New
York, but the demand for power in the immediate
neighbourhood of Niagara Falls has increased more
rapidly than the productive capacity. The result has
been that the power produced has been absorbed locally,
or within such moderate distances as Buffalo (18 miles),
Toronto (80 miles) and Syracuse (160 miles). At
present Buffalo takes about 24,000 H.P., and relies on
this source for its street lighting and driving of trams.
Toronto now takes about 10,000 H.P.
The chief industries at Niagara Falls which receive
, 4 NIAGARA FALLS
power from the various power stations are enumerated
below :
Aluminium Co. of America 35,000 H. P.
Carborundum Co 5> >
Union Carbide Co I5>ooo ,,
Castner Electrolytic Alkali Co. ... 7,000 ,,
Oldbury Electro-chemical Co. ... i,5 >
Acheson Graphite Co 2,000 ,,
Norton Emery Wheel Co.
Upwards of 650 ,,
Niagara Electro-chemical Co. ... 2,000 ,,
Niagara Falls is especially favoured by transportation
services, being at the junction of Lakes Erie and
Ontario, and at the convergence of several railways.
By means of a canal to the Hudson there is also a
waterway connection to New York.
Niagara Falls is a city of about 30,000 inhabitants,
and although a great industrial centre, is quite free from
smoke and other objectionable features of chemical
works. Most of the factories, and especially the pow-er
houses, have considerable architectural pretence. The
beauty of the Falls has apparently not been detracted
from, and the town still holds its position as one of
America's leading holiday resorts.
REFERENCES. Engineering, Feb. 16th, 1906, vol. Ixxxi, p. 218.
Proc. Instit. Mech. Engineers, 1906.
INDUSTRIES AT NIAGARA FALLS.
A short description of some of the more important
electro-chemical works at Niagara Falls follows.
(i) The Electrical Manufacture of Abrasives. Carborun-
dum and Alundum.
Introduction. Since information on some of the uses
of abrasives is not easy to obtain, the following remarks
NIAGARA FALLS 15
on the properties of these substances may not be without
interest.
A comparison of the relative values of different
abrasive materials is very difficult, and has apparently
never been settled in any definite manner. So-called
" hardness scales " are in very common use, in which
the diamond is fixed at 10, and other materials given
co-efficients according to the supposed relative hardness.
The usual method of measuring the hardness of a
substance is to find what well-know 7 n hard bodies, such
as ruby, glass, etc., will be scratched by it. Another
method is to place the material in a powdered and graded
condition on a rotating disc and employ it for the
grinding of a diamond, or of a piece of steel, measure-
ment being made of the rate of abrasion. Results
obtained in this way, however, are apt to mislead.
In certain cases the cutting power of a substance depends
on its brittleness as well as on its hardness, as, through
fracture of brittle crystals, a sharp edge is continually
being presented. This quality applies to abrasives used
in the form of wheels or as pow ? der. In other cases,
however, such as in rock boring and drilling operations
and for wire drawing, it is essential that the abrasive
should combine great toughness with hardness.
For this latter class of operations, the material which
stands out pre-eminent, and which has never yet been
superseded, is the diamond.
For the purpose of rock boring the most suitable form
of diamond is the modification known as " carbon," a
variety of carbonado, a substance which is dark-grey or
black in colour, has no apparent crystalline form, and
is much tougher than the crystal or gem stone.
" Carbon " is found only in a small section of Mexico,
and since its application to rock boring it has advanced
very greatly in price, as may be seen from the following
table:*
* Technical Literature, 1907, vol. i, p. 245.
,6 NIAGARA FALLS
s. d.
In 1879 price per carat i o o
1889 2 I2
1899 700
1907 i, 17 o o
In diamond drill work, the " carbon " is set in circular
pieces of soft steel or iron tubing about 4 inches in
diameter, which are usually known as " bits."
These " bits " are attached to a vertical shaft, rapidly
rotated, and pressed against the rock. A current of
water flows down the tube at the same time. The hardest
rock is quickly bored in this manner to a great depth,
often amounting to several thousand feet. A set of
carbons for each drill head or bit usually consists of
eight stones, which, taking an average of 3^ carats,
would, at the present price, amount in value to some
^500 for the one "bit."
For the construction of diamond saws, as used for
cutting building stones, a cheaper substitute known as
" bort " is used. Bort is an imperfect crystal or gem
diamond, and by very careful setting, is used with great
success in stone cutting.
All endeavours to reproduce diamond on an industrial
scale have so far proved fruitless, though H. Moissan,
in 1892, demonstrated its formation and prepared small
specimens in the electric furnace, and recently c ir
W. Crookes has produced it by exploding cordite in a
steel bomb, thus liberating carbon at an extremely high
temperature and pressure.
A series of bodies have, however, been obtained of
an allied nature to diamond, and which possess great
hardness. These are compounds of carbon with similar
elements, and can readily be obtained in the crystalline
form by electric furnace processes. These substances,
which are now manufactured quite cheaply, have very
largely replaced the older abrasives, such as emery.
NIAGARA FALLS 17
The two foremost, which have received a large
industrial application, are "carborundum" or silicon
carbide and " alundum," or fused alumina.
The former of these was discovered by E. G. Acheson
in 1890, when experimenting on the formation of
diamond, and was very quickly applied as a substitute
for emery. The manufacture was started at Mononga-
hela, Pa., and is now worked at Niagara Falls. The
production at these works in 1891 and 1892 combined
was half a ton; 595 tons in 1896, 2,380 tons in 1903, and
is now (in 1907) about 4,000 tons.
Carborundum is manufactured in large furnaces about
1 6 feet long, 5 feet wide and 8 feet high, which are built
up w : ith brickwork and then filled in with the following
charge :
Sand 52*2
Coke 35-4
Sawdust io'6
Salt r8
100*0
A carbon core is placed in the centre to conduct the
current across initially. The current is led in at the
ends of the furnace through a number of carbon rods
which are mounted in a terminal block, the copper leads
being bolted to these blocks, which, in the later types
of construction are water-jacketed.
In the main furnace room there are six furnaces in
different stages of operation. The furnaces consume
1,000 H.P., and one in each series is run at a time. Some
additional 2,000 H.P. furnaces are now in operation.
On commencing to heat, an E.M.F. of 160 volts is
necessary. By means of a regulating transformer, whilst
keeping the power consumption constant, the E.M.F.
is gradually lowered to 70 80 towards the end of the
i8 NIAGARA FALLS
operation as the furnace charge becomes more conduct-
ing. The heating of the material is continued for about
forty-eight hours to cause the formation of carborundum;
the furnaces are left to cool for the same period and then
dismantled and the crystalline masses of carborundum
removed and broken up. This crushing provides a
large amount of powdered material.
Since the amount of powdered material thus obtained
is in excess of the demands of the abrasive industry,
attempts have been made to find other applications. At
first, considerable use was made of carborundum as a
deoxidizing agent in the steel industry, taking the place
of ferro-silicon produced in the blast furnaces, but
recently, however, ferro-silicon, prepared by the electric
furnace, has replaced carborundum for this purpose.
Another application is as " fire sand " for the lining
of fuel heated industrial furnaces, and in this line the
material has proved most useful.
Carborundum bricks and other refractory articles have
also been manufactured on a relatively small scale, and
further developments may be looked for in this direction.
At the Niagara Falls works, the carborundum is
largely made up into abrasive wheels, being, for this
purpose, crushed, washed with acid to remove iron, and
graded. The particles are then cemented together by
some suitable binder, usually by binding with shellac
or by mixing with clay which is then baked, after
moulding into the desired shape. The wheels, when set,
require trimming, for which purpose they are fitted with
an axle and rotated against a cutting tool, which consists
of three or four discs, the rotation of which is hindered
by providing projecting ridges along the sides. The
cost of power expended in the manufacture of carborun-
dum has been calculated by Prof. J. W. Richards to
amount to about '626. per pound of crystals obtained.
The cost of materials and labour raise the cost to i'3d.
per pound, and the final cost, after crushing, washing,
NIAGARA FALLS 19
and grading, may be 2d. to 2^d., whereas the material
commands an average price of 4^d. per pound.
The current is supplied by the Niagara Power Co. at
a voltage of 22,000, and is stepped down as required by
the furnaces.
Alundum. Until the advent of carborundum, the
abrasive available which was nearest to diamond in
hardness was corundum. Corundum is an oxide of
aluminium which occurs in nature in a pure state, and is
mined extensively. It has generally a crystalline fracture,
and is probably harder than alundum, though more brittle.
The artificial preparation of corundum was first
accomplished by C. B. Jacobs, and the patents were
bought by the Norton Emery Co., of Worcester, Mass.,
who applied its manufacture on a large scale, erecting
works for this purpose at Niagara Falls, and putting the
substance on the market under the name of alundum.*
The process consists in fusing natural bauxite (alumina)
in the electric furnace and allowing it to cool slowly,
when it acquires the hardness of corundum and the
toughness of emery, and is suitable for wheels, stones,
paper and all the various uses of an abrasive.
The Norton Company at Niagara Falls, now manu-
facture 10 tons of alundum daily, the plant having
recently been enlarged, and further extensions are being
contemplated.
Each furnace yields a mass of the material of about
7,000 Ibs. weight, which is broken up and then ground
in a machine. This is then made up into wheels, after
being, in some cases, first mixed with natural corundum,
and is applied for a great variety of purposes. The
wheels are said to be cheaper than those of carborundum
for a given size, and are heavier. Alundum has found
a successful application in the manufacture of dentists'
drills which are formed by embedding the alundum in a
*A. C. Higgins. U.S. Patent, No. 775,654, 1904.
2 o NIAGARA FALLS
layer of copper deposited electrolytically around the
grains. It is also used for grinding glass for optical
purposes, and some tests are said to have also been
successfully carried out on its use in rock boring.
With regard to the comparative merits of carborundum
and alundum, the former is said to show marked
superiority when used on cast-iron, brass, and marble,
and for roughing out unevennesses in coarse work.
This is on account of the ease with which the crystals
force their way into the work, and the great length of
time they will last before dulling. Hence the efficiency
of carborundum is mainly due to its penetration, and
is best adapted for comparatively soft materials, in
which its quality of sharpness is of more value than
its hardness.
For the abrasion of materials such as hardened steel,
however, and for finishing cuts and polishing purposes,
alundum is better adapted, as though not so hard and
sharp, yet it is less brittle, and enables the use of a
greater pressure.
Artificial Graphite.* Artificial graphite has been
known since the work of Despretz in 1849, and was first
produced commercially by the Girard and Street process
which consisted in passing amorphous carbon through
the electric arc.f See page 103.
The industrial manufacture of this substance has,
however, been developed on a much larger scale in
America by Mr. E. G. Acheson. This industry followed
from an observation of Mr. Acheson that in the centre
of the carborundum furnace, graphite resulted from the
overheating of carborundum. Further experiments
showed that all carbides are decomposed by heat, leaving
behind graphite. It was next discovered that the
* Electrochem. Ind., 1905, vol. iii, 253.
t Hutton and Petavel. " High Temperature Electro-chemistry." Pro-
ceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, November 1902.
NIAGARA FALLS 21
presence of silica will bring about the conversion of
a large amount of carbon into graphite at a high
temperature. This is caused by the successive formation
and decomposition of silicon carbide, the action of the
silicon being a catalytic one. This process was put on
an industrial basis, and a company organised, known
as the Acheson Graphite Co., in 1899. The operations
have resolved themselves into two lines of manufacture
(i) the graphitisation of moulded carbons; (2) the
graphitisation of anthracite coal en masse. The
product in both cases is graphite of a high degree of
purity which, in many forms, has now found an
extensive application. Articles which are moulded for
graphitisation include electrodes in all sizes, lamp
carbons, and carbon bars and plates. These are pre-
pared by taking some form of amorphous carbon, such
as coke, in a fine granular condition, mixing with a
small quantity of tar (probably about J per cent.), and
then moulding into the required form by squirting the
carbon, through a die of suitable shape, by means of a
hydraulic press. The articles are then stacked trans-
versely in a furnace of similar design to that used for
carborundum, each separate piece being packed around
with granular coke and covered with carborundum.
The current terminals are about 30 feet apart, and
consist of carbon rods, to the number of nine,
fitted with brass caps, which, unlike those in the
carborundum furnaces, are not water-cooled. The
articles to be graphitised are arranged in the centre of
the furnace, which is built up by temporarily inserting
thin sheet-iron plates to act as a partition for the central
zone. This inner space is then filled in with the carbon
articles and separating layers of granular coke, and the
outside is filled in, and the top covered with "white
crust " (siloxicon) to serve as insulating material.
Small articles to be graphitised, such as thin carbon
rods, are placed inside larger tubes to protect from
22 NIAGARA FALLS
fracture. Heat is generated by the passage of the
current through the granular coke, which maintains a
comparatively high resistance throughout. The furnace
starts with 3,000 amps at 220 volts, the current gradually
increasing to 9,000 amps, at 80 volts after a twenty
hours' run.
The building contains two rows of five furnaces, and,
as in the carborundum manufacture, one furnace is run
at a time, while the others are in various stages of
dismantling and preparation.
In the process of manufacturing graphite in bulk,
anthracite coal is taken as the starting-point, being
specially adapted on account of the uniformly
distributed ash which it contains. Purer forms of
carbon, such as petroleum coke, which only
contains 0*3 per cent, ash, graphitise much less readily.
The furnaces for this operation are 30 feet long and
of 2 feet square cross section, and are made of bricks
and lined with carborundum to a thickness of 6 inches.
The anthracite coal to the amount of about 6 tons is then
introduced in large lumps, and a core of granular
carbon, partly graphitised, about 6 inches wide, is laid
from one end to the other in order to start the current.
Prof. J. W. Richards estimates that about 82*5 per cent,
of the energy is consumed in raising the charge to the
graphitising temperature and 17*5 per cent, radiated
during the run, and that the heat evolved in conversion
of amorphous carbon into graphite amounts to fully
10 per cent, of the heat supplied by the current, which,
on the other hand, is just about balanced by the heat
absorbed in volatilising the 5 10 per cent, of impurities
from the coal.
The introduction of artificial graphite has proved to
be of the utmost value to electro-chemical industries,
and particularly so in its application to electrolytic alkali
processes for the construction of electrodes, on account
of being a good conductor and very resistant chemically.
NIAGARA FALLS 23
Graphite is very soft and tough, enabling it to be turned
and machined with the greatest ease, and it is thus
particularly suited for the construction of apparatus used
in electric furnace work.
The growth of the manufacture of artificial graphite is
shown by the following figures:
1897 ............... 81 tons.
1900 ............... 440 ,,
1904 ............... i333 >
1905 ...............
According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the value
of Acheson graphite made in 1904 was $217,790. Since
1904 the plant has been increased from 1,000 to
2,000 H.P.
A soft unctuous form of graphite is prepared which
has valuable properties as a lubricant as it does not
coalesce under pressure. This is formed in special
furnaces which are provided with a starting core of
graphite rods, the charge consisting of carbon together
with ash or silicon in amounts in excess of that employed
in the manufacture of ordinary graphite.
A further variety of graphite has now been prepared
in a colloidal condition by treating the above variety
with a solution of gallotannic acid. This so-called
' ' deflocculated ' ' graphite remains permanently suspended
in water or oil, giving a material which has proved to
possess valuable properties as a lubricant. (Electro-
chem. and Metall. Ind. (1907), v., page 452.)
Siloxicon. At the Acheson graphite works, furnaces
are erected for the manufacture of siloxicon. This is a
refractory material containing silicon, carbon, and
oxygen, and is prepared by heating in an electric furnace
a mixture of carbon and silica, the latter being in excess
over the amount needed for silicon carbide.
* ElectrocJiem. and Metallur. Ind., 1905, vol. iii, p. 253
24 NIAGARA FALLS
The furnaces are arranged for the current to pass
along carbon rods arranged transversely to the furnace
and connected at each side to a group of graphite blocks.
The current in this manner passes from side to side
twenty times on its way through the furnace, and the
contained charge is raised to the necessary degree of
temperature.
Siloxicon is a greyish-green powder which can be
formed into a coherent mass by grinding, moistening
with water, moulding and baking. It is very refractory,
not attacked by slags, is insoluble in iron, and is
indifferent to acids and hot alkaline solutions.
Electrolytic Alkali and Chlorine works, Towns end Cell.*
By far the largest enterprise engaged in this manu-
facture at Niagara Falls is the Castner-Kellner process,
which operates on the well known mercury cathode
principle. A new system possessing many points of
interest, has however lately been devised. This is the
Townsend process which works on the diaphragm
system. Works have been erected by the Development
and Funding Co. for its exploitation. Diaphragm cells
hitherto in use possessed the disadvantage of yielding
only dilute alkali on account of the difficulties in pre-
venting the caustic soda from diffusing back into the
anolyte, and thus leading to waste and exerting an
oxidising action on the anode. This diffusion, more-
over, increased with the concentration of the solution.
The method of obviating this difficulty by transform-
ing the alkali into carbonate appears to be a backward
step from the commercial standpoint, as it transforms
high priced caustic soda into low priced carbonate.
The Townsend process is described as "counteracting
diffusion and recombination of cathions and anions by
automatically subtracting every drop of cathode liquor,
* Electrochem. and Metall. Ind., 1907, vol. v, p. 209.
NIAGARA FALLS 25
as soon as it appears, and surrounding it with a
chemically inactive and physically immiscible liquid."
Kerosene is the liquid used in practice.
This process, which was designed by Mr. C. P.
Townsend in collaboration with Mr. Elmer A. Sperry,
is carried out in a cell of similar construction to that of
Hargreaves and Bird. The cells measure 8 / x3 / xi2 // .
The anode space is enclosed between two vertical
diaphragms and contains saturated brine. Graphite
anodes are fitted through the lid. The diphragms are
in close contact with perforated iron cathode plates, and
a little distance from this are the iron sides of the
cathode compartment which contains kerosene oil.
The higher specific gravity of the brine solution and
the fact that this is kept at a higher level than the kero-
sine, creates a hydrostatic pressure, and causes the brine
to press through the diaphragm and flow into the
kerosene. Under the action of the current this perco-
lating liquid becomes changed into alkali, the concen-
tration of which will depend on the current density.
Each drop of liquid as it passes through the diaphragm
acquires a globular shape when coming into contact
with the kerosene oil, due to surface tension ; the caustic
alkali thus becomes separated and sinks to the bottom of
the oil and accumulates in a pocket.
A trapped tube drains this liquid from underneath the
kerosene. In this manner the rich cathode liquor flows
out continuously on both sides of the cell, and is led by
pipe lines into the general storage tank, from which it
passes to the evaporating pans, where the remaining
salt is separated by concentration.
The cost due to the loss of kerosene is said not to
exceed $2 a day, in the plant in question.
The spent anode liquor consisting of weak salt solu-
tion is regenerated by treating with a further quantity
of salt. An E.M.F. of 5 volts is used, and an ampere
2 6 NIAGARA FALLS
efficiency of 9597% and an energy efficiency of 60%
obtained.
The Townsend cell has been in continuous operation
at Niagara Falls since the beginning of 1906, and since
that time has been producing daily about 5 tons of caustic
soda, and 11 tons of bleaching powder.
PRODUCTION OF ALUMINIUM AT NIAGARA FALLS.
The Aluminium Company of America.
In 1885, the Cowles brothers of Cleveland, Ohio,
invented a process for obtaining alloys of aluminium by
direct reduction of alumina with carbon in presence of
metals such as iron and copper. The Cowles Electric
Smelting and Aluminium Company was formed to work
this process and a plant was erected at Lockport, N.Y.,
where a water power of 1,200 H.P. was secured.
Following the success of this American plant, the
Cowles Syndicate Company was formed in England
and a works erected at Milton, Staffordshire, which had
a capacity of about 300 Ibs. of aluminium alloy daily.
The important processes which have now caused
aluminium to rank with the ordinary commercial metals,
and which have superseded the older methods are those
designed and patented by Hall in the States, and
independently by Heroult in France, between the years
1886 and 1889. The principle of both of these methods
consists in the electrolytic decomposition of alumina
dissolved in a bath of fused cryolite, the current reduc-
ing the alumina and not affecting the solvent.
In America, this process was operated by the Pittsburg
Reduction Company from 1889 to 1891, at Pittsburg, Pa.
During 1889, the company produced about 75 Ibs. of
aluminium a day which they sold at $4.50 per pound.
In 1890, their capacity was increased to 400 Ibs. and the
selling price reduced to $2 per pound.
The Aluminium Company of America, which is the
NIAGARA FALLS 27
title under which the Pittsburg Reduction Company is
now known, holds, at the present time, practically a
monopoly of the manufacture of aluminium in the
United States and Canada. Works are in operation at
Niagara Falls, Massena, N.Y., and Shawinigan Falls,
whilst auxiliary factories of the company undertake the
purification of the alumina, the production of the carbon
electrodes required in the process, and the rolling and
working of the metal into finished products ready for the
market.
Of the two large plants at Niagara Falls, one is situ-
ated half a mile above the Power House of the Niagara
Power Co. and was the first to utilise this power; 4,000
H.P. is taken from here, the alternating current is
received at 2,250 volts and converted, by means of trans-
formers and rotary converters, to direct current at 160
volts. The lower w^orks is situated on the edge of the
gorge below the falls, and, up to 1906, took 6,500 H.P.
from the Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Co. An
additional 27,000 H.P. has now been laid down at the
lower works.
The current is conducted by aluminium bars through
a line of cells, each cell taking about 5 volts and absorb-
ing 65 horse power. About one half of the energy is
expended in the chemical work of decomposing the
alumina and the remainder is converted into heat which
serves to keep the bath at the proper temperature, about
850 to 900 C. The bath consists of cryolite to which
is added aluminium fluoride and in which alumina is
dissolved.
The aluminium process is typical of the simplifica-
tion which is brought about in metallurgical
operations by electro-chemical methods. The heat
losses in the molten cryolite bath are minimised by
putting a layer of pulverised carbon on top of the
bath ; the alumina which is subsequently to be used
2 8 NIAGARA FALLS
in the cell is supported on this supernatant layer and is
dried by the waste heat.
During operation the bath becomes impoverished in
alumina, the extent of which is indicated by placing a
20 volt lamp in shunt between anode and cathode. The
deficiency in alumina causes an increase in resistance,
and the resulting increased voltage across the terminals
of the vat lights up the lamp. This is a sign to the
workman to add fresh alumina, which is effected by
simply stirring the surface of the bath when the alumina
sinks through the supporting carbon layer and is rapidly
taken up by the molten cryolite. The whole process is
thus quite continuous and requires relatively little
attention.
On both commercial and technical grounds the pro-
duction of pure alumina forms a very important part of
this process of manufacturing aluminium, and, at the
present time, the method of Bayer, in some more or less
modified form is almost exclusively used, both in Europe
and America.
A process of purifying alumina has recently been
invented by Hall, and consists in mixing the bauxite
with sufficient carbon to reduce the impurities, and then
smelting the mixture in an electric furnace. Impurities
such as oxides of iron, silicon and titanium are reduced
to a metallic alloy which collects on the bottom, and
leaves the alumina in a pure state. This method, how-
ever, is said to have the great drawback of leaving the
alumina in a form which will not dissolve in the cryolite
bath, on account of the high temperature of the treat-
ment.
The lower Niagara plant of the Aluminium Company
of America is situated immediately above the power
house of the Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Co.
The continuous current required is generated in the
power house by dynamos of 750 horse power each,
NIAGARA FALLS 29
coupled direct to turbines with horizontal shafts. Each
dynamo gives a direct current of 2,000 amps, at a
potential of 280 volts. Nine such machines furnish the
6,500 horse power necessary to run three lines of cells.
This lower plant has now undergone a large extension,
an additional 27,000 H.P. being used as mentioned
above.
The company owns large deposits of bauxite or native
alumina in Georgia and Alabama.
Aluminium has attained the greatest importance in
the electrical industry, being used as a substitute for
copper conductors for transmission lines. The three
largest electrical power transmission lines in the United
States are of aluminium. One in California is 144 miles
long. One from Niagara Falls to Cleveland 200 miles,
and to Syracuse 160 miles. This last lead is in three
cables of 19 strands each, and a voltage of 60,000 is
used. The aluminium line from Niagara to Buffalo
was said to cost 12 per cent, less than the copper one.
The steel industry has become an important consumer
of aluminum, small quantities of this metal, viz.,2'8
ounces per ton of steel are usually added during the
furnace treatment.
Aluminium has found a large application in the
manufacture of " thermit " which is now used exten-
sively in welding.
During 1906, the profits earned by the Aluminum
Company of America, amounted to ,708,000 as com-
pared with .370,000 for the previous year.* This
corresponds to a gross profit of 7'8d. per Ib. of
aluminium for 1905 and ii'4d. per Ib. for 1906. The
consumption of aluminium in the States in 1905
amounted to 5,670 tons, of the value of 649,000, and in
1906 to 7,450 tons.
* Electrician, March 27th, 1908, p. 907.
3 o NIAGARA FALLS
The world's production of aluminium in 1907 was as
follows :
Metric tons. Value.
United States and Canada 8,000 ,880,000
Germany, Austria, and
Switzerland 3>5oo ^385*000
France 6,000 ^660,000
United Kingdom 1,800 ^198,000
Italy 300 ;33>ooo
Total 19,600 ,2,156,000
REFERENCES. Electrochem. Ind., vol. i, p. 49. Journal d' Electrolyse,
May 1st, 1908, p. 1.
The Union Carbide Company.
Calcium carbide was first made industrially by
Willson at the Willson Aluminium Works at Spray,
N.C., in 1891.
Since then its manufacture has become one of the
largest of the electro-chemical industries.
The Union Carbide Company controls almost all the
production of carbide in America. The works are
situated about one and a half miles from the power
house above the falls, and are supplied through a
conduit with some 15,000 H.P. of alternating current at
2,250 volts which is subsequently transformed ' to suit
the requirements of the manufacture.
The furnaces employed are of the Horry type and
consist of iron drum shaped casings with a recessed rim
on top of which are bolted segmental wings 24 inches
deep. In the space thus created, the two carbons dip on
top of the wheel and melt the charge of lime and carbon
there fed to them. The whole furnace rotates very
slowly, about once in 24 hours ; the fluid carbide is thus
removed from the hot zone, solidifies, and by removing
NIAGARA FALLS 31
the bolted plates, is taken from the other end of furnace
comparatively cold.
Each furnace is 8 feet in diameter and 3 feet wide and
takes 3,500 amps, at no volts, or 500 horse power.
The carbons are 6 inches in diameter and are kept
about 9 inches apart.
The Union Carbide Company also possesses a works
at Sault Ste Marie (p. 49).
A new factory, where 10,000 H.P. will be utilised is
being erected at Duluth.
The output of calcium carbide in the different
countries is estimated as follows :
1905. 1906. 1907.
Tons. Tons. Tons.
United States... 25,000
Italy 28,357
Germany 16,547 22,340 24,916
France 24,000
Great Britain ... less than 3,000.
CHAPTER III.
THE COPPER REFINERIES OF NEW JERSEY.
IT is in copper refining that electrochemical methods
have attained the greatest industrial importance. This
process has undergone the most important development
in the United States as is indicated by the fact that more
than 85 % of the world's output of electrolytically refined
copper is produced in that country. There are about
8 refineries in the States with a total output of about
350,000 tons per year.
The leading ones, with their maximum output, are
tabulated below :
Tons
Per day. Per year.
Amer. Smelting and Refining
Co. at Maurer 160
Raritan Copper Works 360
De Lamar ,, ,, 160
Balbach ,, ,, 50
Nichols Refinery, Brooklyn... 250
Total 358,800 tons
The first commercial refinery in America was built
early in the eighties by Messrs. Balbach and Sons at
Newark in New Jersey. This district is now the seat of
practically all the copper refining in America.
Very important plants were formerly in operation at
Anaconda, and at Great Falls in Montana. These are
now said to be closed down however, on account of the
high price of labour and materials in that district, it
COPPER REFINING 33
being found more economical to transport the crude
metal and refine in New Jersey.
The great value of the electrolytic refining of copper
lies in the complete recovery of the gold and silver, and
the production of a very pure form of copper, which is
specially suitable for electrical purposes on account of
its high conductivity.
The short description of the Maurer works which
follows is given as a typical example of the American
copper refineries.
This plant was erected in 1896 at Maurer, near Perth
Amboy, by the Guggenheim firm and now forms one of
the plants of the American Smelting and Refining
Company, which also possesses refineries at Omaha
(Nebraska) and in South Chicago. The works is espe-
cially favoured by transport facilities by land and water.
The crude metal or blister copper is imported chiefly
from Mexico, in boats owned by the company, and also
from their own smelting works in Colorado and Utah.
The smelting of lead and copper ores is also carried
out at this refinery to a small extent, the lead obtained
being used in the slime's treatment for cupellation. The
daily output of refined copper in October, 1906,
amounted to about rootons, with a recovery of ioo,ooooz.
of silver and 70 oz. of gold.
The crude metal contains about 96% copper, and is
very rich in gold and silver. This is melted down in a
reverberatory furnace thereby being partially refined, and
is then cast into anodes in a form suitable for suspending
in the electrolytic tanks. The casting is done by means
of a Walker machine in which the anode moulds are
fixed in a circle around a rotating wheel near the
furnace. A long spout projects conveying the metal
and the moulds are brought under this and filled in turn
by rotating the wheel. On reaching the opposite end
of the wheel the cast metal is sprayed with water and
removed.
34 COPPER REFINING
The cathode starting sheets are formed by electro-
deposition, copper for this purpose being deposited
on a plate with oxidised surface, and then stripped off.
The vats, to the number of 800, are arranged on a
sloping floor to permit of circulation of the electrolyte,
which is pumped from the lower cells into a raised tank,
where it is heated with steam, and allowed to flow into
the top vats.
Each tank, which is 10 feet long, 3 feet deep and 2 feet
6 inches wide, contains 22 anodes and 23 cathodes. The
anodes are 3 feet high, 2 feet wide, 1*25 inches thick and
275 Ibs. in weight. The composition of the electrolyte
is 16% copper sulphate and 6% sulphuric acid. A
current density of about 10 amps, per sq. foot is used and
a period of 24 days needed to transfer the copper from
the anode to the cathode plate. The E.M.F. necessary
for each cell averages between '2 and '4 volt.
The amount of current employed in the electrolysis is
3,000 amps, at 120 volts. The electrolyte is regenerated
from time to time, on account of the accumulation of an
excess of copper through the formation of cuprous
sulphate. The excess of copper is removed by electro-
lysis in auxiliary vats with lead electrodes.
Eventually the electrolyte becomes too contaminated
with impurities for further use, when the copper sulphate
is separated by crystallisation and finally by the addition
of scrap iron, and the residue thrown away.
The anode slime, which contains all the gold and
silver and most of the other impurities of the copper,
accumulates at the bottom of the tanks, whence it is
carefully removed and dried; the average composition
of the slime is 15*30% metallic copper, 45*50% silver and
5'i% gold.
The cathodes consist of pure copper which finds a
ready application for electrical purposes on account of
its high conductivity. The silver slimes are mixed with
a certain amount of lead and cupelled in a furnace, thus
COPPER REFINING 35
causing volatilisation of arsenic and other impurities,
and yielding dore bars. These are subsequently parted
electrolytically by the Moebius process. This process,
in very brief outline, is as -follows :
An electrolyte of nitric acid, copper nitrate, and silver
nitrate is placed in vats about 2 feet 6 inches deep. The
anodes of dore" metal are about 5 inches wide by 12
inches deep, a number of these are placed side by side
in canvas walled cells, into which the gold drops as the
electrolysis proceeds. The cathodes, which consist of
thin silver sheets, are laid about 3 inches from the walls
of the canvas bags. Agitation of the electrolyte is
effected by means of wooden sticks, which are connected
to a spindle at their upper ends, and suspended in the
electrolyte on either side of the cathodes. A swinging
motion, backwards and forwards, is imparted to these.
Growths of spongy silver are thus removed and caused
to fall into a wooden frame placed underneath in the
vats. At the end of the electrolysis, the electrodes and
frame are raised together out of the bath and the
deposited silver, in a snow like form, is brushed from the
cathodes and shovelled away, to be afterwards melted
down. The gold, in the form of a black powder, all
remains behind in the canvas sacks and receives a final
chemical treatment and is then melted into bars.
The processes at the above refineries all work
on the multiple system, the anodes and cathodes
being placed alternately and the current passing from
all the anodes in parallel to all the cathodes joined in the
same way.
In the series arrangement, which is in use at an impor-
tant refinery at Baltimore, the anode and cathode are
placed at the extreme ends of the vat and a number of
intermediate, or bipolar, electrodes are arranged in be-
tween at regular intervals. The current is passed
through these in series, when copper is dissolved from
one side of each electrode and deposited on the other
36 COPPER REFINING
side. By previously oxidising the surface, or coating
with carbon or grease, the deposited copper can
readily be stripped away from the remaining metal
sheet.
With regard to the relative merits of the multiple
and series systems,* twice the amount of copper as
anodes is needed in the multiple as compared with the
series system, hence a greater value of metal is locked
up in the process of treatment. By taking thinner
anodes, the percentage waste is much greater and plates
must be renewed oftener at an increased labour cost.
On the other hand the volume of the electrolyte in the
series arrangement need only be one fourth that in the
multiple system, and the electrolysis is carried out at a
higher temperature (48 C.) thus decreasing resistances
and in consequence the size of plant. By making the
electrodes very smooth and homogeneous by rolling, the
distance apart in the vats has been decreased to as little
as *5 to '8 inches.
The cost of preparation of anodes for series work over-
balances the gain attained by economy of power and
reduced value locked up in plants.
In the older practice, and carrying but 2 to 4 amps.
per square foot, the refineries needed an outlay in stock
of 75 to loo times their daily production, lately with 15
to 1 7 amps, only one-fifth of this amount has been needed.
The current density depends on the purity of the
anode copper, so that while 8 to 10 amps, would be
advisable for impure copper, for specially fine anodes, as
high as 40 amps, has been employed.
Nickel Refining.
A process of nickel refining is at the present time
operated on a small scale in New Jersey at the Orford
Copper Co. by an electrolytic process of Mr. W. Thum.
* Mineral Industry f vol. xv, p. 293.
COPPER REFINING 37
Nickel sulphide, which is separated from the copper-
nickel matte resulting from the smelting of the Sudbury
ores, is said* to be treated by an electrolytic process
in which the nickel sulphide is used as anode material
in a vat containing nickel chloride as electrolyte. In
this way, the nickel is dissolved and deposited in a pure
state on the cathode, while sulphur is liberated in a free
state at the surface of the anode.
* Kershaw. Electro-Metallurgy (1908), p. 236. See also Pring, U.S.
Patent 874,864, Decemt>er, 1907.
CHAPTER IV.
CANADIAN WATER POWERS AND ELECTRO-
CHEMICAL CENTRES.
CANADA is especially favoured by an abundance of water
powers. Except in the prairie region, the rivers are
characterised in not being naturally navigable to any
considerable extent from their mouths, on account of
their frequent interruption by falls and rapids.
Development of water power has now been under-
taken at numerous places chiefly in the east and extend-
ing as far west as Winnipeg. The Government takes
a very active interest in the development of these water
powers, and in June, 1906, offered for sale at public
auction, 16 sites representing a total of 730,000 H.P.
Westward of Winnipeg, the long stretch of prairie,
necessarily possesses no waterfalls, but, beyond this, we
reach the Rocky Mountain district in British Columbia
which contains the greatest of all Canadian water
powers. The falls in this district are chiefly characterised
by possessing great head. The amount of power to be
obtained from the streams of the Rocky Mountains and
from the wide rivers with their large volume of swiftly
flowing water is of enormous magnitude. The harnessing
of these water powers should prove comparatively easy,
though at present very little has been accomplished on
account of the very scanty settlement of this part of the
country. Developments are taking place rapidly,
however, and two or three important power stations are
now in successful operation in British Columbia.
CANADA 39
Region of the Lower St. Lawrence *
Considering first the most easterly of the Canadian
water powers and then proceeding westwards, we have,
first, the St. Lawrence River with its numerous
tributaries which contain many falls and rapids.
Beginning at the extreme east, the first tributary of
any importance is the Matapedia River on the south
bank, near the Gaspe" peninsula. The Matapedia
Valley is a valuable farming and lumber district, and
the river affords numerous water powers, some being
equivalent to 4,000 H.P. These are applied to a small
extent to the working of saw mills.
Region of the Eastern Townships.
This district, which is an important grazing country,
lies at the south of Quebec, and possesses rivers which
contain many water powers. The principal rivers here
are the Chaudiere, Saint Frances, Nicoles and B^cancour.
Many of these water powers are already utilised for saw
mills and various manufactories.
The St. Maurice Region.
This extensive territory, called the Valley of the
St. Maurice, is situated on the north of the river St.
Lawrence, behind the town of Three Rivers.
The St. Maurice, which drains the greater part of
this region, is a river, the waters of which are rapid and
sometimes deep, and which runs from north to south,
falling into the St. Lawrence.
For a distance of 200 miles from its mouth, the river
has an average width of a quarter of a mile. The
region through which it runs is generally very moun-
tainous, and the river is impeded by a great number of
rapids and falls, the most important being those of
Shawinigan, La Tuque and Grand'Mere.
*A. Turgeon Report of the Minister of Lands and Forests in the
Province of Quebec (1906).
40 CANADA
The St. Maurice River contains a large number of
lakes scattered over its watershed which act as reservoirs,
and thus equalise the flow of the river.
Shawinigan Falls.
This place is situated about half-way between Quebec
and Montreal, and at a distance of about 85 miles from
the latter. An important power development has here
been carried out by the Shawinigan Falls Power Co.
Very wide concessions were made by the Government to
this company in the matter of expropriating land required
for the purpose of transmission lines. Shawinigan
Falls is situated on the Great Northern Railway between
Quebec and Montreal.
The town of Shawinigan Falls has been laid down
with a view to the erection of a model manufacturing
town. A portion has been reserved for mill sites, and
the rest laid out in lots for residential purposes. The
population of the town, which dates from 1900, now
amounts to about 4,000.
A total development of 25,000 H.P. from the
Falls has now been achieved, most of which is
transmitted to Montreal by an 85 mile line of aluminium.
The current is stepped up to a voltage of 50,000, 3 phase.
The transformers are oil-cooled and placed in a separate
building. A special device is fitted to each transformer
to afford protection in case of fire. The oil in the tank
for this purpose can be displaced by water and forced
into the sewer.
The principal industries around the Falls are the
Northern Aluminium Company a branch of the
Aluminium Company of America, where aluminium
metal is obtained* the Carbide Company, manufactur-
ing calcium carbide, and the Belgo-Canadian Pulp
Company, which operates large paper mills and takes
8,000 H.P. A transmission line has now been built
The output of this metal in 1905 was 1,035 tons, in 1906,2,700 tons
CANADA 41
across the St. Lawrence River conveying power from the
Falls to the asbestos mines of Black Lake and Danville.
The town of Grand' Mere arose in 1899 to utilise the
La Tuque water power, and the Falls of the Grandes
Piles. The latter has an estimated minimum power of
23,000 H.P. Grand'Mere has now a population of
2,500 inhabitants.
There are numerous other water powers in this district
which have not yet been developed, and which offer a
valuable field to the opening up of new manufacturing
industries.
The Lake St. John and Saguenay Region.
Lake St. John lies to the north of Quebec, and the
surrounding Saguenay region, embracing an area of
30,000 square miles, contains an abundance of water
power which could easily be made available for industrial
purposes.
This district is renowned for its valuable hunting
grounds and fisheries, for its forests and the fertility of
its soil. Among the tributary rivers of Lake St. John
are :
(1) The Metabetchouan, which possesses a waterfall
of over 200 feet in height, and three rapids.
(2) The Quiatchouan, which forms at two miles from
its mouth, a fall of 236 feet in height.
(3) The Grand Peribonka, which, at a distance of some
five miles from its mouth, has seven waterfalls, formed
one above the other, and which could develop a motive
power of 300,000 H.P.
(4) The Little Peribonka, which, at the town of
Dalmas, forms the " Chutes Blanches," where hydraulic
power is used by the Peribonka Pulp Factory.
(5) Mistassini, which has falls and cascades at the
24th, 35th, 40th and i44th mile from its mouth. One of
these falls is 80 feet high.
(6) Mistassibi, which has seven falls in the 34 miles of
42 CANADA
its course, the most important being the Chutes des
Peres, which are 45 feet high.
The Riviere aux Rats is a tributary of the Mistassini,
and, in the first seven miles above its confluence with the
latter river, forms falls of 30, 40 and 60 feet in height
capable of furnishing a force of 125,000 to 150,000 H.P.
The River Chamouchouan, at a short distance above
the village of St. Felicien, and about 15 miles from Lake
St. John, contains cascades and falls of great size. It is
calculated that in the 50 miles of its course, the hydraulic
force of this river would easily produce 300,000 H.P.
Very large water powers are also met with in the
counties of Chicoutini and Saguenay, notably those of
the River Chicoutini, au Sable, Shipshaw, Saguenay,
Portneuf, Ste Marguerite, Grande Trinite*, Petite Trinite,
Esconmains, Sault-au-Mouton, Bethsiamis, auxOntardes,
Manikuajon, Pentecote, aux Rochers, Marguerite,
Moisie, Natashquan, etc., etc. Some of these are already
employed by large manufacturing establishments,
notably that of the Chicoutini River, where the
Chicoutini Pulp Company has erected very large works.
The hydraulic powers of the Rivers Marguerite and
Trinity are worked by two companies American and
English.
This Saguenay district now contains a number of
growing settlements, and is well served by transporta-
tion facilities. Numerous steamers ply regularly on
Lake St. John and the Saguenay River in summer.
The Quebec and Lake St. John Railway runs through
the whole region between Quebec and Lake St. John,
and is 192 miles long. A direct line also connects this
interesting district with Ottawa.
Great Falls, New Brunswick.
An important electro-chemical works is in operation
at Great Falls, New Brunswick, for the reduction of
manganese ores, which occur in the neighbourhood.
CANADA 43
These are here converted into ferro-manganese alloys of
high quality.
Lachine Rapids, Montreal.
At these rapids the St. Lawrence River itself under-
goes a drop of 16 feet. Some 8,000 H.P. is at present
generated from this source, and is used in Montreal.
The Ottawa Region.
This region comprises an area of forest land of over
40,000 square miles. The Ottawa valley is bounded on
the south by the St. Lawrence, on the west by the
city of Ottawa and Lake Temiscaminque, on the north
by the height of land dividing the basin of the St.
Lawrence from that of Hudson's Bay, and on the east
by the tributaries of the right bank of the St. Maurice.
The chief industry of this country is that of lumbering,
though mining, and especially the quarrying of
phosphates, which are found in large deposits in many
townships of the Ottawa valley are contributing greatly
to the development of colonization here.
The Ottawa River contains a large number of tribu-
taries which furnish good water powers. On the main
river the chief are :
C handier e Falls at Ottawa. Power is here developed
on a small scale for the electrical supply of the city and
for the operation of lumber mills in the district. The
chief power company, that at Hull, Ottawa, sells power
at $15 per H.P. year.
Chats Falls. " Les Chutes des Chats " on the
Ottawa River are situated four miles from the Quyon
station on the Pontiac Railway, and 33 miles from
Ottawa. These falls promise to give rise to an important
industrial centre in the future. A careful examination
and measurements of the falls have been made with a
view of applying them for the generation of power, and,
as mentioned below in the section on iron smelting, a
scheme has been put forward to establish here an iron
44 CANADA
smelting centre. The Chats Falls have a difference in
level of 36 feet between head and foot and the flow during
mean low water level has been estimated at 17,200 cubic
feet per second.
This corresponds to a theoretical power of 70,000 H. P.,
and, it is considered, that the total maximum power that
can be practically derived amounts to 50,000 H.P.
Development of power at this place promises to be free
from difficulty.
About one-third of the whole discharge of the Ottawa
at the " Chats " passes on the Quebec side. The water
privileges for this power, amounting to about 15,000
H.P., have been valued at $18,000, and it is thought
advisable to sell this power in three sections, reserving
one for the operation of a railway to be constructed in
the district.
The value of the Chats Falls is at present diminished
through the existence of other water powers situated
nearer Ottawa. In addition to the Chaudieres Falls at
Ottawa itself, there are the Deschenes Rapids within five
miles from the city. These form a very fine water power
from which the Deschenes Milling Co. and the Hull
and Aylmer Electric Railway on the Quebec side derive
their power.
The " Metropolitan Electrical Company of Ottawa "
is about to erect a 5,000 H.P. plant at Britannia, on the
Ontario side of these falls.
This company possesses 160 acres of land along the
river, which was purchased together with the water
rights, affording a total of 20,000 H.P., for the sum of
$20,000.
The falls of the Grand Calumet form another important
power on the Ottawa River, though they present some
difficulty in developing. The power of these falls is
estimated at 6,000 H.P.
Among other big water powers of the River Ottawa
are " Les Chutes et Cascades du Chenal du Rocher
CANADA 45
Fendu," south of the Grand Calumet Island and north
of the Allumette Island.
At the western extremity of this part of the Ottawa
River called the Riviere Creuse, we meet the falls and
rapids of the Joachims, the rapids " du Rocher
Capitaine," of the " Deux Rivieres," " du Levier " and
Mattawa.
The water power from the Joachims in front of
Aberdeen, in the county of Pontiac, is capable of
furnishing a minimum of 13,000 H.P. The cascades on
the River Gatineau, a tributary of the Ottawa, is
calculated as equal to 40,000 H.P., and the rapids of
St. Joseph and Des Eaux, on the same river at 7, 700 H.P.
The rapids of Mattawa and Johnson together will give
7,500 H.P.
On the River Ottawa the water power of the Long
Sault Rapids is estimated at 20,681 H.P.
The Region of the Temiscamingue.
This embraces an immense territory comprising the
valleys of the Lake Temiscamingue and the River des
Quinze, which is itself a continuation of the River
Ottawa.
This district is of interest from an agricultural stand-
point, and on account of its immense forests and
abundance of game; it has also attained considerable
importance as a mining centre on account of its mineral
resources.
The numerous rivers and streams in this district form
many sources of power, some of which are of great value.
The River des Quinze alone possesses 15 falls, and the
River Kepewa and La Lontre several important ones.
The following is a description of the water powers
offered for sale at public auction in June, 1906. The
Government concession takes the form of a lease for
99 years, and is given on condition that the lessee
expends a definite sum within a period of five years, the
46 CANADA
amount being in each case determined by the size of the
water power. In default of this expenditure the lease is
cancelled.
Name of Power and Height
Situation of fall
feet
Kai-Kai-Ke Rapid on River des
Quinze near North Temiscamins^ue 46
Island Rapid, River des Quinze,
near North Temiscamingue ... 95
Discharge of Lake Tremblant near
Trembling Mountain station ... 36
First Falls on River Manicouagon,
Saguenay County, on North
Shore of St. Lawrence ... 110
Falls of the River aux Outardes,
Saguenay County, on North
Shore of St. Lawrence ... 200
La Gabelle Rapid on St. Maurice
River, near Three Rivers, on the
line of the St. Maurice Valley
Railway 20
Coteau Rapids on the St. Lawrence
at Coteau du Lac, County of
Soulanges. Close to the Grand
Trnnk and the Canada Atlantic
railways, and also to the Sou-
langes Canal ... ... ... 12 15
Iroquois Falls on the Vermillion
River, 21 miles above La Tuque 35
River Manouan Falls ... ... 30
Grand Sault on River Rimouski... 50
Rapide Malin, River Bonaventure 6
Chandiere Falls on River Chamou-
chouan, Lake St. John County 60
Chute des Peres, River Mistassibe
at Pelletier, Lake St. John
County... ... ... ... 42
Falls of Sault au Cochon, Sa-
guenay County, one mile from
St. Lawrence River ... ...
Great Bear Falls on River
Chamouchouan, 18 miles from
Lake St. John 80
Estimated Total Power
available at low water
H.P.
15,640
32,000
360
331,456
180,992
8,000
10,00015,000
1,200
1,000
500
700
12,000
11,848
2,000
1 00,000
CANADA 47
In most of the above cases the lease includes possession
of the banks of the river for a considerable distance up
stream, so that the available head of the falls, and
consequently the power can, in a good many cases be
artificially increased :
LIST OF WATER POWER SOLD IN THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC FROM
30TH JUNE, 1905, TO IST JULY, 1906.
Approx. Price and
H. P. To whom sold condition of sale
Names and Places available or leased or lease
Rapide des Hetres, 1,400 The Shawinigan $1,500
St. Maurice River, Lakes Power
Champlain County. and Electric
Co.
St. Anne River, County 426 The St. Raymond $800
of Pomeuf. Paper Co. Ltd.
First Falls, Mamicou- 331,456 A. W. de Tori- $2,005
agan River, together mier. Obligation toex-
with 500 acres of pend $500,000
land mentioned in on operating
above list. these falls within
five years.
Manouan River, 1,000 $505
Champlain County, Obligation to
together with 50 spend $100,000
acres of land. Men- on development
tioned in above list. within five years.
Sault au Cochon River 2,000 $805
together with 1,318 Obligation to ex-
acres. Mentioned in pend $150,000
above list. on development
within five years.
REFERENCE. " Report of the Minister of Lands and Forests of the
Province of Quebec, 1906."
Further west, is situated Niagara Falls. Three large
power stations have been erected on the Canadian side of
the Falls, and at present 10,000 H.P. is being transmitted
to Toronto, as is discussed in the special section above
dealing with Niagara (p. 13).
4 8 CANADA
Sault Ste Marie.
Proceeding westward, the next important water power
centre is at Sault Ste Marie, at the head of Lake Huron.
The growth of this place within the last ten years offers
perhaps one of the best examples of the rapidity of the
development of American towns. Sault Ste Marie is
situated at the point where Lake Superior empties itself
into Lake Huron, and, like Niagara Falls, two towns have
arisen, one on the American, the other on the Canadian
bank of the river. In 1897 ^e town numbered only
2,500 inhabitants, being merely a scattered village with
some old flour mills, and chiefly of importance on account
of the locks for the passage of the large freight boats
taking iron ore from the Lake Superior district towards
the east. Five years later, some 6,000 men were
employed in the factories, and now a great centre has
arisen with steel works, rolling mills, blast furnaces,
chemical works, and sulphite pulp mills. This meta-
morphosis took place as soon as it was realised how
important the situation of the place was, and what
possibilities lay in the application of the water power
available from the Sault rapids in their 20 foot fall. The
development of the district is due to the enterprise and
energy of Mr. F. H. Clergue, who in 1894, to k ste P s
for the harnessing of this large water power. Since
then, upwards of ^10,000,000 have been expended on
this scheme and the accompanying industries.
The minimum available electric power of Sault Ste
Marie is about 110,000 H.P., and the present utilisation
of power amounts to 60,000 H.P.
The method by which this water power is controlled
is by the construction of three parallel canals
through the narrow neck of land which separates
Lake Superior from Lake Huron. The largest of the
canals is on the American side of the boundary, and is
2\ miles long, 200 feet wide and 22 feet deep. The
CANADA 49
water, to the amount of 108,000,000 cubic feet per hour,
passes into a wide forebay, through and across which is
the power house owned by the Michigan Lake Superior
Power Co., and which extends over 1,368 feet in length.
The turbines, on account of the low available head,
number 320, each of 125 H.P. The Union Carbide Co.,
which adjoins this power house, takes 10,000 H.P. for
the manufacture of calcium carbide (p. 31). The two
smaller canals are on the Canadian side. Here some
20,000 H.P. was originally developed, but there
appeared no means of its disposal, and no manufacturers
came forward to avail themselves of it. The Canadian
Lake Superior Power Co., as the enterprise was named,
had consequently to cast about for something it could
manufacture itself. Accordingly, the making of pulp
was decided upon, and the Sault Ste Marie Pulp and
Power Company was formed and capitalised at ,500,000.
This at first was most prosperous, and underwent
enlargements, but later suffered severely from the
competition of the paper makers of the United States,
who combined to lower prices. A process for the
manufacture of dry pulp was invented, however, and the
product is now prepared on an extensive scale.
Next the production of sulphite pulp was taken up for
the manufacture of which sulphurous acid is requisite,
and the next problem was to obtain sulphur. The
source of this material which was decided upon was
nickeliferous pyrrhotite, which occurs in the neighbour-
ing Sudbury district. After extensive experiments a
process was devised of recovering the sulphurous acid
obtained by a roasting process.
Another industry was led on to from this by the
problem of the disposal of the residue containing nickel
and iron left after the roasting off of the sulphur. An
electric furnace treatment was devised by Mr. Sjostedt
which gave a ferro-nickel of very high grade.
CANADA
Iron Industry.
The smelting of iron ores was next engaged in by the
Lake Superior Power Co. The Helen iron mine, the
ore of which assays 64 per cent, pure iron, was
accordingly secured. Mines of the highest grade ore,
and only 12 miles from a harbour on Lake Superior,
were later opened up, and thus ore can be shipped to the
works at a very low cost.
The Canadian Electro-chemical works was next
established for the purpose of manufacturing chlorine
and caustic soda, the Rhodin Electrolytic process
being installed. This process is somewhat similar to
that of the Castner-Kellner, working with an intermediate
mercury electrode, a cell of inverted bell form being
employed. One hundred and twenty of such cells were
in use at these works, taking a total current of 800 H.P.
and producing 9 tons of bleaching powder and 4^ tons
of caustic soda daily. This plant is now no longer in
operation.
Kakabeka Falls.
Still further west, near Fort William, at the head of
Lake Superior, a power development has been under-
taken at the Kakabeka Falls on the Kaministiquia River,
and is being utilised for the supply of current to Fort
William and Port Arthur. Between Lake Superior and
Hudson's Bay there are known to be extensive water
powers not yet developed, and further westward, many
occur on the Lake of the Woods.
At Winnipeg, electric power for the driving of trams
and lighting the city, etc., has been brought in from
falls on the Winnipeg River.
CANADA 51
West Kootenay Power and Light Co.*
This power development is situated in the centre of the
mining district of British Columbia, having been
constructed at the Bonnington Falls on the Kootenay
River. This is a tributary of the Columbia River, and
has been found to have a minimum flow of 5,850 cubic
feet per second at the above falls, where there is a drop
of 70 feet. The natural head is now being increased to
the extent of 10 feet by building a timber dam across the
river.
The power house is of reinforced concrete built actually
in the old river bed, a cofferdam having been constructed
from the bank to an island in the river, thus removing
the water from the whole site. The water is led to the
turbines down a tube formed in concrete without any
steel lining. Each 8,000 H.P. turbine consists of three
inward flow Francis runners. Half of the water passes
upwards, and is brought down again by a draft tube.
The lower runner discharges downwards into its own
individual draft tube.
By thus discharging in opposite directions the thrust
on the bearing is eliminated. The generators, which
are of the umbrella type, are directly connected to the
turbines, and operate at 2,200 volts and a frequency of
60 cycles. Two units only are at present installed, and
two more are in course of erection. The general scheme
of electrical distribution is so arranged that power can,
at present, be delivered to Phoenix, 79 miles distant,
Grand Forks, 69 miles distant, and Greenwood, 83 miles
distant, at 60,000 volts, and to Rossland and Trail 28
miles distant, at 22,000 volts.
The whole of the power so far sold is used in mining
and smelting work and for the lighting requirements of
* B. A. Ross and H. Holgate. " Power development on the Kootenay
River." Trans, of Canadian Soc. of Civil Engineers (1907), vol. xxi,
p. 149.
52 CANADA
mining towns. It is now contemplated to apply the
power to the operation of railways in the district.
Vancouver Power Co.
Another important development near the west coast is
that of the Vancouver Power Co. at Buntzen, near
Vancouver. The water is here led from one lake to
another by means of a tunnel in solid rock, a distance
of 2\ miles. A head of 420 feet is thus available.
15,000 H.P. are now being developed and sold, and
provision for 40,000 H.P. exists. Current for light
railways, local industries and lighting is provided by
this company.
The Stave Lake Power Co. atRuskin, near Vancouver,
is now erecting a large power plant on Stave Lake, and
current will be transmitted from here to Vancouver.
The Canadian Pacific Railway contemplate electrifying
sections of their railway in this district.
The Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company of
Canada, Trail, British Columbia.
This company possesses a number of mines in the
Kootenay district of British Columbia, the chief of
which, namely, the Josie, Centre Star, War Eagle, and
the Le Roi, are at Rossland, which is reputed to be the
seat of the most extensive gold deposits known. An
important mine known as the St. Eugene, is also worked
at Moyie. Lead and copper ores from these mines are
smelted at the company's own smelting works at Trail,
a town which is about eight miles distant from Rossland.
A quantity of ore from other mines is also bought and
smelted here. The annual report of the company for the
year ending June, 1907,* shows that the gross value of
the metals produced during the year at the smelter
* Engineering and Mining Journal, March 14th, 1908, p. 557.
CANADA 53
amounted to 757,200 of which ^331,400 came from
ores from the company's own properties.
The Centre Star and War Eagle mines produced
81,788 tons of ore, containing 32,306 oz. of gold,
27,808 oz. of silver, and 1,030,529 Ibs. of copper, of a
total value of 178,600.
The St. Eugene mine produced 127,645 tons of ore,
containing 679,959 oz. of silver and 29,391,389155. of
lead, the total value being ^342,800. The Trail smelter
treated 222,573 tons of ore producing 69,i68oz. of gold,
1,100,221 oz. of silver, 20,383,083 Ibs. of lead, and
3,443,310 Ibs. of copper. The dividends paid during
this year were .100,000 on an issued capital stock of
^"966,000.
There are, in operation at Trail, five modern copper
furnaces and two lead furnaces. The copper ore as
obtained from the Josie mine contains :
Gold '4 to 1*5 oz. per ton.
Silver ro oz. per ton.
Copper i '6 to 2*2%
Iron i6'5 to 23*0%
Silica 41 to 50%
Sulphur 8 to 13%
This ore is first roasted and then mixed with a suitable
charge of lime, silica, and coke, and smelted to a copper
matte and slag. The copper matte contains about
20 per cent, copper in combination with sulphur and all
the gold and silver values from the ore, while the slag
contains most of the iron combined with silica, and
usually as little as 'i per cent, of copper. This low
grade matte is treated a second time in the blast furnace,
when more sulphur is removed, causing the iron to pass
into the slag as silicate, and leaving a high grade matte,
containing about 60 per cent, copper, whilst the slag
contains as little as '2 per cent, of this metal. This
54 CANADA
matte is then shipped to Tacoma, on the Pacific coast, to
be further treated for the extraction of copper.
The lead ores which are smelted at Trail vary widely
in composition, containing :
Lead '5 to 25%
Sulphur 7*4 to 17%
Zinc 4'o to 22%
Silver '5 to 50 oz. per ton.
Gold '2 to 3 oz. per ton.
In purchasing lead ores, when a higher percentage of
zinc than 10 per cent, is present, a penalty is deducted
on account of the deleterious influence of this metal in
smelting by the blast furnace. The lead ores are
roasted in Huntington-Heberlein furnaces, at a dull red
heat, whereby the sulphur is reduced to about 5 per cent.,
and are then treated in the Heberlein converter, in
which, at a higher temperature, the sulphur is reduced
to about | to i per cent.
The ore is then smelted direct to bullion in blast
furnaces, two of which are in operation. The lead
bullion is run out at the bottom, while the copper present
forms a matte containing lead, copper, iron and sulphur,
and is run out of the furnace at a rather higher level.
The matte is afterwards treated in the copper furnaces to
recover the copper.
The bullion produced by the smelting operation is cast
into pigs and has the composition :
Lead 97-9 to 98*4%
Copper -1510 '36%
Antimony '4 to '7%
Arsenic -j to '3%
Silver 100 to 300 oz. per ton.
Gold 2-5 to 5-2 oz. per ton.
The whole of the bullion produced is refined by the
Betts electrolytic process to the amount of 80 tons daily.
CANADA 55
Before describing this a brief account will be given of
the older methods now in general use for refining lead.
(1) Cupellation Process. In this the whole of the
lead is oxidised, whilst the rare metals remain behind.
The bullion is, for this purpose, melted on a hearth or
cupel lined with a mixture of limestone, cement, fireclay
and magnesite, or simply with sand and cement. After
raising the temperature to the necessary degree, a rapid
current of air is blow over the surface and the lead
oxidised and removed as litharge, whilst the gold and
silver remain behind on the cupel. The oxide has then
to be reduced again to metallic lead. This process
cannot be economically carried on with lead which
contains less than about 8 oz. of silver to the ton.
(2) Pattinson Process. This makes use of the
fractional crystallisation of the molten lead silver alloy,
which is allowed to cool very gradually, when the lead
solidifies first and is removed in the form of crystals,
while the liquid which remains contains most of the
silver. This operation is repeated several times until
lead fairly free from silver is obtained, and a rich silver
alloy separated which is then cupelled.
(3) The Parkes Process. This is the method most
commonly in use for refining lead. The process is
usually carried out in the following stages :
Firstly, Softening of the base bullion to remove copper,
antimony, etc. For this purpose the metal is melted in
a reverberatory furnace which is constructed of fire-brick
laid in a wrought-iron pan, the sides and ends of which
are protected by water-cooled jackets. The bars of
bullion are placed in the furnace and melted down
slowly, and by keeping the temperature low, a dross of
copper oxide forms on the surface and is removed by
skimming off. The temperature of the metal is then
raised, when a dross of oxide of tin (and arsenic if
56 CANADA
present) forms, which is removed in the same way. On
raising the temperature still higher, antimony appears
on the surface in the form of black, oily drops, ultimately
forming a sheet which covers the surface of the metal.
Fine coal or ashes are then thrown on this, causing the
dross to thicken, which is then skimmed off. This
antimony dross contains a large percentage of lead and is
usually worked up into hard antimonial lead which is
used for type metal, Britannia metal, etc. The charge
is then ready for the next stage of the process that of
desilverization.
For this, the metal is run into a large pan and heated
to the melting-point of zinc. A charge of zinc, the
amount of which is determined by the gold and silver
content of the metal, is then added, and the whole is well
stirred. An alloy of zinc with gold and silver is formed,
which, on cooling, solidifies as a crust or in the form of
crystals on the surface. This zinc crust, which contains
only a small amount of lead, is removed by means of a
perforated ladle, and, after liquation in a small reverbera-
tory furnace to remove any adhering lead, the substance
is subjected to distillation to remove the zinc from the
gold and silver. Retorts, which hold some 600 Ibs. of
metal, are used for this purpose, and provided with a
vent-hole on the upper side and with condensers lined
with a mixture of lime, clay and cement. Distillation
begins after heating for about an hour and is indicated
by a green flame which appears at the vent-hole. The
zinc collects in the condenser and, when no more distils
off, the remaining bullion is transferred to the cupel.
The most important temporary loss results from a dross,
which forms on the bullion and which consists of an alloy
of lead and silver with any copper present, hence the
importance of removing the copper as completely as
possible at the earlier stage of the process. A certain
loss of silver also takes place through volatilisation
together with the zinc during the distillation.
CANADA 57
The whole of the lead bullion obtained at Trail is
refined electrolytically by the Betts process as described
below.
ELECTROLYTIC LEAD REFINING AT TRAIL.
In 1902, Mr. A. G. Betts, after a detailed investigation
and trials on a large scale, brought forward an electro-
lytic method for the refining of lead. The essential
difference from other electrolytic processes lies in the use
of a fluosilicate electrolyte, consisting of a solution of
lead fluosilicate with an excess of free acid. This
conducts the current well, is easily handled and stored,
non-volatile and stable, and is easily prepared from
inexpensive materials. Lead fluosilicate is exceedingly
soluble, requiring only 28 per cent, of its weight of water
for solution. At first difficulty was experienced through
the unevenness of the deposits on the cathode by the lead
branching out in crystalline growths and causing a short
circuit between the electrodes. The addition of a small
amount of gelatine, or glue to the bath, however, was
found to surmount this difficulty and to cause a perfectly
coherent and fairly smooth deposit. The deposited lead
has very nearly the same structure as electrolytic copper
and a specific gravity of about 1 1*36 the same as that of
cast lead.
This process has now entered into successful competi-
tion with the older methods (those of Parkes, Pattinson,
etc.) as a means of recovering lead and silver from base
bullion. The most important of these installations is at
Trail, and others are in operation at Grasselli, Ind., near
Chicago, and at Newcastle-on-Tyne (see p. 129).
The procedure at Trail is to first melt the metal in a
circular iron tank about 12 ft. in diameter, and by
contact with the air, a dross is formed on the surface
which carries away most of the copper. By means of
a pump and long spout the molten bullion is then
5 8 CANADA
delivered to the anode moulds which are made of cast-
iron of the special design of Mr. R. Truswell. Anodes
are thus furnished of compact metal and in a form
suitable for use in the tanks, and providing for a
minimum of waste through metal not immersed in the
electrolyte.
The dimensions of the anode are, 30 in. wide, 31 in.
deep, and of thickness from J in at the bottom to i^ in.
at the top, the wedge-shape being used to facilitate
extraction from the mould. Side lugs project at the top
to permit suspension from the bus bars into the tank.
The weight of each anode is about 400 Ibs.
The cathodes consist of thin sheets of refined lead,
which are prepared by a device of Mr. J. F. Miller, in
which a trough of molten lead is inverted and the metal
caused to flow and solidify over an inclined iron plate.
The edges of the cathode are then trimmed, forming a
thin rectangular sheet of metal of 20 Ibs. weight. The
top edge is next wrapped round a copper bar for the
purpose of suspending across the bus bars. When
in situ in the bath, the electrodes are insulated, the
anodes on one side, and the cathodes on the other, from
the bus bars by strips of wood. Good contact is
secured on the flat surface of the lug at the other side
through the weight of the electrode.
1 80 tanks are at present in use at Trail, each being
6ft. 4 in. long, 2ft. 6 in. wide and about 3ft. 6 in. deep.
These are made of wood bolted together, and coated with
tar inside, and are arranged in pairs, side by side, the
current passing through the two in series. The 22
anodes, which together weigh 3 4 tons are lowered into
position in the tanks by means of a travelling crane and
the 21 starting sheets are next placed in between in a
similar way.
The passage of the current causes the anodes to
dissolve in from u to 12 days. After a lapse of 5 6
CANADA 59
days, the cathodes are removed and another set of start-
ing sheets inserted, so that two crops of lead are taken
from the anodes. A new arrangement is now being
introduced however, in which, by the use of rather
thinner anodes (f in. thickness at bottom to ijin. at top),
the electrolysis will be conducted with the use of one set
of cathodes to one of anodes.
The electrolyte used is of the composition :
H 3 SiF 6 9 - 5 _ IO - 5 %
Pb (as PbSiF 6 ) ... 4-5 5-2%
Specific gravity ... 1*13 i"i6
and is prepared by acting on fluorspar in presence of
silica, with sulphuric acid. The calcium sulphate
resulting from the interaction is allowed to settle and the
HiSiF 6 decanted or distilled off. Any free sulphuric
acid present is removed by the addition of the calculated
amount of white lead. The electrolyte tends continually
to dissolve an excess of lead from the electrodes and to
lose its acidity. This is rectified by using the free acid
to replenish the electrolyte. A small amount of glue is
added to the solution from time to time to cause greater
smoothness of the deposited lead. The function of the
glue appears to be partly physical and partly a reducing
effect, as frequent renewal is necessary.
The solution is circulated from one tank to another
by gravity and is then pumped by rubber pumps and
along pipes of the same material. Assays are made
daily of the electrolyte, and its composition can be
controlled by regulating the current density and speed
of circulation. Lowering the current and increasing the
circulation raise the lead content of the solution.
During the electrolysis, the lead is dissolved from the
anode and deposited on the cathode in a more or less
nodulated form. The anode slime remains attached to
the anode, so that this electrode changes very little in
6o CANADA
appearance even after nearly all the lead is dissolved.
This is especially the case when the lead contains a large
percentage of antimony, when hardly any change of
colour is observable.
The usual current density employed is 16 to 18 amps,
per square foot, a total current of from 3,100 to 3,6ooamps.
and 70 volts being supplied to the two parallel sets of
90 cells. The voltage between the electrodes varies
from "28 V. at the beginning of the electrolysis to '4 at
the end. This increase is caused by the resistance of
the neutral solution enclosed in the slimes which gradu-
ally become thicker on the anodes. The slime contains
lead, copper, gold, silver, bismuth, antimony, arsenic,
sulphur and occasionally tin, selenium and tellurium,
while zinc, iron, nickel and cobalt originally present in
the lead pass into the electrolyte.
On the completion of the electrolysis the 22 anodes
are removed from the tanks together, and taken into a
washing tank where the black slime is carefully removed
from scrap metal and freed from fluosilicate. The
amount of scrap returned is about 20%. At first the
water from a later stage in a previous washing is used,
careful note being made of the specific gravity of the
different portions of wash water as this is eventually
returned to the electrolyte.
The average composition of the slimes is as follows :
Lead 10 18%
Arsenic 23 28%
Antimony 21 27%
Copper 7 22%
Iron i 2%
Silver 5%
The zinc, iron, nickel and cobalt go into solution in
the electrolyte but as they are present only in very small
amount, cause little or no complication.
CANADA 61
Treatment of Slimes.
It has been a problem of considerable difficulty to
devise a satisfactory method of separating the consti-
tuents of the slimes and one which has been the subject
of a very large amount of experimental work.
Methods which have been proposed for the treatment
of slimes include the following :
(1) A distillation process which is carried out in the
electric furnace, effecting separation by the fractional
boiling of the metals.
(2) Amalgamation, whereby arsenic and antimony can
be separated from the metals which alloy with mercury.
(3) Fusion to alloys and then separating by chlorina-
tion or precipitating one metal by another, or by
electrolytic refining.
(4) Dry chlorination of the slime, followed by a sepa-
ration of the chlorides by fractional distillation.
(5) Direct electrolysis with the slime as anode and a
suitable electrolyte, or fusion of the slime to an alloy,
followed by electrolytic treatment.
None of the above methods have been taken past the
experimental stage or applied at all on a practical scale
One method of separating antimony which has met with
more success, having been in operation at Trail
and at Newcastle-on-Tyne, consists in treating
the slimes with hydrofluoric acid. Antimony is thus
dissolved, and after the addition of some potassium or
sodium fluoride, the solution is electrolysed and anti-
mony deposited. The method which is now in use at
Trail, however, having been developed to a successful
process, is as follows :
The anode slime is washed on the counter current
principle, the wash water which results from a previous
washing being first used. When the wash water con-
tains a certain percentage of electrolyte it is returned to
the vats to replace losses.
62 CANADA
The slimes are allowed to settle after each washing,
and the water is removed by decantation. The final
washing is effected with hot dilute alkali to remove the
last traces of acid, and the slimes are then boiled with a
6 per cent, sodium sulphide solution, containing a little
free sulphur. In this way the antimony is dissolved
whilst most of the arsenic remains unattacked.
The unaltered slimes are allowed to settle and the
supernatant liquid passed hot through a canvas filter
into tanks where it is subjected to electrolysis.
For this purpose, 10 cells in two rows are arranged in
terraces to allow of fairly rapid circulation of the
electrolyte.
The tanks which are about 4 feet deep and 23 inches
wide each contain 19 cathodes of sheet iron and 18 lead
anodes in the form of thin sheets. These are about
3 ft. 6 in. deep and placed an inch apart. The E.M.F.
used is about i volt per cell and the current density about
6 amps, per square foot. The bath is kept at about 60 C.
of gas. Antimony is deposited to a thickness of about
J inch and the sodium sulphide is partially converted
into the sulphate, while the Antimony content falls from
about i '5 to '5 per cent.
The deposited metal is removed from the iron
cathodes, and, after melting under a flux of antimony
oxide and sulphide, gives bars of pure metal which
solidify with a crystalline surface of star configuration,
which is an indication of their high purity.
The slimes, after extraction with the sodium sulphide
solution, are next roasted and the lead is slagged off. The
silver and copper are then dissolved out by sulphuric
acid which is heated with steam and well exposed to air.
Silver is removed from this solution by immersing
copper plates, which after the lapse of a few days brings
out all the silver as a slime which sinks to the bottom.
Copper sulphate is then recovered from this solution by
CANADA 63
crystallisation. Further treatment of the residue with
sulphuric acid leaves behind the contained gold.
The refined lead is 99*989% pure. Some is used for
the manufacture of lead pipes (J in. 3 in. diam.) a process
which is conducted in the Refinery at Trail by means of
a hydraulic press. The remainder of the lead is cast
into bars and transported.
Advantages of the Betts Process.
The chief advantage over the Parkes process is that
the electrolytic method does away with the use of zinc
and also saves a considerable amount of fuel. Further-
more in fire refining, there is a loss of silver amounting,
it is said, to about ij%, which is to a large extent
avoided in the Betts process. Electrolytic lead is more-
over entirely free from bismuth, thus enhancing its value
considerably, and is moreover of special value for the
manufacture of white lead, as the absence of antimony
increases its facility of corrosion. The process also
offers advantages from the hygienic standpoint as it is
only during the melting and casting of the lead that any
danger of lead poisoning is incurred by the workmen.
With regard to the economy of the process, the power
at Trail is taken from current supplied by the Bonning-
ton Falls Power Co. at a cost of about ^"4. 155. per H.P.
year. One ton of lead requires 260,000 amps, hours at
an average of '35 volts, which amounts to 106 electrica)
H.P. hours. Allowing 10 per cent, loss of efficiency in
the tanks and about 8 per cent, loss in the transformer,
this makes 120 H.P. hours, which works out to a cost of
is. 4d. for power per ton of lead refined, the cost of
i H.P. year being taken as $.
The successful undertaking of this process is obviously
not at all a question of the availability of cheap power,
as with coal at i. 55. a ton, the cost for power would
not amount to more than 2s. 6d. per ton of lead refined.
64 CANADA
This fuel consumption is far below that needed in fire
refining, and the labour involved, including that
demanded by the treatment of the slimes, is no greater
than in any of the older methods.
The Betts refining plant at Grasselli, Ind., belongs to
the U.S. Smelting and Refining Co., and is somewhat
similar to that at Trail. No smelting is carried on but
lead bullion containing 10 20 ozs. of silver is imported.
The power is generated from steam, an engine of 100
H.P. being used for the pumps and another of 300 H.P.
for the electrolysis.
The power expenditure for the output of lead, and
also the number of tanks appear to be greater than at
Trail.
65
CHAPTER V.
ELECTRIC SMELTING OF IRON ORES AND
STEEL PRODUCTION.
THE electric smelting of iron ore and manufacture of
steel is a subject which at the present time is attracting
much attention, and it is particularly in this field that
the application of electrical methods of heating promises
extensive developments. Two distinct lines of progress
are observed. Firstly the refining of steel obtained by
one or other of the ordinary methods of manufacture,
and secondly, the direct reduction of iron ore in electric
furnaces, a development resulting from the great success
which has attended the use of electrical methods for the
manufacture of ferro-alloys.
In the case of steel production, regular commercial
manufacture has been carried out during the last few
years in several distinct localities, although relatively
on a small scale, and here the possibilities of develop-
ment are apparently in a large measure independent of
the source of power, since steam, gas and water driven
plants are all in use. Commencing with the task of
producing a material of a crucible steel grade at a
marked reduction in the cost of manufacture, some of
the processes are already extending in directions where
the possibilities should offer them a much wider field of
usefulness. Despite the scepticism at first met with on
the part of the steel manufacturers the processes are now
being taken up seriously by many steel works on the
Continent and in America.
66 IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION
For the production of iron the case is entirely different ;
here the prospect of supplementing the blast furnace is,
to say the least, very remote in countries where coal is
even moderately easily available. But it must not be
forgotten that there are important countries in which this
condition does not hold, and notably in Canada, where
very cheap water power is abundant, there seems a
practical possibility of employing electrical methods of
heating. The Canadian Government has fully recognised
these chances and has subsidised attempts to seriously
test the commercial feasibility of electrical iron ore
reduction.
Briefly stated, the advantages upon which the
electrical methods primarily rely are, firstly, the replace-
ment of a large proportion of the coke in the blast
furnace process by heat generated from electric energy,
and secondly, in the possibility, in furnaces of relatively
simple construction, of attaining higher thermal efficien-
cies than can be attained without the use of very costly
auxiliary plant.
It is well known that the heat efficiency from fuel is as
low as 2 3 % in the case of direct heating in forge
furnaces, and is from 5 to 10% in apparatus where the
heating is effected through refractory walls, as in crucible
furnaces, and is from 10 20% in cupola furnaces of
medium height, while maxima of 30, 50, and 70 % are
attained in blast furnaces and those of very large dimen-
sions. This low efficiency is due in a large degree to
the fact that the products of combustion are greatly
diluted with the nitrogen of the air which absorbs large
quantities of the heat liberated by the combustion, thus
lowering the effective temperature. Furnaces of large
dimensions are thus necessitated and consequently the
heat losses through radiation from the walls, and by
convection are greatly increased. It is obvious how the
utilisation of heat developed by the transformation of
IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION 67
electrical energy into thermal energy reduces all these
sources of loss.
In considering fuel heating, it must also be remem-
bered that in many metallurgical operations it is neces-
sary to employ fuels, such as coke, which have been
treated and hence are more expensive than the original
coal. Furthermore, in most cases carbon is not only a
source of heat, but also directly or indirectly a reducing
agent, and it is not possible to determine exactly the
quantity of carbon strictly necessary to furnish heat for
the reduction of the ore and that which plays the role of
reducing material, hence an excess of carbon is always
added, which in part, is absorbed by the metal it reduces,
while the other part causes reduction of other bodies
accompanying the mineral. Thus a metal is obtained
more or less rich in carbon and containing other metals
and metalloids resulting from the reduction of impuri-
ties. Impurities are also introduced by the fuel and
even from the air necessary to cause the combustion,
and these have a harmful effect on the success of the
operation.
The Blast Furnace, though it has been brought to
such a state of perfection through many years of
development, still possesses many disadvantages such
as result from the employment of large units, viz., the
large first cost, large expenses through breakdowns and
the difficulty of repairing, also the difficulty in correcting
wrong composition of charges. Further, the nitrogen
which is present in the blast of these furnaces has a
deleterious effect, imparting brittleness to the iron.
Comparing the relative economies of the Blast
Furnace and the Electric Furnace, according to the
report of the Canadian Commission, when electrical
energy costs 2 a H.P. year and coke i. 8s. a ton,
the cost of production of cast iron will be the same in
the blast furnace as in the electric furnace.
68
IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION
Heroult Steel Process.*
The electric furnace method of preparing steel devised
by Dr. P. L. T. Heroult, was brought into operation at
the Socie"te Electrometallurgie Franaise de Froges, and
since 1902 a series of carbon steels of the best quality
have here been manufactured.
Other installations of the Heroult process in operation
are as tabulated below :
Place
La Praz
Kortf ors . . .
Syracuse . . .
Remscheid...
Sault du Tarn ...
Baird, California
Austria
Tudenburg . . .
Kapfenberg . . .
Switzerland
Schaff ban sen...
Capacity of Approx.
Furnace. Daily
tons output
3
Power
Kw.
Power Expended
per ton
72
5
40
3
3
300 6001000 K.W.H.
Starting with cold raw
materials.
450
500
300 180 360 K.W.H.
when the first part of
treatment is effected in
gas-fire furnaces.
In the Heroult furnace the heat is produced in part by
the formation of an electric arc above the metal, though
principally by the resistance the slag offers to the
current. The slag is therefore very hot and active and
well suited for the purification of impure metal. The
temperature below the arc is very high and the chemical
action of purification increases in proportion to the higher
*R. S. Hutton. "The Electric Furnace and its application to the
Metallurgy of Iron and Steel." Engineering (Dec. 7th, 1906), vol.
Ixxxii, p. 779.
IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION 69
temperature. The heat in the furnace can be regulated
at will, but is usually no higher than in the Martin
Furnace. The action of the arc creates a very rapid
circulation in the bath and slag, the purification is in
consequence very quick and energetic, and a steel con-
taining less than o'oi % phosphorus can be produced
regularly from the cheapest and most impure raw
material. The elimination of the sulphur does not take
place at this stage, but is brought about by employing an
extremely basic slag. The sulphur contents can, in all
cases, be brought down to below '015%.
In practice, the slags are found to contain calcium
carbide which is an indication of the absence of any
oxidation. On adding manganese ore, the whole of the
manganese for this reason is taken up by the metal
without any loss ensuing through oxidation.
At present the most successful development of these
methods is at large steel works, where electric furnace
processes are used in conjunction with the older
methods, and electrical heating is used to supplement
ordinary furnace heating. In these so-called " Mixed
Processes " the iron first receives a preliminary treat-
ment in the open hearth furnace and from here is poured
in the molten condition into a Heroult Furnace to be
there subjected to a further and more complete purifi-
cation .
This method of treatment is especially advantageous
for the preparation of alloy steels, as, by avoiding
oxidation a large saving in the amount of ferro-alloys to
be added results.
In the case of these steels a more homogenous product
is said to result from the use of this final electrical heat
treatment than with the older methods.
The German works at Remscheid, Germany, operate
the Heroult furnace in combination with the Basic Open
Hearth Furnace. Only common pig and scrap is used
and dephosphorised in the Basic furnace, the hot metal
70 IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION
being transferred to the electric furnace for refining.
The time necessary to eliminate sulphur, deoxidise,
carburize and to add any metal alloys if required, does
not exceed two hours. By this means the best grades
of tool steel and any special steels of high quality can be
produced economically.
The Heroult Process in America.
A Heroult furnace has been erected at the works of
the Halcombe Steel Co. at Syracuse, N.Y. This is a
six ton furnace treating a molten charge in two hours.
The process has ceased operations temporarily on
account of some litigation. A plant for the electric
smelting of iron ores by the He"roult process has been
erected at Baird, Shasta County, California, near exten-
sive magnetite deposits and water power. This plant is
being worked by the Northern California Power Co.
Mr. H. H. Noble, in conjunction with the Shasta Iron
Co. is taking an interest in the work. This plant was
started in 1906, and has been of the capacity of 40 tons
of pig iron daily. It is now being contemplated to
enlarge to 600 tons daily capacity.
The magnetite ores of Shasta County contain 68 70%
iron with little impurity, and are found in conjunction
with limestone, which can be used for smelting purposes.
Charcoal is used as a reducing agent. Electric energy
is obtained from the Northern California Power Co. at
the rate of $12 per H.P. year, and in the form of three
phase current at 60 cycles and 22,000 volts pressure.
The furnace is elliptical in form and has three vertical
carbon electrodes and a neutral electrode formed by the
bottom of the furnace. It is estimated that the ore can
be converted into pig iron and the latter delivered in
San Francisco at a cost of from $15 $18 per ton,
whereas imported pig iron is now selling in that city for
$30 $35 per ton.
IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION 71
The Heroult Process in Canada.*
In December, 1903, a Commission, appointed by the
Canadian Government, proceeded to Europe to investi-
gate the different electrothermic processes for the
smelting of iron ores and the making of steel in Europe.
Experiments were conducted and witnessed by the
Commission at La Praz, the works of Dr. P. Heroult,
and at the works of Keller, Leleux and Co. at Livet in
France.
The trials undertaken at the latter works consisted in
the reduction of hematite, which had a very low sulphur
content. The results showed that a satisfactory yield of
iron could be produced with a mean power expenditure
of "35 E.H.P. year per ton of metal. To satisfy the
special Canadian requirements, it still remained to be
ascertained (i) If magnetite, the chief Canadian ore, and
iron ores with high sulphur content, could be success-
fully and economically treated by the electro-thermic
process, and if charcoal or peat coke, which constitute
Canadian products, could be substituted for ordinary
coke in the smelting process. An experimental investi-
gation of this subject was, at the beginning of 1907,
authorized by the Government, and a sum of .3,000
granted for the purpose.
The work was carried on at Sault Ste Marie, Ont., at
the works of the Lake Superior Power Co., and with
their co-operation. Sault Ste Marie, through its position
on Lake Superior, is, as already described, specially
accessible to the iron ore deposit of that district, and
should prove a very important centre for future electric
smelting industries.
The furnace used in these trials consisted of an iron
casing, lined with carbon paste, the bottom being
connected with one pole. The electrodes used were
* "Eeport on the Experiments made at Sault Ste Marie, Ontario, under
Government auspices, in the smelting of Canadian iron ores by the
Electro-thermic process." Dr. Eugene Haanel, Ottawa, 1907.
72 IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION
imported from Sweden, being manufactured by the
He"roult process, and of dimensions i6in. x i6in. x6ft.
long. The electrode, with its holder, was supported
by a chain passing over a pulley and operated
by a worm wheel. Means were adopted to utilise
the calorific power of the carbon monoxide developed
through the reduction of the ore. For- this purpose, an
air pipe, provided with holes, was inserted two feet below
. the top of the furnace, by means of which air for the
combustion of the carbon monoxide could be passed in.
It was afterwards found however, that the heat developed
by this means was so great that the charge in the upper
part of the furnace became fused and would not descend
into the crucible ; also rapid consumption of the
electrode resulted.
The furnace charge was made up of ore crushed into
small pieces and mixed with limestone and carbon. The
carbon used was in the form of briquettes, consisting of
a mixture of 80 % coke dust and 20% fire clay.
Careful electrical measurements were made of the
volts, amperes, and the power factor. In a typical
experiment, the following results were obtained.
Composition of Charge.
Ore 200 Ibs.
Coke 60 Ibs.
Limestone 30 Ibs.
Length of run, i hour 40 mins.
Mean volts, 36'5. Mean amps., 4,500. E.H.P.,2,O23
Pig iron produced, 264 Ibs.
El. horse power year per ton of pig, o'292.
In subsequent experiments, the carbon lining on the
sides of the furnace was replaced by one of magnesite
fire bricks, in order to cause the current to pass through
the body of the charge.
Ores of high sulphur content could be successfully
treated by increasing the amount of lime in the charge.
IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION 73
Smelting of Magnetite.
It was expected that some difficulty would be encoun-
tered in the smelting of magnetite on account of its
conductivity preventing concentration of heat. In
presence of charcoal however, this difficulty was not
experienced nor was the inductance of the furnace
increased by the presence of magnetite. The use of
charcoal as a reducing agent was found to answer admir-
ably, though this was of very poor quality. The
charcoal was crushed and added to the charge in lumps
not greater than J in. diameter. With regard to the yield
of these experiments, under normal conditions about
ii '5 tons of pig iron were produced by an expenditure
of 1,000 electrical horse power days. With a properly
constructed plant on a larger scale this should reach
12 tons.
Cost of production of Pig Iron per ton according to
estimate of Heroult :
Ore at $1.50 per ton $2.70
Charcoal, | ton, at $6.00 3.00
Electric energy, amortization, etc 2.43
Labour i.oo
Limestone 0.20
18 Ibs. electrode at 2 cents Ib 0.36
General expenses i.oo
$10.69
Production of Ferro-Nickel Pig.
At the termination of the above experiments, the Lake
Superior Corporation purchased the Government plant,
and have since been employing it for the production of
ferro-nickel pig. Roasted pyrrhotite is taken for this
74 IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION
purpose (of about 2% sulphur content) and the following
charge used :
Roasted pyrrhotite (2% sulphur) 2 tons.
Limestone I >5 Iks-
Charcoal 1,200 Ibs.
Electrodes 40 Ibs.
The resulting ferro-nickel pig has the composition of
about 27% silicon, o'oi% sulphur, 0*03% phosphorous,
4% nickel, and '8% copper.
The first electric smelting plant in Canada for the
production of pig iron and of high grade steel is at
present under construction and located at Welland, Ont.,
on ground facing the Welland canal. This was first
erected by HeVoult as a demonstration plant, but
has now been taken over by a company who have
capitalised it to the extent of $1,500,000.
The first installation will consist of one 3,000 H.P.
furnace, which is expected to produce 35 40 tons of pig
iron per day. The power will be furnished by the
Ontario Power Co. of Niagara Falls. Negotiations are
said to be now on foot for the development of a large
water power at the Chats Falls, the cost of which is
estimated will be as low as i per H.P. year (p. 43).
The Induction Furnace.*
In furnaces of this type, the use of electrodes for intro-
ducing the current into the bath of steel has been
eliminated entirely, and the advantages claimed are that
the objectionable tendency for the introduction of car-
bonic oxide and impurities from the electrodes has been
obviated. The general principle on which these furnaces
*R. S. Hutton. Engineering (1906), vol. Ixxxii, p. 779.
* Electrochem. Ind. (1903), vol. i, p. 576; (1907), vol. v, p. 172.
EleJctrotechnische Zeitschrift, 1907, vol. xxviii, pp. 1051, 1084, 1108,
1124.
IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION 75
work is the arrangement of the bath of molten metal in
an annular ring crucible employing this as the secondary
circuit of an induced current. A quadrangular iron core
formed of thin insulated sheets of soft iron, is placed in
the centre of the circle and connected around the outside
of the crucible. Insulated copper wire or a water cooled
copper tube is wrapped around the arm of the core inside
the circle and serves as the primary coil for the alternat-
ing current. The current, when passing through this
coil, excites a magnetic flux in the core and this flux
induces an alternating electric current in the contents of
the furnace chamber. The arrangement is consequently
that of a step down transformer having a large number
of primary turns and a single secondary turn, the
secondary turn consisting of the steel in the furnace.
The current in the steel is thus about equal to that in the
primary circuit multiplied by the number of turns of
wire in the primary coil, and the voltage is of course
reduced in the same ratio as the number of amperes are
increased.
The advantages that this process possesses is the
saving of cost of carbon electrodes, which undergo con-
siderable consumption when employed for introducing
current. A uniform heating is effected, and the tem-
perature can be easily controlled and raised to any
degree, gases are completely eliminated, and by treat-
ment with a suitable slag, all impurities removed. This
furnace is very convenient for the introduction of the
current, enabling the application of a high tension
current without the use of transformers or copper cables
of large cross sections. A saving is also affected
through the avoiding of losses which follow the use of
large alternating currents, when applied directly to
resistance heating, on account of induction and through
a "skin" effect at the surface of the electrodes. Another
advantage of the induction furnace is that fluctuations
in the current do not occur as with other types.
76 IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION
The various uses to which induction furnaces have
been applied may be classified as follows:
(1) Steel preparation from cold cast iron and ore, the
latter being added in the quantity required to
oxidise the carbon.
(2) Steel preparations from molten cast iron direct
from the blast furnace and iron ore.
(3) Steel preparation from cold cast iron and scrap
steel.
(4) The above mixture, obtaining the molten cast iron
direct from the Blast furnace.
(5) Final refining of steel after treatment in a conver-
ter or in a Siemens Martin furnace.
The first attempt to apply the induction furnace in
industry was made by Ferranti in 1887, but on account
of the difficulties of obtaining the necessary electric
power, this scheme received no practical application.
In 1890, Colby took out a patent in America for an
induction furnace, and in 1899, Kjellin erected the first
furnace of this type for the preparation of steel at
Gysinge, which next year attained technical importance.
The first furnace had a capacity of 78 kilowatts, but was
not satisfactory from a commercial standpoint on account
of the cooling surface of the walls being too great in
comparison to the contents of the furnace, and the cost
of repairs being too high.
A second and larger plant was started in 1901, use
being made of a water power, and since then the process
has worked extremely well. This furnace contains two
tons of steel, half of which is drawn off at a time, the
remainder being left to keep the current flowing. The
output is four tons of steel ingots in 24 hours when
charged with cold materials, and the power expenditure
225 electrical H.P.
Current is generated at 3,000 volts and is transformed
by means of the primary coil and iron core of the furnace
into a current of about 30,000 amps, which passes
IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION
77
through the steel of the secondary circuit. The furnace
is charged with a mixture of pig iron, wrought iron, and
steel scrap in such proportions as to give the necessary
percentage of carbon, and, after heating to a proper
degree, the metal is drawn off by tapping through a hole
in the wall of the furnace. The product is of a very good
quality and is considered to contain less deleterious
matter than other steel.
Many modifications of the Kjellin furnace have been
devised in order to cause better circulation of the bath
and more intimate contact between the metal and slag.
In these, a portion of the metal circuit is usually nar-
rowed, or the current caused to pass through a layer of
slag in series with the metal.
In 1904, a company was formed in Stockholm to
negotiate the Kjellin patents, and this process was soon
adopted at the leading steel works in Europe.
The furnaces at present in operation are tabulated
w :
Country.
Power on
Place. Furnace.
Capacity of
Furnace.
K.W,
Kg.
Germany
Volklingen
750
8,500
,,
,,
400
3,000
i
,,
90
700
,,
Essen
750
8,500
,,
Gleiwitz
175
1,500
Luxemberg
Dommeldin
90
7OO
Austria
Kladno
440
4,000
j
Vocklabruck
65
400
Switzerland
Gurtnellen
330
3,800
Spain
Arayo
215
1,500
England
Sheffield
175
1,100
>f
London
60
100
Sweden
Gysinge
175
1,500
,,
Guldsmedhutte
750
8,500
United States
Philadelphia
60
100
Canada
Niagara Falls
150
800
60
100
78 IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION
The power consumption in these furnaces varies very
largely with the size of the unit and the nature of the
charge. Thus starting from cold cast iron and scrap
steel, a 10 K.W. unit will require 2,000 K.W. hours per
ton of steel, whereas with a 750 K.W. unit this is
reduced to 600 K.W. hours. Taking the metal in the
molten state to begin with, from 150 200 K.W. hours
suffice for the treatment in a furnace of the latter size.
Philadelphia*
An electric steel furnace of the Kjellin type and known
as the Colby furnace has been installed by C. J. Russell
at the Central Power Station of the Philadelphia Electric
Co. and has been in operation since 1906, being run as a
station load equaliser. This has a capacity of 200 H.P.
and current is supplied at 240 volts, single phase, 60
cycle. The primary winding of the furnace consists of
20 turns of copper tube, cooled by internal water circula-
tion and insulated by sectional layers of heat insulating
materials.
The secondary current is, at a maximum, 15,000 amps,
at 8'6 volts. The current consumption needed to melt
the charge averages about 28 K.W hours and a total of
36 K.W. hours (47 H.P. hours) per 100 pounds of steel
is required. Scrap steel and cast iron are treated in this
furnace. The duration of each treatment is about one
hour. This process has been very satisfactory, and it is
now proposed to instal a 5 ton furnace, working at 1,000
H.P.
The first cost of electric furnaces like the above is said
to be only from 20 25% of that of gas furnaces of
similar capacity, the cost of repairs is much less, and the
expenditure for crucibles said to amount to only 43. to
8s. as against 2 3 in the gas processes.
* Electrical Age (1906), vol. xxxvii, p. 353.
IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION 79
Stassano Steel Furnace *
Major E.Stassano, of Turin began, in 1898,3 study of
the question of the electro-thermic reduction of minerals
and particularly of iron ore, and has now devised and
erected an electric steel process at Turin in the Artillery
Construction Works on behalf of the Italian War Office.
The furnace is principally used for the refining of pig
iron and smelting of scrap. Three furnaces of 1,000
H.P., 200 H.P., and 100 H.P. capacity respectively
have now been erected.
The Stassano furnace is of cylindrical shape, and is
caused to rotate during the treatment. Heating is
effected by a set of three arcs arranged in the space above
the furnace charge. The electrodes are admitted through
double walled cylinders, issuing at a slight upward angle
from the furnace and fixed by supports. These cylinders
contain, support, and guide the carbon electrodes. The
carbons are connected by metallic strips to flexible cables
which are attached to the collector of the current placed
in the lower part of the furnace case. Between the
double walls of the cylinder water is circulated to keep
the contents cool. A three phase current is used and the
carbon electrodes are fed in by a hydraulic appliance.
The arc does not come into contact with the iron or slag,
and the consumption of the electrodes per ton of steel is
said to be only 5 kilos, while in the Heroult furnace it
rises to 18 kilos. The consumption of electric energy
varies from ri to 1*3 K.W. hours per kilo of steel pro-
duced. The rotation of the furnace enables the slag to
be expelled, without stopping the current, by opening
the tap hole when this is at at the lowest point. A
thorough mixing of the charge is also brought about by
the rotation.
*Journ. of Faraday Soc., 1906, vol. ii, p. 150. Report to 6th Inter-
national Congress of Chemistry at Rome, 1906, vol. ii, p. 362.
8o IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION
The furnace charge is usually made up as follows :
(1) 200 kilos of pig iron turnings mixed with sufficient
ore to supply the oxygen necessary for removing
the impurities of the pig iron, and with the
required proportion of lime for the slag.
(2) 200 300 kilos of iron and steel turnings.
(3) 200 100 kilos of iron and steel scrap.
(4) Ferro-silicon and ferro-manganese in the ordinary
proportion, to deoxidise the charge and to intro-
duce the required amount of manganese.
The product ordinarily made is steel to be used for
artillery projectiles. It is also being endeavoured to
apply the steel to the construction of miscellaneous
articles which need material of special quality, hence a
large variety of casting work is carried on at the works
at Turin.
Current is supplied from a Power Company at Turin,
being generated from water power. The cost of this is
about 45 frs. per H.P. year.
8i
CHAPTER VI.
OZONE AND WATER PURIFICATION.
THE application of ozone to the purification and sterili-
sation of water promises to be of the utmost value in
dealing with certain cases of contaminated water supplies
and as a means of preventing infection in localities where
plagues and epidemics are prevalent. Repeated experi-
ments have rendered it certain that ozone has very
powerful bactericide properties, and that water contain-
ing germs need only be exposed for a very brief interval
to the action of this gas in order to destroy all the less
hardy bacteria or render them incapable of further
development. It appears indeed that ozone acts in a
selective way and that the more virulent germs, those of
cholera and typhus bacilli are the first to be destroyed
and none but the harmless species are left.
Water passing through a common sand filter will be
deprived of a very large proportion of the micro-
organisms it may happen to contain before filtration, but
even the best filter beds fail to keep back these germs
entirely.
With regard to the economy of the process, it has been
demonstrated that the use of ozone compares most
favourably in point of cheapness and efficiency with all
other processes as a means of sterilising water. More-
over, this gas which consists solely of oxygen in a
condensed form has no injurious after effects, since, on
standing, it changes completely into oxygen, which
imparts freshness to the water.
82 WATER PURIFICATION
Ozone is best formed by exposing air to the action of
the silent electric discharge, which takes place between
two adjacent bodies when charged electrically to a high
potential. The formation of sparks is prevented by
introducing some form of resistance in the circuit. The
air must be kept as cool as possible during the period of
formation.
Three leading processes, which will be briefly sketched
here, are those of Siemens and Halske, Vosmaer, and the
Tindal and de Vrise. All of these are now in successful
industrial operation.
Siemens and Halske.*
The system of treatment adopted by Siemens and
Halske is carried out at Martinikenfelde, near Berlin,
at Wiesbaden, and at Paderborn. The plant at the
latter place was installed about 1903 and since then has
treated the whole town supply of water to the amount of
about 25,000 gallons per hour. The water is, in all cases,
passed downwards through towers 16 feet in height and
3 feet in diameter which are filled with broken stone or
coarse gravel, while the ozonised air travels upwards and
encounters the water trickling through the mass. The
undecomposed ozone escapes at the summit of the tower
and is conducted into a dryer, and, after further concen-
tration, it is again introduced into the towers.
At the Wiesbaden-Schierstein works, 125 cubic metres
of water are sterilised per hour. The engines are of 50
H.P. The ozoniser is constructed after the type of the
Siemen's tube apparatus, in which the discharge space
is formed by placing two cylinders concentrically one in
the other an outer glass cylinder serving as one, and an
inner metal cylinder as the other pole. The apparatus
consists of a cast iron case with three parts : a space
underneath for the reception of the air and its distribu-
* Times Engineering Supplement, Sept. 19th, 1906, p. 299).
WATER PURIFICATION 83
tion through the two contained ozonising tubes, a space
above for the collection of the ozonised air and a middle
compartment enclosed on all sides with the ozone tube
passing through. Water circulates through the middle
compartment and also inside the inner tube for the pur-
pose of cooling. This inner tube is connected with the
high tension current, of about 8,000 volts, and is care-
fully insulated. The outside case is connected to earth
thus enabling the apparatus to be touched without
danger Each cell is provided with a window at the side
so that when viewed in a well darkened room the blue
light of the silent discharge, which is an indication of
good working order, can be observed.
Each unit is of rectangular form, requires i H.P., and
yields from 13*5 27 gms. ozone per hour, according to
the dryness of the air and the rate of flow. In case of
interruption of the current or of the air supply, as is, for
instance, brought about by fracture of the glass cylinder,
an automatic device stops the flow of water in the tower
and indicates the faulty cell.
Vosmaer Process.
An experimental plant using this process was worked
for some time at Nieuwersluis on the river Vecht, near
Amsterdam. The capacity of the plant was 2 K.W.
and purified 300 gallons per hour. This process has now
been installed at Philadelphia by the "Water Improve-
ment Co." and brought to a higher state of efficiency.
It is expected that it will be adopted by the City for the
purification of 345,000,000 gallons daily; the estimated
cost of the installation being $700,000.
Ozone purification should prove of great value in
Philadelphia on account of the typhoid epidemics which
are at present so prevalent on account of the bad condi-
tion of the water. The advantage which the Vosmaer
system claims over the Siemens and Halske is that there
84 WATER PURIFICATION
are no solid dielectrics between the dischargers. The
brush discharge is produced between sharp pointed
combs and flat electrodes. The voltaic arc and spark
discharges are prevented by a special system of connec-
tions. By means of a step up transformer a potential of
5,000 volts is obtained. The current passes through a
high tension choking coil, and is connected with the
ozonising apparatus after being shunted by a condenser
which raises the effective E.M.F. to about 10,000 volts.
Air is drawn by means of an air pump through an
ammonia refrigerator and passed on in a dry state to the
ozoniser.
The ozonising apparatus consists of a number of light
copper tubes, each about 3 inches in diameter and 10
feet in length, the tubes being supported at either end in
headers (in the manner of an ordinary closed feed water
heater), the air discharge pipe from the drying tank
connecting with the header at one end of the ozoniser,
and the air suction pipe to the air pump with the opposite
header of the ozoniser. The pump compresses the air
to slightly above atmospheric pressure and delivers it in
the bottom of the stand-pipe distributing itself in minute
bubbles through the descending water.
In each tube there is a complete set of dischargers, one
flat, connected with the tube and earthed, and the other
comb shaped, separated from the flat one at a fixed
distance by insulating stems and forks made of
porcelain.
The water to be treated is pumped from the river, is
filtered and distributed to the tops of the sterilising
towers, flowing down these it meets with a stream
of ozonised air which goes in at the bottom. The towers
are about 15 inches in diameter and 35 feet high. The
ozone passes in at the bottom through a perforated plate
and the water flows out through a pipe at the side. By
maintaining sufficient pressure of air, the water cannot
pass through the perforated plate, this principle being
WATER PURIFICATION 85
the same as that made use of in the Bessemer converter.
The sterilising tower works continuously and on the
counter current principle.
Results of tests made on Vosmaer plant at Phila-
delphia. Average figures for 10 daily tests in Dec., 1905.
Organic Matter Quantity of Bacteria
in Solution. Water. before
Before. After. Gals, per hour. Ozonisation.
14-10 7-55 30,300 19*050
Bacteria B. Coli Electrical Rate per
after after Expenditure million gals.
Ozonisation. Ozonisation. K.W.Hrs. in K.W. Hrs.
29 o 57 1 88
A K.W. Hour costs l / s \ cent., so that at the higher
figure, the expenditure on electricity for Ozonisation is
less than an average of one dollar per million gallons
treated.
The cost of the Vosmaer process is calculated to be
$1.60 for power and about $0.60 for interest and depre-
ciation per million gallons treated. Negotiations are on
foot for installing this process for the purification of the
whole city supply of water at New York, Pittsburg, and
Niagara Falls, in addition to Philadelphia.
REFERENCE. Report of J. J. de Kinder. United Water Improvement
Co., Philadelphia.
Tyndall and de Vrise Process.
This process is in successful operation at Ginneken,
near Breda, Holland, and on a larger scale at Paris. It
was designed as an improvement on the Siemens and
Halske process in that the use of a glass or solid
dielectric is eliminated. Spark and arc discharges are
prevented by the introduction of a high resistance in the
circuit. For this purpose a series of narrow glass tubes
about 2 feet 6 inches high are filled with glycerine and
arranged vertically at intervals of a few cms. The
86 WATER PURIFICATION
current is led in at the top of these by a wire and passes
through the glycerine on to the electrodes. These con-
sist of semi-circular copper discs arranged side by side
in a containing horizontal copper trough, which is
earthed and provided with a glass top to insulate from
the leads, and to enable observation of the discharge.
The air, after being dried over lime, is passed through
this tube under reduced pressure. A potential of 50,000
volts is applied to the apparatus, this being transformed
from a 220 volt supply.
The ozonised air is then delivered to the water in the
sterilising towers. In the small plant at Ginneken, the
water to be treated is pumped from a stream and after
careful filtration is circulated through two towers from
bottom to top, in series, each tower being 26 metres in
height. The towers are fitted with perforated celluloid dia-
phragms, at intervals of about i metre. By this means
the gas is divided into small bubbles and intimate con-
tact with the water secured. The output of the plant
varies from 20 to 40 cubic metres (or 5,400 to 10,800
gallons) of water per hour, and the power expenditure is
as below :
Ozonisation takes 3^ K.W.
Air pumps take 2 2*5 K.W.
Water pumps take 3 K.W.
Ozone used per cubic metre of water.
Amount Amount used. Grams Ozone
available. ist Ster. 2nd Ster. per hour.
i '9 "85 '55 36
Watts in Watt hours for For air
Ozoniser. Ozone per M 3 . compress.
5,138 271 243
Total Watt hours Cms. Ozone
Water pumps, per cubic metre, per K.W. hour.
32 793 6-85
WATER PURIFICATION
Cubic metres ozonised
air per hour.
66'2
Cubic metres per hour
sterilised aq.
19
Chemical Analyses.
Amount of alkaline KMnO 4 decolourised, measured
in milligrams :
Filtered water, (i) 13-9, (2) 8-9.
Sterilised water (from one tower , (i) 10*3, (2) 9*8.
,, ,, after passing both towers, (1)9*1, (2)8*2.
Bacteria 1,100 2,240
Half pure 130 200
Pure 32 25
The object in installing the above plant at Ginneken
was to provide a supply of pure water to the town. The
enterprise is a private one, receiving some concessions
from the town and is said to be profitable. The water is
supplied to consumers at a fixed rate. Householders
pay at the rate of 6d. per cubic metre (220 gallons) and
cottages are supplied at a fixed charge of 2d. per week.
The work adjoins the town power station, and the
process is run during the period of low demand of power
for lighting purposes.
COMPUTED COSTS OF
Hourly
Capacity
in gallons.
5-2
Process.
Tindal and de
Vrise, Holland
de Vrise, Paris
Siemens and
Halske
Schierstein
Paderborn
Martinekenfield
Vosmaer
Nieuversluis 4,5006,500 11
Philadelphia
Demonstration
Plant 30,000
6,000
224,000
28,000
27,500
2,200
OPERATION OF OZONE PLANTS.
Estimated
cost per
Electrical million gallons
Yield expenditure water including
of Ozone K.W. hours Estimated interest
in gallons per million Capital on plant and
perE.H.P. gallons. Cost. depreciation.
1200
143
20,000
633
1327 10,000
606
188
2151-
5
4/31-
3/18/-
12/6 l/5/-
10/-
88
CHAPTER VII.
GOLD AND SILVER REFINING.
ELECTROLYTIC parting and refining of bullion are carried
out at the mints at Philadelphia, New York, and Denver,
and the process is also being installed at San Francisco,
in addition to being worked at the leading refineries (see
page 35).
The old chemical method of refining, which has now
been entirely superseded in the States by the electrolytic
process, consisted in alloying the gold with 2\ times its
weight of silver, and subjecting the mixture to the action
of nitric or sulphuric acid. The necessity of using such
large quantities of silver for the parting incurred a great
expense in the consumption of acid. Moreover, in the
United States at the present time, very little silver
reaches the Mints since most of the silver refining is
carried to a high degree in private plants ; consequently
for the old parting process it became necessary to make
special purchases of silver.
The processes in use at these Mints are briefly as
follows :
(i) Electrolytic parting process for gold and silver as
carried out at New York and Philadelphia. The
composition of the anodes is generally about 30 per cent,
gold, 60 per cent, silver, and 10 per cent, base metal.
The electrolyte employed consists of a solution of
3 per cent, nitric acid and 3 per cent, silver nitrate
to which a little gelatine is added. A thin silver
sheet serves as cathode, and receives a deposit of
silver in the form of fine crystals or nodules. A
current density of 7 amperes per square foot is used.
BULLION REFINING 89
The gold remains, behind as a hard, black brittle mass,
keeping the form of the anode ; and to ensure this
condition it is necessary that the gold content of the
anodes should not be less than 30 per cent. Copper
and other impurities pass into the electrolyte. A little
silver still remains with the gold at the end of the electro-
lysis, and is removed by treating the residue with boiling
sulphuric acid, or else the gold, which assays 98 per
cent., is melted together with a baser alloy to bring the
percentage of gold down to 94 per cent., and then is cast
into anodes for the gold refining process described below.
A parting process devised by Mcebius and Nobel is
worked at Monterey in Mexico.* The dore metal in this
case varies in gold content from 2 to 60 per cent., and the
amount of base metal from '8 to 1*5 per cent. The electro-
lysis is conducted in long shallow tanks, and an electrolyte
used which contains 2 to 5 per cent, silver, i to 2 per cent,
copper, '2 to i '5 per cent, lead, and '2 to i per cent, free
nitric acid. The cathode consists of an endless silver belt
which travels horizontally through the bath and on
which the silver is deposited in the form of loose crystals.
On emerging from the bath these crystals are brushed
off and collected in a receptacle. There is no anode
scrap, as the anode dissolves completely, except the gold.
The output of this plant is 32,150 ounces per 24 hours.
Another method of parting bullion electrolytically has
been devised by W. Thum, and is in use at the Balbach
refinery at Chrome, NJ. The dore bars are contained
in a cloth case which is supported on a wooden frame
suspended in the electrolyte. Electrical connection is
made by a silver contact piece which rests on the bullion.
The cathode consists of graphite slabs placed on the
bottom of the tank. Each tank has a cathode surface
of 8 square feet and a current density of 20 to 25 amperes
* A. G. Betts. Lead Refining by Electrolysis, p. 149.
90 BULLION REFINING
per square foot is used. The voltage averages 3'8 per
tank. Silver is deposited in a spongy form, while the
gold remains behind as a slime in the wooden frame.
The advantage of the electrolytic parting of bullion
is that the silver is freed from gold and tellurium in one
operation, enabling the deposited silver to be melted and
poured into bars without any further refining as in the
sulphuric acid process. The silver placed in the tanks
as anode is refined without any handling, whereas in the
acid method, the silver must be submitted to several
operations before it is in a condition to be melted.
Hence an electrolytic parting plant can be worked with
much more neatness and cleanliness than is possible with
acid parting.
(2) Gold refining process. The electrolytic process
now in use was devised about 1878 by Dr. Emil Wohlwill
and is still worked under his direction at the Deutsche
Affinerie at Hamburg ; it was introduced into the United
States by Dr. D. K. Tuttle, of the Philadelphia Mint,
and with certain modifications, which he has found
advantageous, is now worked in that country on a
relatively large scale.
The chief disadvantage of the electrolytic process lay
in the slowness of the process in comparison with the
acid parting methods, by the latter it is possible to
obtain from bullion the whole content of gold in the
refined state within 24 hours.
By working with a higher current density Dr. Tuttle
has been able to increase the speed of the electrolytic
process so that, at the present time, it is possible to
obtain from 80 to 90 per cent, of the gold in the refined
form within 24 hours.
An electrolyte of chloride of gold and hydrochloric
acid solution is taken and the bath maintained at 50-
55C. By keeping sufficient acid in the bath and the
correct temperature no evolution of chlorine occurs at the
anode. A current density of about 10 amperes per sq.
BULLION REFINING 91
decimeter and a potential difference of o'8 per volt per
cell is employed.
Pure gold is deposited on the cathode, copper and
platinum pass into solution and silver, iridium and
osmium-iridium, if present, remain on the anode or fall
to the bottom of the vat as anode slime. The recovery
of platinum, though only present in small quantities, is
thus made quite easy, as it accumulates in the electrolyte
and, when sufficiently concentrated, can be precipitated
with potassium chloride.
The anodes are, in the latest arrangement, suspended
in the bath by platinum hooks, thus completely sub-
merging the gold.
The cells are arranged in sets of six, which are
electrically in series ; each cell containing four anodes
and the same number of cathodes in parallel arrangement
and placed longtitudinally. The leads consist of gold
wires, the same wire which is connected to the cathode in
one cell is continued and acts as positive lead to the next
cell. In this way all soldered joints are avoided. The
same electrolyte can be made to serve for about two
months by replenishing from time to time with concen-
trated chloride of gold.
A little gelatine is added to the electrolyte to cause
smoothness of deposit.
The total capacity of the gold refining plant at
Philadelphia is 48,000 oz. a week and a current of
1,500 amperes at 15 volts is used. A new cell room
is now being fitted up as a further extension.
At New York these processes are worked in a similar
manner, the output being 22,000 oz. of gold weekly, and
the current consumption said to be 150 amps, at 14 volts.
REFERENCES. Electrockem. 2nd., 1903, vol. i, p. 157.
1904, vol. ii, p. 221261.
1906, vol. iv, p. 306.
H
CHAPTER VIII.
ELECTRICAL MANUFACTURE OF CARBON
BISULPHIDE.
THE commercial application of the electric current for
heating purposes is by no means limited to such high
temperatures as exceed the range obtainable with
ordinary fuel combustion.
Electrical heating has already found successful applica-
tions in carrying out chemical processes which were
hitherto conducted with the aid of external heat from
some combustible fuel. The advantages of the electric
current in this field lie chiefly in the possibilities of
generating the heat just where it is required and in the
facility of regulating the temperature.
The efficiency of fuel heating processes in which the
heat has usually to penetrate a furnace lining and a
considerable thickness of material, is in many cases very
low. In electro-thermal processes, on the other hand,
heat is generated in the body of the material which is to
undergo chemical change, being led there without any
appreciable loss of power, in the form of the electric
current. Hence, by suitable outside insulation, the heat
losses through radiation may, in practice, be reduced to
a very low value, or the heat may be almost completely
utilised in raising the temperature of the raw material to
the degree necessary for the subsequent reaction. Again,
in chemical processes which take place at a high
temperature, and which absorb a large amount of heat,
if the heat is provided from a source only slightly above
the critical temperature of reaction, then only a small
proportion of the energy supplied can be utilised in the
CARBON BISULPHIDE 93
chemical change, whereas, with electric heating, the
conditions can be made much more favourable.
The manufacture of carbon disulphide is an instance
of the successful application of the electric furnace to a
process which was formerly carried out with fuel heating,
the temperature of the reaction being well within the
limits of such heating. This substance is formed by the
action of coke or carbon on sulphur at a red heat, and
was formerly prepared by heating these materials together
in small retorts and condensing the carbon disulphide as
it distilled off.
The manufacture on a large scale involved the
multiplication of retorts, as these necessarily had to
remain limited in size, on account of the difficulty of
causing the heat to penetrate. The shells are also easily
destroyed by the heat; and their replacement and the
constant attention required by a large number of retorts
involved great expense.
The electric furnace process of manufacturing carbon
disulphide was designed by E. R. Taylor and installed
by him at Penn Yann, N.Y. This is the largest electric
furnace at present in use, being some 30 40 feet high,
and is of stack form, the diameter decreasing slightly
towards the bottom. The raw materials are charcoal and
sulphur, the latter fuses and remains at the bottom
extending as far up as the electrodes. The current is led
in by short carbon bars (the amorphous variety), which
pass through closure plates and packing glands, and
inside these are connected with a layer of broken pieces
of carbon or coke to serve as a resistance, which becomes
heated by the passage of the electric current. The whole
body of the furnace is filled with charcoal. In the path
of the current a very hot zone is formed surrounded by
regions of gradually decreasing temperature. Volatilisa-
tion of the sulphur occurs and the vapour traverses the
heated carbon, and in ascending, eventually finds a
region in which the temperature is most favourable for
94 CARBON BISULPHIDE
the formation of the carbon disulphide, which then passes
off as a gas. On the outside of the stack of charcoal
there is a narrow annular space filled with sulphur.
Heat, which tends to radiate away, is here employed in
melting the sulphur, causing it to flow into the compart-
ment underneath. The control of this furnace is quite
automatic, as if the heat becomes too intense, more
sulphur melts and rising up around the electrode surface
cuts down the current on account of its insulating
properties. Consequently the only labour involved in
running this furnace is that of feeding the stacks
periodically with sulphur and carbon, and a run of a
year's duration without any other attention is usually
possible.
The furnaces work with about 400 amps, at from 50
to 70 volts, 4 phase alternating current, amounting to a
power of 250 H.P.
To condense the carbon disulphide, the furnace gases
are passed through a row of tubes, arranged vertically
in a cylinder through which water circulates, and any gas
still uncondensed is next passed over charcoal and thus
absorbed. For this purpose, use is made of the charcoal
which is later to be employed in the furnace, and the gas
is passed over it while it is undergoing a drying treat-
ment by heating. Some sulphuretted hydrogen is
liberated in this operation on account of the presence of
water. Means are now being considered of absorbing
this gas with iron oxide.
The plant at Penn Yann is ideally situated, having,
on one side a water power, and on the other a railway
siding. A fall of 32 feet in the river is available, and
the water is led from the reservoir above through a steel
flume 8 feet in diameter and 50 feet long to the turbines.
The electric current is supplied by two 330 kilowatt,
two-phase, Stanley induction generators, which, at the
present time, only run at about half their rated capacity.
Three furnaces have been built, but only one is run at a
CARBON BISULPHIDE 95
time. An output of 8,000 pounds is produced per 24
hours. Mr. Taylor considers there is no limit to the size
of the furnace possible, and that still greater economy
would be achieved when working on a larger scale.
The carbon disulphide is loaded directly into special
cylindrical tank cars, brought along the railway siding,
the liquid being delivered through a short pipe line to the
car.
Carbon disulphide is a liquid which now finds
considerable application in industry as a solvent of rubber
and sulphur and on account of its property of
destroying bacterial and other noxious forms of life, and
latterly it is being employed as an ingredient in the
manufacture of artificial silk (Viscose). The electric
furnace process may be looked upon as a decided advance
in the manufacture of this material. With this method
of manufacture no escaping fumes of any kind are
apparent, in spite of the objectionable odour of the liquid
and its dangerous inflammatory properties, and the
amount of labour is certainly reduced to a minimum, as
the whole installation only requires the attention of two
or three men during the day and one or two during the
night.
This plant supplies the whole demand of the States
for carbon disulphide.
CHAPTER IX.
ELECTRO-CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES IN THE
ALPS, FRANCE, AND BELGIUM.
THE French Alps contain a large number of hydro-
electrical installations, most of which have been applied
to electro-chemical enterprises. Developments of water
powers from falls in this district, and also in the Pyrenees
are increasing very rapidly.
According to the Report of the British Consul at
Lyons, the water power used for the various chemical
industries in 1906 amounted in the aggregate to
100,000 H.P., whilst, according to Girod, the power used
in France in 1906 for the production of ferro-alloys
amounted to 50,000 H.P., and the value of the yearly
output was ; i, 200,000.
The production of aluminium in South-Eastern France
has made rapid strides, having risen from 1,647 metric
tons in 1904 to 1,905 metric tons in 1905, whilst in 1906
the export increased by over 50 per cent, as compared
with the previous year (vide p. 30). The extraction of
bauxite, the raw material of aluminium, also rose from
75,000 metric tons in 1905 to 103,000 in 1906.
Valley of Arc.*
At Modane there is a fall of 7 metres on the Arc and
one of 135 metres, giving 400 H.P., on the Charmaix
River. These two falls are utilised by paper works,
which, however, have recently been destroyed by the
flooding of the Charmaix River.
On the way from Modane to La Praz there are two
* Journal cT Electrolyse, Aug. and Sept., 1906, Nos. 240-243.
ALPS AND FRANCE 97
falls. The first is 33 metres high and is led through a
pipe 2 kilometres long and 2 metres in diameter. The
second is 75 metres high. These are used by the
Societe Electrometallurgique franaise for the production
of aluminium and steel. This company also owns the
Bissorte Falls, which have a capacity of 10,000 H.P.,
and which will probably soon be developed.
About a mile below La Praz, the "Societe d'Electro-
chemie " has a chlorate works and makes use of a water
power providing 4,000 H.P.
Still lower down, the Arc widens into a lake which
serves as the intake of another power station, at the
village of Saussaz. The fall is here 75 metres, and
provides a total power of 15,000 H.P. This is also
owned by the Societe Electrometallurgique francaise, the
power being employed in a second large aluminium
works.
At St. Michel de Maurienne there is another fall of
22 metres awaiting development, and the rights of this
belong to works in Grenoble.
Further on, at Calypso, the Arc is joined by the
Valloirette, and two falls here furnish power to the
amount of 11,000 H.P., which is used by an aluminium
works belonging to the " Societe des produits chimiques
d'Alais et de la Camargue." These works contain
10 centrifugal turbines, each of 1,400 H.P., working at
400 revolutions and connected with dynamos of
1,000 K.W. These works were originally erected for
the manufacture of calcium carbide, and, in the future,
if the demand for aluminium slackens, the production
of ferro-alloys and steel will doubtless be undertaken.
At St. Julien, a dam is being constructed and a further
power on the river is being developed to the amount of
7,500 H.P. under considerable engineering difficulties,
and at a cost of more than a million francs. This is
being worked by the Societe des Produits chimiques
d'Alais " at St. Jean de Maurienne. There are thus, in
9 8 ALPS AND FRANCE
all, five aluminium works in the valley of the Arc and
one chlorate works in addition to several other electro-
chemical plants.
Societe Electrometallurgique Fran false.
This important company works the processes of Dr.
P. Heroult and possesses several works. At Froges and
at Champ (Isere), at La Praz and at St. Michel de
Maurienne (Savoy) and at Gardanne (Bouches du
Rhone). The works at La Praz utilise about 13,000 H.P.
developed from water power, and that of St. Michel de
Maurienne about 17,000 H.P. The company manufac-
tures aluminium and also steel, and in addition ferro-
chrome, ferro-silicon and other ferro-alloys.
The steel is prepared in shallow furnaces which are
provided with a spout and can be tipped. Two carbon
electrodes pass through the arched roof, and the furnace
is supplied with direct or alternating current which enters
by one of the electrodes, passes through the metal bath
through the layer of slag and along to the other
electrode.
The process of manufacture consists in taking a
mixture of cast iron and scrap steel and iron ore, together
with a suitable slag whereby the bath is decarburised.
When the oxidation is finished the slag is removed and
replaced by another of lime or fluor spar ; this operation
is repeated as many times as is necessary for complete
purification. The metal is then recarburised to the
necessary degree by plunging the electrodes in the bath,
or else by adding " carburite." The process is finished
by the addition of ferro-silicon, chromium, manganese,
etc., according to the type of steel required. The
consumption of energy in the trials made by the
Canadian Commission starting with cold raw materials
amounted to from 720 to 1,100 K.W. hours per ton of
ALPS AND FRANCE 99
steel. The number of operations may be as many as
three every 24 hours. The cost of the process amounts
to from 29 to 38 francs per ton of refined steel, and
is made up as follows :
Electrodes, i franc; repairs, 7 francs; slags and
materials added, 3 francs ; power, 18 27 francs according
to the quality of steel. The cost of power is calculated
on a basis of 2*5 centimes per K.W. hour.
Girod Ferro- Alloy Works.*
This company, known as the Societe anonyme Electro-
metallurgique, has at present three important works, at
Ugine in Savoie, at Courtepin, and at Montbovon in
Switzerland. A total of 18,000 H.P. is in use, and
harnessing of further power, which is now progressing,
will soon render available some 45,000 H.P. In 1898
M. Paul Girod devised a process for the production of
high grade ferro-alloys, and in 1899 started a works
employing 1,000 H.P. at Albertville.
This work was soon extended on a much larger scale,
the great success which followed, being due in a large
measure, to the development of high speed tool steels
and other special steels.
In 1903, the works at Courtepin were started with
i, 800 H.P., the power being obtained at 16,000 volts
from the Fribourg Cantonal Government.
In the same year the water rights of the falls of the
Arly were purchased, and the installation of the power
plant of 8,500 H.P. at Ugine was completed and made
available for use within a year.
The furnaces at Ugine are of the " smothered arc "
type, provided with automatic regulation and equipment
necessary for continuous working.
* R. S. Hutton. " The Girod Ferro-alloy Works and the New Girod
Steel Furnace." Ehctrochem. and Metall. Ind. (1907), vol. v, p. 9.
loo ALPS AND FRANCE
The present annual output of the three installations
may be summarised as follows :
5,000 tons fern>silicon (50 per cent, silicon).
1,000 tons ,, (30 ,, silicon).
2,000 tons ferno-chromium.
800 900 tons ferro-tungsten.
About 50 tons ferro-molybdenum.
5 10 tons ferro- vanadium.
Other metals produced and put on sale are pure
vanadium, titanium and ferro-titanium, ferro-manganese,
cupro- and nickel-vanadium, silico-chromium, silico-
manganese, ferro-boron, ferro-tantalum, ferro-uranium,
cupro-silicon, etc. The total value of the alloys sold at the
present time is equivalent to over 9,000,000 francs per
annum. The company specialises largely in high grade
alloys of low carbon content.
A copper vanadium alloy was exhibited by this
company at Liege in 1905. This is prepared in large
quantities, and used in the manufacture of articles needed
for artillery purposes.
Ferro-chromium is made of very varying composition
according to the use to which it is to be applied. For
iron sheathing and projectiles an alloy of 65 per cent,
chromium, 8 to 10 per cent, carbon, and 2 to 6 per cent,
silicon is taken. For crucible tool steels an alloy w r ith a
lower percentage of carbon, viz., from 4 to less than i
per cent, is taken. This latter kind is so soft as to be
almost forgeable.
The percentage of sulphur is always less than '03 per
cent.
With regard to the ferro-tungsten, this is made in two
grades. The one containing about 85 per cent, tungsten
and a maximum of 0*5 per cent, carbon, is chiefly
employed in the manufacture of crucible tool steel. The
other quality, containing 60 to 70 per cent, tungsten and
2 to 3 per cent, carbon, is largely used in the preparation,
ALPS AND FRANCE 101
by the open hearth process, of steels containing less than
2'5 per cent, tungsten, which are used for the manufac-
ture of springs, etc.
It has been shown by repeated trials that steels made
with ferro-tungsten are more economical and also of a
more uniform quality than those made of tungsten
powder. The ferro-alloy is, moreover, in a more
convenient form for introducing into the steel than pure
tungsten.
The ferro-tungsten is sold on the basis of pure
tungsten, and the selling price is about 20 per cent, less
than that of tungsten powder.
Ferro-Alloy Works of Keller, Leleux and Co*
This company has two works, one at Kerrouse
(Morbihan), and the other at Livet (Isere). The works
at Livet makes use of a total power of 15,000 H.P.,
furnished by a fall of water 60 metres in height, and the
works at Kerousse uses a fall of 2\ metres, generating
600 H.P.
The monthly output of the two works amounts to
250 tons of ferro-silicon containing from 25 to 75 per
cent, silicon, 150 tons of silico-spiegel, 80 tons of ferro-
chromium, and some ferro-tungsten.
Manganese alloys containing 38 to 40 per cent,
manganese, and 22 to 24 per cent, silicon are also
prepared.
Ferro-chromium alloy is produced to the extent of
80 tons per month, and ferro-tungsten is prepared at
intervals, the total production of the two works amount-
ing to about 100 tons per month. This company has
also engaged largely in the production of iron and steel.
* Bulletin de la Societe Beige cTElectricie'ns (1905), vol. xxii, p. 645.
102 ALPS AND FRANCE
The hydroelectric equipment at Livet includes three
types of machines :
(a) Low tension, 5 groups monophase generators of
i ,200 H .P. Neyret turbines and Thury alternators.
(b) High tension, 3 groups of three phase machines of
2,700 H.P. (Bouvier turbines, Brown-Boveri
alternators).
(c) Direct current, 4 generators of 150 H.P. to supply
the motors and accessories of the works.
The low tension current is led directly to the Keller
furnaces, which are of the resistance type. The furnaces
have each a capacity of 1,200 H.P., and make a melt
of ferro-alloy of 500 kilos, each two hours. The high
tension current supplies, by means of transformers, three
furnaces of a total capacity of 1,500 kilowatts, which
furnish a daily output of 12 melts each of 1*2 tons.
A model of a furnace of the multiple type was exhibited
at the Liege Exhibition in 1905. This furnace
consists of four columns which are in electrical
connection by means of a crucible placed at the
base. This crucible also serves to collect the molten
metal as it forms. The tall columns are filled with
the charge to be smelted, which here surrounds the
carbon electrodes. Two electrodes are joined in parallel
forming two groups, and the current is caused to pass
from one group through the charge in the furnace and
that in the crucible underneath, to the other group of
two.
The furnace works continuously, and the electrodes
last about a month, and can be quickly replaced without
disturbing the process.
The works at Livet do not engage in the manufacture
of cast-iron except on an experimental scale.
Societe d'Electro-Chimie.
This company possesses important works at St. Michel
de Maurienne, and at Vallorbes, and engages principally
ALPS AND FRANCE 103
in the production of chlorates of sodium and potassium,
The annual output is about 1,500 tons.
The Societe d'Electro-chemie also prepares sodium
peroxide to the amount of 200 tons a year. This is
obtained by passing a current of air over sodium
contained in a platinum tube which is heated electrically.
Sodium peroxide finds application in the bleaching of
linen and wool. By compressing this peroxide with a
salt of copper, a product known as " oxylith " is
obtained. This is used for the preparation of oxygen,
which is evolved on contact with water.
" Societe Anonyme des Forces Motrices et U sines de
I'Arve."
The works of this company are situated at Chedde
(High Savoy), the manufacture of alkali chlorates being
engaged in. Energy to the extent of 13,000 H.P. is
consumed for this purpose and is obtained from a water
power. In 1904 the output amounted to 4,030,000 kilos.
" Le Carbone " Company of Levallois Ferret, France.
This company prepares all kinds of carbon for electrical
purposes, such as lighting carbons, carbons for micro-
phones, for electrodes in electro-chemical and electro-
metallurgical work, and battery carbons. Machines are
in use which enable the construction of carbon articles
in all shapes. For these purposes, amorphous carbon,
such as gas coke, is ground to a fine powder, mixed with
a little binding material, such as tar, pressed in a
hydraulic press or squirted through dies, and then baked
in a furnace, whereby a solid agglomerated mass results
(compare page 21). For some purposes, such as for
electrodes, the carbon articles are heated to a much
higher temperature and graphitised.
The graphitising furnaces are of the form designed by
Girard and Street, and consist essentially of a closed
104 BELGIUM
chamber, through which the carbon articles are slowly
drawn by means of rollers and caused to pass through an
electric arc, which plays inside the chamber between two
transverse electrodes.
In this apparatus the power consumption is found to
be 7*36 kilowatt hours per kilogram of carbon trans-
formed.
The Carbone Company possesses three works, at
Levallois-Perret (Seine), at Notre Dame de Briancon
(Savoy) and at Frankfort-on-Main.
These three works employ a total motive power of
750 H.P., of which 500 H.P. are derived from water.
ELECTRO-CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES IN BELGIUM.
Electrolysis of Water " La Societe Oxyhydrique."
Some 20 processes for preparing hydrogen and oxygen
by the electrolysis of water have been patented, and
some of these have been brought into industrial
operation.
The one which is most widely in use at the present day
is the apparatus of Garuti which was brought out in
1893, an d which has undergone several modifications.
Garuti introduced the use of metallic plates as
partitions between the anode and cathode compart-
ments. Previously their use had been avoided on
account of the risk of their acting as bipolar (inter-
mediate) electrodes, and evolving hydrogen on the side
towards the anode, and oxygen in the cathode depart-
ment. Diaphragms were consequently constructed of
linen, cotton, asbestos cloth, parchment paper or
vegetable fibres. The electrolytic decomposition of
water requires approximately 1*5 volts, consequently, if
a separating partition is to act as an intermediate
electrode, an E.M.F. of 3 volts will be necessary. By
raising the partition so as to allow the fluids to com-
municate by a passage underneath, electrolysis will begin
BELGIUM 105
at i'5 volts, and by keeping this below 3 volts there is no
possibility of the partition taking part in the electrolysis.
In the Garuti process, the electrolysing apparatus
consists of an iron rectangular box, open beneath, and
divided by metallic plates into long, narrow, divisions.
The electrodes are introduced into the chamber thus
formed by means of a wooden comb which serves at the
same time for insulating the electrodes from each other
and the metallic partition. The electrodes are placed
at a distance of 12 mm. from each other. The partitions
have a zone of fine perforations which, in the latest
modifications, are placed at the level of the middle of the
electrodes. The container is dipped into the electrolyte
in the manner of a gasometer bell. This holder is
provided with outlets for the gases and hydraulic seals to
prevent mixture of the gases by not allowing any increase
of pressure in the apparatus. The gases are led away
to a pump and compressed in steel bottles.
A current density of 2 amps, per square centimetre
and an E.M.F. of 2*45-3 volts is used and an electrolyte
of caustic soda, 21 Beaume, or caustic potash, 16-18
Beaume, is taken. The resulting hydrogen has a purity
of 98*5 per cent, to 98^9 per cent., and the oxygen 97
per cent.
" La Societe Oxyhydrique " was formed at Brussels
(Molenbeek) in 1896. At first difficulty was met with
on account of the small market for hydrogen and oxygen.
Attention was then turned to the designing of an
oxyhydrogen blowpipe which has now established itself
as a valuable implement in industrial work, being used
for working metals. Another new application found by
the company for oxygen is for the cutting of sheet iron,
which is brought about by local fusion.
The works at Brussels contain 100 Garuti elements,
which are mounted in series, and which consume 124
kilowatts, under a difference of potential of 240 volts.
The annual output is 140,000 cubic metres of hydrogen
io6 BELGIUM
and 70,000 cubic metres of oxygen. A second works is
now being erected at Sclessin. Other works using the
Garuti process are at Schiedam, Montbars, Lyons, Lille,
Lucerne, Thale, Paris and Rome.
The plant at Schiedam has a daily output of 360 cubic
metres of the mixed gases, 80 H. P. being consumed in the
electrolysis, and 20 H.P. in the compression of the gases.
In the installation at Rome, power is received at about
^3 per H.P. year, approximately Viod. per unit. This
corresponds to a cost of i'3d. per cubic metre of the
mixed gases. Allowing for depreciation of plant and
interest on capital, the cost has been estimated at 2^d.
per cubic metre of the mixed gases.
Hydrogen is obtained as a bye-product in electrolytic
processes for the production of alkali in which aqueous
solutions are used. In these processes large amounts of
this gas have hitherto been allowed to go to waste.
Latterly, however, methods of collecting it have been
adopted in some cases, the gas being led away and
compressed in steel cylinders. Some use has been found
for electrolytic hydrogen in Germany for balloons, the
high purity of the gas and its consequent lightness
making it specially suitable for this purpose.
Solvay Company.
The Solvay Company operates a process similar to the
Castner-Kellner for the electrolysis of salt solution and
production of chlorine and caustic soda.
A works has been erected at Jemeppe sur Sambre using
1,000 H.P. The purity of the caustic soda is said to be
very high, allowing it to compete with that obtained by
alcohol.
icy
CHAPTER X.
THE ELECTRICAL FIXATION OF ATMOS-
PHERIC NITROGEN*
THE question of the source of nitrate supplies in the near
future is a subject of great economic importance. Up to
the present the only known extensive deposits of nitre
are those of Chili, and, as the demand for this material
as a fertiliser is rapidly increasing in order to meet the
needs of a growing population, and on account of more
intensive cultivation of land generally, exhaustion of
these natural deposits at no distant date appears to be
inevitable.
The necessity of applying large quantities of nitrate
to the soil for agricultural purposes, to replace that which
is abstracted by the crops, is now generally recognised
by agriculturalists. It is estimated that in France alone
the quantity of nitrogen removed from the soil by the
crops annually amounts to 600,000 tons, whereas 230,000
tons of Chili saltpetre are yearly consumed to make up
the loss.
In consequence of this, the artificial production of
nitrates has suddenly gained a very important place
among technical problems.
It is to the atmosphere that attention has been turned
for the supply of nitrates in future, and, it is indeed
estimated that out of the air over each square mile of the
earth's surface, more saltpetre can be made than is to be
found in all Chili. The possibility of causing the union
of nitrogen and oxygen was first discovered by
*Kr. Birkeland. Trans. Faraday Society, vol. ii, p. 98 (Dec. 1906).
io8 NITROGEN FIXATION
Cavendish as early as 1785. These gases were found to
combine under the influence of the electric spark, yield-
ing oxides of nitrogen, which are readily transformed
into nitrates.
This method was made use of by Rayleigh as a means
of separating nitrogen from the atmosphere, in the
important work on the preparation of argon. 1 McDougal
and Howies 2 were the first to carefully work out the
industrial application of the electrical fixation of nitrogen.
By employing a high tension alternating arc in air they
succeeded, by a study of the necessary conditions, in
obtaining a yield of 300 grams nitric acid per 12 H.P.
hours, in this way combining 51 per cent, of the air
passed through their apparatus, whilst with a mixture of
two volumes oxygen to one volume of nitrogen the yield
rose to 590 grams per 12 H.P. hours.
This subject was next taken up with more favourable
results by Bradley and Lovejoy at Niagara Falls.*
The aim of all this work was to obtain electric arcs of
the greatest possible length so as to bring the arc in
contact with the maximum amount of air and also to
provide for sudden cooling, once the products of com-
bustion had formed.
In the apparatus employed by Bradley and Lovejoy a
rapid interruption of the arc was provided by means of
a rotating framework with projecting electrodes. These
approached a stationary set of projecting electrodes of
platinum at frequent intervals, and an arc was thus
formed, drawn out, and rapidly broken.
A wholesale synthetic production of nitric acid from
air was attempted by means of this apparatus of Bradley
and Lovejoy. A company known as the Atmospheric
1. Rayleigh. Journ. Chem. Soc., vol. Ixxi, p. 181 (1897).
2. McDougal and Howies. Manch. Lit. and Phil., vol. xliv, part 4,
No. 13, pp. 119 (1900). Hutton and Petavel. High Temp. Electro-
chemistry Inst. Electr. Engineers, Manchester Section, Nov. 25, 1902.
* Bradley and Lovejoy. Ehctrochem. 2nd. (1903), vol. i, pp. 20, 100.
NITROGEN FIXATION 109
Products Co. was formed, and a small trial factory built
at Niagara Falls. This undertaking did not meet with
success, however, probably on account of the apparatus
being rather complicated, and the cost of erection and
maintenance per kilowatt being disproportionately large.
Work on the formation of oxides of nitrogen was next
taken up with greater success by Birkelande and Eyde,
who introduced the use of a special form of high tension
flame obtained by placing an alternating current
arc equatorially between the poles of a powerful electro-
magnet. An electric disc flame is thus produced consist-
ing of a series of arcs, which follow one another in quick
succession, extend rapidly outwards in the form of a
circle, and finally break. The discharge has thus the
appearance of a completely luminous circular disc, and is
of a very high efficiency for the combustion of the
nitrogen. The electrodes consist of water cooled copper
tubes, placed about i cm. apart, the cooling effect of
which, as measured by experiment, causes a loss of only
about 7'5 per cent, of the electric energy.
In the Birkeland-Eyde process this alternating current
disc flame, which measures about 6J feet in diameter, is
enclosed in a special narrow furnace lined with fire-brick
and furnished with a metal casing.
This process is now in successful operation at the
Nottoden Saltpetre Manufactory, where a number of
these furnaces are in use, each employing 500 kilowatts
(670 H.P.).
These furnaces run quite automatically, and can be left
without attention for long intervals. Roaring of the
flame takes place when readjustment of the electrodes is
needed. A working potential of about 5,000 volts is
used, and variations in energy do not exceed 2-3 per cent.
Though the temperature of the flame is somewhere near
3,000, the fire-brick lining of the furnace does not rise
above 7ooC. during normal working on account of the"
cooling effect of the current of air.
no NITROGEN FIXATION
The products of the furnace consist of nitric oxide
mixed with a large excess of air. After cooling, the
nitric oxide combines with more oxygen from the air to
form nitrogen peroxide which unites with water to yield
nitric and nitrous acid.
An absorption system of stone towers is arranged to
condense the fumes. A solution of nitric acid of 50 per
cent, concentration is obtained in the first tower, and
more dilute acids in the others, the counter current system
of water circulation being adopted. The nitric acid
solution is neutralised by lime, and after evaporation to
dryness the calcium nitrate can be applied directly as a
fertiliser.
A solution of milk of lime is placed in the last absorb-
ing tower, and the acid absorbed in this forms a mixture
of nitrate and nitrite. This is quite unsuitable for use a^
a fertiliser, and, in fact, is decomposed by nitric acid
from the other towers, and the gases are put back again
into the system.
A number of agricultural experiments have shown that
calcium nitrate is quite as good as the natural saltpetre
for fertilising purposes, and on sandy soil even superior
to it on account of the valuable properties of the lime.
As air contains a considerable excess of nitrogen above
that needed for the formation of nitrogen peroxide, it has
been proposed to enrich the reacting mixture by the
addition of an excess of oxygen. The increase of yield
obtained by using the theoretical amount of oxygen in
this manner is said to amount to 20 per cent. Oxygen
could probably be economically obtained from the
atmosphere by means of the Linde process.
According to O. N. Witt, the yield of the Birkeland-
Eyde process is between 500 and 600 kilogrammes of anhy-
drous nitric acid per kilowatt year (820 970 Ibs. per H.P.
year) ; whilst, according to Edstrom,* a yield of 950 kilos
per K.W. year has been reached with some furnaces.
* Trans. Amer. Electrochew . Soc. (1904), vol. vi, p. 25.
NITROGEN FIXATION in
A new factory is now being built at Notodden whicH
will receive power to the amount of 30,000 H.P. from
falls at Svaelgfos, three miles distant. The furnaces will
be of from 750 to 850 kilowatts each.
It is estimated by the company that the cost of produc-
tion of calcium nitrate will be about ,4 per ton, whereas
the present selling price is 8. Power is at present
rented from the Tinfos electric power station at 245. per
E.H.P. year, and from the new power station will be
considerably cheaper.
In 1907, there was manufactured at Notodden 1,000 tons
of saltpetre and calcium nitrate on the Birkeland-Eyde
system. When the hydraulic power station which is to
utilise the waters of the Tinfos Falls is completed, it will
be possible to increase the annual output to 20,000 tons.
Another station, whose capacity will be 220,000 H.P.,
is in course of construction.
The commercial success of this process in Norway is
very largely due to the efficiency and comparatively low
first cost of the plant, and to the very cheap cost of
power. The presence of easily-developed large water
powers is making Norway a very promising centre for
electro-chemical enterprises. On account of this, and
also because of the general technical ability of the people,
who have not been slow in availing themselves of their
natural resources, it is to be expected that the electro-
chemical industry will attain great importance in
Norway.
Another method for the fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen by electric discharges is that of Moscicki and
Kowalski. This process has been installed at Vevey in
Switzerland, a 2,100 H.P. plant having been in operation
since 1903.*
* Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift, October 1906.
Electrochem. and Metall. Ind. (1907), vol. v, p. 491.
ii2 NITROGEN FIXATION
The arrangement finally adopted by Moscicki was that
of a rotating arc. The arc flame is produced between
two vertical concentric copper electrodes and rotated by
magnetic lines of force parallel to the axis, spinning
round in the annular space. Direct current is now used,
applied at 1,500 volts or more.
The yield of this plant is 525 grammes of nitric acid
per kilowatt year and only i per cent, of the energy is
absorbed in the auxiliary apparatus.
Numerous other companies are engaged in the indus-
trial manufacture of nitrates, notable amongst these
being the " Badische Anilin and Soda Fabrik," which
has independently carried out a vast amount of experi-
mental work, and recently has come to an arrangement
with the Norwegian company for the manufacture of
nitrate on a large scale in Norway and elsewhere.
Cyanamide.
The problem of the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen
has also been solved by a method totally different from
the above. This is due to the discoveries of Frank and
Caro which showed that calcium carbide acts as a good
absorbent of pure nitrogen. By this means there is
obtained a product known as calcium cyanamide which
can be made to undergo several chemical changes
forming compounds which readily yield ammonia, and
other useful nitrogenous compounds. Calcium cyan-
amide undergoes such decompositions in the soil, and
can therefore be employed directly as a fertiliser.
A development of the above process for preparing
cyanamide was devised by Erlwein,* and adopted by
Siemens and Halske, being manufactured according to
this method by the Cyanidgesellschaft of Berlin and at
the Badische Anilin and Soda Fabrik at Ludwigshaven
* Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift (1907), pp. 41, 62.
Elektrochfm. and Metall. Ind. (1907), vol. v, p. 77.
NITROGEN FIXATION 113
and put on the market under the name of " lime
nitrogen " (Kalk-Stickstoff).
The raw materials which serve as the starting point in
Erlwein's method are coke and lime which are heated
in a furnace after the type of the Acheson graphite
furnace (p. 20), and over which nitrogen is passed.
Absorption of the nitrogen and evolution of carbon
monoxide takes place, yielding as a product calcium
cyanamide.
When first brought out this process was more
economical than that of Frank, starting with calcium
carbide and nitrogen, on account of the high price of the
former, but when the boom for carbide was over and
prices went down, the Frank process became the cheaper
one, and is now used in Italy and is being introduced
into other countries.
Nitrogen can be obtained from the air by removing the
oxygen with heated copper or else by liquefying air as in
the Linde process and separating the nitrogen by distilla-
tion. On passing this through calcium carbide heated in
closed gas-fired retorts, absorption readily takes place,
and the carbide is transformed into cyanamide.
The cost of this manufacture depends of course upon
the cost of separating nitrogen from the air, and on the
cost of calcium carbide, which again depends on that of
power. It is estimated that carbide factories which pay
2 2. i os. per H.P. year for power, and average
prices for coke, lime, etc., and nitrogen, can make a good
profit by preparing cyanamide to be sold as a substitute
for saltpetre for fertilising purposes.
Besides being directly applicable as a fertiliser,
calcium cyanamide has been applied to a number of
other purposes, such as to the production of ammonium
sulphate, the manufacture of dicyandiamide, a compound
used in the manufacture of aniline colours and gun-
powder. Cyanamide may also be used as a source of
n 4 NITROGEN FIXATION
sodium cyanide or potassium cyanide, according to a
process devised by Freudenberg.
As a case-hardening material for iron and steel, calcium
cyanamide has found a new sphere of application. This
is due to the decomposition of the cyanamide giving up
carbon to the iron which is thereby hardened.
For the manufacture of urea a small plant is already
in operation in which the calcium cyanamide is treated in
a suitable way with acids and immediately changed into
a solution of urea which may be easily crystallised.
Works for the manufacture of cyanamide are now in
operation, or in course of erection, at the following
places :
Present annual In course of
output. installation.
Place. (Tons.) (Output in Tons.)
Piano d'Orte (Italy) ... 4,000 ... 6,000
San Marcel
(Val d'Aosta) ... 4,000
Terni Carbide Works... ... 10,000
Fiume ... 4,000
Almissa ... 10,000
France (two works) 4,000
Switzerland 3*75
Germany 12,500
Bavarian Alps ... 15,000
Canada ... 5,ooo
Japan ... 4,000
Odda (Norway) 12,500 ... 50,000
CHAPTER XI.
POWER CENTRES AND ELECTRO-CHEMICAL
WORKS IN GREAT BRITAIN.
THE question of the cheap generation of power a matter
of vital importance to the success of most electrochemical
enterprises, is now receiving a favourable solution in
this country. This is being brought about through the
formation of large companies in various centres which
generate electrical power in large stations and distribute
to various works in their district. Generation of power
on a large scale, in this manner, leads to considerable
economy. Industries which are highly specialised also
benefit largely by receiving power from an outside
source, as greater concentration in management is thus
possible.
In the production of cheap power and its wide applica-
tion England is probably in more favourable circum-
stances than any other country, not even excluding those
with water power. This is due to the abundance of good
coal, and to the density of population and proximity of
industrial centres to each other, thus enabling large
power centres to distribute electric current over large
areas with a minimum of transmission expenses.
The conditions in certain parts of Norway and the Alps
are quite exceptional, and it cannot be expected that
local power companies in this country will ever be able
to supply current at the prices which are now prevailing
in those districts. Indeed some of the prices for water
u6 GREAT BRITAIN
power in Norway and Sweden would not even pay interest
on the capital cost of the necessary plant for steam power.
It is improbable, however, that the power prices in
those countries represent permanent conditions; naturally
the waterfalls first utilised were those which involved the
least capital outlay, but as more powers are developed
others must necessarily be harnessed with greater
difficulty, and thus the price per H.P. year will rise.
In this country, on the other hand, the price should
show a downward and not an upward tendency with
increased development. The cost of power in Norway
and Sweden is certainly an extreme case. Comparing
with water power in other countries, the price of power
from steam in this country shows very favourably. It
appears, for instance, that this is offered by at least
one company in England as cheaply as at Niagara Falls.
Apart from the cost of electrical power, all the other
factors which determine the success of industries, such as
convenience of transit and the proximity of the markets
for finished products, are favourable to electro-chemical
undertakings in this country.
Many schemes have been authorised by Parliament for
the formation of large companies for supplying power
within certain areas. In most cases the cost of production
in a large and thoroughly up-to-date private plant would
be considerably lower than the price at which the power
company could afford to sell and distribute. Even in
these cases, however, the desirability of a saving in
capital and running charges in the early stages of an
undertaking often makes it preferable to take power from
the company.
The most prominent of the large power companies in
this country at present is the Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Electric Supply Co. Ltd., which now delivers power to
various industries on the Tyneside and towns in the
district.
GREAT BRITAIN 117
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE.
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE ELECTRIC SUPPLY Co. LTD.*
This company, which is situated at the seat of the
Northumbrian coalfields, is the first and most successful
of its kind to engage in electric power distribution on a
large scale in Great Britain. It began, in 1891, as an
ordinary electric lighting company, and ten years later
developed into a much larger undertaking, and began to
furnish power for various industries on Tyneside.
The company has grown through accretion and expan-
sion, has amalgamated with surrounding power com-
panies, notably with the County of Durham Electric
Power Supply Company, and taken over other smaller
stations, in some cases using them as sub-stations.
Newcastle has always been characterised by having its
electrical supplies in the hands of companies, instead of,
as is almost invariably the case with other provincial
towns, being in the hands of the municipality. The
manufacturing area around Newcastle now receiving
power from this company includes Gateshead, Wallsend,
and Tynemouth.
The principal generating station of this company is
the Carville Power House which was built in 1904.
This is situated on the banks of the Tyne, the site having
a frontage of 420 feet which enables an ample supply of
condensing water to be obtained. The station is laid out
on what is known as the complete unit system, each of
the larger turbo-alternators having its own condenser,
exciter, set of boilers, pumps, etc., though sharing with
another large set a common boiler house, coal bunker,
chimney, and branch railway siding. A sub-division
into what is practically speaking a number of independent
stations is thus brought about, the only points of junction
common to all the units being the main electrical bus
bars, the circulating water system, and the main railway
*C. H. Merz and W. McLellan. The Electrician, July 1904.
nS GREAT BRITAIN
siding. In this way security of supply is made more
certain, as the effects of failure in any part of the
machinery are confined to one unit. The use of this
arrangement also enables extensions to be made without
interfering with the symmetry of the station. The pre-
sent equipment at Carville consists of two 3,000 H.P.
and about six 7,000 H.P. turbo alternators. The alter-
nators work at 1,200 revolutions and generate three-phase
current at 40 cycles and 5,750 volts. The steam turbines
possess a capacity for large overload of as much as 100
per cent. A load factor of over 50 per cent, in the con-
sumption of the current is obtained.
The next station in importance belonging to the New-
castle Electric Supply Co. is at Neptune Bank. This
has been in operation since 1903.
Distributing System.
The system of distribution has grown hand in hand
with the enlargement of the means of generation, and a
network of mains extends from North Shields on the east
as far as Elswick on the west, and will soon reach as far
south as Middlesborough. Current is transmitted from
the generating station at a pressure of about 6,000 volts
through paper-insulated, lead-covered, cables to sub-
stations where it is either converted into direct current at
low tension or is transformed to a pressure suitable for
the consumer's use.
The largest consumers are Armstrong, Whitworth and
Co., who take about 7,000 H.P., the North-Eastern
Railway Co., the Tyneside Tramways and Tramroads
Co., the North-Eastern Marine Engineering Co., Swan,
Hunter and Wigham, Richardson and Co., Northumber-
land Shipbuilding Co., Castner Kellner Alkali Co., etc.
The price charged for current is 3|d. per unit for
lighting and ijd. to }d. per unit for power though, of
course, special terms are made to large consumers.
The development of large centralised electric power
GREAT BRITAIN 119
supplies in this way is of the greatest significance to
industry. The smoke nuisance could, in this way, be
completely eliminated. Cleanliness is also secured in
the interiors of buildings where electric power, instead of
steam power, is used.
The larger the scale on which power plants are in-
stalled the greater is the economy, and, in the Tyneside
district, it is being realised by manufacturers that they
can receive their power from the Power Company at a
cheaper cost than by generating themselves. It is now
generally admitted that electric power in engineering
works of all kinds is superior to any other. Moreover,
when current is purchased from a power company, the
total cost is known precisely and the user buys it as he
wants it, whereas if he instals a generating plant of his
own, he must make it equal in capacity to his maximum
demand, together with a certain reserve margin. In this
case, more or less of the plant will be idle at intervals
and interest charges mount up.
The fluctuations in demand of the consumers of power
from a central station will tend more and more to equalise
and dovetail the total demand as the area of consumption
increases, and thus raise the load factor of the power
station.
Special terms are of course made in each case to large
users of power, but the following diagram (copied from
Electrical Industries and Investments, March 28th, 1906)
contains figures of output and cost of production, and
shows the reduction of the latter with increase of the
former.
Average
Total Margin between
Eevenue from
Revenue per
costs per
Revenue and
Year,
sale of current.
unit sold.
Unit sold.
Total Cost.
Units Sold.
.
d.
d.
d.
I9OI
22,484
2.10
1.05
1.05
2,562,000
I9O2
41,701
1.81
0.82
0.99
5,537^500
1903
62,368
1.66
0.85
0.81
9,033,000
1904
92,512
1.29
0.66
0.63
17^32,153
1905
122,438
0.96
0.56
0.41
30,378,000
120 GREAT BRITAIN
Throughout this period a dividend of 8 per cent, has
been paid on the capital, which then increased from
.300,000 to ,750,000. At the end of 1906, a total of
70,000 H.P. was being generated by the companies
system, and the profits declared during 1906 amounted
to 85,000. At the end of 1907, the output had risen
to 92,764 H.P.
An electro-chemical centre is now developing at
Newcastle-upon-Tyne in consequence of the facilities
offered by the power company. The present electro-
chemical companies who avail themselves of this power
are the Castner Kellner Alkali Co., who have a plant
capacity of some 5,000 K.W., which is now being ex-
tended to 8,000 K.W., the Aluminium Corporation
who are now installing a plant capacity of 5,000 K.W.,
and lastly the Thermal Syndicate who at present only
take a few hundred H.P.
The Thermal Syndicate.
This company engages in the electrical manufacture of
Quartz Glass or Fused Silica. This is applied as a ware
and formed into crucibles, tubes and other apparatus to
be used in chemical work, in this manner it provides the
most refractory of wares and furnishes apparatus capable
of withstanding the most sudden changes of temperature.
This material has found a particularly useful applica-
tion in the manufacture of evaporators for concentrating
sulphuric acid and, for most purposes of this nature,
forms an efficient substitute for platinum.
This manufacture is of special interest as an application
of very high temperature obtained by electrical heating
to a process requiring considerable refinements in
manipulation, it has moreover achieved considerable
success in making available a most valuable material at
a relatively very low cost. The process employed was
initiated by experimental work carried out in the electro-
GREAT BRITAIN 121
chemical department of this University.* Pure white
sand is fused to a pasty condition at a very high tempera-
ture, and then blown and moulded into the desired form.
Heating is applied by passing a large current through
carbon rods or plates which are embedded in the sand.
The resulting Quartz Glass or Fused Silica is of a white
semi-transparent nature.
There are a number of other important power centres
in operation or in course of development in this country ;
two or three of these are mentioned below.
Lancashire Electric Power Company.
This company has received parliamentary rights for
the supplying of power over the whole of Lancashire
south of the River Ribble, except Liverpool, Bootle,
Manchester, Salford, Stockport and part of Bolton. The
generating station is situated near Radcliffe, where four
2,000 K.W. Curtis engines are in operation, and current
is generated at 10,000 volts, three-phase 50 cycles. The
largest consumers are the Acme Spinning Co. Ltd., which
takes 1,100 K.W. and the Chloride Electric Company
which takes 500 K.W. There are 19 sub-stations in
operation where the current is stepped down to 400 volts,
three-phase, or 500 volts continuous, for local distribu-
tion. Power is sold at '45d. per unit plus an additional
charge which is graded from 6 per K.W. year for
quantities up to 100 K.W. to 3 for quantities above
500 K.W.
The Yorkshire Electric Power Co., which hitherto has
been working at a loss, is now progressing very materi-
ally and supplies 3,000 K.W. A prospective consumer
of power from here is a large calcium carbide works
* R. S. Hutton. "On the Fusion of Quartz in the Electric Furnace."
Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Proc., January 1902. Trans. American
Electrochem Soc. (1902), vol. ii, p. 105.
122 GREAT BRITAIN
known as the Imperial Automatic Light Co. Ltd.* These
works are to be erected at Thornhill, Yorkshire, and it is
expected will commence early in 1908. The works, as
at present designed, are capable of an output of from
2,200 to 2,500 tons of calcium carbide per year.
This company will also manufacture a special plant
for the generation of acetylene, which they claim will
furnish a 2,500 candle power flame for i hour at a cost of
4^d. The plant may also be used for producing the oxy-
acetylene flame for welding purposes. The apparatus
is said to be portable and clean and absolutely safe in its
working. This plant should find considerable applica-
tion in the illumination of railway stations and isolated
buildings where electric current is not conveniently
available.
The North Wales Electric Power and Traction Company
is of considerable interest, as it utilises a large water
power from Llyn Llydaw on Snowdon, North Wales.
The head of water here available is 1,150 feet.
At present four generators are installed, each of
1,500 K.W. The current is generated and distributed
at 10,000 volts, and at present is being supplied to
neighbouring quarries and for railway traction. The
price charged for this power at present varies from i^d.
to |d. per unit. The Aluminium Corporation is now
erecting a works to prepare aluminium, using the power
from this company. This works is situated 13 miles
from the power station.
The South Wales Electrical Power Distribution Co.,
situated in Monmouthshire, Glamorganshire and Car-
marthenshire generates a total of 7,520 K.W., and sup-
plies power to neighbouring collieries and metal works
at a cost of from 5. 3d. to .35d. per unit according to load
factor, etc.
* Electrochem. and Metall. 2nd. (1908), vol. vi, p. 125. Electrical
Engineering, November 28th, 1907. Electrician, February 7th, 1908.
GREAT BRITAIN 123
The North-Western Electricity and Power Gas Co.
This is an undertaking which has secured rights for
supplying power in portions to Staffordshire, Derby-
shire, Flintshire and Denbighshire. The general scheme
includes the furnishing of Mond gas as well as electricity.
It is contemplated to erect generating stations at Stone
and Ruabon, each of 7,000 H.P. capacity.*
Electro-chemical Works in Great Britain. f
The manufacture of calcium carbide was begun at
Foyers in October 1896.
The Willson patents were acquired by the Acetylene
Illuminating Company in May 1895, who arranged with
the British Aluminium Company for the use of a portion
of their available power. As soon as calcium carbide
received application in the generation of acetylene great
interest was attracted to the substance, and it was thought
that the use of this gas would cause serious competition
with coal gas and electricity as an illuminant. A very
large number of companies were consequently formed for
the manufacture of calcium carbide, and in the period
from 1896 1899 as many as 650 patents were issued for
its production.
For about three years the carbide industry enjoyed a
period of prosperity and three or four factories were
erected in England. Speculation in this field, moreover,
was not limited to this country, as in the year 1899 there
were 68 carbide factories in operation and 16 in course of
construction in Europe. When the promises of acety-
lene were not realised, and the confidence of the public
became shaken, this industry, in the years 1899 and
1900 underwent a very rapid decline, and the excessive
overcapitalisation brought nearly every company into
liquidation, or caused re-organisation.
* Supplement to Electrician, Jan. 3rd, 1908.
t J. B. C. Kershaw. " The electro-chemical and electro-metallurgical
industry of Great Britain, 1907." J. B. C. Kershaw. Electro-Metallurgy
(1908).
J
i2 4 GREAT BRITAIN
The Acetylene Illuminating Company were not able to
maintain the Willson patents, and so the manufacture of
calcium carbide was commenced by other companies,
amongst these by the United Alkali Company at Liver-
pool. Apparently the only carbide works at present in
operation in Great Britain is at Askeaton near Limerick,
though a large plant is now being built in Yorkshire
(page 122). At Askeaton use is made of a water power
generating 400 H.P., and the furnaces have a capacity
of 3,000 amps, at 100 volts. While the home production
of calcium carbide cannot exceed 3,000 tons yearly, the
consumption in Great Britain now amounts to a total of
about 5,000, the whole of which is used exclusively for
generating acetylene ; none of the other proposed applica-
tions of this material having been successful.
Copper Refining.
The copper refining industry, which has now attained
such dimensions, had its birth in this country. It is the
oldest of all electro-metallurgical industries, dating from
1869.
J. Elkington, in 1865, began working on this subject,
and from 1865 to 1869 a number of patents were taken
out and a small factory was erected at Pembrey, in South
Wales, for the electrolytic refining of copper. These
works were subsequently enlarged and are still in opera-
tion to-day.
The second British Refinery was that of Bolton and
Sons at Froghall, Staffordshire, and in 1880 a number of
plants were erected in Swansea.
Copper from the American smelters was formerly
shipped to England, France, and Germany to be refined,
but is now all done on the East coast of America, in New
Jersey. The high values of gold and silver are here
extracted and only refined copper is exported to Europe.
The English refineries consequently lost their chief
GREAT BRITAIN 125
supplies of raw material, and since then have undergone
little if any further development.
Manufacture of Copper Tubes, Plates and Wire.*
In the usual arrangement for the electrolytic refining
of copper, where use is made of a vat and stationary
electrodes, copper is obtained in a more or less uneven
or rough condition.
The unevenness of the metal increases with the current
density and with the thickness of the deposit, so that
smooth deposits cannot be obtained of any considerable
thickness in the usual way.
The low current density which is needed very much
prolongs the operation, and a considerable period of time
is necessary, often 10 12 days, during which the metal
is locked up in the vats, and a large amount of space and
tank accommodation required. The current density em-
ployed in electrolytic refineries has been gradually in-
creased from about 8 to 10 amperes to 20 amperes per
square foot 16 to 17 amperes per square foot has usually
been considered the limit with stationary electrodes.
(See page 36.)
Various processes have been devised for increasing the
current density by using mechanical means to prevent
the copper from becoming rough. These different
methods may be classified under the five headings.
1. Revolving or moving the cathode.
2. Burnishing the copper during deposition.
3. Insulating the excrescences or growths on the copper
so as to prevent further increase.
4. Rapid circulation of the electrolyte.
5. Revolving the cathode at a high speed (centrifugal
process).
*S. Cowper Coles. Trans. Faraday Society, August 1905, vol. i,
p 215.
126 GREAT BRITAIN
Class 2. A burnishing process was devised by Elmore
and applied to the manufacture of copper tubes at a
works founded at Hunslet near Leeds, in 1889. In this
method an anode of crude copper is taken, and the cathode
consists of a revolving mandrel of brass, which has been
carefully coated with graphite, and on this the copper is
deposited electrolytically. A burnisher of agate passes
continually backwards and forwards, leaving the metal
with a smooth and well polished surface. The usual
current density is under 20 amperes per square foot, and
the voltage between the electrodes from .5 to i volt. A
4-inch mandrel is revolved at about 30 revolutions per
minute. When sufficiently thick, the tube is detached
from the mandrel. Besides tubes, calico printing
cylinders, paper machine cylinders and other special
parts of machines of pure copper are manufactured here.
Class 3. Insulating the excrescences or growths -pn
the depositing tubes is the principle devised by Dumoulin
in a process in which a sheepskin burnisher is substituted
for an agate one. The sheepskin impregnators, which
move over the surface of the metal, coat all projecting
parts with a thin film of animal fat, which hinders further
deposition until the surrounding depressions have been
raised to the common level. The current used in this
process is from 35 to 40 amperes per square foot of
cathode area, the voltage required is about 1*6 per vat.
This process was worked for some time on a very large
scale at the works of the Electrical Copper Co. in
Widnes. The tubes prepared by this process were cut
open and rolled into flat sheets of the approximate size
12 feet by 4 feet.
Class 5. A centrifugal process of copper deposition
has been developed by S. Cowper-Coles, who found that
if the mandrel constituting the cathode was revolved at a
GREAT BRITAIN 127
certain circumferential speed, smooth thick deposits of
copper resulted, with very high current densities which
could not be obtained by any other method. A
very pure copper is obtained in this way. Particles of
impurities, which, in the stationary process tend to settle
on the cathode and become enclosed, are repelled by the
centrifugal action in this process. The composition of
the electrolyte usually employed is copper sulphate 10
per cent., sulphuric acid 10 per cent., water 80 per cent.
A current density of from 80 to 275 amperes per square
foot is used, the voltage varying from '3 to i'2 over this
range.
Preparation of Copper Wire.
Various processes have been attempted from time to
time for the production of copper wire by electrolytic
means; very few of these have met with any success,
however, on account of the difficulties of the problem.
A satisfactory method designed by Cowper-Coles and
employed in conjunction with the centrifugal process
consists in making a spiral scratch on the mandrel. The
effect of this scratch, which must be angular, is to affect
the molecular structure of the copper and to form a cleav-
age plane. The copper is separated from the mandrel
by unwinding at an angle to the axis of the latter. Three
or four miles of wire can be made in a few hours from
crude copper in one operation. For this purpose, an
annular vat is used and a cylindrical mandrel 7 feet in
diameter, arranged vertically, and making about 50 re-
volutions per minute. The great advantage of such a
vat is that there are no working parts in the electrolyte
and no stuffing boxes or glands are used.
The capital expenditure on the plant required for the
centrifugal process is said to compare very favourably
with that of an up-to-date rolling mill and wire-drawing
plant of similar size.
128 GREAT BRITAIN
Broughton Copper Works, Ditton, near Widnes.
The smelting of various copper ores and spent pyrites
is engaged in here. The ores are imported chiefly from
Spain and South America. A special variety of ore im-
ported from Spain is atacamite, or copper oxychloride.
This is brought into solution by treating with sulphuric
acid and then decanting. Copper is removed from this
liquid by the addition of scrap iron, and thus obtained in
the form of powder. Silicate and sulphide ores of
copper are treated in blast furnaces in the usual way.*
The furnace charge consists of coke, and a mixture of
ores in such a proportion as to give the necessary lime,
silica and sulphur content. Slag from the reverberatory
furnace treatment, which takes place at a later stage, and
which contains about 10 per cent, copper, is also added,
and flue dust which is made into a paste with lime.
This smelting process is continuous, and the slag and
matte are drawn off at the bottom. The former contains
about "3 per cent, copper and is thrown away, and the
latter about 30 per cent, copper. This matte is smelted
again and converted into high grade matte which contains
from 50 to 60 per cent, copper, while the slag with a
copper content of about 2 per cent, is added to the charge
in the first furnace. The further refining of the high
grade matte is then carried out in a reverberatory furnace
at a very high temperature, whereby " white metal " is
obtained. Air is then admitted in the necessary quanti-
ties, when conversion into " blister copper " takes place,
which is then run from the furnace and cast into moulds.
The final refining of this metal is then carried out either
by melting and subjecting to a " poling " process, or else
by casting into electrodes and refining electrolytically.
The electrolytic process consists of a combination of the
multiple and bipolar electrode systems. Anode and
cathode are arranged in multiple in each vat, and in
* Vide page 53.
GREAT BRITAIN 129
between each are placed two bipolar electrodes which are
insulated from the leads and which receive a deposit of
copper on one side and are dissolved on the other.
Before use, these electrodes are coated with a thin layer
of soot on the cathode side to facilitate the stripping off
of the deposited copper. The 24 tanks are arranged in
series on a sloping floor to allow free circulation of the
electrolyte, and the difficulty of excess of copper tending
to accumulate is got over by diluting the electrolyte and
adding more acid. The excess of electrolyte thus
produced is used in the leaching of the atacamite ore
described above. A temperature of about uoF. is used
for the electrolysis. Current is supplied at 25 volts,
and to the amount of 1,000 amperes, to the whole system.
A voltage of '2 to '3 thus occurs between each electrode,
and a current density of 12 amps, per square foot is used.
The object of the combined multiple and series arrange-
ment is to avoid the occurrence of a greater potential
difference than i volt between the two ends of the lead-
lined vats, as short circuit would otherwise result, and
the lead lining cannot conveniently be replaced. The
electrolyte contains about 13 per cent, copper sulphate,
3 per cent, sulphuric acid and a trace of glue to cause
smoothness of deposit. The copper anodes remain in the
bath about 30 days. The slimes, which contain antimony,
silver, gold and impurities from the metal accumulate on
the bottom of the vats and are removed and sold to
metal refiners. Copper containing any appreciable
amount of gold or silver is treated electrolytically, while
that free from these metals is refined by the fire process.
Electrolytic Lead Refining at the Smelting Works of
Messrs. Locke, Blackett and Co. Ltd., Neivcastle-
on-Tyne*
Lead is imported here and refined by two different
processes that of Parkes and the Betts process. This
* Vide page 57.
130 GREAT BRITAIN
latter is, at present, on a comparatively small scale.
The current is generated by means of gas engines and
dynamos working at 30 volts. The anodes are larger
than those in use at Trail, and are formed by pouring
the metal in a shallow mould laid level on the ground.
The anodes obtained by this method are far less even
than with the Truswell mould ; and consequently do not
dissolve so well in the electrolyte, hence a larger propor-
tion of metal is returned as anode scrap.
The starting sheets are formed by a process of
W. Valentine, in which the lead is allowed to flow over
an inclined iron plate which is provided with ridges
along the edges and which terminates in a mould at the
bottom which furnishes two projecting lugs on the sheet
for the purpose of wrapping around the cathode bars.
The anodes are 33 inches wide and 34 inches deep. A
current density of 10-12 amperes only is used and an
electrolyte containing 8 grams of lead per 100 c.c.
The slimes obtained are freed from electrolyte by
washing and then treating in a filter press. The dried
slime is then roasted and antimony removed as a lead
antimony slag, and the remaining gold and silver
separated by roasting and cupellation.
With regard to the relative merits of the two refining
processes, it is found at this smelting works that for rich
bullion the Betts process is the more economical, whereas
for the refining of lead with low values the advantage
lies with the Parkes process.
REFERENCE. A. G. Betts. "Lead Refining by Electrolysis." 1908.
The Electrolytic Alkali and Chlorine Industry.
For half a century alkali and bleaching powder have
been the leading products of England's chemical
industry. The starting point for these substances is
common salt. In the early part of last century it was
observed that a solution of salt underwent decomposition
GREAT BRITAIN 131
into alkali and chlorine under the influence of the
electric current, and towards the end of the eighties the
possibility of applying this method on an industrial
scale began to receive a good deal of attention.
In 1851, C. Watt was granted a patent on a process
for preparing caustic soda and chlorine by the electro-
lysis of salt, but chiefly through lack of a cheap source
of electric power, this scheme was not carried further.
In the electrolysis of salt great difficulty was encountered
through the intermingling of the products of decomposi-
tion. Complications are introduced through the inter-
diffusion of the alkali which, together with hydrogen,
forms at the cathode and the chlorine which is
liberated at the anode. In this manner hypochlorite
and chlorate are also formed, according to the
conditions of temperature and current density. Means
had consequently to be adopted to separate the anode
and cathode compartments.
From the year 1888, much experimenting was done on
this subject and a large number of apparatus patented.
A process of Richardson and Holland was exploited
at St. Helens in 1895, a plant of 1,100 H.P. being used.
This did not prove successful, however, and the
company subsequently went into liquidation, the
machinery being sold in 1904.
Castner-Kellner Electrolytic Alkali Co. Ltd.
This process was protected by several patents taken
out by Castner and Kellner during 1892 and 1893, and
is characterised by the use of a mercury cathode or
intermediate electrode. The sodium ions of the salt, on
giving up their electric charge combine with the mercury
forming an alloy, which is subsequently decomposed in
another compartment by contact with water, thus giving
rise to pure caustic soda and liberating mercury. In
this way the mercury is used continuously. A very
132 GREAT BRITAIN
slight rocking motion is imparted to the cell, causing
the mercury to flow from one compartment into the
other. A partition between the two compartments
which extends into a slight trough at the bottom, forms
an effective seal, keeping the salt solution separated
from the pure caustic of the cathode chamber.
A works for carrying out this process was erected at
Weston Point, near Runcorn, where at present about
4,000 H.P. is consumed. A Mond gas power plant in
conjunction with large gas engines has recently been
installed, and is now in use for the greater part of this
power.
Castner Sodium Process.
The Castner-Kellner Electrolytic Alkali Company
operates a plant for the production of sodium from fused
caustic soda. This process was first carried out at the
main works at Weston Point, but when enlargements
were found necessary, it was decided to remove this
department from Runcorn and to establish it on the
Tyne in order to take advantage of power offered them
by the Newcastle Company (page 120) without themselves
going to any further expenditure for power generation.
This change proved a great advantage to them as it
liberated a large amount of power which they were able
to use in other branches of manufacture.
The works at Newcastle is situated on ground adjoin-
ing that of the Carville Power Station, and possesses its
own sub-station where current is received at 6,000 volts,
three-phase alternating. This is stepped down to about
160 volts by means of static air-cooled transformers, and
then by means of motor generators and rotary
converters changed into direct current at 250 volts.
A total of about 5,000 K.W. is now taken from the
Power Company, and extensions are said to be in
progress which will raise this to 8,000 K.W.
GREAT BRITAIN 133
Har greaves-Bird Process at Middlewich, Cheshire.
This was brought out in 1892, and an experimental
plant was erected at Farnmouth.
In this process the separation of the alkali and chlorine
is achieved by the use of a diaphragm formed from a
composition of asbestos and sodium silicate. This
diaphragm forms the walls of the anode chamber, and
retains the salt solution, whilst allowing the ions to pass
through, under the influence of the current. The
cathode of copper gauze is placed against the diaphragm
outside the anode chamber, and steam and carbon
dioxide are passed through the cathode compartment,
thus forming sodium carbonate with the sodium
liberated at the cathode. This works is installed at
Middlewich, Cheshire, directly over an extensive brine
deposit. The brine is for this purpose, pumped and
used directly in the cells without any particular
treatment.
About 115 tons of salt per week are decomposed in
this manner and a yield of 150 tons bleaching powder
obtained.
The Hargreaves-Bird cell is also in use at the plant
of the West Virginian Pulp and Paper Company at
Piedmont, W.Va.,* and at Mechanicville, Pa. At the
former works there are 16 cells installed, each of which
produces chlorine equivalent to 460 Ibs. of 35 per cent,
bleaching powder per 24 hours.
The total electrical horse power used for the electro-
lysis is 200. The cost of a cell of this size, including
royalty in Great Britain, is said to be about ^"200.
Aluminium Industry. f
The first aluminium works in this country was
established at Milton, Staffordshire, by an American
* Engineering and Mining Journal (1907), vol. Ixxxiii, p. 137.
t Compare page 26.
134 GREAT BRITAIN
Company, to exploit the process of the Cowles Brothers.
Until 1892 aluminium alloys were prepared here by an
electric furnace in which the action of the current was
purely a thermal one (page 26). This method replaced
all the existing chemical processes for preparing
aluminium alloys and led to their being applied in
industry.
In 1886-1887, Heroult in France, and Hall in the
States, independently brought out electrolytic processes
for aluminium which gave the pure metal in distinction
to the alloys obtained by the above methods. These
two processes are practically identical and consist in the
electrolysis of alumina dissolved in fused cryolite. Since
1891 this has been the sole method by which aluminium
has been prepared.
From 1885 to 1906, the price of aluminium gradually
fell from 2. 55. a Ib. to about is. 2d., while the
world's annual production rose from 3 tons to about
1,500 tons in the same interval.
The production of aluminium in 1906 has been
estimated by J. W. Richards to amount to nearly
19,500 tons, valued at ,2,500,000. An estimate made
by the Metallurgische Gesellschaft for the same period is
as follows :
United States 6,000 tons.
Germany, Austria and Switzerland 3,500 tons.
France 4,000 tons.
England and Norway 1,000 tons.
14,500 tons.
The world's output of aluminium in 1907, probably
approached 20,500 tons (Electrician, March 27th, 1908).
* Engineering and Mining Journal, vol. Ixxxiii, p. 1083.
GREAT BRITAIN 135
British Aluminium Company.
The works at 'Milton, of the Cowles Syndicate was
afterwards taken over by the British Aluminium Co.,
which began operations in 1896, and erected their
principal works at Foyers in Scotland. Use is here
made of a water power between Foyers River and Loch
Ness, a head of over 300 feet being obtained and a total
of 6,000 H. P. being generated. Alumina, in the form
of bauxite is obtained from deposits in Ireland, and is
refined at the works at Larne.
The metal is sent from Foyers to Milton to be refined
and cast into bars or made into sheets.
About 12 E.H.P. hours are needed to produce each
pound of aluminium.
Kinlochleven Works.*
The Falls of Foyers have been fully utilised by the
British Aluminium Company, and on account of the
need of further extensions, a scheme for a large hydraulic
development, near Loch Leven is being undertaken. A
reservoir is being constructed in a large basin situated
1,000 feet above sea level, and only about 5 miles
distant from the coast. The capacity of the reservoir
will be about 20,000 million gallons. For the formation
of this a dam is being constructed which will be over
half a mile in length, and a maximum height in the
middle of 80 feet. The water will be led through a
concrete conduit along the hill face for a distance of
about 3j miles, to the head of the pipe line. The head
of water at the turbines is stated to be 900 feet and the
total power available will be about 60,000 H.P. The
cost of the undertaking will be about ,500,000, and it is
expected that the process will be started by the summer
of 1909. Two thousand men have been continuously
employed at this work during 1907.
* Electrician, August 31st, 1906, p. 764; March 27th, 1908, p. 907.
i 3 6 GREAT BRITAIN
Another factory belonging to this company is now in
operation in Norway at Stangfjord. The British
Aluminium Company at their annual meeting in June,
1907, showed a balance, available for interest and
dividend purposes of .158,903.
The Aluminium Corporation.
This is a company which was formed during 1907,
with a capital of 500,000 to engage in the manufacture
of aluminium. A works is being erected on Lake
Eigiau near Conway, in North Wales, where 4,400 H.P.
will ultimately be developed from water power. Arrange-
ments have also been made for the supply of 1,600 H.P.
from the North Wales Electric Power Company.
Another branch of this works is being erected at
Newcastle-on-Tyne (page 1 20) on a plot of land adjoining
the works of the Electric Supply Company from which
4,000 K.W. will be taken.
INDEX.
Drasives, 14
ilkali, 24, 50, 106, 130
Lips, 96
luminium, 26, 133
lundum, 14
B
jlgium, 104
Betts Process, 57, 129
Birkeland-Eyde Process, 107
Broughton Copper Works, 128
"Bullion Kefining, 88
C
Canadian Water Powers, 38
Carbide of Calcium, 30, 122, 123
Carbon di-sulphide, 92
Carborundum, 14
Castner-Kellner Co., 131
Chats Falls, 43
Chaudiere Falls, 43
Chlorine, 24, 50, 106, 130
Colby Furnace, 76, 78
Copper Refining, 32, 124
Cowles Process, 26
Cowper Coles Process, 125
Cyanamide, 112.
D
De Vrise Process, 85
E
Elmore Process, 126
F
Ferro-alloys, 99, 101
Ferro -nickel, 73
France. 96
Foyers, 135
G
Garuti Process, 104
Gas Engines, 3
Girod Works, 99
Gold Refining, 88
Graphite, 20
Great Britain, 115
H
Hargreaves-Bird Process, 133
Heroult Steel Process, 67, 98
Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing
Co., 8
Induction Furnaces, 74
Iron Smelting, 65
K
Keller, Leleux and Co., 101
Kinlochleven, 135
Kjellin Furnace, 74
L
Lake Superior Power Co., 49
Lancashire Power Co., 121
Lead Refining, 57, 129
M
Manganese Alloys, 42
N
Newcastle upon Tyne, 117
Niagara Falls, 7
Nickel Refining, 36
Nitrates, production of, 107
Notodden, 111
Ontario Power Co., 12
Ozone, 81
P
Philadelphia, 78, 83
Pittsburg Reduction Co., 26
Power Production, 1, 115
S
Sault Ste Marie, 48
Shawinigan Falls, 40
Siloxicon, 23
Silver Refining, 35, 88
Stassano Furnace, 79
Steam Power, 2, 4
Steel Production, 65
Townsend Process, 24
Trail, B.C., 52
Tyndall Process, 85
Vosmaer Process 83
W
West Kootenay Power Co.. 51
Water Power, 5, 7, 38
Water Purification. 81
SHERKATT & HUGHES
MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS.
ANATOMICAL SERIES.
No. I. STUDIES IN ANATOMY from the Anatomical Department
of the University of Manchester. Vol. iii. Edited by ALFRED H.
YOUNG, M.B. (Edin.), F.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy. Demy 8vo,
pp. ix. 289, 23 plates. 10s. net. (Publication No. 10, 1906.)
"All the papers contained in the volume are real additions to the
knowledge of the subject with which they deal. For three of the studies
Prof. Young is either in part or wholly responsible, and he is to be
congratulated on the vigour shown by the Manchester School of
Anatomists. " Nature .
" This work affords admirable evidence of the virility of our younger
British Universities. It is a notable addition to an already notable
series." Medical Review.
" This forms the third volume of the Studies in Anatomy issued by
the Council, and contains contributions of considerable interest. The
volume is well printed and bound. It speaks well for the activity of
investigation at Manchester." Lancet.
" The volume is well got up and is evidence of the continuation of the
excellent work which has been carried on for so long a period, under
Professor A. H. Young's supervision, and has been encouraged and
stimulated by his own work." British Medical Journal.
" Throughout the papers, careful research and accurate observation are
manifested, and they will repay careful perusal. To the Anatomist, as
well as the practical physician or surgeon, they will prove valuable."
Edinburgh Medical Journal.
CLASSICAL SERIES.
No. I. A STUDY OF THE BACCHAE OF EURIPIDES. By G.
NORWOOD, M.A., Assistant Lecturer in Classics. Demy 8vo, pp. xx.
188, 5s. net. (Publication No. 31, 1908.)
" The interest of Mr. Norwood's book, which ... is a very welcome
addition to the bibliography of Euripides, and a scholarly and interesting
piece of work, displaying erudition and insight beyond the ordinary,
lies in the way in which, by applying Dr. Yen-all's methods . . . , he
first shows up difficulties and inconsistencies, some of which have hardly
been noticed before . . . , and then produces his own startling theory,
which he claims is the great solvent of all the perplexities." Saturday
Review.
" Unless very strong evidence can be produced against Mr. Norwood's
view, it must be accepted as the true solution of the problem. . . . Mr.
Norwood is generally clear, and abounds in illuminating thoughts. He
has added a full bibliography (running to twenty-three pages) of writings
on Euripides, and for this every scholar will offer his sincere thanks.
. . . He has done a very good piece of work." Atlienwum.
" This volume forms the first of a Classical Series projected by the
Manchester University, who are to be congratulated on having begun
with a book so original and full of interest. ... It is admirably argued,
and is instinct with a sympathetic imagination. It is, at the very
least, an extremely able attempt to solve a very complex problem."
Manchester Guardian.
" Mr. Norwood demonstrates on every page his scholarship and know-
ledge, and gives proof of much painstaking research. The treatise is as
valuable as it is interesting." Manchester City News.
" It is a most ingenious theory, and a reviewer whom it has left
unconvinced is all the more bound to give his testimony to the consistent
skill, learning, and independence of judgment with which it is presented.
The book . . . strikes us as the product of vigorous and independent
thought." Times.
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ECONOMIC SERIES.
No. I. THE LANCASHIRE COTTON INDUSTRY. By S. J.
CHAPMAN, M.A., M. Com., Stanley Jevons Professor of Political
Economy and Dean of the Faculty of Commerce. Demy 8vo, pp.
vii. 309. 7s. 6d. net. (Publication No. 4, 1904.)
" Such a book as this ought to be, and will be, read far beyond the
bounds of the trade." Manchester Guardian.
" There have been books dealing with various phases of the subject,
but no other has so ably treated it from the economic as well as from
the historical point of view." Manchester Courier.
"The story of the evolution of the industry from small and insignificant
beginnings up to its present imposing proportions and highly developed
and specialised forms, is told in a way to rivet the attention of the
reader the book is a valuable and instructive treatise on a
fascinating yet important subject." Cotton Factory Times.
" Highly valuable to all close students." -Scotsman.
(GARTSIDE REPORT, No. 1.)
No. II. COTTON SPINNING AND MANUFACTURING IN THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. By T. W. UTTLEY., B.A.,
Gartside Scholar. Demy 8vo, pp. xii. 70. Is. net.
(Publication No. 8, 1905.)
" Mr. Uttley is to be congratulated on the performance of a not al-
together easy task, and his book, in conception and execution, appears
to fulfil admirably the intentions of the Trust." Manchester Courier.
" The writer gives ample details concerning wages and other features
connected with typical mills . . . and the information thus gathered is
of interest and value to the factory operative as well as the student and
economist." Cotton Factory Times.
" Mr. Uttley describes how he visited the mills in various States in a
very systematic and detailed manner. Altogether the report makes an
admirable and welcome collection of information, and will be found on
many occasions worthy of reference." Textile Mercury.
(GARTSIDE REPORT, No. 2.)
No. III. SOME MODERN CONDITIONS AND RECENT
DEVELOPMENTS IN IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTIONS
IN AMERICA, being a Report to the Gartside Electors, on the
results of a Tour in the U.S.A. By FRANK POPPLEWELL, B.Sc.,
Gartside Scholar. Demy 8vo, pp. vi. 119. Is. net.
(Publication No. 21, 1906.)
" The American methods of iron and steel production are described,
from the practical as well as the statistical side." Manchester Courier.
" Mr. Popplewell writes clearly and well, and he is to be congratulated
upon having carried his task through in so entirely a satisfactory
manner." Manchester City News.
"America's progress in iron and steel is more wonderful than any
bald statistics of production with which we are so familiar can indicate.
How that progress has been effected effected under labour, transport
and other difficulties Mr. Popplewell tells us in an interesting and
keenly intelligent review." Manchester Guardian.
"A minute observation of detail . . . characterises the whole work."
Iron and Coal Trades Review.
" Mr. Popplewell gives a clear exposition of the results of specialisa-
tion in production, of the development of ore-handling machinery, and
of the general use of the charging machine, features that characterise
American practice. He shows, too, that the colossal blast-furnace with
huge yield due to high-blast pressure, regardless of consumption of steam
and boiler coal, is giving place to a blast furnace of more modest
dimensions. . . .
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ECONOMIC SERIES.
" The impression derived from reading Mr. Popplewell's report is that
many of the most striking developments, admirable as they are, were
designed to meet special wants, and are not necessarily applicable in
Great Britain." Nature.
" The book has its interest for the educationist as well as for the
manufacturer." Scotsman.
"A chapter of special interest to British consumers is one devoted to
the consideration of raw materials." Glasgow Herald.
(GARTSIDE REPORT, No. 3.)
No. IV. ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS
IN THE UNITED STATES. By FRANK FOSTER, M.Sc., Gartside
Scholar. Demy 8vo, pp. ix. 106. Is. net.
(Publication No. 22, 1906.)
" The report under review is of very great interest to those connected
with the manufacturing branch of engineering in this country, many of
whom will have to relinquish their preconceived notions regarding
American methods, if Mr. Foster's conclusions are to be accepted."
Electrical Review.
"The book altogether is very readable, and one we can heartily re-
commend to all interested in the economics of engineering."
The Practical Engineer.
" Mr. Foster's observation of facts is fresh and interesting .... the
technical side of his report exhibits much care." Manchester Guardian.
"The book is well worth reading." Iron and Coal Trades Review.
" There is much in the book which will be new to English readers,
even to those who have studied the reports of the Moseley and other
recent 'commissions.'" Belfast News Letter.
No. V. THE RATING OF LAND VALUES. By J. D. CHORLTON.M.SC.
Demy 8vo, pp. viii. 177. 3s. 6d. net. (Publication No. 23, 1907.)
"A timely and temperate treatise on a subject of growing interest."
Pall Mall Gazette.
" The writer is learned, intelligent, progressive, fair and lucid."
Progress.
"The facts and deductions are well put." Western Mail.
" Chapters upon the scheme of the Royal Commission (minority report)
' Building Land,' ' The Future Increase of Land Values,' ' The Muni-
cipal Bill,' and others ... set forth with clearness and detail some of
the many interesting and difficult subjects in connection with valuation,
rates and rating." Estates Gazette.
" Mr. Chorlton has made a contribution to this interesting controversy
which is worthy of the serious attention of all persons interested in the
subject." Local Government Chronicle.
" The arguments for and against this proposed reform in the taxation
of land have never been more fairly and freely stated."
Liverpool Daily Post and Mercury.
" Mr. Chorlton deals clearly and concisely with the whole subject of
-ating and land values." The Standard.
" The impartiality and candour of Mr. Chorlton's method are beyond
dispute, and his book will repay careful study by all who are interested
in the question, from whatever motive." Westminster Gazette.
" The first half of this book deserves to become a classic
is one of the best books on a practical economic question that has
appeared for many years. It is not only scientifically valuable, but so
well written as to be interesting to a novice on the subject." The Nation.
"This thoughtful and judicially expressed treatise."
Manchester City News.
"A very businesslike and serviceable collection of essays and notes on
this intricate question." Manchester Guardian.
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(GARTSIDE REPORT, No. 4.)
No. VI. DYEING IN GERMANY AND AMERICA. By SYDNEY
H. HIGGINS, M.Sc., Gartside Scholar. Demy 8vo, pp. xiii. 112.
Is. net. (Publication No. 24, 1907.)
" The book will . . . make a valuable addition to the technical litera-
ture of this country." Tribune.
" The work is one which .... should receive the attention of those
who desire a general view of the German and American dyeing in-
dustries." Textile Manufacturer.
"A perusal of the work leads us to the conclusion that much useful
work is being done by the Gartside scholars, which will give these young
men fn excellent insight into the working conditions of various
industries." Textile Recorder.
No. VII. THE HOUSING PROBLEM IN ENGLAND. By
ERNEST RITSON DEWSNUP, M.A., Professor of Railway Economics in
the University of Chicago. Demy 8vo, pp. vii. 327. 5s. net.
(Publication No. 25, 1907.)
" Mr. Dewsnup's book is most valuable as it provides all essential in-
formation on the subject." Standard.
"All those who are interested in this question, no matter what their
economic predilections, may ponder with advantage Professor Dewsnup's
pages." Newcastle Daily Chronicle.
"The study brings together so weighty an array of facts and argu-
ments that it cannot but prove instructive and suggestive to all classes
of economists interested in its subject." Scotsman.
" Professor Dewsnup's view of the whole problem was stated in 1903,
in a form which won the Warburton Essay Prize at the Manchester
University. Now revised and brought up to date, his valuable work has
taken permanent form." Westminster Gazette.
(GARTSIDE REPORT, No. 5.)
No. VIII. AMERICAN BUSINESS ENTERPRISE. By DOUGLAS
KNOOP, M.A. Price Is. 6d. net. (Publication No. 30, 1907.)
" The book is calculated to give a clear and accurate description,
"essentially intended for the general reader," and the author has quite
rightly eliminated everything of a technical character, giving his theme
both the simplicity and the interest that are required. . . . The work
might well have been doubled in length without any loss of interest. . . .
Invaluable as a text-book." The Economic Journal.
" Should on no account be missed, for it is a very good attempt at a
survey of the enormous field of American business in the true and
judicial spirit." Pall Mall Gazette.
"Readable, informing, suggestive full of interest for men engaged in
almost every department of commercial life." Manchester City News.
"A report of the general conditions of industrial work in the United
States, together with a most instructive review of the education of the
business man in their commercial universities."
Manchester Daily Dispatch.
" The report is full of information, and is suggestive throughout."
Liverpool Post.
"Concise, business-like and informative, it emphasises the difference
between the economic positions of England and of America, and cannot
but prove instructive to anyone interested in its subject." Scotsman.
" From the point of view of an intelligent observer and collator,
trained, alert, well-informed, bringing his mind to bear on the funda-
mental elements of commercial progress and success, it would be
impossible to estimate it too highly." Belfast Northern Whig.
No. IX. THE ARGENTINE AS A MARKET. By N. L. WATSON.
Demy 8vo. Is. net. (Publication No. 33, 1908.)
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EDUCATIONAL SERIES.
No. I. CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND & ELSEWHERE.
Their place in the Educational System of an Industrial and Com-
mercial State. By MICHAEL E. SADLER, M.A., LL.D., Professor of
the History and Administration of Education. Demy 8vo, pp. xxvi
779. 8s. 6d. net. (Publication No. 29, 1907.)
This work is largely based on an enquiry made by past and present
Students of the Educational Department of the University of
Manchester. Chapters on Continuation Schools in the German
Empire, Switzerland, Denmark, and France, have been contributed
by other writers.
". . . . gives a record of what the principal nations are doing in the
prolongation of school work. It is invaluable as a corpus of material
from which to estimate the present position of the world so far as its
analogies touch Britain in 'further education,' as the phrase is."
The Outlook.
" The most comprehensive book on continuation schools that has yet
been issued in this country." Scottish Review.
" Professor Sadler has produced an admirable survey of the past
history and present condition of the problem of further education of the
people .... but apart from his own contributions, the bulk of the
work, and its most valuable portion, consists of material furnished by
teachers and by organisers of schools in various parts of England and
Scotland, by officials of the Board of Education and the Board of Trade,
and by local education authorities." Manchester Guardian.
"A perfect mine of facts and opinions. ... is certain of a hearty
welcome from all engaged in administering education." Glasgow Herald.
" This is a book which counts. It is a worthy treatment of an all-
important subject, and he who wishes his country well must pray that it
may be read widely I should be glad to think that I have said
enough to send many readers post-haste to buy this invaluable treatise."
L. J. Chiozza Money, M.P., in the Daily News.
" Professor Sadler's book is an admirable work on a subject which has
not hitherto been dealt with in so masterly and complete a manner."
Manchester City News.
"A volume which may mark a new epoch in educational thought and
effort in England." The Tribune.
" This book will for many years remain the standard authority upon
its subject." The Guardian.
" It is indeed a remarkable compilation, and we hope that its circula-
tion and its usefulness may be commensurable with its conspicuous
merits." i he Schoolmaster.
" The whole question is discussed with an elaboration, an insistence on
detail, and a wisdom that mark this volume as the most important
contribution to educational effort that has yet been made."
Contemporary Review.
" This is a most valuable and opportune book, one to be commended
to the careful attention of every serious student of the social problem."
The Churchman.
" The book brims with interest to every man who recognizes the need
of greater educational ideals in the masses." Co-operative News.
"A work which we strongly recommend to all interested in the study
of the social problem." The Record.
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EDUCATIONAL SERIES.
" The subject of the work is one that goes to the very heart of
national education, and the treatise itself lays bare with a scientific but
humane hand the evils that beset our educational system, the waste of
life and national energy which that system has been unable in any
sufficient degree to check." The Spectator.
" It is a treasure of facts and judicious opinions in the domain of the
history and administration of education." The Athenaeum.
" The volume represents an immense service to English education, and
to the future welfare and efficiency of the nation." Educational Times.
No. II. THE DEMONSTRATION SCHOOL RECORD. No. I. Being
Contributions to the Study of Education from the Department
of Education in the University of Manchester. By Professor J. J.
FINDLAY. Is. 6d. net. (Publication No. 32, 1908.)
" This volume marks a new departure in English Educational litera-
ture .... Some very interesting work is being done and the most
valuable part of the book is the account of the detailed methods which
have been employed both in the regular teaching in the schools and in
the efforts to foster the corporate interests of the children and their
parents. These methods are often exceedingly suggestive, and may be
studied with advantage by those who do not accept all the theories upon
which they are based." School.
" Professor Findlay and his skilled and experienced collaborators give
an interesting account of the uses ot the demonstration classes, the
nature and scope of the work done in them, and the methods adopted
(as well as the underlying principles) in some of the courses of instruc-
tion." The Athenatiim.
" The book gives an instructive account of the attempts made to
correlate the subject of school instruction, not only with each other, but
also with the childrens' pursuits out of school hours. . . . The problem
Professor Findlay has set himself to work out in the Demonstration
School is, How far is it possible by working with the children through
successive culture epochs of the human race to form within their minds
not only a truer conception of human history, but also eventually a
deeper comprehension of the underlying purpose and oneness of all
human activities ? " Morning Post.
" Here the authors take us into their confidence ; we are told what
their view of a demonstration school is, what questions they hope to
solve, and on what principles they think the answers should be sought.
.... Those interested in educational progress will give the volume a
cordial welcome." Nature.
No. III. THE TEACHING OF HISTORY IN GIRLS' SCHOOLS
IN NORTH AND CENTRAL GERMANY. A Report by EVA
DODGE, M.A. (Publication No. 34, 1908.)
HISTORICAL SERIES.
No. I. MEDIAEVAL MANCHESTER AND THE BEGINNINGS
OF LANCASHIRE. By JAMES TAIT, M.A., Professor of Ancient
and Mediaeval History. Demy 8vo, pp. x. 211. 7s. 6d. net.
(Publication No. 3, 1904.)
" Patient and enlightened scholarship and a sense of style and pro-
portion have enabled the writer to produce a work at once solid and
readable." English Historical Review.
"A welcome addition to the literature of English local history, not
merely because it adds much to our knowledge of Manchester and
Lancashire, but also because it displays a scientific method of treatment
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which is rare in this field of study in England." Dr. Gross in American
Historical Review.
" La collection ne pouvait debuter plus significativement et plus heure-
usement que par un ouvrage d'histoire du Moyen Age du a M. Tait, car
1'enseignement medieviste est un de ceux qui font le plus d'honneur a
la jeune Universite de Manchester, et c'est a M. le Professeur Tait qu'il
faut attribuer une bonne part de ce succes." Revue de Synthf.se
historique.
" The two essays are models of their kind." Manchester Guardian.
No. II. INITIA OPERUM LATINORUM QUAE SAECULIS XIII,,
XIV., XV. ATTRIBUUNTUR. By A. G. LITTLE, M.A., Lecturer
in Palaeography. Demy 8vo, pp. xiii. 273 (interleaved). 15s. net.
(Publication No. 5, 1904.)
"Whoever has attempted to ascertain the contents of a Mediaeval
miscellany in manuscript must often have been annoyed by the occurrence
of a blank space where the title of the treatise ought to be. Mr. Little
has therefore earned the gratitude of all such persons by making public
a collection of some 6,000 incipits, which he arranged in the first instance
for his private use, in compiling a catalogue of Franciscan MSS."
English Historical Revieiv.
No. III. THE OLD COLONIAL SYSTEM. By GERALD BERKELEY
HERTZ, M.A., B.C.L., Lecturer in Constitutional Law. Demy 8vo,
pp. xi. 232. 5s. net. (Publication No. 7, 1905.)
" Mr. Hertz gives us an elaborate historical study of the old colonial
system, which disappeared with the American Revolution He
shows a remarkable knowledge of contemporary literature, and his book
may claim to be a true history of popular opinion." Spectator.
" Mr. Hertz's book is one which no student of imperial developments
can neglect. It is lucid, fair, thorough, and convincing."
Glasgow Herald.
" Mr. Hertz's ' Old Colonial System ' is based on a careful study of
contemporary documents, with the result that several points of no small
importance are put in a new light .... it is careful, honest work ....
The story which he tells has its lesson for us." The Times.
" Both the ordinary reader and the academic mind will get benefit from
this well-informed and well- written book." Scotsman.
"Mr. Hertz has made excellent use of contemporary literature, and
has given us a very valuable and thorough critique. The book is in-
teresting and very well written." American Political Science Review.
"An interesting, valuable, and very necessary exposition of the
principles underlying the colonial policy of the eighteenth century."
Yorkshire Post.
"A work embodying much work and research. . . . Three most im-
pressive chapters should be read by everyone." Birmingham Post.
"Very enlightening." American Historical Review.
"Timely and useful." Athencmm.
No. IV. STUDIES OF ROMAN IMPERIALISM. By W. T.
ARNOLD, M.A. Edited by EDWARD FIDDES, M.A., Lecturer in
Ancient History, with Memoir of the Author by Mrs. HUMPHRY
WARD and C. E. MONTAGUE. With a Photogravure of W. T,
Arnold. Demy 8vo, 400 pp. 7s. 6d. net.
(Publication No. 16, 1906.)
"Mrs. Humphry Ward has used all her delicate and subtle art to
draw a picture of her beloved brother; and his friend Mr. Montague's
account of his middle life is also remarkable for its literary excel-
lence. " A th enfrum.
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" The memoir tenderly and skilfully written by the ' sister
and friend,' tells a story, which well deserved to be told, of a life rich
in aspirations, interests, and friendships, and not without its measure of
actual achievement." Tribune.
" This geographical sense and his feeling for politics give colour to all
he wrote." Times.
"Anyone who desires a general account of the Empire under Augustus
which is freshly and clearly written and based on wide reading will find
it here." Manchester Guardian.
" Nothing could be better than the sympathetic tribute which Mrs.
Humphry Ward pays to her brother, or the analysis of his work and
method by his colleague Mr. Montague. The two together have more
stuff in them than many big books of recent biography."
Westminster Gazette.
The Memoir may be had separately, price 2s. 6d. net.
No. V. CANON PIETRO CASOLA'S PILGRIMAGE TO
JERUSALEM IN THE YEAR 1494. By M. M. NEWETT,
B.A., formerly Jones Fellow. Demy 8vo., pp. 427. 7s. 6d. net.
(Publication No. 26, 1907.)
"Thoroughness is characteristic of introduction, the copious notes,
appendix and index. . . . Miss Newett's translation is spirited and in-
teresting. . . ." Manchester Courier.
" Casola's narrative richly deserved the honours of print and transla-
tion. The book is a credit to its editor and to the historical school of
Manchester University." Morning Leader.
" His narrative is at once simple and dignified in style, convincing and
interesting in its pictures of the conditions governing travel by sea and
land four centuries ago." Daily Telegraph.
" The book is like a gallery of mediaeval paintings, full of movement
and colouring, instinct with the vitality of the time." Birmingham Post.
" Miss Newett's introduction is a contribution of considerable value to
the history of European commerce." Spectator.
" Forms a noteworthy addition to the number of books from which a
knowledge can be gained of the itineraries of the pilgrims to Palestine."
Scotsman.
" The whole volume is fascinating. It presents a lively picture of
bygone times, abounds in curious facts and recalls quaint and pleasing
ceremonies, and exhibits the ardent pilgrim of the past in his true light.
Miss Newett is alike to be congratulated on her translation, her
Introduction (which takes up a third of the volume), and her notes."
Manchester City News.
"The work which Miss Margaret Newett has probably saved from
oblivion is as intrinsically interesting as it should prove instructive to
the student of history." Daily News.
" One of the most delightful narratives that record the impressions of
a pious pilgrim." Westminster Gazette.
" One of the most comprehensive of the itineraries is that now trans-
lated, an important feature of it being its full description of the city of
Venice." The Times
No. VI. HISTORICAL ESSAYS. Edited by T. F. TOUT, M.A.,
Professor of Mediaeval and Modern History and JAMES TAIT, M.A.,
Professor of Ancient and Mediaeval History, Demy 8vo, pp. xv. 557.
6s. net. Reissue of the Edition of 1902 with Index and New Preface
(Publication No. 27, 1907.)
"Diese zwanzig chronologisch geordrieten Aufsatze heissen in der
Vorrede der Herausgeber Festchrift, behandeln zur Hiilfte ausser-englische
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Theniata, benutzen reichlich festliindische Literatur und verraten iiberall
neben weiten Ausblicken eine methodische Schulung die der dortigen
Facultiit hohe Ehre macht." Professor Liebermann in Deutsche
Literaturzeitung,
" Imperial history, local history, ecclesiastical history, economic history
and the methods of historical teaching all these are in one way or another
touched upon by scholars who have collaborated in this volume. Men
and women alike have devoted their time and pains to working out
problems of importance and often of no slight difficulty. The result is-
one of which the university and city may be justly proud." The late
Professor York Powell in the Manchester Guardian.
"Esso contiene venti lavori storici dettati, quattro da prof essori e sedici
da licenziati del Collegio, e sono tutto scritti appositamente e condotti
secondo le piu rigorose norme della critica e su document!. " R. Predelli
in Nuovo Archivio Veneto.
"La variete des sujets et 1'erudition avec laquelle ils sont traites font
grand honneur a la maniere dont 1'histoire est enseigne & Owens College."
Revue Historique.
"No one who reads these essays will do so without acknowledging their
ability, both in originality and research. They deal with historic
subjects from the beginnings of Cfesar- worship to the detention of
Napoleon at St. Helena, and they deal with them in a thoroughgoing
fashion. " Guardian.
"Par nature, c'eso un recueil savant, qui temoigne du respect et de
1'emulation que sait exercer pour les etudes historiques la jeune et dejk
celebre universite." Revue d'histoire ecclesiastique (Louvain).
" All these essays reach a high level ; they avoid the besetting sin of
most of our present historical writing, which consists of serving up a hash
of what other historians have written flavoured with an original spice of
error They are all based on original research and written by
specialists." Professor A. F. Pollard in the English Historical Review.
"Sie bilden einen schonen Beweis fur die rationelle Art, mit der dort
dieses Studium betrieben wird." Professor O. Weber in Historische
Zeitschrift.
The Index can be purchased separately price 6d.
MEDICAL SERIES.
No. I. SKETCHES OF THE LIVES AND WORK OF THE
HONORARY MEDICAL STAFF OF THE ROYAL INFIRMARY.
From its foundation in 1752 to 1830, when it became the Royal
Infirmary. By EDWARD MANSFIELD BROCKBANK, M.D., M.R.C.P.
Crown 4to. (illustrated). Pp. vii. 311. 15s. net.
(Publication No. 1, 1904.)
"Dr. Brockbank's is a book of varied interest. It also deserves a
welcome as one of the earliest of the ' Publications of the University of
Manchester.' " Manchester Guardian.
" We have a valuable contribution to local Medical Literature."
Daily Dispatch.
No. II. PRACTICAL PRESCRIBING AND DISPENSING. For
Medical Students. By WILLIAM KIRKBY, sometime Lecturer in
Pharmacognosy in the Owens College, Manchester. Crown 8vo,
220 pp. 5s. net.
(Publication No. 2, 1904, Second edition, 1906.)
"The whole of the matter bears the impress of that technical skill
and thoroughness with which Mr. Kirkby's name must invariably be
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associated, and the book must be welcomed as one of the most useful
recent additions to the working library of prescribers and dispensers."
Pharmaceutical Journal.
"Thoroughly practical text-books on the subject are so rare, that we
welcome with pleasure Mr. William Kirkby's ' Practical Prescribing and
Dispensing.' The book is written by a pharmacist expressly for medical
students, and the author has been most happy in conceiving its scope
and arrangement." British Medical Journal.
11 The work appears to be peculiarly free from blemishes and particularly
full in practical detail. It is manifestly the work of one who is a skilled
chemist, and an expert pharmacist, and who knows not only the re-
quirements of the modern student but the best way in which his needs
may be met." Medical Press.
"This is a very sensible and useful manual." The Hospital.
" The book will be found very useful to any students during a course
of practical dispensing." St. Bartholomew's Hospital Journal.
"The book is a model, being tutorial from beginning to end."
The Chemist and Druggist.
No. III. HANDBOOK OF SURGICAL ANATOMY. By G. A.
WRIGHT, B.A., M.B. (Oxon.), F.R.C.S., Professor of Systematic
Surgery, and C. H. PRESTON, M.D., F.R.C.S., L.D.S., Lecturer on
Dental Anatomy; Assistant Dental Surgeon to the Victoria Dental
Hospital of Manchester. Crown 8vo, pp. ix. 205. Second edition.
5s. net. (Publication No. 6, 1905.)
" We can heartily recommend the volume to students, and especially to
those preparing for a final examination in surgery." Hospital.
" Dr. Wright and Dr. Preston have produced a concise and very
readable little handbook of surgical applied anatomy. . . . The subject
matter of the book is well arranged and the marginal notes in bold type
facilitate reference to any desired point." Lancet.
No, IV. A COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IN OPERATIVE
SURGERY in the University of Manchester. By WILLIAM
THORBURN, M.D., B.S. (Lond.), F.R.C.S., Lecturer in Operative
Surgery. Crown 8vo, pp. 75. 2s. 6d. net.
(Publication No. 11, 1906.)
" This little book gives the junior student all that he wants, and no-
thing that he does not want. Its size is handy, and altogether for its
purpose it is excellent." University Review.
"As a working guide it is excellent." Edinburgh Medical Journal.
No. V. A HANDBOOK OF LEGAL MEDICINE. By W. SELLARS,
M.D. (London), of the Middle Temple and Northern Circuit,
Barrister-at-law. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, pp. vii. 233.
7s. 6d. net. (Publication No. 14, 1906.)
" This is quite one of the best books of the kind we have come
across." Law Times.
No. VI. A CATALOGUE OF THE PATHOLOGICAL MUSEUM
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER. Edited by J.
LORRAIN SMITH, M.A., M.D. (Edin.), Professor of Pathology.
Crown 4to, 1260 pp. 7s. 6d. net. (Publication No. 15,1906.)
" The catalogue compares very favourably with others of a similar
character, and, apart from its value for teaching purposes in an im-
portant medical school such as that of the University of Manchester, it
is capable of being of great assistance to others as a work of reference."
Edinburgh Medical Journal.
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" In conclusion we need only say that Professor Lorrain Smith has
performed the most essential part of his task the description of the
specimens excellently, and an honourable mention must be made of the
book as a publication." British Medical Journal.
No. VII. HANDBOOK OF DISEASES OF THE HEART. By
GRAHAM STEELL, M.D., F.R.C.P., Professor of Medicine, and
Physician to the Manchester Royal Infirmary. Crown 8vo,
pp. xii. 389, 11 plates (5 in colours), and 100 illustrations in the text.
7s. 6d. net. (Publication No. 20, 1906.)
" It more truly reflects modern ideas of heart disease than any book
we are acquainted with, and therefore may be heartily recommended to
our readers." Treatment.
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diseases of the heart, and consider that no better introduction to the
subject could possibly have been written." Medical Times and Hospital
Gazette.
" We can cordially recommend Dr. Steell's book as giving an excellent
and thoroughly practical account of the subject of which it treats."
Edinburgh Medical Review.
No. VIII. JULIUS DRESCHFELD. IN MEMORIAM. Medical
Studies by his colleagues and pupils at the Manchester University
and the Royal Infirmary. (Publication No. 35, 1908.)
PHYSICAL SERIES.
No. I. THE PHYSICAL LABORATORIES OF THE UNIVER-
SITY OF MANCHESTER. A record of 25 years' work. Demy 8vo,
pp. 142, 10 Plates, 4 Plans. 5s. net. (Publication No. 13, 1906.)
This volume contains an illustrated description of the Physical,
Electrical Engineering, and Electro-Chemistry Laboratories of the
Manchester University, also a complete Biographical and Biblio-
graphical Record of those who have worked in the Physics Depart-
ment of the University during the past 25 years.
" The book is excellently got up, and contains a description of the
department of physics and its equipment, a short biographical sketch of
the Professor with a list of his scientific writings and a well-executed
portrait and a record of the career of students and others who have passed
through Dr. Schuster's hands. Alumni of Owens will welcome the
volume as an interesting link with their alma mater." Glasgoiv Herald.
"This interesting and valuable contribution to the history of the
Manchester University also contains several illustrations, and forms the
first of the 'physical series' of the publications of the University of
Manchester." The Times
"A record of achievement of which no man need be ashamed "-
Westminster Gazette.
" It is a memorial of which any man would be justly proud, and the
University of which he is both an alumnus and a professor may well
share that pride," Manchester Gaurdian.
PUBLIC HEALTH SERIES.
No. I. ARCHIVES OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH LABORATORY
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER. Edited by
A. SHERIDAN DELEPINE, M.Sc., M.B., Ch.M., Director of the
Laboratory and Procter Professor of Comparative Pathology and
Bacteriology. Crown 4to. pp. iv. 451. 1. Is. net.
(Publication No. 12, 1906.)
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" The University of Manchester has taken the important and highly
commendable step of commencing the publication of the archives of its
Public Health Laboratory, and has issued, under the able and judicious
editorship of Professor Sheridan Delepine, the first volume of a series
that promises to be of no small interest and value alike to members of
the medical profession and to those of the laity. . . . Original communica-
tions bearing upon diseases which are prevalent in the districts sur-
rounding Manchester, or dealing with food- and water-supplies, air,
disposal of refuse, sterilisation and disinfection and kindred subjects,
will be published in future volumes; and it is manifest that these, as
they successively appear, will form a constantly increasing body of trust-
worthy information upon subjects which are not only of the highest
interest to the profession but of supreme importance to the public."
The Lancet.
" It is safe to say that as these volumes accumulate they will form
one of the most important works of reference on questions of public
health, and ought, at all events, to be in the library of every public
authority." Manchester Guardian.
"The volume .... speaks well for the activity of investigation in
Manchester." Lancet.
THEOLOGICAL SERIES.
No. I. INAUGURAL LECTURES delivered during the Session
1904-5, by the Professors and Lecturers of the Faculty of Theology,
viz. :
Prof. T. F. Tout, M.A. ; Prof. A. S. Peake, B.D. ; Prof. H. W.
Hogg, M.A. ; Prof. T. W. Rhys Davids, LL.D. ; Rev. W. F.
Adeney, D.D. ; Rev. A. Gordon, M.A. ; Rev. L. Hasse, B.D. ; Rev.
Canon E. L. HICKS, M.A. ; Rev, H. I). Lockett, M.A. ; Rev. R.
Mackintosh, D.D.; Rev. J. T. Marshall, D.D. ; Rev. J. H. Moulton,
D.Litt.
Edited by A. S. PEAKE, B.D., Dean of the Faculty.
Demy 8vo, pp. xi. 296. 7s. 6d. net.
(Publication No. 9, 1905.)
" The lectures, while scholarly, are at the same time popular, and will
be found interesting and instructive by those who are not theologians.
. . . The entire series is excellent, and the volume deserves a wide
circulation." Scotsman.
" This is a very welcome volume . . . All these lectures were delivered
to popular audiences, yet they are far from superficial, and will be
found of great value to busy pastors and teachers." Christian World.
"We welcome the volume as a most auspicious sign of the times."
Spectator.
" The lectures themselves give a valuable conspectus of the present
position of Theological research. . . . They are, of course, not addressed
to experts, but they are exceedingly valuable, even when allowance is
made for their more or less popular form." Examiner.
" The whole volume forms a very important and valuable contribution
to the cause of Theological learning." Record.
"This is a most interesting and valuable book, the appearance of which
at the present moment is singularly significant. . . . But it is impossible
in a brief review to indicate all the treasures of this rich volume, to
read which carefully is to be introduced to the varied wealth of modern
Biblical scholarship." Ttctptitt.
"This volume is of the most exceptional value and interest."
Expository Times.
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THEOLOGICAL SERIES.
" This is a book of more than common interest."
Review of Theology and Philosophy.
" The writers of these lectures do not attempt to offer more than
samples of their wares : but what is given is good, and it may be seen
that theology without tests is destitute neither of scientific value nor of
human interests." Athencruin.
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CALENDAR OF THE VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF MAN-
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CALENDAR OF THE VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF MAN-
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AN INTRODUCTION TO EARLY WELSH, By the late Prof.
J. STRACHAN, M.A., LL.D. Edited and completed by Prof. KUNO
MEYER, Ph.D. Demy 8vo.
This work will comprise a Grammar of Early Welsh with special
reference to Middle- Welsh prose. To the grammar will be added
selected passages from Early Welsh texts in prose and verse, together
with notes and a glossary compiled by TIMOTHY LEWIS, B.A.
[In October.
A GLOSSARY TO THE BLACK BOOK OF CHIRK MANU-
SCRIPT OF THE WELSH LAWS. By TIMOTHY LEWIS, B.A.
Demy 8vo.
This will include a complete glossary to the oldest copy of the " Laws
of Howel Dda," contained in the " Black Book of Chirk," and will be
based on the photographic facsimile of that manuscript which is about to
be published by Dr. J. Gwenogvryn Evans in his collection of Welsh
texts. [In Preparation,
THE LANGUAGE OF THE ANNALS OF ULSTER. By TOMAS
O'MAiLLE, M.A. Demy 8vo.
The objects of this dissertation are firstly to investigate the date at
which certain old-Irish phonological developments took place, and
secondly to give an account of old-Irish declension as evidenced by the
language of the Annals of Ulster. An Appendix on the analysis of
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Economic Series.
SOME ELECTRO-CHEMICAL CENTRES. Gartside Report. By
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Historical Series.
STUDIES SUPPLEMENTARY TO STUBBS' CONSTITUTIONAL
HISTORY. Vol I. By CH. PETIT-DUTAILIS, Lit.D., rector of
the University of Grenoble. Translated from the French by W. E.
RHODES, M.A., and edited by Prof. JAMES TAIT, M.A.
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appended by Prof. Petit -Dutaillis to his translation into French of the
first volume of Stubbs' Constitutional History of England. It is believed
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the results of recent historical research so far as they throw light upon
or modify the conclusions expressed thirty years ago by the late Bishop
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HANDBOOK OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES. By R. W. MARSDEN,
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MODERN PROBLEMS IN PSYCHIATRY. By E. LTJGARO, Professor
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Translated from the Italian by DAVID ORR, M.D., Assistant Medical
Officer and Pathologist to the County Asylum, Prestwich; and
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County Asylum, Lancaster. With an introduction by T. S. CLOUSTON,
M.D., Physician Superintendent, Royal Asylum, Morningside, and
Lecturer on Mental Diseases in Edinburgh University.
Deals with the problems met with in studying the causation of in-
sanity. These problems are discussed under the headings of psycho-
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practical. There are 13 illustrations in the anatomical section.
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DISEASES OF THE EAR. By W. MILLIGAN, M.D., Lecturer on
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Ophthalmology, and A. HILL GRIFFITH, M.D., Ophthalmic Surgeon
to the Manchester Royal Infirmary. [In Preparation.
HANDBOOK OF NERVOUS DISEASES. By JUDSON S. BURY, M.D.,
Lecturer on Clinical Neurology and Physician to the Manchester
Royal Infirmary. [In Preparation.
Zoological Series.
STRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT AND BIONOMICS OF THE
HOUSE FLY. By C. GORDON HEWITT, M.Sc. [In Preparation.
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MELANDRA CASTLE, being the Report of the Manchester and
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