Full text of "A source-book of ancient history"

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by the

ONTARIO LEGISLATIVE
LIBRARY

1980

A SOURCE-BOOK OF ANCIENT HISTORY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO
DALLAS SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED

LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA. LTD.

TORONTO

A SOURCE-BOOK

ANCIENT HISTORY ""

GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD, PH.D.

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY; AUTHOR OF "THE

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATHENIAN CONSTITUTION," "THE ROM AN

ASSEMBLIES," "A HISTORY OF GREECE," "A HISTORY OF

ROME," "A HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD," ETC.

AND

LILLIE SHAW BOTSFORD

AUTHOR (WITH G. w. BOTSFORD) OF
"THE STORY OF ROME AS GREEKS AND ROMANS TELL IT"

fork

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1912

BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Set up and electrotyped. Published December,

OF T. MOREY & SON
GREENFIELD, MASS., U. 8. A.

PREFACE

THIS volume may be used in connection with any course
in Ancient Histoiv. It is especially intended, however,
to serve as an autiliary to Botsford's "History of the
Ancient World." The material has accordingly been
arranged in chapters parallel to those of this text-book,
to which references are constantly given.

Some of the selections have been translated by friends
especially by Dr. E. G. Sihler of New York University
and Miss Rachel R. Hiller and others by ourselves;
but most of them have been taken from published trans-
lations, to which credit is duly given. Particularly in the
case of excerpts from translations by scholars of recog-
nized merit, we have followed the policy of making the
least possible revision, even to the extent of allowing some
inconsistencies in the spelling of proper names. Readers
will thus be reminded that the spelling of Greek names is
far from being standardized.

As to the use of the volume, we advise that the pupils
read each chapter in connection with their study of the
corresponding chapter of the text-book. The questions,
which suggest the more important facts to be gathered
from the selections, are to be regarded merely as ex-
amples. The teacher may modify or expand them ac-
cording to the needs of the class. In the case of the
more mature pupils, greater attention should be given
to a study of the authors and to the critical appreciation
of the selections than these illustrative questions indicate.
In such work the pupils could advantageously use Mur-
ray's "History of Ancient Greek Literature;" Mahaffy's

Preface

" History of Classical Greek Literature;" Mackail's
"Latin Literature;" Duff's "Literary History of Rome;"
Teuffel and Schwabe's "History of Romz/n Literature;"
and the histories of Greece and of Rome /by Grote, Cur-
tius, Holm, Mommsen, Duruy, and others. Historical
criticism, however, involving the careful weighing of evi-
dence and the valuation of the reliability of authors and
documents, is an exceedingly complex and difficult work,
which must in the main be reserved for students of Uni-
versity grade.

It is to be noticed that the questions rarely call for an
expression of opinion as to the right or wrong, the folly
or wisdom, of an action. It is true that when an act is
obviously right or wrong, the character of the pupil may
be strengthened by his being called upon to pronounce
judgment; but nothing so conduces to superficial self-
sufficiency as the practice of declaring off-hand opinions
on subjects but partially and one-sidedly known. The
power of discrimination, most essential to a well-developed
mind, may be better cultivated by exercise in determin-
ing, for instance, what is relevant and what irrelevant
to a given subject, what are the facts in the case and
what is merely opinion, what are the essential elements
of a given subject, and what are its connections with re-
lated subjects. In text-books the material is so selected
and arranged as to train the memory more than any other
mental faculty. The sources, on the other hand, while
bringing the reader into close, almost personal touch with
the individuals and events treated, have the advantage
of presenting a body of raw material, on which the mind
may exercise itself, especially in discrimination. The
selections would be robbed of this value by excessive
comment and by the elimination of all obscurities, un-

Preface vii

familiar names, and other difficulties. It will be a great
advantage to the pupil to learn by experience that, with-
out being able to pronounce every proper name or to
clear up every difficulty in a given passage, he may yet
extract useful information from it. With no detriment
to himself or to others, he may learn, too, at an early age
that neither teacher nor author is omniscient.

There are already in existence good source-books for
Greece and Rome, to which references are given in Bots-
ford's text-books in ancient history. To those who wish
a greater amount of source material on Rome, woven into
a connected, readable narrative extending from the found-
ing of the city to the death of Marcus Aurelius, and
abounding in interesting sketches of characters and cus-
toms, we recommend our " Story of Rome as Greeks and
Romans tell it." The present volume may claim the
unique merit of rendering Oriental sources available for
high-school and college courses in ancient history. It
includes, too, certain classes of sources for Greece and
Rome not represented in other books of the kind. The
aim, however, has been not novelty but usefulness.

EXPLANATIONS

Greece, Rome, and Ancient World are abbreviated titles
of Botsford, History of Greece, History of Rome, and His-
tory of the Ancient World, respectively.

Words supplied by the editors are enclosed in paren-
theses.

The design on the cover represents a herm of Herodotus
now in the Berlin Museum.

GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD
LILLIE SHAW BOTSFORD
MOUNT VERNON, New York,

October 30, 1912.

CONTENTS

BOOK I

THE ORIENTAL NATIONS

CHAPTER PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION TO THE SOURCES i

II. EGYPT 5

III. THE TIGRIS-EUPHRATES VALLEY 27

IV. SYRIA: THE PHOENICIANS AND THE HEBREWS 42

V. THE MEDIAN AND PERSIAN EMPIRES 55

BOOK II

HELLAS

VI. INTRODUCTION TO THE SOURCES 67

VII. THE CRETAN AND MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATIONS 77

VIII. THE EPIC OR HOMERIC AGE 81

IX. MYTH AND RELIGION 88

X. THE CITY-STATE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT 97

XL ECONOMY AND COLONIZATION 103

XII. THE RISE OF SPARTA AND THE PELOPONNESIAN LEAGUE in

XIII. ATHENS: FROM MONARCHY TO DEMOCRACY 123

XIV. THE POETS AND THE PHILOSOPHERS 141

XV. THE IONIC REVOLT 152

XVI. THE WAR BETWEEN GREECE AND PERSIA 162

XVII. THE DELIAN CONFEDERACY AND THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE 175

XVIII. THE AGE OF PERICLES 180

XIX. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR TO THE SICILIAN EXPEDI-
TION 211

XX. FROM THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION TO THE END OF THE

WAR 218

XXI. SICILY: THE TYRANT AND THE LIBERATOR 241

x Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

XXII. THE SUPREMACY OF SPARTA 247

XXIII. THEBES ATTEMPTS TO GAIN THE SUPREMACY 258

XXIV. THE RISE OF MACEDON 266

XXV. ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE 276

XXVI. GREEK LIFE AND THOUGHT 283

XXVII. THE HELLENISTIC AGE 297

BOOK III

ROME

XXVIII. A. INTRODUCTION TO THE SOURCES 313

B. ITALY AND HER PEOPLE 326

XXIX. ROME UNDER THE KINGS ' 334

XXX. THE EARLY REPUBLIC: (I) THE PLEBEIANS WIN

THEIR RIGHTS 348

XXXI. THE EARLY REPUBLIC: (II) ROME BECOMES SU-
PREME IN ITALY 361

XXXII. ROMAN ORGANIZATION: PROGRESS IN CULTURE. . . 371

XXXIII. THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS 379

XXXIV. THE END OF GREEK FREEDOM 389

XXXV. GROWTH OF PLUTOCRACY; PROGRESS IN CIVILIZATION 397

XXXVI. THE REVOLUTION: (I) FROM PLUTOCRACY TO MILI-
TARY RULE 417

XXXVII. THE REVOLUTION: (II) THE MILITARY POWER IN

CONFLICT WITH THE REPUBLIC 433

XXXVIII. THE FOUNDING OF THE PRINCIPATE; AUGUSTUS AND

TIBERIUS 464

XXXIX. FROM PRINCIPATE TO MONARCHY: THE CLAUDIAN

AND FLAVIAN PRINCES 480

XL. THE PERIOD OF THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS 502

XLI. EARLY HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY 521

XLII. THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY 527

XLIII. SOME ASPECTS OF THE DECLINE 537

XLIV. THE NORTHERN BARBARIANS 544

XLV. ROMAN LIFE UNDER THE LATE EMPIRE 558

XL VI. THE MOHAMMEDANS AND THE FRANKISH POWER . . 574
INDEX 585

A Source-Book of Ancient History

BOOK I
The Oriental Nations

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO THE SOURCES

Ax the opening of the last century almost our only Greek
sources of information for ancient Egypt, Babylonia,
and Assyria were the works of the Greeks. For the earlier
history of the first two countries here named these writers See chapter
had to depend largely on folk tales, which though not real
history throw a clearer light on the customs and thought
of the Orientals than could any narrative of events how-
ever detailed. Even at the present day, notwithstanding
the vast accumulation of other sources, we are attracted
to Herodotus, "the Father of History," who visited
Egypt and Babylon about the middle of the fifth cen-
tury B.C. In simple, charming style, he wrote down what
he himself saw and what the priests and others told him of
native history, religion, social customs, and achievements
in engineering and architecture. Although we can place
little dependence upon his account of earlier times, his
own age he portrays with great fidelity. For geography,
products, and to some extent customs we may still use
Strabo, the famous Greek geographer who wrote in the
first century of the Christian era. Scattered through
Greek and Roman literature are many incidental but

Introduction to the Sources

Native
sources for
Egypt, Bab-
ylonia, and
Assyria.

Sources for
Syria.

P. 47.

Sources for
Persia.

valuable references to the Orient, with here and there
more extended summaries of history and chronology.

Our knowledge of that part of the world, however, has
been vastly increased since the beginning of the nineteenth
century by the decipherment of ancient scripts, first the
Egyptian and afterward the Babylonian. The great value
of these native sources lies in the facts (i) that they are
nearly always contemporary with the persons, events, or
conditions to which they refer, (2) that they are composed
by natives and present therefore the native attitude of mind
and mode of thought, (3) that their abundance and variety
enable us to examine with great minuteness and accuracy
all the activities of these nations in war, commerce and
industry, the useful and fine arts, religion, morals, and
science in brief every field of thought and endeavor of
the poor and lowly as well as of kings and officials. We are
therefore especially well provided with the means of study-
ing the Egyptians, Babylonians and Assyrians.

Of the peoples of Syria we have almost no early writ-
ten records in addition to the letters found at Tel-el-
Amarna, Egypt, described below. These letters, written
in the fifteenth century by various governors of the Syrian
cities to the Egyptian king, throw an interesting light
especially on Palestine before its conquest by the Hebrews.
Almost nothing has reached us from the Phoenicians,
whereas the Hebrews created a rich literature in the books
of the Old Testament.

The Persians were a race of warriors, and the inscrip-
tions of their kings are, like those of Assyria, mainly a
record of conquest and building. There remains, however,
a considerable part of their sacred books comprised in the
Avesta. The beginnings of these writings belong to Media.
From that country they were adopted by the Persians,

Bibliography 3

who gradually added to them as their religion expanded.
This entire body of writings, however, purported to be a
revelation of God to his prophet Zoroaster (native name
Zarathrustra). Although some modern scholars look
upon this figure as a myth, it seems more probable that
he was a historical person who lived in the latter half of
the seventh century B.C. The religion he taught is Ancient
called Zoroastrianism after himself, or Mazdeism, after
his supreme God, Ahura Mazda. It is an interesting
fact that of all the pagan worships which flourished in
Egypt and southwestern Asia Mazdeism alone has sur-
vived to the present day. It is held by a sect called the
Parsis, who, when the Mohammedans conquered Persia, 642 A.D.
fled to India, where they are still settled.

BOOKS FROM WHICH SELECTIONS HAVE BEEN MADE

The Holy Bible. New York: Hurst and Co.

Birch, S., editor, Records of the Past: Being English Translations of
the Assyrian and Egyptian Monuments, i-xii (1875-1881).
London: Samuel Bagster and Sons.

Sayce, A. H., editor, Records of the Past: Being English Translations
of the Ancient Monuments of Egypt and Western Asia. New
Series, i-vi (1888-1892). Bagster and Sons. This series is in-
dicated thus, i, 2 ii, 8 iii, 3 etc.

Baum, H. M., and Wright, F. B., editors, Records of the Past. Wash-
ington, D. C.: Exploration Society (a volume annually, beginning
1902). Referred to as (American) Records of the Past. It is
devoted mainly to brief studies, but contains an occasional
translation.

Breasted, J. H., editor and translator, Ancient Records of Egypt,
S vols. Chicago: University Press (1906).

King, L. W., Studies in Eastern History, 3 vols. London: Luzac and
Co. (1004-1907).

King, L. W., The Letters and Inscriptions .of Hammurabi, vol. iii.
Luzac and Co. (1900).

4 Introduction to the Sources

Harper, R. F., The Code of Hammurabi King of Babylon. Chicago:
University Press (1904). Translation and commentary.

Darmesteter, J., The Zend-Avesta, 2 pts. in F. Max Muller's Sacred
Books of the East, vols. iv, xxiii. Oxford: Clarendon Press
(1880, 1883).

Herodotus, see p. 75.

Strabo, see p. 76.

CHAPTER II
EGYPT

I. THE NILE

THE Nile, when it leaves the boundaries of Ethiopia, The Delta,
flows in a straight line toward the North, to the tract
called the Delta, then, cloven at the head, as Plato says, Strabo xvii.
it makes this point the apex of a triangle, the sides of
which are formed by streams. ... An island is thus
formed by the sea and the two streams of the river,
called the Delta from its resemblance to the letter of that
name A.

At the time of the rising of the Nile the whole valley
is covered and resembles the sea, except the inhabited
parts, which are on natural hills or mounds; the larger
cities and the villages appear like islands on the distant
prospect.

After having continued on the ground more than forty
days in Summer, the water subsides by degrees in the same
manner as it. arose. In sixty days the plain is entirely
exposed to view and dries up. The sooner the land is dry,
so much the sooner the plowing and sowing are ac-
complished, and it dries earlier in those parts where the
heat is greater. The country above the Delta is irrigated
in the same manner, except that the river flows in a straight
channel to the distance of about four thousand stadia
unless where some island intervenes.

In later times persons learned by experience as eye-
witnesses that the Nile owes its rise to summer rains, which

Egypt

Farm labor
is easy.

Herodotus
ii. 14-

fall in great abundance in Upper Ethiopia, especially
in the most distant mountains. When the rains cease,
the fulness of the river gradually subsides. This was
particularly observed by those who navigated the Arabian
Gulf on their way to the Cinnamon country and by those
who were sent to hunt elephants, or for such other pur-
poses as induced the Ptolemies to send persons in that
direction.

II, FERTILITY

They (the Egyptians) gather the fruit of the earth with
far less labor than any other people. . . . For they do not
toil in breaking furrows with the plow nor in hoeing it,
nor in doing any other work in which men are employed
in raising a crop; but when the river of its own accord
comes up over the field and waters it and then withdraws
to its bed, each farmer sows his field with seed and turns
the swine into it; and when the swine have trodden the
seed down, he awaits the harvest. Then he threshes by
means of the swine and gathers in his crop.

The greatest
pyramid.

Herodotus
ii. 124.

The remains
of two cause-
ways are
extant.

III. THE PYRAMIDS

After Cheops had ascended the throne, he brought the
country into every manner of evil. First closing all the
temples, he forbade sacrificing there, then ordered all the
Egyptians to work for him. Some he bade draw stones
from the quarries in the Arabian mountains about the
Nile; others were ordered to receive them after they had
been carried over the river in boats, and to draw them to
the Libyan mountains. And they worked in groups of
100,000 men, each group for three months continually.
Ten years of oppression for the people were required for
making the causeway by which they dragged the stones.

The Greatest Pyramid 7

This causeway which they built was not a much inferior
work to the pyramid itself, as it seems to me; for the
length is five stades and the breadth ten fathoms: its high- A stade

3 (stadium)

est point is eight fathoms; it is made of polished stones and was 600 feet.

engraved with the figures of living beings. Ten years were

required for this, and for the works on the mound, where

the pyramids stand, and for the underground chambers

in the island, which he intended as sepulchral vaults for No trace of

his own use, and lastly for the canal which he dug from the now be found.

Nile. The pyramid was building 20 years; it is square;

each side measures 800 feet and its height is the same;

the stones are polished and fitted together with the utmost

exactness. Not one of them is less than 30 feet in length.

The pyramid was built in steps, battlement-wise, or Lifting ma-
as some say, altar-wise. After laying the base, they lifted
the remaining stones to their places by means of machines, Ib. 125.
made of short pieces of wood. The first machine raised
them from the ground to the top of the first step; and when
the stone had been lifted thus far, it was drawn to the top
of the second step by another machine; for they had as
many machines as steps, or they lifted the same machine,
which was made so as to be easily carried, from one step
to the other for the purpose of elevating the stones; for I
give both methods as they were told me. At any rate,
the highest parts were finished first, then the next, and so
on till they came to the parts resting on the ground,
namely the base. It is set down in Egyptian writing on the
pyramid how much was spent on radishes and leeks and
onions for the workmen; and I remember well the in-
terpreter read the sum of 1600 talents of silver. Now if
these figures are correct, how much more must have been
spent on the iron which with they worked, and on the food
and clothing of the workmen, considering the length of

Egypt

time which the work lasted, and an additional period,
as I understand, during which they cut and brought the
stones, and made the excavations.

The con-
tracting
parties.

Ancient
World, 12.

Renewal of
old relations.

IV. TREATY BETWEEN RAMESES II AND THE HITTITES

A treaty of peace was signed between Rameses II and the Hittite
King, 1 272, the earliest treaty now extant. The following is the more
important part of it. Breasted, Records of Ancient Egypt, iii. pp. 165-
174.

The treaty which the great chief of the Hittites, Khet-
asar, the valiant, the son of Merasar, the great chief of
the Hittites, the valiant, the grandson of Seplel, the great
chief of the Hittites, the valiant, made upon a silver tab-
let for Rameses II, the great ruler of Egypt, the valiant;
. . . the good treaty of peace and of brotherhood, setting
peace between them forever. . . .

Behold, then, Khetasar, the great chief of the Hittites,
^ m a treaty re l a tion with Rameses II, the great ruler of
Egypt, beginning with this day, in order to bring about
good peace and good brotherhood between us forever,
while he is in brotherhood with me; and I am in brother-
hood with him, and I am in peace with him forever.
Since Metella, the great chief of the Hittites, my brother,
succumbed to his fate, and Khetasar sat as great chief
of the Hittites upon the throne of his father, behold, I am
together with Rameses-Meriamon, the great ruler of
Egypt, and he is with me in our peace and our brother-
hood. It is better than the former peace and brotherhood
which were in the land. Behold, I, even the great chief
of the Hittites, am with Rameses, the great ruler of
Egypt, in good peace and in good brotherhood. The
children of the children of the great chief of the Hittites
shall be in brotherhood and peace with the children of the

The Earliest Extant Treaty 9

children of Rameses-Meriamon, the great ruler of Egypt,
being in our relations of brotherhood and our relations
of peace, that the land of Egypt may be with the land of
the Hittites in peace and brotherhood, like ourselves,
forever.

There shall be no hostilities between them forever. Neither

party shall
The great chief of the Hittites shall not pass over into the attack the

land of Egypt, forever, to take anything therefrom. Ram-
eses-Meriamon, the great ruler of Egypt, shall not pass
over into the land of the Hittites to take anything there-
from, forever. . . .

If another enemy come against the lands of Rameses, Defensive

alliance,
the great ruler of Egypt, and he shall send to the great

chief of the Hittites, saying, "Come with me as reinforce-
ment against him," the great chief of the Hittites shall
come, and the great chief of the Hittites shall slay his
enemy. But if it shall not be the desire of the great chief
of the Hittites to come, he shall send his infantry and his
chariotry, and shall slay his enemy.

Or if Rameses-Meriamon, the great ruler of Egypt, be
provoked against delinquent subjects, when they have
committed some other fault against him, and he come to
slay them, then the great chief of the Hittites shall act
with the lord of Egypt.

If another enemy come against the great chief of the
Hittites and he shall send to the great chief of Egypt,
Rameses for reinforcements, then he shall come to him
as reinforcement, to slay his enemy. But if it be not the
desire of Rameses-Meriamon, the great ruler of Egypt
to come, he shall send his infantry and his chariotry and
shall slay his enemy. . . .

If any great man of the land of Egypt shall flee and
shall come to the great chief of the Hittites, from either a

Egypt

Extradition
clause.

The docu-
ment con-
tains a simi-
lar clause in
favor of the
Hittites.

The gods are
witnesses.

town or. . . of the lands of Rameses-Meriamon, the great
ruler of Egypt, and they shall come to the great chief of
the Hittites, then the great chief of the Hittites shall not
receive them, but the great chief of the Hittites shall cause
them to be brought to Rameses, the great ruler of Egypt,
their lord therefor. . . .

As for the words of this contract of the great chief
of the Hittites with Rameses-Meriamon, the great ruler
of Egypt, written upon this silver tablet; as for these
words, a thousand gods of the male gods and of the female
gods, of those of the land of the Hittites, together with a
thousand gods, of the male and of the female gods of those
of the land of Egypt, they are with me as witnesses to
these words.

Ptah ad-
dresses
Rameses II.

Ptah (artist-
god), chief
deity of Mem-
phis; Num
(Khnum)
creator and
protector;
Hathor, god-
dess of love
and pleasure,
often in form
of a cow.

V. RAMESES II, SON AND SECOND SELF OF THE GOD PTAH-
TOTUNEN

This extract from a much longer inscription found at Abu-Simbel,
Egypt, gives, perhaps better than any other passage, an idea of the
divine perfection, majesty, and almighty power of the Egyptian king
as the son and incarnation of the chief deity. Interesting is the in-
cidental reference to the successful close of the war with the Hittites
and to the king's marriage with the Hittite princess. Records of the
Past, xii. 85-89.

Thus speaks Ptah-Totunen with the high plumes,
armed with horns, the father of the gods, to his son who
loves him. . . .

Num and Ptah have nourished thy childhood, they leap
with joy when they see thee made after my likeness, noble,
great, exalted. The great princesses of the house of Ptah
and the Hathors of the temple of Tern are in festival,
their hearts are full of gladness, their hands take the drum
with joy, when they see thy person beautiful and lovely

Rameses II n

like my Majesty. . . . King Rameses, I grant thee to
cut the mountains into statues immense, gigantic, ever-
lasting; I grant that foreign lands find for thee precious
stone to inscribe the monuments with thy name.
I give thee to succeed in all the works which thou hast Success in

all under-
done. I give thee all kinds of workmen, all that goes on takings.

two or four feet, all that flies and all that has wings. I
have put in the heart of all nations to offer thee what they
have done; themselves, princes great and small, with one
heart seek to please thee, King Rameses. Thou hast built
a great residence to fortify the boundary of the land,
the city of Rameses; it is established on the earth like the
four pillars of the sky; hast constructed within a royal
palace, where festivals are celebrated to thee as is done
for me within. I have set the crown on thy head with my
own hands, when thou appearest in the great hall of the
double throne; and men and gods have praised thy name
like mine when my festival is celebrated.

Thou hast carved my statues and built my shrines as Rameses
I have done in times of old. I have given thee years by tion of Ptah.
periods of thirty; thou reignest in my place on my throne;
I fill thy limbs with life and happiness, I am behind thee to
protect thee; I give thee health and strength; I cause
Egypt to be submitted to thee, and I supply the two
countries with pure life. King Rameses, I grant that the
strength, the vigor, and the might of thy sword be felt
among all countries; thou castest down the hearts of all
nations; I have put them under thy feet; thou comest
forth every day in order that be brought to thee the foreign
prisoners; the chiefs and the great of all nations offer thee
their children. I give them to thy gallant sword that thou
mayest do with them what thou likest. King Rameses,
I grant that the fear of thee be in the minds of all and thy

12 Egypt

command in their hearts. I grant that thy valor reach all
countries, and that the dread of thee be spread over all
lands; the princes tremble at thy remembrance, and thy
majesty is fixed on their heads; they come to thee as sup-
plicants to implore thy mercy. Thou givest life to whom
thou wishest, and thou puttest to death whom thou pleas-
est; the throne of all nations is in thy possession. . . .
Power of the King Rameses, I have exalted thee through such marvel-
ous endowments that heaven and earth leap for joy and
those who are within praise thy existence; the mountains,
the water, and the stone walls which are on the earth
are shaken when they hear thy excellent name, since they
have seen what I have accomplished for thee; which is
that the land of the Hittites should be subjected to thy
palace; I have put in the heart of the inhabitants to an-
ticipate thee themselves by their obeisance in bringing
thee their presents. Their chiefs are prisoners, all their
property is the tribute in the dependency of the living king,
the Hittite Their royal daughter is at the head of them; she comes to
princess. soften the heart of King Rameses; her merits are marvel-
ous, but she does not know the goodness which is in thy
heart.

VI. HYMN TO AMON (AMMON)

When Thebes

became the Records of the Past, vi. 99 f .

residence of

Amon(Am- I cry, the beginning of wisdom is the way of Amon, the rudder of
mon, or truth.

An ) en ,)' chief Th u art he that giveth bread to him who has none,

god of the

city, became That sustaineth the servant of his house.

the supreme L e t no prince be my defender in all my troubles.

and^stupen-' L et not m y memorial be placed under the power

dous temple Of any man who is in the house . . . My Lord is my defender;

hhn^AncienS * know his P wer > to wit > ne is a strong defender;
World, 1 6. There is none mighty except him alone.

The Nile a Deity

Strong is Amon, knowing how to answer,
Fulfilling the desire of him who cries to him;
The Sun the true King of Gods,
The Strong Bull, the mighty lover of power.

VII. HYMN TO THE NILE

By the scribe Ennana. It represents the idea that "the Nile is the
source of all life in Egypt, that it is the supreme god, mysterious, un-
created, the father of the gods and all things else, into whose secrets
none can penetrate. He describes in a lofty style the benefits con-
ferred by the Nile when it spreads its waters over the country at its
annual return." Records of the Past, iii. a 48-54.

Adoration to the Nile!

Hail to thee, O Nile!

Who manifestest thyself over this land,

And comest to give life to Egypt!

Mysterious is thy issuing forth from the darkness,

On this day whereon it is celebrated!

Watering the orchards created by Re

To cause all the cattle to live,

Thou givest the earth to drink, inexhaustible one!

Path that descendest from the sky,

Loving the bread of Seb and the first fruits of Nepera,

Thou causest the workshops of Ptah to prosper! . . .

He brings the offerings, as chief of provisioning;

He is creator of all good things,

As master of energy, full of sweetness in his choice.

If offerings are made it is thanks to him.

He brings forth the herbage for the flocks,

And sees that each god receives his sacrifices.

All that depends on him is a precious incense.

He spreads himself over Egypt,

Filling the granaries, renewing the marts,

Watching over the goods of the unhappy.

He is prosperous to the height of all desires,
Without fatiguing himself therefor.
He brings again his lordly bark;

Giver of
Life.

Its sources
were un-
known.

Re, the sun-
god.

Seb, god of
earth; Ptah,
chief god of
Memphis.

Creator of
all good.

Incessantly
active.

Egypt

Uraeus, -He is not sculptured in stone, in the statues crowned with the uraeus

snake-symbol prnpnt

of divinity or 56rpent '

royalty, worn He cannot be contemplated.

on headdress. N O servitors has he, 'no bearers of offerings!

He is not enticed by incantations!

None knows the place where he dwells,

None discovers his retreat by the power of a written spell . . .

Nourisher of Establisher of justice! mankind desires thee,

mankind. Supplicating thee to answer their prayers; thou answerest them by
the inundation!

Men offer the first fruits of corn;

All the gods adore thee!

The birds descend not on the soil.

It is believed that with thy hand of gold

Thou makest bricks of silver!

But we are not nourished on lapis lazuli;

Corn alone gives vigor. . . .

Offerings to Q inundation of the Nile,

thee.

Tuau, the
other world.

Prosper, O
giver of
prosperity 1

His son is
pharaoh.

Offerings are made to thee,

Oxen are immolated to thee,

Great festivals are instituted for thee.

Birds are sacrificed to thee,

Gazelles are taken for thee in the mountain.

Pure flames are prepared for thee.

Sacrifice is made to every god as it is made to the Nile.

The Nile has made its retreats in Southern Egypt,

Its name is not known beyond the Tuau.

The god manifests not his forms,

He baffles all conception.

Men exalt him like the cycle of the gods,

They dread him who creates the heat,

Even him who has made his son the universal master

In order to give prosperity to Egypt.

Come and prosper! come and prosper!

O Nile, come and prosper!

O thou who makest men to live through his flocks,

And his flocks through his orchards!

Tombs; Precepts 15

Come and prosper, come,
O Nile, come and prosper!

This work has been successfully finished and dedicated to the
scribe of the treasury Qaqabu (by the scribe Ennana).

VIII. SPOLIATION OF TOMBS

This extract is a single clause in an extensive report made by a
commission for examining into the condition of cemeteries appointed
by Rameses IX (about noo). From this and other sources we learn
that tomb robbery was an oft-committed crime. Records of the Past,
xii. 107.

Sepulchres and chapels in which repose the chanters
and mourners, the women and men of the country, in the
west-quarter of the city. It was found that the thieves
had violated them all, that they had torn their occupants
away from their coffins and cases, had thrown them into
the dust and had stolen all the funeral objects which had
been given to them, as well as the gold and silver and the
ornaments which were in their coffins.

IX. EGYPTIAN PRECEPTS

The following precepts are taken from the "oldest book in the
world," written on papyrus. It was discovered in the necropolis of
Thebes and first published in 1847. It is now in the National Library
in Paris.

The first part, in which we find some precepts concerning manners The third and

and morals, was composed in the reign of Senoferu (third dynasty). . n ^ yn ^ s ,~.

; ; ties lie within
The last part was composed by the prefect Ptah-hotep m the reign 2900-2540.

of Assa (fifth dynasty). (American) Records of the Past, i. 311-320.

If thou sittest down to eat with a number, despise the n eating in

company,
dishes which thou lovest; it is but a short time to restrain

thyself ; and voracity is something degrading, for there is
bestiality in it. As a glass of water quenches thirst, as a

Egypt

Moral

proverbs and
precepts;
Ancient
World, 19.

Conduct to-
ward chil-
dren.

Treatment
of the quar-
relsome.

mouthful of vegetables strengthens the heart, as one good
takes the place of another good, as a very little takes the
place of much, he who is drawn away by his stomach when
he is not on the watch is a worthless man. With such
people the stomach is master. However, if thou sittest
down to eat with a glutton, to keep up with him in eating
will lead afar; and if thou drinkest with a great drinker,
accept to please him. Do not reject the meats, even from
a man repugnant to thee; take what he gives thee, and do
not leave it; truly that is disagreeable.

Do not harden the hearts of thy children. Instruct
those who will be in thy place; but when he does not per-
mit, none knows the events which God brings to pass. Let
the chief talk to his children, after he has accomplished
the human condition; they will gain honor for themselves
by increasing in well doing, starting from that which he
has told them.

He says to his son: Be not proud because of thy knowl-
edge; converse with the ignorant as with the scholar; for
the barriers of art are never closed, no artist ever
possessing that perfection to which he should aspire.
But wisdom is more difficult to find than the emerald;
which is found by slaves among the rocks of pegma-
tite.

If thou hast to do with a disputer while he is in his heat,
and if he is superior to thee in ability, lower the hands,
bend the back, do not get into a passion with him. As
he will not permit thee to spoil his speech, it is very wrong
to interrupt him; that shows thou art not able to keep
quiet when thou art contradicted. If then thou hast to do
with a disputer while he is in his heat, act as one not to be
moved. Thou hast the advantage over him, if only in
keeping silent when his speech is bad. "Better is he who

Precepts 17

refrains," says the audience; and thou art right in the
opinion of the great. ...

If thou art in the position of leader, to decide the con- Treatment
dition of a large number of men, seek the best way, that under your
thine own position may be without reproach. Justice is au onty '
great, unchangeable and assured; it has not been dis-
turbed since the time of Osiris. To put an obstacle in the Osiris onc e a

, TTT-ii ruleron earth,

way of the laws, is to open the way before violence. Will now the god
the low be exalted if the unjust does not succeed to the
place of justice, he who says: "I take for myself, ac-
cording to my will," but does not say, "I take by my
authority." The limits of justice are unchangeable; this
is a precept which each man receives from his father.

Do not intimidate men; or God will likewise contend
with thee. . . .

If thou art among persons who are sitting down to eat
a,t the house of one greater than thyself, take what he gives riors
thee, bowing low. Look at what is before thee, bowing pro-
foundly. Look at what is before thee; but do not stare at
it: do not look at it frequently; he is blameworthy who
breaks this rule. Do not speak to him (the great man)
more than he asks, for one does not know what might dis-
please him. Speak when he invites thee to do so, and thy
word will please. . . .

If thou art one of those who carry messages from one Conduct as a

J ' . . , messenger,

great man to another, keep exactly to that he has enjoined

upon thee. Beware of altering in speaking the repulsive
things which one great man addresses to another. He who
distorts the fidelity of his message by repeating only what
is pleasing in the words of any man, great or small, is a
detestable being. . . .

Be active during the time of thy existence, in doing
more than is commanded. Do no wrong in the time of

i8 Egypt

activity; he is blameworthy who wastes his hour. Do not
lose the daily opportunity for the increase of that which
thy house possesses. Activity produces riches, and riches
do not last when it (activity) slackens. . . .

Declare thy line of conduct without reserve; give thine
advice in the council of thy lord; there are people who take
all sides when they speak, so that, by not replying, they
may not grieve the one who has made a statement. . . .

If thou desirest that thy conduct be good and kept from
all evil, beware of all fits of bad temper. This is a sad
malady which leads to discord, and there is no more life
at all for the one who falls into it. For it brings quarrels
between fathers and mothers, as between br6thers and
sisters; it makes the wife and the husband abhor each other,
it contains all wickedness, it encloses all injuries. When a
man takes justice for his rule, walks in her ways, and dwells
with her, there is no room left for bad temper. . . .

If thou art wise, take care of thy house; love thy wife
purely. Fill her stomach; clothe her back; these are the
cares to give to her body. Caress her, fulfill her desire
during the time of thine existence; it is a kindness which
honors its master. Be not brutal; consideration will lead
her better than force; . . . this is her breath, her aim, her
gaze. This establishes her in thy house; if thou repellest
her, it is an abyss. Open thine arms to her for her arms;
call her, show her thy love. . . .

If thou art powerful, pay respect to knowledge and
calm speech. Command only to direct; to be absolute is to
enter into evil. Let not thy heart exalt itself, let it not be
cast down. Make thine orders heard, and make thy re-
plies understood; but speak without heat; let thy face be
stern. As for the vivacity of a warm heart, temper it; the
gentle man overcomes obstacles. The man who hurries

Precepts 19

all day long has not one good moment ; but he who amuses
himself all day long does not retain his house. Aim at the
right point as do the pilots; while one sits down, another
works, and applies himself to obeying the command.

Do not disturb a great man; do not distract the at- Attitude to-
ward the
tention of the busy man. His care is to accomplish his great or

task, and he strips his body for love of the work. Love for usy man '
the work they do brings men near to God. Therefore com-
pose thy face, even in the midst of trouble, so that peace
may be with thee. . . . These are the people who suc-
ceed where they apply themselves. . . .

If thou art great after having been low, if thou art rich *&** dut y of

one who has
after having been straitened, when thou art at the head of risen to

the city, learn not to take advantage of thy having risen to p01
the first rank; do not harden thy heart on account of thine
elevation; thou hast only become the steward of the goods
belonging to God. Do not put behind thee the neighbor
who is thine equal; be to him as a companion. . . .

Let thy face be bright during all the time of thy life. JJ^Jf 7 of
When one of those who entered carrying his products ness,
comes out of the place of toll with a drawn face, that shows
that his stomach is empty, and that the authorities are an
abhorrence to him. May that never happen to thee. . . .

Distinguish the overseer, who directs, from the laborer;
for manual labor is degrading, and inaction is honora-
ble. . . .

When a son receives the word of his father, there is no A son s ould

be teacna-

error in all his plans. So instruct thy son that he shall be ble.
a teachable man whose wisdom shall be pleasant to the
great. Let him direct his mouth according to that which
has been told him; in the teachableness of a son is seen
his wisdom. His conduct is perfect, while error carries
away him who will not be taught; to-morrow knowl-

20 Egypt

edge shall uphold him, while the ignorant shall be
crushed.

teachable As for tlie man w i thout experience, who hearkens not,

maa. he does nothing at all. He seeks knowledge in ignorance,

profit in injury; he commits all sorts of errors, seizing always

whatever is the opposite of praiseworthy. Thus he lives

only on the perishable. His food is the evil word that

charms him. He lives every day on what the great know

to be perishable; fleeing what is best for him, because of

the many errors which are before him each day. . . .

Obey a fa- DO that which thy master tells thee. Doubly good is

tncr or rnss

ter. the precept of our father, from whose flesh we come forth.

May what he tells us be in our hearts; do for him more
than he has said and satisfy him wholly. Surely a good
son is one of the gifts of God, a son doing better than he
has been told. For his master he does what is right,
throwing his whole heart into the ways.

Value of By following these lessons I secure that thy body shall

cepts. be in health, that the king shall be satisfied with thee in all

things, and that thou shalt gain years of life without failures.

They have gained for me upon earth one hundred and

ten years of life, with the gift of the favor of the king,

among the first of those whose works have made them

noble, doing the pleasure of the king in an honored place.

X. EPITAPH OF BEKA

This inscription is on a pillar in the Museum of Turin. Beka, the
deceased, was the great steward of the Public Granary. Its value
lies chiefly in the enumeration of virtues attributed to the deceased,
representing him as a perfect model of conduct in private and official
life. Records of the Past, x. 7-10.

A royal gift of offerings to the person of the Stew-
ard of the public granary, Beka, the justified. He says, I

An Epitaph 21

myself was just and true, without malice, having put God Hi justifi-
in my heart, and having been quick to discern his will, fore the
I reach the city of those who are in eternity. I have done the g Dead.
good upon earth; I have harbored no prejudice; I have not
been wicked; I have not approved of any offense or in-
iquity. I have taken pleasure in speaking the truth; I
have perceived the advantage it is to conform to this
practice upon the earth from the first action of my life
even to the tomb. My sure defence shall be to speak
it (truth) in the day when I reach the divine judges, the
skilful interpreters, discoverers of all actions, the chastisers
of sins. Pure is my soul. While living, I bear no malice.
There are no errors attributable to me, no sins of mine
are before their hand. I am come out of this trial with the
help of truth, and behold I am in the place of the ancients.
Bring ye the food of truth to the Steward of the public
granary, Beka, the justified.

He says, It was I who filled the heart of the Lord of the His relations
Two Regions, who was the beloved of the King of Upper Sd the*
Egypt, the favorite of the King of Lower Egypt, on ac- court -
count of my preeminent merits, which were the cause
of my promotion. Great was I in the place of millions
of true perfections. Wherever the King proceeded, I al-
ways approached his person, and went joyfully around
him adoring his goodness each day, and did homage to Double asp,
the double asp on his diadem throughout all time. . . . the king's im-
I have not made myself master over the lowly; I have done mortality,
no harm to men who honored their gods. I have spent
my lifetime in the life of truth, until I have attained the
age of veneration, being in favor with the King, and be-
loved by the great ones about him. The royal dwelling,
those who dwelt there, no ill will towards me was in their
heart. The men of the future, while they live, will be

22 Egypt

charmed by my remarkable merits. He who inhabits
the place of the fulness of health had given me an import-
ant post.

o- My sincerity and my goodness were in the heart of my
parents and father and mother; my affection was in them. Never have
e ows. j outraged it in my mode of action towards them from the
beginning of the time of my youth. Though great, yet
have I acted as if I had been a little one. I have not dis-
abled anyone worthier than myself. . . .

XI. PRODUCTS OF ARABIA

A group of inscriptions on the inner walls of an Egyptian temple
gives an account of the conquest of Arabia Felix by the Regent
Queen Mother of Thothmes III. It includes a description of the
spoils brought home by the expedition. Naturally these same prod-
ucts were imported from Arabia in time of peace. Records of the Past,
x. 14.

imports into The loading of the ships of transport with a great quant-
en/ World, 15. ity of the magnificent products of Arabia, with all kinds
of precious woods of the Holy Land, with heaps of incense
resin, with verdant incense trees, with ebony, with pure
ivory, with gold and silver from the land of Amu, with the
tesep-wood, and the cassia-bark, aham-incense and mes-
temkohl, and hounds, with skins of leopards of the South,
apes and monkeys, with women and children. Never
has a convoy been made like this one by any king since
the creation of the world.

XII. THE LABORING CLASSES

From a papyrus in the British Museum, copied in the nineteenth
dynasty from an original of the twelfth dynasty or earlier. The
document gives an account of the various occupations, and with
quaint humor pictures their hardships as contrasted with the easy
life of the scribe. Records of the Past, viii. 147-156.

Miseries of Labor 23

I have not seen a blacksmith on a commission, a founder The hard lot

, T . . . of mechan-

who goes on an embassy. I have seen the blacksmith ics.

at his work at the mouth of his furnace, his fingers like

the skin of a crocodile; he smells worse than the roe of a Ancient

fish. Every carpenter carrying tools is he more at rest

than the common laborers? His fields are of wood, his Cutting

wood

tools of metal; at night when he is free, he works his hands
further in making at night the lighting of his house. The
stone-cutter, he searches for employment in all kinds of
hard stones. When he has completed his task, his arms
are fatigued; when he is at rest, his knees and his back are
broken. The barber is shaving till evening; when he places
himself to eat, he reclines on his elbows. He betakes him-
self from street to street to seek after his shaving; he
wearies his hands to feed his stomach, as bees feed by their
labors. The boatman, he navigates to At'hu that he may
have his price. He has done beyond the power of his hands
in doing, to kill geese and flamingoes; he has suffered his
suffering; he approaches his orchard; he approaches his
house at night, for he must go again to his labors on the
morrow.
The little laborer with a field, he passes his life among The field-

TT r r laborer,

rustics. He is worn down for vines and pigs, to furnish builder,

his kitchen with what his fields have. His clothes are
heavy with weight; he is tied as a forced laborer; he goes
into the air and he suffers though coming forth well from
his fireplace. He is bastinadoed with a stick on his legs,
but escapes with his life. Shut against him is the wall of
every house drawn are the chambers. I tell you also
of the builder of precincts. Disease tastes him, for he is
in draughts of air. ... To go on to his end, his hands are
worn with labor. Disordered are his clothes. He eats
himself, the bread his fingers; he washes himself at one

24 Egypt

time only. He lowers himself to examine all directions.
His passage is from place to place, which is from ten to six
cubits; his passage is from month to month upon the
beams of the lotuses of the houses, while he does all its
work. Should there be bread for him, he gives it his
house. Exhausted are his children. The gardener brings
me wreaths (?); all his yokes are heavy; his hands are
chiefly on his neck. When he has done the fertilizing, he
passes the morning watering vegetables, the evening vines.
He has worked day by day; his stomach is wretched.
Ignorant of his mother is his name more tranquil than
any employment. The farmer, his garments are for eter-
nity. He elevates his voice like a bird. His fingers aid me,
for his arms are dry in the wind. He reposes at the middle
of the marshes, for he is a forced laborer. He is in good
health with the beasts. Illnesses taste him; he resides
among them. He arrives at his garden; he comes to his
house in the evening; he must go out next morning.
The weaver, The weaver inside the houses is more wretched than a
courier, and woman; his knees are at the place of his heart; he has not
men* W fk ~ tasted the air. Should he have done little in a day of his
weaving, he is dragged as a lily in a pool. He gives bread
to the porter that he may be allowed to behold the light.
The maker of weapons suffers extremely, going forth to
foreign countries. He gives a great deal for his asses,
more than the labors of his hands; he gives a great deal
for their pasturing in a field. He gives on the road; he
arrives at his garden; he reaches his house at night; he
must be off in the morning. The courier, going to foreign
countries, bequeaths his goods to his children, because
of the fears of beasts and Asiatics. What happens to him
when he is at Kam; he arrives at his garden; he goes to his
house in the evening; he must be off on the morrow. His

Miseries of Labor 25

heavy bond comes forth; no joys come. The dyer, his
fingers smell the smell of bad fish. His two eyes are
weary with very fatigue; his hand does not stop; he watches
at the rent of the old garment abominable are the clothes.
The sandal-maker is very miserable, he is always begging;
his health is as the health of a bad fish; he gnaws the
leather. The washerman, washing on the quay, traverses
the ground approaching the crocodiles. The father of
the water brings out the dirt: his hand does not stop. A
quiet employment is not before you, no easier than other
employment. His draughts are mixed up with his clothes :
not a limb of him is clean. There is given to him the bonds
of women, for he is in misfortunes. I lament to thee that
he passes his time with a bat. . . . The fowler of birds
suffers very much. The confines of Num are before thee,
when he says, "Let the net refuse." The god will not
show his forms; vain are his plans. I tell you the fisher-
man suffers more than any employment. Consider: is he
not toiling on the river? he is mixed up with the crocodiles.
Should the clumps of papyrus diminish, then he is crying
out for help. If he has not been told a crocodile is there,
terrors blind him.

STUDIES

1. Who was Strabo, and what did he write?. Who was Plato
(ch. vi)? How did they get their information as to Egypt? Describe
the overflow of the Nile and explain its cause.

2. Who was Herodotus (ch. vi)? What made the Nile so fertile?

3. Describe the building of the greatest pyramid. How was
Cheops able to build so grandly? What did the people probably
think of such undertakings?

4. Write in the simplest form the terms of treaty between Ram-
eses II and the Hittites, Who were the Hittites? What is meant by
extradition?

26 E gypt

5. Why did the King of Egypt think himself a god? What benefits
did he derive from Ptah? On what did he especially pride himself?

6. Who was Amon? What qualities and powers are ascribed to him
in this poem?

7. Why did the Egyptians worship the Nile? In this Hymn what
benefits do they say come from it?

8. What valuables did robbers find in tombs?

9. Write a list of the precepts in this extract from " the oldest book
in the world." How do these ideas of right and propriety compare
with ours?

10. Of what virtues does Beka boast in his epitaph? Is it likely
that he lived up to this standard?

11. From this list of the spoils of Arabia what do we infer as to the
Egyptian motive to conquest?

12. Make a list of the laboring classes found in this selection com-
posed by a scribe. What was the scribe's attitude toward manual
labor?

CHAPTER III

THE TIGRIS-EUPHRATES VALLEY
I. CHRONICLE OF THE REIGN OF S ARGON

The tablet translated below is in the British Museum. Although
this chronicle was composed in the second Babylonian period (after
606 B.C.), it is known to be a faithful epitome of a far earlier narra-
tive. King, Chronicles, ii. 3-9.

SARGON, King of Agade, through the royal gift of Ishtar His reign,
was exalted, and he possessed no foe nor rival. His glory B.Q
over the world he poured out. The Sea in the East he
crossed, and in the eleventh year the Country of the West Ancient
in its full extent his hand subdued. He united them under
one control; he set up his images in the West; their booty The Sea in
he brought over at his word. The sons of his palace for Persian Gulf.
five kasbu around he settled, and over the hosts of the ^en U mUes Ut
world he reigned supreme. Against Kasalla he marched,
and he turned Kasalla into mounds and heaps of ruins; he A Babylonian
destroyed the land and left not enough for a bird to rest
thereon. Afterward in his old age all the lands revolted
against him, and they beseiged him in Agade; and Sargon
went forth to battle and defeated them; he accomplished
their overthrow, and their widespreading host he destroyed.
Afterward he attacked the land of Subartu in his might,
and they submitted to his arms, and Sargon settled that
revolt, and defeated them; he accomplished their over-
throw, and their widespreading host he destroyed, and
he brought their possessions into Agade. The soil from
the trenches of Babylon he removed, and the boundaries

Probably he
made the ter-
ritory of
Agade as
large as that
of Babylon.

The Tigris-Euphrates Valley

of Agade he made like those of Babylon. But because of
the evil which he had committed the great lord Marduk
was angry, and he destroyed his people by famine. From
the rising of the Sun unto the setting of the sun they op-
posed him and gave him no rest.

II. ACHIEVEMENTS or HAMMURABI

An inscription in the Babylonian language, a dialect of the Semitic,
in the Museum of Paris. All the inscriptions of Oriental kings lay
stress on their great piety and on the favor of the gods through which
they rule and win victories in war. This document attests further
the paternal care of Hammurabi for his people. Records of the Past, i. 2

Hammurabi,
king of Bab-
ylon, 1958-
1916.

Ancient
World, 25.

Marduk, chief
god of Baby-
lon. Bel
(Baal) means
"lord."

Sumer and
Accad,
countries of
the Sumer-
ians and the
Accadians;
Ancient
World, 23.

Such assem-
blies of the
people are
unusual in
the Orient.

The divine
right of kings
is extremely
ancient.

Hammurabi, the exalted King, the King of Babylon,
the King renowned throughout the world, conqueror of
the enemies of Marduk, the King beloved by his heart am I.

The favor of god and Bel gave the people of Sumer and
Accad unto my government. Their celestial weapons
unto my hand they gave. The canal Hammurabi, the
joy of men, a stream of abundant waters, for the people
of Sumer and Accad I excavated. Its banks, all of them,
I restored to newness; new supporting walls I heaped up;
perennial waters for the people of Sumer and Accad I
provided.

The people of Sumer and Accad, all of them, in general
assemblies I summoned. A review and inspection of them I
ordained every year. In joy and abundance I watched
over them, and in peaceful habitations I caused them to
dwell.

By the divine favor I am Hammurabi, the exalted King,
the worshipper of the supreme deity.

With the prosperous power which Marduk gave me,
I built a lofty citadel on a high mound of earth, whose

The Oldest Extant Code 29

summits rose up like mountains, on the bank of Ham-
murabi river, the joy of men.

III. LAWS or HAMMURABI

If a man bring an accusation against a man and charge Capital of-
him with a (capital) crime, but cannot prove it, he, the
accuser, shall be put to death.

If a man in a case (pending judgment) bear false wit- As an intr -

. .. . . 6 J duction to

ness, or do not establish the testimony he has given, if this extract,
that case be a case involving life, that man shall be put to ^wwid^l&Ti
death. 41-

If a man steal the property of a god or palace, that man This code
shall be put to death; and he who receives from his hand markablyfree
the stolen (property) shall also be put to death. death pen-

If a man aid a male or female slave of a freeman to alt >"-
escape from the city gate, he shall be put to death.

If a man practice brigandage and be captured, that man
shall be put to death.

If the brigand be not captured, the man who has been State insur-
robbed, shall in the presence of god make an itemized robbery,
statement of his loss, and the city and the governor, in
whose province and jurisdiction the robbery was com-
mitted, shall compensate him for whatever was lost.

If a son be too young and be not able to conduct the Women in

business,
business of his father, they shall give one third of the field

and of the garden to his mother, and his mother shall rear
him.

A woman, merchant or other property holder may sell
field, garden or house. The purchaser shall conduct the
business of the field, garden or house which he has pur-
chased.

If outlaws collect in the house of a wine-seller, and she

30 The Tigris-Euphrates Valley

do not arrest these outlaws and bring them to the police,
the wine-seller shall be put to death.

Family law. if a man be in debt and sell his wife, son or daughter, or
bind them over to service, for three years they shall work
in the house of their purchaser or master; in the fourth
year they shall be given their freedom.

If a man take a wife and do not arrange with her the
proper contracts, that woman is not a (legal) wife.

If a woman hate her husband and say: "Thou shalt not
have me," they shall inquire into her antecedents for her
defects; and if she have been a careful mistress and be
without reproach and her husband have been going about
greatly belittling her, that woman has no blame. She
shall receive her dowry and shall go to her father's
house.

If she have not been a careful mistress, have gadded
about and have belittled her husband, they shall throw that
woman into the water.

If a son strike his father, they shall cut off his fingers.

" An eye for if a man destroy the eye of another man, they shall
an eye and a

tooth for a destroy his eye.

If one break a man's bone, they shall break his bone.
If one destroy the eye of a man's slave or break a bone
of a man's slave, he shall pay one half his price.

Compensa- if a physician operate on a man for a severe wound
tion for / J .

work. (or make a severe wound on a man) with a bronze lancet

and save the man's life; or if he open an abscess (in the
eye) of a man with a bronze lancet and save that man's
eye, he shall receive ten shekels (as a fee).

If with a bronze lancet a physician operate on a man
for a severe wound and cause the man's death; or with a
bronze lancet open an abscess (in the eye) of a man and
destroy the man's eye, they shall cut off his fingers.

Assyria 31

If a man hire a field laborer, he shall pay 8 gur of grain
per year.

If a male slave say to his master: "Thou art not my Slave a

master,
master," his master shall prove him to be his slave and

shall cut off his ear.

IV. TlGLATH-PlLESER I

This document is inscribed on four large octagonal cylinders of
clay, originally buried under the foundations of the four corners of a
temple in the ancient city of Assur, and now in the British Museum.
Records of the Past, i. 92-121.

Ye great gods, guiders of heaven and earth, whose on- Tigiath-
set is opposition and combat, who have magnified the
kingdom of Tiglath-Pileser, the prince, the chosen, of the
desire of your hearts, the exalted shepherd, whom you The first not-
have conjured in the steadfastness of your hearts, with a
crown supreme you have clothed him; to rule over the
land of Bel mightily you have established him; priority
of birth, supremacy and heroism have you given him; the
destiny of his lordship for his increase and supremacy, to
inhabit Bit-kharsag-kurkurra forever you have summoned.

May Assur and the great gods who have magnified my Conquest

, . , 11 i ,i and annexa-

kingdom, who have given increase and strength to my tion.

fetters, who have ordered the boundary of their land to be

enlarged, cause my hand to hold their mighty weapons, Assur, the su-

even the deluge of battle. Countries, mountains, for-

tresses, and kinglets, the enemies of Assur, I have con-
quered, and their territories I have made submit. With
sixty kings I have contended furiously, and power and
rivalry over them I displayed. A rival in the combat, a
confronter in the battle have I not. To the land of As-
syria I have added land, to its men I have added men; the

32 The Tigris-Euphrates Valley

Treatment
of the con-
quered.

e spares
ppliants.

Zoological
collection.

boundary of my own land I have enlarged, and all their
lands I have conquered. . . .

Trusting in Assur my lord I assembled my chariots
and armies. Thereupon I delayed not. The mountain of
Kasi-Yara, a difficult region, I crossed, with their twenty
thousand fighting men, and' their five kings in the land
of Kummukh I contended. A destruction of them I made.
The bodies of their warriors in destructive battle like the
inundator (Rimmon) I overthrew; their corpses I spread
over the valleys and the high places of the mountains.
Their heads I cut off; at the sides of their cities I heaped
them like mounds. Their spoil, their property, their goods,
to a countless number I brought forth. Six thousand men,
the relics of their armies, which before my weapons had
fled, took my feet. I laid hold upon them and counted
them among the men of my own country. . . .

Under the protection of Uras, who loves me, 120 lions
with my stout heart, in the conflict of my heroism on my
feet, I slew; and 800 lions in my chariot with javelins I
slaughtered. All the cattle of the field and the birds of
heaven that fly, among my rareties I placed. . . .

Site and
building ma-
terials.

Ancient
World, 27.

V. NEBUCHADNEZZAR'S PALACE

This brief reference to the building of a palace in Babylon is taken
from a long inscription by that monarch, whose chief interest was in
the construction of public works and other internal improvements.
Records of the Past, v. 130 f.

A palace of My Royalty for the land of Babylon, in
the midst of the city of Babylon. . . .

Opposite the waters I laid its foundations and with
brick and cement I skilfully surrounded it; tall cedars for
its porticoes I fitted ikki and cedar woods with layers of
copper ; domes and arches were covered with bronze work. I

Babylon 33

strongly overlaid its gates with silver, gold, precious stones,
whatsoever they call them, in heaps; I valiantly collected
spoils; as an adornment of the house were they arranged,
and were collected within it; trophies, abundance, royal
treasures, I accumulated, and gathered together.

VI. BABYLON

Babylon itself also is situated in a plain. The wall is Walls and
385 stadia in circumference, and 32 feet in thickness. The Gardens,
height of the space between the towers is 50, and of the
towers 60 cubits. The roadway upon the walls will allow Strabo xvi.
chariots with four horses when they meet to pass each other
with ease. Whence, among the seven wonders of the world,
are reckoned this wall and the hanging garden: the shape
of the garden is a square, and each side of it measures Ancient
four plethra. It consists of vaulted terraces, raised one
above another, and resting upon cube-shaped pillars.
These are hollow and filled with earth to allow trees of the
largest size to be planted. The pillars, the vaults, and the
terraces are constructed of baked brick and asphalt.

The ascent to the highest story is by stairs, and at their
side are water engines, by means of which persons, ap-
pointed expressly for the purpose, are continually em-
ployed in raising water from the Euphrates into the gar-
den. For the river, which is a stadium in breadth, flows
through the middle of the city, and the garden is on the
side of the river.

VII. THE CHALDEAN ACCOUNT OF THE DELUGE

This account of the flood is found inscribed on some Assyrian
tablets in the British Museum. The origin, age, and history of the
legend are not known. It forms a part of the "Epic of Gilgamesh"
in twelve books. Ancient World, 32. It is interesting to compare

34 The Tigris-Euphrates Valley

this account of the deluge with that of Genesis, chs. vi-ix. (Amer-
ican) Records of the Past, i. 376-380.

The gods Nuh-napishtim saith to him, even to Gilgamesh: let

building of a me unfold to thee, Gilgamesh, a secret story, and the decree

ship ' of the gods let me tell thee! Shurippak, a city thou know-

Nuh-napish- e st. On the banks of the Euphrates it lieth; that city was

Babylonian full of violence, and the gods within it to make a flood

gamesh, to their heart urged them, even the mighty gods. Their

J^omjui tells f a ther was Anu, their counsellor the warrior Bel, their

a hero, like throne-bearer Ninib, their champion Innugi. Nin-igi-

Hercuies. azeg, even la, had sat near them, and their talk he re-
peated to the reed-fence : " Reed-fence, reed-fence ! House-

Shurippakis wa ll! house-wall! Reed-fence listen! and house-wall,

of Babylonia; give heed ! Man of Shurippak, son of Ubara-Tutu, pull

he n av'en d Bel down the house, and build a ship! Leave goods, seek life!

"^fd'" Property forsake, and life preserve! Cause seed of life

epithet of of every sort to go up into the ship! The ship which thou

earth; g Ea, shalt build, exact be its dimensions; equal be its length and

the sea god. breadth | Qn the ocean launch ft |

Building and I understood, and said unto la, my lord, "The command,

freighting

the ship. my lord, which thou spakest thus, I honor, I will do it!

But what shall I answer the city, the people, and the el-
ders? " la framed his mouth and answered, He saith unto
me, his slave, "Answer thus thou shalt make unto them,
'Bel hath rejected and hateth me, and I may no longer
dwell in your city, and toward Bel's ground I may no
longer turn my face; but I will go down to the ocean, and
with la my lord will I dwell! Upon you it will rain
heavily.'" . . .
A common On the fifth day I laid down the frame of it; at its bul-

cubit is about . .

18 inches. warks its sides were 140 cubits high; the border of its top
equaled 140 cubits. I laid down its form, I figured it; I
constructed it in six stories, dividing it into seven com-

The Great Flood 35

partments; its floors I divided into nine chambers each.
Water-pegs inside it I drove to stop leaks. I chose a mast
and supplied what was necessary: six sars of bitumen I
poured over the outside, three sars of bitumen I poured
over the inside. While the basket-bearers were carrying
three sars of oil abroad, I reserved one sar of oil, which the
libations consumed; two sars of oil the shipmen stored
away. For the men's food I slaughtered oxen; I slew small
cattle every day; new wine, sesame wine, oil and grape
wine, the people I gave to drink, like the water of a river.
A feast I made, like New Year's Day. With all that I
possessed I freighted it; with all that I had of silver I
freighted it; with all that I had of gold I freighted it; with
all that I had of seed of life of every sort I freighted it;
I put on board all my family and clan; cattle of the field,
wild beasts of the field, all the craftsmen, I put on board.

A time Samas appointed, saying, "When the Lord of The flood.
Storm at eventide causes the heavens to rain heavily, enter
into the ship, and shut thy door!" That time came; the Samas is the
Lord of Storm at eventide caused the heavens to rain S1
heavily. I dreaded the appearance of day; I was afraid
of beholding day; I entered the ship and shut my door.
For the steering of the ship, to Bezur-Bel, the shipman,
the great vessel I handed over, with its freight. When the
first light of dawn appeared there rose from the foundation
of heaven a black cloud: Rimmon in the heart of it thun- Rimmon, god
ders, and Nebo and Marduk march before; the Throne- Marduk, god
Bearers march o'er mountain and plain. The mighty NeSfSsson.
Dibbarra wrenches away the helm; Ninib goes on, pouring
out ruin. The Anunnaki (earth spirits) lift torches; with Ninib, chief
their sheen they lighten the world. Rimmon's violence spirits,
reacheth heaven; whatever is bright he turneth into dark-
ness. One day the southern blast hard it blew, and like a

Ishtar, god-
dess of love
and beauty,
like the Greek
Aphrodite
(Lat. Venus).

The flood
abates.

36 The Tigris-Euphrates Valley

battle-charge upon mankind rush the waters. One no
longer sees another; no more are men discerned in heaven.
The gods were dismayed at the flood, and sought refuge
in ascending to the highest heaven; the gods cowered like
dogs; on the battlements of heaven they crouched. Ishtar
screamed like a woman in travail, the loud-voiced Lady of
the gods exclaims, " Yon generation is turned again to clay!
As I in the assembly of the gods foretold the evil like
as I foretold in the assembly of the gods the evil; a tempest
for the destruction of the people I foretold. But I will
give birth to my people again, though like the fry of fishes
they fill the sea ! " Because of the Anunnaki, the gods wept
with her; the gods were downcast, they sat weeping;
closed were their lips. During six days and nights wind,
flood, storm, ever more fiercely whelmed the land.

When the seventh day came, storm and flood ceased the
battle, wherein they had contended like a host: the sea
lulled, the blast fell, the flood ceased. I looked for the
people with a cry of lamentation; but all mankind had
turned again into clay; the tilled land was becoming like
the waste. I opened the window, and daylight fell upon
my cheeks; crouching I sit and weep; over my cheeks course
my tears. I looked at the heavens, the borders of the sea;
toward the twelfth point rose the land. To the country
of Nizir the ship made way; the mountain of the country
of Nizir caught the ship, and suffered it not to stir. One
day, a second day, the mountains of Nizir caught the
ship; a third day, a fourth day, the mountains of Nizir
caught the ship; a fifth, a sixth, the mountains of Nizir
caught the ship. But when the seventh day was come, I
brought out a dove and let it go. The dove went to and
fro, but found no foothold, and returned. Then I brought
out a swallow and let it go; the swallow went to and fro,

The Great Flood 37

but found no foothold and returned. Then I brought out
a raven and let it go; the raven went off, noticed the dying
of the water, and feeding, wading, croaking, returned not.

Then I brought out everything to the four winds, sacri- The y

. . ~ . . . forth from

need victims, made an offering of incense on the mountain the ship.

top; seven and seven tripods I set, into their bowls I
poured calamus, cedar, fragrant herbs; the gods snuffed
the odor, the gods snuffed the pleasant odor, the gods like
flies swarmed above the sacrificer. But when Ishtar was
come from afar, she lifted up the Great Gems, which
Anu had made to adorn her. "These gods," she cried,
"by mine azure collar I will never forget! These days will
I bear in mind and nevermore forget! Let the gods go to
the incense offering! But let Bel never go to the incense
offering. Forasmuch as he took no counsel, but caused
the flood and delivered my people to destruction." But
when Bel was come from afar, he saw the ship, and Bel
waxed wrathful; he was filled with wrath at the gods, and
the Igigi (spirits of heaven): "Some soul," he cried, "hath
escaped! Let not a man survive the destruction! " Ninib
frameth his mouth and speaketh he saith to the warrior
Bel: "Who then but la doeth the thing? la is versed in
every wile."

la frameth his mouth and speaketh he saith to the Other forms
warrior Bel, "Thou, O sage of the gods and warrior, in no- tion for men.
wise hast thou been well-counselled in causing a flood!
On the sinner lay his sin! On the guilty lay his guilt!
But remit somewhat! Let him not be cut off! forbear!
let him not be swept away! Instead of thy causing a
flood, let the lion come and minish mankind! Instead of
thy causing a flood, let the leopard come and minish man-
kind! Instead of thy causing a flood, let famine break
out and desolate the land! Instead of thy causing a flood,

38 The Tigris- Euphrates Valley

let pestilence come and slay mankind! I divulged not
the decision of the mighty gods; someone caused Atranasis
to see visions, and so he heard the decisions of the gods.' 1
Thereupon he took counsel with himself; Bel came on
board the ship, seized my hand and led me up out of the
ship, let up my wife and made her kneel beside me; he
turned us face to face, and standing between us, blessed
us> saying, "Ere this, Nuh-napishtim was human; but
wife become now Nuh-napishtim and his wife shall be like us gods!
Nuh-napishtim shall dwell far away from men, at the
mouth of the rivers!" Then they took me, and made me
dwell far away, at the mouth of the rivers.

VIII. THE DESCENT OF ISHTAR TO HADES

This legend is from a tablet in the British Museum. The begin-
ning of it is here given for the purpose of showing the Babylonian and
Assyrian view of the future world and of the condition of the dead.
Records of the Past, i 2 . 145 ff.

To the land of Hades, the region of her desire, Ishtar
daughter of the Moon-god San turned her mind, and the
daughter of San fixed her mind to go there; to the house
where all meet, the dwelling of the god Irkalla, to the house
men enter, but cannot depart from; to the road men go,
but cannot return. The abode of darkness and famine,
where earth is their food; their nourishment is clay; light
is not seen; in darkness they dwell; ghosts, like birds, flut-
ter their wings there; on the door and gate-posts the dust
lies undisturbed.

IX. PRAYERS FOR THE SOUL OF A DYING MAN

Records of the Past, iii. 134.

I. Like a bird may it fly to a lofty place! To the holy
lands of its god, may it ascend!

Astronomy; Magic 39

II. The man who is departing in glory: may his soul These prayers

* _ J afford a far

shine radiant as brass. To that man may the Sun give happier out-
life! and Marduk, eldest Son of heaven, grant him an luture P iife. the
abode of happiness!

X. AN ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATION

Report of the astronomer Ablua to the king of Accad. Records of
the Past, i 2 . 159.

The 1 5th day the Moon and Sun with one another
are seen. The face is stedfast. The heart of land is good.
Joy possesses the heart' of the inhabitants. The gods of
Accad to prosperity consign it. The Moon and the Sun
are clear; the King of the land his ears enlarges. The re-
port of Ablua.

XI. BABYLONIAN CHARMS

The Babylonians and Assyrians believed in hosts of noxious
spirits which attacked different parts of the body. The charms were
repeated to keep them away or to expel them from the body. Records
of the Past, i 2 . 135-7.

Wasting, want of health, the evil spirit of the ulcer, The aim of
spreading quinsey of the gullet, the violent ulcer, the to expel the
noxious ulcer. Spirit of heaven remember, spirit of earth ^ibed de
remember.

He who makes an image which injures the man, an evil This charm

.. ., A , ., . .. ,. is to counter-

face, an evil eye, an evil mouth, an evil tongue, evil lips, act the evil

an evil poison. Spirit of heaven remember, spirit of earth
remember.

On the sick man by the sacrifice of mercy may perfect
health shine like bronze; may the Sun-god give this man sick.
life; may Marduk, the eldest son of the deep give him

40 The Tigris-Euphrates Valley

Dress.

Herodotus i
iQS-

Marriage.

Jb. 196.

strength, prosperity, and health. Spirit of heaven re-
member, spirit of earth remember.

XII. BABYLONIAN CUSTOMS

The following is the manner of dress which they use,
namely a linen tunic reaching to the feet, and over this
they put on another of wool, and then a white mantle
thrown around, while they have shoes of native fashion
rather like the Bceotian slippers. They wear their hair
long and bind their heads around with fillets, and they
are anointed over the whole of their bodies with perfumes.
Each man has a seal and staff carved by hand, and on each
staff is carved either an apple or a rose or a lily or an eagle
or some other device, for it is not their custom to have a
staff without a device upon it.

Such is the equipment of their bodies: and the customs
which are established among them are as follows, the wis-
est in our opinion being this, which I am informed that
the Enetoi in Illyria also have. In every village once in
each year it was done as follows: when the maidens grew
to the age for marriage, they gathered these all together
and brought them in a body to one place, and round them
stood a company of men: and the crier caused each one
severally to stand up, and proceeded to sell them, first
the most comely of all, and afterwards, when she had been
sold and had fetched a large sum of money, he would put
up another who was the most comely after her: and they
were sold for marriage. Now all the wealthy men of the
Babylonians who were ready to marry vied with one an-
other in bidding for the most beautiful maidens; those
however of the common sort who were ready to marry
did not require a fine form, but they would accept money
together with less comely maidens. For when the crier

Babylonian Marriage 41

had made an end of selling the most comely of the maidens,
then he would cause to stand up the one who was least
shapely, or any one of them who might be crippled in any
way, and he would make proclamation of her, asking who
was willing for least gold to have her in marriage, until
she was assigned to him who was willing to accept least;
and the gold would be got from the sale of the comely
maidens, and so those of beautiful form provided dowries
for those who were unshapely or crippled; but to give in
marriage one's own daughter to whomsoever each man
would, was not allowed, nor to carry off the maiden after
buying her without a surety; for it was necessary for the
man to provide sureties that he would marry her, before
he took her away; and if they did not agree well together,
the law was laid down that he should pay back the money.

STUDIES

1. Describe in simple language the achievements of Sargon. What
does the writer suppose to have been the cause of the famine?

2. Of what especial achievements does Hammurabi boast?

3. How were crimes punished under his code? What legal rights
were enjoyed by women? by children?

4. What had the Assyrian gods to do with conquest? What are
all the motives to conquest mentioned in this selection? How were
the conquered treated?

5. Describe Nebuchadnezzar's palace.

6. Describe the two greatest "Wonders" of Babylon.

7. Where in the Bible is the account of the flood? Compare it
in detail with the Chaldean account.

8. What view of the future life do we find in this selection?

9. Compare this view of the future world with that in the selection
above.

10. Explain the meaning of this selection.

11. What light does this selection throw on Babylonian character?

12. What is your opinion of the marriage custom of the Babylonians
here described by Herodotus?

CHAPTER IV

Comparative
importance.

Strabo xvi. 2.
22-4.

Ancient
World, 38 f.

Tyre: its
dwellings
and dye-
works.

Ancient
World, 280 f.

SYRIA: THE PHOENICIANS AND THE HEBREWS

I. SIDON AND TYRE

NEXT to Sidon is Tyre, the largest and most ancient
city of the Phoenicians. This city is the rival of Sidon in
magnitude, fame, and antiquity, as recorded in many
fables. For although poets have celebrated Sidon more
than Tyre (Homer does not even mention Tyre), yet
the colonies sent into Africa and Spain, as far as, and
beyond the pillars, extol much more the glory of Tyre.
Both however were formerly, and are at present, dis-
tinguished and illustrious cities, but which of the two
should be called the capital of Phoenicia is a subject of
dispute among the inhabitants. Sidon is situated upon a
fine naturally-formed harbor on the mainland.

Tyre is wholly an island, built in nearly the same man-
ner as Aradus. It is joined to the continent by a mound,
which Alexander raised, when he was besieging it. It has
two harbors, one close, the other open, which is called the
Egyptian harbor. The houses here, it is said, consist of
many stories, of more than at Rome; on the occurrence,
therefore, of an earthquake, the city was nearly demolished.
It sustained great injury when it was taken by siege by
Alexander, but it rose above these misfortunes, and recov-
ered itself both by the skill of the people in the art of navi-
gation, in which the Phoenicians in general have always
excelled all nations, and by (the export of) purple-dyed
manufactures, the Tyrian purple being in the highest esti-

Sea-Purple and Tin 43

mation. The shell-fish from which it is procured is caught
near the coast, and the Tyrians have in great abundance
other requisites for dyeing. The great number of dyeing
works renders the city unpleasant as a place of residence,
but the superior skill of the people in the practice of this
art is the source of its wealth. Their independence was
secured to them at a small expense to themselves, not only
by the kings of Syria, but also by the Romans, who con-
firmed what the former had conceded. They pay extrava-
gant honors to Hercules. The great number and magni-
tude of their colonies and cities are proofs of their mari-
time skill and power. Such then are the Tyrians.

The Sidonians are said by historians to excel in various intellectual
kinds of art, as the words of Homer also imply. Be-
sides, they cultivate science and study astronomy and
arithmetic, to which they were led by the application of Strabo l. c.
numbers (in accounts) and night sailing, each of which
(branches of knowledge) concerns the merchant and sea-
man.

II. THE CASSITERIDES ISLANDS

The Cassiterides are ten in number, and lie near each The Natives
other in the ocean towards the north from the haven of trade,
the Artabri. One of them is desert, but the others are
inhabited by men in black cloaks, clad in tunics reaching
to the feet, girt about the breast, and walking with staves, Strabo Hi. 5,
thus resembling the Furies we see in tragic representa-
tions. They subsist by their cattle, leading for the most
part a wandering life. Of the metals they have tin and
lead; which with skins they barter with the merchants
for earthenware, salt, and brazen vessels. Formerly the
Phoenicians alone carried on this traffic from Gades, con-
cealing the passage from every one; and when the Romans

44 Syria

followed a certain ship-master, that they also might find
the market, the ship-master in jealousy purposely ran
his vessel upon a shoal, leading on those who followed him
into the same destructive disaster; he himself escaped by
means of a fragment of the ship, and received from the
state the value of the cargo he had lost. The Romans
nevertheless by frequent efforts discovered the passage,
and as soon as Publius Crassus, passing over to them, per-
ceived that the metals were dug out at a little depth and
that the men were peaceably disposed, he declared it to
those who already wished to traffic in this sea for profit,
although the passage was longer than that to Britain.

III. PHOENICIANS WORK THE IBERIAN SILVER MINES

The SUver Almost all this country is full of such mines, whence
is dug very good and pure silver; so that those who deal
in that metal, gain great profit. And in the former book

Diodorusv. 2. we have spoken of the Pyrenees mountains in Iberia, when
we treated of the acts and achievements of Hercules; these
are the highest and greatest of all; for from the south sea,
almost as far as the northern ocean, they divide Gaul from
Iberia and Celtiberia, running out for the space of three
thousand furlongs. As these places are full of woods,
it is reported that in ancient time this mountainous tract
was set on fire by some shepherds, and continued burning
for many days together, whence the mountains were called
Pyrenees. The parched surface of the earth sweated,
abundance of silver, the ore being melted, flowed down in
pure streams like a river. Its use being unknown to the
inhabitants, the Phoenician merchants bought it for trifles
given in exchange, and by transporting it into Greece,
Asia, and all other nations, greatly enriched themselves;
and such was their covetousness, that when they had fully

Colonization and Commerce 45

loaded their ships, and had much more silver to bring
aboard, they cut off the lead from their anchors, and made
use of silver instead of the other metal.

For a long time using this trade, and so growing more
and more wealthy, the Phoenicians sent many colonies
into Sicily and the neighboring islands, and at length into
Africa and Sardinia.

IV. PHOENICIAN TRADE

The Carthaginians say also this, namely, that there A peculiar
is a place in Libya and men dwelling there, outside the barter.
Pillars of Heracles, to whom when they have come and
have taken the merchandise forth from their ships, they Herodotus iv.
set it in order along the beach and embark again in their IQ '
ships, and after that they raise a smoke; and the natives
of the country seeing the smoke, come to the sea, and then
they lay down gold as an equivalent for the merchandise
and retire to a distance away from the merchandise. The
Carthaginians upon that disembark and examine it, and
if the gold is, in their opinion, sufficient for the value of the
merchandise, they take it up and go, their way; but if not,
they embark again in their ships and sit there; and the
others approach and straightway add more gold to the
former, until they satisfy them; and they say that neither
party wrongs the other; for neither do the Carthaginians
lay hands on the gold until it is made equal to the value
of their merchandise, nor do the others lay hands on the
merchandise until the Carthaginians have taken the gold.

V. THE COMMERCE or TYRE

O Tyrus, thou hast said, I am of perfect beauty. Industries

Thy borders are in the midst of the seas, thy builders andim P rts -
have perfected thy beauty.

46 Syria

Ezekiel xxvii. They have made all thy ship boards of fir trees of Senir;
they have taken cedars from Lebanon to make masts for
thee.

Of the oaks of Bashan they have made thine oars; the
company of the Ashurites have made thy benches of ivory,
brought out of the isles of Chittim.

Fine linen with broidered work from Egypt was that
which thou spreadest forth to be thy sail; blue and purple
from the isles of Elishah was that which covered thee.

The inhabitants of Zidon and Arvad were thy mar-
iners: thy wise men, O Tyrus, that were in thee, were thy
pilots. . . .

Tarshish was thy merchant by reason of the multitude
of all kind of riches; with silver, iron, tin, and lead, they
traded in thy fairs.

Javan, Tubal, and Meshech, they were thy merchants;
they traded the persons of men and vessels of brass in thy
market.

They of the house of Togarmah traded in thy fairs with
horses and horsemen and mules.

The men of Dedan were thy merchants; many isles were
the merchandise of thy hand; they brought thee for a
present horns of ivory and ebony.

Syria was thy merchant by reason of the multitude of
the wares of thy making: they occupied in thy fairs with
emeralds, purple, and broidered work, and fine linen, and
coral, and agate.

Judah, and the land of Israel, they were thy merchants;
they traded in thy market wheat of Minnith and Pannag,
and honey, and oil, and balm.

Damascus was thy merchant in the multitude of the
wares of thy making, for the multitude of all riches; in the
wine of Helbon, and white wool.

The Gift of the Alphabet 47

Dan also and Javan going to and fro occupied in thy
fairs; bright iron, cassia, and calamus, were in thy market.

VI. THEY GAVE THE ALPHABET TO GREECE

Now these Phoenicians brought in among the Hellenes
many arts when they settled in this land of Bceotia, and
especially letters, which did not exist, as it appears to me,
among the Hellenes before this time; and at first they
brought in those which are used by the Phoenician race gen-
erally, but afterwards, as time went on, they changed with Herodotus
their speech the form of the letters also. During this time 5
the lonians were the race of Hellenes who dwelt near them
in most of the places where they were; and these having
received letters by instruction of the Phoenicians, changed
their form slightly and so made use of them, and in doing
so they declared them to be called "phenicians" as was
just, seeing that the Phoenicians had introduced them into
Hellas. Also the lonians from ancient times call paper
"skins," because, formerly paper being scarce, they used
skins of sheep and goats; nay, even in my own time many
of the Barbarians write on such skins.

VII. LETTER OF EBED-TOB, GOVERNOR OF JERUSALEM,
TO THE KING OF EGYPT

In the latter part of the fifteenth century, the successors of Thoth-
mes III weakened and his great empire declined; Ancient World, 12.
Syria, his chief dependency, fell into anarchy. The petty princes
and governors of cities warred against one another and rebelled
against pharaoh. Letters poured into his hands from them, accusing
one another of disloyalty and imploring military protection. A
great number of these letters have been found in excavations at
Tel-el- Amarna, Egypt. Written in the Babylonian language and the
cuneiform script, they prove the dominance of Babylonian culture

Syria

Letter of

pharaoh.

Someone has

IbeS/Tob of

phlraoh y t0
He has re-

kingdom, not

tmt di-
from

protests his

sioner, an

confederates,
Hebron, a

Jerusalem 6 C
Governors,

pharaSh e to by
rule the cities,

The countrv

wasted by '

tfon protec "

over Syria in the fifteenth century and the use of the Babylonian
language for general diplomatic purposes. The following letter was
addressed to pharaoh by Ebed-Tob, priest-king of Jerusalem long
before the Hebrew conquest of Canaan. Records of the Past, v 2 . 66-8.

To the king my lord speak thus: I Ebed-tob, thy serv-
ant, at the feet of my lord the king, seven times seven
prostrate myself. What have I done against the king my
Iorcl ? They have slandered myself, laying wait for me in
the P resence of tne kin S> the l rd > saying: Ebed-tob has
revolted from the king his lord. Behold, neither my
father nor my mother has exalted me in this place; the
P r P nec y of the mighty King has caused me to enter the
house of my father. Why should I have committed a sin
against the king the lord? With the king my lord is life.

I ^ tO ^ Commissioner f the kin g m y lord: Wh Y dost

thou love the Confederates, and the governors thou hat-
est? anc * const antly I am sending to the presence of the
king my lord to say that the countries of the king my lord
are being destroyed. . . .

AU the governors are destroyed; no governor remains
to the king the lord. May the king turn his face to the
men anc * ma y ^ e send auxiliaries, even the troops of the
king my lord. No countries remain unto the king: the
Confederates have wasted all the countries of the king.
^ auxiliaries come this year, the countries of the king the
l rd will be preserved; but if no auxiliaries come the coun-
tries of the king my lord are destroyed. . . .

VIII. THE TEN COMMANDMENTS

And God spake all these words, saying,
I am the Lord thy God, which have brought thee out
of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage.

The Ten Commandments . 49

Thou shalt have no other gods before me.

Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or Exodus xx.
any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is z I7 '
in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth :

Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them nor serve
them: for I the Lord thy God am a jealous God, visiting
the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third
and fourth generation of them that hate me;

And shewing mercy unto thousands of them that love
me and keep my commandments.

Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in
vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh
his name in vain.

Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy.

Six days shalt thou labor, and do all thy work ;

But the seventh day is the sabbath of the Lord thy God;
in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son,- nor
thy daughter, thy manservant, nor thy maidservant, nor
thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates:

For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the
sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day:
wherefore the Lord blessed the sabbath day and hal-
lowed it.

Honor thy father and thy mother: that thy days may
be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee.

Thou shalt not kill.

Thou shalt not commit adultery.

Thou shalt not steal.

Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor.

Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's house, thou shalt
not covet thy neighbor's wife, nor his manservant, nor
his maidservant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any thing that
is thy neighbor's.

Syria

IX. THE BUILDING OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE

The work-
men.

/ Kings y.
13-18; vi.

Ancient
World, 44-

Materials.

And king Solomon raised a levy out of all Israel; and
the levy was thirty thousand men.

And he sent them to Lebanon, ten thousand a month by
courses; a month they were in Lebanon, and two months
at home; and Adoniram was over the levy.

And Solomon had three score and ten thousand that
bare burdens, and fourscore thousand hewers in the moun-
tains;

Beside the chief of Solomon's officers which were over
the work, three thousand and three hundred, which ruled
over the people that wrought in the work.

And the king commanded, and they brought great
stones, costly stones, and hewed stones, to lay the
foundation of the house.

And Solomon's builders and Hiram's builders did hew
them, and the stonesquarers; so they prepared timber and
stones to build the house.

And it came to pass in the four hundred and eightieth
year after the children of Israel were come out of the land
of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign over Israel,
in the month Zif, which is the second month, that he began
to build the house of the Lord.

Dimensions. And the house which king Solomon built for the Lord,
the length thereof was threescore cubits, and the breadth
thereof twenty cubits, and the height thereof thirty cubits.

And the porch before the temple of the house, twenty
cubits was the length thereof, according to the breadth of
the house; and ten cubits was the breadth thereof before
the house.

And for the house he made windows of narrow lights.
Chambers. And against the wall of the house he built chambers

Solomon's Temple 51

round about, against the walls of the house round about,
both of the temple and the oracle; and he made chambers
round about:

The nethermost chamber was five cubits broad, and
the middle was six cubits broad, and the third was seven
cubits broad; for without in the wall of the house he made
narrowed rests round about, that the beams should not be
fastened in the walls of the house.

And the house when it was in building, was built of
stone made ready before it was brought thither; so that
there was neither hammer nor ax nor any tool of iron heard
in the house, while it was in building.

The door for the middle chamber was in the right side
of the house; and they went up with winding stairs into
the middle chamber, and out of the middle into the third.

So he built the house, and finished it; and covered the
house with beams and boards of cedar.

And then he built chambers against all the house, five
cubits high; and they rested on the house with timber of
cedar.

And the word of the Lord came to Solomon, saying, The promise

Concerning this house which thou art in building, if
thou wilt walk in my statutes, and execute my judgments,
and keep all my commandments to walk in them; then
will I perform my word with thee, which I spake unto
David thy father;

And I will dwell among the children of Israel, and will
not forsake my people Israel.

So Solomon built the house, and finished it.

And he built the walls of the house within with boards The interior,
of cedar, both the floor of the house, and the walls of the
ceiling; and he covered them on the inside with wood, and
covered the floor of the house with planks of fir.

52 Syria

And he built twenty cubits on the sides of the house,
both the floor and the walls with boards of cedar; he even
built them for it within, even for the oracle, even for the
most holy place.

And the house, that is the temple before it, was forty
cubits long.

And the cedar of the house within was carved with knops
and open flowers; all was cedar; there was no stone seen.

And the oracle he prepared in the house within, to
set there the ark of the covenant of the Lord.

And the oracle in the forepart was twenty cubits in
length, and twenty cubits in breadth, and twenty cubits
in the height thereof; and he overlaid it with pure gold;
and so covered the altar which was of cedar.

So Solomon overlaid the house within with pure gold;
and he made a partition by the chains of gold before the
oracle; and he overlaid it with gold.

And the whole house he overlaid with gold, until he
had finished all the house; also the whole altar that was by
the oracle he overlaid with gold.

Cherubims. And within the oracle he made two cherubims of olive
tree, each ten cubits high.

And five cubits was the one wing of the cherub, and
five cubits the other wing of the cherub; from the utter-
most part of the one wing unto the uttermost part of the
other were ten cubits.

And the other cherub was ten cubits; both the cherubims
were of one measure and one size.

The height of the one cherub was ten cubits, and so was
it of the other cherub.

And he set the cherubims within the inner house; and
they stretched forth the wings of the cherubims, so that
the wing of the one touched the one wall, and the wing of

Solomon's Temple 53

the other cherub touched the other wall; and their wings
touched one another in the midst of the house.

And he overlaid the cherubims with gold.

And he carved all the walls of the house round about
with carved figures of cherubims and palm trees and open
flowers, within and without.

And the floor of the house he overlaid with gold, within
and without.

And for the entering of the oracle he made doors of olive
tree; the lintel and side posts were a fifth part of the wall.

And the two doors were of fir tree; the two leaves of
the one door were folding, and the two leaves of the other
door were folding.

And he carved thereon cherubims and palm trees and
open flowers; and covered them with gold fitted upon the
carved work.

And he built the inner court with three rows of hewed
stone, and a row of cedar beams.

In the fourth year was the foundation of the house of
the Lord laid, in the month Zif.

And in the eleventh year, in the month Bui, which is
the eighth month, was the house finished throughout all
the parts thereof, and according to all the fashion of it.
So was he seven years in building it.

X. THE GOODNESS AND MERCY OF GOD

The Lord is my shepherd; I shall not want. The Lord is

He maketh me to lie down in the green pastures: he lead- ^l T ^ ep ~
eth me beside the still waters.

He restoreth my soul: he leadeth me in the paths of Psalm xxiii.
righteousness for his name's sake.

Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of

54 Syria

death, I will fear no evil: for thou art with me; thy rod and
thy staff they comfort me.

Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of
mine enemies: thou anointest my head with oil; my cup
runneth over.

Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days
of my life; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for-
ever.

STUDIES

1. What was the condition of Sidon and Tyre in Strabo's time?

2. Where were the Cassiterides islands and what were their prod-
ucts?

3. What metals did the Phoenicians find in Iberia (Spain)? How
did this wealth influence them?

4. Describe the peculiar method of barter followed by the Car-
thaginians hi Libya? Who were the Carthaginians?

5. Who was Ezekiel and what did he write? Mention the various
articles bought and sold in the Tyrian markets.

6. What was the chief benefit of the Phoenicians to Greece?
What were the writing materials?

7. What position was held by Ebed-Tob? Compare him with
Melchizedek (Genesis xiv. 18-20), another priest-king of Jerusalem.

8. Where is the book called Exodus found? Compare the Ten
Commandments with the best Egyptian precepts.

9. Describe Solomon's temple.

10. What conception of God is given in this psalm? Contrast it
with the Assyrian conception of the deity?

CHAPTER V

THE MEDIAN AND PERSIAN EMPIRES

I. MEDIA: COUNTRY AND CUSTOMS

IT is a Median custom to elect the bravest person as The King,
king, but this does not generally prevail, being confined to
the mountain tribes. The custom for the kings to have Straboxi.
many wives is more general, it is found among all the
mountaineers also, but they are not permitted to have
less than five. In the same manner the women think it
honorable for husbands to have as many wives as possible,
and esteem it a misfortune if they have less than five.

While the rest of Media is very fertile, the northern and
mountainous part is barren. The people subsist upon the
produce of trees. They make cakes of apples, sliced and
dried, and bread of roasted almonds; they express a wine
from some kind of roots. They eat the flesh of wild animals
and do not breed any tame animals. So much then respect-
ing the Medes. As to the laws and customs in common use
throughout the whole of Media, as they are the same as
those of the Persians in consequence of the establishment
of the Persian empire, I shall speak of them when I give
an account of the latter nation.

II. EMPIRE OF DARIUS

The following account of the Persian Empire, composed by Darius,
is given in an inscription. It describes the composition of the empire
and illustrates the King's reverence for Ormazd, the supreme deity
of the Persians. Records of the Past, v. 151-3.

56 The Median and Persian Empires

Extent of his Chief of the gods is Ormazd, who created heaven and
earth, and created mankind; who gave to men their various

Ancient fortunes; who created Darius, King of many Kings. I am
Darius the great King, the King of Kings, the King of the

Ormazd (A- nations of every different tongue; the King of the vast and

the supreme ' wide world; son of Hystaspes the Achaemenian: a Persian,
son of a Persian. Darius the King says: Under the pro-
tection of Ormazd, these are the countries which I hold
besides Persia: and whatever tribute I have commanded
them to bring, that they brought; and whatever things I

Map, Ancient commanded them to do, that they did; and they fulfilled

World, before , T o -^ i A- *".. o

p . i. my laws. Media, Susiana, Parthia, Ana, Bactna, Sog-

diana, Chorasmia, Zarangia, Arachosia, Sattagydia, Gan-
daria, India; those Cimmerians who are called the Hu-
The empire murga, those other Cimmerians who wear gloves on their
fact include hands, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, Armenia, Cap-
Sparta, padocia, Sparta, Ionia, those Cimmerians who dwell
beyond the seas, in the land of Scythia; those lonians
who wear helmets on their heads; the Budians, the Cos-
saeans, the Masians, and the land of Cartha.
Protection Darius the king says: When Ormazd saw that these

and mainte- . . , , .

nance of countries were at war with each other continually, after

peace. j^ k ac i g{ ven me to them and had appointed me to be King

over them, then I the king under the protection of Ormazd
Notice his kept them all quiet in their right places. Whatever I
ceptiorTof said, that they did, and they wished the thing that I
em P y irl the wished. And if thou shouldst say thus, "Surely those
nations will quarrel and split asunder who now obey
Darius the King," look well at those statutes which sup-
port my throne, and if thou dost recognize them, then it
will be known to thee that the spear of the Persian reaches
far! Then it will be known to thee, that the men of Persia,
far beyond their own country, wars are wont to wage.

Y' .'
:.' '

Darius 57

Darius the King says, "All this that I have done, under
the protection of Ormazd, I have done it. Ormazd gave
me the strength to do these things. May Ormazd protect
me from everything that is evil, both my family and my
country, this I pray Ormazd: may Ormazd grant it! O
man! whatever Ormazd commands, do thou not rebel
against it!

III. THE ACHIEVEMENTS or DARIUS

Near the western border of Iran stands the isolated rock of Behis-
tan, on one side rising almost perpendicular to a height of 1 700 feet.
More than 300 feet above the base Darius the king had his artists
smooth a large irregular oblong. On the surface thus prepared they
sculptured scenes from his religious and military life and a chronicle
of his deeds. The selection given below is from H. C. Tolman, The
Behistan Inscription of King Darius.

Says Darius the king: Afterward there was one man, a
Magian, Gaumata by name: ... he thus deceived the
people; I am Bardiya the son of Cyrus, brother of Cam-
byses; afterward all the people became estranged from
Cambyses and went over to him, both Persia and Media
and the other provinces; he seized the kingdom; Q days in
the month Garmapada were in course he thus seized
the kingdom; afterwards Cambyses died by a self-imposed
death.

Says Darius the king: This kingdom which Gaumata
the Magian took from Cambyses, this kingdom from long
ago was the possession of our family; afterwards Gaumata
the Magian took from Cambyses both Persia and Media
and the other provinces; he seized the power and made it
his own possession; he became king.

Says Darius the king: There was not a man neither a
Persian nor a Median nor any one of our family who could

58 The Median and Persian Empires

make Gaumata the Magian deprived of the kingdom; the
people feared his tyranny; they feared he would slay the
many who knew Bardiya formerly; -for this reason he
would slay the people, "that they might not know me
that I am not Bardiya the son of Cyrus;" anyone did
not dare to say anything against Gaumata the Magian
until I came; afterwards I asked Auramazda for help;
Auramazda bore me aid; 10 days in the month Bagayadish
were in course I thus with few men slew that Gaumata
the Magian and what men were his foremost allies; ... I
took the kingdom from him; by the grace of Auramazda
I became king; Auramazda gave me the kingdom.

Says Darius the king: The kingdom which was taken
away from our family, this I put in its place; I establish
it on its foundations; as it was formerly so I made it; the
sanctuaries which Gaumata the Magian destroyed I re-
stored; for the people, the revenue and the personal prop-
erty and the estates and the royal residences which Gau-
mata the Magian took from them I restored; I established
the state on its foundation, both Persia and Media and
the other provinces; as it was formerly, so I brought back
what had been taken away; by the grace of Auramazda
this I did; I labored that our royal house I might establish
in its place; as it was formerly so I made it; I labored by
the grace of Auramazda that Gaumata the Magian might
not take away our royal house. . . .

Says Darius the king: For this reason Auramazda bore
me aid and the other gods which are, because I was not an
enemy, I was not a deceiver, I was not a wrong-doer,
neither I nor my family; according to rectitude I ruled
nor made I my power an oppression to those who
praise me; the man who helped my house, him who
should be well esteemed I esteemed; the man who would

Persian Religion 59

destroy it, him who should deserve punishment, I pun-
ished.

IV. PERSIAN CUSTOMS

These are the customs, so far as I know, which the Per- Religion.
sians practice: Images and temples and altars they do not
account it lawful to erect, nay they even charge with folly Herodotus, i.
those who do these things; and this, as it seems to me, be- I31 '
cause they do not account the gods to be in the likeness of
men, as do the Hellenes. But it is their wont to perform Ancient
sacrifices to Zeus, going up to the most lofty of the moun-
tains, and the whole circle of the heavens they call Zeus:
and they sacrifice to the Sun and the Moon and the Earth,
to Fire and to Water and to the Winds: these are the only
gods to whom they have sacrificed even from the first;
but they have learnt also to sacrifice to Aphrodite Urania,
having learnt it from the Assyrians and the Arabians. . . .

Now this is the manner of sacrifice for the gods afore- Manner of
said which is established among the Persians : they make
no altars, neither do they kindle fire; and when they mean
to sacrifice they use no libation nor music of the pipe nor Herodotus i.
chaplets nor meal for sprinkling; but when a man wishes * 32 '
to sacrifice to any one of the gods, he leads the animal for
sacrifice to an unpolluted place and calls upon the god,
having his tiara wreathed round generally with a branch
of myrtle. For himself alone separately the man who
sacrifices may not request good things in his prayer but
he prays that it may be well with all the Persians and with
the King; for he himself also is included of course in the
whole body of Persians. And when he has cut up the vic-
tim into pieces and boiled the flesh, he spreads a layer of
the freshest grass and especially clover, upon which he
places forthwith all the pieces of flesh; and when he has

60 The Median and Persian Empires

placed them in order, a Magian man stands by them and
chants over them a theogony (for of this nature they say
that their incantation is), seeing that without a Magian
it is not lawful for them to make sacrifices. Then after
waiting a short time, the sacrificer carries away the flesh
and uses it for whatever purpose he pleases.

Festal days. And of all their days their wont is to honor most that
on which they were born, each one: on this they think

ib. 133- it right to set out a feast more liberal than on other days;
and in this feast the wealthier of them set upon the table
an ox or a horse or a camel or an ass, roasted whole in
an oven, and the poor among them set out small animals
in the same way. They have few solid dishes, but many
served up after as dessert, and these not in a single course;
and for this reason the Persians say that the Hellenes
leave off dinner hungry, because after dinner they have
nothing worth mentioning served up as dessert, whereas
if any good dessert were served up they would not stop
eating so soon.

Wine-drink- To wine-drinking they are very much given. . . . And
they are wont to deliberate when drinking hard about
the most important of their affairs, and whatsoever con-
clusion has pleased them in their deliberation, this on the
next day, when they are sober, the master of the house
in which they happen to be when they deliberate lays
before them for discussion : and if it pleases them when they
are sober also, they adopt it, but if it does not please them,
they let it go: and that on which they have had the first
deliberation when they are sober, they consider again
when they are drinking.

Salutations. When they meet one another in the roads, by this you
may discern, whether those who meet are of equal rank,
for instead of greeting by words they kiss one another on

Opinion of Other Nations 61

the mouth; but if one of them is a little inferior to the other,
they kiss one another on the cheeks, and if one is of much
less noble rank than the other, he falls down before him
and does worship to him.

And they honor of all most after themselves those na- Their opin-

ion of other
tions which dwell nearest to them, and next those which nations.

dwell next nearest, and so they go on giving honor in pro-
portion to distance; and they hold least in honor those who
dwell furthest off from themselves, esteeming themselves
to be by far the best of all the human race in every point,
and thinking that others possess merit according to the
proportion which is here stated, and that those who dwell
furthest from themselves are the worst. And under the
supremacy of the Medes the various nations used also to
govern one another according to the same rule as the
Persians observe in giving honor, the Medes governing
the whole and in particular those who dwelt nearest to
themselves, and these having rule over those who bor-
dered upon them, and those again over the nations that
were next to them: for the race went forward thus ever
from government by themselves to government through
others.

The Persians more than any other men admit foreign They borrow
usages; for they both wear the Median dress, judging it to tomsf 1
be more comely than their own, and also for fighting, the
Egyptian corslet: moreover they adopt all kinds of luxu- 75. i 35 .
ries when they hear of them. . . .

It is established as a sign of manly excellence next after Family and
excellence in fight, to be able to show many sons; and to educatlon -
those who have the most the king sends gifts every year: ib. 136.
for they consider number to be a source of strength. And
they educate their children, beginning at five years old
and going on till twenty, in three things only, in riding,

62 The Median and Persian Empires

shooting, and in speaking the truth; but before the boy is
five years old he does not come into the presence of his
father, but lives with the women; and it is so done for this
reason, that if the child should die while he is being bred
up, he may not be the cause of any grief to his father.

Capital pun- I commend this custom of theirs, and also the one which is
i snin cut *

next to be mentioned, namely that neither the king him-

Ib. 137- self shall put any to death for one cause alone, nor any of
the other Persians for one cause alone shall do hurt that
is irremediable to any of his own servants; but if after
reckoning he find that the wrongs done are more in num-
ber and greater than the services rendered, then only he
gives vent to his anger. Moreover they say that no one
ever killed his own father or mother, but whatever deeds
have been done which seemed to be of this nature, if ex-
amined must necessarily, they say, be found to be due
either to changelings or to children of adulterous birth;
for, say they, it is not reasonable to suppose that the true
parent would be killed by his own son.

Lying and Whatever things it is not lawful for them to do, these it
is not lawful for them even to speak of: and the most

ib. 138. disgraceful thing in their estimation is to tell a lie, and

next to this is to owe money, this last for many other
reasons, but especially because it is necessary, they say,
for him who owes money, also sometimes to tell lies; and

Leprosy. whosoever of the men of the city has leprosy or whiteness
of skin, he does not come into a city nor mingle with the
other Persians; and they say that he has these diseases
because he has in some way offended against the Sun:
but a stranger who is taken by these diseases, in many
regions they drive out of the country altogether, and also
white doves, alleging against them the same cause. And
into a river they neither spit, neither do they wash their

The Dead 63

hands in it, nor allow any other to do these things, but
they reverence rivers very greatly. . . .

So much am I able to say for certain from my own Treatment
knowledge about them: but what follows is reported about
their dead as a secret mystery and not with clearness, ib. 140.
namely that the body of a Persian man is not buried until
it has been torn by a bird or a dog. (The Magians I know
for a certainty have this practice, for they do it openly).
However that may be, the Persians cover the body with
wax and then bury it in the earth. Now the Magians are
distinguished in many ways from other men, as also from
the priests of Egypt; for these last esteem it a matter of
purity to kill no living creature except the animals which
they sacrifice; but the Magians kill with their own hands
all creatures except dogs and men, and they even make this
a great end to aim at, killing both ants and serpents and
all other creeping and flying things.

V. TREATMENT OF THE DEAD

Ahura Mazda answered: "Thirty paces from the fire; The question
thirty paces from the water; thirty paces from the conse- shall be
crated bundles of baresma; thirty paces from the faithful: o 6 ^* 11

On that place they shall dig a grave, half a foot deep if di . es in
the earth be hard, half the height of a man if it be soft; a storm?
they shall cover the surface of it with dust of bricks, or of Avesta.
stones, or of dry earth. He is blried

And they shall let the lifeless body lie there for two
nights, or three nights, or a month long, until the birds
begin to fly, the plants to grow, the floods to flow, and the
wind to dry up the waters from off the earth.

And when the birds begin to fly, the plants to grow, the
floods to flow, and the wind to dry up the waters from off
the earth, then the worshippers of Mazda shall make a

64 The Median and Persian Empires

The dead and
the living
must not pass
the same
way.

In practice,
spots on the
face of a dog
were con-
sidered eyes.

The Drug
Nasu was
a demon rep-
resenting the
impurity of
death.

Mithra as
worthy as
his creator.

Zarathrustra
is Zoroaster.

A vesta.

He is god of

truth.

As god of
light, Mithra
sees and hears
everything.

breach in the wall of the house, and they shall call for two
men, strong and skilful, and those having stripped their
clothing off, shall take the body to the building of clay,
stones, and mortar, raised on a place where they know
there are always corpse-eating dogs and corpse-eating
birds. . . .

Can the way whereupon the carcasses of dogs or the
corpses of men have been carried, be passed through again
by flocks and herds, by men and women. . . .?

You shall cause the yellow dog with four eyes or the
white dog with yellow ears to go three times through that
way. When either the yellow dog with four ears or the
white dog with yellow ears is brought there, then the Drug
Nasu flies away to the regions of the north, in the shape of a
raging fly, with knees and tail sticking out, all stained with
stains, and like unto the foulest Khrafstras (servants of
the Evil One).

VI. MITHRA

Ahura Mazda spake unto Spitama Zarathrustra, say-
ing: "Verily when I created Mithra, lord of wide pastures,
O Spitama, I created him as worthy of sacrifice, as worthy
prayer as myself, Ahura Mazda.

The ruffian who lies unto Mithra brings death unto the
whole country, injuring the faithful world as much as a
hundred evil-doers could do. Break not the contract, O
Spitama, neither the one thou hadst entered into with
one of the unfaithful, nor the one thou hadst entered into
with one of the faithful who is of thine own faith. For
Mithra stands for both the faithful and the unfaith-
ful. . . .

We sacrifice unto Mithra, lord of wide pastures, who is
truth-speaking, a chief in assemblies, with a thousand

Mithra; Healing 65

ears well-shapen, with ten thousand eyes, high, with full
knowledge, strong, sleepless, and ever awake.

To whom the chiefs of nations offer up sacrifices, as
they go to the field against havocking hosts, against ene-
mies coming in battle array, in the strife of conflicting
nations.

On whichever side he has been worshipped first in the He turns the

scale of bat-
fulneSS of faith of a devoted heart, to that side turns tie.

Mithra, lord of wide pastures, with the fiend-smiting wind,
with the cursing thought of the wise.

VII. HEALING

One may heal with Holiness, one may heal with the Spiritual as
Law, one may heal with the knife, one may heal with herbs, i na i healing.
one may heal with the Holy Word. Amongst all remedies
this one is the healing one that heals with the Holy Word;
this one it is that will best drive away sickness from the
body of the faithful; for this one is the best-healing of all
remedies.

STUDIES

1. Describe the Median kingship. What were the products of the
country?

2. What was the extent of the Persian empire? What idea of
duty to the empire had Darius? Can we find anything similar in the
case of other Oriental kings?

3. Give an account of the accession of Darius.

4. What were the chief features of the religion of the Persians as
described by Herodotus? What were their customs at meals? How
did they regard other nations? What does he tell us of their family?

5. Describe their burial customs and beliefs.

6. What was the character of Mithra?

7. What means of healing does the Avesta prescribe. What idea
of the Persian religion do you derive from these selections from the
Avesta?

BOOK II

Hellas

CHAPTER VI

INTRODUCTION TO THE SOURCES

THE main sources for Hellenic history are (i) the liter- The main
ary works of the Greeks themselves, (2) their inscriptions
chiefly on stone, (3) letters and other documents on papyri,
many of which have recently been found in Egypt, (4)
geography, especially valuable for explaining the elements
of economic, social, and political life, (5) archaeology, a
relatively new science, which concerns itself with the
material works of men's hands during the remote past.
In Botsford's History of the Ancient World, archaeology
is represented by the illustrations; the present volume is
limited to written sources. In the study of the latter Criticism of
material we must discriminate between (i) contemporary
sources, composed in the period to which they refer, (2)
sources later than the period treated. The contemporary
writer has the advantage of direct acquaintance with the
condition or event or person he describes. His account
therefore is always fresher and often more trustworthy
than any afterward composed. We must keep in mind,
however, that in many cases a later writer is able to take
a broader, or more critical, view of a situation, and may
in that respect be a more valuable authority. In every
instance it is necessary to study the writer in order to
determine his worth as a source.

For the Cretan and Mycenaean civilizations our chief
67

Introduction to the Sources

Sources for
the earlier
periods.

Ancient
World, 69 f .

The Iliad
and the
Odyssey.

Ancient
World, 83-5.

Seventh and
sixth centu-
ries, B.C.

materials are archaeological. This source we may supple-
ment by a study of traditions and of the survival of re-
ligious, social, and political institutions from that age to
later time. In such research it is extremely difficult, on
many points impossible, to determine what has actually
come down from the period under consideration and what
was added in later time.

The epic or Homeric age is represented by the two great
poems of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey. For the
poet himself we have mere traditions so uncertain and
conflicting as to lead many scholars to doubt his existence.
It seems most probable, however, that Homer was a real
person who lived in Asia Minor, either at Smyrna or on the
island of Chios, about 800 B.C. The beautiful art and
material splendor he describes are in the main a memory
from the glorious past, whereas the religious, moral,
social, and political atmosphere of his poems is that of his
own time and people. Although some scholars are of the
opinion that his poems were written, it is more probable
that they were for a time handed down orally from gen-
eration to generation in schools of minstrels, who found a
livelihood by chanting them at the courts of nobles and at
public festivals.

From the age of Homer no written material, so far as
we know, came down to later time. About 700 B.C.,
however, some of the more progressive states began to
keep lists of magistrates, and a little later to reduce their
laws and treaties to writing. Such material proved use-
ful to later historians. Poets of the seventh and sixth
centuries, treating of their own personalities and of their
surroundings, now wrote out their compositions, which have
proved of the highest value for the study of those times.

The earliest of these poets was Hesiod, who lived in

Greek Poetry 69

Bceotia about 700 B.C. His Works and Days gives us a Hesiod.
clearer view of country life than we can find anywhere else Ancient
in ancient literature. Additional light on rural conditions
of early Greece is shed by the poems of Solon, the great Solon.
Athenian lawgiver of about 600 B.C. Both poets tell of
the peasants' hard lot under the oppressive rule of the
nobles. The military spirit of the seventh century is well
represented by Tyrtseus of Sparta and Callinus of Ephesus, Tyrtaeus.
Ionia. Early in the sixth century lived the two famous Ancient
lyric poets of Lesbos, Alcaeus and Sappho. Their poems 153.
afford interesting glimpses of their own character and of Alcaeus and
the society in which they moved. These names have been app "
taken as representative of a far larger group of seventh
and sixth century poets, whose genius dominated the
intellectual life of that period and whose extant works,
though mere fragments, are, apart from a few short in-
scriptions, the sole contemporary source for that period.

For the early fifth century we have another great Pindar,
lyric poet, Pindar, whose best work has survived. Though Ancient
a native of Bceotia, he represents for all Hellas the spirit
of the old aristocracy, which was soon to disappear. His
poems are in honor of victors at the great national games.
A contemporary of Pindar was ^Eschylus, the first great ^Eschylus.
Attic dramatist. The characters of Attic tragedy are /& 213 f.
generally mythical persons of the distant past, whereas
the ideas ascribed to them are those of the writer's time.
Occasionally, however, the poet chooses as his theme a re-
cent event and introduces historical persons. Such is the
Persians of ^Eschylus, which presents in dramatic form
the invasion of Xerxes and his overthrow at Salamis,
whereas the Prometheus has to do with mythical charac-
ters. A warrior in the mighty struggle for the maintenance
of Hellenic freedom, ^Eschylus chose the divine and the

Introduction to the Sources

Sophocles.
Ib. 214.

Euripides.
Ib. 241.

Aristoph-
anes.

Ib.

Herodotus,

about 480-
425 B.C.

Ancient
World, 215.

The Greek
word for
"inquiry"
is history

here for the
first time ap-
plied to a de-
partment of
literature.

heroic for his theme. His younger contemporary Sophocles,
living a comfortable, serene life in the age of Pericles,
devoted his mind to the ideal human character and to the
peaceful compromise of warring religious and moral be-
liefs. Euripides, who wrote in the latter part of the cen-
tury, in a period of political and intellectual unrest, deals
with human nature as it is. He is intensely modern, en-
dowed with a deep knowledge of human character and a
broad, sympathetic spirit the Shakespeare of Athens.
Slightly younger than Euripides was Aristophanes, the
greatest master of Greek comedy. Deriving his subjects
from contemporary politics and society, he transfigured them
with his splendid imagination and his inexhaustible wit.

Contemporary with Sophocles was the earliest Greek
historian Herodotus "the father of history," who wrote
an account of the great struggle between the Greeks and
the Persians. In tracing the events which led up to it he
narrates from the earliest times the history of the various
nations involved in the conflict. His work, he informs us,
is a presentation of the results of his own inquiry "to the
end that neither the deeds of men be forgotten in the lapse
of time nor oblivion overtake the great and marvelous
achievements of the Hellenes and the barbarians, particu-
larly those which brought about the war." As he was
born in the midst of that war, he had the opportunity
to learn its history directly from those who had fought
in it. This portion of his work is therefore more trust-
worthy than the earlier parts. The chief value of history
lies in the study of characters of individuals and of na-
tions; and in the faithful, sympathetic presentation of
human nature, alike of Greeks and foreigners, Herodotus,
whether dealing with fact or fiction, is the truest as well
as the most attractive of historians.

Thucydides 71

While Herodotus was putting the last touches to his His-
tory, and the Peloponnesian War was in its earliest stage, 400
Thucydides in the prime of life was engaged in writing an Jb. 241 f.
account of the latter conflict. "Thucydides, an Athen-
ian," he tells us, " wrote the history of the war in which
the Peloponnesians and the Athenians fought against
one another. He began to write when they first took up
arms, believing that it would be great and memorable
above any previous war." "Of the events of the war I
have not ventured to speak from any chance information,
nor according to any notion of my own; I have described
nothing but what I either saw myself or learned from others
of whom I made the most careful and particular inquiry.
The task was a laborious one because eye-witnesses of the
same occurrences gave different accounts of them, as they
remembered or were interested in the actions of one side
or the other. And very likely the strictly historical char-
acter of my narrative may be disappointing to the ear.
But if he who desires to have before his eyes a true picture
of the events which have happened, and of the like events
which may be expected to happen hereafter in the order
of human things, shall pronounce what I have written
to be useful, then I shall be satisfied. My history is an
everlasting possession, not a prize composition which is
heard and forgotten." In contrast with the popular his-
tory of Herodotus, this work was composed for the general
and statesman; hence though narrow and special, it is far
deeper and more philosophic.

As we pass from the fifth to the fourth century from Fourth Cen-
Thucydides to Xenophon we perceive within the his- p hon, about
torical field a marked decline in style and in intellectual 43-354 B - c -

power. Yet Xenophon, as a soldier of fortune and a man Ancient

f ., . . , . . , World, 286 f.

of wide experience, gives us invaluable information con-

72 Introduction to the Sources

cerning the customs and character of Greeks and foreigners
of his own age. From this point of view his Anabasis
will be found especially attractive. His Hellenica narrates
the political and military events of Greece from 411 to
362 B.C. It is valuable as our only continuous account
of that period by a contemporary writer. Among his
briefer works are the Constitution of the Lacedemonians
and the Economist. The former in an idealizing spirit
refers the origin of the Lacedaemonian institutions to
Lycurgus; the latter, treating of the management of a
household, presents a charming picture of private Athenian
life.

The orators: For the political, economic, and social conditions of
thenes, 384- the fourth century we find the contemporary orators a
322 B.C. valuable source. We have many of their judicial speeches
dealing with property, damages, adoptions, and inheri-
Andent tances as well as with crimes. Others, delivered before

World, 271 f.,

287 f. the popular assembly, have to do with public affairs. The

career of Demosthenes as a statesman belongs to the lat-
ter half of the century. His greatness lies not only in the
perfect mastery of every possible power and resource
of oratory, but even more in his championship of local
freedom against encroaching imperialism.

Philosophy: While the age was one of political decline, the intel-

Plato, about . f '

427-347 B.C. lect was coming to maturity in me greatest philosophic
Ib. 288 f. writers of the ancient world Plato and Aristotle. Plato,
gifted with a splendid poetic imagination, was an idealist.
Aristotle, Though less creative, Aristotle had a genius for system,
employed in reducing to scientific order the knowledge
accumulated by the ancients down to his own time. The
greatest of Plato's works is the Republic; second in im-
portance among his political writings is -the Laws. From
the works of Aristotle the student of history will prefer

Polybius; Diodorus 73

to acquaint himself with the Politics, a masterpiece of
political science, and the Constitution of the Athenians,
the manuscript of which, written on a papyrus, was dis-
covered in Egypt in 1890. With Demosthenes and Aris-
totle the classical age of Greek literature comes to an end.

In the historical field by far the most eminent post- Later his-
classical writer was Polybius. He lived during the Roman iSsf'abou?
conquest of Greece, and therefore saw not only his na- 2I - I2oB - c -
tion's political enslavement but the establishment of Rome
as the only great power in the world. His work is a history
of Roman expansion in the Mediterranean basin; only
by way of introduction or incidental reference does he
touch on earlier time. The experiences of mankind since
the days of Thucydides gave him a broader view of history
and politics. Most of the material for his work he ob-
tained from documents, from personal observation of the
topography and resources of the countries treated, and
from men who had taken part in the events which he nar-
rates. His interest centres in the motives, causes, and
effects of actions. A careful reading of this author is the
best possible introduction to the spirit and method of
history as we of to-day regard it.

To the age of Caesar belongs another Greek historian, Diodorus
Diodorus the Sicilian, a writer incomparably inferior to ter2i
Polybius in ability. His vast Historical Library narrates
the events of the civilized world from the earliest times to
Caesar's invasion of Britain (54 B.C.). The author shows
no judgment in selecting his material or in putting it to-
gether; hence the different parts of his work are of unequal
merit. He had no conception of the unity of history, and
this fault, together with his arrangement of events by
years, prevented him from tracing the causes, connections
and effects of events, from being a good historian. His

Introduction to the Sources

Nepos,
about 90-24
B.C.

Pompeius,

Trogus.

Strabo.

His work was
composed un-
der Augustus
and revised
under Tiber-
ius.

Plutarch,

about 50-125
A.D. *

descriptions of countries and nations, however, are ex-
cellent; and in spite of all defects, his work is indispensable,
as it is our main source for long periods of ancient history.
Of the forty books, we have the first five, the eleventh
to the twentieth, and fragments of the other parts.

In this age Romans were interesting themselves in
writing about Greek men and affairs. Nepos composed
biographies, among which we still have the lives of several
famous Greek generals; they show him to have been an
inferior and untrustworthy writer. In the age of Augustus
Pompeius Trogus, a Roman of Gallic birth, wrote in Latin
a history of the world down to his own time. Undoubtedly
it was more meritorious than the history of Diodorus,
though we know it only through a poor abridgment of
the second century A.D. by Justin.

Nearly contemporary with Trogus was Strabo, the
geographer. After travelling through many countries
and learning much from earlier writers, he composed a
description of the known world in seventeen books. He
gives useful historical information also regarding many of
the places which he mentions. Though he wrote in Greek
and had Greek blood in his veins, he was a native of Pontus
in Asia Minor, and probably composed his work for the
reigning queen of that country.

The most famous Greek writer of the Christian era was
Plutarch, the biographer. He was a philosopher and a
man of sincere religious convictions, high moral purpose,
and lovable character. His parallel Lives of Greeks and
Romans has probably been read by more persons than any
other book by a single author. Although the writer lacks
historical training and critical judgment, his biographies
are among the most instructive sources for the persons
and events of which they treat.

Authors and Documents 75

It will suffice to mention three other late Greek writers La * er Greek
with the principal work of each. Arrian of Nicomedia
wrote the Anabasis of Alexander, a military narrative Arrian, about
drawn from sources contemporary with the great conqueror.
At nearly the same time Pausanias composed his Guide to Pausanias,
Greece, which treats of the archaeology, myths, and to some
extent the history of that country. Sometime afterward
Diogenes Laertius wrote his Lives of the Philosophers, an Laefdus 5
inaccurate work though full of useful information. The earl y third
Greek authors who treat mainly of Roman affairs will A.n.
be mentioned in a later chapter. Ch.

AUTHORS AND DOCUMENTS

^Eschylus, translated by A. S. Way. Macmillan.

Alcaeus, translated by Easby-Smith. Washington: Lowdermilk.

Aristophanes, edited and translated by B. B. Rogers. Macmillan.

, Select Comedies, translated by J. H. Frere. Morley's Library.

Aristotle, Constitution of the Athenians, translated by the editors.

, Politics, translated by Jowett. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, translated by E. J. Chinnock. Mac-
millan.

Callinus, translated by the editors.

Demosthenes, translated by C. R. Kennedy. Macmillan.

Diodorus the Sicilian, Historical Library, translated by Booth (1814).
Revised by the editors.

Diogenes Laertius, translated by C. D. Yonge. Macmillan.

Euripides, translated by E. P. Coleridge. Macmillan.

Herodotus, translated by G. C. Macaulay. Macmillan. Revised by
the editors.

Hesiod, Works and Days, translated by A. W. Mair. Oxford: Claren-
don Press.

Homer, Iliad, translated by A. Lang, W. Leaf, and E. Myers. Mac-
millan.

, Odyssey, translated by S. H. Butcher and A. Lang. Mac-
millan.

Inscriptions, Greek, translated by the editors.

76 Introduction to the Sources

Justin, translated by J. S. Watson. Macmillan.

Nepos, translated by J. S. Watson (in the same volume with Justin).

Papyri. Selections from the Greek Papyri, edited with translations by
G. Milligan. Cambridge: University Press.

Papyri, translated by the editors, unless otherwise stated.

Pausanias, translated by J. G. Frazer. 6 vols. Macmillan.

Pindar, translated by E. Myers. Macmillan.

Plato, translated by B. Jowett. Macmillan.

Plutarch, Lives, translated by A. Stewart and G. Long. Mac-
millan.

Polybius, translated by E. S. Shuckburgh. Macmillan.

Sappho, selected translations, edited by Wharton. Chicago : McClurg.

, new fragments, translated by J. M. Edmonds. Classical Review,

xxiii (1910). 99-104.

Sophocles, translated by R. C. Jebb. Cambridge: University Press.

Strabo, translated by H. C. Hamilton and W. Falconer. Mac-
millan.

Thucydides, translated by B. Jowett. Lothrop.

Tyrtaeus, translated by the editors.

Xenophon, translated by H. G. Dakyns. Macmillan.

CHAPTER VII

THE CRETAN AND MYCEN^AN CIVILIZATIONS

I. RACE: THE CARIANS

THE Carians came to the mainland from the islands; Subjects of
for being of old time subjects of Minos and being called
Leleges, they used to dwell in the islands, paying no tribute, I7 e 1 ro c
so far back as I am able to arrive by hearsay; but whenever ^ ncient
Minos required it, they used to supply his ships with sea- World, 94.
men : and as Minos subdued much land and was fortunate
in his fighting, the Carian nation was of all nations much
the most famous at that time together with him. And
they produced three inventions of which the Hellenes
adopted the use; that is to say, the Carians were those
who first set the fashion of fastening crests on helmets,
and of making the devices which are put upon shields,
and these also were the first who made handles for their
shields, whereas up to that time all who were wont to
use shields carried them without handles and with leath-
ern straps to guide them, having them hung about their
necks and their left shoulders. Then after the lapse of a
long time the Dorians and lonians drove the Carians out
of the islands, and so they came to the mainland.

II. MINOS

They say that many generations after the birth of the
gods many heroes arose in Crete, the most illustrious of
whom were Minos and Rhadamanthys and Sarpedon, power.

78 The Cretan and Mycenxan Civilizations

78.

Diodorus v. who they say were the sons of Zeus and Agenor's sister
Europa. She, the story goes, had by a device of the gods
been carried off on a bull's back to Crete. Minos as the
eldest was king of the island, in which he planted no few
cities, the most famous among them being Cnossus in the
part which inclines toward Asia, Phaestus on the southern
coast, and Cydonia in the western regions opposite Pelo-
ponnesus. He enacted for the Cretans many laws, pre-
tending to receive them from his father Zeus and to hold
converse with him in a certain cave. It is said, too, that
he acquired a great naval power, conquered most of the
islands and was the first Greek to establish an empire
at sea. After winning great repute for bravery and jus-
tice, he ended his life in Sicily in an expedition against
Cocalus.

After Minos had established a navy, communication by
sea became more general. For after he had expelled the
pirates, when he colonized the greater part of the islands,
the dwellers on the sea-coast began to grow richer and to
live in a more settled manner; and some of them, finding
their wealth increase beyond their expectations, sur-
rounded their towns with walls. The love of gain made the
weaker willing to serve the stronger, and the command of
wealth enabled the more powerful to subjugate the lesser
cities. This was the state of society which was beginning
to prevail at the time of the Trojan War.

Results of
his naval
supremacy.

Thucydides

The primi-
tive Greeks.

Thucydides
i. 2.

Ancient
World, 73 .

III. GREEK MIGRATIONS

The country which is now called Hellas was not regu-
larly settled in ancient times. The people were migratory,
and readily left their homes when they were overpowered
by numbers. There was no commerce, and they could
not safely hold intercourse with one another by land or

Hellenic Migrations 79

sea. The several tribes cultivated their own soil just
enough to obtain a living from it. But they had no ac-
cumulation of wealth, and did not plant the ground; for
being without walls, they were never sure that an invader
might not come and despoil them. Living in this manner
and knowing that they could anywhere obtain a bare
subsistence, they were always ready to migrate; so that
they had neither great cities nor any considerable re-
sources.

The richest districts were most constantly changing The effect of

increasing

their inhabitants; for example, the countries which are wealth,
now called Thessaly and Bceotia, the greater part of the
Peloponnesus with the exception of Arcadia, and all the
best districts of Hellas. For the productiveness of the
land increased the power of individuals; this in turn was
a source of quarrels by which communities were ruined,
while at the same time they were exposed to attacks from
without. Certainly Attica, of which the soil was poor and
thin, enjoyed a long freedom from civil strife, and there-
fore retained its original inhabitants. And a striking
confirmation of my argument is afforded by the fact that
Attica through immigration increased in population more
than any other region. For the leading men of Hellas,
when driven out of their own country by war or revolution,
sought an asylum in Athens; and from the very earliest
times, being admitted to the rights of citizenship, so
greatly increased the number of inhabitants that Attica
became incapable of containing them, and was at last
obliged to send out colonies to Ionia.

STUDIES

i. What were the relations of the Carians to Minos? How did
they serve him? What inventions are ascribed to them?

8o The Cretan and Mycenaean Civilizations

2. What achievements of Minos are here mentioned? Does he
seem a myth or a real king? What economic effect had his naval
supremacy?

3. Describe the primitive condition of the Hellenes. Why were they
at first migratory? Why were the richest districts most unsettled?
Which were the richest countries? What was the condition of Attica
and its inhabitants? What policy did the early Athenians adopt
with reference to immigrants? Who wrote these selections, and
from what source did they obtain their information? What, there-
fore, is the value of their statements?

CHAPTER VIII

THE EPIC OR HOMERIC AGE
I. THE SHIELD OF ACHILLES

Achilles, son of the goddess Thetis, was the most valiant of all the
heroes who took part in the Trojan War; Ancient World, 95 f. After
he had quarrelled with Agamemnon, leader of the expedition, and had
become reconciled, Hephaestus, the artisan god, forged for him a
splendid suit of armor. The following passage tells how Hephaestus
made and decorated the shield. The chief value of the extract lies,
not only in the artist's work known to Homer, but even more in the
pictures of life which covered the shield the marriage festival, the
trial, the siege and ambush, plowing, reaping, the vintage, the
herdsmen protecting their flocks from lions, the youths and maidens
dancing. Homer, Iliad, xviii. 478-607.

FIRST fashioned he a shield great and strong, adorning Hephaestus
it all over, and set thereto a shining rim, triple, bright- shield? 8
glancing, and therefrom a silver baldrick. Five were the m ad xviii
folds of the shield itself; and therein fashioned he much 478ff -
cunning work from his wise heart. . . .

a. Also he fashioned therein two fair cities of mortal Marriage,
men. In the one were espousals and marriage feasts, and Homeric age;
beneath the blaze of torches they were leading the brides SS~ I7;
from their chambers through the city, and loud arose the World > 8 3-s-
bridal song. And young men were whirling in the dance,
and among them flutes and viols sounded high; and the
women standing each at her door were marvelling. But A trial,
the folk were gathered in the assembly place; for there
a strife was arisen, two men striving about the blood-price
of a man slain; the one claimed to pay full atonement,

The Epic or Homeric Age

The talent
here men-
tioned was a
small weight.

A siege.

An ambush.

expounding to the people, but the other denied him and
would take naught; and both were fain to receive judgment
at the hands of an arbiter. And the folk were cheering
both, as they took part on either side. And heralds kept
order among the folk, while the elders on polished stones
were sitting in the sacred circle, and holding in their hands
staves from the loud-voiced heralds. Then before the
people they rose up and gave judgment each in turn. And
in the midst lay two talents of gold, to be given unto him
who should plead among them most righteously.

But around the other city were two armies in siege
with glittering arms. And two counsels found favor among
them, either to sack the town or to share all with the towns-
folk even whatsoever substance the fair city held within.
But the besieged were not yet yielding, but arming for
an ambushment. On the wall there stood to guard it their
dear wives and infant children, and with these the old
men; but the rest went forth, and their leaders were Ares
and Pallas Athena, both wrought in gold, and golden was
the vesture they had on. Goodly and great were they
in their armor, even as gods, far seen around, and the folk
at their feet were smaller.

And when they came where it seemed good to them to
lay ambush, in a river bed where there was a common
watering-place of herds, there they set them, clad in glit-
tering bronze. And two scouts were posted by them afar
off to spy the coming of flocks and of oxen with crooked
horns. And presently came the cattle, and with them
two herdsmen playing on pipes, that took no thought of
the guile. Then the others when they beheld these ran
upon them and quickly cut off the herds of oxen and fair
flocks of white sheep, and slew the shepherds withal. But
the besiegers as they sat before the speech-places and heard

Rural Life 83

much din among the oxen, mounted forthwith behind
their high-stepping horses, and came up with speed. Then
they arrayed their battle and fought beside the river banks,
and smote one another with bronze-shod spears. And
among them mingled Strife and Tumult, and fell Death,
grasping one man alive fresh-wounded, another without
wound, and dragging another dead through the mellay
by the feet; and the raiment on her shoulders was red
with the blood of men. Like living mortals they hurled
together and fought, and haled the corpses each of the
other's slain.

b. Furthermore he set in the shield a soft fresh-plowed Plowing,
field, rich tilth and wide, the third time plowed; and
many plowers therein drave their yokes to and fro as they
wheeled about. Whensoever they came to the bound-
ary of the field and turned, then would a man come to each
and give into his hands a goblet of sweet wine, while
others would be turning back along the furrows, fain to
reach the boundary of the deep tilth. And the field grew
black behind and seemed as it were a-plowing, albeit of
gold, for this was the great marvel of the work.

Furthermore he set therein the domain-land of a king, Reaping,
where hinds were reaping with sharp sickles in their hands.
Some armfuls along the swathe were falling in rows to
the earth, whilst others the sheaf-binders were binding
in twisted bands of straw. Three sheaf-binders stood over
them, while behind boys gathering corn and bearing it
in their arms gave it constantly to the binders; and among
them the king in silence was standing at the swathe with
his staff, rejoicing in his heart. And henchmen apart
beneath an oak were making ready a feast, and prepar-
ing a great ox they had sacrificed; while the women were
strewing much white barley to be a supper for the hinds.

84 The Epic or Homeric Age

Vintage. Also he set therein a vineyard teeming plenteously

with clusters, wrought fair in gold; black were the grapes,
but the vines hung throughout on silver poles. And
around it he ran a ditch of cyanus, and round that a fence
of tin; and one single pathway led to it, whereby the
vintagers might go when they should gather the vintage.
And maidens and striplings in childish glee bare the sweet
fruit in plaited baskets. And in the midst of them a boy
made pleasant music on a clear-toned viol, and sang thereto
a sweet Linos-song with delicate voice; while the rest with
feet falling together kept time with the music and song.

Grazing. c. Also he wrought therein a herd of kine with upright

horns, and the kine were fashioned of gold and tin, and
with lowing they hurried from the yard to pasture beside
a murmuring river, beside the waving reed. And herds-
men of gold were following with the kine, four of them,
and nine dogs fleet of foot came after them. But two
terrible lions among the foremost kine had seized a loud-
roaring bull that bellowed mightily as they haled him, and
the dogs and the young men sped after him. The lions
rending the great bull's hide were devouring his vitals
and his black blood; while the herdsmen in vain tarred
on their fleet dogs to set them on, for they shrank from
biting the lions but stood hard by and barked and swerved
away.

Also the glorious lame god wrought therein a pasture
in a fair glen, a great pasture of white sheep, and a stead-
ing, and roofed huts, and folds.

Dancing. Also did the glorious lame god devise a dancing-place

like unto that which once in wide Cnossus Daidalus
wrought for Ariadne of the lovely tresses. There were
youths dancing and maidens of costly wooing, their hands
upon one another's wrists. Fine linen the maidens had

A Palace 85

on, and the youths well-woven doublets faintly glistening
with oil. Fair wreaths had the maidens, and the youths
daggers of gold hanging from silver baldrics. And now
would they run round with deft feet exceeding lightly,
as when a potter sitting by his wheel that fitteth between
his hands maketh trial of it whether it run: and now anon
they would run in lines to meet each other. And a great
company stood round the lovely dance in joy; and among
them a divine minstrel was making music on his lyre, and
through the midst of them, leading the measure, two tum-
blers whirled.

II. THE PALACE OF ALCINOUS

The hero Odysseus, returning home from Troy, after its capture and
destruction, wandered far and wide, driven about by the sea-god
Poseidon, who was angry with him; Ancient World, 96. In these
travels he was ship-wrecked upon the island of the Phaeacians.
Received hospitably by Nausicaa, a princess of these people, he came
to the palace of her father, King Alcinous. Especially interesting is
the description of the palace and its inmates and of the garden in the
great front court. Homer, Odyssey, vii. 81-132.

Meanwhile Odysseus went to the famous palace of interior
Alcinous, and his heart was full of many thoughts as he

stood there or ever he had reached the threshold of bronze,

For there was a gleam as it were of sun and moon through

the high-roofed hall of great-hearted Alcinous. Brazen Greece, 5-7.

were the walls that ran this way and that from the thresh-

old to the inmost chamber, and round them was a frieze

of blue, and golden were the doors that closed in the good

house. Silver were the door-posts that were set on the

brazen threshold, and silver the lintel thereupon, and the

hook of the door was of gold. And on either side stood

golden hounds and silver, which Hephaestus wrought with

The Epic or Homeric Age

The chief-
tains.

The maid-
servants.

The court-
yard.

his cunning, to guard the palace of great-hearted Alcinous,
being free from death and age all their days.

And within were seats arrayed against the wall this way
and that, from the threshold to the inmost chamber, and
thereon were spread light coverings finely woven, the hand-
iwork of women. There the Phaeacian chieftains were wont
to sit eating and drinking, for they had continual store.
Yea, and there were youths fashioned in gold, standing
on firm-set bases, with flaming torches in their hands,
giving light through the night to the feasters in the palace.
And he had fifty handmaids in the house, and some grind
the yellow grain on the millstone, and others weave webs
and turn the yarn as they sit, restless as the leaves of the
tall poplar tree; and the soft olive oil drops off that linen,
so closely is it woven. For as the Phaeacian men are skilled
beyond all others in driving a swift ship upon the deep,
even so are the women the most cunning at the loom,
for Athena hath given them notable wisdom in all fair
handiwork and cunning wit.

And without the courtyard, hard by the door, is a great
garden, of four plowgates, and a hedge runs round on
either side. And there grow tall trees blossoming, pear
trees and pomegranates, and apple trees with bright fruit,
and sweet figs and olives in their bloom. The fruit of
these trees never perisheth, neither faileth, winter or sum-
mer, enduring through all the year. Evermore the West
Wind blowing brings some fruits to birth and ripens others.
Pear upon pear waxes old, and apple upon apple, yea,
and cluster ripens upon cluster of the grape and fig upon
fig. There, too, hath he a fruitful vineyard planted, whereof
the one part is being dried by the heat, a sunny plot on
level ground, while other grapes men are gathering, and
yet others they are treading in the wine-press. In the fore-

Studies 87

most row are unripe grapes that cast the blossom, and others
there be that are growing black to vintaging. There,
too, skirting the furthest line, are all manner of garden
beds, planted trimly, that are perpetually fresh, and
therein are two fountains of water, whereof one scatters
his streams all about the garden, and the other runs over
against it beneath the threshold of the courtyard, and is-
sues by the lofty house, and thence did the townsfolk
draw water. These were the splendid gifts of the gods
in the palace of Alcinous.

STUDIES

1. a. What features of the marriage are here mentioned? Over
what was the trial? Who were the judges, and what part had the
people? What function did the heralds perform? Describe the siege.
What alternative plans had the besiegers in mind? What part did
the gods take in the conflict? b. Describe the plowing scene; the
reaping; the vintage; the preparation of food for the laborers, c. What
do you infer from the presence of lions as to the condition of the
country? What skilled industry is mentioned? Enumerate all the
occupations pictured on the "Shield." What do you infer from this
list as to the civilization of the country? Name all the metals used in
composing the "Shield."

2. What features of the palace seem to be Mycenaean? Who
were its occupants? Describe the work of the maidservants.
Where was the garden, and what were its fruits? How was it
watered? Combining these selections from Homer with pages 83-5
of the Ancient World, write as full an account as possible of Homeric
life.

CHAPTER IX

Aphrodite.
Diodorus v.
73-5-
Ancient
World, 86 ff.

The Graces.

Athena.

The Muses.
Hephaestus.

MYTH AND RELIGION

I. THE GODS

To Aphrodite he (Zeus) committed the care of the
mature age of girls; at which time they ought to marry,
and the oversight of other things used at nuptials.

To the Graces was granted power to beautify the face,
and to give a comely shape and proportion to all the mem-
bers of the body, . . . and to cause the persons to be
grateful and thankful for what they received. . . .

To Athena he committed the care of olive yards, and
the planting of olive trees, and the extraction of the oil:
for before the birth of this goddess, this tree grew wild,
disregarded among the trees of the wood, the use and
culture of it, as is now practiced, not then being known.

The making of garments likewise and architecture and
many other arts were revealed to men by this goddess.
She invented pipes and wind-music and many ingenious
tools and instruments for handicrafts; whence she was
called Ergane.

To the Muses their father allotted the invention of
letters and the composing of verses, called poetry. . . .

Hephaestus, they say, found out the working of iron,
brass, silver, and gold, and all other metals that require
forging by fire: and that the general use of fire in all other
cases, was found out by him, and discovered not only to
artificers, but to all other men; and therefore all the
masters of these arts pay their devotions, and offer their

The Gods 89

sacrifices chiefly to this god; both they and all others call
fire Hephaestus, to the end that this great good bestowed
upon mankind might be forever remembered, to his eternal
honor and praise.

Ares, they say, first taught the making of all sorts of Ares.
weapons, and how to furnish soldiers both with offensive
and defensive arms, and to fight with courage and reso-
lution, destroying them all that were enemies to the gods.

To Apollo is attributed the invention of the harp, and Apollo,
that sort of music; and it is said, he discovered the art of
medicine, which is practiced by revelation from him, by
which the sick were commonly restored to health : he found
out likewise the use of the bow, and taught the inhabi-
tants to shoot; and therefore the Cretans delight much in
shooting, and call the bow Scythicus.

To Hermes they attribute the invention of messages Hermes,
in times of war by trumpets and heralds, of truces and
leagues; and as a sign they were sent to treat with the
enemy they carried a rod before them; and therefore were
suffered safely to come and go. Hence they were called
the common Hermes, because both sides in the war
enjoyed the common benefit of peace.

They say, he was the first that invented weights and
measures, and the acquisition of wealth by merchandise,
and the way of cheating and cozening of others. He was
accounted the herald of the gods, and the best messenger,
because he was quick and ingenious in declaring particu-
larly everything he had in command. Whence he was
called Hermes.

II. ODYSSEUS VISITS THE REALM OF HADES

In his wanderings Odysseus sailed into Oceanus, the stream that
girdles the earth. On its farther side he landed on the shore of Erebus,

Myth and Religion

Odysseus
prepares to
speak with
the spirits of
the dead.

Odyssey xi.
34 ff.

Persephone,
wife of Hades.

Elpenor.

Left un-

buried.

the country over which Hades rules. He himself tells how he com-
municated with certain spirits of the dead. From the passage we
learn the view of the future life held by the Greeks of Homer's time.
Homer, Odyssey, xi. 34-223.

a. But when I had besought the tribes of the dead
with vows and prayers, I took the sheep and cut their
throats over the trench, and the dark blood flowed forth,
and lo, the spirits of the dead that be departed gathered
them from out of Erebus. Brides and youths unwed,
and old men of many and evil days, and tender maidens
with grief yet fresh at heart; and many there were,
wounded with bronze-shod spears, men slain in fight with
their bloody mail about them. And these many ghosts
flocked together from every side of the trench with a
wondrous cry, and pale fear gat hold on me. Then did I
speak to my company and command them to flay the sheep
that lay slain by the pitiless sword, and to consume them
with fire, and to make prayer to the gods, to mighty Hades
and to dread Persephone, and I myself drew the sharp
sword from my thigh and sat there, suffering not the
strengthless heads of the dead to draw nigh to the blood,
ere I had word of Teiresias.

And first came the soul of Elpenor my companion, that
had not yet been buried beneath the wide-wayed earth;
for we left the corpse behind us in the hall of Circe, un-
wept and unburied, seeing that another task was instant
upon us. At the sight of him I wept and had compassion
on him, and uttering my voice spake to him winged words:
"Elpenor, how hast thou come beneath the darkness and
the shadow? Thou hast come fleeter on foot than I in
my black ship."

So spake I, and with a moan he answered me, saying:
"Son of Laertes, of the seed of Zeus, Odysseus of many

A Spirit of One Unburied 91

devices, an evil doom of some god was my bane and wine
out of measure. When I laid me down on the housetop
of Circe, I minded me not to descend again by the . way
of the tall ladder, but fell right: down from the roof, and
my neck was broken off from the bones of my spine, and
my spirit went down to the house of Hades. And now I
pray thee in the name of those whom we left, who are
no more with us, thy wife, and thy sire who cherished thee
when as yet thou wert a little one, and Telemachus, whom
thou didst leave in thy halls alone; forasmuch as I know
that on thy way hence from out the dwelling of Hades,
thou wilt stay thy well-wrought ship at the isle of ^aean,
even then, my lord, I charge thee to think on me. Leave
me not unwept and unburied as thou goest hence, nor turn
thy back upon me, lest haply I bring upon thee the anger
of the gods. Nay, burn me with mine armor, all that is
mine, and pile me a barrow on the shore of the grey sea,
the grave of a luckless man, that even men unborn may
hear my story. Fulfil me this and plant upon the barrow
mine oar, wherewith I rowed in the days of my life, while
I was yet among my fellows."

Even so he spake, and I answered him saying: "All
this, luckless man, will I perform for thee and do."

Even so we twain were sitting holding sad discourse,
I on the one side, stretching forth my sword over the blood,
while on the other side the ghost of my friend told all his
tale.

b. Anon came up the soul of my mother dead, Anticleia, Anticleia,
the daughter of Autolycus, the great-hearted, whom I left Odysseus,
alive when I departed for sacred Ilios. At the sight of
her I wept and was moved with compassion, yet even so,
for all my sore grief, I suffered her not to draw nigh to the
blood, ere I had word of Teiresias. ...

92 Myth and Religion

So spake I, and anon he answered me and said: "I will
tell thee an easy saying, and will put it in thy heart. Whom-
soever of the dead that be departed thou shalt suffer to
draw nigh to the blood, he shall tell thee sooth; but if thou
shalt grudge any, that one shall go to his own place again."
Therewith the spirit of the prince Teiresias went back
within the house of Hades, when he had told all his oracles.
But I abode there steadfastly, till my mother drew nigh
and drank the dark blood; and at once she knew me, and
bewailing herself spake to me winged words:

"Dear child, how didst thou come beneath the dark-
ness and the shadow, thou that art a living man? Griev-
ous is the sight of these things to the living, for between
us and you are great rivers and dreadful streams; first,
Oceanus, which can no wise be crossed on foot, but only
if one have a well-wrought ship. Art thou but now come
hither with thy ship and thy company in thy long wander-
ings from Troy? and hast thou not yet reached Ithaca,
nor seen thy wife in thy halls?"

Why Odys- Even so she spake, and I answered her, and said: "O

seuscameto .

the realm of my mother, necessity was on me to come down to the house

Hades. of jj a( j es to see k t h e spirit o f Theban Teiresias. For not
yet have I drawn near to the Achaean shore, nor yet have
I set foot on mine own country, but have been wandering
evermore in affliction, from the day that first I went with
goodly Agamemnon to Ilios of the fair steeds, to do bat-
tle with the Trojans. But come, declare me this and plainly
tell it all. What doom overcame thee of death that lays
men at their length? Was it a slow disease, or did Artemis
the archer slay thee with the visitation of her gentle shafts?
And tell me of my father and my son, that I left behind me;
doth my honor yet abide with them, or hath another al-
ready taken it while they say that I shall come home no

Mother of Odysseus 93

more? And tell me of my wedded wife, of her counsel
and her purpose, doth she abide with her son and keep all
secure, or hath she already wedded the best of the Achae-
ans? "

Even so I spake, and anon my lady mother answered His family
me: "Yea verily, she abideth with steadfast spirit in thy
halls; and wearily for her the nights wane always and the
days in shedding of tears. But the fair honor that is thine
no man hath yet taken; but Telemachus sits at peace on
his domain, and feasts at equal banquets, whereof it is
meet that a judge partake, for all men bid him to their
house. And thy father abides there in the field, and goes
not down to the town, nor lies he on bedding or rugs or
shining blankets, but all the winter he sleeps, where sleep
the thralls in the house, in the ashes by the fire, and is
clad in sorry raiment. But when the summer comes and
the rich harvest-tide, his beds of fallen leaves are strewn
lowly all about the knoll of his vineyard plot. There he
lies sorrowing and nurses his mighty grief, for long desire
of thy return, and old age withal comes heavy upon him.
Yea and even so did I too perish and meet my doom. It
was not the archer goddess of the keen sight, who slew
me in my halls with the visitation of her gentle shafts,
nor did any sickness come upon me, such as chiefly with
a sad wasting draws the spirit from the limbs; nay, it
was my sore longing for thee, and for thy counsels, great
Odysseus, and for thy loving-kindness, that reft me of
sweet life."

So spake she, and I mused in my heart and would fain Parting with
have embraced the spirit of my mother dead. Thrice I
sprang toward her, and was minded to embrace her;
thrice she flitted from my hands as a shadow or even
as a dream, and grief waxed ever the sharper at my

Myth and Religion

The Treas-
ure-Houses.

Strabo ix. 3.
4-

It is to be
noticed that
Strabo com-
pleted his
work about
iSA.D. He
is therefore
speaking of a
time centuries
before his

The Oracle.

ib. 5 .

heart. And uttering my voice I spake to her winged
words:

"Mother mine, wherefore dost thou not abide me who
am eager to clasp thee, that even in Hades we twain may
cast our arms each about the other, and have our fill of
chill lament? Is this but a phantom that the high goddess
Persephone hath sent me, to the end that I may groan
for more exceeding sorrow?"

So spake I, and my lady mother answered me anon:
"Ah me, my child, of all men most ill-fated, Persephone,
the daughter of Zeus, doth in no wise deceive thee, but
even on this wise it is with mortals when they die. For
the sinews no more bind together the flesh and the bones,
but the great force of burning fire abolishes these, so soon
as the life hath left the white bones, and the spirit like a
dream flies forth and hovers near. But haste with all
thine heart toward the sunlight and mark all this, that
even hereafter thou mayest tell it to thy wife."

III. THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO AT DELPHI AND THE
AMPHICTYONY

The temple of Apollo is now much neglected, although
formerly it was held in the greatest reverence. Proofs
of the respect which were paid to it are the treasures,
built at the expense of communities and princes, where
was deposited the wealth dedicated to sacred uses, the
works of the most eminent artists, the Pythian games,
and a vast number of recorded oracles.

The place where the oracle is delivered is said to be a
deep hollow cavern, the entrance to which is not very wide.
From it rises up an exhalation which inspires a divine
frenzy: over the mouth is placed a lofty tripod on which
the Pythian priestess ascends to receive the exhalation,

The Delphic Amphictyony 95

after which she gives the prophetic response in verse or
prose. The prose is adapted to metre by poets who are
in the service of the temple. . . .

Although the highest honor was paid to this temple on Ib. 6.
account of this oracle, as the freest of all from deception,
yet its reputation was owing in part to its situation in the
centre of all Greece, both within and without the Isth-
mus. It was also supposed to be the centre of the habitable
earth. . . .

As the situation of Delphi is convenient, persons easily The Am-
assembled there, particularly those from the neighbor-
hood, of whom the Amphictyonic body is composed. It Ib. 7.
is the business of this body to deliberate on public affairs,
and to it is more particularly intrusted the guardianship
of the temple for the common good; for large sums of
money were deposited there, and votive offerings, which
required great vigilance and religious care. The early
history of this body is unknown, but among the names
which are recorded, Acrisius appears to have been the first
who regulated its constitution, to have determined what
cities were to have votes in the council, and to have as-
signed the number of votes and mode of voting. To some
cities he gave a single vote each, or a vote to two cities,
or to several cities conjointly. He also defined the class
of questions which might arise between the different cities,
which were to be submitted to the decision of the Am-
phictyonic tribunal; and subsequently many other regu-
lations were made, but this federation like that of the
Achaeans, was finally dissolved.

At first twelve cities are said to have assembled, each of Time and

. lit. place of as-

which sent a Pylagoras. The convention was held twice a sembiy.

year, in spring and autumn. But latterly a greater number
of cities assembled. They called both the vernal and the

96 Myth and Religion

autumnal convention Pylaean, because it was held at Pylae,
which has the name also of Thermopylae. The Pylagorse
sacrificed to Demeter. In the beginning, only the persons
in the neighborhood assembled, or consulted the oracle,
but afterwards people repaired thither from a distance
for this purpose, sent gifts, and constructed treasuries,
as Croesus, and his father Alyattes, some of the Italians
also, and the Sicilians.

STUDIES

1. Enumerate the deities mentioned in this selection, with the
functions of each. What are the Roman equivalents? What must
have been the mental condition of men which created these ideas of
the gods?

2. a. What classes of people did Odysseus find in the home of the
dead? What means had he of restoring their spirits to consciousness?
What was the normal state of their minds? What was the peculiar
condition of Elpenor? What was necessary to give his spirit peace?
b. What information did Odysseus' mother give him concerning
his family at home? Did the dead, then, know what was going on in
this world? What was the condition of his family? How, as his
mother explains, does the spirit separate itself from the body?

3. What were the Delphic treasure-houses? By what means did
Apollo give his oracles? Why did this oracle become the most im-
portant in Hellas? Describe the organization of the amphictyony.
Who were the Pylagorae? Mention all the authors represented in
this chapter and the source of information of each. What is the
historical value of each selection?

CHAPTER X

THE CITY-STATE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

I. FAMILY, VILLAGE, AND STATE

THE family is the association established by nature The family,
for the supply of men's everyday wants, and the members Aristotle,
of it are called by Charondas "companions of the cup- Pohhcs ' l - 2 -
board" and by Epimenides the Cretan, "companions of jpjjf/^g.
the manger." But when several families are united, and i4-
the association aims at something more than the supply The village,
of daily needs, then comes into existence the village. And
the most natural form of the village appears to be that of a
colony from the family, composed of the children and grand-
children, who are said to be "nourished with the same
milk." And this is the reason why Hellenic states were
originally governed by kings; because the Hellenes were
under royal rule before they came together, as the bar-
barians still are. Every family is ruled by the eldest, and
therefore in the colonies of the family the kingly form of
government prevailed because they were of the same
blood. . . .

When several villages are united in a single community, The City-
perfect and large enough to be nearly or quite self-suffic-
ing, the state comes into existence, originating in the
bare needs of life, and continuing in existence for the sake
of a good life.

98 The City-State and Its Development

Situation.

Aristotle,
Politics, vii.
ii.

Arrange-
ment of
houses in
streets.

II. THE FOUNDING OF A CITY

In respect of the place itself our wish would be to find
a situation for it, fortunate in four things. The first,
health; this is a necessity: cities which lie toward the east
and are blown upon by winds coming from the east, are the
healthiest; next in healthfulness are those which are
sheltered from the north wind, for they have a milder win-
ter. The site of the city should likewise be convenient
for political administration and for war. With a view to
the latter it should afford easy egress to the citizens,
and at the same time be inaccessible and difficult of cap-
ture to enemies. There should be a natural abundance
of springs and fountains in the town; or, if there is a de-
ficiency of them, great reservoirs may be established for
the collection of rain-water, such as will not fail when
the inhabitants are cut off from the country by war.
Special care should be taken of the health of the inhabi-
tants, which will depend chiefly on the healthiness of the
locality and of the quarter to which they are exposed,
and secondly, on the use of pure water; this latter point
is by no means a secondary consideration. For the ele-
ments which we use most and oftenest for the support of
the body contribute most to health, and among these
are water and air. Wherefore in all wise states, if there is
a want of pure water and the supply is not all equally
good, the drinking water ought to be separated from that
which is used for other purposes. . . .

The arrangement of private houses is considered to
be more agreeable and generally more convenient, if the
streets are regularly laid out after the modern fashion
which Hippodamus introduced, but for security in war
the antiquated mode of building, which made it difficult

Limitations 99

for strangers to get out of a town and for assailants to
find their way in, is preferable. A city should therefore
adopt both plans of building; it is possible to arrange the
houses irregularly, as husbandmen plant their vines in
what are called "clumps." The whole town should not
be laid out in straight lines, but only certain quarters and
regions; thus security and beauty will be combined. . . .

III. POPULATION AND TERRITORY SHOULD BE LIMITED

A state, then, only begins to exist when it has attained What should
a population sufficient for a good life in the political bethelimit?
community; it may indeed somewhat exceed this number. Aristotle,
But, as I was saying, there must be a limit. What should 4 .* u
be the limit will be easily ascertained by experience. For
both governors and governed have duties to perform;
the special functions of a governor are to command and
to judge. But if the citizens of a state are to judge and
distribute offices according to merit, then they must know
each other's characters; where they do not possess this
knowledge, both the election to offices and the decision of
lawsuits will go wrong. When the population is very large,
these things are manifestly settled at haphazard, which
clearly ought not to be. Besides, in an overpopulous state
foreigners and metics will readily acquire the rights of
citizens, for who will find them out? Clearly then the best
limit of the population of a state is the largest number
which suffices for the purposes of life, and can be taken in
at a single view. Enough concerning the size of a city.

Much the same principle will apply to the territory Self-
of the state; every one would agree in praising the state s
which is most entirely self-sufficing; and that must be the
state which is all producing, for to have all things, and to
want nothing is sufficiency. In size and extent it should

ioo The City-State and Its Development

be such as may enable the inhabitants to live temperately
and liberally in the enjoyment of leisure. . . .

IV. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT

Three true We have next to consider how many forms of govern-
government. merit there are, and what they are; and in the first place
what are the true forms; for what they are determines the
Aristotle, perversions of them, as will at once be apparent. The
tcs, in. 7. wor( j s constitution and government have the same mean-
ing, and the government which is the supreme authority
in states, must be in the hands of one or of a few or of many.
The true forms of government therefore are those in which
the one, or the few, or the many govern with a view to the
common interest; but governments which rule with a view
to the private interest, whether of the one, or of the few,
or of the many, are perversions. For citizens, if they are
truly citizens, ought to participate in the advantages of a
state. Of forms of government in which one rules, we
call that which regards the common interests, kingship
or royalty; that in which more than one but not many,
rule, aristocracy ("the rule of the best") ; and it is so called,
either because the rulers are the best men, or because they
have at heart the best interests of the state and of the
citizens. But when the citizens at large administer the
state for the common interest, the government is called
by the generic name a constitution. And there is a
reason for this use of language. One man or a few
may excel in virtue; but of virtue there are many kinds;
and as the number increases, it becomes more difficult
for them to attain perfection in every kind, though they
may in military virtue, for this is found in the masses.
Hence, in a constitutional government the fighting men

Evolution of Government 101

have the supreme power, and those who possess arms are
the citizens.

Of the above-mentioned forms, the perversions are as Three per-
follows: of royalty, tyranny; of aristocracy, oligarchy; forms,
of constitutional government, democracy. For tyranny
is a kind of monarchy which has in view the interest of the
monarch only; oligarchy has in view the interest of the
wealthy; democracy of the needy; none of them the com-
mon good of all.

The first governments were kingships; probably for Evolution of
this reason, because of old, when cities were small, men of g v<
eminent virtue were few. They were made kings because Aristotle,
they were benefactors, and benefits can only be bestowed
by good men. But when many persons equal in merit
arose, no longer enduring the pre-eminence of one, they
desired to have a commonwealth, and set up a constitu-
tion- The ruling class soon deteriorated and enriched
themselves out of the public treasury; riches became the
path to honor, and so oligarchies naturally grew up. These
passed into tyrannies and tyrannies into democracies;
for love of gain in the ruling classes was always tending to
diminish their number, and so to strengthen the masses,
who in the end set upon their masters and established
democracies. Since cities have increased in size, no other
form of government appears to be any longer possible.

STUDIES

1. What is a family, and what is a village? What form of govern-
ment had the village and why? How did the state arise?

2. What are the four essentials in the situation of a city? How
may they be secured? What were the two modes of arranging the
houses in streets, and their relative merits?

3. What limit should there be to the extent and population of a
city-state? What would Aristotle think of our state?

102 The City-State and Its Development

4. Name and define the true forms of government; the perverted
forms. How does an oligarchy differ from an aristocracy? What
objection has Aristotle to democracy? Trace the evolution of the
various forms of government. When did Aristotle live, and what is
the value of his Politics?

CHAPTER XI

ECONOMY AND COLONIZATION

I. FARMING

GET a house first and a woman and a plowing ox; and Prepara-
get all gear arrayed within the house, lest thou beg of small 'fann-
another and he deny thee and thou go lacking, and the mg>
season pass by and thy work be minished. Neither put Hesiod,
off till the morrow nor the day after. The idle man filleth DW^*
not his barn, neither he that putteth off. Diligence pros-
pereth work, but the man that putteth off ever wrestleth
with ruin.

And bring thou home a plowbeam, when thou findest Plows,
it by search on hill or in field of holm oak : for this is the Evidently
strongest to plow with, when Athena's servant fasteneth here'hasTn
it in the share-beam and fixeth it with dowels to the pole. ?" nd a lar ^ er

farm.

Get thee two plows, fashioning them at home, one of the
natural wood, the other jointed, since it is far better to do
so. Hence if thou break the one, thou canst yoke the oxen
to the other. Freest of worms are poles of bay or elm.
Get thee then share-beam of oak, plow-beam of holm,
and two oxen of nine years. For the strength of such is
not weak in the fulness of their age; they are best for
work. They will not quarrel in the furrow and break the
plow, and leave their work undone. And with them let
a man of forty follow, his dinner a loaf of four quarters,
eight pieces, who will mind his work and drive a straight
furrow, no more gaping after his fellows, but having his
heart on his task. Than he no younger man is better at

103

Winter
occupation.

Winter
clothing.

Threshing
and after.

104 Economy and Colonization

sowing. For the mind of a younger man is fluttered after
his age-fellows. . . . And let a young slave follow behind
with a mattock and cause trouble to the birds by covering
up the seed. ...

But pass by the smith's forge and the crowded club-
house in the winter season when cold constraineth men
from work, wherein a diligent man would greatly prosper
his house, lest the helplessness of evil winter overtake thee
with poverty, and thou press a swollen foot with lean
hand. But the idle man who waiteth on empty hope,
for lack of livelihood garnereth many sorrows for his soul.
Hope is a poor companion for a man in need, who sitteth
in a club-house when he hath no livelihood secured. Nay,
declare thou to thy thralls while it is still midsummer:
It will not be summer always; build ye cabins. . . .

In that season (winter) do thou for the defence of thy
body array thee as I bid thee in soft cloak and full-length
tunic, and twine much woof in a scanty warp. . . . About
thy feet bind fitting sandals of the hide of a slaughtered
ox, covering them with felt. And when the frost cometh
in its season, sew thou together with thread of ox-thong
the skins of firstling kids to put about thy back as a shield
against the rain. And on thy head wear thou a cap of
wrought felt, that thou mayest not have thy ears wetted.
For chill is the dawn at the onset of Boreas. . . .

But so soon as the strength of Orion appeareth, urge
thy thralls to thresh the holy grain of Demeter in a windy
place and on a rounded floor; measure and store it in ves-
sels; and when thou hast laid up all thy livelihood within
thy house, then I bid thee get a thrall that hath no family,
and seek a serving woman without a child. Troublous
is a serving woman that hath a child. Care, too, for the
dog of jagged teeth. Spare not his food, lest the Day

<$ ' "' ; "^.

i t

Agriculture; Navigation 105

Sleeper filch away thy goods. Also bring in fodder and
litter that thou mayest have sufficient store for thy cattle
and thy mules. Then let thy thralls rest their knees and
loose thine oxen.

But when Orion and Sirius come into mid-heaven, and Vintage.
rosy-fingered Morning looketh upon Arcturus, O Perses,
pluck and bring home all thy grapes, and show them to
the sun ten days and ten nights. Cover them five days
and on the sixth draw off into vessels the gifts of joyous
Dionysus. . . .

In the flower of thine age lead thou home thy bride, Marriage.
when thou art not far short of thirty years nor far past
over. This is the timely marriage. Sixteen years old
should be the woman; let her marry in the seventeenth.
Marry a maiden that thou mayest teach her good ways.
Marry a neighbor best of all, with care and circum-
spection, lest thy marriage be a (malicious) joy to thy
neighbors. For no better spoil doth a man win than a
good wife, even as he winneth no worse than a bad wife
the banquet-seeker, that roasteth her husband without a
brand, and giveth him over to untimely old age.

II. NAVIGATION

For fifty days after the turning of the sun, when har-
vest, the weary season, hath come to an end, sailing is tion.
seasonable for men. Thou shalt not break thy ship, nor
shall the sea destroy thy crew, save only if Poseidon
Shaker of the Earth or Zeus the King of the Immortals Days
be wholly minded to destroy. For with them is the issue
alike of good and evil. Then are the breezes easy to judge
and the sea is harmless. Then trust thou in the winds;
with soul untroubled launch the swift ship in the sea,
and well bestow therein thy cargo. And haste with all

io6

Economy and Colonization

A less favor-
able season.

speed to return home again; neither wait the new wine and
autumn ram, the winter's onset and the dread blasts of
the southern wind, which, coming with the heavy autumn
rain of Zeus, stirreth the sea and maketh the deep perilous.
Also in spring may men sail; when first on the topmost
spray of the fig-tree leaves appear as the foot-print of a
crow for size, then is the sea navigable. This is the spring
sailing, which I commend not, for it is not pleasing to my
mind, snatched sailing that it is. Hardly shalt thou escape
doom. Yet even this men do in ignorance of mind. For
money is life for hapless men: but dread is death amid the
waves, and I bid thee think of all these things in thy
There was no heart, even as I say. Neither set thou all thy livelihood
in hollow ships, but leave the greater part and put on
board the less. For a dread thing it is to chance on doom
amid the waves.

Topography
and art.

Strabo vi.
3- I-

Greece, 34;
Ancient
World, 107.

III. TARENTUM

The Gulf of Tarentum is for the most part destitute of a
port, but here there is a large commodious harbor closed
in by a great bridge. . . . The site of the city is extremely
low. The ground rises slightly toward the citadel. The
old wall of the city has an immense circuit, but now the
greater portion that toward the isthmus is deserted;
but the part near the mouth of the harbor still subsists
and constitutes a considerable city. It possesses a noble
gymnasium and a spacious forum, in which stands a
bronze colossus of Zeus, the largest ever made excepting
the one at Rhodes. The citadel, situated between the
forum and the entrance to the harbor, still preserves some
slight relics of the ancient magnificence of consecrated
offerings, but the best were destroyed either by the Car-
thaginians when they took the city or by the Romans when

Tar en turn; Marseilles 107

they stormed and sacked it. In the booty taken on this
occasion was the bronze colossus of Hercules, the work of
Lysippus, now on the Capitoline Hill. It was dedicated
there as an offering by Fabius Maximus, who captured the
city.

At one time, when the government of the Tarentines Govern-
had assumed a democratic form, they rose to great im-
portance; for they possessed the largest fleet of all the 3 .
states in that region, and could bring into the field an army
of 30,000 foot and 3,000 horse besides a select body of
1000 cavalry called hipparchi. They adopted, too, the
Pythagorean philosophy; and Archytas, who for a long
time presided over the government, gave it his special
support. At a later period, however, their luxury, aris-
ing from their prosperity, so increased that their public
festivals exceeded in number the days of the year. Hence
arose an inefficient government.

IV. MASSALIA (Marseilles)

Marseilles, founded by the Phocaeans, is built in a Its founding,
stony region. Its harbor lies beneath a rock which is Strabo i\ .
shaped like a theatre opening toward the south. Walls I
protect the harbor and the whole city, which is of consider-
able size. Within the citadel stand the Ephesium and
the temple of the Delphian Apollo. The latter temple
is common to all the lonians. The Ephesium is the
temple consecrated to Artemis of Ephesus. It is said
that when the Phocseans were about to quit their country,
an oracle commanded them to take from Artemis of Ephe-
sus, a conductor for their voyage. On arriving at Ephesus,
therefore, they inquired how they might be able to ob-
tain from the goddess what was ordered them. The god-

Government.

ib. s .

Timuchi,
"holders of
honor"
(office.)

Livelihood.

108 Economy and Colonization

dess appeared in a dream to Aristarcha, one of the most
honorable women of the city, and commanded her to ac-
company the Phocseans, and to take with her a plan of
the temple and statues. When this was done and the
colony settled, the Phocaeans built a temple, and evinced
their great respect for Aristarcha by making her priestess.
All the colonies sent out from Marseilles hold this goddess
in peculiar reverence, preserving the form of the statue
as well as every rite observed in the mother-city.

The Massalians live under a well-regulated aristocracy.
They have a council composed of six hundred persons
called timuchi, who enjoy this dignity for life. Fifteen
timuchi preside over the council and have the manage-
ment of current affairs; these fifteen are presided over by
three of their number, in whom rests the chief authority;
and of these three, one is chairman. No one can become
a timuchus unless he has children and has been a citizen
for three generations. Their laws, which are the same as
those of the lonians, they expound in public.

Their country abounds in vines and olives, but on ac-
count of its ruggedness their wheat is poor. Hence they
trust more to the resources of the sea than of the land, and
avail themselves of their excellent position for commerce.
They have found it possible, however, through persever-
ance to annex some of the surrounding plains, and also
to found cities. Of this number are the cities they founded
in Iberia as a rampart against the Iberians, in which they
introduced the worship of Artemis of Ephesus as practised
in the fatherland, with the Greek mode of sacrifice. . . .
They possess also dry docks and armories. Formerly
they had an abundance of vessels, arms, and machines
for navigation and for besieging towns, by which means
they defended themselves against the barbarians.

Colonial Institutions 109

V. RELATION BETWEEN THE COLONY AND THE
MOTHER-CITY

I maintain that this colony of ours has a father and a As a child to
mother, who are no other than the colonizing state. Well
I know that many colonies have been, and will be, at Plato, Laws,
enmity with their parents. But in early days, the child, VI ' 7S4 '
as in a family, loves and is loved; even if there come a Greece, 39;
time later when the tie is broken, still while he is in want world, 106.
of education, he naturally loves his parents and is beloved
by them, and flies to his relatives for protection, and finds
in them his only natural allies in time of need; and this
parental feeling already exists in the Cnossians, as is
shown by their care of the new city; and there is a similar
feeling on the part of the young city toward Cnossus.

VI. ATHENIAN DECREE FOR THE COLONIZATION or BREA,
446-445

The leaders of the colonists shall provide flocks of goats, Religious
as many as they shall deem sufficient, for the offering of
auspicious sacrifices in behalf of the colony. Ten men shall /JJ,**"
be chosen as surveyors, one from each tribe, and these
men shall assign the land. Democlides shall have full
power to establish the colony according to the best of his founder,
ability. The sacred domains that have been set apart
shall be left as they are, and no others shall be conse-
crated.

STUDIES

i. What things must the fanner have to begin with? Do these
directions have reference to a large or a small farm? Describe the
making of a plow. What kinds of wood grew in the forests? Who
will make the best plowman? Is this man of forty slave or free?
Does this reference to the plowman and the slave boy indicate a very

no Economy and Colonization

small farm? How was the seed covered? What class of men frequent
the club-houses? What should the farmer do during winter? De-
scribe the threshing; the vintage. What directions are given for
marriage?

2. What are the seasons for navigation? W T hat precaution is to
be taken regarding the cargo? What seems to have been the condi-
tion of navigation?

3. Describe the situation of Tarentum. What became of its works
of art? What was its form of government?

4. How did Artemis come to be the chief deity of Marseilles? Com-
pare the government of this city with that of Tarentum. What were
the occupations of the people?

5. How was the colony related to the mother-city?

6. What regulations for the founding of Brea did Athens establish
by decree?

CHAPTER XII

THE RISE OF SPARTA AND THE PELOPONNESIAN
LEAGUE

I. LYCURGUS: REGENCY AND TRAVELS

WITH regard to Lycurgus the lawgiver there is noth- Nothing
ing whatever that is undisputed; as his birth, his travels, known^f
his death, and besides all this, his legislation, have all been him *
related in various ways. ... He was king for eight Plutarch,
months in all; and was much looked up to by the citizens ^ urgm
who rendered a willing obedience to him, because of his
eminent virtues rather than because he was regent with Greece, 56;
royal powers. There was, nevertheless, a faction which World, 117 f.
grudged him his elevation, and tried to oppose him, as
he was a young man. . . . He decided to avoid all sus-
picion by leaving the country and travelling until his
nephew should be grown up and have an heir born to
succeed him.

With this intention he set sail, and first came to Crete, His visit to
where he studied the constitution and mixed with the rete *
leading statesmen. Some part of their laws he approved
and made himself master of, with the intention of adopting
them on his return home, while with others he was dis-
satisfied. One of the men who had a reputation there
for learning and state-craft he made his friend, and in-
duced him to go to Sparta. This was Thaletas, who was
thought to be merely a lyric poet, and who used this art
to conceal his graver requirements, being in reality deeply
versed in legislation. His poems were exhortations to

ii2 Sparta and the Peloponnesian League

Public
tables.

Plutarch,
Lycurgus, 10.

Girls and
women.

Ib. 14.

unity and concord, breathing a spirit of calm and order,
which insensibly civilised their hearers and by urging
them to the pursuit of honorable objects, led them to lay
aside the feelings of party strife so prevalent in Sparta;
so that he may be said in some degree to have educated
the people and prepared them to receive the reforms of
Lycurgus.

II. His IDEA OF EDUCATION

Wishing still further to put down luxury and take away
the desire for riches, he introduced the third and the
most admirable of his reforms, that of the common din-
ing-table. At this the people were to meet and dine
together upon a fixed allowance of food, and not to live
in their own homes, lolling on expensive couches at rich
tables, fattened like beasts in private by the hands of
servants and cooks, and undermining their health by in-
dulgence to excess in every bodily desire, long sleep, warm
baths, and much repose, so that they required a sort of
daily nursing like sick people.

Considering education to be the most important and
the noblest work of a lawgiver, he began at the very be-
ginning, and regulated marriages and the birth of children.
It is not true that, as Aristotle says, he endeavored to
regulate the lives of the women, and failed, being foiled
by the liberty and habits of command which they had
acquired by the long absences of their husbands on mili-
tary expeditions, during which they were necessarily
left in sole charge at home, wherefore their husbands looked
up to them more than was fitting, calling them Mistresses;
but he made what regulations were necessary for them also.
He strengthened the bodies of the girls by exercises in
running, wrestling, and hurling quoits or javelins, in

Modesty and Moderation 113

order that their children might spring from a healthy
source and so grow up strong. ... He did away with all
affectation of seclusion and retirement among the women,
and ordained that the girls, no less than the boys, should
go unclad in processions, and dance and sing at festivals
in the presence of the young men.

III. THE MODESTY or THE YOUTHS; THE MODERATION
or THEIR FOOD

Furthermore, in his desire firmly to implant in their Silent and
youthful souls a root of modesty he imposed upon these lgm
bigger boys a special rule. In the very streets they were c35S

to keep their two hands within the folds of the cloak; oftheLace-
. . . aeemontans,

they were to walk in silence and without turning their 3-

heads to gaze, now here now there, but rather to keep
their eyes fixed upon the ground before them. And hereby
it would seem to be proved conclusively that, even in the
matter of quiet bearing and sobriety, the masculine type
may claim greater strength than that which we attribute
to the nature of women. At any rate, you might sooner
expect a stone image to find voice than one of those Spar-
tan youths; to divert the eyes of some bronze statue were
less difficult. And as to quiet bearing, no bride ever
stepped in bridal bower with more natural modesty. Note
hem when they have reached the public table. The
plainest answer to the question asked, that is all you
need expect from their lips.

As to food, his ordinance allowed them so much as Their food,
while not inducing repletion, should guard them from ib. 5-7.
actua/~.-vant. And in fact, there are many exceptional
dishes^ 6 ' he shape of game supplied from the hunting
field. V-Slls a substitute for these, rich men will occasion-

ii4 Sparta and the Peloponnesian League

The land
system.

Plutarch,
Lycurgus,

The Cryp-
teia.

Ib. 28.

Greece, 59 f.;
Ancient
World, 112 f.

ally garnish the feast with wheaten loaves. So that from
beginning to end, till the mess breaks up, the common
board is never stinted for viands, nor yet extravagantly
furnished.

IV. THE PERICECI AND THE HELOTS

Putting his proposal immediately into practice, he
divided the outlying lands of the state among the perioeci,
in thirty thousand lots, and that immediately adjoining
the metropolis among the native Spartans, in nine thou-
sand lots, for to that number they then amounted. Some
say that Lycurgus made six thousand lots, and that
Polydorus added three thousand afterwards; others that
he added half the nine thousand, and that only half was
allotted by Lycurgus.

Each man's lot was of such a size as to supply a man
with seventy medimni of barley, and his wife with twelve,
and oil and wine in proportion; for thus much he thought
ought to suffice them, as the food was enough to maintain
them in health, and they wanted nothing more. It is said
that, some years afterwards, as he was returning from a
journey through the country at harvest-time, when he saw
the sheaves of corn lying in equal parallel rows, he smiled,
and said to his companions that all Laconia seemed as if
it had just been divided among so many brothers.

In all these acts of Lycurgus we cannot find any traces
of the injustice and unfairness which some complain of
in his laws, which they say are excellent to produce cour-
age but less so for justice. And the institution calkd
Crypteia, if indeed it is one of the laws of Lycurgus, as
Aristotle tells us, would agree with the idea whirH *iato
conceived about him and his system. The CM e Jteia was
this: the leaders of the young men used at "intervals to

The Helots 115

send the most discreet of them into different parts of the
country, equipped with daggers and necessary food; in
the daytime these men used to conceal themselves in un-
frequented spots, and take their rest, but at night they
would come down into the roads and murder any helots
they found. And often they would range about the fields,
and make away with the strongest and bravest helots
they could find. Also, as Thucydides mentions in his
History of the Peloponnesian War, those helots who were
especially honored by the Spartans for their valor were
crowned as free men, and taken to the temples with re-
joicings; but in a short time they all disappeared, to the
number of more than two thousand, and in such a way
that no man, either then or afterward, could tell how they
perished. Aristotle says that the Ephors, when they first
take office, declare war against the helots, in order that it
may be lawful to destroy them. And much other harsh
treatment used to be inflicted upon them; and they were
compelled to drink much unmixed wine, and then were
brought into the public dining halls, to show the young
what drunkenness is.
They were also forced to sing low songs, and to dance Degradation

. , , ... of the helots,

low dances, and not to meddle with those of a higher

character. It is said that when the Thebans made their
celebrated campaign in Lacedaemon, they ordered the
helots whom they captured to sing them the songs of
Terpander, and Alcman, and Spendon the Laconian;
but they begged to be excused for they said, "the masters
do not like it." So it seems to have been well said that in
Lacedaemon, the free man was more free, and the slave
more a slave than anywhere else. This harsh treatment,
I imagine, began in later times, especially after the great
earthquake, when they relate that the helots joined the

n6 Sparta and the Peloponnesian League

Messenians, ravaged the country and almost conquered
it. I cannot impute this wicked act of the Crypteia to
Lycurgus, when I consider the gentleness and justice of
his general behavior, which also we know was inspired by
heaven.

VI. THE COUNCIL OF ELDERS

Criticisms Again, the council of elders is not free from defects. It
cS. ' may be said that the elders are good men and well trained

in manly virtue; and that, therefore, there is an advantage
Aristotle, to the state in having them. But that judges of important
causes should hold office for life is not a good thing, for
the mind grows old as well as the body. And when men
have been educated in such a manner that even the legis-
lator himself cannot trust them, there is real danger.
Many of the elders are well known to have taken bribes
and to have been guilty of partiality in public affairs.
And therefore they ought not to be irresponsible; yet at
Sparta they are so. But it may be replied: "All magis-
Candidates tracies are accountable to the Ephors." Yes, but this
byone n prerogative is too great for them, and we maintain that
assembly 1 * 16 ^ e contro ^ snou ld be exercised in some other manner,
and were Further, the mode in which the Spartans elect their elders
The returning is childish; and it is improper that the person to be elected
ascreen e * should canvass for the office; the worthiest should be ap-
determined pointed whether he chooses or not. And here the legis-
the intensity lator clearly indicates the same intention which appears
plause. aP ~ in other parts of his constitution; he would have his
citizens ambitious, and he has reckoned upon this quality
in the election of the elders; for no one would ask to be
elected if he were not. Yet ambition and avarice, almost
more than any other passions, are the motives of crime. . .
The charge which Plato brings, in the Laws, against

Kings 117

the intention of the legislator, is likewise justified; the They think

. . too much of

whole constitution has regard to one part of virtue only, war.

the virtue of the soldier, which gives victory in war. And
so long as they were at war, their power was preserved,
but when they had attained empire they fell; for of the
arts of peace they knew nothing, and had never engaged
in any employment higher than war. There is another
error, equally great, into which they have fallen. Although
they truly think that the goods for which they contend
are to be acquired by virtue rather than by vice, they err
in supposing that these goods are to be preferred to the
virtue which gains them.

VII. THE Two KINGS

These are the royal rights which have been given by Privileges
the Spartans to their kings, namely, two priesthoods,
of Zeus Lacedaemon and Zeus Uranius; and the right of
making war against whatsoever land they please, and
that no man of the Spartans shall hinder this right, or if Greece, 61;
he do, he shall be subject to the curse; and that when world, 116 t
they go on expeditions the kings shall go out first and re-
turn last; that a hundred picked men shall be their guard
upon expeditions; and that they shall use in their goings
forth to war as many cattle as they desire, and take both
the hides and the backs of all that are sacrificed.

These are their privileges in war; and in peace moreover Privileges in
things have been assigned to them as follows: if any J
sacrifice is performed at the public charge, it is the priv- ^ er s 7 dotus
ilege of the kings to sit down at the feast before all others,
and the attendants shall begin with them first, and serve
to each of them a portion of everything double that which
is given to the other guests, and they shall have the first

n8 Sparta and the Peloponnesian League

Their din-
ner.

pouring of libations and the hides of the animals slain
in sacrifice. On every new moon and seventh day of the
month there shall be delivered at the public charge to each
one of them a full-grown victim in the temple of Apollo,
and a measure of barley-groats and a Laconian "quarter"
of wine; and at all the games they shall have seats of honor
specially set apart for them. Moreover it is their privilege
to appoint as protectors of strangers whomsoever they
will of the citizens, and to choose each two "Pythians."
Now the Pythians are men sent to consult the god at
Delphi, and they eat with the kings at the public charge.
And if the kings do not come to dinner, it is the rule
that there shall be sent out for them to their houses two
quarts of barley-groats for each one and half a pint of
wine; but if they are present, double shares of everything
shall be given them, and moreover they shall be honored
in this same manner when they have been invited to dinner
by private persons. The kings also, it is ordained, shall
have charge of the oracles which are given, but the Pyth-
ians too shall have knowledge of them.

jurisdiction. It is the rule moreover that the kings alone give de-
cisions on the following cases only, that is to say, about
the maiden who inherits her father's property, namely
who ought to have her, if her father have not betrothed
her to anyone, and about public ways; also if any man de-
sires to adopt a son, he must do it in presence of the kings ;
and it is ordained that they shall sit in council with the
elders, who are in number eight and twenty; and if they
do not come, those of the elders who are most closely
related to them shall have the privileges of the kings and
give two votes besides their own, making three in all.
These rights have been assigned to the kings for their

vi. 58. lifetime by the Spartan state; and after they are dead these

Seats in the
Council.

A Royal Funeral 119

which follow: horsemen go round and announce that
which has happened throughout the whole of the Lacon-
ian land; and in the city women go about and strike upon
a copper kettle. Whenever this happens so, two free
persons of each household must go into mourning, a man
and a woman, and for those who fail to do this, great
penalties are appointed. Now the custom of the Lace-
daemonians about the death of their kings is the same as
that of the barbarians who dwell in Asia, for most of the
barbarians practise the same custom as regards the death
of their kings. Whensoever a king of the Lacedaemonians
is dead, then from the whole territory of Lacedaemon,
not reckoning the Spartans, a certain fixed number of the
"dwellers round" are compelled to go to the funeral cere-
mony; and when there have been gathered together
of these and of the helots and of the Spartans themselves
many thousands in the same place, with their women
intermingled, they beat their foreheads with a good will
and make lamentation without stint, saying that this one
who has died last of their kings was the best of all; and
whenever any of their kings has been killed in war, they
prepare an image to represent him, laid upon a couch with
fair coverings, and carry it out to be buried. Then after
they have buried him, no assembly is held among them
for ten days, nor is there any meeting for choice of magis-
trates, but they have mourning during these days.

VIII. CONSTITUTION OF THE PELOPONNESIAN LEAGUE

In 418 B.C. Lacedaemon made an alliance with Argos, practically
admitting the latter to the Peloponnesian league. The terms of the
treaty throw a clear light on the relation between Sparta and her
allies.

It seems good to the Lacedaemonians and to the Argives

120 Sparta and the Peloponnesian League

Treaty be-
tween Lace-
daemon and

Argos, 418
B.C.

Document
quoted by
Thucydides
v. 79.

It is only
from such
documents
and from oc-
casional
references of
historians
that we
obtain a
knowledge
of the Pel-
oponnesian
constitution.

Greece, 79 f.;
Ancient
World, 120 f.

Document
quoted by
Thucydides

y. 77-

to make peace and alliance for fifty years on the follow-
ing conditions:

I. They shall submit to arbitration on fair and equal
terms, according to their ancestral customs.

II. The other cities of Peloponnesus shall participate
in the peace and alliance, and shall be independent and
their own masters, retaining their own territory and sub-
mitting to arbitration on fair and equal terms, according
to their ancestral customs.

III. All the allies of the Lacedaemonians outside Pelo-
ponnesus shall share in the same terms as the Lacedaemo-
nians, and the allies of the Argives shall be in the same
position as the Argives, and shall retain their present
territory.

IV. If it shall be necessary to make any expedition in
common against any place, the Lacedaemonians and the
Argives shall consult together and fix the share in the war
which may be equitably borne by the allies.

V. If any of the states either within or without Pelopon-
nesus, have a dispute about a frontier, or any other matter,
the difference shall be duly settled. But should a quarrel
break out between two of the allied cities, they shall ap-
peal to some state which both the cities deem to be im-
partial.

VI. Justice shall be administered to the individual
citizens according to their ancestral customs.

We may add the following clauses from an earlier treaty, which
shed further light on the Peloponnesian constitution:

VII. The cities of Peloponnesus, both small and great,
shall be independent according to their ancestral laws.

VIII. If anyone from without Peloponnesus comes
against Peloponnesus with evil intent, the Peloponnesians

A Treaty 121

shall take counsel together and shall repel the enemy;
and the several states shall bear such a share in the war '
as shall seem equitable to the Peloponnesians.

IX. TREATY BETWEEN THE ELEIANS AND THE HERMANS

This document is interesting as the earliest Greek treaty for which
we have inscriptional evidence. It belongs to the first half of the
sixth century B.C. probably about 572, when the Eleians gained
control of Olympia and its festival. Heraea was a neighboring dis-
trict of Arcadia. Probably the treaties between Lacedsemon and
her individual allies were cast in a similar form.

The covenant of the Eleians and the Heraeans: There The terms,
shall be an alliance for one hundred years, and this year
shall begin it. If anything shall be needed, whether word
or deed, they shall assist one another in all other respects
and in war. If they fail to assist one another, the party
that fails shall pay a talent of silver as an offering to
Olympian Zeus. If anyone, whether private citizen, Or possibly,

. . .. . , , ., . . "injures this

magistrate or community, violates these provisions, inscription."
he shall be subject to the sacred fine herein provided.

STUDIES

1. What evidence do we here find that Lycurgus was a myth?
What significance has the story that he got his laws from Crete?

2. What do we gather from this passage as to the spirit and object
of Spartan education? How were the girls trained?

3. What does Xenophon say of the deportment of youths? What
restriction was placed on their food?

4. What lands were owned by the Spartans and the periceci re-
spectively? What did a Spartan receive from his lot?

5. Describe the crypteia. What was the condition of the helots?
Why were they treated harshly?

6. What defects does Aristotle find in the Lacedaemonian council
of Elders? What objection has he to canvassing for offices? What

122 Sparta and the Peloponnesian League

would he think of our politics? What are the two chief motives to
crime?

7. What rights have the Lacedaemonian kings in war and in peace
respectively? Who were the Pythians? Describe the ceremonies at
the funeral of a king. From what source did the Lacedaemonians
probably adopt this custom?

8. From these two documents make out as full a written state-
ment as possible of the relation between Sparta and her several allies.
To what extent was arbitration employed?

9. What are the terms of treaty mentioned in this document? Who
was the Olympian Zeus?

CHAPTER XIII

ATHENS: FROM MONARCHY TO DEMOCRACY

I. THE KINGSHIP AND THE ARISTOCRACY

AFTERWARD it came about that for a long time the Social con-
nobles and commons disturbed the state by their sedition. fore Solon.
For the government was oligarchic in all respects; and Aristotle
particularly the poor, with their children and wives, Constitution
were in slavery to the rich. They were called pelatae Athenians, 2.
[clients] and hectemori "[sixth-part men"], for they tilled Greece, 46 f.;
the fields of the wealthy for that amount of rent. All the ^^130.
land was in the hands of the few; and if they [the tenants]
failed to render the rents due, they and their children were
liable to enslavement. There were loans on the security
of every one's person down to the time of Solon; and he
was in fact the first to stand forth as a patron of the com-
mons. Now it was a most hard and grievous feature of
the constitution that the masses should be in slavery;
not but that they had other grounds of complaint, for
they were, so to speak, excluded from everything.

The organization of the original government [of the From king-
republic] as it existed before Draco, was as follows. Their tocracy.*"
appointments to office were based on the qualifications Arist. ib. 3.
of birth and wealth. Originally the offices were life-long
and afterward decennial. The first and most important
magistrates were the king, polemarch, and archon. The
earliest of these three was the kingship, for it existed from
the beginning. Secondly was instituted in addition the
polemarchy because of the fact that some of the kings

123

124 Athens

had proved incapable in war; hence they had sent for Ion
on an occasion of especial need. The last was the arch-
onship. . . . The thesmothetae were for the first time
chosen many years later when the magistrates had al-
ready come to be elected annually in order that they might
record the customary laws and keep them for the trial
of offenders. Therefore this alone of the offices has never
been longer than a year in duration. Thus much do they
precede one another in the time (of their institution). . . .
They had absolute power to settle cases without appeal,
and not as now merely to hold a preliminary trial. These,
then, were the regulations regarding the offices. And the
council of the Areopagus had the function of watching
over the. laws; but in fact it managed the most numerous
and important public affairs with full power to chastise
and fine all who acted disorderly. Birth and wealth were
required of those who were elected archons; and from them
the Areopagites were constituted. Hence the office of
the latter has alone remained lifelong to the present day.

II. THE TIMOCRACY

Constitution Such is an outline of the original constitution. No long
of Draco. time afterward in the archonship of Aristaechmus, Draco
ib. 4. drew up his laws. But the constitution itself [as it then

existed] had the following character. The franchise had
already been granted to those who could furnish a pan-
oply. They elected the nine archons and the treasurers
from such as possessed an estate worth not less than ten
minas free from encumbrance, and the other, less im-
portant offices from those who had the franchise. The
generals and hipparchs must show an estate free from
encumbrance, worth no less than a hundred minas, and

Timocracy; bolon 125

must be the fathers of children above ten years of age, There can

u r i r i T* xl be no doubt

born of a lawful wife. It was necessary for these persons, that such a
namely the prytanes, generals and hipparchs, to give lament fn V ~
security for the year to the time of their audit, furnishing general ex-

. . J \ 3 isted before

four securities of the same census class as the generals Solon, though
and the hipparchs. There was to be a Council of Four detansseem 6
Hundred and One, appointed by lot from those who had * b g e r e ong
a right to vote. This and other offices were filled by lot property

r A i_ i_ XT.- ^ t j -^ ^ qualifications

from the citizens above thirty years of age, and it was not O f these
permitted to hold the same office a second time till all ma g istrates )-
had their turn, then the lot was drawn anew from the Greece, 45;
beginning. When there was a session of the council or World, 126 f.
assembly if any councillor was absent, he was fined if a
pentacosiomedimnus three drachmas, if a knight two, if
a zeugite one. The council of the Areopagus was guard-
ian of the laws, and supervised the offices to see that they
were legally administered. It was permitted to anyone
who was injured, to bring an impeachment before the
Areopagites, citing the law in violation of which he was
suffering harm. However, there were loans on the secur-
ity of the person, as has been said, and the land was in the
hands of the few.

III. SOLON
Such being the organization of the government, while Election to

,, -i xi_ r A i_ the archon-

the many were in slavery to the few, the commons rose in sn ip.

revolt against the nobles. After the sedition had grown Arist. ib. 5-
strong and the two parties had long been arrayed against
each other, they in common elected Solon as arbitrator Greece, 50 ff.;
and archon, and intrusted to him the constitution. The world, 130 ff.
occasion was his composition of the elegy beginning thus:
"I perceive, and within my heart lie griefs, as I see the
oldest country of laonia in distress. Never is it the will

126

Athens

Oppression
of the poor.

Only the first
two lines of
this poem
are found
in Arist.
Const. Ath.;
the rest is
taken from
another

of Zeus and the thought of the blessed immortal gods that
our city perish; for in such wise the high-souled guardian
of the city, Pallas Athena, daughter of a mighty sire
spreads over it her hands. The nobles, persuaded by their
love of money, desire recklessly to destroy the great city.
And as to the people, the mind of their magistrates is
dishonest magistrates who are destined to suffer many
ills because of their monstrous violence. For they know
not how to be satisfied or to enjoy the present feast in
quiet. . . . They grow wealthy in obedience to unjust
deeds. . . . They spare neither sacred nor public prop-
erty and they rob and steal, one here and one there. They
guard not the revered foundations of Justice, who though
silent, knows what is going on, what went on before, and
has come to demand full settlement in time. This wound
inevitable hath come upon all the city, namely evil slavery
into which the state hath quickly fallen, and which stirs
up civil strife and war, war that destroys our lovely
youth in numbers. For our well-beloved city is consumed
by the evil-minded in their meetings, in which unjust
plans are held dear. These are the ills prevailing in the
commons; but many of the poor are going into a foreign
land, sold and bound in unseemly chains and suffer hate-
ful woes by force of slavery. Hall doors no longer will
to hold the evil, it leapeth over the lofty edge, and you find
it everywhere, even if you hide in a chamber corner. This
my soul bids me teach the Athenians, that misrule brings
most ills to a city; but good rule makes all things har-
monious and at one. Good order puts bonds upon the
wicked, smooths the rough, stays satiety, weakens vio-
lence, withers flowers that grow of Ate (reckless guilt),
straightens crooked judgments, softens acts of cruelty,
ends disputation, ends the wrath of hateful strife."

Constitutional Reforms 127

When he had become master of the state, Solon freed Abolition of
the commons both for the present and for the future by
forbidding loans on the security of the person; and he Aristotle,
enacted laws and made an abolition of debts both private
and public. . . .

- He established a constitution and made laws besides, His laws.
and the ordinances of Draco they ceased using with the n> 7-
exception of those concerning homicide. Engraving the Aristotle
laws on tablets, he set them up in the King's Porch, and that all
all swore to obey them. The nine archons, taking oath
on a stone, swore that they would dedicate a golden
statue in case they transgressed any of the laws, hence to to indicate
the present day they continue to take this oath. abolition ap-

He divided [the population] into four census classes,
just as it had been divided before, into pentacosiomed- land and
imni, knights (hippeis), zeugitse, and thetes. He assigned The census
the offices to be filled from the pentacosiomedimni, knights classes.
and zeugitae, namely the nine archons, the treasurers,
the commissioners of contracts, the eleven, and the cola-
cretae, distributing them among the several classes ac-
cording to their property ratings. To the thetic class he
granted a share in the assembly and the popular courts
only. A pentacosiomedimnus was one who produced from
his own estate five hundred measures wet and dry to-
gether, a knight three hundred measures, but as some
say, one who could support a horse; and they adduce as
proof the name of the class, with the idea that it was de-
rived from this circumstance, and they cite the dedi-
catory offerings of the ancients, for there stands on the
Acropolis a statue with the following inscription:

"Anthemion, son of Diphilus, dedicated this statue
to the gods when he exchanged the thetic for the knightly
census." .

128 Athens

The zeugitae were those who produced two hundred
measures of both kinds, and the rest were thetes, who had
no right to any magistracy. Hence even now when the
question is asked of one who is to be taken by lot for any
office, what census class he belongs to, no one answers
the thetic.

Method of The archonship he caused to be filled by lot from nomi-
archonship. nees whom the tribes severally selected. Each tribe chose
Ib. 8, ten nominees for the archonships and lots were drawn

from them; hence even now remains the custom for the
Here Aristotle tribes to draw severally by lot ten candidates, from whom
wrong; it the archons are then appointed by lot. A proof that he
thl?the ertain caused them to be taken by lot from the census classes
archons were j s the law which they continue even now to use concerning

elected till . .

287 B.C.; see the treasurers; it prescribes that they be appointed by
lot from the pentacosiomedimni. Thus Solon legislated
regarding the nine archons, whereas in the original form
of constitution the council of the Areopagus had called
up men and of its own judgment had assigned them ac-
cording to their qualifications to the several offices for
the year. There were four tribes as before and four tribe-
The tribes, kings. From the several tribes were formed three trittyes,
naucr^riesf with twelve naucraries to each. Over the naucraries
were established as a magistracy, the naucrars, having
charge of the current receipts and expenditures. In the
laws of Solon, therefore, which they no longer use, it is
often written that the naucrars shall pay into and expend
The council from the naucraric fund. He constituted further a coun-
opagus. cil of four hundred, a hundred from each tribe; and he
assigned the council of the Areopagus to the duty of pro-
tecting the laws, just as formerly it was guardian of the
constitution. In fact it continued to supervise in addition
the most numerous and most important administrative

All Factions Dissatisfied 129

matters, while it corrected wrong-doers with full power
to fine and punish, and it brought up the fines to the
Acropolis without the obligation of stating the ground
for their exaction. Furthermore it tried conspirators
against the state under a law of impeachment which Solon
enacted concerning such offenders. Seeing the state often
disturbed by sedition and many of the citizens through
sheer inertness allowing such affairs to take their own
course, he enacted with reference to them a peculiar law,
that whoever, when the country is disturbed by sedition,
shall not take up arms with either faction, shall be dis-
franchised and deprived of all part in the state. . . .

When he had arranged the government in the manner Solon's jour-
described, many people kept coming to him and annoying ney a
him in regard to the laws, finding fault with some points Ib. n.
and asking questions concerning others; and as he wished
neither to disturb these arrangements nor to remain and
incur enmities, he went on a journey for trade and sight-
seeing to Egypt, saying he would not return for ten years;
for he thought it was not right that he should remain and
interpret the laws but that everyone should obey them to
the letter. It was at the same time his misfortune that
many of the nobles were at variance with him because
of the abolition of debts and that both factions had shifted
their attitude because his reform had turned out contrary
to their expectation. For the commons supposed he would
redistribute everything, whereas the nobles hoped he
would restore to them the same constitution or make but
little change in it. He, however, opposed both parties,
and though it was permitted him by conspiring with
either to make himself tyrant, he preferred to incur the
emnity of both parties by saving his country and legislat-
ing for the best. . . .

Athens

Justification
of his policy.

Ib. 12, quot-
ing a poem of
Solon.

Abolition of
mortgages
and emanci-
pation of
debt-slaves.

Usurpation
of Peisis-

tratus,
560 B.C.

Arist. Const.
Ath. 14.

"In the just fulness of time the most mighty mother
of the Olympian gods will bear me witness, even black
Earth, most excellent, that I removed the mortgage pil-
lars which stood in many places, she was formerly in
slavery but now set free. To Athens our country divinely
founded, I restored many men who had been sold, some
illegally, others under the law, others whom hard necessity
forced into exile, who in their many wanderings had for-
got the Attic tongue. Others held here in unseemly
slavery and trembling under their masters' caprices I
set free. These things I did by the power of law, uniting
force with justice, and I fulfilled my promise. Ordinances,
too, alike for the bad and the good I enacted, adapting
straightforward justice to every case. Had another than
I, some evil-minded, avaricious man, seized the goad,
he would not have restrained the commons; for had I
willed what would then have pleased this opposing party,
or again what their foes devised for them, this state would
now be bereft of many men. Therefore gathering courage
from every source, I stood at bay like a wolf amid a pack
of dogs." . . .

IV. THE TYRANNY

Peisistratus appeared to be most devoted to the popular
cause, and had won a brilliant reputation in the war with
Megara. Having wounded himself, he persuaded the
people, on the supposition that his injuries were inflicted
by political enemies, to grant him a guard for his person.
Taking the club-bearers, as they were called, he conspired
with them against the state, and seized the Acropolis
in the archonship of Corneas, in the thirty-second year
after (Solon's legislation). The story is told that when
Peisistratus was asking for a guard, Solon opposed him,

Peisistratus 131

saying that he was wiser than some and braver than G>. 70 .;
others wiser than those who failed to see that Peisis- World, 135 f.
tratus was aiming at the tyranny, and braver than those
who knew it but kept silent. As he accomplished nothing
with words, he brought out his armor and placed it before
his door, saying he had aided his country to the best of his
ability (for he was at this time a very old man) and asking
the rest now to perform this service. But Solon accom-
plished nothing by his exhortations at that crisis. Peisis-
tratus, however, assuming the government, managed
affairs constitutionally rather than despotically. Before
his supremacy was firmly rooted, the party of Megacles, His first
joining in friendship with that of Lycurgus, expelled him tunf. **
in the sixth year after his first establishment, in the archon-
ship of Hegesias. But in the twelfth year afterward There is great
Megacles, harassed by sedition, again made overtures
of peace to Peisistratus on condition that the latter should
take the daughter of the former in marriage. Megacles
brought him back in an exceedingly old-fashioned and
simple way. Spreading a report that Athena was restor- The demes
ing Peisistratus, he found a tall, handsome woman of hacTno 1P
the Paeanian deme as Herodotus says, whereas others

describe her as a Thracian flower-girl, named Phye, of Cleisthenes
Colly tus and dressing her up in imitation of the goddess, some 2 existed
he brought her in along with Peisistratus, the latter seated ** ^org
in the chariot with the woman at his side, while the people ized villages.
of the city on their knees received them with adoration.

Thus was brought about the first restoration. He went His second
again into exile about the seventh year after his return; return^
for he did not maintain himself long, but because he was
unwilling to treat the daughter of Megacles as his wife, Arist. ib. 15.
and consequently feared a combination of the two fac-
tions, he secretly withdrew from the country. First he

132

Athens

The people
deprived of
their arms.

Constitu-
tional gov-
ernment.

Arist. Const.
Alh. 16.

colonized a place called Rhaecelus about the Thermaic
Gulf; then he crossed over to the neighborhood of Mount
Pangaeus. Making money in that locality and hiring
soldiers, he came to Eretria in the eleventh year. Then
for the first time he attempted to recover his supremacy
by force, with the cooperation of the Thebans, of Lygdamis
of Naxos, and of the knights who had the government
at Eretria. Gaining a victory at Pallene and thus re-
covering his authority, he deprived the people of their
arms and firmly established his despotism. Then taking
possession of Naxos, he appointed Lygdamis governor.
The people he deprived of their arms in the following
manner. Holding a review of the citizens under arms at
the Theseum, he attempted to address them, but spoke
in a low voice; and when they declared they could not
hear him, he bade them come up near the gateway of the
Acropolis in order that his voice might sound louder.
While he was passing the time making his speech, persons
appointed to the task took the arms and locking them
in a building near the Theseum, came and made a sign to
Peisistratus. He finished his speech and then told them
about the arms, bidding them not wonder or be dejected
but go and attend to their private affairs, as he would
himself manage all public matters.

Such was the origin of the tyranny of Peisistratus and
such were its vicissitudes. He, as has been said, con-
ducted the government moderately and more in the char-
acter of a statesman than of a tyrant. In general he was
humane and unusually mild and forgiving to wrong-doers,
and especially he lent money to the needy for use in their
labors, in order that they might gain a livelihood by agri-
culture. This he did for two reasons, that they might not
pass their time in the city but be scattered throughout

Rural Policy; Personal Character 133

the country, and that, being moderately well off and oc-
cupied with their private concerns, they might have neither
the desire nor the leisure to attend to public affairs. At
the same time the cultivation of the land resulted in the
increase of his revenues, for he collected a tenth of the
produce. For this reason, too, he established judges to
go throughout the demes, and he himself often journeyed
into the country to inspect it and to settle disputes. While
Peisistratus was on one of these expeditions, it is said that
he had the adventure with the man on Hymettus who
was cultivating the so-called tax-free farm. Seeing a The "tax-
certain man digging and working among the rocks with a
stake, he bade his servant ask what was produced in the
place. The other replied, "Only aches and pains, and of
these aches and pains Peisistratus must have his tenth."
The man answered without knowing him; but Peisistratus,
pleased with his candor and his love of work, made him
exempt from all taxes.

In all other respects he absolutely refrained from dis- His charac-
turbing the masses by his government, and he always
preserved peace and maintained quiet; so that the tyranny
of Peisistratus was often spoken of proverbially as the age
of Cronos (golden age) ; for afterward when his sons had
succeeded to the throne, the result was that the govern-
ment became much harsher. Most praiseworthy of all
his qualities was his .popular and kindly character; for
in general he chose to manage all affairs in accordance
with the laws, giving himself no advantage, and once
when cited for murder before the council of the Areopagus, Ancient

i 11. ,,..! 1.1. i<- World, 127,

he presented himself with a view to making his defence, iv. i.e.
but the accuser failed through fear to come forward.
Hence he remained in power for a long time, and whenever
he was banished, he easily recovered his position; for many

134

Athens

His death;
his children.

Arist. Const.
Atk. 17.

Here is a mis-
conception of
the writer.
It was law-
ful for an
Athenian to
marry a for-
eign woman
till 451 B.C.;
Greece, ir8f.;
Ancient
World, 200.

of the nobles and commons were pleased with his rule.
The former he attached to himself by his associations with
them, the latter by aid in their private affairs. Through-
out these times the laws of the Athenians concerning
tyrants were mild, and particularly the one referring to
the establishment of tyranny. The law runs thus: "These
are the ancestral usages of the Athenians. If anyone
attempts to make himself tyrant, or if anyone has a hand
in establishing a tyranny, let him and his gens be dis-
franchised."

Peisistratus accordingly grew old in office and died of
illness in the archonship of Philoneos, having lived thirty
three years after the time when he first became tyrant,
but having actually remained in power nineteen years;
for during the rest of the time he was in exile. Evidently
therefore they speak foolishly who assert that Peisistratus
was a youthful favorite of Solon and a general in the war
with Megara for the possession of Salamis. Their ages
do not agree, if one reckons the length of their respective
lives and the dates of their deaths. After the decease
of Peisistratus his sons secured the power and conducted
the administration in the same way. Of his lawful wife
he had two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, and two of his
Argive wife, lophon and Hegesistratus, surnamed Thet-
talus. Peisistratus had married from Argos the daughter
of an Argive named Gorgilus. This lady, Timonassa,
had formerly been the wife of the Cypselid Archinus of
Ambracia. Thence arose his alliance with the Argives,
a thousand of whom fought on his side in the battle of
Pallene, having been brought by. Hegesistratus. Some
say he married the Argive woman after his first banish-
ment, others while he was in possession of his authority.

Because of their greater reputation and age Hipparchus

Hippias and Hipparchus 135

and Hippias were rulers of the state, while Hippias the Accession of

elder, who was naturally statesmanlike and intelligent,

was at the head of the government. Hipparchus, however,

was youthful and amorous, and fond of literature. He

it was who invited to Athens Anacreon and Simonides

and the rest of the poets. [But Thettalus was much Thissen-

, i i i i i , i TT tence seems

younger, and was bold and insolent in manner.] He was an interpoia-
the source of all their misfortunes. In love with Har- tlon '
modius but failing to win his affection, he could not re- Greece, 71;
strain his anger. On all occasions he showed himself World,

bitter; and finally when the sister of Harmodius was about
to act as basket-carrier at the Panathenaea, he forbade it,
at the same time accusing Harmodius of being effeminate.

Hence it resulted that in their rage Harmodius and The conspir-

acy.
Aristogeiton did the deed with the help of many others.

At the Panathenaea they were watching Hippias on the
Acropolis (as he chanced to be sacrificing while Hipparchus
was arranging the procession), and seeing one of the
participants in the plot talking in a friendly manner with
Hippias, they believed he was informing against them.
Wishing accordingly to accomplish something before their
arrest, they descended, and beginning action before the
others, they killed Hipparchus while he was arranging
the procession near the Leocorium. Thus they ruined
the whole plot. Harmodius was immediately killed by
the guards, and Aristogeiton, arrested afterward, died by
prolonged torture. Under constraint he accused many
who belonged by birth to the nobility and were friends
of the tyrants. For they were unable forthwith to find a
clue to the plot. . . .

He accused the tyrants' friends, purposely as the demo- Accusations.
cratic writers say, in order that the tyrants might commit
impiety and at the same time be weakened by the de-

136

Athens

The tyranny

becomes

harsh.

Ib. 19.

Fall of the
tyranny.

struction of innocent persons and their own friends,
though as some say, he did not deceive but actually in-
formed against his accomplices. Lastly as he was unable,
whatever he did, to find death, he proposed to denounce
many others, and after persuading Hippias to give him
his right hand as a pledge, he grasped it, at the same time
reproaching Hippias with having offered his hand to the
murderer of his brother. In this way he so exasperated
Hippias that the latter could not restrain his wrath but
drew his dagger and killed him.

From these events it resulted that the tyranny became
far harsher; for in taking vengeance for his brother and in
slaying and banishing many citizens, Hippias became
distrustful and embittered toward all. About the fourth
year after the death of Hipparchus, as his affairs in the
city were in a bad condition, he undertook the fortification
of Munychia with the idea of changing his residence to
that place.

While engaged in this work he was expelled by Cle-
omenes, king of the Lacedaemonians, inasmuch as oracles
were continually given to the Laconians to the effect that
they should abolish the tyranny. The reason for the
oracles is as follows. The exiles, led by Alcmeonidae,
were unable by their own means to effect their return.
In all their other undertakings they failed and particularly
when they fortified Leipsydrium on Mount Parnes within
the country of Attica. Here, joined by certain men from
the city, they were besieged by the tyrants, wherefore
after their disaster people used to sing in skolia:

"Alas, Leipsydrium, traitor to your friends, how good the men you
slew, how brave in fight, how nobly born! They showed hi that fray
their illustrious parentage."

Having failed in everything else, they contracted to

Fall of the Tyranny 137

build the temple at Delphi. This transaction provided TheLace-

. 11 i i f i , r i -r daemonians

them well with the means of gaining the aid of the Laco- war against
nians. Whenever, accordingly, the Lacedaemonians con- the tyrant -
suited the oracle, the Pythia always replied that they must
set Athens free, till she succeeded in persuading the
Spartans notwithstanding that they were guest-friends
of the Peisistratidae. There was added a no small cause
of the undertaking on the part of the Laconians in the
alliance existing between the Argives and the Peisistra-
tidse. In the first place they despatched Anchimolus with
an army by sea. He was beaten and slain with the aid of
Cineas the Thessalian, who came with a thousand cavalry.
Enraged at the event, they sent by land with a larger force
Cleomenes the king, who after defeating the Thessalian
horsemen in their endeavor to prevent his invasion of
Attica, drove Hippias into the so-called Pelargic wall, and
besieged him there with the aid of the Athenians. This
event took place in the archonship of Harpac tides, after
they had held the tyranny about seventeen years since
the death of their father, and including his reign, forty
nine years in all.

V. CLEISTHENES AND THE DEMOCRACY
When the tyranny had alien, a sedition arose between and isag-

Isagoras, son of Teisander, a friend of the tyrants, and
Cleisthenes of the gens of the Alcmeonidae. Beaten by Arist.

means of the clubs, Cleisthenes attached the commons 2 Q '

to himself by promising the franchise to the masses. Isa- Because they

goras, now proving inferior in strength, called to his aid piously slain

Cleomenes, his guest-friend, and persuaded him to expel
the pollution; for it was the common opinion that the
Alcmeonidae were under a curse. Thereupon Cleisthenes World, 128 f.

138

Athens

Constitu-
tional re-
forms, 208
B.C.

Arist. Const.
Ath. 21.

Greece, 81-4;
Ancient
World,
138-41-

The demes
and the
tribes.

Ib. 21.

with a few persons secretly withdrew from the country,
while Cleomenes proceeded to expel as polluted seven
hundred Athenian families. Having accomplished this
object, he attempted to dissolve the council and to make
Isagoras and three hundred of his partisans masters of the
state. But as the council opposed and the multitude
gathered, Cleomenes and Isagoras with their party took
refuge in the Acropolis. The commons thereupon en-
camped and besieged them two days; on the third day
they permitted Cleomenes and all with him to depart
under a truce, but recalled Cleisthenes and the rest of
the exiles. Now that the commons had become masters
of the state, Cleisthenes was their leader and champion:
for the Alcmeonidae were perhaps the chief cause of the
tyrants' expulsion and were almost always at sedition
with them. . . .

For these reasons the people trusted Cleisthenes. On
that occasion, as he was leader of the people in the fourth
year after the overthrow of the tyrants, in the archonship
of Isagoras, in the first place he distributed all the people
among ten tribes in place of four, with the object of inter-
mixing them in order that more might have a share in the
franchise. Hence arose the saying, "Do not discriminate
between the tribes" with reference to those who wished
to scrutinize the gentes. Then he constituted the council
of five hundred in place of four hundred, fifty from each
tribe instead of a hundred as formerly. The reason for
his not distributing the people among twelve tribes was his
desire to avoid the division into the existing trittyes. . . .

The country he divided by demes into thirty parts,
ten about the city, ten in the paralia, ten in the midland;
and calling these parts trittyes, he assigned three by lot
to each tribe in such a way that every tribe might have

Tribes and Denies 139

a trittys in each of the three local sections. The inhabit-
ants of the respective demes he made demesmen of one
another in order that they might not expose the new citi-
zens by calling them after the names of their fathers,
but that they might be named after their demes. Hence
the Athenians continue to call themselves by the names
of their demes. He instituted demarchs with the same Naucraries;
function as the earlier naucrars, for he made the demes
to take the place of the naucraries. Some of the demes
he named after localities, others after their founders; for
all the localities did not preserve the names of their found-
ers. Their gentes and phratries and priesthoods he per- Gentes and
mitted them severally to keep according to ancestral l
usage. As eponyms of the tribes he appointed the ten
whom the Pythia had selected from the hundred founders
nominated to her.

Through these changes the constitution became far The govern-
more democratic than that of Solon. The fact is that the JJJore ^emo-
tyranny had abolished some of the laws of Solon through cratlc -
failure to observe them, and Cleisthenes in his effort to ib. 22.
win the populace enacted new regulations, among which
was the law of ostracism. It was not however till the
fifth year after his legislation that, in the archonship of

Hermocreon, they drew up for the Council of Five Hundred The Council

i i i i i f of Five

the oath wnicn the members continue even now to swear. Hundred.

Then they began to elect the generals by tribes, one from

each tribe, whereas the commander of the entire army was The gen-

the polemarch.

STUDIES

i. What was the condition of the majority of Athenian citizens
before Solon? How did the change from monarchy to aristocracy
affect the offices? What place in the government was held by the
Council of the Areopagus?

140 Athens

2. What were the chief features of the timocracy? Compare it in
detail with the preceding aristocracy.

3. What brought Solon into prominence? What conditions are
described by his poem? How do his poems compare as sources with
Aristotle's Constitution of the Athenians? Where did Aristotle prob-
ably get his knowledge of Solon? What debts did he abolish? How
were his laws to be preserved? What was now to be the place of the
Council of the Areopagus? What features of Solon's government
were new and what were continued from earlier time? Why did
Solon go abroad? What does he say of his own achievements?

4. How did Peisistratus make himself tyrant? Narrate his exiles
and returns. How did he finally establish his power? What was the
character of his rule? From the story of the tax-free farm what do we
learn as to the condition of the poorest farmers? Describe the char-
acter of Peisistratus. Compare the rule of his sons. What led to the
overthrow of the tyranny? What part in the event was taken by
Cleisthenes?

5. What were the aims of Cleisthenes and Isagoras? Does the
former seem to have been at heart a democrat? What arrangement
of demes and tribes did he make, and with what objects? Compare
his form of government with that established by Solon. Which
deserves the greater credit as a reformer?

CHAPTER XIV

THE POETS AND THE PHILOSOPHERS

FROM THE SEVENTH TO THE EARLY FIFTH CENTURY B.C.

I. A WAR-SONG

BY CALLINUS

Sit ye in quiet how long? Stir up the fierce spirit within you;
Have ye no feeling of shame, youths, for the dwellers around?
Why thus remiss? Do ye think ye are sitting in blissful contentment
Peace given, while dread war holds all our dear native land?
Now in the moment of death hurl your last spear at the foe!
Honored is he and esteemed who fights in the foremost of lancers,
Guarding his country, his home, guarding his dear wedded wife,
Fighting with foes; for death comes but once, and whenever it may be.
Fate cuts the thread of our life. Each must go quick to the front,
Grasping his spear in his hand, and under his shield his untrembling
Heart pressing, panting for fight, mingling in deadliest fray.
Fate hath decreed that from death there shall be by no prudence

avoiding;

Doomed are all mortals to die, saving no sons of the gods.
Often the din of the battle, the hurtling of lances escaping,
Sees man the terror of death stalking into his home.
Weaklings are dear to no state, nor in death by the people lamented;
Warriors the great and the small mourn when they face their fair

doom;

Longing intense fills all hearts in the land for the stout-minded hero
Dying in liberty's cause; living they hold him divine.
Just like a tower of defence in the eyes of the people appearing,
Works he the deeds of a host, striving alone in his might.

II. TYRT^EUS

NOBLE it is to fall a valiant man in the front line of war-
riors battling for the fatherland, but of all things most

141

Callinus of
Ephesus
wrote this
poem to
rouse his
country-
men against
the barbarous
Cimmerians,
who assailed
them.

The metre of
the transla-
tion elegiac
pentameter
is that of
the original.

The poem
breathes
military fire.

142 The Poets and the Philosophers

The fight is
for home and
country.

Those who
fail in the
war will be
forced into
miserable
exile.

Greece, 62 f.;
Ancient
World, 119.

Let the
brave fight
in front!

The poet
addresses all
the Spartans
as descend-
ants of the
hero Hera-
cles; Ancient
World, 92.

grievous to leave one's city and rich farm and to wander
begging with a dear mother, an aged father, little children
and wedded wife. One driven about by need and hate-
ful penury will seem a foe to all among whom he comes.
Every kind of dishonor and evil will pursue him. If for
such a wanderer there is no care or respect or heed or pity,
then let us fight with heart for this our country; let us die
for children's sake with no stint of life. Come, youths,
to battle, firm standing by comrade's side; begin not
shameful flight and panic. Do not by retreat abandon
the old whose knees no more are supple; indeed it is a
shameful thing for an elder to fall in battle in front of
youths the aged man with white head and hoary beard,
breathing out his valiant soul in the very dust, covering
bloody wounds with his own hands, his person stripped
a sight to stir up pity and revenge. But to the young,
all this is fitting while yet remains the brilliant bloom of
lovely youth, admired of men, adored of women while
he lives; and when he has fallen in the front still beauti-
ful. Then with firm poise with both feet fixed on earth,
teeth biting lip, let each man stand his ground!

Ye of the race of Heracles unconquered, be brave;
Zeus turns not away in disfavor. Fear not nor dread a
mass of men; let each bring shield quick into the front
rank, holding his own life hateful but death's black fates
dear as sunbeams. For well ye know the war-god's actions
all-annihilating, that cause the tears to flow; well have ye
learned the wrath of troublous war. Of fleeing and pur-
suing oft have ye told, young men, and of both have ye
pushed into surfeit. Now let those who dare, side by side,
advance as champions into closest fray; thus fewer die
and they save the host behind; but when some are cowards,
all bravery has departed. No one could in words recount

Tyrtaeus; Alcaeus 143

the ills that befall a man who suffers cowardice. Horrible
it is to cleave the back of a fugitive in hostile war, pitiable
a body lying in the dust, the back thrust through with
spear-point. With firm poise, then, with both feet fixed This passage
on earth, teeth biting lip, let each man stand his ground, esting in-

covering with broad shield his hips and legs beneath, his
shoulders, breast and vitals. With right hand let him
wield a mighty lance and toss above the head his fearful of fighting.
crest. Let the timid learn to do knightly deeds, and stand
not off with shield beyond the range of darts; but come to
close fight and with long lance or sword-thrust slay his
foeman. Pressing foot on foot, shield on shield, crest on
crest, helmet on helmet, grapple your man, with hand on
sword hilt or long spear. And ye light troops here and
there, beneath your shields crouched, pelt them with heavy
stones, hurl with polished darts, but keep you near the
phalanx.

III. SELECTIONS FROM ALCAEUS

WINTER

Zeus hails. The streams are frozen. In the sky The metre of

A mighty storm is raging high. [^Akafc 11 * 11

And now the forest thick, the ocean hoar, named after

Grow clamorous with the Thacian tempest's roar. Alcaeus; that

of the trans-
lation is

But drive away the storm, and make the fire . somewhat

Hotter and pile the logs and faggots higher;

Pour out the tawny wine with lavish hand, Greece, go,

And bind about thy head a fleecy band. World 1 * 15 A

It ill befits to yield the heart to pain.
What profits grief, or what will sorrow gain?

O Bacchus, bring us wine, delicious wine,

And sweet intoxication, balm divine.

144 The Poets and the Philosophers

This poem
Alcaeus wrote
to encourage
his comrades
in a civil war.

THE ARMORY

The spacious hall in brazen splendor gleams,

And all the house in Ares' honor beams.
The helmets glitter; high upon the wall

The nodding plumes of snowy horse's hair,
Man's noblest ornaments, wave over all;

And brightly gleaming brazen greaves are there,
Each hanging safe upon its hidden nail,
A sure defence against the arrowy hail.

And many coats of mail, and doublets stout,

Breast-plates of new-spun linen, hollow shields,
Well-worn and brought from foe-abandoned fields,

And broad Chalcidian swords are stacked about.
Bear well in mind these tools of war, they make
Easy and sure the work we undertake.

A newly dis-
covered frag-
ment of
Alcaeus, trans-
lated by
Edmonds,
Classical
Review, xxiii.
72-4.

The scene is
a window
opening on a
harbor
in the fore-
noon of a hot
summer day.
Alcaeus urges
his friend
to come out
for a sail.

The friend
is too lazy
to budge.

ALCAEUS PROPOSES A MORNING SAIL

Mix no more into the great bowl. Why toilest so,
when I tell thee that never will I have thee waste the day
from dawn onward in drunkenness and song? O why do we
forbear to use the sea, suffering the winter-cool freshness
of the morn to pass like a drunken sleep? If we would
but quickly go aboard, and take the rudder in our grasp,
and loose the ship from her moorings, turning the sailyard
to front the breeze, then merrier should we be and light
of heart, and 'twould be as good work as a right long
draught of wine. But thou, linking one idle hand in an-
other over thy robe, sayest, As for me, bring myrrh
for my head; for I am little pleased with what this fellow
putteth into song of his. Never think thou troublest my
soul, thou wild clamorer, thou roarest like a great fire.

Sappho

145

IV. SELECTIONS FROM SAPPHO

MNASIDICA, A SOMETIME PUPIL OF SAPPHO

Atthis, our beloved Mnasidica dwells in far-off Sardis,
but she often sends her thoughts hither, recalling how once
we used to live in the days when she thought thee like a
glorious goddess, and loved thy song the best. Now she
shines among the dames of Lydia, as after sunset the stars
that are about her, when she spreads her light o'er briny
sea and eke o'er flowery field, while the good dew lies on
the ground and the roses revive and the dainty anthrysc
and the honey lotus with all its blooms. And oftentimes
when our beloved, wandering abroad, calls to mind her
gentle Atthis, the heart devours her tender breast with the
pain of longing; and she cries aloud for us to come thither;
and what she says we know full well, thou and I, for Night,
the many-eared, calls it to us across the dividing sea.

A newly dis-
covered frag-
ment of Sap-
pho, trans-
lated by Ed-
monds, Clas-
sical Review,
xxiii. gg ff .
Sappho ad-
dresses
Atthis, a
present pupil,
regarding
Mnasidica,
a former
pupil, who
has married
a Lydian
grandee.

Telepathy.

HYMN TO APHRODITE

Glittering-throned, immortal Aphrodite,
Wile-weaving daughter of high Zeus, I pray thee,
Tame not my soul with heavy woes; dread mistress,
Nay, nor with anguish.

But hither come, if erst in the days departed
Thou didst incline and listendst to my crying,
And from thy father's palace, down descending
Cam'st with the golden

Chariot yoked. Thee fair, swift-flying sparrows,
Over black earth multitudinously fluttering,
Pinion on pinion through middle ether
Down from heaven hurried;

Translated
by Symonds.

The stanza
is Sapphic,
named after
Sappho;
the transla-
tion has the
metre of the
original.

Sappho;
Greece, go;
Ancient
World, 154.

146 The Poets and the Philosophers

Quickly they came like light; and thou, blest lady.
Smiling with clear, undying eyes didst ask me
What was the woe that troubled me and wherefore
Now I had called thee;

What I fain would have to assuage the torment
Of my frenzied soul; and whom now, to please thee,
Must persuasion lure to thy love, and who now,
Sappho, hath wronged thee?

Come to me now, too, and from tyrannous sorrow
Free me; and all things that my soul desires to
Have done, do for me, Queen, and let thyself now, too,
Be my great ally!

V. PINDAR
HIERON'S VICTORY IN THE HORSE-RACE AT OLYMPIA

Most splen- Best is Water of all, and Gold as a flaming fire in the

are tnef ameS ni g nt shineth eminent amid lordly wealth; but if of prizes

Olympic. m the g ames thou art fain, O my soul, to tell, then, as thou

Pindar, must search in the void firmament by dav for no bright

Olympian, i. . J J

star more quickening than the sun, so neither shall we

Ancient find any games greater than the Olympic whereof to utter

World, 154. our vo j ce . f or nence cometh the glorious hymn and en-

tereth into the minds of the skilled in song, so that they

celebrate the son of Cronos, when to the rich and happy

Hieron is hearth of Hieron they are come; for he wieldeth the sceptre

Syracuse. f justice in Sicily of many flocks, culling the choice fruits

Pherenicus ^ a ^ kinds of excellence; and with the flower of music

(''Victor") i s ne made splendid, even such strains as we sing blithely

is the horse * ,

that won; at the table of a friend.

used 'for 6 "* Take from the peg the Dorian lute, if in any wise the

^ P neremcus at Pisa hath swayed thy soul unto
byOlympia. glad thoughts, when by the banks of Alpheus he ran,

An Olympic Victory 147

and gave his body ungoaded in the course, and brought
victory to his master, the Syracusans' king, who delighteth
in horses. . . .

Now the good that cometh of to-day is ever sovereign Hieron a fit
unto every man. My part it is to crown Hieron with an S ong?
equestrian strain in ^Eolian mood; and sure I am that no
host among men that are now shall I ever glorify in sound-
ing labyrinths of song more learned in the learning of
honor and withal with more might to work thereto. A
god hath guard over thy hopes, O Hieron, and taketh care The hill of
for them with a peculiar care; and if he fail thee not, I overlooks the
trust that I shall again proclaim in song a sweeter glory at a oiympia
yet, and find thereto in words a ready way, when to the
fair-shining hill of Cronos I am come. Her strongest-
winged dart my Muse hath yet in store.

Of many kinds is the greatness of men ; but the highest In . tnis poem
is to be achieved by kings. Look not thou for more than called a king.
this. May it be thine to walk loftily all thy life, and mine
to be the friend of winners in the games, winning honor
for my art among Hellenes everywhere.

VI. THALES

He asserted that water was the principle of all things, The first
and that the world had life, and was full of spirits: they scientist,
say, too, that he was the original definer of the seasons Diogenes
of the year, and that it was he who divided the year into Thaies^L
three hundred and sixty-five days. And he never had
any teacher except during the time that he was in Egypt,
and associated with the priests. Hieronymus also says Greece, 94 .;
that he measured the Pyramids; watching their shadows, world, 154 f.
and calculating when they were of the same size as those
were. .

148 The Poets and the Philosophers

An unpracti- It is said that once he was led out of his house by an

phen old woman for the purpose of observing the stars, and he

Diog. Laert. 8. fell into a ditch and bewailed himself, on which the old

woman said to him " Do you, O Thales, who can not see

what is under your feet, think that you shall understand

what is in heaven?". . .

His wise And the following are quoted as sayings of his: "God

is the most ancient of all things, for he has no birth: the
76. 9. world is the most beautiful of all things, for it is the work

of God: place is the greatest of things, for it contains all
things: intellect is the swiftest of things, for it runs through
all things; necessity is the strongest of things, for it rules
everything: time is the wisest of things, for it finds out
everything." He said also that there was no difference
between life and death. "Why, then," said some one to
him, " do you not die? " " Because," said he, "it makes no
difference." A man asked him which was made first,
night or day, and he replied, "Night was made first by
one day." Another man asked him whether a man who
did wrong, could escape the notice of the Gods. "No,
not even if he thinks wrong," said he. . . . When he was
asked what was very difficult, he said, "To know one's
self." And what was easy, "To advise another." What
was most pleasant? "To be successful." To the question,
"What is the divinity?" he replied, "That which has
neither beginning or end." When asked what hard thing
he had seen, he said, "An old man a tyrant." When the
question was put to him how a man might most easily
endure misfortune, he said, "If he saw his enemies more un-
fortunate still!" When asked how men might live most
virtuously and most justly, he said, "If we never do our-
selves what we blame in others." To the question, "Who
is happy, he made answer, "He who is healthy in his

Pythagoras 149

body, easy in his circumstances, and well-instructed in
mind."

VII. PYTHAGORAS

ins called music ]
maintained that the world subsisted by harmony, and

The Pythagoreans called music philosophy. They His theory

considered every kind of music to be the work of the gods. I0 ra '
It is thus that the muses are regarded as deities, and Apollo Greece, 05;

has the name of President of the Muses, and all poetry

J World, 155.

is divine, being conversant about the praises of the gods.
Thus also they ascribe to music the formation of manners,
as everything which refines the mind approximates to the
power of the gods.

And as he was a young man, and devoted to learning, His travels.
he quitted his country, and got initiated into all the Diogenes
Grecian and barbarian sacred mysteries. Accordingly, pJSSfaw
he went to Egypt, on which occasion Poly crates gave him 3-
a letter of introduction to Amasis; and he learned the There is some

T^, . . , . , . , , i , doubt as to

Egyptian language, as Antiphon tells us, in his treatise his travelling
on those men who have been conspicuous for virtue, and
he associated with the Chaldaeans and with the Magi.

Afterward he went to Crete, and in company with Epi- initiated into
menides, he descended into the Idaean cave, and in Egypt mysteries.
he entered into the holiest parts of their temples, and /$.
learned all the most sacred mysteries that relate to their
gods. Then he returned again to Samos; and finding his
country reduced under the absolute dominion of Poly-
crates, he set sail, and fled to Croton in Italy. And there,
having given laws to the Italians, he gained a very high He founds a
reputation, together with his scholars, who were about
three hundred in number, and governed the republic in a
most excellent manner; so that the constitution was very
nearly an aristocracy.

150 The Poets and the Philosophers

He believes Heraclides Ponticus says, that he was accustomed to
migration of speak of himself in this manner: that he had formerly
souls. ^en ^Ethalides, and had been accounted the son of

lb.4. Hermes; and that Hermes had desired him to select any

gift he pleased except immortality. He accordingly re-
quested that, whether living or dead, he might preserve
the memory of what had happened to him. While, there-
fore, he was alive he recollected everything; and when he
was dead, he retained the same memory. And at a sub-
sequent period he passed into Euphorbus, and was wounded
by Menelaus. And while he was Euphorbus, he used to
say that he had formerly been ^Ethalides; and that he
had received as a gift from Hermes the perpetual trans-
migration of his soul, so that it was constantly transmi-
grating and passing into whatever plants or animals it
pleased; and he had also received the gift of knowing and
recollecting all that his soul had suffered in the lower
world, and what sufferings too are endured by the rest of
the souls. .

He recog-
nizes an old
friend.

Xenophanes,
quoted by
Diog. Laert.
Pythag. 15.

They say that once, as passing by he saw

A dog severely beaten, he did pity him,

And spoke as follows to the man who beat him:-

"Stop now, and beat him not; since in his body,

Abides the soul of a dear friend of mine,

Whose voice I recognized as he was crying."

STUDIES

1. What reasons does Callinus give for bravery in battle? What
is his idea of the working of fate?

2. Should the Spartans fail in war, what according to Tyrtaeus
would be their fate? From this passage describe the offensive and
defensive arms of the Spartans. Describe their military formation
and manner of fighting.

3. Mention some of the subjects on which Alcaeus wrote. How

Studies 151

did he like to pass a winter evening? What weapons filled the ar-
mory? Did the Greeks enjoy the same things as we do?

4. What idea do we get of the relation between Sappho and her
pupils? between her country and Lydia? What does Sappho ask of
Aphrodite? What impression do you get of her poetry from these two
selections?

5. Write in your own words the meaning of this selection from
Pindar. How does he describe Hieron? What did he think of his
own poetry?

6. What scientific discoveries are attributed to Thales? What
do the anecdotes aim to teach? What light do his wise sayings
throw on his character?

7. What importance did Pythagoras attach to music? Why
should we not accept everything Diogenes tells us as to the travels of
this philosopher? What account did he give of his soul before it had
entered his body?

CHAPTER XV

THE IONIC REVOLT

I. THE BEGINNING

Aristagpras HE (Aristagoras) took counsel therefore with his parti-
to 6 revolt* 68 sans, declaring to them both his own opinion and the
499 B.C. message from Histiaeus; and while all the rest expressed
Herodotus v an op^ 011 to the same effect, urging him namely to make
36- revolt, Hecataeus, the writer of genealogies, urged first

that they should not undertake war with the king of the

On Anstago- . .

rasandHisti- Persians, describing all the nations over whom Darius

was ruler, and his power; and when he did not succeed
World, j n persuading him, he counselled next that they should
manage to make themselves masters of the sea. Now
Hecataeus this, he continued, could not come to pass in any other
way, so far as he could see, for he knew that the force of

Genealogies ^ e Milesians was weak; but if the treasures should be
chiefly mythi- taken which were in the temple at Branchidae, which
Croesus the Lydian dedicated as offerings, he had great
Aristagoras, hopes that they might become masters of the sea; and by
tion Sth n the this means they would not only themselves have wealth
Persians, had a t their disposal, but the enemy would not be able to carry

just failed *

in an attempt the property off as plunder. Now these treasures were of

Naxos? Ue ' great value, as I have shown in the first part of the history.

W%rtd*i6o ^^ s P m i n did not prevail; but nevertheless it was re-

solved that they should revolt, and that one of them should

sail to Myus, to the force which had returned from Naxos

and was then there, and endeavor to seize the commanders

who sailed in the ships.

152

Overthrow of the Tyrants 153

So latragoras was sent for this purpose and seized by Beginning of
craft Oliatus the son of Ibanollis of Mylasa, and Histi-
aeus the son of Tymnes of Termera, and Goes the son of l

Erxander, to whom Darius had given Mytilene as a gift,

and Aristagoras the son of Heracleides of Cyme, and many World, 160-4.

others; and then Aristagoras openly made revolt and de-

vised all that he could to the hurt of Darius. And first

he pretended to resign the despotic power and give to

Miletus equality, in order that the Milesians might be

willing to revolt with him; then afterward he proceeded

to do this same thing in the rest of Ionia too; and some

of the despots he drove out, but those whom he had taken

from the ships which had sailed with him to Naxos, these

he surrendered, because he desired to do a pleasure to

their cities, delivering them over severally to that city from

which each one came.

Now the men of Mytilene, as soon as they received Fall of the
Goes into their hands, brought him out and stoned him tyrants.
to death; but the men of Cyme let their tyrant go, and so
also most of the others let theirs go. Thus then the ty-
rants were deposed in the various cities; and Aristagoras
the Milesian, after having deposed them, bade each people
appoint commanders in their several cities, and then him-
self set forth as an envoy to Lacedaemon; for in truth it
was necessary that he should find out some powerful
alliance. . . .

II. THE ATTEMPT TO WIN ALLIES

However, Aristagoras, the tyrant of Miletus, arrived Aristagoras
at Sparta while Cleomenes was reigning; and accordingly winter of '
with him he came to speech, having, as the Lacedaemo-
nians say, a tablet of bronze, on which was engraved a
map of the whole Earth, with all the sea and all the rivers.

154 The Ionic Revolt

And when he came to speech with Cleomenes he said to
him as follows:

" Marvel not, Cleomenes, at my earnestness in coming
hither, for the case is this. That the sons of the lonians
should be slaves instead of free is a reproach and a grief
most of all indeed to ourselves, but of all others most to
you, inasmuch as ye are the leaders of Hellas. Now there-
fore I entreat you by the gods of Hellas to rescue from
slavery the lonians, who are your own kinsmen. And
ye may easily achieve this, for the barbarians are not
valiant in fight; whereas ye have attained to the highest
point of valor in war; and their fighting is of this fashion,
namely with bows and arrows and a short spear, and they
go into battle wearing trousers and with caps on their
heads. Thus they are easily conquered. Then again they
who occupy that continent have good things in such
quantity as not all the other nations of the world together
possess; first gold, then silver and bronze and embroidered
garments and beasts of burden and slaves; all of which
ye might have for yourselves, if ye so desired. And the
nations, moreover, dwell in such order one after the other
as I shall declare: the lonians here; and next to them the
Lydians who not only dwell in a fertile land, but are also
exceedingly rich in gold and silver," and as he said this
he pointed to the map of the Earth, which he carried with
him engraved upon the tablet, "and here next to the
Lydians," continued Aristagoras, "are the Eastern Phryg-
ians, who have the greatest number of sheep and cattle
of all people that I know, and also the most abundant
crops. Next to the Phrygians are the Cappadocians,
whom we call Syrians; and bordering upon them are the
Cilicians, coming down to this sea, in which lies the island
of Cyprus here; and these pay five hundred talents to

On the Road to Susa 155

the king for their yearly tribute. Next to these Cilicians
are the Armenians, whom thou mayest see here, and these
also have great numbers of sheep and cattle. Next to
the Armenians are the Matienians occupying this country
here; and next to them is the land of Cissia here, in which
land by the banks of the river Choaspes is situated that
city of Susa where the great king has his residence, and
where the money is laid up in treasuries. After ye have
taken this city ye may then with good courage enter into
a contest with Zeus in the matter of wealth. Nay, but
can it be that ye feel yourselves bound to take upon you
the risk of battles against Messenians and Arcadians and
Argives, who are equally matched against you, for the
sake of land which is not much in extent nor very fertile,
and for confines which are but small, though these peoples
have neither gold nor silver at all, for the sake of which
desire incites one to fight, and to die, can this be, I say,
and will ye choose some other way now, when it is possible
for you easily to have the rule over all Asia? " Aristagoras
spoke thus, and Cleomenes answered him saying: " Guest-
friend from Miletus, I defer my answer to thee till the
day after tomorrow."

Thus far then they advanced at that time; and when To distant

anundertak-
the appointed day arrived for the answer, and they had ing for the

come to the place agreed upon, Cleomenes asked Arista- par
goras how many days' journey it was from the sea of the Ib ' 5 '
lonians to the residence of the king. Now Aristagoras,
who in other respects acted cleverly and imposed upon him
well, in this point made a mistake; for whereas he ought
not to have told him the truth, at least if he desired to
bring the Spartans out to Asia, he said in fact that it was a
journey up from the sea of three months; and the other
cutting short the rest of the account which Aristagoras

156

The Ionic Revolt

The princess
Gorgo lays
down the
moral law.

Ib. si.

Spartan
women;
Greece, 58,
59; Ancient
World, 114,
115. The
story of
Gorgo is
interesting
in view of the
respect paid
to women at
Sparta.

Aristagoras
at Athens,
499-498 B.C.

Hdt. v. 97.

had begun to give of the way, said, "Guest-friend from
Miletus, get thee away from Sparta before the sun has
set; for thou speakest a word which sounds not well in the
ears of the Lacedaemonians, desiring to take them a journey
of three months away from the sea."

Cleomenes accordingly having so said went away to
his house; but Aristagoras took the suppliant's branch
and went to the house of Cleomenes; and having entered
in as a suppliant, he bade Cleomenes send away the child
and listen to him: for the daughter of Cleomenes was
standing by him, whose name was Gorgo, and this it
chanced was his only child, being of the age now of eight
or nine years. Cleomenes however bade him say that
which he desired to say, and not to stop on account of the
child. Then Aristagoras proceeded to promise him money,
beginning with ten talents, if he would accomplish for
him that for which he was asking; and when Cleomenes
refused, Aristagoras went on increasing the sums of money
offered, until at last he had promised fifty talents, and at
that moment the child cried out, "Father the stranger will
do thee hurt, if thou do not leave him and go." Cleomenes
then, pleased by the counsel of the child, departed into
another room, and Aristagoras went away from Sparta
altogether, and had no opportunity of explaining any
further about the way up from the sea to the residence of
the king. . . .

While they (the Athenians) had these thoughts and had
been set at enmity with the Persians, at this very time
Aristagoras the Milesian, ordered away from Sparta by
Cleomenes the Lacedaemonian, arrived at Athens; for
this was the city which had most power of all the rest
besides Sparta. And Aristagoras came forward before
the assembly of the people and said the same things as

Aristagoras at Athens 157

he had said at Sparta about the wealth which there was in
Asia, and about the Persian manner of making war, how
they used neither shield nor spear and were easy to over-
come. Thus I say he said, and also he added this, namely Ancient
that the Milesians were colonists from the Athenians,
and that it was reasonable that the Athenians should
rescue them, since they had such great power; and there
was nothing which he did not promise, being very urgent
in his request, until at last he persuaded them; for it
would seem that it is easier to deceive many than one,
seeing that, though he did not prove able to deceive Cleo-
menes the Lacedaemonian by himself, yet he did this
to thirty thousand Athenians. The Athenians, then, I
say, being persuaded, voted a resolution to despatch twenty
ships to help the lonians, and appointed to command them
Melanthius, one of their citizens who was in all things
highly reputed. These ships proved to be the beginning
of evils for the Hellenes and the barbarians. . . .

Aristagoras meanwhile, when the Athenians had ar- The Greeks
rived with twenty ships, bringing with them also five
triremes of the Eretrians, who joined the expedition not
for the sake of the Athenians but of the Milesians them-
selves, to repay them a debt which they owed; for the Hdt. v. 99.
Milesians in former times had borne with the Eretrians
the burden of all that war which they had with the Chal-
cidians, at the time when the Chalcidians on their side were
helped by the Samians against the Eretrians and Milesians.
When these, I say, had arrived and the other allies were
on the spot, Aristagoras proceeded to make a march upon
Sardis. On this march he did not go himself, but remained
at Miletus, and appointed others to be in command of
the Milesians, namely his brother Charopinus and of the
other citizens one Hermophantus.

158 The Ionic Revolt

The c^tu With this force then the lonians came to Ephesus; and
leaving their ships at Coresus in the land of Ephesus, they
went up themselves in a large body, taking Ephesians
to guide them in their march. So they marched along by
the river Cayster, and then when they arrived after cross-
ing the range of Tmolus, they took Sardis without any
resistance, all except the citadel; but the citadel Ar-
taphernes himself saved from capture, having with him a
considerable force of men.

The burning From plundering the city after they had taken it they
were prevented by this: the houses in Sardis were mostly
built of reeds, and even those of them which were of brick

Greece, 113 f.; had their roofs thatched with reeds; of these houses one

World, 161 f. was set on fire by a soldier, and forthwith the fire going
on from house to house, began to spread over the whole
town. So then as the town was on fire, the Lydians and
all the Persians who were in the city being cut off from
escape, since the fire was prevailing in the extremities
round about them, and not having any way out of the
town, flowed together to the market-place and to the
river Pactolus, which brings down gold-dust for them from
Tmolus, flowing through the middle of their market-place,
and then runs out into the river Hermus, and this into the
sea. To this Pactolus, I say, and to the market-place the
Lydians and the Persians gathered themselves together, and
were compelled to defend themselves. The lonians, then,
seeing some of the enemy standing on their defence and
others in great numbers coming on to the attack, were
struck with fear and retired to the mountain called
Tmolus, and afterward at nightfall departed to go to
their ships.

Last Years of the Revolt 159

III. THE SIEGE AND DESTRUCTION OF MILETUS

The Persians, then, being conquerors of the lonians Miletus be-

in the sea-fight,, besieged Miletus by land and sea, under- ,

J . Herodotus vi.

mining the walls and bringing against it all manner of 18

engines; and they took it completely in the sixth year from This naval

the revolt of Aristagoras, and reduced the people to slav- fought off

ery; so that the disaster agreed with the oracle which had
been uttered with reference to Miletus. Greece, 114.

For when the Argives were inquiring at Delphi about An oracle.
the safety of their city, there was given to them an oracle Hdt. vi. 19.
which applied to both, that is to say, part of it had refer-
ence to the Argives themselves, while that which was
added afterward referred to the Milesians. The part of it
which had reference to the Argives I will record when I
reach that place in the history, but that which the Oracle
uttered with reference to the Milesians who were not
there present, is as follows:

"And at that time, O Miletus, of evil deeds the contriver,

Thou shalt be made for many a glorious gift and a banquet;

Then shall thy wives be compelled to wash the feet of the long-

haired,
And in Didyma then my shrine shall be tended by others."

At the time of which I speak, these things came upon the
Milesians, since most of the men were killed by the Per-
sians, who are long-haired, and the women and children
were dealt with as slaves; and the temple at Didyma, with
the sacred building and the sanctuary of the Oracle, was
first plundered and then burnt. Of the things in this
temple I have made mention frequently in other parts of
the history.
After this the Milesians who had been taken prisoner

160 The Ionic Revolt

the e Miie 0f wcre con ^ ucte< ^ to Susa; anc * ^ n S Darius did to them

sians. no other evil, but settled them upon the sea called Eryth-

ib. 20. raean, in the city of Ampe, by which the Tigris flows when

it runs out into the sea. Of the Milesian land the Persians

themselves kept the surroundings of the city and the plain,

but the heights they gave to the Carians of Pedasa for a

possession.

Effect on the When the Milesians suffered this treatment from the
Athenians.

Persians, the men of Sybaris, who were dwelling in Laos

and Scidros, being deprived of their own city, did not re-
pay like with like; for when Sybaris was taken by the men
of Croton, the Milesians all from youth upwards shaved
their heads and put on great mourning; for these cities
were more than all others of which we know bound to-
gether by ties of friendship. Not like the Sybarites
were the Athenians; for these made it clear that they were
grieved at the capture of Miletus, both in many other
ways and also by this, that when Phrynichus had com-
posed a drama called the "Capture of Miletus" and had
put it on the stage, the body of spectators fell to weeping,
and the Athenians moreover fined the poet a thousand
drachmas on the ground that he had reminded them of
their own calamities; and they ordered also that no one
in future should represent this drama.

STUDIES

1. What motive had Aristagoras to revolt (cf. Greece, in; Ancient
World, 160)? What was the advice of Hecataeus? Why were the
tyrants now deposed?

2. Why did Aristagoras go to Sparta for aid? By what arguments
did he try to persuade Cleomenes? What had he to say of the Per-
sians? Why did he give the king a lesson in geography? Why were
the Lacedaemonians unwilling to attempt the conquest of Asia?
What part had Gorgo in the negotiations, and what idea do we get

Studies 161

from it of the Spartan girl? Why were the Athenians more easily
persuaded? What does Herodotus think of the war? Describe the
houses of Sardis.

3. How did the Persians punish Miletus for revolt? What is the
meaning of the oracle? Are we certain that it was given before the
event? How did the fall of Miletus affect the Athenians? Where
did Herodotus probably get his information as to these events, and
how trustworthy is it?

CHAPTER XVI

Darius plans
to subdue
Hellas.

Herodotus vi.
94-

After the
destruction
of Sardis
Darius had
ordered a
servant to ad-
monish him
daily to "re-
member the
Athenians."

Mardonius
had failed
in an ex-
pedition
against
Greece;
Greece, n8f.;
Ancient
World, 166 f.

Athens
sends to
Sparta for
aid.

Hdt. vi. 105.

The Persians
had already
taken Ere-
tria; Ancient
World, 167.

THE WAR BETWEEN GREECE AND PERSIA

I. THE INVASION OF DATIS AND ARTAPHERNES

So the Athenians were at war with the Eginetans; and
meanwhile the Persian was carrying forward his design,
since he was put in mind ever by his servant to remember
the Athenians, and also because the sons of Peisistratus
were near at hand and brought charges continually against
the Athenians, while at the same time Darius himself
wished to take hold of this pretext and subdue those na-
tions of Hellas which had not given him earth and water.
Mardonius then, since he had fared miserably in his ex-
pedition, he removed from his command; and appointing
other generals to command, he despatched them against
Eretria and Athens, namely Datis, who was a Mede by
race, and Artaphernes the son of Artaphernes, a nephew
of the king; and he sent them forth with the charge to
reduce Athens and Eretria to slavery and to bring back
the slaves into his presence. . . .

First of all, while they were still in the city the generals
sent off to Sparta a herald, namely Pheidippides an Athe-
nian, a runner of long day-courses and one who practised
this as his profession. With this man, as Pheidippides
himself said and as he made report to the Athenians,
Pan chanced to meet by Mount Parthenion, which is
above Tegea; and calling aloud the name of Pheidippides,
Pan bade him report to the Athenians and ask for what
reason they had no care of him, though he was well

162

Athens Prepares for Battle 163

disposed to the Athenians and had been serviceable to
them on many occasions before that time, and would be so
also yet again. Believing that this tale was true, the Athe-
nians, when their affairs had now been prosperously settled, in a cave on
established under the Acropolis a temple of Pan, and in declivity,
consequence of this message they propitiate him with
sacrifice offered every year and with a torch-race.

However at that time, the time namely when he said Pheidip-
that Pan appeared to him, this Pheidippides having been Jeais to'the
sent by the generals was in Sparta on the next day after Jjjjjf*" 10 '
that on which he left the city of the Athenians; and when
he had come to the magistrates he said: "Lacedaemonians, Hdt. vi. 106.
the Athenians make request of you to come to their help
and not to allow a city most anciently established among On Mara-
the Hellenes to fall into slavery by means of barbarians; 120^2; In-*'
for even now Eretria has been enslaved and Hellas has ^^orld,
become the weaker by a city of renown." He, as I say,
reported to them that with which he had been charged
and it pleased them well to come to help the Athenians;
but it was impossible for them to do so at once, since they
did not desire to break their law; for it was the ninth day
of the month and on the ninth day they said they would
not go forth, nor until the circle of the moon should be full.

Now the opinions of the generals of the Athenians were The Athen-
divided, and the one party urged that they should not SSnferate? S
fight a battle, seeing that they were few to fight with the Hdt vi I0g
army of the Medes, while the others, and among them
Miltiades, advised that they should do so; and when they
were divided and the worse opinion was like to prevail, At this time
then, since he who had been appointed by lot to be pole- ma rch was
march of the Athenians hade vote in addition to the ten appointed by
(for in old times the Athenians gave the polemarch an J>t^p. I28
equal vote with the generals) and at that time the pole-

164 The War Between Greece and Persia

march was Callimachus of the deme of Aphidnae, to him
came Miltiades and said as follows: "With thee now it
rests, Callimachus, either to bring Athens into slavery, or
by making her free to leave behind thee for all the time
that men shall live a memorial such as not even Har-
modius and Aristogeiton have left. For now the Atheni-
Antient ans have come to a danger the greatest to which they have

World, 137. , . .

ever come since they were a people; and on the one hand,
if they submit to the Medes, it is determined what they
shall suffer, being delivered over to Hippias, while on the
other hand, if this city shall gain the victory it may become
the first of the cities of Hellas. How this may happen and
how it comes to thee of all men to have the decision of
these matters, I am now about to tell. Of us the generals,
who are ten in number, the opinions are divided, the one
party urging that we fight a battle and the others that we
do not fight. Now if we do not, I expect that some great
spirit of discord will fall upon the minds of the Athenians
and so shake them that they shall go over to the Medes;
but if we fight a battle before any unsoundness appear
in any part of the Athenian people, then we are able to
gain the victory in the fight, if the gods grant equal con-
ditions. These things then all belong to thee, and depend
upon thee; for if thou attach thyself to my opinion, thou
hast both a fatherland which is free and a native city
which shall be the first among the cities of Hellas; but if
thou choose the opinion of those who are earnest against
fighting, thou shalt have the opposite of those good things
of which I have told thee."

end g r en ~i Thus speaking Miltiades gained Callimachus to his
to fight. side; and the opinion of the polemarch being added, it was
Hdt. vi. no. thus determined to fight a battle. After this, those gen-
erals whose opinion was in favor of fighting, as the turn

The Battle of Marathon 165

of each one of them to command for the day came round,
gave over their command to Miltiades; and he, accepting
it, would not yet however bring about a battle, until his
own turn to command had come.

And when it came round to him, then the Athenians The order of
were drawn up for battle in the order which here follows :
On the right wing the polemarch Callimachus was leader I ' x "'
(for the custom of the Athenians was this, that the pole-
march should have the right wing) ; and he leading, next
after him came the tribes in order as they were numbered
one after the other, and last were drawn up the Plataeans
occupying the left wing; for ever since this battle, when the
Athenians offer sacrifices in the solemn assemblies which
are made at the four-yearly festivals, the herald of the
Athenians prays thus, "that blessings may come to the
Athenians and to the Plataeans both." On this occasion
however, when the Athenians were being drawn up at
Marathon, something of this kind was done: their army
being made equal in length of front to that of the Medes,
came to be drawn up in the middle with a depth of but
a few ranks, and here their army was weakest, while each
wing was strengthened with numbers.

And when they had been arranged in their places and The charge,
the sacrifices proved favorable, then the Athenians were n. 112.
let go, and they set forth at a run to attack the barbarians.
Now the space between the armies was not less than eight
furlongs; and the Persians seeing them advancing to the
attack at a run, made preparations to receive them; and
in their minds they charged the Athenians with madness
which must be fatal, seeing that they were few and yet
were pressing forward at a run, having neither cavalry
nor archers. Such was the thought of the barbarians;
but the Athenians, when all in a body they had joined

1 66 The War Between Greece and Persia

The Persian
route.

Ib. 113.

The slain.
Ib. 114-

Cynegeirus
was a
brother of
jEschylus,
the great
dramatic
poet.

Attempt to

surprise

Athens.

Ib. 115.

in combat with the barbarians, fought in a memorable
fashion; for they were the first of all the Hellenes about
whom we know who went to attack the enemy at a run,
and they were the first also who endured to face the
Median garments and the men who wore them, whereas
up to this time the very name of the Medes was to the
Hellenes a terror to hear.

Now while they fought in Marathon, much time passed
by; and in the centre of the army, where the Persians
themselves and the Sacans were drawn up, the barbarians
were winning, here, I say, the barbarians had broken
up the ranks of their opponents and were pursuing them
inland, but on both wings the Athenians and the Platseans
severally were winning the victory; and being victorious
they left that part of the barbarians which had been routed
to fly without molestation; and bringing together the two
wings they fought with those who had broken their centre,
and the Athenians were victorious. So they followed after
the Persians as they fled, slaughtering them, until they
came to the sea; and then they called for fire and began
to take hold of the ships.

In this part of the work was slain the polemarch Cal-
limachus after having proved himself a good man, and
also one of the generals, Stesilaus the son of Thrasylaus,
was killed; and besides this Cynegeirus the son of Eupho-
rion, while taking hold there of the ornament at the stern
of a ship, had his hand cut off with an axe and fell; and
many others also of the Athenians who were men of note
were killed.

Seven of the ships the Athenians got possession of in
this manner, but with the rest the barbarians pushed off
from land, and after taking the captives from Eretria
off the island where they had left them, they sailed around

The Athenians Win 167

Sunion, purposing to arrive at the city before the Athe- The shield is

. , . said to have

mans. An accusation became current among the Athenians been hoisted
to the effect that they formed this design by contrivance

of the Alcmeonidae; for these, it was said, having concerted

which over-

matters with the Persians, displayed to them a shield when looks the
they had now embarked in their ships.

These then, I say, were sailing round Sunion; and mean-
while the Athenians came to the rescue back to the city

as speedily as they could, and they arrived there before
the barbarians came; and having arrived from the temple
of Heracles at Marathon they encamped at another
temple of Heracles, namely that which is in Cynosarges.
The barbarians however came and lay with their ships
in the sea which is off Phaleron, (for this was then the sea-
port of the Athenians) ; they anchored their ships, I say,
off this place, and then proceeded to sail back to Asia.

In this fight at Marathon there were slain of the bar- Losses in
barians about six thousand four hundred men, and of the
Athenians a hundred and ninety and two. Such was the
number which fell on both sides. .

II. GREEK PREPARATIONS FOR ANOTHER INVASION

When those Hellenes who had the better mind about A session of

t* 16 Hellenic

Hellas came together to one place, and considered tneir council,

affairs and interchanged assurances with one another,

then deliberating together they thought it well first of all Herodotus

things to reconcile the enmities and bring to an end the

wars which they had with one another. Now there were World, 172 f.

, , , , , .11-1 On the coun-

wars engaged between others also, and especially between cil (congress)

the Athenians and the Eginetans. After this, being in- jn nes f a n'

formed that Xerxes was with his army at Sardis, they League,

* . see Ancient

determined to send spies to Asia to make observation of World, MX.

1 68 The War Between Greece and Persia

Greece, 137 f.;
Ancient
World, 179.

Greek spies
at Sardis.

Hdt. vii. 146.

Xerxes is
confident of
his own
superiority.

Ib. 147.

the power of the king; and moreover they resolved to send
envoys to Argos to form an alliance against the Persian,
and to send others to Sicily to Gelon the son of Deino-
menes and also to Corcyra, to urge them to come to the
assistance of Hellas, and others again to Crete; for they
made it their aim that if possible the Hellenic^ race might
unite in one, and that they might join all together and
act toward the same end, since dangers were threatening
all the Hellenes equally. Now the power of Gelon was
said to be great, far greater than any other Hellenic
power.

When they had thus resolved, they reconciled their
enmities and then sent first three men as spies to Asia.
These having come to Sardis and having got knowledge
about the king's army, were discovered, and after having
been examined by the generals of the army were being
led off to die. For these men, I say, death had been de-
termined; but Xerxes, being informed of this, found fault
with the decision of the generals and sent some of the
spearmen of his guard, enjoining them, if they should find
the spies yet alive, to bring them to his presence. So
having found them yet surviving, they brought them into
the presence of the king; and thereupon Xerxes, being
told for what purpose they had come, commanded the
spearmen to lead them round and to show them the whole
army both foot and horse, and when they should have
had their fill of looking at these things, to let them go un-
hurt to whatsoever land they desired.

Such was the command which he gave, adding at the
same time this saying, namely that if the spies had been
put to death, the Hellenes would not have been informed
beforehand of his power, how far beyond description it
was; while on the other hand by putting to death three

The Confidence of Xerxes 169

men they would not very greatly have damaged the enemy;
but when these returned back to Hellas, he thought it
likely that the Hellenes, hearing of his power, would de-
liver up their freedom to him themselves, before the ex-
pedition took place which was being set in motion; and
thus there would be no need for them to have the labor
of marching an army against them. This opinion of his
is like his manner of thinking at other times; for when
Xerxes was in Abydos, he saw vessels which carried corn
from the Pontus sailing out through the Hellespont on
their way to Egina and the Peloponnese. Those then who
sat by his side, being informed that the ships belonged
to the enemy, were prepared to capture them, and were
looking to the king to see when he would give the word;
but Xerxes asked about them whither the men were sail-
ing, and they replied: "Master, to thy foes, conveying to
them corn": he then made answer and said, "Are we not
also sailing to the same place as these men, furnished with
corn as well as with other things necessary? How then
do these wrong us, since they are conveying provisions
for our use?"

III. THE BATTLE OF SALAMIS

From Susa, from Ecbatana they went, Marshalling

From the ancient Cissian fortress were they sent
Seamen, riders upon horses,
Steady-tramping footman-forces
Close-marshalled in the battle-armament.

Amistres, Artaphernes, led them on: Com-

Megabates and Astaspes forth are gone, manders.

Persian kings and princes royal,

And the Great King's vassals loyal,
Chiefs that weld his thousand armies into one.

i yo The War Between Greece and Persia

Archers and There are bow-triumphant archers, there are riders of the steed,
oarsmen. Men terrible to i ook on> men dread in battle-deed

In the grim determination of a spirit hot for war. . . .
There be they that mighty Nile sent forth, the nation-nursing

flood . . .

The marshmen they that row the rafts that skim the river-slime,
Men cunning in the oarsman's craft, a multitude untold.

Lydians.

All Asia.

Bridging the
Hellespont.

The king.

And the dainty-living Lydians followed with their battle-throng,
They which people all the mainland; and Mitrogathes the strong
And Arcteus led them onward, each a satrap and a king.
There were gold-abounding Sardians, and their chariot-riders pressed
Swiftly on, with chariot-horses yoked by two, by three abreast
A sight of terrer to the eyes that marked their marshalling.

Came the borderers on Tmolus the hallowed, all aglow
Around the neck of Hellas the bondage-yoke to throw:
There were Tharubis and Mardon, stubborn anvils of the spear;
There were Mysian javelin-hurlers: gold-abounding Babylon
Sent forth a mingled multitude in long lines sweeping on,
Riders on the sea-steeds, trusty archers void of fear.

And the people of all Asia, wielders of the scimitar,
Have followed the dread summons of the Great King to the war.
Oh, the flower of all the Persian realm hath vanished from our gaze:
And all the land of Asia which hath fostered them doth sigh;
With the passion of the yearning of bereavement doth she cry;
And the wives and mothers shudder as they count the weary days.

For the army of the king, for the city-wasting host

Long since hath passed the channel of the fronting neighbor-coast;

For they linked the rafts together with the cables cunningly,

So that Hellas' strait was spanned,

Land was riveted to land,

And man had cast a yoke upon the wild neck of the sea!

And myriad-peopled Asia's King, a battle-eager lord,

From utmost east to utmost west sped on his countless horde

In unnumbered squadrons marching, in fleets of keels untold,

Knowing none dared disobey,

For stern overseers were they
Of the godlike king begotten of the ancient Race of Gold.

Archers against Spearmen 171

And flashing from his eyes the deadly dragon's steel-blue glance

On Assyrian battle-car,

With unnumbered men of war

He hurls the war-god of the bow on the heroes of the lance.

Heroes? none is so heroic as to stem that warrior-flood!

Not their strongest dams shall bide

Such resistless ocean-tide:

Nay, Persia's valiant myriads shall in no wise be withstood.

Yet God sendeth strong delusions, and what mortal may evade Foreboding

them? of failure.
And who with foot light-leaping may spring clear of the snare?

For Ate smiles alluring men, until she hath betrayed them Ate, reckless

Amidst her net : none breaks its meshes, once entangled there. infatuation,

which brings

For the Gods' doom all-controlling decreed this long ago

' Persia's sons shall win renown

In dashing towers down,

In the clash of charging horsemen, and in cities' overthrow.'

Yet they learned to look unquailing on the highways of the sea,

When the flails of tempest smite,

And its meadows blossom white,

Grasping slender reins of army-wafting galleys fearlessly. . . .

Atossa Is there found with them so vast a multitude for war's Dialogue.

array? Atossa is

Chorus Yea, such armed host as many an evil once to Media mother of

wrought. g^if

Atos. Have they aught worth warrior- warding homes with store composed of

of wealth full-fraught? ?&*

Chor. Silver have they, yea, a very fountain, treasure of their land, of the realm

Atos. And their weapons are they cunning archers straining bow during the

in hand? *

Chor. Nay, but foot to foot in fight they close with spear and clash- They are

v- u speaking

ing shield. a out the

Atos. And their shepherd who is lord and king of these in fighting Greeks.

field? The Greek

Chor. No man's servants do they name them, they are subject to government.

none.

172 The War Between Greece and Persia

The battle.

The messen-
ger is a
Persian, who
brings news
of the battle
to the queen
and chorus.

Greece, 132-4;
Ancient
World, 175-7-

The deception
here men-
tioned was
the work of
Themisto-
cles.

jEschylus re-
frains from
mention-
ing Greeks by
name.

Messenger

'Twas this began all our disaster, Queen:
A demon or fell fiend rose who knows whence?
For from the Athenian host a Hellene came,
And to thy son, to Xerxes, told this tale,
That when the mirk of black night should be come,
The Greeks would not abide, but, leaping straight
Upon the galley thwarts, this way and that
In stealthy flight would seek to save their lives.
Soon as he heard, discerning neither guile
In that Greek, nor the jealousy of heaven,
This word to all his captains he proclaims,
That, when the sun should cease to scorch the earth,
And gloom should fill the hallowed space of sky,
In three lines should they range their throng of ships
To guard each pass, each seaward-surging strait;
And others should enring all Aias' Isle:
Since, if the Greeks should yet escape fell doom,
And find their ships some privy path of flight,
Doomed to the headsman all these captains were.
Thus spake he, in spirit over-confident,
Knowing not what the Gods would bring to pass.
With hearts obedient, in no disarray,
Then supped our crews, and every mariner
To the well-rounded rowlock lashed his oar.
But when the splendor faded of the sun,
And night came on, each master of the oar
A-shipboard went, and every man-at-arms.
Then rank to rank of long ships passed the word:
And, as was each appointed, so they sailed.
So all night long the captains of the ships
Kept all the sea-host sailing to and fro.
And night passed by, yet did the Hellene host
Essay in no wise any secret flight.
But when the day by white steeds chariot-borne,
Radiant to see, flooded all earth with light,
First from the Hellenes did a clamorous shout
Ring for a triumphant chant; and wild and high
Pealed from the island rock the answering cheer

The Battle of Salamis 173

Of Echo. Thrilled through all our folks dismay

Of baffled expectation; for the Greeks

Not as for flight that holy paean sang,

But straining battleward with heroic hearts.

The trumpet's blare set all their lines aflame.

Straightway with chiming dip of dashing oars

They smote the loud brine to the timing cry,

And suddenly flashed they all full into view.

Foremost their right wing seemly-ordered led

In fair array; next, all their armament

Battleward swept on. Therewithal was heard

A great shout 'On ye sons of Hellas, on!

Win for the home-land freedom! freedom win

For sons, wives, temples of ancestral Gods,

And old sires' graves! This day are all at stake!'

Yea, and from us low thunder of Persian cheers

Answered no time it was for dallying!

Then straightway galley dashed her beak of bronze

On galley. 'Twas a Hellene ship began

The onset, and shore all the figure-head

From a Phoenician: captain charged on captain.

At first the Persian navy's torrent-flood

Withstood them; but when our vast fleet was cramped

In strait-space friend could lend no aid to friend,

Then ours by fangs of allies' beaks of bronze

Were struck, and shattered all their oar-array;

While with shrewd strategy the Hellene ships

Swept around, and rammed us, and upturned were hulls

Of ships; no more could one discern the sea,

Clogged all with wrecks and limbs of slaughtered men:

The shores, the rock-reefs, were with corpses strewn.

Then rowed each bark in fleeing disarray,

Yea, every keel of our barbarian host.

They with oar-fragments and with shards of wrecks

Smote, hacked, as men smite tunnies, or a draught

Of fishes; and a moaning, all confused

With shrieking, hovered wide o'er that sea-brine

Till night's dark presence blotted out the horror.

That swarm of woes, yea, though for ten days' space

174 The War Between Greece and Persia

I should rehearse could I not tell in full.
Yet know this well, that never in one day
Died such a host, such tale untold, of men.

STUDIES

1. Who were the sons of Peisistratus, and what was their motive in
urging Darius to war against Greece? What illustrations of the
religious beliefs of Athenians and Lacedaemonians do we find in this
passage? Why did Athens appeal to Sparta for aid? Explain the
official position of the polemarch and his relation to the ten generals?
Who were Harmodius and Aristogeiton? By what arguments did
Miltiades persuade Callimachus to vote for battle? What contrib-
uted most to Athenian victory at Marathon? What were the re-
spective losses, and how can the difference be accounted for?

2. Write out definitely the acts of the council of the Hellenic
League (481-0 B.C.). How did Xerxes treat the Greek spies, and
why? In what ways did he show confidence in his superiority to the
Greeks?

3. Write in your own language /Eschylus' description of the Persian
armament. What peoples were represented in it? What is said of
its power? What information does the chorus give Atossa as to
Hellenic warfare and government? How did the Greeks deceive
Xerxes as to their own intentions? What plan did Xerxes adopt?
Write in your own language ^Eschylus' account of the battle. What
is your impression of his poetry? Is there any reason for believing
the selections given in this chapter more reliable than those of the
preceding chapter?

CHAPTER XVII

THE DELIAN CONFEDERACY AND THE ATHENIAN
EMPIRE

I. THE WALLS OF ATHENS ARE REBUILT

IMMEDIATELY after the great war, he (Themistocles) be- Themis-

gan to rebuild and fortify the city. In order to succeed in wits the

this, Theopompus says that he bribed the Spartan ephors partans -

into laying aside opposition, but most writers say that he ^^^des

outwitted them by proceeding to Sparta nominally on an 19-

embassy. Then when the Spartans complained to him that Greece, 143-5 ;

Athens was being fortified and when Poliarchus came ex- World, 182 f.

pressly from ^Egina to charge him with it, he denied it, and Theopompus

bade them send commissioners to Athens to see whether it wa ? a hii r

tonan who

was true, wishing both to obtain time for the fortifications lived in the
to be built, and also to place these commissioners in the turyVc"
hands of the Athenians, as hostages for his own safety.
His expectations were realised; for the Lacedaemonians,
on discovering the truth, did him no harm, but dissembled

anger and sent him away. After this he built Peiraeus He builds

i i ,1 r -, i i i Peiraeus.

as he perceived the excellence of its harbors, and was

desirous to turn the whole attention of the Athenians to
naval pursuits. . . . Themistocles did not " stick Peiraeus
on to Athens" as Aristophanes the comic poet said,
so much as he made the city dependent upon Peiraeus,
and the land dependent upon the sea. By this means he
transferred power from the nobles to the people, because
sailors and pilots became the real strength of the state.

i 7 6

The Delian Confederacy

Aristeides.

Aristotle,
Constitution
of the Athe-
nians, 23.

Objects of
the con-
federacy.

Thucydides,
i. 96.

The main
object, how-
ever, was
defence
against
Persia.

The assess-
ment by
Aristeides.

Plutarch,
Aristeides, 23.

Ancient
World, 184 f.

II. THE DELIAN CONFEDERACY is FORMED

It was Aristeides who brought about the defection of
the lonians from the Lacedaemonian alliance, finding his
opportunity in the circumstance that the people of Laconia
were in ill repute because of Pausanias.

Thus the Athenians by the good-will of the allies, who
detested Pausanias, obtained the leadership. They im-
mediately fixed which of the cities should supply money
and which of them ships for the war against the barba-
rians, the avowed object being to compensate themselves
and the allies for 'their losses by devastating the king's
country. Then was first instituted at Athens the office
of Hellenic treasurers, who received the tribute, for so the
impost was termed. . . .

As they wished each city to be assessed to pay a reason-
able sum, they asked the Athenians to appoint Aristeides
to visit each city, learn the extent of its territory and reve-
nues, and fix upon the amount which each was capable
of contributing according to its means. Although he was
in possession of such a power as this the whole of Greece
having as it were given itself up to be dealt with at his
discretion yet he laid down his office a poorer man than
when he accepted it, but having completed his assessment
to the satisfaction of all. As the ancients used to tell of the
blessedness of the golden age, even so did the states of
Greece honor the assessment made by Aristeides, calling
the time when it was made, fortunate and blessed for
Greece, especially when no long time afterward it was
doubled, and subsequently trebled. The money which
Aristeides proposed to raise amounted to four hundred and
sixty talents; to which Pericles added nearly a third part,
for Thucydides tells us that, at the commencement of the

From Confederacy to Empire 177

Peloponnesian war, the Athenians received six hundred
talents a year from their allies. After the death of Pericles,
the popular orators gradually raised the sum total to thir-
teen hundred talents. It was not so much that the money
was required for the expenses of a long and costly war,
as that these men had accustomed the people to largesses
of money, dramatic representations, and the erection of
statues and temples.

III. CHANGE IN THE CONSTITUTION OF THE
CONFEDERACY

At first the allies were independent and deliberated The confed-
in a common assembly under the leadership of Athens, formed into
But in the interval between the Persian and Peloponnesian an empire *
wars, by their military success and by policy in dealing Thuc - * 97-
with the barbarian, with their own rebellious allies and
with the Peloponnesians who came across their path from
time to time, the Athenians made immense strides in power.
I have gone out of my way to speak of this period because Greece, 152 f.;
the writers who have preceded me treat either of Hellenic world, 186 f.
affairs previous to the Persian invasion or of that invasion
itself; the intervening portion of history has been omitted
by all of them, with the exception of Hellanicus; and he, A historian

who wrote

where he has touched upon it in his Attic history, is very shortly be-
brief, and inaccurate in his chronology. The narrative -^
will also serve to explain how the Athenian empire grew up.
The causes which led to the defections of the allies were Causes of

the trans-

of different kinds, the principal one being their neglect to formation,
pay the tribute or to furnish ships, and, in some cases, Thuc. i. QQ.
failure of military service. For the Athenians were ex-
acting and oppressive, using coercive measures toward
men who were neither willing nor accustomed to work
hard. And for various reasons they soon began to prove

178 The Delian Confederacy

less agreeable leaders than at first. They no longer fought
upon an equality with the rest of the confederates, and
they had no difficulty in reducing them when they re-
volted. Now the allies brought all this upon themselves;
for the majority of them disliked military service and ab-
sence from home, and so they agreed to contribute a
regular sum of money instead of ships. Whereby the
Athenian navy was proportionately increased, while they
themselves were always untrained and unprepared for
war when they revolted.
Imperialism Afterwards as the citizens of the (Athenian) state had

and democ- .

racy go hand acquired confidence and a great quantity of money had
accumulated, he (Aristeides) advised them to lay hold on
the leadership, and to come in from the country and live in
the city, assuring them that there would be a livelihood
for all, some serving in the army, others in garrisons,
others attending to administrative work, and that thus
they would secure the leadership. Adopting this policy
and usurping the imperial power, they began to treat their
allies more despotically, with the exception of the Chians,
Lesbians, and Samians, whom they retained as guards of
their empire, leaving them their own constitutions and the
dependencies which they severally chanced to rule. Thus
they established for the multitude an abundant supply
of provisions, as Aristeides had pointed out; for it resulted
that from the tributes and the taxes more than twenty
thousand men derived their support.

STUDIES

1. How did Themistocles contrive to have the walls of Athens
rebuilt? How did the growth of Peiraeus affect Athenian politics?

2. What had Pausanias done to bring ill repute upon the Spartans
(Greece, 146; Ancient World, 184)? What object of the Confederacy

Studies 179

is mentioned? Give an account of the first assessment. What
changes were afterward made?

3. What change gradually took place in the constitution of the
confederacy? What causes brought it about? Who were more to
blame for it, the Athenians or the allies? What criticism does Thu-
cydides make upon Hellanicus? Why did the growth of imperialism
and democracy go hand in hand at Athens? Who are the authors of
the several selections of this chapter, and what is their relative worth
as historians of this period?

CHAPTER XVIII

THE AGE OF PERICLES

I. PERICLES: FAMILY AND EDUCATION

Family and PERICLES was descended from the noblest families in
pearance. Athens, on both his father's and mother's side. His
father, Xanthippus, defeated the Persian generals at
Mycale, while his mother, Agariste, was a descendant
Plutarch, of Cleisthencs, who drove the sons of Peisistratus out of
Athens, put an end to their despotic rule, and established
- a new constitution admirably calculated to reconcile all
4 1 - parties and save the country. . . . His body was sym-

Thetrue metrical, but his head was long out of all proportion;

reason is that ,

he was a hence in nearly all his statues he is represented wearing
a helmet, as the sculptors did not wish, I suppose, to re-
proach him with this blemish. The Attic poets called him
squill-head, and the comic poet, Cratinus, in his play
"Cheirones" says,

From Cronos old and faction,
Is sprung a tyrant dread,
And all Olympus calls him,
The man-compelling head.

Telecleides, too, speaks of him as sitting,

Bowed down,
With a dreadful frown,
Because matters of state have gone wrong,
Until at last,
From his head so vast,
His ideas burst forth in a throng. . . .
180

Education of Pericles i Si-

It was Anaxagoras of Clazomenae who had most to do His
with forming Pericles' style, teaching him an elevation
and sublimity of expression beyond that of ordinary popu- ut> er ' 4 '
lar speakers, and altogether purifying and ennobling his
mind. This Anaxagoras was called Intelligence, by the
men of that time, either because they admired his own in-
tellect, or because he taught that an abstract intelligence
is to be traced in all the concrete forms of matter, and that -
to this, and not to chance, the universe owes its origin.

Pericles greatly admired Anaxagoras, and became His dignified
..., i * i_- i. st y le of ora-

deeply interested in these grand speculations, which gave tory.

him a haughty spirit and a lofty style of oratory far re- /$. 5>
moved from vulgarity and low buffoonery, and also an
imperturbable gravity of countenance, and a calmness of
demeanor and appearance which no incident could disturb
as he was speaking, while the tone of his voice never showed
that he heeded any interruption. These advantages
greatly impressed the people. Once he sat quietly all
day in the market-place despatching some pressing busi-
ness, reviled in the foulest terms all the while by some
low worthless fellow. Towards evening he walked home,
the man following him and heaping abuses upon him.
When about to enter his own door, as it was dark, he
ordered one of his servants to take a torch and light the
man home. . . .

II. His STATESMANSHIP

Pericles when young greatly feared the people. He had Reluctant to
a certain personal likeness to the despot Peisistratus; and politics,
as his own voice was sweet, and he was ready and fluent /j 7
in speech, old men who had known Peisistratus were struck
by his resemblance to him. He was also rich, of noble
birth, and had powerful friends, so that he feared he

182

The Age of Pericles

On ostracism;
Ancient
World, 140 {.

He takes the
side of the
people.

The Sala-
mi nian tri-
reme was
reserved for
carrying
official mes-
sages and
important
officers and
embassies.

might be banished by ostracism, and consequently held
aloof from politics, but proved himself a brave and daring
soldier in the wars. But when Aristeides was dead, The-
mistocles banished, and Cimon generally absent on distant
campaigns, Pericles engaged in public affairs, taking the
popular side, that of the poor and many against that of
the rich and few, quite contrary to his own feelings, which
were entirely aristocratic.

He feared, it seemed, that he might be suspected of a
design to make himself tyrant, and seeing that Cimon took
the side of the nobility, and was much beloved by them,
he betook himself to the people, as a means of obtaining
safety for himself, and a strong party to combat that of
Cimon. He immediately altered his mode of life; was
never seen in any street except that which led to the
market-place and the national assembly, and declined all
invitations to dinner and such social gatherings, so ut-
terly that during the whole of his long political life he
never dined with one of his friends except when his first
cousin, Euryptolemus, was married. On this occasion he
sat at table till the libations were poured, upon which he
at once got up and went away. For solemnity is wont
to unbend at festive gatherings, and a majestic demeanor
is hard to keep up when one is in familiar intercourse with
others. True virtue, indeed, appears more glorious the
more it is seen, and a really good man's life is never so
much admired by the outside world as by his own intimate
friends. But Pericles feared to make himself too common
even with the people, and only addressed them after long
intervals not speaking upon every subject, and not
constantly addressing them, but as Critolaus says, keep-
ing himself like the Salaminian trireme for great crises, and
allowing his friends and the other orators to manage mat-

Oratory of Pericles 183

ters of less moment. One of these friends is said to have On the fall

been Ephialtes, who destroyed the power of the Council of til of e the U '

the Areopagus, "pouring out" as Plato the comic poet ^ e c S gus:

said, "a full and unmixed draught of liberty for the citi- World, 189,

n. i; Greece,

zens," under the influence of which the poets of the 155 f.
time said that the Athenian people

"Nibbled at Eubcea, like a horse that spurns the rein,
And wantonly would leap upon the islands in the main."

Wishing to adopt a style of speaking consonant with Why he was
his haughty manner and lofty spirit, Pericles made free "Oiym-
use of the instrument which Anaxagoras as it were put pian -"
into his hand, and often tinged his oratory with natural plut - Per - 8 -
philosophy. He far surpassed all others by using this
" lofty intelligence and power of universal consummation,"
as the divine Plato calls it; in addition to his natural On Plato;
advantages, adorning his oratory with apt illustrations World, 288 f.
drawn from physical science.

For this reason some think that he was nicknamed the
Olympian ; yet some refer this to his- improvement of the
city by new and beautiful buildings, and others to his
power as a politician and a general. It is not by any means
unlikely that these causes all combined to produce the
name. Yet the comedies of the time, when they allude
to him, either in jest or earnest, always appear to think
that this name was given him because of his manner of
speaking, for they represent him as "thundering and
lightning" and "rolling fateful thunders from his
tongue."

A saying of Thucydides, the son of Melesias, has been
preserved, which jestingly testifies to the power of Pericles'
eloquence. Thucydides was the leader of the conservative
party, and for a long time struggled to hold his own against

184 The Age of Pericles

On this Pericles in debate. One day Archidamus, the King of

(notthe Sparta, asked him whether he or Pericles was the best

, wrestler. "When I throw him in wrestling," Thucydides
answered, "he beats me by proving that he never was
down, and by making the spectators believe him." For all
this Pericles was very cautious about his words, and when-
ever he ascended the tribune to speak, used first to pray to
the gods that nothing inappropriate to the present occa-
sion might fall from his lips. He left no writings, except
the measures which he brought forward, and very few of
his sayings are recorded. One of these was, that he called
vEgina "the eyesore of the Peiraeus" and that "he saw
Stesim- war coming upon Athens from Peloponnesus." Stesim-

contemporary brotus tells us that when he was pronouncing a public
water. funeral oration over those who fell in Samos, he said that

they had become immortal, even as the gods : for we do not
see the gods, but we conceive them to be immortal by the
respect which we pay them, and the blessings which we
receive from them; and the same is the case with those
who die for their country.

The Peri- Thucydides represents the constitution under Pericles

erameotT" as a democracy in name, but really an aristocracy, be-

Plut Per cause the government was all in the hands of one leading

citizen. But as many other writers tell us that during his

8; Ancient administration the people received grants of land abroad,

' I9S ~ ' and were indulged with dramatic entertainments, and

payments for their services, in consequence of which they

fell into bad habits, and became extravagant and licentious,

instead of sober, hard-working people as they had been

before, let us consider the history of this change, viewing

it by the light of the facts themselves. First of all, as we

have already said, Pericles had to measure himself with

Cimon, and to transfer the affections of the people from

Pericles Wins the People 185

Cimon to himself. As he was not so rich a man as Cimon,
who used from his own ample means to give a dinner daily
to any poor Athenian who required it, clothe aged persons,
and take away the fences around his property, so that any-
one might gather the fruit, Pericles, unable to vie with him
in this, turned his attention to a distribution of the public
funds among the people, at the suggestion, we are told
by Aristotle, of Damonides of Oia. By the money paid
for public spectacles, for citizens acting as jurymen and
other paid offices, and largesses, he soon won over the
people to his side, so that he was able to use them in his
attack upon the Council of the Areopagus, of which he Ancient

. . ir , , . , World, 126.

himself was not a member, never having been chosen
archon, or thesmothete, or king archon, or polemarch.
These offices had from ancient times been obtained by lot, The lot was
and it was only through them that those who had approved j n 487 BX:.;
themselves in the discharge of them were advanced to
the Areopagus. For this reason it was that Pericles, when
he gained strength with the populace, destroyed this
Senate, making Ephialtes bring forward a bill which re-
stricted its judicial powers, while he himself succeeded
in getting Cimon banished by ostracism, as a friend of
Sparta and a hater of the people, although he was second
to no Athenian in birth or fortune, had won most brilliant
victories over the Persians, and had filled Athens with
plunder and spoils of war, as will be found related in his
life. So great was the power of Pericles with the common
people. . . .

HI. THE PUBLIC WORKS

The building of the temples, by which Athens was
adorned, the people were delighted, and the rest of the
world astonished, and which now alone prove that the

1 86

The Age of Pericles

The money
for the
buildings.

Plutarch,
Pericles, 12.

They furnish
the people
with work.

tales of the ancient power and glory of Greece are no fables,
was what particularly excited the spleen of the opposite
faction, who inveighed against him in the public assembly,
declaring that the Athenians had disgraced themselves
by transferring the common treasury of the Greeks from
the island of Delos to their own custody. "Pericles him-
self," they urged, "has taken away the only possible
excuse for such an act the fear that it might be exposed to
the attacks of the Persians when at Delos, whereas it
would be safe at Athens. Greece has been outraged, and
feels itself openly tyrannised over, when it sees us using
the funds which we extorted from it for the war against
the Persians, for gilding and beautifying our city, as if it
were a vain woman, and adorning it with precious marbles,
and statues, and temples, worth a thousand talents."
To this Pericles replied, that the allies had no right to
consider how their money was spent, so long as Athens
defended them from the Persians; while they supplied
neither horses, ships, nor men, but merely money, which
the Athenians had a right to spend as they pleased, pro-
vided they afforded them that security which it purchased.
It was right, he argued, that after the city had provided
all that was necessary for war, it should devote its surplus
money to the erection of buildings which would be a glory
to it for all ages.

At the same time these works would create plenty by
leaving no man unemployed, and encouraging all sorts
of handicraft, so that nearly the whole city would earn
wages, and thus derive both its beauty and its profit
from itself. For those who were in the flower of their
age, military service offered a means of earning money
from the common stock; while as he did not wish
the mechanics and the lower classes to be without their

Industrial Aspect 187

share, nor yet to see them receive it without doing work
for it, he had laid the foundations of great edifices which
would require industries of every kind to complete them;
and he had done this in the interests of the lower classes,
who thus although they remained at home, would have
just as good a claim to their share of the public funds as
those who were serving at sea, in garrison, or in the field.
The different materials used, such as stone, brass, ivory,
gold, ebony, cypress-wood, and so forth, would require
special artisans for each, such as carpenters, modellers,
smiths, stone masons, embroiderers, workers in relief;
and also men to bring them to the city, such as sailors
and captains of ships and pilots for such as came from
sea; and for those which came by land, carriage-builders,
horse-breeders, drivers, rope-makers, linen manufacturers,
shoemakers, road-menders, and miners. Each trade,
moreover, employed a number of unskilled laborers, so
that in a word, there would be work for persons of every
age and every class, and general prosperity would be the
result.

These buildings were of immense size, and unequalled Artistic ap-

. : preciation.

in beauty and grace, as the workmen endeavored to make
the execution surpass the design in beauty; but what was
most remarkable was the speed with which they were
built. All these edifices, each of which, one would have
thought, it would have taken many generations to com-
plete, were all finished during the most brilliant period
of one man's administration. We are told that Zeuxis,
hearing Agatharchus the painter boasting how easily
and rapidly he could produce a picture, said, "I paint
very slowly." Ease and speed of execution seldom pro-
duce work of any permanent value or delicacy. It is the
time which is spent in laborious production for which we

1 88 The Age of Pericles

are repaid by the durable character of the result. And
this makes Pericles' work all the more wonderful, because
it was built in a short time, and yet has lasted for ages.
In beauty each building at once appeared venerable as
soon as it was finished; but even at the present day the
work looks as fresh as ever, for it blooms with an eternal
freshness which defies time, and seems instinct with an
unfading spirit of youth.

Pheidiasand The overseer and manager of the whole was Pheidias,
although there were other excellent architects and work-
men, such as Callicrates and Ictinus, who built the Parthe-
non on the site of the old Hecatompedon, which had been
destroyed by the Persians, and Corcebus, who began to
build the temple of initiation at Eleusis, but who lived
only to see the columns erected and the architraves placed
upon them. On his death, Metagenes, of Xypete, added
the frieze and the upper row of columns, and Xenocles,
of Cholargus, crowned it with the domed roof over the
shrine. As to the Long Wall, about which Socrates says
that he heard Pericles bring forward a motion, Callicrates
undertook to build it. Cratinus satirizes the work for
being slowly accomplished, saying:

"He builds in speeches, but he does no work."

The Odeum. The Odeum, which internally consisted of many rows of
seats and many columns, and externally of a roof sloping
on all sides from a central point, is said to have been an
imitation of the king of Persia's tent, and was built under
Pericles' direction. For this reason Cratinus alludes to
him in his play of the Thracian Women

"Our Zeus with lofty skull appears;
The Odeum on his head he wears,
Because he fears the ostrakon no more."

Odeum and Propylaea 189

Pericles at that period used his influence to pass a decree
for establishing a musical competition at the Panathenaic
festival; and being himself chosen judge, he laid down rules
as to how the candidates were to sing, and play the flute
or the harp. At that period and ever afterward all musical
contests took place in the Odeum.

The Propylaea, before the Acropolis, was finished in The Propy-
five years, by Mnesicles the architect; and a miraculous
incident during the work seemed to show that the goddess
did not disapprove, but rather encouraged and assisted
the building. The most energetic and active of the work-
men fell from a great height, and lay in a dangerous con-
dition, given over by his doctors. Pericles grieved much
for him; but the goddess appeared to him in a dream, and
suggested a course of treatment by which Pericles quickly
healed the workman. In consequence of this, he set up
the brazen statue of Athena the healer, near the old altar
in the Acropolis. The golden statue of the goddess was
made by Pheidias, and his name appears on the base in
an inscription. Almost everything was in his hands, and
he gave his orders to all the workmen as we have said
before because of his friendship with Pericles.

IV. SELECTIONS FROM SOPHOCLES

When a god sends harm, not even the strong man can Orestes in
escape. For on another day, when chariots were to try chariot-race,
their speed at sunrise, he (Orestes) entered, with many
charioteers. One was an Achaean, one from Sparta, two Sophocles,
masters of yoked cars were Libyans; Orestes, driving 596 ff.'
Thessalian mares, came fifth among them ; the sixth from
^Etolia, with chestnut colts; a Magnesian was the seventh;
the eighth, with white horses, was of /Enian stock; the

The Age of Pericles

On the
national
games;
Ancient
World, 89 f.;
Greece, 101-3.

A runaway.

The Bar-
caean was
from Barca,
Libya.

Two teams
remain in
the race.

ninth, from Athens, built of Gods; there was a Boeotian
too, making the tenth chariot.

They took their stations where the appointed umpires
placed them by lot and ranged the cars; then, at the sound
of the brazen trump, they started. All shouted to their
horses, and shook the reins in their hands; the whole course
was filled with the noise of rattling chariots; the dust flew
upward; and all, in a confused throng, plied their goads
unsparingly, each of them striving to pass the wheels
and the snorting steeds of his rivals; for alike at their backs
and at their rolling wheels the breath of the horses foamed
and smote.

Orestes, driving close to the pillar at either end. of the
course, almost grazed it with his wheel each time, and
giving rein to the trace-horse on the right, checked the
horse on the inner side. Hitherto, all the chariots had
escaped overthrow; but presently the Oman's hard-
mouthed colts ran away, and swerving, as they passed from
the sixth to the seventh round, dashed their foreheads
against the team of the Barcaean. Other mishaps followed
the first, shock on shock and crash on crash, till the whole
race-ground of Crisa was strewn with the wreck of the
chariots.

Seeing this, the wary charioteer from Athens drew aside
and paused, allowing the billow of chariots, surging in
midcourse, to go by. Orestes was driving last, keeping
his horses behind, for his trust was in the end; but when
he saw that the Athenian was alone left in, he sent a shrill
cry ringing through the ears of his swift colts, and gave
chase. Team was brought level with team, and so they
raced, first one man, then the other, showing his head
in front of the chariots.

Hitherto the ill-fated Orestes had passed safely through

A Chariot-Race 191

every round, steadfast in his steadfast car; at last slacken- Orestes
ing his left rein while the horse was turning, unawares
he struck the edge of the pillar; he broke the axle-box in
twain; he was thrown over the chariot-rail; he was caught
in the shapely reins; and as he fell on the ground, his colts
were scattered into the middle of the course.

But when the people saw him fallen from the car, a
cry of pity went up for the youth, who had now done such
deeds and was meeting such a doom, now dashed to This false
earth, now tossed feet uppermost to the sky, till the death was 1S

charioteers, with difficulty checking the career of his
horses, loosed him, so covered with blood that no friend

who saw it would have known the hapless corpse. Straight- ities, how-

way they burned it on a pyre; and chosen men of Phocis doubtless 6

are bringing in a small urn of bronze the sad dust of that not unconi -

mon.

mighty form, to find due burial in his fatherland.

The human

Antigone. Ismene, sister, mine own dear sister, knowest 5f. win - c i? n u

thou what ill there is, of all bequeathed by (Edipus, that divine.

Zeus fulfils not for us twain while we live? Nothing pain- ^JjjJ"^ 8 '

ful is there, nothing fraught with ruin, no shame, no dis- (opening).

honor, that I have not seen in thy woes and mine. ^n^nl^'

And now what new edict is this of which they tell. World, 93.

that our Captain hath just published to all Thebes? T a h d e
Knowest thou aught? Hast thou heard? Or is it hidden

from thee that our friends are threatened with the doom had been

. r -i driven off.

Of OUr foes? Their brother

Ismene. No word of friends, Antigone, gladsome or

painful, hath come to me, since we two sisters were bereft the enemy.

of brothers twain, killed in one day by a twofold blow ; and Eteocies,

since in this last night the Argive host hath fled, I know no brother, had

more, whether my fortune be brighter, or more grievous.

Ant. I knew it well, and therefore sought to bring thee battle.

The Age of Pericles

Their father
GEdipus had
been king,
but was
dethroned,
and Creon,
their uncle,
was reign-
ing.

As a traitor,
Polyneices
was to re-
main un-
buried.

Antigone has
resolved to
obey the
religious
law, which
commands
one to bury
a relative.

beyond the gates of the court, that thou mightest hear
alone.

Is. What is it? Tis plain that thou art brooding on
some dark tidings.

Ant. What, hath not Creon destined our brothers, the
one to honored burial, the other to unburied shame?
Eteocles, they say, with due observance of right and cus-
tom, he hath laid in the earth, for his honor among the
dead below. But the hapless corpse of Polyneices as
rumor saith, it hath been published to the town that none
shall entomb him or mourn, but leave unwept, unsep-
ulchred, a welcome store for the birds, as they espy him,
to feast on at will.

Such, 'tis said, is the edict that the good Creon hath
set forth for thee and for me yes, for me, and is coming
hither to proclaim it clearly to those who know it not;
nor counts the matter light, but whoso disobeys in aught,
his doom is death by stoning before all the folk. Thou
knowest it now; and thou wilt soon show whether thou art
nobly bred, or the base daughter of a noble line.

Is. Poor sister, and if things stand thus, what could I
help to do or undo?

Ant. Consider if thou wilt share the toil and the deed.

7s. In what venture? What can be thy meaning?

Ant. Wilt thou aid this hand to lift the dead?

Is. Thou wouldst bury him, when 'tis forbidden to
Thebes?

Ant. I will do my part, and thine, if thou wilt not,
to a brother. False to him will I never be found.

7s. Ah, over-bold! when Creon hath forbidden?

Ant. Nay, he hath no right to keep me from mine own.

Is. Ah, me! think, sister, how our father perished, amid
hate and scorn ! . . . Nay, we must remember, first that

Antigone 193

we were born women, who should not strive with men;
next, that we are ruled of the stronger, so that we must
obey in these things, and in things yet sorer. I, therefore,
asking the Spirits Infernal to pardon, seeing that force
is put on me herein, will hearken to our rulers; for 'tis
witless to be over-busy.

Ant. I will not urge thee. no, nor, if thou yet shouldst
have the mind, wouldst thou be welcome as a worker
with me. Nay, be what thou wilt; but I will bury him:
well for me to die in doing that. I shall rest, a loved one
with him whom I have loved, sinless in my crime; for I
owe a longer allegiance to the dead than to the living: in
that world I shall abide forever. But if thou wilt, be guilty
of dishonoring laws which the gods have stablished in
honor.

Is. I do them no dishonor; but to defy the state, I inpunish-

, Al . Al ment she was

have no strength for that. buried alive.

Ant. Such be thy plea: I, then, will go to heap the
earth above the brother whom I love.

First I call on thee, daughter of Zeus, divine Athena, Prayer for
and on thy sister, guardian of our land, Artemis, who sits fronTa n
on her throne of fame, above the circle of our Agora, and P estilence -
on Phoebus the far-darter; O shine forth on me, my three- Sophocles,
fold help against death! If ever aforetime, in arrest of Tyrannits,
ruin hurrying on the city, ye drove a fiery pest beyond IS9& '
our borders, come now also!

Woe is me, countless are the sorrows that I bear; a
plague is on all our host, and thought can find no weapon
for defence. . . .

By such deaths, past numbering, the city perishes:
unpitied, her children lie on the ground, spreading pesti-
lence, with none to mourn: and meanwhile young wives,

194

The Age of Pericles

and gray-haired mothers with them, uplift a wail at the
steps of the altars, some here, some there, entreating for

Apollo. their weary woes. The prayer to the Healer rings clear,

and blent therewith, the voice of lamentation; for these
things, golden daughter of Zeus, send us the bright face of
comfort.

And grant that the fierce god of death, who now with
no brazen shields, yet amid cries as of battle, wraps me
in the flame of his onset, may turn his back in speedy flight

The "deep of f rO m our land, borne by a fair wind to the great deep of

Amphitrite" J

is the ocean. Amphitrite, or to those waters in which none find haven,
even to the Thracian wave; for if night leave aught un-
done, day follows to accomplish this. O thou who wield-
est the powers of the fire-fraught lightning, O Zeus, our
father, slay him beneath thy thunderbolt!

Apollo again. Lycean King, fain were I that thy shafts also, from thy
bent bow's string of woven gold, should go abroad in their
might, our champions in the face of the foe; yea, and the
flashing fires of Artemis wherewith she glances through
the Lycian hills. And I call him whose locks are bound
with gold, who is named with the name of this land, ruddy
Bacchus to whom Bacchants cry, the comrade of the
Maenads, to draw near with the blaze of his blithe torch,
our ally against the god unhonored among gods. . . .

Charter of

Chalcis.

Granted by
decree of the
council and
assembly
(demus) of
Athens.
The original
text may be
found in

V. CONDITION OF A SUBJECT STATE or THE EMPIRE

It has pleased the council and the demus. Antiochis
held the prytany; Dracon tides was chairman; Diognetus
made the motion; that the council and the jurors of the
Athenians shall take oath as follows:

I shall not banish Chalcidians from Chalcis or destroy
their city; nor will I disfranchise any private citizen
nor punish him with exile nor arrest him nor put him to

Charter of Chalcis 195

death untried, except with the sanction of the Athenian Hicks and

, .,, T , .. . Hill, Manual

people; nor will I put a resolution to vote against the com- of Greek im-
munity or any private citizen when neither has been sum- ^0*40'
moned to trial. Moreover if an embassy comes, I will in- T . he opening
troduce it to the council and assembly within ten days usual formu-
to the best of my ability whensoever I am serving as pry- c ^ e g. a Antio-
tanis. These things I will maintain for the Chalcidians tribewho4 he
as long as they are obedient to the Athenian people. delegation

An embassy coming from Chalcis shall administer the be on duty
oath to the Athenians and shall register the names of J s w Sf nes;
those who have taken it. It shall be the function of the World ' MO.
generals to see that all take the oath.

The Chalcidians on their part shall swear as follows:

I will not revolt against the Athenian people by any The oath
plan or contrivance, by word or deed, nor will I obey any Chalcidians.
one who does revolt; and if anyone revolts, I will denounce
him to the Athenians. Furthermore I will pay to the
Athenians whatever contribution I shall persuade the
Athenians to accept, and shall be as faithful and just an
ally as I am able; and I shall bring succor and aid to the
Athenian people if anyone attempts to harm the Athenian
people.

All the adult Chalcidians shall take the oath. Who-
ever shall refuse to swear shall be disenfranchised and his
property shall be confiscated, and a tenth of his goods shall
be sacred to the Olympian Zeus. An embassy of Athe-
nians coming to Chalcis shall, in cooperation with the com-

Preserva-

missioners of oaths in Chalcis, impose the oath and register tion of the
the names of the Chalcidians who have taken it. ...

mi i 111 e i ML This and the

This decree and oath the secretary of the council at following

Athens shall engrave on a stone pillar and set it up on the K gr p. h t s o{

Acropolis at the expense of the Chalcidians. The council an amend-

of the Chalcidians shall also engrave it and set it up in the Anticles.

196 The Age of Pericles

temple of the Olympian Zeus in Chalcis. These things
they shall vote concerning the Chalcidians.

Hierocles, a With respect however to the sacrifices required by

sootnscivcr

who had the oracles concerning Eubcea, let the council elect three

armyTn ' & ^ their own number, who shall join with Hierocles in

Eubcea. offering them as speedily as possible.

Jurisdiction. Archestratus moved: other matters shall stand as

Amendment Anticles has proposed; but the Chalcidians shall have

tratus? heS ~ jurisdiction over their own citizens at Chalcis, just as the
Athenians have over theirs at Athens, except in cases of

Aristophanes, exile, death, and disfranchisement. In these cases let

fo'peTngT there be an a PP eal to Athens, to the Helisea of the Thes-

T resentedTn S motnetae * n accordance with the decree of the assembly.

425 B.C. Touching the garrison in Eubcea, let the generals take

upright 1 ' ' care to the best of their ability that it be of the greatest

fromthe possible advantage to the Athenians.

country,

comes early yj gOME DIPLOMATIC BUSINESS BEFORE THE ASSEMBLY
to the place

of assembly, Justown. But never in my lifetime, man nor boy,

on r nyx 11111,

but finds Was I so vexed as at this present moment;

no one there. Xo see the Pnyx, at this time of the morning,

that the Quite empty, when the Assembly should be full.

citizens are There are our citizens in the market-place,

of dufy et He Lounging and talking, shifting up and down

is anxious To escape the painted twine that ought to sweep

to deliberate T k e snoal of t j iem this way; not even the p res idents

on peace

with Sparta. Arrived they're always last, crowding and jostling

The Presi- To get the foremost seat; but as for peace

^tene? ^ They never think about it ~ Oh > P or country!

Ancient ' As for myself, I'm always the first man.

World, 140. Alone in the morning, here I take my place,

twine" Is^ Here * contem P late > here l stretch my legs;

mark those I think and think I don't know what to think,

who neg- I draw conclusions and comparisons. . . .

call to the ^ fidget about and yawn and scratch myself;

assembly. Looking in vain to the prospect of the fieldi,

Embassy from Sparta

Loathing the city, longing for a peace,

To return to my poor village and my farm,

That never used to cry "Come buy my charcoal!"

Nor "Buy my oil" nor "Buy my anything!"

But gave me what I wanted, freely and fairly,

Clear of all cost, with never a word of buying,

Or such buy-words. So here I'm come, resolved

To bawl, to abuse, to interrupt the speakers,

Whenever I hear a word of any kind

Except for an immediate peace. Ah there!

The Presidents at last; see, there they come!

All scrambling for their seats I told you so!

Herald. Move forward there! Move forward all of ye

Further! within the consecrated ground.

Half god. Has anybody spoke?

Her. Is anybody

Prepared to speak?

Half. Yes, I.

Her. Who are you and what?

Half. Half god, the demigod.

Her. Not a man?

Half. No I'm immortal; for the first Halfgod

Was born of Ceres and Triptolemus,

His only son was Celeus, Celeus married

Phaenarete my grandmother; Lycinus

My father, was their son; that's proof enough

Of the immortality in our family.

The gods moreover have despatched me here

Commissioned specially to arrange a peace

Betwixt this city and Sparta notwithstanding

I find myself rather in want at present

Of a little ready money for my journey.

The magistrates won't assist me.

Her. Constables!

Half. O Celeus and Triptolemus, don't forsake me!

Just. You Presidents, I say! you exceed your powers;

You insult the Assembly, dragging off a man

That offered to make terms and give us peace.

Her. Keep silence there.

197

The war
keeps him in
the city
against his
will.

The Presi-
dents enter
and take their
seats.

Religious
ceremony of
consecra-
tion.

The proceed-
ings begin.

The haughty
pride of
ancestry.

Halfgod has
come on a
peace mis-
sion.

The herald
calls the con-
stables to
drag Halfgod
out; there is
to be no talk
of peace with
Sparta.

1 98

The Age of Pericles

The authori-
ties want an
alliance with
Persia, but
Justown will
not hear of it.

The dress is

wonderfully

gay.

A High In-
spector of the
Persian king
was called
the "King's
Eye."

His huge eye
looks like the
eye painted
on a ship's
prow.

Just. By Zeus, but I won't be silent,

Except I hear a motion about peace.

Her. Ho, there! the Ambassadors from the King of Persia.

Just. What King of Persia? what Ambassadors?

I'm sick of foreigners and foreign animals,

Peacocks and coxcombs and Ambassadors.

Her. Keep silence there.

Just. What's here? What dress is that?

In the name of Ecbatana! What does it mean?

Ambassadors. You sent us when Euthymenes was Archon,

Some few years back, Ambassadors to Persia,

With an appointment of two drachmas each

For daily maintenance.

Just. Alas, poor drachmas! . . .

Amb. Finally, '

We've brought you here a nobleman, Shamartabas

By name, by rank and office the King's Eye.

Just. God send a crow to pick it out I say,

And yours the Ambassadors' into the bargain!

Her. Let the King's Eye come forward.

Just. Hercules!

What's here? an eye for the head of a ship? What point,

What headland is he weathering? what's your course?

What makes you steer so slowly and so steadily?

Amb. Come now, Shamartabas, stand forth; declare

The King's intentions to the Athenian people.

(Shamartabas here utters some words, which Orientalists have sup-
posed to be the common formula prefixed to the edicts of the
Persian monarch lartaman exarksan apissonai satra)

Amb. You understand it?

Just. No, by Zeus, not I.

Amb. (to Just.) He says the King intends to send us gold, (to

Shamartabas) Explain about the gold; speak more distinctly.
Shamartabas. Sen gooly Jaonau aphooly chest.
Just. Well, that's distinct enough!
Her. What does he say?

Just. That it's a foolish jest for the lonians
To imagine their King would send them gold.
Amb. No, no! He's telling ye of chests full of gold.

Embassies from Persia and Thrace 199

Just. What chests? you're an impostor. Stand away,

Keep off; and let me alone to question him.

(to Shamartabas) You Sir, you Persian! answer me distinctly

And plainly in the presence of this fist of mine;

On pain of a royal purple bloody nose.

Will the King send us gold, or will he not?

(Shamartabas shakes his head)
Have our Ambassadors bamboozled us?

(Shamartabas nods)

These fellows nod to us in the Grecian fashion;
They're some of our own people, I'll be bound. . . .
Her. Theorus, our ambassador into Thrace,
Returned from King Sitalces!
Theorus. Here am I.

Just. More coxcombs called for! Here's another coming.
Theo. We should not have remained so long in Thrace . . .
Just. If you hadn't been overpaid I know you wouldn't.
Theo. But for the snow which covered all the country,
And buried up the roads, and froze the rivers.
'Twas singular this change of weather happened
Just when Theognis here, our frosty poet,
Brought out his tragedy. We passed our time
In drinking with Sitalces. He's your friend,
Your friend and lover, if there ever was one,
And writes the name of Athens on his walls. . . .
And now he has sent some warriors from a tribe
The fiercest in all Thrace.

Just. Well, come That's fair.

Her. The Thracians that came hither with Theorus!
Let them come forward !

Just. What the plague are these?

Theo. The Odomantian army.

Just. The Odomantians?

Thracians? and what has brought them here from Thrace
So strangely equipped, disguised, and circumcised?
Theo. These are a race of fellows, if you'd hire them,
Only a couple of drachmas daily pay;
With their light javelins, and their little bucklers,
They'd worry and skirmish all over Bceotia.

Theorus, am-
bassador to
Thrace, has
returned, and
wishes to re-
port.

The tragedy
of Theognis
has caused a
snow storm.

200

The Age of Pericles

Rain was an
unpropitious
sign, dissolv-
ing the as-
sembly.

The old
juror.

Aristophanes,
Wasps, 88 ff .

The speaker
is his son,
who has
found it nec-
essary to
keep the old
man confined
at home, to
curb his pas-
sion for jury
service.

Greect,, 175;
Ancient
World, 195 f.

Chorus of
jurors.

Aristophanes,
Wasps, 549 ff .

Just. Two drachmas for those scarecrows! and our seamen

What would they say to it? left in arrears,

Poor fellows, that are our support and safeguard.

Out, out upon it! I'm a plundered man.

I'm robbed and ruined here with the Odomantians.

They're seizing upon my garlic.

Theo. (to the Thracians) Oh for shame,

Let the man's garlic alone. You shabby fellow,

You countryman, take care what you're about;

Don't venture near them when they're primed with garlic.

Just. You magistrates, have you the face to see it,

With your own eyes your fellow-citizen

Here, in the city itself, robbed by barbarians?

But I forbid the Assembly. There's a change

In the heaven! I felt a drop of rain! I'm witness!

Her. The Thracians must withdraw, to attend again

The first of next month. The Assembly is closed.

VII. THE JURORS

"He is a law-court lover, no man like him.
Judging is what he dotes on, and he weeps
Unless he sits on the front bench of all.
At night he gets no sleep, no, not one grain,
Or if he doze the tiniest speck, his soul
Flutters in dreams about the water-clock. . . .
The cock which crew at morningtide, he said,
Was tampered with, he knew, to call him late.
Bribed by officials whose accounts were due.
Breakfast scarce done, he clamors for his shoes,
Hurries ere daybreak to the Court, and sleeps
Stuck like a limpit to the doorpost there. . . .
Such is his frenzy, and the more you chide him
The more he judges: so with bolts and bars
We guard him straitly that he stir not out."

No kinglier power than ours in any part of the world exists.

Is there any creature on earth more blest, more feared, and petted

from day to day,
Or that leads a happier, pleasanter life, than a justice of Athens,

though old and gray?

The Jurors

201

For first when rising from bed in the morn, to the criminal court be-
times I trudge,
Great six-foot fellows are there at the rails, in anxious haste to salute

their judge.
And the delicate hand, which has dipt so deep in the public purse, he

claps into mine,
And he bows before me and makes his prayer, and softens his voice

to a pitiful whine. . . .
So when they have begged and implored me enough, and my angry

temper is wiped away,

I enter in and take my seat; and then I do none of the things I say. . .
Some vow they are needy and friendless men, and over their poverty

wail and whine,
And reckon up hardships false and true, till they make them out to be

equal to mine.
Some tell a legend of days gone by, or a joke from /Esop witty and

sage,
Or jest and banter, to make me laugh, that so I may forget my

terrible rage.
And if all this fails, and I stand unmoved, he leads by the hands his

little ones near,

He brings his girls and he brings his boys; and I the judge am com-
posed to hear.
They huddle together with piteous bleats: while trembling above

them he prays to me,
Prays as to God his accounts to pass, to give him acquittance, and

leave him free.
But the nicest and pleasantest part of it all is this, which I had

wholly forgotten to say,
Tis when with my fee in my wallet I come, returning home at the

close of the day,
Oh then what a welcome I get for its sake; my daughter, the darling,

is foremost of all,
And she washes my feet and anoints them with care and above them

she stoops and a kiss lets fall,
Till at last by the pretty Papas of her tongue, she angles withal my

three obols away.
Then my dear little wife, she sets on the board nice manchets of

bread in a tempting array,

Various
classes of
offenders.

A common
custom in
these courts.

His salary
promotes
family affec-
tion.

202

The Age of Pericles

Epitaph of
Mannes the
woodman.

Letter of
Mnesiergus
to those at
home.

And cosily taking a seat by my side, with loving entreaty constrains

me to feed;
"I beseech you taste this, I implore you try that."

VIII. Two INTERESTING DOCUMENTS

Mannes, whose epitaph is given below, was a Phrygian by birth,
doubtless brought as a slave to Attica and afterward liberated. He
was one of a community of woodcutters in central Attica, when he
was killed by the invading Peloponnesians in the first year of the war
(431 B.C.). The second document is the earliest extant Greek letter,
written on a leaden tablet now in the British Museum. The writer
is an Athenian of the later fifth century B.C. The translations are
by Zimmern, Greek Commonwealth, 272, 278 f.

A. Mannes, son of Orymas, who was the best of the
Phrygians in the broad lands of Athens, lies in this fine
tomb; and by Zeus, I never saw a better woodman than
myself. He died in the war.

B. Carry to the Potters' Market, and deliver to Nausias
or Thrasycles or my son.

Mnesiergus sends his love to all at home and hopes this
may find them well as it leaves him.

Please send me a rug, either a sheepskin or a goatskin,
as cheap as you can get it, and not with the hairs on, and
some strong shoe-soles: I will pay some time.

IX. CRITICISM ON THE ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY

This Constitution of the Athenians is wrongly ascribed to Xenophon.
It was written by an oligarch (" Old Oligarch ") early in the Pelo-
ponnesian war, and is the oldest extant political pamphlet in any
language.

introduction. Now, as concerning the Polity of the Athenians, and
the type or manner of constitution which they have
chosen, I praise it not, in so far as the very choice involves

Poor Citizens, Aliens, and Slaves 203

the welfare of the baser folk as opposed to that of the The author

better class. I repeat, I withhold my praise so far; but, racy! but

given the fact that this is the type agreed upon, I propose f/sUcha* 1

to show that they set about its preservation in the right thin s is to

exist, the
way. ... Athenians

In the first place, I maintain, it is only just that the XdT^ethod
poorer classes and the People of Athens should be better f upholding
off than the men of birth and wealth, seeing that it is the _

The poor are

people who man the fleet, and put round the city her better pro-
girdle of power. The steersman, the boatswain, the have more"
lieutenant, the look-out-man at the prow, the shipwright Ih^Th 6
these are the people who engird the city with power far rich, because
rather than her heavy infantry and men of birth and constitute
quality. This being the case, it seems only just that po^e* 1
offices of state should be thrown open to every one both
in the ballot and the show of hands, and that the right
of speech should belong to anyone who likes, without
restriction. . . .
Another point is the extraordinary amount of license Excellent

J f . . condition of

granted to slaves and resident aliens of Athens, where a slaves and

blow is illegal, and a slave will not step aside to let you aliens,
pass him in the street. I will explain the reason of this

peculiar custom. Supposing it were legal for a slave to be Unintention-

ally the au-

beaten by a free citizen, or for a resident alien or freed- thor pays a
man to be beaten by a citizen, it would frequently happen pifment'to
that an Athenian might be mistaken for a slave or an democracy,
alien and receive a beating; since the Athenian people are
not better clothed than the slave or alien, nor in personal
appearance is there any superiority. Or if the fact itself
that slaves in Athens are allowed to indulge in luxury, and
indeed in some cases to live magnificently, be found
astonishing, this too, it can be shown, is done of set pur-
pose. Where we have a naval power dependent upon

2O4 The Age of Pericles

wealth we must perforce be slaves to our slaves, in order
that we may get in our slave-rents, and let the real slave
go free. . . ,

Naval su- And if one may descend to more trifling particulars, it

brings re- is to the same lordship of the sea that the Athenians owe

and^readth the discovery, in the first place, of many of the luxuries of

of life. iif e through intercourse with other countries. So that the

choice things of Sicily and Italy, of Cyprus and Egypt and

Lydia, of Pontus or Peloponnese, or wheresoever it be, are

all swept, as it were, into one centre, and all owing, as I

say, to their maritime empire. And again, in process of

listening to every form of speech, they have selected this

from one place and that from another for themselves.

So much so that while the rest of the Hellenes employ

each pretty much their own peculiar mode of speech,

habit of life, and style of dress, the Athenians have

adopted a composite type, to which all sections of Hellas,

and the foreigner alike, have contributed.

The plain AS regards sacrifices and temples and festivals and

citizens have ,

a full share sacred enclosures, the People see that it is not possible
vais. e esti " f r every poor citizen to do sacrifice and hold festival, or
to set up temples and to inhabit a large and beautiful city.
But they have hit upon a means of meeting the diffi-
culty. They sacrifice that is, the whole state sacrifices
at the public cost, a large number of victims; but it is the
People that keep holiday and distribute the victims by
lot among its members. Rich men have in some cases
private gymnasia and baths with dressing-rooms, but the
People take care to have built at the public cost a number
of palaestras, dressing-rooms, and bathing establishments
for their own special use, and the mob gets the benefit of
the majority of these, rather than the select few or the
well-to-do.

Naval Supremacy 205

As to wealth, the Athenians are exceptionally placed Naval su-

with regard to Hellenic and foreign communities alike, in tendto

their ability to hold it. For, given that some state or other

is rich in timber for shipbuilding, where is it to find a products.

market for the product except by persuading the ruler of

the sea? Or suppose the wealth of some state or other to The corn-

consist of iron, or may be of bronze, or of linen yarn, other 6 states

where will it find a market except by permission of the m e ^.y h of the

supreme maritime power? Yet these are the very things, supreme
you see, whicji I need for my ships. Timber I must have power.
from one, and from another iron, from a third bronze,
from a fourth linen yarn, from a fifth wax, etc. Besides
which they will not suffer their antagonists in those
parts to carry their products elsewhither, or they will
cease to use the sea. Accordingly I, without one stroke
of labor, extract from the land and possess all these good
things, thanks to my supremacy on the sea; whilst not a
single other state possesses the two of them. Not timber,
for instance, and yarn together, can be found in the same
city. But where yarn is abundant, the soil will be light and
devoid of timber. And in the same way bronze and iron
will not be products of the same city. And so for the rest,
never two or at best three, in one state, but one thing here
and another thing there. Moreover, above and beyond
what has been said, the coast-line of every mainland pre-
sents, either some jutting promontory or adjacent island or
narrow strait of some sort, so that those who are masters
of the sea can come to moorings at one of these points
and wreak vengeance on the inhabitants of the main-
land.

206

The Age of Pericles

Equality be-
fore the law
and offices
to the quali-
fied.

Funeral
Oration of
Pericles,
quoted by
Thucydides
ii. 37-

The ideas
are those of
Pericles; the
words are
mainly the
historian's.

Refinements
of Athenian
life.

n. 38.

X. CHARACTER OF THE ATHENIANS INTERPRETED BY
PERICLES

"Our form of government does not enter into rivalry
with the institutions of others. We do not copy our
neighbors, but are an example to them. It is true that
we are called a democracy, for the administration is in the
hands of the many and not of the few. But while the law
secures equal justice to all alike in their private disputes,
the claim of excellence is also recognized; and when a
citizen is in any way distinguished, he is preferred for the
public service, not as a matter of privilege, but as a re-
ward of merit. Neither is poverty a bar, but a man may
benefit his country whatever be the obscurity of his con-
dition. There is no exclusiveness in our public life, and
in our private intercourse we are not suspicious of one
another, nor angry with our neighbor if he does what he
likes; we do not put on sour looks at him which, though
harmless, are not pleasant. While we are thus uncon-
strained in our private intercourse, a spirit of reverence
pervades our public acts; we are prevented from doing
wrong by respect for authority and for the laws, having a
special regard to those which are ordained for the protec-
tion of the injured as well as to those unwritten laws which
bring upon the transgressor of them the reprobation of the
general sentiment.

"And we have not forgotten to provide for our weary
spirits many relaxations from toil; we have regular games
and sacrifices throughout the year; at home the style of
our life is refined; and the delight which we daily feel in
all these things helps to banish melancholy. Because of
the greatness of our city the fruits of the whole earth

Athenian Character 207

flow in upon us; so that we enjoy the goods of other
countries as freely as of our own.

Then, again, our military training is in many respects Generosity
superior to that of our adversaries. Our city is thrown
open to the world, and we never expel a foreigner or pre- Ib ' 39 '
vent him from seeing or learning anything of which the
secret, if revealed to an enemy, might profit him. We rely
not upon management and trickery, but upon our own
hearts and hands. And in the matter of education,
whereas they from early youth are undergoing laborious
exercises which are to make them brave, we live at ease,
and yet are equally ready to face the perils which they
face. . . .

"If then we prefer to meet danger with a light heart
but without laborious training, and with a courage which
is gained by habit and not enforced by law, are we not
greatly the gamers? since we do not anticipate the pain,
although when the hour comes, we can be as brave as
those who never allow themselves to rest; and thus too
our city is equally admirable in peace and in war. For we
are lovers of the beautiful, yet simple in our tastes, and Lovers of
we cultivate the mind without loss of manliness. Wealth fui.
we employ, not for talk and ostentation, but when there
is a real use for it. To avow poverty with us is no dis-
grace: the true disgrace is in doing nothing to avoid it.
An Athenian citizen does not neglect the state because he
takes care of his own household; and even those of us who
are engaged in business have a very fair idea of politics.
We alone regard a man who takes no interest in public
affairs, not as a harmless, but as a useless character; and
if few of us are originators, we are all sound judges of a
policy. The great impediment to action is, in our opin-
ion, not discussion, but the want of that knowledge which

208 The Age of Pericles

is gained by discussion preparatory to action. For we
have a peculiar power of thinking before we act and of
acting too, whereas other men are courageous from igno-
rance but hesitate upon reflection. And they are surely
to be esteemed the bravest spirits who, having the clear-
est sense both of the pains and pleasures of life, do not on
Liberal for- that account shrink from danger. In doing good, again,
we are unlike others; we make our friends by conferring,
not by receiving favors. Now he who confers a favor is
the firmer friend, because he would fain by kindness keep
alive the memory of an obligation; but the recipient is
colder in his feelings, because he knows that in requiting
another's generosity he will not be winning gratitude, but
only paying a debt. We alone do good to our neighbors
not upon a calculation of interest but in the confidence
of freedom and in a frank and fearless spirit.

To sum up> j say tnat Athens is the school of Hellas,
and that the individual Athenian in his own person seems
to have the power of adapting himself to the most varied
forms of action with the utmost versatility and grace.
This is no passing and idle word, but truth and fact; and
the assertion is verified by the position to which these
qualities have raised the state. For in the hour of trial
Athens alone among her contemporaries is superior to the
report of her. No enemy who comes against her is in-
dignant at the reverses which he sustains at the hand of
such a city; no subject complains that his masters are
unworthy of him. And we shall assuredly not be without
witnesses; there are mighty monuments of our power
which will make us the wonder of this and of succeeding
ages; we shall not need the praises of Homer or of any
other panegyrist whose poetry may please for the moment,
although his representation of the facts will not bear the

Studies 209

light of day. For we have compelled every land and every
sea to open a path for our valor, and have everywhere planted
eternal memorials of our friendship and of our enmity."

STUDIES

1. Give an account of the family of Pericles. Describe his personal
appearance. Who was his principal teacher, and for what was the
latter noted?

2. Why did Pericles hesitate to engage in politics? Why did he
take the popular side? Describe his oratory. Was he unsocial by
nature or on principle? Describe the government of Pericles. Give
a reason why it should not be called a democracy.

3. What money was used for building temples and other public
works? What objection was brought against this policy? How did
Pericles defend his policy? What evidence does Plutarch find of the
former greatness of Athens? How does his remark illustrate the
fact that "archaeology confirms history"? What economic object
had Pericles in mind? What industries contributed to these works?
What is Plutarch's estimate of their artistic worth? Who were the
artists? Describe the Odeum. What was the Propylaea, and where
was it situated?

4. Find on the map the places from which all the charioteers here
mentioned came. Where did this race take place? Describe it in
your own language. Where was Crisa? What was done with the
dead body? What does Antigone talk with her sister about? What
stand does Antigone take? Contrast the sisters in character. What
gods are invoked as a help against the pestilence? What seems to be
the spirit of the prayer?

5. State definitely how the Athenians promised to treat the Chal-
cidians. What are to be the duties of Chalcis to Athens? What
cases were to be tried in Chalcis, and what cases appealed to Athens?

6. From this passage write out all you can concerning the opening
and procedure of the popular assembly. What was Justown aiming
at? Why did he dislike the negotiations with Persia? Explain the
negotiations with the Thracians. Why did Justown object to the
bargain? How did he force the adjournment of the assembly? What
is the historical value of this passage?

7. Why should the old man so love jury service? Do all the jurors

210 The Age of Pericles

seem to be old men? What do the jurors say of their power? How
are they treated by litigants and offenders? What becomes of the
daily fee?

8. Describe these two documents. What interest attaches to each?

9. What objections has the "Old Oligarch " to the Athenian form of
government? What was the condition of slaves and of alien residents
in Athens? Why should the "Old Oligarch" find fault with this
condition? What advantages does her naval supremacy bring to
Athens? What disadvantages to others?

10. What does Pericles consider the leading principles of democ-
racy? Who were the authors of the selections in this chapter?
What did they severally write, and what is the historical value of
each?

CHAPTER XIX

THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR TO THE SICILIAN
EXPEDITION

I. THE RESOURCES OF THE CONTENDING POWERS

THE Athenians now made preparations for war. The Prepara-
Lacedaemonians and their allies made similar preparations.
Both they and the Athenians meditated sending em- Thucydide-.
bassies to the king, and to the other barbarian potentates "' 7 '
from whom either party might hope to obtain aid; they Greece, 190 ft.;
likewise sought the alliance of independent cities outside w^id, 2198.

their own dominion. The Lacedaemonians ordered their
friends in Italy and Sicily, in addition to the ships which
they had on the spot, to build others in number propor-
tioned to the size of their cities ; for they intended to raise
the Peloponnesian navy to a total of five hundred. The
cities were also required to furnish a fixed sum of money;
they were not to receive more than a single Athenian
ship, but were to take no further measures until these
preparations had been completed. The Athenians re-
viewed their confederacy, and sent ambassadors to the
places immediately adjacent to Peloponnesus Corcyra,
Cephallenia, Acarnania, and Zacynthus. They perceived
that if they could only rely upon the. friendship of these
states, they might completely surround Peloponnesus
with war.

On neither side were there any mean thoughts; they
were both full of enthusiasm; and no wonder, for all men
are energetic when they are making a beginning. At that Thuc. u. 8.

212 The Peloponnesian War

time the youth of Peloponnesus and the youth of Athens
were numerous; they had never seen war, and were there-
fore very willing to take up arms. All Hellas was excited
by the coming conflict between her two chief cities. Many
were the prophecies circulated and many the oracles
chanted by diviners, not only in the cities about to engage
in the struggle, but throughout Hellas. Quite lately the
island of Delos had been shaken by an earthquake for the
first time within the memory of the Hellenes; this was
interpreted and generally believed to be a sign of coming
events. And everything of the sort which occurred was
curiously noted.

The Hel- The feeling of mankind was strongly on the side of the

Lacedaemon. Lacedaemonians; for they professed to be the liberators of

Hellas. Cities and individuals were eager to assist them

to the utmost, both by word and deed; and where a man

could not hope to be present, there it seemed to him that

all things were at a stand. For the general indignation

against the Athenians was intense; some were longing to

be delivered from them, others fearful of falling under

their sway.

The allies on Such was the temper which animated the Hellenes, and

both sides.

such were the preparations made by the two powers for

the war. Their respective allies were as follows: The
Lacedaemonian confederacy included all the Peloponnesians
with the exception of the Argives and the Achaeans they
were both neutral; only the Achaeans of Pellene took part
with the Lacedaemonians at first ; afterward all the Achaeans
joined them. Beyond the borders of the Peloponnese, the
Megarians, Phocians, Locrians, Boeotians, Ambraciots,
Leucadians, and Anactorians were their allies. Of these
states the Corinthians, Megarians, Sicyonians, Pellenians,
Eleans, Ambraciots, and Leucadians provided a navy, the

The Allies; Cleon's Policy 213

Boeotians, Phocians and Locrians furnished cavalry, the
other states only infantry. The allies of the Athenians
were Chios, Lesbos, Plataea, the Messenians of Naupactus,
the greater part of Acarnania, Corcyra, Zacynthus, and
in many other countries cities which were their tribu-
taries. There were the maritime region of Caria, the ad-
jacent Dorian people, Ionia, the Hellespont, the Thracian
coast, the islands that lie to the east within the line of
Peloponnesus and Crete, including all the Cyclades with
the exception of Melos and Thera. Chios, Lesbos, and
Corcyra furnished a navy; the rest, land forces and money.
Thus much concerning the two confederacies, and the
character of their respective forces.

II. CLEON'S POLICY OF TERRORISM

In the former assembly, Cleon, the son of Cleaenetus,
had carried the decree condemning the Mytilenaeans to punished.
death. He was the most violent of the citizens, and at Thucydides
that time exercised by far the greatest influence over the Andent
people. And now he came forward a second time and World, 222.

Spoke as follows : The revolt of

,,, , , , . , , , Mytilene had

I have remarked again and again that a democracy been led by

cannot manage an empire, but never more than now,
when I see you regretting your condemnation of the

Mytilenaeans. Having no fear or suspicion of one an- be put to

other in daily life, you deal with your allies upon the same question was

principle, and you do not consider that whenever you yield ^don? to ld

to them out of pity or are misled by their specious tales, the commons,

., f , , who had

you are guilty of a weakness dangerous to yourselves, and taken little
receive no thanks from them. You should remember that

your empire is a despotism exercised over unwilling sub- were in fact
jects, who are always conspiring against you; they do not Athens.

214 The Peloponnesian War

obey in return for any kindness which you do them to
your own injury, but in so far as you are their masters;
they have no love of you, but they are held down by
The Atheni- force. Besides, what can be more detestable than to be
condemned perpetually changing our minds? We forget that a state
buuh e d ques- in which the laws though imperfect are unalterable, is
reo 1 W ed n W Better off than one in which the laws are good but power-
less. Dulness and modesty are a more useful combination
than cleverness and licence; and the more simple sort
generally make better citizens than the more astute.
For the latter desire to be thought wiser than the laws;
they want always to be taking a lead in the discussions
of the assembly; they think that they can nowhere have a
finer opportunity of speaking their mind, and their folly
generally ends in the ruin of their country; whereas the
others, mistrusting their own capacity, admit that the
laws are wiser than themselves; they do not pretend to
criticise the arguments of a great speaker; and being im-
partial judges, not ambitious rivals, they are generally in
the right. That is the spirit in which we should act; not
suffering ourselves to be so excited by our own cleverness
in a war of wits as to advise the Athenian people contrary
to our own better judgment. . . .
The offence "I want you to put aside this trifling, and therefore I

of Mytilene , . , . . , , ,

is especially say to you that no single city has ever injured us so deeply
heinous. as jyf yt ii ene> j can excuse those who find our rules too
Thucydides heavy to bear, or who have revolted because the enemy
have compelled them. But islanders who had walls, and
were unassailable by our enemies except at sea, and on
that element were sufficiently protected by a fleet of their
own, who were independent and treated by us with the
highest regard, when they act thus they have not re-
volted, (that word would imply that they were oppressed),

All Mytilenaeans Guilty 215

but they have rebelled, and entering the ranks of our
bitterest enemies, have conspired with them to seek our
ruin. And surely this is far more atrocious than if they
had been led by motives of ambition to take up arms
against us on their own account. They learned nothing
from the misfortunes of their neighbors who had already
revolted and had been subdued by us, nor did the happi-
ness of which they were in the enjoyment make them
hesitate to court destruction. They trusted reckessly to
the future, and cherishing hopes which, if less than their
wishes, were greater than their powers, they went to war,
preferring might to right. No sooner did they seem likely
to win than they set upon us, although we were doing
them no wrong. Too swift and sudden a rise is apt to
make cities insolent, and in general, ordinary good-fortune
is safer than extraordinary. Mankind apparently find it
easier to drive away adversity than to retain prosperity.
We should from the first have made no difference between
the Mytilenaeans and the rest of our allies, and then their
insolence would never have risen to such a height; for men
naturally despise those who court them, but respect those
who do not give way to them. Yet it is not too late to
punish them as their crimes deserve.

"And do not absolve the people while you throw the The people,
blame upon the nobles. For they were all of one mind are as guilty
when we were to be attacked. Had the people deserted fearers',
the nobles and come over to us, they might at this moment
have been reinstated in their city; but they considered
that their safety lay in sharing the dangers of the oligarchy,
and therefore they joined in the revolt. Reflect: if you
impose the same penalty upon those of your allies who
wilfully rebel and upon those who are constrained by the
enemy, which of them will not revolt upon any pretext

216 The Peloponnesian War

however trivial, seeing that if he succeed, he will be free,
and if he fail, no irreparable evil will follow? We in the
meantime shall have to risk our lives and our fortunes
against every one in turn. When conquerors we shall
recover only a ruined city, and for the future, the revenues
which are our strength will be lost to us. But if we fail,
the number of our adversaries will be increased. And
when we ought to be employed in repelling our regular
enemies, we shall be wasting time in fighting against our
own allies.

Make an ex- "j n O ne word, if you do as I say, you will do what is
them. just to the Mytilenaeans, and also what is expedient for

Ib. 40. yourselves ; but if you do take the opposite course, they will

not be grateful to you, and you will be self-condemned.
For if they were right in revolting, you must be wrong in
maintaining your empire. But if right or wrong you are
resolved to rule, then rightly or wrongly they must be
chastised for your good. Otherwise you must give up
your empire, and when virtue is no longer dangerous, you
may be as virtuous as you please. Punish them as they
would have punished you; let not those who have escaped
appear to have less feeling than those who conspired
against them. Consider: what might not they have been
expected to do if they had conquered? especially since
they were the aggressors. For those who wantonly attack
others always rush into extremes, and sometimes, like
these Mytilenaeans, to their own destruction. They know
the fate which is reserved for them if their enemy is
spared; when a man is injured without a cause he is more
dangerous if he escape than the enemy who has only
suffered what he has inflicted. Be true then to your-
selves, and recall as vividly as you can what you felt at
the time; think how you would have given the world to

Studies 217

crush your enemies, and now take your revenge. Do not
be soft-hearted at the sight of their distress, but remember
the danger which was once hanging over your heads.
Chastise them as they deserve, and prove by an example
to your other allies that rebellion will be punished with
death. If this is made quite clear to them, your atten-
tion will no longer be diverted from your enemies by wars
against your own allies."

STUDIES

1. To what king did Athens and Sparta send embassies? What
alliances did the Lacedaemonians and the Athenians respectively
make, and what advantage did they expect therefrom? To what
causes was due the high spirit of both sides? What was the religious
feeling? Do people of to-day have similar feelings on such occasions?

2. What was the relation of Athens toward her allies, according to
Cleon? How much truth is there in his view? Who did he think
were the best citizens? What was the object of Cleon's speech? Why
does he wish the commons of Mytilene punished? What policy was
he trying to persuade Athens to adopt? What impression of his
character does this speech make?

CHAPTER XX

The arma-
ment sails
for Corcyra.

Thucydides
vi. 30.

Ancient
World, 226-9;
Greece, 208
16.

FROM THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION TO THE END
OF THE WAR

I. THE DEPARTURE OF THE EXPEDITION

ABOUT the middle of summer the expedition started for
Sicily. Orders had been previously given to most of the
allies, to the corn-ships, the smaller craft, and generally
to the vessels in attendance on the armament, that they
should muster at Corcyra, whence the whole fleet was to
strike across the Ionian Gulf to the promontory of lapygia.
Early in the morning of the day appointed for their de-
parture, the Athenians and such of their allies as had
already joined them went down to the Piraeus and began
to man the ships. The entire population of Athens ac-
companied them, citizens and strangers alike. The citi-
zens came to take farewell, one of an acquaintance, an-
other of a kinsman, another of a son; the crowd as they
passed along were full of hope and full of tears; hope of
conquering Sicily, tears because they doubted whether
they would ever see their friends again, when they thought
of the long voyage on which they were sending them. At
the moment of parting the danger was nearer; and terrors
which had never occurred to them when they were voting
the expedition now entered into their souls. Neverthe-
less their spirits revived at the sight of the armament in
all its strength and of the abundant provision which they
had made. The strangers and the rest of the multitude

218

Condition of the Fleet 219

came out of curiosity, desiring to witness an enterprise of
which the greatness exceeded belief .
No armament so magnificent or costly had ever been Excellent

. , . , TT m . .. condition of

sent out by any single Hellenic power. . . . This expedi- the fleet.

tion was intended to be long absent, and was thoroughly Thueydides

provided both for sea and land service, wherever its V1 ' 31 '

presence might be required. On the fleet the greatest

pains and expense had been lavished by the trierarchs

and the state. The public treasury gave a drachma a

day to each sailor, and furnished empty hulls for sixty

swift sailing vessels, and for forty transports carrying

hoplites. All these were manned with the best crews

which could be obtained. The trierarchs, besides the pay

given by the state, added somewhat more out of their

own means to the wages of the upper ranks of rowers and

of the petty officers. The figure-heads and other fittings

provided by them were of the most costly description.

Everyone strove to the utmost that his own ship might

excel both in beauty and swiftness. The infantry had

been well selected and the lists carefully made up. There

was the keenest rivalry among the soldiers in the matter

of arms and personal equipment.

And while at home the Athenians were thus competing The cost,
with one another in the performance of their several
duties, to the rest of Hellas the expedition seemed to be a
grand display of their power and greatness, rather than a
preparation for war. If any one had reckoned up the
whole expenditure (i) of the state, (2) of individual
soldiers and others, including in the first not only what
the city had already laid out, but what was intrusted to
the generals, and in the second what either at the time or
afterward private persons spent upon their outfit, or the
trierarchs upon their ships, the provisions for the long

220 Sicilian Expedition to End of War

A talent was
about $1,200.

The depart-
ure.

A paean of
this kind
was a battle
song, gener-
ally sung at
the opening
of the en-
gagement.

Athenian
defeat.

Thucydides
vii. 72.

voyage which every one may be supposed to have carried
over with him over and above his public pay, and what
soldiers or traders may have taken for purposes of ex-
change, he would have found that altogether an immense
sum amounting to many talents was withdrawn from the
city. Men were quite amazed at the boldness of the
scheme and the magnificence of the spectacle, which
were everywhere spoken of, no less than at the great dis-
proportion of the force when compared with that of the
enemy against whom it was intended. Never had a
greater expedition been sent to a foreign land; never was
there an enterprise in which the hope of future success
seemed to be better justified by actual power.

When the ships were manned and everything required
for the voyage had been placed on board, silence was
proclaimed by the sound of the trumpet, and all with
one voice before setting sail offered up the customary
'prayers; these were recited not in each ship, but by a
single herald, the whole fleet accompanying him. On
every deck both officers and men, mingling wine in bowls,
made libations from vessels of gold and silver. The
multitude of citizens and other well-wishers who were
looking on from the land joined in the prayer. The crews
raised the Paean, and when the libations were completed
put to sea. After sailing out for some distance in single
file, the ships raced with one another as far as ^Egina;
thence they hastened onward to Corcyra, where the allies
who formed the rest of the army were assembling.

II. THE RUIN OF THE EXPEDITION

Thus, after a fierce battle and a great destruction of
ships and men on both sides, the Syracusans and their
allies gained the victory. They gathered up the wrecks

Disaster 221

and bodies of the dead, and sailing back to the city, Ancient
erected a trophy. The Athenians, overwhelmed by their 23" Grlece,
misery, never so much as thought of recovering their 2isf '
wrecks or of asking leave to collect their dead. Their in-
tention was to retreat that very night. Demosthenes
came to Nicias and proposed that they should once more
man their remaining vessels and endeavor to force the
passage at daybreak, saying that they had more ships fit
for service than the enemy. For the Athenian fleet still
numbered sixty but the enemy had less than fifty. Nicias
approved of his proposal, and they would have manned
the ships, but the sailors refused to embark; for they were
paralyzed by their defeat, and had no longer any hope of
succeeding. So the Athenians all made up their minds to
escape by land. . . .

Meanwhile the Syracusans and Gylippus, going forth The Athe-
before them with their land forces, blocked the roads in treat is
the country by which the Athenians were likely to pass, oc e
guarded the fords of the rivers and streams, and posted Thucydides
themselves at the best points for receiving and stopping
them. Their sailors rowed up to the beach and dragged Gylippus was

a Spartan in

away the Athenian ships. The Athenians themselves command of
burnt a few of them, as they had intended, but the rest yra
the Syracusans towed away, unmolested and at their
leisure, from the places where they had severally run
aground, and conveyed them to the city. . . .

The Syracusans and their allies collected their forces The a r ^ a f~
and returned with the spoil, and as many prisoners as taken cap-
they could take with them into the city. The captive
Athenians and allies they deposited in the quarries, which v ii. U 86. K
they thought would be the safest place of confinement.
Nicias and Demosthenes they put to the sword against
the will of Gylippus. For Gylippus thought that to carry retreat of the

222 Sicilian Expedition to End of War

Athenians,
involving
much fight-
ing and suf-
fering.

Imprison-
ment in the
stone quar-
ries.

Thucydides
vii. 87.

home with him to Lacedemon the generals of the enemy,
over and above all his other successes, would be a brilliant
triumph. One of them, Demosthenes, happened to be
the greatest foe, and the other, the greatest friend of the
Lacedemonians, both in the same matter of Pylos and
Sphacteria. For Nicias had taken up their cause, and had
persuaded the Athenians to make the peace which had
set at liberty the prisoners taken in the island. The
Lacedemonians were grateful to him for the service, and
this was the main reason why he trusted Gylippus and
surrendered himself to him. But certain Syracusans,
who had been in communication with him, were afraid
(such was the report) that on some suspicion of their
guilt he might be put to the torture and bring trou-
ble on them in the hour of their prosperity. Others,
and especially the Corinthians, feared that, being rich,
he might by bribery escape and do them further mis-
chief. So the Syracusans gained the consent of the
allies and had him executed. For those or the like rea-
sons he suffered death. No one of the Hellenes in my
time was less deserving of so miserable an end; for he lived
in the practice of every virtue.

Those who were imprisoned in the quarries were at the
beginning of their captivity harshly treated by the Syra-
cusans. There were great numbers of them, and they
were crowded in a deep and narrow place. At first the sun
by day was still scorching and suffocating, for they had no
roof over their heads, while the autumn nights were cold,
and the extremes of temperature engendered violent dis-
orders. Being cramped for room they had to do every-
thing on the same spot. The corpses of those who died
from their wounds or exposure to the weather, and the
like, lay heaped one upon another. The smells were in-

Ruin

223

tolerable; and they were at the same time afflicted by
hunger and thirst. During eight months they were al-
lowed only about half a pint of water and a pint of food a
day. Every kind of misery which could befall man in
such a place befell them. This was the condition of all
the captives for about ten weeks. At length the Syra-
cusans sold them, with the exception of the Athenians and
of any Sicilians or Italian Greeks who had sided with them
in the war. The whole number of the public prisoners is
not accurately known, but they were not less than seven
thousand.

Of all the Hellenic actions which took place in this war,
or indeed of all the Hellenic actions which are on record
this was the greatest the most glorious to the victors,
the most ruinous to the vanquished; for they were utterly
and at all points defeated, and their sufferings were pro-
digious. Fleet and army perished from the face of the
earth; nothing was saved and of the many who went
forth, few returned.

Thus ended the Sicilian expedition.

III. ALCIBIADES

The pedigree of Alcibiades is said to begin with Eury- Family and
saces the son of Ajax, while on the mother's side he de-
scended from Alcmeon, being the son of Deinomache, the Plutarch,
daughter of Megacles. His father Cleinias fought bravely
at Artemisium in a trireme fitted out at his own expense, Ancient
and subsequently fell fighting the Boeotians, in the battle

of Coronea. Alcibiades was afterward intrusted to Pericles On Artemi-

. , . , i smm ; A ttctent

and Anphron, the two sons of Xanthippus, who acted as world, 173 f.

his guardians because they were the next of kin. ... As corone" was

to the beauty of Alcibiades it is not necessary to say
anything except that it was equally fascinating when he

224 Sicilian Expedition to End of War

was a boy, a youth, and a man. The saying of Euripides,
that all beauties have a beautiful autumn of their charms,
is not universally true, but it was so in the case of Alci-
biades and of a few other persons because of the symmetry
and vigor of their frames. Even his lisp is said to have
added a charm to his speech, and to have made his talk
more persuasive. . . .

Character. His character, in the course of his varied and brilliant
Piut., Ak. 2. career, developed many strange inconsistencies and con-
tradictions. Emulation and love of distinction were the
most prominent of his many violent passions, as is clear
from the anecdotes of his childhood. Once when hard-
pressed in wrestling, rather than fall, he began to bite his
opponent's hands. The other let go his hold, and said,
"You bite, Alcibiades, like a woman." "No," said he,
"like a lion." While yet a child, he was playing with
other boys at knucklebones in a narrow street, and when
his turn came to throw, a loaded wagon was passing. He
at first ordered the driver to stop his team because his
throw was to take place directly in the path of the wagon.
Then as the boor who was driving would not stop, the
other children made way; but Alcibiades flung himself
down on his face directly in front of the horses, and bade
him drive on at his peril. The man, in alarm, now stopped
his horses, and the others were terrified and ran up to him.
Musical edu- In learning he was fairly obedient to all his teachers,
except in playing the flute, which he refused to do, de-
claring that it was unfit for a gentleman. He said that
playing on the harp or lyre did not disfigure the face, but
that when a man was blowing at a flute, his own friends
could scarcely recognize him. Furthermore the lyre ac-
companies the voice of the performer while the flute takes
all the breath of the player and prevents him from even

Education of Alcibiades 225

speaking. "Let the children of the Thebans," he used to
say, "learn to play the flute, for they know not how to
speak; but we Athenians according to tradition have the
goddess Athena for our patroness, and Apollo for our
tutelary divinity; and of these the first threw away her
flute in disgust, and the other actually flayed the flute-
player Marsyas." With such talk as this, between jest
and earnest, Alcibiades gave up flute-playing himself, and
induced his friends to do so, for all the youth of Athens
soon heard and approved of Alcibiades' derision of the
flute and of those who learned it. ...

For no one was ever so enclosed and enveloped in the A pupil of
good things of this life as Alcibiades, so that no breath of
criticism or free speech could ever reach him. Yet with Ib. 4-
all these flatterers about him, trying to prevent his ever
hearing a word of wholesome advice or reproof, he was led
by his own goodness of heart to pay especial attention to
Socrates, to whom he attached himself in preference to all
his rich and fashionable admirers.

He soon became intimate with Socrates, and when he
discovered that this man did not wish to caress and admire
him, but to expose his ignorance, search out his faults,
and bring down his vain unreasoning conceit, he then

"Let fall his feathers like a craven cock."

He considered that the conversation of Socrates was
really a divine instrument for the discipline and educa-
tion of youth; and thus learning to despise himself, and
to admire his friend, charmed with his good nature, and
full of reverence for his virtues, he became insensibly in
love with him, though not as the world loveth; so that all
men were astonished to see him dining with Socrates,
wrestling with him, and sharing his tent, while he treated

226 Sicilian Expedition to End of War

His mar-
riage.

Plut., Ale. 8.

His dog.

Ib. g.

A mina was
about $20.

Other pe-
culiarities.

Ib. 16.

all his other admirers with harshness and some even with
insolence. . . .

He once struck Hipponicus, the father of Callias, a man
of great wealth and noble birth, a blow with his fist, not
being moved to it by anger or any dispute, but having
agreed previously with his friends to do so for a joke.
When every one in the city cried out at his indecent and
arrogant conduct, Alcibiades next morning at daybreak
came to the house of Hipponicus, knocked and entered.
Here he threw off his cloak, and offered him his body, bid-
ding him flog him and punish him for what he had done.
Hipponicus, however, pardoned him, and they became
friends, so much so that Hipponicus chose him for the
husband of his daughter Hipparete. Some writers say
that not Hipponicus but Callias, his son, gave Hipparete
to Alcibiades to wife, with a dowry of ten talents, and that
when her first child was born, Alcibiades demanded and
received ten more talents, as if he had made a previous
agreement to that effect. Thereupon Callias, fearing that
Alcibiades might plot against his life, gave public notice
in the assembly that if he died childless, he would leave
his house and all his property to the state. . . .

He had a dog of remarkable size and beauty, for which
he paid seventy minae. It had a very fine tail, which he
cut off. When his friends blamed him, and said that
every one was sorry for the dog and angry with him for
what he had done, he laughed and said, "Then I have
succeeded; for I wish the Athenians to gossip about this,
for fear they should say something worse about me. ..."

In the midst of all this display of political ability, elo-
quence, and statesmanlike prudence, he lived a life of
great luxury, debauchery, and profuse expenditure, swag-
gering through the market-place with his long effeminate

Character of Alcibiades 227

mantle trailing on the ground. He had the deck of his
trireme cut away, that he might sleep more comfortably,
with his bed slung on girths instead of resting on the
planks; and he carried a shield not emblazoned with the
ancestral bearings of his family, but with a Cupid wield-
ing a thunderbolt. The leading men of Athens viewed
his conduct with disgust and apprehension, fearing his
scornful and overbearing manner, as being nearly allied
to the demeanor of a despot, while Aristophanes has ex-
pressed the feeling of the people towards him in the line:

"They love, they hate, they cannot live without him."

And again he alludes to him in a bitterer spirit in the
verse:

"A lion's cub 'tis best you should not rear,
"For if you do, your master he'll appear." . . .

Alcibiades, among his extraordinary qualities, had this Adaptability,
especial art of captivating men by assimilating his own Ib. 23.
manners and habits to theirs, being able to change, more
quickly than the chameleon, from one mode of life to an-
other. The chameleon, indeed, cannot turn itself white;
but Alcibiades never found anything, good or bad, which
he could not imitate to the life. Thus at Sparta, he was
fond of exercise, frugal and severe; in Ionia he was luxuri-
ous, frivolous, and lazy; in Thrace he drank deep; in
Thessaly he proved himself a good horseman; while when
he was consorting with the satrap Tissaphernes, he outdid
even the Persian splendor and pomp. It was not his real
character that he so often and so easily changed, but as
he knew that if he appeared in his true colors, he would be
universally disliked, he concealed his real self under an
apparent adoption of the ways and fashions of whatever
place he was in. . . .

228 Sicilian Expedition to End of War

Assembly of

Peloponne-
sian allies.

Xenophon,
Hellenic*,
ii. 2.

Ancient
World, 237 f.

The Athe-
nian fleet had
been de-
stroyed at
^Egospotami,
and Athens
had been re-
duced to
starvation
by a long
siege.

Theramenes
and others
were ambas-
sadors from
Athens, who
were treating
for peace.

IV. TERMS or PEACE

A general assembly was convened, in which the Corin-
thians and Thebans more particularly, though their views
were shared by many other Hellenes also, urged the meet-
ing not to come to terms with the Athenians, but to
destroy them. The Lacedaemonians replied that they
would never reduce to slavery a city which was itself an
integral portion of Hellas, and had performed a great and
noble service to Hellas in the most perilous of emergencies.
On the contrary, they were willing to offer peace on the
terms now specified namely, "That the long walls and
the fortifications of Piraeus should be destroyed; that the
Athenian fleet, with the exception of twelve vessels,
should be surrendered; that the exiles should be restored;
and lastly, that the Athenians should acknowledge the
headship of Sparta in peace and war, leaving to her the
choice of friends and foes, and following her lead by land
and sea." Such were the terms which Theramenes and
the rest who acted with him were able to report on their
return to Athens.

As they entered the city, a vast crowd met them,
trembling lest their mission should have proved fruitless.
For indeed delay was no longer possible, so long already
was the list of victims daily perishing from starvation.
On the day following, the ambassadors delivered their
report, stating the terms upon which the Lacedaemonians
were willing to make peace. Theramenes acted as spokes-
man, insisting that they ought to obey the Lacedaemonians
and pull down the walls. A small minority raised their
voice in opposition but the majority were strongly in
favor of the proposition, and the resolution was passed to
accept the peace. Afterward Lysander sailed into the

Cloudcuckooland

229

Piraeus, and the exiles were readmitted. And so they fell The exiles
to levelling the fortifications and walls with much en- garchs who
thusiasm, to the accompaniment of female flute-players, banished for

political
reasons.

deeming that day the beginning of liberty to Greece.

V. CHORAL SONGS FROM THE BIRDS

In this brilliant comedy Aristophanes pictures an ideal community
founded by the birds in Cloudcuckooland. It presents the earliest
known ideal state (414 B.C.), which in this case is a comic conceit,
but which was to take a serious turn in Plato's Republic and Moore's
Utopia.

Awake! awake!

Sleep ho more, my gentle mate!
With your tiny tawny bill,
Wake the tuneful echo shrill

On vale or hill;
Or in her airy, rocky seat,
Let her listen and repeat

The tender ditty that you tell,
The sad lament,
The dire event,
To luckless Itys that befell.
Thence the strain
Shall arise again,
And soar amain,
Up to the lofty palace gate,
Where mighty Apollo sits in state;
In Zeus' abode, with his ivory lyre,
Hymning aloud to the heavenly choir.
While all the gods shall join with thee
In a celestial symphony.

Ye gentle feathered tribes,

Of every plume and hue,
That, in uninhabited air,
Are hurrying here and there;

Oh! that I, like you,

The Hoopoe
to his Mate.

The hoopoo
and his mate
(the nightin-
gale) had
once been
human be-
ings, man
and wife.
The wife
had killed
her son Itys
and had
served him
as food to her
husband be-
cause the
latter had
wronged her.

On Aristo-
phanes; An-
cient World,
241; Greece,

222 f.

O to be a

bird!

230 Sicilian Expedition to End of War

Could leave this earthly level,
For a wild aerial revel:

O'er the waste of ocean,
To wander and to dally

With the billow's motion;
Or in an eager sally,

Soaring to the sky,

To range and rove on high
With my plumy sails,
Buffeted and baffled, with the gusty gales.

The advan-
tage of hav-
ing wings.

Here the
chorus ques-
tions the
audience at
the play.

The poet
gibes at the
foreign-born
among the
citizens.

Is there any person present sitting a spectator here,
Who desires to pass his time freely without restraint or fear?
Should he wish to colonize, he never need be checked or chid,
For the trifling indiscretions, which the testy laws forbid.
Parricides are in esteem; among the birds we deem it fair,
A combat honorably fought betwixt a game-cock and his heir!
There the branded runagate, branded and mottled in the face,
Will be deemed a motley bird; a motley mark is no disgrace.

Spintharus, the Phrygian born, will pass a muster there with

ease,

Counted as a Phrygian fowl; and even Execestides,
Once a Carian and a slave, may there be nobly born and free;
Plume himself on his descent and hatch a proper pedigree.

Thus the swans in chorus follow,
On the mighty Thracian stream,
Hymning their eternal theme.

Praise to Bacchus and Apollo:

The welkin rings, with sounding wings,

With songs and cries and melodies;

Up to the thunderous Either ascending:

Whilst all that breathe, on earth beneath,

The beasts of the wood, the plain and the flood,

In panic amazement are crouching and bending;
With the awful qualm, of a sudden calm,

Ocean and air in silence blending.

The Good Old Education 231

The ridge of Olympus is sounding on high,
Appalling with wonder the lords of the sky,

And the Muses and Graces

Enthroned in their places,
Join in the solemn symphony.

Nothing can be more delightful than the having wings to wear! Just as we

A spectator sitting here, accommodated with a pair, might wish

Might for instance (if he found a tragic chorus dull and heavy)
Take his flight, and dine at home; and if he did not choose to leave ye,
Might return in better humor, when the weary drawl was ended. . . .
Trust me, wings are all in all! Diitrephes has mounted quicker J* e made hi

Than the rest of our aspirants, soaring on his wings of wicker: a basket-

Basket work and crates, and hampers, first enabled him to fly; weaver.

First a captain, then promoted to command the cavalry; cratic poet

With his fortunes daily rising, office and preferment new, jeers at the

An illustrious, enterprising, airy, gallant cockatoo.

VI. THE GOOD OLD EDUCATION

Just Cause. I will, therefore, describe the ancient sys- The good-
tern of education, how it was ordered, when I flourished boys of old!
in the advocacy of justice, and temperance was the fashion. Aristophanes,
In the first place, it was incumbent that no one should Clouds, 9 6iS.
hear the voice of a boy uttering a syllable; and next, that The Just
those from the same quarter of the town should march in the Unjust
good order through the streets to the school of the Harp- he^piead-
master, lightly clad and in a body, even if it were to snow | for r i v ii e e
as thick as meal. Then again their master would teach of instructing
them, not sitting cross-legged, to learn by rote a song,
either "Pallas Athena, Dread Sacker of Towns," or " Some
Farborne Battle-Cry," raising to a higher pitch the harmony
which our fathers transmitted to us. But if any of them
were to play the buffoon, or turn any quavers, like these
difficult turns the present artists make after the manner
of Phrynis, he used to be thrashed, beaten with many

What to
avoid.

lapetus, as
we might
call one an
antediluvian.

The Academy
was a beauti-
ful public
garden a
short dis-
tance north-
west of
Athens;
Greece, 157.

232 Sicilian Expedition to End of War

blows, for banishing the Muses. . . . Nor used it to be
allowed, when one was dining, to take the head of a
radish, or to snatch from their seniors dill or parsley, or
to eat fish, or to giggle, or to keep the legs crossed. . . .

Yet certainly these are the principles by which my sys-
tem of education nurtured the men who fought at Mara-
thon. But you teach the men of the present day, from
their earliest years, to be wrapped up in himatia. . . .
Wherefore, O youth, choose, with confidence, me, the
better cause, and you will learn to hate the market-place,
and to refrain from baths, and to be ashamed of what is
disgraceful, and to be enraged if anyone jeer you, and to
rise up from seats before your seniors when they approach,
and not to behave ill toward your parents, and to do
nothing else that is base, because you are to form in your
mind an image of Modesty; .... and not to contradict
your father in anything; nor by calling him lapetus, to
reproach him with the ills of age, by which you were
reared in your infancy.

Unjust Cause. If you shall believe him in this, O
youth, by Bacchus, you will be like the sons of Hippo-
crates, and they will call you a booby.

Just. Yet certainly shall you spend your time in the
gymnastic schools, sleek, and blooming; not chattering
in the market-place rude jests, like the youths of the
present day; nor dragged into court for a petty suit,
greedy, petty-fogging, knavish; but you shall descend to
the Academy and run races beneath the sacred olives
along with some modest compeer, crowned with white
reeds, redolent of yew and careless ease and of leaf
shedding white poplar, rejoicing in the season of spring,
when the plane-tree whispers to the elm. If you do these
things which I say, and apply your mind to these, you will

Alcestis 233

ever have a stout chest, a clear complexion, broad shoul-
ders, a little tongue. . . . But if you practice what the
youths of the present day do, you will have, in the first
place, a pallid complexion, small shoulders, a narrow chest,
a large tongue, little hips. . . . And this deceiver will
persuade you to consider everything that is base to be
honorable, and what is honorable to be base.

VII. SELECTIONS FROM EURIPIDES

Chorus. Let Hades know, that swarthy god, and that Alcestis dies
old man who sits to row and steer alike at his death-ferry, her hus-
that he hath carried o'er the lake of Acheron in his two-

oared skiff a woman peerless amidst her sex. Oft of thee
the Muses' votaries shall sing on the seven-stringed moun- Ancient
tain shell and in hymns that need no harp, glorifying thee, ^ece, fig-
oft as the season in his cycle cometh around at Sparta in 222 -
that Carnean month when all night long the moon sails The Camea
high o'erhead, yea, and in splendid Athens, happy town, festival at
So glorious a theme has thy death bequeathed to tuneful Sparta -
bards. Would it were in my power and range to bring Cocytus, a
thee to the light from the chambers of Hades and the Epirus, here

streams of Cocytus with the oar that sweeps yon nether as^rive of

flood! For thou, and thou alone, most dear of women, the lower

world

hadst the courage to redeem thy husband from Hades in
exchange for thy own life. Light lie the earth above thee, Her husband
lady! And if ever thy lord take to him a new wife, I vow
he will earn my hatred and thy children's too. . . .

Admetus. O the weary sorrow! O the grief for dear Admetus
ones dead and gone! Why didst thou hinder me from that he let
plunging into the gaping grave, there to lay me down and e or

die with her, my peerless bride? Then would Hades for
that one have gotten these two faithful souls at once,
crossing the nether lake together.

234 Sicilian Expedition to End of War

Pelion, a
mountain in
Thessaly.

He prefers
to die.

Cho. I had a kinsman once, within whose home died
his only son, worthy of a father's tears; yet in spite of that
he bore his grief resignedly, childless though he was, his
hair already turning grey, himself far on in years, upon
life's downward track.

Adm. O house of mine, how can I enter thee? How
can I live here, now that fortune turns against me? Ah
me! How wide the gulf 'twixt then and now! Then with
torches cut from Pelion 's pines, with marriage hymns I
entered in, holding my dear wife's hand; and at our back
a crowd of friends with cheerful cries, singing the happy
lot of my wife and me, calling us a noble pair made one,
children both of highborn lineage; but now the voice of
woe instead of wedding hymns, and robes of black in-
stead of snowy white, usher me into my house to my
deserted couch.

Chor. Hard upon prosperous fortune came this sorrow
to thee, a stranger to adversity; yet hast thou saved thy
soul alive. Thy wife is dead and gone; her love she leaves
with thee. What new thing is here? Death ere now from
many a man hath torn a wife.

Adm. My friends, I count my dead wife's lot more
blest than mine, for all it seems not so; for nevermore can
sorrow touch her forever; all her toil is over, and glorious
is her fame. While I, who had no right to live, have
passed the bounds of fate only to live a life of misery; I
know it now. For how shall I endure to enter this my
house? Whom shall I address, by whom be answered
back, to find aught joyful in my entering in? Whither
shall I turn? Within, the desolation will drive me forth,
whensoever I see my widowed couch, the seat whereon
she sat, the floor all dusty in the house, and my babes
falling at my knees with piteous tears for their mother,

Ion 235

while my servants mourn the good mistress their house
hath lost. These are the sorrows in my home, while
abroad the marriages among Thessalians and the throng-
ing crowds of women will drive me mad, for I can never
bear to gaze upon the compeers of my wife. And whoso
is my foe will taunt me thus, "Behold him living in his
shame, a wretch who quailed at death himself, but of his
coward heart gave up his wedded wife instead, and es-
caped from Hades; doth he deem himself a man after
that? And he loathes his parents, though himself refused
to die." Such ill reports shall I to my evils add. What
profit then, my friends, for me to live, in fame and fortune
ruined.

That princely state we fondly praise is pleasant to the A humble

J J * . office is bet-

eye; but yet in its mansions sorrow lurks; for who is happy, ter than a

or by fortune blest, that has to live his life in fear of vio- c

lence with many a sidelong glance? Rather would I live
among the common folk, and taste their bliss, than be a
tyrant who delights in making evil men his friends, and He is a priest

/ ... of his father

hates the good, in terror of his life. Perchance thou wilt Apollo at

tell me, "Gold outweighs all these evils and wealth is f s lp b h 4 n but

sweet." I have no wish to be abused for holding tightly

to my pelf, nor yet to have the trouble of it. Be mine a at Athens.

moderate fortune free from annoyance! Now hear the

blessings, father, that here were mine; first, leisure, man's

chief est joy, with but moderate trouble; no villain ever

drove me from my path, and that is a grievance hard to

bear, to make room and give way to sorry knaves. My

duty was to pray unto the gods, or with mortal men con-

verse, a minister to their joys, not to their sorrows. And

I was ever dismissing one group of guests, while another

took their place, so that I was always welcome from the

236 Sicilian Expedition to End of War

charm of novelty. That honesty which men must pray
for, even against their will, custom and nature did con-
spire to plant in me in the sight of Phoebus. Now when
I think on this, I deem that I am better here than there,
father. So let me live on here, for 'tis an equal charm to
joy in high estate, or in a humble fortune find a pleasure.

VIII. DEFENCE OF SOCRATES

Socrates is Some one will say: And are you not ashamed, Socrates,
the^ury! 18 f a course of life which is likely to bring you to an un-
Plato A polo- ti me ly enc ^ To him I may fairly answer: There you are
gy of Socrates, mistaken: a man who is good for anything ought not to
Ancient calculate the chance of living or dying; he ought only to

Greece, 223-6? consider whether he in doing anything is doing right or
wrong acting the part of a good man or of a bad. . . .
And therefore if you let me go now, and are not con-
Anytus is one vinced by Anytus, who said that since I had been prose-
of^hjs accv cutec [ j must ^e put to death; or if not that, I ought never
to have been prosecuted at all; and that if I escape now,
your sons will all be utterly ruined by listening to my
words if you say to me, Socrates, this time we will not
mind Anytus, and you shall be let off, but upon one con-
dition, that you are not to inquire and speculate in this
way any more, and that if you are caught doing so again
you shall die; if this were the condition on which you
Socrates' let me go, I should reply: Men of Athens, I honor and
seeking the l ve vou ; Dut I sna ^ k ev God rather than you, and while
truth. i have life and strength I shall never cease from the

practice and teaching of philosophy, exhorting every one
whom I meet and saying to him after my manner: You
The true my friend, a citizen of the great and mighty and wise
life 601 city of Athens, are you not ashamed of heaping up the

greatest amount of money and honor and reputation, and

The Worth of the Soul 237

caring so little about wisdom and truth and the greatest
improvement of the soul, which you never regard or heed
at all? And if the person with whom I am arguing says:
Yes, but I do care; then I do not leave him or let him go
at once; but I proceed to interrogate and examine and
cross-examine him, and if I think that he has no virtue
in him, but only says that he has, I reproach him with
undervaluing the greater, and overvaluing the less. And
I shall repeat the same words to everyone I meet, young
and old, citizen and alien, but especially to the citizens,
inasmuch as they are my brethren. For know that this
is the command of God; and I believe that no greater
good has ever happened in the state than my service to
God. For I do nothing but go about persuading you all,
old and young alike, not to take thought for your persons
or your properties, but first and chiefly to care about the
greatest improvement of the soul. I tell you that virtue
is not given by money, but that from virtue comes money
and every other good of man, public as well as private.
This is my teaching, and if this is the doctrine which cor-
rupts the youth, I am a mischievous person. But if any
one says that this is not my teaching, he is speaking an
untruth. Wherefore, O men of Athens, I say to you, do
as Anytus bids or not as Anytus bids, and either acquit
me or not; but whichever you do, understand that I never
shall alter my ways, not even if I have to die many
times. . . .

Let us reflect in another way, and we shall see that there Death is not
is great reason to hope that death is a good; for one of
two things either death is a state of nothingness and
utter unconsciousness, or as men say, there is a change and
migration of the soul from this world to another. Now if
you suppose that there is no consciousness, but a sleep

The judges
of the other
world are
just.

There we
shall meet
the famous
men of old.

238 Sicilian Expedition to End of War

like the sleep of him who is even undisturbed by dreams,
death will be an unspeakable gain. For if a person were
to select the night in which his sleep was undisturbed even
by dreams, and were to compare with this the other days
and nights of his life, and then were to tell us how many
days and nights he had passed in the course of his life
better and more pleasantly than this one, I think that any
man, I will not say a private man, but even the great
king, will not find many such days or nights, when com-
pared with the others. Now if death be of such a nature,
I say that to die is gain; for eternity is then only a single
night.

But if death is the journey to another place, and there,
as men say, all the dead abide, what good, O my friends
and judges, can be greater than this? If indeed when the
pilgrim arrives in the world below, he is delivered from
the professors of justice in this world, and finds the true
judges who are said to give judgment there, Minos and
Rhadamanthus and /Eacus and Triptolemus, and other
sons of God who were righteous in their own life, that
pilgrimage will be worth making. What would not a man
give if he might converse with Orpheus and Musaeus and
Hesiod and Homer? Nay, if this be true, let me die again
and again. I myself, too, shall have a wonderful interest
in there meeting and conversing with Palamedes, and
Ajax the son of Telamon, and any other ancient hero who
has suffered death through an unjust judgment; and there
will be no small pleasure, as I think, in comparing my
own sufferings with theirs. Above all, I shall then be
able to continue my search into true and false knowledge,
as in this world so also in the next; and I shall find out
who is wise, and who pretends to be wise, and is not.
What would not a man give, O judges, to be able to ex-

Future Life; the Erechtheum 239

amine the leader of the great Trojan expedition; or
Odysseus, or Sisyphus, or numberless others, men and
women, too! What infinite delight would there be in
conversing with them and asking them questions! In
another world they do not put a man to death for asking
questions: assuredly not. For besides being happier than
we are, they will be immortal, if what is said is true. . . .
The hour of departure has arrived, and we go our ways
I to die, and you to live. Which is better God only knows.

IX. THE ERECHTHEUM AND THE WORSHIP OF ATHENA

There is also a building called the Erechtheum. Before Interior of
the entrance is an altar of Supreme Zeus, where they sacri-
fice no living thing; but they lay cakes on it, and having Pausanias, i.
done so they are forbidden by custom to make use of wine.

Inside of the building are altars: one of Poseidon, on which 2

they sacrifice also to Erechtheus in obedience to an oracle;

one of the hero Butes; and one of Hephaestus. On the

walls are paintings of the family of the Butads. Within,

for the building is double, there is sea-water in a well. pr ^ ly gens

This is not surprising, for the same thing may be seen in tended to the

inland places, as at Aphrodisias in Caria. But what is posekicm

remarkable about this well is that, when the south wind

has been blowing, the well gives forth a sound of waves;

and there is the shape of a trident in the rock. These

things are said to have been the evidence produced by Ancient

. . World, 0,3.

Poseidon in support of his claim to the country.

The rest of the city and the whole land are equally
sacred to Athena; for although the worship of other gods
is established in the townships, the inhabitants none the
less hold Athena in honor. But the object which was
universally deemed the holy of holies many years before
the union of the townships, is an image of Athena in what

240 Sicilian Expedition to End of War

is now called the Acropolis, but what was then called the
city. The legend is that the image fell from heaven, but
whether this was so or not I will not inquire.

STUDIES

1. With what feelings did the Athenians despatch the expedition
to Sicily? Describe the condition of the armament. What cere-
monies attended the departure? What was to be the course of the
fleet? Why was this route taken?

2. Who were Demosthenes and Nicias (Ancient World, 229, 231)?
Why did not the defeated Athenians sail away from Syracuse? De-
scribe the fate of the Athenians?

3. Describe the appearance of Alcibiades; his character. What
characteristics are illustrated by the two anecdotes of his childhood?
What was his musical education? What objections had he to the
flute? What influence had Socrates over him? What light do the
circumstances of his marriage throw upon his character? What
general impression of him do you gain from this entire passage from
Plutarch?

4. What were the terms of peace at the close of the Peloponnesian
war? Were they warranted by the circumstances? Who was Ly-
sander?

5. On what subjects did Aristophanes write? What does he think
of his fellow-citizens of alien birth? Were there many such at Athens?
What opinion had he of manufacturers?

6. What qualities of the old kind of education does the "Just
Cause" think admirable? What advantages accrue from the good
old kind of education?

7. Describe the character of Alcestis. What was the sentiment as
to second marriages? What was the feeling of Admetus toward his
deceased wife? What is his view of death? What is the leading idea
in the selection from the Ion?

8. What had been Socrates' daily occupation? What had he been
trying to teach his fellow-citizens? On what charge was he tried?
What did he think of death? What did he hope to do in the next
world? Who is the author of this passage, and what connection had
he with Socrates?

9. What objects of interest did Pausanias find in the Erechtheum?
Why was the building double?

CHAPTER XXI

SICILY: THE TYRANT AND THE LIBERATOR

I. PREPARATION FOR WAR WITH CARTHAGE

HAVING now a good opportunity to wage war against Dionysius
them, (the Carthaginians), as he thought, he resolved first Workmen,
to make the necessary preparation; for he understood that Diodorus
the contest would be great and of long duration, as he was xiv - 41-
about to engage with the most powerful nation that had a This war be-
footing in Europe. He accordingly collected artisans, by RC.MwcLn/
a levy, from all the cities under his rule, and others from ^ e r e l f e ' 2 2 47 2 f j ;
Italy and Greece and from the Carthaginian dominion,
attracting them by the offer of high wages.

And he aimed also to provide a vast number of arms He provides
and missiles of every description, and in addition quadri- warshfps.
remes and quinqueremes, none of the latter ever having
been built up to that time. After a great number of ar- His ship-
tisans had been collected he organized them in companies vent h quir~
according to their several trades, and placed them under queremes.
the superintendence of the most respectable citizens, of-
fering great rewards to the makers of arms. Inasmuch as
mercenaries had been brought together from various na-
tions, he himself assigned the arms according to their
several forms and fashions; for he encouraged each soldier
to equip himself with his own weapons; as he reasoned
that thus the army would strike great terror in the enemy,
and that in battle the contestants would best know how
to use their customary equipments.

241

242 Sicily: the Tyrant and the Liberator

Enthusiasm
of the Syra-

The tyrant

becomes

popular.

Diodorus
xiv. 42.

Catapult, a
huge cross-
bow for
hurling
heavy bolts;
afterward so
modified as
to throw
stones and
lumps of
lead. Here-
tofore the
only siege
engine was
the battering
ram.

The wood
was needed
for the ships.

As the Syracusans did all in their power to forward his
design, the greatest emulation was shown in the prepara-
tion. Not only were the front and back porches of the
temples, the gymnasia, and the porticoes of the market-
place filled with workmen, but also apart from public
places, in the most illustrious private houses arms of all
kinds were being manufactured.

At this time the catapult was invented in Syracuse, for
the most excellent artisans were gathered here from all
sides. Zeal was inflamed by the high wages, and the great-
ness of the rewards that awaited those who were judged
superior. In addition to these inducements Dionysius
himself went daily among the workmen, talked courte-
ously with them, honored the most diligent with gifts, or
invited them to dine with him. The mechanics, there-
fore, vying with each other in the utmost rivalry, devised
new and strange missiles and engines which proved ex-
ceedingly serviceable. He began, too, to build quadri-
remes and quinqueremes, being the first to invent this
kind of ship. For hearing that the first triremes were
built in Corinth, Dionysius was anxious that a colony of
hers should have credit for extending the plan of the war
ship. After arranging to obtain a supply of wood from
Italy, he sent half of his woodcutters to Mount Etna,
which then abounded with pine and fir, and the other half
to Italy; and provided teams for hauling the wood to the
sea, and boats and oarsmen to bring the rafts as speedily
as possible to Syracuse.

When Dionysius had thus collected a sufficient supply
of wood, he forthwith began to build more than two
hundred war ships and to refit the hundred and ten old
ones. Furthermore he erected expensive holds round the
harbor, for receiving the ships, to the number of one hun-

Dionysius I 243

drcd and sixty, many of which would receive two ships
apiece. He likewise repaired and covered over with new
planks one hundred and fifty old and useless vessels.

The preparation of so many arms and ships in one The amaz-
locality struck the beholder with admiration. If in fact a ^Syracuse,
man only noticed the attention bestowed on the ships, he Ib 43
would presently conclude that all the Sicilians were en-
gaged in building them; and then to turn and look upon
the army and engines, he would judge that there the
height of skill was expended on them. The zeal devoted
to them could not be surpassed, yet there were prepared
in addition 140,000 bucklers, and as many swords and

helmets. There were forged, too, 14,000 corselets of all The impor-
tance of these
sorts of excellent workmanship. These equipments he preparations

assigned to the horse and to the colonels and captains of

the foot, and to the mercenaries who formed his lifeguard,

He prepared likewise catapults of all kinds and a vast stem the tide

number of missiles. The city of Syracuse provided one

half of the galleys with captains, pilots, and oarsmen of

their own citizens. For the rest Dionysius hired foreigners, only Sicily,

After all the ships and arms were ready and complete, he Ancient

began to call his soldiers together; for he thought it ad- World ' * 49 '

visable not to hire them long in advance, that he might

avoid expense.

II. THE OLD AGE OF TIMOLEON

In this fashion the tyrannies were put down by Timo- The Hbera-

leon, and the wars finished. The whole island, which had pieted.

become a mere wilderness through the constant wars and pi u t a rch,

was grown hateful to the very natives, under his adminis- Ti leon > as-

tration became so civilized and desirable a country that Greece, 246-

, . _ 8; Ancient

colonists sailed to it from those very places to which its World, 249 f .
own citizens had formerly betaken themselves to escape

244 Sicily : the Tyrant and the Liberator

Respect for
the Libera-
tor.

His private
life.

Plut., Tim.,
36.

A passage
here omitted
speaks of his
becoming
blind.

His popular-
ity and in-
fluence.

Plut., Tim.,
38.

from it. For Acragas and Gela, large cities, which after
the war with Athens had been destroyed by the Cartha-
ginians, were now repeopled. . . .

While these cities were being reorganized, Timoleon
not only afforded them peace and safety, but also gave
them great assistance, and showed so keen an interest in
them that he was loved and respected by them as their
real Founder. All the other cities also looked upon him
with the same feelings, so that no peace could be made by
them, no laws established, no country divided among
settlers, no constitutional changes made that seemed
satisfactory, unless he had a hand in them, and arranged
them just as an architect, when a building is finished,
gives some graceful touches which adorn the whole. . . .

He lived in a house which the Syracusans had bestowed
upon him as a special prize for his successes as general,
and also the most beautiful and pleasant country seat,
where indeed he spent most of his leisure with his wife and
children, whom he had sent for from Corinth. For he
never returned to Corinth, nor mixed himself in the
troubles of Greece, nor did he expose himself to the hatred
of political faction, which is the rock upon which great
generals commonly split in their insatiate thirst for honor
and power; but he remained in Sicily, enjoying the bless-
ings of which he was the author; the greatest of which
was to see so many cities, and so many tens of thousands,
all made happy and prosperous by his means. . . .

That he endured his misfortune without repining is not
to be wondered at; but one must admire the respect and
love shown him when blind by the people of Syracuse.
They constantly visited him, and brought with them any
strangers that might be staying with them, both to his
town and country house, to show them their benefactor,

Timoleon 245

glorying in the fact that he had chosen to spend his life
amongst them, and had scorned the magnificent recep-
tion which his exploits would have ensured him had he re-
turned to Greece. Of the many important tributes to his
worth none was greater than the decree of the Syracusans,
that whenever they should be engaged in war with foreign
tribes they would have a Corinthian for their general.
Great honor was also reflected upon him by their conduct
in the public assembly; for though they managed ordinary
business by themselves, on the occasion of any important
debate they used to call him in. Then he would drive
through the market-place into the theatre; and when the
carriage in which he sat was brought in, the people would
rise and salute him with one voice. Having returned their
greeting, and allowed a short time for their cheers and
blessings, he would hear the disputed point debated, and
then give his opinion. When this had been voted upon,
his servants would lead his carriage out of the theatre,
while the citizens, cheering and applauding him as he
went, proceeded to despatch their other business without
him.

Cherished in his old age with such respect and honor, His death
as the common father of his country, Timoleon at length f une ral. *
after a slight illness died. Some time was given for the Ib 3Q
Syracusans to prepare his funeral, and for neighbors and
foreigners to assemble, so that the ceremony was per-
formed with great splendor. The bier, magnificently
adorned, and carried by young men chosen by lot, passed
over the place where the Castle of Dionysius had once
been pulled down. The procession was joined by tens of
thousands of men and women, whose appearance was
gay enough for a festival, for they all wore garlands and
white robes. Their lamentations and tears, mingled with

246 Sicily : the Tyrant and the Liberator

He is to be
worshipped
as a hero.

It was cus-
tomary thus
to worship
the founder
of a city.

their praises of the deceased, showed that they were not
performing this ceremony as a matter of mere outward
respect and compliance with a decree, but that they ex-
pressed real sorrow and loving gratitude. At last, when
the body was placed upon the pyre, Demetrius, the loudest-
voiced of the heralds at that time, read aloud the follow-
ing decree:

"The Syracusan people solemnise, at the cost of two
hundred minae, the funeral of this man, the Corinthian
Timoleon, son of Timodemus. They have passed a vote
to honor him for all future time with festival matches in
music, horse and chariot races, and gymnastics, because
after having put down the despots, subdued the foreign
enemy, and recolonized the greatest among the ruined
cities, he restored to the Sicilian Greeks their constitution
and laws."

STUDIES

1. From this selection what preparations seem to have been
necessary for any great war? What did Dionysius have that had
never been used before? How could old ships be refitted? How did
the Syracusans show their zeal for the war? How can you account
for this feeling and for the popularity of Dionysius? What was at
stake in the war? When did the writer of this selection live and from
what source did he draw his information?

2. Why was Timoleon so highly honored? Enumerate the kinds of
work in which he had a hand after the establishment of peace. How
did they repay him for his services? What do you infer as to his
character?

CHAPTER XXII

THE SUPREMACY OF SPARTA

I. THE FALL OF THE THIRTY

PRESENTLY Thrasybulus with about seventy followers The patriots
sallied out from Thebes, and made himself master of the

fortress of Phyle. The weather was brilliant, and the Xenophon,

Thirty marched out of the city to repel the invader; with ' 4 . u
them were the Three Thousand and the Knights. When

they reached the place, some of the young men, in the ^. ee ^ c ^~

foolhardiness of youth, made a dash at the fortress, but World, 253.
without effect; all they got was wounds and so retired.

The intention of the Thirty now was to blockade the These pa-

place; by shutting off all the avenues of supply they been exiled

thought to force the garrison to capitulate. But this Thirty, and

project was interrupted by a steady downfall of snow that
night and the following day. Baffled by this all-pervading force.
enemy, they beat a retreat to the city but not without the
sacrifice of many of their camp followers, who fell a prey
to the men in Phyle. The next anxiety of the government
in Athens was to secure the farms and country houses
against the plunderings and forays to which they would
be exposed, if there were no armed force to protect them.
With this object a protecting force was despatched to the
"boundary estates" about two miles this side of Phyle.
This corps consisted of the Lacedemonian guards, or
nearly all of them, and two divisions of horse. They en- from Sparta
camped in a wild and broken district, and the round of g uar ds for
their duties commenced. protection.

247

248

The Supremacy of Sparta

The patriots
attack the
camp of the
enemy.

Hoplites are
heavy-armed
infantry.

The patriots
occupy Pei-

rseus.

Ancient
World, IQ 3 .

But by this time the small garrison above them had
increased tenfold, until there were now about seven
hundred men collected in Phyle; and with this force
Thrasybulus one night descended. When he was not quite
half a mile from the enemy's encampment he grounded
arms, and a deep silence was maintained until it drew
toward day. In a little while the men opposite, one by
one, were getting to their legs or leaving the camp for
necessary purposes, while a suppressed din and murmur
arose, caused by the grooms currying and combing their
horses. This was the moment for Thrasybulus and his
men to snatch up their arms and make a dash at the
enemy's position. Some they felled on the spot; and
routing the whole body, pursued them six or seven stadia,
killing one hundred and twenty hoplites and more. Of
the cavalry, Nicostratus, "the beautiful," as men called
him, and two others besides were slain; they were caught
while still in their beds. Returning from the pursuit, the
victors set up a trophy, got together all the arms they had
taken, besides baggage, and retired again to Phyle. A
reinforcement of horse sent from the city could not dis-
cover the vestige of a foe, but waited on the scene of
battle until the bodies of the slain had been picked up by
their relatives, whereupon they withdrew again to the
city. . . .

But now Thrasybulus at the head of his followers, by
this time about one thousand strong, descended from
Phyle and reached Peiraeus in the night. The Thirty, on
their side, informed of this new move, were not slow to
come to the rescue with the Laconian guards, supported
by their own cavalry and hoplites. And so they ad-
vanced, marching down along the broad carriage road
which leads into Peiraeus. The men from Phyle seemed

The Battle in Peiraus 249

at first inclined to dispute their passage, but as the wide

circuit of the walls needed a defence beyond the reach of

their still scanty numbers, they fell back in a compact

body upon Munychia. Then the troops from the city Munychia, a

poured into the market-place of Hippodamus. Here they del 'of e

formed in line, stretching along and filling the street

which leads to the temple of Artemis and the Bendideum. the civil en-

_...,. t _ _ - . . . , , , gineer, who

This line must have been at least fifty shields deep; and had planned
in this formation they at once began to march up. As to dWe C um,' a e
the men of Phyle, they too blocked the street at the op- ^^ a
posite end, and faced the foe. They presented only a goddess.
thin line not more than ten deep, though behind them The battle in
were ranged a body of targeteers and light-armed, javelin e:
throwers, who were again supported by an artillery of
stone-slingers a tolerably numerous division drawn from
the population of the port and district itself. While his
antagonists were still advancing, Thrasybulus gave the
order to ground their heavy shields; and having done so
himself, whilst retaining the rest of his arms, he stood in
the midst, and thus addressed them:

"Men and fellow-citizens, I wish to inform some of you, Address of
and to remind others that of the force you see advancing ui us .
beneath us there, the right division are the very men we
routed and pursued only five days ago; while on the ex-
treme left there you see the Thirty. These are the men
who have not spared to rob us of our city, though we did
no wrong; who have hounded us from our homes; who
have set the seal of proscription on our dearest friends.
But to-day the wheel of fortune has revolved; that has
come about which least of all they looked for, which most
of all we prayed for. Here we stand with our good swords
in our hands, face to face with our foes; and the gods
themselves are with us, seeing that we are arrested in the

250 The Supremacy of Sparta

midst of our peaceful pursuits; at any moment, whilst we
supped or slept or marketed, sentence of banishment was
passed upon us. We had done no wrong, nay, many of
us were not even resident in the country. To-day there-
fore, I repeat, the gods do visibly fight upon our side; the
great gods, who raise a tempest even in the midst of calm,
for our benefit, and when we lay our hand to fight, enable
our little company to set up the trophy of victory over
the multitude of our foes. On this day they have brought
us hither to a place where the steep ascent must needs
hinder our foes from reaching with lance or arrow further
than our foremost ranks; but we with our volley of spears
and arrows and stones cannot fail to reach them with
terrible effect. Had we been forced to meet them van-
guard to vanguard on an equal footing, who could have
been surprised? But as it is, all I say to you is, let fly
your missiles with a will in right brave style. No one can
miss his mark when the road is full of them. To avoid our
darts they must forever be ducking and skulking beneath
their shields; but we will rain blows upon them in their
, blindness; we will leap upon them and lay them low.
But, O sirs! let me call upon you so to bear yourselves
that each shall be conscious to himself that the victory
What victory was won by him and by him alone. Victory which, God
willing, shall this day restore to us the land of our fathers,
our homes, our freedom, and the rewards of civic life, our
children, if children we have, our darlings, our wives!
Thrice happy those among us who as conquerors shall
look upon this gladdest of all days. Nor less fortunate
the man who falls to-day. Not all the wealth in the
world shall purchase him a monument so glorious. At the
right instant I will strike the keynote of the paean; then
with an invocation to the God of battle, and in return for

Results of the Battle 251

the wanton insults they put upon us, let us with one
accord wreak vengeance on yonder men."

Having so spoken, he turned round, facing the foemen, The battle.
and kept quiet; for the order passed by the soothsayer
enjoined on them not to charge before one of their side
was slain or wounded. "As soon as that happens," said
the seer, u we will lead you onwards, and the victory shall
be yours; but for myself, if I err not, death is waiting."
And herein he spoke truly, for they had barely resumed
their arms when he himself, as though he were driven by
some fatal hand, leapt out in front of the ranks, and so
springing into the midst of the foe, was slain, and lies now
buried at the passage of the Cephissus. But the rest were
victorious, and pursued the routed enemy down to the
level ground. There fell in this engagement, from the
number of the Thirty, Critias himself and Hippomachus,
and with them Charmides, the son of Glaucon, one of the
ten archons in Peiraeus, and of the rest about seventy men.
The arms of the slain were taken; but as fellow-citizens,
the conquerors forebore to despoil them of their coats.

II. RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND THROUGH THE
SNOWS or ARMENIA

From this point they marched three desert stages A march in
fifteen parasangs to the river Euphrates, and crossed it

in water up to the waist. The sources of the river were
reported to be at no great distance. From this place they iv - 5-
marched through deep snow over a flat country three Ancient
stages fifteen parasangs. The last of these marches was
trying, with the north wind blowing in their teeth, drying 26z f '
up everything and benumbing the men. Here one of the

seers suggested to them to do sacrifice to Boreas, and measure of
sacrifice was done. The effect was obvious to all in the was a little

252

The Supremacy of Sparta

more than
three miles;
Boreas, god
of the north
wind.

They camp
in the snow.

Hunger-
faintness.

Freezing to
death.

diminished fierceness of the blast. But there were six
feet of snow, so that many of the baggage animals and
slaves were lost, and about thirty of the men themselves.

They spent the whole night in kindling fire; for there
was fortunately no dearth of wood at the halting-place;
only those who came late into camp had no wood. Ac-
cordingly those who had arrived a good while and had
kindled fires were not for allowing these late-comers near
their fires, unless they would in return give a share of their
corn or of any other victuals they might have. Here then
a general exchange of goods was set up. Where the fire
was kindled the snow melted, and great trenches formed
themselves down to the bare earth, and here it was possi-
ble to measure the depth of the snow. ,

Leaving these quarters, they marched the whole of the
next day over snow, and many of the men were afflicted
with hunger-faintness. Xenophon, who was guarding the
rear, came upon some men who had dropt down, and he
did not know what ailed them; but some one who was
experienced in such matters suggested to him that they
were evidently faint; and if they got something to eat,
they would revive. Then he went the round of the bag-
gage train, and laying an embargo on any eatables he
could see, doled it out with his own hands, or sent off
other able-bodied agents to distribute it to the sufferers,
who as soon as they had taken a mouthful got on their
legs again and continued the march. . . .

On the heels of the army hung perpetually bands of the
enemy, snatching away disabled baggage animals and fight-
ing with each other over the carcases. And in its track
not seldom were left to their fate disabled soldiers, struck
down with snow-blindness or with toes mortified by frost-
bite. As to the eyes, it was some alleviation against the

A Discouraging Situation 253

snow to march with something black before them; for the
feet, the only remedy was to keep in motion without
stopping for an instant, and to loose the sandal at night.
If they went to sleep with the sandals on, the thong
worked into the feet and the sandals were frozen fast to
them. This was partly due to the fact that, since their
old sandals had failed, they wore untanned brogues made
of newly flayed ox-hides. It was owing to some such dire
necessity that a party of men fell out and were left behind,
and seeing a black-looking patch of ground where the
snow had evidently disappeared, they conjectured it
must have been melted; and this was actually so, owing
to a spring of some sort which was to be seen steaming up
in a dell close by. To this they had turned aside and sat Some give
down and were loth to go a step further. But Xenophon "pair,
with his rearguard perceived them, and begged and im-
plored them by all manner of means not to remain behind,
telling them that the enemy were after them in large
packs pursuing; and he ended by growing angry. They
merely bade him put a knife to their throats; not one step
further would they stir. Then it seemed best to frighten
the pursuing enemy if possible, and to prevent their falling
upon the invalids. It was already dusk, and the pursuers
were advancing with much noise and hubbub, wrangling
and disputing over their spoils. Then all of a sudden the
rearguard, in the plenitude of health and strength, sprang
up out of their lair and ran upon the enemy, whilst those
weary wights bawled out as loud as their sick throats could
sound, and dashed their spears against their shields ; and the
enemy in terror hurled themselves through the snow into
the dell, and not one of them ever uttered a sound again.
Xenophon and his party, telling the sick folk that next
day people would come for them, set off and before they

254 The Supremacy of Sparta

Unable to had gone half a mile, they fell in with some soldiers who
farther. had laid down to rest on the snow with their cloaks
wrapped round them; but never a guard was established,
and they made them get up. Their explanation was that
those in front would not move on. Passing by this group,
he sent forward the strongest of his light infantry in ad-
vance with orders to find out what the stoppage was.
They reported that the whole army lay reposing in the
same fashion. That being so, Xenophon's men had noth-
ing for it but to bivouac in the open air also, without fire
and supperless, merely posting what pickets they could
under the circumstances. But as soon as it drew toward
They reach day, Xenophon despatched the youngest of his men to the
lages. sick folk behind, with orders to make them get up and

to force them to proceed. Meanwhile Cheirisophus had
Cheirisophus, sent some of his men quartered in the village to inquire
e ianders, how they fared in the rear; they were overjoyed to see

comrm

a Spartan. fa emj an d handed over the sick folk to them to carry into
camp, while they themselves continued their march for-
ward, and ere twenty stadia were past, reached the vil-
lage in which Cheirisophus was quartered. As soon as
the two divisions were met, the resolution was come to
that it would be safe to billet the regiments throughout
the villages; Cheirisophus remained where he was, while
the rest drew lots for the villages in sight, and then, with
their several detachments, marched off to their respective
destinations.

The villagers It was here that Polycrates, an Athenian and captain
dwellings. of a company, asked for leave of absence. He wished to
be off on a quest of his own; and putting himself at the
head of the active men of the division, he ran to the vil-
lage which had been allotted to Xenophon. He surprised
within it the villagers with their headman, and seventeen

A Strange Village 255

young horses which were being reared as a tribute for the
king, and last of all the headman's own daughter, a young
bride only eight days wed. Her husband had gone off to
chase hares, and so he escaped being taken with the other
villagers. The houses were underground structures with
an aperture like the mouth of a well by which to enter;
but they were broad and spacious below. The entrance
for the beasts of burden was dug out, but the human
occupants descended by a ladder. In these dwellings
were to be found goats and sheep and cattle, and cocks
and hens, with their various progeny. The flocks and herds
were all reared under cover upon green food. There were
stores within of wheat and barley and vegetables, and
wine made from barley in great bowls; the grains of barley
malt lay floating in the beverage up to the lip of the vessel,
and reeds lay in them, some longer some shorter without
joints; when you were thirsty you had to take one of these
into your mouth and suck. The beverage without ad-
mixture of water was very strong, and of a delicious flavor
to certain palates, but the taste must be acquired.

Xenophon made the headman of the village his guest
at supper, and bade him keep a good heart; so far from
robbing him of his children, they would fill his house full
of good things in return for what they took before they
went away; only he must set them an example, and dis-
cover some blessing or other for the army, until they found
themselves with another tribe. To this he readily as-
sented, and with the utmost cordiality showed them the
cellar where the wine was buried. For this night then,
having taken up their several quarters as described, they
slumbered in the midst of plenty, one and all, with the
headman under watch and ward, and his children with
him safe in sight.

256 The Supremacy of Sparta

III. THE VIOLENCE OF SPARTA

The climax On every side the affairs of Lacedemon had signally

powe?, 3 *g prospered: Thebes and the rest of the Boeotian states lay

BlC ' absolutely at her feet; Corinth had become her most

Xenophon, faithful ally; Argos . . . was humbled to the dust;

Hellemca, J '

v. 3. Athens was isolated; and lastly, those of her own allies

who displayed a hostile feeling toward her had been
punished; so that, to all outward appearance, the founda-
tions of her empire were at length absolutely well and
firmly laid.

The guilty Abundant examples might be found alike in Hellenic

cape punish- and in foreign history, to prove that the Divine powers

ment * mark what is done amiss, winking neither at impiety nor

Ib - 4- at the commission of unhallowed acts; but at present I

Ancient confine myself to the facts before me. The Lacedemonians,

Greece, aes'f. who had pledged themselves by oath to leave the states

independent, had laid violent hands on the acropolis of

Thebes, and were eventually punished by the victims of

that iniquity single-handed, the Lacedemonians, be it

noted, who had never before been mastered by living man.

STUDIES

i. Where was Phyle and who was Thrasybulus (Ancient World ,
253)? Who were the Thirty, and why did they attack the patriots at
Phyle? What may we learn of camp life from this passage? Where
was Peiraeus? How was it connected with Athens? How did Thrasyb-
ulus arrange his forces for battle? What was the advantage of their
position? From his speech what may we learn as to the ruling party
at Athens and the exiles respectively? What part did he think the
gods had taken in the conflict thus far? What motives to braver}'
had his men? What part had the soothsayer in the proceedings?
How were the military movements influenced by religion? Who was
the author of this selection, and when did he live relatively to the
events narrated? What is the reliability of the story?

Studies 257

a. Who were the Ten Thousand? How did they mitigate the north
wind? What were their other difficulties? Who tells this story?
What part had he in the retreat? What had he to do to keep the
army moving? Describe the villages and their inhabitants. Why
did they live underground? What was their favorite beverage? How
were they treated by the Greeks? From this selection what do you
infer as to the character of these Greek mercenaries?

3. What was the condition of Greece and of Sparta in 379? What
was Xenophon's idea of Providence in human affairs? From all these
selections from Xenophon what may we infer as his religious beliefs?

CHAPTER XXIII

Family and
education.

Nepos,
Epaminon-
das, i f .

Greece, 275-
83; Ancient
World, 260-
67.

On Pythag-
oras; An-
cient World,
155-

THEBES ATTEMPTS TO GAIN THE SUPREMACY

I. EPAMINONDAS

EPAMINONDAS was the son of Polumnis, and was born
at Thebes. ... He was of an honorable family, though
left poor by his ancestors; but he was so well-educated
that no Theban was more so; for he was taught to play
upon the harp, and to sing to the sound of its strings, by
Dionysius, who was held in no less honor among musicians
than Damon or Lamprus, whose names are well known;
to play on the flutes by Olympiodorus; and to dance by
Calliphron. For his instructor in philosophy he had Lysis
of Tarentum, a Pythagorean, to whom he was so devoted
that, young as he was, he preferred the society of a grave
and austere old man before that of all those of his own
age; nor did he part with him until he so far excelled his
fellow students in learning, that it might easily be per-
ceived he would in like manner excel them all in other
pursuits. These acquirements according to our habits are
trifling, and rather to be despised; but in Greece, at least
in former times, they were a great subject for praise.
After he grew up, and began to apply himself to gym-
nastic exercises, he studied not so much to increase his
strength as the agility of his body; for he thought that
strength suited the purpose of wrestlers, but that agility
conduced to excellence in war. He used to exercise him-
self very much, therefore, in running and wrestling, as
258

Character of Epaminondas 259

long as he could grapple with his adversary and contend
standing. But he spent most of his labor on martial
exercises.

To the strength of body thus acquired, were added many His moral
good qualities of the mind; for he was modest, prudent,
grave, wisely availing himself of opportunities, skilled in ep ' ^' 3 '
war, brave in action, and possessed of remarkable courage.
He was so great a lover of truth that he would not tell a
falsehood even in jest; he was also master of his passions,
gentle in disposition, and patient to a wonderful degree,
submitting to wrong not only from the people, but from
his own friends; he was a remarkable keeper of secrets, a
quality which is sometimes not less serviceable than elo-
quence; and he was an attentive listener to others, be-
cause he thought that by this means knowledge was most
easily acquired. Whenever he came into a company,
therefore, in which a discussion was going on concerning
government, or a conversation was being held on any
point in philosophy, he never went away till the discourse
was brought to its conclusion. He bore poverty so easily
that he received nothing from the state but glory. He
did not avail himself of the means of his friends to main-
tain himself; but he often used his credit to relieve others,
to such a degree that it might be thought all things were
in common between him and his friends; ....

He was of a patient disposition, and ready to endure His patience
wrongs from his countrymen, because he thought it a mfflty.
species of impiety to show resentment towards his coun- /6 7
try. There are the following proofs. When the Thebans
from some feeling of displeasure towards him refused to
place him at the head of the army, a leader was chosen
who was ignorant of war, by whose mismanagement a
great multitude of soldiers was brought to such a condi-

260 Thebes Attempts to Gain Supremacy

He violates
the law to
win a vic-
tory.

He defends
his conduct.

Nep. Ep. 8.

tion that all were alarmed for their safety. They were con-
fined within a narrow space and blocked up by the enemy,
whereupon the energy of Epaminondas began to be in re-
quest, for he was there as a private among the soldiers.
When they desired aid from him, he showed no recollec-
tion of the affront that had been put upon him, but
brought the army safely home after releasing it from the
blockade. Nor did he act in this manner once only but
often.

The most remarkable instance was when he had led an
army into the Peloponnesus against the Lacedemonians,
and had two joined in command with him, of whom one
was Pelopidas, a man of valor and activity. On this oc-
casion, when through the accusations of their enemies
they had all fallen under the displeasure of their country-
men, and their commission was in consequence taken from
them and other commanders came to take their places,
Epaminondas did not obey the order of the people, and
persuaded his colleagues to follow his example, continuing
to prosecute the war which he had undertaken; for he saw
that unless he did so, the whole army would be lost
through the incautiousness and ignorance of its leaders.
But there was a law at Thebes, which punished anyone
with death who retained his command longer than he was
legally appointed. Epaminondas, however, as he saw that
this law had been made for the purpose of preserving the
state, was unwilling to make it contribute to its ruin, and
continued to exercise his command four months longer
than the people had prescribed.

When they returned home, his colleagues were im-
peached for this offence, and he gave them leave to lay all
the blame upon him, and to maintain that it was through
his means that they did not obey the law. As they were

On Trial for Life 261

freed from danger by this defence, nobody thought Epa-
minondas would make any reply, because it was supposed
he would have nothing to say. But he stood forth on the
trial, denied nothing of what his adversaries laid to his
charge, and admitted the truth of all that his colleagues
had stated; nor did he refuse to submit to the penalty of
the law; but he requested of his countrymen one favor,
namely, that they would write the following in their ju-
dicial record of the sentence passed upon him: "Epaminon-
das was punished by the Thebans with death, because he
obliged them to overthrow the Lacedemonians at Leuctra, Ancient
whom, before he was general, none of the Boeotians durst
look upon in the field, and because he not only by one
battle rescued Thebes from destruction, but also secured
liberty for all Greece, and brought the power of both
people to such a condition that the Thebans attacked
Sparta, and the Lacedemonians were content if they could
save their lives; nor did he cease to prosecute the war till
after settling Messene, he shut up Sparta with a close
siege." When he had said this, there burst forth a laugh
from all present, with much merriment, and no one of the
judges ventured to pass sentence upon him. Thus he
came off from this trial for life with the greatest glory.

II. THE BATTLE or MANTINEA

Far more wonderful to my mind was the pitch of per- High spirit

fection to which he had brought his army. There was no soldiers of

labor which his troops would shrink from, either by night f^ 11011 "
or by day; there was no danger they would flinch from;

and with the scantiest provisions, their discipline never Xenophon,

f ., , Al Hellenica,

failed them. vii. 5.

And so, when he gave his last orders to them to prepare
for impending battle, they obeyed with alacrity. He gave

262 Thebes Attempts to Gain Supremacy

the word; the cavalry fell to whitening their helmets, the
Theclub of^ heavy infantry of the Arcadians began inscribing clubs as
the Theban the crest on their shields, as though they were Thebans,
coat of arms. an( j ^ were en g a g e( j [ n sharpening their lances and swords

and polishing their heavy shields. When the preparations
were complete and he had led them out, his next move-
ment is worthy of attention. First, as was natural, he
paid heed to their formation, and in so doing seemed to
give clear evidence that he intended battle; but no sooner
was the army drawn up in the formation which he pre-
ferred than he advanced, not by the shortest route to meet
the enemy, but toward the westward-lying mountains
which face Tegea, and by this movement created in the
enemy an expectation that he would not do battle on that

He deceives day. In keeping with this expectation, as soon as he
Bmy * arrived at the mountain-region, he extended his phalanx
in long line and piled arms under the high cliffs; and to all
appearance he was there encamping. The effect of this
manoeuvre on the enemy in general was to relax the pre-
pared bent of their souls for battle, and to weaken their
tactical arrangements. Presently, however, wheeling his
regiments, which were marching in column, to the front,
with the effect of strengthening the beak-like attack
which he proposed to lead himself, at the same instant he
gave the order, "Shoulder arms, forward," and led the
way, the troops following.

His tactics. When the enemy saw them so unexpectedly approach-
ing, not one of them was able to maintain tranquillity.
Some began running to their divisions, some fell into line,
some might be seen bitting and bridling their horses, some
donning their cuirasses, and one and all were like men
about to receive rather than to inflict a blow. Meanwhile
he with steady impetus pushed forward his armament,

Victory and Death 263

like a ship-of-war prow forward. Wherever he brought
his solid wedge to bear, he meant to cleave through the
opposing mass and crumble his adversary's host to pieces.
With this design he prepared to throw the brunt of the
fighting on the strongest half of his army, while he kept
the weaker portion of it in the background, knowing cer-
tainly that if worsted it would only cause discouragement
to his own division and add force to the foe. The cavalry
on the side of his opponents were disposed like an ordinary
phalanx of heavy infantry, regular in depth and unsup-
ported by foot-soldiers interspersed among the horses.
Epaminondas again differed in strengthening the attack-
ing point of his cavalry, besides which he interspersed
footmen between their lines in the belief that, when he had
once cut through the cavalry, he would have wrested
victory from the antagonist along his whole line; so hard
is it to find troops who will care to keep their ground when
once they see any of their own side flying. Lastly, to
prevent any attempt on the part of the Athenians, who
were on the enemy's left wing, to bring up their reliefs in
support of the portion next them, he posted bodies of
cavalry and heavy infantry on certain hillocks in front of
them, intending to create in their minds an apprehension
that, in case they offered such assistance, they would be
attacked on their own rear by these detachments. Such
was the plan of encounter which he formed and executed ;
nor was he cheated in his hopes. He had so much the At this point

he was mor-

mastery at his point of attack that he caused the whole of tally
the enemy's troops to take to flight.

But after he himself had fallen, the rest of the Thebans Effect of his
were not able any longer to turn their victory rightly to
account. Though the main battle line of their opponents
had given way, not a single man afterward did the victori-

Results of
the battle.

Ancient
World, 266 f.

264 Thebes Attempts to Gain Supremacy

ous hoplites slay, not an inch forward did they advance
from the ground on which the collision took place. Al-
though the cavalry had fled before them, there was no
pursuit; not a man, horseman or hoplite, did the conquer-
ing cavalry cut down; but like men who have suffered a
defeat, as if panic-stricken they slipped back through the
ranks of the fleeing foemen. Only the footmen fighting
amongst the cavalry and the light infantry, who had
together shared the victory of the cavalry, found their
way round to the left wing as masters of the field, but it
cost them dear; here they encountered the Athenians, and
most of them were cut down.

The effective result of these achievements was the very
opposite of that which the world at large anticipated.
Here, where well-nigh the whole of Hellas was met to-
gether in one field, and the combatants stood rank against
rank confronted, there was no one who doubted that, in
the event of battle, the conquerors this day would rule;
and that those who lost would be their subjects. But
God so ordered it that both belligerents alike set up
trophies as claiming victory, and neither interfered with
the other in the act. Both parties alike gave back their
enemy's dead Under a truce, and in right of victory; both
alike, in symbol of defeat, under a truce took back their
dead. And though both claimed to have won the day,
neither could show that thereby he had gained any ac-
cession of territory, or state, or empire, or was better
situated than before the battle. Uncertainty and confu-
sion, indeed, had gained ground, being tenfold greater
throughout the length and breath of Hellas after the battle
than before.

Review 265

STUDIES

1. Describe the education of Epaminondas in music and philos-
ophy. When Nepos speaks of "our habits," to whom does he refer?
Who was he, and when did he live? How did Epaminondas prepare
himself for military life? Describe his character. How did he justify
his violation of law? Was he right or wrong?

2. How may we account for the enthusiasm of his troops on the
eve of battle? What preparations did they make for battle? How
did he deceive the enemy? Describe his tactics in the battle. In
what respects were his arrangements superior to those of the enemy?
What was the effect of his death? What were the effects of this
battle on Hellas? With what feeling for the future does Xenophon
close this narrative?

CHAPTER XXIV

RISE OF MACEDON

I. PHILIP THREATENS GREECE

The Greeks THAT Philip from a mean and humble origin has grown
sibie e for n mighty, that the Greeks are jealous and quarrelling among
themselves, that it was far more wonderful for him to rise
from that insignificance than it would be now, after so
many acquisitions, to conquer what is left; these and
similar matters, which I might dwell upon, I pass over.

Demosthenes, g u t I observe that all people, beginning with you, have
uppic. conceded to him a right, which in former times has been

Greece, 297 ff.; the subject of contest in every Grecian war. And what
World, '271 f. is this? The right of doing as he pleases, openly fleecing
and pillaging the Greeks, one after another, attacking and
enslaving their cities. You were at the head of the Greeks
for seventy-three years, the Lacedaemonians for twenty-
nine; and the Thebans had some power in these latter
times after the battle of Leuctra. Yet neither you, my
countrymen, nor Thebans nor Lacedaemonians, were ever
licensed by the Greeks to act as you pleased; far other-
wise. When you or rather the Athenians of that time
appeared to be dealing harshly with certain people, all
the rest even such as had no complaint against Athens,
thought proper to side with the injured parties in a war
against her. So, when the Lacedaemonians became mas-
ters and succeeded to your empire, on their attempting to
encroach and make oppressive innovations, a general war

266

Philip's Aggressions 267

was declared against them, even by such as had no cause
of complaint. . . .

Yet all the faults committed by the Spartans in those Phi l*P has

thirty years, and by our ancestors in the seventy, are less, Greece more

men of Athens, than the wrongs, which in the thirteen in-
complete years that Philip has been uppermost, he has J^Je r e s rs to and
inflicted on the Greeks; nay they are scarcely a fraction of gether.
these, as may easily be shown in a few words. Olynthus
and Methone and Apollonia, and thirty-two cities on the
borders of Thrace, I pass over; all which he has so cruelly
destroyed, that a visitor could hardly tell if they were ever
inhabited; and of the Phocians, so considerable a people
exterminated, I say nothing. But what is the condition of
Thessaly? Has he not taken away her constitutions, and
her cities, and established tetrarchies, to parcel her out,
not only by cities, but also by provinces, for subjection?
Are not the Eubcean states governed now by despots, and
that, too, in an island near to Thebes and Athens? Does he
not expressly write in his epistles, " I am at peace with those
who are willing to obey me"? Nor does he write so and
not act accordingly. He has gone to the Hellespont; he
marched formerly against Ambracia; Elis, such an im-
portant city in Peloponnesus, he possesses; he plotted
lately to get Megara; neither Hellenic nor Barbaric land
contains the man's ambition.

And we the Greek community, seeing and hearing this, The Greeks
instead of sending embassies to one another about it and combine
expressing indignation, are in such a miserable state, so a s amst him -
intrenched in our separate towns, that to this day we can
attempt nothing that interest or necessity requires; we
cannot combine, or form any association for succor and
alliance; we look unconcernedly on the man's growing
power, each resolving, methinks, to enjoy the interval that

268 Rise of Macedon

another is destroyed in, not caring or striving for the
salvation of Greece; for none can be ignorant that Philip,
like some course or attack of fever or other disease, is com-
ing even on those that yet seem very far removed. And
you must be sensible, that whatever wrongs the Greeks
sustained from Lacedaemonians or from us, were at least in-
flicted by genuine people of Greece; and it might be felt in
the same manner as if a lawful son, born to a large fortune,
committed some fault or error in the management of it; on
that ground one would consider him open to censure and
reproach, yet it could not be said that he was an alien,
and not heir to the property which he so dealt with. But
if a slave or spurious child wasted and spoiled what he
had no interest in Heavens ! how much more heinous and
hateful would all have pronounced it! And yet in regard
to Philip and his conduct they feel not this, although he is
not only no Greek and noway akin to Greeks, but not even
a barbarian of a place honorable to mention; in fact a vile
fellow of Macedon, from which a respectable slave could
not formerly be purchased. . . .

The heritage First let us prepare for our own defence; provide our-

of Athens is r .f. , . *

to lead in selves, I mean, with ships, money, and troops for surely,

cause m ' S though all other people consented to be slaves, we at least
ought to struggle for freedom. When we have completed
our own preparations and made them apparent to the
Greeks, then let us invite the rest, and send our ambassa-
dors everywhere with the intelligence, to Peloponnesus,
to Rhodes, to Chios, to the king I say; for it concerns
his interests, not to let Philip make universal conquest.
Thus if you prevail, you will have partners of your
dangers and expenses, in case of necessity, or at all
events you will delay the operations. For since the war is
against an individual, not against the collected power of a

The Advice of Demosthenes 269

state, even this may be useful; as were the embassies last
year to Peloponnesus, and the remonstrances with Which
I and Polyeuctus, that excellent man, and Hegesippus
and Clitomachus and Lycurgus and the other envoys went
around, and arrested Philip's progress; so that he neither
attacked Ambracia nor started for Peloponnesus. I say
not however that you should invite the rest without
adopting measures to protect yourselves; it would be folly,
while you sacrifice your own interest, to profess a regard
for that of strangers, or to alarm others about the future,
whilst for the present you are unconcerned. I advise not
this: I bid you send supplies to the troops in Chersonesus,
and do what else they require; prepare yourselves and
make every effort first, then summon, gather, instruct the
rest of the Greeks.

That is the duty of a state possessing a dignity such No other
-rr A i_ <.m. i -J- state will

as yours. If you imagine that Chalcidians or Meganans stir a finger

will save Greece, while you run away from the contest,
you imagine wrong. Well for any of those people, if lead -
they are safe themselves. This work belongs to you:
this privilege your ancestors bequeathed to you, the
prize of many perilous exertions. But if every one
will sit seeking his pleasure, and studying to be idle
himself, never will he find others to do his work, and
more than this, I fear we shall be under the necessity of
doing at one time all that we like not. Were proxies to
be had, our inactivity would have found them long ago;
but they are not.
Such are the measures which I advise, which I propose : There is still

. hope of suc-

adopt them, and even yet, I believe, our prosperity may cess.
be reestablished. If any man has better advice to offer,
let him communicate it openly. Whatever you deter-
mine, I pray to all the gods for a happy result.

270

Rise of Macedon

Hellenic

league

formed

against

Philip.

Justin ix. 3.

Ancient
World, 274.

Battle of

Chaeronea,
338 B.C.

Moderate
use of the
victory.

Justin ix. 4.

n. HE GAINS CONTROL or GREECE

But as soon as he recovered from his wound, he made
war upon the Athenians, of which he had long dissembled
his intention. The Thebans espoused their cause, fear-
ing that if the Athenians were conquered, the war, like a
fire in the neighborhood, would spread to them. An
alliance being made accordingly between the two cities,
which were just before at violent enmity with each other,
they wearied Greece with embassies, stating that they
thought the common enemy ought to be repelled by their
common strength, for Philip would not rest, if his first
attempts succeeded, until he had subjugated all Greece.
Some of the cities were moved by these arguments, and
joined themselves to the Athenians; but the dread of a
war induced some to go over to Philip. A battle being
brought on, though the Athenians were far superior in
number of soldiers, they were conquered by the valor of
the Macedonians, which was invigorated by constant
service in the field. In defeat, however, they were not
unmindful of their ancient valor; for falling with wounds
in front, they all with their dead bodies covered the places
which they had been charged by their leaders to defend.
This day put an end to the glorious sovereignty and
ancient liberty of all Greece.

III. ORGANIZATION OF His SUPREMACY

Philip's joy for this victory was artfully concealed. He
abstained from offering the usual sacrifices on that day;
he did not smile at table, or mingle any diversions with the
entertainment; he had no chaplets or perfumes; and as far
as was in his power, he so managed his conquest that none
might think of him as a conqueror. He desired that he

Philip's Treatment of the Conquered 271

should not be called king, but general of Greece; and con-
ducted himself with such prudence between his own secret
joy on the one hand and the grief of the enemy on the
other, that he neither appeared to his own subjects to re-
joice, nor to the vanquished to insult them. To the
Athenians, whom he had found to be his bitterest enemies,
he sent back their prisoners without ransom, and gave up
the bodies of the slain for burial, bidding them convey the
relics of their dead to the sepulchres of their ancestors.
He also sent Alexander, his son, with his friend Antipater
to Athens, to establish peace and friendship with them.

The Thebans, however, he compelled to purchase their Harsh treat-
prisoners as well as the liberty of burying their dead. Thebans.
Some of the chief men of the city, too, he put to death;
others he banished, seizing upon the property of them all.
Afterward he reinstated in their country those that had
been unjustly banished, of whom he made three hundred
judges and governors of the city, before whom when the
most eminent citizens were arraigned on this very charge,
that of having banished them unjustly, they had such
spirit that they all acknowledged their participation in the
fact, and proved that it was better with the state when
they were condemned than when they were restored. A
wonderful instance of courage! They passed sentence, as
far as they could, on those who had the disposal of them
for life or death, and set at naught the pardon which their
enemies could give them; and as they could not avenge
themselves by deeds, they manifested their boldness by
spirit of words.

War being at an end in Greece, Philip directed deputies The council
from all the states to be summoned to Corinth, to settle
the condition of affairs. Here he fixed terms of peace for Justin ix. 5 .
the whole of Greece, according to the merits of each city;

272

Rise of Macedon

Ancient
World, 275 *

Philip's
character.

Justin ix. 8.

and chose from them all a council, to form a senate as it
were for the country. But the Lacedaemonians, standing
alone, showed contempt alike for the terms and the king.
They regarded the state of things, which had not been
agreed upon by the cities themselves, but had been forced
upon them by a conqueror, as a state, not of peace, but of
slavery. The number of troops to be furnished by each
city was then determined, whether the king in case of
being attacked was to be supported by their united force,
or whether war was to be made on any other power under
him as their general. In all these preparations for war it
was not to be doubted that the kingdom of Persia was the
object in view. The sum of the force was two hundred
thousand infantry and fifteen thousand cavalry. Ex-
clusive of this number there were also the army of Mace-
donia and the barbarians of the adjacent conquered na-
tions. . . .

As a king he was more inclined to display in war than
in entertainments; and his greatest riches were means for
military operations. He was better at getting wealth than
keeping it, and in consequence was always poor amidst his
daily spoliations. Clemency and perfidy were equally
valued by him; and no road to victory was, hi his opinion,
dishonorable. He was equally pleasing and treacherous
in his address, promising more than he could perform.
He was well qualified either for serious conversation or for
jesting. He maintained friendship more with a view to
interest than good faith. It was a common practice with
him to pretend kindness where he hated, and to counter-
feit dislike where he loved; to sow dissensions among
friends, and try to gain favor from both sides. With such a
disposition, his eloquence was very great, his language full
of point and studied effect; so that neither did his facility

Philip and Alexander Contrasted 273

fall short of his art, nor his invention of his facility, nor
his art of his invention.

To Philip succeeded his son Alexander, a prince greater Contrasted
than his father in both his virtues and his vices. Each of ander.
the two had a different mode of conquering; the one prose-
cuted his wars with open force, the other with subtlety; Justin, l. c.
the one delighted in deceiving his enemies, the other in
boldly repulsing them. The one was more prudent in
council, the other more noble in feeling. The father
would dissemble his resentment, and often subdue it;
when the son was provoked, there was neither. delay nor
bounds to his vengeance. They were both too fond of
wine, but the ill effects of their intoxication were totally
different; the father would rush from a banquet to face
the enemy, cope with him, and rashly expose himself to
dangers; the son vented his rage not upon his enemies but
on his friends. A battle often sent Philip away wounded;
Alexander often left a banquet stained with the blood of
his companions. The one wished to reign with his friends,
the other to reign over them. The one preferred to be
loved, the other to be feared. To literature both gave
equal attention. The father had more cunning, the son
more honor. Philip was more staid in his words, Alexan-
der in his actions. The son felt readier and nobler im-
pulses to spare the conquered; the father showed no mercy
even to his allies. The father was more inclined to fru-
gality, the son to luxury. By the same course by which the
father laid the foundations of the empire of the world, the
son consummated the glory of conquering the whole world.

IV. SUMMARY or HIS ACHIEVEMENTS

He (Philip) found you (the Macedonians) vagabonds and ^lets to
destitute of means, most of you clad in skins, feeding a Macedon.

274 Rise of Macedon

Alleged few sheep up the mountain sides, for the protection of
Alexander to whicE you had to fight with small success against the II-
t]nted C M n ace- tynans, Triballians, and the border Thracians. Instead of
donian sol- skins he gave you cloaks to wear, and from the mountains
Arrian,4o6- he led you down into the plains, and made you capable of
< exanderv]i.g. fighting the neighboring barbarians, so that you were no
longer compelled to preserve yourselves by trusting rather
to the inaccessible strongholds than to your own valor.
He made you colonists of cities, which he provided with
useful laws and customs; and from being slaves and sub-
jects, he made you rulers over those very barbarians by
whom you yourselves, as well as your property, were
previously liable to be carried off or ravaged. He added,
too, the greater part of Thrace to Macedon, and by seizing
the most conveniently situated places on the sea-coast, he
spread abundance over the land by commerce, and made
the working of the mines a secure employment. He made
you rulers over the Thessalians, of whom you had formerly
been in mortal fear; and by humbling the nation of the
Phocians he rendered the avenue into Greece broad and
easy for you, instead of being narrow and difficult. The
Athenians and Thebans, who were always lying in wait
to attack the Macedonians, he humbled to such a degree,
with my personal aid in the campaign, that instead of
paying tribute to Athens and being in vassalage to Thebes,
those states now obtain security for themselves by our
assistance. He penetrated into Peloponnese; and after reg-
ulating its affairs, he was publicly declared commander
in chief of all the rest of Greece in the expedition against
the Persians, adding this glory not more to himself than to
the commonwealth of the Macedonians.

Review 275

STUDIES

1. How, according to Demosthenes, had Philip injured the Greeks?
How had he grown great? What had the Greeks been doing mean-
while? Was Philip a Greek or a foreigner? What policy does the
orator advise? Why does he think Athens should take the lead?

2. How did Philip finally gain control of Greece?

3. What use did he make of his victory? How did he treat the
Athenians and the Thebans respectively? Why did he make this
difference? Describe in detail his organization of Greece. What was
the ultimate object? Describe Philip's character. What contrast is
drawn between him and his son? Which seems the better? Who
wrote this extract, from what sources did he probably draw, and
what seems to be his reliability?

4. What was the condition of the Macedonians on the accession of
Philip? What benefits, according to Alexander, did Philip confer on
them?

CHAPTER XXV

The reasons
for his suc-
cess.

Plutarch,
Alexander,
20 f.

Ancient
World, 280;
Greece, 312 f.

The spoil
and the
captives.

ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE

I. THE BATTLE OF Issus

FORTUNE, no doubt, greatly favored Alexander, but yet
he owed much of his success to his excellent generalship;
for although enormously outnumbered by the enemy, he
not only avoided being surrounded by them, but was able
to outflank their left with his own right wing, and by this
manoeuvre completely defeated the Persians. He himself
fought among the foremost, and according to Chares was
wounded in the thigh by Darius himself. In the account
of the battle which he despatched to Antipater, Alexander
does not mention the name of the man who wounded him,
but states that he received a stab in the thigh with a
dagger, and that the wound was not dangerous.

He won a most decisive victory, and slew more than a
hundred thousand of the enemy, but could not come up
with Darius himself, as he gained a start of nearly a mile.
He captured his chariot, however, and his bow and arrows,
and on his return found the Macedonians revelling in the
rich plunder which they had won, although the Persians
had been in light marching order, and had left most of
their heavy baggage at Damascus. The royal pavilion of
Darius himself, full of beautiful slaves and rich furniture
of every description, had been left unplundered, and was
reserved for Alexander himself, who as soon as he had
taken off his armor, proceeded to the bath, saying "Let
me wash off the sweat of the battle in the bath of Darius."

276

Royal Captives 277

"Nay," answered one of his companions, "in that of
Alexander; for the goods of the vanquished become the
property of the victor." When he entered the bath and
saw that all the vessels for water, the bath itself, and the
boxes of unguents were of pure gold, and smelt the de-
Jcious scent of the rich perfumes with which the whole
pavilion was filled; and when he passed from the bath
into a magnificent salon where a splendid banquet was
prepared, he looked at his friends and said "This, then, it
is to be a king indeed."

While he was dining it was told him that the mother and The family

. r f -~ , , . , , , of Darius,

wife of Darius and ms two daughters, who were among

the captives, had seen the chariot and bow of Darius, and
were mourning for him, imagining him to be dead. Alex-
ander when he heard this, paused for a long time, being
more affected by the grief of these ladies, than by the
victory he had won. He sent Leonnatus to inform them,
that they need never mourn for Darius nor fear Alexan-
der; for he was fighting for the empire of Asia, not as a per-
sonal enemy of Darius, and would take care that they were
treated with the same honor and respect as before. This
generous message to the captive princesses was followed
by acts of still greater kindness; for he permitted them to
bury whomsoever of the slain persons they wished, and
to use all their own apparel and furniture, which had been
seized by the soldiers as plunder. He also allowed them
to retain the regal title and state, and even increased their
revenues.

II. THE SACK OF PERSEPOLIS

The Macedonians therefore, forcing their way into the The spoil,
city, put all the men to the sword, and rifled and carried Diodorus
away every man's goods and estate, amongst which was

278 Alexander's Empire

abundance of rich and costly furniture and ornaments of
all sorts. In this place were looted here and there vast
quantities of silver, and no less of gold, great numbers of
rich garments, some of finest purple, others embroidered
with gold, all which became the prizes of the victors: and
thus the great seat-royal of the Persians, once famous all
the world over, was now exposed to scorn and contempt,
and rifled from top to bottom. For though the Mace-
donians spent days and days in the looting, yet their
covetousness was insatiable, still thirsting after more.
And they were so eager in plundering that they fought one
with another with drawn swords, and many who were
conceived to have got a greater share than the rest, were
killed in the quarrel. Some things that were of extraor-
dinary value they divided with their swords, and each
took a share; others in rage cut off the hands of such as
laid hold of a thing that was in dispute. ... So that in
proportion as Persepolis excelled all the other cities in
glory and worldly felicity, such was the measure of her
misery and calamity.

The Then Alexander seized upon all the treasures in the

citadel, a vast quantity of gold and silver of the public
revenues that had been there collected and laid up from
the time of Cyrus, the first king of Persia, to that day.
For there was found a hundred and twenty thousand
talents, reckoning the gold after the rate of the silver.

Part of this treasure he took for the use of the war, and
ordered another part of it to be treasured up at Susa. To
this end he ordered that a multitude of mules both for
draught and carriage, and three thousand camels with
pack-saddles, should be brought out of Babylon, Mesopo-
tamia, and Susa; and with these he conveyed all the treas-
ure to the several places he had appointed. For because

Destruction of Persepolis 279

he extremely hated the inhabitants, he was resolved not
to trust them with any thing, but utterly to ruin and
destroy Persepolis. As to the stately structure of the The palace,
palace we conceive it will not be out of place if we say
something. This grand fabric was surrounded with a
treble wall; the first was sixteen cubits high, adorned with
pinnacles. The second was like to the first, but as high
again as the other. The third was drawn like a quadrant,
sixty cubits high, all of hard stone and of a nature which
warranted imperishable duration. On the four sides are
brazen gates, near to which are gallowses of bronze twenty
cubits high. These were raised to terrify the beholders,
and the other for the better strengthening and fortifying
of the place. On the east side of the citadel, about four
hundred feet distant, stood a mount called the Royal
mount, for here are all the sepulchres of the kings, many
apartments and little cells cut into the midst of the rock;
into these cells there is made no direct passage, but the
coffins with the dead bodies are by instruments hoisted
up, and so let down into these vaults. In this citadel were
many stately lodgings, of excellent workmanship, both
for the king and his commanders, and treasury cham-
bers most commodiously contrived for the laying up of
money.

Here Alexander made a sumptuous feast for the enter- Alexander's
tainment of his friends in commemoration of his victory,
and offered magnificent sacrifices to the gods. And indeed Diod. xvii.
at one time when the "companions" of the king were
feasting and carousing, madness seized upon the souls of
the men flushed with wine. When also one of the women
present Thais of Athens said, "Alexander will per-
form the most glorious act of his life, if while he is feasting
with us he will burn the palace;" and so the glory and

280

Alexander's Empire

The burning
of the palace.

renown of Persia might be said to have come to naught in
a moment by the hands of women. This spread abroad,
and came to the ears of the men who were young and made
little use of reason when drink was in their heads. Pres-
ently one cries out, "Come on, bring us firebrands," and
so incited the rest to fire the citadel, to revenge the im-
piety the Persians had committed in destroying the
temples of the Grecians. Thereupon others with joy set
up a shout, and said, " So brave an exploit belongs only to
Alexander to perform!"

Stirred by these words, the king embraced the motion;
whereupon as many as were present left their cups and
leaped upon the table, and said, "We will now celebrate
a victorious festival to Bacchus." Then multitudes of
firebrands were presently got together, and all the women
that played on musical instruments at the feast were
called for, and then the king with songs, pipes and flutes
bravely led the procession of revelry conducted by Thais,
who next after the king threw the firebrand into the
palace. This precedent was presently followed by the rest,
so that in a very short time, the whole fabric, by the vio-
lence of the fire, was consumed to ashes.

His good
qualities.

Arrian, An-
abasis of
Alexander,
vii. 28.

Died 323
B.C.

III. CHARACTER OF ALEXANDER

Alexander died in the hundred and fourteenth Olym-
piad, in the archonship of Hegesias of Athens. According
to the statement of Aristobulus he lived thirty-two years
and had reached the eighth month of his thirty-third year.
He had reigned twelve years and these eight months. He
was very handsome in person, and unusually fond of exer-
tion, very active in mind, heroic in courage, tenacious of
honor, exceedingly fond of incurring danger, and strictly

Character of Alexander 281

observant of his duty to the deity. Over bodily pleasures
he maintained perfect self-control; in mental pleasures he
was insatiable in none but praise. He was exceedingly
clever in discovering what was to be done, while others
were still uncertain. From the observation of facts he
could with rare success conjecture what was likely to
happen. His fame was enhanced by his ability to rouse
courage in his soldiers, to fill them with hopes of success,
and to dispel their fear in the midst of danger by his own
freedom from alarm. Therefore what he had to do while
still uncertain of the result he performed with the utmost
boldness. He was clever, too, in getting the start of his
enemies, and in snatching from them their advantage by
secretly forestalling them, before anyone even feared for
the result. Remarkably steadfast in keeping the agree-
ments and settlements he had made, he was equally se-
cure from being entrapped by deceivers. Lastly he spent
little on his own pleasures but was very bountiful in ex-
pense for the benefit of others.

Eratosthenes blames the system of those who would Breadth of
divide all mankind into Greeks and Barbarians, and like- sym
wise those who recommended Alexander to treat the Greeks strabo i. 4. 9.
as friends, but the Barbarians as enemies. He suggests, as
a better course, to distinguish them according to their
virtues and their vices, "since amongst the Greeks there
are many worthless characters, and many highly civilized
are to be found amongst the Barbarians; witness the
Indians and Ariani, or still better the Romans and Cartha-
ginians, whose political system is so beautifully perfect.
Alexander, considering this, disregarded the advice which
had been offered him, and patronized without distinction
any man he considered to be deserving.

282 Alexander's Empire

STUDIES

1. What contributed to Alexander's victory at Issus? What spoil
came to the victors? How did Alexander treat the family of Darius?

2. Describe the looting of Persepolis. What treasures did Alex-
ander find there? What uses did he make of them? Describe the
palace. What led to its destruction?

3. Summarize the character of Alexander. What were his strong
and what his weak points? Did he injure as well as benefit the
countries he conquered?

CHAPTER XXVI

GREEK LIFE AND THOUGHT

I. TRAINING THE WIFE

DID you yourself educate your wife to be all that a wife Socrates
should be, or when you received her from her father and question of

mother was she already proficient, well skilled to dis-

charge the duties appropriate to a wife? Xenophon,

Well skilled! (he replied). What proficiency was she Economist,^.
likely to bring with her, when she was not quite fifteen at
the time she wedded me, and during the whole period of
her life had been most carefully brought up to see and
hear as little as possible, and to ask the fewest questions?
or do you not think one should be satisfied, if at marriage
her whole experience consisted in knowing how to take the
wool and make a dress, and seeing how her mother's hand-
maidens had their daily spinning-tasks assigned them?
For (he added), as regards control of appetite and self-
indulgence, she had received the soundest education, and
that I take to be the most important matter in the bringing
up of man or woman.

Then all else (said I) you taught your wife yourself, Ischom-
Ischomachus, until you had made her capable of attend- resolves to
ing carefully to her appointed duties? h his

That did I not (replied he) until I had offered sacrifice,
and prayed that I might teach and she might learn all that
could conduce to the happiness of us twain.

Soc. And did your wife join in sacrifice and prayer to
that effect?

283

284

Greek Life and Thought

The is ready
to learn.

Woman's
nature dif-
ferent from
man's.

Woman cre-
ated for in-
door work.

Isch. Most certainly, with many a vow registered to
heaven to become all she ought to be; and her whole man-
ner showed that she would not be neglectful of what was
taught her.

Soc. Pray narrate to me, Ischomachus, I beg you, what
you first essayed to teach her. To hear that story would
please me more than any description of the most splendid
gymnastic contest or horse-race you could give me. . . .

(In instructing his wife Ischomachus explains:)

"But whereas both of these, the indoor and the outdoor
occupations alike, demand new toil and new attention, to
meet the case," I added, " God made provision from the
first by shaping as it seems to me, the woman's nature for
indoor and the man's for outdoor occupations. Man's
body and soul He furnished with a greater capacity for
enduring heat and cold, wayfaring and military marches,
or to repeat, He laid upon his shoulders the outdoor works.

" While in creating the body of woman with less capacity
for these things," I continued, " God would seem to have
imposed upon her the indoor works; and knowing that He
had implanted in the woman and imposed upon her the
nurture of new-born babes, He endowed her with a larger
share of affections for the new-born child than He be-
stowed upon man. And since He had imposed upon
woman the guardianship of the things imported from
without, God, in His wisdom, perceiving that a fearful
spirit was no detriment to guardianship, endowed the
woman with a larger measure of timidity than He be-
stowed upon man. Knowing further that he to whom the
outdoor works belonged would need to defend them
against malign attack, He endowed the man in turn with
a larger share of courage.

"And seeing that both alike feel the need of giving and

Mutual Helpfulness 285

receiving, He set down memory and carefulness between Woman en-

i P i f, , , ,. , . , dowed with

them for their common use, so that you would find it hard memory and

to determine which of the two, the male or the female, carefulnes8 -

has the larger share of these. So, too, God set down be-

tween them for their common use the gift of self-control,

where needed, adding only to that one of the twain,

whether man or woman, which should prove the better,

the power to be rewarded with a larger share of this per-

fection. And for the very reason that their natures are

not alike adapted to like ends, they stand in greater need

of one another; and the married couple is made more use-

ful to itself, the one fulfilling what the other lacks.

"Now, being well aware of this, my wife," I added, Husband

tt Ji 11 i. L ii_- i -j t and wife are

and knowing well what things are laid upon us twain by partners and

God Himself, must we not strive to perform, each in the
best way possible, our respective duties? Law, too, gives
her consent law and the usage of mankind, by sanction-
ing the wedlock of man and wife; and just as God or-
dained them to be partners in their children, so the law
establishes their common ownership of house and estate.
Custom, moreover, proclaims as beautiful those excel-
lencies of man and woman with which God gifted them at
birth. Thus for a woman to bide tranquilly at home
rather than roam abroad is no dishonor; but for a man to
remain indoors, instead of devoting himself to outdoor
pursuits, is a thing discreditable. But if a man does
things contrary to the nature given him by God, the
chances are, such insubordination escapes not the eye of
Heaven; he pays the penalty, whether of neglecting his
own works, or of performing those appropriate to woman."
I added: "Just such works, if I mistake not, that same
queen-bee we spoke of labors hard to perform, like yours, bee.
my wife, enjoined upon her by God Himself."

286 Greek Life and Thought

"And what sort of works are these?" she asked; "what"
has the queen-bee to do that she seems so like myself, or
I like her in what I have to do? "

"Why," I answered, "she too stays in the hive 'and
suffers not the other bees to idle. Those whose duty it is
to work outside she sends forth to their labors; and all
that each of them brings in, she notes and receives and
stores against the day of need; but when the season for use
has come, she distributes a just share to each. Again, it is
she who presides over the fabric of choicely-woven cells
within. She looks to it that warp and woof are wrought
with speed and beauty. Under her guardian eye the brood
of young is nursed and reared; but when the days of rear-
ing are past and the young bees are ripe for work, she
sends them out as colonists with one of the seed royal to
be their leader."

"Shall I then have to do these things?" asked my
wife.
The wife's " Yes," I answered, "you will need in the same way to

management . ' J ...... . .

of the house, stay indoors, despatching to their toils without those of
your domestics whose work lies there. Over those whose
appointed tasks are wrought indoors, it will be your duty
to preside; yours to receive the stuffs brought in; yours to
apportion part for daily use, and yours to make provision
for the rest, to guard and garner it so that the outgoings
destined for a year may not be expended in a month. It
will be your duty, when the wools are introduced, to see
that clothing is made for those who need; your duty also
to see that the dried corn is rendered fit and serviceable
for food.

Seasick* f "There is just one of all these occupations which de-
volve upon you," I added, " that you may not find so alto-
gether pleasing. Should any of our household fall sick, it

Mutual Dependence 287

will be your care to see and tend them to the recovery of
their health."

"Nay," she answered, "that will be my pleasantest of
tasks, if careful nursing may touch the springs of gratitude
and leave them friendlier than heretofore."

And I (continued Ischomachus) was struck with admira-
tion at her answer, and replied: "Thank you, my wife, it
is through some such traits of forethought seen in their
mistress-leader that the hearts of bees are won, and they
are so loyally affectioned toward her that, if ever she
abandon her hive, not one of them will dream of being
left behind; but one and all must follow her.'

And my wife made answer to me: "It would much
astonish me (said she) did not these leader's works, you
speak of, point to you rather than to myself. Methinks
mine would be a pretty guardianship and distribution of
things indoors without your provident care to see that the
importations from without were duly made."

"Just so," I answered, "and mine would be a pretty
importation if there were none to guard what I imported.
Do you not see," I added, "how pitiful is the case of those
unfortunates who pour water into their sieves forever, as
the story goes, and labor but in vain? "

"Pitiful enough, poor souls," she answered, "if that is
what they do."

" But there are other cares, you know, and occupations," Training her
I answered, "which are yours by right, and these you will
find agreeable. This, for instance: to take some maiden
who knows naught of carding wool and to make her pro-
ficient in the art, doubling her usefulness; or to receive
another quite ignorant of housekeeping or of service, and
to render her skilful, loyal, serviceable, till she is worth
her weight in gold; or again, when occasion serves, you

288 Greek Life and Thought

have it in your power to requite by kindness the well-
behaved whose presence is a blessing to your house; or
maybe to chasten the bad character, should such an one
The reward, appear. But the greatest joy of all will be to prove your-
self my better; to make me your faithful follower; knowing
no dread lest as the years advance you should decline in
honor in your household, but rather trusting that, though
your hair turn gray, yet in proportion as you come to be a
better helpmate to myself and to the children, a better
guardian of our home, so will your honor increase through-
out the household as mistress, wife, and mother, daily
more dearly prized. Since," I added, "it is not through
excellence of outward form, but by reason of the lustre
of virtues shed forth upon the life of man, that increase
is given to things beautiful and good."

II. THE DECLINE IN Music AND ITS DEMORALIZING
EFFECTS

Formerly law Athenian. Under the ancient laws, my friends, the
people was not as now the master, but rather the willing

Megillus. What laws do you mean?

Ath. In the first place let us speak of the laws about
music, that is to say, such music as then existed, in
order that we may trace the growth of the excess of free-
dom from the beginning. Now music was early divided
among us into certain kinds and manners. One sort con-
sisted of prayers to the Gods, which were called hymns;
and there was another and opposite sort called lamenta-
tions, and another termed paeans, and another celebrating
the birth of Dionysus, called, I believe, "dithyrambs."
And they used the actual word "laws" (VQ^QI) for an-
other kind of song; and to this they added the term

The Beginning of Lawlessness 289

"citharcedic." All these and others were duly distin-
guished, nor were the performers allowed to confuse one
style of music with another. And the authority which The audience
determined and gave judgment, and punished the dis- performance

obedient, was not expressed in a hiss, nor in the most
unmusical shouts of the multitude, as in our days, nor in
applause and clapping of hands. But the directors of
public instruction insisted that the spectators should
listen in silence to the end; and boys and their tutors, and
the multitude in general, were kept quiet by a hint from a
stick. Such was the good order which the multitude were
willing to observe; they would never have dared to give
judgment by noisy cries.

And then, as time went on, the poets themselves intro- The decline.
duced the reign of vulgar and lawless innovation. They
were men of genius, but they had no perception of what is
just and lawful in music; raging like Bacchanals and Change from

. ,. 11*1 classical

possessed with inordinate delights mingling lamenta- music to
tions with hymns, and paeans with dithyrambs; imitating rag " tu
the sounds of the flute on the lyre, and making one general
confusion; ignorantly affirming that music has no truth,
and whether good or bad, can only be judged of rightly by
the pleasure of the hearer.

And by composing such licentious works, and adding to
them words as licentious, they have inspired the multitude
with lawlessness and boldness, and made them fancy that The spirit of

lawlessness

they can judge for themselves about melody and song, begins in the

And in this way the theatres from being mute have be- theatre -

come vocal, as though they had understanding of good and

bad in music and poetry; and instead of an aristocracy, an

evil sort of theatrocracy has grown up. For if the democ-

racy which judged had only consisted of educated persons,

no fatal harm would have been done; but in music there

2 9

Greek Life and Thought

It spreads
through the
whole com-
munity.

Socrates
goes to
Peiraeus.

Plato, Re-
public (open-
ing).

Cephalus is
father of
Lysias the
orator; An-
cient World,
287. They
were a fam-
ily of resident
aliens
(metics) .

first arose the universal conceit of omniscience and general
lawlessness; freedom came following afterward, and men,
fancying that they knew what they did not know, had no
longer any fear, and the absence of fear begets shameless-
ness. For what is this shamelessness, which is so evil a
thing, but the insolent refusal to regard the opinion of the
better by reason of an over-daring sort of liberty?

Meg. Very true.

Ath. Consequent upon this freedom comes the other
freedom, of disobedience to rulers; and then the attempt
to escape the control and exhortation of father, mother,
elders, and when near the end, the control of the laws also;
and at the very end there is the contempt of oaths and
pledges, and no regard at all for the Gods, herein they
exhibit and imitate the old so-called Titanic nature, and
come to the same point as the Titans when they rebelled
against God, leading a life of endless evils.

III. SOCRATES VISITS CEPHALUS

I went down yesterday to the Peiraeus with Glaucon the
son of Ariston, that I might offer up my prayers to the
goddess; and also because I wanted to see in what manner
they would celebrate the festival, which was a new thing.
I was delighted with the procession of the inhabitants;
but that of the Thracians was equally, if not more, beauti-
ful. When we had finished our prayers and viewed the
spectacle, we turned in the direction of the city; and at
that instant Polemarchus the son of Cephalus chanced to
catch sight of us from a distance as we were starting on
our way home, and told his servant to run and bid us wait
for him. The servant took hold of me by the cloak be-
hind, and said: Polemarchus desires you to wait.

I turned round, and asked him where his master was.

A Conversation in the Street 291

There he is, saith the youth, coming after you, if you
will only wait.

Certainly we will, said Glaucon; and in a few minutes
Polemarchus appeared, and with him Adeimantus, Glau-
con's brother, Niceratus, the son of Nicias, and several Nicias is the

well-known

others who had been at the procession. general;

Polemarchus said to me: I perceive, Socrates, that you wu a23 f. f
and your companion are already on your way to the city. 227-232.

You are not far wrong, I said.

But do you see, he rejoined, how many we are?

Of course.

And are you stronger than all these? for if not, you will
have to remain where you are.

May there not be the alternative, I said, that we may
persuade you to let us go?

But can you persuade us, if we refuse to listen to you?
he said.

Certainly not, replied Glaucon.

Then we are not going to listen; of that you may be
assured.

Adeimantus added: Has no one told you of the torch A torch race.
race on horseback in honor of the goddess which will take
place in the evening?

With horses! I replied: That is a novelty. Will horse-
men carry torches and pass them to one another during
the races?

Yes, said Polemarchus, and not only so, but a festival
will be celebrated at night, which you certainly ought to
see. Let us rise soon after supper and see this festival;
there will be a gathering of young men, and we will have
a good talk. Stay then, and do not be perverse.

Glaucon said: I suppose since you insist, that we must.

Very good, I replied.

2Q2

Greek Life and Thought

Old age
takes in-
creased
pleasure in
conversa-
tion.

The com-
plaints of
the old.

Accordingly we went with Polemarchus to his house;
and there we .found his brothers Lysias and Euthydemus,
and with them Thrasymachus the Chalcedonian, Char-
mantides the Paeanian, and Cleitophon the son of Aristony-
mus. There too was Cephalus the father of Polemarchus,
whom I had not seen for a long time, and I thought him
very much aged. He was seated on a cushioned chair,
and had a garland on his head, for he had been sacrificing
in the court; and there were some other chairs in the room
arranged in a semicircle, upon which we sat down by him.
He saluted me eagerly, and then he said:

You don't come to see me, Socrates, as often as you
ought: if I were still able to go and see you I would not ask
you to come to me. But at my age I can hardly get to the
city, and therefore you should come oftener to the Peiraeus.
For let me tell you, that the more the pleasures of the
body fade away, the greater to me is the pleasure and
charm of conversation. Do not then deny my request,
but make our house your resort and keep company with
these young men; we are old friends, and you will be quite
at home with us.

I replied: There is nothing which for my part I like
better, Cephalus, than conversing with aged men; for I
regard them as travellers who have gone a journey which
I too may have to go, and of whom I ought to enquire,
whether the way is smooth and easy, or rugged and diffi-
cult. And this is a question which I should like to ask of
you who have arrived at that time which the poets call the
"threshold of old age." Is life harder towards the end,
or what report do you give of it?

I will tell you, Socrates, he said, what my own feeling is.
Men of my age flock together; we are birds of a feather,
as the old proverb says; and at our meetings the tale of

May the Aged be Happy? 293

my acquaintance commonly is I cannot eat, I cannot
drink; the pleasures of youth and love are fled away;
there was a good time once, but now that is gone, and life
is no longer life. Some complain of the slights which are
put upon them by relations, and they will tell you sadly of
how many evils their old age is the cause. But to me,
Socrates, these complainers seem to blame that which is
not really in fault. . . . Certainly old, age has a great The
sense of calm and freedom, when the passions relax their age.
hold, then, as Sophocles says, we are freed from the grasp
not of one mad master only, but of many. The truth is,
Socrates, that these regrets, and also the complaints about
relations, are to be attributed to the same cause, which is
not old age, but men's characters and tempers; for he who
is of a calm and happy nature will hardly feel the pressure
of age, but to him who is of an opposite disposition youth
and age are equally a burden.

I listened in admiration, and wanting to draw him out, Sj ^S^find
that he might go on Yes, Cephalus, I said; but I rather enjoyment
suspect that people in general are not convinced by you
when you speak thus; they think that old age sits lightly
upon you, not because of your happy disposition, but be-
cause you are rich, and wealth is well known to be a great
comforter.

You are right, he replied, they are not convinced; and
there is something in what they say; not however, so
much as they imagine. I might answer them as Themis-
tocles answered the Seriphian who was abusing him and
saying that he was famous not for his own merits but be-
cause he was an Athenian: "If you had been a native of
my country or I of yours, neither of us would have been
famous." And to those who are not rich and are im-
patient of old age, the same reply may be made; for to the

294 Greek Life and Thought

good poor man old age cannot be a light burden nor can a
bad rich man ever have peace with himself.

The Greek May I ask, Cephalus, whether your fortune was for the

attitude to- . .

ward money- most part inherited or acquired by you?

Acquired! Socrates, do you want to know how much I
acquired? In the art of making money I have been mid-
way between my father and grandfather; for my grand-
father, whose name I bear, doubled and trebled the value
of his patrimony, that which he inherited being much what
I possess now; but my father Lysanias reduced the prop-
erty below what it is at present; and I shall be satisfied if
I leave to these my sons not less but a little more than
I received.

Cephalus That was why I asked you the question, I replied, be-

the industrial cause I see that you are indifferent about money, which is
tte chiefoi? a characteristic rather of those who have inherited their
ject of his fortunes than of those who have acquired them; the makers

life was not

money- of fortunes have a second love of money as a creation of

So" not? know 6 their own, resembling the affection of authors for their
own P oems or f parents for their children, besides that

sole aim was natural love of it for the sake of use and profit which is

acquisition. .

common to them and all men. And hence they are very
bad company, for they can talk about nothing but the
praises of wealth.

IV. EDUCATION

Education Since the whole city has one end, it is manifest that
public, and education should be one and the same for all, and that it
the same for s h ou ici be public, and not private, not as at present,
when every one looks after his own children separately,
Aristotle, ano l gives them separate instruction of the sort which he

Politics, \'m.i. .

thinks best; the training in things which are of common
interest should be the same for all. Neither must we

Liberal Education 295

suppose that any one of the citizens belongs to himself, Ancient
for they all belong to the state, and are each of them a
part of the state, and the care of each part is inseparable
from the care of the whole. In this particular the Lace-
daemonians are to be praised, for they take the greatest
pains about their children, and make education the busi-
ness of the state. . . .

There can be no doubt that children should be taught What kind
those useful things which are really necessary, but not all edge is use-
things; for occupations are divided into liberal and il- ful '
liberal; and to young children should be imparted only Aristotle,
such kinds of knowledge as will be useful to them without viii. 2. '
vulgarizing them. And any occupation, art, or science,
which makes the body or soul or mind of the freeman less
fit for the practice or exercise of virtue, is vulgar; where-
fore we call those arts vulgar which tend to deform the
body, and likewise all paid employments, for they absorb
and degrade the mind. There are also some liberal arts
quite proper for a freeman to acquire, but only in a certain
degree, and if he attend to them too closely, in order to
attain perfection in them, the same evil effects will fol-
low. . . .

The customary branches of education are in number Branches of

* . education,

four: they are (i) reading and writing, (2) gymnastic

exercises, (3) music, to which i sometimes added (4) draw-
ing. Of these, reading and writing and drawing are re-
garded as useful for the purposes of life in a variety of
ways, and gymnastic exercises are thought to infuse
courage. Concerning music a doubt may be raised in
our own day most men cultivate it for the sake of pleasure,
but originally it was included in education, because nature
herself, as has been often said, requires that we should be
able, not only to work well, but to use leisure well.

296 Greek Life and Thought

STUDIES

1. What does Ischomachus consider the chief thing in education?
What training had his wife prior to marriage? What did he aim to
teach her? What in detail was the wife's work? What was to be her
reward?

2. What was the importance of music in Greece? Under what
discipline was the theatre kept? What change of music took place
and with what effect on character?

3. From this passage what may we learn of home life and social
life? What did Cephalus think of old age? How did this manu-
facturer regard money-making? What was the social standing of
this family of resident aliens?

4. What does Aristotle say was the actual education of the time,
and what improvement does he suggest? What in his opinion should
children be taught? What were the customary branches? What
was his idea of a liberal education? Why should we attach any
importance to his opinion?

CHAPTER XXVII

THE HELLENISTIC AGE

I. THE ACHAEAN LEAGUE
THE Achaeans, as I have stated before, have in our time The league

, .. . , . unites Pelo-

made extraordinary progress in material prosperity and ponnesus.

internal unity. For though many statesmen had tried in p i y bius ii.

past times to induce the Peloponnesians to join in a 37-

league for the common interests of all, and had always AwteM

. ' , , , ,. ,. World, 300-3.

failed, because every one was working to secure his own
power rather than the freedom of the whole; yet in our
day this policy has made such progress, and been carried
out with such completeness, that not only is there in the
Peloponnese a community of interests such as exists be-
tween allies or friends, but an absolute identity of laws,
weights, measures, and currency. All the states have the
same magistrates, senate, and judges. Nor is there any
difference between the entire Peloponnese and a single
city, except in the fact that its inhabitants are not in-
cluded within the same wall; in other respects, both as a
whole and in their individual cities, there is a nearly abso-
lute assimilation of institutions.

It will be useful to ascertain, to begin with, how it came Rise of the
to pass that the name of the Achaeans became the uni-
versal one for all the inhabitants of the Peloponnese. For y '
the original bearers of this ancestral name have no su-
periority over others, either in the size of their territory
and cities, or in wealth, or in the prowess of their men.
For they are a long way from being superior to the Arca-

297

298 The Hellenistic Age

dians and Lacedaemonians in number of inhabitants and
extent of territory; nor can these latter nations be said to
yield the first place in warlike courage to any Greek
people whatever. Whence then comes it that these na-
tions, with the rest of the inhabitants of the Peloponnese,
have been content to adopt the constitution and name of
the Achaeans? To speak of chance in such a matter would
not be to offer any adequate solution of the question, and
would be a mere idle evasion. A cause must be sought;
for without a cause nothing, expected or unexpected, can
be accomplished. The cause, then, in my opinion, was
this. Nowhere could be found a more unalloyed and de-
liberately established system of equality and absolute
freedom, in a word, of democracy, than among the
Achaeans. This constitution found many of the Pelopon-
nesians ready enough to adopt it of their own accord:
many were brought to share it by persuasion and argu-
ment: some though acting upon compulsion at first, were
quickly brought to acquiesce in its benefits; for none of
the original members had any special privilege reserved
for them, but equal rights were given to all comers: the
object aimed at was therefore quickly attained by the
two most unfailing expedients of equality and fraternity.
This then must be looked upon as the source and original
cause of Peloponnesian unity and consequent prosperity.

Its officers. For the first twenty-five years of the league between the
Polyb. ii. 43. cities I have mentioned, a secretary and two generals for
the whole union were elected by each city in turn. But
after this period they determined to appoint one general
only, and put the entire management of the affairs of the
union in his hands. The first to obtain this honor was
Margus of Caryneia. In the fourth year after this man's

Aratus; a Federal Assembly 299

tenure of the office, Aratus of Sicyon caused his city to

join the league, which, by his energy and courage, he had,

when only twenty years of age, delivered from the yoke

of its tyrant. In the eighth year again after this, Aratus, Aratus.

being elected general for the second time, laid a plot to

seize the Acrocorinthus, then held by Antigonus; and by Acrocorin-

success freed the inhabitants of the Peloponnese from a dtadelof

source of serious alarm: and having thus liberated Corinth Antion

he caused it to join the league. In his same term of office was ruler of
he got Megara into his hands, and caused it to join also.
These events occurred in the year before the decisive de- 242 B.C.
feat of the Carthaginians, in consequence of which they
evacuated Sicily and consented for the first time to pay
tribute to Rome.

Having made this remarkable progress in his design in
so short a time, Aratus continued thenceforth in the posi-
tion of leader of the Achaean league, and in the consistent
direction of his whole policy to one single end; which was
to expel Macedonians from the Peloponnese, to depose the
despots, and to establish in each state the common free-
dom which their ancestors had enjoyed before them.

Immediately after Phillopcemen had been succeeded by A session of
A 111 r i TV. i th federal

Anstaenus as general, the ambassadors of king Ptolemy assembly.
arrived, while the league meeting was assembled at p i y bi us
Megalopolis. King Eumenes also had despatched an 3ndi - I0 -
embassy offering to give the Achaeans one hundred and Offer of king

J . , , Eumenes of

twenty talents, on condition that it was invested and the Pergamum.
interest used to pay the council of the league at the time various
of the federal assemblies. Ambassadors came also from

king Seleucus, to renew his friendship with them and ship of the
offering a present of a fleet of ten ships of war. . . .
Next came the ambassadors from Eumenes, who re-

300

The Hellenistic Age

The offer re-
jected.

Ib. ii.

The moral
standard of
the league
was high.

newed the ancestral friendship of the king with the
Achaeans, and stated to the assembly the offer made by
him. They spoke at great length on these subjects, and
retired after setting forth the greatness of the king's kind-
ness and affection to the nation.

After they had finished their speech, Apollonidas of
Sicyon rose and said that, "As far as the amount of the
money was concerned, it was a present worthy of the
Achaeans. But if they looked to the intention of the
donor, or to the purpose to which the gift was to
be applied, none could well be more insulting and
more unconstitutional. The laws prohibited any one,
whether a private individual or magistrate, from accept-
ing presents from a king on any pretence whatever; but if
they took this money they would every one of them be
plainly accepting a present, which was at once the gravest
possible breach of the law, and confessedly the deepest
personal disgrace. For that the council should take a
great wage from Eumenes, and meet to deliberate on the
interests of the league after swallowing such a bait, was
manifestly disgraceful and injurious. It was Eumenes
that offered money now; presently it would be Prusias;
and then Seleucus. But as the interests of democracies
and of kings are quite opposite to each other, and as our
most frequent and most important deliberations concern
the points of controversy arising between us and the
kings, one of two things must necessarily happen; either
the interests of the king will have precedence over our
own, or we must incur the reproach of ingratitude for
opposing our paymasters." He therefore urged the
Achaeans not only to decline the offer, but to hold Eumenes
in detestation for thinking of making it. ...

After these speeches had been delivered, the people

The Federal Assembly 301

showed such signs of enthusiastic approval that no one
ventured to speak on the side of the king; but the whole
assembly rejected the offer by acclamation, though its
amount certainly made it exceedingly tempting.

The next subject introduced for debate was that of
king Ptolemy. The ambassadors who had been on the
mission to Ptolemy were called forward, and Lycortas, J treaty? 1 f
acting as spokesman, began by stating how they had Ib J2
interchanged oaths of alliance with the king; and next
announced that they brought a present from the king to
the Achaean league of six thousand stands of arms for
peltasts, and two thousand talents in bronze coinage.
He added a panegyric on the king, and finished his speech
by a brief reference to the goodwill and active benevolence
of the king towards the Achaeans. Upon this the general There were
of the Achaeans, Aristaenus, stood up and asked Lycortas ties between
and his colleagues in the embassy to Ptolemy "which thestates -
alliance it was that he had thus renewed? . . . . "

And when no one was able to explain, not even Philip-
cemen himself, who had been in office when the renewal
was made, nor Lycortas and his colleagues who had been
on the mission to Alexandria, these men all began to be
regarded as careless in conducting the business of the
league; while Aristaenus acquired great reputation as be-
ing the only man who knew what he was talking about;
and finally, the assembly refused to allow the ratification,
voting on account of this blunder that the business should
be postponed.

Then the ambassadors from Seleucus entered with their
proposal. The Achaeans, however, voted to renew the
friendship with Seleucus, but to decline for the present
the gift of the ships.

302

The Hellenistic Age

A slight
lapse of the
Rhodians.

Polybius
xxxi. 25.

These words
are a high
compliment
to the Greek
state in gen-
eral, and '
particularly
to Rhodes.

Eumenes was
king of Per-
gamum. The
gift was made
162 B.C.

Priene suf-
fers rather
than betray
a trust.

Polybius
xxxiii. 6.

Orophernes
had become
king of Cap-
padocia in
place of
Ariarathes;
but the lat-
ter eventually
recovered
his kingdom.

II. HIGH SENSE OF HONOR OF THE GREEK STATES

Though in other respects maintaining the dignity of
their states, the Rhodians made, in my opinion, a slight
lapse in this period. They had received 280,000 medimni
of grain from Eumenes, that its value might be invested
and the interest devoted to pay the fees of the tutors and
schoolmasters of their sons. One might accept this from
friends in a case of financial embarrassment, as one might
in private life, rather than allow children to remain un-
educated for want of means. But where means are abund-
ant, a man would rather do anything than allow the
schoolmaster's fee to be supplied by a joint contribution
from his friends. And in proportion as a state should
hold higher notions than an individual, so ought govern-
ments to be more jealous of their dignity than private
men, and above all a Rhodian government, considering
the wealth of the country and its high pretensions.

About this time an unexpected misfortune befell the
people of Priene. They had received a deposit of four
hundred talents from Orophernes when he got possession
of the kingdom; and subsequently when Ariarathes re-
covered his dominion he demanded the money of them.
But they acted like honest men, in my opinion, in de-
claring that they would deliver it to no one as long as
Orophernes was alive, except to the person who deposited
it with them; while Ariarathes was thought by many to be
committing a breach of equity in demanding a deposit
made by another. Up to this point, however, one might
perhaps pardon his making the attempt, because he looked
upon the money as belonging to his own kingdom; but to
push his anger and imperious determination as much

Priene; Alexandria 303

farther as he did seems utterly unjustifiable. At the Attalus was
period I refer to, then, he sent troops to pillage the terri- pSgamum,
tory of Priene, Attalus assisting and urging him on from a J Ariarathes
private grudge which he entertained toward the Prienians.
After losing many slaves and cattle, some of them being
slaughtered close to the city itself, the Prienians, unable
to defend themselves, first sent an embassy to the Rho- Part of the
dians and eventually appealed for protection to Rome. . . . wanting 6 1S

But he would not listen to the proposal. Hence it came
about that the Prienians, who had great hopes from hold- They had
ing so large a sum of money, found themselves entirely care of the
disappointed. For they repaid Orophernes his deposit, ^o^fbring
and thanks to this same deposit, were unjustly exposed to t} \ em some

11 i r . i advantage.

severe damage at the hands of Ariarathes.

III. ALEXANDRIA

The former kings of Egypt, satisfied with what they Exclusive-
possessed, and not desirous of foreign commerce, enter- early Egyp-
tained a dislike to all mariners, especially the Greeks, tiankm s s -
who on account of the poverty of their own country, Strabo xvii.
ravaged and coveted the property of other nations. They
stationed a guard, who had orders to keep off all persons
who approached. To the guard was assigned as a place of
residence the spot called Rhacotis, which is now a part of
the city of Alexandria, situated above the arsenal. At
that time, however, it was a village. The country about
the village was given up to herdsmen, who were also able
by their numbers to prevent strangers from entering the
country.

When Alexander arrived, and perceived the advantages Founding of
of the situation, he determined to build the city on the
harbor. The resulting prosperity of the place was in- Ancient .
timated, it is said, by a presage which occurred while the

304

The Hellenistic Age

Advantages
of the city.

Strabo xvii.
i- 7- .

Its whole-
some cli-
mate.

plan of the city was tracing. The architects were en-
gaged in marking out the line of the wall with chalk, and
had consumed it all, when the king arrived, whereupon
the dispensers of flour supplied the workmen with a part
of the flour which was provided for their own use; and this
substance was used in tracing the greater part of the di-
visions of the streets. This, they said, was a good omen
for the city.

The advantages of the city are of various kinds. The
site is washed by two seas; on the north by what is called
the Egyptian Sea, and on the south by the sea of the lake
Mareia, which is also called Mareotis. This lake is filled
by many canals from the Nile, both by those above and
those at the sides, through which a greater quantity of
merchandise is imported than through those communicat-
ing with the sea. Hence the harbor on the lake is richer
than the maritime harbor. The exports by sea from
Alexandria exceed the imports. This any person may as-
certain, at either Alexandria or Dicaearchia, by watching
the arrival and departure of the merchant vessels, and
observing how much heavier or lighter their cargoes are
when they depart or when they return.

In addition to the wealth derived from merchandise
landed at the harbors on each side, on the sea and on the
lake, the fine air is worthy of remark: this results from the
city's being on two sides surrounded by water, and from
the favorable effects of the rise of the Nile. For other
cities, situated near lakes, have during the heats of sum-
mer a heavy and suffocating atmosphere, and lakes at
their margins become swampy by the evaporation oc-
casioned by the sun's heat. When a large quantity of
moisture is exhaled from swamps, a noxious vapor rises,
and is the cause of pestilential disorders. But at Alex-

Public Buildings of Alexandria 305

andria, at the beginning of summer, the Nile, being full,
fills the lake also, and leaves no marshy matter which is
likely to occasion deadly vapors. At the same period the
Etesian winds blow from the north over a large expanse of
sea, and the Alexandrines in consequence pass their sum-
mer very pleasantly.

The shape of the site of the city is that of a chlamys or The plan of
military cloak. The sides, which determine the length,
are surrounded by water, and are about thirty stadia in * 8 *
extent; but the isthmuses, which determine the breadth
of the sides, are each of seven or eight stadia, bounded on
one side by the sea, and on the other by the lake. The
whole city is intersected by streets for the passage of
horsemen and chariots. Two of these are very broad,
exceeding a plethrum in breadth, and cut one another A plethrum

. i , T . , .-,,,. is about 100

at right angles. It contains also very beautiful public f ee t.
grounds, and royal palaces, which occupy a fourth or even
a third part of its whole extent. For as each of the kings
was desirous of adding some embellishment to the places
dedicated to the public use, each added to the works al-
ready existing a building at his own expense; hence the
expression of the poet may be here applied, "One after
the other springs." All the buildings are connected with
one another and with the harbor, and those also which
are beyond it.

The Museum is a part of the palaces. It has a public The Mu-
walk and a place furnished with seats and a large hall, in
which the men of learning, who belong to the Museum,
take their common meal. This community possesses also
property in common; and a priest, formerly appointed by
the kings but at present by Caesar, presides over the
Museum.

A part belonging to the palaces consists of the so-called

306

The Hellenistic Age

Other build-
ings.

Ib. 10.

The form of
the earth.

Straboi. i.
20.

Sema, an enclosure which contained the tombs of the
kings and that of Alexander (the Great). . . . Ptolemy
carried away the body of Alexander, and deposited it at
Alexandria in the place where it now lies; not indeed in
the same coffin, for the present one is of alabaster, whereas
Ptolemy had deposited it in one of gold. . . .

In short, the city of Alexandria abounds in public and
sacred buildings. The most beautiful of the former is the
Gymnasium with porticos exceeding a stadium in extent.
In the middle of it are a court of justice and groves. Here
also is a Paneium, an artificial mound of the shape of a
fir-cone, resembling a pile of rock, to the top of which
there is an ascent by a spiral path. From the summit
may be seen the whole city lying all around and beneath it.

IV. SCIENCE

Geometry and astronomy, as we before remarked, seem
absolutely indispensable in this science (geography). This
in fact is evident, that without some such assistance, it
would be impossible to be accurately acquainted with the
configuration of the earth; its zones, dimensions, and the
like information.

As the size of the earth has been demonstrated by other
writers, we shall here take for granted and receive as ac-
curate what they have advanced. We shall also assume
that the earth is spheroidal, that its surface is likewise
spheroidal, and above all, that bodies have a tendency
towards its centre, which latter point is clear to the per-
ception of the most average understanding. However, we
may show summarily that the earth is spheroidal, from
the consideration that all things however distant tend to
its centre, and that every body is attracted toward its
centre of gravity; this is more distinctly proved from ob-

The Shape and the Size of the Earth 307

servations of the sea and sky, for here the evidence of the
senses, and common observation, is alone requisite. The
convexity of the sea is a further proof of this to those who
have sailed; for they cannot perceive lights at a distance
when placed at the same level as their eyes, but if raised
on high, they at once become perceptible to vision, though
at the same time further removed. So, when the eye is
raised, it sees what before was utterly imperceptible.
Homer speaks of this when he says,

Lifted up on the vast wave he quickly beheld afar. Odyssey \.

393-

Sailors, as they approach their destination, behold the
shore continually raising itself to their view; and objects
which had at first seemed low, begin to elevate them-
selves. Our gnomons also are, among other things, evi-
dence of the revolution of the heavenly bodies; and com-
mon sense at once shows us, that if the depth of the earth
were infinite, such a revolution could not take place.

Further, endeavoring to support the opinion that it is Dimensions
in accordance with natural philosophy to reckon the and the
greatest dimension of the habitable earth from east to ?t^circum-
west, he (Eratosthenes) says that, according to the laws of navigation,
natural philosophy, the habitable earth ought to occupy a Eratosthe-
greater length from east to west, than its breadth from
north to south. The temperate zone, which we have 4- 6<
already designated as the longest zone, is that which the
mathematicians denominate a continuous circle returning
upon itself. So that if the extent of the Atlantic Ocean
were not an obstacle, we might easily pass by sea from
Iberia to India, still keeping in the same parallel; the re-
maining portion of which parallel, measured as above in
stadia, occupies more than a third of the whole circle:
since the parallel drawn through Athens, on which we

308

The Hellenistic Age

A stadium is have taken the distances from India to Iberia, does not

600 feet. . . .. ,

contain altogether 200,000 stadia.

Physiology.

Pliny, Natu-
ral History,
xi. 69, citing
in part,
Herophilus
(3d century
B.C.).

But Heroph-
ilus taught
that the
brain was
the seat of
the mind.

Herophilus
taught the
circulation
of the blood.

Herophilus
distin-
guished the
arteries from
the veins
(and we may
add, the
sensory from
the motor
nerves).

76. 88.

Contract of
marriage in
Egypt.
Shortly be-
fore Alexan-
der's con-
quest.

i argenteus=
5 shekels,
i shekel=6
obols.

The heart is the principal seat of the heat of the body;
it is constantly beating, and moves as though it were one
animal enclosed within another. It is enveloped in a
membrane equally supple and strong, and is protected by
the bulwarks formed by the ribs and the bone of the
breast, as the primary source and origin of life. It con-
tains within itself the primary receptacles for the spirit
and the blood, in its sinuous cavity, which in the larger
animals is threefold and in all at least twofold. Here the
mind has its abode. From this source proceed two large
veins, which branch into the front part and the back
part of the body, and which, spreading out in a series of
branches, convey the vital blood by other smaller veins
over the whole body. . . .

The pulsation of the arteries is more perceptible on the
surface of the limbs, and affords indications of nearly
every disease, being either stationary, quickened or re-
tarded, conformably to certain measures and metrical
laws, which depend on the age of the patient, and which
have been described with remarkable skill by Herophilus,
who has been regarded as a prophet in the wondrous art
of medicine.

V. SOCIAL LIFE

I have accepted thee for wife, I have given thee one
argenteus, in shekels 5, one argenteus in all for thy woman's
gift. I must give thee 6 obols, their half is 3, to-day 6,
by the month 3, by the double month 6, 36 for a year:
equal to one argenteus and a fifth in shekels 6; one ar-

1 This would give a circumference of about 22,700 miles for the
thirty-sixth parallel, or about 28,500 miles for the equator.

A Marriage Contract; Two Letters 309
genteus and one fifth in all for thy toilet for a year. The interest

T . , f , . . . .. of this docu-

Lastly a tenth of an argenteus, in shekels one half, one ment lies in
argenteus one tenth of thy pin money by the month, protons*
which makes one argenteus and one fifth, in shekels 6. one m * de * r the

wife. From

argenteus and one fifth for thy pin money during the year, the extract
Thy pin money for one year is apart from thy toilet
money. I must give it to thee each year, and it is thy
right to exact the payment of thy toilet money, and thy sons con-

, . , ' , , , , , T cerned, and

pin money, which are to be placed to my account. I must other techni-
give it to thee. Thy eldest son, my eldest son, shall be the j^ e 4 the
heir of all my property, present and future. I will estab- and the ! nd -

j i r J > f Records of

lish thee as wife. the Past, x.

In case I should despise thee, in case I should take an- 77
other wife than thee, I will give thee 20 argenteus, in argenteus
shekels 100, 20 argenteus in all. The entire property
which is mine, and which I shall possess, is security of all tenth
the above words, until I have accomplished them accord-
ing to their tenor.

We have arrived in health at Lampsacus, myself and Letter of
Pythocles and Hermarchus and Ctesippus, and there we a child,
have found Themistas and the rest of the friends in health. Miliigan,
It is good if you also are in health and your grandmother, ^ e p k yri {
and obey your grandfather and matron in all things, as Thirdcen
you have done before. For be sure, the reason why both tury B.C.
I and all the rest love you so much is that you obey these cur u S ^^
in all things. . . . g--

Isias to Hephaestion her brother greeting. If you are was probably

well, and things in general are going right, it would be as I und^Tws 1

am continually praying to the gods. I myself am in good care<

health, and the child and all at home, making mention of Lette r^ of

you continually. When I got your letter from Horus, in Hephsestion.
which you explained that you were in .retreat in the

The Hellenistic Age

Milligan,
p. gf.
168 B.C.

In Egypt
husband and
wife often
called each
other sister
and brother;
sometimes
they were so
related.

The wife
complains
that her hus-
band, when
freed from
his vow to
the god, does
not return
to her.

It is thought
that those
under a vow
at this tem-
ple had some-
thing of the
character of
monks.

A letter of
introduc-
tion.

Milligan,
p. 24 f.

Second cen-
tury B.C.

Serapeum at Memphis, I immediately gave thanks to the
gods that you were well; but that you did not return when
all those who were shut up with you arrived distresses me;
for having piloted myself and your child out of such a
crisis, and having come to the last extremity because of
the high price of grain, and thinking that now at last on
your return I should obtain some relief, you have never
even thought of returning, nor spared a look for our help-
less state. While you were still at home, I went short
altogether, not to mention how long a time has passed
since, and such disasters; and you having sent nothing.
And now that Horus who brought the letter has told
about your having been released from your retreat, I am
utterly distressed. Nor is this all, but since your mother
is in great trouble about it, I entreat you for her sake and
for ours to return to the city, unless indeed something
most pressing occupies you. Pray take care of yourself
that you may be in health. Good-bye.
(Addressed) To Hephaestion.

Polycrates to Philoxenus greeting. If you are well and
things in general are going right, it will be as we desire.
We ourselves are in health. As regards those things we
wished, we have sent you Glaucias who is personally at-
tached to us to consult you. Please therefore give him a
hearing, and instruct him concerning those things he has
come about. But above all take care of yourself that you
may be in health. "Good-bye.

(Addressed) To Philoxenus.

STUDIES

i. Why had not Peloponnesus united under one government?
What advantages came to this region from the Achaean league?
What causes contributed to the rise of this league? What elements

Studies 311

of democracy had it? What were its officers? What part had Aratus
in the building of the union? What kind of business came before the
federal assembly described by Polybius? Why did various kings
seek the friendship of the league? What stand did the league take
toward the offer of gifts?

2. How did the Rhodians fall somewhat below the Achaeans in
honor? Would a modern state or educational institution accept such
a gift? What did Polybius consider wrong in such acceptance? Why
do we say his opinion of the Rhodians is complimentary to them and
to the Greeks in general? Describe the conduct of Priene in defend-
ing a trust committed to her. From these passages what do you
conclude as to Greek character at this time?

3. Describe the situation of Alexandria; its climate. Describe its
extent and plan. What was the Museum? What was its purpose?
What were the other public works?

4. Enumerate the sciences mentioned in this selection. What did
the ancients know of the form and dimensions of the earth? How did
they prove the earth to be round? What knowledge had Herophilu?
of physiology?

5. What are the terms of the marriage contract here mentioned?

BOOK III
Rome

CHAPTER XXVIII
A. INTRODUCTION TO THE SOURCES

THE Romans derived all the elements of their higher The begin-
culture from the Greeks. The most valuable of these writing!
acquisitions was the alphabet. At an unknown time in the
period of the kings some of the Romans learned from the
Greeks to read and write. Priests wrote prayers and Ancient
rituals; and the pontiffs composed the fasti, or calendar
a list of days of each month setting forth the festivals, the
market-days, and the days which were lucky or unlucky
for doing business. Little however was written that
could be of service to the historians, who lived hundreds
of years afterward. Because of the lack of such service-
able material we call the regal period prehistoric.

About the beginning of the Republic the Romans com- The fasti,
menced to keep a list also called fasti of their annual treaties?
magistrates, and to record their laws and treaties. Gradu-
ally was formed a considerable body of written material,
consisting of the documents above mentioned and of
funeral orations, family chronicles, and poetry. The
earliest historian was Fabius Pictor, a Roman senator
during the war with Hannibal. He wrote in Greek a Latter part

, . f , . . , ... , . of third cen-

history of his country from the earliest times to his own tury B.C.
day. As he grouped events by years, his work is called

313

314 Introduction to the Sources

Ancient
World, 405 f .

P. 73-

Historians.

Caesar,
100-44 B.C.

Ancient
World, 445-

Sallust.

Annals. After him followed a long succession of annalists,
who wrote either in Greek or in Latin. The first Roman
to adopt the native tongue for historical use was Cato the
Censor; it is chiefly for this reason that he is considered
the founder of Latin prose literature. "He tells us that
he himself wrote books on history with his own hand in
large letters that his boy might start in life with a useful
knowledge of what his forefathers had done." Cato and
other public men of his time wrote their political and
judicial speeches, thus creating in literature the depart-
ment of oratory. Not long after Cato lived Polybius, the
ablest writer of Roman history. His work has been men-
tioned in an earlier chapter.

The period of the annalists, closing about 80 B.C., was
followed by that of the historians.

First in order let us consider Gaius Julius Caesar. While
in war and in statesmanship his achievements place him
among the foremost men of the world, his literary genius
is scarcely less remarkable. In his writings he shows a
faultless taste and a clear, direct, masterful style. His
Commentaries on the Gallic War and On the Civil War are
a plain but forceful narrative of his wonderful campaigns.
The primary object of these works was to justify his wars
and his political policy.

Somewhat later Sallust wrote a monograph On the Con-
spiracy of Catiline and another On the Jugurthine War.
Along with his narrative of events, he tried impartially to
analyze the character of society and the motives of con-
duct. These works we still have, but most of his History,
in which he described the events following Sulla's death,
has been lost. Caesar and Sallust were the chief historians
of their age. Though each noble family recorded the deeds
of illustrious ancestors, no national interest in biography

The Age of Cicero 315

arose till the closing years of the. republic, when the great
men of Rome began to attract all eyes. At this time lived Nepos.
Cornelius Nepos, mentioned above among the sources for
Greek history. The same chapter speaks of his Greek P. 73 f-
contemporary, Diodorus, whose Historical Library treats
of both Greek and Roman affairs.

In this age Roman oratory reached the height of its Marcus Tul-
development in Marcus Tullius Cicero. As Caesar em- 106-43 B.c'.
bodied imperialism, Cicero represented the better spirit
of the republic. As a statesman he cherished high ideals
of republican freedom; as a citizen he was intensely patri- Rome, 182;
otic; and his private character was worthy and amiable, world, w$i.
His achievement was to bring the prose of his country to
formal perfection, to make Latin a great classical lan-
guage. This result he accomplished by developing, refin-
ing, and enriching his mother tongue not only in oratory
but in nearly every style of prose from philosophy to fa-
miliar correspondence. It is chiefly owing to his creative
genius that Latin has been the universal language of learn-
ing and culture from his time almost to the present day.
If in reading his Orations we make allowance for their
rhetorical coloring and their political bias, we shall find
them valuable for the study of the age. More trustworthy
are his Letters to friends, in which he speaks candidly of
passing events.

As the temperament of the Romans was realistic and Lucretius,
practical, they met with little success in imaginative liter-
ature. Lucretius, a poet of the Ciceronian age, composed
in verse a work On the Nature of the World, in which he
tried by means of science to dispel from the mind all
fear of death and of the gods, to free men from super-
stition. Notwithstanding the scientific details in which
the poem abounds, it is a work of genius.. Catullus, a Catullus.

Introduction to the Sources

The Au-
gustan Age,

Livy.

Books i-x
and xxi-xlv,
with mere
summaries
of the re-
maining
books, have
alone come
down to us,
and are our
chief source
for the earlier
periods.

Dionysius of

Halicarnas-

sus.

brilliant poet of the same age, wrote beautiful lyrics on
subjects of love and life, and some bitter lampoons.

The principate of Augustus is considered the golden
age of Roman literature. A most interesting and valu-
able document from this period is Augustus' own account
of his administration preserved in an inscription. Scholars
term it the Monumentum Ancyranum because it was
found on a temple in Ancyra, Asia Minor, though we may
designate it simply as his Deeds. The most eminent
author of prose in this age was Livy, who wrote a History
of Rome in a hundred and forty-two books. The military
and personal details in the early books are largely mythi-
cal; yet even in this part the author expresses vividly and
accurately the character of Rome and of her citizens and
institutions. From the time of the Punic Wars, the details
of every kind are in a high degree trustworthy.

Though in his conception of the aim and method of his-
tory he was far inferior to Polybius, whom he had read, he
loved what he supposed to be the truth and the right.
His sympathies were intensely republican; but he con-
sented to work for Augustus. His love of law and order,
his hatred of violence and vulgarity, served the interests
of his patron, while the vast compass and the stately
style of his history, like the splendid public works of
the age, helped make the imperial government , mag-
nificent.

While Livy was writing his great work, Dionysius of
Halicarnassus was compiling a detailed history of Rome
from the earliest times to the beginning of the Punic Wars.
As an historian he is on the whole inferior to Livy; and
yet his work is a valuable source for the life and institu-
tions of early Rome.

Strabo the geographer, who wrote under Augustus and

The Augustan Age 317

Tiberius, has been mentioned in the chapter which treats P. 74.
of the sources for Greek history.

In the same age Vergil, Rome's most splendid poet, Vergil,
wrote an epic poem, the ^Eneid. In this story of the

wanderings of ^Eneas he glorifies the beginnings of Rome Rome, 17,

and, at the same time, the imperial family, which claimed World"
descent from the hero of his poem.

Horace, author of Odes and Satires and Epistles in Horace,

verse, was the poet of contentment and common sense, Ancient

who bade his friends World ' 46x<

Snatch gayly the joys which the moment shall bring,
And away every care and perplexity fling.

Leave the future to the gods, he taught. A comfortable
villa, some shady nook in summer, and in winter a roar-
ing fireplace, good wine, pleasant friends, and a mind
free from care make an ideal life. After the stormy end
of the republic, the world needed such a lesson; and
though he remained independent in spirit, Horace quietly
served his prince. His work abounds in references to
manners, customs, and events, and hence is valuable for
an understanding of the age.

In the same age lived Ovid, the polished poet of the Ovid,
gay, immoral circle which surrounded Julia, granddaughter
of Augustus. To the student of history his most valuable
work is the Fasti, a metrical calendar containing much
curious information regarding Roman religion.

Under Tiberius the republican reaction against the Velleius Pa-
principate was at its height; the time was therefore so
unfavorable to literary work, that this administration
produced no writers of talent or especial merit. Velleius
Paterculus, who had served Tiberius as a military officer,
wrote a short History of Rome to the year 30 A.D. The
earlier period he treats briefly, his own age with greater

318

Introduction to the Sources

Seneca.

Ancient
World, 467.

Petronius.

Pliny the
Elder.

Joseptius.

Ancient
World, 46.

The Age of
the Goodj
Emperors,

g6-i8oA.D.

Tacitus,

about 55-120
A.D.

Ancient
World, 493.

fulness. Wordy and pompous, he is nevertheless fairly
accurate in his statement of facts; and for the prmcipate
of Tiberius he enjoys the advantage of being our only
contemporary source. Undoubtedly sincere in his ad-
miration of the emperor, he overflows with eulogy, like a
partisan rather than a calm-tempered historian.

The progress of the Romans in morality and kindliness
under the early princes is well represented by Seneca. A
Spaniard by birth, a Stoic, and a rhetorician, he became
the tutor and afterward the prime minister of Nero. His
essays on moral and philosophic subjects are mostly
presented in the form of Letters and Dialogues. With
Seneca we may contrast Petronius, "Master of Pleas-
ures," at the court of Nero. He wrote a character novel
in perhaps twenty books, of which we have mere frag-
ments. The most important is the Dinner of Trimalchio,
a satire on a coarse, uneducated freedman who had sud-
denly grown rich. It is of great value for social life.
Under Vespasian Pliny the Elder wrote a Natural History
in thirty-seven books. In addition to the natural sciences,
it includes geography, medicine, and art. An encyclo-
paedia compiled from two thousand different works, it is
a great storehouse of knowledge. Not long afterward
Josephus, a Hebrew writer, composed two important
historical works, Jewish Antiquities and The Jewish War.

The sufferings of republicanism under Domitian, fol-
lowed by the happy reigns of Nerva and Trajan, produced
the last great writers of classic Latin, Tacitus and Juvenal.
One wrote history, the other satire, yet with a kindred
spirit. The Annals and the Histories 1 of Tacitus covered

1 Of the Annals we have bks. i-iv, parts of v and vi, and xi-xvi, with
gaps at the beginning and end of the last group of books; of the
Histories there remain bks. i-iv and the first half of v.

Tacitus and Juvenal 319

the period from the death of Augustus to the death of
Domitian. Besides these larger works he wrote a mono-
graph on the Life and Character of Agricola, the conqueror
of Britain, and another, the Germania, on the character
and institutions of the Germans of his time. His experi-
ence as an army officer and a statesman gave him a clear
understanding of military and political events. He was
conscientious, too, and though he made little use of docu-
ments as sources, we may trust his statement of all facts
which could be known to the public. His style is ex-
ceedingly rapid, vivid, and energetic. His excellencies
as an historian, however, are balanced by serious defects.
Though he owed his seat in the senate to Domitian, he
belonged to the strictest circle of aristocrats, who were
dissatisfied with the principate though they had nothing
better to propose. Hatred of the " tyrants " from Tiberius
to Domitian, and the bitterness he felt because of his
party's failure, supplied him with inspiration for his
gloomy narrative. To most critics his chief merit lies in
his dramatic portrayal of character; but his prejudice led
him unconsciously to invent bad motives even for the best
acts of the emperors, especially of Tiberius. His charac-
ters, however vivid and self-consistent, are the product of
his gloomy, bitter imagination. Valuable as his work is to
one who can distinguish between fact and fancy, it is as
much satire as history.

Like the historian, Juvenal, author of Satires, was power- Juvenal,
ful and dramatic. With the inspiration of wrath and in
the spirit of Tacitus, he looked back to the society of Rome
under Nero and Domitian to find in it nothing but hideous
vice. The pictures drawn by the historian are grand and
fascinating; those of the satirist repel us by their ugliness;
the works of both masters are unreal.

320

Introduction to tne Sources

Pliny the
Younger.

Suetonius,
about 75-
160 A.D.

Aulus
Gellius,
born about
130 A.D.

Revival of

Hellenic

literature.

Dio Chrysos-
tom, about
40 to after
112 A.D.

Plutarch,
p. 74.

Epictetus,
about 50-120.

When Rome renounced the republic, so far as to con-
sider her emperors good, she lost her motive for literary
art. Her writers became shallow and insipid, without
thought or imagination, who could only repeat what they
had read. The best of this class was Pliny the Younger,
an orator, and for a time governor of Bithynia. One of
his speeches, a eulogy on Trajan, which has come down
to us, is an example of the tiresome, feeble style of the
day. His Letters, polished yet trivial, are valuable for the
study of the social life and literary activities of his time.
The principate of Hadrian is represented in literature by
Suetonius, for a time the emperor's secretary. In his
Lives of the Casars he arranges his material topically, with
little reference to chronological order. Though accurate
in his presentation of political matters, generally tob of
personal details, he has marred his writings by the in-
troduction of a great amount of unfounded gossip and
calumny against the princes and their families. He was a
compiler without literary talent. The same is true of a
younger contemporary, Aulus Gellius, whose Attic Nights
is a storehouse of literary, religious, political and legal
antiquities. The title is due to the circumstance that
the compilation of the work occupied the author's even-
ings during a winter spent in Athens.

A revival of Hellenic literature in the second century
A.D. produced some authors of unusual merit. The
literary activity of Dio Chrysostom, a rhetorician and
moralist, extends from Vespasian to Trajan. Among his
Orations are some which treat interestingly of morals and
of political and social conditions in Greece. About the
same time Plutarch wrote his Lives, referred to in the
chapter on Greek sources. In the same generation with
Plutarch lived Epictetus, a Stoic philosopher, who taught

Second and Third Centuries A.D. 321

the brotherhood of man and the loving goodness of God
the all-wise Father. His Discourses were written down
by a pupil, Arrian, whose Anabasis of Alexander has al- P- 7s-
ready been mentioned. In Arrian's generation Appian of
Alexandria wrote a narrative History of Rome. It is true Appian,
that he was uncritical, yet we find much valuable in- 175!*
formation in the parts of his work which are still extant.
Somewhat later Marcus Aurelius composed in Greek his Marcus
Meditations, philosophic thoughts written down by the 121-180.
Stoic emperor without order, just as they occurred to him.
To the period following his reign belongs the active life of
Dio Cassius of Bithynia. Although a Greek, he became Du> Cassius,
a Roman senator and held various important administra- 240"
tive offices. This experience in practical affairs was of the
greatest value to him as a historian. He composed in
Greek a History of Rome in eighty books, extending from
the earliest times to 229 A.D. The work shows remark-
able insight and judgment. We have books xxxvi-lx en-
tire, with fragments and an abridgment of the rest. The
period following Marcus Aurelius, 180-228 A.D., repre-
sented by fragments of Dio Cassius, is covered in the
History of the Empire Since Marcus Aurelius by Herodian. Herodian,

^ , i i. f i about 165-

a Greek who lived somewhat later. 255.

Several minor sources deserve briefer mention. Florus, Minor
whose time and country are unknown, composed in a
highly rhetorical style an Epitome of Roman History from
the founding of the city to the beginning of the empire.
At the request of Valens, Eutropius wrote a dry Com-
pendium of Roman History to the accession of his patron
364 A.D. Aurelius Victor, who lived in the fourth cen-
tury A.D., is said to have composed the Origin of the
Roman Nation; On the Illustrious Men of the City of Rome;
The Casars, brief biographies of the emperors from

322; Introduction to the Sources

Ammianus

Marcellinus,
about 330-
401 A.D.

Res Gesta.

Macrobius.

Christian
Writers.

Lactantius,
about 260
330 A.D.

Augustus to Constantius; Life and Character of the Roman
Emperors, from Augustus to Theodosius. It is probable,
however, that all these works are not by the same hand.
The six authors of the Augustan History the lives of the
emperors from Hadrian to Numerianus, 117-284 A.D.
wrote under Diocletian and Constantine, and dedicated
their biographies to the one or the other of these em-
perors. Spartianus was the author of the life of Hadrian;
and Capitolinus of the lives of Antoninus Pius and Marcus
Aurelius. This work, however devoid of literary merit, is
a highly important source.

An author of incomparably greater historical insight
and judgment was Ammianus Marcellinus, a Greek of
Antioch, Syria. Born in the reign of Constantine, he en-
tered the army at an early age and attained to high com-
mands in a long and honorable career. Late in life he
wrote in Latin a history of the emperors' Achievements
from Nerva to Valens in thirty-one books. There remain
only books XIV-XXXI. His attention to personal and
racial character, customs and social conditions makes his
work unusually interesting and instructive. He was the
last distinguished historian of Rome. Approximately to
the date of his death belongs the Saturnalia of Macrobius,
a dialogue of learned men on literary questions, religion,
and various customs of earlier Rome. This work should
be classed with the Attic Nights of Gellius.

Among the Christian writers of ancient times the first
in order are the authors of the books of the New Testa-
ment. Then follow a succession of "Christian Fathers,"
who interpreted and expanded the doctrines of the Church.
Of this class the earliest author represented in the present
volume is Lactantius, a contemporary of Diocletian and
Constantine. A rhetorician of fine literary taste, he was

Fourth and Fifth Centuries A.D. 323

converted to Christianity probably in the last persecu-
tion. ' Among his numerous writings the sketch entitled
On the Manner in which the Persecutors died is of chief
interest to students of history. A doubt once raised as to
its authenticity seems to be groundless. To the same
generation belongs Eusebius, bishop of Cesarea, an inti- Eusebius.
mate friend and ardent admirer of Constantine. He
was a zealous Christian and a learned, prolific writer.
His Ecclesiastical History in ten books narrates in detail
the rise of Christianity and its relation to the empire.

A later age is represented by St. Jerome. He was a St. Jerome,
man of native ability and broad deep learning, whose A.D.
ascetic temperament led him to pass five years in solitary
life among the hermits of the Syrian desert. He is es-
pecially celebrated for his translation of the Scriptures
into Latin. This version is known as the Vulgate. He
was chiefly instrumental, too, in introducing monastic life
into the West. His Letters are a storehouse of informa-
tion on all aspects of social life of his age. Even more
distinguished is his younger contemporary, St. Augustine, St. Augus-
whose Confessions gives an account of his own life,, and ^O'A.D'
incidentally throws light on the times in which he- lived.
A philosopher and teacher of rhetoric, he was converted
to Christianity, and baptized in his thirty-third year.
Thenceforth he was a most zealous supporter of the faith.
His various writings, filling sixteen large volumes ; have
contributed more than the works of any other man to the
final shaping of Catholic Christianity. Along with his
Confessions the work of greatest interest to the general
student of history is his City of God. A leading object of
this book is to refute the charge of the pagans that the
misfortunes of Rome were due to Christianity. He
demonstrates accordingly the infinite superiority of his

324

Introduction to the Sources

Salvianus.

De guberna-
tione Dei.

Eginhard.

Inscriptions
and build-
ings.

God in goodness and protecting power to the countless
deities of pagan Rome. A still later author is Salvianus,
presbyter of Marseilles, who lived nearly through the
fifth century through the confusion and violence of the
barbarian invasions. In his Providence of God he explains
the misfortunes of the times as divine punishments of the
wealthy, governing class for their immorality, greed, and
oppression. His fiery zeal leads him to exaggerate the
miseries and the vices of his age. These defenders of the
faith are merely representative of a host of Christian
Fathers.

Quite distinct is the last author of this volume, Egin-
hard, secretary and private chaplain of Charlemagne.
His Life of the Emperor Karl the Great, a simple trust-
worthy Latin narrative, is the only piece of historical
writing of the period in which it falls.

Inscriptions, too, form an exceedingly valuable source.
Almost wholly wanting in the regal period and early
republic, they grow abundant toward the end of the re-
publican period; and for the administration of the empire
they furnish the most precious information. For a full
and accurate appreciation of Roman history, the public
works should also be studied.

AUTHORS AND DOCUMENTS

Ammianus Marcellinus, translated by C. D. Yonge. Macmillan.

Appian, Roman History, translated by White. 2 vols. Macmillan.

Augustan History, by Capitolinus, Spartianus, etc. Selections trans-
lated by the editors.

Augustine, St., Confessions, translated by W. Montgomery. Cam-
bridge: University Press. City of God, translated by J. Healey.
3 vols. London: Dent.

Augustus, Deeds ("Monumentum Ancyranum"), translated by
Fairley, in "Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources
of European History," V. University of Pennsylvania.

Authors and Documents 325

Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus, Meditations, translated by Long. New

York: A. L. Burt Company.
Aurelius Victor, The Casars. Selection translated by Miss Rachel

R. Killer.
Caesar, Commentaries, translated by W. A. McDevitte. Macmillan.

Revised by the editors.

Cato, On Agriculture, translated by Dr. E. H. Oliver.
Catullus, Poems, translated (Bohn). Macmillan.
Cicero, Orations, translated by C. D. Yonge. Macmillan. Republic,

edited and translated by Hardingham. London: Quaritch.
Dio Cassius, Roman History, translated by H. B. Foster. 6 vols.

Troy, N. Y.: Pafraets.

Dio Chrysostom, Orations. Selections translated by the editors.
Diodorus Siculus, Historical Library, translated by Booth. London.

1814. (Out of print.) Revised by the editors.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, translated by Spel-

man. London. 1758. (Out of print.) Revised by the editors.
Eginhard, Life of the Emperor Karl the Great, translated by W. Glais-

ter. London: Bell.

Epictetus, Discourses, translated by George Long. Macmillan.
Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, in "Nicene and Post-Nicene Fath-
ers," I.
Gellius, Aulus, Attic Nights, translated by Beloe. (Out of print.)

Revised by Dr. E. G. Sihler.

Herodian, History. Selection translated by the editors.
Horace, Works, translated by Martin. 2 vols. Scribners.
Inscriptions, Latin, translated by the editors, unless otherwise stated.
Jerome, St., Letters, in "Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers," VI.
Josephus, Works, translated by W. Whiston, revised by Shilleto.

5 vols. Macmillan.

Justin, Nepos, and Eutropius, translated (Bohn). .Macmillan.
Juvenal, Satires (D. lunii luvenalis Satira) with a Literal English

Prose Translation and Notes by Lewis. Macmillan.
Koran. Selections from the Kur-&n, edited by Stanley Lane-Poole.

London, 1879.
Lactantius, On the Manner in which the Persecutors died, in ' Ante-

Nicene Fathers," VII.
Livy, History of Rome, translated by Spillan. 4 vols. Macmillan.

Revised by the editors.

326 Italy and her People

Lucretius, On the Nature of the World (T. Lucreti Cari, de Ren^n
Natura libri sex) translated by Munro; London: Bell.

New Testament, The,

Ovid, Fasti, translated (Bohn). Macmillan.

Papyri. See p. 76.

Petronius, Banquet of Trimalchio, translated by H. T. Peck. Dodd,
Mead and Co.

Pliny the Elder, Natural History, translated. 6 vols. (Bohn) Mac-
millan.

Pliny, Letters, translated by Church and Brodribb. Philadelphia:
Lippincott.

Plutarch, Lives, translated by Stewart and Long. 4 vols. Mac-
millan.

Polybius, Histories, translated by Shuckburgh. 2 vols. Macmillan.

Sallust, Florus, and Velleius Paterculus, translated (Bohn). Mac-
millan.

Salvianus, Providence of God. Selection translated by the editors.

Strabo, Geography, translated by Hamilton and Falconer. Revised
by the editors.

Suetonius, Lives of the Ccesars, translated by Thomas, revised by
Forester. Macmillan.

Tacitus, Annals, translated by Church and Brodribb. Macmillan.
Germania, translated by W. H. Fyfe. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Theodosian Code. Selection translated by Dr. E. G. Sihler.

Vergil, &neid, translated by Crane (verse) . New York : Baker, Taylor.

B. ITALY AND HER PEOPLE
I. THE Po VALLEY

The form of Italy as a whole is a triangle, of which the eastern side
is bounded by the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Gulf, the

Polybms u. southern and western sides by the Sicilian and Tyrrhenian
(or Tuscan) seas. These two sides converge to form the
apex of the triangle. . . . The third side, or base, of this
triangle is on the north, and is formed by the chain of the
Alps, which stretches across the country from Marseilles
and the Sardinian Sea, with no break, nearly to the head
of the Adriatic Sea.

Northern Italy 327

To the south of this range, which I said we must re- The valley
gard as the base of the triangle, are the most northerly
plains of Italy, the largest and most fertile, so far as I
know, in all Europe. This is the district with which we
are at present concerned.

It is a superb plain variegated with fruitful hills. The Strabo v. i.
Po divides it almost through the midst; one side is called 4
Cispadana, and the other Transpadana. Cispadana in-
cludes the part next to the Apennines, together with Li-
guria; and Transpadana includes the remainder. The
Ligurians of the mountains and the Celts of the plain (Or Gauls.)
occupy Cispadana; the Celts and the Venetians inhabit
the other division.

The fertility of the Po valley is proved by its population, The prod-
the size of the cities, and its wealth; in all these respects
the Romans of this country surpass the rest of Italy. The Strabo v. i.
cultivated land produces fruits in abundance and of every
kind, and the woods contain so great a quantity of mast
that Rome is supplied chiefly from the swine fed there.
As it is well watered, it produces millet to perfection. This
condition affords the greatest security against famine, as
millet resists every severity of climate, and never fails
even when other grains are scarce. The pitch works are
amazing, and the casks prove the abundance of wine; for
the casks, formed of wood, are larger than houses, and
the great supply of pitch makes them inexpensive.

The soft wood, which is by far the best, is produced in
the country round Mutina (modern Modena) and the
Scultanna River. The coarse wool, on the other hand,
which forms the main article of clothing among the Italian
slaves, is grown in Liguria and the country of the Symbri.
A medium kind, grown about Patavium (modern Padua),
is used for the finer carpets, cassocks, and everything else

328

Italy and her People

The people.

Polybius ii.

17-

(Phlegraean,

"Volcanic,"

from the fact

that the soil

contained

much

volcanic

matter.)

Their power.

Diodorus v.
40.

Their learn-
ing.

(To the time
of Diodorus;
P- 73-)

of the same sort with the wool on one or both sides. The
mines are not now worked so diligently, because they are not
equally profitable with those of Transalpine Gaul and Iberia.

II. THE ETRUSCANS

These plains (of the Po) were anciently inhabited by the
Etruscans, who at the same time occupied the Phlegraean
plains round Capua and Nola; the two places last men-
tioned have been most celebrated, because they were
visited by many people, and so became known. In speak-
ing then of the Etruscan empire, we should not refer to the
district occupied by the Etruscans, at the present time,
but to these northern plains, and to what they did when
they lived there.

In ancient times they were valiant, and enjoyed a large
country, and built many famous cities. With their great
navy they were masters of the sea which washes the west
coast of Italy, and which they called Tyrrhenian (or
Tuscan), after their own name. As one of their military
equipments they had invented a most useful instrument
of war, the trumpet, which from them is called Tyrrhena.
To the generals of their army they gave as badges of honor
an ivory throne and a purple robe. They invented porti-
coes for their houses, to avoid the trouble and noise of a
crowd of servants, and other hangers-on. Introducing
these customs into their commonwealth, the Romans
greatly improved them.

The Etruscans gave themselves up to learning, especially
to the study of nature. In these researches they were
especially anxious to discover the meaning of thunder and
lightning. To this day, therefore, they are admired by
princes the world over, who employ their soothsayers in
interpreting the supernatural effects of thunder.

Central and Southern Italy 329

They enjoy a very rich country, well tilled and im- Their lux-
proved; and so reap abundance of all sorts of fruits, not
only for necessary food but for pleasure and delight.

They have their tables spread twice a day, furnished
with every variety of food, even to luxury and excess.

Their carpets are interwoven with flower designs, and
they use a great many silver cups of many forms. Of
household servants they have a large number, some very
beautiful, others rich in apparel, above the condition of
servants. Slaves and freedmen alike have several apart-
ments allowed them, completely furnished and adorned.

Finally the Etruscans threw off their primitive sobriety,
and now live an idle, profligate life in riot and drunken-
ness. There is no wonder then that they have lost the
honor and reputation their fathers gained through warlike
achievemen.

III. LATIUM AND CAMPANIA

The whole of Latium is fertile, and abounds in every Latium.
product; we should except a few districts along the coast, strabov.3.5
which are marshy and unhealthful. . . . Some parts
also may be too mountainous; yet even these regions are
not absolutely idle and useless, for they furnish abundant
pasturage, wood, and the peculiar products of marsh and
rock. For instance, Caecubum, wholly a marsh, nourishes
a vine, which produces excellent wine.

One of the maritime cities of Latium is Ostia. It has Ostia.
no port because of the accumulation of silt brought down
by the Tiber, which is swelled by many rivers. Vessels
therefore come to anchor further out, and yet with some
danger. Gain, however, overcomes everything; for there
are many lighters in readiness to freight and unfreight the
larger ships before they approach the mouth of the river,

330

Italy and her People

(A stadium
is about 600
feet.)

Campania.

Strabo v. 4.3.

Polybius iii.
gi.

The text is
uncertain.

Strabo v. 4. 3.

to enable them to finish their voyage speedily. Lightened
of a part of their cargo, they enter the river and sail up to
Rome, a distance of a hundred and ninety stadia. Such
is the city of Ostia founded by Ancus Marcius.

Next in order after Latium is Campania, which extends
along the Tuscan Sea. . . . This plain is fertile above
all others, and is entirely surrounded by fruitful hills and
the Samnite and Oscan mountains.

The plains about Capua are the best in Italy for fertility
and beauty and nearness to the sea, and for the harbors,
into which run the merchants who are sailing to Italy from
all parts of the world. They contain, too, the most famous
and beautiful cities of Italy. ... In the centre of these
plains lies the richest of all the cities, Capua. No tale
in all mythology wears a greater appearance of probability
than that which is told of these lowlands, which like others
of remarkable beauty are called the Phlegraean plains; for
surely none are more likely for beauty and fertility to have
been contended for by the gods.

In addition to these advantages, they are strongly
sheltered by nature and difficult of approach; for one
side is protected by the sea, and the rest by a long high
chain of mountains, through which lead but three passes
from the interior, all narrow . and difficult, one from
Samnium (a second from Latium), and a third from Hir-
pini.

One proof of the fertility of this country is that it pro-
duces the finest corn. I refer to the grain from which a
groat is made superior to all kinds of rice, and to almost
all other farinaceous food. They say that some of the
plains are bearing crops all the year round, two crops
of rye, a third of panic, and sometimes a fourth of vege-
tables. From there, too, the Romans procure their finest

The City of Rome 331

wines. . . . Furthermore, the whole country round Vena-
f rum, and bordering the plains, is rich in olives.

IV. ROME

In the interior the first city above Ostia is Rome the Situation,
only city built on the Tiber. Its position was fixed by strabov.3.7.
necessity rather than choice. We may add that those who
afterward enlarged it were not at liberty to select a better
site, as they were prevented by what was already built. . . .
It seems to me that the first founders were of the opinion,
in regard to themselves and their successors, that the
Romans had to depend not on fortifications but on arms
and valor, for safety and wealth, and that walls were not a
defence to men, but men were a defence to walls. At the
time of its founding, when the large and fertile districts
about the city belonged to others, and while it lay easily
open to assault, there was nothing in its position which
could be looked upon as favorable ; but when by valor and
labor these districts became its own, there succeeded a
tide of prosperity which surpassed the advantages of every
other place.

Notwithstanding the prodigious increase of the city, Buildings,
there has been plenty of food, and of wood and stone for
ceaseless building, made necessary by the falling down of
houses, by fires, and by sales, which seem never to cease.
These sales are a kind of voluntary destruction of houses; .
each owner tears down and rebuilds one part or another
according to his own taste. For these purposes the many
quarries, the forests, and the rivers which convey the
materials, offer wonderful facilities. . . .

To avert from the city damages of the kind referred to,
Augustus Csesar instituted a company of freedmen to lend
assistance at fires; and to prevent the falling of houses,

332 Italy and her People

he decreed that new buildings should not be carried so
high as formerly, and that those erected along the public
streets should not exceed seventy feet in height. These
improvements must have ceased, had it not been for the
facilities afforded by the quarries, the forests, and the ease
of transportation.

Greatness. Rome is now mistress of every accessible country;
every sea owns her power. She is the first and only state
recorded in history which ever made the East and West the
boundaries of her empire. And her dominion has not been

Dionysiusi.3. of short duration, but more lasting than that of any other
commonwealth or kingdom. For after the city had been
founded, she conquered many warlike nations, her neigh-
bors, and still advanced, overcoming all opposition. . . .
By the conquest of all Italy, she was emboldened to pro-
ceed even to universal empire; and having driven the
Carthaginians from off the sea, whose maritime strength
was superior to all others, she subdued Macedon, the most
powerful nation by land till that time; and as no enemy
was left either among the Greeks or the barbarians, she is
mistress of the whole world. . . . There is no nation that
claims a share in her universal power, or refuses obedience
to it. But I need say no more to prove that I have not
made choice of a petty subject, or proposed to relate triv-
ial or obscure actions, but have undertaken the history of
the most illustrious state and of the most brilliant achieve-
ments that can possibly be treated.

STUDIES

1. Describe the products of the Po Valley. What was its value to
Rome?

2. Who were the Etruscans? Give an account of their civiliza-
tion.

Studies 333

3. How does Latium compare with Etruria? Is it more or less
fertile than Campania?

4. Describe the situation of Rome. What is said of her build-
ings? What came to be her political position? Name the authors
of the selections I-IV and state when each lived and what he
wrote.

CHAPTER XXIX

The found*
ing of Rome.

Dionysius i.

The Romans
founded
their colonies
in this way,
and there-
fore believed
their own
city to have
been thus
founded. In
fact all their
fundamental
institutions,
religious,
social, and
political,
they uncriti-
cally assigned
to their
kings as
founders.

The tribes
and the

ROME UNDER THE KINGS

I. ROMULUS

WHEN everything was performed which he conceived to
be acceptable to the gods, he called all the people to a place
appointed, and described a quadrangular figure about
the hill, tracing with a plow drawn by a bull and a
cow yoked together, one continuous furrow, designed to
receive the foundation of the wall; hence this custom re-
mains among the Romans of tracing a furrow with a plow
round the place where they design to build the city. After
he had finished these things and sacrificed the bull and the
cow, and also having performed the initial gift of many
other sacrifices, he set the people to work. This day the
Romans even at present celebrate every year as one of
their greatest festivals, and call it Parilia (April 21). On
that day, which falls in the beginning of the spring, the
husbandmen and shepherds offer up a sacrifice of thanks-
giving for the increase of their cattle. But I cannot cer-
tainly say whether they anciently chose this day as one of
public rejoicing; and for that reason looked upon it as the
most fitting for the building of the city; or, whether the
building of it having been begun on that day, they con-
secrated it, and dedicated it to the worship of those gods
who are propitious to shepherds.

Appointed king, Romulus proved himself brave and
skilful in war and wise in the adoption of a most excellent

334

Patricians, Plebeians and Clients 335

form of government. He divided the whole population pionysius
into three parts, each of which he placed under the com- (abridged).
mand of a distinguished person. Then dividing these parts
into ten companies, he appointed the bravest men to be
their leaders. The larger divisions he called tribes, and the
smaller curia. The leaders of the tribes were tribunes;
those of the curiae were curiones.

Another division of the population he made on the prin- The social
ciple of honor and worth. Those who, illustrious by birth
and commended for their virtue, were well-to-do and had
children, he separated from the ignoble and base and needy.
Those of inferior fortune he called plebeians; the better Ancient
class he named patres (fathers) because they were older r )33 '
than the rest, or because they had children, or on account
of their illustrious birth, or for all these reasons. Their
descendants were called patricians. Whenever the king
wished to bring the patricians together, his heralds used
to summon them by their own name and that of the father;
but the common people were called to the assembly by
servants, who went about trumpeting on ox-horns.

After Romulus had distinguished the nobles from the
commons, he passed laws to regulate the duties of each
rank. The nobles were to be priests, magistrates, and
judges, and were to help him manage the affairs of the
city. The commons he excused from this business, for
they had neither experience in such matters nor leisure to
attend to them. They were to farm, to rear cattle, and to
carry on the money-making industries, that they might
have no time for party strife, such as we find in other
cities, where those in office abuse the lower classes, and the
base and needy envy the richer citizens.

Placing the plebeians as a trust in the hands of the The patrons

and the
patricians, he permitted each commoner to choose as clients.

336

Rome Under the Kings

(Dionysius
is probably
wrong in as-
suming that
all plebeians
became
clients.)

(We infer
that the
clients had
a right to
vote.)

The senate
and the
assembly

Ancient
World, 332.

(The comitia
curiata.)

The liber-
ality of Rome
toward
strangers.

Dionysius ii.
16.

patron the noble whom he wished. The patrons were to
explain the laws to their clients, who were ignorant of such
matters, and to watch over their business affairs as a father
does for his children, to sue for them when they were un-
justly treated, and to defend them when sued. The clients
were to contribute to the dowry of their patron's daughters,
to furnish the ransom in case the patron or his son should
be taken captive, to pay their lord's fines, and to bear
part of the expenses of the offices he held, that he might
perform his public duties with becoming dignity. It was
impious for patron and client to accuse each other or to
testify or vote against each other.

After making these arrangements, Romulus resolved to
appoint councillors who were to help him manage the gov-
ernment. For this purpose he selected a hundred men from
the patricians, and called this council the senate. He
made also an assembly of commons, to which he granted
three powers, the election of magistrates, the ratification
of laws, and the decision of questions of war and peace.
The resolutions of the assembly, however, had no force
unless the senate approved them.

The most effective of all the arrangements of Romulus
the one which did most not only to maintain the freedom
of Rome, but also to win for her the supremacy over other
states was the law which bade the Romans not to mas-
sacre or enslave conquered peoples or to lay waste their
land, but to settle part of. the conquered territory with
Roman citizens, to found colonies in some conquered
towns, and to give others the Roman citizenship. The
kings who followed him, and still later the annual magis-
trates (consuls), carried out his liberal policy to such an
extent that in time the Roman nation came to excel all
others in population.

Institutions of Romulus 337

Romulus sent a colony of three hundred men into each Roman coio-
city, to whom these gave a third part of their lands to be Son 'of "
divided among them by lot; and these Caeninenses and

Antemnates, who desired to remove to Rome, he conveyed Dionysius ii.
thither together with their wives and children, they re- 3S>
taining the possession of their lands, and bringing with
them all their effects. These, who were not less than three
thousand, the king immediately incorporated with the
tribes and the curiae: so that the Romans had then for
the first time six thousand foot in all upon the register.
Thus Caenina and Antemna, no inconsiderable cities . . .
after this war became Roman colonies.

The care of religion he intrusted to many persons. In Religion.
no other newly built city could be found so many priests Dionysius ii.
and attendants of the gods. . . . Each curia elected two
men above fifty years of age, of noble birth, of good char- *
acter and sufficient wealth, and of sound body, to act as
priests for the remainder of their lives, exempt from mili-
tary and political duties. And as it was necessary that
the women and the children should have some part in per-
forming religious rites, Romulus enacted that the wives of
priests should assist their husbands in religious services,
and that the women and children should attend to those
ceremonies which could not lawfully be performed by men.

Romulus gave the father absolute, lifelong power over The power
the son, including the right to scourge him, to bind him and f at h e r.
compel him thus to toil in the fields, or to put him to death, Dionysius ii.
even if the son chanced to be engaged in public affairs, z6 -
even if he were occupying high offices or were being com-
mended for his public liberality. According to this law,
illustrious men, while delivering from the rostra harangues
against the senate but in favor of the people, men who for
this reason were highly popular, have been dragged from

338

Rome Under the Kings

the rostra by their fathers to suffer whatever punishment
the latter should think right. And while these sons were
led away through the market-place, no one was able to res-
Rome, p. 73- cue them neither the consul, nor tribune of the plebs, nor
the mob whom they were flattering, and who considered its
own power superior to all authority. I will not mention
those whom fathers have slain, good men moved by virtue
and zeal to achieve some noble deed forbidden by their
parent. Such was the case with Manlius Torquatus and
many others, in regard to whom I shall speak at the proper
time.

The Roman legislator did not limit the father's au-
thority at this point, but gave him permission to sell the
son . . . granting to the father more power over the son
than to the master over his slaves; for if a slave is sold and
afterward given his liberty, henceforth he remains free,
whereas if the son is sold by the father and then liberated,
he falls again under the paternal power, and a second time
in like manner; not till after the third sale does he become
free from his father.

(The consul
who put his
son to death
for disobedi-
ence.)

Dionysius ii

27-

His religious
institutions.

Livy i. 19.

(Argiletum,
a. piece of
ground be-
tween the
Quirinal and
the Forum.)

II. NUMA POMPILIUS

After Numa had been made king in this way, he set
about founding anew, on the principles of law and morals,
the city recently established by force of arms. When he
saw that the spirit of the citizens, rendered savage by
military life, could not be reconciled to those principles
during the continuance of wars, he concluded that his
fierce nation should be softened by the disuse of arms.
At the foot of Argiletum, therefore, he erected a temple of
Janus as an index of peace and war; when open, it should
show that the state was engaged in war, and its closing
should signify that all the neighboring nations were at

Guilds and Priests 339

peace with Rome. Twice only since the reign of Numa
has this temple been closed.

He organized the people, according to their trades, in He organ-
guilds of musicians, goldsmiths, builders, dyers, shoe-

makers, curriers, coppersmiths, and potters. All the other Numa 17.
trades he united in one guild. He assigned to every guild
its especial privileges, common to all the members, and
ordained that each should have its own times of meeting
and should worship its special patron god.

Next he turned his attention to the appointment of He appoints
priests, though he himself performed many sacred rites, r
especially those which now belong to the flamen (priest) of y K 20 '
Jupiter.

It is a crime for the flamen of Jupiter to ride horseback The priest
or to see the centuries under arms; for this reason he has
rarely been elected consul. He is not permitted to take Aulus Gellius

., ,, . ' i ^ i i n j x - J 5 (quoted

an oath; the ring he wears must be hollow and of open f r0 m Fabius

work. No fire may be carried from his house but the Pictor) -

sacred fire. If a man enters that house bound, he must Rome, 22,

be unbound, and the bonds must be carried through the World, 333 f.

inner court up the roof and thrown into the street. The

flamen has no knot about him, either on his cap, his girdle,

or any other part. If a man who is about to be beaten

with rods falls at his feet as a suppliant, the guilty one

cannot be beaten that day without sacrilege. None but

a freeman may cut a flamen's hair. He never touches or

names a she-goat, raw flesh, hair, or beans. He must not

clip the tendrils of the vine that climbs too high. The

feet of the bed he sleeps in must be plastered with mud.

He never quits it three consecutive nights, and no one

else has the right to sleep therein. There must not be

near the woodwork of his bed a box with sacred cakes in

it. The parings of his nails and the cuttings of his hair

340

Rome Under the Kings

The Vestal
virgins.

Livy i. 20.

Plutarch,
Numa, 10.

The worship
of the dead.

Ovid, Fasti,
ii. 533 ff-

(The festival
to the dead
was cele-
brated on
February
19. Styx, the
river which
bounds the
world of the
dead.)

are covered with earth at the foot of a fruit tree. For him
all days are holy days. He is not allowed to go into the
open air without the apex (conical cap); and even as to
remaining bareheaded under his own roof, the pontiffs
have only quite recently decided that he may do so.

Numa also selected maidens for Vesta, to fill a priest-
hood derived from Alba and closely connected with the
family of the founder of Rome. That they might be con-
stant attendants in the temple, he appointed them salaries
from the public treasury; and by requiring them to re-
main unmarried and to perform various religious rites, he
made them sacred and venerable.

He ordained that the Vestal virgins should continue
unmarried thirty years; during the first ten years they
were to learn their duties, during the next ten they were
to perform them, and during the last they were to teach
others. After this period any of them who wished might
marry and cease to be priestesses; but it is said that very
few took advantage of this privilege and that those few
were not happy. By their regrets and sorrow for the life
they had left, they made the others scruple to leave it
and prefer to remain maidens till their death.

Honor is paid also to the graves of the dead. Appease
the spirits of your forefathers, and offer small presents to
the pyres that have long been cold. The shades of the
dead ask but humble offerings: affection rather than
costly gifts pleases them; Styx below has no greedy divin-
ities. Enough for them is the covering of their tomb
overshadowed with the chaplets laid there, and the scat-
tered fruits and the little grain of salt, and corn soaked
in wine, and violets loosened from the stem; let these
gifts be placed in a jar in the middle of the way. I do
not forbid more costly offerings, but by these mentioned

Religious Festivals 341

the shade may be appeased. After erecting the altars,
add prayers and suitable words.

But while they are celebrating these rites, remain un- "Let none

wedded, ye maidens; let the torch of pine wood await marry."

auspicious days. And let not the curved spear part thy (The pine

virgin ringlets, thou maiden who appearest to thy impa- torch was

_ J carried m the

tient mother already of marriageable years. Conceal thy marriage
torches, Hymenaeus, and remove them afar from these

dismal fires, the gloomy tombs have other torches than ot .* hair

witn 3, spc&r

these. Let the gods, too, be concealed, with the doors wasamar-
of their temples closed; be the fires without incense, and SSnyf^Hy-
let the hearths stand without fire. Abroad now wander e e n * u d s as
phantom spirits, and bodies that have been committed to marriage.)
the tombs. Now the ghost feeds on the food left for
it. ...

The kinsfolk, full of affection, have named the next day The
the Caristia, and the company of relatives assemble at the
family feast. In good truth it is a pleasant thing to turn
our attention from the tombs and from our relatives who
are dead, to those who survive; and after so many are
lost, to see all that remains of our family, and to reckon
the degrees of relationship. . . .

When the night has passed away, then let the god who The festival
by his landmark divides the fields be worshipped with the comer-
accustomed honors. Terminus, whether thou art a stone, stones -
or whether a stock sunk deep in the earth by the ancients,
yet even in this form dost thou possess divinity. Thee
the two owners of adjoining fields crown with chaplets
from their opposite sides, and present with two garlands
and two cakes. They build an altar; the peasant's wife
brings in a broken pan the fire taken from the burning
hearth.

An old man cuts up the firewood, and piles it high when

34 2 Rome Under the Kings

chopped, and strives hard to drive the branches into the
resisting ground. While he is exciting the kindling blaze
with dried bark, a boy stands by and holds in his hands a
broad basket. Out of this, when the father has thrice
thrown the produce of the earth into the midst of the
flames, his little daughter offers the sliced honeycombs.
Others have wine; a portion of each thing is thrown into
the fire; the crowd, all arrayed in white, look on and keep
a religious silence. Terminus is sprinkled, too, with the
blood of a slain lamb; he makes no complaint when a
young pig is offered him. The neighbors meet in suppli-
cation, and they celebrate the feast and sing thy praise,
holy Terminus. It is thou that dost set the limits to na-
tions, and cities, and mighty kingdoms; without thee the
whole country would be steeped in litigation.

III. SERVIUS TULLIUS

The census. He then set about a peaceful work of the utmost impor-

tance, that as Numa had been the author of religious insti-

tutions, posterity might celebrate Servius as the founder of

all distinctions among the members of the state, and of

those classes which are based on dignity and fortune. For

he instituted the census, a most salutary measure for an

This complex empire destined to become so great. According to the cen-

census did sus the services of war and peace were to be performed not

afte^the^n- ky every person without distinction, but in proportion to

stitution of his amount of property. By means of the census he formed

in the early the classes and the centuries, an arrangement which still

exists and which is eminently suited both to peace and to

below. war.

The census Of those who had an estate worth a hundred thousand
asses or more he made eighty centuries, forty of seniors and
forty of juniors. All these centuries constituted the first

The Census Classes 343

class. The seniors were to guard the city, the juniors to Livy i. 43.

.1- u . i_ i ( In the' third

carry on war in the field. Their arms were a helmet, a century B.C.

round shield, greaves, and a corselet all of bronze. This coin, was
armor was for defence. Their offensive weapons were a worth nearly

two cents; in

spear and a sword. To the first class were added two cen- earlier times
turies of mechanics, who were to serve without arms, great*" 6 Wa
Their duty was to convey the military engines. dassmSioif

The second class included all whose estates were worth was at first
from seventy-five to a hundred thousand asses. From the land.)
seniors and juniors of this class twenty centuries in all were
enrolled. Their shields were oblong instead of round, and
they had no corselet. With these exceptions their arms were
the same as those of the first class. The property of the
third class amounted to fifty thousand asses (at the low-
est); the number of the centuries was the same as of the
second class with the same distinction of age. Their arms,
too, were the same excepting that they wore no greaves.
The fourth class, including all whose property was rated
at twenty-five thousand asses (at the lowest), furnished
the same number of centuries; but they had no arms ex-
cepting a spear and a long iavelin. The fifth class included (Livy is con-

. , .. fused as to

thirty centunes, who carried slings and stones for throwing, the numbers;

Among them were counted three centuries of horn-blowers

and trumpeters. The property of the class was rated at World, 341.)

eleven thousand asses (at the lowest). All below this rat-

ing formed one century exempt from military service.

After dividing and arming the infantry in this way, he The cavalry.
levied twelve centuries of knights from among the chief (in fact the
men of the state. And of the three centuries instituted by doubied, W and
Romulus he made six without changing their names. 1 Ten ^f d a t f w e e Tve
thousand asses from the public revenue were given the were added;

Rome, 34

1 The three original centuries were distinguished from the three 7.)
afterward added by the terms "earlier" and "later."

344

Rome Under the Kings

The as-
sembly of the
centuries

(comitia,
centuriata).

The city
tribes.

(At the same
time he
probably di-
vided the
country, too,
into tribes.)

The growing
population.

Livy i. 44.

In fact the
number of
men of mili-
tary age at
this time
could hardly
have exceed-
ed nine or
ten thou-
sand; Ancient
World, 337.

knights for buying horses; and widows were taxed two
thousand asses yearly for the support of the horses. All
these burdens were taken off the poor and laid on the
rich.

Then an additional honor was added; the right to vote
was not given to all alike, according to the custom estab-
lished by Romulus, and followed by succeeding kings, of
granting to every man the same right; but degrees of privi-
lege were made, so that no one might seem to be excluded
from the right of voting, and yet the whole power might
reside in the chief men of the state. For the knights were
first called, and then the eighty centuries of the first class;
and if they happened to differ, which was rarely the case,
those of the second were called, and the voting seldom
descended to the lowest class.

Next he divided the city into four parts according to the
regions and hills then inhabited, and he called these divi-
sions tribes, as I think from the tribute; for he introduced
also the method of levying taxes according to the value of
estates.

The taking of the census he hastened by the terror of a
law which threatened with imprisonment and death those
who did not present themselves to be rated. He then pro-
claimed that all the Roman citizens, horse and foot, should
attend at the dawn of day in the Campus Martius, each in
his century. . . . Eighty thousand citizens are said to
have been rated in that survey. Fabius Pictor, the earliest
of our historians, adds that such was the number of those
who were able to bear arms. This multitude made neces-
sary the enlargement of the city. Servius, accordingly,
added two hills, the Quirinal and the Viminal. . . . The
whole city he surrounded with an earthen rampart, a moat,
and a wall.

A Great Temple 345

IV. THE TEMPLE OF THE CAPITOLINE JUPITER

The king undertook to build a temple to Jupiter, Juno, Work of the
and Minerva in performance of the vow he had made to

the gods in the last battle against the Sabines. He

therefore surrounded the hill, on which he proposed to Tar( i uin -

place the temple, with high supporting walls in many gionysius
places; for it was neither easy of access nor even, but

craggy and ending in a point; hence there was great diffi- This temple

culty in rendering it fit for the purpose. He therefore cated in" the
filled up the interval between the supporting walls and * 1 f

the top of the hill with earth; and by levelling it, made it public.
very fit to receive the sanctuaries. But he was prevented Dionysius

by death from laying the foundations of it: for he lived ait existed
but four years after the end of the last war. Many years m h e is igi _
afterward, however, the Tarquin, who was the second natty it was
king after him, and who was finally dethroned, laid the style; cf.
foundations of this structure, and built a great part of it. world! $21.
But even he did not complete the work, which was finished
under those annual magistrates who were consuls the third
year after his expulsion. It is proper to relate also the
incidents that preceded the building of it, which all the
writers of the local history have handed down. When
Tarquinius was preparing to build the temple, he called
the augurs together and ordered them first to consult the
gods as to the most suitable place of all the city to be con-
secrated, and the most acceptable to the gods; and on
their naming the hill that commands the Forum, and was
then called the Tarpeian, now the Capitoline hill, he or-
dered them again to declare after they had consulted the
gods, in which part of the hill the foundations ought to be
laid; in this matter there was no small difficulty; for there
were upon the hill many altars, of both gods and geniuses,

346

Rome Under the Kings

Ancient
World, 329.

End of the
kingship.

Livy i. 60.
(In the
absence of
the king, the
city was
ruled by a
"prefect.")

not far distant from one another, which were to be removed
to some other place, and the whole area to be set aside for
the sacred enclosure, that was proposed to be created
there for the gods. The augurs thought proper to consult
the gods to whom these altars were consecrated, concerning
every one of them; and if they gave their consent, then to
remove them; the rest of the gods, therefore, and geniuses
gave them leave to remove their altars; but Terminus and
Juventus, although the augurs besought them with great
earnestness, and importunity, could not be prevailed on
to leave their places; for which reason their altars were in-
cluded within the circuit of the temple, and one of them,
now, stands in the portico of the chapel of Minerva, and
the other, in the chapel itself near to the statue of that
goddess; from hence, the augurs concluded that no time
would ever remove the boundaries of the Roman empire,
or impair its vigor; and both have proved true to this age,
which is now the twenty-fourth generation.

Lucius Tarquinius, the Proud, reigned twenty-five
years; the regal form of government extended from the
building of the city to its deliverance, two hundred and
forty-five years. Two consuls, Lucius Junius Brutus
and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, were elected in the
comitia centuriata under the prefect of the city, as pre-
scribed by the commentaries of Servius Tullius.

STUDIES

i. How did the Romans found a city (cf. remark in margin)?
Describe the division of the population into tribes and curias; into
patricians and plebeians. Who belonged to the curiae? What
public rights had the clients? Describe the founding of a Roman
colony. What was done with conquered aliens who wished to live at
Rome? What religious regulations are ascribed to Romulus? De-
scribe the early family.

Studies 347

2. What religious institutions are said to have been established by
Numa? What restrictions were placed on the priest of Jupiter?
How did the Romans worship the dead? What guilds are ascribed
to Numa as founder?

3. What are the most important institutions assigned to Servius
Tullius? Why should the Romans ascribe to him census regulations
which were in fact adopted long after his time?

4. From this passage what ceremonies seem to have been neces-
sary before building a temple? Eliminating the individual kings,
who are largely mythical, write an essay on (i) the government
under the kings; (2) the early Roman religion.

CHAPTER XXX

THE EARLY REPUBLIC: (I) THE PLEBEIANS WIN
THEIR RIGHTS

I. THE FOUNDING OF THE REPUBLIC

The Repub- AFTER the kingship had lasted more than two hundred
and fifty years, Tarquin was expelled. At this time the
public,' '30. Romans hated the name of king as much as they had once
Ancient longed for the deceased or rather the departed Romu-
Worid, 339. Jus. When Tarquin was banished, therefore, the monarchy

came to an end.

(Law. of Then Publicola had a law passed by the popular assem-

Publicola.) bly that no magistrate should put to death or scourge a
Roman citizen without granting him the right of appeal to
the people.

The consuls. But we date the beginning of liberty from this period be-
Livy ii. i. cause the consuls were annual magistrates, not because they
had any less power than that of king. The first consuls had
all the privileges and trappings of royal authority. Care
was taken, however, that they might not appear doubly
Rome, 27. terrible by both having the (lictors and) fasces at the same
time. With the consent of his colleague Brutus was first
attended by the fasces. He had been zealous in establish-
ing liberty, and now he was its faithful guardian. First of
all he required the people, while still enraptured with their
new liberty, to swear that they would never again suffer a
king to rule at Rome; for he feared that they might after-
ward be won oVer or bribed by the royal family. Next,
that a full list of members might give the senate more

348

Early Republican Institutions 349

strength, he chose into it the principal men from the class
of knights so as to complete the number three hundred,
which the king's murders had diminished.

Then the Romans attended to religious matters. The King of the
kings had performed a part of the public worship; and in (Rex sacra-
order that their service might not be missed, a king of the rum '^
sacrifices was appointed. This priestly office the Romans Llvy " 2 -
made subject to the chief pontiff, in order that too great R m ?> 2 v>
honor, added to the name of king, might not endanger their World, 340.
liberty, now their chief care.

In that period the senate maintained the commonwealth The senate
in such a condition that, though the people were free, they suls.
had little to do with the government; for the senate man- cicero, .fa-
aged nearly all public business by its own authority and P ublic > "> 32.
according to its own customs and traditions, while over
all, the consuls exercised a power which, though annual,
was by nature and law truly royal. They earnestly en-
forced that rule which has done so much to maintain the
power of the nobles, that the acts of the popular assembly
should not be valid unless approved by the senate.

Scarcely ten years after the first consuls, Titus Lartius The dicta-
was appointed first dictator. This new office seemed like
the royal power restored.

Immediately after receiving his authority, he appointed Dionysius v.
Spurius Cassius master of horse, for no one to this day
when chosen dictator enters upon his office without a mas-
ter of horse. Wishing to make a display of his power for
the purpose of striking terror rather than for any real use,
he bade his lictors bear through the city their axes bound
in rods (fasces). This was a custom of the kings but
abandoned by the consuls, for Valerius Publicola made the
change in order to render the consular office less hateful to
the people.

350

The Early Republic

Livy ii. 18. When the first dictator was appointed at Rome, the
people, seeing the axes carried before him, were struck with
awe, so that they became more submissive and more
obedient to orders. Under the consuls a citizen oppressed
by one could ask the aid of the other; but under the dic-
tator there was no such means of assistance; neither was
there a right of appeal or any other resource except in
strict obedience.

The tribunes
of the plebs.

Livy ii. 33.

A ncient
World, 342.

493 B.C.

Cicero, Re-
public, ii. 34.

The comitia

tributa in-
stituted,
471 B.C.

Dionysius
ix. 41.

The author
of this law
was Publil-
ius Volero;
Ancient
World, 343-

II. THE GROWTH OF PLEBEIAN RIGHTS

Then they began to consider a reconciliation, and among
the conditions it was allowed that the plebeians should
have their own magistrates, with inviolable privileges, who
should have the power of bringing common people aid
against the consuls, and that it should not be lawful for
any of the patricians to hold this office. In this way two
tribunes of the plebs were created.

By the institution of two tribunes to appease the sedition
of the people, the power of the senate was lessened. Still
it remained dignified and august, for it was still composed
of the wisest and bravest men, who protected their country
in peace and in war. Their authority was still strong be-
cause in honor they were superior to their fellow-citizens.

This man, therefore, as soon as he was at liberty to
perform the functions of his office, . . . assembled the
people, and proposed a law concerning the election of the
tribunes, by which that election was to be transferred
from the assemblies of the curiae, called by the Romans
Comitia Curiata, to the assemblies of the tribes. The dif-
ference between them is this: in order to render valid the
resolutions taken in the assemblies of the curiae, it was
necessary that the senate should issue a decree, and that
the people, voting in their curiae, should confirm it, and

Early Roman Laws 351

that after both these acts the heavenly signs and auspices
should not oppose it: whereas in the assemblies of the
tribes neither the previous decree of the senate was neces-
sary, nor the ratification of the holy rites and auspices,
but only that the resolutions there taken should be finally
determined by the members of the tribes in one day.

III. LAWS OF THE TWELVE TABLES

Let the master of a funeral make use of a public officer Funerals,
and lictors. Let it be lawful for him to use three mantles
in a funeral, a purple fillet for the head, and ten flute- Ancient
players. Let him do no more than this.

Let none pour wine mixed with precious ointment into
dead bodies.

Let none make more than one funeral for one person, or
carry more than one bier in the funeral procession.

Let none make use of gold in funerals. But if the teeth
of the deceased are fastened with gold, let none be pros-
ecuted for burying or burning the deceased with that
gold.

Let not women scratch their faces or tear their cheeks or
raise lamentations on account of a funeral.

Let the praises of honored men be repeated in a gather-
ing of the people; and let songs of mourning, accompanied
with a flute, attend these praises.

Let the father have power over the life and death of his The family
son. Let it be lawful to sell the son as a slave three times. erty. Pr<
If the father shall sell the son three times, let the son be
free from his father.

Let there be a space of two and a half feet round the
outer wall of every house.

Let an oath be of the greatest force to insure credit.

Let no man take more interest for money than one per

352 The Early Republic

cent a month. If he shall do otherwise, let him be fined
four times that sum.

Crimes. If a judge or arbitrator appointed by law shall take

money for a judgment to be given, let the crime be
capital.

If any one breaks the limb of another and makes no
reparation, let retaliation take place.

Whoever shall maliciously burn another's house, let him

Rome, 86. be bound and whipped at the discretion of the praetor, and

burned. But if the mischief is accidental, let him, at the

discretion of the praetor, repair the damage or be punished

for it by being whipped.

If any one shall publish slander or write verses to the
defamation of another, let the offence be capital. If any
shall assemble in the city privately at night, let the offence
be capital.

Let there be no intermarriage between patricians and
plebeians.

Debtors. Let thirty days' grace be granted after a debt has been

confessed and judgment given. Then let the debtor be
seized. Let the creditor bring him before the court. If he
does not obey the summons, or is not bailed by any one,
let the creditor take him away and bind him with a thong
or with fetters weighing no more than fifteen pounds, or if
he will, less. If the debtor pleases, let him maintain him-
self. If he does not maintain himself, let the one who keeps
him in bonds give him a pound of spelt every day; if he
thinks fit, more. Meantime let there be an agreement.
If the debtor does not agree with his creditor, let the latter
keep him in bonds sixty days. In this period let the creditor
cite him to court three market-days in succession, and let
him proclaim the sum at which the costs are laid. Then
let the creditor put him to death; or if he pleases, sell him

The Tribal Assembly 353

as a slave in a foreign country beyond the Tiber, But if
the debtor is assigned to many creditors, let them on the
third market-day cut his body into several pieces. If
they cut more or less, let it bring no damage to them-
selves.

IV. FURTHER GROWTH OF PLEBEIAN RIGHTS
a. The Valerian-Horatian Laws

After the subversion of the decemvirate, the first per- Power of
sons who were invested with the consular dignity by the assembi

assembly
enlarged,

Lucius Valerius Potitus and Marcus Horatius Barbatus.

people in an assembly of the centuries, were, as I said, B ~

These magistrates, who were themselves of a popular x i. 4S .

disposition and had inherited these principles from their Ancient

ancestors, adhered to the promises they had made to the World > 345-

plebeians, when they persuaded them to lay down their

arms. Avowing that, in their administration, they would

consult nothing but the interest of the people, they en-

acted several laws in the assembly of centuries, while the

patricians were dissatisfied but ashamed to oppose them,

some laws which I need not record, and particularly

that which ordains that the laws passed by the people in

their assemblies by tribes should bind all the Romans

without distinction, and have the same force with those

which should be passed in the assemblies by centuries.

The punishments appointed against such as should abro- This state-

, . . .- .,1,1 f ment suffices

gate or transgress this law, if convicted thereof, were to correct a

death and the confiscation of their fortunes. ... It was ^ t e e a " or
stated above that in the assemblies by tribes the plebeians *g^ y h r f e
and the poorer sort were superior to the patricians; but mentioned
in the assembly by centuries, the patricians, though far ta
less numerous, were superior to the plebeians. aans -

354

The Early Republic

Proposal of
Canuleius,
445 B.C.

Livy iv. i.

Aristocratic
feeling.

76.2.

These selec-
tions up to
and includ-
ing the
Ogulnian law
have been
translated
by Dr. E. G.
Sihler.

Ancient
World, 346.

Plebeian
feeling.

Livy iv. 4. 6.

b. The Canuleian Law

At the beginning of the year the tribune of the people
C. Canuleius made public a bill concerning the right of
intermarriage [comibium] of the senatorial class (patres)
and the plebeians, by which the senatorial class felt that
their blood was stained and the rights of the old families
were perverted.

[Appeal of the aristocracy]: They should remember
what eminence the senate itself had received from the
Fathers, what eminence they intended to hand down to
their children, so that they too, like the plebeians, could
boast that it was more enlarged and imposing. . . .
What and how great things had C. Canuleius undertaken?
He was proposing a rude mixture of families, a perversion
of public and private auspices, to the end that there be
nothing pure and unstained, so that with the removal of
all distinction no one could know either himself or his
own. For what other force could mixed marriages have,
but that almost in the fashion of irrational beasts the mat-
ing of plebeians and patricians be indiscriminately brought
about? So that the offspring (of such alliances) shall not
know of what blood or of what religion he is. One half
would be of senatorial rank, one half of plebeian, not even
itself in harmony with itself. . . .

Or can there be any greater or more marked disgrace,
than that a part of the citizen body as though polluted
should be held unworthy of the right of intermarriage? . . .

The plebeians on this issue were particularly enraged,
because it was claimed that they could not secure auspices,
as though they were hateful to the immortal gods, nor was
there an end of the struggles since the plebeians had got
as its leader a most insistent tribune and since the pie-

Consular Tribunes; Censors 355

beians themselves vied with him in persistence until the
Fathers, at last overcome, yielded that a legislative vote
should be had concerning the right of intermarriage. . . .

c. The Military Tribunes with Consular Power

When Canuleius, through his victory over the Fathers The creation
and through his popularity with the plebeians, became a Resulted di-

man of towering stature, other tribunes in hot enthusiasm

to enter upon a struggle for their own bill made a contest of Canule-

with all their might, and while the rumor of war was grow-

ing day by day they prevented the enrollment of troops. lvy "

The consuls, since nothing could be done through the fc^f 346>

senate, as the tribunes interfered, held meetings of the

leading men at home. It was clear that they would either

have to yield victory to the enemy or to citizens. Of the

retired consuls, Valerius and Horatius took no share in

the deliberations. The motion of C. Claudius proposed to A method of

. political

arm the consuls against the tribunes; the motions of the warfare
Quinctii, of Cincinnatus, and Capitolinus would have noth- the plebeians
ing to do with slaughter and with violently treating the

officers (tribunes) whom, after concluding a treaty with their griev-

the plebeians, they had accepted to be inviolable in person, righted 6 "

Through these conferences the issue was brought to that We have

point that they permitted military tribunes with consular here > too, . an

; * * . . example of a

power to be chosen indiscriminately from patricians and secret cau-
plebeians. As to the election of consuls no change was to
be made; and therewith both tribunes and plebs were con-
tented.

d. The Censors

In the year in which Marcus Geganius Macerinus was Growth of

tlic ofn.cc,

consul a second time and Titus Quinctius Capitolinus a 443 B.C.

fifth time, the censorship was instituted. Though of Livyiv. 8.

356 The Early Republic

humble origin, it grew in importance till it came to regulate
the morals and discipline of Rome, to revise the list of the
senators and knights, to mark the citizens with honor or
disgrace, and to control the revenues of the state. The
Romans instituted the office because the census and as-
sessment of citizens had not been taken for several years.
This work could no longer be deferred, and the consuls
had no leisure to attend to it while wars with so many
states were impending..

Supervision If any one permitted his land to run to waste, and did
of the farmers . J

and the not plow or keep it in order, or if any one had neglected
kmghts. yg trees Qr yiaeyajd, it was no t w ith impunity; the matter
Aulus Gellius f ell w j tnm tne censor's authority and the censors degraded
him. Also if any Roman knight had a horse in poor con-
dition or unseemly to look on, he was fined for lack of
proper grooming, which is the same as if you were to say
want of care. There are good authorities for both these
circumstances, and M. Cato has frequently attested them.

e. The Licinian Laws

The authors The outward cause of political innovations, it seems,

cinius and was the huge amount of debt, for which trouble the ple-

36* fi U c. beians could hope for no relief unless men of their own class

Li vi were pl ace d in the highest governmental position. It was

42. necessary earnestly to think about it. By tentative ef-

This para- forts and working the plebeians, they said, had reached

fhe P poUcy e of tnat point of advancement whence if they strove further,

the tribunes. tney ^g^t be able to reach the highest things and be

placed on a level with the senatorial class in honor as well

as in merit. For the present it was determined to have

tribunes of the people chosen, in which office they might

find a way for themselves to the other honors of state.

And C. Licinius and L. Sextius were elected tribunes

The Licinian Laws * 357

and then published bills, all of which were antagonistic to The pro-
the power of the patricians and in the interest of the plebs, P s
one concerning debt, viz. that, subtracting from the prin-
cipal what had been paid by way of interest, what re-
mained was to be paid within three years in equal instal-
ments; the other concerning the limit of lands, that no
one should enter on more than fifty acres of (public) land;
the third that no elections be held of military tribune [with
consular power] and that under all circumstances one of
the two consuls should be chosen from the plebs all
matters of towering importance, which could not be
maintained without the greatest effort. When therefore a
critical struggle was impending, involving at one and the
same time all things for which an unlimited desire prevails
among men, to wit, land, money, and office of state, the
senators thoroughly frightened and in a flutter of irresolu-
tion, found in public and private conferences no remedy
but intercession, which had been tested in many prior
struggles. They set up some of the colleagues (in the
tribunate) against the bills of the tribunes. When they
saw that the people were being summoned by Licinius and
Sextius to begin the voting, they surrounded themselves
with a bodyguard of senators and they would not suffer
the bills to be read aloud nor any other customary form to
be gone through toward having the people pass any reso-
lution. And now having often called in vain a meeting, and
seeing the bills as good as defeated, Sextius said: "Very well,
since it is decided that intercession shall count for so much,
we will protect the plebs with that very weapon. Come, ye
senators, announce an election for choosing military trib-
unes, I will see to it that no help come from that term
veto ("I forbid"), which with such satisfaction you now
hear our colleagues harmoniously utter. " The threats were

358

The Early Republic

To admit
plebeians
to the
augural and
pontifical
colleges,
300 B.C.

Livy x. 6.

The law in
fact in-
creased the
number of
augurs and
pontiffs to
nine each,
and provided
that four
augurs and
five pontiffs
should be
plebeian;
Botsford,
Roman As-
semblies, 309.

The struggle
which led to
it.

Dio Cassius,
Frag. 37.

not uttered in vain: no elections were held except those
of aediles and tribunes of the people. Licinius and Sextius
were reflected as tribunes of the people and suffered no
curule magistrate to be chosen : and this desolation the
plebs reelecting the two tribunes and they doing away with
elections of military tribunes prevailed in the city for
five years. Finally after great struggles the dictator and
the senate were overpowered, so that the measures of the
tribunes were admitted. The elections of the consuls were
held in spite of the resistance of the nobility, at which
Lucius Sextius was made consul, the first of plebeian rank.

f . The Ogulnian Law

A struggle arose among the leading men of the state,
patricians and plebeians, a struggle stirred up by the
tribunes of the people Q. and Cn. Ogulnius, who every-
where saw opportunities to make charges against the
senatorial class before the plebeians. After trying other
things in vain, they undertook to inflame not the lowest
plebs, but the very heads of the plebs, retired consuls and
triumphatores, to whose honors nothing was lacking but
the priestly offices, which were not yet promiscuously be-
stowed. Therefore they published a bill to this effect:
"Whereas there are four augurs and four pontifices at this
time, it is resolved to have the number of priests enlarged,
and four pontifices and five augurs shall be chosen in addi-
tion from the plebeians."

g. The Hortensian Law

When the tribunes moved an annulment of debts, the
law was often proposed without avail, since the leaders
were by no means willing to accept it and the tribunes
granted the nobles the choice of either putting this law to

Hortensian Law 359

vote or following that of Stolo, by which they were to Licinius
reckon the previous interest toward the principal and re- p. 3S 6 f.
ceive the remainder in triennial payments. For the time above -
being the weaker party, dreading lest it might lose all, paid
court to them, and the wealthier class, encouraged to
think it would not be compelled to adopt either course,
maintained a hostile attitude. But when the revolted
party proceeded to press matters somewhat, both sides
changed their positions. The debtors were no longer satis-
fied with either plan, and the nobles thought themselves
lucky if they should not be deprived of their principal.
Hence the dispute was not decided immediately, but after-
ward they prolonged their rivalry in a spirit of conten-
tiousness, and did not act at all in their usual character.
Finally the people made peace in spite of the fact that the
nobles were unwilling to remit much more than they had
originally expected; however, the more they beheld their
creditors yielding, the more they were emboldened, as if
they were successful by a kind of right; and consequently
they regarded the various concessions almost as matters
of course and strove for yet more, using as a stepping-stone
to that end the fact that they had already obtained some-
thing.

After great and long-continued seditions due to debts Livy,
the plebs seceded to the Janiculum, whence they were
brought back by Quintus Hortensius as dictator. The law

After the secession of the plebs to the Janiculum, Q. 28 7 B.C.
Hortensius dictator moved and carried a law in the ^Escule-

turn that whatever the plebs ordered should be binding on xvi - 10 37 -

Gams i. 3.
all the Citizens. A plebiscite

Formerly the patricians maintained that they were not
bound by plebiscites, as the latter were passed without a ^jj^J to
their authorization; but afterward the Hortensian statute sembly.

360 The Early Republic

was enacted, which provided that plebiscites should be
binding on the whole people; and in this way they were
made equal to statutes.

STUDIES

1. Describe the government of the early Republic. Compare it
with the government under the kings.

2. Show how the comitia tributa differed from the other popular
assemblies.

3. From the laws of the Twelve Tables what may we infer regarding
(i) funeral customs, (2) the family, (3) honesty in business, (4) the
condition of the poor, (5) the general character of the Romans of the
time?

4. a. How did the laws of Valerius and Horatius affect the tribal
assembly? b. What was the feeling of the aristocracy and the plebs
respectively as to the question of intermarriage? c. What led to the
institution of military tribunes with consular power? d. What were
the functions of the censors, and why were they instituted? e. What
appeal did Licinius and Sextius make to the people? How did they
bring about the enactment of their bill? f. What was the Ogulnian
law? g. Describe the conflict which led to the enactment of the
Hortensian law. What were its terms? From the entire chapter
write an account of the methods of political warfare adopted by the
opposing parties.

CHAPTER XXXI

THE EARLY REPUBLIC: (II) ROME BECOMES
SUPREME IN ITALY

I. TREATY WITH CARTHAGE AND WITH THE LATINS

THE first treaty between Rome and Carthage was made First treaty
in the year of Lucius Junius Brutus and Marcus Horatius,
the first consuls elected after the expulsion of the kings.
Of this treaty I append a translation as accurate as I could _ .

J Polybms 111.

make it, for the fact is that the ancient language diners so 22.

much from that at present in use that the best scholars Rome, 39.
among the Romans themselves have great difficulty in
interpreting some points in the document.

"Between the Romans and their allies, and the Cartha- (The early

. .... ,11. date of this

ginians and their allies, there shall be peace and alliance treaty has

upon the following terms: tk,ned, U yet

"Neither the Romans nor their allies shall sail beyond ^ c } ^ t

the Fair Promontory, unless driven by bad weather or by grounds.

an enemy. And in case any one of them be driven ashore, ontoryte on
he shall not buy or take aught for himself save what is

needful for the repair of his ship and the service of the Africa, near

Carthage.)

gods, and he shall depart within five days.

"Merchants landing for traffic in Sardinia or in Libya
shall strike no bargain except in the presence of a herald or
a town clerk; and the credit of the state shall be a security
to the merchant for whatever he shall sell in the presence of
this officer.

"If any Roman lands in the Carthaginian province in
Sicily, he shall enjoy all the rights enjoyed by others.

361

362

The Early Republic

Treaty
between
Rome and
the Latins,
493 B.C.

Dionysius
vi. 5.

Ancient
World, 352.

The battle
of the Allia,
390 B.C.

Plutarch,
Camillus, 13,

"The Carthaginians, on the other hand, shall do no in-
jury to the people of Antium, Laurentum, Circeii, Tar-
racina, or any other people of the Latins who are subject to
Rome. Nor shall they possess themselves of any town of
the Latins which is not subject to Rome. If they take one
of these towns, they shall deliver it unharmed to the
Romans.

"The Carthaginians shall build no fort in Latium; and if
they land an armed force there, they shall depart before
night."

[A few years afterward the Romans concluded with the
Latins the following treaty:]

"Let there be peace between the Romans and all the
Latin cities as long as heaven and earth shall remain in
their present position.

"Let them neither make war upon one another them-
selves, nor bring in foreign enemies, nor grant a safe pas-
sage to those who shall make war upon either.

"Let them with all their forces assist one another when
attacked by enemies, and let both have equal shares of the
spoils and booty taken in their common wars.

"Let suits relating to private contracts be determined in
ten days among that people among whom the contract was
made.

"Let nothing be added to, or taken from, these treaties
except by the joint consent of the Romans and all the
Latins."

n. SACK OF ROME BY THE GAULS

Every Roman believes that the prayers of Camillus
were quickly heard by Jupiter, and that a terrible retribu-
tion was exacted for his wrongs. (For it was while he was
in exile that the Gauls came.)

The Gauls at Rome 363

The Romans marched about eleven miles from the city,
and halted for the night on the banks of the Allia, a stream ib. 18.
which joins the Tiber not far from where their camp was
pitched. Here in an unskilful battle the want of discipline
caused the ruin of the Romans. The Gauls drove the left
wing into the river and destroyed it, but the right, which
took refuge in the hills to avoid the enemy's charge on level
ground, suffered less, and most of this division safely
reached the city. Of the rest, those who survived after
the enemy were weary with slaughter took refuge at Veii,
imagining that all was over with Rome.

On the third day after the battle Brennus (the Gallic The Gauls
chief) came at the head of his army to attack the city.

Seeing the gates open and no guards on the walls, he at

first feared some ambuscade, as he could not believe that Ancient

the Romans had so utterly despaired of themselves. When World, 354 f.

he discovered the truth, he marched through the Colline

Gate, and captured Rome a little more than three hundred

and sixty years after its foundation, if we can believe that

any accurate record has been kept of those earlier periods.

(First the barbarians plundered and burned the city, The siege of
while the Romans held only the Capitoline Mount.) En-
couraged by their chief, the Gauls eagerly volunteered an canrttius, 27.
assault on the Capitol. About midnight many of them
climbed silently up the rock, which although rough and
precipitous was easier of ascent than they had imagined; so
that the first of them reached the top, and were on the
point of attacking the rampart and its sleeping garrison,
for neither men nor dogs noticed them.

But there were sacred geese kept in the temple of Juno,
which in other times were fed without stint, but which then,
as there was scarcely food enough for the men, were some-
what neglected. These birds are naturally quick of hearing

364

The Early Republic

" Woe to
the van-
quished!"

Plutarch,
Camillas, 28.

Camillus
comes to the
rescue.

Plutarch,
Camillus, 29.

and timid; and now rendered wakeful and wild by hunger,
they quickly perceived the Gauls climbing up, and rushing
noisily to the place, awoke the garrison.

The Gauls, feeling that they were discovered, no longer
preserved silence, but violently assaulted the place. The
Romans snatched whatever arms came first to hand and
ran to repel them. First of all Manlius, a man of consular
rank, strong of body and full of courage, fell in with two. of
the enemy. As one of them lifted up his battle-axe, Man-
lius cut off the right hand with his sword, while he dashed
his shield into another's face and threw him backward
down the cliff. Then he stood upon the wall, and with the
help of those who gathered round him, beat off the rest, for
not many had reached the top or effected anything equal
to the boldness of the attempt. After thus escaping the
danger, the Romans threw their sentinel down the rock,
whereas on Manlius they conferred by vote a reward for
his bravery.

(Afterward the Romans on the Capitoline Mount came
to terms with the enemy.) Brennus, the Gallic chief, and
Sulpicius, a Roman leader of the commons, met, and it was
agreed that the Romans should pay a thousand pounds of
gold, and that on receiving it, the Gauls should at once
leave the country. Both parties swore to observe these
conditions; but while the gold was being weighed, the
Gauls at first stealthily tampered with the scales and then
openly pulled the beam, so that the Romans became angry.
Thereupon Brennus insolently took off his sword and belt
and threw them into the scale; and when Sulpicius asked,
"What is this?" he replied, "Woe to the vanquished!"

While the Romans were thus disputing with the Gauls
and with one another, Camillus with his army was at the
gates. Learning what was going on within, he ordered the

Greek Invasion of Italy 365

mass of his soldiers to follow him quietly and in good order,
while he pushed on with the picked troops to join the
Romans, who all made way for him and received him as
their dictator with silence and respect. He then took the
gold from the scales and gave it to his lictors, and ordered Rome, 27;
the Gauls to take the scales and the beam and depart; "for wSffsss-
it is the custom of the Romans," he said, "to defend their
country not with gold but with iron."

In this way Rome was strangely taken and yet more Plutarch,
strangely rescued, after the Gauls had held it more than
ten months.

III. PYRRHUS

He was indeed a soldier worthy to command soldiers, Plutarch,
the only king of the age in whom could be traced any like-
ness to the great Alexander. By the fire and the energy of
his movements in the field of battle, Pyrrhus revived the
image of that hero; other kings mimicked him only in
their behavior and in the trappings and state of royalty.
We can form an opinion of his knowledge and skill in
military affairs from the writings which he has left on these
subjects. It is said, too, that Antigonus when asked who Greece, 318;
was the greatest general answered, " Pyrrhus, if he lives
to be old," for he was speaking of the generals of his time
only. Hannibal, however, considered Pyrrhus to have
been the best general that ever lived for skill and resource,
placing Scipio next and himself third, as is written in the
life of Scipio.

In fact Pyrrhus devoted the whole of his intellect to the
art of war; for he regarded it as the only study fit for a
king, and held all other occupations frivolous. . . .

As he desired some new adventures, he embraced the
following opportunity. Rome was at war with the Taren-

3 66

The Early Republic

281-272
B.C.

Plutarch,
Pyrrhus, 13.

He disci-
plines the
Tarentines.

Plutarch,
Pyrrhus, 16.

tines; and as they were not strong enough to carry on the
contest, and yet were not allowed by the audacious folly of
their mob orators to make peace, they proposed to choose
Pyrrhus leader and to invite him to be their ally in the war,
for he was then more at leisure than any of the other kings
and also was the best general of all. . . .

Thus they voted for war and sent ambassadors to Epirus,
not from Tarentum alone but from the other Greek cities
in Italy. These delegates carried presents to Pyrrhus and
were instructed to tell him that they required a leader of
skill and renown, and that they possessed a force of Lu-
canians, Messapians, Samnites, and Tarentines which
amounted to twenty thousand cavalry and three hundred
and fifty thousand infantry. This information not only
excited Pyrrhus, but made all the Epirots eager to take
part in the campaign.

When Pyrrhus arrived at Tarentum, he did nothing to
displease the people till his fleet reached the coast and he
had gathered the greater part of his army. Then as he
saw that the populace, unless ruled by a strong hand, could
help neither him nor themselves, but intended to stay
idling about their baths and entertainments at home while
he fought their battles, he closed the gymnasia and the
public walks, in which the people were wont to waste their
time in empty talk about the war. He forbade all drink-
ing, feasting, and unreasonable revels, and forced the
people to take arms. In carrying out this order he showed
himself inexorable to every one who was on the muster-
roll of able-bodied citizens. This conduct made him greatly
disliked, and many of the Tarentines left the city in dis-
gust; for they were so unused to discipline that inability
to pass their lives as they chose they considered to be no
better than slavery.

Pyrrhus Defeats the Romans 367

(When Pyrrhus heard that the Roman army had come The battle of
into Lucania to oppose him, he marched forth to meet it at 280 B.C. '
Heraclea.) Learning that the Romans were near, and were
encamping on the farther side of the river Siris, he rode
down to the river to view them. When he saw their even
ranks, their orderly movements, and their well-arranged
camp, he was surprised, and said to the nearest of his
friends, "These barbarians, Megacles, have nothing bar-
barian in their military discipline, but we shall soon learn
what they can do."

He began already to feel some uncertainty as to the issue
of the campaign, and determined to wait till his allies came
up, and until then to watch the movements of the Romans
and prevent their crossing the river. As they perceived his
object, however, they quickly crossed the river, the in-
fantry at a ford, the cavalry at many points at once, so
that the Greeks, fearing that they might be surrounded,
drew back.

Perceiving the movement, Pyrrhus ordered his officers
instantly to form the troops in order of battle and wait
under arms while he himself charged with the cavalry,
three thousand strong, for he hoped to catch the Romans
in the act of crossing the river and consequently in disorder.
When he saw many shields of the Roman infantry appear-
ing over the river bank and their horsemen all ranged in
order, he closed up his own ranks and charged them. He
himself took the lead, a conspicuous figure in his beautiful
glittering armor, and he proved by his exploits that he
deserved his high reputation; for though he fought per-
sonally and engaged in combat with the enemy, he con-
tinually watched the whole battle, and handled his troops
with as much facility as though he were not in the thick of
the fight, appearing always where his presence was most

3 68

The Early Republic

The

embassy of
Cineas.

Plutarch,
Pyrrhus, 14.

Greece, 220;
Ancient
World, 241.

Plutarch,
Pyrrhus, 18.

Appius

Claudius

Caecus.

Plutarch,
Pyrrhus, 18 f.

needed and reenforcing those who seemed likely to give
way. (Pyrrhus won a hard-fought battle.)

There was a certain Cineas, a Thessalian, who was con-
sidered a man of good judgment, and who having heard
Demosthenes the orator speak, was better able than any of
the speakers of his age to delight his hearers with an imita-
tion of the eloquence of that great master of rhetoric. He
was now in the service of Pyrrhus, and being sent about to
various cities, proved true the proverb of Euripides that

All can be done by words
Which foemen wish to do with conquering swords.

Pyrrhus used to say that more cities were won for him
by Cineas with words than he himself won by force of
arms. . . . (Wishing to make peace with Rome,) Pyrrhus
sent Cineas as ambassador to conduct the negotiations.
He conversed with the leading men of Rome and offered
their wives and children presents from the king. No one,
however, would accept the gifts, but all, men and women
alike, replied that if peace were publicly made with the
king, they would then have no objection to regarding him
as a friend. And when Cineas spoke before the senate in a
winning and persuasive manner, he could make no impres-
sion upon his audience. . . . The common people, how-
ever, were evidently eager for peace, because they had
been defeated in one great battle, and expected that they
would have to fight another, against a larger force, be-
cause the Italian states would join Pyrrhus.

At this crisis Appius Claudius (Caecus), an illustrious
man, who had long been prevented by old age and blind-
ness from taking an active part in politics, hearing of the
proposals of Pyrrhus and learning that the question of
peace or war was about to be voted upon in the senate,

Italy for the Italians 369

could no longer endure to stay at home, but caused his
sons to carry him in a litter through the Forum to the
senate-house. When he reached the doors of the senate-
house, his sons and his sons-in-law supported him and
guided him as he entered, while all the assembly observed
a respectful silence.

(He then spoke against the proposal to treat with Pyrrhus (Compare
while this Epirot king remained in the peninsula. Italy roe doc-
for the Italians was the new principle which he set forth. In trme -")
conclusion he said,) "Do not imagine that you will rid
yourselves of this man by making a treaty with him.
Rather you will encourage other Greek princes to invade
you, for they will despise you and think you an easy prey
to all men, if you let Pyrrhus go home again without pay-
ing the penalty for his outrages upon you, nay with the
power to boast that he has made Rome a laughing-stock
for Taren tines and Samnites!"

By his words Appius roused a warlike spirit in the
Romans, and they dismissed Cineas with the answer that
if Pyrrhus would leave Italy, they would if he wished dis-
cuss the question of alliance with him, but that while ne
remained in arms in their country, the Romans would
fight him to the death. . . .

After spending six years of constant fighting in Italy The failure
and Sicily, Pyrrhus failed. During this time he lost a

great part of his force, but always, even in his defeats, kept p&w, 2 6.
his reputation for invincible bravery. In warlike skill and
personal strength and daring he was thought to be by far
the first prince of his age. Yet he always threw away the
advantages which he had gained, to follow some chimerical
scheme of further conquest. He was unable to take proper
measures for the present because of his eagerness for the
future.

37 The Early Republic

STUDIES

1. What were the provisions of the first treaty between Rome and
Carthage? From this treaty what may we infer as to the relations
between these states? as to their comparative power? What were the
provisions of the treaty between Rome and Latium? Does the treaty
represent the two powers as equal?

2. Give an account of the Gallic invasion and of the sack of Rome.

3. Write a biography of Pyrrhus, and describe his character. As
a man and a general how does he compare with the most famous
Romans? What was the character of the Tarentines? What were
the leading traits in the character of Appius Claudius? How does
his policy resemble our "Monroe doctrine"?

CHAPTER XXXII

ROMAN ORGANIZATION; PROGRESS IN CULTURE

I. MUNICIPIA AND COLONIES

THE words municipes and municipia are very easily and Municipia
very commonly uttered, and you never meet with a man d?stin- 101
who uses them but he supposes that he clearly knows their g uished -
meaning. Yet in truth one thing is meant and another Geffius xvi .
expressed; for how many of us are there who, coming from
any Roman colony, do not call ourselves municipes, and World, 361 f.
our countrymen municipes, which is very far from reason
and the truth. So we are in the same manner ignorant of
what and how great a difference there is between municipia
and colonise; and we are apt to suppose that colonies are
more privileged than municipal towns. . . . The mu-
nicipes in fact are persons who from the municipal towns
are, in right of their municipality, Roman citizens, gov-
erned by their own laws, and partakers of only privileges
and offices with the Roman people. They appear to be so-
called a munere capessendo ("from taking honors"); and
they are bound by no compulsion or law of the Romans,
except that they had placed themselves under the power
of the latter.

The Caerites, we learn, were the first who were made a Municipes

111 A i ,1 f . i without the

municipal body without the power of voting; they were right to vote,
permitted the honor of being called Roman citizens, but The pos ition
were exonerated from offices and burdens, on account of was in . fact

one of m-

their having recovered and protected sacred things in the feriority, not
Gallic war; hence those were called "Lists of the Caerites,"

37i

37 2

Roman Organization

Colonies.

Definitions
of Munici-
pia.

Festus 127.

Organization
of Latium
and Campa-
nia under
Rome,
338 B.C.

Livy viii. 14.

Ancient
World, 356 f.

upon which the censors ordered the names of those to be
inscribed whom they deprived of their vote. But colonies
stand in another relationship; they do not enter into the
franchise from without, nor do they claim it by their
origin, but they are, as it were, the offspring of the state,
and are of necessity subject to the laws and institutes of
the Romans; which condition, though it be more exposed
and less free, is yet deemed more desirable and respectable,
on account of the amplitude and majesty of the Roman
people.

A municipium is denned as that class of men, who when
they came to Rome, were not Roman citizens but partici-
pated with the Roman citizens in everything connected
with the performance of duties, with the exception of vot-
ing and holding office; such as were the people of Fundi,
Formiae, Cumae, Acerrae, Lanuvium, and Tusculum, who
after some years were made Roman citizens. A second
definition applies the term to those whose entire state has
come into the Roman citizenship, as Aricia, Caere, and
Anagnia. Thirdly this class is defined as those who have
entered the Roman state on condition of remaining mu-
nicipes of their several states and colonies, as the people
of Pisa, Urbinum, Nola, Bononia, Placentia, Nepete,
Sutrium, and Luca.

The principal members of the senate applauded the
consul's statement of the business on the whole; but said
that "as the states were differently circumstanced, the
proposal might be readily adjusted so that it might be
determined according to the desert of each, if they should
put the question regarding each state specifically. The
question was therefore so put regarding each separately
and a decree passed. To the Lanuvians the right of citizen-
ship was granted, and the exercise of their religious rights

Organization of Latium 373

was restored to them with this provision, that the temple
and grove of Juno Sospita should be common between the
Lanuvian burghers and the Roman people. The Aricians, Full Roman
Nomentans, and Pedans were admitted into the number of
citizens on the same terms as the Lanuvians. To the Tus-
culans the rights of citizenship which they already pos-
sessed were continued; and the crime of rebellion was
turned . . . against a few instigators. On the Veliter-
nians, Roman citizens of long standing, measures of great
severity were inflicted because they had so often rebelled;
their walls were razed and their senate removed from Loss of all
thence, and they were ordered to dwell on the other side of
the Tiber, so that the fine of any individual who should
be caught on the hither side of that river should amount
to one hundred asses; and that the person who had appre-
hended him, should not discharge his prisoner from con-
finement, until the money was paid down. Into the land of
the senators colonists were sent; from the additions of
which Velitrae recovered its appearance of former popu-
lousness.

A new colony was also sent to Antium, with this provi- Antium, a
sion that if the Antians desired to be enrolled as colonists,
permission to that effect should be granted. Their ships
of war were removed from thence, and the people of An-
tium were interdicted the sea, and the rights of citizenship
were granted them. The Tiburtians and Praenestines Tibur and
were amerced in some land, not only on account of the free allies,
recent guilt of the rebellion, which was common to them
with the other Latins; but also because from their dislike
to the Roman government, they had formerly associated
in arms with the Gauls, a nation of savages. From the
other Latin states they took away the privileges of inter-
marriage, commerce, and of holding meetings. To the

374

Roman Organization

Full citizen-
ship again.

The Rostra
were conse-
crated, hence
a temple; the
word means
"beaks."

Changes in
armor, arms
and organ-
ization.

Livy viii. 8.

Ancient
World, 365.

The target
was round;
the shield
oblong.

In action.

Campanians, in compliment to their horsemen, because
they had refused to join in rebellion with the Latins, and
to the Fundans and Formians, because the passage through
their territories had always been secure and peaceful, the
freedom of the state was granted with the right of suf-
frage. It was determined that the people of Cumae and
Suessula should have the same rights and be on the same
footing as Capua. Of the ships of the Antians some were
drawn up to the docks at Rome, some were burned, and
with the prows of these the speakers' stand in the Forum
was ordered to be decorated: and that temple was called
Rostra.

II. THE REFORMED ARMY

The Romans formerly used targets; afterward when
they began to receive pay, they made shields instead of
targets; and what before constituted phalanxes similar to
the Macedonian, afterward became a line drawn up in
distinct companies. At length they were divided into
several centuries. A century contained sixty soldiers, two
centurions, and one standard-bearer. The spearmen
(hastati) formed the first line in fifteen companies, with
small intervals between them; a company had twenty
light-armed soldiers, the rest wearing shields; those were
called light who carried only a spear and short iron jave-
lins. This division, which constituted the van in the field
of battle, contained the youth in early bloom advancing
toward the age of service. Next followed men of more
robust age, in the same number of companies, who were
called principes, all wearing shields, and distinguished by
the completest armor. (B ehind them came the triarii.) . . .

When the army was marshalled according to this ar-
rangement, the spearmen first commenced the fight. If

The Army; Coinage 375

they were unable to repulse the enemy, they retreated
leisurely, and were received by the principes into the in-
tervals of the ranks. The fight then devolved on the
principes; the spearmen followed. The triarii continued
kneeling behind the ensigns, their left leg extended for-
ward, holding their shields resting on their shoulders, and
their spears fixed in the ground, with the points erect, so
that their line bristled as if enclosed by a rampart. If the
principes also did not make sufficient impression in the
fight, they retreated slowly from the front to the triarii.
Hence when a difficulty is felt, "Matters have come to
the triarii," became a usual proverb. The triarii, rising
up, after receiving the principes and spearmen into the
intervals between their ranks, immediately closing their
files, shut up as it were the openings; and in one compact
body fell upon the enemy, no other hope being now left;
that was the most formidable circumstance to the enemy,
when, having pursued them as vanquished, they beheld a
new line suddenly starting up, increased also in strength.
In general about four legions were raised, each consisting
of five thousand infantry and three hundred horse. As
many more were added from the Latin levy.

III. SOME ASPECTS OF CULTURE

The next crime committed against the welfare of man- The earliest
kind was on the part of him who was the first to coin the

denarius of gold, a crime the author of which is equally
unknown. The Roman people made no use of impressed xxxiii - I3
silver even before the period of the defeat of King Pyrrhus.
The as of copper weighed exactly one pound. . . .

Silver was not impressed with a mark until the year of
the city 485, the year of the consulship of Q. Ogulnius and 269 B.C.
C. Fabius, five years before the First Punic War; at that

Roman Organization

Ancient
World, 366 f .

A denarius
was worth
about 20
cents. The
as, at first
about 45
cents, fell to
2 cents;
Botsford,
Roman As-
semblies, 87,
n. 4.

The Appian
Aqueduct
and the
Appian Way,
312 B.C.

Diodorus
xx. 36.

A stade
(stadium)
was 600 feet.

Early Italic
painting.

Pliny, Natu-
ral History,
xxxv. 6 f.

time it was ordained that the value of the denarius should
be ten pounds of copper, that of the quinarius five pounds,
and that of the sestertius two pounds and a half. The
weight, however, of the copper "pound" was diminished
during the First Punic War, the republic not having means
to meet its expenditure: in consequence an ordinance was
made that the as should in future be struck of two ounces
weight. By this contrivance a saving of five-sixths was
effected, and the public debt was liquidated. The impres-
sion upon those copper coins was a two faced Janus on one
side, and the beak of a ship of war on the other.

There were two censors this year at Rome Appius
Claudius and Caius Plautius. With the concurrence of
Plautius, Appius disturbed many matters of ancient wont
and usage; for to gratify the people, he made no account
of the senate. Also he constructed an aqueduct, named
the Appian Aqueduct after himself, which brought water
from regions 80 stades distant. On this he expended a
great sum of money without the consent of the senate.

Then he laid a causeway of hard stones from Rome to
Capua a thousand stades and upward, and levelled it at
great cost. This was called the Via Appia after him. In
this way he drained the treasury. But by promoting the
public good, he left behind him an everlasting monument.

But already in fact had the art of painting been per-
fectly developed in Italy. At all events there are extant
in the temples at Ardea at this day paintings of greater
antiquity than Rome itself; in which in my opinion, noth-
ing is more marvellous than that they should have re-
mained so long unprotected by a roof, and yet preserve
their freshness. At Lanuvium, too, it is the same, where

Early Roman Art 377

we see an Atalanta and a Helena, without drapery, close Paintings of
together and painted by the same artist. They are both and class are

of the greatest beauty, the former being evidently the

figure of a girl, and they still remain uninjured, though the

temple is in ruins. The Emperor Gaius, inflamed with World, 320!.

greed, attempted to have them removed, but the nature

of the plaster would not admit of it. There are in exist-

ence at Caere some paintings of a still higher antiquity.

Whoever carefully examines them, will be forced to admit

that no art has arrived more speedily at perfection, seeing

that it was evidently not in existence at the time of the

Trojan War.

Among the Romans, too, this art very soon rose into Temple of
esteem, for it was from it that the Fabii, a most illustrious (Safety).
family, derived their surname of "Pictor;" indeed the
first of the family who bore it himself painted the Temple
of Salus, in the year of the city 450, a work which lasted 304 B.C.
to our own times, but was destroyed when the temple
was burnt, in the reign of Claudius. . . .

Statues of this nature are still in existence at various Terra-cotta
places. At Rome in fact and in our municipal towns, we
still see many such pediments of temples; wonderful, too,
for their workmanship and from their artistic merit and * v - 4-
tong duration, more deserving of our respect than gold,
and certainly far less baneful. At the present day, even in Very com-

, . , . _ ^ mon m early

the midst of such wealth as we possess, we make our first Rome and
libation at the sacrifice, not from vessels of murrhine or Etruna -
crystal, but from ladles made of earthenware.

Another instance of the severe discipline of this office is The severe

. discipline of

as follows: There was a deliberation about fining a man, the censors.
who was being called by his friend before the censors. Gellius iv.
Whilst expecting their decision he yawned clearly and 20 -

378

Roman Organization

Roman
women do
not drink
wine.

Gellius x. 23.

aloud; and he was about to be fined, this being considered
as a proof of an indolent and careless temper, and of a rude
and impertinent confidence. But when he swore that his
yawning was reluctant and involuntary, and that he was
afflicted with the disease termed the gapes, he was ac-
quitted of his intended fine.

The writers on the food and dress of the Romans inform
us that the women of Rome and Latium lived abstemiously;
that is, they abstained from wine. ... It was appointed
by law, that they should kiss their relations, that it might
be discovered by their breath whether they had been
drinking. But they relate that the women were accus-
tomed to drink the second brewing, raisin wine, sweet
myrrh, and other sweet beverages of that taste. And
these things are published in the books I mentioned. But
Marcus Cato says that women were not only censored but
fined, if they had been drinking wine.

STUDIES

1. On the basis of these passages classify the munjcipia, and dis-
tinguish them from colonies. What was the status of each com-
munity mentioned in Livy viii. 14?

2. Describe the organization and movements of the reformed army.

3. Describe the earliest coins; the early Italic paintings. From
the selections from Gellius what may we infer as to the severity of
the censors? the life of women?

CHAPTER XXXIII

THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS

I. THE STORY OF REGULUS

EARLY in the Sicilian war the Romans sent three hundred Regulus in
and fifty ships to Africa, captured many towns, and left in nca '

command of the army Atilius Regulus, who took about two p^ n '

hundred more towns, which gave themselves up to him on {<*"' 3-

(For the

account of their hatred of the Carthaginians. Continually events lead-
advancing, the Roman general ravaged the country. inva^Fon^see 18
Thereupon the Carthaginians, considering their misfortune Rome, 99;
due to bad generalship, asked the Lacedaemonians to send World, 370-3.
them a commander.

They sent Xanthippus. Regulus, encamped in the hot
season by the side of a lake, marched round it to engage the
enemy. His soldiers were suffering greatly from the weight
of their arms, from dust, thirst, and fatigue, and were ex-
posed to missiles from the neighboring hills. Toward even-
ing he came to a river which separated the two armies.
This he crossed at once, for he thought in this way to
terrify Xanthippus; but the Lacedaemonian, anticipating
an easy victory over an enemy thus harassed and ex-
hausted, took advantage of the night to draw up his forces
and make a sudden sally from the camp. The expectation
of Xanthippus was not disappointed. Of the thirty thou-
sand men led by Regulus, a few only escaped with difficulty
to the city of Aspis. All the rest were either killed or taken
prisoners; and among the captives was the consul Regulus
himself.

379

380 The First and Second Punic Wars

The
embassy of

Regulus.

Appian,
Punic
Wars, 4.

Not long afterward the Carthaginians, weary with
fighting, sent him in company with other ambassadors to
Rome to obtain peace, or to return if it were not granted.
But Regulus in private strongly urged the chief magis-
trates of Rome to continue the war, and then went back
to certain torture; for the Carthaginians shut him up in a
cage full of spikes and in this way put him to death.

Hamilcar
Barca (the
Lightning).

Polybius i.
56.

(For the
places here
mentioned,
see map,
Rome, i;
Ancient
World, 313-)

II. HAMILCAR BARCA

In the eighteenth year of the war the Carthaginians
appointed Hamilcar Barca general, and put the manage-
ment of the fleet in his hands. He took over the command
and began to ravage the Italian coast. After devastating
the district of Locri and the rest of Bruttium, he sailed
away with his whole fleet to the coast of Panormus and
seized a place called Ercte, which lies between Eryx and
Panormus on the coast, and is reputed the best situation in
the district for a safe and permanent camp. For it is a
mountain rising sheer on every side, standing out above
the surrounding country to a considerable height. The
tableland on its summit has a circumference of not less
than a hundred stades, within which the soil is rich in
pasture and suitable for agriculture. The sea breezes
render it healthful, and it is entirely free from dangerous
animals.

On the side which looks toward the sea, as well as that
which faces the interior of the island, it is enclosed by in-
accessible precipices; while the spaces between these parts
require only slight fortifications, and of no great extent, to
make them secure. On it is an eminence which serves at
once as an acropolis and as a convenient tower of observa-
tion, commanding the surrounding district. It is also sup-

Hamilcar 381

plied with a harbor, conveniently situated for the passage
from Drepana and Lilybaeum to Italy, in which is always
an abundant depth of water. Finally the height can be
reached by three ways only two from the land side and
one from the sea, and all of them difficult.

Here Hamilcar intrenched himself. It was a bold meas- His wonder-
ure; but he had no city which he could count upon as
friendly, and no other hope on which he could rely; and
though by so doing he placed himself in the very midst of
the enemy, he nevertheless managed to involve the Romans
in many struggles and dangers. To begin with, he would
start from this place and ravage the seaboard of Italy as
far as Cumae; and again on shore, when the Romans had
pitched a camp to overawe him, in front of the city of
Panormus within about five stades of him, he harassed
them in every way, and forced them to engage in numerous
skirmishes for the space of nearly three years. Of these
combats it is impossible to give a detailed account in
writing.

Presently however Fortune, acting like a good umpire in f n * he slopc
the games, transferred him by a bold stroke from the Eryx.
locality just described and from the contest in which he p iybiusi.
was engaged, to a struggle of greater danger and to a local- s8>
ity of narrower dimensions. The Romans were occupying
the summit of Eryx, and had a guard stationed at its foot.
But Hamilcar managed to seize the town which lay be-
tween these two spots.

There ensued a siege by the Romans who were on the
summit, supported by them with extraordinary hardihood
and adventurous daring. The Carthaginians found them-
selves between two hostile armies, and their supplies
brought to them with difficulty because they communi-
cated with the sea at only one point and by one road; yet

382 The First and Second Punic Wars

241 B.C.

Hamilcar
goes to
Spain.

Poly bi us ii. i.

they held out with a determination that passes belief.
Every contrivance which skill or force could sustain did
they put in use against each other, as before; every im-
aginable privation was submitted to; surprises and pitched
battles were alike tried; and finally they left the combat
a drawn one . . . like men still unbroken and uncon-
quered. . . . The two nations engaged were like well-bred
game-cocks which fight to their last gasp. You may see
them often, when too weak to use their wings, yet full of
pluck to the end, and striking again and again. Finally
chance brings them the opportunity of once more grap-
pling, and they hold on till one or the other of them drops
dead.

(At last the Romans destroyed the Carthaginian fleet,
whereupon Hamilcar, from his post on Mount Eryx, came
to terms of peace with the enemy. Immediately a war
broke out between Carthage and her unpaid mercenaries.
By crushing the mutineers, Hamilcar brought this mer-
cenary war, or "Libyan war," to an end.)

As soon as they had brought the Libyan War to a conclu-
sion, the Carthaginians collected an army and despatched
it under the command of Hamilcar to Iberia (Spain). This
general took over the command of the troops, and with his
son Hannibal, then nine years old, crossing by the Pillars of
Hercules, set about recovering the Carthaginian posses-
sions in Iberia. He spent nine years there, and after
reducing many Iberian tribes by war or diplomacy to Car-
thaginian rule, he died in a manner worthy of his great
achievements; for he lost his life in a battle against the
most warlike and most powerful tribes. In this last fight
he showed a brilliant and even reckless personal daring.

Hannibal 383

III. THE BATTLE OF LAKE TRASIMENE; THE GREATNESS
or HANNIBAL

(Early in the spring Hannibal crossed the Apennines Th battle
into Etruria and marched along the highway toward Trasimene,
Rome. Flaminius, one of the consuls, followed close be- 2I ? B - c -

hind with an army.) s

The Carthaginians now reached a place formed by na-
ture for an ambuscade, where Lake Trasimene comes
nearest to Mount Cortona. A very narrow passage only Livy xxii. 4.
intervenes, as though room enough had been left just for
that purpose. Then a somewhat wider plain opens, and
still farther some hills rise up. On these heights Hannibal
pitched his camp in full view, where he posted his Spaniards
and Africans under his own command. The Baleares and (Slingers
his other light troops he had ranged round the mountain; Baieare^
his cavalry he posted at the very entrance of the defile Islands.)
conveniently hidden behind some rising ground in order
that when the Romans had entered, the horsemen might
advance and every place be closed by the lake and the
mountain. Flaminius passed the defile before it was
quite daylight. He did not previously reconnoitre, though
he had reached the lake the preceding day at sunset.

When the troops began to spread into the wider plain, The Romans
the commander saw that part only of the enemy which Bunded.
was opposite him; the ambuscade in his rear and overhead
escaped his notice. And when Hannibal had his enemy
enclosed by the lake and mountain, and surrounded by
his troops, he gave the signal for all at the same time to
charge, whereupon each began to run down the nearest
way. To the Romans the event was all the more sudden
and unexpected because of a mist which had risen from the
lake, and was settling thicker on the plain than on the

384 The First and Second Punic Wars

The begin-
ning of the
fight.

The consul.
Livy xxii. 5.

Confusion.

A desperate
struggle.

ridge. For this reason the Punic troops ran down from the
various heights in fair sight of one another and therefore
with greater regularity.

As the battle-cry rose on all sides, the Romans found
themselves surrounded before they could well see the
enemy; and the attack on the front and flank had begun
before their line could be well formed, their arms prepared
for action, or their swords unsheathed.

Though all the rest were in a panic, the consul faced the
peril undaunted. As the men turned toward the various
shouts, they threw the line into confusion, but Flaminius
marshalled them as well as time and place permitted.
Wherever he came within hearing, he encouraged them,
and bade them stand and fight. "We can escape," he
cried, "not by vows and prayers to the gods but by courage
and energy. Let us hew our way with the sword through
the midst of their marshalled battalions the less the fear
the less the danger!"

But in the noise and tumult the men heard not his ad-
vice and command; and so far were they from knowing
their own standards and ranks and position, that they
hardly had enough courage to take arms and make ready
for battle. Some, surprised before they could don their
armor, were burdened rather than protected by it. In the
thick darkness there was more use for ears than for eyes.
Vainly peering in every direction, they could only hear the
groans of the dying, the clash of blows upon armor, the
mingled clamor of threats and fear. Some in their flight
ran into bands of fighters; others renewing the struggle
were turned back by crowds of runaways.

In vain the Romans charged in every direction, there
was no hope of escape; for on their flanks the mountain
and lake, on the front and rear the lines of the enemy en-

The Battle of Lake Trasimene 385

compassed them. As they saw their only safety lay in the

right hand and the sword, each man became his own leader

and encouraged to action, and an entirely new struggle

arose, not in a regular line of battle, with principes, (The three

hastati, and triarii, nor of such a sort as when the vanguard heavy in-

fights before the standards and the rest of the troops be- J^r;

hind them, nor when each soldier stands in his own legion, Ancient

cohort and company; chance collected them into bands;

and each man's will assigned him his post, to fight in front

or rear. So great was the ardor of battle, so intent were

their minds upon the fray, that not one of the combatants

felt an earthquake which threw down large parts of many

Italian cities, turned rivers from their rapid courses, carried

the sea up into rivers, and levelled mountains with a tre-

mendous crash.

Nearly three hours the battle raged, and in every quarter Fiaminius
fiercely; around the consul it was hottest and most deter-
mined. With the strongest of his troops he promptly Llvy xxu
brought assistance wherever he saw his men hard pressed
or worried. Knowing him by his armor, the enemy at-
tacked him furiously, while his countrymen defended him.
Finally an Insubrian horseman named Ducarius, recog-
nizing his face, said to his fellows, "Lo, this is the consul (He had de-
who slew our legions and laid waste our fields and cities, ^fa had con-

Now will I offer this victim to the shades of my country-

men miserably slain!" and putting spurs to his horse, he 223 B.C.)

dashed through a dense throng of the enemy. First he

killed the consul's armor-bearer, who had opposed himself

to the attack; then he ran the consul through with a lance.

The veterans, by opposing their shields, kept him from

despoiling the body.

Then for the first time many took to flight. Neither Flight.
lake nor mountain could now check their hurried retreat;

386 The First and Second Punic Wars

they ran over steep and narrow ways, as though they were
blind; arms and men tumbled upon one another. Finding
nowhere else to run, many retreating first into the shallow
water along the shore, plunged farther in till only their
heads and shoulders reached above. Some thoughtlessly
tried to escape by swimming; but as the attempt failed,
they lost courage and were drowned in the deep water; or
wearied to no purpose, they made their way with extreme
difficulty back to the shallows, only to be cut down by
the cavalry of the enemy, who had waded into the water.

Nearly six thousand men in the van gallantly forced
their way through the opposing enemy, and without know-
ing what was happening in the rear, escaped from the de-
file. Stopping on a certain height, and hearing naught
but the shouts and the clash of arms, they could not
through the mist discover what was the fortune of the
battle.

An army de- At length the contest was decided; and when the increas-
ing heat of the sun had dispelled the mist and cleared the
air, then in the bright light the mountains and the plains
displayed the ruin of the Roman army.

This is the famous battle of Lake Trasimene, recorded
among the few disasters of Rome. Fifteen thousand
Romans were killed in the struggle. Ten thousand, who
had scattered in flight through all Etruria, returned to the
city by various roads. A thousand five hundred of the
enemy perished.

(Next year Hannibal inflicted a still more terrible defeat

upon the Romans at Cannae; and though this was his last

brilliant victory, he maintained himself in Italy many

201 B.C. years. Finally he had to return to Carthage and make

peace with Rome.)

Who could help admiring this great man's strategic

The Character of Hannibal 387

skill, courage, and ability, when one looks to the length The great-
of time during which he displayed those qualities, and Hannibal,
realizes to one's self the pitched battles, the skirmishes p i y biusxi.
and sieges, the revolutions and counter-revolutions of I9>
states, the vicissitudes of fortune, and in fact the whole
course of his design and its execution?

For sixteen continuous years Hannibal maintained the
war with Rome in Italy, without once releasing his army
from service in the field, but keeping those vast numbers
under control, like a good pilot, without any sign of dis-
satisfaction toward himself or toward one another. This
he did in spite of the fact that the troops in his service,
so far from being of the same tribe, were not even of the
same race. He had Libyans, Iberians, Ligurians, Celts,
Phoenicians, Italians, and Greeks, who naturally had
nothing in common with one another, neither laws nor
customs nor language. Yet the skill of the commander
was such that these differences, so manifold and so wide,
did not disturb obedience to one word of command and
to a single will.

And yet circumstances were not by any means unvary-
ing; for though the breeze of fortune set strongly in his
favor, it as often blew adversely. We have therefore good
ground for admiring Hannibal's display of ability in war;
and we should not hesitate to say that had he reserved
his attack upon the Romans until he had first subdued
other parts of the world, not one of his projects would
have eluded his grasp. As it was, he began with those
whom he should have attacked last, and with them ac-
cordingly he began and ended his career.

388 The First and Second Punic Wars

STUDIES

1. Give Appian's account of Regulus and Xanthippus. Compare
the account given in Rome, 100; Ancient World, 373 f (from Polybius).
What is Polybius' estimate of the value of history as illustrated by
the fate of these two generals? From the maps (Rome, i, 95; Ancient
World, 313, 371) describe the location of Sicily, Ecnomus, Messene,
Mount Ercte, Panormus, Mount Eryx, Lilybaeum, Drepana, the
^Egatian Islands, Carthaginian Libya, and Spain (Iberia).

2. Write a biography of Hamilcar Barca, including a description
of his character.

3. Write a biography of Hannibal, and describe his character.
Whose character in the Second Punic War was the more admirable,
that of Hannibal or that of the Romans? Would the success of Han-
nibal have benefited the world?

CHAPTER XXXIV
THE END OF GREEK FREEDOM

I. THE DEPOPULATION OF GREECE

IN our time all Greece was visited by a dearth of chil- The families
dren, and generally a decay of population, owing to which . small,
the cities were denuded of inhabitants, and a failure p i y bius
of productiveness resulted, though there were no long- xxxvii - 9-
continued wars or serious pestilences among us. If, then,
any one had advised our sending to ask the gods in regard
to what we were to do or say in order to become more
numerous and better fill our cities, would he not have
seemed a futile person, when the cause was manifest and
the cure in our own hands? For this evil grew upon us
rapidly, and without attracting attention, by our men
becoming perverted to a passion for show and money
and the pleasures of an idle life, and accordingly either not
marrying at all, or if they did marry, refusing to rear the
children that were born, or at most one or two out of a
great number, for the sake of leaving them well off or
bringing them up in extravagant luxury. For when there
are only one or two sons, it is evident that, if war or pesti-
lence carries off one, the houses must be left heirless; and
like swarms of bees, little by little the cities become
sparsely inhabited and weak. On this subject there is
no need to ask the gods how we are to be relieved from
such a curse; for any one in the world will tell you that it
is by the men themselves if possible changing their ob-
jects of ambition; or, if that cannot be done, by passing

389

3QO The End of Greek Freedom

laws for the preservation of children. On this subject
there is no need of seers or of prodigies.

II. THE MISERY OF THE FALL

The greatest My thirty-eighth book embraces the consummation
misfortunes. f t ^ ie misfortunes of Greece. For though Greece as a
Poiybius whole, as well as separate parts of it, has on several occa-
xxxviii. 3. sions sustained grave disasters, yet to none of her previous
defeats could the word "misfortune" be more properly
applied than to those which have befallen her in our times.
For it is not only that the sufferings of Greece excite com-
passion; stronger still is the conviction, which a knowledge
of the truth of the several occurrences must bring, that
in all she undertook she was supremely unfortunate. At
any rate though the disaster of Carthage is looked upon
as of the severest kind, yet one cannot but regard that
of Greece as not less, and in some respects even more so.
For the Carthaginians at any rate left something for
posterity to say in their behalf; but the mistakes of the
Greeks were so glaring, that they made it impossible for
those who wished to support them to do so. Besides, the
destruction of the Carthaginians was immediate and total,
so that they had no feelings afterward of their disasters;
but the Greeks, with their misfortunes ever before their
eyes, handed down to their children's children the loss
of all that was once theirs. And in proportion as we
regard those who live in pain as more pitiable than those
who lose their lives at the moment of their misfortunes,
in that proportion must the disasters of the Greeks be re-
garded as more pitiable than those of the Carthaginians,
unless a man thinks nothing of dignity and honor, and
gives his opinion from a regard only to material advantage.
They displayed at once want of good faith and want of

The Historian's Duty 391

courage, brought upon themselves a series of disgraces, The
lost all that could bring them honor, and voluntarily ad-
mitted into their towns the Roman fasces and axes. They s P nsible -
were in the utmost panic, owing in fact to the extravagance
of their own wrongful acts, if one ought to call them their
own; for I should rather say that the peoples as such were
entirely ignorant, and were beguiled from the path of
right; but that the men who acted wrongly were the au-
thors of this delusion.

In regard to these men, it should not be a matter of The first
surprise if we leave for a while the ordinary method and historian is
spirit of our narrative to give a clearer and more elaborate J^^f 1 the
exposition of their character. I am aware that some may /ft 6
be found regarding it as their first duty to cast a veil over
the errors of the Greeks, to accuse us of writing in a spirit O n . e of them,

r i < T -1 Critolaus, is

of malevolence. But for myself, I conceive that with the subject
right-minded persons a man will never be regarded as a ection next
true friend who shrinks from and is afraid of plain speech,
nor indeed as a good citizen who abandons the truth be-
cause of the offence he will give to certain persons at the
time. But a writer of public history above all deserves
no indulgence whatever, who regards anything of superior
importance to truth. For in proportion as written his-
tory reaches larger numbers, and survives for longer time,
than words spoken to suit an occasion, the writer ought
to be still more particular about truth, and his readers
ought to admit his authority only so far as he adheres
to this principle. At the actual hour of danger it is only
right that Greeks should help Greeks in every possible
way, by protecting them, veiling their errors or deprecat- He did ail he
ing the wrath of the sovereign people; and this I genuinely his country-
did for my part at the actual time: but it is also right, in men>
regard to the record of events to be transmitted to pos-

392 The End of Greek Freedom

terity, to leave them unmixed with any falsehood: so that
readers should not be merely gratified for the moment
by a pleasant tale, but should receive in their souls a les-
son, which will prevent a repetition of similar errors in
the future. Enough however, on this subject. . . .

Critolaus
stirs up the
Greeks
against
Rome.

Polybius
xxxviii. 9.

Ancient
World, 304,
392 f.

The Romans
again at-
tempt ne-
gotiations.

Polyb.
xxxviii. 10.

III. OUTBREAK OF THE ACH^AN WAR

A Roman commission attempted to conduct negotiations with
Critolaus, general of the Achaean League who was to act in conjunc-
tion with the Lacedaemonians for the settlement of some misunder-
standings. By his arbitrary conduct, however, Critolaus brought
the negotiations to naught and thus greatly offended the Romans.
The following extract is an account of his subsequent conduct.

Critolaus spent the winter in visiting the cities and
holding assemblies in them, on the pretext that he wished
to inform them of what he had said to the Lacedaemonians
at Tegea, but in reality to denounce the Romans and to
put an evil interpretation on everything they said; by
these means he inspired the common people in the various
cities with feelings of hostility and hatred for them. At
the same time he sent round orders to the magistrates not
to exact money from debtors, nor to receive prisoners
arrested for debt, and to cause loans on pledge to be held
over until the war was decided. By this kind of appeal
to the interests of the vulgar everything he said was re-
ceived with confidence; and the common people were
ready to obey any order he gave, being incapable of tak-
ing thought for the future, but caught by the bait of im-
mediate indulgence and relief.

When Quintus Caecilius Metellus heard in Macedonia
of the commotion and disturbance going on in the Pelo-
ponnese, he despatched thither his legates Gnaeus Papirius
and the younger Popilius Laenas, along with Aulus Gabinius

Roman Envoys Insulted 393

and Gauis Fannius; they, happening to arrive when the
congress was assembled at Corinth, were introduced to
the assembly, and delivered a long and conciliatory speech,
much in the spirit of that of Sextus Julius, exerting them-
selves with great zeal to prevent the Achasans from pro-
ceeding to an open breach with Rome, either on a pretext
of their grievance against the Lacedaemonians, or from any
feeling of anger against the Romans themselves. But
the assembled people would not hear them; insulting words
were loudly uttered against the envoys, and in the midst
of a storm of yells and tumult they were driven from the
assembly. The fact was that such a crowd of workmen
and artisans had been got together as had never been
collected before; for all the cities were in a state of drivel-
ling folly, and above all the Corinthians en masse; and
there were only a very few who heartily approved of the
words of the envoys.

Critolaus, conceiving that he had attained his purpose,
in the midst of an audience as excited and mad as himself
began attacking the magistrates, abusing all who were
opposed to him, and openly defying the Roman envoys,
saying that he was desirous of being a friend of the Romans,
but had no taste for them as his masters. And finally he
tried to incite the people by saying that, if they acquitted
themselves like men, they would have no lack of allies;
but if they betrayed womanish fears, they would not want
for masters. By many other such words to the same
effect, conceived in the spirit of a charlatan and huckster,
he roused and excited the populace. . . .

Having carried these measures, he began intriguing to Critolaus
bring on an outbreak and cause an attack upon the Roman tack on the
envoys. He had no pretext for doing this; but adopted a env y s>
course, which of all possible courses, offends most fla- Ib - "

394

The End of Greek Freedom

grantly against the laws of gods and man. The envoys
however separated; Gnaeus Papirius went to Athens and
thence to Sparta to watch the turn of events; Aulus
Gabinius went to Naupactus; and the other two remained
at Athens, waiting for the arrival of Caecilius Metellus.
This was the state of things in the Peloponnese.

Overthrow
of the

Achaeans.

Pausanias
vii. 16.

Mummius
commands
the Romans.

Ancient
World, 392 f.

IV. THE DECISIVE BATTLE

Meantime Mummius, and with him Orestes, who was
first sent from Rome to settle the disputes between the
Lacedaemonians and Achaeans, reached the Roman army
one morning, took over the command, and sent Metellus
and his forces back to Macedonia, and himself waited at
the Isthmus till he had concentrated all his troops. His
cavalry amounted to 3,500 and his infantry to 22,000.
There were also some Cretan bowmen, and Philopcemen
had brought some soldiers from Attalus, from Pergamus
across the Ca'icus. Mummius placed some of the Italian
troops and allies, so as to be an advanced post for all his
army, 12 stades in the van. And the Achaeans, as this
vanguard was left without defence through the confidence
of the Romans, attacked them, and slew some, but drove
still more back to the camp, and captured about 500 shields.
By this success the Achaeans were so elated that they
attacked the Roman army without waiting for them to
begin the battle. But when Mummius led out his army
to battle in turn, then the Achaean cavalry, which was
opposite the Roman cavalry, ran immediately, not ven-
turing to make one stand against the attack of the enemy's
cavalry. And the infantry, though dejected at the rout
of the cavalry, stood their ground against the wedge-like
attack of the Roman infantry, and though out-numbered

Destruction of Corinth 395

and fainting under their wounds, yet resisted bravely
till 1,000 picked men of the Romans took them in flank,
and so turned the battle into a complete rout of the
Achseans. And had Diaeus been bold enough to hurry Diaeus had
into Corinth after the battle, and to receive within its critofaus.
walls the runaways from the fight and shut himself up
there, the Achaeans might have obtained better terms from
Mummius, if the war had been lengthened out by a siege.
But as it was, when the Achaeans gave way before the
Romans, Diaeus fled for Megalopolis. . . . Diaeus after
ruining the Achaeans announced to the people of Megalo-
polis their impending ruin, and after slaying his wife with
his own hand that she might not become a captive, took
poison and so died. . . .

And most of those that were left in the city were slain The sack
by the Romans, and the women and children were sold by Corinth.
Mummius, as also were the slaves who had been manu-
mitted and had fought on the side of the Achaeans, and
had not been killed in action. And the most wonderful
of the votive offerings and other ornaments he carried
off to Rome, and those of less value he gave to Philopce-
men, the general of Attalus' troops, and these spoils from
Corinth were in my time at Pergamum. And Mummius
razed the walls of all the cities which had fought against
the Romans, and took away their arms, before any ad-
visers were sent out to him from Rome. And when they
arrived, then he put down all democracies, and appointed
chief-magistrates according to property qualifications.
And taxes were laid upon Greece, and those who had Ancient
money were forbidden to have land over the borders,
and all the general meetings were put down altogether,
as those in Achaia, or Phocis, or Bceotia, or any other part
of Greece.

396 The End of Greek Freedom

STUDIES

1. What was the cause of the depopulation of Greece? What was
done with children whom the father refused to bring up? What did
Polybius consider the remedy for the evil?

2. What comment does he make on the fall of Greece? Whom
does he consider responsible? How did his duty as historian differ
from his duty as statesman? What in his opinion is one of the vices
of history?

3. What were the character and policy of Critolaus? Were the
Greeks or the Romans chiefly responsible for the Achaean War?
Give your reasons.

4. Describe the decisive battle. How did the Romans treat the
vanquished? What was done to Corinth?

CHAPTER XXXV

GROWTH OF PLUTOCRACY; PROGRESS IN
CIVILIZATION

I. GOVERNMENT

THE Roman government has three factors, each of them The three
possessing sovereign power; and their respective shares of
power in the whole state have been regulated with such
scrupulous regard to equality and balance that no one can _

Polybms vi.

say for certain, not even a native, whether the constitution n.
as a whole is an aristocracy or democracy or despotism.
And no wonder: for if we confine our observation to the Ancient
power of the consuls, we should be inclined to regard it as 401-3.'
despotic; if to that of the senate, as aristocratic; and if
finally one looks at the power possessed by the people, it
would seem a clear case of democracy. What the exact
powers of these several parts were, and still with slight
modifications are, I will now state.

Before leading out the legions, the consuls remain at I. The con-
Rome and are supreme masters of the administration. All
other magistrates except the tribunes (of the plebs) are j y 1USV1 *
under them and take their orders. They introduce foreign
ambassadors to the senate, bring before it matters requir-
ing deliberation, and see to the execution of its decrees.
If again there are any matters of state which require rati-
fication by the people, it is their business to attend to these
affairs, to summon the popular meetings, to bring the pro-
posals before the assembly, and to carry out the decrees
of the majority.

397

Growth of Plutocracy

Their
powers in

II. The sen-
ate.

Polybius vi.

(Lustrum,
lustration,
the ceremony
of purifica-
tion at the
close of the
census-
taking;
hence the
period from
one census
to another.)

Its powers
in Italy.

In the preparations for war, too, and briefly in the entire
management of a campaign, they have all but absolute
power. It is their right to impose on the allies such levies
as they think good, to appoint the military tribunes, to
make up the roll of soldiers, and to select those who are
suitable. Besides they have absolute power of inflicting
punishment on all who are under their command while in
active service; and they have authority to expend as much
of the public money as they choose, for they are accom-
panied by a quaestor who is entirely at their orders. A
survey of these powers would in fact justify our describing
the constitution as despotic, a clear case of royal govern-
ment. Nor will it affect the truth of my description, if
any of the institutions I have described are changed in
our time, or in that of our posterity. The same remarks
apply to what follows.

The senate first of all controls the treasury, and regulates
the receipts and disbursements alike. For the quaestors
cannot issue any public money for the various departments
of the state without a decree of the senate, except for the
service of the consuls. The senate controls also what is by
far the largest and most important expenditure, that
which is made by the censors every lustrum for the repair
or construction of public buildings; this money cannot be
obtained by the censors except by the grant of the senate.

Similarly all crimes committed in Italy requiring a public
investigation, such as treason, conspiracy, poisoning, or
wilful murder, are in the hands of the senate. Besides if
any individual or state among the Italian allies requires a
controversy to be settled, a penalty to be assessed, help or
protection to be afforded, all this is the province of the
senate. Or again outside Italy, if it is necessary to send
an embassy to reconcile warring communities, or to remind

The Senate and the People 399

them of their duty, or sometimes to impose requisitions
upon them, or to receive their submission, or finally to
proclaim war against them, this too is the business of
the senate.

In like manner the reception given to foreign ambassa- Its powers
dors at Rome, and the answers to be returned to them, are affairs,
decided by the senate. With such business the people
have nothing to do. Consequently if one were staying
at Rome when the consuls were not in town, one would
imagine the constitution to be a complete aristocracy;
and this has been the idea entertained by many Greeks,
and by many kings as well, from the fact that nearly all
the business they had with Rome was settled by the
senate .

After this discussion one would naturally be inclined to III. The
ask what part in the constitution is left for the people, peope *

"D 1 V** "

when the senate has these various functions, especially x y l
the control of the receipts and expenditures of the treasury,
and again when the consuls have absolute power over the
details of military preparations and an absolute author-
ity in the field? There is however a part left for the people,
and it is a most important one. For the people are the
sole fountain of honor and of punishment; and it is by
these two powers and these alone that dynasties and con-
stitutions and, in a word, human society are held together.
For where the distinction between them is not sharply
drawn both in theory and practice, there no undertaking
can be properly administered, as indeed we might expect
when good and bad are held in exactly the same honor.
The people then are the only court to decide matters of Their power

J in trials.

life and death; and even in cases where the penalty is
money, if the sum to be assessed is sufficiently serious, and
especially when the accused have held the higher magis-

400 Growth of Plutocracy

trades. And in regard to this arrangement there is one
point deserving especial commendation and record. Men
who are on trial for their lives at Rome, while sentence is
in process of being voted, if one tribe only whose vote
is needed to ratify the sentence has not voted, have the
privilege of openly departing and condemning themselves
to voluntary exile. Such men are safe at Naples or
Praeneste or at Tibur, or at other town with which this
arrangement has been duly ratified on oath.

in elections, Again, it is the people who bestow offices the most
and foreign honorable rewards of virtue on the deserving. They
have too the absolute power of passing or repealing laws;
and most important of all, it is the people who deliberate
on the questions of peace or war. And when provisional
terms are made for alliance, suspension of hostilities, or
treaties, it is the people who ratify or reject them.

These considerations again would lead one to say that
the chief power in the state is the people's, and that the
constitution is a democracy.
Relations of Such then is the distribution of power among the several

these three

parts, or parts of the government. I must now show how these
on^another. several parts can oppose or support one another as they

choose. . . .

The bar- The result of this power of the several estates for mutual

Sre^ngth of help or harm is a union sufficiently firm for all emergencies,

tion? nStitU " and the best possible form of government. For whenever

Pol biusvi anv Danger fr m without compels these estates to unite

1 8. and work together, the strength which is developed by

the state is so extraordinary that everything required is

unfailingly carried out by the eager rivalry of all classes

to devote their whole minds to the need of the hour, and

to make sure that any resolution agreed upon should not

fail for want of promptness; while each individual, alike

Governmental Balances; Religion 401

in private and public, works for the accomplishment of
the business in hand. The peculiar constitution accord-
ingly makes the state irresistible, and certain of obtaining
whatever it attempts.

Nay even when these external alarms are past, and the The correc-
people are enjoying their good fortune and the fruits of abuses,
their victories, and as usually happens, are growing cor-
rupt through flattery and idleness, so as to show a tendency
to violence and arrogance, it is in these circumstances
more than ever that the constitution is seen to possess
within itself the power of correcting abuses. For when
anv one of the three estates becomes puffed up, and shows
an inclination to be contentious and unduly encroaching,
the dependency of all three upon one another, and the pos-
sibility of limiting and thwarting one another must cer-
tainly check this tendency. The proper balance is main-
tained therefor by holding the impulsiveness of one part
under fear of the others.

II. RELIGION

Whenever one of their illustrious men dies, as a part of The funeral
the funeral the body with all its adornments is carried into
the Forum to the rostra, as a raised platform there is called. ^ lybms vi -
Sometimes the body is propped upright upon it so as to be
easily seen, or more rarely it is laid upon the rostra. The
speaker is the son, if the deceased has left one of full age
who is present at the time; or, failing a son, one of his kins-
men mounts the rostra, while all the people are standing
round, and delivers a speech concerning the virtues of the
deceased and the successful exploits performed by him in
his lifetime. By these measures the people are reminded
of what has been done and made to see it with their own
eyes not only those persons who were engaged in the

4O2

Growth of Plutocracy

The masks

(imagines).

Rome, 27;
Ancient
World, 332.

actual transactions but those also who were not. Their
sympathies are so deeply moved that the loss appears not
to be confined to the actual mourners, but to be a public
one affecting the whole community.

After the burial and all the usual ceremonies are per-
formed, they place the likeness of the deceased in the most
conspicuous spot in the house and surmount it by a wooden
canopy or shrine. This likeness consists of a mask made
to represent the deceased with remarkable fidelity both in
form and in color. These likenesses they adorn with great
care, and display them at public sacrifices. And when any
illustrious member of the family dies, they carry these
masks to the funeral, putting them on men whom they
think as near like the originals as possible in height and
other personal peculiarities. And these substitutes assume
clothes according to the rank of the person represented: if
he was a consul or a praetor, a toga with purple stripes; if
a censor, whole purple; if he had also celebrated a triumph
or performed any exploit of that kind, a toga embroidered
with gold. These representatives themselves ride in
chariots, while the fasces and axes and all the other cus-
tomary insignia of the particular offices lead the way,
according to the dignity of the rank enjoyed by the de-
ceased in his lifetime. On arriving at the rostra they all
take their seats on ivory chairs in their order.

There could not easily be a more inspiring spectacle than
this for a young man of noble ambitions and virtuous as-
pirations. For can we imagine any one unmoved at the
sight of all the likenesses collected together of the men who
have earned glory, all as it were living and breathing? Or
what could be a more glorious spectacle?

The speaker over the body about to be buried, after
finishing the praise of this particular person, starts upon

Funeral Customs 403

the others whose representatives are present; he begins The praise

with the most ancient, and recounts the successes and SenS? 1 **

achievements of each. By this means the glorious memory p i y bius vi.

of brave men is continually renewed; the fame of those who 54>

have performed any noble deed is never allowed to die;

and the renown of those who have done good service to

their country becomes a matter of common knowledge to

the multitude and a part of the heritage of posterity. But.

the chief benefit of the ceremony is that it inspires young

men to shrink from no exertion for the general welfare, in

the hope of ob taming the glory that awaits the brave.

And what I say is confirmed by this fact. Many Romans
have volunteered to decide a whole battle by a single com-
bat; not a few have deliberately accepted certain death,
some in time of war to secure the safety of the rest, some in
time of peace to preserve the safety of the commonwealth.
There have also been instances of men in office putting
their own sons to death, in defiance of every custom and
law, because they rated the interests of their country
higher than those of natural ties even with their nearest
and dearest. There are many stories of this kind, related
by many men in Roman history.

What in other nations is looked upon as a reproach I Value of

religion,
mean a scrupulous fear of the gods is, I believe, the very

thing which keeps the Roman commonwealth together.
To such an unusual height is this carried among them in (For the be-
both private and public business that nothing could ex- scepticism,
ceed it. Many persons might think this unaccountable; vailed among
but in my opinion their object is to use it as a check upon JJ ^'^l
the common people. If it were possible to form a state see Greece,'
wholly of philosophers, such a custom would perhaps be
unnecessary. But seeing that every multitude is fickle
and full of lawless desires, unreasoning anger, and violent

404

Growth of Plutocracy

Honesty.

Farmer's
Calendar.

From an
inscription.

passion, the only resource is to keep them in check by
mysterious terrors and scenic effects of this sort. There-
fore, to my mind, the ancients were not acting without pur-
pose or at random when they brought in among the vulgar
those notions about the gods and the belief in the punish-
ment in Hades; much rather do I think that men in these
times are acting rashly and foolishly in rejecting them.

This is the reason why, apart from anything else, Greek
statesmen, if intrusted with a single talent, though pro-
tected by ten checking clerks, as many seals, and twice
as many witnesses, yet cannot be induced to keep faith;
whereas among the Romans in their magistracies and em-
bassies, men have the handling of a great amount of
money, and yet from pure respect to their oath keep their
faith intact. And again, in other nations it is a rare thing
to find a man who keeps his hands out of the public purse
and is entirely pure in such matters; but among the Ro-
mans it is a rare thing to detect a man in the act of com-
mitting a crime.

HI. AGRICULTURE

Sign of the Twins.
The Month is June.
It contains thirty days.
The Nones are on the fifth.
The day has fifteen hours.
The night has nine hours.

The solstice is on the eighth day before the Calends of
June (May 25).

The month is under the care of Mercury.
Hay-mowing.

The vineyards are harrowed.
Sacrifice is offered to Hercules and to Fors Fortuna.

Agriculture 405

To obtain wealth by trade has various advantages, were Scientific
it not so precarious; and likewise lending money at inter-

est, were it more consistent with honor. Such was the
opinion entertained by our ancestors, and such are the
regulations prescribed in their statutes that the fine of the Oliver.'
thief should be twofold, but fourfold that of the usurer.
How much less excellent a citizen they deemed the money- Agriculture
lender than the thief can be estimated from this considera- honorable
tion. And when they paid their eulogies to a good man,
they praised him as a good agriculturist, a good husband-

TT i i if preface.

man. He was considered to receive the highest meed of
praise who thus was praised. Now a trader I consider to
be energetic and zealous in making gain, but as I have
before stated, his occupation is not exempt from risk and
misfortune. But it is from the agriculturists that are
produced both the most stalwart men and the most un-
flinching soldiers; from their toil results gain the most
consistent with religion, the least susceptible to shock, and
the least likely to excite prejudice; and those engaged in
this pursuit are least given to entertaining thoughts of ill.
Now to return to the subject in hand, this beginning which
I have promised will be made.

When you think to provide an estate, be determined not The choice
to buy rashly, nor through any fault of yours, to grudge
inspection, nor to rest satisfied with merely walking around
it once. With each succeeding visit a good farm will
cause increased satisfaction. Note this well, the prosper-
ity of the neighbors; if the locality be good, their welfare
of necessity will be well marked. And see that you enter
into the farm and examine thoroughly how you may have
some exit therefrom. See that the climate it possesses is
a good one, that this may not prove your bane. Let its
soil be good with a value of its own. If it is within your

406

Growth of Plutocracy

Other
important
considera-
tions.

Inspection
by the
owner.

Ib.2.

power let it be situated at the foot of a mountain, face the
south, and lie in a wholesome district. Have a supply of
workmen on hand, a good watering place, and near by a
thriving town or sea or river, where ships ply, or else a
road well constructed and much travelled.

Let it lie surrounded by farms which suffer but seldom
from a change of ownership. May those who in this region
have sold their farms repent their having done so. Have
it well furnished with buildings. Beware of rashly despis-
ing the instruction of another. You will buy to better
advantage from a good owner, a good husbandman. On
coming to the farmhouse, observe whether there be a good
supply of vessels for the press and jars; where there is not,
know that the produce of the farm is proportionately
small. That it may not demand an immense equipment,
let it be situated in a convenient locality. See that your
farm demands as small an equipment as possible, and re-
quires no extravagant outlay. Know that a farm differs
not from a person; however productive it is, yet if the ex-
penditure is excessive, the profits are trifling. If you ask
me what is the best farm, this will be my opinion: for all
farmers and for the highest order of merit, for a farm 100
jugera in extent: first in order of excellence is a vineyard,
if the land will produce wine of good quality, or even in
great quantities; in the second place, a kitchen plot (gar-
den); thirdly, a plantation of willows; in the fourth place,
an olive garden; fifthly, a meadow; sixthly, a clump of
trees for cutting; in the seventh place, an orchard; eighthly
an acorn grove.

When the owner has come to the farmhouse, and has
saluted his domestic deity, let him on the same day, if pos-
sible, make a tour around his farm; if not on the same day,
then on the following day. When he has ascertained in what

Supervision of the Farm 407

way his farm has been tilled, and what tasks have been
completed, and what left undone, on the day following this
let him summon his steward, and inquire what work has
been accomplished, what still remains; whether the tasks
were performed quite at the appropriate time; whether he
can complete what is still left; what wine has been made,
what corn harvested, and thus with all other products.
When he has ascertained this he must inspect the account
of the various workmen and the number of days they have
worked. If their work is not evident to him and the stew-
ard claims that he has worked faithfully, the slaves have
been sick, the weather has been bad, the slaves have es-
caped, have completed some public work; when he has
urged these reasons and many others besides, recall the
steward to an examination of the account of tasks per-
formed and the work of the laborers.

The duties which could be performed when it rains are Work on
the washing and pitching of jars, cleaning of the farm-
house, moving the corn, carrying out the manure, making
a manure-pit, cleaning the seed, repairing the ropes, mak-
ing new ones; the slaves ought to patch together their
rag-garments and caps for themselves. On holidays old
benches should be cleaned, the public way paved, brambles
cut out, the garden dug, the meadow cleared, twigs bound,
thorns rooted up, spelt ground, everything made clean.
When the slaves have been sick, they ought not to be given
so much provisions. . . .

These will be the duties of the steward: Let him main- Duties of
tain good discipline. Let holidays be observed. Let him ard.
restrain his hands from others' goods and faithfully pre- /$. s>
serve his own wealth. Let him preside at the disputes
among the slaves; if any one has been guilty of a delin-
quency, let him with discretion punish him according to

408 Growth of Plutocracy

his guilt. Let him provide against ill befalling the house-
hold, against sickness, against hunger; let him ply them
well with work, he will more readily restrain them from
evil and others' possessions. If the steward is unwilling
to do wrong, he will not do it. If he has tolerated evil, let
not his master suffer him to go unpunished. Let him grant
a recompense for good service, that others may be pleased
to act rightly. Let the steward be not a gad-about, always
be sober, go abroad nowhere to feast. Let him keep' the
household busy and give thought to having his master's
orders obeyed. Let him not fancy that he is wiser than
his master. The friends of his master let him hold as
friends to himself. Let him pay attention to the com-
mands that have been given him. Let him perform no
sacred rites except at the cross-road or on the hearth at
the feast -of the cross-roads. Without the order of his
master, let him extend a loan to no one. Let him exact
the payment of loans extended by his master. Let him
grant to no one a loan of seed for sowing, provisions,
spelt, wine, oil. Let him have two or three households,
to whom he may make requests, and grant articles to be
used; but let this be the limit. . . .

H anything is dislocated, it will become sound by this
spell. Take a green reed three or four feet long, split it
down the middle and let two men hold it to the hip bones.
Then begin to sing in different measures, "The Healing of
the Fractured Hip:"

"Hip, Hip, Hurrah!
Though you're broken sore, I trow,
You will come together now.
Hip, Hip, Hurrah!
Bones are crushed and far apart
Come together by our art."

Hostility to Advanced Studies 409

IV. PHILOSOPHERS AND RHETORICIANS BANISHED FROM
ROME

In the consulate of Caius Fannius Strabo, and Marcus A decree of

the senate,

Valerius Messala, a decree of the senate was adopted con- 161 B.C.
cerning the Latin philosophers and teachers of rhetoric: Geliius xv.
"Marcus Pomponius the praetor called for the opinion of "*
the Senate, to wit : Since remark has been made concerning
philosophers and rhetoricians, it was therefore decreed
that Marcus Pomponius the praetor should take steps
against them, and take care that, if it seemed in the public
interest and in consonance with his own duty, they should
not be in Rome."

A few years after this decree of the senate, Cnaeus
Domitianus Ahenobarbus and Lucius Licinius Crassus, the
censors, issued this edict for restraining Latin rhetoricians:

"Whereas we have been informed that there are men An edict of
who have instituted a new form of instruction and that to
the classes of these men our youth flock, while they call
themselves Latin rhetoricians, and that there the young
men pass whole days in idleness; now our ancestors have
fixed what instruction their sons should imbibe, and what
schools they should frequent. These new institutions,
therefore, which accord not with the customs and manner
of our ancestors, are neither agreeable nor proper. Where-
fore to those who conduct as well as those who frequent
such seminaries, we have thought proper to express our
disapprobation of their proceedings."

V. ROMAN MUSICAL TASTE

Lucius Anicius, who had been praetor and had gained a
victory over the Illyrians, returned to Rome with their

410 Growth of Plutocracy

Thecelebra- king Genthius and his children as prisoners. While cele-

triumph. brating his triumph, Anicius did a very ridiculous thing.

Polybius He sent for the most famous artists from Greece, and

xxx. 14. a f ter building an immense theatre in the Circus, he brought

all the flute-players on the stage together . . . the most

celebrated of the day. He placed them on the stage with

the chorus, and bade them all play at once.

Let the But when they struck up the tune accompanied by ap-

orchestra be ,

more lively! propnate movements, he sent to them to say that they
were not playing well, and must put more excitement into
it. At first they did not know what to make of this order,
until one of the lictors showed them that they must form
themselves into two companies and facing round, advance
against each other as though in battle. The flute-players
caught the idea at once, and adopting a motion suitable
to their own wild strains, produced a scene of utter con-
fusion.

They made the middle group of the chorus face round
upon the two extreme groups; and blowing with inconceiv-
able violence and discordance, the flute-players led these
groups against each other. Meanwhile with violent stamp-
ing that shook the stage, the members of the chorus rushed
against those who were opposite, and then faced round
and retired. But when one of the chorus, with dress girt
up, turned round on the spur of the moment and raised
his hands, like a boxer, in the face of the flute-player who
was approaching, then the spectators clapped their hands
and cheered loudly.

Pandemo- While this sort of sham fight was going on, two dancers

HIHTH-

were brought into the orchestra to the sound of music;
and four boxers, accompanied by trumpeters and clarion
players, mounted the stage. The effect of these various
contests all going on together was indescribable. But if I

Character and Habits of Cato 411

should speak about their tragic actors, some would think
I was merely jesting.

VI. CATO THE CENSOR

Marcus Porcius Cato (another eminent man of the age) Marcus

was born at Tusculum and brought up on a farm belonging cato.

to his father in the Sabine country. There he lived till pi uta rch,

he began to take part in war and politics. In appearance Cato > *

he was Ancient

World, 405 f.

Red-haired, gray-eyed, and savage-tusked as well.

The estate adjoining that of Cato belonged to one of His life in
the most powerful and highly born patricians of Rome,
Valerius Flaccus, a man who had a keen eye for rising
merit, and generously fostered it till it received public
recognition. This man heard of Cato's life from his serv-
ants, who told how their master would go to the court
early in the morning and plead the causes of all who re-
quired his services, and then on returning to his farm would
work with his servants, in winter wearing a coarse coat
without sleeves, in summer nothing but his tunic. They
added that he used to sit at meals with them and eat the
same loaf and drink the same wine.

Many other stories of his goodness, simplicity, and sen-
tentious remarks were told Valerius, who became inter-
ested in his neighbor, and invited him to dinner. They
grew intimate; and Valerius, noticing his quiet and frank
disposition, and thinking him like a plant that requires
careful treatment and an extensive space in which to
develop, encouraged and urged him to take part in political
life at Rome.

On going to Rome, he at once gained admirers by his Cato at
able pleadings in the law courts, while he was advanced to

4i2 Growth of Plutocracy

important positions through Valerius. He was first ap-
pointed military tribune and then quaestor. Afterward he
became so distinguished as to be able to compete with Va-
lerius himself for the highest offices in the state. They
were together elected consuls, and still later censors. Of
Rome, no; the older Romans. Cato attached himself especially to

Ancient J

World, 383!. Fabius Maximus, a man of the greatest renown and in-
fluence, although it was his disposition and mode of life
which Cato desired most to imitate. He did not hesitate,
therefore, to oppose Scipio the Great, who was then a
young man but a rival and opponent of Fabius.

Clothing and He himself tells us that he never wore a garment worth
more than a hundred drachmas; that when he was gen-
eral and consul he still drank the same wine as his servants;
that his dinner never cost him more than thirty asses in
the market; and that he indulged himself to this extent
solely for the good of the state, that he might be strong
and able to serve his country in the field.

Plutarch, These habits some ascribed to narrowness of mind, while

Cato, 3. 111

some thought he carried parsimony to excess in order by
his example to reform and restrain others. Be this as it
may, I for my part consider that his conduct in treating
his slaves like beasts of burden, and selling them when
old and worn out, was the mark of an excessively harsh
disposition, which disregards the claims of our common
human nature, and merely considers the question of profit
and loss.

His maxims. (Cato was famous for his pithy sayings.) Once when
Plutarch, he wished to restrain the Romans from distributing a large
quantity of corn as a largess to the people, he thus began
his speech:

"It is difficult, fellow-citizens, to make the stomach
hear reason, because it has no ears."

Cato's Proverbs 413

He said, too,

"The Romans are like sheep, who never form opinions
of their own, but follow where others lead them."

With regard to female influence, he once said,

"All mankind rule their wives, we rule all mankind, and
our wives rule us."

When a certain man sold his ancestral estate, which
was situated by the seashore, Cato pretended to admire
him as more powerful than the sea itself, "for this man,"
he said, "has drunk up the fields which the sea itself could
not swallow."

When King Eumenes came to Rome, the senate received (Eumenes,
him with special honors, and he was courted and run after. ga mum, Asia
Cato, however, held himself aloof and would not go near Minor -)
him and when some one said, "But he is an excellent man
and a good friend to Rome," he answered:

"It may be so, but a king is by nature an animal that
lives on human flesh."

"Wise men," he said, "gain more advantage from fools Plutarch,
than fools from wise men; for wise men avoid the errors
of fools, but fools cannot imitate the example of wise
men."

" I like young men to have red cheeks rather than pale
ones. I care not for a soldier who uses his hands while
marching and his feet while fighting, or for one who snores
louder in bed than he shouts in battle."

" I cannot live with a man whose palate is more sensitive
than his heart." This he said when an epicure wished to
become his friend.

"The soul of a lover inhabits the body of his beloved."

"In my whole life I repent of three things only: first,
that I have trusted a woman with a secret; secondly, that
I have gone by water when I might have gone by land;

His political
life.

Plutarch,
Cato, 15.

His censor-
ship.

Plutarch,
Cato, 18.

Growth of Plutocracy

thirdly, that I have passed one day without having made
my will."

To an old man who was acting wrongly he said:

"My good sir, old age is ugly enough without your
adding to it the deformity of wickedness."

When a certain tribune, who was suspected of being a
poisoner, was trying to carry a bad law, Cato remarked:

"Young man, I do not know which is the worse for us,
to drink what you mix or to enact what you propose."

Once when he was abused by a man of vicious life, he
answered:

"We are not contending on equal terms; you are accus-
tomed to hearing and using bad language, whereas I am
unused to hearing it and unwilling to use it."

In his political life he seems to have thought one of his
most important duties to be the impeachment of bad citi-
zens. ... He himself is said to have been defendant in
nearly fifty cases, the last of which was tried when he was
eighty-six years old. On this occasion he uttered that well
known saying, "It is hard for a man who has lived in one
generation to be obliged to defend himself before another."
And this was not the end of his litigations; for four years
later, at the age of ninety, he impeached Servius Galba.
In fact his life, like that of Nestor, reached through three
generations.

But what caused the greatest dissatisfaction were the
restrictions which he as censor imposed on luxury. This
vice he could not attack openly, because it had taken such
deep root among the people; but he caused all clothes,
carriages, women's ornaments, and furniture which ex-
ceeded fifteen hundred drachmas in value to be rated at
ten times their value and taxed accordingly; for he thought
that those who possessed the most valuable property

Cato as Censor 415

ought to contribute most largely to the revenues of the
state. A tax of but three copper asses for every thousand, P. 376.
on the other hand, he imposed upon all the citizens, that
those who were burdened with an excessive taxation on
luxuries, when they saw persons of frugal and simple
habits paying so small a tax on the same income, might
cease from their extravagance. This measure gained him
the hatred of those who were taxed so heavily for their
luxuries.

Far from paying attention to those who blamed his Plutarch,
policy, he proceeded to still severer measures. He cut off
the water-pipes, by which water was conveyed from the
public fountains into private houses and gardens, and de-
stroyed all houses which encroached upon public streets,
lowered the price of contracts for public works, and farmed
out the public revenues for the highest possible sums.

STUDIES

1. In the time of the Punic Wars what kind of government had
Rome? What feature of the government was monarchical (or des-
potic)? What feature was aristocratic? What feature was demo-
cratic? What were the powers and duties of the consul? of the
senate? Describe the harmony of the constitution.

2. Describe the masks and the funeral oration. What was the
effect of these customs on character? What was the practical value
of religion to the Romans? Compare the Romans with the Greeks
in honesty.

3. What was the value of this calendar to the farmer? How did
farming compare in honor with other occupations? What rules does
Cato lay down for purchasing a country estate? Who were the labor-
ers on a farm? What work was reserved for rainy days? What were
the duties of a steward? What remedy was prescribed for dislocation?
What other information as to life and character may we derive from
this selection from Cato? To what time does it refer?

4. What attitude did the Roman government take toward higher

416 Growth of Plutocracy

education (rhetoric and philosophy)? When were these two docu-
ments issued and what is their object?

5. What example does Polybius give us to illustrate the Roman
feeling for good music? What impression of Roman character is
made by this selection?

6. Give an account of the early life of Cato; of his censorship.
What are some of his pithy sayings? Enumerate the prominent
traits of his character. From this entire chapter, with the corre-
sponding chapter in the Ancient World, write a paper on "Roman
Character and Intelligence in the Second Century B.C."

CHAPTER XXXVI

THE REVOLUTION: (I) FROM PLUTOCRACY TO
MILITARY RULE

I. TIBERIUS GRACCHUS

WHILE Scipio GEmilianus, his brother-in-law), was The legisla-
warring against Numantia, Tiberius began his legislation, r ius.
to which he was led by the following motives. Plutarch,

Of the land acquired by war the Romans (i) assigned Gracchus, 7.
the cultivated part forthwith to settlers or (2) leased or HOW the
(3) sold it. Since they had no leisure immediately to allot Disposed of
the part which then lay desolated by war, generally the acquired
greater part, (4) they made proclamation that in the *
meantime those who were willing to work it might do so Civil Wars,
on condition of rendering to the government a share of lp 7 '
the yearly crops a tenth of the grain and a fifth of the
fruit. From those who kept flocks was required a share
of the animals, both oxen and small cattle. They did
these things in order to multiply the Italian race, which
they considered the most laborious of peoples, that they
might have plenty of allies at home.

The result, however, was the very opposite of their de-
sire. For the rich, getting possession of the greater part
of the undistributed lands, and emboldened by the lapse
of time to believe that they should never be dispossessed,
added to their holdings the small farms of their poor
neighbors partly by purchase and partly by force. In this
way they came to cultivate vast tracts instead of single
estates, using for the purpose slaves as laborers and

417

4i8

The Revolution

How Tibe-
rius became
a reformer.

Plutarch,
Tiberius
Gracchus, 8.

His agrarian
law, 133 B.C.

Appian,
Civil Wars,

i.Q,

Rome, 152;

Ancient
World, 410.

Opposition.

Appian,
Civil Wars,
i. 10.

herdsmen, lest free laborers should be drawn from their
employment into the army.

The ownership of slaves itself brought great gain from
the large number of children, who multiplied because
slaves were exempt from military service. Thus the
powerful men became enormously rich, and the race of
slaves increased throughout the country, while the Italian
people dwindled in numbers and strength, oppressed by
penury, taxes, and military service. If they had any res-
pite from these evils, they passed their time in idleness,
because the land was held by the rich, who employed
slaves instead of freemen as cultivators.

In a certain book Gaius recorded that as Tiberius, his
brother, was passing through Etruria on his way to
Numantia, he saw that the country was depopulated, and
that the laborers and shepherds were foreign slaves and
barbarians; then for the first time Tiberius thought out
those political measures which to the two brothers were the
beginning of infinite calamities. But the energy and am-
bition of Tiberius were roused mainly by the people, who
by writing on the porticos, walls, and tombs, urged him
to recover the public land for the poor.

He brought forward a law which provided (i) that no
one should hold more than five hundred jugera of the
public land. But he added a provision to the former law,
(2) that the sons of the present occupiers might each
hold one-half that amount, and (3) that the remainder
should be divided among the poor by triumvirs, who
should be changed annually.

This greatly disturbed the rich because, on account
of the triumvirs, they could no longer disregard the law
as they had done before; nor could they buy the allot-
ments of others, for Gracchus had provided against this

The Agrarian Law 419

by forbidding sales. Collecting in groups, they lamented,
and accused the poor of appropriating the results of their
tillage, their vineyards, and their dwellings. Some said
they had paid the price of the land to their neighbors.
Were they to lose the money with the land? Others said
that the graves of their ancestors were in the ground which
had been allotted to them in the division of their fathers'
estates. Others declared that their wives' dowries had
been expended on the estates, or that the land had been
given to their own daughters as dowry. Money-lenders
could show loans made on this security. All kinds of
wailing and expressions of indignation were heard at once.

On the other side were heard the lamentations of the The poor
poor, that they had been reduced from competence to
extreme penury, and from that to childlessness because
they were unable to rear their offspring. They recounted
the military services they had rendered, by which this
very land had been acquired, and were angry that they
were robbed of their share of the common property. They
reproached the rich for employing instead of citizens, mere
slaves, who were always faithless and ill-tempered and
for that reason unserviceable in war.

While these classes were lamenting, and accusing each
other, many from the colonies and municipia, and all in
fact who were interested in the lands and who were under
similar fears, flocked in and took sides with the respec-
tive factions. Emboldened by numbers and exasperated
against each other, they formed turbulent crowds, and
waited for the voting on the new law. Some tried by all
means to prevent its enactment and others supported it
in every possible way. In addition to personal interest,
the spirit of rivalry spurred both sides in the preparations
they were making for the day of the assembly.

420

The Revolution

The object

c?riFw'ars,
* "

Ib. 12.

depositions;
World, 411;

5 e octavius

What Gracchus had in his mind in proposing the measure
was not wealth but an increase in the number of useful
citizens. Thoroughly inspired by the value of his plan,
and believing that nothing more advantageous or more
admirable could ever happen to Italy, he took no account
of the difficulties in his way. . . .

Marcus Octavius, another tribune, who had been in-
duced by the holders of these lands to interpose his veto,
ordered the scribe to keep silence. Now among the Ro-
mans the tribune's veto always prevailed. Gracchus
therefore reproached him severely and adjourned the
meeting to the following day. Then he stationed a suffi-
cient guard as if to force Octavius against his will, and
with threats ordered the scribe to read the proposed law
to the multitude. He began to read but when Octavius
again vetoed, he stopped.

Then the tribunes fell to wrangling with each other, and
a considerable tumult arose among the people. The lead-
ing citizens besought the tribunes to submit their con-
troversy to the senate for a decision. Gracchus seized on
the suggestion, for he believed that the law was ac-
ceptable to all well-disposed persons, and hastened to
the senate-house. As he had there only a few followers
and was upbraided by the rich, he ran back to the Forum,

and said he would take the vote of the assembly on the
following day; the question would be not only on the law
but on the magistracy of Octavius, to determine whether
a tr ibune who was acting contrary to the people's interest
could continue to hold his office.

^ nd S ^ e d * d > * or w ^ en Octavius, nothing daunted,
again interposed, Gracchus distributed the pebbles to
take a vote on him first. When the first tribe voted to
depose Octavius from his magistracy, Gracchus turned

Deposition of a Tribune 421

to him and begged him to desist from his veto. As he
would not yield, the votes of the other tribes were taken.
There were thirty-five tribes at this time. The seventeen
which first voted, angrily sustained this motion. If the
eighteenth should do the same, it would make a majority.
Again did Gracchus, in the sight of the people, urgently
importune Octavius in his present extreme danger not to
prevent this most pious work, so useful to Italy, and not
to frustrate the wishes so earnestly entertained by the
people, whose desires he ought rather to share in his
character of tribune, and not risk the loss of his office by
public condemnation. After speaking thus, he called the
gods to witness that he did not willingly do any despite
to his colleague. But as Octavius was still unyielding, he
went on .to take the votes. Octavius was forthwith re-
duced to the rank of a private citizen and slunk away un-
observed.
The law concerning the land was immediately afterward Plutarch,

. . Tiberius

carried. . . . Gracchus, 13.

II. GAIUS GRACCHUS

The common opinion is that Gaius was a pure dema- Gaius
gogue and much more greedy of popular favor than Ti-

berius. But in fact the younger brother took part in
public affairs through necessity rather than choice. Cicero chus > *
the orator says that Gaius declined all offices and had Ancient
determined to live in retirement, but that his brother ap-
peared to him in a dream and said, " Gaius, why do you
hesitate? There is no escape it is our fate to live and die
for the people."

On entering office (the tribunate) he soon made him- 123 B.C.
self first on the board, for he surpassed every Roman
in eloquence, and his misfortunes gave him a license

422

The Revolution

Plut. ib. 3.

His laws.

Plutarch,
Gaius Grac-
chus, 5.

His

monarchical

power.

Plutarch,
Gaius Grac-
chus, 6.

Rome, 130,
n. *.

An adminis-
trator of
marvelous
energy.

for speaking freely when lamenting the fate of his
brother.

Of the laws which he proposed with a view to gaining
the popular favor and to weakening the senate, one was
for the establishment of colonies and for the distribution
of public land among the poor. Another provided for
supplying the soldiers with clothing at the public expense,
without any deduction from their pay on this account;
the same law exempted youths under seventeen from being
drafted for the army. A third favored the allies, and put
the Italians on the same footing as the citizens with re-
spect to the suffrage. Another, relating to grain, had for
its object the lowering of the price for the poor. The last
referred to the jurors, a measure which most of all en-
croached on the privileges of the senate.

The people not only passed the last-named measure,
but empowered Gracchus to select from the knights those
who were to act as jurors a right which conferred on him
a kind of monarchical authority, and even the senate now
assented to the measures which he proposed in that body.
All his plans, however, were honorable to the senate.
Such, for instance, was the reasonable and just decree
about the grain which Fabius the propraetor sent from
Iberia. Gracchus induced the senate to sell the grain and
return the money to the Iberian cities, and further to
censure Fabius for making the Roman dominion heavy
and intolerable to the subject nations. This decree brought
Gaius great reputation and popularity in the provinces.

He also introduced measures for sending out colonies,
for the construction of roads, and for the building of public
granaries; and he made himself director and superin-
tendent for carrying all these plans into effect. Though
engaged in so many great undertakings, he was never

Gaius Gracchus as Administrator 423

wearied, but with wonderful activity and labor he effected
every single object as if he had for the time no other occu-
pation; so that even those who thoroughly feared and
hated him were amazed at the rapidity and perfect exe-
cution of all that he undertook. But the people looked
with admiration on the man himself, as they saw him
attended by crowds of building contractors, artificers,
ambassadors, soldiers, and learned men, to all of whom he
was easy of access. And while he maintained his dignity,
he was affable to all, and adapted his behavior to the con-
dition of every' individual, and so proved the falsehood
of those who called him tyrannical or arrogant or violent.
In this way he showed himself more skilful as a popular
leader in his dealings with men than even in his speeches
from the rostra.

But Gaius busied himself most about the building of His public
roads with a view to utility, convenience, and ornament.
The roads were made in a straight line through the coun-
try, partly of quarried stone and partly with tight-rammed chus
masses of earth. By filling up the depressions, and by
throwing bridges across those parts which were traversed
by winter torrents or deep ravines, and by raising the road
on both sides to the same uniform height, the whole line
was made level, and presented a pleasing appearance. He
also measured all the roads by miles the Roman mile is
not quite eight stadia and he fixed stone blocks to mark
the distances. He placed other stones at shorter distances
from one another on each side of the road, that people
might easily mount their horses from these blocks without
other assistance.

Gaius Gracchus is held to have been a powerful and
strenuous orator. No one disputes it. But how is it to be
borne, that in the eyes of some he appears more stern,

424

The Revolution

Mistreat-
ment of
Italians by
the Romans.

Speeches of
Gaius Grac-
chus, quoted
by Gellius
x. 3.

Comment of

Gellius.

The body in
the Utter.

Speech of
Gracchus; ib.

more spirited, more copious than Marcus Tullius? Now I
was reading lately a speech of Gracchus upon the statutes
published, in which with all the odium possible he com-
plains that Marcus Marius, and other persons of distinc-
tion from the municipal towns of Italy, were injuriously
whipped with rods by the magistrates of the Roman peo-
ple. His words upon this subject are as follows: "The
consul lately came to Theanum Sidicinum; he said his
wife wished to bathe in the men's bath. To Marcus
Marius, the quaestor of Sidicinum, the task was assigned
that they who were bathing should be driven forth. The
wife reports to her husband that the baths were not given
up to her soon enough nor were they sufficiently clean.
A post was accordingly fixed down in the market-place,
and Marcus Marius, the most illustrious man of his city,
was led to it; his garments were stripped off, and he was
beaten with rods. When the inhabitants of Cales heard
this, they passed a decree that no one should presume to
bathe when Roman magistrates were there. At Feren-
tinum, also, our praetor for a reason of the same sort or-
dered the quaestors to be seized. One threw himself from
the wall, the other was taken and scourged."

In a matter so atrocious, in so lamentable and distress-
ing a proof of public injustice, what has he said, either in
a full or an incisive way, or so as to excite tears or com-
miseration? What has he spoken expressive of exuberant
indignation, or in a spirit of solemn and striking remon-
strance? There is indeed a brevity and terseness and a
telling simplicity in his speech, such as we usually find in
the cleverness of the comic stage.

In another place likewise Gracchus speaks thus: "One
example I will show you of the licentiousness and intem-
perance of our young men. A few years ago a young man

Proposal to Extend the Citizenship 425

was sent from Asia as an ambassador, who had not yet
been in any magistracy. He was carried in a litter, when
a herdsman from the peasantry of Venusium met him,
and not knowing what they were carrying, asked in joke
whether they were bearing a dead body? Having heard
this, he ordered the litter to be set down and the man to
be beaten with the ropes by which the litter was fastened,
till he gave up the ghost." Now this speech of his, upon
so violent and cruel an outrage, differs nothing at all from
the style of common conversation.

He called the Latin allies to demand the full rights of The Latins
Roman citizenship, for the senate could not with decency Italians,
refuse this privilege to kinsmen by blood. To the other Appian, Civil
allies, who were not allowed to vote in Roman assemblies, Wars > L 2 3-
he sought to give the right of suffrage, in order to have
their help in the enactment of laws which he had in mind, etc., see
Greatly alarmed at this, the senate ordered the consuls to
give public notice: " Nobody who does not possess the World, 361-5.
right of suffrage shall stay in the city or approach within
forty stadia of it while the voting is going on concerning
these laws." The senate also persuaded Livius Drusus,
another tribune, to interpose his veto against the laws pro-
posed by Gracchus, but not to tell the people his reasons
for doing so; for a tribune was not required to give reasons
for his veto. In order to win the people they gave Drusus
the privilege of founding twelve colonies, and the plebeians
were so much pleased with this that they began to scoff at
the laws proposed by Gracchus.

III. GAIUS MARIUS

He took all who were willing to join him, the greater His army.
number from the lowest ranks. Some said this was done

426

The Revolution

Sallust,
Jugurthine
War, 86.

Ancient
World, 416-
23-

Plutarch,
Marius, 9.

Sallust,
Jugurlhine
War, 84.

End of the
war, 106 B.C.

Sallust,
Jugurthine
War, 86.

Strife
between
Marius and
Sulla.

Plutarch,
Marius, 32.

from a scarcity of better men, and others from the consul's
desire to pay court to the poorer class, by whom he had
been honored and promoted. In fact to a man grasping at
power the most needy are the most serviceable.

Former generals had never admitted men of this kind
into the army, but had given arms, as a badge of honor, to
those only who had the due qualification (of property) ; for
they considered that every soldier pledged his property to
the state.

Marius sent for auxiliaries from foreign states, kings, and
allies; he enlisted, too, all the bravest men from Latium,
most of whom he knew by actual service, a few only by
report; and by earnest invitation he induced even the dis-
charged veterans to accompany him. Though opposed to
him, the senate dared refuse him nothing. The additions
to the legions it voted with eagerness because it knew that
military service was unpopular, and thought that Marius
would lose either the means of warfare or the favor of the
people. But it entertained such expectations in vain, so
ardent a desire of going with Marius came upon almost all.
Every one cherished the fancy that he would return home
laden with spoil, crowned with victory, or attended with
some similar good fortune.

Setting out accordingly to Africa with a somewhat larger
force than had been decreed, he arrived in a few days at
Utica. There he received the command of the army from
Publius Rutilius, the lieutenant of Meteilus; for Metellus
himself avoided the sight of his successor, that he might not
see what he could not endure even to hear mentioned.

(For some time Marius and Sulla, his quaestor in the
Jugurthine War, had been growing jealous of each other's
influence.) Strife between them was delayed by the Social
War which suddenly burst upon the state.

Marius and Sulla 427

This war, diversified by many defeats and by great Plutarch,
changes of fortune, took from Marius as much reputation go^88*B.
and influence as it gave to Sulla. ib. 34.

At length the Italians yielded, and many persons at (For causes
Rome were intriguing for the command in the war with
Mithridates. . . . Marius, moved by boyish emulation,
threw off his old age and infirmities, and went daily to the tory, 357.)
Campus Martius, where he took his exercises with the
young men, and showed that he was still active in arms
and sat firm in all the movements of horsemanship, though
he was not well-built in his old age, but very fat and
heavy.

The assembly voted the command to Marius, who when Flight of
ready to set out, sent two tribunes to receive the army from ss B.C.*
Sulla. But Sulla, after encouraging his soldiers, who num- (The senate
bered thirty-five thousand well armed men, led them to-
ward Rome. These troops fell upon the tribunes whom
Marius had sent, and murdered them. Marius, on his Plutarch
part, put to death many of the friends of Sulla in Rome, Marius, 35.
and proclaimed freedom to the slaves if they would join
him; but it is said that three only accepted the offer. As
Sulla entered the city, Marius made a feeble resistance,
and was soon compelled to flee.

Instructions had already been sent to every city, re- Ib. 38.
quiring the authorities to search for the fugitive and put
him to death when he should be found.

Marius escaped, however, and without a companion or "I cannot
servant fled to Minturnae. While he was resting there in a Marius ! "
secluded house, the magistrates of the city, whose fears Appian, Cm/
were excited by the proclamation of the Roman people, but ars ' l ' 6l '
who hesitated to be the murderers of a man who had been
six times consul and had performed so many brilliant ex-
ploits, sent a Gaul to kill him with a sword. The story is

428

The Revolution

"On the
ruins of
Carthage."

Plutarch,
Marius, 40.

Civil War,
83-82 B.C.

that as the Gaul was approaching the pallet of Marius in
the dusk, he thought he saw the gleam and flash of fire
darting from the eyes of a hidden man, and that Marius
rose from his bed and in a thundering voice shouted to him,
"Dare you kill Gaius Marius?"

The Gaul turned and fled out of doors like a madman,
exclaiming, "I cannot kill Gaius Marius!" As the magis-
trates had come to their previous decision with reluctance,
so now a kind of religious awe came over them, for they
remembered the prophecy given him while he was a boy,
that he should be consul seven times.

At this time the governor of Libya was Sextilius, a
Roman who had received neither favor nor injury from
Marius. It was expected therefore that the governor would
help him, at least as far as feelings of pity move a man.
But no sooner had Marius landed with a few of his party
than an officer met him, and standing right in front of him
said:

"The governor Sextilius forbids you, Marius, to set foot
on Libya, and he says that if you do, he will support the
decree of the senate by treating you as an enemy."

When Marius heard this command, grief and indigna-
tion deprived him of the power of speech. He remained
silent a long time, looking fixedly at the officer. As the
latter asked him what he had to say what reply he had
for the governor he answered with a deep groan:

" Tell him you have seen Gaius Marius, a fugitive, sitting
on the ruins of Carthage."

IV. SULLA

After speedily finishing all his business with Mithridates,
Sulla hastened his return to meet his enemies. . . . He
came home with a large, well disciplined army, devoted to

Sulla's Proscriptions 429

him and elated by his exploits. He had abundance of Appian,

, , r . Civil Wars,

ships, money, and apparatus suitable for all emergencies, i. 7 a.
and was an object of terror to his enemies. Carbo and
Cinna were in such fear of him that they despatched emis- Rome, 171.
saries to all parts of Italy to collect money, soldiers, and Ancient
supplies. w*u.<2i-6.

(In two years of civil war Sulla destroyed the armies of Sulla's
the democratic leaders who opposed him, and then entered tions,82 B.C.
Rome all-powerful.) Now he began to make blood flow, piutarch,
and he filled the city with countless deaths. For private Sulia ' 3I -
enmity many persons were murdered who never had
anything to do with Sulla, but he consented to their death
to please his partisans.

At last a young man, Gaius Metellus, had the boldness
to ask Sulla in the senate-house when there would be an
end to their miseries, and how far he would proceed before
they could hope to see their misfortunes cease.

"We are not deprecating your vengeance against those
whom you have determined to put out of the way," he
said, "but we entreat you to relieve of uncertainty those
whom you have determined to spare."

Sulla replied,

"I have not yet determined whom I will spare."

"Tell us then," Metellus said, "whom you intend to
punish."

Sulla promised to do so. Some say it was not Metellus
but Afidius, one of Sulla's flatterers, who made use of the
last expression. Without communicating with any magis-
trate, Sulla immediately proscribed eighty persons. As
this act caused a general murmur, he let one day pass, and
then proscribed two hundred and twenty more, and again
on the third day as many. In an address to the people he
said, with reference to these measures, that he had pro-

430 The Revolution

scribed all he could think of, and as to those who now es-
caped his memory, he would proscribe them at some future
time.

It was a part of the proscription that every man who re-
ceived and protected a proscribed person should be put to
death for his humanity, and there was no exception for
brothers, children, or parents. The reward for killing a
proscribed person was two talents, whether it was a slave
who killed his master or a son who killed his father. But
what was considered most unjust of all, he affixed infamy
on the sons and grandsons of all the proscribed, and con-
fiscated their property.

Greed the The proscriptions were not confined to Rome but ex-
tended to every city in Italy. Neither temple nor hospi-
table hearth nor father's house was free from murder; but
husbands were butchered in the arms of their wives, and
children in the embrace of their mothers. The number of
those who were massacred through revenge and hatred was
nothing compared with those who were murdered for their
property. It occurred even to the assassins to notice that
the ruin of such a one was due to his large house, another
man owed his death to his orchard, and another again to
his warm baths. Quintus Aurelius, who never meddled
with public affairs, and who was no further concerned about
all these calamities except so far as he sympathized with
the sufferings of others, happened to come to the Forum,
and there he read the names of the proscribed. Finding
his own name among them, he exclaimed, "Alas, wretch
that I am: my farm at Alba is my persecutor!" He had
not gone far before he was murdered by some one who
was in search of him.

Meanwhile Marius (adopted son of the great Marius,
and a democratic general in the civil war) killed himself to

Dictatorship of Sulla 431

avoid being taken. Sulla then went to Praeneste (which Sulla at
Marius had held) and there began to examine the case of
each individual before punishing him; but lacking time
for this inquiry, he had all the people brought to one spot
to the number of twelve thousand, and ordered them to be
massacred, with the exception of one man, an old friend
of his, whom he offered to pardon. But the man nobly
declared he would never owe his safety to the destroyer
of his country; and mingling with the rest of the citizens,
he was cut down together with them.

Besides the massacres, other things caused dissatisfac- His dictator-
tion. Sulla had himself proclaimed dictator, and thus B.C.'
revived this office after an interval of a hundred and pi u t a rch,
twenty years. Sulla > 33-

Twenty-four axes were carried in front of him, as was His legisla-
customary with dictators the same number which was

borne before the ancient kings; and he had besides a large
body-guard. He repealed laws and enacted others. He * I0 -
forbade any one to hold the office of praetor till after he
had held that of quaestor, or to be consul before he had been
praetor, and he prohibited any man from holding the same
office a second time till after the lapse of ten years. He
reduced the tribunician power to such an extent that it
seemed to be destroyed. He curtailed it by a law which
provided that one holding the office of tribune should never
afterward hold any other office.

STUDIES

i. How did the Romans dispose of acquired land? What resulted
from these arrangements? What were the provisions of the agrarian
law of Tiberius? What was his aim? Who opposed and who sup-
ported him, and why? Discuss the legality of the deposition of
Octavius,

432 The Revolution

2. What were the principal laws of Gaius Gracchus? What was
the object of each? Describe a Roman road. What are the con-
tents of these quotations from his speeches, and what conditions do
they show? Is the comment of Gellius favorable or the opposite?
What was the aim of these speeches? What was the general aim
of Gaius?

3. Of what elements did Marius make up his army? Describe his
conflict with Sulla. Narrate his wanderings. Who are the authors
of the selections relating to the Gracchi and Marius? When did
each live, and what is his historical value?

4. What are proscriptions? Describe those of Sulla. What were
the motives of the men engaged in it? What was the character
of Sulla?

CHAPTER XXXVII

THE REVOLUTION: (II) THE MILITARY POWER
IN CONFLICT WITH THE REPUBLIC

I. POMPEY

(AMONG the rising officers of the army Gnaeus Pompey Gnaeus
was most fitted to be the heir of Sulla's policy.) Never did

the Roman people give to any other man so strong tokens
of affection as to Pompey, or at so early an age, or which Ancient
grew so rapidly with the good fortune of the receiver, or World, 428-
remained so firm in his misfortunes. The causes of their
affection were many: his temperate life, his skill in arms,
the persuasiveness of his speech, the integrity of his char-
acter, and his affability to every man who came in his way,
so that there was no person from whom one could ask a
favor with so little pain, whose requests one would more
willingly strive to satisfy. In addition to his other en-
dearing qualities, Pompey could do a kindness without
seeming to do it, and could receive a favor with dignity.

At first his face, too, contributed greatly to win the good His appear-
will of the people, and to secure a favorable reception be-
fore he opened his mouth. For the sweetness of his expres-
sion was mingled with dignity and kindness; and while he
was yet in the very bloom of youth, his noble and kingly
nature clearly showed itself. The slight falling back of the
hair and the expression of the eyes caused people to notice
a resemblance to the portraits of Alexander, though in fact
the likeness was more talked of than real.

433

434

The Revolution

SertoriuB.

Appian,
Civti Wars,
i. 108.

76 B.C.

72 B.C.

The Servile
War

(or Gladia-
torial War),
73-71 B.C.

Plutarch,
Pompey, 21.

Of the Sullan troubles there remained the war with Ser-
torius, which had been going on for eight years, and which
was no easy war for Rome, as it was waged not merely
against Spaniards but against the Romans and Sertorius.
He had been chosen governor of Spain while he was cooper-
ating with Carbo against Sulla, and after taking the city
of Suessa under an armistice, he fled and assumed his
governorship. With an army from Italy itself and another
raised from the Celtiberians, he drove from Spain the
former governors, who to favor Sulla refused to surrender
the government to him. He fought nobly, too, against
Metellus, whom Sulla had sent to oppose him. After ac-
quiring a reputation for bravery, he enrolled a council of
three hundred members from the friends who were with
him, and called it the Roman senate in derision of the
real one.

After the death of Sulla, and later of Lepidus (a demo-
cratic leader), Sertorius obtained another Italian army
which Perpenna, the lieutenant of Lepidus, brought him.
It was now supposed that he intended to march against
Italy itself, and he would have done so, had not the senate
become alarmed and sent another army and general into
Spain in addition to the former forces. This general was
Pompey, who was still a young man, but renowned for
his exploits under Sulla. (Sertorius was himself uncon-
querable; but when at length he was assassinated, Per-
penna, his faithless lieutenant, easily fell a prey to
Pompey.)

After staying long enough to end the chief disturbances,
and to quiet and settle the most dangerous troubles,
Pompey led his army back to Italy, where he chanced to
arrive at the time the Servile War was at its height.

Spartacus, by birth a Thracian, who had once served

Spartacus 435

as soldier with the Romans, had since become a prisoner,
and had been sold for a gladiator. While he was in the i. n6.
gladiatorial training-school at Capua, he persuaded about
seventy of his comrades to strike for their own freedom,
rather than for the amusement of spectators. They over-
came the guards and ran away. Arming themselves with
clubs and daggers, which they took from people on the
roads, they sought refuge on Mount Vesuvius. . . . After-
ward still greater throngs flocked to Spartacus, till his
army numbered seventy thousand men. For them he
manufactured weapons and collected apparatus.

This war, so formidable to the Romans, had now lasted Ib. i. 118.
three years. When the election of praetors came on, fear
fell upon all, and nobody offered himself as a candidate
until Licinius Crassus, a man distinguished among the
Romans for birth and wealth, assumed the praaetorship,
and marched with six legions against Spartacus. . . .
Presently he overcame ten thousand insurgents, who were
encamped in a detached position, and killed two-thirds
of them.

Believing that the work still to be done against Spar- Appian, Civil
i 1 11 Wars, i. 119.

tacus was great and severe, the government ordered up

as a reenforcement the army of Pompey, which had just
arrived from Spain.

This was the reason why Crassus, the commander,
risked a battle, which he gained with the slaughter of Plutarch,
twelve thousand three hundred of the enemy. But For-
tune, as we may say, adopted Pompey into this success
also, for five thousand men who escaped from the battle
fell in his way. After destroying all of them, he took the
opportunity of writing first to the senate that whereas
Crassus had conquered the gladiators in a pitched battle,
he had himself pulled up the war by the roots. And this 1

43 6

The Revolution

The pirates.
Floras Hi. 6.

Plutarch,
Pompey, 24.

was agreeable for the Romans to hear, because of their
good will to Pompey.

Meantime, while the Romans were engaged in different
parts of the world, the Cilicians had spread themselves
over the sea, and by obstructing commerce and by break-
ing the bonds of human society, had made the sea as im-
passable through piracy as it would have been rendered
by a tempest.

And now men who were powerful in wealth and of dis-
tinguished birth, and who claimed superior education, be-
gan to embark on piratical vessels and to share in their
undertakings, as if the occupation were reputable and an
object of ambition. In many places were piratical posts
and fortified beacons, at which armaments put in. For
this peculiar occupation swift light fleets were fitted out
with bold vigorous crews and skilful helmsmen. More
annoying than their formidable appearance was their
arrogant and pompous equipment with golden streamers
and purple sails and silvered oars, as if they rioted in their
evil practices and prided themselves on them. Their
playing on flutes and stringed instruments and their drink-
ing along the whole coast, their seizure of persons high in
office, and their holding captured cities for ransom, dis-
graced the Roman supremacy. The piratical ships had
now increased to above a thousand, and the cities seized
by them were four hundred.

But their most insulting conduct was of the following
nature. Whenever a captive called out that he was a
Roman and mentioned his name, they would pretend to
be terrified, and would strike their thighs and fall down
at his knees praying him to pardon them; and their cap-
tive would believe all this to be real, seeing that they were
humble and suppliant. Then some would put Roman shoes

War with the Pirates 437

on his feet, and others would throw over him a toga, pre-
tending it was done that there might be no mistake about
him again. When they had for some time mocked the
man in this way, and had their fill of amusement, they
would put a ladder down into the sea, and bid him step
out and go away with their best wishes for a good journey;
and if the man would not go, they pushed him into the
water.

Pompey directed his efforts against Cilicia, the source Pompey
and origin of the war. Neither did the enemy shrink from them,
an engagement with him nor lose confidence in their 7 ' *
strength; hard pressed, they were willing to dare. They Florusiii.6.
did no more than meet the first onset, however, for im- ^^' M/ I78;
mediately afterward when they saw the beaks of our ships World, 430 f
encircling them, they threw down their weapons and oars,
and with a great clapping of hands, which with them was
a sign of supplication, begged for quarter.

Never did we obtain a victory with so little bloodshed.
Nor was any nation afterward found so faithful to us, a
state of things secured by the remarkable prudence of the
general, who removed this maritime people far from the
sight of the sea, and tied them down, as it were, to the in-
land parts of the country. Thus he recovered the free use
of the sea for ships, and at the same time restored to the
land its own inhabitants.

In this victory what shall we most admire? Its speed,
as it was gained in forty days? Its good fortune, as not a
single ship was lost? Or its durable effect, as the Cilicians
in consequence were never afterward pirates?

II. CICERO AND CATILINE

At this time Lucius Catiline was a person of importance,
of great celebrity, and high birth, but a madman. It was

438

The Revolution

The

Conspiracy
of Catiline,
63 B.C.

Appian, Civil
Wars, ii. 2.

Ancient
World, 432 f.

believed that he had killed his own son because of his own
love for Aurelia Orestilla, who was not willing to marry
a man who had a son. He had been a friend and zealous
partisan of Sulla. He had reduced himself to poverty in
order to gratify his ambition, but still he was courted by
the powerful, both men and women, and he became a
candidate for the consulship as a step leading to absolute
power.

He confidently expected to be elected, but the suspicion
of his ulterior designs defeated him; and Cicero, the most
eloquent orator and rhetorician of the period, was chosen
instead. Catiline, by way of raillery and contempt for
those who voted for Cicero, called him a "New Man" on
account of his obscure birth for so they called those who
achieved distinction by their own merits and not by those
of their ancestors; and because he was not born in the
city, Catiline called him a lodger, by which term they
designate those who occupy houses belonging to others.
His methods. From this time Catiline abstained wholly from politics
as not leading quickly and surely to absolute power, but
as full of the spirit of contention and malice. He procured
much money from many women, who hoped that their
husbands would be killed in the uprising; and he formed a
conspiracy with a number of senators and knights, and
collected together a body of plebeians, foreign residents,
and slaves. His leading fellow-conspirators were Cornelius
Lentulus and Cethegus, who were then the city praetors.
He sent agents throughout Italy to those of Sulla's soldiers
who had squandered the gains of their former life of
plunder, and who longed for a renewal of violence. For
this purpose he sent Gaius Manlius to Faesula in Etruria,
and others to Picenum and Apulia, who enlisted soldiers
for him secretly.

Cicero Denounces Catiline 439

All these facts, while they were still secret, were com- The

_. . _ . . .. .. __ conspiracy

mumcated to Cicero by Fulvia, a woman of quality. Her divulged,
lover, Quintus Curius, who had been expelled from the Appian,
senate for immorality, and was one of the conspirators, c iWars >
told her in a vain and boastful way that he would soon
be hi a position of great power. And now a rumor of
what was transpiring in Italy was noised about. Accord-
ingly Cicero stationed guards at intervals throughout the
city, and sent many of the nobility to the suspected places
to watch what was going on.

(Catiline had the boldness to take his usual place in the Cicero
senate, whereupon Cicero delivered against him a terrible Catiline,
invective. Some extracts from this speech are given be- cicero,

1 OW \ Against Cati-

'' line, i.

How long, Catiline, will you abuse our patience? How
long will your frantic rage baffle the efforts of justice? To
what height do you mean to carry your daring insolence?
Are you not daunted by the nightly watch posted to secure
the Palatine Hill? or by the city guards? or by the fear of
the people? or by the union of all the wise and worthy
citizens? or by the senate's assembling in this place of
strength? or by the looks and faces of all here present?
Do you not see that all your designs are brought to light?
that the senators are thoroughly informed of your con-
spiracy? that they are acquainted with what you did last
night and the night before, your place of meeting, the
company you summoned, and the measures you concerted?
Alas for our degeneracy! alas for the depravity of the
times; the senate is informed of this whole plot, the consul
sees it, yet the traitor lives. Lives, did I say? He even
comes into the senate; he shares in the public delibera-
tions; he marks us out with his eye for destruction. We,
bold in our country's cause, think we have sufficiently

440

The Revolution

All hate
Catiline.

His country
pleads with
him.

done our duty to the state, if we can but escape his rage
and deadly darts. Long ago, Catiline, ought the consul, to
have ordered your execution, and to have directed upon
your own head the ruin you have long been meditating
against us all. . . .

For my part, were my slaves to discover such a dread of
me as your fellow-citizens express of you, I should think
it necessary to abandon my own house; and do you hesitate
to leave the city? Were I even wrongfully suspected, and
thereby rendered obnoxious to my countrymen, I would
sooner withdraw myself from public view than be beheld
with looks full of reproach and indignation. And do you,
whose conscience tells you that you are the object of a
universal, just, and long-merited hatred, delay a moment
to escape from the looks and presence of a people whose
eyes and senses can no longer endure you among them?
Should your parents dread and hate you, and resist all
your efforts to appease them, you would doubtless with-
draw from their sight.

But now your country, the common parent of us all,
hates and dreads you, and has long regarded you as a
parricide, intent on the purpose of destroying her. And
will you neither respect her authority, submit to her ad-
vice, nor stand in awe of her power? Thus does she reason
with you, Catiline; thus does she, though silent, in some
manner address you: "Not an enormity has happened
these many years but has had you for its author; not a
crime has been perpetrated without you. The murder of
so many of our citizens, the oppression and the plunder of
our allies has through you alone escaped punishment,
though carried on with unrestrained violence. You have
found means not only to trample on law and justice but
even to subvert and destroy them. Though this past

Cicero against Catiline 441

behavior of yours was beyond all patience, yet I have
borne with it as I could; but now to be in continual fear
of you alone, on every alarm to tremble at the name of .
Catiline, to see no plots formed against me which speak
not of you as their author, is altogether insupportable.
Begone, then, and rid me of my present terror; that if
just, I may avoid ruin; if groundless, I may at length
cease to fear! . . .

It is now a long time, senators, that we have trod amid All traitors
the dangers and machinations of this conspiracy; but I th^ity. 6 * 76
know not how it comes to pass, that the full maturity of all
those crimes, and of this long-ripening rage and insolence,
has now broken out in the period of my consulship. Should
he alone be removed from this powerful band of traitors,
it may abate perhaps our fears and anxieties for a while,
but the danger will still remain, and continue lurking
in the veins and vitals of the republic. . . . Wherefore,
senators, let the wicked retire; let them separate them-
selves from the honest; let them gather in one place. As I
have often said, let a wall be between them and us. Let
them cease to lay snares for the consul in his own house, to
beset the tribunal of the city praetor, to invest the senate-
house with armed ruffians, and prepare fire-balls and
torches for burning the city. In brief, let every man's
sentiments regarding the republic be inscribed on his fore-
head.

This I engage for and promise, senators, that by the May Jupiter
diligence of the consuls, the weight of your authority, the Sate and
courage and firmness of the Roman knights, and the una-
nimity of all who are honest, Catiline shall be driven forth
from the city, and you shall behold all his treasons de-
tected, exposed, crushed, and punished. With these
omens of all prosperity to the republic but of destruction

442 The Revolution

to yourself, Catiline, and to those who have joined them-
selves with you in all kinds of parricide, go your way to this
impious and abominable war. And do thou, Jupiter,
whose religion was established with the foundation of this
city thou whom we truly call the Stayer, the support and
prop of this empire drive this man and his associates
from thy altars and temples, from the houses and walls
of the city, from the lives and fortunes of us all; and de-
stroy with eternal punishments, in life and death, all the
haters of good men, all the enemies of their country, all
the plunderers of Italy, now joined in this detestable
league and partnership of villainy !

The (The traitor fled from Rome, and was soon afterward

of his defeated and killed in battle. Meantime Cicero had ar-

rested and put to death some chiefs of the conspiracy who
remained in the city.)

'War^i.^ Such was the end of the u P risin g of Catiline, which
brought the city into extreme peril. Cicero, who had
hitherto been distinguished only for eloquence, was now
in everybody's mouth as a man of action, and was con-
sidered unquestionably the saviour of his country on the
eve of its destruction. For this reason the thanks of the
assembly were bestowed upon him amid general acclama-
tions. At the instance of Cato the people saluted him
Father of his Country.

III. CESAR'S CONSULSHIP; HIS CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL

His consul-^ After entering upon his consulship, he introduced a new

regulation, that the daily acts of the senate and of the

Julius assemblies should be committed to writing and pub-

Gwcr, 20. lished ^

When he presented to the people a bill for the division of
some public lands, the other consul opposed him. There-

Caesar 443

upon Caesar violently drove his colleague from the Forum,
Next day in the senate the insulted consul complained of
his ill treatment; but no one had the courage to bring the
matter forward or move a censure, which had often been
done in the case of less important outrages. Caesar's col-
league was so much dispirited, therefore, that till the expi-
ration of his office he never stirred from home, and did
nothing but issue edicts to obstruct the other consul's pro-
ceedings.

From that time, therefore, Caesar had the sole manage-
ment of public affairs; so that some wags, when they signed
any document as witnesses, did not add "in the consulship
of Caesar and Bibulus," but "of Julius and Caesar," putting
the same person down twice under his name and surname.
The following verses, too, were repeated with reference
to this matter:

Nothing was done in Bibulus' year;
No, Caesar only was consul here.

Such was the course of Caesar's life before his Gallic His cam-
campaigns. But the period of the wars which he now car- Sau
ried on, and of the expedition by which he subdued Gaul, B-C *
is a new beginning in his career and the opening of a new
course of life and action, in which he showed himself a sol-
dier and a general inferior to none who have gained admira-
tion as leaders of men. For whether we compare Caesar's
exploits with those of the Fabii, the Scipios, and the Metelli,
or with those of his contemporaries or immediate prede-
cessors, Sulla and Marius and both the Luculli or even
Pompey himself, whose fame, high as the heavens, was
blossoming at that time in every kind of military excel-
lence, Caesar will be found to surpass them all.

His superiority over one appears in the difficulties of the

444

The Revolution

country in which he carried on his campaigns, over another
in the extent of country subdued, over a third in the num-
ber and courage of the enemy whom he defeated, over
another again in the savage manners and treacherous char-
acter of the nations which he civilized, over a fourth in
clemency and mildness to the conquered, over another
again in his donations and liberality to his soldiers; and in
a word, his superiority over all other generals appears in
the number of battles which he fought and of enemies
whom he slew.

For in somewhat less than ten years, during which he
carried on his campaigns in Gaul, he took by storm eight
hundred cities, and subdued three hundred nations, and
fought at different times against three millions of men, of
whom he destroyed one million in battle and took as many
prisoners.

The druids. Throughout Gaul are two orders of men who have rank
and dignity; for the common people are held almost in the
condition of slaves; they dare do nothing of themselves,
and take no part in deliberation. The greater number,
when pressed by debt or by heavy taxes or oppressed by
the more powerful, give themselves up in vassalage to the
nobles, who possess over them the same rights without ex-
ception as masters exercise over their slaves. Of these two
orders of nobles one is that of the druids, the other that
of the knights. The former are engaged in religious duties;
they conduct the public and private sacrifices and interpret
all matters of religion.

To this class a large number of young men resort for
instruction and all hold the druids in high honor. For
these priests decide almost all controversies, public and
private; and if any crime has been perpetrated, if murder
has been committed, or if there is any dispute about in-

Caesar,
Gallic War,
vi. 13.

They are
the judges.

Gallic Society 445

heritance or about boundaries, these same persons decide
it. They decree rewards and punishments; and if any one
either publicly or privately refuses to submit to their de-
cision, they interdict him from the sacrifices. This among
them is the heaviest punishment. Those who have been
thus interdicted are esteemed impious and criminal: all
shun them and avoid their society and conversation, lest
they receive some evil from the contact; neither is justice
administered to them when they seek it, nor is any dignity
bestowed on them.

Over all these druids one presides, who possesses supreme Their organ-
authority among them. On his death any individual who
is preeminent in dignity succeeds; but if many are equal,
the election is made by the votes of the druids; sometimes
they even contend in arms for the presidency. The mem-
bers of the class gather at a fixed period of the year in a
consecrated place in the territory of the Carnutes, which
is considered the central region of the whole of Gaul.
Hither all who have disputes assemble from every quarter,
and submit to their decrees and decisions. This institution
is supposed to have been devised in Britain, and to have
been brought over from there to Gaul; and now those who
wish to gain a more accurate knowledge of that system go
thither for the purpose of studying it.

Whatever sums of money the husbands have received as The family,
dowry with their wives, they estimate, and add the same Caesar,

J J ... Gallic War,

amount from their own estates. An account is kept of this v i. 19.
whole sum and the profits are laid by; so that the one who
survives the other may receive the portion of both, to-
gether with the profits. Husbands have power of life and
death over their wives as well as over their children. When
the father of a family of uncommonly high rank has died,
his kinsmen assemble; and if the circumstances of his death

446 The Revolution

are suspicious, they investigate the conduct of the wives
in the same way as that of slaves; and if proof is obtained,
they put the wives to severe torture and kill them.
Funerals. In view of the state of civilization among the Gauls, their

funerals are magnificent and costly. As one of the funeral
rites they cast into the fire all those possessions of the de-
ceased, including living creatures, which they suppose to
have been dear to him in his life. Until lately slaves and
clients who were known to have been beloved by the de-
ceased were burned with his body at the close of the funeral
rites.

IV. CJESAR AS DICTATOR

Honors to After ending the civil wars Caesar hastened to Rome,
honored and feared as no one had ever been before. All
en. 106. kinds of honors were devised for his gratification without

Ancient stint, even such as were more than human, sacrifices,

World, 439- games, statues in all the temples and public places, by
every tribe, by all the provinces, and by the kings in al-
liance with Rome. His portrait was painted in various
forms, and in some cases crowned with oak as that of the
saviour of his country. ... He was proclaimed the
Father of his Country and chosen dictator for life, and his
person was declared sacred and inviolable. It was decreed
that he should transact business on a throne of ivory and
gold; that he should always perform his sacerdotal func-
tions in triumphal dress; that each year the city should
celebrate the days on which he had won his victories;
that every five years the priests and Vestal virgins should
offer up public prayers for his safety; and that the magis-
trates immediately after their inauguration should take
an oath not to oppose any of Caesar's decrees. In honor of
his gens the name of the month Quintilis was changed to

Dictatorship of Caesar 447

July. Many temples were decreed to him as to a god, and
one was dedicated in common to him and the goddess
Clemency, who were represented as clasping hands.

Thus while they feared his power they besought his His
mercy. Some proposed to give him the title of king, but

when he learned of their purpose he forbade it with threats,
for he said it was an inauspicious name by reason of the " I07>
curse of their ancestors. He dismissed the pretorian co- (Pretorian
horts which had served as his bodyguard during the wars, panics of
and he showed himself with the ordinary public attendants guarded The

Only. t pratorium,

J or general's

He received all the honors conferred upon him excepting tent.)
the ten-year consulship. As consuls for the ensuing year
he designated himself and Antony, his master of horse, and
he appointed Lepidus master of horse in place of Antony,
Lepidus at this time was governor of Spain, but was admin-
istering his province through friends. Caesar recalled all
exiles excepting those who had been banished for some
grave offence. He pardoned his enemies, and many of
those who had fought against him he forthwith advanced
to the yearly magistracies or to the command of provinces
and of armies. The wearied people therefore especially
hoped he would restore the republic to them, as Sulla did
after he had grasped the same power. But in this respect
they were disappointed.

While the talk about the kingship was going on, and just The
before a session of the senate, Cassius met Brutus, and seiz-
ing him by the hand, said, "What shall we do in the senate- cMW
house if Caesar's flatterers propose a decree to make him
king?" "I shall not be there," Brutus replied. Then
Cassius asked him further, "What if we are summoned

there as praetors, what shall we do then, my good Brutus? " well as sena-
'"I will defend my country to the death," he answered, their service

448 The Revolution

as magis- Cassius embraced him, saying, "Which of the nobility will
beVe S eded g at you allow to share your though ts?" ... Thus did they
the meeting.) 4^^ to eac b oi fa T w h a t they had been privately think-
ing about for a long time. Each of them tested those of
their own and of Caesar's friends whom they considered the
most courageous of either faction.

Ib. 114. When they thought they had a sufficient number, and

that it would not be wise to divulge the plot to any more,
they pledged each other without oaths or sacrifices, yet no
one changed his mind or betrayed the secret. They sought
a time and place. Time was pressing because Caesar was
to depart on his campaign four days hence and would then
have a bodyguard of soldiers. They chose the senate as
the place, believing that though all the senators did not
know of it beforehand, they would join heartily when they
saw the deed.

The conspir- The conspirators had left Trebonius, one of their num-

Ctesar, 44 ber, to engage Antony in conversation at the door. The

others with concealed daggers stood like friends around

Appian, Civil Caesar as he sat in his chair. Then one of them, Tullius

Wars, 11. 117.

Cimber, came up in front of him and petitioned him for
the recall of his brother, who had been banished. When
Caesar answered that the matter must be deferred, Cimber
seized hold of his purple robe as though still urging the
petition, and pulled it away so as to expose his neck; at
the same time he exclaimed, " Friends, what are you wait-
ing for?" Then Casca, who was standing over Caesar's
head, first drove a dagger at his throat, but missed the
aim and wounded him in the breast. Caesar snatched his
toga from Cimber, seized Casca's hand, sprang from his
chair, turned round and hurled Casca with great violence.
While Caesar was in this position, another one stabbed
him with a dagger in the side . . . Cassius wounded him

Caesar's Death; Character 449

in the face, Brutus smote him in the thigh, and Bucolianus
between the shoulder-blades.

With rage and outcries Caesar turned now upon one and
now upon another like a wild animal, but after receiving
the wound from Brutus he despaired, and veiling himself
with his robe, he fell prostrate at the foot of Pompey's
statue. After he had fallen they continued their attack
till he received twenty-three wounds.

When the will of Caesar was opened, and the people The funeral,
learned that he had given a handsome present to every Plutarch,
Roman, and they saw the body as it was carried through c * sar > 68 -
the Forum, disfigured with wounds, the multitude no
longer kept within the bounds of propriety and order, but
taking from the Forum benches, lattices, and tables, they
heaped them about the corpse, and set fire to the pile and
burned the body on the spot. Then seizing the flaming
pieces of wood, they ran to the houses of the conspirators
to fire them, and others hurried about the city in all direc-
tions in search of the murderers to seize and tear them to
pieces.

He died in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and was ranked His spirit,
among the gods, not only by a formal decree but also in Suetonius,
the belief of the people. For during the first games which ^JJJf 88
Augustus, his heir, consecrated to his memory, a comet
blazed seven days together, rising always about eleven
o'clock; and the people thought it was the soul of Caesar
now received into heaven.

That mighty superhuman spirit, which had accompanied
him through life, followed him even in death; the avenger
of his murder, it ran through every land and sea, to hunt Plutarch,
and track down his assassins till not one of them was left C<Bsar> 69 '
it pursued even those who in any way whatever had put
their hand to the deed or had shared in the plot.

The Revolution

Care of the

streets.

Julian Munic.
Law, 7.
This law was
probably
passed in 46
B.C. It is
preserved in
an inscrip-
tion. The
translation
is by Dr.
R. R. Blews.

Division of
the city
among
the aediles.

Ib. 8.

Contracts for
maintaining
the streets.

Ib. ii.

V. THE MUNICIPAL LAW OF JULIUS CESAR

With regard to those streets which are or shall be in the
city of Rome or within a radius of one mile from the city
of Rome, wherever this zone shall be continually built
up, the owner of any building before which any such
street shall run, shall maintain the same to the satisfaction
of the aedile, to whom this part of the city shall have been
assigned in accordance with this law; and that aedile shall
see to it that all persons, before whose buildings any
streets run, which they shall be obliged by this law sever-
ally to maintain, shall severally maintain the same to his
satisfaction; and he shall see to it that no water remains
standing in any such place which would hinder the public
from the convenient use of the street.

The curule aediles and the plebeian aediles who are now
in office, and whoever after the passing of this law shall
have been made or created aediles or shall have entered
upon this office, shall, within the next five days after they
shall have been elected or shall have entered upon this
office, decide either by agreement or by lot in what part
of the city each one of them shall have charge of the re-
pairing and paving of the streets in the city of Rome or
within a mile of the city of Rome, and shall have super-
vision of that work. In those places which shall be in the
district thus assigned to each one of the aediles hi ac-
cordance with this law, he shall have supervision of the
repairing and maintenance of the streets, as shall be re-
quired in accordance with this law.

In the case of a street for the maintenance of which a
contract in conformity with this law must be let, the aedile
whose duty it shall be to let the contract for the main-
tenance of this street shall let out the same through the

Supervision of Streets 451

urban quaestor or whoever shall be in charge of the treas-
ury: the contractor shall agree to main tain the street to the
satisfaction of him who shall have caused the contract for
the street to have been let out. The urban quaestor or
whoever shall be in charge of the treasury shall cause the
amount of money for which each street shall have been
let out to be given or assigned to the contractor, to whom
under the terms of the lease it should have been given,
or to his heir.

Any one before whose building a sidewalk shall run, Sidewalks,
shall keep the same properly paved with unworn stones /&. i 3 .
over the whole space in front of the building, to the satis-
faction of that aedile who under this law, shall have charge
of the streets in that district.

After the next Calends of January no one shall lead or The use of
guide a vehicle during the day, between sunrise and the the streets,
twelfth hour of the day, in any streets which are or shall /&. 14>
be within the city of Rome, or within those outlying dis-
tricts which shall be built up continuously with the city,
except in the case of anything which ought to be brought
or conveyed for use in building temples of the immortal
gods or for use in carrying on public works, or unless any
of those things, for the demolition of which a contract
has been let at public expense, ought to be removed at the
public expense from the city or from the districts aforesaid;
and in these cases permission to lead or drive vehicles
shall be given under this law to specified persons for speci-
fied reasons.

Nothing is enacted by this law by virtue of which Exceptions

... i , to the rule

vehicles may not be led or dnven in the city in the day- above given.

time for the following reasons and on the following days: n. 15.
the days on which the Vestal virgins, the rex sacrorum, and Ancient
the flamens shall be obliged to ride in carriages within World, 333 1.

452

The Revolution

Municipal
magistrates.

Julian
Munic. Law,
23-

Qualifications
for office.

The chief
magistrates
were a "board
of two "
duoviri like
the consuls,
or less com-
monly a
"board of
four"
quattuoviri.

Councillor,
decurion,
conscriptus
all applied to
members of
the munici-
pal council
"alderman."
Sesterce,
about 5 cents.

the city on account of public religious rites of the Roman
people; whatever vehicles must be driven because of a
triumph on the day on which any one shall celebrate a
triumph; whatever vehicles it shall be necessary to lead
or drive either because of games which shall be held at
public expense in Rome or within one mile of the city of
Rome, or in the processions at the Circensian games.

Upon the expiration of one year after the next Calends
of January no one who is or shall be less than thirty years
of age shall seek, accept, or hold the office of duovir or
quattuorvir or any other magistracy in a municipium,
a colony, or a prefecture, unless he shall have served three
years in the legionary cavalry or six years in the legionary
infantry, such military service to have been performed
in camp or in a province during the greater part of each
year or during half years, two of which may be properly
credited to him as equal to a whole year, with whatever
time shall properly be credited to him in accordance with
laws or resolutions of the plebs, or unless he shall be
exempt from military service in accordance with laws
or resolutions of the plebs or in execution of a treaty by
reason of which he cannot properly be required to serve
against his will. Nor shall any one whose occupation
shall be that of a public crier or that of an undertaker's
assistant or that of an undertaker, so long as he shall
be engaged in any of these occupations, seek, accept,
hold, or have the office of duovir, or quattuorvir, or any
other magistracy in a municipium, a colony, or a prefec-
ture; nor shall he serve or give his vote as a councillor or
a decurion or a conscriptus in that place. If any one
of those who are mentioned above, shall have acted in
contravention of these provisions, he shall be liable to
pay to the people a fine of 50,000 sesterces; and when

Municipal Census 453

ever wishes shall have the right to enter suit for this
money.

Whoever in the municipia, colonies, or prefectures of Census-tak-

_ r . ingmfhe

Roman citizens, whatever municipia, colonies, or pre- municipia.

fectures, there are or shall be in Italy, shall hold the /j. 2 &.
highest magistracy or the highest office there at the time
when the censor or any other magistrate is about to take
the census of the people at Rome, he, within the next
sixty days after he shall know that the census of the people
is to be taken at Rome, shall take the census of all the
members of his municipium, colony, or prefecture who
shall be Roman citizens; and he shall cause them to declare
under oath their gentile names, personal names, fathers
or patrons, tribes, family names, how old each one of
them is and the amount of his wealth, in accordance with
the formula of the census which shall have been set forth
at Rome by him who at that time shall be about to take
the census of the people.

He shall see that all these data are entered in the public
records of his municipality; and he shall send these re-
ports to those who shall take the census at Rome, through
delegates whom the majority of the decurions of con-
scripti shall have elected by vote to be delegates and
envoys for this purpose at the time when the matter was
taken into consideration; and not less than sixty days
before the day when those who take the census at Rome
(whoever they may be) have completed the census of the
people, he shall see to it that the delegates appear before
them and present the reports of that municipium, colony,
or prefecture; and the censor or whatever other magis-
trate shall take the census of the people, within the next
five days after the arrival of the delegates from that
municipium, colony, or prefecture, shall receive in good

454

The Revolution

His birth.

Suetonius,
Augustus, 5.

(Augustus is
a title given
Octavius by
the senate.)

Ancient
World, 442 ff.

Ib. 6.

His early
life.

Suetonius,
Augustus, 8.

faith those reports of the census which shall be given by
those delegates, and he shall see that their contents are
copied in the public records and that these records are
stored in the same place as the other public records in
which the census of the people shall have been registered

VI. OCTAVIUS

(Octavius, afterward named) Augustus, was born in
the consulship of Marcus Tullius Cicero and Gaius An-
tonius, a little before sunrise on the ninth day before the
Calends of October, on Oxhead Street, Palatine Hill, in
the place where now stands a chapel built a little after his
death and dedicated to him.

To this day his nursery may be seen in a villa belonging
to the family, in the suburbs of Velitrae. It is a very small
room, much like a pantry. Into this place no person dares
intrude unless necessary, and then one enters with great
devotion, for a belief has long prevailed that those who
rashly intrude are seized with great horror and fear. This
belief has recently been confirmed by a remarkable inci-
dent. A new inhabitant of the house took up his lodging
in that apartment, either by chance or to try the truth
of the report. In the course of the night, however, a few
hours after retiring, he was thrown out by some sudden
violence, he knew not what, and was found stupefied,
lying in his coverlet in front of the chamber door.

When only four years old, Octavius lost his father; and
in his twelfth year he pronounced a funeral oration in
praise of his grandmother Julia. Four years later, when
Octavius put on the dress of manhood, Caesar in his tri-
umph over Africa honored him with several military re-
wards, though on account of his youth he had taken no
part in the war.

Octavius 455

Octavius was the son of the daughter of Caesar's sister. Appian
He was appointed master of Caesar's horse for one year,
for Caesar at times made this a yearly office, passing it
round among his friends. While still a young man, he was
sent by Caesar to Apollonia on the Adriatic coast to be
educated and trained in the art of war, that he might ac-
company Caesar on his expeditions. ...

At the end of a six months' sojourn in Apollonia, he re-
ceived news one evening that Caesar had been killed in the
senate-house by those who were dearest to the dictator,
and who were at the time the most powerful persons under
him.

After the death of Cassius and Brutus, Octavius returned Antony and
to Italy. Antony proceeded to Asia, where he met Cleo-
patra, queen of Egypt. . . . w?Jv.

After his expedition against the Parthians, he was dis- F i orus j v .
gusted with war and lived at ease. In this period he fell in
love with Cleopatra, and as if his affairs were quite prosper-
ous, he enjoyed himself in the queen's company.

The Egyptian woman demanded of the drunken general,
as the price of her love, nothing less than the Roman em-
pire. This gift Antony promised her, as though the Ro-
mans were easier to conquer than the Parthians. He there-
fore aspired to the sovereignty, not secretly, but forgetting
his country, his name, toga, and fasces, and degenerating
wholly in thought, feeling, and dress, into a monster. In
his hand was a golden sceptre, and a simitar by his side. (Or scimitar,
His robe was of purple clasped with enormous jewels; and sword.)
he wore a diadem that he might dally with the queen as
a king.

At the first report of these proceedings, Caesar (Octa- The battle
vianus) had crossed the sea from Brundisium to meet the 31 B.C.
approaching war. . . . We had more than four hundred

456 The Revolution

vessels, the enemy about two hundred, but the size of the
enemy's ships made up for their inferiority in number.
With from six to nine banks of oars, mounted with towers
and high decks, they moved along like castles and cities;
the seas groaned under them and the wind was fatigued.

Their great size, however, was their destruction. Caesar's
vessels had from three to six banks of oars but no more.
Ready for all that necessity required, whether for charging,
retreating, or wheeling round, they attacked several of
those heavy vessels at a time. In these encounters Caesar's
men hurled missiles and rammed with the beaks of their
ships; they threw fire-brands into the enemy's vessels and
dispersed them at pleasure. The greatness of the enemy's
force was shown by nothing so much as by what happened
after the victory. Shattered in the engagement, the vast
fleet spread the spoils of Arabs, Sabaeans, and a thousand
other Asiatic nations over the whole face of the deep. The
waves, driven onward by the winds, continually threw up
purple and gold on the shore.

The queen began the flight; she made off into the open
sea with her gilded vessel and sails of purple. Antony
immediately followed.

The end of But Caesar pursued hard on their track. . . . First An-
cieopatra. tony raised his sword against himself. The queen, falling
at Caesar's feet, tempted his eyes in vain, for her charms
were too weak to overcome the prince's self-restraint. Her
suit was not for life, which he offered her, but for a portion
of the kingdom. As she despaired of obtaining this from
Caesar, and saw that she was reserved for his triumph, she
took advantage of the negligence of her guard, and with-
drew into a mausoleum, as the sepulchre of a king is called.
There after putting on her best apparel . . . she placed
herself by her dear Antony in a coffin filled with rich per-

Propertius; Lucretius 457

fumes, and applying serpents to her veins, she died a
death-like sleep.

VII. THE POETRY OF THE AGE

TELL MY SISTER

Soldier, that fliest from thy comrade's fall, "I wish I

Though weak and wounded 'neath Perusia's wall; battle!"* **

Heed not my dying groan, nor weep for me,

For I am but a soldier like to thee. Propertius i.

But to my sister the sad tale deplore

So mayst thou glad thy parent's heart once more CPerusia,

How Callus 'scaped from Caesar's armed bands, besieged by

To fall unhonored here by felon's hands. Caesar

If o'er the Tuscan wold she h.aply see 41-40 B.C.)

Some scattered bones, 'tis all she'll find of me.

THE ORIGIN OF BELIEF IN THE GODS

And now what cause has spread over great nations the "Why build

altars and
worship of the divinities of the gods, and filled towns with temples?"

altars, and led to the performance of stated rites, rites Lucretius,
now in fashion on solemn occasions and in solemn places, ^/t/-^'
from which even now is implanted in mortals a shuddering World, 5.
awe which raises new temples of the gods over the whole
earth, and prompts men to crowd them on festive days, all
this is not so difficult to explain in words.

In sooth the races of mortal men would see in waking "Ow

religion
mind glorious forms, would see them in sleep of yet more rests (i) on

marvellous size of body. To these forms they would at-
tribute sense, because they seemed to move their limbs and
to utter lofty words suitable to their glorious aspect and
surpassing powers. And men would attribute to them life
everlasting, because their face would ever appear and their
form abide; yes, and yet without all this reasoning, because
men would not believe that beings possessed of such powers

The Revolution

(2) on
observing
the activi-
ties of
nature."

"Why
do we wor-
ship?

"Doubts
that trouble
us."

could lightly be overcome by any force. They would be-
lieve such beings to be preeminent in bliss, because none of
them was ever troubled with fear of death, and because at
the same time in sleep persons would see them perform
many miracles, without feeling fatigue from the effort.

Again men would see the system of heaven and the dif-
ferent seasons of the year come round in regular succession,
and could not find out by what causes this was done; there-
fore they would seek a refuge in handing over all things to
the gods, and in supposing all things to be guided by their
nod. And they placed in heaven the abodes and realms of
the gods, because night and moon are seen to roll through
heaven, moon, day, and night, and night's austere con-
stellations, and night-wandering meteors of the sky, and
flying bodies of flame, clouds, sun, rains, snow, winds,
lightnings, hail, and rapid rumblings, and loud threatful
thunder-claps.

O hapless race of men, when they charged the gods with
such acts and coupled with them bitter wrath! what groan-
ings did they then beget for themselves, what wounds for
us, what tears for their children's children! No act is it of
piety to be often seen, with veiled head, to look to a stone
and approach every altar and fall prostrate on the ground
and spread out the palms before the statues of the gods and
sprinkle the altars with much blood of beasts and link vow
on vow, but rather to be able to view all things with mind
at peace.

For when we turn our gaze on the heavenly quarters of
the great upper world and ether, fast above the glittering
stars, and direct our thoughts to the courses of the sun and
moon, then into our breasts burdened with other ills, that
fear as well begins to exalt its reawakened head, the fear
that we may haply find the power of the gods to be un-

Origin of Religion 459

limited, able to wheel the bright stars in their unvaried
motion; for lack of power to solve the question troubles the
mind with doubts, whether there was ever a birth-time of
the world, and whether likewise there is to be any end; how
far the walls of the world can endure this strain of restless
motion; or whether gifted by the grace of the gods with an
everlasting existence, they may glide on through a never-
ending tract of time and defy the strong powers of im-
measurable ages.

Again who is there whose mind does not shrink into itself Religious
with fear of the gods, whose limbs do not cower with terror,
when the parched earth rocks with the appalling thunder-
stroke and rattlings run through the great heaven? Do not
peoples and nations quake, and proud monarchs shrink into
themselves, smitten with fear of the gods, lest for any foul
transgression or overweening word the heavy time of reck-
oning has arrived at its fulness? When too the utmost fury
of the headstrong wind passes over the sea, and sweeps
over its waters does not the commander of the fleet, to-
gether with his mighty legions and elephants, draw near
with vows, to seek the mercy of the gods and ask in prayer
with fear and trembling a lull in the winds, and propitious
gales? But all in vain, for often caught up in the furious
hurricane, he is borne none the less to the shoals of death;
so constantly does some hidden power trample on human
grandeur, and is seen to tread under its heel, and make
sport for itself, the renowned rods and cruel axes.

Again when the whole earth rocks under their feet, and
towns tumble with the shock, or doubtfully threaten to
fall, what wonder that mortal men abase themselves and
make over to the gods, in things here on earth, high pre-
rogatives and marvellous powers, sufficient to govern all
things?

460

The Revolution

MANKIND'S FIRST Music

A* imitation Imitating with the mouth the clear notes of birds was in
of nature.

use, and gave pleasure to the ear, long before men were

able to sing in tune smooth-running verses. And the whis-
tlings of the zephyr through the hollow reeds first taught
peasants to blow into hollow stalks. Then step by step
they learned sweet plaintive ditties, which the pipe pours
forth when pressed by the fingers of the players heard
through pathless woods and forests and lawns, through the
unfrequented haunts of shepherds and abodes of unearthly
calm. These things would soothe and gratify their minds
when they were sated with food; for then all things of this
kind are welcome.

Often therefore stretched in groups on the soft grass be-
side a stream of water, under the boughs of a high tree, they
at no great cost would pleasantly refresh their bodies,
above all when the weather smiled and the seasons of the
year painted the green grass with flowers. Then went
round the jest, the tale, the peals of merry laughter; for the
peasant muse was then in its glory; then frolic mirth would
prompt to entwine head and shoulders with garlands
plaited with flowers and leaves, and to advance in the
dance out of step, and move the limbs clumsily and with
clumsy foot beat mother earth; this would cause smiles
and peals of merry laughter, because all these things then,
from their greater novelty, were in high repute.

"Don't
smile to
show your
teeth."

THE MAN WITH WHITE TEETH

Because Egnatius' teeth are nicely white,
To grin and show them is his sole delight.
If haply at some trial he appear,
Where eloquence commands the gushing tear,

A Refuge from Care 461

He grins. If, at a pile, the duteous son, Catullus, 39-

The childless mother weeps, for ever gone, uneral

He grins. In short, whate'er the time or place,
Do as he may, the grin still marks his face:
Tis his disease; and speaking as I feel,
I cannot call it decent or genteel.

To MY FARM
(Complaining of Sextius' Trashy Oration)

Whether, my farm, the Sabine bounds "Is my

Or Tibur hold thy peaceful grounds; TibS/or in

For those who love me like a friend Sabina? "

Call thee of Tibur; those who come Catullus
To vex my pride, with any sum

That thou art Sabine will contend.

But whether that, or truly classed

'Mong Tibur's lands, well pleased I've passed

Some days in thy sequestered seat.
Thou from my loaded breast hast driven
A cough my stomach's sins had given,

Deserved by many a costly treat.

And when I plainly hoped to feed
As Sextius' guest, my host would read

His speech 'gainst Attius, made of old.
'Twas full of poison and disease;
It made me shiver, made me sneeze, "His speech

And gave me a bad cough and cold.

At length I fled into thy breast;
And there with medicine and rest

Have cured myself in little time:
So now in health and spirits gay,
My warmest thanks to thee I pay,

Who thus hast done away my crime.

462 The Revolution

And when I e'er again shall go

To hear his works, may they bestow

Their cough and cold, not on my head,
But upon Sextius' self, who ne'er
Asks me to sup, but when the fare

Is hearing his own nonsense read!

STUDIES

1. Why were the Romans fond of Pompey? To what political
party did he belong? Was he or Sertorius the greater general? What
light do the wars with Spartacus and the pirates throw on the condi-
tion of the Roman government?

2. Give an account of Catiline's conspiracy. Describe his char-
acter. What are the points made by Cicero in the speech
partly quoted? What reward did he receive for his patriotic
energy?

3. Who are the authors of these selections on Caesar, and what is
the value of each for history? What was the policy of Caesar as
consul? Give an account of the Gallic druids; the Gallic family and
funeral customs.

4. What honors were voted Caesar as dictator? What was his
policy in this office? Give an account of the conspiracy. What esti-
mate of his character do we gain from these selections?

5. What provisions were made for the care of the streets by the
Julian municipal law? What magistrates had charge of such matters?
What restriction was placed on the use of vehicles? What were the
qualifications of the higher municipal magistrates? What regulations
were made concerning the census? What was done with the census
records?

6. Give an account of the family and early life of Octavius (Augus-
tus). How did he win the battle off Actium?

7. Explain the poem, "Tell my Sister." Who was the author (cf.
ch. xxviii)?

8. Who was Lucretius (cf. ch. xxviii)? What in his opinion was
the origin of the religion of his countrymen? Does he consider
their religion good or bad? What doubts troubled his countrymen?
What caused religious fear? What in his opinion was the first music
of mankind?

Review 463

9. Who was Catullus (cf. ch. xxviii)? What was wrong about the
smile of Egnatius? Why did the poet prefer Tibur to the Sabine
country? What quality of his friends' oration gave the poet a cold?
How did he recover from it?

CHAPTER XXXVIII

THE FOUNDING OF THE PRINCIPATE; AUGUSTUS
AND TIBERIUS

I. PERSONAL TRAITS OF AUGUSTUS

His diet. HE ate sparingly (for I must not omit even this), and

Suetonius, commonly used a plain diet. He was particularly fond of
Augustus, 76. coarse bread, small fishes, new cheese made of cow's milk,
and green figs of the sort which bear fruit twice a year. He
did not wait for supper, but took food at any time and in
Ancient any place when he had an appetite. The following pas-
sages relative to this subject, I have transcribed from his
letters. " I ate a little bread and some small dates in my
carriage." Again : " On returning home from the pontifical
palace in my litter, I ate an ounce of bread and a few
raisins." Again : " Not even a Jew, my dear Tiberius, ever
keeps such strict fast on the Sabbath as I have to-day; for
while in the bath, and after the first hour of the night, I
only ate two biscuits before I began to be rubbed with
oil." From this great indifference about his diet, he some-
times supped by himself, before the banquet began or after
it had finished, and would not touch a morsel at table
with his guests.

Use of wine. He was by nature extremely sparing in the use of wine.
Suet. Aug. 77. Cornelius Nepos says that he used to drink only three
times at supper in the camp at Mutina; and when he in-
dulged himself the most, he never exceeded a pint. . , .

During the whole course of his life, he suffered at times
dangerous fits of sickness, especially after the conquest of

464

Personal Character; Government 465

Cantabria, when he was reduced to such a condition that Nearly al-

ways ill.
he was obliged to undergo a desperate and doubtful method

of cure; for warm applications having no effect, Antonius
Musa directed the use of those which were cold. He was
likewise subject to fits of sickness at stated times every
year; for about his birthday he was commonly a little in-
disposed. In the beginning of spring he was attacked by
an inflation of the midriff; and when the wind was
southerly, with a cold in his head. By all these com-
plaints, his constitution was so shattered that he could
not easily bear either heat or cold.

The eyes of Augustus were bright and piercing; and he His fea-
was willing to have people think there was divine vigor in
them. His teeth were thin set, small and scaly, his hair a
little curly, and inclined to a yellow color. His eyebrows
met; his ears were small and he had an aquiline nose. His
complexion was between brown and fair; his stature was
low, though Julius Marathus, his freedman, says he was
five feet nine inches in height.

II. His GOVERNMENT

In my sixth and seventh consulships, when I had put The repub-
an end to the civil wars, after having obtained complete

control of affairs by universal consent, I transferred the

commonwealth from my own dominion to the authority of

the senate and Roman people. In return for this favor on

my part, I received by decree of the senate the title Au-

gustus; the door-posts of my house were publicly decked

with laurels, a civic crown was fixed above my door, and

in the Julian curia was placed a golden shield, which by its (Julian sen-

inscriptions bore witness that it was given me by the senate

and the Roman people on account of my valor, clemency,

justice, and piety. After that tune I excelled all others in

The found-
ing of the

principate.

Dio Cassius,
liii. 12.

The begin-
ning of this
selection evi-
dently refers
to the pass-
ing of a law
which gave
him consular
power over
certain prov-
inces for ten
years.

Ancient
World, 451 f.

Provincial
arrange-
ments.

466 The Founding of the Principate

dignity, but of power I held no more than those also held
who were my colleagues in any magistracy.

In this way he had his headship ratified by the senate
and the people. As he wished even so to appear to be
democratic in principle, he accepted all the care and super-
intendence of public business on the ground that it re-
quired expert attention, but said that he should not per-
sonally govern all the provinces and those that he did
govern he should not keep in his charge perpetually. The
weaker ones, because (as he said) they were peaceful and
free from war, he gave over to the senate. But the more
powerful he held in possession because they were slippery
and dangerous and either had enemies in adjoining terri-
tory, or on their own account were able to cause a great
uprising. His pretext was that the senate should fear-
lessly gather the fruits of the finest portion of the empire
while he himself had the labors and the dangers: the real
purpose of this plan was that the senators be unarmed
and unprepared for battle, while he alone had arms and
kept soldiers.

Africa and Numidia, Asia and Greece with Epirus, the
Dalmatian and Macedonian territories, Sicily > Crete, and
Libya adjacent to Crete, Bithynia with the adjoining
Pontus, Sardinia and Bsetica, were consequently held to
belong to the people and senate. Caesar's were the re-
mainder of Spain, the neighborhood of Tarraco and Lusi-
tania, all Gauls (Narbonensis, the Lugdunensis, Aquitania,
and Belgica). . . . These provinces, then, and the so-
called Hollow Syria, Phoenicia and Cilicia, Cyprus and
the Egyptians, fell at that time to Caesar's share. Later
he gave Cyprus and Gaul adjacent to Narbo back to the
people, and he himself took Dalmatia instead. This was
also done subsequently in the case of other provinces as

Oath of Loyalty 467

the progress of my narrative will show. I have enumer-
ated these in such detail because now each one of them is
ruled separately whereas in old times and for a long period
the provinces were governed two and three together.

The others I have not mentioned because some of them Dependent
were acquired later, and the rest, even if they had been al-
ready subdued, were not being governed by the Romans,
but either were left to enjoy their own laws, or had been
turned over to some kingdom. All of them that after this
came into the Roman empire were attached to the posses-
sions of the man temporarily in power. This, then, was
the division of the provinces.

III. OATH OF LOYALTY TO AUGUSTUS AND TO ms
FAMILY

SWORN BY THE PAPHLAGONIANS

This document, in the Greek language, is preserved in an inscrip-
tion. It belongs to the year 3 B.C. The occasion which called for
this warm expression of allegiance may have been the unsettled con-
dition of Rome's relations with Parthia and Armenia; it preceded by
two years the diplomatic mission of Gaius, adopted son (born grand-
son) of Augustus, to the Orient. The act, purely voluntary, testifies
to the zealous affection for the ruling family cherished by the easterly
provinces. The Romans who were engaged in business in Paphla-
gonia joined in the oath. Translated by the editors.

I swear by Zeus, Earth, and Sun, and all the gods and By all the
goddesses, and by Augustus himself that I will be well- g '
minded to Caesar Augustus and to his children throughout
the whole time of life in word and deed and heart, regard-
ing as friends whomsoever they so regard, and considering
enemies whomsoever they so consider, that I will spare
neither body nor soul nor life nor children in their interests,
but in every way will endure every danger in their behalf.

468 The Founding of the Principate

And whatever I see or hear against them, either said or
plotted or done, that I will report, and will be an enemy to
the one who says or plots or does any such thing. And
whomsoever they judge to be enemies, such persons I will
pursue and ward off by sea and land. But if I do anything
in violation of this oath, and fail to fulfill it to the letter,
I invoke upon myself and my body and soul and life, and
upon my children and all my race, destruction and ruin
even to the uttermost generation; and may neither earth
nor sea receive the bodies of me and mine or of my chil-
dren, and may not earth bear fruit for us.

IV. THE CENTENARY FESTIVAL (LUDI S^CULARES) OF THE
YEAR 17 B.C.

In the upper classes of Rome at this time there seems to have been
a widespread belief that the social legislation of Augustus, 18 B.C.,
marked the close of the reign of vice and the dawn of an age of purity.
The "board of fifteen for performing sacred rites," among whom was
Augustus, consulted the Sibylline Books, and found in them direc-
tions to make ready, by the celebration of the Secular Games, for
the pure reign of Apollo. Tradition declared that this festival was
first celebrated in the early years of the Republic for the purpose of
expelling a pestilence, and that it was repeated every century or
rather, every hundred and ten years. The latter was an era estab-
lished by the Etruscans with the idea that it was the longest possible
limit of human life. In addition to this Etruscan element, there were
also Greek and Roman elements in the institution as it existed in the
Augustan age. The following epigraphic account of the Augustan
celebration of the festival is from the minutes of the "board of fif-
teen," translated by the editors.

Prayer of j n the following night in the Campus Martius, on the
bank of the Tiber, Imperator Caesar Augustus sacrificed
according to Greek rite nine female lambs, and nine she-
goats, and prayed: . . . "I pray and beseech you that
ye augment the power and majesty of the Roman people

Ludi Saeculares 469

the quirites in war and peace, and that ye guard forever Quirites, a

e J 6 . . primitive

the Latin name, and grant eternal safety and health to term for
the Roman people the quirites, and be propitious to the

Roman people the quirites, and to the legions of the Ro- meaning

"spearmen.

man people the quirites, and keep safe the state of the

Roman people the quirites; that ye may show yourselves Notice the

11 j j j t i-i It. r> i ^ drv formal-

well-minded and favorable to the Roman people the ism of the

quirites, to the college of fifteen, to me and my house and
family, and that ye accept this sacrifice of nine female
lambs and nine she-goats offered unblemished; because ligion.
of these matters, on account of this female lamb, offered
without blemish, be and become ye favorable and propi-
tious to the Roman people the quirites, to the college of
fifteen, to me, to my house, and to my family."

After the completion of these sacrifices, games were Thehun-
celebrated in the night on a stage with no theatre ad- ten ma-
joined or seats placed; and a hundred and ten matrons, trons *
according to instructions issued by the fifteen, held a
sellisternia (women's banquet) to Juno and Diana, with
two seats placed (for the goddesses).

Then were celebrated the Latin games in the wooden The Latin
theatre which had been erected in the Campus next to
the Tiber, and in the same form the matrons held the
sellisternia, nor were interrupted those games which had
been begun in the night. . . .

Then to the hundred and ten married matrons, to whom
the order had been issued, M. Agrippa dictated a prayer
in the following words:

"Juno queen, and may it be well to the Roman people Prayer of
the quirites the married matrons on their knees beseech
thee to augment in war and peace the majesty of the
Roman people the quirites, always to protect the Latin
name, to bestow eternal safety, victory and strength on

470 The Founding of the Principate

the Roman people the quirites, grant thy favor to the
Roman people the quirites and to the legions of the Roman
people the quirites, keep safe the republic of the Roman
people the quirites, be good-willed and propitious to the
Roman people the quirites, to the ' fifteen for performing
the sacred rites ' and to us. ... These things we, the hun-
dred and ten married matrons of the Roman people the
quirites on our bended knees beg and beseech of thee."

[Reference is then made to further rites including a
sacrifice and prayer to Terra Mater and to Apollo and
Diana on the Palatine Mount.]

After the completion of this sacrifice twenty-seven boys
to whom it had been ordered, whose fathers and mothers
were both alive, and the same number of girls (of the same
description) sang a hymn (on the Palatine) and in the
same way on the Capitoline.

Q. Horatius Flaccus composed the hymn.

[The festival closed with various other ceremonies].

(Composed
by Horace
for the Secu-
lar games,
with which
Augustus, in
1 7 B.C., cele-
brated the
opening of
a new SCECU-
lunt, or age.
In the plan
of Augustus
the saeculum
was to con-
sist of a hun-
dred and ten
years, but

V. FROM THE SECULAR HYMN
To APOLLO AND DIANA

Ye powers divine,
Unto our docile youth give morals pure'

Ye powers divine,
To placid age give peace,
And to the stock of Romulus ensure

Dominion vast, a never-failing line,
And in all noble things still make them to increase I

And oh! may he who now
To you with milk-white steers uplifts his prayer,

Within whose veins doth flow
Renowned Anchises' blood, and Venus' ever fair,
Be still in war supreme, yet still the foe
His sword hath humbled spare!

The Secular Hymn

Now, even now the Mede
Our hosts omnipotent by land and sea,

And Alban axes fears; the Scythians, late
So vaunting, and the hordes of Ind await,

On low expectant knee,

What terms soe'er we may be minded to concede.
Now Faith, and Peace, and Honor, and the old

Primeval Shame, and Worth long held in scorn,

To reappear make bold,
And blissful Plenty, with her teeming horn,
Doth all her smiles unfold.

And oh! may he, the Seer Divine,

God of the fulgent bow,
Phoebus, beloved of the Muses nine,

Who, for the body racked and worn with woe

By arts remedial finds an anodyne,
If he with no unloving eye doth view

The crested heights and halls of Palatine,

On to a lustre new
Prolong the weal of Rome, the blest estate

Of Latium, and on them, long ages through,
Still growing honors, still new joys accumulate!

other emper-
ors, as
Claudius,
insisted on
making it an
even hun-
dred years.)

(The axes
were an em-
blem of
Roman
power. Hor-
ace calls
them Alban
after Alba
Longa, the
mother-city
of Rome and
the early
home of the
Julian gens,
to which
Augustus be-
longed by
adoption.)

And may She, too, who makes her haunt
On Aventine and Algidus alway,
May She, Diana, grant
The prayers, which duly here
The Fifteen Men upon this festal day

To her devoutly send,
And to the youth's pure adjurations lend
No unpropitious ear!

Now homeward we repair,

Full of the blessed hope, that will not fail,
That Jove and all the gods have heard our prayer,

And with approving smiles our homage hail,
We, skilled in choral harmonies to raise
The hymn to Phoebus and Diana's praise.

(The Fifteen
Men who had
charge of the
Sibylline
Books, which'
ordained this
celebration.
The number
of men in
this college
was origi-
nally two,
but was in-
creased to ten
by Licinius
and Sextius,
and still
later to
fifteen.)

472 The Founding of the Principate

VI. CITY IMPROVEMENTS

Public (i n hi s public works Augustus showed the true Roman

spirit.) The Greek cities are thought to have flourished
v ' 3 ' ' mainly on account of the happy choice made by their
- f un d ers > the beauty or strength of their sites, their near-
ness to some port, and the excellence of the country. But
Roman prudence was more particularly employed on mat-
ters which had received but little attention from the
Greeks, such as paving their roads, building aqueducts,
and sewers to convey the sewage of the city into the Tiber.
In fact they have paved the roads, cut through hills, and
filled up valleys, that merchandise may be conveyed by
wagon from the ports. The sewers, arched over with hewn
stones, are large enough in some parts for wagons loaded
with hay to pass through; while so plentiful is the supply
of water from the aqueducts that rivers may be said to
flow through the city and the sewers, and almost every
house is furnished with water-pipes and copious fountains.
This water-supply is largely the work of Marcus Agrippa.
Many ornaments, too, he bestowed on the city.

It may be well to say that the ancients, occupied with
greater and more pressing affairs, paid little attention to
beautifying Rome. But their successors, and especially
those of our day, without neglecting necessary matters,
have at the same time embellished the city with many
splendid objects. Pompey, divine Caesar, and Augustus,
with his children, friends, wife, and sister, have zealously
surpassed all others in the munificence of these decorations.
The greater number of improvements may be seen in the
Campus Martius, which to the beauties of nature adds
those of art. The remarkable size of the plain permits
chariot-races and other feats of horsemanship without

The Campus Martius 473

hindrance, and allows multitudes to exercise themselves
at ball, in the circus, and in the palestra. The buildings
which surround it, the turf covered with herbage all the
year round, the hilltops beyond the Tiber, extending from
its banks like a panorama, present a view which the eye
abandons with regret.

Near this plain is another surrounded with columns,
sacred groves, three theatres, an amphitheatre, and superb
temples close to one another. So magnificent is the place
that it would seem idle to describe the rest of the city after
it. For this reason the Romans, esteeming it the most
sacred place, have there erected funeral monuments to
the most illustrious persons of both sexes. The most re-
markable of these monuments is the Mausoleum, which
consists of a mound of earth raised on a high foundation
of white marble, situated near the river and covered to the
top with evergreen shrubs. On the summit is a bronze
statue of Caesar Augustus, and beneath the mound are
the ashes of himself, his relatives, and friends. Behind is
a large grove with charming promenades. In the centre
of the plain is the spot where the body of this prince was
reduced to ashes; it is surrounded with a double enclosure,
one of marble, the other of iron; and the interior is planted
with poplars. If from there you proceed to visit the an-
cient Forum, which is equally filled with basilicas, porticos, The Forum,
and temples, you will there behold the Capitol, the Pala-
tine Hill, with the noble works which adorn them, and the
piazza of Livia, each succeeding place causing you speedily
to forget what you have before seen. Such is Rome.

VII. A POSSIBLE HEIR

Meanwhile as supports to his despotism he raised to the
office of pontiff and to the curule aadileship Claudius Mar-

474 The Founding of the Principate

His heirs.

Ta.citus,
Annals, i. 3.

Marcellus.

(The "hero"
here men-
tioned is the
famous Mar-
cellus of the
Second
Punic War;
Rome, 112;
Ancient
World, 326.)

Vergil,
Mneid, vi.
860-86.

(What

lamentations
of mourners
shall the
Campus
Martius
the burial
place send
forth to
Rome, the
mighty city
of Mars!)

cellus, his sister's son, while a mere stripling, and he gave
two consecutive consulships to Marcus Agrippa, of humble
birth but a good soldier, and one who had shared his vic-
tory. Marcellus soon afterward died. [In his memory
Vergil inserted in the jEneid some beautiful lines, repre-
senting ^Eneas conversing with Anchises about the spirit
of Marcellus in the realm of Hades.]

. . noticed

Walking a youth, superb in his figure and glittering armor;
But his brow was uncheered, and his eyes were dejected in aspect.
"Who, my father, is he who attends on the hero in going?
Is he his son, or some one of his noble line of descendants?
What an array of attendants about him! what majesty in him!
But dark night flits round his head with sorrowful shadows."
Then did his father Anchises proceed, while the tears were up-welling:
"O my begotten, inquire not the exquisite grief of thy kindred:
Him shall the fates just show to the world, and no longer permit him
Here to remain; too mighty to you had the Roman succession
Seemed, ye Supernals, if gifts so peculiar had lasted forever.
What lamentations of heroes shall yon plain post to the mighty
City of Mavors! Or, Tiber, what pageants of mourning shalt thou,

too,

Witness ere long, as thou close by the new made sepulchre glidest!
No such a youth from the Ilian nation shall ever his Latin
Ancestors lift to so heightened a hope, nor shall ever hereafter
Romulus' land boast over another so cherished a darling!
Ah! for thy piety! Ah! for the pristine faith, and the right hand
Dauntless in war! with impunity none could have dared to attack him,
Meeting him when he was armed or with infantry charging on foemen,
Or when digging his spurs in the flanks of his leathery warhorse.
Ah! lamentable boy! if ever thou burstest thy hard fate,
Thou shalt become a MARCELLUS! bring lilies in plentiful handfuls;
I will the flowers purpureal strew, and the soul of mine offspring
Load with the presents at least, and will render if only an empty
Service'

Tiberius 475

VIII. THE CHARACTER AND THE ACCESSION OF TIBERIUS

Tiberius Claudius Nero was three years old when Livia, Character.
daughter of Claudianus Drusus, became the wife of Caesar Velleius ii.
(Octavianus) for she had been contracted to him by Nero, 94 '
her former husband. Tiberius, a youth trained in the
noblest principles, possessed in the highest degree birth,
beauty, dignity, valuable knowledge, and superior capacity.
From the beginning he gave hopes of becoming the great
man he now is, and by his appearance he announced him-
self a prince. Made quaestor in his nineteenth year, he
began to act in a public character; and under the direction
of his stepfather he took such judicious measures, both in
Rome and at Ostia, to remedy the excessive price of pro-
visions and the scarcity of corn that, from what he did
on this occasion, it could plainly be seen how great he
was to become.

He married Agrippina (Vipsania), the daughter of Mar- His
cus Agrippa and granddaughter of Caecilius Atticus, a

Roman knight, the person to whom Cicero has addressed

so many letters. After the birth of his son Drusus, Ti-

berius was obliged to part with her, though she retained

his affections, ... to make way for marrying Julia, (By this

daughter of Augustus. This step he took with extreme

reluctance; for besides having the warmest attachment to

Agrippina, he was disgusted with the conduct of Julia. . . . Augustus.)

The divorcing of Agrippina gave him the deepest regret;

and on meeting her afterward he looked at her with eyes

so passionately expressive of affection that care was taken

that she should never again come in his sight.

After the funeral of Augustus all prayers were addressed Tiberius
to Tiberius. On his part, he urged various reasons (for the* imperial
declining the government) especially the greatness of the P wen

'i'nnals, i. n.

Tacitus,
Annals, i. 13.

On pension-
ing spend-
thrift
senatorial
families.

Tacitus, An-
nals, ii. 38,
quoting a
Speech of
Tiberius.

The speech
of a senator
was not
limited to the
subject be-
fore the
house.

476 The Founding of the Principate

empire and his distrust of himself. "Only the intellect of
the divine Augustus," he said, "is equal to such a burden.
Called as I have been by him to share his anxieties, I have
learned by experience how exposed to fortune's caprices is
the task of universal rule. Consequently a state which
has the support of so many great men should not put
everything on one alone; for many by uniting their efforts
will more easily discharge public functions." There was
more grand sentiment than good faith in such words. . . .
The senators, however, whose only fear was lest they
might seem to understand him, burst into complaints,
tears, and prayers.

Wearied at last by the assembly's clamorous entreaties
and by the urgent demands of individual senators, he
gradually gave way, though he would not admit that he
was undertaking the imperial rule, but yet ceased to
refuse it.

IX. ADMINISTRATION OF TIBERIUS

"If all poor men begin to come here and to beg money
for their children, individuals will never be satisfied, and
the state will be bankrupt. Certainly our ancestors did
not grant the privilege of occasionally proposing amend-
ments or suggesting, in our turn for speaking, something
for the general advantage in order that we might in this
house increase our private business and property, thereby
bringing odium on the Senate and on princes whether
they concede or refuse their bounty. In fact, it is not a
request, but an importunity, as utterly unreasonable as
it is unforeseen, for a senator, when the house has met on
other matters, to rise from his place and, pleading the
number and age of his children, put a pressure on the
delicacv of the Senate, then transfer the same constraint

Moderation and Generosity 477

to myself, and as it were, break open the exchequer, which
if we exhaust it by improper favoritism, will have to be
replenished by crimes. Money was given you, Hortalus,
by Augustus, but without solicitation, and not on the
condition of its being always given. Otherwise industry
will languish and idleness be encouraged, if a man has
nothing to fear, nothing to hope from himself, and every
one in utter recklessness will expect relief from others,
thus becoming useless to himself and a burden to me."

Next the emperor brought forward a motion for the Election of
election of a Vestal Virgin in the room of Occia, who for
fifty-seven years had presided with the most immaculate Annals,' ii.
virtue over the Vestal worship. He formally thanked 86 '
Fonteius Agrippa and Domitius Pollio for offering their
daughters and so vying with one another in zeal for the
commonwealth. Pollio's daughter was preferred, only
because her mother had lived with one and the same hus-
band, while Agrippa had impaired the honor of his house
by a divorce. The emperor consoled his daughter, passed
over though she was, with a dowry of a million sesterces.

As the city populace complained of the cruel dearness The price of
of corn, he fixed a price for grain, to be paid by the pur- regulated,
chaser, promising himself to add two sesterces on every /. g 7
peck for the traders. But he would not therefore accept
the title of "Father of the Country," which once before,
too, had been offered him, and he sharply rebuked those The idea that
who called his work "divine" and himself "lord." Con- f eared free-
sequently speech was restricted and perilous under a wel? sui 0t
prince who feared freedom while he hated sycophancy. tained.

A furious conflagration damaged the capital to an un- Fire on the
usual extent, reducing Mount Caelius to ashes. "It was
an ill-starred year," people began to say, "and the prince's J 4 ac> Ann ' 1V<
purpose of leaving Rome must have been formed under

478 The Founding of the Principate

lity of
Tiberius.

A public
misfortune.

Tacitus,
Annals,
ii. 47.

Egyptian
and Jewish
religion.

Suetonius,
Tiberius, 36.

evil omens." They began in vulgar fashion to trace ill-
luck to guilt, when Tiberius checked them by distributing
money in proportion to losses sustained. He received a
vote of thanks in the senate from its distinguished mem-
bers, and was applauded by the populace for having as-
sisted with his liberality, without partiality or the solici-
tations of friends, strangers whom he himself sought
out.

Twelve famous cities of Asia fell by an earthquake one
night, so that the destruction was all the more unforeseen
and fearful. And there was no means of escape usual in
such a disaster, by rushing out into the open country; for
in the case before us the yawning earth swallowed the
people up. Vast mountains collapsed; what had been level
ground seemed to be raised aloft, and fires blazed out amid
the ruin. The misfortune fell most fatally on the in-
habitants of Sardis, and attracted to them the largest
share of sympathy. The emperor promised ten million
sesterces, and remitted for five years all their dues to the
treasury or to the emperor's purse. It was determined
that the people of these cities . . . should be exempt from
tribute for that length of time, and some one was to be
sent to examine their actual condition and to relieve them.

Tiberius suppressed all foreign religions, including the
Egyptian and Jewish rites; those who practised these
superstitions he compelled to burn their vestments and
all their sacred utensils. Under pretence of military serv-
ice he distributed the Jewish youths among the provinces
noted for their unhealthful climate; and he dismissed from
the city all the rest of that nation as well as proselytes
to that faith, under pain of slavery for life unless they
obeyed.

Review 479

STUDIES

1. Describe the diet of Augustus. What was his health? What
bearing naturally had this condition on his public policy? ,

2. How does he say he restored the Republic? What power was
he to exercise outside of Rome? What power was left the senate?
Why do we speak of his government as a principate?

3. What was the feeling of the eastern provincials toward him and
his family? Did the leading Romans have the same feeling for him?

4. What idea does this document give you of the character of the
old Roman worship?

5. Contrast the Hymn written by Horace.

6. Describe the public works of Augustus.

7. What is here said of Marcellus? Had Augustus a right to
appoint a man to succeed him?

8. How did Tiberius obtain the succession? Who was he and what
kind of a man?

9. What was his policy with reference to spendthrift senators?
Was it wise? What was thought of divorced people who married
again? What was done to lower the price of grain? Compare
present conditions. What else did Tiberius do to relieve the unfortu-
nate? What general impression of Tiberius do these extracts make?

Personal
appearance
of Claudius.

Suetonius,
Claudius, 30.

Ancient
World, 465 f.

Narrowness
of the
Roman
senators.

(Gallia
Comata, or
Celtica, one
of the prov-
inces of
Transalpine
Gaul.)

Tacitus, An-
nals, xi. 23.

CHAPTER XXXIX

FROM PRINCIPATE TO MONARCHY: THE CLAUD-
IAN AND THE FLAVIAN PRINCES

A. ADMINISTRATIONS OF THE PRINCES

I. CLAUDIUS

EITHER standing or sitting, but especially when he lay
asleep, Claudius had a majestic and graceful appearance;
for he was tall, but not slender. His gray locks became him
well, and he had a full neck. But his knees were feeble
and failed him in walking, so that his gait was ungainly on
state occasions as well as when he was taking exercise.
Boisterous in his laughter, he was still more so in his
wrath. ... He stammered, too, in his speech, and had
a tremulous motion of the head at all times, but especially
when he was engaged in any business, however trifling.

The question of filling up the senate was discussed, and
the chief men of Gallia Comata, who had long possessed
the rights of allies and of Roman citizens, sought the
privilege of obtaining public offices at Rome. There was
much talk of every kind on the subject, and vehement
opposition showed itself in the argument before the em-
peror. "Italy," some said, "is not so feeble as to be un-
able to furnish her own capital with a senate. . . . What
distinctions will be left for the remnants of our noble
houses, or for any impoverished senators from Latium?
Every place will be crowded with these millionaires,
whose ancestors of the second and third generations at

48Q

On Granting the Citizenship 481

the head of hostile tribes destroyed our armies with fire
and sword, and actually besieged the divine Julius at
Alesia. These are recent memories. What if there were
to rise up the remembrance of those who fell in Rome's
citadel and at her altar by the hands of these same barba-
rians! Let them enjoy the title of citizens, but let them
not vulgarize the distinctions of the senate and the honors
of office."

These and like arguments failed to impress the emperor. Statesman-
He at once applied himself to answering them, and thus t^emperor.
addressed the assembled senate: "My ancestors, the most Tacitus> An _
ancient of whom was made at once a citizen and a noble of nals > xi - 2 4-
Rome, encourage me to govern by the same policy of
transferring to this city all conspicuous merit, wherever
found. . . .

"What was the ruin of Sparta and Athens but this fault,
that mighty as they were in war, they spurned from them
as aliens those whom they had conquered? Our founder
Romulus, on the other hand, was so wise that on one and
the same day he fought as enemies and hailed as fellow-
citizens several nations. Strangers have reigned over us.
That freedmen's sons should be intrusted with public
offices is not, as many people think, a sudden innovation;
it was a common practice of the early republic. . . .

"On the whole, if you review all our wars, never has one The Gauls
been finished in a shorter time than that with the Gauls,
Thenceforth they have preserved an unbroken and loyal

peace. United with us as they now are by manners, educa- conquest, 58-
tion, and intermarriage, let them bring us their gold and
their wealth rather than enjoy it in isolation. Everything,
senators, which we now hold to be of the highest antiquity
was once new. Plebeian magistrates came after patrician;
Latin magistrates after plebeian; magistrates of other

482 From Principate to Monarchy

Tacitus, An-
nals, xi. 25.

His accom-
plishments
in music.

Suetonius,
Nero, 20.

Ancient
World, 446-8.

The

"Golden

House."

Suetonius,
Nero, 31.

Italian peoples after Latin. This practice, too, will estab-
lish itself, and what we are this day justifying by prec-
edents will be itself a precedent."

The emperor's speech was followed by a decree of the
senate, and the ^Edui were the first to obtain the right of
becoming senators at Rome.

II. NERO'S TASTES

Among the liberal arts which he was taught in his youth
was music; and immediately after his advancement to
the imperial office, he sent for Turpnus, a harpist of the
highest reputation, who flourished at the time. After
sitting with him several days as he sang and played after
dinner till late at night, Nero began gradually to practice
on the instrument himself. ... He made his first public
appearance at Naples; and although the theatre quivered
with the sudden shock of an earthquake, he did not desist
until he had finished the piece of music he had begun. . . .

At the same time he chose young men of the equestrian
rank and above five thousand robust young fellows of the
common people, to learn various kinds of applause . . .
which they were to practice in his honor whenever he
performed.

In nothing was he so prodigal as in his buildings. He
completed his palace by extending it from the Palatine to
the Esquiline Hill. At first he called this addition simply
the Passage; but after it was burned down and rebuilt, he
named it the Golden House. Of the dimensions and furni-
ture it may suffice to give the following description. The
porch was so high that there stood in it a colossal statue of
Nero a hundred and twenty feet in height; and the space
included in it was so ample that it had triple porticos a
mile in length, and a lake like a sea, surrounded with

Palace; Administration 483

buildings which had the appearance of a city. Within its
area were corn-fields, vineyards, pastures, and woods,
which contained a great number of animals of various
kinds both tame and wild. In other parts the palace was
entirely overlaid with gold and adorned with jewels and
mother of pearl. The dining rooms were vaulted, and
compartments of the ceilings, inlaid with ivory, were
made to revolve and scatter flowers; they contained pipes,
too, which shed unguents upon the guests. . . . When he
dedicated this magnificent building after finishing it, all
he said in approval was, "Now I have a dwelling fit for a

III. NERO'S ADMINISTRATION

The prince forbade by an edict any magistrate or pro- Gladiatorial
curator in the government of a province to exhibit a show B
of gladiators or wild beasts, or indeed any other public ^^ A ~
entertainment; for hitherto our subjects had been as much
oppressed by such bribery as by actual extortion, while
governors sought to screen by corruption the guilty deeds
of arbitrary caprice.

That same year, repeated demands on the part of the Regulation
people, who denounced the excessive greed of the revenue
collectors, made Nero doubt whether he should not order Ib ' s '
the repeal of all indirect taxes, and so confer a most splen-
did boon on the human race. But this sudden impulse
was checked by the senators who, having first heartily
praised the grandeur of the conception, pointed out that
the dissolution of the empire must ensue if the revenues
which supported the state were to be diminished; for as
soon as the customs were swept away, there would follow
a demand for the abolition of the direct taxes. Many com-
panies for the collection of indirect taxes had been formed

484 From Principate to Monarchy

by consuls and tribunes, when the freedom of the Roman
people was still in its vigor, and arrangements were subse-
quently made to insure an exact correspondence between
the amount of income and the necessary disbursements.
Certainly some restraint, they admitted, must be put on
the cupidity of the revenue collectors, that they might
not by new oppressions bring into odium what for so
many years had been endured without a complaint.
The prince's Accordingly the prince issued an edict that the regula-
tions about every branch of the public revenue, which
had hitherto been kept secret, should be published; that
claims which had been dropped should not be revived
after a year; that the praetor at Rome, the propraetor or
proconsul in the provinces, should give judicial precedence
to all cases against the collectors; that the soldiers should
retain their immunities except when they traded for a
profit, with other very equitable arrangements, which
for a short time were maintained and were subsequently
disregarded.

IV. VESPASIAN'S ADMINISTRATION
His mili- He let slip no opportunity for reforming the discipline

tary disci- , 4 , Tin. .1. r r

pline. of the army. When therefore a young man came perfumed

Suetonius, to thank the emperor for having appointed him to com-
Vespastan, 8. manc [ a squadron of horse, Vespasian turned away in dis-
vroM ^468- & ust > an d with this sharp reprimand "I should prefer to
71- have you smell of garlic" revoked the commission.

His Among his new public buildings was his temple of Peace

near the Forum, and on the Caelian Mount that of Clau-
Vespasian, 9. dius, which Agrippina had begun but Nero had almost de-
stroyed. A third was an amphitheatre in the middle of
the city, for he found that Augustus had planned such a
work. He purified the senatorial and equestrian ranks,

Vespasian; the Jews 485

which had greatly fallen off in numbers and had lost honor
through the neglect of his predecessors. After expelling
the unworthy, he chose in their places the most honorable
persons in Italy.

An earnest patron of learning and the liberal arts, Ves- A patron of
pasian granted to the Latin and Greek professors of rhet-
oric the yearly salary of a hundred thousand sesterces
each from the treasury. He bought, too, the freedom of l8 -
superior poets and artists. . . . When some one offered
to convey some immense columns into the Capitol at a
small expense by a mechanical contrivance, the emperor
rewarded him very handsomely for the invention, but re-
fused to accept the service, saying, "Suffer me to find
maintenance for the poor people."

V. How THE JEWS AVOIDED CAPTIVITY

So great was the zeal they were in to slay their wives in the siege
and children and themselves also. Nor indeed, when they femf TC^A'D.
came to the work itself, did their courage fail them, as one josephus,
might imagine it would have done; but they then held J ish War >
fast, without wavering, the same resolution which they
had upon the hearing of Eleazar's speech. Yet every one World, 468 f.
of them still retained the natural passion of love for them-
selves and their families; yet the reasoning they went
upon appeared to them to be very just, even with regard to
those that were dearest to them; for the husbands tenderly
embraced their wives and took their children into their
arms and gave the longest parting kisses to them, with
tears in their eyes. But at the same time did they complete This even t
what they had resolved on, as if they had been executed a^ortress of

by the bands of strangers; and they had nothing else for

their comfort but the necessity they were in of doing this med

execution, to avoid the prospect they had of the miseries the Romans.

486 From Principate to Monarchy

they were to suffer from their enemies. Nor was there at
length any one of these men found that scrupled to act
his part in this terrible execution; but every one of them
despatched his dearest relations. Miserable men indeed
were they! whose distress forced them to slay their own
wives and children with their own hands, as the lightest of
those evils that were before them. So being not able any
longer to bear the grief they were under for what they had
done, and esteeming it an injury to those they had slain,
to live even the shortest space of time after them, they
presently laid all they had in a heap, and set fire to it.
Mutual self- They then chose the men by lot out of their number, to

destruction.

slay all the rest; every one of whom laid himself down by
his wife and children on the ground, and threw his arms
about them, and they offered their necks to the stroke of
those who by lot executed that melancholy office; and
when these ten had without fear executed them all, they
made the same rule for casting lots for themselves, that he
whose lot it was should first kill the other nine, and at last
should kill himself. Accordingly, all these had courage
sufficient to be in no way behind one another in doing or
suffering; hence, for a conclusion, the nine offered their
necks to the executioner, and he who was the last of all
took a view of all the other bodies, lest perchance some one
among so many that were slain should want his assistance
to be quite despatched; and when he perceived that they
were all slain, he set fire to the palace and with the great
force of his hand ran his sword entirely through himself,
and fell down dead near his own relations. So these people
died with this intention, that they might not leave so much
as one soul among them all alive to be subject to the Ro-
mans. Yet was there an ancient woman, and another who
was kin of Eleazar, and superior to most women in

Few Survivors 487

dence and learning, with five children, who had concealed
themselves in caverns under ground, and had carried water
thither for their drink, and were hidden there when the
rest were intent upon the slaughter of one another. Those
others were nine hundred and sixty in number, the women
and children being withal included in that computation.
This calamitous slaughter was made on the fifteenth day
of the month Nisan.

Now for the Romans, they expected fighting in the What the
morning. When accordingly they put on their armor, and fourui n
laid bridges of planks upon their ladders from the banks, Wlthm -
they made an assault upon the fortress; yet saw they no
enemy, but a terrible solitude on every side, with a fire
within the place, as well as a perfect silence. So they were
at a loss to guess at what had happened. At length they
made a shout, as if it had been at a blow given by the
battering-ram, to try whether they could bring any one out
that was within. The women heard this noise, and came
out of their underground cavern, and informed the Ro-
mans what had been done, and the second of them clearly
described all, both what was said and what was done, and
the manner of it; yet did they not easily give their atten-
tion to such a desperate undertaking, and did not believe
it could be as they said. They also attempted to put the
fire out, and quickly cutting themselves a way through it,
they came within the palace, and so met with the multi-
tude of the slain, but could take no pleasure in the fact,
though it were done to their enemies. Nor could they do
other than wonder at the courage of their resolution, and
the immovable contempt of death which so great a num-
ber of them had shown when they went through with such
an action as that was.

488 From Principate to Monarchy

The

Eruption of
Vesuvius,
79 A.D.

Pliny the
Younger,
Letters, vi.
20.

Ancient
World, 471 f.

Flight of
Pliny and
his mother.

Departure

from

Misenum.

VI. AN EVENT IN THE PRINCIPATE OF TITUS

During many days there had been shocks of an earth-
quake, which alarmed us little, as they are frequent in
Campania; but they were so violent that night that they
not only shook everything about us, but seemed in fact to
threaten total destruction. My mother flew to my room,
where she found me rising in order to awaken her. We
went out into a small court belonging to the house, which
separated the sea from the building. It was now morning,
but the light was very faint and languid; the buildings all
round us tottered, and though we stood on open ground,
yet as the place was narrow and confined, there was no
remaining without imminent danger.

We therefore resolved to leave the town. The people
followed us in the utmost consternation, and pressed in
great crowds about us on our way out. After going a con-
venient distance from the houses, we stood still in the midst
of a most dangerous and awe-inspiring scene. The car-
riages we had ordered to be drawn out were so agitated
backward and forward, though on the most level ground,
that we could not keep them steady even by supporting
them with large stones. The sea seemed to roll back upon
itself, and to be driven from its banks by the convulsive
motions of the earth. Certainly the shore was consider-
ably enlarged and several sea-animals were left on it. On
the other hand, a black and dreadful cloud, bursting with
fiery, serpentine vapor, darted out a long train of flame,
which resembled flashes of lightning, but were much lar-
ger. . . .

Soon afterward the cloud seemed to descend, and cover
the whole ocean; as in fact it entirely hid the island of
Capreae and the promontory of Misenum. My mother con-

Fleeing from Rain 489

jured me to make my escape at any rate, which, as I was
young, I might easily accomplish. As for herself, she said,
her age and corpulency rendered all attempts of that sort
impossible; she would willingly meet death, however, if she
could have the satisfaction of seeing that she was not the
occasion of mine. But I absolutely refused to leave her;
and taking her by the hand, I led her on. She complied
with great reluctance, and not without many reproaches to
herself for being the cause of retarding my flight. The
ashes now began to fall upon us, though in no great quan-
tity. I turned my head and saw behind us a thick smoke,
which came rolling after us like a torrent. I proposed while
we had yet any light, to turn out of the high road, lest she
should be pressed to death in the dark by the crowd which
followed us.

We had scarcely stepped out of the path, when darkness In total
overspread us, not like that of a cloudy night, or when there
is no moon, but of a room when it is shut up and all the
lights extinct. Nothing then was to be heard but the
shrieks of women, the screams of children, and the cries of
men. Some were calling for their children, others for their
parents, others for their husbands; they distinguished one
another only by the voice. One was lamenting his own
fate, another that of his family; some were wishing to die
from very fear of dying; some were lifting their hands to
the gods; but the greater number imagined that the last
and eternal night had come, to destroy the gods and the
world together. . . .

At length a glimmering light appeared, which we imag- Fire aad
ined to be the forerunner of an approaching burst of flame ashes *
rather than the return of day, and in this respect we were
right. The fire fell at a distance from us, however, and
then we were immersed in thick darkness; a heavy shower

490 From Principate to Monarchy

of ashes fell upon us, which we were obliged every now and
then to shake off, otherwise we should have been over-
whelmed and buried in a heap. ... At last this terrible
darkness gradually faded, like a cloud of smoke; the real
day returned and even the sun appeared, though very
faintly, just as when an eclipse is coming on. Every ob-
ject which presented itself seemed changed, for it was cov-
ered with white ashes, as with a deep snow.

VII. THE ADMINISTRATION OF BRITAIN UNDER DOMITIAN

Britain.

Tacitus,
Agricola, 19.

Ancient
World, 472.

Appointed governor of Britain, Agricola chose rather to
confer offices and employments upon such as would not
offend, than to condemn those who had offended. The
expense resulting from an increase of the military tribunes
he made easier by a just and equal assessment; he abolished
those private exactions which were more grievous than the
taxes themselves. For the inhabitants had been compelled
in mockery to sit by their own locked-up granaries, to buy
corn needlessly, and to sell it again at a stated price. Long
and difficult journeys had also been imposed upon them;
for the several districts, instead of being allowed to supply
the nearest winter quarters, were forced to carry their corn
to remote and out-of-the-way places. Thus what was easy
for all to procure was converted into an article of gain to a
few.

Tac. Agr. 20. By suppressing these abuses in the first year of his
administration, he established a favorable idea of peace,
which through the negligence or oppression of earlier rulers,
had been no less dreaded than war.

In order by a taste of pleasure to reclaim the natives
from that rude and unsettled state which prompted them
to war, and win them to peace and quiet, he induced them

Civilization
and educa-
tion.

Provincial Administration 491

by private urging and public encouragements to erect Tacitus,
temples, courts of justice, and dwelling-houses. He be-
stowed praise upon those who were prompt in carrying out
his intention, and reprimanded the slow. In this way he
promoted the spirit of emulation which had all the force
of necessity.

Preferring the natural genius of the Britons to the attain-
ments of the Gauls, he took care to provide a liberal educa-
tion for the sons of the chieftains. . . . These attempts
met with such success that they who lately disdained to use
the Roman language were now ambitious to become elo-
quent. Hence they began to hold the Roman dress in
honor and to wear the toga.

Domitian's greatest dread was that the name of a Retirement
private person might be exalted above that of a prince.

Agricola had delivered the province in peace and security coa, 39.
to his successor; and lest his entrance into the city might /6 40
be rendered too conspicuous by the gathering and the ac-
clamations of the people, he declined the salutations of his
friends by arriving in the night; and he went by night, as he
was commanded, to the palace. There after being received
with a slight embrace but with not a word spoken, he was
compelled to mingle with the servile throng.

B. LIFE UNDER THE EARLY PRINCES
I. THE RISE OF A FREEDMAN

But to continue what I was saying, my good manage- His earlier
ment brought me to my present good fortune. I was only
as big as the candlestick here when I came from Asia; in ^nque^of
fact I used to measure myself by it every day and I smeared Trimaichw.
my lips with the lamp oil to get a beard on my chin all the

Heir to his
master.

Fortunata
his wife.

492 From Principate to Monarchy

sooner. Still for fourteen years I was my master's favorite.
And where's the disgrace in doing what one's master tells
one? All the same I managed to get into my mistress'
good graces too. . . .

But by heaven's help I became master in the house and
then I took in my fool of a lord. Next he made me co-
legatee with the prince to his property and I got a senator's
fortune. But no one is ever satisfied and I wanted to get
into business. To cut it short, I built five ships and loaded
them with a cargo of wine; it was worth its weight in gold
at that time and I sent it to Rome. You would have
thought I ordered my bad luck: every ship was wrecked,
it's a fact, not a story. In one day Neptune swallowed up
a quarter of a million. Do you think I failed? No, I
swear the loss only whetted my appetite, as if nothing had
ever happened. I built more ships, larger, better, and
luckier ones, so no one could say I was not a bold fellow.
You know, a great ship has great strength in itself. I
loaded them with wine again, bacon, beans, perfumes, and
slaves. At this crisis Fortunata did the pious thing: she
sold all her jewelry and dresses and put in my hands a
hundred gold pieces. This was the leaven which made my
fortunes rise. The gods' wishes are soon fulfilled. By one
trip I cleared a round ninety thousand pounds. I imme-
diately bought back all the estates that had belonged to
my patron. I built a mansion and bought up beasts to sell
at a profit; everything I touched grew like a honeycomb.
Once I was worth more than all the citizens of my native
town put together, no more of that for me; I withdrew
from the business and started money-lending, financing
freedmen. I must admit, exactly when I was wanting to
discontinue my trading, I was urged to do so by an astrol-
oger who had just come to our town, a Greek fellow called

A Quickly Made Croesus 493

Serapa, clever enough to sit in the councils of the gods.
Well this man actually mentioned events which had
slipped my own memory: he told me everything as pat as
needle and thread: he seemed able to see my very insides
and told me everything except what I'd had for dinner the
day before. You'd have thought he'd lived with me al-
ways.

I ask you, Habinnas, you were there with us, I believe, Predictions
when he said: "You used your wealth to get your wife: you fortune-
are unlucky in your friends: no one is ever half as grate- teller -
ful to you as he ought to be: you own broad acres: you are
nourishing a snake in your bosom." And, well, I really
don't see why I shouldn't tell you, I've still got thirty
years, four months and two days to live, and I shall soon
have a legacy left me. That's what my fortune tells me.
But if I am allowed to extend my estates to Apulia, I
shall have lived long enough and well enough. Meantime
with the help of ever-watchful Mercury I have built this
residence. As you know, it was once a cottage, and now it
is fit for a god. It's got four dining-halls, twenty bed-
rooms, two marble colonnades, a dining-room upstairs, my
own bedroom, this viper's boudoir, an excellent porter's Reference is

,, i < r TCI to his wife.

lodge, and a suite of spare rooms for guests. In fact when
Scaurus came he didn't want to put up anywhere else,
though he's got things which I'll show you presently. I
assure you, if you've only a penny you're only valued at
a penny; if you've got something, you'll be thought worth
something. And so your humble servant, who was once a
mere worm, is now a Crcesus. Meantime, Stichus, bring
out my winding-sheet in which I am to be buried, and also
the perfume and just a taste from that jar of wine, ir>
which my bones are to be washed.

494 From Principate to Monarchy

To mother.

From an in-
scription.

Translated
by Miss
Rachel R.
Killer.

This eulogy
to a deceased
mother be-
longs to the
Augustan
age.

A model wife
and mother.

II. EULOGY ON MURDIA

As an honor to Murdia, the daughter of Lucius, my
mother. May her good qualities by their inherent strength
be such an aid to others that they may in consequence be
stronger and better. She divided her property equally
among her sons and gave a fair portion to her daughter.
The love of the mother was evident from her devotion to
her children and from the equal distribution of her prop-
erty. To my stepfather, she bequeathed a fixed sum that
the customary dowry might be increased by a free gift.
Mindful of my own father, and faithful to him, after an
appraisal of the property, she made special bequests to
me, not preferring me to my brothers to their discredit;
but recalling my father's generosity to me, she decided
that that portion which she had taken from my inheritance
under the influence of the second husband, ought to be
returned, so that guarded by her care, it was restored to
my property.

She herself determined, as she had been given in mar-
riage by her parents to worthy men, she would be obedient
and honest; as a wife to the deserving she would become
more acceptable; through her fidelity, she would be re-
garded the dearer; through her judgment, the more ex-
cellent; after her death, she would be worthy of universal
praise since the distribution of her property would show a
sweet and faithful spirit toward her husbands, a uniform
treatment of her children, in very truth her sense of justice.
Wherefore, since the praise of all good women is wont to
be of the same simple character, for their natural good
qualities, preserved through their own care, do not call
for a diversity of words; and since they have all by their
fair fame, made the same qualities worthy; and since it

Social Life 495

is a difficult matter to bestow new praises upon a woman
because her life has been exposed to fewer changes, never-
theless the good qualities common to humanity must of
necessity be cherished, lest a neglect of any form of right
conduct debase all other praise, because in discretion,
honesty, modesty, obedience, domestic duties, diligence,
and fidelity, she was the equal of other excellent women,
and she yielded to no one in times of trial, during which
she proved her virtue, her ability to endure hardships
and her wisdom, thus preparing for herself a memory
distinguished above all, certainly second to none.

III. LETTERS AND DOCUMENTS

Sarapion to our Heraclides, greeting. I sent you two To a young
other letters, one by the hand of Nedymus, one by the dany fi em-"
hand of Cronius the sword-bearer. Finally then I received barrassed.
from Arabs the letter, and I read it and was grieved. Stick Milligan,
to Ptollarion constantly: perhaps he can set you free. Say 3 g7.
to him: "I am not like any one else, I am a lad. With the 4I
exception of a talent I have made you to pay my bur-
dens, . . . We have many creditors: do not drive us have been
out." Ask him daily: perhaps he can have pity on you: creditor of
if not, do you, like all, beware of the Jews. Rather stick Heraclides -
to him (Ptollarion), and so you may become his friend.
Notice that the document can be signed either by Diodorus
or by the wife of the ruler. If you manage your own
affairs, you are not to be blamed. Greet Diodorus with
the others. Goodbye. Greet Harpocrates.

Agreement between Tryphon, son of Dionysius, the Contract of

son of Tryphon, his mother being Thamounis the daughter sh?p. en

of Onnophris, and Ptolemseus, son of Pausirion, the son Milligan, 54.

of Ptolemaeus, his mother being Ophelous, the daughter 66 A - D -

496 From Principate to Monarchy

of Theon, weaver, both parties belonging to the city of
Oxyrhynchus. Tryphon agrees to apprentice to Ptole-
maeus his son Thoonis, his mother being Saraeus the daugh-
ter of Apion, who is not yet of age, for a period of one
year from the present day, to serve and to do everything
commanded him by Ptolemaeus in accordance with the
whole weaving art, as also he himself knows it the boy
being supported and clothed during the whole time by
his father Tryphon, on whom also all the public dues for
the boy shall fall, on condition that Ptolemaeus shall give
him monthly on account of his keep five drachmas, and
at the expiry of the whole period on account of his cloth-
ing twelve drachmas, it not being permitted to Tryphon
to remove the boy from Ptolemaeus until the time is com-
pleted. And if there are any days during this period on
which he (the boy) plays truant, he (Tryphon) will produce
him for an equal number of days after the time, or let
him pay back for each day one silver drachma, and the
penalty for removing him within the period shall be a
hundred drachmas and a like amount to the public treas-
ury. But if Ptolemaeus himself does not teach the boy
thoroughly, let him be liable to the like penalties. This
contract of apprenticeship is valid. The i3th year of

Sebastus, Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus Imperator,

Sept. 27. the month Sebastus, 21.

I Ptolemaeus, son of Pausirion, the son of Ptolemaeus,
my mother being Ophelous the daughter of Theon, will
carry out each of these requirements in the one year.

I Zoilus, son of Horus, the son of Zoilus, my mother
being Dieus daughter of Socceus, write on his behalf seeing
that he does not know letters. The i3th year of Nero
Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus Imperator, the
month Sebastus 21.

Correspondence 497

Hermocrates to Chseras his son, greeting. First of all I To a diia-
pray that you may be in health . . . and I beg you . . .
to write regarding your health and whatever you wish. First S century
Already indeed I have written you regarding the . . . , AJX
and you neither answered nor came, and now, if you do
not come, I run the risk of losing the lot (of land) which
I possess. Our partner has taken no share in the work,
for not only was the well not cleaned out, but in addition
the water-channel was choked with sand, and the whole
land is untilled. No tenant was willing to work it, only
I continue paying the public taxes without getting back
anything in return. There is hardly a single plot that the
water will irrigate. Therefore you must come, otherwise
there is a risk that the plants perish. Your sister Helene
greets you, and your mother reproaches you because you
have never answered her. ... I pray that you may be
well. Pauni 9.

(Addressed)

Deliver from Hermocrates to Chaeras his son.

Didymus to his most esteemed Apollonius greeting. An invita-
Please accompany Ailourion, who conveys this letter fe^ivalf
to you, in order that he may buy for us young pigeons for Milligan ^
the feast. You are also invited to come down and feast 8 4 A.D.
along with us. If you do this, you will have laid up a
great store of gratitude at my hands. Greet all your house-
hold. Goodbye.
The third year of the Imperator Caesar Domitian Augus- The Egyp-

^ _. , tian month

tus Germamcus, Pachon 15. Pachon

(Addressed)
Deliver at Bacchias to the most esteemed Apollonius.

498 From Principate to Monarchy

Falling
houses.

Juvenal,
Satires, iii.

Scene at a
fire; Ucale-
gon burned
out.

"Buy a
country
home."

(The Pytha-
goreans were
vegetarians;
Greece, 95.)

"You can-
not sleep in
Rome."

(The em-
peror Clau-
dius Drusus
and the sea-

IV. CITY AND COUNTRY LIFE CONTRASTED

Who fears, or ever has feared, the falling of a house at
cool Praeneste, or at Volsinii seated among the wooded
hills, or at primitive Gabii, or on the heights of sloping
Tibur? We inhabit a city propped up to a great extent
with thin buttresses; for in this way the steward prevents
the houses from falling; and when he has plastered over
the gaping of an old crack, he bids us sleep secure, with
ruin overhanging us. The place to live in is where there
are no fires, no nocturnal alarms.

Already Ucalegon is calling for water, already he is
removing his chattels, already your third story is smoking:
you yourself know nothing about it; for if the alarm begins
from the bottom of the stairs, he will be the last to burn
whom the tiling alone protects from the rain, where the
soft doves lay their eggs.

If you are capable of being torn away from the games
of the Circus, an excellent house can be procured at Sora,
or Fabrateria, or Frusino, for the same price at which you
now hire a dark hole for a single year. There you have a
little garden; and a shallow well, that does not require to
be worked with a rope, irrigates your tender plants with
easy draught. Live in love with your hoe, and be the
overseer of your own trim garden, from which you could
furnish a banquet for a hundred Pythagoreans. It is
something, in whatever place, to have made yourself the
owner of a single lizard.

Many a sick man here dies from want of sleep, the indis-
position itself having been produced by food undigested,
and clinging to the fevered stomach. For what hired lodg-
ings allow of sleep? Rich men alone can sleep in the city.
Hence the origin of the disease. The passage of carriages

The Unpleasantness of Rome 499
in the narrow windings of the streets, and the abuse of the calves were

fcLmous

drovers of the herds, when they are brought to a stand, sleepers.)
would rob of sleep even Drusus and the sea-calves.

If invited to a "function," the rich man will be carried jj5j r j. c ^f
through the yielding crowd, and will speed over their heads poor on foot,
on his huge Liburnian bearers, and will read on his way,
or write, or even sleep inside; for a litter with closed win-
dows is productive of sleep. Yet he will arrive before us;
we, in our hurry, are impeded by a wave in front, while
the multitude which follows us presses on our sides in
dense array; one strikes me with his elbow, another with
a hard pole, one knocks a beam against my head, another
a wine- jar. My legs are sticky with mud; before long I
am trodden on upon all sides by large feet, and the hob-
nails of a soldier stick into my toe. . . .

Observe now the different and distinct dangers of the T ^^^ e
night; what a height it is to the lofty house-tops, from night; faii-
which a piece of pottery strikes your pate as often as mg pottery -
cracked and broken utensils fall from the windows; with
what a weight they dint and damage the flint pavement
when they strike it. You may well be accounted remiss
and improvident about a sudden accident, if you go out
to supper without having made your will. . . .

(The drunken and insolent fellow) despises me, whom Drunkards,
the moon escorts home, or the dim light of a candle, whose a nd g foot-
wick I regulate and husband. Mark the preliminaries of pads-
the wretched brawl, if brawl it be, where he strikes and I
alone am beaten. He stands facing you, and orders you
to stand; you must needs obey, for what are you to do
when a madman forces you, and he too stronger than
yourself? " Whence do you come? " he exclaims. "With
whose vinegar, with whose beans are you gorged? What
cobbler cut leeks or sodden sheep's-head with you? Do

500 From Principate to Monarchy

you answer me nothing? Speak, or be kicked! Tell me
where you take up your begging-stand; in what synagogue
am I to look for you?" It is all the same whether you
try to say anything, or draw back in silence; they beat
you just the same; then, as if in passion, they try to make
you give bail. This is the liberty of a poor man; after
being beaten he prays, and after being thrashed with fisty-
cuffs, he entreats to be allowed to retire from the scene
with a few teeth left him. Nor yet are such things all
you have to fear; for there will not be wanting one who
will plunder you after the houses are closed, and in all
directions the fastenings of the chained-up shops are fixed
and at rest. . . .

T theS6 reasons ( for dislikin g cit 7 life ) I could add
many others; but my steeds summon me, and the sun is
declining; I must be off (for the country).

STUDIES

A. i. Describe the appearance of Claudius. What proves him
broad-minded? What points does he make in his speech to the
senate?

2. Of what does Nero seem to have been especially fond? De-
scribe his new palace.

3. What administrative measures are here mentioned? Were they
wise or the contrary?

4. What is noteworthy in Vespasian's administration?

5. What do we learn from Josephus regarding the besieged Jews?
Was their conduct creditable? Who was Josephus and what was the
source of his knowledge?

6. Describe the eruption of Vesuvius as Pliny saw it.

7. Give an account of Agricola's reforms in Britain. Why was he
recalled?

B. i. How was a fortune amassed by the freedman Trimalchio?
Describe his character.

2. What kind of woman was Murdia? What is the writer's ideal

woman:

Studies 501

3. From these letters and documents write out all the points that
can be made regarding social and business life in Egypt during this
period?

4. What are the relative advantages of city and country life as
pictured by Juvenal?

CHAPTER XL

The finances
of a muni-
cipiura.

Pliny, Let-
ters, x. i 6 (or
28).

The corre-
spondence
covers a
much wider
range of sub-
jects than
can be repre-
sented here.

"Send a
surveyor."

THE PERIOD OF THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS

I. TRAJAN'S CORRESPONDENCE WITH PLINY, GOVERNOR
OF BITHYNIA

To THE EMPEROR TRAJAN:

I am at present engaged in examining the finances of the
Prusenses, their disbursements and credits; and the farther
I proceed in this affair, the more I am convinced of the
necessity of my inquiry. Several considerable sums of
money are owing to the city from private persons, who on
various pretences neglect to pay the debts. On the other
hand, I find the public funds are in some instances un-
warrantably applied.

This, Sir, I write to you immediately on my arrival. I
entered this province on the seventeenth of September,
and found it in those sentiments of obedience and loyalty
which you justly merit from all mankind. You will con-
sider, Sir, whether it would not be proper to send hither
a surveyor; for I am inclined to think much might be de-
ducted from what is charged by those who have the con-
duct of public works, if an accurate measurement were
to be taken.

TRAJAN TO PLINY:

The people of that province will be convinced, I persuade
myself, that I am attentive to their interests; as your con-
duct toward them will make it clear that I could have
chosen no person better fitted to supply my place. ... I

502

Provision against Fires 503

have scarcely surveyors enough to inspect those works Letters, x. 17
which I am carrying on in Rome and the neighborhood;
but persons of integrity and skill in this art may be found
most certainly in every province, if you will make due
inquiry.

To THE EMPEROR TRAJAN:

While I was making a journey in a different part of the A fire in the
province, a most destructive fire broke out at Nicomedia,
which consumed not only several private houses, but also
two public buildings, the town house and the temple of
Isis, though they stood on opposite sides of the street.
The cause of its spreading thus wide was partly the violence
of the wind, and partly the indolence of the people, who,
it appears, stood fixed and idle spectators of this terrible
calamity. The truth is that the city was not furnished
with engines, buckets, or any single instrument for ex-
tinguishing fires. I have now, however, given directions
to provide this apparatus.

YOU will consider, Sir, whether it may not be advisable "May we
to form a company of firemen, consisting of only a hundred company? "
and fifty members. I will take care that none but those of
that occupation shall be admitted into it; and that the
privileges granted them shall not be extended to any other
purpose. As this corporate body will be restricted to so
small a number of members, it will be easy to keep them
under proper regulations.

TRAJAN TO PLINY:

You are of the opinion that it would be proper to estab- " Corpora-
lish a company of firemen in Nicomedia, agreeably to what dangerous."
has been practised in other cities. But remember that otters, x. 43.
societies of this sort have greatly disturbed the peace of the

504 Period of the Five Good Emperors

(Private
assemblies
were forbid-
den by a law
of the
Twelve
Tables,
P- 352.)

" Shall we
compel the
councillors
to borrow
from the
public?"

Pliny, Let-
ters, x. 62.

provinces in general, and particularly of those cities in
which they exist. Whatever name we give them, and for
whatever purpose they may be instituted, they will not
fail to form themselves into factious assemblies, however
short their meetings may be. It will therefore be safer to
provide such machines as are of service in extinguishing
fires, to enjoin the owners of houses to assist in preventing
the mischief from spreading, and if it should be necessary,
to call in the aid of the populace.

To THE EMPEROR TRAJAN:

The debts which were owing to the public are by the
prudence, Sir, of your counsels, and by the care of my ad-
ministration, either actually paid, or are now recovering;
but I fear the money must be unemployed. For on the one
hand, there are few or no opportunities of purchasing land,
and on the other, one cannot meet with any person who
is willing to borrow of the public, especially at the rate
of twelve percent, when it is possible to raise money on
the same terms from private lenders. You will therefore
consider, Sir, whether it may not be advisable, in order to
invite responsible persons to take this money, to lower the
interest; or if that scheme should not succeed, to place it
in the hands of the members of the city councils, upon their
giving sufficient security to the public. And though they
should not be willing to receive it, yet as the rate of interest
will be abated, the hardship will be so much the less.

TRAJAN TO PLINY:

I agree with you, my dear Pliny, that there seems to be
way." no other method of facilitating the placing out of the pub-

Lettcrs, x. 63. He money, than by lowering the interest; the rate you will

determine according to the number of borrowers. But to

" Oppress no
one in this
n

Endowment for Poor Children 505

compel persons to receive it, who are not so disposed, when
possibly they themselves may have no opportunity of em-
ploying it, is by no means consistent with the justice of
my government.

II. ENDOWMENT FOR THE SUPPORT OF POOR CHILDREN

When the Imperator Caesar Nerva Trajan Augustus Under
Germanicus was consul for the fourth time and Quintus

Articuleius Paetus was consul, those named below at the
direction of our greatest and best Emperor mortgaged Ancient
their estates so that, from the contract, the Sigures Baebi- World, 487.
ani received semi-annual interest, and the boys and girls
of the Ligures Baebiani support, through the tenderness of
Trajan.

Also of the estate Pastorianus, in the territory of Bene-
ventum, in the district ^quanus; Priscia Restituta and
the people are neighbors to the estate. Rated at 60,000
sesterces; 125,000 sesterces is the value of the property,
8,000 sesterces received, Callistus, servant of Rutilius
Lupus pays the interest.

[Many other mortgages also are here recorded.]

III. HADRIAN

Arriving in Gaul, he liberally relieved the needy, and Military dis-
then passed on to Germany. Though more desirous of

peace than of war, he exercised his soldiers as if war threat-
ened; he hardened them to fatigue, set them, in his own Ancient
person, an example of military virtue, and readily ate the World, 487 f.
food of the camp bacon, cheese, and vinegar mixed with
water; in these respects he imitated Scipio ^Emilianus,
Metellus, and Trajan, the author of his fortune. To make
his men willing to endure hardships, he rewarded many

He banishes
luxuries.

His knowl-
edge of
affairs.

Spartianus,
Hadrian, n.

506 Period of the Five Good Emperors

with money, some with offices. The military discipline,
which after Caesar Octavianus had declined through the
neglect of the emperors, Hadrian restored. This he did
partly by regulating the offices and the expenses, and partly
by suffering no soldier, without due cause, to be absent
from the camp. Another means to this end was the ap-
pointment of tribunes, not for their popularity with the
troops, but because of each one's sense of justice. By his
own example, too, he encouraged the rest to strict disci-
pline, for he was accustomed to walk clad in armor twenty
miles a day along with his infantry.

Dining-rooms, porticos, grottoes, and pleasure-gardens
he banished from the camp. He himself generally wore a
simple cloak with a plain belt fastened by a buckle without
jewels; and by his side hung a sword with no more orna-
ment than an ivory handle. His sick troops he visited in
their quarters; and he himself always selected the place for
encampment. The office of centurion he conferred on none
but those of robust health and good character; no one
could be a tribune unless he had a full beard and was old
enough to fill his office with prudence and force. A tribune
was not permitted to accept the smallest gift from his
soldiers.

Delicacies of every kind he removed absolutely from the
army; and not only did he improve the arms and the fur-
nishings of the soldiers, but regulated their ages, so as to
enlist none too young for effective service and to retain no
one longer than the humane law of earlier times prescribed.
It was his especial care to know the soldiers individually
and to keep informed as to their numbers.

Furthermore he tried to acquaint himself with the mili-
tary supplies of the empire, and he examined minutely the
revenues from the provinces in order to relieve all needs;

Hadrian's Travels 507

and no emperor was ever so careful to avoid buying and
keeping useless material.

When Hadrian had reformed the soldiers of Germany
after the pattern of their emperor, he crossed into Britain.
In addition to other improvements there, he was the first Rome, 251;
to build a wall eighty miles in length to separate the world, 487 f .
barbarians from the Romans. . . .

Curious to learn the trifling details not only of his own His prying
household but of his friends' families as well, he employed spos
detectives to pry into all their secrets. Often his friends
failed to discover that their private affairs were known to
the emperor till he gave them the information. It may be
of interest here to tell a story which shows how well ac-
quainted Hadrian was with the affairs of his friends. One
of them received a letter from his wife reproaching him for
staying away from home to give himself up to the baths
and other pleasures. Immediately a detective informed
Hadrian of the contents of this letter. When accordingly
the man came to ask a passport, the emperor rebuked him
for his devotion to baths and luxurious living. "What!"
the man exclaimed, "has my wife been writing this to you,
too? " People blamed Hadrian for his prying disposition,
as they considered it a grave fault.

After the emperor had regulated the affairs of Britain, In Gaul and
he returned to Gaul, where he received the unpleasant

news of an insurrection in Alexandria over an Apis. As

an animal of this kind was discovered after a long in- Ancient

terval, the various tribes of Egypt were violently con- World, 16.

tending for the honor of giving the sacred beast a

dwelling-place.

About the same time Hadrian erected at Nimes a mag-
nificent basilica in memory of Plotina. Then he went to
Spain to winter in Terragona (Lat. Tarraco), where he re-

In Greece
and Asia
Minor.

Spartianus,
Hadrian, 13.

(For the
Eleusinian
mysteries,
see Greece,
97

Rome, 205.

His laws.

Spartianus,
Hadrian, 18.

508 Period of the Five Good Emperors

paired at his own expense a temple to Augustus, and held
a general assembly of the Spanish provincials.

(Afterward he visited Greece,) where like Hercules and
King Philip he had himself initiated into the Eleusinian
mysteries. He not only conferred many benefits on the
Athenians, but sat as judge in their public games. Then
he sailed for Sicily. After his arrival there, he climbed
Mount ^Etna to view a sunrise, which from that spot was
beautified with the varied colors of the rainbow. Thence
he returned to Rome; but setting out immediately for the
Orient, he travelled through Athens, where he dedicated
the works he had begun, including a temple to the Olym-
pian Jupiter (Zeus) and an altar to himself.

In the same way, as he journeyed through Asia, he con-
secrated temples in his own name. In Cappadocia he en-
gaged many slaves for labor in the military camps. (Wher-
ever he went, he busied himself with winning the friendship
and alliance of foreign kings.) ... In his circuit of the
provinces he punished procurators and governors with such
severity that people believed he had himself incited persons
to accuse them.

In judicial affairs he made up his council, not of friends
and companions but of learned jurists, Julius Celsus, Sal-
vius Julianus, Neratius Priscus, and others, only those,
however, whom the senate had approved.

Among his enactments the following are most note-
worthy:

In no city shall buildings be destroyed for the use of the
material in some other city.

To children of condemned persons a twelfth part of their
father's property shall be allowed.

Charges of treason shall not be admitted.

Bequests to the emperor from unknown persons shall be

Hadrian's Laws 509

rejected, and none shall be received from known persons if
they have children.

As to hidden treasures, if one shall find such a treasure
on his own estate, he shall possess the treasure; if on an-
other's, he shall give half to the owner of the estate; if on
public ground, he shall divide equally with the imperial
treasury.

Slaves shall not be killed by their masters. Those who
deserve death shall be condemned by judges only.

The sale of men and women slaves as gladiators or for
vile purposes is forbidden, provided no sufficient reason for
such sale exists.

There shall be no houses of correction (ergastula) for
slaves or freedmen.

In case a master is assassinated in his own house, not all
his slaves shall be examined, but those only who are near
enough to the master to know something of the deed.

Though everywhere he erected countless buildings, he Public
inscribed his name on none of them excepting the temple to

his father Trajan. At Rome he restored the Pantheon (of
Agrippa), the Saepta, the Basilica of Neptune, very many
sacred buildings, the Forum of Augustus, and the Baths of
Agrippa. All these works he dedicated with the names of
their founders. Under his own name he built a bridge
across the Tiber, and near it a mausoleum.

Hadrian was tall, well-built, and of robust constitution. Personal
He curled his hair with a comb, and wore his beard long to appea
cover the natural defects of his face. It was his habit to
ride on horseback or to walk, and he constantly exercised
himself in arms and in throwing the javelin. While hunt-
ing he often killed a lion with his own hand; but once he
broke his collar-bone and a rib. The game he always
shared with his friends. At his dinners his guests were en-

5io Period of the Five Good Emperors

From his
parents and
teachers.

Marcus
Aurelius,
Meditations,
i. 2-9, 12, 14.

Harmony
with nature.

Meditations,
iii. 7.

Ib. iii. 13.

Ib. iv. 7.

Ib. iv. 23.

tertained by tragedies, comedies, and farces, as well as by
harp music, reading, and poetry. His villa at Tibur he
built with such wonderful art that one could find in it
representations of celebrated places, as the Lyceum, the
Academy, the Prytaneum, Canopus, Tempe, and that
nothing might be wanting, an imitation of the realm of
death.

IV. SOME OF THE THOUGHTS OF MARCUS AURELIUS
ANTONINUS

From the reputation and remembrance of my father I
learned modesty and manliness.

From my mother, piety and beneficence, and abstinence
not only from evil deeds, but even from evil thoughts; sim-
plicity, too, in my way of living, far removed from the
habits of the rich.

Never value anything as profitable to thyself which shall
compel thee to break thy promise, to lose thy self-respect,
to hate any man, to suspect, to curse, to act the hypocrite,
to desire anything which needs walls and curtains.

As physicians have always their instruments and knives
ready for cases which suddenly require their skill, so do
thou have principles ready for the understanding of things
divine and human, and for doing everything, even the small-
est, with a recollection of the bond which unites the divine
and human to each other. For neither wilt thou do any-
thing well which pertains to man without at the same time
having a reference to things divine; or the contrary.

Take away thy opinion, and then there is taken away the
complaint, "I have been harmed." Take away the com-
plaint, "I have been harmed," and the harm is taken away.

Everything harmonizes with me, which is harmonious to
thee, O Universe. Nothing for me is too early or too late,

The Harmony of all Things 511

which fs in due time for thee. Everything is fruit to me
which thy seasons bring, O Nature; from thee are all
things, in thee are all things, and to thee all things return.

Constantly regard the universe as one living being, hav-
ing one substance and one soul; and observe how all things
have reference to one perception, the perception of this one /* iv. 40.
living being; and how all things act with one movement;
and how all things are the cooperating causes of all things
which exist.

A prayer of the Athenians: "Rain, rain, O dear Zeus, ib. v. 7.
down on the plowed fields of the Athenians, and on the
plains." In truth we ought not to pray at all, or we ought
to pray in this simple and noble fashion.

How hast thou behaved hitherto to the gods, thy par- Ib. v. 31.
ents, brethren, children, teachers, to those who looked after
thy infancy, to thy friends, kinsfolk, to thy slaves? Con-
sider if thou hast hitherto behaved to all in such a way
that this may be said of thee,

Never has wronged a man in deed or word.

Let it make no difference to thee whether thou art cold Meditations,
or warm, if thou art doing thy duty; and whether thou art
drowsy or satisfied with sleep; and whether ill-spoken of
or praised; and whether dying or doing something else.
For it is one of the acts of life this act by which we die;
it is sufficient then in this act also to do well what we have
in hand.

Death is a cessation of the impressions through the Ib. vi. 28.
senses, and of the pulling of the strings which move the
appetites . . . and of service to the flesh.

All things are implicated with one another, and the bend Ib. vii. 9.
is holy; and there is hardly anything unconnected with
any other thing. For things have been coordinated, and

512 Period of the Five Good Emperors

Do right on
principle.

Meditations,
viii. 43.

Ib. x. 5.

Ib. x. 10.

Ib. x. 21.

Ib. xi. 29.
Ib., xi. 36.

Future life.

Meditations,
xxi. 5.

they combine to form the same universe. For there is one
universe made up of all things, and one God who pervades
all things, and one substance and one law, one common
reason in all intelligent animals, and one truth.

Different things delight different people. But it is my
delight to keep the ruling faculty sound, without turning
away either from any man or from any of the things
which happen to men, but looking at and receiving all
with welcome eyes and using everything according to
its value.

Whatever may happen to thee, it was prepared for thee
from all eternity; and the implication of causes was from
eternity spinning the thread of thy being.

A spider is proud when he has caught a fly, and another
being when he has caught a poor hare, and another when
he has taken a little fish in a net, and another when he has
taken wild boars, and another when he has taken bears,
and another when he has taken Sarmatians. Are not
these robbers, if thou examinest their opinions?

"The earth loves the shower;" and the "solemn ether
loves;" and the universe loves to reproduce whatever is
about to be. I say then to the universe, "I love as thou
lovest."

Neither in writing nor in reading wilt thou be able to lay
down rules for others before thou shalt have first learned
to obey rules thyself. Much more is this so in life.

No man can rob us of our free will. .

How can it be that the gods, after having arranged all
things well and benevolently for mankind, have over-
looked this alone, that some men and very good men, and
men who, as we may say, have had most communion
with the divinity, and through pious acts and religious
observances have been most intimate with the divinity,

Death and Immortality 513

when they have once died should never exist again, but
should be completely extinguished?

How small a part of the boundless and unfathomable lb. xii. 3*.
time is assigned to every man! For it is very soon swal-
lowed up in the eternal. And how small a part of the
whole substance! And how small a part of the universal
soul! And on what a small clod of the whole earth thou
creepest! Reflecting on all this, consider nothing to be
great, except to act as thy nature leads thee, and to endure
that which the common nature bringsl

Man, thou hast been a citizen in this great state (of the lb. xii. 36.
world): what difference does it make to thee whether for
five years or for three? For that which conforms to the
laws is just for all. Where is the hardship then, if no tyrant
nor yet an unjust judge sends thee away from the state,
but nature, who brought thee into it? The same as if a
praetor who has employed an actor dismisses him from the
stage. "I have not finished the five acts, but only three."
Thou sayest well, but in life the three acts are the whole
drama; for what shall be a completed drama is determined
by him who was once the cause of its composition, and
now of its dissolution: but thou art the cause of neither.
Depart then satisfied, for he also who releases thee is
satisfied.

V. SOME TEACHINGS or EPICTETUS

When some one asked, how may a man eat acceptably Do cvery-
to the gods, he answered: If he can eat justly and con- acceptably
tentedly, and with equanimity, and temperately and to the gods *
orderly, will it not be also acceptable to the gods? But Epictetus i.
when you have asked for warm water and the slave has
not heard, or if he did hear has brought only tepid water,
or he is not even found to be in the house, then not to be

514 Period of the Five Good Emperors

All are
brothers, the
sons of God.

The Deity
oversees all.

Ib. 14.

Souls much
nearer to
God than
material
things.

.vexed or to burst with passion is not this acceptable to
the gods? How then shall a man endure such persons
as this slave? Slave yourself, will you not bear with your
brother? . . . Will you not remember who you are, and
whom you rule? that they are kinsmen, that they are
brethren by nature, that they are the offspring t)f Zeus?
But I have purchased them, and they have not purchased
me. Do you see in what direction you are looking, that it is
toward the earth, toward the pit, that it is towards these
wretched laws of dead men? but toward the laws of the
gods, you are not looking.

When a person asked him how a man could be convinced
that all his actions are under the inspection of God, he
answered, Do you not think that all things are united in
one? I do, the person replied. Well, do you not think
that earthly things have a natural agreement and union
with heavenly things? I do. And how else so regularly
as if by God's command, when He bids the plants to
flower, do they flower? when he bids them to send forth
shoots, do they shoot? when He bids them to produce
fruit, how else do they produce fruit? when He bids the
fruit to ripen, does it ripen? when again He bids them to
cast down the fruits, how else do they cast them down?
and when to shed the leaves, do they shed the leaves?
and when He bids them to fold themselves up and to re-
main quiet and rest, how else do they remain quiet and
rest? And how else at the growth and wane of the moon,
and at the approach and recession of the sun, are so great
an alteration and change to the contrary seen in earthly
things?

But are plants and our bodies so bound up and united
with the whole, and are not our souls much more? and
our souls so bound up and in contact with God as parts of

God Sees and Protects 515

Him and portions of Him; and does not God perceive
every motion of these parts as being his own motion con-
nate with himself? Now are you able to think of the
divine administration, and about all things divine, and
at the same time also about human affairs, and to be
moved by ten thousand things at the same time in your
senses and in your understanding, and to assent to some,
and to dissent from others, and again as to some things to
suspend your judgment; and do you retain in your soul
so many impressions from so many and various things,
and being moved by them, do you fall upon notions similar
to those first impressed, and do you retain numerous arts
and the memories of ten thousand things; and is not God
able to oversee all things, and to be present with all, and
to receive from all a certain communication? And is God can see

more than

the sun able to illuminate so large a portion of the All, and the sun,
to leave so little not illuminated, that part only which is
occupied by the earth's shadow; and He who made the
sun itself and makes it go round, being a small part of
himself compared with the whole, cannot He perceive
all things?

But I cannot, the man may reply, comprehend all these The Spirit
things at once. But who tells you that you have equal ifde?
power with Zeus? Nevertheless he has placed by every
man a guardian, every man's spirit, to whom he has com-
mitted the care of the man, a guardian who never sleeps,
is never deceived. For to what better and more careful
guardian could He have intrusted each of us? When
then you have shut the doors and made darkness within,
remember never to say that you are alone, for you are not;
but God is within, and your Spirit is within, and what
need have they of light to see what you are doing? To
this God you ought to swear an oath, just as the soldiers

516 Period of the Five Good Emperors

do to Caesar. But they who are hired for pay swear to
regard the safety of Caesar before all things; and you who
have received so many and such great favors, will you not
swear, or when you have sworn, will you not abide by
your oath? And what shall you swear? Never to be
disobedient, never to make any charges, never to find
fault with anything that he has given, and never unwill-
ingly to do or to suffer anything that is necessary. Is this
oath like the soldier's oath? The soldiers swear not to
prefer any man to Caesar: in this oath men swear to honor
themselves before all.

VI. REGULATIONS OF A BURIAL SOCIETY

Decree "Who may meet, assemble, and have a corporation;

senate cited, those who shall be willing to pay a monthly contribution
From an f r funerals, may meet in that association (collegium) and
inscription. mav no t convene more than once a month under guise of
Resolutions that association, this session being for the sake of col-

of the society

itself. lecting a fund from which the dead may be buried." May

it be favorable, fortunate and wholesome to the emperor
Caesar Trajan Hadrian Augustus and to the entire house
of the same, to us and ours, and to our association both
well and earnestly shall we engage ourselves honorably
to escort the departure of the dead. Therefore we one and
all of us must be harmonious in making proper contribu-
tions in order that we may endure a long time. Thou too
who wilt desire to enter this association as a novice, first
read through the statute and then enter, lest thou com-
plain afterward or leave a controversy to thine heir.
Admissions. It was unanimously adopted, that whosoever shall de-
About $4. sire to enter this association will give on score of entrance-
fee one hundred sesterces and one amphora of good wine,
likewise per month five asses. Furthermore it was adopted,

A Burial Society 517

that whoever in six consecutive months does not render

his dues and something human happen to him, no regard

shall be paid to his funeral, even if he has made a will.

Likewise it was adopted that whoever of our association Payments for

dies with his dues paid, to him shall go 300 sesterces from

our treasury, from which sum there shall be subtracted

on account of funeral 50 sesterces which shall be allotted

for cremation; the exequies shall be made on foot. . . .

Likewise it was voted that whatever slave in this as- Decease of
sociation shall die, and his body through the unfairness of bers.
his master shall not be given for burial and he shall have
made no record, he shall get an imaginary funeral. Like-
wise it was voted that whoever for any cause whatever
shall commit suicide, his funeral shall be ignored.

Likewise it was voted that whatever slave of this as- Emancipa-

tion gift.

sociation shall become free, he will have to give an am-
phora of good wine. Likewise it was voted: whoever
shall be director in his own year in the order of the list
for arranging a dinner, and he shall not observe it and not
do it, he will pay 30 sesterces into the treasury, his suc-
cessor will be obliged to give it, and he will have to restore
it in his place.

[The document contains many other resolutions.]

VII. LETTERS or THIS PERIOD

To Sarapion general . . . from Tarmuthis, the daughter Petition re-

of Phimon, vegetable-seller, belonging to the village of Jobbery.*

Bacchias, at present without a guardian. *On the 4th of Mi u igan

the current month Pharmouthi, Taorsenouphis, the wife Greek

of Ammonius, also called Phimon, elder of the village of 114 A.b.
Bacchias, although she had absolutely no ground of com-
plaint against me, came into my house and picked a sense-

518 Period of the Five Good Emperors

Pharmouthi,
March 27-
April 25.

A soldier
to his
father.

Milligan, 90.

Second cen-
tury A.D.

less quarrel against me. Not only did she strip off my
tunic and mantle, but robbed me in the quarrel of the
sum which I had lying by me from the price of the vege-
tables I had sold, namely, 16 drachmas. And on the 5th
of the same month there came this woman's husband
Ammonius, also Phimon, into my house as if seeking my
husband. Seizing my lamp, he went up into my house
and stole and carried off a pair of bracelets of unstamped
silver of the weight of 40 drachmas, my husband being at
the time away from home. I beg therefore that you will
cause the accused to be brought before you for fitting
punishment. May good fortune attend you.

Tarmuthis about 30 years old, a mark on the right foot.

The i yth year of the Emperor Caesar Nerva Trajanus
Augustus Germanicus Dacicus. Pharmouthi 6.

Apion to Epimachus his father and lord heartiest gre.et-
ings. First of all I pray that you are in health and con-
tinually prosper and fare well with my sister and her
daughter and my brother. I thank the lord Serapis that
when I was in danger at sea he saved me. Straightway
when I entered Misenum I received my travelling money
from Caesar, three gold pieces. And I am well. I beg you
therefore, my lord father, write me a few lines, first re-
garding your health, secondly regarding that of my brother
and sister, thirdly that I may kiss your hand, because you
have brought me up well, and on this account I hope to
be quickly promoted, if the gods will. Give many greet-
ings to Capito,^,nd to my brother and sister, and to Seren-
illa, and my friends. I send you a little portrait of myself
at the hands of Euctemon. And my (military) name is
Antonius Maximus. I pray for your good health.

Company Athenonike.

Correspondence 519

Serenus the son of Agathos Daemon greets you . . . and
Turbo the son of Gallpnius.

(Addressed)

To Philadelphia for Epimachus from his son Apion.

Give this to the (office of the) first cohort of the Apa-
maeans to Julianus . . . paymaster from Apion, so that
(he may forward it) to Epimachus his father.

Theon to Theon his father, greeting. You did a fine A boy to his
thing! You have not taken me away along with you to
the city! If you refuse to take me along with you to Milli s an ' I02 -
Alexandria, I won't write you a letter, or speak to you, ^ ut 20
or wish you health. And if you do go to Alexandria, I
won't take your hand, or greet you henceforth. If you
refuse to take me, that's what's up ! And my mother said
to Archelaus, "He upsets me; off with him!" But you
did a fine thing! You send me gifts, great ones, husks!!
They deceived us here on the i2th, when you sailed. Send
for me then, I beseech you. If you do not send, I won't Tubi, Dec.
eat, won't drink! There now! I pray for your health.
Tubi 18.

(Addressed) Deliver to Theon from Theonas his son.

STUDIES

i. What proof does this correspondence with Pliny afford of
Trajan's interest in the welfare of the empire? of his energy and
activity? of his justice and humanity? Why did he forbid the or-
ganization of a fire-company (cf. a law of the Twelve Tables, p. 352)?
From the same correspondence what may we infer as to Pliny's
qualifications for the governorship of a province? Why did he refer
everything to the emperor? Do you suppose that other governors
did the same? Was his interference in the affairs of the cities (mu-
nicipia) advantageous to the latter? In what case was Pliny ready
to resort to oppression?

520 Period of the Five Good Emperors

2. What is the meaning of this document connected with the en-
dowment of poor children?

3. What were the objects of Hadrian's travels? How did he im-
prove the army? What public works did he build? Why did Hadrian
pry into the affairs of his friends? In what respects was his inquir-
ing disposition praiseworthy? What were Hadrian's chief laws?
What improvements did they make in the condition of freemen and
of slaves? How did he benefit the provinces? Did he pay more
attention to the provinces than to Rome? What public works did
he build? Describe the personal appearance and the private char-
acter of Hadrian. What is your opinion of the style of his biographer
(Spartianus)? Is it well connected and logical?

4. How does Marcus Aurelius make himself harmonious with
nature? What is his idea of right conduct? of future life?

5. What according to Epictetus should be the conduct of man
in relation to God? How does he prove that God sees all? How are
human beings related to one another and to God?

6. What was the object of this burial society? What senatorial
decree permitted such societies?

7. From these letters make out all the facts you can regarding life
in Egypt at this time. Whv are such documents found in Egypt
rather than elsewhere?

CHAPTER XLI

EARLY HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY
TO DIOCLETIAN

I. TEACHINGS OF JESUS

AND seeing the multitudes, he went up into a mountain, Beginning
and when he was set, his disciples came unto him: Sermon

And he opened his mouth, and taught them, saying, Mount

Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom Matthew v
of heaven. i-n.

Blessed are they that mourn : for they shall be comforted. Ancient

Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth. World >s"-

Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after right-
eousness: for they shall be filled.

Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy.

Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God.

Blessed are the peace-makers: for they shall be called
the children of God.

Blessed are they which are persecuted for righteous-
ness's sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.

Blessed are ye, when men shall revile you, and persecute
you, and say all manner of evil against you falsely for my
sake.

II. THE DEATH AND RESURRECTION OF JESUS: THE
APOSTLES

In the latter days of the emperor Tiberius, in the consul- Death and
ship of Ruberius Geminus and Fufius Geminus, on the tion.

521

522 Early History of Christianity

Lactantius,
The Manner
in which the
Persecutors
died, ii.

Date of the
crucifixion,
March 23,
29 A.D.
Elsewhere
the day of
the month is
differently
stated. Pos-
sibly the
report of
Pontius
Pilate gave
Lactantius
his informa-
tion.

The apostles.

The charge
brought
against
them.

Tacitus, An-
nals, xv. 44.

tenth of the Calends of April, as I find it written, Jesus
Christ was crucified by the Jews. After He had risen again
on the third day, He gathered His apostles, whom fear
at the time of His arrest had put to flight; and while He
sojourned with them forty days, He opened their hearts,
interpreted to them the Scripture, which hitherto had been
wrapped in obscurity, ordained and fitted them for the
preaching of His word and doctrine, and regulated all
things concerning the institutions of the New Testament.
When this was accomplished, a cloud and whirlwind en-
veloped Him and caught him up from the sight of men
into heaven.

His apostles were at that time eleven in number, to
whom were added Matthias, in place of the traitor Judas,
and afterward Paul. Then were they dispersed through-
out all the earth to preach the Gospel, as the Lord their
Master had commanded them. During twenty-five years,
until the beginning of the reign of the emperor Nero, they
occupied themselves in laying the foundations of the
Church in every province and city. And while Nero ruled,
the Apostle Peter came to Rome, and through the power
of God committed unto him, wrought certain miracles;
and by turning many to the true religion, he built up a
faithful and steadfast temple unto the Lord.

III. PERSECUTION OF THE CHRISTIANS BY NERO

To get rid of the report (that he had ordered the fire),
Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite
tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called
Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the
name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during
the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procura-
tors, Pontius Pilate, and a most mischievous superstition,

Beginning of Persecutions 523

thus checked for the moment, broke out not only in Judasa,

the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all

things hideous and shameful from every part of the world

find their centre and become popular. Accordingly an

arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon

their information, an immense multitude was convicted,

not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred

against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to Manner of

their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were cution.

torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or There seems

were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly to ha ^ e . keen

J some kind of

illumination when daylight had expired. trial; but it

Nero offered his gardens for the spectacle, and was con- amy

exhibiting a show in the circus, while he mingled with the ^fspJ/J a

people in the dress of a charioteer or stood aloft on a car. and the

. . Christians

Hence, even for criminals who deserved extreme and were con-
exemplary punishment, there arose a feeling of compas- Slse testi-
sion; for it was not, as it seemed, for the public good, but mon y
to glut one man's cruelty, that they were being destroyed.

IV. PLINY'S INQUIRY CONCERNING THEM, AND TRAJAN'S
ANSWER

To THE EMPEROR TRAJAN:

It is a rule, Sir, which I inviolably observe, to refer to The Chris-
you in all my doubts; for who is more able to remove my
scruples or to inform my ignorance? As I have never
before been present at any trials of persons called Chris-
tians, I am unacquainted, not only with the nature of their
crimes and the degree of their punishment, but how far
it is proper to enter into an examination of them. . . .

Meanwhile the method I have followed toward those
who have been brought before me as Christians is this:
I asked them whether they were Christians; if they con-

524 Early History of Christianity

fessed, I repeated the question twice, adding threats; and
if they still persevered, I ordered them to be immediately
punished. For I was persuaded, whatever the nature of
their opinions might be, a contumacious and inflexible
obstinacy deserved correction. . . .

They affirm the whole of their guilt, or their error, was
that they met on a certain stated day before it was light,
and addressed themselves in a form of prayer to Christ,
as to some god, binding themselves by a solemn oath, not
for the purpose of any wicked deed, but never to commit
any fraud, theft, or adultery; never to falsify their word,
nor deny a trust when they should be called upon to de-
liver it up; afterward, they said, it was their custom to
separate, and then reassemble, to eat in common a harm-
less meal. . . .

I deemed it expedient, therefore, to adjourn all further
proceedings, in order to consult you. For it appears to be
a matter highly deserving your consideration; more espe-
cially as great numbers must be involved in the danger of
these prosecutions, which have already extended, and are
still likely to extend, to persons of all ranks and ages and
even to both sexes.

TRAJAN TO PLINY:

" Be just, The method you have pursued, my dear Pliny, in the

meddle?" proceedings against those Christians who were brought

Letters, x. 98. before you is extremely proper, as it is not possible to lay

down any fixed rule by which to act in all cases of this

nature. But I would not have you enter officiously into

any inquiries concerning them. If they should be brought

before you, however, and the charge should be proved,

they must be punished, yet with this restriction that in

case a person denies he is a Christian, and shall make it

Harsher Persecutions 525

evident that he is not, by invoking our gods, let him be
pardoned upon repentance.

Informations without the accuser's name subscribed
ought not to be received in prosecutions of any kind; as it
is introducing a very dangerous precedent, by no means
agreeable to the equity of my government.

V. PERSECUTION UNDER DECIUS

This long peace, however, was afterward interrupted. The perse-
Decius appeared in the world, an accursed wild beast, punished.
to afflict the Church and who but a bad man would Lactantius,
persecute religion? It seems as if he had been raised to ^^ W J^T
sovereign eminence, at once to rage against God and at Persecutors
once to fall; for undertaking an expedition against the
Carpi, who had then possessed themselves of Dacia and soldier' em-
Moesia, he was suddenly surrounded by the barbarians and P e *49-
slain, together with a great part of his army. Nor could
he be honored with the rites of sepulture; but stripped
and naked, he lay, to be devoured by wild beasts and
birds a fit end for the enemy of God.

To those chosen to superintend the sacrifices at the Certificate
village of Alexander-Island, from Aurelius Diogenes, the

son of Satabus, of the village of Alexander-Island, being
about 72 years old, a scar on the right eyebrow. It has
always been my custom to sacrifice to the gods, and now

. . . . , _ , This certm-

in your presence in accordance with the decrees I have cateisto
sacrificed and poured libations and tasted the offerings, the^ea^r is
and I request you to counter-sign my statement. May n . ot a chris ~
good fortune attend you. I, Aurelius Diogenes, have
made this request. (2nd hand) I, Aurelius Syrus, as a
participant have certified Diogenes as sacrificing along
with us. (ist hand). The first year of the Emperor Caesar

526 Early History of Christianity

Epeiph,
June 25-
July 24.

Gaius Messius Quintus Trajanus Decius Pius Felix Au-
gustus, Epeiph 2.

He decides
which party
is orthodox.

Eusebius,
Ecclesiastical
History, vii.
25-

VI. AURELIAN'S DECISION OF THE BISHOPRIC OF ANTIOCH

So then, as Paul had fallen from the bishopric as well
as from the orthodox faith, Domnus, as was said before,
succeeded him as Bishop of the Church of Antioch. But
as Paul entirely refused to leave the church-house, peti-
tion was made to the emperor Aurelian, and he made a
very just decision of the matter, by ordering the house
to be given up to those with whom the bishops of the
religion in Italy and Rome held intercourse.

STUDIES

1. What ideal of life is presented in this selection?

2. What account does Eusebius give of the death and resurrection
of Jesus? Where may we find earlier accounts of these events?
What did the Apostles then do? Where did St. Peter go?

3. What is said to have been Nero's motive for persecuting the
Christians? What is the attitude of Tacitus toward the Christians?
Was this severe treatment a persecution of their religion or an ex-
cessive punishment for an alleged but unproved crime?

4. How does Pliny describe the Christians of his province? What
does he ask Trajan and what is the answer?

5. What account does Lactantius give of the Emperor Decius?
Why should the person mentioned in the certificate wish to prove
himself a pagan?

6. In what way is it significant that a pagan emperor should de-
cide a question between two rival Christian sects? Whom did he
consider the leading authorities in Christendom?

CHAPTER XLII

THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY

I. VALERIUS DIOCLETIAN

BUT when the stench of the body revealed the crime, Accession

through the leaders and tribunes of the army Valerius a cter.
Diocletian, commander of the bodyguard of the palace,
was chosen Emperor because of his wisdom; he was a great

man, but nevertheless he had his faults; for example, he, his

the chief of men, coveted the influence of gold-embroidered Ancient

garments, of shoes of purple and gems, and silks from the W orld ' 5 7 ff '

far East. And while such vanities were unworthy of a The opening

... i i i i i JJ i words refer

citizen and indicated a proud, vain spirit, they are not- to the dis-
withstanding insignificant in comparison with what fol- death^Nu 6
lows: For he was the first Emperor since Caligula and merianus, his
Domitian who allowed himself to be called lord openly,
and to be worshiped and invoked as a deity. Wherefore
as far as I can judge, I have come to the conclusion that
men of the humblest birth, especially when they have
reached the heights, are arrogant and very fond of display.
Such a man was Marius of the time of our forefathers; he
was as eager for it as the starving are gluttonous when
suddenly revived by food. Hence it seems strange to me
that many assign haughtiness to the nobles who, mindful
of their patrician blood, have at least as compensation
for the trials by which they are agitated, something to
make them haughty. But these faults of Valerius have
been overshadowed by excellent traits; and though he
permitted himself to be called master, he acted as a parent;

527

528 The Absolute Monarchy

thus it is quite evident that the wise prince wished to prove

that barbarous deeds are harmful, not names. . . .

Maximianus. Need I recall that he associated with him in power many

citizens and foreigners, for the sake of protecting and

extending the rights of the Roman Empire? For when he

learned that after the removal of Carinus, ^Elianus and

Carinus, Amandus had stirred up in Gaul a band of peasants and

Numerianus, robbers whom the inhabitants call Bagaudae, and had

devastated the fields far and wide and attacked many
cities, he immediately made Maximianus, his faithful
friend, emperor although the latter was not a cultivated
man. Afterward Maximianus added the cognomen Her-
culius to his name, because of his devotion to the cult of
the god Hercules, just as Valerius took the name of Jovius
from Jove; whence they also gave these names to those
auxiliary troops that distinguished themselves greatly in
the army. . . .

The Caesars. The two existing emperors associated with themselves
as Caesars, Julius, Constantius and Galerius, Maximianus,
whose family name was Armentarius. The former married
a step-daughter of Herculius, the latter a daughter of
Diocletian; both divorced their wives, just as Augustus
had done formerly when he had commanded Tiberius
Nero to marry his daughter Julia. All of these princes were
born in Illyricum; and though they were of little culture,
nevertheless since they were inured to the hardships of
the country and of the battle-field, they rendered good
service to the state. Hence it is evident that calamities
are the best teachers of goodness and wisdom, while on
the other hand, men who have never had troubles, are
prone to judge all men in accordance with their wealth
and have themselves but little insight. But the harmony
among the rulers proves conclusively that their natural

Reorganization of the Empire 529

qualities and the experience in military affairs which they

had gained under Aurelian and Probus, practically took Aurelian;

the place of those virtues that they did not have. Finally World, 504-6.

they were honoring Valerius as a parent or even as a great emperor,

god; a thing which, whatsoever its nature, stands out in

relief in comparison with the usual crimes among relatives

from the founding of the city to our own time.

And because the difficulty of the wars, of which I have Division of
11 f I A 11 i ,1 commands,

spoken above, was felt more keenly every day, the two

Emperors and the two Caesars divided the empire as it
were among themselves. To Constantius were entrusted
all the Gallic provinces across the Alps; to Herculius Africa
and Italy; to Galerius, the shores of Illyricum even to the
Black Sea; Valerius retained for himself the rest of the
empire. Soon afterward therefore a great burden of taxa-
tion was laid upon a part of Italy. Heretofore all Italy
furnished the same sum by means of which army and
Emperor, who always or practically always had their
residence in Italy, were supported; then a new law was
introduced in regard to taxation. True, it was endurable
because moderate at first; but in these days the tax has
become an intolerable burden. . . .

With like zeal, the duties of peace were safeguarded by Administra-
wise and just laws; and the Emperors dispensed with the
officials called grain commissioners (f rumen tarii), men of
evil repute whose duties resembled most nearly those of
the Agents of to-day. These officials, who seem to have
been elected for the purpose of spying and reporting those
disturbances which arise in the provinces, and who basely
invented criminal accusations and robbed left and right,
were spreading fear everywhere, especially among those
farthest away from Rome. The grain supply of the city
and the safety of tributaries were carefully and anxiously

530 The Absolute Monarchy

looked into; by recompensing merit on the one hand, and
by forbidding every shameful deed on the other, the Em-
perors were arousing an enthusiasm for right-conduct.
They observed the ancient faith reverently and piously.
Furthermore, Rome, with its seven hills, and other cities,
noticeably Carthage, Milan, and Nicomedia, were mar-
velously adorned with beautiful buildings. Yet these
Emperors, despite their good deeds, were not without
I. e. Maxim- faults. Herculius, for instance, behaved in so licentious a
manner that he did not curb his passions even in the case
of hostages. Valerius showed but little faith in his friends,
doubtless through fear of discord, while he thought that
the peace of the rulers might be disturbed through false
reports. Also the strength of Rome, so to speak, was
maimed by diminishing the number of the pretorian co-
horts and of the people in arms; wherefore indeed many his-
torians say that he abdicated the Empire. For when he
was investigating the future, he learned from fate of the
internal calamities and of a crash as it were threatening
the Roman state; whereupon although still powerful, he
gave up the care of the state after he had reigned twenty
years; and with very great difficulty he compelled Her-
culius to do likewise. . . . And although the truth is
obscured because of the variety of opinions in regard to
the abdication, nevertheless we think that he assumed a
humble life because of his fine nature a nature that
spurned ostentation.

II. DIOCLETIAN'S EDICT OF PRICES

Introduction.

From an in- All men know that articles of traffic and objects of daily

*uoted*b use ^ ave attame d exorbitant prices, four or eight times
Duruy, His- their true value, or even more than that; so that, through
the avarice of monopolists, the provisioning of our armies

Edict of Prices 531

becomes impossible. We have determined therefore to
fix, not the price of these articles, which would be unjust,
but the amount which in each case they will not be allowed
to exceed.

ITEMS

Rye (per bushel) $0.45 Selection

Oats " " . . . . . . . .0.22 from his list

Common wine (per quart) . . . . . .0.22 75.

oil " " 0.18

Pork (per Ib.) . / . . . . . . .0.07

Beef " " 0.05

Mutton and goat's flesh (per Ib.) . . . . o . 05

Lard, first quality . . . . . . . o . 09

A pair of chickens 0.26

" " " ducks 0.17

A rabbit 0.17

Oysters (a hundred) . . . . . . . o . 43

Eggs " 0.43

Field-laborer's wages (and food) a day . . . o.n
Mason or carpenter's wages (and food) a day . . 0.22
House painter's " " " " " . 0.32

Shepherd's " " " " " . . 0.09

Barber's wages (per person) o . 09

Reading-master's wages (per month, one pupil) . . 0.22
To the rhetorician or sophist " " " . .1.09

" " lawyer for an inquiry . . . . .1.09
Woman's slippers 0.22

III. PERSECUTION OF THE CHRISTIANS BY DIOCLETIAN

And now Diocletian raged, not only against his own Severest of
domestics, but indiscriminately against all; and he began turns 6 . 1 "
by forcing his daughter Valeria and his wife Prisca to be Lactantius,
polluted by sacrificing. . . . Presbyters and other offi- ^Jj^?^
cers of the Church were seized, without evidence by wit- Persecutors
nesses or confession, condemned, and together with their
families led to execution. In burning alive no distinction

532

The Absolute Monarchy

Failure of
persecution
acknowl-
edged.

Lactantius,
The Manner
in which the
Persecutors
died, xxxiv.

of sex or age was regarded; and because of their great
multitude they were not burnt one after another, but a
herd of them were encircled by the same fire; and servants
with millstones tied about their necks were cast into the
sea. . . . Orders also had gone to Maximian Herculius
and Constantius, requiring their concurrence in the execu-
tion of the edicts; for in matters even of such mighty im-
portance their opinion was never asked. A person of no
merciful temper, Herculius yielded ready obedience, and
enforced the edicts throughout his dominions of Italy.
Constantius, on the other hand, lest he should have seemed
to dissent from the injunction of his superiors, permitted
the demolition of churches mere walls, capable of being
built up again but he preserved entire that true temple
of God, which is the human body.

IV. THE TOLERATION EDICT OF GALERIUS

Amongst our other arrangements, which we are always
making for the use and profit of the commonwealth, we
for our part had heretofore endeavored to set all things
right according to the ancient laws and public order of
the Romans, and to compass this also that the Christians
too who had left the persuasion of their own fathers should
return to a better mind; seeing that through some strange
reasoning such wilfulness had seized the Christians and
such folly possessed them, that, instead of following those
constitutions of the ancients which peradventure their
own ancestors had first established, they were making
themselves laws for their own observance, merely accord-
ing to their own judgment and as their pleasure was, and
in divers places were assembling sundry sorts of peoples.

In short, when a command of ours had been set forth
to the effect that they were to betake themselves to the

Constantino 533

institutions of the ancients, many of them were subdued A change of

by danger, many also ruined; yet when great numbers nounced.

held to their determination, and we saw that they neither /$.

gave worship and due reverence to the gods, nor yet re- Ancient

garded the God of the Christians we therefore in con- World, 514-

sideration of our most mild clemency, and of the unbroken

custom whereby we are used to grant pardon to all men,

have thought it right in this case also to offer our speediest

indulgence, that Christians may exist again, and may es-

tablish their meetings, yet so that they do nothing contrary

to good order. By another letter we shall signify to magis-

trates how they should proceed. Wherefore, in accordance He asks their

with this indulgence of ours, they will be bound to pray l

their God for our good estate, and that of the common-

wealth, and their own, that the commonwealth may en-

dure on every side unharmed, and they may be able to

live securely in their own homes.

V. THE BATTLE OF THE MILVIAN BRIDGE

And now a civil war broke out between Constantine The mono-
and Maxentius. ... At length Constantine, with steady Christ?
courage and a mind prepared for every event, led his whole
force to the neighborhood of Rome, and encamped them
opposite the Milvian Bridge. . . . Constantine was di- Lactantius,

, . ill- The Manner

rected in a dream to cause the heavenly sign to be delm- which the

eated on the shields of his soldiers, and so to proceed to d^xtivf

battle. He did as he had been commanded, and he marked Ancient

on their shields the letter X with a perpendicular line World, 514 f-

drawn through it and turned round thus at the top sf: T^ eG ^^

being a cipher of Christ. Wearing this sign, his soldiers equivalent to

stood to arms. The enemies advanced but without their curious' p C Jn

emperor, and they crossed the bridge. The armies met Jj
and fought with the utmost exertion of valor, and firmly ing Chr.

534

The Absolute Monarchy

Edict of
Licinius,
Emperor,
312 A.D.

Lactantius,
The Manner
in which the
Persecutors
died, xlviii.

It purports
to be a re-
issue of an
"Edict of
Milan."
But the
existence of
the latter has
been seri-
ously ques-
tioned; cf.
Seeck,
Geschichte
des Unter-
gangs der
antiken Welt,
i. 495-

Ancient

World,

515 and n. x.

maintained their ground. ... (Relying on a Sibylline
prophecy, Maxentius joined his army.) The bridge in
his rear was broken down. At sight of that the battle
grew hotter. The hand of the Lord prevailed, and the
forces of Maxentius were routed. He fled toward the
broken bridge; but as the multitude pressed on him, he
was driven headlong into the Tiber. This destructive
war was thus ended, and with great rejoicings Constan-
tine was acknowledged emperor by the senate and people
of Rome.

VI. THE "EDICT OF MILAN"

When we, Constantine Augustus and Licinius Augustus,
had happily met together at Milan, and were holding con-
sideration of all things which concern the advantage and
security of the state, we thought amongst other things
which seemed likely to profit men generally, we ought in
the very first place to set in order the conditions of the
reverence paid to the Divinity, by giving to the Christians
and all others full authority to follow whatever worship
any man has chosen; whereby whatsoever Divinity dwells
in Heaven may be benevolent and propitious to us, and
to all who are placed under our authority. Therefore we
thought it good with sound counsel and very right reason
to lay down this law, that no man whatever should be
refused any legal facility, who has given up his mind
either to the observance of Christianity, or to the worship
which he personally feels best suited to himself; to the end
that the supreme Divinity, whose worship we freely fol-
low, may continue in all things to grant us his wonted favor
and goodwill. Wherefore your Devotion should know
that it is our pleasure to abolish all conditions whatever
which appeared in former charters directed to your office

Toleration; Uniformity 535

about the Christians, that every one of those who have

a common wish to observe the Christian worship may

now freely and unconditionally endeavor to observe the

same without any annoyance or disquiet. These things

we thought good to signify in the fullest manner to your

Carefulness, that you might know that we have given

freely and unreservedly to the said Christians authority ^ f

to practise their worship. And when you perceive that A*

we have made this grant to the said Christians, your fa

Devotion understands that to others also freedom for \

their own worship and observance is likewise left open

and freely granted, as befits the quiet of our times, that p, ,'..

every man may have freedom in the practice of whatever

worship he has chosen, for it is not our will that aught be

diminished from the honor of any worship.

VII. THE NICENE CREED

"We believe in one God, Father Almighty, Maker of Established
all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus council of
Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father; only- ^ 5 c a ^
begotten, that is, of the substance of the Father, God of
God, Light of Light, Very God of Very God, begotten Eusebius.
not made, being of one substance with the Father: by Ancient
whom all things were made in heaven and on earth: Who World > sis-
for us men, and for our salvation, came down and was in-
carnate, and was made man; He suffered, and rose again
the third day; He ascended into heaven, and is coming
to judge both the quick and the dead. And (we believe)
in the Holy Ghost. The Holy Catholic and Apostolic
Church anathematizes all who say there was a time when
the Son of God was not; that before He was begotten He
was not; that He was made out of the non-existent; or

536 The Absolute Monarchy

that He is of a different essence and of a different substance
from the Father; and is susceptible of variation or change.

STUDIES

1. What blameworthy traits does Aurelius Victor find in Dio-
cletian? What good qualities does he mention? Describe Maximian.
How were the emperors and Caesars distributed over the empire?
Describe the administration. How does this view compare with that
of Lactantius (Ch. XLIII. i)? Why did Diocletian resign?

2. What was the object of the Edict of Prices? What difl&culties
would naturally be encountered in enforcing it? How do the prices
compare with those of to-day?

3. What was the character of Diocletian's persecution? What
was the policy of Constantius with reference to it?

4. What led to the edict of Galerius? What are its terms? Did
he believe in the existence of the Christians' God?

5. What seems to have been Constantine's motive in decorating
the shields with the monogram of Christ? Did it contribute to the
victory?

6. What are the terms of the "Edict of Milan"? Were they
thereafter observed?

7. What are the main beliefs of the Nicene Creed? What doctrine
is here condemned?

CHAPTER XLIII

SOME ASPECTS OF THE DECLINE

I. THE OPPRESSION or DIOCLETIAN

WHILE Diocletian, that author of ill and deviser of His ruinous
misery, was ruining all things, he could not withhold his poicy *
insults, not even against God. Partly by avarice and in

part by timid counsels this man overturned the Roman which the

. ~ , f , Persecutors

empire. For he made a choice of three persons to share died, vii.
the government with him; and thus the empire was quar- Ancient
tered, armies were multiplied, and each of the four princes World > S J 7 ff-
strove to maintain a much more considerable military
force than any sole emperor had done in times past. There
began to be fewer men who paid taxes than there were
who received wages; accordingly the means of the husband-
men were exhausted by enormous impositions; farms were
abandoned; cultivated grounds became woodland, and
universal dismay prevailed. Furthermore the provinces Oppressive
were divided into minute portions; and many governors
and a multitude of inferior officers lay heavy on each
territory and almost on every city. There were many
stewards of different degrees and many deputies of the
governors. Very few civil cases came before them, but
there were condemnations daily, and forfeitures were
frequently inflicted. There were taxes on numberless
commodities, and those not only often repeated but per-
petual, and in exacting them intolerable wrongs.

Whatever was imposed for the maintenance of the sol-
diery might have been endured ; but through his insatiable

537

The hoarding
of wealth
in the im-
perial treas-
ury.

Edict of
prices.

Passion for
building.

Killing men
for their
estates.

538 Some Aspects of the Decline

avarice Diocletian would never allow the sums of money
in his treasury to be diminished: he was constantly heap-
ing together extraordinary aids and free gifts, that his
original hoards might remain untouched and inviolable.
When, too, by various extortions he had made all things
exceedingly dear, he attempted by ordinance to limit
their prices. Then much blood was shed for the veriest
trifles; men were afraid to expose aught for sale, and the
scarcity became more excessive and grievous -than ever,
until in the end the ordinance, proving destructive to
multitudes, was from mere necessity abolished.

To this (oppression) was added a certain endless passion
for building, and on that account arose endless exactions
from the provinces for furnishing wages to laborers and
artificers, and supplying wagons and whatever else was
requisite to the works which he projected. Here public
halls, there a circus, here a mint, and there a workhouse
for making implements of war; in one place a habitation
for his empress, and in another for his daughter. Pres-
ently a great part of the city was quitted, and all men
were removed with their wives and children, as from a
town taken by enemies; and when those buildings were
completed, to the destruction of whole provinces, he said,
"They are not right, let them be done on another plan."
By such folly was he continually endeavoring to equal
Nicomedia with the city of Rome in magnificence.

I omit mentioning how many perished on account of
their possessions or wealth; for such evils were exceedingly
frequent; and through their frequency they appeared
almost lawful. But this was peculiar to him, that when-
ever he saw a field remarkably well cultivated, or a house
of uncommon elegance, a false accusation and a capital
punishment were straightway prepared against the pro-

Oppression 539

prietor; hence it seemed as if Diocletian could not be
guilty of rapine without also shedding blood.

II. THE OPPRESSION CONTINUES AFTER DIOCLETIAN

And now this wrong of which we are going to speak, The many
, ..... i ... i. i ... are pillaged

how atrocious it is, from what impious disorder it is sprung, b y the few.

how strange to Barbarians, how familiar to Romans! The salvianus,

latter impose grievous exactions upon one another. What ^ r ^ ence f

say I? Not on one another, for the thing would be sup-

portable if each suffered what he inflicted. But the really

crying evil is that the many are pillaged by the few, who

regard the public privileges as their particular booty,

who make private gain of the debts due the state treasury.

And the guilty ones are not the great alone, but the small

as well; not judges only, but their deputies. For where

are, I do not say the cities merely, but the municipia and

the villages, which have not as many tyrants as Curiales? The Curiales

But they congratulate themselves perhaps on this name ^ivesopT

of tyrant, because it seems powerful and honorable. This g 6 ^?; a t um

is the characteristic of nearly all robbers, to rejoice and oppressed

, f , . . * those under

boast if they get the reputation of being more inhuman their author-

than they really are. What then is the place, I would ask, or

where are the leading citizens who do not devour the vitals

of widows and of orphans and even of all the saints? For

the latter are treated as widows and orphans, either be- The condi-

cause they do not wish to defend themselves, trusting in scribed^m

their faith, or because they are unable to do it, on account ] e t c tlon

of their weakness and innocence. No one then is safe, the fifth
except the great, no one is protected from these devasta- time of the
tions and this universal brigandage, unless perhaps those wnter -
who resemble the thieves themselves. Moreover the
thing has come to such excess of wickedness that no one
but the bad can hope to be secure.

540 Some Aspects of the Decline

Condition
of a certain
city of Eu-

boea, about
100 A.D.

Dio Chrys-
ostom,
Oration vii.
34 ff-

The speaker
is a leading
citizen of his
city.

A great part
of the empire
was falling
into a similar
condition.

III. THE DEPOPULATION OF EUBCEA

About two thirds of our land lies waste for want of cul-
tivators. I own many acres both in the mountains and
in the plain. If any one will cultivate them, they may do
it without cost; yes, I will gladly pay them money. It
is clear that the land will thereby increase in value, and
it will certainly be more pleasant to look upon. Waste
land, besides being useless, arouses pity and makes the
owner seem unfortunate. It appears to me advisable
therefore that you persuade as many citizens as possible
to occupy public lands of the city and to cultivate it
whoever has capital more, and the poor man as much as
he can, that our land may come under the plow, and our
city be freed from two of the greatest evils, idleness and
poverty. Ten years they shall use the land without cost;
then after an estimate is made, they shall pay a small
quota of the grain but not of the cattle. If a foreigner shall
occupy the land, he shall have it five years free, and then
pay a rent double that of a citizen. And if a stranger
shall occupy two hundred acres, he shall be given the
citizenship as an encouragement to as many as possible
to undertake such work. For now the land just outside
the gates lies waste and unsightly as a desert, wholly un-
like the neighborhood of a city, while inside the walls the
larger part of the ground is sown or pastured. . . . They
plant grain on the exercise ground and pasture their cattle
in the market-place, so that Heracles and many other
statues of the gods and heroes are hidden by the stalks;
and every morning the sheep of a certain statesman in-
trudes upon the market-place and crops grass by the
council chamber and the other public buildings; and stran-
gers who come here either ridicule or pity our city.

Depopulation; Incipient Feudalism 541

IV. EDICT OF PERTINAX CONCERNING VACANT LANDS

In the first place he gave permission to occupy untilled Lack of cui
and vacant lands throughout Italy and in the other coun- throughout
tries of the empire, as much as any one wished and was ** A^D!'
able to cultivate, even if it belonged to the emperor, on jjerodian ii
condition that the one who should care for it and till it 4- 6.
should become its owner. To such cultivators he granted
exemption from all taxes for ten years and eventually
unqualified ownership in perpetuity.

V. TENDENCY TO FEUDALISM

Imperator Constantine Augustus and Caesar Julianus Imperial
to Eutychianus, Pretorian Prefect: "We hold that who- bidding
ever shall try to offer protection to the farming folk, what- sion^f So-

ever his social rank, whether a commander of either branch tection t( >

rural
of military service, or count (comes) or proconsul or vice- laborers,

governor or Imperial prefect or tribune or of the rank 3 "

of a municipal councillor or of any other rank whatso-

ever, he shall know that he will make himself liable for Ancient

the payment of forty pounds of gold for the protection World, 522.

furnished to each and every landed estate, unless he

abandon this rashness hereafter. All therefore shall know

that those should be smitten with the aforesaid fine, who

have undertaken (to create) clientship of country folk,

but those also, who for the sake of defrauding the public

taxes have resorted to protections with the customary

fraud, will be liable to the twofold payment of the es-

tablished fine."

542 Some Aspects of the Decline

Carthage
will serve
as anil-
lustration.

Salvianus,
Providence of
God, vii. 16.

Immoral-
ities.

The state-
ment is
doubtless
excessive.

VI. AN EXAMPLE OF THE MORAL CONDITION OF THE
EMPIRE

I will content myself with speaking of this city, the
queen and mother, as it were, of all the cities of Africa,
this city, the eternal rival of Rome, at first in arms, then
in courage, and finally in splendor and dignity! Carthage,
I say, the most formidable adversary of Rome, the Rome
as it were of Africa, which will suffice as an example and
as evidence, because she contains within herself every-
thing by which a state is constituted and administered.
There are all the means which prepare for the civil pro-
fessions, there are the academies of liberal arts, there the
schools of the philosophers, there the gymnasia of lan-
guages and manners. There too are military forces and
the commanders of the soldiery, there the proconsular
office, there a judge and permanent governor who rules
with the title of proconsul but' with the power of a consul.
There are also all the official dignitaries who differ from
one another in name and rank, for every ward, for every
street, I may say, procurators who govern every part
and division of so great a people. I am content with this
city as an example for judging the rest; and we may readily
understand the character of the others, lacking as they
do careful police regulations, whereas the governors of
Carthage possess the utmost authority.

And here I almost repent of the promise I have just
made, to pass by all other excesses of the Africans and to
speak chiefly of their impurities and blasphemies. I see
a city overflowing with vices, I see a city seething with
every kind of wickedness, thronging with people, throng-
ing still more with iniquities, full of riches, but fuller of
sins, where men surpass one another in the vileness of

Moral Depravity 543

their evil passions, strong among themselves for supremacy
in greed and impurity, others enfeebled with wine or dis-
tended with gluttony, others crowned with flowers or
reeking with perfumes, all weakened by degrading forms
of luxury, nearly all sunken in deadly errors, not all dizzy
with wine, it is true, but everyone drunken in sin. You
would say that the people had lost their sound condition,
their senses, their mental sanity, and were moving along
in crowds, not with certain step but in the manner of in-
toxicated Bacchantes. ... I mention the proscription
of orphans, the oppression of widows, the crosses of the
poor who daily groan before God, praying for an end to
their afflictions, and worst of all, forced by the unendur-
able bitterness of their lot, calling in the enemy, till finally
God has granted them to endure along with the rest the
affliction at the hands of the barbarians which formerly
they alone had endured at the hands of the Romans.

STUDIES

1. Enumerate all the causes of decline mentioned in this selection.
Does the writer seem to treat the case fairly?

2. In what particular ways, according to Salvianus, were the many
pillaged by the few? Who especially were oppressed?

3. What was the condition of the part of Euboea described in this
selection? What is the value of the selection in the study of this
period? What probably caused the depopulation?

4. How did Pertinax try to remedy the evil?

5. How did the rural laborers seek to avoid their taxes, and how
did the government try to hold them to their duty?

6. Describe the prosperity of Carthage. What does Salvianus
say of its immoralities? Was this condition a cause of decline?

CHAPTER XLIV

THE NORTHERN BARBARIANS

I. THE GERMANS: PEOPLE AND COUNTRY

Physique. THEY have fierce blue eyes, red hair, and large frames,

Tacitus, capable only of sudden effort. They endure labor and

Germama, 4. serv j ce | ess patiently than we, and cannot support thirst

and heat. But their climate and soil have accustomed

them to cold and hunger.

Country. The country, although very varied in appearance, gen-

ii. 5. erally consists of rough forests or foul swamps. . . .

Ancient Though fertile in crops, it bears no fruit trees; it is rich
World, 5*4 1. i n h er( j s but they are generally stunted. Even their
cattle do not attain their natural beauty or the full growth
of their horns. They take pleasure in the size of their
herds; these are their sole form of wealth, and they are
very proud of them. Whether it is in mercy or anger that
the gods have denied them silver or gold I do not know;
nor could I definitely assert that Germany produces no
vein of gold or silver; for no one has explored. But they
are not affected in the same way that we are by its pos-
session and use. You may see there silver vases which
have been given as presents to their ambassadors and
chiefs; but they hold them as cheap as earthenware pots.
However, the tribes nearest to us have learnt through
familiarity with trade to value gold and silver; they can
recognize and pick out certain pieces of our money. The
people of the interior use the more simple and ancient
method of barter. They like best the old coinage with

544

Warfare; Government 545

which they are familiar, with milled edges and with a These old
J corns con-

two-horse chariot stamped on it. They also prefer silver tained less

to gold. This is not a matter of taste; but a number of Sose oftL
small silver coins is more useful for men who buy only writer's time,
cheap and common articles.
Even iron is not plentiful, as one may gather from the Arms and

; , warfare.

nature of their weapons. Swords and long lances are

, , , , , , Tac. Germ. 6.

rarely used; they carry spears, or, as they name them,
" Frams " which have a short narrow head, but are so sharp
and handy that they use the same weapon as circumstances
demand for close and open fighting. The cavalry are
content with shield and spear; the infantry also shower
javelins; each man carried several, and they can throw
them a very long way. They fight naked or in a light
plaid. They have no elaborate apparel, and merely paint
their shields with distinctive colors, of the brightest hue.
Few wear cuirasses, hardly any helmets or caps. Their
horses are distinguished neither for build nor for speed. . . .

II. GOVERNMENT

Kings they choose by family, generals by merit. But Bangs, war-
the kings have not an unfettered power; and the generals priests.'
lead less by authority than by force of example, according Tac Germ 7
as they win praise for energy, conspicuous bravery and Ancient
daring. Powers of execution or imprisonment and even World, 525.
of flogging are granted to none but the priests, nor are
they exercised as a penalty or at the general's command,
but at the bidding so they imagine of the tribal god
whom they believe to be present in the ranks. Statues
and certain symbols are taken down from the trees of the
grove and carried into battle. The troops of horse and
the wedge-battalions of infantry are formed not merely
at haphazard but by families and clans. In this lies their

546

The Northern Barbarians

Women.

Women in
war.

Tac. Germ. 8.

Council of
chiefs and
assembly
of warriors.

Ib. ii.

chief incentive to bravery. Their dearest too are close at
hand; the women's cries and the wailing of the babies
reach their ears. It is their testimony that each man
respects, their praise he values most. They carry their
wounds to show to mother and to wife; nor are the women
frightened to number and examine the blows; during battle
they bring them food and encouragement.

There is a tradition that in some battles troops already
wavering and beginning to run have been rallied by the
women, who offer unceasing prayers, bare their breasts,
and point out that captivity lies waiting close at hand.
This the Germans fear far more anxiously for the women's
sake than for their own, and the strongest hold upon the
loyalty of these tribes is got by demanding as hostages
girls of noble family. Indeed they believe that there is in
women some divine spark of foreknowledge, and they do
not despise their advice or neglect their answers. . . .

On minor matters the chief men consult alone; on more
important business they all meet. They provide, however,
that all questions, the decision of which lies with the
people, may be previously discussed by the chiefs. Their
meetings are, except in case of chance emergencies, on
fixed days, either at new moon or full moon ; such seasons
they believe to be the most auspicious for beginning busi-
ness. They reckon the number, not of the days as we do,
but of the nights. It is thus that they make their appoint-
ments and contracts. To them day seems to follow night.
Their love of liberty makes them independent to a fault;
they do not assemble all at once or as though they were
under orders; but two or three days are wasted by their
delay in arriving. They take their seats as they come,
all in full armor. Silence is demanded by the priests, to
whom are granted special powers of coercion. Next the

J ustice ; ' ' Companionship ' ' 547

king, or one of the chief men according to claims of age,
lineage, or military glory, receives a hearing, which he
obtains more by power of persuasion than by any right of
command. If the opinion expressed displeases, their mur-
murs reject it; if they approve, they clash their spears.
Such applause is considered the most honorable form of
assent.

At the meeting charges involving risk of capital punish- Punish-
ment may be brought. The punishment fits the crime.
They hang traitors and deserters on trees; cowards and Ib ' 12 '
cravens and evil-livers they plunge into a muddy swamp
and put a hurdle on the top. These different penalties
imply the distinction that crimes in being punished ought
to be made public, while shameful offences ought to be
concealed. They have also for lighter offences propor-
tionate penalties; if convicted, they are fined a certain
number of horses or cattle. Part of the fine is paid to the
king or community, part to the injured man or his kinsmen*
In these same meetings they choose chiefs who administer
justice in the shires and villages * Each of these is accom-
panied by a hundred companions of the common people,
who give him both advice and authority.

III. "COMPANIONSHIP"

They do no business public or private except in arms. The youth
But their custom is that no one may carry arms until the ma n.
community has approved his ability. Then before the Tac. Germ.
whole assembly either one of the chief men or the father I 3-
or some kinsman adorns the young warrior with shield
and spear. This panoply is their "toga," youth's first
honor. Before this he is a member of the household, now
a member of the state. Distinguished lineage or great
services done by ancestors sometimes win for mere boys

548

The Northern Barbarians

The chief
gathers about
him a num-
ber of fol-
lowers, called
companions,
who fight
under his
leadership.

Ancient
World, 52$.

The com-
panions vie
with one
another in
valor.

Tac. Germ.

14.

the rank of a chief; but these take their places among the
other tougher warriors whom time has tried, and do not
blush to be seen in the ranks. Within the train itself too
there are degrees of honor, determined at the leader's
discretion. And great rivalry prevails the companions
each striving to be first with their chief, the chiefs to have
the largest and most spirited companionship. Real dis-
tinction and strength belong to the chief who has around
him always a band of chosen warriors, to be a glory in
peace and a protection in war. To have a companionship
distinguished for its size and bravery brings fame and
glory not only among your own people, but among neigh-
boring tribes as well. Such trains are courted by legates,
and honored with gifts, and often decide the fortune of a
battle by the mere rumor of their presence.

When the fighting begins, it is shameful for a chief to be
outdone in bravery, and equally shameful for the com-
panions not to match the bravery of their chief; to survive
one's chief and to return from battle is a foul disgrace
which lasts as long as life. To defend him, to support
him, to turn one's brave deeds to his glory, this is their
chief oath of allegiance. The chiefs fight for victory, the
companions for their chief. Often youths of noble family,
if the community in which they were born is suffering the
torpor of prolonged peace, go and seek out some tribe
which happens to be at war. They hate peace; and fame
too comes more easily in times of danger. Nor can you
support a large companionship save by war and violence;
for they exact from their chief's liberality their charter
and their murderous invincible spear. Feasts, too, rough
though plentiful, are given for pay. The means of this
liberality is won by war and plunder. It would be far
harder to persuade them to plow the fields and wait for

Peace 549

the year's yield than to challenge the enemy and earn
a wage of wounds. Indeed, they think it dull and lazy
to get by the sweat of your own brow what may be won
by shedding some one else's blood.

IV. IN TIME OF PEACE

When they are not fighting, they spend little time in Idleness,
hunting, much more in doing nothing. They devote Tac. Germ.
themselves to sleeping and eating. Even the bravest and IS '
most warlike are quite idle, for they give over the care of
house and fields to the women and the old men, and to all
the weaklings of the household. They themselves merely
lounge, for from a strange contradiction of character they
love idleness yet hate peace. It is usual for the tribe, man
by man, to contribute a voluntary gift of cattle or corn
for the chiefs. They accept this as an honor, and it meets
their needs. They take particular pleasure in gifts from
other tribes. These are sent not only by individuals, but
often by the community, and consist of picked horses,
massive armor, bosses and collars. In these days we have
also taught them to take money.

It is well known that none of the German tribes live Villages and
in cities. They cannot endure undetached houses. Their homes,
homes are separate and scattered, pitched at the call of /$ 16.
river, plain or wood. They build villages, but not as we
do with the buildings all adjoining and connected. Each
man has an open space around his homestead, either as a
protection against risk of fire, or because they do not
know how to build otherwise. They make no use even of
quarry stones or tiles. For all purposes they use timber
roughly hewn with no attempt at beauty or comfort.
Some parts they carefully smear with earth so pure and
bright that it gives the effect of painting and colored de-

550

The Northern Barbarians

Clothing,
/ft. 17.

Marriage.

Tac. Germ.
18.

signs. They often dig caverns under the earth and load
heaps of mud above them; these make a refuge for them
in whiter and a storehouse for fruits. In such places as
these they temper the extreme cold; and if an enemy
comes he carries off what he finds in the open, while he
knows nothing of all that is hidden and buried; or else it
escapes just because there is no time to search for it.

They all wear for covering a plaid fastened with a brooch,
or, in default of that, a thorn. Without any other cloth-
ing they spend whole days lying on the hearth before the
fire. The wealthy are distinguished by a garment, which
does not flow loose, as with the Sarmatians and Parthians,
but fits close and shows the shape of each limb. They
also use the skins of wild beasts. Those nearest the Rhine
look comfortable in them, but the people of the interior
wear them with elaborate care, since they are not yet
civilized by commerce. They choose their animal, skin
it, and star the hide with the speckled fur of the beasts
found in the further ocean and the unknown sea. The
women have the same clothing as the men, except that
they more frequently wear linen garments, which they
ornament with purple stripes. The bodice has no sleeves,
and they leave the arms and forearms uncovered. . . .
Their observance of the marriage-tie is very strict, and
there is no point in their manners which deserves greater
praise. Almost alone among barbarians they are content
with one wife, with the exception of a very few. . . .

V. FAMILY AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

The husband brings a dowry to the wife, not the wife
to the husband. The parents come to the wedding and
inspect the presents. These are not designed to please a
woman's taste, nor can a young bride wear them in her

Family and Kin 551

hair: they are oxen, and a bridled horse or a shield with
spear and sword. This is the dowry which wins a wife,
and she in her turn brings the husband some gift of arms.
This represents to them our marriage bond, the mystic
celebrations, and all the gods of matrimony. A woman
must not think herself exempt from thoughts of bravery
or the chances of war. By the ceremony which begins her
wedded life she is warned that she comes to be her hus-
band's partner in toil and in danger, to suffer and to dare
with him alike in peace and war. This is plainly shown by
the yoked oxen, the bridled horse, and the gift of arms.
Thus she must live, and thus she must die. She is receiv-
ing a trust which she must keep worthily and hand on to
her children, a trust which her sons' wives may receive in
turn and pass on to their children. . . .

The family are bound to share the feuds as well as the Blood feud,
friendships of father or kinsman. But these feuds are TEC. Germ,
not irreconcilable. Even homicide has its price in a fixed 2
tale of cattle or sheep; the whole family receives the rec-
ompense. This is a good policy for the community, since
feuds and freedom are dangerous side by side. In enter-
tainment and hospitality no people are more profuse or
generous. It is thought wrong to refuse shelter to any
living man. Each according to his means receives his
guests with a liberal spread. When his store fails, the
former host sets out with his guest and guides him to an-
other lodging. They proceed to the next house without
any invitation. Nor does this make any difference; their
welcome is no less warm. As far as the right of hospitality
is concerned, no one makes any distinction between friend
and stranger. On a guest's departure, should he ask for
anything, their custom is to grant it; and the guest on his
part feels just as free to ask. They like presents, but do

552

The Northern Barbarians

Food and
drink.

Ib. 22.

Intemper-
ance.

Tac. Germ.

23-

Public
shows;
gambling.

7i.2 4 .

not reckon them as a favor, nor feel under any obligation
in accepting them.

Immediately they rise from sleep, which they frequently
prolong into the day, they take a bath, usually of warm
water, as is natural where winter takes the lion's share
of the year. After the bath they take a meal. They have
separate seats and each his own table. Then they proceed
to business and often to feasts in full armor. No one is
ashamed to drink from dawn to dawn. As is natural
among drunkards, quarrels are frequent, and their brawls
are rarely settled without wounds and bloodshed. But
they also frequently consult at their feasts about the rec-
onciliations of feuds, the forming of family connections,
and the adoption of chiefs, and also upon peace and war.
At no other time, they feel, is the heart so open to frank
thoughts or so well warmed to great ones. Being as a
race without much cunning or experience, they still open
the secrets of their hearts in the freedom of jest. Thus the
mind of each is laid bare. On the morrow they discuss
the question again, thus preserving the advantages of
either state. They debate, while incapable of deceit, and
decide when they cannot be misled.

Their drink is a liquid made from barley or wheat fer-
mented into a faint resemblance of wine. Their food is
simple, wild fruits, fresh game, or curdled milk. They
simply satisfy their hunger without any refinement or
preparation. In drinking they are less temperate. If
you pander to then: intemperance by supplying as much
as they want, their vices will conquer them as effectively
as any troops.

They have but one kind of public show; in every gather-
ing it is just the same. Naked youths who profess this
sport, fling themselves in dance among swords and levelled

Slavery 553

lances. Practice has perfected their skill and skill their
grace; yet they do it not to make money or a living. Dar-
ing as the game is, its sole reward is the spectator's pleas-
ure. Gambling with dice, it is strange to find, they reckon
as a serious occupation. They play while sober, and
show such recklessness in winning and losing that when
all else fails, on the last throw of all they stake their lib-
erty and person. The loser goes into voluntary slavery.
Though he may be the younger and stronger, he suffers
himself to be bound and sold. This shows their wrong-
headed obstinacy; they call it themselves a sense of honor.
Slaves thus obtained they usually sell in the market, to
rid themselves of the shame of such a victory.

Their ordinary slaves are not employed, as ours are, Slaves,
on distinct duties in the establishment. Each has his /&. 25.
own hearth and home. The master fixes a certain measure
of grain or number of cattle to be paid as a sort of rent;
this forms the only obligation. All the household obliga-
tions are performed by the master's wife and children.
Slaves are very rarely beaten or condemned to imprison-
ment or taskwork. They are sometimes killed by their
masters, not, however, as a severe act of discipline, but
simply in a fit of passion, just as one might kill a private
enemy, except that it is legal to kill a slave. The position
of freedmen is not much higher than that of slaves. In
the household they rarely have any influence, in the state
never, except in those tribes which are ruled by kings.
There they rise even above the free-born and above the
nobles. In the other tribes the inferiority of freedmen
is a proof of freedom.

The lending of money and its multiplication by interest Economy,
is unknown to them. Ignorance proves a better preven- Tac. Germ.
tive than prohibition. The fields are held by village- 2 '

554

The Northern Barbarians

Funerals.
Jb. 27.

Physique.

Ammianus
Marcellinus
' 3-

Out-of-door
life.

74.4-
Ancient
World, 533 *

communities in proportion to their numbers, and are
allotted to individuals according to rank. The extent of
the land makes the division easy. They never till the same
field two years in succession, yet there is always land to
spare. They do not labor to improve the richness or ex-
tent of the soil by planting orchards enclosing meadows
and irrigating gardens; their sole demand upon the land
is corn. Thus they do not divide the year into as many
seasons as we do. They distinguish winter, spring and
summer, and give them names; but they know neither the
name nor the blessings of autumn.

The funerals are not ostentatious. The only custom
they observe is that of using certain kinds of wood for the
cremation of famous men. They do not load the pyre
with garments or perfumes. The dead man's armor goes
into the flames and in some cases his horse as well. The
tomb is built of turf. They dislike a tall and elaborate
monument; it seems an honor that weighs heavy on the
dead. They soon cease from tears and mourning, but are
slow to forget their grief. "Women must weep" they
say "and men remember."

VI. THE HUNS

They are certainly in the shape of men, however un-
couth, but are so hardy that they require neither fire nor
well-flavored food, but live on the roots of such herbs as
they get in the fields, or on the half-raw flesh of any animal,
which they merely warm rapidly by placing it between
their own thighs and the backs of their horses.

They never shelter themselves under roofed houses,
but avoid them as people ordinarily avoid sepulchres as
things not fitted for common use. Nor is there even to be
found among them a cabin thatched with reed; but they

The Huns 555

wander about roaming over the mountains and the woods,
and accustom themselves to bear frost and hunger and
thirst from their very cradles. And even when abroad
they never enter a house unless under the compulsion of
some extreme necessity; nor indeed do they think people
under roofs as safe as others.

They wear linen clothes, or else garments made of the Clothing,
skins of field-mice; nor do they wear a different dress Amm. Marc.
out of doors from that which they wear at home; but XXX1 ' s "
after a tunic is once put around their necks, however worn
it becomes, it is never taken off or changed till, from long
decay, it becomes actually so ragged as to fall to pieces.

They cover their heads with round caps, and their
shaggy legs with the skins of kids; their shoes are not made Ib. 6.
on any lasts, but are so unshapely as to hinder them from
walking with a free gait. And for this reason they are not
well-suited to infantry battles, but are nearly always on
horseback, their horses being ill-shaped but hardy; and
sometimes they even sit upon them like women if they
want to do anything more conveniently. There is not a
person in the whole nation who cannot remain on his
horse day and night. On horseback they buy and sell,
they take their meat and drink, and there they recline on
the narrow neck of their steed, and yield to sleep so deep
as to indulge in every variety of dream.

And when any deliberation is to take place on any Council,
weighty matter, they all hold their common council on /&. 7 .
horseback. They are not under the authority of a king,
but are contented with the irregular government of their
nobles, and under their lead they force their way through
all obstacles.

Sometimes when provoked, they fight; and when they Warfare,
go into battle, they form in a solid body, and utter all kinds ib. s.

556

The Northern Barbarians

ib. 9 .

Perpetual
nomads.

76. 10.

Inconstant
and unre-
liable.

Amm. Marc,
xxxi. ii.

of terrific yells. They are very quick in their operations,
of exceeding speed, and fond of surprising their enemies.
With a view to this, they suddenly disperse, then reunite,
and again, after having inflicted vast loss upon the enemy,
they scatter themselves over the whole plain in irregular
formations; always avoiding a fort or an intrenchment.

And in one respect you may pronounce them the most
formidable of all warriors, for, when at a distance, they
use missiles of various kinds tipped with sharpened bones
instead of the usual points of javelins, and these bones are
admirably fastened into the shaft of the javelin or arrow;
but when they are at close quarters they fight with the
sword, without any regard for their own safety; and often
while their antagonists are warding off their blows they
entangle them with twisted cords, so that, their hands
being fettered, they lose all power of either riding or
walking.

None of them plow, or even touch a plow-handle;
for they have no settled abode, but are homeless and
lawless, perpetually wandering with their wagons, which
they make their homes; in fact they seem to be people
always in flight. Their wives live in these wagons, and
there weave their miserable garments. . . .

In truces they are treacherous and inconstant, liable to
change their minds at every breeze of every fresh hope
which presents itself, giving themselves up wholly to the
impulse and inclination of the moment; and like brute
beasts, they are utterly ignorant of the distinction between
right and wrong. They express themselves with great
ambiguity and obscurity; have no respect for any religion
or superstition whatever; are immoderately covetous of
gold; and are so fickle and irascible, that they very often
on the same day that they quarrel with their companions

Review 557

without any provocation, again become reconciled to
them without any mediator.

STUDIES

1. Describe Germany. What were its products?

2. Describe the government. What were the qualifications for
leadership? What function had the priests? What was the idea of
punishment? What was the German method of fighting? What
part in warfare did women take? Who composed the council?
What business came before it? Describe the public meetings of the
warriors.

3. Explain "companionship." What part had it in war?

4. How did the warriors live in time of peace? Where were their
homes situated? Describe their clothing.

5. Describe their marriage customs. Explain the blood feud.
How did they treat guests? What was their custom of eating at
meals and feasts? To what vices were they addicted? What was
the condition of their slaves? What were all the sources of their
subsistence? In what way were their funerals peculiar?

6. Describe the physique of the Huns. What was their opinion
of houses? What did they wear? What use did they make of horses?
What government had they? Describe their warfare. Compare
them with the Germans. Who wrote these selections, and how did
each obtain his information?

CHAPTER XLV

The ex-
periences of
two Christian
women.

St. Jerome,
Letter cxxvii
(written 412
A.D.).

The first
siege men-
tioned was
by Alaric in
408; the sec-
ond siege,
ending in the
capture of
Rome, was
in 410; /I w-
cient World,
529 .

Principia was
a young lady
in the house
and under
the protec-
tion of Mar-
cella, an old
lady. The
latter soon
died from
the effects of
her injuries.

ROMAN LIFE UNDER THE LATE EMPIRE
kAINLY FOURTH AND FIFTH CENTURIES A.D.

I. PRINCIPIA AND MARCELLA IN THE SACK OF ROME
BY THE GOTHS

ROME had been besieged and its citizens had been forced
to buy their lives with gold. Then, thus despoiled, they
had been besieged again so as to lose not their substance
only but their lives. My voice sticks in my throat; and
as I dictate, sobs choke my utterance. The City which
had taken the whole world was itself taken; nay more,
famine was beforehand with the sword and but few citizens
were left to be made captives. In their frenzy the starving
people had recourse to hideous food; and tore each other
limb from limb that they might have flesh to eat. Even
the mother did not spare the babe at her breast. . . .

Meantime as was natural in a scene of such confusion,
one of the blood-stained victors found his way into Mar-
cella's house. Now be it mine to say what I have heard,
to relate what holy men have seen; for there were some
such present, and they say you (Principia) too were with
her in the hour of danger. When the soldiers entered, she
is said to have received them without any look of alarm;
and when they asked her for gold, she pointed to her coarse
dress to show them she had no buried treasure. They
would not believe in her self-chosen poverty, however,

558

The Sack of Rome 559

but scourged and beat her with cudgels. She is said to
have felt no pain, but to have thrown herself at their feet
and to have pleaded with tears for you, that you might
not be taken from her. . . . Christ softened their hard
hearts and even among blood-stained swords natural affec-
tion asserted its rights. The barbarians conveyed both
you and her to the basilica of the Apostle Paul, that you
might find there either a place of safety or if not that,
at least a tomb. Hereupon Marcella is said to have burst
into great joy and to have thanked God for having kept
you unharmed in answer to her prayer. She said she was
thankful too that the taking of the City had found her
poor, not made her so, that she was now in want of her
daily bread, that Christ satisfied her needs so that she
no longer felt hungry, that she was able to say in word
and in deed. . . . "The Lord gave and the Lord hath Job i. 21.
taken away; blessed be the name of the Lord."

II. BY FIRE AND SWORD

I shudder when I think of the catastrophies of our time. Calamities
For twenty years and more the blood of Romans has been bjthe in-
shed daily between Constantinople and the Julian Alps. vaders -
Scythia, Thrace, Macedonia, Dardania, Dacia, Thessaly, f^ r ^
Achaia, Epirus, Dalmatia, the Pannonias each and all Heiiodorus;
of these provinces have been sacked and pillaged and 39
plundered by Goths and Sarmatians, Quades and Alans,
Huns and Vandals and Marcomanni. How many of
God's matrons and maidens, virtuous and noble ladies,
have been made the sport of these brutes! Bishops have
been made captive, priests and those in minor orders have
been put to death. Churches have been overthrown,
horses have been stalled by the altars of Christ, and relics
of the martyrs have been dug up.

560 Roman Life Under the Late Empire

Vergil,
JEneid, ii.
369-

The empire
is falling.

Invasion of
the Huns
(here called
wolves).

Vergil,
Mneid, vi.
625-7.

His mother's
care.

( to Rusticus;

411 A.D.).

Mourning and fear abound on every side

And death appears in countless shapes and forms.

The Roman world is falling; yet we hold up our heads
instead of bowing them. . . . The East, it is true, seemed
to be safe from all such evils; and if men were panic-stricken
here, it was only because of bad news from other parts.
But lo! in the year just gone by the wolves (no longer of
Arabia but of the whole North) were let loose upon us
from the remotest fastnesses of Caucasus and in a short
time overran these great provinces. What a number of
monasteries they captured! How many rivers they caused
to run red with blood! They laid siege to Antioch and in-
vested other cities on the Halys, the Cydnus, the Orontes,
and the Euphrates. They carried off troops of captives.
Arabia, Phoenicia, Palestine, and Egypt, in their terror
fancied themselves enslaved.

Had I a hundred tongues, a hundred lips,
A throat of iron and a chest of brass,
I could not tell men's countless sufferings.

And indeed it is not my purpose to write a history; I
only wish to shed a few tears over your sorrows and mine.

III. ADVICE TO A YOUNG MONK

I am told that your mother is a religious woman, a widow

of many years standing; and that when you were a child

sne reare d and taught you herself. Afterward when you

had spent some time in the flourishing schools of Gaul,

she sent you to Rome, sparing no expense and consoling
herself for your absence with the thought of the future
that lay before you. She hoped to see the exuberance and
glitter of your Gallic eloquence toned down by Roman
sobriety, for she saw that you required the rein more
than the spur. . . .

Advice to a Monk 561

If on your part you desire to be a monk and not merely Disdain
to seem one, be more careful of your soul than of your things.
property; for in adopting a religious profession you have
renounced this once for all. Let your garments be squalid
to show that your mind is white, and your tunic coarse
to prove that you despise the world. But give not way to
pride lest your dress and language be found at variance.
Baths stimulate the senses and must therefore be avoided;
for to quench natural heat is the aim of chilling fasts. . . .
A frugal and temperate diet is good for both body and soul.

See your mother as often as you wish but not with other Avoid the

women, for their faces may dwell in your thoughts and

so "a secret wound may fester in your breast." The
maidservants who attend upon her you must regard as
so many snares laid to entrap you. . . .

If I wish you then not to live with your mother, it is
for the reasons above given, and most of all for the follow-
ing: If she offers you delicacies to eat, you will grieve her
by refusing them; and if you take them, you will add fuel
to the flame that already burns within you. . . . Never Keep your
take your hand or your eyes off your book; learn the cupied with
psalms word for word, pray without ceasing, be always a
on the alert, and let no vain thoughts lay hold upon you.
Direct both body and mind to the Lord, overcome wrath
with patience, love the knowledge of the scripture, and
you will no longer love the sins of the flesh. Do not let
your mind become a prey to excitement, for if this effects
a lodgment in your breast, it will have dominion over you
and will lead you into the great transgression. Always
have some work on hand, that the Devil may find you
busy. . . .

Make creels of reeds or weave baskets of pliant osier.
Hoe your ground; mark out your garden into even plots;

562 Roman Life Under the Late Empire

Do the fol- and when you have sown your cabbages or set your plants,
lowing kinds J . . .

of manual convey water to them in conduits; that you may see with

labor - y 0ur own e y es the lovely vision of the poet:

Vergil,
Georgics, i.
106-10.

Praverbs xiii.

Art draws fresh water from the hilltop near,
Till the stream, plashing down among the rocks,
Cools the parched meadows and allays their thirst.

Graft unfruitful stocks with buds and slips that you
may shortly be rewarded for your toil by plucking sweet
apples from them. Build also hives for bees, for to these
creatures the proverbs of Solomon send you, and you may
learn from the tiny creatures how to order a monastery
and to discipline a kingdom. Twist lines too for catching
fish, and copy books, that your hand may earn your food
and your mind be ever satisfied with reading. For " every-
one that is idle is a prey to vain desires." In Egypt the
monasteries make it a rule to receive none who are not
willing to work; for they regard labor as necessary not
only for the support of the body but also for the salvation
of the soul.

On the duty
of labor.

The editors
gratefully
acknowledge
the use of
Ogg, Source
Book, 88 f.,
for this
selection.

Ancient
World, 547 f

IV. FROM THE RULE or ST. BENEDICT

Idleness is the enemy of the soul. And, therefore, at
fixed times the brothers ought to be occupied in manual
labor; and again at fixed times in sacred reading. There-
fore we believe that both seasons ought to be arranged
after this manner, so that, from Easter until th,e first
of October, going out early -from the first until the fourth
hour they shall do what labor may be necessary. From
the fourth hour until about the sixth, they shall be free
for reading. After the meal of the sixth hour, rising from
the table, they shall rest in their beds with all silence; or
perchance he that wishes to read may read to himself in

Rule of St. Benedict 563

such a way as not to disturb another. And the nona (the
second meal) shall be gone through with more moderately
about the middle of the eighth hour; and again, they shall
work at what is to be done until Vespers. But if the emer-
gency or poverty of the place demands that they be occu-
pied in picking fruits, they shall not be grieved; for they
are truly monks if they live by the labors of their hands,
as did also our fathers and the apostles. Let all things be
done with moderation, however, on account of the faint-
hearted.

In days of Lent they shall all receive separate books Regulations
from the library, which they shall read entirely through ing.
in order. These books are to be given out on the first day
of Lent. Above all there shall be appointed without fail
one or two elders, who shall go round the monastery at the
hours in which the brothers are engaged in reading, and
see to it that no troublesome brother be found who is
given to idleness and trifling, and is not intent on his
reading, being not only of no use to himself, but also
stirring up others. If such a one (may it not happen) be
found, he shall be reproved once and a second time. If
he do not amend, he shall be subject under the rule to
such punishment that the others may have fear. Nor
shall brother join brother at unsuitable hours. Moreover,
on Sunday all shall engage in reading, excepting those
who are assigned to various duties. But if any one be
so negligent and lazy that he will not or can not read,
some task shall be imposed upon him which he can do,
so that he be not idle. On feeble and delicate brothers
such a task or art is to be imposed, that they shall neither
be idle nor so oppressed by the violence of labor as to be
driven to take flight. Their weakness is to be taken into
consideration by the abbot.

564 Roman Life Under the Late Empire

Advice to a
father
concerning
an infant
daughter.

St. Jerome,
Letter cxxviii.

Letter cvii.

In the
monastery.
Letter cxlvii.

V. THE TRAINING or A NUN

A girl should associate only with girls, she should know
nothing of boys and should dread even playing with
them. . . . Her mother's nod should be to her as much
a command as a spoken injunction. She should love her
as a parent, obey her as a mistress, and reverence her as
her teacher. . . . She should until she is grown up com-
mit to memory the psalter and the books of Solomon; the
gospels, the apostles, and the prophets should be the
treasure of her heart. She should not appear in public
too freely or too frequently attend crowded churches. All
her pleasure should be in her chamber. She must never
look at young men or turn her eyes upon curled fops; and
the wanton songs of sweet-voiced girls, which wound the
soul through the ears, must be kept from her. The more
freedom of access such persons possess, the harder it is to
avoid them when they come; and what they have once
learned themselves they will secretly teach her and will
thus contaminate our secluded Danae by the talk of the
crowd. Give her for guardian and companion a mistress
and governess, one not addicted to much wine or in the
Apostle's word idle and a tattler, but sober, grave, indus-
trious in spinning wool, and one whose words will form
her childish mind to the practice of virtue. ...

Let her not converse with people of the world. . . .
Let her not be present at the weddings of your slaves
and let her take no part in the noisy games of the house-
hold. ... By vigils and fasts she mortifies her body
and brings it into subjection. . . . And by a deliberate
squalor she makes haste to spoil her natural good looks.

It is usual in the monasteries of Egypt and Syria for
maidens and widows who have vowed themselves to God

Oft-Wedded 565

and have renounced the world and have trodden its pleas-
ures under foot, to ask the mothers of their communities
to cut their hair; not that afterward they go about with
heads uncovered in defiance of the Apostle's command,
for they wear a close-fitting cap and veil. No one knows
of this in any single case except the shearers and the shorn;
but as the practice is universal, it is almost universally
known. The custom has in fact become a second nature.

VI. A MUCH MARRIED COUPLE

The story I am about to relate is incredible; yet it is Twenty-
vouched for by many witnesses. Many years ago when and twenty-

I was helping Damasus, bishop of Rome, with his eccle-
siastical correspondence, and writing his answers to the gt j erome
questions referred to him by the Councils of the East and Letter cxxiii.
West, I saw a married couple, both of whom were sprung St. Jerome
from the very dregs of the people. The man had already

buried twenty wives and the woman had had twenty-two . nd mar ~
husbands. Now they were united to each other, as each
believed, for the last time. The greatest curiosity pre-
vailed among both men and women to see which of these
two veterans would live to bury the other. The husband
triumphed and walked before the bier of his oft-married
wife, amid a great concourse of people from all quarters,
with garland and palm-branch, scattering spelt as he
went along among an approving crowd.

VII. THE PAGAN GODS ARE IMMORAL

Hence it proceedeth that those gods never had care of They are
the lives and manners of such cities and nations as gave every kind
them divine honors; but contrarywise gave free permission
to such horrible and abominable evils, to enter, not upon
their lands, vines, houses, or treasures, no nor upon the

566 Roman Life Under the Late Empire

St. Augustine, body (which serves the mind) but upon the mind itself,
ii. 6. the ruler of all the flesh, and of all the rest; this they ever

Ancient allowed without any prohibition at all. ... I know
World, 530. t k e i r f ii owers w iu talk of certain secret traditions and,
I know not what, some closely muttered instructions,
tending to the bettering of man's life; but let them show
wherever they had any public places ordained to hear such
lectures (wherein the players did not present their filthy
gestures and speeches: nor where the Fugalia were kept
with all licentiousness, fitly called Fugalia, as the chasers
away of all chastity and honesty); but where the people
might come and hear their gods' doctrine concerning the
restraint of covetousness, the suppression of ambition,
and the bridling of luxury and riot. . . . Let them show
where these lessons of their instructing gods were ever
read or rehearsed; whether ever their worshippers were
used to hear of any such matters, as we used to do con-
tinually in our churches, erected for this purpose in all
places wheresoever the religion of Christ is diffused.

VIII. ANGELS
Their Worthily are those blessed immortals placed in those

interest in . , . . ... . .* . . . .

humanity. celestial habitations, rejoicing in the participation of their

St. Augus- Creator, being firm, certain, and holy by His eternity,

God fc**? * truth, and bounty; because they love us mortal wretches

with a zealous pity and desire to have us immortally blessed

also, and will not have us sacrifice to them, but to Him

to whom they know both us and themselves to be sacrifices.

For we both are inhabitants of that in the Psalm: " Glorious

things are spoken of thee, thou City of God: " part whereof

is pilgrim yet with us and part assists us with them. From

that eternal city where God's unchanging will is all their

Angels; Miracles 567

law: and from that supernal court (for there we are cared
for) by the ministry of the holy angels was that Holy
Scripture brought down unto us, which says, "He that
sacrifices to any but God alone, shall be rooted out."
This scripture, this precept is confirmed unto us by so
many miracles, that it is plain enough, to whom the blessed
immortals, so loving us, and wishing as themselves, would
have us to offer sacrifice.

IX. MIRACLES

But all miracles (done by angels or whatever divine Not to be
power), confirming the true adoration of one God unto us

(in whom only we are blessed), we believe truly are done

by God's power working in these immortals that love us God > k - "

in true piety. Hear not those that deny that the invisible

God works visible miracles: is not the world a miracle?

Yet visible, and of His making. Nay, all the miracles

done in this world are less than the world itself, the heaven

and the earth and all therein, yet God made them all,

and after a manner that man cannot conceive nor com-

prehend, For though these visible miracles of nature

be now no more admired, yet ponder them wisely, and

they are more admirable than the strangest: for man is a

greater miracle than all that he can work. Wherefore

God that made heaven and earth (both miracles) scorns

not as yet to work miracles in heaven and earth, to draw

men's souls that yet affect visibilities, unto the worship

of His invisible essence. But where and when He will

do this, His unchangeable will can only declare; at whose

disposing all time past has been, and future time is. He

moves all things in time, but time moves not Him, nor

knows the future effects otherwise than present. Nor

568 Roman Life Under the Late Empire

hears he our prayers otherwise than He forsees them ere
we pray; for when His angels hear them, He hears in them.

Criminal
charge
before the
governor of
Egypt.

The trial
about 400
A.D.

A papyrus.

Interesting
for the re-
ligious belief
of the age.

X. A CASE OF GRAVE ROBBERY

You have dug up the body of the dead which the city,
pursuant to a decree of the people, has buried and mourned.
You seem to me to have the heart of a beast, not of a
man and really not even of a beast. For beasts assail
indeed living men but spare the dead. You however have
plotted against a corpse which has separated itself from
the race of men. Whence got you the effrontery to rob
of his last hopes the person laid to rest? Truly, by Zeus,
these were the last adornments allowed by the laws: they
were the gifts of the state to the dead body; they were
offerings of purification (which you have stolen). You
will atone for this deed with your head.

Heresies
forbidden.

Theodosian
Code xvi. 5, 5.

379 A.D.

XI. EDICT OF THEODOSIUS AGAINST HERETICS

Let all heresies forbidden both by divine and imperial
laws forthwith cease. Whatsoever profane person lowers,
by acts worthy of punishment, the opinion of God, let
him entertain ideas destined to be hurtful to himself alone,
let him not publish what will be a hindrance to others.
Whoever causes wasting disease to bodies, redeemed by
venerable baptism, . . . let him not ruin others by wicked
instruction. And all teachers and ministers of that per-
verse superstition, whether by assuming sacred office
they defile the name of bishop or falsify religion with the
title of presbyter, or call themselves deacons when they
are not even held to be Christians, let them abstain
from meetings devoted to an opinion long ago condemned.
Finally let the Rescript recently published at Sirmium

Heresies; Education 569

be cancelled and let those things only abide with Universal Rescript was

(Catholic) observance, which our ever memorable father the emperor

and we ourselves have ordered as destined to live forever freq^nt *

with equally speci