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GROUP  OF  ANTI8  (PERUVIAN  CAMPOS). 


THE 


EARTH    AND    ITS    INHABITANTS 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


BY 


ELISEE   RECLUS. 


EDITED    BY 

A.  H.  KEANE,  B.  A., 

MEMBER   OF   COUNCIL,    ANTHKOP.    INSTITUTE ;     COR.    MEMB.    ITALIAN    AND   WASHINGTON    ANTHROP.    SOC.  ; 

AUTHOR   OF    "ASIA,"    ETC. 


VOL.  I. 


THE   ANDES  REGIONS. 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  NUMEROUS  ENGRAVINGS  AND  MAPS. 


NEW  YORK: 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY, 

1,    3,    AND    5    BOND     STREET. 
1894. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAP.  PAGE 

I.  GENERAL  SUEVEY  OF  THE  CONTINENT  .        .        .         .         .        .        .         .        .         .          1 — 54 

Configuration  of  the  Continent,  p.  1.  The  Seaboard,  p.  2.  River  Systems,  p.  3. 
Forests  and  Habitable  Lands,  p.  6.  Communications,  p.  7.  Exploration  of  the  Sea- 
board, p.  9.  Exploration  of  the  Interior,  p.  11.  The  Andes  Orographic  System,  p.  19. 
Snows  and  Glaciers,  p.  21.  Volcanoes,  p.  22.  The  Eastern  Orographic  System, 
p.  22.  Upheaval  and  Subsidence,  p.  24.  Climate,  p.  27.  Flora,  p.  31.  Fauna, 
p.  35.  Inhabitants,  p.  36.  Chief  Divisions  of  the  South  American  Aborigines,  p.  39. 
Miscegenation,  p.  41 .  Historic  Retrospect,  p.  43.  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Domains, 
p.  47.  Foreign  Relations — Railway  Projects,  p.  50.  Social  Condition — Material 
Progress — Prospects,  p.  52. 

II.  ANTILLES  OP  THE  VENEZDELAN  SEABOARD '55—76 

Tobago,  p.  55.  Trinidad,  p.  58.  Physical  Features,  p.  58.  The  Asphalt  Lake, 
p.  60.  Rivers — Climate — Flora — Fauna,  p.  62.  Inhabitants,  p.  64.  Topography, 
p.  67.  Adminiftration,  p.  70.  Margarita,  p.  71.  Curacao,  p.  73.  Aruba,  p.  76. 

III.  VENEZUELA   ...............       77 — 132 

Disputed  Frontiers,  p.  77.  Extent— Population,  p.  79.  The  War  of  Independence, 
p.  80.  The  Venezuelan  Uplands,  p.  81.  The  Venezuelan  Andes,  p.  83.  The  Sierra 
de  Merida,  p.  85.  The  Llanos,  p.  87-  Rivers— The  Orinoco  System,  p.  90. 
Orinoco  Delta,  p.  96.  The  Maracaibo  Inlet— Lake  Valenciafp.  98.  Climate,  p.  100. 
Flora,  p.  101.  Fauna,  p.  102.  Inhabitants,  p.  105.  Topography,  p.  108.  Material 
Condition  of  Venezuela,  p.  125.  Agriculture,  p.  126.  Mineral  Wealth,  p.  127. 
Communications,  p.  129.  Administration,  p.  131. 

IV.  COLOMBIA      ...............     133 219 

Progress  of  Discovery  and  Conquet-t,  p.  134.  Relief  of  the  Land,  p.  140.  The 
Santa  Marta  and  Goajira  Uplands,  p.  140.  The  Eastern  Cordillera,  p.  142.  The 
Central  Cordillera,  p.  144.  The  Western  Cordillera,  p.  148.  Osr-illations  of  the 
:-eaboard— L-lands,  p.  149.  Rivers— The  Magdalena,  p.  150.  The  Cauca  and 
Migdalena  Delta,  p.  154.  The  Atrato,  p.  157.  The  San  Juan  and  Patia  basins, 
p.  159.  Climate,  p.  162.  Flora,  p.  164.  Fauna,  p.  K>7.  Inhabitants— The 
Muyscas,  p.  169.  The  Coconucos  and  other  Aborigines,  p.  174.  The  Hispano- 
Americans,  p.  179.  Topography,  p.  180.  Material  Condition  of  Colombia,  p.  2,10. 
Administration,  p.  216. 


V.  Ecr/ADOB 


220—264 


Extent  — Disputed  Frontiers,  p.  220.    'History — Geographical  Exploration,  p.   221. 
Physical  Features— The  Ecuadorean  Andes,  p.  223.     Volcanoes,  p.  224.     Table  of 


CONTENTS. 

PA01t 

Altitudes,  p.  235.  Hydrography,  p.  235.  Climate,  p  238.  Flora,  p.  240.  Fauna, 
p.  242.  Inhabitant*,  p.  -14.  Topography,  p.  248.  Material  Condition  of  Ecuador, 
ji.  •_'.">8.  Agriculture— Immigration,  p.  259.  Communications,  p.  261.  Govern- 
ment, p.  261. 

VI.  THE  GALAPAGOS  AECUIPELAOO 265—273 

Volcanic  Formation,  p.  267.     Climite,  p.  2C9.     F.ora  and  Fauna,  p.  270. 

VII.  PEBU    ....... 274-353 

Disputed  Frontiers— Extent,  p.  274.     Geographical  Research,   p.   276.     Physical 

|., •.:-.;.     .  ;v        !;,      V  !•;.•!'.    <      ;•;.       !:-.!.    279.      The    <'<-ntnil    I'onlillciMs.  p. 

281.  The  Southern  Cordilleras,  p.  282.  The  Pacific  Coastlands,  p.  284.  Rivers — 
The  Pacific  Coast  Streams,  p.  289.  The  Amazonian  Affluents,  p.  290.  Climate,  p. 
296.  Flora,  p  298.  Fauna,  p.  299.  Inhabitants,  p.  301.  The  Quichuas — Empire 
of  the  Incas,  p.  303.  The  Yuncas,  Antis  and  other  Aborigines,  p.  309.  The 
Spaniards— Negroes  and  Coolies,  p.  314.  Topography,  p.  316.  Material  Condition 
of  Peru,  p.  343.  Agriculture,  p.  344.  Mineral  Wealth,  p.  345.  Trade— Communi- 
cations, p.  347.  Administration,  p.  350. 

VIII.  BOLIVIA 354-396 

Boundaries— Extent,  p.  354.  Geographical  Research — Population,  p.  355.  Physical 
Features — The  Bolivian  Andes,  p.  357.  Main  Physical  Divisions,  p.  359.  Lakes 
and  Rivers — Lakes  Titicaca  and  Pampa-Aullagas,  p.  360.  The  Rios  Beni  andMadre 
de  Dios,  p.  363.  The  Pilcomayo,  p.  365.  Climate,  p.  365.  Flora,  p.  366.  Fauna, 
p.  367.  Inhabitants— The  Aymaras,  p.  367.  The  Chiquitos,  p.  370.  The  Mojos, 
p.  372.  The  Canichanas  and  Guarayos,  p.  374.  The  Chiriguanos,  Tobas  and  Sirionos, 
p.  375.  The  Antisians,  p.  376.  The  Apolistas,  p.  379.  Topography,  p.  379. 
Material  and  Social  Condition  of  Bolivia,  p.  383.  Administration,  p.  393. 

IX.  CHILI    .  ....     397—477 

Recent  Conquests,  p.  397.  Islands — Boundaries — Extent — Population,  p  398. 
Geographical  Discovery,  p.  400.  First  Exploration  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  p.  402. 
Later  Explorations  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  p.  406.  Topographic  and  Coast  Surveys, 
p.  406.  Physical  Features— The  Northern  Highlands,  p.  407.  The  Mejillones  Range, 
p.  4C9.  The  Chilian  Andes  Proper,  p.  410.  The  Southern  Chilian  Andes,  p.  418. 
The  Chilian  Coast  Range,  p.  419.  Chiloe  and  Neighbouring  Archipelagoes,  p.  421. 
Wellington  and  Southern  Groups,  p.  424.  Tierra  del  Fuego,  p.  425.  Hydrography 
of  Chili,  p.  428.  The  Chilian  Lakes,  p.  432.  Climate,  p.  432.  The  Chilian  Nitrate- 
fields,  p.  434.  Climate  of  Chiloe  and  Fuegia,  p.  436.  Flora  of  Chili,  p.  438.  Fauna, 
p.  440.  Inhabitants,  p.  441.  The  Araucanians,  p.  442.  The  Fuegians,  p.  445. 
The  Chilians,  p.  447.  Topography,  p.  448.  Materiwl  Condition  of  Chi  i,  p.  468. 
Agriculture,  p.  468.  Mineral  Resources,  p.  470.  Manufactures— Trade,  p.  471. 
Administration,  p.  474. 

APPENDIX-  STATISTICAL  TABLES    .  478—495 

INDEX '..  497—504 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


MAPS    PRINTED    IN    COLOUES. 


Caracas  and  La  Guaira    . 
Bogota  and  its  Environs  . 


PAGE 

112 
184 


Lima  from  Chancay  to  Pachacamac 
Valparaiso  and  Santiago  . 


PAGE 
322 
458 


PLATES. 


Group  of  Antis  (Peruvian  Campos) .         Frontispiece, 
Atures  Rapids,   Orinoco — View  taken  at   the 

Cerro  Perriquito  .  .  To  face  page  3 
Ceiba  Trees  near  Bolivar,  Venezuela  .  .  35 
The  Asphalt  Lake,  Trinidad  .  .  .  .61 
General  View  of  Willemsted  (Santa  Ana  de 


Group  of  Guaraunos  Indians    .... 

General  View  of  Carupano       .... 

Lake  Dwellings  of  Santa  Rosa,  near  Mara- 
caibo  ....... 

General  View  of  Ciudad  Bolivar 

Old  Spanish  Fortifications  at  Puerto  Bello 

Sierra  de  Santa  Marta — East  View  taken  at 
Punta  Tapias  ...... 

Bongo  on  the  Rio  Magdale  •  a  . 

Muysca  Indians,  adorned  with  Antique  Jewel- 
lery   

Columns  of  an  Indian  Temple  at  San  Agustin 

Street  View,  La  Mesa 

Landing  Stage  on  the  Magdalena,  near  the 
Sogamoso  Confluence  .... 

General  View  of  Ocafia 

Santa  Marta — View  taken  from  the  North 

Ibarra,  and  the  Imbabura  Volcano  . 

Pueblo  de  San  Mateo,  East  of  Lima 


West  View  of  Cotopaxi,  taken  near  Santa  Ana 

de  Tuipullo        .         .         .         To  face  page  227 
East  View  of  Quito  and  Mount  Pichincha,  seen 

from  La  Loma  de  Poingasi       .         .         .  250 

Guayaquil        .......  254 

Arequipa  and  Mount  Misti       ....  282 

Group  of  Peruvians  .         .         .         .         .314 

General  View  of  Lima,  taken  from  the  South  .  322 
Guano  Beds,  Chincha  Islands — View  taken  in 

1875 326 

Cathedral  of  Cuzco 338 

Buildings  of  the  Incas  on  the  Cerro  de   Las 

Carceles  at  Ollantai-Tambo       .         .         •  339 

.Antofagasta — View  taken  from  the  Quay         .  354 
Lake  Titicaca.  and  Ruins  of  the  Temple  of  the 

Virgins,  Coati  Island         .         .         .         .362 

Mojos  Indians           ".'".••         •         •         •         •  372 

Cape  Pillar 425 

Araucanian  Cacique  and  his  Staff     .         .         .  442 

Alakaluf  Fuegians,  dressed  in  Huanaco  Skins  446 

Iquique — View  taken  from  the  Sea           .         .  450 

Tocopilla 453 

Valparaiso — View  taken  from  the  Harbour      .  457 
Santiago — View  taken  opposite  the  Cerro  de 

Santa  Lucia       .                  .         .         .         .  458 

Chilian— Market-Place    .         .                           .  470 


VI 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTBATIONa 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


no. 

1 .  Inhabitable  Regions  in  North  America 
'-'.   Inhabitable  Regions  in  South  America 

3.  Future  Routes  between  Paris  and  Buenos 

Ayres    ....... 

4.  Chief  Routes  of  the  Spanish  Conquerors  in 

South  America       ..... 

5.  Determination  of  the  Meridian  of  Quito 

6.  Outlines  of  the  Andes  and  of  the  Eastern 

Highlands     .         .         .    •     . 

7.  ANDES   SCKNEBY.     VIEW   TAKES    AT   THE 

CHAVPICHACA  BRIDGE,  LIMA — LA  OEOYA 
RAILWAY       ...... 

8.  Region  of  Oceanic  Encroachments  about 

the  Amazons  Estuary    .... 

9.  Main  Geological  Divisions  of  South  Ame- 

rica         

10.  Isothermal  Lines  of  South  America   . 

11.  Distribution  of  Rainfall  in  South  America 

12.  Drude's  Main  Botanical  Divisions  of  South 

America         ...... 

13.  Main   Divisions   of   the   South    American 

Aborigines     ...... 

14.  Scene  of  the  War  of  Independence  in  South 

America 

15.  Continental    Parting-Lines    between    the 

Spanish  and  Portuguese  Domains  . 

1 6.  Ethnical  Divisions  of  South  America  in  1 893 

17.  Zones  of   Distances  between   London    or 

Paris  and  South  America 

18.  Density  of  Population  in  South  America    . 

19.  Tobago      

20.  VlKW  TAKEN  AT  SAINT  JAME9,    POET   OF 

SPAIN,  TEINIDAD  .  . 

•21.  WIFE  OF  A  RICH  HINDU  COOLIE 
•2'2.  Trinidad 

23.  Port  of  Spain     .... 

24.  Margarita 

25.  Curacao 

26.  Willemstad 

27.  Frontiers  of  Venezuela       .         .         .         . 
•js.   ( ; ulf  of  Cariaco 

29.  Sierra  de  Merida 

30.  Mythical  Lake  of  P.irima  .... 

31.  Orinoco  B.tsin 

32.  THE  ORINOCO  AT  CAICAHA. 

33.  Orinoco  Delta 

34.  Lake  of  Valencia        . 

35.  Turtle  Banks  on  the  Middle  Orinoco  .         . 

36.  Barcelona  and  Cumana      .... 

37.  CARACAS;  VIEW  TAKEN  APOVE  THE  GI-AIBE 

38.  Valencia  and  Puerto  Cabello 
3».  Puerto  Cabello  . 


PAOB 

FIO. 

PAGK 

4 

40. 

Coro  and  Paraguana  Peninsula  . 

117 

5 

41. 

119 

42. 

Ramifications  of  the  Atabapo 

121 

8 

43. 

Ramifying    Streams    on    the   Brazil   and 

Venezuelan  Frontiers     . 

1-22 

14 

44. 

Maipures  and  Atures  Rapids 

123 

16 

45. 

Aborigines  of  Venezuela    .... 

T24 

46. 

Yuruauri  Gold-mines          .... 

128 

20 

47. 

LA  GUAIRA  ;  VIEW  TAKEN  AT  CARVONAL  . 

129 

48. 

La  Guaira.         ...... 

130 

49. 

Political  Divisions  of  Venezuela 

131 

23 

50. 

Chief  Exploring  Expeditions  in  Venezuela 

and  Colombia         ..... 

136 

25 

51. 

Zones  of  Altitude  in  Colombia  . 

139 

52. 

Sierra  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta  . 

141 

28 

53. 

Mesa  de  Herveo  and  .Ruiz  Volcano    . 

145 

29 

64. 

Quindio  Pass      

146 

30 

55. 

Colombia  Mountains  ..... 

147 

56. 

TEQTTENDAMA  FALLS  ;  VIEW  TAKEN  AT  THE 

33 

1  51 

57. 

The  Nare  Gorge         ..... 

152 

40 

58. 

Inland  Delta  of  the  Magdalena  . 

153 

59. 

Mouths  of  the  Magdaleua  .... 

155 

44 

60. 

Mouths  of  the  Atrato          .... 

157 

61. 

Tuquerres  Plateau  and  Valley  of  the  Gua- 

48 

itara      . 

160 

49 

62. 

Pasto  Plateau  and  the  Coeha  Basin    . 

161 

63. 

ROAD  IN  THE  HOT  LANDS,  COLOMBIA 

163 

51 

64. 

Chief  Vegetable  Products  of  Colombia 

166 

53 

65. 

MUYSCA  IDOL     

171 

57 

66. 

Chief  Indian  Nations  and  Tribes  of  Colom- 

bia        ....... 

175 

63 

67. 

Goajira  Peninsula      ..... 

177 

66 

68. 

Siiiua  Paz  Basin         ..... 

182 

68 

69. 

Bogota  and  its  Approaches 

184 

69 

70. 

Girardot  Bend  ...... 

186 

7-2 

71. 

Honda  and  La  Dorada  Railway 

188 

71 

72. 

BOYACA  BATTLEFIELD         .... 

191 

75 

73. 

Chiquinquira  and  Lake  of  Fuquene   . 

193 

78 

74. 

Socorro,    Bucaramanga,     and     Sogamoso 

81 

Gorges  

194 

86 

75. 

Cucuta  District  

195 

91 

76. 

Popnyaii  Jtn<l  CiiiinMcas  Pass 

197 

94 

77. 

I"  J>IXT  Cauca  Valley  

198 

95 

78. 

(ioldfiolds  of  the  Department  of  Antioquia 

200 

96 

79. 

RamitirMtiniis  of  Mompos  . 

202 

99 

80. 

Roadstead  and  Harbours  of  Savanilla 

203 

104 

81. 

Cartap'iiH  and  its  Harbours 

206 

110 

82. 

Port  of  Buenaventura         .... 

208 

111 

83. 

LANDING-  STAGE     AT     SALOAB,    POET    OF 

111 

SWXXILLA        

213 

115 

84. 

Communications  of  Colombia     . 

215 

LIST   OF   ILLUSTEATIONS. 


Vll 


no. 

85.  PANORAMIC  VIEW  OF  BOGOTA  ;  TAKEN  FROM 

THE  EAST       ...... 

86.  Administrative  Divisions  of  Colombia 

87.  Disputed  Frontiers  of  Ecuador 

88.  Double  Chain  of  Ecuadorean  Volcanoes    . 

89.  Chimborazo      ...... 

90.  Geological  Formation  of  Ecuador     . 

91.  Confluence  of  the  Guayaquil  Hivers 

92.  Tunguragua  and  Pastaza  Gorge 

93.  Rainfall  and  Forests  of  Ecuador 

94.  ECUADOE  SCENERY  ;  VIEW  TAKEN  ON  THE 

BANKS  OF  THE  PASTAZA  EAST  OF  ALTAR 

95.  Indigenous  Populations  of  Ecuador 

96.  Ancon  de  las  Sardinas      .... 

97.  Quito  and  its  Environs     .... 

98.  Esmeraldas      ...... 

99.  Guayaquil  Estuary ..... 

100.  Cuenca  Basin  ...... 

101.  Loja  Mountains        .         .         .  . 

102.  Political  Divisions  of  Ecuador  . 

103.  Galapagos  Archipelago    .... 

104.  Volcanic  Group  of  Albemarle  Island 

105.  SCENERY  IN  INDEFATIGABLE  ISLAND,  GALA- 

PAGOS ARCHIPELAGO        .... 

106.  Chatham  Island 

107.  Frontiers  of  Peru     ..... 
103.  Drainage  Area  of  Hnaylas 

109.  Zones  of  Altitude,  Peru    .... 

110.  Amotape  Mountains         .... 

111.  Ports  of  Chimbote  and  Casma  . 

112.  Pongo  de  Manseriche        .... 

113.  Maranon  and  Huallaga  Confluence  . 

114.  Maranon  and  Uoayali  Confluence 

115.  Mantaro,  Pampas  and  Apurimac  Valleys 

116.  Empire  of  the  Incas          . 

117.  Ancient  Highways  of  the  Incas 

118.  STRING  OF  QUIPOS   ..... 

119.  Indian  Populations  of  Peru 

120.  Tumbez  and  its  Deserts    .... 

121.  Trujillo  and  Grand  Chimu 

122.  Caraz  and  Ancachs  Mountains 

123.  Oroya  Railway          ..... 

124.  Pisco  and  lea  ...... 

125.  The  Chincha  Islands  in  1856    . 

126.  Arequipa  Gradient  ..... 

127.  Arequipa 

128.  From  Pacasmayo  to  Cajamarca 

129.  CERRO  DE  PASCO      .         . 

130.  Cerro  de  Pasco          ..... 

131.  Cuzco 

132.  Iquitos  and  the  Napo  Confluence 

133.  Loreto,  Amazons- Yavari  Confluence 

134.  Mines  of  Peru  ...... 

135.  Communications  of  Peru  .... 

136.  LIMA-OROYA  RAILWAY;  VIEW  TAKEN   AT 

CHICLA  . 


217 
218 
221 
231 
233 
234 
236 
237 
239 

241 
247 
249 
251 
252 
254 
256 
257 
263 
266 
268 

271 
272 
275 
280 
283 
285 
288 
291 
293 
294 
295 
302 
305 
306 
313 
316 
318 
321 
324 
325 
327 
328 
329 
332 
333 
334 
338 
340 
341 
346 
348 

349 


FIO.  PAOK 

137.  Administrative  Divisions  of  Peru     .         .  352 

138.  Chief  Itineraries  of  Explorers  in  Peru  and 

Bolivia 356 

139.  Old  Lake  of  the  Bolivian  Plateau     .         .  361 

140.  Basin  of  the  Madre  de  Dios      .         .         .  364 

141.  YTJNGAS  SCENERY — CUSSILLANI  HACIENDA  367 

142.  Aboriginal  Populations  of  Bolivia     .         .  377 

143.  Copacabana  Peninsula      .         .         .         .381 

144.  La  Paz  and  Environs        ....  384 
115.  LA  PAZ— PALACE  OF  CONGRESS        .         .  385 

146.  Potosi  and  Sucre 387 

147.  Chief  Mineral  Deposits  of  Bolivia     .         .  390 

148.  International  Communications   of    B  .li- 

vid            392 

149.  Political  Divisions  of  Bolivia    .         .         .  394 

150.  Conquests  of  Chili 399 

151.  Magellan  Strait 403 

152.  Staten  Island  ......  405 

153.  Mejillones  Chain 409 

154.  Parallel  Cordilleras  of  the  Chilian  Andes  411 

155.  ASCENT  OF  THE    CUMBRE — VIEW    TAKEN 

FROM  THE  SALTO  DEL  SOLDADO       .'       .  413 

156.  Aconcagua  and  La  Cumbre      .                   .  414 

157.  CASUCHA  DEL  PORTILLO.  ON  THE  CUMBBE  .  415 

158.  Volcanic  Descabezado  Group    .         .         .417 

159.  Chiloe 420 

160.  Chonos  Archipelago          ....  422 

161.  San  Rafael  Lake       ...         .         .         .423 

162.  San  Felix  and  San  Ambrosio  Isles    .         .  426 

163.  "  PETERBOROCGH  CATHEDRAL  "         .         .  427 

164.  Rio  LAJA  AND  BIOBIO  CONFLUENCE — VIEW 

TAKEN  OPPOSITE  SAN  RoSENDO              .             .  429 

165.  Lakes  of  South  Chili  and  Puerto  Montt   .  431 
1'66.  Mas  a  Tierra,   Eastern  Member  of  the 

Juan  Fernandez  Group           .         .         .  439 

167.  GROUP  OF  ARAUCANIANS  ....  443 

168.  Indigenous  Populations  of  Chili       .         .  446 

169.  Arica 449 

170.  Iquique  .......  451 

171.  Nitrate  and  Salt  Works  of  Tarapaca        .  452 

172.  Copiapo  and  its  Mineral  District      .         .  454 

173.  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  CALDERA      .         .         .  455 

174.  La  Serena  and  Coquimbo          .         .         .  456 

175.  Concepcion,  the  Biobioand  Neighbouring 

Inlets     .         .         .         .         .         .         .  461 

176.  Chacao  Channel        .         ....         .  463 

177.  Cape  Horn  Archipelago  ....  464 

178.  Punta  Arenas  (Sandy  Point)     .         .         .  460 

179.  MOUNT   SELKIRK,   JUAN   FERNANDEZ    IS- 

LAND        467 

180.  Mines  of  Chili 469 

181.  Communications  of  Chili .         .         .         .472 

182.  Central  Valley  of  South  Chili  .         .         .473 

183.  Provinces  of  Chili 475 

184.  The    Disputed   Territory   of    Arica    and 

Tacna    ....                           ,  476 


THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS. 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  THE  CONTINENT. 
I. 

BIRD'S-EYE  view  of  South  America  shows  that  it  forms  the  eastern 
termination  of  the  continental  lands  describing  a  vast  semicircle 
round  the  Pacific  basin.  This  section  of  the  oceanic  periphery 
presents  far  greater  regularity  in  its  orographic  development 
than  any  other  region  of  the  globe.  Neither  in  Africa,  in  Asia, 
nor  in  North  America  do  the  mountain  ranges  and  masses  skirting  the  ocean  at 
varying  distances  display  such  an  unbroken  line  of  uplands,  nor  do  they  preserve 
more  strictly  the  a&.x  ect  of  coast  ranges. 

The  Andes  differ  also  from  all  other  continental  systems,  such  as  the  Alps, 
Himalayas,  and  Rocky  Mountains,  in  their  far  greater  relative  importance  to  the 
respective  regions  above  which  they  rise.  The  mean  altitude  of  South  America, 
regarded  as  a  solid  mass  with  perfectly  horizontal  surface,  was  estimated  by  Hum- 
boldt  at  1,150  feet.  But  according  to  later  and  more  accurate  researches  based 
on  more  detailed  cartographic  documents,  the  continental  altitude  should  be  raised 
to  1,312  feet,  of  which  about  820  feet  should  be  assigned  to  the  mass  of  the  Andes 
system  in  an  equal  distribution  over  all  the  land  standing  above  sea-level. 

CONFIGURATION  OF  THE  CONTINENT. 

The  form  of  South  America,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  other  continents,  is 

one  of  those  topics  that  have  been  most  frequently  discussed  by  geographers.     The 

analogy  presented  by  the  contour-lines  of  the  southern  section  of  the  New  World 

with  those  of  Africa  and  Australia  had.  already  been  noticed  by  Buffon  and  other 

2 


2  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

observers  in  the  last  century.  Favourite  subjects  of  comment  have  been  the 
contrasts  offered  by  the  three  continental  regions  of  the  southern  hemisphere  to 
those  of  the  north,  not  only  in  their  more  massive  outlines,  less  indented  by 
marine  inlets,  less  diversified  by  great  peninsulas,  but  also  in  other  salient  physical 
features,  as  well  as  in  their  respective  geographical  positions.  Attention  has  like- 
wise been  called  to  the  harmonious  correspondence  in  the  general  disposition  of 
Africa  and  South  America,  their  great  fluvial  basins  facing  each  other,  their  most 
advanced  headlands  of  Upper  Guinea  and  Brazil  projecting  from  either  side  of 
the  Atlantic  as  if  to  meet  in  mid-ocean. 

Nor  have  physical  geographers  failed  to  notice  the  resemblance  in  the  contour- 
lines  of  the  two  main  sections  of  the  New  World  itself,  both  of  triangular  form, 
with  apex  pointing  southwards,  and  with  orographic  and  hydrographic  systems 
presenting  many  features  in  common.  Here  the  chief  contrasts  between  the 
northern  and  southern  divisions  are,  in  fact,  mainly  due  to  the  differences  of  latitude, 
compared  with  which  the  diversities  of  outline  are  of  relatively  slight  importance. 
Such  diversities,  however,-  require  to  be  carefully  noted.  South  America,  with 
far  more  clearly  marked  periphery,  is  sharply  limited  in  the  north-west  by  the 
fluvial  valley  of  the  Atrato,  which  is  connected  by  a  very  low  pass  with  the 
marshy  gulf  of  San  Juan.  Thus  the  continent,  taken  as  a  whole,  may  be  regarded 
as  a  vast  insular  region  somewhat  analogous  to  Australia. 

Far  more  irregular  in  its  broad  outlines  is  the  North  American  continent, 
which  tapers  southwards  through  the  long  sinuous  stem  of  Central  America  form- 
ing a  prolongation  of  the  Mexican  uplands.  At  its  opposite  extremity  the  northern 
coastlands  are  intermingled  with  a  labyrinth  of  large  islands  and  archipelagoes, 
clothed  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  with  a  snowy  mantle,  and  soldered 
together  by  a  continuous  icecap.  In  this  direction  the  dimensions  of  the  North 
American  seaboard  can  scarcely  be  accurately  determined,  the  extremely  vague 
estimates  of  its  actual  extent  depending  on  summary  and  in  part  contradictory 
surveys.  In  fact,  the  northern  regions  are  merged,  so  to  say,  in  the  mysterious 
waters  of  the  Arctic  seas.  Hence  the  northern  division  of  the  New  World,  although 
occupying  a  larger  superficial  area,  is  inferior  to  the  southern  continent  in  the 
extent  of  its  habitable  lands.  Not  more  than  two-thirds  of  its  surface  is  really  at 
the  service  of  civilised  man. 

THE  SEABOARD. 

Till  recently  all  geographers,  in  common  with  Carl  Hitter,  pointed  to  the  more 
diversified  character  of  its  coast-lines  as  a  great  advantage  enjoyed  by  the  northern 
over  the  southern  continent.  One-half  of  its  seaboard  abounds  in  islands  and 
peninsulas,  such  as  the  Polar  Archipelago,  the  Aleutian  group,  the  West  Indies, 
California,  Florida,  and  Central  America,  whereas  the  southern  continent  presents 
a  scarcely  indented  coast  line,  with  but  few  and  small  peninsulas,  unless  thePata- 
gonian  extremity  itself  may  be  considered  as  a  sort  of  peninsular  region.  The 
islands,  nowhere  numerous  except  on  the  austral  coasts,  are  disposed  close  to  the 
mainland,  so  as  to  scarcely  disturb  the  general  uniformity  of  the  shore- lines. 


o- 


HYDEOGEAPHY  OP  SOUTH  AMEEICA.  3 

Nevertheless,  this  difference  in  the  relative  proportion  of  indentations  and 
archipelagoes  fringing  the  two  continents  does  not  possess  the  importance  which 
has  been  claimed  for  it.  An  abundance  of  islands  and  peninsulas  does  not  neces- 
sarily constitute  an  advantage  in  itself,  and  may  even  be  a  drawback.  Every- 
thing, in  fact,  depends  on  the  special  conditions  presented  by  each  of  the  geo- 
graphical divisions.  Thus  the  West  Indies  have  become  the  "  Jewel  of  the  New 
World,"  thanks  to  their  happy  position  at  the  con6uence  of  the  oceanic  currents 
and  in  the  forefront  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  ;  thanks  also  to  their  climate,  to  their 
natural  resources,  and  to  the  facilities  of  communication  from  port  to  port. 

But  the  snowy  lands  of  the  Far  North,  washed  by  the  Frozen  Ocean,  remain 
absolutely  uninhabitable  ;  nor  is  it  likely  that  they  can  ever  attract  any  settlers. 
They  may  at  most  continue  to  be  visited  by  seekers  for  gold  and  peltries,  or  by  a 
few  travellers  anxious  to  study  nature  under  its  sternest  aspects  of  dreariness 
and  desolation.  On  the  other  hand,  the  North  American  peninsulas,  such  as 
Nova  Scotia,  South  California,  and  even  Florida,  are  far  from  possessing  the 
same  economic  value  for  intending  immigrants  as  the  mainland  itself. 

RIVER  SYSTEMS. 

But  in  both  continental  divisions  the  marine  inlets,  offering  points  of  easy 
access  to  navigation,  are  increased  ten  or  even  a  hundred  fold  by  the  network  of 
fluvial  or  lacustrine  arteries  ramifying  throughout  the  interior.  In  this  respect 
the  twin  continents  are  equally  favoured  in  comparison  with  the  various  sections 
of  the  Old  World.  South  America  certainly  lacks  the  vast  fresh-water  basins 
characteristic  of  the  North  ;  even  Titicaca,  its  largest  lake,  although  traversed  by 
small  vessels,  is  an  isolated  basin  in  an  upland  depression  of  the  Andes,  uncon- 
nected with  any  other  lines  of  communication  by  water.  But  to  the  ramifying 
system  of  the  Mississippi,  with  its  17,000  or  18,000  miles  of  navigable  highways, 
South  America  may  oppose  the  Amazons,  largest  river  on  the  surface  of  the  globe, 
with  a  development  of  deep  channels  at  least  twice  as  extensive  as  that  of  the 
Mississippi  basin. 

To  this  vast  network  of  inland  waterways  must  be  added  the  Orinoco  basin, 
which  also  abounds  in  navigable  streams,  and  the  River  Plate  system,  which 
includes  the  Paraguay,  Parana,  and  Uruguay,  and  which  rivals  the  Mississippi 
itself  in  the  extent  of  its  convergent  watercourses.  Moreover,  South  America 
is  distinguished  amongst  all  the  continents  by  the  absence  of  clear  parting-lines 
between  its  great  fluvial  basins.  To  a  certain  extent  all  the  hydrographic  systems 
from  the  Orinoco  delta  to  the  La  Plata  estuary  may  be  said  to  be  merged  in  a 
single  fluvial  basin. 

So  far  as  regards  the  Orinoco  and  the  Amazons,  the  union  is  complete,  thanks 
to  the  ramifying  waters  of  the  upper  Orinoco,  which  are  discharged  in  one 
direction  southwards  through  the  Cassiquiare,  and  in  another  straight  to  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  forcing  their  way  at  the  Maipures  and  Atures 
rapids  over  the  rocky  remains  of  eroded  mountain  barriers. 

Although  between  the  Amazons  and  La  Plata  basins  the  communications  are 


SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


more  obstructed,  the  water-parting  presents  at  various  points  certain  tracts  of 
undecided  slope,  where  the  spring  or  swamp  waters  flow  now  in  one  direction,  now 
in  another,  according  to  the  set  of  the  winds,  the  abundance  of  local  rains, 
the  alluvial  deposits,  or  the  effects  of  landslips.  At  the  foot  of  the  Bolivian 
Andes  the  various  branches  of  the  Mamore*  and  Pilcomayo  seem  interlaced, 
and  lower  down  the  level  plains  are  dotted  over  with  marshy  tracts,  whose 

Fig.  1. — INHABITABLE  REGIONS  IN  NOBTH  AMEEICA. 
Scale  1 :  70,000,000. 


-  r 


120° 


ich 


70° 


Arid  deserts. 


Morasses. 


Glacial  zones. 
930  Miles. 


Inhabitable  lands. 


sluggish  waters  drain  to  both  basins.  In  the  heart  of  the  continent  the  upper 
affluents  of  the  Guapore  and  the  Jauru  are  merged  together  during  the  rainy 
season.  The  Rio  Alegre,  a  tributary  of  the  Amazons,  has  its  source  on  the 
southern  slope  of  the  continent,  and  traverses  a  marshy  parting-line  before 
sweeping  round  the  Serra  Agoapehy  range  of  hills  on  its  northern  course  to  the 
Guapore*.  Nothing  would  be  easier  than  to  establish  a  permanent  connection 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA.  5 

between  the  two  fluvial  systems,  either  by  a  series  of  portages,  or  by  cutting  a 
canal  four  or  five  miles  long  across  the  divide.  Other  interminglings  of  river 
basins  have  also  been  developed  farther  east  between  the  eastern  affluents  of 
the  Paraguay  and  the  Arinos,  a  main  branch  of  the  Amazonian  Tapajoz,  and 
attempts  to  connect  them  by  cuttings  were  made  in  the  years  1713  and  1845. 

Fig.  2. — INHABITABLE  REGIONS  IN  SOUTH  AMEBICA. 
Scale  1  :  70,000,000. 


Arid  deserts. 


Morasses. 


Glacial  zones.  Inhabitable  lands. 

.  930  Miles. 


Viewed  as  a  whole,  the  South  American  hydrographic  system  is  remarkable 
for  the  prodigious  volumes  which  are  carried  seawards  by  the  main  arteries,  and 
much  of  which  expands  in  the  interior,  not  into  deep  lacustrine  depressions,  but 
in  lateral  backwaters  and  labyrinths  of  temporary  channels,  varying  from  year  to 
year,  and  from  season  to  season,  with  the  periodical  flooding  and  subsidence  of 
the  main  streams. 


6  SOUTH  AMEBICA— THE  ANDES  BEGIONS. 

Geologists  who  have  studied  the  contours  and  general  incline  of  these  inland 
regions  find  that  the  movement  of  waters  has  been  developed  in  two  principal 
directions,  one  parallel  with  the  meridian,  and  indicated  chiefly  by  the  trend  of 
the  Paraguay  and  of  the  Parana,  the  other  intersecting  the  first  at  right  angles, 
and  flowing  from  the  Andes  to  the  Atlantic.  The  Amazons,  a  "  liquid  equator," 
as  it  has  been  called,  follows  the  main  axis  of  this  second  hydrographic  system. 
The  aspect  presented  by  the  semicircle  of  the  Andes  between  the  Bogota  and 
Bolivian  plateaux  attests  the  vast  work  of  erosion  that  has  been  accomplished 
in  this  upland  region.  The  eastern  slope  of  the  Cordilleras  has  evidently  been 
eaten  away  by  the  running  waters  to  an  enormous  extent ;  numerous  lateral  ridges 
have  been  entirely  levelled,  and  their  triturated  debris  has  been  distributed  by 
the  streams  over  the  beds  of  great  inland  seas,  which  at  one  time  occupied  the 
central  region  of  the  continent.  The  sedimentary  matter  thus  carried  down 
towards  the  fluvial  estuaries  was  regarded  by  Humboldt  as  of  old  red  sandstone 
origin,  while  Martins  attributed  it  to  triassic  formations.  But  in  reality  these 
deposits  are  comparatively  recent  quaternary  clays  and  sands,  and  according  to 
Agassiz  are  partly  of  glacial  origin. 

The  part  of  the  Andean  system  that  has  best  resisted  the  fluvial  action  is  the 
huge  mass  of  the  Bolivian  uplands.  This  central  fortress  of  the  South  American 
rampart  is  no  less  than  500  miles  broad  between  the  escarpments  which  plunge 
into  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  and  the  eastern  plains  still  roamed  by  the  nomad 
Indians ;  but  a  little  farther  north,  in  the  very  axis  of  the  Amazons,  under  3° 
south  latitude,  the  main  range  of  the  Cordilleras  is  reduced  to  a  thickness  of 
scarcely  more  than  120  miles. 

East  of  Bolivia  the  headstreams,  which  trend  some  to  the  Amazons,  some  to 
the  Paraguay  basin,  have  not  been  strong  enough  to  sweep  away  the  Andean 
foothills.  Along  the  parting-line  the  expanse  of  level  plains  intervening  between 
the  paleozoic  Andean  rocks  and  those  of  the  Brazilian  plateaux  has  a  normal 
breadth  of  no  more  than  250  miles  ;  towards  the  centre  it  is  studded  with  nume- 
rous hills  and  isolated  ridges,  surviving  witnesses  of  the  crystalline  nucleus  and 
other  formations  which  at  one  time  occupied  the  whole  continent  from  sea  to  sea. 
The  passages  which  the  Amazons  and  the  Orinoco  have  had  to  cut  for  themselves 
through  the  coast  ranges  are  much  narrower  still  than  this  central  depression. 
Between  the  Tapajoz  and  Xingu  mouths  the  Amazons  valley  is  scarcely  GO  miles 
broad  from  hill  to  hill. 

FoitESTS   AND    H.ABITABLE   LANDS. 

The  enormous  excess  of  pluvial  waters  which  distinguishes  the  southern 
continent,  and  which  has  created  this  astonishing  system  of  ramifying  streams, 
has,  however,  conferred  little  more  than  a  nominal  advantage  on  its  inhabitants, 
at  least  in  the  equatorial  zone.  Such  liquid  masses  are  too  copious,  too  irregular 
in  their  regime  to  be  controlled  by  man,  who  till  recently  has  scarcely  been 
able  to  utilise  them  even  for  navigation.  Moreover,  the  tepid  and  oppressive 
climate  has  hitherto  been  opposed  to  the  acclimatisation  of  the  white  and  half- 


FORESTS— COMMUNICATIONS.  7 

caste  races  in  large  numbers.  The  soil,  with  its  excessive  fertility,  has  clothed 
itself  with  continuous  woodlands,  a  tangled  mass  of  vegetation  overflowing  with 
sap,  where  whole  generations  will  be  unable  to  effect  more  that  a  few  narrow 
clearings. 

The  Amazonian  forest,  which  the  Spaniards  call  the  Selva  in  a  pre-eminent 
sense,  and  which  is  continued  southwards  by  the  Matto  Grosso  of  the  Portuguese, 
covers  a  space  estimated  at  2,800,000  square  miles.  In  this  boundless  expanse 
travellers,  and  even  the  seekers  for  rubber,  ipecacuanha  and  other  medicinal  or 
economic  products,  have  for  the  most  part  no  knowledge  of  the  Selva  beyond  the 
winding  avenues  opened  in  its  shade  by  the  rivers  and  backwaters.  This  densely 
timbered  and  almost  uninhabited  region  separates  the  low-lying  Venezuelan  plains 
from  those  of  Bolivia  more  effectually  than  if  it  were  an  absolute  desert. 

Thus,  despite  its  immense  wastes  of  snow  and  ice,  despite  its  tundras  of  mosses 
and  lichens,  which  occupy  about  one-third  of  its  whole  area,  North  America  offers 
at  the  present  day  a  far  more  favourable  territory  for  settlement  than  the  southern 
continent.  Its  chief  advantage  is  that  the  temperate  zone,  which  is  best  suited 
for  the  development  and  prosperity  of  the  white  race,  comprises  its  broader  part, 
where  the  United  States  have  been  constituted.  In  South  America,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  corresponding  section  begins  where  the  land,  already  considerably  con- 
tracted between  the  two  oceans,  continues  to  taper  rapidly  in  the  direction  of  the 
austral  seas.  Measured  on  Berghmann's  map  by  the  isothermal  lines  of  46°  and 
68°  Fahr.,  this  climatic  zone  comprises  over  4,000,000  square  miles  in  the  northern, 
and  somewhat  less  than  2,000,000  in  the  southern  continent. 

COMMUNICATIONS. 

Another  disadvantage  of  the  South  compared  with  the  North  as  a  region  of 
colonisation  results  from  its  more  remote  position  from  the  other  great  divisions 
of  the  globe.  Apart  from  the  Antarctic  polar  lands,  South  America  is  farther 
removed  than  any  other  continental  region  from  the  great  commercial  marts,  and 
from  the  most  densely-peopled  countries — West  Europe,  India,  and  China — whose 
central  point  about  coincides  with  the  middle  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  Never- 
theless, steam  has  helped  greatly  to  shorten  the  time  formerly  occupied  in  the 
voyage  from  the  European  Atlantic  ports  to  those  of  Colombia,  Brazil,  and 
Argentina.  With  the  resources  supplied  by  the  mechanical  arts,  it  may  even  be 
possible  in  the  near  future  to  bring  the  eastern  ports  of  Brazil  practically  as  near 
to  London  and  Paris  as  are  New  York  and  Montreal  at  present. 

The  South  American  coastlands  are  already  directly  connected  by  regular  lines 
of  steamships  with  those  of  Europe,  but  the  construction  of  the  projected  north- 
west African  railways  may  even  reduce  by  one-half  the  journey  between  these 
points.  In  this  respect  the  "  Trans- Saharan "  trunk  line  should  be  regarded 
as  of  more  importance  for  South  America  than  for  Europe.  Some  French  specu- 
lators, inspired  more  by  colonial  patriotism  than  by  economic  interests,  are  at 
present  occupied  with  various  schemes  for  connecting  by  rail  the  Mediterranean 
seaboard  with  the  Sahara,  Sudan,  and  Senegal. 


8 


SOUTI1  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEOIONS. 


Doubtless  a  line  running  from  Algiers  to  Lake  Chad,  and  continued  south- 
wards to  the  Ubanghi  and  the  Congo,  would  at  some  future  time  possess  an  un- 
deniable value  in  developing  and  utilising  the  still  untouched  resources  of  those 
regions.  But  the  lines  already  begun  at  Philippe ville,  Algiers,  and  Oran  would, 
if  continued  south-westwards  to  Dakar,  present  the  advantage  of  not  only  con- 
necting Algeria  and  Senegal  in  a  single  commercial  and  political  zone,  but,  as  has 
already  been  pointed  out  by  the  engineers,  would  also  serve  to  swell  the  great 
stream  of  international  traffic  between  Europe  and  South  America.  Swift-sailing 


Fig.  3. — FtmiEE  EOUTES  BETWEEN  PARIS  AND  BUENOS  ATBBS. 
Scale  1  :  110,000,000. 


^i^K  Kayes  ,-Timbukbu        V 
=--lhSft    ^ 


Railways. 


Projected  Railways.  Steamers. 
1,240  Miles. 


liiiers,  such  as  those  now  plying  between  Liverpool  and  New  York,  could  cross 
the  Atlantic  between  Dakar  and  the  Brazilian  ports  of  Natal  and  Pernambuco  in 
less  than  three  days  ;  and  on  this  short  route  at  one  cf  the  narrowest  parts  of  the 
ocean,  passengers  would  have  the  pleasure  of  sighting  land  twice,  at  the  islands 
of  Sao  Paulo  and  Fernando  Noronha.  The  great  Transatlantic  line  connecting 
the  three  continents  might  also  be  continued  by  a  coast  railway  from  Pernambuco 
to  Buenos  Ayres,  with  branches  ramifying  into  the  interior  of  the  continent.  By 
this  route,  at  the  present  speed  of  the  most  powerful  engines,  the  trayeller  might 


EXPLOEATION  OF  THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  SEABOARD.  9 

reach  Buenos  Ayres   from  Paris   in  eleven  days,  that  is,  in  a  third  of  the  time 
occupied  by  existing  lines.* 

EXPLORATION  OF  THK  SEABOARD. 

The  work  of  discovery,  begun  in  North  America  centuries  before  the  time  of 
Columbus,  was  retarded  in  the  southern  continent  by  its  greater  distance  from  the 
populous  and  trading  lands  of  the  Old  World.  No  Norse  sea-rover  ever  landed 
on  its  shores ;  no  legend  anterior  to  the  age  of  the  great  navigators  speaks  of 
mysterious  islands  dimly  seen  by  monks  wandering,  like  St.  Brendan,  in  these 
remote  waters  of  the  austral  hemisphere ;  the  pretended  Phoenician  inscription 
said  to  have  been  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Parnahyba,  in  equatorial  Brazil,  was 
no  more  authentic  than  so  many  others  reported  from  various  parts  of  the  New 
World. 

The  Spanish  caravels  had  already  been  plying  for  six  years  in  the  West  Indian 
waters,  when  Columbus,  in  1498,  reached  the  mainland  near  the  Orinoco  delta. 
He  recognised  the  importance  of  this  immense  watercourse  ;  but  he  explored  none 
of  its  branches,  and,  escaping  from  the  Gulf  of  Paria  by  one  of  the  "Dragon's 
Mouths,"  where  the  marine  currents  clash,  he  hastily  returned  to  his  mines  and 
plantations  in  Espafiola. 

Next  year  Peralonso  Nino  and  Cristobal  Guerra  landed  in  their  turn  on  the 
shores  of  the  mainland,  which  they  traced  for  some  distance  in  the  direction  of  the 
west,  trading  as  they  went  with  the  natives.  Then  followed  a  few  months  later  the 
memorable  expedition  of  Hojeda,  who  was  accompanied  by  the  learned  pilots, 
Juan  de  la  Cosa  and  Amerigo  Vespucci.  The  party  extended  its  explorations  for 
over  600  miles  between  the  muddy  shores  of  the  present  Guiana  and  the  peninsula 
roamed  by  the  Goajiros  Indians,  west  of  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo. 

During  the  first  two  years  of  the  sixteenth  century  Bastidas  de  Sevilla  com- 
pleted the  survey  of  the  Columbian  coastlands  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of  Uraba.  About 
the  same  time  the  shores  of  the  continent  facing  Africa  were  also  visited  by 
European  navigators.  Vicente  Pinzon  explored  the  coasts  and  fluvial  estuaries 
of  the  Guianas,  sailed  into  the  "Freshwater  Sea"  encircling  the  Amazonian 
island  of  Marajo,  and  coasted  the  shores  of  the  present  Brazil  to  and  beyond  its 
easternmost  headland  of  Cape  Sao  Roque.  Diego  de  Lepe  traversed  the  same 
waters,  while  Alvarez  Cabral,  striking  the  land  at  Porto  Seguro  farther  south, 
reported  the  discovery  of  the  "island"  of  Santa  Cruz,  which  subsequent  discoveries 
showed  to  be  a  part  of  the  continental  seaboard  visited  by  his  predecessors. 

Then  Amerigo  Vespucci  traced  the  coastline  as  far  as  the  bay  of  Cananea,  south 
of  the  present  Brazil,  and  hither  came  Gonneville  and  other  Normans  of  Dieppe 

*  Dimensions  of  South  America  according  to  Ch.  Perron  : — 

Superficial  area  with  adjacent  and  dependent  islands          .         .      6,740,000  sq.  miles. 
Mean  area  of  the  other  continents  with  their  islands  .         .      8,950,000  sq.  milea. 

Coastline 18,000  miles. 

Extreme  length 4,500  miles. 

Extreme  breadth •-       • 

Extreme  distance  from  the  centre  to  the  coast    .      '    .         •         •         •          1,740  miles. 


10  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

in  search  of  spices.*  These  were  soon  followed  by  Vicente  Pinzon  and  Diaz  de 
Solis,  who  in  1509  entered  a  great  river  which  six  years  later  Solis  surveyed 
more  in  detail.  This  was  the  vast  southern  estuary  which  receives  the  two  rivers, 
Uruguay  and  Parana,  and  which  was  at  first  named  the  Rio  de  Solis.  But  when 
Sebastian  Cabot  discovered,  in  1528,  that  the  Parana  branch  led  inland  in  the 
direction  of  the  Peruvian  silver-mines,  the  name  was  changed  to  that  of  the  Rio 
de  la  Plata  ("  Silver  River"),  which  the  estuary  still  bears. 

Magellan's  memorable  expedition  of  1520-21  completed  the  discovery  of  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  New  World  as  far  as  the  entrance  of  the  strait  which  sepa- 
rates the  mainland  from  the  Fuegian  archipelago.  Six  years  later,  Francisco  de 
Hoces,  one  of  Loaysa's  companions,  coasted  the  seaboard  without  entering  the 
strait,  and  thus  reached  the  southern  extremity  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  close  to  the 
point  where  the  two  oceans  intermingle  their  waters.  But  although  the  sailors 
taking  part  in  the  expedition  unanimously  declared  that  they  had  seen  the  "  land's 
end,"  these  shores  were  not  accurately  traced  till  the  next  century,  when  Le 
Maire  rounded  Gape  Horn  in  1616. 

The  west  coast  of  South  America  being  further  removed  from  Europe,  its 
survey  was  naturally  subsequent  to  that  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  Thirty  years 
followed  the  discovery  of  Guanahani  before  Andagoya,  advancing  beyond  the  Gulf 
of  Panama,  coasted  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  in  the  direction  of  the  mysterious  Biru, 
or  Piru  (Peru),  which  Francisco  Pizarro  went  in  search  of  two  years  later.  In 
1527  he  reached  Tumbez,  its  northernmost  point,  just  below  the  Gulf  of  Guaya- 
quil ;  and  thenceforth  the  discovery  of  its  shores  and  alpine  coastlands  went 
hand  in  hand  with  the  conquest  of  the  Peruvian  empire.  In  1534  Almagro  had 
already  pushed  across  the  elevated  plateau  of  the  Andes  and  the  Atacama  desert 
as  far  as  the  northern  districts  of  Chili. 

In  1540  Valdivia  penetrated  still  farther  south  along  the  narrow  strip  of 
Chilian  coastlands  between  the  crest  of  the  Andes  and  the  Pacific.  But  here  all 
further  exploration  of  the  seaboard  in  the  direction  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  was  long 
arrested.  Little,  in  fact,  was  done  before  the  present  century  beyond  making  a 
summary  survey  of  the  coast  as  seen  from  the  ocean.  A  ship  belonging  to 
Loaysa's  squadron  had  certainly  passed  through  the  Strait  of  Magellan  towards 
Mexico  so  early  as  1526,  but  its  course  lay  too  far  seawards  even  to  sight  the  coast 
of  Chili.  Fourteen  years  later  Alonzo  de  Camargo,  following  in  the  same  direc- 
tion from  the  strait  towards  Callao,  kept  near  enough  inshore  to  determine  the 
exact  trend  of  the  continent  along  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

In  1579  Sarmiento,  one  of  Spain's  best  pilots,  made  the  voyage  in  the  opposite 
direction  from  north  to  south,  and  the  coastline,  as  traced  by  him,  gave  a  toler- 
ably correct  reproduction  of  its  true  form.  Drake,  also,  studying  the  best  routes 
by  which  the  Spanish  settlements  might  be  surprised,  contributed  not  a  little  to  a 
more  accurate  knowledge  of  the  southern  coastlands.  Their  exploration  is  still 
continued,  and  must  last  some  time  longer  before  complete  surveys  can  be  made  of 

*  D'Avezac,  Nouvellts  Annaks  des  Voyages,  1869. 


EXPLOEATION  OP  THE  INTERIOR.  11 

the  Chiloe  and  Fuegian  archipelagoes,  with  all  their  intricate  passages,  projecting 
headlands,  groups  and  chains  of  reefs  and  islands. 

EXPLORATION  OF  THE  INTERIOR. 

If  the  cartography  of  the  seahoard  is  not  yet  completed,  that  of  the  interior  is 
even  still  more  defective,  despite  the  thousands  of  itineraries  spread  like  a  network 
over  the  well-known  settled  regions,  and  carefully  reproduced  in  all  their  details 
on  modern  maps.  The  Conquistadores  were  the  first  explorers,  and  the  geographical 
history  of  the  continent  begins  with  the  reports  of  their  expeditions.  The 
Pizarros,  the  Almagros,  the  Valdivias,  and  their  lieutenants  brought  under  their 
dominion  every  city,  every  civilised  tiibe  throughout  the  uplands  and  western 
valleys  of  the  Peruvian  and  Chilian  Andes. 

Farther  north,  in  the  Venezuelan  and  Colombian  regions,  other  captains  and 
leaders  of  armed  followers — Germans  in  the  service  of  the  bankers  of  Charles  V., 
or  Spanish  adventurers  in  search  of  fresh  conquests  and  new  viceroyalties — also 
forced  their  way  through  savannas,  across  mountains  and  rivers,  losing  half  or 
more  of  their  followers  on  the  march. 

Alfinger,  "cruellest  of  the  cruel,"  roamed  as  a  hunter  of  men  the  upland 
regions,  where  are  intermingled  the  headwaters  of  the  streams  which  flow  in  one 
direction  to  the  Maracaibo  inlet,  in  another  towards  the  Rio  Magdalena.  Heredia, 
Cesar,  Robledo,  Fernandez  de  Lugo  penetrated  into  the  mountainous  northern 
districts  of  the  present  Colombia.  Frcdemann,  after  traversing  the  overhanging 
cliffs  between  the  Venezuelan  seaboard  and  the  plains  of  the  Orinoco,  retraced  his 
steps  to  the  coast,  and  then  went  in  quest  of  the  plateaux  occupied  by  the  empire 
of  the  Muyscas.  When  at  last  he  reached  this  mysterious  region  beyond  the 
forests,  the  river  gorges  and  woodlands,  he  found  himself,  to  his  utter  amazement, 
forestalled  by  other  European  conquerors  who,  in  absolute  ignorance  of  their  rivals' 
movements,  had  penetrated  by  other  routes  to  the  same  place.  Quesada,  starting 
from  Santa  Marta,  had  ascended  the  course  of  the  Magdalena  as  far  as  the  Opon 
confluence,  whence  he  had  made  his  way  to  the  Cundinamarca  plateau,  while 
Belalcazar,  at  that  time  in  Quito,  had  arrived  at  the  same  goal  from  an  opposite 
direction  by  traversing  the  Tuquerres  plateau  and  crossing  the  central  Cordillera 
and  the  upper  Magdalena.  Like  three  vultures  swooping  down  on  the  prey,  they 
were  fain,  much  to  their  regret,  to  share  the  booty  between  them. 

These  expeditions  towards  the  capitals  of  empires,  towards  cities  to  which 
roads  had  been  opened  by  the  natives  from  time  immemorial,  were  succeeded  by 
an  epoch  of  journeys  made  -at  haphazard  towards  visionary  regions.  Nothing 
seemed  impossible  to  these  men,  who,  after  the  first  years  of  monotonous  life  in 
Spain,  suddenly  found  themselves  launched  on  a  marvellous  career  of  battles  and 
triumphs,  traversing  seas  and  continents,  and  sweeping  whole  populations  away  as 
in  a  storm.  All  the  doughty  deeds  related  in  their  romances  of  chivalry  they  had 
themselves  performed. 

There  remained  nothing  now  but  to  crown  their  work  with  miraculous 
achievements,  to  triumph  with  magic  weapons  over  dragons  and  demons,  to 


12  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

conquer  golden  palaces,  paved  with  diamonds,  and  adorned  with  colonnades  of 
glittering  gems.  Had  not  Columbus  already  declared  that  the  Orinoco  issued 
from  the  "  Earthly  Paradise  "  ?  And  so  they  set  out  in  quest  of  that  marvellous 
land  whence  -their  first  parents  had  been  expelled  by  the  archangel.  No  failure 
could  damp  their  sanguine  hopes  or  turn  them  aside  from  this  pursuit  of  the 
unknown.  Every  Indian  legend,  every  hallucination  of  wearied  wayfarers,  every 
fleeting  mirage  on  the  distant  horizon,  seemed  in  the  eyes  of  the  eager  adventurers 
a  fresh  vision  of  the  enchanted  city  where  reigned  the  Man  of  Gold,  the  potent 
Dorado  !  For  over  a  century  all  the  expeditions  made  east  of  the  Andes  in  the 
Orinoco  and  Amazons  basins  were  directed  or  inspired  by  these  fanciful  visions. 

One  of  the  first  of  these  treasure-seekers  was  the  same  Diego  de  Ordaz,  com- 
panion of  Cortez,  who  had  already  visited  the  crater  of  Popocatepetl  in  the  hope 
of  there  finding  liquid  stores  of  the  precious  metals.  In  1531  he  ascended  the 
Orinoco  to  the  Meta  confluence,  that  is,  to  the  great  plains  extending  from  the 
inner  slopes  of  the  Andes  to  the  Amazons  basin.  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  brother  of  the 
founder  of  Lima,  also  undertook  a  great  journey  in  the  quest  of  gold,  but  during 
his  descent  of  the  Rio  Napo  he  found  nothing  more  precious  than  the  "  cinnamon- 
tree,"  which  was  at  first  supposed  to  be  as  efficacious  as  the  Ceylon  plant,  but 
which  has  since  been  neglected  as  worthless. 

But  the  bark  of  a  tree,  however  valuable,  could  scarcely  suffice  to  sate  the 
greed  of  a  Pizarro.  He  accordingly  continued  his  route  beyond  the  cinnamon 
forest ;  but  the  morasses,  the  impenetrable  masses  of  vegetation,  the  snags  in  the 
river,  strewed  his  path  with  such  difficulties  that  he  was  obliged  to  send  forward 
a  scout  to  explore  the  lower  Napo  and  the  mainstream  of  the  Amazons.  Unfor- 
tunately, he  placed  too  much  confidence  in  Orellana,  who  had  been  selected 
for  this  pioneer  work,  and  who  was  himself  eager,  even  at  the  price  of  treason,  to 
acquire  the  glory,  perhaps  the  profit  also,  of  the  discovery.  He  accordingly 
launched  on  the  broad  stream,  drifting  with  the  current  from  island  to  island, 
from  bank  to  bank,  all  the  way  to  the  "  Freshwater  Sea"  formed  by  the  immense 
body  of  Amazonian  waters  spread  over  the  Atlantic  floods.  For  the  first  time  the 
South  American  continent  had  been  traversed  from  shore  to  shore,  and,  as  it 
happened,  the  course  followed  nearly  coincided  with  the  equatorial  line,  not  far 
from  the  zone  where  it  acquires  its  greatest  breadth. 

This  journey  made  by  Orellana  down  the  Amazons,  and  by  his  contemporaries 
regarded  as  prodigious,  had  several  imitators  amongst  the  pioneers  and  mis- 
sionaries of  those  times.  But  the  voyage  up-stream  was  delayed  for  nearly 
another  century,  till  1G38-9,  when  Captain  Pedro  Texeira  ascended  from  Grao 
Para  to  the  city  of  Quito  with  a  flotilla  of  forty-seven  canoes,  containing 
70  Portuguese  soldiers,  1,200  Indian  sailors  and  soldiers,  and  the  like  number  of 
women  and  children.* 

Gold-hunters  descending  from  the  upland  valleys  of  the  present  Peru  and 
Bolivia,  also  explored  the  waterpartings  between  the  Amazons  and  La  Plata 

*  M.  J.  de  la  Espada,  Viaje  del  Capitdn  Pedro  Texeira  Aguas  arriba  del  Rio  de  las  Amazonas. 


EXPLOEATION  OF  THE  INTEHIOE.  18 

basins.  Settlements  were  even  formed  in  the  Caravaya  forests,  which  clothe 
certain  parts  of  this  dividing  region.  But  such  was  the  greed  of  the  Spaniards 
that  they  murdered  each  other  to  prevent  the  coveted  gold-mines  from  falling 
into  other  hands.  Of  two  small  bands  of  adventurers  who  came  into  collision  in 
the  mining  district,  not  more  than  three  persons  escaped  from  the  massacre.* 
Solitude  was  thus  restored  to  these  regions,  where  millions  might  live  in  comfort, 
and  even  now,  after  an  interval  of  three  hundred  years,  lands  have  to  be  again 
discovered  which  were  visited  by  the  first  conquerors,  and  by  them  connected  with 
the  flourishing  cities  on  the  seaboard. f 

A  similar  fate  overtook  the  numerous  missions  founded  by  the  Franciscans, 
the  Dominicans,  and  especially  the  Jesuits,  who  grouped  together  the  savage 
populations  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  them  in  the  simpler  crafts  of  European 
society,  at  the  same  time  teaching  them  to  recite  the  phrases  translated  from  the 
catechism  and  the  Latin  text  of  the  prayers  and  responses.  Doubtless  the  mis- 
sionaries were  not  all  attracted  to  these  difficult  regions  inhabited  by  formidable 
Indian  tribes  through  zeal  for  the  faith  and  the  desire  to  evangelise  the  natives. 
A  certain  number  of  them  came  to  reduce  their  folds  to  the  condition  of  slaves ; 
nor  did  they  yield  to  the  leaders  of  military  expeditions  in  greed  for  worldly  things. 

But,  on  the  whole,  they  were  far  superior  to  these  adventurers  in  intellectual 
and  moral  worth,  and  to  them  we  are  indebted  for  some  valuable  itineraries, 
amongst  others  those  made  by  Samuel  Fritz  in  various  parts  of  the  Upper 
Amazons  basin.  The  Lettres  Edifiantes,  in  which  their  reports  are  collected, 
contain  geographical  and  ethnological  documents  of  the  highest  interest.  Never- 
theless there  is  scarcely  an  Indian  village  founded  by  these  missionaries  in  the 
wilderness  that  has  survived  to  our  days.  In  the  struggle  for  existence  that 
raged  amongst  the  surrounding  populations,  the  wild  tribes,  being  of  bolder  and 
more  independent  spirit,  proved  to  be  by  far  the  stronger  of  the  two  elements. 
The  groups  of  neophytes,  having  too  rapidly  changed  their  habits,  and  being  still 
in  an  unstable  or  transitional  stage  of  culture,  yielded  in  far  larger  numbers  to 
the  ravages  of  European  epidemics.  Nation  after  nation  was  seen  to  disappear 

*  Clements  Markham,  Expeditions  into  the  Valley  of  the  Amazons,  Hdkluyt  Society, 
t  Chronological  order   of   the  chief  itineraries   in  South  America  during    the  first  century   of 
discoveries : — 


Columbus      .         ...         .     1498-1504 
Nino,  Guerra        ....     1499 
Hojeda,  Amerigo  Vespucci  .         .     1499-1501 
Bastidas,  Juan  de  la  Cosa     .         .     1500 

Pinzon '   1500 

Diego  de  Lepe  ....  1500 
Alvarez  Cabral  .  .  .  .1500 
De  Gonneville  .  .  .  .1504 
Diaz  de  Solis  .  .  .  .1509 

Magellan 1520 

Andagoya     .....     1522 
Francisco  Pizarro          .         .         .     1524-1510 
Sebastian  Cabot    .         .         .         .1528 

Alfinger 1530 

Diego  de  Ordaz  ....  1531 
Heredia  ....  1533 


Cesar 1535 

Almagra 1535 

Tomas  de  Berlanga        ....  1535 

Ayolas 1536 

Quesada 1537 

Belalcazar •    .  1537 

Fredemann 1537 

Badillo 1539 

Valdivia 1540 

Gonzalo  Pizarro 1540 

OreUana 15*0 

Camargo 1540 

Irala 1544 

Sarmiento 1579 

Sebald  de  Wert 

Juan  de  Sosa 1609 


14 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


before  these  maladies,  melting  away  like  mounds  of  snow  in  the  sun.  Then, 
when  it  came  to  the  issue  of  war,  the  civilised  tribes,  being  less  daring,  less 
inured  to  hardships,  less  confident  in  themselves,  assumed  a  passive  attitude, 
awaiting  the  orders  of  their  new  chiefs,  without  daring  to  take  the  initiative  in 
resisting  the  attacks  of  their  enemies.  Thus  it  came  about  that  districts  densely 
peopled  by  peaceful  communities  again  became  a  wilderness ;  hundreds  and 

Fig.  4.— CHIEF  ROUTES  OF  THE  SPANISH  CONQUEROBS  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA. 
Scale  1  :  65,000,000. 


930  Miles. 


hundreds  of  tribes  have  left  nothing  but  their  name  more  or  less  accurately  trans- 
mitted to  posterity. 

In  the  war  of  extermination  waged  by  Brazil  and  the  Argentine  Republic 
against  Paraguay,  it  was  seen  how  the  docile  populations  descended  from  those  of 
the  old  Jesuit  missions  allowed  themselves  to  be  stupidly  butchered  by  the  half- 
castes  of  the  Brazilian  plateaux.  Numerous  villages  founded  in  the  first  days  of 
the  conquest  have  disappeared,  and  beaten  tracks  hundreds  of  years  old  are  now 


SCIENTIFIC  EXPLORATION.  15 

overgrown  with  tall  herbage  and  trees.  The  work  of  discovery  instead  of  pro- 
gressing continued  for  a  long  time  to  recede,  so  that  the  children  began  to  doubt 
or  to  forget  what  their  fathers  had  done ;  certain  formerly  well-known  districts 
fell  into  complete  oblivion. 

During  the  long  colonial  period,  journeys  deviating  from  the  frequented  high- 
ways occurred  only  at  long  intervals.  On  the  other  hand,  even  the  most  success- 
ful expeditions  served  but  little  to  increase  the  general  knowledge  of  the  land,  for 
the  jealous  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Governments  sought  to  reserve  for  their  own 
use  the  acquired  results,  keeping  many  precious  documents  in  their  secret  archives, 
where  they  became  worm-eaten  past  recovery. 

The  navigators  of  all  nations  continued  the  systematic  survey  of  the  coastlands, 
while  the  interior  of  the  continent  still  remained  wrapped  in  a  dense  cloud  of 
ignorance.  The  detailed  reports,  accompanied  by  maps,  which  the  officials  were 
required  to  forward  to  the  Council  of  the  Indies  on  every  province  of  the  vast 
colonial  domain,  reports  which  are  now  of  such  value  to  students,  were  never 
published,  and  remained  neglected  by  their  custodians.  Thus,  at  the  time  of  the 
union  of  the  two  kingdoms,  a  joint  Hispano-Portuguese  expedition  was  made  in 
1638  up  the  Amazons  between  Para  and  Quito.  But  the  Spanish  Government, 
which  had  allowed  the  monk  Acuna  to  write  an  account  of  the  voyage,  hastened 
to  confiscate  the  book  as  soon  as  the  Portuguese  had  recovered  their  independence. 
It  feared  that  this  work,  the  first  that  gave  a  detailed  description  of  the  great 
river,  might  be  of  service  to  some  enemy.* 

The  epoch  of  scientific  exploration  began  with  the  researches  of  Feuillee,  a 
priest  and  astronomer,  who,  in  1707-12,  made  the  circumnavigation  of  the  southern 
shores  of  America  in  order  to  determine  the  exact  position  of  a  few  points  on  the 
seaboard.  But  the  modern  geographical  history  of  the  continent  may  be  said  to 
date  from  the  time  when  Bouguer,  Godin,  La  Condamine,  and  TJlloa  undertook  the 
measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  meridian  of  about  three  degrees  between  the  two 
parallel  chains  of  Ecuador. 

Over  a  century  and  a  half  has  passed  since  the  memorable  year  1736,  when 
the  learned  geometricians  landed  at  Guayaquil,  and  made  their  way  to  the  group 
of  mountains  which  they  had  to  measure,  and  which  was  at  that  time  regarded  as 
the  culminating  point  of  the  globe.  Many  were  the  difficulties  which  they  had  to 
overcome,  in  an  almost  desert  region,  destitute  of  communications,  furrowed  by 
tremendous  ravines,  exposed  to  frequent  earthquakes,  covered  lower  down  by 
almost  impenetrable  forests,  higher  up  by  rocks  and  snows.  Hence  the  work, 
although  steadily  prosecuted,  lasted  six  years  ;  but  it  was  of  supreme  importance, 
not  only  for  the  study  of  South  America,  but  also  for  that  of  the  whole  world,  and 
for  determining  the  exact  shape  of  the  planet. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  attesting  the  extreme  care  with  which  the  scientific 
commission  carried  out  its  labours,  that  the  positions  assigned  by  it  to  the  cities  of 
the  plateau  and  to  the  surrounding  mountains  were  far  more  correct  than  those 

*  Acuna,  Nuevo  Descubrimiento  d*l  gran  Rio  de  las  Amazonas ;  C.  B.  Markham,  Expeditions  into  the 
Valley  of  the  Amazons,  Uakluyt  Society. 


1C 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


Fig.  6. — DETERMINATION  OF  THE  MEBIDIAN  OF 

QUITO. 
Scale  1  :  3,500,000. 


Meridia 


/      ,--'', •'  Cayam&a 


QUITp 


Latacun 


Ambato 


obtained  sixty  years  afterwards  by  the  great  Hurnboldt  when  determining  certain 
astronomic  points  in  Ecuador.  All  the  cartographic  documents  prepared  during 
the  course  of  the  present  century  down  to  recent  years  had  taken  for  their  base 
Humboldt's  observations  of  latitude  and  longitude,  with  the  result  that  the  section 
of  the  northern  Andes  between  Bogota  and  Cuzco  was  shifted  much  too  far  west- 
wards. In  some  places,  notably  between 
Guayaquil  and  the  inland  city  of  Alausi, 
the  error  was  as  much  as  20  geogra- 
phical miles.*  Hence  all  the  lines  on 
the  map  had  to  be  altered,  so  as  to  cor- 
respond with  the  old  network  traced  by 
Bouguer  and  his  as  ociates.  On  his 
return  La  Condamine,  descending  the 
course  of  the  Amazons,  prepared  the 
first  chart  of  the  river  based  on  astro- 
nomic observations. 

The  Spanish  Government  had  de- 
parted from  its  traditional  policy  in 
allowing  the  French  geodesians  to 
establish  themselves  in  its  American 
colonies.  Over  fifty  years  afterwards 
it  made  a  like  concession  in  favour  of 
Alexander  von  Humboldt  and  his  com- 
panion, Aime  Bonpland,  who  were  per- 
mitted to  visit  its  Transatlantic  terri- 
tories without  any  restriction.  Landing 
in  1799  at  Cumana,  the  two  travellers 
traversed  Venezuela ;  placed  beyond 
doubt  the  remarkable  bifurcation  of  the 
Orinoco  already  well  known  to  the  mis- 
sionaries and  local  traders,  but  at  times 
questioned  by  ignorant  writers  of  the 
Old  World  ;  visited  the  Bogota  plateau, 
the  upper  Magdalena  basin,  Quito,  and 
its  lines  of  volcanoes. 

Humboldt  tried  to  scale  Chimborazo, 
which  he  believed  to  be  pre-eminently 
the  giant  amongst  the  great  mountains 

of  the  globe ;  although  he  failed  to  reach  the  summit,  he  reached  a  higher  point 
on  its  elopes  than  any  other  previous  climber.  He  never  completed  the  descrip- 
tion of  his  five  years'  travels  in  the  "  equinoxial  regions."  Nevertheless,  his 
studies,  embracing  all  phenomena  of  planetary  life,  as  well  as  the  discussion  of 
all  problems  associated  with  them,  became  a  veritable  guide  and  rade-mecuni  for 
*  Theodor  Wolf,  Verhandhmgen  der  Gesellschnft  fur  Erdkunde  zu  Berlin,  Nos.  9  and  10,  1891. 


'*"•''"'? 

»  '  }*          ' 

Cuenca  >%'    \»* 


W.oFGreenw.ch     79* 


78' 


60  Miles. 


SCIENTIFIC  EXPLORATION.  17 

a  large  number  of  inquirers  who  entered  either  as  disciples  or  rivals  on  the  same 
career  of  scientific  exploration. 

Humboldt's  journey  was  thus  not  only  of  capital  importance  for  the  history 
of  Spanish  America,  but  it  must  also  be  considered  as  the  event  which  has  given 
the  most  powerful  impulse  to  the  comprehensive  study  of  the  great  terrestrial 
organism.  Humboldt  has  even  been  called,  though  with  some  exaggeration,  the 
"  founder  "  of  meteorological  geography,  of  pelagic  science,  and  of  geographic 
botany.  He  devoted  half  a  century  to  an  orderly  digest  of  the  materials  collected 
during  his  expedition. 

Since  this  pioneer,  legions  of  naturalists  or  men  of  leisure  have  traversed  the 
various  regions  of  South  America,  and  huudreds  of  them  have  left  their  mark  on 
the  history  of  the  discovery.  By  their  itineraries  they  have  modified  the  relative 
positions  of  many  places  wrongly  laid  down  on  the  maps,  and  by  their  observations 
they  have  contributed  in  various  degrees  to  a  better  knowledge  of  the  country  and 
its  inhabitants.  Thus  Von  Eschwege  and,  after  him,  Maximilian  von  Wied, 
Auguste  de  Saint-Hilaire,  and,  in  a  more  complete  and  thorough  manner,  Spix  and 
Martius  explored  in  various  directions  the  interior  of  Brazil  and  the  Amazonian 
lands,  some  as  geologists,  others  as  botanists  or  anthropologists. 

Pentland  sojourned  on  the  elevated  Bolivian  plateaux,  and  measured  the 
encircling  giants,  to  which,  however,  he  wrongly  assigned  the  first  rank  amongst 
the  loftiest  summits  of  America.  D'Orbigny,  Castelnau,  and  Marcoy  devoted 
themselves  especially  to  the  geography  of  the  central  regions  between  the  La 
Plata  and  Amazons  basins  ;  and  while  they  were  plodding  patiently  through  the 
forests,  heading  or  drifting  with  the  stream,  Darwin  was  making  the  famous  voyage 
round  the  continental  periphery  where  he  collected  the  materials  which,  combined 
with  the  observations  of  "Wallace  and  Bates  on  the  banks  of  the  Amazons  and 
its  affluents,  were  destined  to  help  in  definitely  establishing  the  theory  of  the 
Origin  of  Species.  It  was  through  the  exuberant  life  of  the  South  American  world, 
through  the  study  of  its  plants  and  animals,  that  Darwin,  Wallace,  and  Bates 
ushered  in  the  order  of  research  which  has  renovated  science. 

Each  of  the  several  South  American  regions  had  its  special  explorers,  who 
contributed  to  determine  its  relief,  to  reveal  its  natural  resources,  and  throw  light 
on  the  character  of  its  inhabitants.  Thus  the  island  of  Trinidad  has  been  described 
by  Wells,  Sawkins,  De  Verteuil  and  Kingsley.  Codazzi,  Myers,  Sachs,  Ernst, 
Sievers,  Chaffanjon  have  distinguished  themselves  by  their  travels  in  Venezuela 
and  neighbouring  lands.  Colombia  has  been  explored  in  every  direction  by  llaulin, 
Boussingault,  Ancizar,  Acosta,-  Karsten,  Stiibel,  Reiss,  Saffray,  Andre,  Steinheil, 
Hettner,  and  Vergara.  Wolf,  Rerny,  Whymper,  and  De  la  Espada  have  studied 
Ecuador  in  its  relief,  its  physical  features,  and  natural  history.  Peru,  one  of  the 
best-known  regions  of  South  America,  has  been  traversed  in  all  directions  by 
Poeppig,  Tschudi,  Rivero,  Bollaert,  Angrand,  Markham,  Wiener,  Paz  Soldan, 
Raimondi,  Simons.  The  Bolivian  tracks  have  been  followed  by  Weddell,  Orton, 
Minchin,  Reck,  Guillaume.  Domeyko,  Philippi,  Gay  initiated  the  exploration  of 
Chili,  which  has  since  been  continued  by  numerous  geologists  and  engineers. 
3 


18  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

Cox,  Moreno,  Musters,  Rogers,  Moyano,  Lista  have  ventured  into  the  wilds  of 
Patagonia  and  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Martin  de  Moussy,  Burmeister,  Page,  Crevaux, 
Thuar,  De  Brettes,  and  many  others  have  led  the  way  for  settlers,  miners,  and 
traders  in  the  Argentine  lands.  In  the  vast  Brazilian  domain  Agassiz  and  Hart 
have  ascended  the  Amazons  in  the  wake  of  numerous  predecessors.  Halfeld  has 
prepared  the  map  of  the  San  Francisco  basin  ;  Wells  has  studied  the  fluvial  valleys 
inclining  towards  Sao  Luis  de  Maranhao ;  Von  den  Steinen  has  ascended  the 
Xingu ;  Ehrenreich  has  resided  amongst  the  Carib  Indians  of  the  Amazonian 
woodlands ;  Church  has  surveyed  the  Madeira  and  its  rapids.  The  exploration  of 
the  Purus,  begun  by  Chandless,  has  been  completed  by  Labre,  who  has  connected 
the  various  routes  of  this  river  and  its  affluents  with  the  course  of  the  Madre  de 
Dios  and  of  the  Mamore.  Sosa's  exploration  of  the  lea  (Putumayo)  between 
Ecuador  and  Amazonia  has  been  resumed  after  a  lapse  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
years  by  Crevaux  and  Simson.  Lastly,  in  the  Guianas,  where  Schomburgk  had 
opened  the  way  to  the  interior,  and  where  Appun  and  Brown  had  made  important 
geological  and  natural  history  studies,  Crevaux  and  Coudreau  have  advanced  across 
the  mountains  and  descended  by  various  routes  towards  the  banks  of  the  Amazons. 
Every  year  numerous  travellers  continue  the  work  of  discovery,  and  their  steps 
are  followed  by  miners  and  railway  builders. 

Nevertheless  there  still  remain  vast  territories  in  South  America  which  have 
never  yet  been  traversed  and  described  by  any  white  man  ;  notably  in  the  bound- 
less forest  region  of  the  Amazons  valley  there  are  compact  spaces,  20,000  square 
miles  in  extent,  which  still  await  the  explorer.  In  these  districts  the  course  of 
the  rivers  has  been  traced  at  haphazard  or  on  hearsay  reports.  No  part  of  the 
continent  has  been  figured  with  an  accuracy  comparable  to  that  of  the  charts  of 
West  Europe.  Even  the  countries  which  have  made  the  greatest  progress  in  this 
respect,  the  Colombian  plateau,  Chili,  West  Peru,  the  Argentine  Republic,  possess 
no  thorough  surveys.  The  best  charts  are  naturally  those  of  the  seaboard 
frequented  by  the  mariners  of  all  nations,  and  those  of  the  agricultural  and 
mining  regions  in  the  interior,  where  the  populations  are  already  grouped  in 
numerous  towns  and  cities. 

II. 

The  triangular  mass  of  South  America  forms  two  distinct  natural  divisions, 
differing  greatly  in  their  form,  relief,  climate,  products,  inhabitants,  and  historic 
evolution.  In  the  western  section  of  the  continent  are  comprised  the  mountain 
ranges  of  varying  si/e  and  altitude,  and  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  which 
follow  the  coastline  of  the  Caribbean  and  Pacific  waters  between  the  two  extreme 
points  of  Trinidad  and  Staten  Island,  and  which  have  a  total  development  of  no 
less  than  5,900  miles.  The  eastern  section,  less  in  absolute  length,  but  of  far 
greater  superficial  extent,  embraces  the  vast  plains  of  the  interior,  together  with 
the  irregular  mass  of  uplands  which  skirt  the  Atlantic  as  far  south  as  the  La  Plata 
estuary,  and  which  are  of  great  geological  age. 

The  political  divisions  of  the   continent  correspond  in  a  general  way  with 


THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  RELIEF— THE  ANDES.  19 

these  natural  features.  Thus  the  three  republics  of  the  ancient  province  of 
Colombia  (Venezuela,  Colombia,  and  Ecuador),  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Chili,  all  belong 
to  the  western  (Andes)  section ;  while  the  Guianas,  Brazil,  and  the  Argentine 
States  form  part  of  the  eastern  section,  sloping  towards  the  Atlantic.  The  limits, 
however,  of  the  respective  physical  and  political  divisions  are  far  from  coinciding 
with  any  approach  to  accuracy.  "With  the  exception  of  Chili,  comprised  entirely 
within  the  Pacific  slope,  all  the  Andean  states  encroach  considerably  on  the  inland 
plains.  The  whole  of  the  Orinoco  basin,  although  lying  in  the  Atlantic  area  of 
drainage,  is,  nevertheless,  comprised  within  the  two  Andean  republics  of  Venezuela 
and  Colombia.  But  these  frontiers,  laid  down  by  diplomatists,  run  for  nearly  their 
entire  length  through  regions  inhabited  only  by  the  aborigines  and  a  few  half- 
castes.  Even  in  the  eyes  of  the  geographer  their  importance  is  but  slight. 

THE  ANDES  OROGRAPHIC  SYSTEM. 

The  characteristic  feature  of  South  America,  as  compared  with  other  continents, 
is  the  remarkable  regularity  of  the  orographic  system  which  forms  its  backbone. 
From  east  Venezuela  to  the  Strait  of  Magellan  the  line  of  the  Andes  nowhere 
presents  a  single  break.  Throughout  its  vast  extent,  however,  it  ramifies  into 
two  or  more  foldings,  for  the  most  part  parallel,  and  enclosing  extensive  elevated 
and  level  tablelands.  The  system  develops  two  main  curves — the  first,  intersected 
by  the  equator,  turns  its  convex  side  towards  the  Pacific,  and  projects  its 
most  advanced  point  at  the  headland  of  Punta  Parina  in  north  Peru  ;  the  second, 
sweeping  round  to  the  south-east  and  south,  has  the  centre  of  its  concave  side  at 
the  point  where  now  stands  the  city  of  Arica. 

South  of  Arica  the  system  runs  parallel  with  the  coast  nearly  in  a  straight  line 
from  north  to  south.  But  towards  the  extremity  of  the  continent  it  develops  a 
second  convex  curvature,  traced  as  if  with  the  compass,  which  is  continued  sea- 
wards by  a  submarine  ridge  connecting  Tierra  del  Fuego  with  the  archipelago  of 
South  Georgia. 

Everywhere  the  Andes  hug  the  coastline,  and  in  many  places,  as  at  Guayra, 
in  Venezuela,  the  escarpments  plunge  sheer  into  the  sea,  where  they  are  con- 
tinued, without  any  intermediate  terraces,  down  to  the  abysses  of  the  oceanic 
cavities.  No  real  plains  occur  between  the  foot  of  the  mountains  and  the  seashore, 
except  in  the  northern  provinces  of  Colombia,  where,  thanks  to  the  abundant 
rainfall,  the  eroded  rocks  have  been  transformed  to  broad  alluvial  flats.  On  the 
Pacific  side,  where  the  rainfall  is  much  lighter,  there  are  scarcely  any  plains, 
but  only  a  series  of  terraced  lands  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea.  Here  also 
the  marine  waters  deepen  rapidly,  abysses  of  1,000  fathoms  occurring  normally 
within  120  miles  of  the  coast.  Thus  the  submerged  roots  of  the  Andes  present 
an  aspect  analogous  to  that  of  the  upraised  slopes,  except  that  their  incline  is 
considerably  less  abrupt.  Evidently  the  coast  ranges  and  the  coastline  are  due 
to  the  same  cosmic  phenomenon. 

But,  however  regular  it  maybe  in  its  main  outlines,  the  Andes  orographic  system 
presents  great  differences  in  its  several  sections,  which  vary  in  breadth  and  altitude 


20 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


as  well  as  in  the  number  of  their  parallel  or  divergent  chains.  The  great  central 
plateau,  which  may  be  called  the  heart  of  the  Andes,  is  one  of  those  where  the  ramifi- 
cations are  most  numerous  ;  but  these  ramifications  are  mere  ridges  compared  with 

Fig.  6. — OUTLINES  OF  THE  ANDES  AND  OF  THE  EASTERN  HIGHLANDS. 
Scale  1  :  56,000,000. 


0  to  1,600 

Feet. 
The  thickness  of  the  black  lines  is  in  proportion 


1,600  Feet 
and  upwards, 
the  height  of  the  ranges :  Tb  inch  to  3,300  feet. 


1,240  Miles. 


the  huge  pediment  of  the  elevated  tablelands,  which  have  a  mean  altitude  of 
from  14,000  to  16,000  feet  for  a  space  of  over  80,000  square  miles. 

From  the  Pacific  shores  eastwards  to  the  plains  watered  by  the  Amazon  and 
La  Plata  affluents,  the  uplands  of  the  Bolivian  Andes  have  a  breadth  of  from  460 


THE  SNOW  LINE— GLACIERS.  21 

to  500  miles  in  a  straight  line.  In  this  highland  region  are  found,  if  not  the 
culminating  point  of  the  South  American  continent,  at  least  the  groups  of  peaks 
and  domes  which  have  the  greatest  mean  altitude.  Here  rise  Illampu  and 
Illimani,  both  of  which  exceed  21,000  feet.  These  giants  indicate  with  sufficient 
accuracy  the  central  point  of  the  Andean  system,  and  the  central  points  of  the 
northern  and  southern  sections  are  similarly  indicated  by  the  other  loftiest  sum- 
mits of  America — in  Ecuador,  Chimborazo,  long  supposed  to  be  the  highest  moun- 
tain in  the  world;  and  in  the  Argentine- Chilian  Andes,  Aconcagua,  which  at  any 
rate  is  the  culminating  peak  of  the  New  World.  Besides  these  extreme  summits, 
dozens  of  other  crests  in  Venezuela,  in  Colombia,  and  in  all  the  other  Pacific 
states  exceed  13,000  feet,  an  altitude  far  above  the  zone  of  arborescent  vegetation. 

SNOWS  AND  GLACIERS. 

The  snow-line  varies  with  the  latitude ;  but,  as  Whymper  asks,  what  is  this 
line  ?  Certain  completely  isolated  mountains  of  the  Ecuadorian  Andes  have  no 
permanent  snows  at  16,500  feet ;  others,  more  exposed  to  the  moist  winds  and  less 
subject  to  rapid  evaporation,  remain  white  throughout  the  year  at  an  altitude 
exceeding  14,450  feet.  Speaking  broadly,  the  snows  descend  lower  and  are  more 
abundant  in  the  eastern  highlands  facing  the  trade  winds  than  on  the  western 
ranges ;  for  each  summit  also  the  rule  holds  good,  the  eastern  being  more  snowy 
than  the  western  slope.* 

In  the  equatorial  Andes  from  the  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta  to  the  Bolivian 
uplands  the  limit  of  perpetual  snows  may,  in  a  general  way,  be  said  to  oscillate 
between  14,750  and  16,400  feet.  By  a  remarkable  contrast,  the  explanation  of 
which  must  be  sought  in  the  varying  proportions  of  moisture  brought  by  the  pre- 
vailing winds,  the  snows  descend  as  a  rule  considerably  lower  on  the  domes  and 
cones  of  Ecuador,  that  is,  on  the  equinoxial  line  itself,  than  on  the  Bolivian  and 
Argentine  mountains,  under  the  southern  tropical  line,  or  even  within  the  tem- 
perate zone.  The  Sierra  de  Zenta,  which  rises  to  16,400  feet  under  the  tropic 
of  Capricorn,  is  never  snow- clad  in  summer,  and  rarely  in  winter. 

In  the  Bolivian  Andes  Pentland  tells  us  that  no  perennial  snows  are  met  on 
the  western  slopes  lower  than  18,370  feet.  The  flakes  are  evaporated  as  fast  as 
they  fall  without  passing  to  the  liquid  state  to  form  running  waters.  The  vapoury 
cloudlets  that  are  seen  during  the  heat  of  the  day  rising  above  the  summit  of 
the  mountains  are  the  snows  returning  in  this  form  to  the  atmosphere.f  But 
south  of  this  zone  of  dry  winds  the  line  of  persistent  snows  is  rapidly  lowered  by 
the  abundant  moisture  precipitated  by  the  clouds.  In  the  Magellanic  archi- 
pelago and  in  Tierra  del  Fuego  the  lower  limit  stands  at  about  4,900  feet. 

Glaciers  have  been  seen  in  all  the  Cordilleras  in  the  tropics  exceeding  13,000 
feet,  as,  for  instance,  on  the  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta,  the  Sierra  de  Cocui  and  the 
Mesa  de  Herveo,  in  Colombia.  Humboldt  having  seen  none  in  the  Ecuadorian 
Andes,  either  because  of  the  foul  weather  or  because  they  were  covered  in  some 

*  Edward  Whymper,  Travels  amongst  the  Great  Andes  of  the  Equator. 
t  Martin  de  Movissy,  Confederation  Argentine. 


22  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

places  by  shingle,  in  others  by  fresh-fallen  snow,  denied  their  existence  in  these 
tropical  Alpine  regions.  But  he  was  mistaken,  as  the  observations  of  Whymper 
have  clearly  shown.  Certain  great  igneous  cones  in  the  Quito  district  have  their 
circular  snowficlds  fringed  with  as  many  as  fifteen  glaciers,  scored  by  crevasses, 
furnished  with  lateral  and  frontal  moraines  like  those  of  the  European  Alps. 

In  the  Bolivian  Andes,  Illimani  has  also  its  frozen  rivers,  and  in  Chili  the 
rapid  lowering  of  the  snow-lines  corresponds  with  the  appearance  of  numerous 
glaciers.  South  of  the  35th  parallel  every  upland  coomb  receives  its  crystal 
stream  descending  lower  and  lower  towards  sea-level.  In  the  inner  channels  of 
the  Alagellanic  archipelago,  a  glacier  may  be  seen  issuing  from  every  valley  on 
the  mainland.  Towards  the  southernmost  point  of  the  continent  the  crystalline 
masses  at  last  reach  the  seashore,  where  they  break  away  in  small  blocks  which 
arc  borne  northwards  by  the  marine  current. 

VOLCANOES. 

The  Andes  belong  to  those  orographic  systems  in  which  numerous  volcanoes 
have  cropped  out  through  rocks  of  a  different  formation.  Nevertheless,  the  sub- 
terranean fires  have  not  found  "safety  valves"  along  the  entire  length  of  the 
chain  between  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  On  the  mainland 
the  craters  are  grouped  in  three  great  clusters,  those  of  Colombia  and  Ecuador  in 
the  north,  of  Bolivia  in  the  centre,  and  of  southern  Chili  in  the  south.  At  least 
sixty  still  active  cones  rise  above  the  Andean  axis,  and  hundreds  of  others  now 
quiescent  formerly  shared  in  the  work  of  eruption. 

The  line  of  igneous  crests  is  even  continued  beyond  the  Fuegian  archipelago, 
away  to  the  Antarctic  lands,  where  navigators  have  seen  the  clouds  aglow  with  the 
flames  issuing  from  burning  mountains.  West  of  the  South  American  coast,  and 
under  the  same  latitude  as  the  volcanoes  of  Ecuador,  the  Galapagos  Islands  form 
a  short  chain  surging,  as  it  were,  above  abysmal  waters  some  1,500  fathoms  deep. 

But  east  of  the  Andes  along  the  prolonged  axis  of  the  Antilles,  the  South 
American  continent  has  not  a  single  eruptive  cone.  Here  the  igneous  distur- 
bances appear  to  be  arrested  at  Trinidad  and  the  opposite  coast  of  Venezuela, 
where  the  oil  wells  and  mud  volcanoes  may  perhaps  stand  in  some  relation  with 
the  underground  forces. 

In  this  respect  the  contrast  is  certainly  very  marked  between  the  two  sections 
of  the  continent,  the  Andean  region  and  that  of  the  Guianas  and  Brazil.  In  the 
former  the  planetary  life  manifests  itself  with  the  greater  energy,  and  this  section 
is  also  the  younger  of  the  two.  Formed  in  more  recent  geological  epochs,  it  has 
not  yet  completed  its  upward  movement.  The  several  ranges,  however,  appear  to 
have  been  upheaved  in  an  extremely  irregular  manner,  and  some  of  the  loftiest 
crests  are  amongst  those  whose  origin  dates  from  comparatively  modern  ages. 

THE  EASTERN  OROGRAPHIC  SYSTEM. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  Andine  crests  rose  above  the  ocean  during  geological 
periods  later  than  those  that  witnessed  the  birth  of  the  eastern  uplands  in  the 


THE  BRAZIL  AND  GUIANA  UPLANDS. 


28 


Guianas  and  Brazil.     These  consist  chiefly  of  crystalline  and  archaic  rocks,  sand- 
stones, and  schists,  which  are  overlain  to  a  vast  extent  by  mesozoic  and,  especially, 


Fig.  7.  — ANDES  SCENFRY.     VIEW  TAKEN  AT  THE  CFTATTPICHACA  BRIDGE,  LIMA— LA  OROYA  RAILWAY 


cretaceous  formations.     In  this  respect  the  same  contrast  has  been  observed  in  the 
southern  as  in  the  northern  continent.     In  the  epoch  of  their  appearance,  as  well 


24  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

as  in  the  altitule,  general  trend,  and  relative  position,  the  Brazilian  serras  resemble 
the  Alloghanies,  while  the  Andes  correspond  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  of  which 
they  were  formerly  regarded  as  the  southern  continuation. 

Carved  into  a  number  of  fragments  by  the  great  streams  descending  from 
the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes,  the  uplands  facing  the  Atlantic  present  no  contin- 
uity in  the  direction  from  north  to  south  ;  in  some  districts  they  are  even  distri- 
buted without  any  apparent  order.  Thus  the  hilly  Parima  region,  where  so  many 
gold-hunters  hoped  at  one  time  to  find  the  city  of  El  Dorado  with  all  its  fabulous 
treasures,  develops  its  main  axis  in  the  direction  from  the  north-west  to  the 
south-east.  The  other  Guiana  ranges  also  follow,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  same 
direction,  as  indicated  in  the  intermediate  valleys  watered  by  the  affluents  of  the 
Orinoco. 

South  of  the  Amazons  several  chains  of  low  elevation  have  the  same  trend, 
running  parallel  with  the  coast  between  the  Amazons  estuary  and  Cape  Sao 
Roque.  But  west  of  the  Parnahyba  and  thence  to  the  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  the 
ranges  are  disposed  mainly  north-east  and  south-west,  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
seaboard.  The  more  elevated  and  precipitous  ranges  are  almost  completely  sepa- 
rated from  the  inland  plateaux  by  the  two  valleys  of  the  Sao  Francisco  and 
Parana,  which  are  inclined  in  opposite  directions,  and  which  communicate  across 
a  low  parting-line  about  the  region  of  their  sources.  This  double  valley,  which  in 
reality  forms  only  a  single  depression,  is  also  roughly  parallel  with  the  Brazilian 
coast,  whose  sinuosities  it  follows  at  a  mean  distance  of  300  miles,  and  for  a  total 
length  of  over  1,250  miles. 

The  loftiest  summits  of  the  Brazilian  uplands  lie  under  the  same  latitude  as 
that  part  of  the  Andes  where  is  situated,  if  not  the  culminating  point,  at  least  the 
most  imposing  group  of  the  whole  system.  Like  the  Andes  also,  whose  precipitous 
slopes  face  the  Pacific,  the  Brazilian  highlands,  and  especially  the  Serra  do  Mar, 
turn  their  steep  escarpments  towards  the  deep  waters  of  the  Atlantic. 

UPHEAVAL  AND  SUBSIDENCE. 

The  eastern  and  western  seaboards  differ,  to  a  marked  extent,  in  the  changes  of 
level  that  have  taken  place  along  their  respective  coastlines.  Indications  of  an 
upheaval  of  the  land,  or  else  of  a  subsidence  of  the  sea,  are  much  more  numerous, 
and  give  evidence  of  far  more  extensive  oscillations  on  the  Pacific  than  on  the 
Atlantic  side.  In  fact,  the  opposite  movement  has  been  at  work  along  the 
east  coast,  where  the  encroachments  of  the  ocean,  either  by  actual  upheaval  or 
by  a  sinking  of  the  land,  are  still  going  on  to  an  extent  which  is  probably 
unequalled  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 

On  the  shores  of  Chili  and  of  the  adjacent  island  of  Chiloe,  as  was  already 
observed  by  Poeppig  over  fifty  years  ago,  there  are  everywhere  visible  old  marine 
beaches  of  perfectly  regular  formation,  and  still  covered  with  shells  belonging  to 
species  of  the  present  epoch.  The  studies  of  Darwin,  Philippi,  and  Domeyko  leave 
no  doubt  on  this  point.  At  the  issue  of  all  the  valleys  where  occur  lateral  terraces, 
the  remains  of  an  ancient  plain  eroded  by  the  running  waters,  the  distinction  has 


OSCILLATIONS  OF  THE  SEABOABD. 


25 


been  clearly  established  between  the  two  types  of  terraces,  which  otherwise  some- 
what closely  resemble  each  other  in  their  general  aspect. 

In  many  places  the  beaches  left  high  and  dry  by  the  retreating  waters  or  by 
the  upraised  coast  take  the  form  of  flights  of  steps,  the  highest  of  which  stands 
over  1,000  feet  above  the  present  sea-level.  Under  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  the 
mountain  range  projecting  beyond  the  normal  shore-line,  between  the  bays  of 
Mejillones  and  Antofagasta,  has  been  subjected  to  a  still  more  violent  thrust.  At 
a  height  of  1,450  feet  on  the  slopes  of  the  Cerro  Gordo  are  seen  shell-mounds 

Fig.  8. — EEGION  OF  OCEANIC  ENCROACHMENTS  ABOUT  THE  AMAZONS  ESTUAET. 

Scale  1 :  11,400,000. 


West  oF  Greenwich 


44' 


0  to  100 
Fathoms. 


100  to  1,000 
Fathoms. 


1,000  to  2,000 
Fathoms. 

125  Miles. 


2,000  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


consisting  of  quite  contemporary  species,  but  in  certain  places  associated  with  a 
cardium  which  is  now  found  no  longer  in  the  Pacific,  but  only  on  the  coasts  of 
Africa.  This  extraordinary  fact  shows  that  at  the  epoch  when  the  Cerro  Gordo 
was  submerged  the  distinctive  Atlantic  fauna  was  still  represented  on  the  Boli- 
vian seaboard,  thanks  to  one  or  more  now  obliterated  marine  channels.* 

The  depressions  noticed  on  the  Brazilian  coasts  extend  over  a  vast  space,  com- 
prising the  entire  margin  of  the  Amazons  estuary,  and  reaching  eastwards  as  far  as 
the  Itapicuru  and  the  Parnahyba.  No  other  river  brings  down  an  equal  quantity 

*  R.  A.  Philippi,  Die  teriiaren  und  quartdren  Versteinerungen  Chile's. 


26  SOUTH  AMEEICA-THE  ANDES  BEGIONS. 

of  alluvial  matter,  which  represents  at  the  lowest  estimate  a  solid  mass  45  square 
miles  in  superficial  area,  with  a  thickness  of  over  30  feet.  The  Mississippi,  which 
discharges  four  or  five  times  less  mud  and  water,  has  nevertheless  built  up  in  the 
open  sea  an  alluvial  delta  terminating  in  a  system  of  mouths  spread  out  in  the 
marine  waters  like  a  branching  mass  of  coral. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  Amazons  the  Atlantic  has,  on  the  contrary,  opened  a 
spacious  gulf,  and  from  century  to  century  penetrates  farther  into  the  interior  of 
the  fluvial  valley.  The  sediment  washed  down  with  the  stream  is  not  deposited 
in  the  gulf,  which  would  else  be  rapidly  filled  up  ;  but  it  is  carried  away  by  the 
marine  current  crossing  the  Atlantic  from  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  to  the  West  Indies, 
and  thus  gets  lost  in  the  depths  of  the  sea,  or  else  is  distributed  along  the  slimy 
margin  of  the  Guiana  seaboard. 

The  work  of  erosion,  aided  doubtless  by  a  general  subsidence  of  the  marine 
bed,  progresses  at  such  a  rapid  rate  that  observers  have  been  able  to  record 
many  indications  of  its  action  during  the  brief  period  of  the  last  half-century. 
The  shores  retreat,  so  to  say,  .and  become  indented  by  new  inlets,  while  the  shallow 
ramifying  creeks  are  transformed  to  deep  channels ;  the  islands  and  islets  slowly 
melt  away  until  they  disappear  altogether  ;  lighthouses  erected  at  some  distance 
from  the  shore  have  had  to  be  replaced  by  others  built  still  farther  inland.  Owing 
to  this  incessant  encroachment  of  the  sea  on  the  mainland,  the  Amazons  is  esti- 
mated to  have  lost  from  400  to  500  miles  of  its  former  lengtb,  and  the  old  beach 
would  now  appear  to  be  indicated  by  the  100-fathoms  line. 

The  Parnahyba,  the  Itapicuru  and  the  Tury-assu,  former  affluents  of  the  main- 
stream, now  reach  the  sea  in  independent  channels ;  the  Tocantins,  also,  which  at 
one  time  flowed  to  the  Amazons,  is  now  connected  with  it  only  by  a  network  of 
lateral  branches,  which  shift  their  beds  with  the  periodical  floods  of  the  tributary 
streams.  Thus  the  invasions  of  the  ocean  are  decomposing  the  great  fluvial  basin 
into  secondary  systems.  Owing  to  these  different  oscillations  of  the  seaboard — 
subsidence  on  the  Atlantic,  upheaval  on  the  Pacific  side — the  whole  continent  may 
in  a  sense  be  said  to  have  been  displaced  westwards  :  it  has  moved  farther  from 
Europe  and  nearer  to  Australia. 

III. 

The  very  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  continental  relief  are,  no  less  than  the 
vegetation  itself,  to  a  large  extent  the  result  of  the  climate,  as  determined  by  the 
prevailing  winds,  by  the  rainfall  and  the  running  waters  fed  by  it.  Thus  the 
Orinoco  has  cut  itself  a  passage  through  the  northern  coast  range  and  the  Guiana 
mountains.  In  the  same  way  the  Amazons  has  swept  away  the  obstructions  to  its 
course,  dividing  into  two  sections  the  whole  system  of  the  eastern  uplands.  In 
the  central  parts  of  the  continent,  also,  the  waters,  diverging  in  two  opposite 
directions,  have  removed  all  the  transverse  ridges  formerly  connecting  the  Cor- 
dilleras with  the  Brazilian  highlands. 

To  the  effects  of  the  climate  must  also  be  attributed  the  gradual  contraction 
and  lowering  of  the  Cordilleras  themselves  in  that  part  of  the  system  exposed  to 


CLIMATE  OF  SOUTH  AMEBICA.  27 

the  action  of  the  alternating  north-east  and  south-east  trade  winds,  both  charged 
with  abundant  moisture,  by  which  the  rocks  have  been  ravined  and  their  detritus 
swept  away.  The  lateral  ridges  formerly  disposed  parallel  with  the  main  range 
have  disappeared  ;  the  geological  strata,  whose  debris  are  still  seen  north  and  south 
of  the  breach,  have  been  destroyed  and  replaced  by  drift  of  more  recent  origin, 
here  and  there  heaped  up  around  isolated  knolls  of  the  primitive  formations. 
Should  the  work  of  erosion  continue,  the  time  may  be  foreseen  when  the  Cordil- 
leras will  be  completely  pierced,  when  the  Amazonian  plains  will  be  separated  only 
by  a  sill  of  low  elevation  from  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil. 

But  while  the  Andes  have  in  this  region  been  reduced  to  a  narrow  stem  by 
the  destructive  action  of  the  rains,  in  Bolivia  they  have,  on  the  contrar}',  been 
maintained  in  their  full  amplitude,  thanks  to  the  shifting  winds,  which  are  here 
deflected  some  to  the  north,  some  to  the  south,  so  that  but  little  rain  or  snow  falls 
along  their  normal  track.  Farther  south  a  fresh  contrast  corresponds  with  a  fresh 
change  in  the  course  of  the  aerial  currents.  Here  the  system  is  reduced  to  a 
single  range  flanked  at  most  with  a  few  small  parallel  ridges  ;  it  is  intersected 
by  deep  gorges  and  passes  cut  through  the  heart  of  the  rocks,  and  is  at  last  entirely 
broken  by  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  "Water  was  the  agent  by  which  the  highlands 
have  thus  been  carved,  hollowed  out,  and  in  places  quite  eaten  away  by  the  copious 
rains  accompanying  the  oceanic  winds. 

At  a  former  time,  when  the  coast  valleys  were  still  filled  with  ice,  glaciers  also 
contributed  to  modify  the  seaboard  by  preventing  the  deposit  of  alluvial  matter, 
and  carrying  seawards  the  detritus  of  all  kinds. 

CLIMATE. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  South  American  continent  enjoys  a  far  more  moderate 
climate  than  the  division  of  the  globe  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Atlantic.  Its 
superiority  in  this  respect  must  be  attributed  to  the  difference  in  the  form  of  the 
two  continental  masses.  South  America  being  much  narrower,  the  moderating 
influence  of  the  surrounding  marine  waters  is  more  easily  felt  far  inland.  More- 
over, the  western  continent  is  largely  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  trade  winds 
which  sweep  up  the  broad  valleys  of  the  Orinoco  and  Amazons.  In  Africa,  on  the 
contrary,  the  most  elevated  coast  ranges  are  disposed  along  the  shores  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  and  thus  intercept  the  winds  blowing  from  the  rainy  quarter.  The 
northern  section  of  this  continent  also  lies  to  leeward  of  the  huge  mass  of  lands 
formed  by  Europe  and  the  whole  of  Asia.  Thus  it  happens  that  the  north-east  polar 
winds  passing  over  Turkestan,  Persia,  and  Syria  arrive  almost  completely  deprived 
of  moisture,  and  under  their  dry  breath  the  summer  heats  become  oppressive. 

In  South  America  the  line  of  greatest  heat,  which  nearly  coincides  with  the 
seaboard  between  the  Gulf  of  Uraba  and  Cape  Sao  Eoque,  scarcely  represents  an 
average  of  more  than  80°  or  82°  Fahr.,  whereas  in  Africa  the  corresponding 
isothermal  traverses  a  zone  where  the  normal  temperature  exceeds  86°  Fahr.,  and 
where  the  heat  is  tempered  by  no  sea  breezes,  as  it  is  on  the  Colombian  and 
Venezuelan  coastlands. 


28 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


On  the  other  hand,  the  southern  section  of  South  America  may  be  regarded  as 
lying  within  a  cold  zone,  where  the  thermometer  falls  to  41°  or  even  39°  Fahr. 
on  the  plains,  standing  at  a  slight  elevation  above  sea-level.  On  the  coast  ranges 
the  temperature,  falling  with  the  altitude,  soon  reaches  freezing  point.  In  this 

Fig.  9. — MAIN  GEOLOGICAL  DIVISIONS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 
Scale  1  :  66,000,000. 


Crystalline,  yolcanio, 
and  paleozoic  rocks. 


Meoozoic 
formation. 


Recent 
formations. 


.  1,240  Miles. 


southern  region  the  natural  limit  between  the  temperate  and  frigid  zones  is  clearly 
indicated  on  the  west  side  by  the  fjords  indenting  the  Chilian  seaboard.  The 
sudden  break  in  the  uniformity  of  the  coastline  occurs  a  little  north  of  42°  south 
latitude,  at  the  Chacao  passage  separating  the  island  of  Chiloe  from  the  mainland. 


CLIMATE  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 


29 


In  the  northern  hemisphere  the  zone  of  fjords,  representing  the  work  of  ancient 
glaciers,  is  shifted  nearly  430  miles  farther  from  the  equator,  that  is,  to  48°  north 
latitude,  where  the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca  gives  access  to  the  great  fjord  known 


Fig.  10.— ISOTHERMAL  LINES  OF  SOUTH  AMEEICA. 
Scale  1  :  65,000,000. 


Under  23°  F.    23°  to  60°.      £0°  to  60°.        60°  to  66°.      68°  to  77°.        77°  to  86°.     86°  and  upwards. 

^_^^__^^^^____^__  1,240  Miles. 

as  Puget  Sound.  Thus  South  America,  although  its  terminal  point  falls  short  of 
56°  south  latitude,  lies  none  the  less,  to  some  extent,  well  within  the  glacial  zone. 
Another  factor  contributing  not  a  little  to  the  cooling  of  the  South  American 
continent  is  the  marine  current  which  sets  from  the  Antarctic  regions  straight 
for  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  which  continues  its  northerly  course  along  the  west 


80 


SOUTH  AMERICA— TIIE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


coast  of  the  mainland.  In  this  respect  the  northern  division  of  the  New  World 
is  privileged.  Under  the  latitudes  of  California  and  Oregon,  which  correspond 
to  the  Chilian  and  Magellanic  archipelagoes,  the  seaboard  is  washed,  not  by  a  cold 

Fig.  11. — DISTRIBUTION  OF  RAINFALL  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA. 
Scale  1  :  66,000,000. 


Under  8  Inches. 


8  to  24 
Indies. 


80  Inches 

aud  upwards 


1,240  Miles. 


current,  but  by  the  relatively  tepid  waters  setting  across  the  Pacific  eastwards  from 
the  China  and  Japan  seas. 

It  may  be  inferred  from  numerous  geological  phenomena  that,  at  a  more  or 
less  remote  epoch,  the  climate  of  the  Andes  was  far  more  humid  than  at  present. 


CLIMATE  OF  SOUTH  AMEEICA.  81 

Old  lacustrine  basins,  dry  watercourses,  and  other  indications  of  extremely  ener- 
getic water  action  occur  precisely  on  the  western  slopes  where  the  work  at  present 
accomplished  by  the  moisture,  under  the  form  of  dews  and  rare  showers,  is  insigni- 
ficant compared  with  that  produced  by  the  changes  of  temperature.  Noteworthy 
especially  are  the  deep  quebradas,  or  narrow  gorges,  excavated  to  depths  of  from 
300  to  600  feet  in  the  escarpments  of  the  Peruvian  plateaux.  One  asks  in 
amazement,  what  downpours  could  have  scored  such  tremendous  furrows  in  the 
live  rock  ?  They  are  certainly  not  the  work  of  the  few  showers  which  fall  every 
thirty  or  forty  years,  as  if  by  a  miracle,  in  this  now  almost  rainless  region. 

The  hypothesis  of  a  formerly  moist  climate  is  confirmed  by  the  facts  drawn 
from  the  domain  of  natural  history.  Various  plants  flourishing  on  the  Ecuador 
and  north  Peruvian  uplands  reappear  in  South  Chili,  but  are  completely  absent 
from  the  intervening  arid  Bolivian  tablelands.  So  also  with  certain  species  of 
animals,  such  as  the  Cervus  antisensis  of  the  Peruvian  Andes,  which  has  been 
described  by  D'Orbigny  and  Tschudi,  and  which  appears  to  be  identical  with  the 
guermul  or  Cervus  chilensis  of  the  southern  Andes  and  Magellanic  lands.  It  occurs 
nowhere  in  North  Chili,  and  the  question  arises,  how  has  its  range  been  severed 
in  two  ?  How  does  it  happen  that  the  same  plants  also  occupy  two  distinct 
domains,  one  cold,  the  other  hot,  while  avoiding  the  intermediate  temperate  zone  ? 
The  explanation  is  that  rain  and  atmospheric  moisture  are  a  necessary  element  in 
the  evolution  of  these  organisms.  So  long  as  the  Andean  plateaux  were  suffi- 
ciently watered,  plants  and  animals  roamed  freely  over  the  region  at  present 
occupied  by  the  Atacama  desert  and  neighbouring  heights.  But  when  the  rains 
failed,  a  solution  of  continuity  was  effected  between  the  northern  and  southern 
biological  areas.  In  the  heart  of  the  Atacama  desert,  where  nothing  now  sprouts 
except  a  few  almost  leafless  stalks,  the  miner's  pick  often  turns  up  the  roots  of  large 
trees  which  formerly  grew  in  forests  on  the  now  arid  steppe.* 

To  the  increasing  dryness  of  the  climate  is  also  due  the  fact  that  the  great 
Bolivian  lake,  Titicaca,  has  ceased  to  form  part  of  the  Amazons  system.  Formerly 
it  sent  its  overflow  to  the  Beni  affluent,  but  it  is  no  longer  able  to  cross  the 
parting  line,  and  the  slowly  subsiding  waters  have  left  vast  spaces  unflooded. 
What  remains  of  the  old  inland  sea  is  nearly  fresh,  doubtless  because  the  isolation 
of  the  lacustrine  basin  dates  from  a  comparatively  recent  geographical  epoch. 

FLORA. 

In  the  relative  extent  of  its  area  under  timber  South  America  is  surpassed  by 
the  Eastern  Archipelago  alone.  Even  Central  Africa  with  its  prodigious  seas  of 
verdure,  which  the  Stanley  expedition  up  the  Aruwimi  had  so  much  difficulty  in 
traversing,  presents  no  such  extensive  space  under  continuous  arboreal  vegetation 
as  the  boundless  woodlands  of  the  Amazons  basin  and  its  affluents.  These  wood- 
lands comprise  also  the  whole  of  the  Guiana  seaboard,  and  are  continued  north- 
westwards by  those  of  the  Magdalena  and  Atrato  valleys  in  Colombia. 

With  the  exception  of  the  interruptions  caused  by  rocks,  lakes,  swamps,  and 

*  Philippi ;  H,  "W.  Bates,  Stanford's  South  America. 


82  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGiONS. 

rivers,  the  forest  presents  an  unbroken  surface  in  which  human  labour  has 
hitherto  made  but  a  few  isolated  clearings.  They  are  scarcely  even  traversed  by 
any  beaten  tracks,  except  those  made  by  the  puma,  tapir  and  peccary.  Like  the 
ocean,  like  the  snowfields  of  the  polar  regions,  the  verdant  seas  covering  tropical 
America  seem  to  constitute  a  world  apart,  presenting  an  endless  diversity  of 
species,  but  of  remarkable  uniformity  in  its  general  aspect.  The  trees  interlace 
their  branches  ;  trunks  and  foliage  are  bound  together  by  the  coils  of  the  lianas, 
until  the  whole  forms  an  inextricable  tangle  of  vegetation,  vibrating  in  long 
undulations  with  every  breath  of  wind. 

These  continuous  woodlands,  which  branch  off  southwards  up  the  valleys  of 
the  Amazons  affluents,  are  continued  across  the  inland  plateaux  of  Brazil  by  a 
less  densely  timbered  region,  in  which  the  trees  stand  out  with  more  distinct 
individuality,  but  which  none  the  less  constitutes  an  immense  expanse  of 
true  forest,  the  Matto  Grosso,  or  "  Great  Wood,"  as  it  is  called  by  the 
Brazilians. 

Still  farther  south  follo.w  the  catingas  and  the  campos,  or  "  fields,"  that  is 
open  spaces  dotted  over  with  araucaria  thickets.  These  are  succeeded  in  the 
southern  parts  of  the  La  Plata  basin  by  treeless  plains,  producing  little  but  low 
plants,  such  as  grasses  and  thistles.  Here  the  arborescent  vegetation  is  repre- 
sented only  by  a  few  isolated  trees,  visible  far  and  wide  on  the  boundless  plain. 
Such  are  the  pampas,  corresponding  to  the  llanos  north  of  the  equator,  that  is, 
the  open  Venezuelan  plains,  everywhere  encircled  by  the  tropical  forest  zone. 
Less  extensive  than  the  pampas,  the  llanos  are  also  less  destitute  of  trees;  in 
many  places  the  heights,  or  even  the  simple  rising  grounds,  are  crowned  with 
thickets  or  clumps  of  trees,  resembling  at  a  distance  green  islets  in  a  shoreless 
sea.  Here  also  the  streams  are  lined  with  a  fringe  of  leafy  vegetation. 

All  these  transitions  from  dense  forests  to  more  open  woodlands,  from  groves 
and  thickets  to  treeless  savannas,  correspond  with  the  varying  proportion  of  rain- 
fall. The  regions  clothed  by  the  Amazonian  forests  receive  copious  downpours 
nearly  throughout  the  year,  the  dry  season,  as  it  is  called,  lasting  less  than 
three  months.  The  absence  of  forest  growths,  as  in  the  llanos,  and  in  the 
districts  of  Guiana  sheltered  from  the  east  winds  by  coast  ranges,  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  a  screen  of  mountains,  by  which  the  rain-bearing  clouds  are  inter- 
cepted. 

In  Matto  Grosso  and  the  neighbouring  provinces,  where  the  dry  season  lasts 
more  than  three  months,  the  moisture  is  insufficient  to  nourish  an  exuberant 
vegetation  such  as  that  of  the  Amazonian  woodlands.  It  diminishes  in  the 
region  of  the  Brazilian  campos,  and  still  more  in  the  pampas  of  Argentina. 
Lastly,  the  few  deserts  of  South  America,  also  called  "  pampas,"  the  sands  of 
Tumbes  and  of  Sechura  in  north  Peru,  the  Pampa  de  Tamarugal,  the  Atacama 
desert  in  the  territories  recently  annexed  to  Chili,  all  owe  their  lack  of  vegeta- 
tion to  the  almost  total  absence  of  rain. 

The  southern  extremity  of  the  continent  is  too  far  removed  from  the  Ant- 
arctic Pole  for  the  temperature  to  destroy  the  forest  vegetation.  But  the 


FLOKA  OF  SOUTH  AMEEICA. 


83 


same  effect  is  produced  by  the  altitude  of  the  mountains.  Numerous  summits, 
and,  in  fact,  all  the  Cordilleras  taken  as  a  whole,  rise  in  the  cold  atmospheric 
regions  above  the  forest  zone.  As  a  rule,  the  upper  limit  of  this  zone  lies  at 

Fig.   12.— DETTDK'S  MAIN  BOTANICAL  DIVISIONS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 
Scale  1  :  57,000,000. 


50' 


100° 


West  op  Greenwich 


301 


20° 


Tropical  Zone. 


Temperate  Zone. 


Southern  Cold  Zone. 


567 

____  1,240  Miles. 


about  3,000  feet  below  the  snow-line.  Under  the  equator  and  in  Bolivia  forests 
still  reach  an  elevation  of  11,500  feet  on  the  flanks  of  the  mountains.  But 
above  them  plants  of  low  growth  range  right  up  to  the  edge  of  the  snows,  and 
even  higher  in  those  spaces  where  the  snows  have  been  cleared  by  the  winds 

4 


34  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

or  the  solar  heat.  Boussingault  found  a  saxifrage  growing  at  a  height  of 
15,770  feet  on  Chimborazo,  while  mosses  and  lichens  have  been  gathered  on  the 
same  mountain  at  altitudes  of  16,500,  17,000,  and  even  17,350  feet. 

On  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  and  along  the  main  ranges  the  different 
floras  follow  in  succession  one  above  the  other — at  their  base  tropical  plants, 
higher  up  those  of  the  temperate  /one,  and  towards  the  summits  an  alpine  or 
glacial  vegetation.  Thus  the  Andes  and  the  other  South  American  highlands 
contribute  by  their  superimposed  climates  to  the  great  variety  of  species 
characteristic  of  this  continent.  In  Europe,  where  most  of  the  ranges  are 
disposed  in  the  direction  from  east  to  west,  the  various  vegetable  forms  spread 
freely  in  the  same  direction  from  one  end  of  the  continent  to  the  other.  But  not 
so  in  South  America,  where  the  plants  of  the  east  are  abruptly  arrested  by  the 
barrier  of  the  Cordilleras,  while  on  the  opposite  side,  even  under  the  same  lati- 
tude, other  forms  have  been  developed,  analogous,  but  still  distinct  enough  to 
constitute  an  independent  flora. 

Lastly,  the  oceanic  archipelagoes  of  the  Galapagos  and  Juan  Fernandez 
are  distinguished  amongst  all  marine  lands  for  the  original  character  of  their 
floras,  forming  in  this  respect  little  worlds  apart. 

By  keeping  in  view  the  chief  contrasts  between  the  floras  diversely 
intermingled  at  the  points  of  transition  from  zone  to  zone,  South  America 
may  be  divided  into  eight  great  botanical  domains,  to  which  must  be  added 
the  archipelagoes,  as  forming  so  many  different  provinces.  The  Falkland 
Islands,  however,  resemble  Tierra  del  Fuego  in  their  herbaceous  and  scrubby 
growths,  and  in  the  general  aspect  of  their  vegetation. 

According  to  0.  Drude*  the  eight  divisions  are  as  under  : — 

Tropical  Zone. — 1.  Evergreen  virgin  forests;  rains  throughout  the  year,  or 
for  not  less  than  nine  months. 

2.  Forests  and  savannas  intermingled ;  dry  season  of  over  three  months. 

3.  Tropical  flora  of  the  uplands. 

Temperate  Zone. — 4.  Evergreen  forests  with  palms  and  pines  ;  summer  rains 
from  December  to  March. 

5.  Evergreen  shrubs  ;  few  or  no  trees  ;  no  palms  ;  winter  rains. 

6.  Evergreen  trees,  with  deciduous  leaves  ;   bush ;  pine  forests ;  no  palms  ; 
rains  throughout  the  year. 

7.  Prairies,   steppes,  and  deserts ;    great  variations  of  temperature ;    slight 
rainfall. 

Frigid  Zone  in  the  south  and  on  the  uplands. — 8.  Impoverished  arborescent 
vegetation. 

Thanks  to  its  extremely  diversified  flora,  South  America  has,  during  the  last 
four  centuries,  given  to  the  civilised  world  more  plants  useful  for  alimentary, 
medicinal,  and  industrial  purposes  than  any  other  division  of  the  globe.  The 
potato,  which  has  become  the  staple  food  of  so  many  millions  of  human  beings,  is 
of  South  American  origin,  growing  wild  at  various  altitudes  in  the  region  of  the 

*  Berghaus's  Physikalischer  Atlas. 


FLORA  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA.  35 

Andes  from  Colombia  to  Chili.  Manioc  and  yams,  even  more  indispensable  to 
certain  negro  and  West  Indian  populations  of  Latin  America  than  the  potato  can 
ever  be  to  the  Germans  and  Irish,  are  also  indigenous  in  the  southern  section  of 
the  New  World.  From  the  same  region  also  come  a  species  of  bean,  the  tomato, 
the  ground-nut,  cacao  theobroma  ("  food  of  the  gods "),  the  pineapple,  guava, 
chirimoya,  and  many  other  fruits  now  flourishing  in  the  tropical  zone  of  the  Old 
World. 

Sooner  or  later  South  America  will  supply  the  gardens  of  Europe  with  other 
economic  plants  not  yet  acclimatised,  such  as  the  quinoa,  a  species  of  chenopodium, 
whose  seeds  when  ground  yield  a  kind  of  bread ;  the  arracacha  root,  which  resembles 
celery;  mate  ("Paraguay  tea"),  which  takes  the  place  of  tea  in  Argentina  and 
South  Brazil ;  perhaps,  also,  the  ceiba  (cheese-tree),  which  attains  a  great  size 
in  the  Bolivar  district,  Venezuela.  The  industries  have  received  from  South 
America  the  sap  of  various  rubber  plants ;  and  medicine  is  indebted  to  it  for, 
amongst  other  products,  such  drugs  as  ipecacuanha ;  tolu  balm  ;  cinchona,  which 
dispels  fevers ;  and  the  coca  leaf,  which  allays  pain  and  the  pangs  of  hunger. 

In  return  the  South  American  continent  has  been  enriched  by  nearly  all  the 
alimentary  and  industrial  species  of  Europe  and  Asia.  The  banana  spread  so 
rapidly  in  the  hot  regions  that  most  naturalists  supposed  it  to  be  indigenous  ;  it 
was  introduced  into  the  New  World  by  the  now  almost  forgotten  bishop,  Thomas 
de  Berlanga,  the  same  benefactor  of  his  kind  to  whom  we  owe  the  discovery  of  the 
Galapagos  Islands.*  Unfortunately,  with  the  useful  species  came  also  the  weeds 
of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  On  the  elevated  plain  of  Bogota,  as  well  as  on  the 
surrounding  slopes,  the  foxglove  (digitalis  purpurea)  thrives  vigorously. 

FAUNA. 

The  fauna  of  the  South  American  mainland  is  of  a  very  distinct  character. 
In  this  relatively  isolated  division  of  the  globe  the  animal  forms  have  necessarily 
diverged  from  the  types  prevailing  elsewhere.  But  there  survive  none  of  the 
huge  beasts  of  former  epochs,  such  as  the  "  mastodon  of  the  Andes  "  whose 
remains  are  found  in  the  gravels  of  the  Chilian  lacustrine  formations.  Hence 
South  America  has  no  longer  any  animals  comparable  in  size  to  the  Asiatic  or 
African  elephant,  the  giraffe,  hippopotamus,  or  rhinoceros,  the  tapir  being,  in 
fact,  the  largest  of  all  its  mammals.  There  are,  however,  long-tailed  apes,  differ- 
ing greatly  from  the  anthropoids  of  the  Old  World,  and  from  the  lemurs  of 
Madagascar. 

The  forests  are  infested  by  carnivora  of  the  feline  and  canine  families,  by 
bears,  martins,  otters,  and  weasels,  while  the  order  of  bats  is  represented  by  nume- 
rous species,  including  the  blood-sucking  vampire.  South  America  has  no  camels, 
which  are  here  replaced  by  the  analogous  but  smaller  llamas  and  vicunas  of  the 
Andes.  Various  forms  of  marsupials  range  the  whole  continent  as  far  south  as 
the  southern  Argentine  states  and  Patagonia.  The  avifauna  has  received  an 
enormous  development,  containing  no  less  than  2,300  species  ;  and  the  fishes  of 

*  Marcos  Jimenez  de  la  Espada,  Boletin  de  la  Sociedad  Geografica  de  Madrid,  1891. 


86  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

the  inland  streams  and  surrounding  marine  waters  are  even  still  more  numerous. 
The  manatee,  one  of  the  marine  mammals  frequenting  the  coast,  penetrates  far  up 
the  Amazons  and  its  great  affluents,  and  although  actively  pursued  by  the  fisher- 
men, it  here  maintains  itself  in  scattered  groups. 

As  has  been  shrewdly  remarked  by  the  learned  zoologist,  Jimenez  de  la  Espada, 
the  vast  forests  of  the  Amazons  basin  must  have  tended  to  modify  in  a  uniform 
manner  the  habits,  and  consequently  the  organic  structure  itself,  of  all  the  animal 
species.  The  inextricable  thickets  of  underwood,  often  flooded,  and  always  per- 
vaded by  a  heavy,  stifling  atmosphere,  impede  the  free  movement  of  mammals  and 
even  the  flight  of  birds.  Many  forms  which  elsewhere  live  on  the  ground  or  fly 
low  are  here  of  arboreal  habits,  hopping  or  flitting  from  branch  to  branch  amid 
the  dense  foliage  of  lofty  trees.  While  all  is  still  and  silent  in  the  low  under- 
growths,  the  leafy  boughs  struggling  upwards  to  the  light  are  alive  with  the  songs 
and  cries  of  their  denizens.  Here  is  the  true  life  of  the  forest.  The  more  majestic 
trees,  such  as  the  ceiba,  are  nearly  always  of  solitary  growth. 

Despite  the  short  period  that  has  elapsed  since  their  introduction,  the  domestic 
animals  imported  from  Europe  have  already  been  modified  by  the  changed  environ- 
ment. New  breeds  of  horses  have  been  developed,  especially  in  the  Argentine 
•pampas  and  Venezuelan  llanos.  Here  this  animal  had  till  lately  increased  prodi- 
giously, as  if  striving  to  equal  the  multitudes  of  equidce  which  roamed  these 
plains  in  a  former  geological  epoch.  Throughout  nearly  half  of  the  continent  the 
horse  had  returned  to  the  wild  state,  as  had  also  the  pig  and  horned  cattle.  Of 
dogs  there  still  survive  one  or  more  of  the  old  native  breeds,  one  of  which  had 
been  tamed  by  the  Incas.  The  wild  Indians  of  the  Antis  family  also  possess  a 
species  of  black-and-white  colour,  long  body  and  low  intelligence,  which  hunts  like 
our  greyhounds.  There  is  also  the  Fuegian  dog,  which  resembles  both  the  jackal 
and  the  fox.  The  American  breeds  have  almost  every  where  been  crossed,  and  the 
more  or  less  mixed  European  varieties  are  now  everywhere  dominant. 

IV. 

INHABITANTS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

The  South  American  Indians — Peruvians  or  Caribs,  Botocudos,  Araucanians  or 
Patagonians — are  less  famed  in  history  than  some  of  the  North  American  nations, 
such  as  the  Hurons  and  Iroquois.  Thanks  to  the  fascinating  novels  of  Fenimore 
Cooper,  the  single  Algonquian  tribe  of  the  Mohicans  is  more  frequently  mentioned 
than  the  most  renowned  aboriginal  people  of  the  southern  continent.  The  expres- 
sion "  redskins,"  applied  to  the  natives  by  the  New  England  and  Canadian  settlers, 
has  been  too  frequently  used  to  designate  all  the  indigenous  populations  of  the 
New  World,  although  scarcely  applicable  at  all  to  those  of  the  south. 

But  a  sort  of  pre-eminence  was  conceded  to  the  northern  aborigines,  as  if  they 
were  in  a  superlative  sense  the  typical  branch  of  the  American  ethnical  family. 
Yet  the  South  American  natives,  whether  of  light  or  dark  complexion,  far  outnum- 
ber those  of  the  north.  Some  of  their  cultured  nations,  also,  were  at  least  fully  as 


ABORIGINES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA.  87 

civilised  as  the  Aztecs  and  the  other  more  advanced  peoples  of  the  Mexican  plateau. 
Moreover,  the  Indians  of  Latin  America,  including  these  Mexicans  themselves, 
have  displayed  more  vitality,  more  power  of  resisting  the  destructive  forces 
than  the  redskins  properly  so  called.  While  the  latter  have  either  disappeared, 
or  been  for  the  most  part  swept  into  "  reserves,"  the  former  still  constitute  the 
substratum  of  the  population  in  the  land  of  their  forefathers. 

THE  ABORIGINES. 

All  sixteenth -century  chronicles  are  unanimous  in  asserting  that  the  southern 
continent  was  thickly  peopled  at  the  time  .when  the  Conquistadores  penetrated  into 
the  interior  of  the  New  World.  Doubtless  the  leaders  of  the  Spanish  bands  who 
carved  their  way  through  empires  sword  in  hand  often  sought  to  enhance  their 
glory  by  exaggerating  the  multitudes  they  had  butchered.  But  apart  from  the 
vapourings  of  these  ruthless  adventurers,  many  a  spontaneous  remark,  many  a 
detail  incidentally  mentioned  in  the  reports  shows  that  the  inhabitants  were 
really  numerous. 

Authentic  witnesses  speak  of  whole  districts,  of  spacious  valleys,  of  vast 
plateaux  where  the  natives  were  crowded  together  in  towns  and  villages,  but  which 
a  hundred  years  after  the  arrival  of  the  whites  had  become  complete  solitudes. 
At  the  present  time  the  heaps  of  refuse  still  found  after  three  centuries  on  the 
plains  of  the  Peruvian  seaboard,  as  well  as  on  the  mountain  slopes,  the  so-called 
andenes,  or  sustaining  walls,  following  like  flights  of  gigantic  steps  up  the  sides  of 
the  hills,  recall  the  terraces  of  tilled  lands  which  encircled  the  mountains  as  with 
wreaths  of  green  crops. 

A  century  after  the  Pacific  slope  had  been  wasted  by  the  Spanish  invaders, 
when  the  missionaries  descended  the  opposite  side  into  the  Amazonian  valleys,  there 
also  they  found  the  land  occupied  by  numerous  tribes.  One  of  them  having 
asked  a  chief  of  the  Jeberos  how  many  nations  dwelt  in  the  forest  regions  round 
about,  he  replied,  taking  a  handful  of  sand  and  throwing  it  into  the  air,  "  Count- 
less as  these  grains  of  dust  are  the  nations  of  this  country.  Not  a  lake,  not  a  river, 
not  a  hill  or  a  valley,  not  a  plain  or  a  forest  but  is  filled  with  inhabitants." 

Unquestionably  millions  of  human  beings  perished  through  wanton  cruelties, 
and  especially  by  the  forced  labour  imposed  on  the  natives,  who  were  literally 
worked  to  death.  Their  employment  under  the  lash  of  the  overseer  in  the  mines 
and  on  the  burning  soil  of  the  plantations  ;  no  doubt,  also,  the  crushing  burdens 
and  weary  marches  of  these  "  pack  animals  "  along  the  rough  mountain  tracks, 
resulted  in  the  rapid  disappearance  of  nearly  all  those  whom  the  conquest  had 
delivered  into  the  hands  of  white  employers.  Doubtless  many  tribes  were  able  to 
avoid  oppression  by  taking  refuge  in  the  mountains  or  the  forests  ;  but  they  were 
unable  to  escape  the  fearful  mortality  caused  by  the  epidemics  following  in  the 
wake  of  the  invaders.  Thus,  in  the  seventeenth  century  a  great  part  of  the  natives 
perished  in  the  upland  Amazonian  valleys.  Here  the  only  resident  whites  were 
the  missionaries,  who  strove  to  gather  the  Indians  around  them  in  peaceful  com- 
munities ;  but  by  inducing  their  flocks  to  change  their  habits  of  life,  the}'  made 


88  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

them  the  more  susceptible  to  the  ravages  of  disease.  Whole  populations  were 
destroyed  by  small- pox,  and  in  districts  once  occupied  by  flourishing  villages, 
nothing  is  now  seen  except  a  few  survivors  encamped  in  the  forest  glades. 

At  the  time  of  the  great  mortality  following  the  conquest  it  was  supposed  that 
the  aborigines  were  destined  to  disappear  on  the  mainland,  as  they  had  already 
disappeared  in  Espafiola  and  the  other  West  Indian  islands.  Even  long  afterwards 
their  ultimate  extinction  continued  to  be  regarded  as  inevitable.  But  history  has 
fortunately  proved  the  contrary.  After  thje  period  of  decline  the  natives,  trans- 
formed by  crossings  with  the  whites,  are  again  increasing,  if  not  everywhere,  at 
least  amongst  their  more  important  groups.  Compared  with  the  other  great 
representative  races  of  the  world,  they  are  advancing  even  at  a  more  rapid  rate 
than  the  whites,  but  they  no  longer  advance  as  a  distinct  race.  Henceforth  the 
descendants  of  conquered  and  conquerors  are  merged  in  a  single  nationality. 

Viewed  as  a  whole,  the  southern  aborigines  are  distinguished  from  those  of 
the  Laurentian  and  Mississippi  regions  by  the  colour  of  their  skin,  which  is  not 
coppery  red,  but  presents,  according  to  place  and  race,  two  distinct  tints,  olive- 
brown  and  yellow,  with  all  the  intermediate  shades.  Neglecting  the  minor 
groups,  brown  may  be  said  in  a  general  way  to  prevail  amongst  the  natives  of 
the  Andes,  yellow  amongst  those  of  the  plains  and  of  the  Guiana  and  Brazilian 
uplands.* 

To  what  is  to  be  attributed  this  difference  in  the  complexion  of  the  two 
main  divisions  of  the  aborigines  ?  Probably  to  more  than  one  cause.  The  con- 
trasts of  climates,  of  pursuits,  of  habits,  of  food,  all  contribute  in  various 
degrees  to  produce  contrasts  in  the  colour  of  the  skin.  It  must  be  especially 
borne  in  mind  that  the  natives  of  the  western  slopes  of  the  Andes  live  under  a 
dry  climate,  or  at  least  one  far  less  moist  than  that  of  the  eastern  regions, 
that  they  are  for  the  most  part  agriculturists,  and  that  their  diet  is  chiefly 
vegetarian.  The  hunting  and  fishing  tribes  of  the  plains  are,  on  the  contrary, 
far  more  carnivorous. 

Differences  occur  in  the  shape  of  the  skull,  and  in  the  stature,  although  the 
comparative  tables  of  these  discrepancies  do  not  supply  sufficient  materials  for  a 
definite  classification  of  the  Indians  based  on  racial  characteri sties. t  While 
differing  in  many  other  respects,  all  the  natives  resemble  each  other  in  the 
quality  of  their  hair,  which  is  coarse,  black,  and  lank,  in  their  scanty  beard, 
short  chin,  small,  deep-sunk  eyes,  powerful  jaws,  and  fine  teeth.  Physical 
deformity  is  extremely  rare,  which  should  be  attributed  to  the  perfect  freedom 
of  movement  left  to  the  children,  nearly  all  of  whom  are  allowed  to  run  about 
naked. 

Certain  writers  of    the  last  century,  notably  Ulloa,  who  had,  nevertheless, 

*  A.  d'Orbigny,  V ' Homme  Amcrlcain. 

f  Cephalic  index  of  the  South  American  aborigines,  according  to  Hyades  and  Deniker : — 

Extreme  brachycephaly :  Patagonians  - 85 

Extreme  dolichocephaly  :  Coroados  of  South  Brazil 70 

Stature: — 

Highest:  Patagonians,  according  to  A.  d'Orbigny        .         .    (mean)  5ft.  10  ins. 

Shortest :  Galibi,  according  to  Deniker (mean)    5  ft.  2  ina. 


ABORIGINES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA.  89 

visited  the  New  World,  but  who  had  in  view  chiefly  the  morose  and  gloomy 
Quichuas  of  Ecuador,  denied  all  intelligence  to  the  South  American  aborigines. 
"  They  have  neither  discretion  nor  understanding " ;  they  are  "  animals," 
"  brutes,"  and  so  on.  So  also  many  settlers  in  Brazil  called  them  bichos  do 
mato,  "  beasts  of  the  forest."  But  such  expressions  reflect  chiefly  on  those 
who  utter  them.  The  fact  is,  these  natives,  like  all  other  human  races,  share  in 
our  strength  and  our  weakness,  possess  in  various  degrees  our  intellectual  and 
moral  faculties,  rise  to  the  performance  of  great  deeds,  and  relapse  iuto  degrading 
practices,  advance  or  recede  according  to  the  struggles  in  which  they  are 
engaged,  the  environment  in  which  they  dwell,  the  degree  of  liberty  which 
they  enjoy. 

Several  South  American  nations,  such  as  the  Muyscas,  Quichuas,  Aymaras, 
and  other  Andean  races,  made  sufficient  progress  to  entitle  their  social  system 
to  be  called  "  civilised."  They  had  acquired  the  arts  of  husbandry  ;  they  were 
able  to  make  earthenware,  to  weave  textiles,  to  work  in  copper,  gold,  and  silver, 
to  build  edifices  lasting  for  centuries,  to  carve  statues,  to  embellish  their  vases 
and  garments  with  artistic  designs,  to  construct  highways  and  bridges,  and  if  not 
to  write,  at  least  to  keep  regular  records  by  means  of  knotted  strings. 

Yet  they  lay  under  a  heavy  disadvantage  compared  with  the  peoples  of  the 
Old  World.  They  possessed  no  domestic  animals  strong  enough  to  supplement 
their  own  physical  efforts.  The  extraordinary  skill  displayed  by  them  in  taming 
the  beasts  of  the  field  gave  them  pets,  but  no  fellow-workers.  In  this  respect, 
they  liad  nothing  but  the  feeble  llama  and  the  dog  to  compare  with  the  camel, 
the  horse,  the  ass,  ox,  goat,  and  sheep  possessed  by  the  inhabitants  of  other 
continents. 

The  so-called  wild  tribes  occupying  the  central  and  eastern  forests  have 
also  their  place  in  the  history  of  human  progress,  and  several  of  them  have 
already  begun  to  co-operate  with  the  whites  on  a  footing  of  equality.  But  the 
transition  from  one  social  state  to  another  cannot  be  effected  without  profound 
disturbances.  The  hunting  populations,  who  have  succeeded  in  keeping  aloof 
from  the  whites  and  mestizoes  in  the  forests  remote  from  the  fluvial  highways, 
or  in  their  secluded  upland  valleys,  have  preserved  their  graceful  carriage,  their 
proud  glance,  and  straightforward  speech,  whereas  the  enslaved  peasantry 
tremble  before  their  masters,  bow  their  necks  to  the  yoke,  and  carefully  measure 
the  words  addressed  with  downcast  eyes  to  their  employers. 

CHIEF  DIVISIONS. or  THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  ABORIGINES. 

Thanks  to  the  researches  and  linguistic  studies  of  numerous  intelligent 
observers,  it  has  become  possible  to  classify  most  of  the  aborigines  according 
to  their  probable  genetic  descent,  although  difficulties  are  still  presented  by 
certain  tribes  remote  from  the  bulk  of  their  ethnical  family.  One  of  the  best- 
defined  groups  is  that  of  the  Muyscas,  or  Chibchas,  as  they  called  themselves, 
who  had  formerly  established  their  dominion  on  the  Cundinamarca  plateau,  in  the 
midst  of  numerous  kindred  tribe*. 


40 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  .REGIONS. 


Farther  south  both  slopes  of  the  Ecuador  and  Peruvian  Andes  belonged  to 
the  great  Quichua  nation,  followed  in  the  present  territory  of  Bolivia  by  the 
distantly  connected  Aymaras,  ruder  of  manners,  but  of  equally  inoffensive 

Fig.  13. — MAIN  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  SOUTH  AMEEICAN  ABOEIQINES. 
Scale  1  :  60,000,000. 


1,240  Miles. 


character.     The  southern  extremity  of  the  Cordilleras,  with  the  dependent  terri- 
tories, formed  the  domain  of  the  more  warlike  Araucanians. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  continent  the  formerly  powerful  Carib  (Caraib) 
race,  till  recently  supposed  to  be  extinct,  because  no  longer  found  in  the 
Antilles,  are  still  represented  by  various  tribal  groups,  reaching  far  into  the 
interior  of  the  Amazons  basin.  Intermingled  with  them  are  the  Arawaks  of  the 
Upper  Amazons  and  other  districts.  But  in  their  long  conflicts  with  hostile 


ABORIGINES  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA.  41 

peoples,  these  Arawaks  have  mostly  been  worsted,  and  many  of  them  have  been 
scattered  over  the  Guiana  coastlands,  while  the  bulk  of  the  race  has  been 
pressed  westwards  to  the  foot  of  the  great  mountains.  Here  they  are  associated 
with  the  Antis,  who  have  given  their  name  to  the  Cordillera  of  the  "  Andes," 
and  who  formerly  occupied  parts  of  the  Andean  plateaux,  as  well  as  the 
eastern  valleys,  where  the  southern  Amazonian  affluents  have  their  source. 

The  Miranhas  and  related  tribes  are  limited  to  the  region  comprised  between 
the  left  bank  of  the  Amazons  and  its  two  tributaries,  the  Lja  and  Rio  Negro. 
On  the  opposite  side  of  the  great  river,  the  Panos  group  is  dominant  on  the 
TJcayali  and  Madeira,  and  the  Oarayas  on  the  Xingu  and  Araguaya,  affluents. 

In  the  extreme  east  the  Botocudos  of  the  Brazilian  coastlands  are  a  branch 
of  the  Ges  race,  whose  numerous  tribes  follow  from  north  to  south,  from  the 
banks  of  the  Tocantins  to  those  of  the  Parana.  But  of  all  the  Brazilian  families 
the  most  important,  for  the  number  of  its  tribes  and  the  extent  of  territory 
occupied  by  them,  is  that  of  the  Tupi  or  Guarani,  who  have  given  their  language 
to  most  of  the  natives  of  the  interior,  and  who  have  approached  nearest  to  the 
whites  in  general  culture.  Conterminous  with  them  on  the  upper  Paraguay 
dwell  the  Guaycurus,  and  in  the  Rio  de  Janeiro  district  a  few  remnants  of  the 
Goytacas  or  Puri,  while  the  Charruas  of  the  La  Plata  region  are  now  represented 
only  by  half-breeds.  But  the  Indians  of  the  Patagonian  family  still  possess 
several  full-blood  groups,  and  Tierra  del  Fuego  has  also  its  distinct  ethnical 
family,  driven  from  the  mainland  to  this  insular  extremity  of  the  continent. 

Instead  of  classifying  the  South  American  Indians  by  their  linguistic 
affinities,  D'Orbigny  and  others  have  attempted  to  group  them  according  to 
their  physical  characteristics.  They  might  also  be  classified  according  to  certain 
usages,  such  as  tattooing,  circumcision,  filing  the  teeth,  artificial  deformation  of 
the  skull,  and  especially  cannibalism.  But  in  the  vicinity  of  the  white  settle- 
ments the  study  of  the  aborigines  becomes  more  and  more  difficult,  owing  to  the 
rapid  changes  going  on  in  their  social  and  political  state,  as  well  as  in  their  habits 
of  life. 

Certain  tribes  have  disappeared  either  by  actual  extinction  or  by  absorption 
in  others,  while  many  can  no  longer  be  recognised,  owing  to  displacements 
accompanied  by  change  of  names.  But  great  migrations  have  not  been  numerous 
during  the  four  centuries  that  have  elapsed  since  the  discovery.  The  natives 
have  scarcely  shifted  their  camping-grounds,  except  in  those  districts  where  the 
advent  of  the  Europeans  was  for  them  the  signal  of  inevitable  doom.  Never- 
theless, all  those  who  have  failed  to  enter  the  Latinised  social  system  of  South 
America  by  the  process  of  miscegenation,  present  a  uniform  spectacle  of  decadence, 
which  has  to  be  described  in  almost  identical  terms  in  dealing  especially  with  those 
regions  where  their  forefathers  were  dominant. 

THE  HALF-BREEDS. — MISCEGENATION. 

Nowhere  has  the  work  of  fusion  between  the  various  ethnical  elements  of 
the  Old  and  New  World  made  such  progress  as  in  the  Andean  regions.  The 


42  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

I 
process  may  even  be  regarded  as  completed  in  all  the  more  populous  districts  of 

Venezuela  and  Colombia,  in  certain  parts  of  Peru,  in  north  and  central  Chili,  as 
well  as  in  Uruguay  and  along  the  banks  of  the  Plate  river.  On  the  other  hand, 
nearly  all  the  tribes  of  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Cordilleras,  and  in  the  great 
Amazonian  forests,  have  preserved  their  social  characters  by  keeping  entirely  aloof 
from  the  whites. 

Farther  east,  on  the  Guiana  and  Brazilian  seaboards,  the  populations  of  mixed 
origin  again  become  dominant.  But  in  these  regions  the  process  of  miscege- 
nation has  taken  place,  not  so  much  between  the  aborigines  and  the  European 
settlers,  as  between  the  latter  and  the  Africans,  descendants  of  formerly  imported 
slaves.  In  South  America  the  strain  of  black  blood  increases  in  the  direction 
from  west  to  east,  and  the  coloured  element  even  greatly  predominates  in  the 
Brazilian  provinces  which  project  nearest  to  the  African  continent.  Full-blood 
families,  whether  white  or  black,  are  scarcely  met  at  all  along  this  eastern 
seaboard. 

Besides  the  blending  .of  the  white  type  on  the  one  hand  with  that  of  the 
Indians,  on  the  other  with  that  of  the  negroes,  there  occur,  here  and  there,  a 
limited  number  of  half-breeds,  the  direct  issue  either  of  native  men  and  African 
women,  or  of  African  men  and  native  women.  But  as  a  rule  the  ethnical  combina- 
tions are  much  more  complex  than  such  mixtures  as  these.  During  the  course  of 
the  ten  or  twelve  generations  that  have  followed  since  the  period  of  the  conquest, 
the  fusion  of  the  various  elements  has  assumed  an  endlessly  diversified  aspect. 
Although  every  individual  half-breed  may  possibly  be  classified  and  denotated  in 
a  general  way  by  his  complexion  and  more  salient  features,  the  proportions  vary 
beyond  all  calculation. 

This  ethnological  problem  is  further  complicated  by  the  phenomena  of  atavism, 
in  virtue  of  which  the  blends  show  a  tendency  to  revert  to  one  or  other  of  the 
original  types.  The  question  of  miscegenation,  everywhere  so  difficult,  should 
be  studied  especially  in  South  America,  where  every  town,  village  and  hamlet  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  every  tribe  presents  "specimens"  of  every  conceivable  variety. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  determine  the  comparative  value  of  the  results  of 
such  and  such  crossings.  Thus,  according  to  D'Orbigny,  the  issues  of  unions 
between  different  Indian  races  have  always  proved  superior  to  either  of  the 
original  types.  So  also  the  progeny  of  white  men  and  Guarani  women  is  dis- 
tinguished by  noble  features  and  fine  figures,  nearly  always  of  white  colour  from 
the  outset,  whereas  Araucanian  and  Quichua  mestizoes  long  preserve  the  cha- 
racters of  the  native  stock. 

The  fusion  of  negroes  with  Guarani  women  appears  highly  favourable  for  the 
physical  improvement  of  the  race.  Other  crossings  are,  on  the  contrary,  regarded 
as  baneful,  resulting,  as  is  asserted,  both  in  bodily  and  moral  degradation.  But 
despite  the  facilities  offered  by  the  southern  continent  for  the  study  of  miscegena- 
tion, the  subject  is  still  involved  in  much  obscurity.  The  fact,  however,  remains 
that,  viewed  as  a  whole,  the  population  of  South  America  is  the  most  "  human," 
representing  the  most  complete-  fusion  of  the  most  characteristic  primitive 


HISTORIC  SUEVEY.  43 

elements — American  Indian,  African  black,  and  white  of  Europe.  Here  is  being 
physically  developed  the  most  representative  race  of  the  human  species,  taken  in 
its  entirety.  In  this  respect  what  a  contrast  between  this  continent  and  North 
America,  where  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  has  kept  mainly  aloof  both  from  the  redskins 
and  the  blacks,  thrusting  them  aside,  and  even  exterminating  them  rather  than 
sully  their  racial  purity  by  contact  with  lower  elements. 

HISTORIC  RETROSPECT — THE  REVOLUTION. 

For  over  two  centuries  after  the  prodigious  and  horrible  romance  of  the  Con- 
quest, the  South  American  populations  may  be  said  to  have  been  overcome  by  a 
heavy  social  and  political  sleep.  Under  the  system  of  bondage  imposed  by  the 
Council  of  the  Indies,  tempered  or  aggravated  at  intervals  by  the  caprice  of  the 
viceroys,  the  natives  and  even  the  settlers  of  European  origin  ceased  to  have  any 
historic  existence ;  all  intercourse  with  aliens  involved  confiscation  of  property  and 
capital  punishment.  As  if  by  a  sort  of  embryonic  life,  the  movement  of  the 
American  nations  was  carried  on,  no  longer  on  the  surface,  but  in  the  depths  of 
society,  where  was  accomplished  the  transformation  of  hostile  races  into  a  com- 
pact nationality.  Spaniards  and  Quichuas,  Portuguese,  Africans  and  Guarani 
were  preparing  for  their  second  birth  as  South  Americans.  But  meanwhile  silence 
reigned  supreme,  jealously  guarded  from  interruption  by  their  rulers.  The  sub- 
mission of  the  aborigines  seemed  absolute,  and  a  force  of  2,000  men  sufficed 
for  the  Spanish  Government  to  maintain  an  atrociously  despotic  administration 
over  all  those  multitudes  of  enslaved  peoples. 

In  such  a  vast  region  as  South  America,  destitute  of  easy  communications,  and 
inhabited  by  peoples  of  diverse  speech  and  origin,  insurrections  could  not  be 
organised  for  combined  and  sudden  action.  The  partial  and  isolated  struggles  for 
independence  were  even  necessarily  attended  and  followed  by  reactionary  move- 
ments. In  Peru  the  first  blow  struck  for  emancipation,  so  far  from  being  of  a 
bold  and  resolute  character,  was,  on  the  contrary,  disguised  under  the  form  of  a 
pretext  for  a  "  legitimist "  restoration.  In  the  revolt  of  1780  the  leader  of  the 
insurgents  was  a  descendant  of  the  Incas  named  Tupac  Amaru,  like  the  last 
sovereign  of  that  race.  But  he  was  soon  vanquished,  and,  like  him  also,  perished 
on  the  gallows  after  the  massacre  of  his  followers. 

The  first  Brazilian  rising  was  inspired  by  a  feeling  of  patriotism,  its  object 
being  the  expulsion  of  the  Dutch  from  Pernambuco.  After  seven  years  of  san- 
guinary conflicts  it  achieved  its  purpose,  the  insurgents  storming  the  Batavian 
fortifications  in  the  year  1634.  Men  of  all  Brazilian  races,  Indians,  negroes  and 
whites,  had  taken  part  in  the  struggle,  and  Fernandez  Vieira,  generally  regarded 
as  the  hero  of  the  war,  was  a  mulatto.  Later  the  negro  slaves  rose  against  their 
masters,  and  even  founded  in  the  interior  a  few  independent  republics,  which 
enjoyed  an  ephemeral  existence.  Then  came  in  1798  the  first  attempt  at 
political  independence,  led  by  Xavier,  better  known  by  the  name  of  Tiradeutes. 

But  the  great  South  American  revolution  was  heralded  by  a  series  of  petty 
revolts,  breaking  out  now  in  one  place,  now  in  another,  all  suppressed  in  their 


44 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


turn,  but  only  to  reappear  in  ever-increasing  numbers.  Yet  the  movement  would 
have  been  greatly  retarded  had  not  Europe  itself  been  at  that  time  in  the  throes  of 
a  political  and  social  transformation.  By  upsetting  the  thrones  of  Spain  and 
Portugal,  Napoleon  shook  to  its  foundations  the  monarchical  system  in  the  New 

Fig.  14.— SCENE  OF  THE  WAE  OF  INDEPENDENCE  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA. 
Scale  1  : 60,000,000. 


30* 


98' 


West  or  Greenwich 


1,240  Miles. 


30 


IB- 


World.  The  removal  of  the  traditional  sovereigns,  alone  regarded  as  "  legitimate," 
afforded  a  pretext  for  those  eager  for  independence  to  mask  their  designs  under 
the  plea  of  allegiance  to  the  old  dynasties,  and  thus  the  insurrection  broke  out  in 
all  quarters  under  the  disguise  of  loyalty  to  the  legitimate  rulers. 


HISTORIC  SURVEY.  45 

Gradually  the  various  elements  of  local  revolution,  in  one  place  the  discontent 
of  the  Creoles  at  the  appointment  of  Spanish  or  Portuguese  functionaries,  in 
another  racial  hatreds  between  whites,  blacks,  and  Indians,  elsewhere  the  struggles 
of  "  the  masses  against  the  classes '; — all  was  merged  in  the  tremendous  conflict 
between  the  innovators  and  the  representatives  of  the  old  conservative  ideas.  In 
this  conflict  everybody,  yielding  to  his  sympathies,  his  traditions  or  interests,  took 
sides  with  the  party  with  which  his  personal  feelings  were  most  in  harmony. 
Thus  it  happened  that  in  the  two  armies,  whites  found  themselves  arrayed  against 
whites,  blacks  against  blacks,  aborigines  against  aborigines.  And  so  the  very 
war  itself  had  the  effect  of  welding  the  three  races  in  a  more  intimate  national 
unity. 

On  issuing  from  the  struggle  the  old  Spanish  colonies  had,  under  the  influence 
of  the  French  encyclopedists,  constituted  themselves  republics  based  on  the  model 
of  the  United  States,  while  Brazil,  still  hampered  in  its  evolution  by  the  great 
number  of  its  slaves,  was  satisfied  with  a  change  of  sovereigns  ;  it  ceased  to  be  a 
colony  to  become  an  autonomous  empire. 

The  community  of  interests  binding  all  the  Brazilian  slaveowners  together, 
and  the  national  cohesion  presented  by  the  various  groups  of  settlements  along 
the  coast  and  on  the  inland  plateaux,  enabled  Brazil  to  preserve  a  state  of  almost 
unbroken  public  tranquillity  for  one  or  two  generations.  But  in  the  Hispano- 
American  states  the  relations  were  very  different.  In  these  regions,  differing  in 
climate,  relief  of  the  land,  origin,  speech  and  customs  of  its  inhabitants,  con- 
flicting interests  gave  rise  to  incessant  struggles.  Hence  the  attempt  proved 
hopeless  to  unite  in  a  single  commonwealth  of  vast  dimensions  the  Andean 
highlands,  the  seaboard  and  inland  plains,  the  torrid  and  temperate  zones,  the 
Pacific  and  Atlantic  coastlands. 

At  first  it  had  seemed  natural  enough  to  merge  in  a  single  political  body  the 
immense  possessions  formerly  owned  by  Spain  in  the  New  World.  In  fact,  from 
the  purely  geographical  standpoint,  South  America  is  admirably  suited  to  be 
occupied  by  a  united  people.  While  resembling  Africa  in  its  general  outline,  it 
differs  altogether  from  that  continent  in  its  internal  structure,  and  in  the  perfect 
harmony  of  all  its  parts.  Most  of  the  regions  on  the  African  seaboard  are  com- 
pletely isolated  one  from  the  other  by  solitudes  and,  till  recently,  unexplored  tracts, 
whereas  the  regions  of  South  America  abutting  on  the  great  backbone  of  the 
Cordilleras,  and  watered  by  tributaries  of  the  same  mainstreams,  stand  in  a  relation 
of  close  mutual  dependence.  They  constitute  collectively  a  geographical  unit  of 
a  strikingly  simple  character.  • 

But  if  the  salient  features  of  the  continent  and  the  disposition  of  its  relief 
forecast  political  unity  in  a  more  or  less  remote  future,  the  actual  distribution  of 
the  populations  in  widely  diffused  groups,  and  unconnected  by  any  common 
trading  relations,  necessarily  tended  to  create  independent  centres  of  political  life. 
Federal  decentralisation,  followed  by  complete  separation  of  the  several  states, 
was  brought  about  by  the  very  force  of  circumstances  in  each  of  the  new 
republics. 


46  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

The  vast  trackless  territory,  where  news  of  the  last  importance  took  months  to 
spread,  broke  of  itself  into  several  sections.  The  union  established  at  the  outset 
had  been  nothing  more  than  a  league  against  the  common  enemy,  and  when  the 
Spaniard  disappeared,  how  many  national  quarrels  still  remained  to  be  settled  ! 
— hereditary  racial  feuds  between  Antis  and  Aymaras,  Araucanians  and  Quichuas, 
Charruas  and  Guarari,  with  which  were  perhaps  secretly  associated  the  rivalries 
of  presidents,  the  thirst  of  territorial  conquest.  The  old  Indian  names  of  cities 
have  been  gradually  substituted  for  the  Spanish  designations,  and  statues  of  van- 
quished heroes  of  the  land  have  been  set  up  in  the  public  places,  sure  indica- 
tions of  jealousies  still  smouldering  between  the  foreign  and  aboriginal  elements. 

After  the  political  emancipation,  the  ancient  traditions  of  a  government 
marked  by  a  strongly  centralised  administration  could  not  be  at  once  reconciled 
with  the  process  of  dismemberment  taking  place  spontaneously.  All  the  old 
capitals — Bogota,  Lima,  Buenos  Ayres — still  wanted  to  retain  their  jurisdiction 
over  remote  provinces,  and  in  the  ensuing  struggles  the  alternating  fortunes  of 
the  battlefield  gave  the  ascendency  now  to  one,  now  to  another  of  the  rival 
factions.  The  long  and  ruthless  War  of  Independence,  which  covered  the  richest 
lands  of  South  America  with  ruins,  had  also  accustomed  the  eye  to  scenes  of  blood- 
shed and  hardened  the  heart  to  the  most  savage  atrocities. 

The  military  enthusiasm  stimulated  by  victory  had  also  surrounded  all  the 
successful  leaders  with  devoted  adherents.  Every  ambitious  captain  was  thus 
enabled  to  raise  bands  of  armed  followers  to  plunder  a  province,  or,  if  the  chances 
were  favourable,  to  conquer  a  presidency.  The  love  of  strife  entered  into  the 
marrow  of  the  bone,  and  whole  communities  were  found  living  in  a  chronic  state 
of  warfare.  Social  disorganisation  was  even  promoted  by  tne  very  abundance  of 
material  resources.  Nothing  was  easier  than  to  support  an  army  of  partisans  on 
a  conquered  territory  without  any  pay  beyond  the  hope  of  pillage.  Yet,  although 
the  South  Americans  have,  so  to  say,  passed  their  lives  under  fire,  they  have  none 
the  less  made  great  strides  in  advance.  The  land  has  been  gradually  re-settled, 
the  soil  brought  under  cultivation,  the  local  resources  developed,  while  the  sub- 
stratum of  the  population  has  everywhere  tended  instinctively  and  incessantly 
towards  national  unity. 

COMMUNICATIONS. 

Nevertheless  the  South  American  continent  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  yet 
acquired  that  elementary  unity  by  which  it  might  hope  to  become  a  common 
fatherland  for  its  diverse  inhabitants.  The  means  of  transport  between  north 
and  south,  between  east  and  west,  are  still  so  difficult  that  they  are  little  used, 
except  by  daring  travellers.  The  seaboard  continues  to  be  by  far  the  most 
important  region  in  respect  of  population,  agriculture,  and  trade.  Here  are 
grouped  nearly  all  the  large  cities,  here  is  centred  all  commercial  life. 
Meanwhile  the  inland  regions  remain  comparatively  stagnant,  the  growth  of 
population  being  necessarily  extremely  slow  in  the  sterile  southern  district  of 
Patagonia,  and  in  the  tropical  Amazons  basin  too  exuberant  to  attract  settlers. 


COMMUNICATIONS.  47 

From  Bogota  to  Santiago  of  Chili,  no  one  ever  dreams  of  taking  the  direct 
route  by  the  upland  Andes  valleys.  Travellers  have  to  turn  first  north  to  take 
ship  for  Colon,  then  cross  the  isthmus  of  Panama,  and  set  sail  on  the  broad 
Pacific  in  order  to  reach  Chili,  and  so  ultimately  arrive  at  their  destination.  So 
also  an  inhabitant  of  Ecuador  wishing  to  visit  east  Brazil  will  not  follow  the 
great  watercourse  which  he  sees  flowing  at  his  feet  and  descending  straight  to  the 
Atlantic.  He  finds  it  more  convenient  to  circumnavigate  the  continent  either  by 
the  northern  route  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  or  by  the  south  round  Cape  Horn  or 
through  Magellan  Strait.  To  get  from  one  point  to  another  in  South  America 
many  travellers  save  time  and  money  by  first  crossing  the  Atlantic  to  Europe. 
The  Brazilian  proceeding  to  Colombia  will  gladly  make  Paris  the  chief  stage  on 
his  roundabout  voyage. 

None  of  the  unavoidable  land  journeys  from  the  periphery  to  the  central 
provinces  can  be  called  easy  except  those  across  the  contracted  southern  extremity 
of  the  continent  between  Valparaiso  and  Buenos  Ayres.  Everywhere  else  the 
goal  can  be  reached  only  at  the  cost  of  great  hardships  and  even  dangers,  and 
with  the  loss  of  much  time — weeks,  or  even  months.  Certain  Brazilian  and  east 
Bolivian  cities,  although  situated  in  civilised  lands,  are  as  inaccessible  as  many 
wild  regions  in  Central  Africa  and  Asia.  The  trip  round  the  globe  has  become 
much  easier  than  the  journey  from  plain  to  plain  across  the  parallel  ranges  of  the 
Cordilleras. 

THE  SPANISH  AND  PORTUGUESE  DOMAINS. 

The  natural  dividing  zone  between  the  eastern  and  western  sections  of  South 
America  is  indicated  by  the  space  almost  exclusively  occupied  by  aboriginal 
tribes,  which  is  disposed  in  the  direction  from  north  to  south  along  the  foot  of 
the  Andes  between  the  Orinoco  and  Parana  affluents.  This  zone  of  separation 
between  the  regions  inhabited  by  civilised  man  may  also  be  regarded  in  a  general 
way  as  the  parting-line  between  Spanish  and  Portuguese  America.  The  two  un- 
equal sections  of  the  continent  present  a  contrast  in  their  distinctive  features, 
which  is  all  the  more  striking  that  the  respective  regions  actually  settled  are  still 
more  remote,  and  have,  so  to  say,  no  present  points  of  contact. 

In  'fact,  to  the  existence  of  this  intermediate  neutral  zone  must  be  attributed 
the  ease  with  which  the  Portuguese  element  has  been  able  to  expand  westwards 
without  encountering  any  serious  obstacle  on  the  part  of  the  Spaniards.  When 
Alexander  VI.,  "  slicing  the  world  in  two  like  an  apple  "  (Oscar  Peschel),  shared 
it  between  the  two  conquering  powers,  Spain  and  Portugal,  the  latter  state  found 
itself  endowed  with  a  mere  fragment  of  the  present  Brazil.  But  the  very  next 
year  (1494)  the  Treaty  of  Tordesillas  assigned  it  a  much  larger  slice  of  the 
recently  discovered  continent.  Even  this  frontier,  however,  was  soon  encroached 
upon  by  Brazilian  adventurers,  and  especially  by  the  intrepid  "  Paulistas,"  that  is, 
the  half-castes  of  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo,  dwelling  near  the  conventional 
parting- line.  Such  a  frontier  could,  in  fact,  have  been  maintained  only  by  a 
military  cordon  to  defend  it  from  encroachments.  But  at  that  time  the  Spanish 


43 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


settlers,  and  even  the  missionaries,  had  crossed  the  crests  of  the  Cordilleras  only 
at  a  very  few  points,  and  could  not  dream  of  preventing  the  invasion  of  a  territory 
of  which  they  had  no  knowledge.     Thus  it  was  that  Brazil,  steadily  moving  west- 
Fig.  15. — CONTINENTAL  PAHTINQ-LINES  BETWEEN  THE  SPANISH  AND  POBTUQUESE  DOMAINS. 

Scale  1  :  60,000,000. 


40- 


40 


80° 


40°       West  oF  Greenwich 


Foreign  possessions. 


Brazil. 


Spanish  republics. 
1.240  Miles. 


wards,  gradually  absorbed  the  whole  of  the  natural  region  comprising  the  eastern 
foothills  and  the  great  wooded  plains  of  the  interior. 

Occupying  distinct  geographical  domains,  Brazil  and  the  Andean  and  Argen- 
tine republics  have  been  historically  developed  on  faintly  parallel  lines.  Their 
populations,  differing  in  speech  as  well  as  in  their  traditions  and  usages,  have  but 
a  feeble  sentiment  of  a  common  solidarity.  Nevertheless,  recent  events,  which 


SPANISH  AND  POHTUGUESE  SOUTH  AMERICA. 


49 


have  replaced  the  imperial  system  in  Brazil  by  a  federal  republic  analogous  to 
that  of  several  Hispano- American  states,  will  have  the  inevitable  consequence  of 
bringing  the  two  groups  of  Latin  populations  into  closer  contact,  especially  in  the 

Fig.   16.— ETHNICAL  DIVISIONS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  IN  1893. 
Scale  1  :  68,000,000. 


g^1*        ^P^UtOs"?      Jbucoiymnes, 


Spaniards  pure    Portuguese  pure  French, 

and  mixed.  and  mixed. 


English  and 
Anglicised. 


Dutch. 


1,240  Miles. 


Blacks         Blacks  and  Mnlat- 
and  Mulattoes.  toes  in  majority. 


La  Plata  basin,  where  Brazil  is  conterminous  with  Paraguay,  Uruguay,  and  Argen- 
tina. Here  a  levelling  process  in  social  respects,  and  even  in  speech,  is  already 
in  progress  between  the  neighbouring  populations. 

But,  despite  all  contrasts,  South  America  remains  as  a  whole  the  Latin  con- 
tinent in  a  pre-eminent  sense.      With  the  exception  of  Trinidad  and  Tobago, 
5 


50  SOUTH  AMERICA—THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

Curasao  and  neighbouring  islets,  British  and  Dutch  Guianas,  and  the  Falkland 
archipelago,  the  whole  territory  belongs  to  peoples  of  Romance  speech,  while  the 
largest  stream  of  immigrants  directed  to  this  region  are  Italians,  the  most  direct 
heirs  of  Roman  culture.  Thus  the  ruling  race  in  this  part  of  the  world  presents 
a  sort  of  balance,  in  its  different  character  and  natural  genius,  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  dominant  in  North  America  from  Labrador  to  the  Rio  Grande. 

The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Americans,  yielding  to  the  influences  of  French 
culture,  and  looking  towards  Paris  as  towards  a  metropolis,  reflect  French  ideas 
in  their  literature,  their  fashions,  and  pastimes.  Till  recently  the  tie  between  the 
old  Spanish  colonies  and  the  mother  country  had  been  almost  completely  severed 
in  consequence  of  the  rancour  engendered  by  the  War  of  Independence.  Now, 
however,  it  has  been  again  strengthened,  thanks  to  their  common  origin  and 
language  ;  thanks  also  to  the  increasing  tide  of  immigration,  in  which  the  Basque 
element  has  taken  a  large  part. 

In  Brazil  active  relations  have  always  been  maintained  with  the  old  sovereign 
state,  Portugal,  having  never  been  interrupted  by  any  war.  From  Oporto  and 
Lisbon  crowds  of  Portuguese  immigrants  take  passage  for  Bahia  and  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  although  in  recent  years  they  have  been  outnumbered  by  settlers  from 
the  Italian  peninsula. 

FOREIGN  RELATIONS. — RAILWAY  PROJECTS. 

• 

The  share  of  Spain  in  the  foreign  trade  of  her  old  American  colonies  is  rela- 
tively slight,  far  inferior  to  that  of  other  nations,  such  as  Great  Britain,  France, 
Germany,  and  the  United  States.  On  the  Pacific  seaboard  the  English,  formerly 
excluded  from  all  right  of  intercourse  with  the  Spanish  main,  have  now  more 
than  one  half  of  all  the  exchanges.  Hence,  so  far  as  regards  its  foreign  trade, 
South  America  cannot  be  said  to  have  preserved  its  character  of  a  Latin  continent. 
The  settlers  come  from  the  Europe  of  Romance  speech,  while  the  merchandise  is 
for  the  most  part  imported  from  the  English-speaking  world,  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States.  These  relations  will  probably  continue  until  such  time  as  the 
local  industries  may  enable  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  republics  to  become 
independent  of  foreign  manufacturers,  or  at  least  to  give  the  first  place  to  the 
inland  trade  between  the  conterminous  states. 

But  were  the  projects  of  certain  United  States  politicians  to  be  realised,  Latin 
Europe  and  even  England  would  be  completely  excluded  from  all  commercial  deal- 
ings with  the  southern  division  of  the  New  World.  A  skilfully  arranged 
custom-house  league,  analogous  to  the  German  Zollverein,  would  place  the  con- 
sumers of  South  America  completely  in  the  hands  of  the  producers  of  North 
America.  With  a  view  to  developing  these  plans,  the  United  States  traders,  sup- 
ported by  a  "  bureau  "  of  the  American  republics  installed  at  Washington,  have 
already  organised  numerous  lines  of  steamers  to  ply  regularly  between  New  York, 
Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  San  Francisco,  and  all  the  more  important  points 
along  the  South  American  seaboard.  New  lines  are  yearly  established,  and  at 
the  Pan-American  Congress  of  1889  the  delegates  of  the  Southern  republics  were 


RAILWAY  PROJECTS. 


51 


assured  that  the  communication  between  North  and  South  would  soon  become  still 
more  frequent  and  rapid. 

Nor  is  this  all :  although  the  sinuous  form  of  the  Central  American  isthmuses, 
their  oblique  disposition  to  the  meridian,  and  the  easy  communications  by  water 

Fig.  17. — -ZONES  OP  DISTANCES  BETWEEN  LONDON  OB  PABIS  AND  SOUTH  AMEBICA. 

Scale  1  :  60,000,000. 


West  oF  Greenwich 


20° 


Distances  by  time. 


Y7A 

15  Days. 


15  to  20 
Days. 


20  to  26 
Days. 


25  to  30 
Days. 


30  Days  to 
2  Months. 


2  Months 
aud  upwards. 


Regular  steam  service.        Railways.          Projected  Andean  line. 
1,240  Miles. 

along  both  shores  render  absolutely  useless  a  longitudinal  railway  between,  the 
volcanic  plateaux  of  Guatemala  and  the  Colombian  forests  of  the  Atrato  valley,  the 
United  States  Government  has  given  countenance  to  the  project  of  such  a  trunk 


62  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEG10NS. 

line,  as  being  of  the  first  importance  for  connecting  in  a  single  system  the 
innumerable  railroads  of  North  America  with  the  few  that  have  hitherto  been  con- 
structed in  the  southern  continent.  In  Congress  a  chart  was  even  exhibited 
showing  tracings  of  the  main  lines  which  were,  as  if  by  enchantment,  to  bring 
into  close  proximity  the  great  cities  of  the  New  World  now  separated  by  journeys 
of  weeks  or  months.  But  since  then  little  has  been  heard  of  these  grand  schemes, 
although  partial  surveys  have  been  made  of  some  of  the  sections. 

According  to  these  tracings,  the  first  section  of  the  southern  trunk  line  would 
ascend  the  Cauca  valley  to  Popayan,  and  run  thence  to  Quito  and  Cuenca,  and  so 
on  through  the  Upper  Amazons  valley  to  the  Cerro  de  Pasco.  From  this  point 
the  route  is  continued  towards  Cuzco,  descending  to  Jujuy  after  skirting  the 
banks  of  Lake  Titicaca  and  its  emissary. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  this  part  of  the  project  will  eventually  be  realised, 
unless,  indeed,  the  value  of  land  routes  as  means  of  communication  becomes 
suddenly  minimised  by  some  perfected  scheme  of  navigation  through  the  aerial 
spaces.  Peru  and  Chili  already  possess  some  completed  railways,  forming  impor- 
tant links  in  the  future  longitudinal  line  along  the  Pacific  seaboard.  From  Rio 
de  Janeiro  and  Buenos  Ay  res,  also,  dozens  of  branches  are  already  diverging  in 
the  direction  of  those  which  are  one  day  to  descend  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Andes  towards  the  Atlantic. 

The  cordillera  skirting  the  Pacific  will  serve  to  indicate  the  route  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  great  inter-continental  trunk  line,  for  all  the  chief  cities  are  situated 
along  its  base,  in  its  longitudinal  valleys,  and  on  its  plateaux.  The  maritime 
routes  on  the  Pacific  side  are  also  disposed  in  the  direction  of  the  meridian  along 
the  coast  of  South  America,  and  parallel  with  the  Andes.  Except  under  the  lati- 
tudes of  Panama  and  of  Magellan  Strait,  the  boundless  waste  of  waters  stretching 
from  the  Andean  region  westwards  to  Australasia  is  rarely  traversed  by  naviga- 
tors. None  of  the  oceanic  regions  within  the  temperate  zones  are  more  desolate. 

SOCIAL  CONDITION. — MATERIAL  PROGRESS. — PROSPECTS. 

Amongst  diplomatists  and  politicians  it  was  long  customary  to  affect. an  air  of 
contempt  or  of  hopelessness  in  speaking  of  the  Hispano- American  republics  ;  and 
this  attitude  seemed  justified  by  the  language  of  those  South  Americans  them- 
selves whom  the  vicissitudes  of  party  politics  had  deprived  of  power  and  sent  into 
exile.  Having  lost  their  fortunes  or  their  prestige,  they  fancied  that  the  country 
itself  was  lost.  Even  Bolivar,  who  had  nevertheless  grasped  the  highest  honours 
before  experiencing  the  ignominy  of  defeat,  was  said  to  be  one  of  those  who  des- 
paired of  the  fatherland,  and  reference  has  often  been  made  to  the  words  uttered 
by  him  on  his  dying  bed  :  "  Those  who  serve  the  revolution  plough  the  deep." 

Nevertheless,  if  the  present  material  and  social  condition  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can populations  be  compared  with  what  it  was  during  the  last  years  of  the  colonial 
system,  it  will  be  found  that  during  the  six  or  seven  decades  of  political  indepen- 
dence great  progress  has  been  made  in  population,  wealth,  and  general  education. 
The  advancement  in  these  respects  has  been  relatively  far  greater  than  that  of 


MATERIAL  PROGRESS. 


58 


many  European  nations  during  the  same  period.      The  official   statistics  are  an 
eloquent  reply  to  the  pessimists. 

Such   has  been  the  progressive  development  of  the  South  American  popula- 
tions that  some  writers  have  already  asked  whether  the  Spanish  tongue  may  not 

Fig.   18. — DENSITY  OF  POPULATION  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA. 
Scale  1  :  60,000,000. 


Inhabitants  per  square  mile. 

I  I  I  I  iia^ 

Under  one.                      1  to  20.                       20  to  100.  100  and  upwards. 

Each  square  represents  a  population  of  25,000.  •  Cities  with  over  100,000  inhabitants. 

__^ _  1,240  Miles. 

one  day  have  some  prospect  of  success  in  its  rivalry  with  English  for  the  ascen- 
dency amongst  the  dominant  languages  of  the  world.  The  Spaniards  of  the  New 
World,  including  the  Mexicans,  the  Cubans,  the  inhabitants  of  Puerto  Rico  and  of 


54  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

Central  America,  already  far  outnumber  those  of  the  mother  country.  The 
Brazilians  also  are  three  times  more  numerous  than  the  Portuguese,  and  with  every 
year  these  discrepancies  are  widened  to  the  advantage  of  the  I bero- Americans. 

At  present  there  are  in  Europe,  in  the  Philippines,  in  Africa  and  America 
altogether  about  62,000,000  who  speak  Spanish,  or,  at  least,  for  whom  Spanish 
is  the  language  of  culture.  If  the  present  rate  of  increase  be  maintained,  if 
all  the  peoples  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Hispano-Lusitanians  accept  this 
language,  the  communities  of  Spanish  speech  will  be  doubled  by  the  year  1920  ; 
that  is,  in  a  century  from  the  emancipation  of  the  Hispano- American  colonies, 
Spanish  and  Portuguese,  which  are  near  enough  to  be  regarded  as  mere  varieties 
of  the  same  language,  will  be  spoken  by  180,000,000  human  beings.* 

The  important  part  reserved  in  the  near  future  for  the  language  of  Cervantes 
will  also  be  justified,  for  the  Hispano- Americans  are  continually  contributing 
books  of  merit,  occasionally  even  works  of  permanent  value,  to  the  common  trea- 
sure of  their  literature.  They  have,  moreover,  the  consciousness  of  their  high 
destinies.  Years  have  passed  since  the  Argentine  poet,  Marmol,  sang  the  future 
glory  of  his  fellow-countrymen  :  "  Ah  !  that  I  might  be  born  again  in  those  days 
of  golden  dreams  !  That  it  might  be  given  to  me  to  listen  with  softened  spirit  to 
the  delightful  symphony  of  thy  future  poets  !  But  I  hear  them  already  !  Poor 
exile  that  I  now  am,  begging  a  country  and  freedom,  I  already  see  thy  future 
glory,  my  mother  !  " 

*  Gabriel  Carrasco,  Boletin  de  la  Sociedad  de  Geograjia  de  Madrid,  1891. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ANTILLES  OF  THE  VENEZUELAN  SEABOAED. 
I. — TOBAGO,  TRINIDAD,  MARGARITA,   LEEWARD  GROUP. 

HE  islands  lying  in  proximity  to  the  Venezuelan  coast,  and  usually 
grouped  with  the  Antilles,  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  all  belonging 
to  the  same  formation.  They  are,  in  fact,  of  diverse  origin,  and 
Tobago,  easternmost  of  the  series  and  geographically  harmonising 
best  with  the  West  Indies  proper,  is  yet  invisible  from  Grenada, 
the  nearest  member  of  that  system.  The  two  islands  are  also  separated  by  great 
oceanic  depths,  while  the  waters  shoal  gradually  from  Tobago  towards  the  mainland. 
This  island  is  also  disposed  south-west  and  north-east,  nearly  in  a  line  with  the 
heights  of  Trinidad. 

Trinidad  itself  is  obviously  a  mere  fragment  detached  from  the  continent  by  a 
disturbance  of  comparatively  recent  date  in  geological  time.  Margarita  and  neigh- 
bouring islets  constitute,  on  the  other  hand,  the  remains  of  a  mountain  range  which 
formerly  ran  parallel  with  the  Cumana  (Cariaco)  peninsula.  Lastly  Tortuga, 
Curasao  and  other  western  islands,  sometimes  collectively  called  the  "  Leeward 
Group,"  like  the  southern  section  of  the  Antilles  proper,  form  another  chain  running 
with  great  regularity  for  a  distance  of  370  miles  in  the  same  direction  as  the  first 
ranges  of  the  Andes  system  in  Venezuela. 

Advantage  was  taken  by  the  European  naval  powers  of  the  position  of  these 
islands  at  some  distance  from  the  mainland  to  detach  most  of  them  from  the  Spanish 
main.  Of  the  larger  members  of  the  group,  Margarita  alone  remained  in  the 
possession  of  Spain,  and  thus  passed  to  fhe  State  of  Venezuela,  together  with  the 
valueless  islets  and  reefs  of  Coche,  Cubagua,  Tortuga,  Los  Testigos,  Blanquilla, 
Orchilla,  Los  Roques,  and  Birds  (Aves).  But  Tobago  in  the  east  and  the  neigh- 
bouring Trinidad,  most  important  of  all,  were  annexed  to  the  vast  colonial  empire 
of  Great  Britain,  while  Curacao,  Buen  Ayre,  and  Aruba  in  the  extreme  west  still 
remain  Dutch  colonies. 

IT. — TOBAGO. 

Tobago,  as  it  is  called  by  its  English  masters,  projects  in  the  form  of  a  spear- 
head to  the  north-east  of  Trinidad,  Its  real  name  is  Tabaco,  a  word  which  recalls 


56  SOUTH  AMEBICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

the  kind  of  pipe  in  use  at  the  time  of  Columbus  amongst  the  Carib  natives,  smokers 
of  cohiba  (tobacco).  These  Indians,  being  too  weak  to  resist  their  powerful  neigh- 
bours and  hereditary  foes,  the  Arawaks  of  Trinidad,  were  compelled,  soon  after 
the  discovery  of  the  New  World,  to  take  refuge  in  the  island  of  St.  Vincent. 
Here  they  became  amalgamated  with  the  older  indigenous  inhabitants,  constituting 
with  them  the  formidable  people  who  were  long  regarded  as  the  "  Carib  "  nation 
in  a  pre-eminent  sense. 

Tobago,  being  thus  completely  deserted,  was  open  to  free  European  settlement, 
and  in  1632  some  traders  of  Flushing  seized  the  opportunity  to  found  the  colony 
of  Nieuwe  Walcheren  in  the  island.  But  even  before  their  defensive  works  were 
completed,  the  Dutch  intruders  were  surprised  and  massacred,  or  carried  into 
bondage  by  the  Spanish  settlers  in  Trinidad,  guided  to  the  place  by  some  Arawak 
Indians. 

For  some  twenty  years  Tobago  again  became  a  solitude,  serving  only  as  a  tem- 
porary station  for  fishermen  and  passing  mariners.  A  seafarer  wrecked  on  this 
island,  uninhabited  at  the  time,  furnished  Defoe  with  the  chief  materials  for  the 
history  of  Robinson  Crusoe. 

But  the  Dutch  people  of  those  times  had  far-seeing  views  and  indomitable 
perseverance.  In  1654  the  brothers  Lampsins,  also  Flushing  traders,  founded  a 
new  factory  in  Tobago ;  without,  however,  making  it  a  political  dependency  of  the 
home  government.  On  the  contrary,  they  gave  it.  an  international  character,  con- 
stituting it  a  port  of  call  for  merchants  of  all  countries,  English,  French,  and  even 
Spaniards.  Soon  after  a  rival  establishment  was  formed  in  another  part  of  the 
island  by  some  settlers  from  Courland,  sent  thither  by  James  I.  of  England.  But 
the  Fichilingos  (Pichilingos),  as  the  Flushingers  were  called  by  the  Spaniards,  being 
wealthier  and  also  reinforced  by  fresh  arrivals,  got  the  better  of  the  Courlanders, 
and  made  themselves  masters  of  the  whole  island.  In  order  to  enjoy  their  little 
domain  in  greater  security,  the  head  of  the  Lampsins  family  declared  himself  a 
vassal  of  Louis  XIV.  in  1662,  and  became  "  Baron  de  Tobago."  Yet  from  this 
very  suzerain  came  in  1677  the  insane  order  to  destroy  the  Dutch  factories  where 
some  banished  French  Huguenots  occupied  a  populous  quarter,  highly  esteemed 
and  beloved  by  the  other  colonists. 

During  the  course  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  settlement  of  Tobago  continued 
to  make  steady  progress  ;  but  although  the  island  was  regarded  as  neutral,  it  ended 
by  becoming  English,  thanks  to  the  increasing  number  of  British  settlers,  and  in 
1763  it  was  ceded  by  treaty  to  Great  Britain.  The  change  of  political  masters  had 
for  almost  immediate  consequence  a  corresponding  change  in  the  ownership  of  the 
land.  The  French  proprietors  were  replaced  by  the  later  immigrants,  the  bulk  of 
whom  were  "thirty- six-months  Scotchmen,"  that  is  to  Bay,  colonists  transported 
to  the  island  by  the  planters  free  of  charge  in  return  for  thirty-six  months'  unpaid 
service.  By  a  formal  order  of  the  colonial  assembly  issued  in  1793,  the  French 
were  expelled  from  the  island,  and  their  property  confiscated  for  the  benefit  of  the 
great  landowners.*  Even  still,  despite  the  abolition  of  slavery,  in  consequence  of 
*  J.  J.  Dauxion  Lavaysse,  Voyage  aux  ties  de  Trinidad,  de  Tobago,  $c. 


TOBAGO. 


57 


which  in  most  of  the  islands  the  land  has  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  negroes, 
Tobago  continues  to  be  divided  into  large  domains,  occupied  chiefly  with  the  pro- 
duction of  sugar. 

The  whole  island  may  be  regarded  as  forming  a  single  chain  of  heights  with 
a  total  area  of  less  than  120  square  miles.  The  highest  eminence  has  a  height  of 
not  more  than  2,130  feet,  or,  according  to  the  marine  charts,  a  little  over  1,900 
feet. 

In  consequence  of  its  oblique  position  to  the  meridian,  Tobago  lies  well  in 
the  track  of  the  trade  winds,  so  that  both  shores,  running  south-west  and  north- 
east, enjoy  the  same  purifying  marine  breezes.  Both  sides  also  have  the  advan- 
tage of  some  well-sheltered  natural  havens.  The  heights  of  the  central  district 

Fig.  19.— TOBAGO. 
Scale  1  :  470,000. 


6CT50' 


West  of  Greenwich 


60° so- 


0  to  '.'5 
lathoms. 


Ilepths. 


25  to  50  50  Fathoms 

Fathoms.  and  upwards. 

_^___^_  6  Miles. 


rising  above  the  sugar  plantations  and  the  palm-groves  along  the  seashore  are 
still  forest-clad.  The  more  rocky  escarpments  are  overgrown  with  thickets  of  the 
"  pimento  "  myrtle,  which  yields  the  so-called  "allspice,"  a  berry  of  a  highly 
agreeable  aroma.  The  berry  is  eagerly  devoured  by  swarms  of  parrokeets,  who 
form  a  sort  of  confederacy  warding  off  all  other  birds  from  the  thickets. 

Like  that  of  Trinidad  the  rich  native  flora  is  essentially  South  American, 
interspersed,  however,  with  numerous  plants  from  the  "West  Indies.  Its  fauna 
also  includes  a  few  birds  not  found  in  the  neighbouring  island.  One  of  the  inlets 
on  the  coast  was  formerly  known  as  the  "  Idlers'  Cove,"  from  the  large  number  of 
turtles  that  resorted  to  the  place  to  deposit  their  eggs.  The  inhabitants  had  only 


68  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

to  turn  these  animals  over  to  obtain  an  abundance  of  food.  But  here  as  elsewhere 
turtles  have  become  rare,  and  the  struggle  for  existence  has  grown  as  intense  as 
in  most  other  places. 

There  are  no  longer  any  full-blood  aborigines,  who,  according  to  Lavaysse, 
had  been  reduced  in  1803  to  three  families,  comprising  altogether  26  souls. 
At  present  the  great  bulk  of  the  population  consists  of  blacks  and  people  of  colour, 
settled  in  the  villages  and  on  the  plantations,  which  form  a  vast  belt  of  gardens 
round  the  whole  island.  In  1871  the  white  population  numbered  only  120  persons. 
Scarborough,  the  capital,  lies  on  an  inlet  of  the  south-west  coast  facing  south- 
wards. Although  a  mere  hamlet,  it  is  the  centre  of  an  export  trade  which  in 
1891  exceeded  £24,000,  and  which  before  the  fall  of  prices  in  the  sugar  market 
averaged  £80,000  a  year. 

III. — TRINIDAD. 

The  Ye  re  of  the  natives,  re-named  Trinidad  by  Columbus  in  1498,  in  honour 
of  the  "  three  Persons  united  in  one  God,"  is  one  of  the  largest  islands  washed 
by  the  Caribbean  waters,  ranking  in  size  next  to  Puerto  Rico,  whose  almost  geo- 
metrical outlines  it  faintly  reproduces.  Like  Puerto  Rico  it  has  the  form  of  a 
rectangle,  which  is  compared  by  the  Spaniards  to  an  "  oxhide  "  from  the  two 
peninsular  appendices  prolonging  the  north  and  south  coasts  in  the  direction  of  the 
mainland. 

PHYSICAL  FEATURES. 

From  the  geological  point  of  view  Trinidad  is  a  fragment  of  the  Venezuelan 
region.  The  rim  of  rounded  crests  skirting  its  north  side  is  continued  on  the 
continent  by  the  Paria  range,  which  in  its  turn  reappears  beyond  the  Cumana 
Gulf  in  the  elevated  chain  separating  the  Caribbean  Sea  from  the  elevated  plains 
of  Caracas  and  Valencia.  In  the  island  and  on  the  mainland  the  formations  are 
everywhere  the  same,  plutonic  and  metamorphic  masses  of  a  highly  compact  argil- 
laceous schist,  whose  steeper  escarpments  face  seawards.  Despite  the  two  breaks 
in  the  chain,  at  the  Dragon's  Mouth  and  the  Gulf  of  Cumana,  the  axis  of  the 
system  maintains  its  regular  trend  from  Galera  Point  to  Puerto  Cabello,  a  total 
distance  of  about  500  miles,  inclining  but  slightly  from  a  line  parallel  with  the 
equator.  Beginning  at  the  easternmost  point  of  Trinidad  under  10°  50'  15" 
north  latitude,  the  coast  range  crosses  the  10th  degree  at  the  point  where  it  is 
deflected  south-westwards  to  merge  in  the  general  system  of  the  Andes  proper. 

The  break  which  occurs  in  the  coast  range  between  the  Gulf  of  Paria  and 
the  Caribbean  Sea  is,  moreover,  studded  with  islands  and  islets  representing  the 
crests  of  submerged  hills,  which  form  a  con  tin  nation  of  the  north-west  headland  of 
Trinidad.  The  opening  between  the  gulf  and  the  open  sea  is  thus  decomposed 
into  several  channels,  such  as  the  Boca  de  los  Monos,  the  Boca  de  los  Huevos,  the 
Boca  de  Navios  and  the  Boca  Grande.  In  this  inlet,  which  represents  the  com- 
bined erosive  action  of  the  marine  and  Orinoco  currents,  the  greatest  depth  in  the 
main  channel  is  about  150,  and-  in  the  smaller  passages  100  fathoms,  while  the 


TRINIDAD.  69 

coast  ranges  vary  in  mean  altitude  from  1,500  to  3,000  feet.  The  two  culminating 
points,  Tucutche  (Las  Cuevas),  in  the  middle  of  the  cordillera,  and  the  Cerro  de 
Aripo  in  the  north-east,  attain  the  respective  heights  of  3,100  and  2,644  feet.  The 
rugged  crags  of  the  Dragon's  Mouth  are  over  650  feet  high,  one  of  them  in  Mono 
("  Monkey")  Island  rising  to  1,000  feet.  But  even  on  the  steepest  slopes  strewn 
with  ruptured  blocks,  the  bare  rock  is  everywhere  concealed  tiy  a  leafy  vegetation. 

South  of  the  chain  of  primitive  rocks  skirting  the  north  side  of  Trinidad  the 
plains  and  undulating  tracts  constituting  most  of  the  surface  belong  to  the  same 
cretaceous  horizon  as  those  facing  the  coast  range  along  the  Gulf  of  Cariaco,  as 
well  as  those  reappearing  west  of  the  Unare  to  the  south  of  the  Caracas  coast 
range.  The  uniformity  of  the  inland  plains  is  broken  only  by  Mount  Tamana, 
a  solitary  mass  1,028  feet  high,  and  mariners  plying  on  the  Gulf  of  Paria  guide 
their  course  by  the  crest  of  Mount  Naparima,  which  rises  590  feet  above  the  water 
near  the  town  of  San  Fernando. 

Lastly,  the  south  side  of  Trinidad,  which.,  like  the  north,  affects  the  aspect  of  a 
coast  range,  consists  of  dunes  and  tertiary  rocks,  as  does  also  the  chain  of  heights 
which,  beyond  the  muddy  banks  deposited  by  the  Orinoco  and  neighbouring  streams, 
forms  the  northern  edge  of  the  llanos. 

The  south-western,  like  the  north-western,  peninsula  terminating  the  Trinidad 
quadrilateral  is  continued  towards  the  mainland  by  an  islet,  some  reefs  and  the 
Soldado  rock,  which  at  a  distance  resembles  a  sail,  and  which,  is  enveloped  in  a 
cloud  of  countless  sea-fowl.  Thus  in  all  the  elements  constituting  its  framework 
Trinidad  is  essentially  a  part  of  the  mainland.  Even  the  shores  of  recent  forma- 
tion, by  which  its  surface  is  increasing,  are  of  continental  origin.  The  sands  and 
muds,  which  develop  a  convex  curve  on  the  east  side  washed  by  the  Atlantic,  have 
been  brought  down  by  the  currents  of  the  Amazons,  of  the  Guiana  rivers  and  the 
Orinoco.  The  channels  of  the  Serpent's  Mouth,  giving  access  to  the  Gulf  of  Paria 
along  the  south  side  of  the  island,  are  no  longer  deep  troughs  like  the  northern 
channels  of  the  Dragon's  Mouth.  They  have  already  been  partly  filled  in  by  the 
alluvial  matter  washed  down  with  the  Orinoco  current.  The  yearly  soundings 
show  constantly  varying  results.  Thus  the  east  passage  has  shoaled  from  8  to 
4  fathoms,  while  in  that  of  the  west  beyond  the  Soldado  reefs  the  line  every- 
where reveals  12  or  13  fathoms  ;  here  the  marine  bed  is  incessantly  scoured  by  a 
regular  current. 

GEOLOGICAL  CHANGES. 

Trinidad  gives  undoubted  evidence  of  having  undergone  great  geological 
revolutions.  Erosions  have  taken  place  to  a  vast  extent,  as  shown  by  the  masses  of 
quartz,  containing  some  magnificent  rock  crystals,  which  are  met  on  the  plains,  in 
the  valleys,  and  on  the  hillsides.  These  are  evidently  the  remains  of  old  crystal- 
line rocks,  all  the  softer  parts  of  which  have  disappeared,  either  changed  to  alluvia 
or  carried  away  to  the  sea.  Great  beds  of  gravel  or  shingle  300  or  400  feet  thick 
are  seen  at  the  southern  entrance  of  all  the  valleys  along  the  northern  coast  range. 
In  a  more  northern  zone,  such,  for  instance,  as  Scandinavia,  moraines  would 


60  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

certainly  be  found  in  this  district.  As  it  is,  the  detritus  must  be  regarded  as  the 
debris  of  cliffs  undermined  by  the  marine  waves  beating  against  the  foot  of  the 
hills  raised  by  successive  thrusts  above  sea-level.* 

The  central  districts  comprised  between  the  northern  and  southern  coast 
ranges  present  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sea  extensive  expanses  which  were 
formerly  marine  inlets  ;  now  they  are  filled  to  a  great  depth  with  alluvial  matter 
formed  by  the  decomposition  of  mangroves  and  other  plants.  Possibly  to  the 
presence  of  this  fluvial  sediment  is  to  be  attributed  the  absence  of  continuous 
coralline  formations  on  the  coasts  of  Trinidad.  Here  and  there,  however,  there 
occur  a  few  coral  reefs,  fragments  of  which  are  strewn  on  the  beach  after  every 
storm.  The  gradual  subsidence  of  this  part  of  the  coast  is  placed  beyond  doubt 
by  the  numerous  dead  tree-stems  on  the  beach,  killed  by  the  surging  tide.f 

Reference  is  often  made  to  "  volcanoes  "  in  various  parts  of  the  island  ;  but 
there  exist  only  some  groups  of  "  mud  volcanoes,"  one  of  which,  towards  the 
centre  of  the  island,  rises  135  feet  above  a  morass  called  the  "  Lagon  Bouife  "  by 
the  Creole  negroes.  Those  of  Cape  Icacos  at  the  south-west  extremity,  surrounded 
by  swamps  and  fringes  of  mangroves,  are  conic  hillocks,  some  mere  molehills, 
others  from  14  to  16  feet  high.  All  are  pierced  by  a  terminal  vent,  whence 
escape  periodical  ejections  of  a  whitish  substance  tasting  like  alum,  and  emitting 
an  odour  like  that  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  The  muddy  waters  bubbling  up  to 
the  surface  have  no  higher  temperature  than  that  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere, 
although  they  at  times  eject  shingle  and  lumps  of  sulphur  with  great  force. 
According  to  the  residents  the  Cape  Icacos  mud  volcanoes  utter  bellowings  every 
year  about  the  spring  equinox,  and  at  this  period  also  are  said  to  occur  the  erup- 
tions of  pebbles,  accompanied  by  the  uprooting  of  trees. 

An  old  map  indicates  in  the  Gulf  of  Paria  an  islet  which  was  said  to  have  made 
its  appearance  simultaneously  with  a  violent  earthquake  on  the  neighbouring 
mainland.  In  several  parts  of  the  south-western  peninsula  are  seen  beds  of 
porcellanite,  clays,  and  vitrified  sands  which  have  assumed  the  appearance  of 
jasper.  These  beds,  which  are  of  no  great  thickness,  and  which  occur  in  the 
midst  of  the  quicksands,  have  evidently  been  exposed  to  the  action  of  fire,  like 
the  slag  of  smelting  furnaces,  and  they  are  supposed  to  have  resulted  from  the 
burning  of  asphalts  or  lignites. 

This  part  of  the  coast  also  appears  to  be  in  process  of  subsidence  like  that 
of  the  east  side.  Thus  two  forces  acting  in  opposite  directions  are  continually 
modifying  the  contour-lines  of  the  island — that  of  the  currents  depositing  sedi- 
ment on  the  beach,  and  gravity  or  some  other  agent  causing  certain  parts  of  the 
coast  to  sink. 

THE  ASPHALT  LAKE. 

v 

In  the  same  south-western  peninsular  district  is  also  situated  the  "  marvel " 
of  the  island,  the  so-called  Brea,  or  Asphalt  Lake,  one  of  the  greatest  natural 

*  Or.  P.  Wall  and  J.  G.  Sawkine,  Report  on  the  Oeology  of  Trinidad. 
t  Charles  Kingsley,  At  Last,  a  Christmas  in  the  Jf'ett  Indie*. 


TRINIDAD.  61 

curiosities  in  the  world.  The  basin,  which  occupies  rather  more  than  100  acres  on 
a  slight  rising  ground  about  85  feet  above  sea-level,  usually  presents  the  aspect  of 
an  exposed  coalpit ;  but  during  the  great  heats  the  surface  liquefies  to  a  depth 
of  about  an  inch.  Even  before  the  contents  began  to  be  worked  for  industrial 
purposes,  the  surface  underwent  frequent  modifications ;  islands  were  formed 
and  rapidly  covered  with  agaves,  wild  pineapples  and  other  vegetable  growths ; 
then  they  were  swallowed  up  by  the  surging  flood  of  pitch,  to  reappear  on  the 
circumference  of  some  sluggish  eddy  in  the  viscous  substance. 

The  underground  forces  acting  on  the  asphalt  cause  it  to  rise  in  masses  of 
unequal  size,  rounded  off  like  huge  toadstools  and  separated  by  narrow  spaces 
filled  with  water  at  the  normal  temperature  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere, 
in  which  fishes  disport  themselves.  The  visitor  may  walk  without  any  risk 
on  the  solid  asphalt  round  the  margin  of  these  channels,  although,  according 
to  the  report  of  numerous  travellers,  the  surface  yields  gently  under  the 
weight. 

Towards  the  centre  of  the  lake  the  bituminous  substance  is  continually  rising, 
mixed  with  sulphurous  gases,  and  it  often  ejects  logs  of  wood,  branches  or  stems 
completely  transformed  by  the  saturating  matter.  The  wood  thus  cast  up  always 
presents  its  pointed  end  to  the  air,  so  as  at  times  to  resemble  rows  of  stakes. 
The  pitch,  which  is  very  impure  and  consequently  of  small  commercial  value, 
contains  from  about  one-fifth  to  cne-third  of  earthy  matter.  The  78,000  tons 
exported  in  1890  were  valued  at  a  little  over  £90,000. 

The  soil  of  the  cultivated  district  encircling  the  lake  is  also  charged  with 
asphalt,  yet  is  extremely  fertile,  yielding  the  best  and  finest  fruits  in  the  island. 
The  pineapples  especially  are  less  fibrous,  larger,  more  fragrant,  and  of  a  more 
golden  colour  than  elsewhere.  The  very  road  leading  from  the  lake  to  the 
neighbouring  port  of  La  Brea  runs  through  a  bed  of  pitch,  and  moves  slowly 
seawards  like  a  black  glacier.  The  little  houses  erected  along  the  track 
follow  the  same  onward  movement,  so  that  they  have  to  be  periodically  rebuilt. 
The  shore  also  is  fringed  with  bituminous  reefs,  and  some  800  yards  south 
of  the  headland  a  yawning  chasm  in  the  bed  of  the  sea  occasionally  dis- 
charges boiling  masses  of  petroleum,  which  rises  and  spreads  out  on  the  surface 
of  the  water. 

Under  about  the  same  latitude,  but  in  Mayaro  Bay  on  the  east  side  of  the  island, 
there  occurs  another  submarine  vent,  whose  eruptions,  according  to  native  report, 
take  place  with  a  certain  regularity  in  the  months  of  March  and  June  every  year, 
and  are  accompanied  by  a  roar  as  of  thunder,  and  apparently  also  by  "  flames." 
It  is  at  all  events  certain  that  on  these  occasions  the  sea  casts  ashore  lumps  of 
hard,  black  and  shining  asphalt,  which  is  collected  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
district.  So  long  ago  as  1805  it  was  manufactured  by  the  English  into  a  tar 
used  for  caulking  purposes.  According  to  Wall  and  Sawkins,  the  geologists  who 
have  most  carefully  studied  this  region,  the  asphalts  both  of  the  island  and  of  the 
neighbouring  mainland  are  derived  from  vegetable  remains  which,  under  temperate 
and  polar  climates,  would  assume  the  forms  of  turf  and  lignite. 


62  SOUTH  AMEKICA-THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

RIVERS — CLIMATE. 

Thanks  to  an  abundant  rainfall,  Trinidad  is  watered  by  numerous  streams 
which  are  navigable  by  small  craft  for  a  considerable  distance  from  the  coast. 
The  Caroni,  most  frequented  of  these  rivers,  bears  a  Carib  name,  which  recurs  in 
various  parts  of  the  neighbouring  continent.  It  flows  nearly  parallel  with  the 
north  coast  range,  from  which  it  receives  its  chief  affluents,  and  falls  into  the 
Gulf  of  Paria,  near  Port  of  Spain  ;  but  during  the  floods  a  considerable  portion  of 
its  waters  are  discharged  laterally  into  riverine  marshes.  The  Caroni  is  navigable 
by  boats  for  about  24  miles,  and  it  is  proposed  to  connect  this  waterway  with  the 
Oropuche,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  island,  by  means  of  a  canal  cut  through  the 
slightly  elevated  central  waterparting. 

The  Guaracuaro,  which  falls  into  Naparima  Bay  on  the  south-west  coast, 
develops  a  course  symmetrical  with  that  of  the  Caroni,  while  the  Nariva  (Mitan) 
and  Guataro  (Ortoir)  have  a  common  delta  towards  the  middle  of  the  east  coast  in 
the  great  curve  extending  from  Galera  Point  to  Guliota  Point.  Between  the  two 
mouths  runs  a  channel  protected  from  the  surf  by  a  fringe  of  mangroves.  Nume- 
rous lagoons,  the  "  lagons  "  of  the  French  Creoles,  skirt  the  low-lying  coast  on 
both  sides  of  the  delta. 

Lying  entirely  in  the  track  of  the  trade  winds,  and  being  practically  a  part  of 
the  mainland,  Trinidad  escapes  from  the  thousand  vicissitudes  of  climate  to  which 
the  Antilles  proper  are  exposed.  The  seasons  follow  in  the  normal  sequence,  and 
during  the  verano  ("  spring  ")  or  dry  season,  lasting  from  November  to  the  end  of 
April,  scarcely  a  drop  of  rain  ever  falls.  The  moisture  collected  on  the  surface  is 
derived  mainly  from  the  heavy  dews.  But  in  the  wet  season,  from  May  to 
October,  storms  are  of  almost  daily  occurrence.  They  are  accompanied  by  sharp, 
heavy  showers,  coming  on  suddenly,  especially  in  the  afternoon,  and  never  at 
night  except  a  short  time  before  dawn.  Neither  Trinidad  nor  its  neighbour, 
Tobago,  is  ever  visited  by  those  terrific  hurricanes  by  which  Grenada,  some  85 
miles  to  the  north-west,  is  frequently  wasted. 

FLORA — FAUNA. 

As  in  its  geological  structure  and  climate,  Trinidad  contrasts  also  with  the 
Antilles  proper  in  its  flora  and  fauna.  In  their  natural  history  both  Trinidad 
and  Tobago  are  mere  dependencies  of  the  South  American  continent.  The  former 
presents  in  its  central  part  extensive  tracts  covered  exclusively  with  grasses  and 
plants  of  low  growth  in  every  respect  similar  to  those  of  the  Venezuelan  llanos. 
They  are  savannas  analogous  to  those  traversed  by  the  Orinoco  and  its  affluents, 
and  in  the  central  parts  of  the  island  geologists,  in  fact,  suspect- the  former 
presence  of  a  great  fluvial  current. 

But  the  treeless  spaces  are  everywhere  encircled  by  dense  tropical  woodlands, 
where  flourish,  in  the  closest  proximity,  nearly  all  the  innumerable  species  belong- 
ing to  the  forests  of  Guiana.  These  multitudes  of  trees,  lianas,  and  parasites  of  all 
kinds  are  amply  fed  by  the  yearly  rainfall,  which  is  estimated  at  nearly  80  inches."* 

*  Mean  temperature  of  Port  of  Spain,  77°  Fahr.    Kainf  all  (mean  of  twenty-five  years),  67  inches. 


TEINIDAD. 


63 


Botanists  have  not  yet  exhausted  the  study  of  the  insular  flora,  which  contains 
no  less  than  140  species  of  trees  with  bark  possessing  medicinal  and  especially 
febrifugal  properties  ;  timber  and  cabinet-woods  are  reckoned  by  the  hundreds, 
nearly  all  of  South  American  origin,  although  some  West  Indian  and  even 
African  forms  occur.  Such  is  the  rhypsalis  cassytha,  a  cactus  of  Angolan  origin, 
and  the  only  member  of  this  family  found  in  the  Old  World.  Amongst  the 
forest  giants  special  veneration  is  paid  to  the  ceiba  (eriodendron  anfractuomm], 
which  the  negroes  generally  refuse  to  fell,  regarding  it  as  a  magic  tree.  Anyone 

Fig.   20. VlBW   TAKEN   AT    SAINT    JAMES,    PORT    OP    Sl'AIN,    TfilNIDAD. 


bold  enough  to  apply  the  axe  to  its  roots  without  first  propitiating  it  with  a  bottle 
of  rum,  would  inevitably  die  within  a  year,  and  other  calamities  would  overtake 
those  throwing  stones  at  it. 

The  palm  family  is  represented  by  numerous  species,  amongst  others  the 
oreodoxa,  some  of  whose  stems  exceed  150  feet  in  height ;  the  timit  (mamcaria), 
whose  leaves  are  used  for  thatching  cabins;  the  manrfcarea  aculeata,  the 
desmoncus,  and  others,  armed  with  formidable  thorns.  According  to  a  local 
tradition,  a  vessel  freighted  with  coconuts  from  an  island  in  the  Orinoco  delta 
was  shipwrecked  in  1730  on  the  east  coast  of  Trinidad,  where  the  nuts  washed 


64  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  BEGIONS. 

ashore  took  root  in  favourable  soil.  Such  is  said  to  be  the  origin  of  the  Cocal,  a 
narrow  belt  of  superb  coconut-palms,  which  develops  a  crescent  along  the  coast 
between  Mancenillier  and  Guataro  Points.  The  traveller  passing  from  the  virgin 
forests  of  the  interior  into  the  Cocal  might  fancy  he  had  been  suddenly  trans- 
ported, as  if  by  magic,  from  the  West  Indies  to  the  Laccadives,  Maldives,  or  some 
other  East  Indian  group. 

Beneath  these  avenues  of  bending  amber-coloured  stems  the  beach  is  strewn 
with  the  trunks,  branches,  and  leathery  fruits  of  the  timit,  brought  by  the  marine 
current  from  the  Orinoco  delta.  The  west  coast,  also,  near  Port  of  Spain  and  San 
Fernando,  has  been  planted  with  the  coconut-palm,  which  has  the  advantage  of 
draining  the  soil.  But  while  exotics  are  thus  introduced,  the  primitive  woodlands 
are  recklessly  destroyed,  and  extensive  tracts  have  been  already  shorn  of  their 
leafy  adornments.  Hence  the  rivers  also  have  become  more  irregular  in  their 
discharge,  and  less  easily  navigated. 

Like  the  flora,  the  insular  fauna  is  also  mainly  South  American,  and  of  equally 
varied  character.  According  to  the  naturalist  Leotaud,  Trinidad  possesses  as  many 
as  three-fourths  of  the  number  of  bird-forms  found  in  all  Europe.  Unfortunately 
the  blacks,  all  now  provided  with  fowling-pieces,  have  already  depopulated  the 
greater  part  of  the  woodlands.  Humming-birds,  formerly  very  numerous,  have  nearly 
disappeared,  shot  in  myriads  to  supply  the  demands  of  European  fashion;  as  many 
as  15,000  a  week  were  at  one  time  forwarded  by  a  single  dealer.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  farmyards  abound  with  poultry,  no  climate  apparently  suiting  the  galli- 
naceous family  better  than  that  of  Trinidad. 

Amongst  the  extremely  varied  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  waters  several 
besides  the  sh.ark  are  dangerous  to  bathers.  Such  is  the  hydrocion,  which, 
though  no  bigger  than  the  sardine,  rushes  in  such  numbers  and  with  such 
ferocity  on  its  prey  that  instant  flight  alone  can  save  swimmers  from  being 
torn  to  pieces  alive.  Other  species,  which  elsewhere  serve  as  food  for  the  coast 
peoples,  are  highly  poisonous  in  the  Trinidad  waters.  One  of  these,  a  species  of 
shad  (cliipea  alosa),  is  said  to  be  so  fatal  that  people  have  been  known  to  be 
struck  dead,  as  if  by  a  stroke  of  lightning,  before  swallowing  a  whole  mouthful.* 
One  denizen  of  the  Gulf  of  Paria  emits  musical  notes,  or  buzzing  sounds,  like 
the  maigres  (scixna  aquila)  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Trinidad  was  colonised  by  quadrupeds  from  the  mainland  before  the  opening 
of  the  Serpent's  Mouth,  which  is  of  relatively  recent  origin.  There  are  three 
species  of  simians,  some  small  felines,  a  deer  of  extremely  gentle  disposition, 
and  several  other  mammals.  Kingsley  tells  us  that  epidemics  of  small-pox 
and  cholera  have  been  as  fatal  to  the  monkeys  as  to  man  himself. 

INHABITANTS. 

The  only  result  of  the  first  Spanish  settlement,  dating  from  the  close  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  to  hasten  the  extermination  of  the  aborigines.  The 
Jayos  (Yaos)  and  Nepoyog,  members  of  the  Arawak  or  Carib  families,  were 

*  Ch.  Kingsley,  op.  cit. 


TRINIDAD.  65 

formerly  numerous ;  but  they  were  bunted  down  and  shipped  as  slaves  to 
Espafiola  and  other  islands,  to  work  in  the  mines  or  on  the  plantations.  Soon 
the  greater  part  of  Trinidad  was  changed  to  a  solitude,  all  the  aborigines  having 
perished,  except  a  few  small  grdups  in  the  upland  valleys  of  the  north. 
In  1783,  two  hundred  years  after  the  Conquest,  a  census  of  the  island  returned 
only  2,032  Indians,  and  these  had  been  reduced  to  1,467  by  the  year  1807.  At 
present  a  few  families  of  these  peaceful  aborigines  still  survive  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Arima,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  where  they  eke  out  a  wretched 
existence  by  making  baskets  of  reeds  or  foliage,  and  manufacturing  other  small 
articles.  Even  these  are  half-breeds  crossed  with  Spaniards,  and  especially  with 
runaway  negroes.  Till  recently  some  naked  Indians  arrived  once  a  year  from 
the  Orinoco  delta,  landed  silently  at  San  Fernando,  and  donning  the  slight  cos- 
tume required  by  the  police  regulations,  passed  through  the  town  to  make  their 
annual  collection  of  fruits  and  roots  in  the  neighbouring  forests.  Then  they 
returned  as  silently  as  when  they  arrived,  re-embarked,  and  rapidly  disappeared, 
paddling  their  canoes  across  the  gulf  towards  the  mainland. 

The  first  Spanish  settlers  having  been  nearly  exterminated  by  the  English, 
French,  Dutch,  and  Pichilingue  corsairs,  the  island  remained  for  about  two 
centuries  unoccupied,  except  by  a  few  planters,  who  had  established  themselves 
on  the  west  coast.  In  1783  there  were  only  126  whites,  and  605  black  slaves 
or  freedmen ;  including  the  Indians  the  whole  population  fell  short  of  3,000 
souls.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  adventurer,  Roume  de  Saint- Laurent,  a 
native  of  Grenada,  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  the  Madrid  Government 
the  repeal  of  the  laws  interdicting  all  foreigners  from  entering  the  Spanish 
possessions.  Roman  Catholics  were  even  invited  to  settle  in  the  island,  the 
Government  undertaking  to  protect  them  for  five  years  against  prosecution 
for  any  debts  previously  contracted.  Roume  de  Saint-Laurent  hastened  forth- 
with to  engage  colonists  in  France  and  in  the  Antilles,  and  six  years  after 
the  issue  of  the  edict  from  Madrid  the  colony  had  already  2,150  whites  and 
nearly  4,500  free  people  of  colour,  who  had  brought  with  them  over  10,000 
slaves. 

Breaking  with  the  national  traditions  of  intolerance,  Governor  Chacon  pre- 
vented the  introduction  of  the  Inquisition,  and  interdicted  the  establishment  of 
monasteries.  No  settler  was  molested  for  his  religious  or  philosophic  opinions, 
and  during  the  troubles  at  the  close  of  the  century  the  planters  from  the  French 
islands  were  able  to  take  refuge  without  let  or  hindrance  in  the  Spanish  colony. 
In  1787  Picot  de  Laperouse  erected  the  first  sugar  refinery,  and  ten  years  later 
there  had  sprung  up  159  others,  besides  300  "  habitations,"  where  coffee,  cotton, 
and  cacao  were  cultivated. 

Since  that  time  Trinidad  has  steadily  increased  in  population  and  wealth,  even 
during  the  wars  which  resulted  in  the  British  conquest.  As  in  most  of  the 
Antilles,  the  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  are  negroes  and  half-breeds,  descendants, 
like  their  former  owners,  of  immigrants  from  the  other  islands,  and  speaking  the 
French  Creole  patois.  This  is  an  extremely  soft  idiom  of  highly  simplified 


66 


SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


structure,  though  still  possessing  its  own  grammatical  and  euphonic  laws.  The 
Trinidad  dialect,  which  has  been  studied  by  Thomas,  a  native  of  colour,  possesses 
quite  a  literature,  consisting,  like  the  Martinique  and  Haiti  varieties,  especially 
of  wise  sayings  and  proverbs. 

Nevertheless,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  the  near  future  the  numerical 
preponderance  will  cease  to  belong  to  these  French  or  Gallicised  ethnical  elements. 
A  large  number  of  extensive  plantations  and  of  the  agricultural  factories  have 

Fig.  21.  — WIFE  OF  A  RICH  HINDU  COOLIE. 


already  changed  hands,  having  been  purchased  from  their  former  owners  by 
English  and  Scotch  settlers.  The  latter  have  the  reputation  of  being  very  grasp- 
ing, as  illustrated  by  the  local  expression,  "  Scotch  friend,"  applied  to  the 
murderous  lianas  which  entangle  the  trees  in  their  deadly  coils.  Under  analogous 
influences,  negroes  of  English  speech  from  Barbadoes  and  other  islands  are  con- 
tinually replacing  the  French  blacks,  and  driving  them  to  the  interior.  The 
latter,  rejoicing  in  their  emancipation,  and  naturally  anxious  to  take  advantage  of 


TRINIDAD.  67 

the  changed  relations,  have  nearly  all  abandoned  the  plantations,  and  now  culti- 
vate their  own  little  plots,  which  yield  enough  for  all  their  wants.  There  exist 
over  20,000  such  small  holdings,  belonging,  for  the  most  part,  to  these 
Africans. 

But  the  great  landowners,  deprived  of  the  slaves  who  formerly  garnered  their 
crops,  have  had  to  replace  them  by  hands  procured  through  agents  from  the  Far 
East.  So  early  as  the  year  1800  some  traders  had  already  introduced  from 
Macao  about  a  hundred  Chinese,  amongst  whom  was  a  solitary  woman ;  at 
present  these  "  Celestials  "  are  estimated  at  some  3,000,  many  of  whom  have  in 
their  turn  abandoned  the  large  plantations,  and  taken  either  to  petty  dealings  or 
to  cultivating  small  plots  on  their  own  account. 

Since  the  year  1845  the  imported  labourers  are  nearly  all  Hindus,  engaged 
directly  by  speculators,  who  are  subsidised  by  the  colonial  government  to  the 
extent  of  about  £80,000  a  year.  The  coolies,  almost  exclusively  from  Bengal, 
are  engaged  according  to  the  season,  to  the  number  of  2,000  or  3,000,  for  a  term 
of  five  years,  after  which  they  have  the  right  of  a  free  passage  home.  All  but 
700  or  800  remain  in  the  island,  where  they  contribute  with  the  negroes  to 
increase  the  class  of  small  freeholders.  Some  even  return  from  their  Asiatic 
homes,  and  settle  in  Trinidad  with  their  families  and  friends.  Thus  the 
traveller  may  here  recognise  the  natives  as  well  as  the  scenery  of  India  in 
the  coconut-groves  of  the  east  and  west  coasts.  The  effect  is  heightened  by 
the  gay  banners  fluttering  from  tall  bamboos  to  indicate  from  a  distance  the 
Hindu  temples,  where  the  devotees  come  to  make  their  floral  offerings. 

The  coolies,  who  at  present  form  a  third  of  the  population,  generally  keep 
aloof,  contracting  no  alliances  either  with  the  whiles  or  the  blacks.  Never- 
theless, there  have  already  sprung  up  some  fine  types  of  Eurasians,  a  class 
daily  acquiring  an  increasingly  important  position  in  Trinidad  society.*  The 
Sivaites,  forming  the  majority  of  the  Hindus,  live  on  bad  terms  with  the  Moham- 
medans, and  sanguinary  conflicts  have  even  taken  place  between  the  votaries  of 
the  rival  religions.  Nearly  all  their  savings  are  spent  by  the  coolies  in  the 
purchase  of  jewellery  for  their  wives,  which  in  case  of  divorce  gives  rise  to  much 
wrangling  and  lawsuits. 

AGRICULTURAL  RESOURCES.  — TOPOGRAPHY. 

In  his  work  on  the  Orinoco  regions,  published  in  1727,  the  Jesuit  Gumilla 
informs  his  readers  that  the  soil  of  Trinidad  had  been  condemned  to  perpetual 
sterility  ever  since  the  first  settlers  had  refused  to  pay  the  tithes.  Nevertheless,  the 
fecundity  of  the  island  has  been  amply  vindicated  by  its  white,  black  and  yellow 
cultivators.  Although  scarcely  one-eighth  of  the  land  has  been  reclaimed,  the 
foreign  trade,  consisting  chiefly  of  sugar,  molasses  and  cacao,  has  long  exceeded 
£4,000,000,  while  the  local  traffic  in  fruits,  vegetables  and  other  provisions  is 
increasing  still  more  rapidly. 

Nearly  all  the  coffee-grounds  have  been  abandoned,  and  tobacco  also  is  now 

*  F.  H.  Hart,  Trinidad. 


68 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


but  little  grown,  although  the  leaf  is  scarcely  inferior  to  that  of  Cuba.  One  of 
the  most  costly  operations  on  the  plantations  is  the  uprooting  of  the  para-grass, 
which,  although  yielding  an  excellent  fodder,  grows  with  a  vigour  that  threatens 
to  stifle  the  more  valuable  sugar-cane.  Most  of  the  agricultural  and  commercial 
life  of  the  island  is  centred  on  the  west  coast,  where  are  situated  the  two  largest 
towns,  now  connected  by  a  railway  and  by  a  regular  line  of  steamers.  The  east 


Fig.  22.-— TBINIDAD. 
Scale  1  :  1,300,000. 


West,  or  Greenwich  6I°4O' 


61° 10- 


0  to  12 
Fathoms. 


Depths. 


12  to  60 

Fathoms. 


60  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


30  Miles 


side,  facing  the  Atlantic   and  the  trade  winds,  is  almost  a  solitude  destitute  of 
towns  or  harbours. 

Besides  its  agricultural  and  commercial  importance,  Trinidad  has  a  certain 
value  in  the  eyes  of  the  restless  South  American  populations,  as  a  place  of  refuge 
for  political  exiles  and  fugitives  from  Venezuela  and  the  other  Spanish  republics. 
In  former  times  it  was  also  the  headquarters  of  British  military  operations  in 
the  West  Indies.  Many  an  expedition  was  here  organised  during  the  wars  of 
independence,  and  from  this  station  English  traders  may  now  command  the 
entrance  of  the  Orinoco,  one  of  the  great  highways  to  the  interior  of  the  continent. 


TRINIDAD. 


69 


Trinidad  is  already  the  depot  for  the  Venezuelan  lands  which  border  the  great 
river,  and  it  might  one  day  take  the  same  position  with  regard  to  the  Colombian 
plateaux  through  the  Rio  Meta. 

Port  of  Spain  (Puerto  Esparto),  usually  designated  by  the  simple  word  "  Town," 
is  in  truth  the  largest  town,  as  well  as  the  political  capital,  of  Trinidad.*     Yet 

Fig.  23.— POET  OF  SPAIN. 
Scale  1  :  115,000. 


Depths. 


Sands  exposed 
at  low  water. 


Oto5 
Fathoms. 


5  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


2}  Miles. 


=at  a  distance  it  seems  lost  in  the  surrounding  vegetation.  Whole  quarters  are 
embowered  in  verdure,  and  the  shady  avenues  of  the  city  are  continued  by  fine 
parklands  towards  the  suburban  villas  dotted  over  the  slopes  of  the  hills.  Till 
recently  water  had  to  be  brought  by  boats  from  a  distance  of  nearly  two  miles, 
but  it  is  now  supplied  from  the  little  river  Maraval  by  an  aqueduct  three  miles 
Jong. 

The  tranquil  roadstead  to  which  the  place  owes  its  popularity  is  well  sheltered, 

*  F.  H.  Hart,  Trinidad. 


70  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

but  too  shallow  for  large  vessels,  which  have  to  ride  at  anchor  some  miles  from 
the  quays.  Despite  this  drawback,  Port  of  Spain  has  attracted  to  itself  nearly  all 
the  commerce  of  the  island,  while  splendid  natural  harbours,  such  as  that  of 
Chaguaratnas,  near  the  Boca  Mono  passage  at  the  extremity  of  the  north-west- 
peninsula,  are  completely  deserted.  Being  surrounded  by  rocks  and  swamps,  and 
remote  from  the  cultivated  districts,  these  havens  are  useless  for  the  purposes  of 
trade.  Chaguaramas,  sheltered  by  islets  and  reefs,  is  deep  enough  for  the  largest 
vessels,  and  it  was  here  that  the  Spanish  fleet  took  refuge  in  1797,  when 
Admiral  Apodoca  delivered  it  to  the  flames  rather  than  accept  the  challenge  of  an 
English  squadron  of  equal  strength.  The  Spanish  Government  preferred  to  be 
defeated  by  its  English  enemies  than  defended  by  its  French  friends !  *  During 
the  season  thousands  of  visitors  resort  to  the  beach  at  Chaguaramas,  to  the 
neighbouring  islets,  and  to  the  Isla  dos  Monos  ("  Monkey  Island ")  in  the 
Dragon's  Mouth. 

A  road  and,  farther  south,  the  navigable  course  of  the  Carom  connect  Port 
of  Spain  with  the  old  .capital,  San  Josef  (San  Jose),  which  crowns  a  rising 
ground  commanding  a  wide  prospect  of  cultivated  lands.  Beyond  this  place  a 
branch  of  the  railway  runs  east  to  the  village  of  Arimn,  while  the  main  line  runs 
south  to  San  Fernando  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Naparima.  As  an  agricultural  centre 
San  Fernando  ranks  in  importance  with  the  capital  itself.  In  the  district  are 
situated  the  richest  plantations  in  the  island,  and  farther  inland  the  villages  of 
Montserrat  and  Princestown,  are  surrounded  by  extremely  fertile  tracts  in  the 
hands  of  independent  farmers,  amongst  whom  are  distinguished  some  Venezuelans 
of  Spanish  race. 

ADMINISTRATION. 

Trinidad,  to  which  its  neighbour,  Tobago,  is  administratively  attached,  forms 
a  British  Crown  Colony,  so  that  its  inhabitants  are  subjects  with  scarcely  any 
electoral  rights.  The  Queen  appoints  the  governor,  as  well  as  the  executive 
council  of  three  members  by  whom  he  is  assisted.  The  legislative  assembly, 
also  appointed  by  the  Crown,  consists  of  six  ex-officio.  and  eight  other  members. 
The  elective  principle,  however,  is  allowed  free  play  in  the  municipal  affairs  of 
the  capital  and  of  San  Fernando,  fifteen  members  being  elected  for  the  town 
council  of  the  former  and  seven  for  that  of  the  latter  place. 

The  only  armed  forces  are  about  500  police  and  the  same  number  of  volun- 
teers, who  meet  from  time  to  time  for  drill  and  target  practice.  The  schools, 
which  are  frequented  by  the  great  majority  of  the  white,  Hindu,  Chinese,  black, 
and  coloured  children,  partly  depend  on  the  Government,  which  has  founded  and 
endowed  the  secular  establishments,  while  also  contributing  grants  in  aid  both 
to  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  educational  establishments.  The  revenue,  large 
for  a  still  thinly-peopled  island,  is  derived  mainly  from  the  customs.  There  is 
a  public  debt  of  £520,000  (1892),  contracted  almost  exclusively  for  the  railways, 
which  have  a  total  length  of  54  miles. 

*  Dauxion  Lavaysse ;  Kingsley,  op.  cit. 


MARGARITA.  71 

The  island  is  divided  into  eight  administrative  districts  — Saint  George  and 
Saint  David  in  the  north;  Caroni,  Saint  Andrews,  Victoria  and  Nariva  in  the 
centre ;  Saint  Patrick  and  Mayaro  in  the  south. 

IV. — MARGARITA  AND  NEIGHBOURING  ISLETS. 

Margarita,  the  "  Pearl,"  one  of  the  islands  discovered  by  Columbus  in  his 
voyage  of  1498,  belongs,  like  Trinidad,  to  the  Andes  orographic  system,  although 
not  disposed  in  a  line  with  the  Paria  range.  It  develops  a  parallel  chain,  indicated 
by  two  principal  masses,  and  reappearing  some  60  miles  farther  west  in  the 
islet  of  Tortuga.  In  fact,  Margarita  may  be  regarded  as  forming  two  distinct 
islands — in  the  east  Margarita,  properly  so  called,  in  the  centre  of  which  Mount 
Copei  rises  to  a  height  of  4,170  feet  ;  and  in  the  west  Macanao,  so  named  from 
its  culminating  point,  4,484  feet  high. 

Although  of  less  extent  than  Trinidad,  Margarita  greatly  exceeds  it  in  the 
altitude  of  its  mountains.  Between  the  two  sections  of  the  island  stretches  the 
so-called  Restinga,  or  Laguna  Grande  ("  Great  Lagoon"),  which  communicates 
with  the  gulf  on  the  south  side  by  a  shifting  channel,  while  on  the  north  side  the 
two  islands  are  connected  by  a  thin  but  continuous  strip  of  sands.  At  its 
narrowest  point  this  line  of  dunes  is  scarcely  more  than  164  feet  wide  between 
the  lagoon  and  the  open  sea. 

Margarita  is  one  of  those  islands  which  were  first  colonised  by  the  Spaniards. 
In  1499,  the  very  year  following  the  voyage  of  Columbus,  Guerra  discovered  the 
pearl-banks  of  Coche  Island  off  the  south  coast,  and  soon  after  others  were 
reported  round  the  main  island  and  on  the  coast  of  the  islet  of  Cubagua  (Cuagua), 
which  immediately  attracted  numerous  adventurers.  In  1525  a  fort  had  already 
been  erected  on  Margarita  ;  it  did  not,  however,  prevent  the  capture  and  plunder 
of  the  island  by  the  dreaded  "  tyrant,"  Lopez  de  Aguirre,  in  1561.  Then  came 
the  English,  and  in  the  next  century  the  Dutch. 

During  the  War  of  Independence  the  Margaritans  took  sides  with  the  rebels, 
for  which  they  were  cruelly  punished  by  the  Spaniards.  This  earned  for  the 
insular  group  the  official  title  of  Nueva  Esparta  ("  New  Sparta ")  from  the 
grateful  republicans  of  Venezuela  after  the  revolution. 

As  a  whole  the  island  must  be  regarded  as  arid,  being  largely  covered  with 
bare  rocks,  dunes,  saline  marshes,  and  even  coral  reefs  formerly  built  up  round 
the  coast.  The  inhabitants  find  little  room  for  tillage  except  in  the  narrow 
upland  valleys,  and  their  chief  resources  are  fishing  and  the  collection  of  salt, 
which,  under  the  name  of  sal  de  cspuma  ("  foam  salt "),  is  highly  appreciated  in 
the  trade.  The  women,  who  are  very  industrious,  make  earthenware  and  light 
cotton  stuffs,  besides  hats  of  a  coarse  fibre,  which  are  sold  at  a  low  price  in  every 
part  of  the  republic. 

The  pearl  industry  is  almost  abandoned,  nearly  all  the  banks  being  exhausted, 
while  the  pearls  themselves  have  fallen  considerably  in  value.  But  the  fisheries 
proper  arp--«t£U  very  productive,  that  of  Coche  Island  being  farmed  by  the 


72 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


Government  to  speculators  at  a  high  figure.  The  fish  is  largely  captured  with 
enormous  trawl-nets,  each  worked  by  1 80  or  200  hands,  ail  members  of  the  Guay- 
queri  tribe.  A  single  haul  occasionally  represents  as  much  as  twenty-five  tons 
of  dried  fish.  During  the  season,  which  lasts  nine  months,  a  good  chinchorro  (net) 
should  take  altogether  at  least  225  tons.  When  the  line  closes  round  the  seething 
multitudes,  hundreds  of  fishes  leap  out  and  fall  into  the  boats  which  crowd  round 
the  periphery.  The  oil  of  the  sharks  and  of  the  other  non-edible  kinds  serves 
for  lighting  the  houses  and  varnishing  the  boats. 

Nevertheless,  all  this  marine  produce,  with  the  slight  resources  of  the  island, 
are  insufficient  to  support  the  inhabitants,  who  consequently  emigrate  in  consider- 

Fig.  24. — MARGARITA. 
Scale  I  :  800,000. 


64°50- 


West  oF  Greenwich 


63°50- 


Depths. 


Oto  5 

Fathoms. 


5  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 

_  18  Miles. 


able  numbers  to  Venezuela.  The  great  majority  are  half-caste  Guayqueri  natives, 
who  increase  very  rapidly.  In  1881  they  numbered  over  37,000,  of  whom  more 
than  20,000  were  women,  an  enormous  disparity  due  to  the  emigration  of  the 
men  to  the  mainland.  In  average  years  the  birth-rate  far  exceeds  the  mor- 
tality in  this  salubrious  island,  which  attracts  consumptive  patients  from  great 
distances. 

The  chief  centres  of  population,  Asuncion,  the  capital,  noted  for  its  miraculous 
Virgin  adorned  with  a  robe  of  pearls,  the  two  ports  of  Pampatar  and  Pueblo  de  la 
Mar  (Porlfimar),  and,  near  the  bay  of  Juan  Griego,  Pueblo  del  Nortc,  have  all 
been  founded  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  island.  Nueva  Cadiz,  founded  in  Cubagua 


ORCHILLA— CURACAO.  78 

Island  so  early  as  the  year  1515,  and  consequently  the  oldest  of  all  Spanish  settle- 
ments in  South  America,  was  abandoned  when  the  neighbouring  pearl  fisheries 
•ceased  to  be  productive. 

East  of  Margarita  the  little  group  of  the  Testigos  ("  Witnesses  ")  recalls  the 
presence  of  a  formidable  pirate  of  the  first  years  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
Captain  Teach,  the  "  Bluebeard  "  of  West  Indian  legends.  Frequent  attempts  have 
been  made  to  recover  his  treasures,  said  to  have  been  buried  "  three  hundred 
paces  "  from  a  certain  point  in  the  chief  island  of  the  group. 

Tortuga,  farther  west,  is  occupied  by  a  small  village  and  encircled  by  a  cortege 
of  Tortuguillos  ("  Little  Turtle  Reefs").  Blanquilla  in  the  north,  as  indicated 
by  its  name,  is  an  expanse  of  whitish  sands  and  rocks  with  a  stunted  vegetation 
of  cactuses  and  mimosas.  A  few  depressions  here  and  there  have  enough  vege- 
table humus  to  repay  cultivation.  During  the  wars  of  the  Revolution  a  planter 
from  Guadaloupe  established  himself  with  his  slaves  in  Blanquilla,  where  he 
wanted  to  set  up  a  cotton-mill.  But  the  Spanish  Government  expelled  the 
intruders,  and  restored  this  remote  land  to  solitude,  to  its  wild  oxen  and  packs  of 
runaway  dogs. 

Y. — THE  LEEWARD  ISLANDS.  — FROM  ORCHILLA  TO  ARUBA. 

These  islands,  which  run  first  west  and  then  north-west  in  continuation  of  the 
•eastern  chain  beginning  with  Blanquilla,  develop  an  extremely  regular  curve 
parallel  with  the  Venezuelan  coast ;  each  member  of  the  group  even  affects  a  trend 
identical  with  that  of  the  opposite  mainland.  All  represent  the  upraised  summits 
of  a  submarine  ridge  belonging  like  Margarita  to  the  Andes  system,  but  rising  to 
a  much  lower  elevation  above  sea  level.  The  culminating  crest  of  Orchillais  only 
400  feet  high,  while  Sanct  Christoffel,  highest  summit  in  Curasao  and  in  the  whole 
chain,  scarcely  exceeds  1,200  feet. 

On  the  other  hand  the  islands  have  been  enlarged  horizontally  by  the  coral- 
builders.  The  Los  Roques  cluster,  which  abuts  south-eastwards  on  a  rock  150 
feet  high,  has  its  reefs  rising  here  and  there  above  the  surface  disposed  in  cir- 
cular form  like  the  atolls  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  neighbouring  Aves  (Bird 
Islands)  are  also  of  coralline  origin,  whereas  Aruba  (Oruba),  in  the  extreme  west, 
presents  a  nucleus  of  largely  disintegrated  syenite  and  granite,  whose  detritus 
forms  the  soil  of  the  island,  itself  encircled  by  a  broad  fringe  of  coralline  lime- 
stone. 

The  eastern  islets  and  reefs,  Orchilla,  Los  Roques,  and  Aves,  are  uninhabitable 
rocks  visited  only  by  fishermen  and  lighthouse-keepers.  After  the  Revolution 
they  were  left  politically  dependent  on  Venezuela,  while  the  three  western  islands 
of  Buen  Aire,  Curacao,  and  Aruba,  all  of  relatively  large  size  and  cultivable,  had 
long  previously  been  detached  from  Spain. 

CURA9AO. 

In  1499  Hojeda  had  already  discovered  Cura9ao,  which  he  called  the  "  Isle  of 
Oiants."  It  was  occupied  to  the  sixteenth  century  by  some  Spanish  settlers,  but 


74 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEOIONS. 


it  was  seized  in  1632  by  the  Dutch,  who  remained  masters  of  the  archipelago  till 
the  wars  of  the  Empire,  when  it  was  temporarily  occupied  by  the  English  and 
restored  to  Holland  in  1814.  Despite  its  small  extent  and  scanty  population,  this 
colony  is  highly  valued  by  its  possessors  on  account  of  the  deep  and  well-sheltered 
harbour  on  the  south  coast  of  Curacao.  At  the  time  of  the  conquest  by  the  Dutch 
traders  Cura9ao  was  still  inhabited  by  a  tribe  of  about  500  aborigines,  who  are 
said  to  have  accompanied  the  Spanish  settlers  to  the  mainland. 

Willemstad,  capital  of  the  colony,  lies  on  the  east  side  of  the  harbour,  which  is 
still  often  designated  by  its  old  Spanish  name  of  Santa  Ana.     The  capital  itself  is 

Fig.  25. — CURASAO. 
Scale  1 :  700,000. 


69°  10- 


68" 50-  West  oF  Greenwich 


Depths. 


OtoSOO 
Fathoms. 


500  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


1'2  Miles. 


better  known  by  the  name  of  Curasao,  which  is  that  of  the  whole  island.  The- 
houses  are  built  in  a  style  resembling  that  of  Amsterdam  as  far  as  was  possible 
under  the  conditions  required  by  a  tropical  climate.  In  the  passage  separating  it 
from  the  western  suburb  of  Ovcrzijde  ("Overside"),  and  in  the  swampy  waters 
ramifying  inland,  Willemstad  also  presents  the  aspect  of  a  Dutch  town.  The 
quays  are  everywhere  crowded  with  shipping,  while  men-of-war  ride  at  anchor  in 
the  Schottegat,  a  deep  lagoon  forming  a  northern  extension  of  the  harbour.  A 
bridge  of  boats  connects  the  capital  with  its  suburb  just  above  two  forts  guard- 
ing the  entrance  to  the  basin,  which  is  accessible  to  the  largest  vessels  through  a . 
channel  6  to  10  fathoms  deep. 


I 


CURACAO. 


75 


Like  those  of  Buen  Aire  the  plains  of  Cura9ao  are  largely  occupied  by  arid 
wastes.  Nevertheless,  some  sugar,  tobacco,  fruits,  and  vegetables  are  raised  for  the 
export  trade  in  a  few  glens,  some  naturally  fertile,  others  rendered  productive 
by  much  patient  labour.  The  Willemstad  traders  also  forward  phosphate  of  lime 
obtained  in  Klein  Cura9ao,  a  rocky  islet  near  Buen  Aire.  Other  products  of  the 
colony  are  the  seeds  of  the  dividwi-tree,  used  for  tanning,  and  considerable  quan- 

Fig.    26.— WlLLHMSTAD. 
Scale  1  :  48,000. 


WestcFGreenw.ch  68°  57- 


68°  se- 


Depths. 


Oto5 
Fathoms. 


5  to  10 

Fathoms. 


10  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


§  Mile. 


titles  of  salt,  till  recently  procured  by  natural  evaporation  alone,  but  now  more 
rapidly  crystallised  by  artificial  processes. 

But  the  local  traffic  is  of  small  account  compared  with  the  transit  trade  with 
the  Venezuelan  mainland,  to  which  Willemstad  is  mainly  indebted  for  its  commer- 
cial prosperity.  Here  the  Colombian  and  Venezuelan  shippers  obtain  the  vessels 
and  crews  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade,  as  well  as  the  advances  required  to  carry 
on  their  operations.  The  Jewish  and  Christian  bankers  of  Cura9ao  are  amongst 
the  principal  creditors  of  the  Hispano- American  speculators.  Like  Trinidad,  the 


76  SOUTH  AMERICA— TBE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

Dutch  island  has  also  long  served  as  a  place  of  refuge  and  a  centre  of  political 
intrigue  for  the  exiles  and  conspirators  of  the  neighbouring  republics.  Willemstad 
is  also  a  sort  of  linguistic  capital,  for  here  more  than  elsewhere  is  current  the 
so-called  papamiento  (papimiento),  a  curious  lingua  franca  composed  of  Spanish, 
Dutch,  English,  and  native  (Aruba  and  Goajira)  elements.  It  even  contains  some 
Portuguese  words,  the  presence  of  which  is  difficult  to  explain,  the  Portuguese 
never  having  navigated  these  waters. 

ARUBA. 

Aruba,  westernmost  member  of  the  group,  formerly  bore  the  name  of  Azua, 
from  a  shrub  very  common  in  the  locality.  It  is  the  best  cultivated  of  the  three 
Dutch  islands,  although  suffering  from  a  want  of  water,  which  has  to  be  husbanded 
in  cisterns  or  drawn  from  tidal  wells  sunk  in  the  sands.  Now  seldom  visited  by 
travellers,  Aruba  is,  nevertheless,  the  most  interesting  island  in  the  archipelago 
from  the  archaeological  point  of  view.  Here  are  found  many  stone  and  clay 
objects,  besides  rock  inscriptions  of  Indian  origin.  The  earthenware  is  almost 
invariably  embellished  with  little  figures  representing  frogs'  or  owls'  heads.  The 
inscriptions,  painted  in  various  colours,  but  never  carved,  differ  little  from  those 
occurring  in  many  places  on  the  mainland.* 

The  aborigines,  all  half-breeds,  have  preserved  nothing  of  their  native  language 
except  certain  forms  of  incantation  and  medical  recipes.  Till  recently  they 
deposited  their  dead  in  large  cone-shaped  vessels,  which  were  buried  under  little 
barrows.  The  Spanish  conquerors  found  in  Aruba  a  populous  city  abounding  in 
the  precious  metals,  which  gave  rise  to  the  whimsical  and  evidently  erroneous 
etymology  of  the  name  Aruba  (Oruba) :  Oro  hubo !  "  Here  was  gold  !  "  At  present 
only  faint  traces  of  the  precious  metals  can  be  detected  in  the  rocks  of  the  island. 
According  to  the  geologist  Martin,  Aruba  was  the  last  member  of  the  Leeward 
group  to  be  separated  from  the  mainland.  Here  are  still  seen  some  species  of 
animals  which  have  disappeared  from  Buen  Aire  and  Cura9ao;  such  especially 
are  a  species  of  parrokeet,  a  frog,  and  a  rattlesnake.  In  recent  times  indications 
have  been  observed  of  an  upheaval  of  the  coasts. 

*  Alph.  Pinart,  Exploration  de  Curasao  et  d?  Aruba. 


CHAPTER  III. 


VENEZUELA. 
I. 

HIS  Hispano- American  state  appears,  like  the  New  World  itself,  to 
have  acquired  its  name  in  a  haphazard  sort  of  way,  perhaps  from 
an  incident  connected  with  the  voyage  of  Amerigo  Yespucci.  In 
1499,  when  Hojeda,  in  company  with  the  Florentine,  penetrated 
for  the  first  time  into  the  inland  sea  or  "  lagoon  "  of  Coquibacoa, 
now  called  Maracaibo,  he  noticed  on  the  east  side  a  group  of  some  twenty  cabin* 
erected  on  piles,  surrounded  by  "  gondolas,"  and  communicating  with  each  other 
by  crazy  drawbridges.  The  little  lacustrine  town,  mirrored  in  the  still  waters  of 
the  lagoon,  seemed  to  the  travellers  like  a  "  Venezuela  "  or  "  Little  Venice,"  and 
it  may  be  presumed  that  Vespucci,  as  an  Italian,  was  not  the  less  struck  by  the 
resemblance. 

The  name  thus  casually  given  to  the  cluster  of  huts  gradually  extended  to  the 
surrounding  shores,  where  pile  dwellings  were  at  that  time  very  numerous,  and 
then  to  the  whole  region.  It  thus  eventually  replaced  the  expression,  Costa  Ferma 
("  Main  Shore  "),  originally  applied  to  all  the  seaboard  between  the  Orinoco  delta 
and  Lake  Maracaibo,  in  opposition  to  the  islands  which  had  been  the  scene  of  the 
first  Spanish  explorations.  Before  the  proclamation  of  independence  the  province 
of  Caracas  had  already  been  officially  called  Venezuela,  the  political  meaning  of 
which,  as  now  clearly  understood,  corresponds  to  the  whole  space  enclosed  by  the 
frontiers  of  Colombia,  Brazil,  and  British  Guiana. 

DISPUTED  FRONTIERS. 

But  these  limits  were  far  from  being  determined  all  along  the  line ;  hence  the 
impossibility  of  estimating  even  approximately  the  probable  extent  of  Venezuela, 
while  vast  territories  were  still  being  claimed  by  one  or  other  of  the  conterminous 
states.  Since  1891  the  frontier  question  towards  Colombia  has  been  settled  by 
Spain,  to  which  the  matter  had  been  referred.  Aided  by  the  numerous  docu- 
ments preserved  in  the  national  archives,  the  Spanish  arbitrators  were  able  to 
pronounce  an  official  verdict  substantially  in  favour  of  Colombia.  Thus  the 
Goajira  district  was  assigned  to  the  western  state ;  if  not  altogether,  at  least  from 


78 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


some  islets  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela,  along  a  line  running  through 
the  Montes  de  Oca  forest  to  the  Sierra  de  Perijaa  east  of  the  Rio  Cesar  valley. 
Colombia  also  keeps  the  disputed  territory  of  San  Faustino  in  the  Rio  Zulia  valley, 
as  well  as  the  left  bank  of  the  Orinoco,  between  the  Meta  and  Guaviare  conflu- 
ences ;  the  Atabapo  frontier  to  a  distance  of  22  miles  above  Yavita,  then  a  straight 
line  running  towards  fhe  Guainia  (Rio  Negro)  to  22  miles  west  of  Pimichin,  and 
lastly  the  Guainia  itself  to  Cucuhy  on  the  Brazilian  frontier. 

In  the  territory  thus  awarded  to  Colombia,  Venezuela  preserves  nothing  but 
the  right  of  way  turning  the  Atures  rapids  within  the  Colombian  frontier.  She 
loses  altogether  nearly  a  third  of  the  space  claimed,  though  the  region  in  dispute 

Fig.  27. — FEONTIKES  OF  VENEZUELA.. 
Scale  1  :  18,000,000. 


310  Miles. 


is  but  sparsely  inhabited  and  of  no  present  economic  value.  Colombia  had,  on  the 
other  hand,  demanded  much  more  than  she  received,  claiming  the  Cassiquiare  and 
the  Baria  and  Canaburi  affluents  of  the  Rio  Negro  for  her  eastern  frontier. 

Towards  Brazil  the  Venezuelan  frontier,  as  determined  by  the  treaty  of  1859, 
runs  from  above  the  village  of  Cocui,  at  first  south-east  until  it  coincides  with  the 
waterparting  between  the  two  secondary  basins  of  the  Baria  and  Canaburi,  and 
beyond  it  with  the  divides  of  the  Rio  Negro,  of  its  great  affluent  the  Rio  Branco, 
and  of  the  upper  Orinoco.  Beyond  Mount  Machiari,  northern  limit  of  the  Sierra 
Parima,  which  forms  part  of  the  dividing  line,  the  frontier  turns  abruptly  south 
and  then  nearly  due  east  along  the  crest  of  the  Sierra  Pacaraima  between  the 


BOUNDARIES,  EXTENT  OF  VENEZUELA.  79 

lower  Orinoco  and  the  Rio  Branco  basins.  At  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
Pacaraima  range  Mount  Roraima  forms  the  present  corner-stone  where  con- 
verge the  frontiers  of  Venezuela,  Brazil,  and  British  Guiana. 

Nevertheless,  the  boundaries  farther  east  are  still  in  dispute.  Here  the 
English  occupy,  besides  the  Essequibo  basin  and  part  of  the  Orinoco  basin,  a 
vast  region  some  36,000  square  miles  in  extent,  which  is  claimed  by  the  Vene- 
zuelans as  part  of  their  domain.  But  the  British  Government  and  the  settlers 
in  Guiana  value  its  possession  all  the  more  that  it  is  conterminous  with  the 
Venezuelan  goldfields  of  the  upper  Cuyuni,  and  also  contains  auriferous  deposits 
itself. 

In  the  direction  of  the  north-west  the  English  have  extended  their  acquisi- 
tions as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco.  Here  the  Amacuro  river  and  the  channel 
separating  Barima  Island  from  the  mainland  may  be  regarded  as  already  forming 
part  of  the  great  delta.  Thanks  to  this  position  at  the  entrance  of  the  Orinoco, 
Great  Britain  may  hope  some  day  to  acquire  the  political  and  commercial  supre- 
macy in  the  whole  of  the  delta  region,  facing  which  is  the  important  military 
and  trading  station  of  Trinidad. 

Since  the  days  of  Walter  Raleigh,  England  has  several  times  attempted  to 
penetrate  into  the  interior  of  the  continent  through  this  gateway.  In  the 
"  Archives  of  the  Indies "  there  exists  a  Spanish  map,  dated  1591,  on  which 
figures  a  large  island  in  the  middle  of  the  delta  with  the  legend :  "  Aqui  estan  los 
Ingleses,"  that  is,  "  Here  are  the  P^nglish."  In  1808  the  British  Government 
occupied  various  points  of  the  delta,  where  its  farthest  station,  standing  on  a 
height  between  the  Orinoco  branches  and  the  Guarapiche  river,  commanded  both 
the  entrance  of  the  navigable  channels  and  of  the  Serpent's  Mouth.  This 
strategic  point  was  even  spoken  of  as  a  future  "  Gibraltar,"  and  although  it  has 
since  been  abandoned,  the  Venezuelans  want  also  to  recover  Barima  Island  and  all 
the  coastlands  as  far  as  Maruca,  near  Cape  Nassau.  They  are  also  anxious  to 
secure  their  goldfields  on  the  Cuyuni  river  from  any  risk  of  annexation.  But 
they  can  hardly  hope  for  success  in  a  diplomatic  struggle  with  Great  Britain. 
They  might  no  doubt  easily  obtain  the  good  offices  of  the  United  States,  but  are 
afraid  of  the  danger  of  a  protectorate,  powerful  allies  often  exacting  too  high  a 
price  for  their  services.  England  has  hitherto  declined  to  submit  the  question  to 
.arbitration.* 

EXTENT — POPULATION — CARTOGRAPHY. 

Within  the  actual  limits  recognised  by  Colombia  and  Great  Britain,  Vene- 
zuela still  comprises  an  enormous  territory  out  of  all  proportion  to  its  scanty 
population.  The  superficial  area  was  approximately  estimated  in  1893  at  about 
530,000  square  miles,  occupied  by  scarcely  2,200,000  inhabitants.  The  greater 
part  of  the  territory,  a  wilderness  roamed  by  a  few  scattered  wild  tribes,  is  still 
an  almost  unknown  region  from  the  geographical  point  of  view.  Certain  tracts 
bordering  on  British  Guiana,  and  more  especially  those  conterminous  with  Brazil, 

*  And  will  continue  to  do  so  until  Venezuela  withdraws  her  claim  to  the  Barima  district,  and  gives 
up  some  other  utterly  preposterous  demands. — ED. 


80  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

have  been  traversed  only  in  a  few  directions,  and  are  figured  on  the  maps- 
mainly  from  native  reports  and  the  more  or  less  shrewd  conjectures  of  a  small 
number  of  explorers. 

Codazzi's  map,  published  in  Paris  over  half  a  century  ago,  still  remains  the 
chief  cartographic  document  available  for  the  study  of  Venezuela.  It  has, 
however,  been  rectified  and  supplemented  in  many  of  its  details,  thanks  especially 
to  the  marine  surveys,  by  which  the  astronomic  positions  of  the  seaports,  head- 
lands, and  adjacent  islands  have  been  determined,  while  the  contour-lines  of  the 
whole  seaboard,  shifted  by  Codazzi  a  little  too  far  west,  have  been  restored  to  their 
proper  position. 

In  the  interior,  scientific  observers,  such  as  Sievers,  have  also  corrected 
Codazzi's  surveys,  about  Lake  Ticaragua,  in  the  Merida  and  Tachira  districts, 
and  along  the  Colombian  frontiers.  The  map  has  also  been  improved  in  many 
important  particulars  by  the  general  progress  of  settlement,  mining  enterprise 
and  railway  undertakings.  But  the  whole  work  requires  to  be  thoroughly 
recast. 

THE  WAR  OF  INDEPENDENCE. 

The  insurrection  which  resulted  in  Venezuelan  independence  broke  out  in 
1810.  More  than  once  the  patriotic  party  seemed  on  the  point  of  being  crushed, 
and  the  cause  of  the  revolution  was  seriously  endangered  by  the  earthquake 
which  destroyed  Caracas  in  1812.  The  indirect  consequences  of  this  disaster 
were  even  more  deplorable  than  the  catastrophe  itself.  It  certainly  prolonged 
the  ruinous  war  probably  for  years,  and  greatly  intensified  its  horrors.  The 
event  having  taken  place  on  Holy  Thursday,  the  first  anniversary  of  the  declara- 
tion of  independence,  the  priests,  nearly  all  of  whom  belonged  to  the  Spanish 
party,  declared  that  the  hand  of  God  had  wrought  the  ruin  in  order  to  crush  the 
revolution.  Most  of  the  towns  besieged  by  the  Spaniards  fell  into  their  hands, 
and  Miranda,  general- in-chief  of  the  insurgents,  capitulated,  leaving  the  remains 
of  Caracas  to  its  old  masters. 

But  the  revolution  broke  out  again,  thanks  especially  to  foreign  aid.  Owing 
to  its  geographical  position  in  relative  proximity  to  the  Antilles,  North  Ame- 
rica and  Europe,  Venezuela  received  more  volunteers  from  abroad  than  any 
of  the  other  revolted  provinces.  As  many  as  9,000  English,  Americans,  and 
French  are  said  to  have  served  in  her  armies,  besides  about  1,000  blacks  from 
Haiti.  But  the  same  geographical  position  also  facilitated  the  landing  of 
Spanish  troops.  The  issue  might  have  been  long  retarded  but  for  the  action  of 
the  llaneros  (the  "  cowboys  "  of  the  llanos),  who  at  a  critical  moment  joined  the 
revolution,  and  under  their  leader,  Paez,  introduced  a  system  of  guerilla  tactics 
against  which  the  resources  of  regular  warfare  proved  ineffectual.  After  eleven 
years  of  incessant  struggles  the  battle  of  Carabobo  put  an  end  to  the  Spanish 
dominion,  and  the  former  "  capitaneria  "  of  Caracas  became  an  integral  part  of  the 
great  republic  of  Colombia,  which  also  included  Ecuador  and  New  Grenada.  In 
the  collective  work  of  South  American  emancipation  the  merit  of  final  success- 
was  largely  attributed  to  the  Venezuelan  general  and  diplomatist,  Simon  Bolivar. 


THE  VENEZUELAN  UPLANDS.  81 

Every  town  in  Venezuela  has  perpetuated  the  memory   of  the  "  Liberator "  by 
naming  some  street  or  square  or  erecting  some  public  monument  in  his  honour. 

II. 

The  upland  regions  round  which  the  Orinoco  describes  a  vast  semicircle 
were  undoubtedly  a,t  some  former  period  connected  with  the  Andes  orographic 
system.  But  after  the  waters  of  the  great  lakes  had  been  discharged  through 
the  mainstream  into  the  Atlantic,  the  intervening  rocks  were  gradually  eaten 
away,  and  the  incessant  work  of  erosion,  combined  with  the  deposit  of  the  alluvial 
matter,  at  last  effaced  all  apparent  cohesion,  even  obliterating  the  former  direction 
of  the  connecting  ridges. 

THE  VENEZUELAN  UPLANDS. 

But  in  any  case  these  eastern  mountains  form  no  well-defined  chain  in  Vene- 
zuela. The  whole  land  rises  bodily  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  sort  of  shield  or 
convex  tableland,  above  which  are  developed  broad  anticlinal  foldings  abutting  in 
all  directions  on  ramparts  of  unequal  size,  some  sloping  gently,  some  presenting 
sharp  escarpments  bristling  with  peaks  and  needles,  while  the  whole  system  is 
here  and  there  interrupted  by  upland  plains  affecting  the  form  of  cirques.  The 
whole  of  this  rugged  region  has  received  the  name  of  Parima,  either  in  memory 
of  the  mythical  lake  of  the  "  Great  Water,"  -or  from  the  Parima  said  to  have  been 
formerly  inhabited  by  the  Dorado,  or  "  Golden  Man,"  who  dwelt  in  a  palace  of 
carbuncles  and  of  the  precious  metals  so  long  sought  for  by  Walter  Raleigh  and 
so  many  adventurers. 

The  sierra,  which  geographers  commonly  regard  as  the  backbone  of  the  system, 
and  in  which  the  Orinoco  and  the  main  branch  of  the  Rio  Branco  have  their 
source,  is  one  of  its  least-known  sections.  Even  the  members  of  the  commission 
appointed  to  lay  down  the  frontiers  between  Venezuela  and  Brazil  did  not  venture 
to  traverse  it  during  their  exploring  expedition  of  1880-3.  From  the  discon- 
nected reports  of  a  few  travellers  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  main  axis  consists  of 
sandstone  strata  resting  on  a  granitic  base.  The  highest  crests  probably  exceed 
6,500  feet,  although  Chaffanjon,  who  ascended  the  Orinoco  to  its  source,  estimates 
the  altitude  of  the  surrounding  mountains  at  not  more  than  from  4,000  to  4,650 
feet. 

In  Venezuelan  Guiana  the  northern  continuation  of  this  water-parting  takes 
various  names,  such  as  the  Sierra  Maigualida,  towards  the  sources  of  the  Ventuari, 
and  the  Sierra  de  Matos,  between  the  Cuchivero  and  Caura  valleys.  In  this  part 
of  the  chain,  which  here  already  approaches  the  Orinoco,  the  Cerro  de  Mato, 
measured  by  Codazzi,  attains  a  height  of  6,135  feet.  To  this  system  of  the  Parima 
uplands  belong  the  granite  hills  of  Caicara  at  the  great  bend  of  the  Orinoco,  near 
the  Apure  confluence,  as  do  also  the  Cabruta  cliffs  on  the  opposite  side.  Here 
the  river  forces  a  passage  through  the  chain  instead  of  sweeping  round  to  the 
north. 

On  the  maps  of  Venezuela  the  expression  Sierra  de  Parima  is  also  applied  to  the 
7 


82  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

irregular  ranges  which  skirt  the  right  bank  of  the  middle  Orinoco  along  its  great 
bend.  Here  is  situated  the  famous  Cerro  Duida  (7,125  feet),  a  wooded  pyramid 
which  is  visible  for  an  immense  distance  along  the  mainstream,  and  which 
dominates  the  ramifying  waters  between  the  Orinoco  and  the  Cassiquiare.  It 
has  been  called  a  volcano  from  the  flitting  flames  often  seen  dancing  above  its 
forest- clad  slopes,  although,  from  the  descriptions  of  the  natives,  these  flames 
would  seem  to  be  merely  will-o'-the-wisps. 

Duida  is  overtopped  by  Mount  Maraguaca  (Maravaca),  which  rises  farther 
inland  to  a  height  of  8,230  feet,  while  Maparana  and  the  Cerro  de  Neiva  in  the 
north-west  are  respectively  7,180  and  6,030  feet  high.  Beyond  the  deep  valley 
of  the  Rio  Ventuari  occur  other  lofty  peaks,  such  as  the  Yamari  (7,420),  and  the 
Cunavana  (6,180),  besides  various  mountains  whose  spurs  rise  in  towers,  steps,  or 
abrupt  slopes  above  the  Orinoco.  To  the  same  orographic  system  also  belong  a 
few  isolated  eminences  scattered  over  the  llanos  on  the  west  side  of  the  river.  Of 
these  the  highest  is  the  peak  of  Uniana  (1,900  feet),  which  is  connected  with  the 
uplands  on  the  opposite  side  by  the  granitic  Atures  reefs,  over  which  the  Orinoco 
descends  in  a  series  of  rapids.  Viewed  as  a  whole,  the  mountains  of  the  Parima 
system  are  distinguished  by  their  relative  isolation  and  broken  character ;  they 
rise  in  the  midst  of  the  plains  or  of  the  lower  grounds,  without  presenting  any 
well-defined  continuous  ridges. 

In  the  section  of  Venezuela  comprised  between  the  Orinoco,  the  Caura  valley, 
and  the  divide  towards  Guiana  the  country  is  everywhere  hilly,  and  here  and  there 
presents  a  few  summits  exceeding  3,000  feet  in  height.  Such  are  Chanaro  (5,480 
feet),  Turagua  (6,000),  and  Tacuto  (3,440),  all  rising  above  the  east  side  of  the 
Caura  valley.  The  other  crests  of  Venezuelan  Guiana,  which  are  disposed  in  the 
direction  from  south-east  to  north-west  in  a  line  with  the  axis  of  the  Sierra  Parima, 
scarcely  anywhere  exceed  3,000  feet,  except  at  the  converging  point  of  the  Orinoco, 
Amazons,  and  Essequibo  basins,  where  Roraima,  one  of  the  great  summits  of  the 
Guiana  region,  attains  an  altitude  of  7.400  feet.  Although  not  penetrating  into 
the  aerial  zone  of  snows  and  glaciers,  no  mountain  presents  a  more  formidable 
aspect.  It  forms  an  enormous  mass  of  pink  sandstone  rising  sheer  above  a  vast 
region  of  terraces  and  verdant  valleys.  Its  vertical  walls,  averaging  about  1,600 
feet,  are  everywhere  flanked  at  their  base  by  accumulated  masses  of  debris,  forming 
a  long  talus,  which  encloses  the  perpendicular  upper  cliffs  on  all  sides.  Seen 
from  below,  the  topmost  platform  of  this  frowning  fortress,  some  three  or  four 
miles  in  extent,  seems  to  be  perfectly  level,  although  in  reality  strewn  with 
huge  boulders  resulting  from  the  disintegration  of  the  older  strata. 

Other  mountains  in  the  district  present  a  somewhat  similar  aspect,  though  on 
a  much  smaller  scale,  and  one  of  them,  the  "  Crystal  Mountain,"  is  strewn  with 
crystalline  quartz,  all  that  now  remains  of  vanished  rocks.  Obviously  Roraima 
was  formerly  part  of  an  elevated  tableland,  which  has  been  gradually  isolated  by 
a  process  of  cleavage  and  erosive  action.  It  survives  to  present  times  as  a  superb 
witness  to  former  geological  conditions.  Streams  have  their  rise  on  the  upper 
platform,  over  the  edge  of  which  they  fall  in  cascades,  draping  the  pink  escarp- 


THE  VENEZUELAN  ANDES.  83 

merits  as  with  lace  veils  of  their  silvery  spray.  "  O  Roraima,  red  mountain, 
wrapped  in  clouds,  fruitful  mother  of  streams !  "  sing  the  Arecuua  Indians, 
encamped  in  the  surrounding  valleys. 

These  tremendous  cliffs  were  for  the  first  time  scaled  by  Im  Thurn  and 
Perkins  in  1884,  and  since  then  the  summit  has  been  visited  by  the  collectors  of 
.orchids,  Mr.  E.  Cromer  and  Mr.  Seyler,  the  former  alone  in  1888,  and  both 
together  in  1891.  On  the  last  occasion  the  surface  was  explored,  and  towards 
the  south  many  gigantic  and  marvellously-shaped  rocks  discovered,  resembling 
majestic  palaces,  churches,  and  fortresses.  Other  smaller  rocks  assumed  the 
fantastic  forms  of  umbrellas,  kettles,  or  pyramids,  and  one  bore  a  striking  likeness 
to  the  statue  of  a  man  Between  these  grotesque  masses  of  rocks  were  innumer- 
able lakelets,  some  connected  by  canals  generally  shallow,  but  occasionally  5  or 
6  feet  deep.  The  plateau  seemed  almost  destitute  of  animal  life,  though  the  lakes, 
one  of  which  was  150  yards  wide,  swarmed  with  a  species  of  blackbeetle.  Some 
small  frogs  and  lizards,  a  few  spiders,  and  one  black  butterfly  were  also  seen, 
besides  a  small  dark-coloured  mammal,  apparently  a  species  of  kibihee  (Nasua 
fusca?},  which  when  approached  gave  a  sound  like  a  whistle  and  swiftly  disap- 
peared amid  the  rocks.* 

THE  VENEZUELAN  ANDES. 

In  Venezuela  the  Andes  proper  begin  on  the  very  shores  of  the  Dragon's 
Mouth  over  against  the  north-west  point  of  Trinidad,  whence  the  Paria  range 
runs  westwards,  with  perfect  regularity,  but  at  a  moderate  elevation.  Never- 
theless, a  crest  at  the  eastern  extremity  overtops  the  highest  peaks  in  Trinidad, 
attaining  an  altitude  of  3,510  feet.  The  system,  which  is  entirely  of  igneous 
origin,  extends  for  a  distance  of  about  160  miles,  being  limited  southwards  first  by 
an  inlet  of  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  and  farther  west  by  the  Gulf  of  Cariaco.  Between 
these  two  deep  bights  it  skirts  a  low-lying  plain,  where  is  seen  a  still  flooded 
depression,  remnant  of  a  former  marine  inlet.  This  level  tract,  which  is  watered 
by  a  few  sluggish  streamlets,  may  one  day  serve  to  connect  the  two  opposite  gulfs 
which  it  now  separates. 

Even  to  the  most  ignorant  observer  of  the  physical  aspects  of  nature,  the 
Gulf  of  Cariaco  presents  the  unmistakable  appearance  of  a  mountain  valley  skirted 
by  two  parallel  ranges.  It  looks,  in  fact,  like  a  rent  in  the  mountains,  so  accu- 
rate is  the  correspondence  between  the  headlands  and  inlets  along  its  northern  and 
southern  shores.  Hence  the  local  Indian  legends  speak  of  a  sudden  irruption  of 
the  sea,  which,  according  to  some  chroniclers,  occurred  only  a  few  years  before  the 
voyage  of  Columbus.  The  Paria  range  itself  is  pierced  by  a  transverse  breach 
south  of  the  picturesque  bay  of  Carupano. 

The  mountains  of  Cumana,  which  rise  to  the  south  of  the  Paria  chain,  present 
a  far  less  regular  aspect,  developing  a  line  of  uneven  masses  disposed  in  the  same 
direction  from  east  to  west,  and  dominated  by  summits  much  higher  than  those  of 
the  coast  range.  Mount  Turumiquire,  towards  the  centre  of  the  system,  attains  a 

*  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  April,  1892,  p.  242. 


84 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


height  of  6,730  feet,  while  Mount  Bergantin,  towards  the  western  extremity  of 
the  cordillera,  rises  5,480  feet  above  the  surrounding  plain. 

Consisting  of  metamorphic  rocks,  schists,  limestones,  and  sandstones,  overlaid 
round  their  periphery  by  cretaceous  deposits,  the  Cumana  mountains  have  become 
famous  for  their  vast  caverns,  tenanted  by  myriads  of  birds  which  have  acquired 
the  habits  of  bats.  The  entrance  to  these  galleries  is  half  concealed  by  festoons  of 
lianas  and  dense  foliage. 

Eastwards  the  system  is  abruptly  arrested  by  the  alluvial  lands  of  the  Orinoco, 
while  the  roots  of  the  mountains  disappear  towards  the  south  and  west  beneath 
the  almost  horizontal  strata  of  the  llanos.  Here,  therefore,  the  range  is  com- 
pletely interrupted,  nor  does  any  eminence  appear  above  the  level  surface  west  of 
the  Rio  Aragua,  as  far  as  the  more  copious  Rio  Unare,  whose  delta  encloses  the 

Fig.  28.— GULF  OF  CAMACO. 
Scale  t  :  800,000. 


_  . 


64°2q- 


West  or  Greenwich 


65° 50" 


Depths. 


Oto25 
Fathoms. 


25  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 

12  Miles. 


isolated  Morro  Unare,  some  3,400  feet  high.  But  farther  on  the  mountains 
reappear,  developing,  as  in  the  east,  two  parallel  Cordilleras,  a  coast  and  an  inland 
range  disposed  in  the  normal  direction  from  east  to  west.  But  here  the  coast 
chain  is  the  higher  of  the  two  ;  it  often  takes  the  name  of  the  Cordillera  de  la  Silla, 
from  one  of  its  conspicuous  peaks. 

This  range,  which  begins  abruptly  at  Cape  Codera,  evidently  forms  a  continua- 
tion of  the  Paria  and  Cariaco  mountains,  and  consists  of  gneiss,  mica  schists,  and 
metamorphic  rocks.  It  runs  close  to  the  shore  with  scarcely  any  intervening 
beach,  so  that  its  precipitous  seaward  escarpments  can  only  be  ascended  by  zigzag 
and  devious  tracks.  Between  Guaira,  at  its  northern  base,  and  Caracas,  on  the 
southern  slope,  the  crest  maintains  a  mean  altitude  of  5,250  feet,  culminating  in 
the  Naiguata  peak  (9,130  feet),  a  gneiss  crag  veined  with  quartz,  supposed  to 
be  inaccessible  until  ascended  for  the  first  time  by  Spence  and  Ernst  in  1876. 


THE  SIERRA  DE  MERIDA.  85 

Although,  according  to  Aveledo,  380  feet  lower  than  Naiguata,  the  Silla  ("Saddle") 
is  much  better  known,  and  has  been  far  more  frequently  scaled,  thanks  to  its 
proximity  to  the  capital.  A  difficult  track,  which  is  now  abandoned,  formerly 
led  from  Caracas  over  the  "  saddle-back  "  down  to  the  harbour.  The  second  or 
southern  chain,  dominated  by  the  Pancon  del  Valle,  scarcely  attains  half  the 
elevation  of  the  coast  range.  It  culminates  eastwards  in  a  peak  4,200  feet  high. 

Towards  the  point  where  the  coast  begins  to  trend  northwards  round  the 
crescent- shaped  Gulf  of  Triste,  the  main  axis  of  the  system  strikes  south-westwards, 
and  here  is  developed  the  first  section  of  the  Cordilleras  to  which,  in  the  popular 
language,  is  exclusively  applied  the  name  of  "Andes."  But  the  space  thus  shut 
olf  between  the  Gulf  of  Triste  and  Lake  Maracaibo  is  itself  traversed  by  some- 
what irregular  ridges,  mainly  disposed  in  the  direction  from  south-west  to  north- 
east, parallel  with  the  Andean  range  itself.  Here  also  crystalline  rocks  crop  out 
above  more  recent  formations,  and  the  highest  peak,  the  Cerro  San  Luis,  rising 
4,000  feet  above  the  south  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Coro,  consists  of  limestones  and 
argillaceous  schists.  The  neighbouring  Paraguana  peninsula,  connected  by  a 
tongue  of  shifting  sandhills  with  the  mainland,  is  also  traversed  by  several 
rocky  ridges,  all  running  in  the  normal  north-easterly  direction.  Here  the 
highest  point  is  the  isolated  peak  of  Santa  Ana  (1,310  feet). 

THE  SIERRA  DE  MERIDA. 

That  section  of  the  Venezuelan  Andes  which  is  known  as  the  Cordillera  de 
Merida  is  limited  north-eastwards  by  a  ridge  1,200  feet  high,  forming  a  divide 
between  the  Yaracui  basin  and  that  of  the  Cojedes,  which  flows  through  the 
Rio  Portuguesa  and  the  Apure  to  the  Orinoco.  Sievers  even  tries  to  show  that 
this  gap  completely  separates  the  two  orographic  systems,  the  "Andes"  on  the 
west,  and  the  "  Carib  Mountains  "  on  the  east,  and  according  to  this  geologist  the 
Yenezuelan  coast  ranges  should  be  regarded  as  belonging  rather  to  the  West 
Indian  than  to  the  Andes  orographic  system.*  It  cannot  be  denied  that  great 
contrasts  exist  between  the  Carib  Mountains  and  the  Andes  properly  so-called, 
and  the  former  would  appear  to  be  far  the  older  and  more  decayed  of  the  two. 
Nevertheless,  from  the  orographic  standpoint  they  form  a  direct  prolongation 
of  the  Colombian  Andes,  and  the  two  systems  present  the  same  parallelism  in 
the  disposition  of  their  crests,  with  intermediate  groups  and  spurs  occurring  at 
intervals,  and  with  the  same  cretaceous  strata  overlying  the  crystalline  core. 

Of  all  the  Venezuelan  chains  the  Merida  range  alone  has  earned  the  name  of 
Nevada,  the  "Snowy."  Several •  of  its  peaks  rise  to  13,000  feet,  while  the  five 
loftiest  summits  penetrate  high  above  the  snow-line.  The  Concha  and  Coluna 
peaks,  specially  designated  as  "snowy,"  attain  a  height  of  15,420  feet,  and  a 
small  glacier  even  descends  from  Concha,  yielding  a  constant  supply  of  ice  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Merida.  Several  parallel  ridges,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of 
crystalline  rocks  and  old  schists,  are  connected  together  by  oblique  offshoots,  the 

*  W.  Sievers,  Venezuela.  Die  Cordillere  von  Merida,  Geographische  Abhandlungen,  von  Albrecht 
Penck,  III.,  i.,  1888. 


86 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


central  nucleus  of  Mucuchies  rising  to  an  altitude  of  13,520  feet.  All  the  upland 
valleys  between  the  crests,  standing  at  an  elevation  of  over  11,500  feet,  have 
assumed  the  aspect  of  paramos,  that  is,  of  irregular  treeless  plateaux  clothed  with 
low  herbage,  mosses  and  lichens,  exposed  to  the  cold  winds  and  icy  fogs. 

The  steepest  slopes  of  this  section  of  the  Andes  fall  northwards  down  to  the 
plains  encircling  the  shores  of  Lake  Maracaibo.      On  this  side  an  imposing  aspect 
is  presented  by  the  cretaceous  cliffs  rising  abruptly  above  the  fringe  of  leafy 
woodlands,  streams  and  morasses.     The  numerous  rivers  which  have  their  source 
in  the  sierra  flow  for  the  most  part  in  a  line  with  the   mountain  barrier,  some 
descending  north-westwards  straight  to  the   Maracaibo  lagoon,   s6me  south-east- 
Fig.  29.— SIEREA  DE  MEBIDA. 
Scale  1  :  600,000. 


., 

\\-: 


12  Miles. 


wards  to  the  Apure  affluent  of  the  Orinoco.  But  several  rising  in  the  very  heart 
of  the  cordillera  have  to  force  their  way  through  winding  gorges  down  to  the 
lowlands.  Thus  some  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Apure  first  flow  south-westwards 
normally  with  the  main  axis  of  the  system,  and  then  trend  sharply  round  to  reach 
the  plains  through  deep  ravines  in  the  mountain  barriers.  One  of  these  ravines, 
lying  entirely  within  Venezuelan  territory,  may  be  regarded  as  the  natural  limit 
between  the  Sierra  de  Merida  and  that  of  Pamplona,  in  Colombia.  Here  the 
political  frontier  is  formed  by  the  Rio  Tachira  and  the  breezy  heights  of  the 
Paramo  Tama. 

UNDERGROUND  FORCES. 

No  active  volcanoes  have  been  reported  in  the  Venezuelan  highlands,  but  evi- 
dences of  old  eruptions  have  been  observed,  especially  at  San  Juan  de  los  Morros, 


UNDERGROUND  FORCES  IN  VENEZUELA.  87 

south  of  the  Carib  Mountains.  The  flickering  flames  often  seen  hovering  over 
the  ground  are  now  known  to  be  in  no  way  connected  with  igneous  disturbances. 
This  curious  phenomenon  has  been  noticed  on  the  slopes  of  Duida,  on  Mount 
Cuchivano  in  the  province  of  Cumana,  and  in  the  marshy  valley  of  the  Catatumbo 
and  of  other  streams  flowing  to  Lake  Maracaibo,  where  it  is  known  as  the  "  light- 
house "  or  "  lantern,"  because  it  indicates  to  mariners  the  position  of  the  land. 
Flames  are  also  frequently  seen  flitting  about  amid  the  grasses  of  the  llanos 
without  burning  them.  These  are  "  the  fire  of  the  tyrant  Aguirre,"  say  the  natives, 
who  after  more  than  three  hundred  years  are  still  haunted  by  the  legends  asso- 
ciated with  this  sixteenth -century  corsair.  The  vapours  rising  from  certain  "  asphalt 
lakes"  similar  to  that  of  Trinidad  are  also  said  at  times  to  be  subject  to  spon- 
taneous combustion.  Such  escapes  of  pitchy  substances,  known  by  the  names  of 
brea,  alquitran,  neme,  or  mene,  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Orinoco  delta,  in 
the  Unare  basin,  and  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Maracaibo,  where  they  are  used  mixed 
with  salt  for  caulking  vessels. 

Possibly  the  last  manifestations  of  volcanic  action  may  be  indicated  by  the 
numerous  hot  springs,  mostly  sulphurous  and  saline,  which  well  up  in  the  moun- 
tainous districts,  especially  along  the  lines  of  fracture  in  the  Cumana  uplands 
around  the  Gulf  of  Cariaco,  on  the  banks  of  Lake  Tacarigua,  in  the  Sierra  de 
Merida.  Sievers  records  altogether  as  many  as  fifty-seven  groups  of  thermal 
springs  in  north  Venezuela.  According  to  Humboldt  the  most  famous  are  those 
of  Las  Trincheras,  between  Valencia  and  Puerto  Cabello,  near  the  boqueron,  or 
breach,  formerly  followed  by  the  outlet  of  the  lake.  In  the  Araya  peninsula, 
north  of  the  Gulf  of  Cariaco,  the  sulphurous  jets  known  as  the  Azufral  Grande 
and  Azufral  Chiquito  form  geysers  at  a  temperature  of  212°  Fahr.,  and  deposit 
crystals  of  sulphur,  as  well  as  calcareous  and  silicious  sediment  resembling 
agate. 

Terrific  seismic  disturbances  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Venezuela,  which 
was  even  regarded  by  Humboldt  as  the  land  of  earthquakes  in  a  pre-eminent 
sense.  One  of  the  most  destructive  was  that  of  1812,  when  over  12,000  persons 
were  buried  under  the  ruins  of  Caracas.  In  1550  the  sea,  rising  20  feet  above 
the  normal  level,  swept  away  the  town  and  fortress  of  Cumana,  and  the  same 
place  was  again  overthrown  in  1766,  when  the  ground  continued  to  tremble  for  a 
period  of  fifteen  months.  Caracas  and  Merida  have  both  suffered  on  other  occa- 
sions, and  round  the  former  city  numerous  fissures  are  still  visible,  which  date 
from  the  catastrophe  of  1812,  and  which  have  since  been  enlarged  by  the  action  of 
water. 

THE  LLANOS. 

The  Venezuelan  llanos,  which  develop  a  regular  crescent  between  the  high- 
lands and  the  course  of  the  Orinoco,  and  which  are  limited  eastwards  by  the 
delta  of  the  great  river,  have  a  total  extent  of  some  200,000  square  miles.  This 
vast  space,  however,  is  by  no  means  of  uniform  aspect,  nor  are  all  the  plains 
old  marine  beds  levelled  by  the  sea.  The  slight  rising  grounds,  bancos,  and 
even  mesas,  that  is,  heights  and  terraces  with  regular  flat  platforms  and  abrupt 


88  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

scarps,  like  the  giirs  of  the  Saharan  plains,  are  evidently  the  remains  of  plateaux 
which  formerly  stood  at  a  higher  level,  but  which  have  been  eaten  away  by 
erosions. 

Some  of  the  heights  develop  long  chains  of  hills  forming  secondary  divides  for 
the  running  waters.  Thus,  in  the  eastern  llanos  the  streams  diverge  in  one  direc- 
tion towards  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  in  the  other  towards  the 
Orinoco.  But  so  low  is  the  parting-line  that  in  some  districts  it  remains  quite 
imperceptible.  The  level  plains  are  also  intersected  at  intervals  by  deep  ravines 
excavated  by  the  heavy  tropical  rains,  and  the  generally  monotonous  aspect  of  the 
llanos  is  further  diversified  by  the  greater  or  less  abundance  of  moisture  in  different 
districts.  The  humid  or  arid  character  of  the  land  is  revealed  by  the  greater 
wealth  or  poverty  of  the  arboreal,  bushy,  or  herbaceous  vegetation.  In  the  extreme 
east  the  section  of  the  llanos  protected  by  the  Cumana  mountains  from  the  trade 
winds  is  so  parched  that  traveller  crossing  the  steppe  would  perish  of  thirst  should 
they  neglect  to  bring  a  supply  of  water  with  them. 

In  the  central  parts  of  the  llanos,  where  the  surface  seems  perfectly  level, 
where  the  line  of  the  encircling  horizon  is  broken  by  no  eminen  e,  the  firmament 
unfolds  its  azure  dome  above  a  silent  sea  of  herbaceous  growth,  yellowish  and 
scorched  during  the  prevalence  of  the  dry  trade  winds,  dense  and  verdant  from 
the  first  appearance  of  the  winter  rains.  Although  extremely  rich  in  different 
species,  the  boundless  prairie  seems  to  merge  all  its  plants  in  the  same  uniform 
element.  Except  a  few  objects  close  at  hand,  a  drooping  flower  by  the  wayside, 
some  startled  beast  or  insect  seeking  the  cover  of  the  herbage,  nothing  stands  out 
distinctly  in  the  vast  circuit  lit  up  by  the  solar  rays.  Nature  reposes  in  its  strength 
and  majesty,  inspiring  with  a  sense  of  awe  and  sadness  the  solitary  wayfarer  lost 
in  the  wilderness.  Wherever  the  eye  sweeps  the  horizon  the  details  of  the  land- 
scape are  the  same,  though  its  physiognomy,  as  a  whole,  changes  slowly  with 
the  hours,  the  shifting  hues  and  shadows. 

That  section  of  the  plains  which  stretches  along  the  foot  of  the  mountains, 
and  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  huge  talus  formed  by  the  triturated  debris  of  the 
neighbouring  rocks,  bears  the  name  of  llanos  altos  ("high  llanos"),  its  mean 
altitude  being  several  hundred  yards  higher  than  that  of  the  llanos  bnjos  ("  low 
llanos")  skirting  the  Apure  and  Orinoco.  In  some  districts,  especially  south  of 
Caracas  and  the  province  of  Carabobo,  the  foothills  present  towards  the  llanos  the 
aspect  of  parallel  rocky  terraces,  disposed  in  the  form  of  petriles  ("balconies"),  of 
such  regular  structure  as  to  seem  raised  by  the  hand  of  man. 

The  limit  of  the  plain  is  clearly  marked  by  a  fringe  of  woodlands.  Here  the 
flanks  of  the  sierra  are  clothed  with  a  continuous  mantle  of  verdure,  but  at  the 
point  where  the  lower  slopes  begin  to  merge  in  the  llano  the  forests  break  into 
groves  and  thickets  with  intervening  clearings.  The  grassy  expanse  seems  to 
penetrate  into  the  bordering  woodlands,  like  marine  inlets  into  the  interior  of  the 
mainland  ;  the  savanna  takes  the  aspect  of  a  sea  with  its  bays,  bights,  creeks 
and  islands.  Here  and  there  the  brushwood  forms  a  transition  between  the  forest 
and  the  natural  prairie,  which  stretches  away  beyond  the  horizon  destitute  of  any 


THE  LLANOS.  89 

arborescent  vegetation  except  a  few  clumps  of  dwarf  fan-palms  (copernicia) ,  thorny 
mimosas,  and  stunted  chaparros  (curatella  Americana). 

Previous  to  about  1875  trees  had  greatly  multiplied  on  the  llanos  since  the 
beginning  of  the  century.  Nearly  all  the  elevated  plains  had  become  decked 
with  little  patches  of  arborescent  growths,  which  the  natives  attributed  to  the 
great  falling  off  in  livestock.  During  the  War  of  Independence  the  belligerents 
lived  on  the  cattle  captured  on  the  plains,  and  the  result  was  that  in  a  few  years 
the  herds  were  almost  exterminated,  and  millions  of  saplings  on  which  the  animals 
had  formerly  browsed  were  able  to  develop  into  full-grown  plants.  As  the  rain- 
fall is  certainly  sufficient  to  nourish  an  arborescent  vegetation,  forests  might 
again  spring  up  and  flourish,  though  they  would  again  disappear  if  all  the  land 
were  devoted  to  stock-breeding.  In  this  respect  the  Venezuelan  llanos  present  a 
phenomenon  analogous  to  that  of  the  Illinois  prairies.  They  receive  less  rain  than 
the  forest  regions,  but  still  enough  for  the  development  of  woodlands  if  protected 
from  herds  and  flocks.  In  some  districts,  as  on  the  grazing-grounds  of  the 
French  Alps  and  of  Algeria,  the  aspect  of  the  land  has  been  changed  by  the 
destructive  action  of  goats.  The  grass  eaten  away  or  torn  up  by  the  roots  has 
allowed  the  rains  to  furrow  the  ground,  and  the  level  plains  have  thus  been  trans- 
formed to  a  labyrinth  of  winding  gorges. 

The  rivulets  rising  in  the  sierras,  and  especially  in  the  Cordillera  de  Merida, 
have  an  incline  steep  enough  to  rapidly  discharge  the  surface  waters  into  the 
Apure  or  the  Orinoco.  But  most  of  the  streams  are  only  intermittent,  overflowing 
their  banks  far  and  wide  during  the  winter  season,  but  during  the  droughts 
subsiding  into  narrow  channels,  and  even  apparently  ceasing  to  flow.  The  sandy 
or  muddy  beds  at  this  period  present  a  succession  of  charcos,  or  flooded  meres, 
separated  by  playas,  or  emerged  sills.  The  fish  are  thus  confined  to  terraced 
basins  ;  where,  however,  the  water  never  becomes  quite  stagnant.  It  continues 
to  filter  through  the  intervening  sandy  ridges,  where  an  agreeable  potable  water 
can  always  be  had  by  sinking  wells  down  to  the  underground  current.  In  the 
vast  triangular  space  limited  north-westwards  by  the  Sierra  de  Merida,  northwards 
by  the  Apure  and  eastwards  by  the  Rio  Portuguesa,  all  the  watercourses  without 
exception  assume  in  summer  the  aspect  of  chains  of  lakelets  separated  by  dry 
ledges. 

But  the  continuous  current  is  thus  broken  only  in  their  middle  courses. 
The  upper  reaches  near  the  mountains,  being  fed  by  copious  springs,  still  flow  in 
an  uninterrupted  stream,  while,  lower  down,  the  mainstreams,  such  as  the  Apure, 
Portuguesa,  and  Orinoco,  ascend'  the  tributaries  far  enough  to  maintain  a  perennial 
vegetation  for  some  distance  along  the  banks.  According  to  the  natives  the  Rio 
Guarico,  which  rises  in  the  hills  near  Lake  Tacarigua,  and  which  flows  across  the 
Calabozo  plains  southwards  to  the  Apurito,  had  formerly  a  permanent  dis- 
charge, although  now  broken  into  detached  pools  during  the  dry  season.  Hence 
it  would  appear  that  the  climate  has  become  drier,  or  rather  that  the  difference 
between  the  summer  and  winter  discharge  has  been  increased  by  the  destruction 
of  the  upland  forests  and  the  cultivation  of  the  riverine  tracts. 


90  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

RIVERS. — THE  ORINOCO  SYSTEM. 

The  Orinoco,  which  flows  entirely  within  Venezuelan  territory,  although  its 
western  affluents  have  their  rise  in  the  republic  of  Colombia,  was  formerly  known, 
amongst  other  numerous  native  names,  as  the  Paragua,  a  word  analogous  to 
Paraguay,  and,  like  it,  meaning  "  Great  Water."  Orinucu,  a  Tamanak  word 
already  mentioned  in  1531  by  its  first  explorer,  Diego  de  Ordaz,  has  probably 
the  same  meaning.  The  title  is  fully  justified  by  a  watercourse  which  is  one  of 
the  most  copious  in  the  world,  and  which  in  South  America  is  exceeded  in  size 
only  by  the  Amazons  and  the  Parana.  In  North  America  it  is  rivalled  by  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Saint  Lawrence,  and  it  probably  takes  the  eighth  or  the 
ninth  place  amongst  the  great  rivers  of  the  globe,  ranking  in  volume  after  the 
Amazons,  Congo,  Parana- Uruguay,  Niger,  Yang-tse-kiang,  Brahmaputra,  Missis- 
sippi and  Saint  Lawrence.  But  before  the  construction  of  the  canals  turning 
its  falls  and  rapids  the  Saint  Lawrence  itself  was  greatly  inferior  to  the  Orinoco  in 
the  extent  of  its  continuous  navigable  waters.  The  obstructions  to  the  Venezuelan 
artery  are  of  relatively  slight  importance,  and  a  clear  navigable  highway  is 
presented  by  the  mainstream  and  its  affluents  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  foot  of 
the  Andes,  its  ramifying  channels  even  giving  access  to  the  Amazons  basin, 
so  that  a  vessel  penetrating  into  the  South  American  waters  through  the  Dragon's 
or  Serpent's  Mouth  might  sail  from  river  to  river  right  into  the  heart  of  Brazil 
or  Bolivia. 

Yet  these  regions,  so  easily  reached,  with  an  abundant  rainfall,  a  fertile  soil, 
and  an  endless  variety  of  natural  products,  are  still  almost  uninhabited.  The 
massacres  and  epidemics  following  the  Conquest  have  done  their  work,  and  the 
tide  of  immigration  setting  towards  the  seaboard  has  not  yet  had  time  to  reach 
the  interior.  In  the  whole  of  the  Orinoco  basin,  including  the  Colombian 
section,  there  are  at  present  not  more  than  about  800,000  inhabitants,  whereas  it 
would  contain  200,000,000  were  it  as  densely  peopled  as  Belgium,  which  it  might 
well  be  considering  the  immense  resources  of  the  land.  At  the  last  census 
Ciudad  Bolivar,- the  largest  town  on  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco,  had  less  than 
10,000  inhabitants,  a  number  exceeded  by  some  Hungarian  villages. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  last  century  the  Spanish  Government  attempted 
to  solve  the  problem  of  the  sources  of  the  Orinoco,  with  a  view  to  supporting 
its  claims  against  Portugal  in  the  question  of  frontiers.  Diaz  de  la  Fuente, 
the  first  explorer,  ascended  the  river  in  1760  as  far  as  the  rapids  known  as  the 
Randal  de  los  Guaharibos,  from  the  neighbouring  Indian  tribe.  Four  years 
later  Bobadilla  undertook  the  same  journey,  but  failed  even  to  reach  the 
cataracts.  In  1840  Robert  Schomburgk,  after  exploring  the  Guianas,  crossed  the 
Sierra  Parima,  and  descended  the  Rio  Padamo,  an  affluent  of  the  upper  Orinoco, 
as  large  as  the  branch  regarded  as  the  main  headstream.  Above  the  confluence 
the  Orinoco  is  only  about  100  yards  wide,  and  scarcely  deep  enough  for  small 
boats.  At  last  Chaffanjon  succeeded,  in  1886,  in  surmounting  the  Guaharibos 
rupids,  and  another  cataract  beyond  them,  previously  known  as  the  Salto  de  la 


THE  ORINOCO. 


91 


Desolacion,  but  since  re-named  the  Salto  de  los  Franceses ;  he  thus  reached,  if  not 
the  source  itself,  at  least  the  streamlet  which  lower  down  becomes  the  Orinoco. 

Humboldt's  survey  of  the  bifurcation  of  the  Orinoco  was  one  of  the  great 
events  of  geographical  history.  But  the  admirers  of  the  great  naturalist  carried 
their  zeal  too  far  when  they  also  credited  him  with  the  discovery  of  the  navigable 
channel  connecting  the  Orinoco  and  Amazons  basins.  This  channel,  the  Cassi- 
quiare,  was  already  known  to  the  Spanish  missionaries,  and  the  boats  of  San 
Carlos  on  the  Amazons  slopes  had  frequently  penetrated  into  the  Orinoco  by 
this  waterway.  On  a  map  published  in  1599  by  Raleigh's  companion,  Keymis, 
a  great  salt  lake  is  figured  between  the  Amazons  affluents  and  the  Orinoco,  which 
he  calls  Raleana,  "  Raleigh's  river."  This  lake  reappears  under  all  imaginable 
forms  in  subsequent  documents,  and  even  in  1763  Captain  Jose  Solano,  specially 

Pig.  30. — MYTHICAL  LAKE  OP  PARIMA. 


charged  to  survey  the  Hispano-Portuguese   frontiers,  represented   the  mythical 
Lake  Parima  as  communicating  with  the  two  great  South  American  rivers. 

In  1638  Benito  de  Acosta  had  already  stated,  on  the  report  of  the  natives,  that 
the  Rio  Negro  communicated  on  the  one  hand  with  the  Amazons,  and  on  the 
other  with  the  northern  sea,  "facing  the  island  of  Trinidad,  through  a  stream 
which  is  supposed  to  be  the  famous  Orinoco,"  a  hypothesis  reproduced  in  Sanson 
d'Abbeville's  map  of  1656.  Later  Cristobal  de  Acuna  endeavoured  to  show 
that  the  bifurcation  took  place  between  the  Rio  Negro  and  the  Essequibo,  or  else 
the  Oyapoc.  At  last  all  doubt  was  removed  in  1725,  when  some  Portuguese 
explorers  ascended  the  Rio  Negro  to  its  upper  affluents,  and  passed  thence 
through  the  Cassiquiare  into  the  Orinoco.  The  fact  was  afterwards  established 
that  the  Cassiquiare  lies  in  a  valley,  which  is  prolonged  southwards  by  that  of 
another  river,  where  occurs  a  second  bifurcation  of  streams,  that  of  the  Baria  and 


92  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

Canaburi,  belonging  to  the  Rio  Negro  system.  The  ditch  connecting  the  Orinoco 
with  the  Cassiquiare  stands  at  its  highest  point  920  feet  above  sea-level,  and  the 
latter  river  receives  from  the  Orinoco  only  a  third  part  of  the  water  which  it 
sends  down  to  the  Rio  Negro. 

Below  the  bifurcation  the  Orinoco  flows  first  west,  then  north-west,  collecting 
on  one  side  a  few  sluggish  streams  from  the  llanos,  on  the  other  some  rapid 
currents  from  the  Guiana  uplands.  One  of  these  is  the  copious  Ventuari,  below 
the  confluence  of  which  the  Orinoco  resumes  its  westerly  course  as  far  as  the 
Guaviare,  whose  farthest  headstreams,  the  Guayabero  and  the  Ari-Ari,  rise  in  the 
Sierra  de  Suma  Paz,  that  is,  in  the  Colombian  Andes  east  of  the  upper 
Magdalena.  Although  obstructed  here  and  there  by  dangerous  narrows,  the 
Guaviare,  which  sometimes  takes  the  name  of  the  Western  Orinoco,  presents 
an  extent  of  navigable  waters  at  least  equal  to  that  of  the  mainstream.  It  is 
accessible  to  steamers  as  far  as  the  Ari-Ari  confluence,  a  distance  of  620  miles, 
and  the  Ari-Ari  itself,  which  ought  to  be  regarded  as  the  true  headstream, 
is  said  to  be  navigable  throughout  its  lower  course. 

At  its  junction  with  the  Orinoco  the  Guaviare  discharges  a  volume  estimated 
at  113,000  cubic  feet.  This  junction  may  be  regarded  as  the  true  hydrographic 
centre  of  the  whole  region  comprised  between  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Amazons 
basin.  Here  converge  two  great  lines  of  navigation,  traversing  the  continent 
from  east  to  west.  From  the  Orinoco  below  the  confluence  another  line,  per- 
pendicular to  the  first,  forms  the  fluvial  highway,  while  southwards  the  Inirida 
and  Atabapo  rivers,  being  connected  by  portages  with  the  Guainia  (Rio  Negro), 
present  a  much  shorter  and  easier  route  towards  the  Amazons  than  the  winding 
channel  of  the  Cassiquiare.  The  water  of  the  Guaviare  is  argillaceous,  and  of  a 
yellowish-white  colour,  whereas  the  Inirida  and  Atabapo  are  black,  doubtless 
owing  to  the  presence  of  organic  matter,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Irish  "  Black- 
waters,"  which  have  their  source  in  boggy  districts.  The  fishes  of  the  Atabapo 
are  all  black,  and  none  of  the  alligators  which  swarm  in  the  neighbouring 
Guaviare  ever  penetrate  into  this  river.  Even  mosquitos  avoid  its  dark  waters. 

North  of  the  Guaviare  confluence  the  Orinoco  skirts  the  eastern  hills  and 
mountains  too  closely  to  receive  any  but  short  and  precipitous  affluents  from  this 
direction.  But  the  gently  inclined  western  plains  send  down  long  watercourses 
parallel  to  the  Guaviare ;  amongst  others,  the  Vicbada,  whose  waters  are  black, 
like  those  of  the  Atabapo.  But  the  mainstream,  which  here  flows  at  an  altitude 
of  540  feet,  has  still  to  surmount  some  granite  ledges  before  reaching  the  level 
of  its  normal  incline  towards  the  Atlantic.  Instead  of  following  the  foot  of  the 
eastern  mountains,  it  forces  a  passage  through  their  projecting  spurs,  so  that  the 
cliffs  of  the  left  as  well  as  of  the  right  bank  belong  to  the  Guiana  orographio 
system.  The  first  great  raudal,  or  cataract,  takes  the  name  of  Maipures  from  a 
village  and  an  old  Indian  tribe  now  reduced  to  a  few  families  of  half-breeds. 
From  the  crests  of  the  granite  rocks  overlooking  the  falls  the  river  is  seen 
breaking  into  several  arms  and  into  countless  little  channels,  which  shift  their 
course  and  volume  with  the  seasons.  Amid  these  winding  channels  rise  verdant 


THE  ORINOCO.  98 

eyots  and  sharp-pointed  reefs,  connected  by  the  shelving  rocks  of  the  foaming 
rapids.  The  Maipures  falls,  nearly  four  miles  long,  are  too  impetuous  to  be 
navigated  throughout  their  whole  course,  so  that  they  have  to  be  turned  at 
several  points  by  portages. 

These  falls  are  separated  by  two  small  cascades  from  the  Atures  cataracts, 
which  are  also  named  from  an  Indian  tribe.  Here  are  the  Cerro  Pintado 
("Painted  Hill"),  covered  with  Indian  hieroglyphics,  and  the  Cerro  de  los 
Muertos  ("Hill  of  the  Dead  "),  with  its  cave  full  of  skeletons,  besides  other  rocky 
heights  also  containing  sepulchral  caverns.  For  a  distance  of  six  miles  the 
stream  winds  through  a  succession  of  gorges  between  reefs,  patches  of  verdure 
and  piled-up  granite  boulders,  nearly  all  of  spherical  shape  like  huge  cannon- 
balls  poised  high  above  others  of  smaller  size.  Elsewhere  the  waters  disappear 
in  underground  fissures,  or  else  are  precipitated  in  a  single  sheet  down  over- 
hanging ledges,  where  the  visitor  may  pass  between  rocky  and  aqueous  walls,  as 
at  Niagara.  The  Atures  rapids  are  scarcely  less  dangerous  than  those  of 
Maipures,  so  that  here  also  the  navigation  is  interrupted  by  portages,  although  the 
total  incline  is  not  more  than  about  40  feet  at  Maipures,  and  less  than  30  feet  at 
the  Atures  falls.  Several  of  the  granite  boulders  scattered  along  the  banks  of  the 
middle  Orinoco,  notably  the  "  Tiger's  Stone,"  near  the  little  Marimara  falls,  have 
become  famous  for  the  musical  notes  that  they  emit,  especially  at  sunrise,  like 
the  statue  of  Memnon.  The  phenomenon,  which  occurs  at  other  places  as  well  as 
in  Egypt  and  on  the  Orinoco,  is  due  to  the  cold  night  air  expanding  with  the 
heat,  and  causing  the  particles  of  mica  to  vibrate  as  it  escapes  through  the  fissures 
of  the  rock.* 

Below  Atures  follow,  other  slight  obstructions,  as  far  as  the  confluence  of  the 
Meta,  which,  like  the  Guaviare,  descends  from  the  Colombian  Andes,  but  greatly 
exceeds  it  in  importance.  Joining  the  mainstream  below  the  rapids  and  flowing 
nearly  in  the  same  direction  as  the  lower  Orinoco,  the  Meta  presents  the  shortest 
route  between  the  Cundinamarca  plateau  and  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  that  is  to  say, 
between  the  Andes  and  Europe.  Hence  it  is  already  regarded  as  the  future 
highway  between  Paris  and  Bogota.  Formed  by  the  united  waters  of  numerous 
streams  rising  on  the  slopes,  or  even  on  the  plateau  of  the  eastern  Cordilleras,  it 
takes  the  name  of  Meta  at  the  confluence  of  the  Upia  and  Humadea,  when  it  has 
reached  an  elevation  of  less  than  500  feet  above  sea-level.  Farther  down  it  winds 
in  a  north-easterly  course  across  the  llanos,  whence  it  receives  several  tributaries, 
especially  from  the  north,  the  largest  being  the  Casanare,  which  gives  its  name  to 
a  vast  stretch  of  level  country.  . 

At  some  points  the  Meta  broadens  out  to  over  2,000  yards,  with  a  depth  suffi- 
cient for  the  largest  vessels,  except  where  obstructed  by  shoals  and  mudbanks. 
Between  the  Upia  confluence  and  the  island  of  Oroque,  situated  at  about  one- 
third  of  its  course,  it  is  usually  navigable  only  for  flat-bottomed  barges  drawing 
about  20  inches.  But  below  this  point  it  is  easily  accessible  to  steamers  drawing 
7  or  8  feet  during  the  winter  rains  and  throughout  the  year  for  the  last  third  of 

*  Myers,  Life  and  Nature  under  the  Tropics. 


94 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


its  course.      At  the  confluence  its  discharge  is  estimated  at  160,000  cubic  feet  per 
second. 

Beyond  the  Meta  follow,  on  the  west  side,  the  Capanaparo  and  the  Arauca,  one 
above  the  other  below  the  Barraguan  gorges,  where  the  Orinoco  is  still  1,900 
yards  wide.  The  Capanaparo  rises  at  the  base  of  the  foothills,  the  Arauca  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Cordilleras  themselves,  but  owing  to  their  narrow  basins  both  are 
nearly  destitute  of  affluents.  Before  reaching  the  Orinoco,  the  Arauca  develops 
an  inland  delta  common  to  several  other  streams,  amongst  them  the  copious 
Apure,  which  joins  the  Orinoco  precisely  at  the  point  where  this  river,  after  turn- 
ing the  Guiana  mountains,  takes  its  definite  trend  eastwards  to  the  Atlantic. 
Thus  it  happens  that  the  Apure,  coming  from  the  Andes,  forms  a  western  continua- 
tion of  the  lower  Orinoco.  It  is  navigable  for  steamers  as  far  as  Palmarito,  over 
300  miles  from  the  confluence,  and  its  chief  affluent,  the  Rio  Portuguesa,  is  also 

Fis;.  31. — OEINOCO  BASIN. 
Scale  1 : 6,000,000. 


300  Miles. 


accessible  to  steam-launches.  Below  the  junction  of  its  two  main  branches,  the 
Uribante  and  the  Sarare,  the  placid  current  of  the  Apure  is  interrupted  by  no 
reefs  or  rapids.  Like  the  Arauca,  it  forms  an  extensive  delta  at  its  confluence 
with  the  Orinoco,  which  is  here  4,300  yards  wide  at  low  water,  and  12,000  during 
the  floods. 

Below  the  confluence  the  yellow  Apure  and  limpid  Orinoco  waters  long  flow  in 
separate  currents  before  mingling  in  a  single  stream  under  the  Cabruta  hills. 
Here  the  mainstream  is  so  copious  that  it  seems  little  affected  even  by  such  large 
tributaries  as  the  Cuchivero,  the  Caura,  and  the  Caroni,  which  descend  from  the 
Guiana  mountains,  and  which  will  one  day  afford  direct  access  to  the  Rio  Branco 
and  the  Amazons  ;  after  the  heavy  rains  the  sources  of  an  affluent  of  the  Caroni 
communicate  across  the  low  water-parting  with  the  Cuyuni,  which  belongs  to  the 
Essequibo  basin.  Some  granite  blocks,  blackened  by  manganese  dioxide,  are 


THE  ORINOCO. 


95 


strewn  along  the  banks  of  the  river  as  far  as  the  angostum,  or  "  narrows," 
which  formerly  gave  their  name  to  the  capital  of  the  lower  Orinoco,  200  miles 
from  the  Atlantic.  The  tides  .ascend  to  this  place,  but  are  not  strong  enough  to 
stem  the  current,  which  here  flows  at  a  mean  elevation  of  25  or  26  feet  above  sea- 
level.  The  discharge  at  Ciudad  Bolivar,  above  the  Caroni,  most  copious  of  all 
the  Guiana  tributaries,  is  estimated  by  Codazzi  at  265,000  cubic  feet  per  second, 
and  by  Orton  at  nearly  530,000  cubic  feet.  The  depth  exceeds  25  fathoms 
in  many  parts  of  the  lower  course. 

At  Ciudad  Bolivar  the  Orinoco  rises  during  the  floods  from  40  to  50  feet,  the 

Fig.  32. — THE  ORINOCO  AT  CAICARA 


normal  rise  beginning  on  April  15th,  and  continuing  till  August.  In  November 
there  is  a  second  rise,  which,  however,  is  of  short  duration,  and  throughout  the 
dry  season  the  river  falls  continuously,  exposing  vast  tracts  along  its  banks  and 
islands.  On  the  other  hand,  during  the  floods  it  inundates  the  riverine  plains  to 
great  distances.  At  the  confluences,  where  several  streams  converge  above  nar- 
row channels,  the  waters  expand  to  inland  seas,  flooding  woodlands  and  savannas 
at  times  for  a  space  of  120  miles.  One  of  the  sixteenth-century  Conquistadores, 
having  heard  of  a  "  sea  "  away  to  the  south  of  the  Barquisimeto  mountains  beyond 
the  llanos,  pushed  on  to  the  margin  of  the  inundated  region,  probably  about  the 
lower  Apure,  and  returned  in  the  belief  that  he  had  reached  the  shores  of  the  ocean. 


96 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


ORINOCO  DELTA  AND  NEIGHBOURING  COAST  STREAMS. 

The  Orinoco  delta  is  not  disposed  in  a  line  with  the  axis  of  the  fluvial  valley. 
The  chief  branch,  terminating  in  the  broad  estuary  of  the  Boca  de  Navios,  main- 
tains the  direction  of  the  mainstream,  but  the  Manamo,  or  western  branch, 


Fig.  33. — ORINOCO  DELTA. 
Scale  1  :  2,600,000. 


West  of  Greenwich 


6!c 


Depths 


Oto  12 
Fathoms. 


12  to  50 
Fathoms. 


62  Miles. 


ramifies  at  a  right  angle  northwards  to  the  Gulf  of  Paria.  The  triangular  space- 
enclosed  by  these  two  branches  is  approximately  estimated  by  Level  de  Godas  at 
7,000  square  miles,  though  subject  to  constant  modifications  by  the  floods,  subsi- 
dences, alluvial  deposits,  and  erosions.  At  the  point  where  the  two  main  branches- 


ORINOCO  DELTA.  07 

bifurcate  the  river  is  some  12  miles  wide  and  of  great  depth;  the  engineer 
Fajardo's  soundings  revealed  400  feet  in  the  year  1734. 

Between  the  chief  mouth  and  Vagre  Bay  at  the  entrance  of  the  Manamo 
branch  the  delta  develops  a  coastline  of  over  186  miles  ;  the  extent  is  even  much 
greater  if  the  channels  of  the  Amacuro  and  of  the  Isla  Barima  be  included  on  the 
east  side,  and  the  secondary  deltas  of  the  small  streams  rising  in  the  coast  hills  on 
the  west.  The  low-lying  deltaic  plains,  where  few  rising  grounds  stand  higher 
than  the  level  of  the  flood  waters,  are  carved  into  thousands  of  islands  and  banks 
by  the  endlessly  ramifying  branches,  channels,  stagnant  and  running  waters  of 
all  sorts.  Of  the  48  or  50  arms  flowing  directly  seawards,  seven  only  are  acces- 
sible to  large  vessels,  and  even  these  have  often  changed  their  beds  and  names. 
The  most  frequented,  not  for  its  depth  but  because  it  offers  the  most  direct  pas- 
sage from  Port  of  Spain  (Trinidad)  to  Ciudad  Bolivar,  is  the  Macareo,  which  is 
taken  as  the  dividing-line  between  the  upper  or  western  and  the  lower  or  eastern 
delta.  The  deepest  bar,  which  faces  the  main  channel,  has  14  or  16  feet  at  ebb 
and  from  24  to  30  at  flow. 

On  reaching  the  coast  the  various  branches  are  intercepted  by  the  much 
stronger  marine  current  which  sets  south-east  and  north-west,  in  the  direction  of 
the  Serpent's  Mouth,  between  the  delta  and  Trinidad.  Although  the  opening  is 
not  wide  or  deep  enough  to  admit  the  whole  current,  this  great  ocean  stream,  8  or 
9  miles  wide  at  its  narrowest  point,  has  none  the  less  a  volume  of  several  million 
cubic  yards  per  second.  After  passing  the  Serpent's  Mouth,  it  is  swollen  by  the 
contributions  of  all  the  branches  of  the  western  delta,  and  then  expands  into  the 
broad  basin  of  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  the  Golfo  Triste  of  Columbus,  which  has  also  been 
called  the  "  Freshwater  Sea,"  from  the  Orinoco  currents  spreading  in  a  thin  layer 
on  the  surface  of  the  heavier  marine  waters.  It  might  also  be  called  a  "Yellow 
Sea,"  so  deeply  coloured  is  the  whole  basin  by  the  sedimentary  matter  washed 
down  by  the  Orinoco,  and  by  the  coast  streams  which  also  discharge  their  turbid 
waters  into  the  Gulf  of  Paria.* 

Although  of  short  length,  these  tidal  coast  streams  are  accessible,  like  the  Orinoco 
itself,  to  large  vessels,  and  the  Colorado,  which  receives  the  Guarapiche  affluent, 
is  much  frequented  by  shipping.  West  of  the  Cumana  mountains,  a  breach  in  the 
Andean  system  affords  a  seaward  passage  to  the  Tin  are,  a  considerable  stream, 
unfortunately  obstructed  at  its  mouth  by  quicksands,  and  consequently  accessible 
only  to  light  craft.  Farther  on  the  running  waters  are  mcstly  little  more  than 
rivulets,  the  only  exceptions  being  the  Aroa  aiid  the  Tocuyo  rising  north  of  the 
Sierra  de  Merida,  and  several  streams  descending  to  Lake  Maracaibo  from  the 
snowy  Andean  heights.  The  alluvia  brought  down  by  these  rivers  have  partly 

*  Statistics  of  the  Orinoco  : — 

Approximate  length,  according  to  Michelena 1,600  miles. 

Superficial  area  of  the  catchment  basin 365,000  square  miles. 

Length  of  the  navigable  waters  ....  ...         4,500  miles. 


Approximate  discharge  at  low  water,  according  to  Orton 
Mean  discharge  „  ,, 

Discharge  during  the  floods    .,  ,, 

Mean  rainfall  in  the  basin,  according  to  Codazzi 


240,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 
470,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 
880,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 
.  74  inches. 


93  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

filled  up  Lake  Maracaibo,  which  has  been  considerably  encroached  upon  by  the 
land  in  recent  times. 

The  Catatumbo,  most  copious  affluent  of  this  inland  sea,  belongs  to  both  of  the 
conterminous  republics,  Colombia  and  Venezuela.  Its  headwaters  rise  in  the 
mountainous  Ocana  district  near  the  Magdalena  basin,  and  although  the  discharge 
is  extremely  irregular,  both  the  Catatumbo  and  its  southern  affluent,  the  Zulia 
(Sulasquillo),  are  navigable  for  small  steamers  throughout  the  year.  At  the 
Zulia  confluence  the  Catatumbo  has  already  entered  the  low-lying  plain  which  at 
one  time  formed  part  of  the  Maracaibo  basin  ;  according  to  Vergara  y  Velasco,  it 
lias  a  mean  discharge  of  about  15,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

THE  MARACAIBO  INLET — LAKE  OF  VALENCIA. 

The  Maracaibo  lagoon,  called  also  the  "  Sack  of  Venezuela,"  may  be  regarded 
more  as  a  lake  than  a  marine  inlet,  although  its  level  is  affected  by  the  tides  to 
the  extent  of  a  few  inches.  At  the  entrance  the  difference  between  ebb  and  flow 
is  as  much  as  3  or  3^  feet,  but  a  short  distance  above  the  bar  its  waters  are  already 
quite  fresh.  Despite  the  continual  encroachments  of  the  land,  it  has  still  an  area 
of  no  less  than  8,000  square  miles,  with  a  shore-line  of  about  370  miles,  apart 
from  the  thousand  little  indentations  round  the  coast.  Although  its  extreme  depth 
is  scarcely  80  fathoms,  the  basin  might  be  almost  everywhere  navigable  by  large 
vessels  were  the  approach  not  closed  by  two  bars  little  over  10  feet  deep. 

Beyond  the  islands  extending  right  across  the  mouth  of  the  "  Sack  "  lies  the 
old  "  Gulf  of  Venice,"  on  which  stood  the  Venezuela  ("  Little  Venice  ")  which 
gave  its  name  to  the  whole  land.  This  marine  inlet  is  sheltered  from  the  gales 
of  the  high  sea  by  the  two  converging  peninsulas  of  Paraguana,  on  the  east,  and 
Goajira,  on  the  west. 

In  Venezuela  almost  the  only  lake  properly  so  called  is  the  famous  closed 
basin  of  Valencia,  which  has  received  the  name  of  Tacarigua  ("  The  Lake  "  in  a 
pre-eminent  sense).  It  fills  a  great  part  of  the  Aragua  valley,  the  most  fertile  and 
most  densely  peopled  district  in  the  republic.  Viewed  from  the  shore,  the  whole 
basin  seems  to  be  encircled  by  an  amphitheatre  of  hills,  the  coast  range  on  the 
north  and  the  mountains  skirting  the  llanos  on  the  south  side  apparently  con- 
verging east  and  west,  so  as  to  complete  the  circuit  of  surrounding  heights.  But 
beyond  the  western  extremity  of  the  lake  two  openings  are  revealed,  one  very 
narrow,  in  the  north,  giving  access  to  the  sea  along  the  foot  of  the  Tetas  de  Hilaria, 
the  other  much  broader,  through  which  the  Paito  flows  south  to  the  Pao  affluent  of 
the  Orinoco. 

At  present  the  tarn  stands  at  a  mean  level  of  about  1,410  feet  above  the  sea  ; 
but  it  formerly  rose  much  higher,  and  then  it  discharged  its  overflow  through  a 
southern  emissary,  traces  of  which  are  still  plainly  visible  on  the  face  of  the  cliffs. 
According  to  the  local  records  and  the  reports  of  the  old  inhabitants,  it  was 
several  times  in  communication  with  the  Orinoco  basin  through  the  Cafio  Camburi, 
alternately  an  effluent  and  an  affluent  of  the  Lake  of  Valencia.  This  outlet  has 
fallen  by  erosion  hand  in  hand  with  the  level  of  the  lake. 


LAKE  OF  VALENCIA. 


99 


Since  the  time  when  the  Tacarigua  drained  to  the  Orinoco,  it  has  frequently 
changed  its  form  and  volume.  In  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  the 
Spanish  conquerors  founded  the  city  of  Victoria,  the  margin  stood,  according  to 
Oviedo,  only  "  half  a  league  "  farther  east.  But  in  1800  Humboldt  and  Bonpland 
found  the  intervening  space  had  increased  to  2,700  toises,  or  about  double  that 
distance.*  Since  1796  the  gradual  subsidence  had  exposed  new  islands,  the 
Nttevas  Aparecidas,  while  a  fortalice  erected  on  Cabrera  Island  had  become 
connected  by  a  strip  of  sand  with  the  mainland.  The  inhabitants  supposed  that 
this  gradual  subsidence  must  be  due  to  the  opening  of  some  underground  channel, 

Fig  34.— LAKE  OF  VALENCIA. 
Scale  1  :  1,000,000. 


10 


West  oF  Greenwich 


67-30' 


Depths. 


Oto25 
Fathoms. 


25  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 

,  25  Miles. 


a  view  not  justified  by  the  nature  of  the  surrounding  rocks.  Humboldt  attributed 
it  to  the  destruction  of  the  forests  and  the  development  of  agriculture ;  nor  can 
there  be  any  doubt  that  the  plantations  now  covering  the  slopes  to  a  great  height 
round  the  encircling  hills  must  absorb  much  water,  which  formerly  escaped  to  the 
lacustrine  basin.  But  the  level  again  rose  when  the  forests  recovered  a  part  of 
their  old  domain  owing  to  the  havoc  caused  by  the  War  of  Independence.  Then 
with  the  return  of  peace  and  of  peaceful  pursuits  the  waters  once  more  subsided, 
and  in  1888  Valencia  had  retired  5  miles  from  the  nearest  point  of  the  lake.  But 
although  it  has  become  very  slightly  brackish,  there  is  no  fear  of  its  disappearing 
*  The  old  French  toise  was  rather  more  than  a  fathom,  6 -395  English  feet. 


100  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

altogether,  and  sooner  or  later  the  balance  cannot  fail  to  be  established  betvreen 
the  inflow  and  the  quantity  carried  off  by  evaporation,  if  indeed  it  is  not  already 
established,  as  some  suppose.  At  present  the  basin  has  an  estimated  area  of  220 
square  miles,  a  mean  depth  of  100  feet  (extreme,  300),  and  a  rainfall  of  73  inches, 
which  is  rather  more  than  that  of  Lake  Geneva. 

III. 

CLIMATE  OF  VENEZUELA. 

Venezuela  lies  entirely  within  the  equatorial  zone,  so  that  all  the  low-lying  or 
moderately  elevated  tracts  are  traversed  by  the  thermal  equator  of  77°  to  84° 
Fahr.,  which,  is  normal  for  the  New  World.  But  as  in  Mexico  and  other 
tropical  lands  crossed  by  lofty  ranges,  the  climate  presents  a  succession  of  hot, 
temperate,  and  cold  zones,  and  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  de  Merida  the  mean  tempera- 
ture is  only  four  or  five  degrees  above  freezing-point  at  the  altitude  of  14,600 
feet,  which  marks  the  limit  of  vegetation.  Usually  1,800  to  2,000  feet,  answering 
to  the  isothermal  of  77°  Fahr.,  are  taken  as  coinciding  with  the  parting-line 
between  the  hot  and  temperate  lands,  the  coco  and  cacao  plants  ceasing  to  grow 
above  this  elevation.  The  cold  zone  may  be  said  to  begin  at  about  7,200  feet, 
where  the  mean  temperature  is  59°  Fahr.,  too  low  for  the  banana,  sugar-cane, 
and  manioc,  which  are  here  replaced  by  wheat,  barley,  and  potatoes. 

But  independently  of  the  local  temperatures,  the  great  bulk  of  the  inhabitants 
are  concentrated  almost  exclusively  in  the  longitudinal  valleys  of  the  Andean 
coast  ranges,  all  the  rest  of  the  land  being  very  thinly  peopled.  In  fact,  there 
are  scarely  any  whites  or  civilised  Indians  at  all  in  that  half  of  the  republic  which 
lies  south,  of  Bolivar  within  the  great  bend  of  the  Orinoco.  By  far  the  hottest 
region  are  the  llanos  between  the  river  and  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  where  the 
heat  is  not  even  tempered  by  the  sea  breezes. 

The  most  favoured  districts  are  the  plateaux  and  terraces  rising  above  the  hot 
zone,  and  here  are  situated  the  towns  of  Caracas,  Valencia,  Barquisimeto,  and 
Merida,  each  with  its  own  climatic  peculiarities.  Caracas,  lying  in  a  sort  of 
trough  opening  east  and  west  between  two  parallel  ranges,  is  exposed  only  to  the 
dry,  hot  morning  breeze  from  the  east,  and  to  the  vapour-charged  afternoon  breeze 
from  the  west.  The  rains,  which  usually  fall  towards  four  or  five  o'clock  in  the 
evening,  are  nearly  always  accompanied  by  electric  discharges,  although  the 
heaviest  rains  and  fiercest  thunderstorms  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  wooded  moun- 
•  tains  of  the  north.* 

Lying  altogether  within  the  north  torrid  zone,  Venezuela  is  comprised  within 
the  domain  of  the  north-east  and  east  trade  winds.  But  the  normal  currents  are 
endlessly  modified  by  the  marine  inlets,  the  inequalities  of  the  surface  and  other 
local  conditions.  The  "  breeze,"  as  the  trade  wind  is  called  on  the  seaboard, 
blows  harder  in  the  day  than  at  night,  when  it  is  even  replaced  on  the  coast  by  a 
land  breeze  due  to  the  cooling  of  the  ground  after  sunset. 

*  Climatic  conditions  of  Caracns :  — Mean  temperature,  72°  Fahr.  ;  coldest  month  (January),  68° 
Fahr. ;  hottest  month  (May),  93°  Fahr. ;  mean  atmospheric  pressure,  27  inches ;  mean  of  rainy  days, 
74  ;  mean  annual  rainfall,  30  inches. 


FLOEA  OF  VENEZUELA.  101 

•The  trades  are  also  more  regular  during  the  winter  months  from  November  to 
March,  when  the  sun  is  at  the  zenith  of  the  southern  tropical  zone.  They  grow 
more  gentle,  or  even  give  place  to  unstable  southern  or  westerly  winds,  in  the 
season  from  April  to  October,  when  the  sun  moves  to  the  north  of  the  equinoctial 
line.  The  trades  are  popularly  said  to  ascend  the  Orinoco  no  farther  than  the 
cataracts,  and  they  are  prevented  by  the  mountains  rising  in  the  east  of  Guiana 
from  circulating  on  the  low-lying  regions  between  the  falls  of  the  Orinoco  and 
those  of  the  Rio  Negro.  At  Maipures  the  wind  is  said  never  to  blow,  so  that  the 
heats  are  unendurable,  while  the  very  skies  are  darkened  by  clouds  of  mosquitoes. 
Here  the  phenomenon  of  sheet  lightning  unattended  by  the  roll  of  thunder  is 
very  common. 

FLORA. 

Nowhere  are  the  marvellous  tropical  forests,  with  their  tangle  of  lianas  and 
parasites,  intermingled  in  greater  profusion  than  in  the  Orinoco  delta,  around 
the  shores  of  Lake  Maracaibo,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  de  Merida.  Nor,  on 
the  other  hand,  can  a  greater  variety  of  herbaceous  and  other  low  plants  be  any- 
where seen  than  on  the  Venezuelan  llanos.  Although  consisting  almost  exclu- 
sively of  cereals  and  of  allied  families,  the  vegetation  of  the  llanos  is  extremely 
dense.  The  lower  parts  have  received  the  name  of  esteros,  or  "  lagoons,"  because 
periodically  flooded  by  the  Orinoco  or  its  affluents,  whose  deposits  serve  to  feed 
myriads  of  young  plants. 

In  the  llanos  the  most  frequently-met  trees,  usually  of  small  size,  and  isolated 
or  in  small  clumps,  are  the  chaparros  (curatella),  with  rough  and  nauseous  foliage, 
and  the  copernioia  palm,  called  the  palma  llanera  in  a  pre-eminent  sense,  or  the 
palma  de  cohija  ("  roof  palm"),  because  its  immense  leaves,  12,  14,  or  even  16  feet 
long,  are  used  for  thatching  the  native  cabins.  Although  forests  consisting 
exclusively  of  palms  are  rare,  groves  of  the  copernicia  occur  on  the  llanos,  in 
which  these  palms  are  disposed  in  natural  groups  of  five  to  the  square  (in  quin- 
cunx order),  like  the  pines  and  spruces  in  the  forests  of  West  Europe,  and 
without  any  undergrowths  or  lianas,  such  as  those  of  other  tropical  forests. 
Here  and  there  the  ground  is  also  covered  with  the  green  and  red  bushes  of  the 
sensitive  plant,  locally  called  dormidera,  or  "  sleeper." 

One  of  the  commonest  palms  is  the  mauritia  (mauricia  flixuosa),  the  murichi 
of  the  Guaraunos,  and  the  "  staff  of  life  "  for  many  native  tribes.  It  not  only 
supplies  the  peoples  of  the  Orinoco  delta  with  the  materials  for  building  and 
roofing  their  huts,  and  with  the  fibre  used  for  hammocks  and  cordage,  but  its 
fruit,  pith,  and  sap  also  yield  food  and  drink  in  various  states  of  fermentation. 

The  Venezuelan  flora  comprises  several  other  remarkable  plants,  such  as  the 
saman,  a  gigantic  mimosa,  nearly  always  solitary,  with  wide- spreading  branches 
and  delicate  pink  foliage.  On  the  coast  ranges  occurs  the  milk-tree  (brosimum 
galactodendrori),  a  member  of  the  bread-fruit  family,  which,  when  tapped,  yields 
a  milky  fluid,  nearly  of  the  same  consistency  and  composition  as  cream.  Yet  this 
fluid  is  not  potable,  nor  is  the  tree  cultivated.  The  calabash  (crcsccntia  cujete], 


(2  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

whose,  fruits  serve  as  vessels  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  also  supplies  a  tissue 
singularly  like  cloth,  and  used  as  such  by  the  riverine  peoples  of  the  upper 
Orinoco. 

Several  vegetable  species  are  highly  appreciated  for  their  medicinal  pro- 
perties. The  coloradito  shrub  supplies  a  bark  more  efficacious  than  cinchona 
itself  in  the  treatment  of  marsh  fevers.  A  peculiar  species  of  cinchona  has  also 
been  found  in  the  Merida  mountains,  and  the  copayfera  officinalis,  which  fur- 
nishes the  copaiva  balsam  so  efficacious  in  certain  maladies,  grows  in  abundance 
along  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco,  between  Bolivar  and  Caicar. 

In  1595  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  brought  back  an  account  of  the  deadly  "  curare  " 
(urari)  poison,  which  he  had  received  from  the  Indians  of  Spanish  Guiana. 
This  substance  is  still  prepared  in  the  same  region,  the  present  East  Venezuela, 
as  well  as  in  Amazonia ;  the  processes  vary,  but  the  plant  is  everywhere  the 
same,  the  mavacure  (roitdamon  guianense),  a  member  of  the  strychnine  family ; 
with  the  sap  are  mixed  a  few  drops  of  snake  poison,  producing  a  black  essence 
with  bright  cleavage,  somewhat  like  liquorice.  The  Otomaks  were  said  to 
rub  a  little  under  their  -  nails,  thereby  causing  a  mere  scratch  to  be  fatal. 
The  strange  effect  of  the  poison  is,  without  affecting  the  sensibility,  will,  or 
intellect  of  the  victim,  to  deprive  him  of  his  voice,  and  then  to  paralyse, 
one  after  the  other,  the  extremities,  the  face,  and  thorax,  at  last  extinguishing 
the  eyesight,  and  thus,  so  to  say,  immuring  the  mental  faculties  in  a  corpse.* 

FAUNA. 

The  Venezuelan  fauna  belongs  partly  to  the  Colombian,  partly  to  the  Guiana 
zone.  The  Andean  regions,  from  the  Paria  peninsula  to  the  snowy  Merida 
range,  are  inhabited  by  animals  whose  centre  of  dispersion  lies  farther  west,  on 
the  plateaux  dominating  the  Magdalena  and  Cauca  valleys.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  forms  occurring  on  the  llanos,  in  the  valleys  beyond  the  Orinoco,  and  in  the 
Parima  uplands  closely  resemble  those  of  the  Guiana  seaboard  and  of  Brazilian 
Amazonia.  It  naturally  follows  that  the  parting-line  between  the  two  zones, 
that  is  to  say,  the  southern  slopes  of  the  coast  ranges  and  the  tracts  bordering  on 
the  grassy  plains,  are  extremely  rich  in  all  forms  of  animal  life. 

The  simian  family  is  represented  by  sixteen  species  in  the  primeval  forests  of 
the  lowlands  and  of  the  lower  slopes,  scarcely  any  being  met  above  the  line  of 
10,000  feet.  The  best  known,  thanks  to  his  horrible  morning  and  evening 
concerts,  is  the  howling  ape  (simia  ursina],  whose  hideous  screams  dominate  all 
sounds  issuing  from  the  woodlands.  There  are  also  numerous  varieties  of  the 
bat,  amongst  others  a  fishing  bat,  which  in  other  respects  is  identical  with  the 
frugivorous  bats  of  India  and  the  Antilles. 

In  Venezuela  the  naturalist  meets  nearly  all  the  South  American  species. 

such  as  the  large  and  small  felida3  ("tiger,"  or  jaguar,  "lion,"  or  puma,  ocelot, 

and  cats)  ;  bears  of  a  harmless  disposition,  living  on  fish  and  honey,  and  ranging 

in  the  Sierra  de  Merida  up  to  10,000  feet ;  the  ant-eater  (myrmecophaga  jubata), 

*  Jean  Chaffanjon,  Tour  du  Horde,  Ivi.,  p.  307. 


FAUNA  OF  VENEZUELA.  108 

furnished  with  formidable  fore- claws;  the  cavy,  cabiai  or  chiguin  (cavia  capybara), 
a  timid  rodent  which  swims  well  but  runs  badly ;  the  graceful  cuchi-cuchi 
(cercoleptes  caudivolvulus),  which  when  tamed  makes  a  most  delightful  pet ;  the 
sloth  (bradypus  tridactylu*),  which,  after  devouring  the  foliage  of  a  cecropia, 
utters  long  plaintive  cries  at  having  to  climb  another  ;  the  frog-fisher  (chironectcs 
mriegatus],  which  lives  on  fish,  and  is  often  captured  in  the  rivers  with  the  prey 
he  was  pursuing.  Two  species  of  cetaceans  ascend  the  Orinoco,  the  manatee  and 
porpoise. 

The  avifauna  is  even  richer  than  the  order  of  mammals.  The  yuactiaro 
(steatornis  caripensis],  at  one  time  supposed  to  be  peculiar  to  a  smally  hilly 
district  west  of  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  has  since  been  met  in  a  few  other  places,  and 
especially  in  the  islands  of  the  Dragon's  Mouth  between  Trinidad  and  the  main- 
land, as  well  as  in  the  caves  and  gloomy  gorges  of  Colombia,  where  it  takes  the 
name  of  guapaco.  The  guacharo  resembles  the  bat  in  its  habits,  and  is  one  of  the 
rare  nocturnal  birds  that  are  frugivorous.  Its  fat  yields  a  semi-liquid,  trans- 
parent, odourless  oil  which  keeps  for  over  a  year  without  becoming  rancid,  and 
which  makes  an  excellent  condiment. 

One  of  the  most  easily  tamed  Venezuelan  birds  is  the  gallito  de  laguna 
(porphyrio  martinica),  a  species  of  rail  noted  for  the  graceful  dances  performed 
by  the  male  in  presence  of  his  mate.  The  trupial  (icterus),  foremost  warbler  of 
the  woodlands,  suspends  its  nest  from  a  branch  by  a  long  thread  to  avoid  the 
attacks  of  snakes.  Countless  myriads  of  aquatic  fowl  frequent  the  labyrinthine 
waters  about  the  Arauca,  A  pure,  and  Apurito  confluences  of  the  Orinoco.  A 
cavalry  regiment  encamped  near  a  lagoon  in  this  region  is  stated  to  have  lived 
for  a  fortnight  on  wild  duck  without  appreciably  reducing  their  numbers. 

The  reptile  world  also  is  extremely  rich,  especially  on  the  llanos,  where 
multitudes  of  snakes  glide  about  beneath  the  herbage.  In  the  Venezuelan  rivers 
and  lakes  there  are  at  least  three  species  of  saurians — thebava  (alligator  punctatus), 
which  never  exceeds  6  feet,  and  never  attacks  bathers  ;  the  cayman,  infesting 
the  streams  of  the  llanos ;  and  the  crocodile  properly  so  called,  met  in  the  large 
affluents  of  the  Orinoco,  and,  according  to  native  report,  sometimes  exceeding 
22  or  23  feet  in  length.  In  some  places  they  are  little  feared,  in  others  much 
dreaded;  but  all  that  have  once  tasted  human  flesh,  known  as  caiinancs  cebados, 
never  fail  to  attack  man,  even  out  of  the  water.  During  the  dry  season  the 
crocodiles  migrate  southwards  to  the  large  affluents  of  the  Orinoco,  following 
the  muddy  bed  of  the  streams  ;  when  these  become  quite  dry  they  bury  them- 
selves in  the  mud,  which  hardens  above  their  long  summer  sleep.  The  curito 
(lepidosiren  paradoxa) ,  a  fish  inhabiting  the  Rio  Apure,  has  acquired  the  same 
habit  of  passing  the  summer  in  a  torpid  state  under  the  hardened  bed  of  the 
stream.  Other  fishes,  especially  certain  species  of  dorados,  are  able  to  live  for 
hours  out  of  the  water. 

On  the  upper  and  lower  Orinoco  the  turtles  lay  their  eggs  singly  on  the 
river-banks,  but  in  certain  parts  of  the  middle  course,  between  the  Meta  and 
Apure  confluences,  they  form  processians  of  tens  and  even  hundreds  of  thousands, 


104 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


moving  like  shoals  of  herrings  or  sardines,  in  obedience  to  some  mysterious 
attraction,  to  various  spawning- grounds,  where  the  eggs  are  deposited  and 
hatched.  These  turtles  (cinostcrnon  scorpio'ides) ,  about  3  feet  long,  and 
weighing  about  60  pounds,  usually  begin  their  great  nocturnal  processions 
towards  the  end  of  March,  pursued  by  the  jaguar  and  the  surrounding  popu- 
lations. According  to  Chaffanjon,  about  500,000  turtles  lay  some  50,000,000 
eggs,  yielding  from  15,000  to  20,000  gallons  of  oil,  in  this  district  of  the 

Fig.  35. — TURTLE  BANKS  ON  THE  MIDDLE  ORINOCO. 
Scale  1  :  1,600,000. 


67'30'        West  oP  Greenwich 


30  Miles. 


Orinoco.  But  unless  the  trade  is  regulated,  like  that  of  the  fur-bearing  seals,  the 
whole  species  is  doomed  to  disappear.  Already  during  the  present  century  the 
Cariben  turtle-bank  has  been  almost  entirely  abandoned. 

Thanks  to  the  descriptions  of  Humboldt,  one  of  the  best-known  animals  in 
Venezuela  is  the  electric  eel  (temblador],  which  frequents  certain  creeks  in  the 
llanos.  During  the  dry  season,  when  the  impoverished  streams  break  into  basins 
of  stagnant  water,  the  sexes  separate  into  different  pools,  where  their  discharges 


FAUNA— INHABITANTS  OF  VENEZUELA.  105 

soon  kill  the  other  fishes.  After  devouring  everything  they  often  remain  for 
mouths  together  without  any  food.  The  electric  apparatus,  which  is  extremely 
complex,  occupies  nearly  the  whole  body,  the  several  functional  organs  being  all 
grouped  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  animal.  Humboldt's  sensational  account  of 
their  capture  by  means  of  horses  driven  into  the  water  and  exposed  to  their  attacks 
until  the  batteries  are  exhausted,  must  have  reference  to  some  quite  exceptional 
incident.  Even  when  horses  were  counted  by  the  million  on  the  llanos,  they  were 
too  valuable  to  be  thus  sacrificed  when  a  simple  fishing-line  or  a  net  sufficed  to 
take  the  eels. 

Certain  streams  in  the  Apure  basin  are  carefully  avoided  by  bathers,  less 
through  fear  of  the  crocodiles  than  of  these  and  other  electric  animals,  such  as  the 
parayas  (serra  salmo]  and  the  "  caribs."  Some  of  the  creeks  are  said  to  contain 
"  more  caribs  than  water."  These  ferocious  fishes,  which  can  cut  through  large 
hooks  with  a  snap  of  the  teeth,  attack  their  prey  and  devour  it  with  incredible  fury  ; 
at  sight  of  the  blood  caused  by  the  prick  of  a  spur,  they  rush  at  the  wound,  and 
quickly  disappear  in  the  very  bowels  of  the  horse — hence  their  local  name,  mon- 
dongucros,  or  tripe-eaters.  The  term,  "  carib,"  has  reference  to  the  terror  inspired 
by  them,  as  once  by  the  Carib  Indians,  "  the  cannibals,"  that  infested  the  Orinoco 
plains. 

INHABITANTS  OF  VENEZUELA. 

The  reports  of  the  Conquistadores,  of  the  early  travellers  and  missionaries  record 
the  names  of  hundreds  of  tribal  groups,  not  all,  however,  greatly  differing  from 
each  other.  Such  names  often  indicate  little  more  than  differences  of  locality,  so 
that  kindred  tribes  of  like  speech,  traditions  and  usages  might  still  be  known  by 
many  names.  The  word,  coto,  terminating  several  tribal  designations,  had  reference 
to  their  respective  districts,  as  in  Cumanaeoto,  Pariacoto,  Chagaracoto,  Arimacoto, 
"  People  of  Cumana,"  Paria,  &c. 

It  would  no  longer  be  possible  to  classify  all  the  peoples  mentioned  in  the 
history  of  Venezuela,  for  most  of  them  have  disappeared,  or  rather  have  become 
absorbed  by  miscegenation  in  the  common  Venezuelan  nationality.  Their  names 
survive  in  the  local  nomenclature,  but  they  can  themselves  be  no  longer  recognised 
in  the  present  populations.  Many  have  also  been  exterminated,  amongst  others 
the  dwarfish  Ayamanes  met  by  Fredemann  in  the  mountains  south  of  Barquisi- 
meto.  Although  well  proportioned,  these  pigmies  were  no  more  than  "  five 
empans"  (about  three  feet  three  or  four  inches)  high ;  but  no  recent  traveller  has 
come  upon  their  traces. 

Most  ethnologists  affiliate  to  the  Caribs  the  tribes  of  the  Orinoco,  some  of 
whom  still  survive.  Formerly  these  Caribs  were  supposed  to  have  come  from 
North  America  by  the  chain  of  the  Antilles.  But  the  philological  studies  of 
Lucien  Adam,  and  the  explorations  especially  of  Von  den  Steinen  and  Ehrenreich 
in  the  valley  of  the  Xingu,  a  southern  affluent  of  the  Amazons,  have  placed  beyond 
doubt  the  Brazilian  origin  of  this  race.  The  Carib  language  and  traditions  are 
best  preserved  by  the  kindred  tribes  of  central  Brazil,  from  which  region  the 
Caribs  migrated  northwards. 


106  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

Amongst  the  undoubted  Carib  tribes  are  the  Vayamaras  of  the  Rio  Payagua, 
the  Arecunas  of  the  Curoni,  and  the  Chaimas  of  the  Caripe  coast  range.  The 
Guayanos,  who  give  their  name  to  the  vast  region  of  Guiana,  are  divided  into 
numerous  groups,  all  of  distinctly  Carib  type. 

The  Colombian  Muyscas  are  also  represented  in  Venezuela  by  the  Timotes  of 
the  Merida  highlands,  who  are  remarkable  for  their  pronounced  dolichocephaly, 
and  who  formerly  spoke  Muysca  dialects.  Most  of  the  other  aborigines  appear  to 
have  always  inhabited  Venezuela,  or  at  least  to  have  occupied  the  country  from 
remote  times.  Moreover,  their  range  extends  southwards  as  far  as  the  Bolivian 
uplands  and  the  sources  of  the  Paraguay.  Lucien  Adam  has  given  them  the 
collective  name  of  Maipures,  from  one  of  their  groups  in  the  middle  Orinoco 
valley  described  by  Humboldt.  They  are  the  Arawaks  (Aruacos)  of  English 
and  other  writers,  a  name  going  back  to  the  first  period  of  the  Conquest.  The 
Arawaks  were  always  at  war  with  the  Caribs,  both  in  the  Antilles  and  on  the 
mainland,  where  most  of  them  were  driven  west  of  the  Orinoco,  and,  farther 
south,  to  the  Amazonian  regions  bordering  on  the  Cordilleras.  The  term  Arawak 
no  longer  survives  in  the  present  Venezuela,  but  it  has  been  preserved  amongst 
the  Indians  of  Dutch  Guiana  and  of  the  Brazilian  Rio  Negro. 

Numerous  rock  inscriptions  recall  the  presence  and  migrations  of  ancient 
peoples  who  have  for  the  most  part  disappeared.  One  of  these  "  documents " 
occurs  at  an  altitude  of  no  less  than  8,200  feet,  near  the  summit  of  Mount  Naiguata 
in  the  Caracas  coast  range,  where  are  seen  some  now  nearly  obliterated  figures.  In 
the  Merida  highlands,  a  Muysca  domain,  inscribed  stones  and  "  idols  "  are  more 
numerous  than  elsewhere.  The  general  type  resembles  that  of  similar  remains 
found  in  great  numbers  on  the  Colombian  plateaux,  but  are  of  less  finished  work- 
manship. For  the  present  Indians  these  rude  effigies  are  mere  munecos  (dolls), 
unless  a  cross  has  been  inscribed  by  some  pious  hand  on  the  idol's  forehead  ;  then 
it  becomes  a  santico,  a  "  little  saint,"  which  may  be  worshipped  without  incurring 
the  charge  of  idolatry.  Thus  are  blended  the  old  and  the  new  beliefs. 

The  Cerro  Pintado  ("Painted  Rock")  between  the  Atures  and  Maipures 
rapids  presents  a  curious  group  of  figures,  including  a  man,  a  snake  400  feet  long, 
and  various  other  animals.  A  few  miles  higher  up,  the  caves  and  fissures  of  the 
Cerro  de  los  Muertos,  the  Cerro  de  Luna,  and  other  caverns  contain  numerous 
skeletons  deposited  by  different  Indian  tribes,  and  accompanied  by  a  jar  of  some 
fermented  drink  to  slake  tho  thirst  of  the  deceased  on  his  journey  to  cloud  land. 

On  the  north  side  of  Lake  Tacarigua  are  seen  over  fifty  cerritos  ("hillocks") 
which  were  formerly  supposed  to  be  natural  eminences,  but  which  are  now  found 
to  be  sepulchral  mounds.  Here  the  flesh  was  removed  from  the  bones  before 
interment,  and  the  remains  disposed  in  regular  order  in  the  cone-shaped  sarco- 
phagus placed  in  the  centre  of  the  barrow.  These  mound-builders  belonged  to 
the  polished  stone  age,  and  made  perfectly  symmetrical  earthenware,  probably 
with  the  potter's  wheel. 

One  of  the  best  known  of  the  Venezuelan  wild  tribes  are  the  Guaraunos 
(Waraun),  who  are  scattered  over  the  Orinoco  delta  and  neighbouring  lowlands. 


INHABITANTS  OF  VENEZUELA.  107 

They  are  generally  well  made,  but  of  short  stature,  stout,  thickset,  and  healthy, 
despite  the  stagnant  waters  of  their  environment.  The  face  is  broader  than  long, 
but  the  nose  is  not  flat  like  that  of  the  negro,  and  their  language  differs  funda- 
mentally from  those  of  the  neighbouring  peoples.  During  the  floods  the  Guar- 
aunos  formerly  lived  in  pile  dwellings,  or  in  structures  raised  on  clumps  of  palms, 
making  a  platform  by  interlacing  the  branches  15  or  16  feet  above  high- water 
mark.  These  habitations  were  shared  by  a  breed  of  dogs  which  resembled  the 
European  collie,  and  which  helped  in  capturing  the  fish.  Although  called  in 
question  by  Level  de  Godas,  these  statements,  made  by  Raleigh,  Humboldt, 
and  others,  seem  probable  enough,  and  are  confirmed  in  their  main  features  by 
Plassard  and  Crevaux,  who  have  visited  the  Guaraunos  since  the  time  of  Level  de 
Godas.  The  race  appears  to  be  dying  out,  being  at  present  reduced  to  some 
10,000  or  12,000  according  to  Plassard's  estimate. 

Since  the  time  of  Humboldt  frequent  mention  is  also  made  of  the  Otomacos, 
who  dwelt  between  the  Meta  and  Arauca  affluents  of  the  Orinoco.  They  were 
numerous,  especially  about  the  Barraguan  reefs,  where  they  pointed  to  some  large 
boulders  as  the  ancestors  of  their  race.  All  the  dead  had  to  be  buried  in  some 
rocky  recess  of  this  Orinoco  gorge.  The  Otomacos  were  even  more  skilful  ball- 
players than  the  Basques  ;  the  game  was  played,  not  with  the  hand,  but  with  the 
right  shoulder,  which  was  used  as  a  bat  to  receive  and  return  the  rubber  ball,  and 
at  times  the  players  grew  so  excited  that  they  tore  each  other  with  their  teeth, 
fighting  literally  "  tooth  and  nail." 

During  the  two  or  three  months  of  the  floods,  when  the  supply  of  fish  failed, 
the  Otomacos  fed  on  earth,  taking  regularly  every  day  about  a  pound  or  so  of 
a  slightly-baked  very  fine  clay,  which  was  supposed  to  contain  a  multitude  of 
animalcules.  When  analysed,  however,  by  Vauquelin,  it  was  found  quite  free  of 
organisms;  yet  it  did  not  cause  the  fatal  maladies  produced  by  a  morbid  taste  for 
earth  in  other  Indian  and  negro  peoples. 

After  the  close  of  the  colonial  administration  most  of  the  old  ''  missions  "  were 
abandoned,  and  the  settlements  fell  into  ruins.  Travellers  in  the  middle  Orinoco 
region  no  longer  speak  of  the  Oaberres  and  other  tribes  mentioned  by  Gumilla  in 
the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  All  these  converted  and  semi- civilised 
natives  have  been  greatly  reduced  in  numbers  since  their  release  from  priestly  con- 
trol and  their  return  to  the  savage  state,  whereas  the  half-breeds  have  multiplied 
threefold. 

But,  despite  wars,  the  oppression  of  the  dominant  classes,  epidemics,  and 
hardships  of  all  sorts,  the  wild  -tribes,  who  are  not  reckoned  as  gentes  de  razon 
("reasonable  beings"),  are  still  more  numerous  in  the  forests  and  savannas. 
But,  as  a  rule,  those  groups  alone  are  mentioned  whose  territory  lies  along 
the  beaten  track  of  travellers.  Such  are  the  fierce  Guaicas  and  the  neigh- 
bouring Guaharibos,  who  give  their  name  to  one  of  the  headwaters  of  the 
Orinoco ;  the  Maquiritares,  also  on  the  upper  Orinoco  and  in  the  Yentuari  valley ; 
the  Bariivas,  who  collect  rubber  in  the  forests  of  the  Atabapo  and  lower  Guaviare ; 
the  dreaded  Guahibos  of  the  Rio  Vichada ;  the  Yaruros  and  Guamos,  who  have 


108  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

displaced  the  Otomacos  about  the  Arauca  confluence  ;  the  Piaroas  of  the  cataracts, 
and  others. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  Indians  dwelling  north  and  west  of  the  Orinoco  are 
peaceful  agriculturists,  while  those  within  the  great  bend  of  the  river  are  still 
in  the  savage  state.  Amongst  the  latter  are  met  the  piaches,  or  wizards,  who, 
like  the  medicine-men  of  the  redskins,  heal  or  bewitch  with  music  and  spells. 

The  white  population,  mainly  confined  to  the  seaboard,  are  all  mestizoes,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  scattered  groups  such  as  the  Spaniards  of  La  Grita,  on  the 
north  slope  of  the  Merida  range.  Although  the  Basque  language  has  long  ceased 
to  be  spoken,  many  of  the  Europeans  are  really  of  Basque  descent.  La  Guaira, 
Puerto  Cabello,  and  Cdlabozo  were  founded  by  Basques,  who  also  colonised  the 
rich  Aragua  valley,  the  most  flourishing  region  in  the  republic. 

The  Spaniards  appear  to  be  acclimatised  even  in  the  hot  zone,  while  other 
Europeans  and  North  Americans  live  in  thousands  at  Caracas  and  other  upland 
towns  of  the  Andes  without  suffering  from  the  climate.  But  the  llanos,  and 
especially  the  marshy  districts,  are  subject  to  epidemics,  some  of  which  attack 
the  very  fish,  the  crocodiles,  and  domestic  animals.  Horned  cattle  generally 
escape,  but  in  1843  the  pest  swept  away  from  6,000,000  to  7,000,000  horses,  asses, 
and  mules.  This  plague,  which  is  always  fatal,  appears  to  be  a  spinal  affection 
caused  by  parasitic  animals. 

The  immigration  of  non- Iberian  whites  has  acquired  importance  only  during 
the  present  century.  But  negro  slaves  had  long  been  introduced  to  work  on  the 
plantations.  At  the  time  of  Humboldt's  visit  they  numbered  62,000  ;  but  they 
were  reduced  to  50,000  by  the  wars,  epidemics,  and  earthquakes  by  the  year 
1830,  when  the  traffic  was  abolished.  Most  of  the  freed  men  have  mingled  with 
the  other  elements  of  the  population,  so  that  at  present  there  are  but  few  pure 
negroes  in  Venezuela.  The  type  is  best  represented  in  La  Guaira,  Puerto  Cabello, 
and  the  other  coast  towns. 

Several  hundred  white  immigrants  arrive  annually,  chiefly  from  the  Canaries, 
France,  Italy  and  Germany.  These  jorungos,  as  they  are  called,  generally  avoid 
the  land,  and  adopt  some  trade  or  profession  in  the  towns.  Their  influence  is, 
nevertheless,  considerable,  and  but  for  them  public  works  would  be  even  in  a  more 
backward  state  than  is  the  case.  They  have  directed  the  mining  operations, 
the  erection  of  public  buildings,  the  harbour  works,  the  construction  of  roads  and 
railways.  They  thus  act  indirectly  on  the  land  itself,  which  with  the  opening 
of  communications  is  daily  brought  more  under  cultivation,  at  least  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  centres  of  urban  population. 

IV. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

Venezuela  has  no  seaport  on  the  Gulf  of  Paria  even  remotely  comparable  to 
Port  of  Spain  in  the  neighbouring  British  colony  of  Trinidad.  The  only  con- 
venient harbour  occurs,  not  on  the  gulf,  but  on  the  Rio  Guarapiche  (Cano 
Colorado)  about  30  miles  below  Maturin,  the  chief  market  for  the  produce  of  all 


CUMANA- AMEEACAPANA.  109 

the  plantations  on  the  lower  elopes  south  of  the  Cumana  coast  range.  The 
little  port  of  Guiria  in  the  hilly  peninsula  of  Paria,  although  well  sheltered,  is 
visited  only  by  small  coasters ;  the  neighbouring  agricultural  district  is  too  limited 
to  feed  a  large  traffic. 

Carupano,  a  little  farther  west,  is  more  conveniently  situated  towards  the 
middle  of  the  advanced  coastline  formed  by  the  Paria  and  Araya  peninsulas 
projecting  east  and  west  from  this  point.  South  of  the  inlet  easy  communica- 
tion is  afforded  through  a  gap  in  the  coast  range  with  the  fertile  inland  valleys, 
so  that  with  a  sufficiently  developed  railway  system  Carupano  could  not  fail  to 
become  the  chief  outlet  for  the  cacao,  tobacco,  and  coffee  of  all  the  surrounding 
plantations;  the  approach  to  the  harbour,  however,  is  obstructed  by  some 
dangerous  banks.  Cariaco,  still  farther  west,  at  the  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of 
like  name,  is  little  visited,  despite  its  well- sheltered  anchorage.  The  neigh- 
bouring salines,  especially  those  of  the  Araya  peninsula,  yield  considerable 
quantities  of  good  salt. 

CUMANA — BARCELONA. 

Cumana,  former  capital  of  the  old  colonial  province  of  New  Andalusia,  and  till 
recently  the  chief  centre  of  population  in  the  eastern  districts  of  Venezuela,  was 
the  first  Spanish  settlement  on  the  mainland.  Some  vestiges  may  still  be  seen  of 
the  fortress  here  founded  by  Diego  Colon  in  1520.  Nueco  Toledo,  as  it  was  first 
called,  became  later  Nueva  Cordoba,  and  ultimately  took  the  name  of  Cumana 
from  its  river,  which  is  itself  now  known  as  the  Rio  Manzanares. 

Of  all  Venezuelan  towns  Cumana  has  suffered  most  from  earthquakes ;  as  a 
precaution  against  fresh  disasters,  all  the  houses  are  now  built  very  low,  while 
those  of  the  Guayqueries  Indians,  on  the  opposite  or  west  side  of  the  Manza- 
nares, are  mere  straw-thatched  huts.  The  spacious  roadstead  is  little  visited 
by  shipping,  the  various  havens  of  the  seaboard  being  more  than  sufficient  for 
the  undeveloped  traffic  of  this  region. 

The  highly-esteemed  tobacco  of  the  Cumanacoa  district,  in  the  upper  Manza- 
nares valley,  is  all  exported  from  Cumana,  which  stands  on  one  of  the  classic  sites 
of  the  New  World.  A  few  miles  to  the  south  was  situated  the  old  pre-Columbian 
city  of  Ameracapana — the  Maracapano  or  Macarapano  figuring  on  recent  maps — 
meaning,  in  the  local  Indian  language,  "  Ameraca-town."  In  1542,  when  the 
traveller  Benzoni  visited  this  place,  he  found  it,  although  much  decayed,  still 
occupied  by  a  colony  of  about  400  Spaniards,  who  carried  on  a  large  trade  with 
the  interior,  and  with  the  slave- dealers  who  brought  their  gangs  of  captives  to  the 
Ameraca  market.  During  Benzoni's  stay  a  single  dealer  arrived  with  a  convoy 
of  over  4,000  Indians,  while  hundreds  had  perished  of  hunger  and  hardships  on 
the  road.  The  colonists  of  Espanola  traded  directly  with  Ameraca,  which  at  that 
time  was  the  emporium  of  the  whole  seaboard'of  South  America.  According  to 
Pinard's  hypothesis,  the  name  of  this  city,  converging  point  of  all  the  trade 
routes  of  the  southern  lands  washed  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  was  applied  first  to  the 
neighbouring  mainland,  and  then  to  the  whole  of  the  New  World.  The  change 
from  Ameraca,  or  Amaraca,  to  America  would  be  easily  explained  by  the  obscure 


110 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


articulation,  especially  of  the  vowels,  by  the  Indians  of  those  parts.*  It  is  to  be 
noted,  however,  that  Cristobal  Guerro  and  Paralonzo  Nino,  who  visited  the  main- 
land in  the  yeir  1499,  mention  the  place  under  the  name  of  Maraca,  which 
differs  considerably  from  the  form  finally  adopted  for  the  continent  on  the  pro- 
posal of  Waltzemuller  or  Jean  Basin.  In  his  voyage  of  1595  "Walter  Raleigh 
still  refers  to  Maracapana  as  the  general  designation  of  all  the  seaboard 
stretching  east  and  west  between  Guiana  and  the  "  province  of  Venezuela." 

Cumana,  an  Andalusian  foundation,  has  been  eclipsed  in  commercial  activity 
and  population  by  Barcelona,  a  Catalonian  settlement,  dating  from  the  year  1637. 
It  stood  originally  on  the  slopes  of  the  Cerro  Santo  ("  Hollymount  "),  but  was 

Fig.  36.— BARCELONA  AND  CUHANA. 
Scale  1 :  1,100,000. 


Depths. 


Oto50 
Fathoms. 


50  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 

25  Miles. 


afterwards  removed  to  the  foot  of  the  Morro  de  Barcelona,  an  isolated  headland 
on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Neveri,  close  to  the  coast.  Barcelona  is  conveniently 
situated,  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  Cumana  coast  range,  for  the  export  of 
such  local  produce  as  cacao,  coffee,  skins,  and  dyewoods.  Unfortunately,  its 
harbour  is  so  obstructed  with  dangerous  quicksands,  caused  by  the  deposits  of  the 
Rio  Neveri,  that  the  shipping  has  to  ride  at  anchor  in  the  offing,  to  the  windward 
of  the  shelter  afforded  by  a  cluster  of  reefs  and  islets.  Hence  a  new  harbour 
has  been  selected,  some  12  miles  north-eastwards,  in  the  small  but  deep  and 
well- sheltered  creek  of  Guanta,  which  is  now  connected  by  rail  with  Barcelona 
Another  line  runs  south-eastwards  up  the  Neveri,  in  the  direction  of  the  Naricual 
valley.  In  the  sandstone  hills  of  this  district  have  recently  been  discovered 
*  Societe  de  Geographic  de  Paris,  November  20th.  1891. 


LA  GUAIEA. 


Ill 


some  beds  of  a  coal  which  burns  with  a  very  long  flame,  leaving  but  a  slight 
quantity  of  ash.  These  carboniferous  sandstones  would  appear  to  belong  to  the 
Permian  system.* 

LA  GUAIRA — CARACAS. 

West  of  the  Neveri  the  low  and  marshy  beach  develops  a  semicircle  of  over 
120  miles  to  Cape  Codera,  the  eastern  headland  of  the  Caracas  range.  Farther 
on  lies  the  deep  inlet  of  Caravellada,  former  port  of  Caracas,  abandoned  in  1587. 

Fig.  37. — CABACAS  ;  VIEW  TAKEN  ABOVE  THE  GUAIBE. 


Since  then  the  foreign  trade  of  the  country  has  been  mainly  centred  in  the  port 
of  La  Guaira,  which  occupies  a  narrow  shelving  rock  between  the  mountains  and 
the  deep  sea.  A  few  rows  of  houses,  following  the  windings  of  the  shore-line 
for  some  miles,  are  continued  westwards  by  the  palm-groves  and  villas  of  Maiquetia, 
and  eastwards  by  the  hotels  and  baths  of  Macuto.  Planted  thus  against  lofty 
cliffs,  exposed  to  a  blazing  sun,  La  Guaira,  although  not  unhealthy,  is  one  of  the 
hottest  places  in  the  New  World,  a  "  hell  "  like  Mascat,  and  some  other  "  warm 
corners  "  in  the  Eastern  hemisphere.  Although  its  mean  temperature  of  82  to 

*  Maurice  Chaper,  Mission  sur  la  cote  nord  du  Venezuela. 


112  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

83°  Fahr.  is  exceeded  by  that  of  some  spots  on  the  same  coast  and  on  the  llanos, 
the  heat  is  rendered  more  oppressive  by  its  moist  atmosphere  and  sultry  nights, 
when  the  glass  seldom  falls  more  than  five  or  six  degrees. 

Till  recently  La  Guaira  had  no  harbour  of  any  kind,  and  in  1821  all  but  one 
of  the  twenty  ships  riding  at  anchor  in  the  roadstead  were  dashed  to  pieces  on 
the  rocks  during  a  fierce  storm.  But  at  present  a  pier  and  some  other  improve- 
ments afford  a  little  shelter  to  a  few  vessels,  which  here  ship  coffee  in  exchange 
for  provisions,  furniture,  and  other  wares. 

La  Guaira  is  distant  only  two  miles  in  a  straight  line  from  Caracas,  capital 
of  the  republic  ;  but  in  this  short  space  the  route  has  to  scale  the  Silla  heights 
to  an  altitude  of  no  less  than  3,000  feet.  For  three  centuries  a  tortuous  mule- 
track  was  the  only  link  between  Caracas  and  its  seaport,  and  this  track  is  even 
still  utilised  during  the  coffee  harvest  by  most  of  the  surrounding  planters.  But 
since  1883  the  two  places  are  connected  by  a  railway,  23  miles  long,  which 
surmounts  the  Catia  pass,  and  which  has  a  gradient  of  about  100  feet  to 
half  a  mile,  and  some  curves  with  a  radius  of  not  more  than  150  feet. 

Caracas  has  preserved  the  name  of  the  Indian  tribe  which  formerly  occupied 
this  upland  valley  of  the  coast  range.  According  to  the  local  records  the  first 
houses  were  here  erected  by  Diego  Losada  in  1567,  and  in  1595  the  settlement 
was  captured  and  plundered  by  Sir  Francis  Drake.  Although  Caracas  stands 
on  somewhat  uneven  ground,  the  central  parts,  at  a  mean  altitude  of  3,000 
feet,  are  level  enough  to  be  laid  out  in  the  usual  chessboard  fashion.  A  few 
public  buildings  break  the  uniformity  of  the  city,  which  is  constructed  of  light 
and  low  houses,  as  a  precaution  against  earthquakes,  such  as  that  ol  1812,  when 
12,000  of  its  inhabitants  were  buried  beneath  the  ruins. 

A  reservoir  fed  by  the  Rio  Macareo  supplies  sufficient  good  water  to  Caracas, 
which,  as  the  political  and  intellectual  centre  of  Venezuela,  possesses  a  university, 
a  library,  a  historical  museum,  and  some  hospitals.  These  advantages,  combined 
with  a  delightful  climate,  attract  numerous  residents,  but  owing  to  wars  and 
earthquakes,  the  population  has  greatly  fluctuated  during  the  present  century.  It 
fell  from  50,000  before  the  catastrophe  of  1812  to  35,000  about  1850,  since  which 
time  it  has  increased  to  73,500  in  1891. 

Besides  the  railway  connecting  it  with  its  seaport,  Caracas  has  a  few  other 
lines  radiating  in  the  direction  of  the  Atlantic,  the  Orinoco,  Lake  Maracaibo,  and 
Colombia.  One  of  these  lines,  running  east  to  the  town  of  Petare  and  its  coffee 
plantations,  will  eventually  be  continued  to  Santa  Lucia,  on  the  Rio  Tui.  Another, 
crossing  the  Rio  Guaire,  and  connected  by  branches  with  the  coal-mines  of  Alta- 
gracia,  with  the  Rio  Chico,  and  with  Puerto  Carencro,  is  intended  to  cross  the 
llanos  in  the  direction  of  Soledad,  on  the  Orinoco,  over  against  Bolivar.  A 
third  line  advancing  southwards  will  connect  Caracas  with  the  plantations  of  El 
Valle ;  while  a  fourth,  ascending  south-westwards  towards  Antimano  and  Los 
Teques,  is  to  be  carried  by  steep  inclines,  tunnels,  and  viaducts  over  the  mountains 
separating  the  Tui  basin  from  that  of  the  Lake  of  Valencia.  This  line,  116  miles 
long,  traverses,  at  an  altitude  of  about  4,000  feet,  one  of  the  most  picturesque  and 


CARACAS     AT 


West  of 


:       ' 

0  to  5  fa&oms 


LA   CUAIRA. 


en-wick. 


66P55 


ViCTOEIA— HAKACAI— VALENCIA. 


113 


salubrious  regions  in  Venezuela,  and  may  one  day  send  a  branch  to  San  Carlos, 
in  the  Apure  basin. 

The  chief  agricultural  settlements  in  the  republic  have  been  founded  in  the 
sierras  round  about  Caracas.  In  1843  Codazzi  selected  a  valley  of  the  coast  range 
towards  the  sources  of  the  Tui  (5,900  feet)  for  his  colony  of  Tovar,  all  of  whose 
settlers  were  brought  from  the  Black  Forest.  The  speculation  promised  well  at 
first,  but  all  hopes  were  dashed  by  the  civil  wars,  and  in  1870  the  colony  was 
dispersed  by  the  Venezuelan  soldiery.  Better  success  attended  Tagacigua,  another 
group  of  agricultural  villages,  long  known  under  the  name  of  Guzman  Blanco  ;  it 
occupies  some  fertile  valleys  between  the  Tui  basin  and  the  llanos. 

The  Aragua  Valley,  often  called  the  "  Valley/'  in  a  pre-eminent  sense,  is  the 
garden  of  Venezuela,  a  highly  favoured  land,  where  the  fertile  soil,  abundant 
waters,  and  an  equable  climate,  less  parching  than  that  of  the  low-lying  plains, 
form  an  environment  admirably  suited  for  the  development  of  plant  and  animal 
life.  On  these  plains  flourish  all  tropical  species,  the  cacao,  sugar-cane,  coffee, 
banana,  indigo,  cotton,  as  well  as  maize  and  tobacco.  In  Humboldt's  time  wheat 
was  also  cultivated,  but  this  cereal  has  now  been  driven  out  of  the  market  by  the 
northern  corn-growing  regions,  and  is  consequently  replaced  by  the  far  more 
remunerative  coffee- shrub. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  century  the  population  of  the  Aragua  Valley  has 
increased  more  than  threefold,  and  here  large  towns  are  numerous.  Victoria, 
in  the  east,  occupies  the  'site  of  the  old  Caracas  Indian  mission,  but  it  has  little 
importance,  except  as  an  agricultural  centre.  Ciudad  de  Cnra,  formerly  Villa  de 
Cura,  standing  at  an  altitude  of  1,700  feet  on,  the  divide  between  the  Aragua 
basin  and  that  of  the  Guarico,  flowing  through  the  Apure  to  the  Orinoco,  may  be 
regarded  as  the  chief  gateway  to  the  llanos.  Here  are  equipped  all  the  expe- 
ditions destined  for  the  'regions  watered  by  the  rivers  Portuguesa  and  Apure. 


MARACAI — VALENCIA — PUERTO  CABELLO. 

Maracai,  on  the  northern  side  of  the  lagoon  over  against  Ciudad  de  Cura,  has 
perhaps  contributed  more  than  any  other  place  to  the  general  prosperity  of  the 
country.  Its  inhabitants,  mainly  of  Basque  origin,  dispensed  from  the  first  with 
the  aid  of  slave  labour,  and  since  then  it  has  always  held  the  foremost  position  in 
agricultural  enterprise.  Not  far  from  its  rich  neighbour,  Turmcro,  on  the  road 
to  Victoria,  is  seen  a  gigantic  saman,  a  member  of  the  mimosa  family,  whose 
wide-spreading  branches  have  a  circumference  of  nearly  650  feet.  At  the  advent 
of  the  Conquistadores  this  tree  was  already  held  in  veneration  by  the  natives  for 
its  great  size  and  beauty.  Near  Maracai  and  Cura  are  the  highly  efficacious  hot 
springs  of  Onoto  and  Mariara,  with  respective  temperatures  of  112°  and  147°  Fahr. 

Valencia,  capital  of  the  state  of  Carabobo,  lies  at  the  western  extremity  of  the 
plain  flooded  by  Lake  Ticaragua.  Founded  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century 
before  Caracas,  Valencia  occupies  a  more  central  position  than  the  present- 
capital,  with  which  it  often  contended  for  the  first  rank.  After  the  separation  of 


114 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


the  Colombian  republics  it  was  chosen  as  the  seat  of  the  first  congress,  and  although 
no  longer  the  federal  capital,  it  is  still  a  flourishing  city,  the  second  in  the  republic 
for  trade  and  population.  One  of  its  monuments  recalls  the  battle  fought  in  1821  on 
the  neighbouring  Carabobo  plain,  which  established  the  independence  of  Venezuela. 


Fig.  38.— VALENCIA  AND  PUERTO  CABELLO. 
Scale  1  :  330,000. 


68°io 


W.  or  Greenwich 


Depths. 


OtolO 
Fathoms. 


6  Miles. 


About  midway  between  Valencia  and  its  seaport,  Puerto  Cabello,  are  situated 
the  famous  thermal  springs  of  Trinchcras,  which  are  amongst  the  hottest  in  the 
•world.  According  to  the  years  and  the  seasons  the  temperature  varies  from  196° 
to  206°  Fahr.,  at  the  head  of  the  Agua  Caliente,  through  which  these  boiling 


PUERTO  CABELLO. 


115 


waters  flow  to  the  coast  at  El  Palito,  a  little  west  of  Puerto  Cabello.  This 
seaport  is  connected  with  Valencia  by  a  railway,  which  at  its  highest  point  attains 
an  elevation  of  1,970  feet.  According  to  the  local  tradition  it  takes  its  name  of 
Puerto  Cabello  ("  Hair  Port  ")  from  the  fact  that  a  hair  would  be  strong  enough 
for  a  vessel  to  ride  at  anchor  in  its  tranquil  harbour. 

The   inlet,    which  ramifies  into    three  irregular  basins,  is  almost  completely 

Fig.  39. — PUEBTO  CABELLO. 
Scale  1  :  53,000. 


Depths. 


0  to  5 
Fathoms. 


5  to  10 
Fathoms. 


10  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 

l£  Mile. 


enclosed  by  a  crescent  of  low  islands  and  banks,  leaving  only  a  narrow  seaward 
passage  on  the  west  from  seven  to  nine  fathoms  deep.  South  of  this  passage  the 
town  occupies  a  low  coralline  peninsula,  formerly  separated  from  the  mainland 
by  another  channel,  which  is  now  dry  land.  The  harbour  is  defended  by  two 
forts  ;  but  the  whole  district  is  rendered  extremely  malarious  by  the  surrounding 
marshes,  shallow  and  stagnant  waters.  Dangerous  fevers  break  out,  especially 


116  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

after  the  rains,  when  the  marine  animals  are  killed  by  the  fresh  waters  of  the 
Rio  San  Esteban  mingling  with  the  saline  coast  lagoons.  Here  also  the  sharks 
are  much  dreaded,  although  at  La  Guaira  they  frighten  nobody,  and  even  fly  from 
bathers.*  Puerto  Cabello  exports  coffee,  cacao,  hides,  dyewoods,  and  copper 
ores. 

SAN  FELIPE — CORO — TRUJILLO. 

These  ores,  however,  are  chiefly  shipped  at  Puerto  Tucacas,  farther  west,  this 
place  being  connected  by  a  railway  nearly  60  miles  long  with  La  Luz,  a  little  east 
of  the  mountainous  Aroa  mining  district.  A  large  amount  of  capital  has  been 
invested  in  these  copper-mines  of  Aroa,  which  are  the  only  works  of  the  kind  in 
Venezuela  that  have  not  been  abandoned,  and  which  yielded  72,610  tons  in  1888. 
It  is  proposed  to  continue  the  railway  towards  San  Felipe,  Barquisimeto,  and  other 
inland  towns. 

San  Felipe,  founded  in  1551  in  honour  of  Phillip  II.,  is  still  the  capital  of  the 
flourishing  Yaracui  valley,  with  its  extensive  cacao  and  sugar-cane  plantations. 
But  it  has  never  quite  recovered  from  the  disastrous  earthquake  of  1812,  and 
at  present  San  Felipe  is  surpassed  in  trade  and  population  by  Yaritagua, 
which  lies  near  the  divide  between  the  basins  of  the  Yaracui  and  Portuguesa 
rivers. 

Barquisimeto  stands  at  an  altitude  of  about  1,800  feet  on  the  southern  slope  of 
this  divide,  on  a  rivulet  which  flows  through  the  Rio  Cojede  to  the  Portuguesa 
affluent  of  the  Apure.  This  place  represents  the  ancient  Nucva  Segovia,  which 
was  founded  in  1550,  and  afterwards  displaced.  Settlers  had  been  attracted  to  the 
spot  by  the  mineral  deposits  of  the  surrounding  mountains  ;  the  mines  were  held 
for  some  years  by  runaway  negroes,  who  here  entrenched  themselves,  and  set  up 
an  independent  petty  state.  Barquisimeto  has  recovered  from  the  catastrophe 
of  1812,  and  is  now  one  of  the  flourishing  towns  of  Venezuela,  while*  Qitibor,  lying 
to  the  south-west,  has  lost  its  former  importance.  The  Teutonic  type  is  said 
to  persist  in  Quibor,  which  was  founded  by  the  Germans  of  Coro,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  V. 

There  are  no  large  towns  in  the  extensive  basin  of  the  Rio  Tocuyo,  which 
reaches  the  coast  north  of  Punta  Tucacas  and  the  little  seaport  of  Chichirivichi. 
Carom,  and  the  industrious  little  town  of  Tocuyo,  which  gives  its  name  to  the 
river,  lie  a  long  way  from  the  sea  in  fertile  valleys  separated  from  Lake 
Maracaibo  by  the  arid  plateaux  of  Agua  de  Obispo.  On  this  coast  there  are  no 
harbours  or  ports  except  the  little  village  of  Vela  de  Coro  at  the  neck  of  the  sandy 
Paraguana  Peninsula,  and  the  beach  shoals  so  gently  that  large  vessels  have  to 
cast  anchor  in  the  offing  two  or  three  miles  from  the  shore. 

The  western  inlet  of  the  Gulf  of  Coro,  on  the  other  side  of  the  sandy  Medanos 
isthmus,  is  still  more  inhospitable  ;  yet  it  was  at  one  time  much  frequented  by 
shipping,  the  spot  where  Coro  now  stands  having  been  chosen  as  the  starting  point 
of  the  expsdition  sent  to  conquer  Venezuela.  Coro  itself  was  founded  by  Ampues 
in  1527,  and  here  the  Spaniards  were  well  received  by  the  Indians,  who  helped 

*  P.  V.  N.  Mjrtrs,  Life  and  Nature  under  the  Tropics. 


CORO. 


117 


them   to  reduce   the   inland    tribes  ;    but    in   their   turn   they    were   themselves 
enslaved. 

The  German  captains,  Alfinger,  Fredemann,  Speier,  and  Hiitten,  who  had 
received  a  roving  commission  from  the  Welser  traders  of  Augsburg,  started  from 
Coro  on  the  famous  expedition  which  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  Andean  plateaux, 

Fig.  40. — COEO  AND  PABAGTCTANA  PENINSULA. 
Scale  1  :  1,350,000. 


?: .;..•:•<•  /•;;;-^-.-.:.^.-;,:  •;;^..Jt^l?A^ 


70° £0'  West  op  Greenwich 


Depths. 


0  to  10 
Fathoms. 


10  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


i  30  Miles. 


of  the  Orinoco,  the  llanos,  and  the  Rio  Magdalena.  Enriched  by  plunder  and 
raised  to  the  position  of  capital  of  Venezuela,  Coro  naturally  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  English  rovers,. who  took  it  by  assault  in  1567,  and  levied  a  heavy  contri- 
bution of  war  on  the  citizens.  To  avoid  the  recurrence  of  such  disasters,  the 
seat  of  government  was  a  few  years  later  removed  to  Caracas.  Coro  is  no  longer 


118  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

even  a  state  capital,   this  distinction  having  been  awarded  to  the  little  town  of 
Capatarida,  situated  on  the  coast  midway  between  Coro  and  Maracaibo. 

Trujillo,  standing  2,700  feet  above  sea-level,  at  the  entrance  of  an  upland  valley 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada  range,  has  shifted  its  position  several  times  since  its 
foundation  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  As  a  mining  town  surrounded 
by  extremely  fertile  plains,  it  attracted  corsairs  as  well  as  colonists,  and  was 
sacked  by  the  pirate  Gramont  in  1668,  when  most  of  the  inhabitants  took  refuge 
in  Merida.  An  unfinished  railway,  running  through  Mendoza,  Valera,  Motatan, 
and  the  port  of  La  Ceiba,  will  eventually  connect  it  with  Lake  Maracaibo. 

MERIDA — MARACAIBO. 

Merida,  named  from  the  famous  city  of  Estremadura,  lies  in  the  heart  of  the 
Andes,  on  the  bed  of  an  old  lake,  where  converge  several  affluents  of  the  Rio 
Chama,  which  flows  to  Lake  Maracaibo.  It  stands  at  an  altitude  of  5,450  feet, 
that  is,  in  a  temperate  climate,  in  which  European  plants  flourish  side  by  side 
with  tropical  species.  Being  built  of  low  houses  surrounded  by  gardens,  Merida 
covers  a  large  space  on  the  edge  of  a  perfectly  level  plateau  about  1,000  feet 
above  a  narrow  gorge  of  the  foaming  Rio  Chama. 

Founded  in  1558  under  the  name  of  Santiago  dc  los  Caballeros,  Merida  still 
remains  to  a  large  extent  a  Spanish  town,  although  the  surrounding  valleys  are 
inhabited  almost  exclusively  by  half-breeds,  sprung  from  alliances  with  the  old 
Timotes  and  Mucuchies  tribes.  The  latter  give  their  name  to  a  town  which  is 
the  highest  town  in  the  republic  (9,850  feet).  Several  villages,  however,  stand 
1,000,  1,200,  and  even  1,400  feet  higher,  and  one  house  occasionally  occupied 
dominates  all  at  an  elevation  of  11,960  feet.  Participating  in  the  liberal  ten- 
dencies of  the  a-,e,  Merida  has  recently  transformed  its  large  ecclesiastical 
seminary  to  a  university,  the  only  one  possessed  by  Venezuela  besides  that  of  the 
capital.  It  is  proposed  to  connect  Merida  by  rail  with  the  port  of  Zulia,  which 
lies  on  a  navigable  affluent  of  Lake  Maracaibo.  Oil-wells  have  been  sunk  in  the 
vicinity,  and  the  Indian  village  of  Lagunillas,  on  the  road  to  San  Carlos,  obtains 
from  a  neighbouring  lagoon  a  kind  of  carbonate  of  soda  used  in  the  preparation 
of  tobacco. 

Zulia  (San  Carlos  de  Zulia)  has  given  its  name  to  all  the  low-lying  lands 
dominated  by  the  last  chain  of  the  Andes.  The  river  on  which  it  stands,  over 
against  Santa  Barbara,  has  received  the  name  of  Rio  Escalante,  while  farther  west 
flows  the  true  Rio  Zulia,  which,  however,  communicates  with  the  Escalante  through 
the  Catatumbo,  forming  a  network  of  channels  and  a  large  marshy  lagoon  known  as 
theLagon  de  Zulia.  By  this  waterway  Colombia  sends  its  coffee  and  other  produce 
down  to  the  great  market  of  Maracaibo.  The  same  natural  route  also  connects  the 
Venezuelan  towns  of  Tovar,  Bailadores,  and  Grit  a  with  Maracaibo. 

This  place,  the  Nueva  Zamora  of  its  Spanish  founders,  dates  from  the  year 
1571,  though  a  first  settlement  of  the  same  name  had  been  destroyed  by  corsairs 
three  years  previously.  It  stood  on  the  same  beach  where  the  conqueror  Alfinger 
had,  in  1529,  built  some  large  shelters  for  the  women  and  children  captured 


MARACAIBO. 


119 


during  his  plundering  and  murderous  expeditions.  Being  conveniently  situated 
on  the  west  side  of  the  channel  between  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela,  properly  so  called, 
and  the  inner  basin,  the  settlement  rapidly  attracted  to  itself  all  the  trade 


Fig.  41. — LAKE  OF  MABACAIBO. 
Scale  1  :  2,200,000. 


West  ol    Greenwich  71° 


Depths. 


o  to  ie 

Fathoms. 


10  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 

.  44  Miles. 


previously  enjoyed  by  the  station  of   Gibraltar,  which  had  been  founded  on  the 
south  side  of  the  lake,  but  which  had  been  burnt  by  the  pirate  L'Olonais  in  1668. 
Since  that  time  Maracaibo  has   always  remained  the  commercial  centre  of  the 
whole  of  this  region,  for  it  commands  the  outlet  of  the  vast   basin  comprised 
between  the   Eastern  Cordilleras,   the  Santander   mountains,  and  the  Sierra  de 


120  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

Perijaa  in  Colombia.  It  is  thus  the  natural  emporium  of  the  traffic  with  Cucuta, 
Pamplona,  and  the  other  surrounding  markets  of  the  conterminous  republic.  At 
present  some  fifteen  steamers  ply  on  the  lake  and  its  navigable  affluents,  and  com- 
munications must  ere  long  be  opened  with  the  middle  valley  of  the  Magdalena 
through  the  town  of  Ocana. 

Stretching  along  the  beach  amid  its  fringing  coconut-groves,  Maracaibo 
presents  a  pleasanter  aspect  seen  from  the  lake  than  it  does  to  the  observer 
penetrating  into  its  narrow  dusty  streets  winding  between  high  houses.  It  is 
extended  southwards  by  the  fashionable  suburb  of  Hatitos,  residence  of  its  wealthy 
merchants,  who  export  coffee,  cacao,  dyewoods,  cattle,  hides  and  drugs  in 
exchange  for  English,  French  and  German  wares,  and  Spanish  wines. 

Large  vessels  being  unable  to  pass  the  channel,  Maracaibo  intends  to  create 
an  outer  harbour  in  deep  water  by  constructing  a  railway  to  the  village  of  Cojoro 
on  the  Colombian  frontier.  Santa  Rosa,  near  Maracaibo,  is  still  a  lacustrine 
village,  erected  on  piles  in  the  midst  of  the  waters,  and  resembling  the  settlements 
from  which  the  whole  country  received  the  name  of  Venezuela.  Similar  groups 
of  lake  dwellings  are  seen  in  the  Sinamaica  lagoon,  and  in  the  south-east  corner  of 
the  inner  basin. 

The  llanos  which  stretch  south-east  of  the  snowy  Merida  range,  within  the 
triangular  space  formed  by  these  mountains  and  the  Apure  and  Portuguesa 
rivers,  are  relatively  better  peopled  than  the  plains  lying  farther  east.  Here  are 
a  few  flourishing  agricultural  centres,  such  as  San  Cristobal,  on  the  Torbes 
affluent  of  the  upper  Apure,  and  the  neighbouring  Tariba,  Riibio,  and  Copacho 
Nuevo ;  all  of  these  places,  however,  belong  commercially  and  even  socially  to 
the  Maracaibo  basin,  forwarding  their  produce,  such  as  coffee,  sugar,  cacao,  cattle, 
and  petroleum,  not  to  the  Orinoco,  but  to  the  coast,  by  the  Cucuta  railway,  running 
through  Colombian  territory. 

The  hilly  district  of  Tachira,  so  named  from  the  frontier  river  towards 
Colombia,  has  been  rapidly  peopled  and  enriched,  thanks  to  its  fertile  valleys, 
which  present  a  striking  contrast  to  the  extremely  arid  hills  and  plateaux 
encircling  them.  Towns,  such  as  Rubio,  have  sprung  up  quite  recently  in  the 
very  wilderness,  while  others,  such  as  San  Antonio  de  Tachira,  have  recovered 
from  the  disastrous  earthquake  of  1875. 

Varinas  (Barinas),  formerly  a  provincial  capital,  but  now  decayed,  gives  its 
name  to  a  tobacco  of  excellent  quality,  very  little  of  which,  however,  is  grown  in 
this  part  of  the  llanos.  Guanare,  the  present  state  capital,  stands  on  the  high 
banks  of  the  Rio  Guanare,  an  affluent  of  the  Portuguesa.  In  the  same  basin 
are  the  prosperous  little  towns  of  Btjuma,  Miranda,  Nirgua  (one  of  the  first 
Spanish  settlements),  San  Carlos  (a  former  Indian  mission),  Cojedes,  Acarigua, 
and  Pao. 

Farther  east  Calabozo,  founded  in  the  last  century  by  the  Guipuzcoa  (Basque) 
Company,  crowns  a  hill  500  feet  high,  encircled  by  a  bend  of  the  Rio  Guarico. 
Thanks  to  this  relatively  elevated  position,  and  to  the  absence  of  marshy  tracts, 
Calabozo  has  always  been  the  most  healthy  place  in  the  llanos.  Before  1868  it 


SAN  FEKNANDO  DE  ATABAPO. 


121 


was  one  of  the  most  flourishing  places  in  the  republic  ;  but  it  lost  half  its  wealth 
and  population  in  the  civil  war,  which  long  ravaged  this  region.  The  seat  of 
government  for  the  state  of  Guarico  was  also  removed  from  Calabozo  to  the  far 
inferior  town  of  Ortiz,  which,  with  the  neighbouring  Parapara,  commands  the 
northern  approach  to  the  llanos  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Galera. 

San  Fernando  occupies  a  position  of  vital  importance  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Apure,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Portuguesa.  Here  it  commands  the  con- 
verging point  of  four  navigable  streams,  on  which  steamers  ply  in  one  direction 
to  the  port  of  Nutrias,  beyond  Ciudad  Bolivar,  in  another  up  the  Portuguesa  to 
El  Saul.  But  the  whole  region  is  so  sparsely  peopled  that  the  trade  of  San 
Fernando  still  remains  undeveloped,  although  it  has  taken  the  place  of  Achaguas 

Fig.  42. — RAMIFICATIONS  OF  THE  ATABAPO. 
Scale  1  :  1,400,000. 


30  Miles. 


as  a  district  capital.  Achaguas,  a  former  Indian  mission,  lies  to  the  south-west, 
in  the  labyrinth  of  channels  and  backwaters  separating  the  Apure  from  the 
Arauca. 

SAN  FERNANDO  DE  ATABAPO — BOLIVAR. 

In  the  upper  Orinoco  valley,  and  on  the  divide  between  that  river  and  the 
Rio  Negro,  there  are  no  centres  of  population  beyond  such  wretched  hamlets  as 
Esmeralda,  Yavita,  and  Pimichin,  frequently  mentioned  in  books  of  travel,  because 
of  their  position  at  important  confluences  or  portages. 

At  the  confluence  of  the  Atabapo  and  Orinoco,  776  feet  above  sea-level, 
San  Fernando  de  Atabapo,  founded  by  Solano  in  1757,  occupies  even  a  more 
important  position  than  San  Fernando  de  Apure.  From  this  point  radiate  as 
many  as  six  navigable  highways,  southwards  by  the  Atabapo  to  Brazil,  east- 


122 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


wards  to  the  upper  Orinoco,  north-eastwards  to  the  Ventuari,  northwards  to 
the  middle  Orinoco,  westwards  by  the  Guaviare  to  Colombia,  and  south- 
westwards  to  the  Inirida  basin.  But  so  insignificant  is  the  local  traffic 

Fig.  43.— RAMIFYING  STREAMS  ON  THE  BRAZIL  AND  VENEZUELAN  FRONTIERS. 
Scale  1  :  4,000,000. 


62  Miles. 


that  the  500  inhabitants  of  San  Fernando    suffice  for    all   its  present   require- 
ments. 

The  old  Indian  settlements,  which  give  their  names  to  the  Maipures  and 
Atures  rapids,  have  all  but  disappeared.  Maipures,  standing  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Orinoco,  is  now  included  in  Colombian  teriitory,  although  the  tow- 


CAICARA.— BOLIVAR. 


128 


path  and  portage  remain  free  to  both  nations  till  the  year  1911.  Of  Uruana 
(Urbana),  the  old  Otomak  mission,  nothing  remains  except  a  few  stakes  stuck 
in  the  ground,  and  a  half-charred  cross. 

Caicara  is  favourably  situated  near  the  great  bend  of  the  Orinoco,  below  the 
Apure  and  Apurito  confluences.  Here  are  exchanged  manufactured  goods  for  the 
cordage  made  of  Chiquichique  palm  fibre  (attalea  funifera] ,  stout  hammocks  of  the 

mauritia  palm,  and  especially 

.-IT  •       -I  Fiar.  44. — MAIPTTEES  AND  ATUEES  RAPIDS. 

the    tonka    or   sarrapia   bean 

Scale  1  :  600,000. 

(dipteryx  odorata),  collected  in 
the  Cuchivero  valley,  and  used 
in  Europe  for  imparting  an 
aromatic  fragrance  to  tobacco. 

For  a  distance  of  250  miles 
below  Caicara,  all  the  way  to 
Ciudad  Bolivar,  there  are  no 
centres  of  population  except  a 
few  obscure  hamlets  on  the 
banks  of  the  Orinoco.  Bolivar 
itself,  present  capital  of  Vene- 
zuelan Guiana,  has  frequently 
changed  its  position  since  its 
foundation  by  the  Jesuits  on 
the  right  bank  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Caroni  in  1576.  In 
1591,  Santo  Tome,  as  it  was 
then  called,  was  moved  some 
10  leagues  lower  down  to  a 
spot  on  the  right  bank  at 
present  indicated  by  the  sta- 
tion of  Guayana  Vieja  ("  Old 
Guiana").  It  had  previously 
been  attacked  by  the  Dutch, 
and  now  it  was  reduced  to 
ashes  by  the  English  under  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh.  In  1764 
the  administrative  centre  was 
again  shifted  94  miles  higher 

up  to  the  narrows,  where  the  Orinoco  is  confined  to  a  bed  less  than  800 
yards  wide.  Hence  its  new  name,  Angostura  ("  The  Narrows  "),  which  gradually- 
replaced  Santo  Tome,  and  was  itself  changed  to  Ciudad  Bolivar,  or  simply  Bolivar, 
in  honour  of  the  "  Liberator." 

Bolivar  extends  west  and  east  along  the  right  bank  between  the  negro  quarter, 
Perro  Seco  ("Dry  Dog  "),  and  the  elegant  suburb  of  Alarneda,  which,  however,  is 
exposed  to  frequent  inundations.  In  mid-stream  rises  the  black-pointed  Piedra 


68'20'  West  of  Greenwich 


12  Miles. 


124 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


del  Media  ("  Middle  Rock  "),  which  serves  as  a  natural  fluviometer,  to  measure  the 
periodical  rise  and  fall  of  the  flood  waters.  On  the  left  bank  stands  the  growing 
suburb  of  Solcdad,  future  terminus  of  the  projected  Caracas-Bolivar  railway,  and 
already  the  centre  of  a  brisk  trade,  carried  on  especially  with  Calabozo  and  Varinas. 
One  of  the  chief  local  industries  is  the  manufacture  of  cigars,  mostly  in  the  hands 
of  Germans. 

Sailing-vessels  have  been  almost  entirely  replaced  by  steamers  which  ascend 
the  Orinoco  with  the  tides  as  far  as  the  narrows  at  Bolivar.  The  movement  of 
exchanges  is  mainly  with  Port  of  Spain  in  Trinidad,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the 

Fig.  45. — ABORIGINES  OF  VENEZUELA. 
Scale  1  :  1,600,000. 


250  Miles. 


seaport  of  Bolivar,  the  chief  intermediate  station  being  Barrancas   (San  Rafael), 
at  the  head  of  the  Orinoco  delta. 

The  local  traffic  has  much  increased  since  1840,  when  Plassard  discovered  the 
auriferous  quartz  reefs  in  the  valley  of  the  Yuruauri,  a  tributary  of  the  Cuyuni 
affluent  of  the  Essequibo.  These  mines,  which  are  approached  either  from  Puerto 
Tablas  at  the  Caroni  confluence,  or  from  the  populous  town  of  Upata,  or  else  from 
Guayana  Vieja,  are  dotted  over  numerous  depressions  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Piacoa.  The  Caratal  group  at  El  Callao  yielded  over  £800,000  annually 
during  the  years  1884-6,  and  the  total  output  from  1866-89  was  valued  at 
£8,300,000.  But  since  that  time  the  yield  has  considerably  fallen  off. 


STATISTICS  OF  VENEZUELA.  126 

In  the  magnificent  savannas  watered  by  the  Caroni  there  are  no  longer  any 
permanent  settlements,  although  the  Capuchin  friars  from  Catalonia  had  here 
founded  over  thirty  missions.  Of  these  stations  nothing  remains  except  a  few 
ruins,  such  as  those  of  Grior  (Gurior),  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Pacairama, 
near  the  Brazilian  frontier. 

Nevertheless,  several  tribes  that  have  reverted  to  the  wild  or  free  state  still 
call  themselves  Catholics,  and  wear  round  their  necks  crosses,  medals,  some- 
times even  little  pouches  full  of  relics.  Such  are  the  Quiriquiripas,  a  group 
of  sedentary  agriculturists,  who  have  established  themselves  on  the  southern 
banks  of  the  Orinoco  and  neighbouring  affluents.  Like  the  Ariguas  of  the 
Caura  basin,  who,  however,  still  tattoo  their  faces,  the  Quiriquiripas  have  retained 
the  costume  received  from  the  missionaries — a  long  loin-cloth  for  the  men,  a 
folded  skirt  for  the  women ;  some  of  their  songs,  also,  are  echoes  of  the  former 
hymns  and  prayers. 

But  farther  on  the  uplands  are  occupied  by  many  still  savage  tribes,  Caribs 
and  Arawaks,  who  go  naked,  daub  face  and  body,  deck  themselves  with  feathers 
and  claws,  and  wield  darts  dipped  in  the  deadly  curare  poison.  In  their  midst  the 
traveller  recognises  the  ancient  Venezuela,  such  as  it  appeared  to  Ordaz,  Alfinger, 
and  the  other  pioneers  of  conquest  and  discovery. 

Y. 

MATERIAL  CONDITION  OF  VENEZUELA. 

No  regular  census  has  been  taken  of  the  Venezuelan  population,  and  several  of 
the  past  official  estimates  appear  to  have  been  obtained  by  extremely  rough  pro- 
cesses. Nevertheless,  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  regarding  the  steady 
increase  reported  from  decade  to  decade  since  the  War  of  Independence,  by  which 
certain  regions  had  been  depopulated.  The  exaggerations  pointed  out  by  various 
travellers  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  official  documents  occasionally  attribute  to 
the  chief  towns  the  population  of  whole  districts,  so  that  certain  obscure  villages 
figured  in  the  returns  as  populous  cities. 

According  to  Humboldt  the  whole  nation,  including  negroes,  half-breeds,  and 
Indians,  numbered  in  1810  about  800,000,  which  was  reduced  by  the  official 
statements  to  660,000  in  1825,  that  is,  soon  after  the  terrible  struggle  for  freedom. 
Since  that  time  the  subjoined  table  shows  that  the  growth  of  the  population  has 
never  been  interrupted  by  internal  revolutions  or  other  calamities. 

Inhabitants. 

1 839  (Codazzi's  estimate) 945,348. 

1854  (Official  number) 1,564.433. 

1874  (Official  estimate) 1,784,194. 

1892  (Official  estimate) 2,238,900. 

The  estimate  for  1893  may  be  put  at  2,250,000,  and  even  this  should  be 
increased  by  some  80,000  were  it  to  include  the  territories  till  recently  claimed  by 
the  republic  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela,  west  of  the  middle  Orinoco,  and  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Essequibo,  territories  still  included  in  the  administrative 
valuations.  Uncertainty  prevails  especially  as  regards  the  pure  indigenous 
element,  which  is  at  present  estimated  at  over  325,000,  of  whom  240,000  are 


126  SOUTH  AMEBICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

classed  as  "  civilised,"  20,000  settled,  and  upwards  of  60,000  still  independent  in 
the  mountain  forests  and  on  the  llanos. 

After  a  sanguinary  civil  war  the  returns  for  the  federal  district  showed  a  pro- 
portion of  128  women  to  100  men  in  1873,  but  since  then  the  equilibrium  of  the 
sexes  has  been  restored,  and  in  1881  there  was  an  excess  of  less  than  70,000  women 
in  the  whole  population.  Despite  wars,  massacres,  yellow  fever,  and  other  epide- 
mics the  birth-rate  has  always  exceeded  the  mortality,  if  not  from  year  to  year, 
at  least  from  decade  to  decade. 

On  the  other  hand  immigration  has  contributed  little  to  the  general  increase, 
not  more  than  4,537  in  the  seven  years  ending  1887  ;  even  in  1889,  when  the 
number  rose  to  1,555,  there  was  a  proportionate  increase  of  emigrants.  Foreigners 
are  at  present  estimated  at  about  40,000,  of  whom  over  one-fourth  are  Spanish 
Basques ;  then  follow  the  English  and  people  of  Trinidad,  the  Italians,  Dutch  from 
Curacao,  French  and  Germans  in  the  order  given. 

AGRICULTURE —  STOCK-BREEDING. 

Being  essentially  an  agricultural  and  pastoral  land,  Venezuela  yields  an  abun- 
dance of  the  first  necessaries  both  for  the  local  demands  and  for  a  considerable 
export  trade.  As  in  Jamaica  and  most  of  the  Antilles,  the  emancipation  of  the 
slaves  involved  the  ruin  of  a  large  number  of  planters,  and  the  division  of  vast 
domains  into  relatively  small  holdings  worked  by  free  labour.  Nevertheless,  the 
large  landowners  have  in  many  places  endeavoured  to  replace  the  blacks,  on  whom 
they  could  no  longer  depend,  by  full-blood  or  half-caste  natives.  By  reducing 
these  labourers  to  a  disguised  servitude,  they  have  managed  to  work  their  planta- 
tions at  a  profit,  without  being  driven  to  the  necessity  of  introducing  East  Indian 
or  Chinese  coolies,  as  in  Trinidad  or/Demerara.  A  few  hundred  European  settlers 
have  been  attracted  by  the  grant  of  little  farms  of  fifteen  acres,  as  at  Taguacita, 
in  the  uplands  south  of  the  Tui  basin.  Here  a  colony  of  over  1,500  persons 
was  engaged  in  1888  in  the  production  of  coffee,  cacao,  and  sugar.  There  being 
plenty  of  land  to  dispose  of,  the  terms  are  very  tempting,  free  tenure  for  three 
years,  and  then  nothing  but  licence  and  surveying  charges. 

After  maize  the  chief  economic  plant  is  coffee,  which  on  favourable  grounds 
yields  360-fold  and  four  annual  crops.  The  first  coffee  plantations  were  estab- 
lished in  1784  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Caracas,  and  the  shrub  thrives  best  on 
the  uplands  of  the  temperate  zone,  where  the  foliage  is  moistened  by  frequent 
and  heavy  morning  dews.  Cacao,  which  had  long  been  neglected,  although  the 
first  colonial  product  exported  from  Venezuela,  is  again  coming  more  and  more 
into  favour.  Few  other  regions  are  more  suited  for  the  cultivation  of  this  plant, 
which  grows  wild  in  certain  parts  of  the  Merida  uplands.  Sugar,  which  ranks 
third  in  importance,  is  grown  chiefly  on  the  hot,  alluvial  lowlands,  and  especially 
on  the  marshy  plains  encircling  Lake  Maracaibo.  Tobacco  is  treated  in  two  ways, 
the  cura  negra  ("  black  preparation ")  for  local  consumption,  and  the  cum  seca 
("  dry  preparation  ")  for  exportation.  A  tobacco  juice  is  also  prepared  with  nitre, 
which  is  extremely  rich  in  nicotine;  by  rubbing  it  on  the  gums  the  working 


RESOURCES  OF  VENEZUELA.  127 

classes  obtain  strong  narcotic  effects.  Other  vegetable  products,  such  as  the 
tonka  bean,  rubber,  sarsaparilla  and  copaiba,  are  nearly  all  gathered  in  the  wild 
state.  Locusts  are  the  chief  plague  of  the  peasants,  especially  on  the  Cumana 
seaboard  and  on  the  verge  of  the  llanos. 

It  seems  probable,  from  the  successful  efforts  already  made  to  bring  the  llanos 
under  cultivation,  that  these  vast  plains  may  one  day  be  transformed  to  tilled 
land.  But  hitherto  they  have  been  utilised  mainly  as  cattle -runs.  The  stock  is 
subject  to  tremendous  vicissitudes  due  to  the  incidence  of  wars,  droughts,  epidemics, 
and  other  calamities.  Thus  it  was  reduced  from  at  least  5,000,000  to  less  than 
1,400,000  during  the  decade  ending  1873,  by  the  protracted  civil  wars  and  plun- 
dering expeditions  of  that  disastrous  epoch.  On  the  other  hand  there  was  an 
enormous  increase  in  1888,  when  the  horned  cattle  numbered  nearly  8,500,000,  or 
about  four  to  every  inhabitant  of  Venezuela.  Such  a  proportion  exceeds  even 
that  of  Denmark,  which  has  relatively  the  largest  number  of  any  state  in  Europe. 

Extensive  as  it  is,  the  land  under  tillage  and  grass  represents  only  about  half 
of  the  republic,  the  rest  consisting  of  forests  which  at  present  yield  nothing  but 
fruits,  rubber,  fibres,  and  drugs.  But  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bolivar,  and  along 
the  route  followed  by  the  steamers  plying  between  that  place  and  Trinidad,  the 
demand  for  fuel  has  already  made  serious  inroads  on  the  woodlands.  The  wood- 
man's axe  has  also  begun  to  attack  such  trees  as  are  useful  as  timber,  or  for 
cabinet-work.  In  all  the  north-western  districts  near  the  seaports  the  inhabitants 
have  long  been  felling  the  dyewoods  and  the  dividivi,  which,  being  rich  in  astrin- 
gent principles,  is  highly  valued  by  the  European  tanners. 

Despite  the  abundance  of  animal  life  in  the  Margarita  waters,  and  in  the 
Apure  and  some  other  rivers  of  the  llanos,  the  fishing  industry  remains  in  a  very 
backward  state.  The  pearl-banks  in  the  Margarita  Archipelago  are  all  but 
exhausted,  and  the  total  annual  value  of  the  Venezuelan  fisheries  averages  scarcely 
more  than  £300,000. 

MINERAL  WEALTH — INDUSTRIES. 

Although  rich  in  metals,  Venezuela  is  far  surpassed  by  all  the  other  Andean 
republics,  except  Ecuador,  in  the  production  of  minerals.  It  yields  little  to  com- 
merce besides  the  copper  of  Aroa  and  the  gold  of  Yuruauri,  although  it  possesses 
rich  stores  of  lead,  tin  and  especially  iron.  A  few  coalfields  are  worked,  as  well 
as  pitch-lakes  like  those  of  Trinidad,  occurring  in  lands  of  similar  formation 
near  the  Orinoco  delta  and  round  the  shores  of  Lake  Maracaibo.  Phosphates  of 
lime  and  guanos  have  been  discovered  on  the  seaboard,  in  the  adjacent  islands 
and  round  the  verge  of  the  llanos.  Natural  salines  have  also  been  formed  in  all 
the  coast  lagoons,  where  they  are  separated  by  strips  of  sand  from  the  sea.  The 
annual  yield  of  all  the  saltpans  is  estimated  at  100,000  tons,  valued  at  over 
£40,000  in  favourable  years. 

Manufacturing  industries,  properly  so  called,  can  scarcely  flourish  in  a  land 
like  Venezuela,  whose  rural  populations  have  no  need  of  luxuries.  They  are 
satisfied  with  palm-thatched  cabins,  whose  floors  are  of  beaten  earth,  and  whose 
furniture  is  limited  to  rough  tables  hewn  in  the  neighbouring  forests,  a  few  chairs 


128 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


"  upholstered "  in  ox-hide,  and  hammocks  bartered  for  with  some  passing 
Indian.  The  clothing,  also,  is  often  at  least  partly  the  product  of  native 
industry.  Various  vegetable  fibres  are  used  for  making  straw  hats,  greatly 
.inferior,  however,  to  those  of  Colombia,  and  for  weaving  cobijas  similar  to  the 
Mexican  ponchos.  Close  to  every  hut  grows  the  calabash- tree,  yielding  an 
unlimited  supply  of  ready-made  household  utensils,  and  even  musical  instruments. 
In  these  maracas,  as  they  are  called,  the  llaneros  enclose  a  few  grains  of  maize, 
flourishing  them  about  in  tune  with  the  mandoline  at  their  dances  and  concerts. 
The  wealthy  classes,  however,  need  something  more  than  this,  and  their  require- 
ments are  met  by  the  foreign  importers. 

Under  the  Spanish  regime  the   trade  of  Venezuela  was  monopolised  by  the 
historical  "  Guipuzcoa  "  Company.      The  transactions  of  this  society  led  to  the 

Fig.  46. — YUHUAUEI  GOLD-MINES. 
Scale  1 :  425,000. 


West  or  Greenwich 


62' 


9  Miles. 


first  revolt  in  1749,  when  Juan  Francisco  de  Leon  advanced  at  the  head  of  9,000 
men  to  drive  the  company's  people  from  Caracas.  Under  more  liberal  regulations 
the  business  of  the  country  has  increased  tenfold  since  1830,  a  rate  of  increase  far 
surpassing  that  of  the  population.  But  in  this  increase  Spain,  which  formerly 
excluded  all  rivals,  now  takes  the  least  share,  ranking  not  only  after  Great  Britain, 
the  United  States,  France  and  Germany,  but  even  after  Colombia  and  the 
British  colony  of  Trinidad.  England,  which  formerly  stood  first,  now  takes  the 
second  place  next  to  the  United  States,  whose  exchanges  were  nearly  doubled 
during  the  decade  between  1880  and  1890,  thanks  to  the  new  line  of  steamers  now 
plying  between  the  two  republics.  In  return  for  cacao,  skins,  copper  ores,  timber, 
phosphates  and  especially  coffee,  Venezuela  takes  from  the  United  States  cottons, 
flour  and  salt  meat. 


TEADE— RAILWAYS  OF  VENEZUELA. 


129 


COMMUNICATIONS. 

The  coasting  trade  carried  on  between  the  Venezuelan  ports  adds  about 
£4,000,000  to  the  total  of  the  annual  exchanges.  In  1888  nearly  13,000  vessels 
of  over  2,000,000  tons,  including  927  steamers,  entered  and  cleared  from  these 
ports,  and  the  traffic  of  the  republic  with  the  Antilles,  North  America,  and  Europe 
already  suffices  to  support  nine  regular  lines  of  steamers. 

But  the  development  of  the  inland  communications  must  tend  to  increase  the 
general  movement  of  commerce  far  more  rapidly  than  the  expansion  of  its  foreign 
trade.  Even  recently  the  so-called  highways  were  for  the  most  part  mere  paths, 
by-ways  or  the  broad  beaten  track  of  animals  crossing  the  llanos.  But  now,  as 

Fig.  47. — LA  GUAIRA  ;  VIEW  TAKEN  AT  CARTONAL. 


in  so  many  other  newly-settled  lands,  the  people  are  beginning  to  develop  a  railway 
system  before  they  have  had  time  to  build  ordinary  roads.  A  first  line,  boldly  con- 
structed up  a  steep  incline  and  following  the  windings  of  savage  gorges,  connects 
the  capital  with  its  port  of  La  Guaira.  Another,  scarcely  less  indispensable,,  puts 
Valencia  and  its  rich  plantations  in  direct  communication  with  Puerto  Cabello. 

Other  ports,  such  as  Guanta,  Oarenero,  Tucacas  and  Ceiba,  are  connected  with 
inland  towns  by  various  branches  of  afar  from  completed  network.  Unfortunately 
the  progress  of  the  trunk  line,  which  is  to  effect  a  junction  between  the  two  chief 
seaports  and  the  two  cities  of  Caracas  and  Valencia  across  highly  productive  cacao 
and  coffee  plantations,  has  been  interrupted  by  another  civil  war  (1892-3). 
10 


180 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIOXS. 


The  telegraph  system  already  connects  all  the  towns  of  the  republic  with  the 
rest  of  the  world  through  the  submarine  cable  which  has  its  land  terminus  at  La 
Guaira.  The  various  local  lines,  employed  chiefly  in  the  service  of  the  adminis- 
tration, are  a  heavy  burden  on  the  Treasury,  owing  to  the  backward  state  of 
education  and  of  commerce.  In  1888  the  returns  showed  only  one  despatch  for 
every  five,  and  one  letter  for  every  two  persons,  a  proportion  inferior  even  to  that 
of  Russia. 

The  first  printing-office  and  the  first  newspaper  date  only  from  the  year  1808, 
just  before  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  Independence.  Serious  publications  are 
still  rare,  but  periodicals,  mostly  short-lived,  have  greatly  multiplied.  According 

Fig.  48.— LA  GUAIEA. 
Scale  1  :  25.000. 


66°57<  West  bF  Gre 


1'eptlis. 


Sands  exposed 
at  low  water. 


Oto5 
Fathoms. 


5  to  10 
Fathoms. 


10  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


25  Miles. 


to  the  law,  primary  instruction  should  be  "  gratuitous  and  obligatory,"  yet  scarcely 
a  twentieth  part  of  the  population  attends  the  schools. 

Three  high  schools,  those  of  Caracas,  Merida,  and  Maracaibo,  have  been  raised 
to  the  rank  of  universities,  but  that  of  Caracas  alone,  founded  in  1822,  has  any 
claim  to  the  honour — at  least,  since  the  middle  of  the  century.  Merida,  a  small 
town  lost  amid  the  mountains,  has  too  few  resources  for  its  university  to  support 
a  staff  of  professors  Hence  most  of  the  youngr  men  intended  for  the  liberal 
professions  still  continue  to  resort  to  Caracas.  The  lawyers,  doctors,  and  especi- 
ally "  politicians',"  who  have  graduated  at  this  institution,  are  reckoned  by  the 
hundred,  and  many  of  these  have  completed  their  studies  in  Paris,  or  in  other 
European  universities. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  VENEZUELA. 


181 


ADMINISTRATION. 

According  to  the  text  of  the  fundamental  statute,  Venezuela  is  constituted  a 
federal  republic,  "  popular,  elective,  and  responsible."  In  1893  it  comprised  eight 
states,  the  federal  district  of  Caracas,  various  territories  and  colonies  dependent  on 
the  central  government.  Each  state  is  autonomous,  with  separate  administration 
of  justice,  legislative  body,  and  president — in  fact,  all  the  machinery  of  admi- 
nistration on  the  model  of  the  supreme  government.  This  central  system  is 
itself  modelled  on  that  of  the  United  States,  the  national  Congress  consisting 

Fig.  49. — POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  OF  VENEZUELA. 
Scale  1  :  16,000,000. 


•  Federal  District. 


Limit  of  Present  States. 


Limit  of  Former  States. 


Limit  of  Territories. 


Names  of  the  former  State  Capitals  :  1,  Barcelona;  2,  Cumana ;  3,  Maturin  ;  4,  Asuncion  (Nueva  Esparta)  ;  5,  La  Guaira 
(Bolivar) ;  <J,  Calabozo  (Quarico)  ;  7,  Victoria  (Aragua) ;  8,  Coro  (Falcon);  9,  Maracaibo  (Zulia)  ;  10,  Barquisfraeto ; 
11,  San  Felipe  (Yaricui) ;  12,  Guanare  (Portuguesa) ;  13,  San  Carlos  (Cojedes)  ;  14,  Varinas;  15,  Merida;  16,Trujillo; 
17,  San  Cristobal  (Tachira). 

______^_^_^^^_  310  Miles. 

of  two  houses,  the  Senate  with  24,  and  the  House  of  Representatives  with  52 
members.  The  electors — that  is,  all  men  over  18  years  of  age — nominate  one 
deputy  for  every  35,000  inhabitants,  and  one  over  for  an  excess  of  15,000  in  each 
state.  Both  the  deputies  and  the  senators,  who  are  nominated  by  the  several 
state  legislatures,  are  elected  for  a  period  of  four  years.  There  is  also  a  federal 
council  of  19  members  appointed  by  the  Congress  every  two  years,  and  empowered 
to  choose  a  president  from  its  own  members,  who  is  also  president  of  the  republic. 


182  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  LEGIONS, 

The  same  body  chooses  the  vice-president,  who,  under  certain  circumstances,  may 
replace  the  president  either  for  a  time  or  absolutely.  The  executive  is  exercised 
by  eight  ministers  (interior,  fomcnto  or  "progress"  instruction,  board  of  works, 
finance,  credit,  war,  and  foreign  affairs),  all  responsible  to  Congress,  whose  decrees 
cannot  be  vetoed  by  the  president. 

The  revenue,  derived  chiefly  from  customs,  ranges  from  £1,600,000  to 
£1,800,000,  but  is  insufficient  to  meet  the  expenditure,  so  that  the  national  debt  is 
gradually  increasing.  Although  religious  tolerance  is  guaranteed,  the  "  Roman 
Catholic  and  Apostolic  "  State  Church  alone  enjoys  the  privilege  of  holding  public 
processions  and  other  outward  displays.  The  hierarchy  comprises  three  members 
only  of  episcopal  dignity — the  Archbishop  of  Caracas  and  the  Bishops  of  Merida 
and  Bolivar. 

In  1891  the  standing  army  stood  at  6,760  men  of  all  arms ;  but  during  the 
frequent  civil  wars  the  militia — that  is,  all  men  between  18  and  45  years  of  age — 
are  liable  to  serve.  This  force  is  estimated  at  250,000,  but  not  the  tenth  part  has 
ever  been  induced  by  bribes,  hope  of  plunder,  or  by  more  forcible  means  to 
take  service  with  either  faction.  Another  fiction,  carried  further  than  in  any 
other  state,  is  that  of  the  military  staff,  which  in  1889  comprised  no  less  than 
7,032  generals.  The  official  census  of  the  state  of  Carabobo  for  1875  returned 
nearly  one-seventh  of  the  male  population  above  21  years  as  "  superior  officers." 
It  appeared,  in  fact,  that  Carabobo,  with  about  170,000  inhabitants,  had  at  its 
disposal  449  generals,  627  colonels,  and  over  2,000  other  officers,  but  no  troops. 

The  territorial  divisions  shift  their  borders  with  every  revolution,  and  have 
consequently  no  permanent  value.  A  vote  of  Congress,  however,  has  recently 
decreed  the  re-establishment  of  the  21  original  states,  which  in  1881  had  been 
merged  in  eight  political  divisions  and  a  certain  number  of  territories,  some  of 
which  have  since  been  surrendered  to  Colombia  in  virtue  of  the  award  of  the 
Spanish  arbitrators.  In  the  Appendix  is  given  a  tabulated  statement  of  these 
divisions,  taken  from  official  documents. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


COLOMBIA. 

HE  republic  at  present  known  by  the  name  of  Colombia,  and  till 
recently  variously  designated  as  New  Grenada  and  the  United 
States  of  Colombia,  comprises  a  vast  domain  at  the  north-west 
corner  of  the  continent,  together  with  the  intercontinental 
isthmus  as  far  north  as  Costa  Rica.  The  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
coastlines  have  each  a  development  of  about  1,530  miles,  while  the  land  frontiers 
may  be  approximately  estimated  at  1,250  miles,  pending  a  final  settlement  of  the 
disputed  question  of  boundaries  with  the  conterminous  states.  At  the  extreme 
north-west  the  limit  of  the  Panama  district  towards  Costa  Rica  awaits  the  deci- 
sion of  the  arbitrators  charged  with  the  study  of  the  early  records  preserved  in  the 
Spanish  archives. 

The  frontier  towards  Venezuela  has  already  been  determined  by  the  arbitration 
of  Spain ;  but  with  Brazil,  Ecuador  and  Peru  the  question  is  still  in  a  backward 
state,  some  of  the  interested  powers  claiming  vast  spaces  in  the  almost  unin- 
habited wilds  of  the  Amazonian  slope.  But  even  apart  from  these  disputed  and, 
at  least  for  the  present,  almost  valueless  lands,  Colombia  still  remains  a  very  large 
state,  with  a  superficial  area  that  can  scarcely  be  estimated  at  less  than  500,000 
square  miles. 

The  true  Colombia,  however,  regarding  it  from  the  standpoint  of  the  general 
relief  and  more  characteristic  physical  features,  comprises  no  more  than  about  half 
of  this  domain,  that  is  to  say  the  ramifying  Andean  system  with  its  intermediate 
valleys.  "Were  the  international  frontiers  to  be  determined,  not  by  musty  and 
often  contradictory  documents,-  but  by  the  broad  natural  divisions,  Colombia  should 
certainly  have  retained  the  Sierra  de  Merida,  as  well  as  the  whole  of  the  Mari- 
caibo  basin,  leaving  to  Venezuela  the  Orinoco,  with  all  its  affluents.  Towards 
Ecuador,  also,  where  the  limits  on  the  seaboard  are  indicated  by  the  little  Rio  de 
Mataje  (Pillanguapi),  the  frontiers  are  for  the  most  part  artificial,  traversing 
plateaux  and  mountains  with  little  regard  to  the  geographical  and  ethnical  con- 
ditions. Its  south-eastern  plains  being  mostly  almost  uninhabited,  Colombia  as 
a  whole  is  but  sparsely  peopled,  although  certain  regions  of  the  plateau  already 


134  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

resemble  "West  Europe  in  the  density  of  their  population.     In   1892  the  actual 
population  was  approximately  estimated  at  4,200,000. 

PROGRESS  OF  DISCOVERY  AND  CONQUEST. 

The  name  of  Colombia  is  so  far  justified  by  the  fact  that  Columbus  really 
visited  its  shores  between  the  Chiriqui  lagoon  and  the  San  Bias  Islands ;  but  he 
never  sighted  the  mainland  stretching  from  the  Gulf  of  Uraba  to  the  Goajiros 
peninsula.  This  section  of  the  seaboard  was  first  coasted  by  Bastidas  and  his 
pilots,  who,  however,  formed  no  settlements,  nor  did  Hojeda  and  his  companion 
Vespucci  push  farther  west  than  the  headland  of  Cape  de  la  Vela.  The  isthmian 
region  where  Columbus  had  found  the  gold  which  earned  for  him  the  title  of  Duke 
of  Veragua,  and  which  was  known  to  be  limited  southwards  by  another  ocean, 
proved  much  more  attractive  to  the  Spanish  adventurers.  In  1513  Nunez  de 
Balboa  had  already  crossed  the  isthmus  in  23  days,  thus  discovering  the  South 
Sea,  and  tracing  a  clear  route  between  the  two  oceans,  from  Puerto  Bello  to 
Panama.  Vessels  were  now  launched  on  the  Pacific  waters  to  explore  the  sea- 
board, in  one  direction  towards  Mexico  and  California,  in  another  towards  Peru, 
the  Biru  of  legendary  reports. 

Pascual  Andagoya  was  the  first  to  coast  the  shores  of  New  Grenada,  returning 
to  Panama  in  1-522,  with  fresh  news  of  the  land  of  gold ;  two  years  later  Fran- 
cesco Pizarro  and  his  associates,  Diego  Almagro  and  Hernando  de  Luque,  were 
already  organising  expeditions  of  conquest.  Pizarro  himself  advanced  but  a  short 
distance  along  the  coast,  where  he  had  to  struggle  with  the  natives  and  with 
famine  ;  but  Almagro  penetrated  over  300  miles  southwards  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Rio  San  Juan,  that  is  to  say,  the  river  whose  valley  indicates,  with  that  of  the 
Atrato,  the  true  geographical  limits  of  the  southern  continent. 

In  1526  the  Spanish  pioneers  continued  to  advance  along  the  Pacific  coast 
southwards,  and  at  last,  after  numerous  misadventures,  passed  the  limits  of  the 
present  Colombian  seaboard,  reaching  the  Bay  of  Guayaquil,  and  landing  at 
Tumbez  on  Peruvian  soil  in  1527. 

The  marvellous  adventures  of  Cortez  and  Pizarro  necessarily  threw  into  the 
shade  the  lands  immediately  south  of  Panama,  although  even  this  region  was 
known  to  abound  in  the  precious  metals.  But  after  the  conquest  of  Peru  a  back- 
ward movement  set  in,  resulting  in  the  invasion  of  the  Colombian  plateaux  of 
Tuquerres,  Antioquia,  and  Cundinamarca  by  b  mds  of  adventurers  starting,  some 
from  Venezuela,  some  from  Ecuador.  The  coastLinds,  however,  were  also  visited 
at  an  early  date,  and  after  a  first  disastrous  expedition,  made  in  1508,  from  the 
shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Uraba,  the  Spaniards  had  already  gained  a  permanent  footing 
on  the  Colombian  seaboard  in  1525,  when  they  founded  the  city  of  Santa  Marta, 
not  far  from  the  Magdalena  delta,  but  the  settlers  were  not  numerous  enough  to 
extend  their  expeditions  beyond  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  surrounding  valleys. 

Thus  it  happened  that  the  first  serious  expedition,  or  rather  plundering  and 
murderous  campaign,  in  the  interior,  started  not  from  the  coast,  but  from 
Venezuela  in  the  year  1530.  Armed  with  the  mandate  of  Charles  V.,  authorising 


OLD  SPANISH  FORTIFICATIONS  AT  PUERTO  BELLO. 


CONQUEST  OF  COLOMBIA.  135 

the  adventurers  to  enslave  all  refractory  natives,  Ambrosius  Alfinger  aimed  at 
nothing  beyond  the  discovery  of  gold-mines,  and  the  capture  of  "  rebellious " 
Indians  to  be  sold  at  the  slave-market  of  Coro.  After  crossing  the  Perijaa 
mountains,  west  of  the  Maracaibo  basin,  he  burst  into  the  Upar  Valley,  plundering 
and  burning  the  habitations,  slaying  the  old  and  infirm,  kidnapping  all  the 
marketable  men  and  women,  the  mere  report  of  his  atrocities  dispersing  most  of 
the  tribes  to  the  surrounding  highlands.  After  these  exploits  he  traversed  the 
Sierra  de  Tairona,  reaching  the  banks  of  the  Magdalena  by  devious  tracks.  Here 
he  pushed  southwards  down  the  Lebrija  valley,  crossing  the  Velez  mountains 
with  the  intention  of  returning  to  Venezuela  by  the  paramos  and  intervening 
valleys.  But  he  never  reached  his  destination  ;  overtaken  by  the  Indians,  he 
perished  near  Chinacota,  between  Pamplona  and  Cucuta,  on  the  spot  which  has 
preserved  his  name,  Miser  Ambrosio.  Few  more  murderous  expeditions  were  ever 
led  by  any  lawless  adventurer. 

After  obtaining  the  concession  of  "  New  Andalusia,"  that  is  to  say,  the  whole 
territory  comprised  between  the  mouths  of  the  Magdalena  and  Atrato,  Pedro  de 
Heredia,  governor  of  Santa  Marta,  undertook  in  his  turn  the  conquest  of  the 
lands  assigned  to  him  by  Charles  V.  In  1533  he  landed  at  Calamari,  where 
now  stands  Cartagena,  and  after  a  fierce  engagement  with  the  natives,  continued 
his  march  southwards  to  the  Rio  Sinu  valley,  whence  he  brought  back  immense 
quantities  of  gold  objects  plundered  from  the  local  tribes. 

Numerous  other  expeditions  under  Pedro,  his  brother  Alonzo,  and  his  lieu- 
tenant, Francisco  Cesar,  were  made  up  all  the  affluents  of  the  Rio  Sinu,  as  well 
as  to  the  districts  forming  the  divide  between  that  river,  the  Cauca,  and  the  west 
bank  of  the  Magdalena.  The  station  of  San  Sebastian,  founded  by  Hojeda  on 
the  Gulf  of  Uraba,  near  the  mouths  of  the  Atrato,  was  also  rebuilt,  and  from 
this  place  Pedro  de  Heredia  set  out  to  discover  a  land  of  gold  which  the  Indians 
called  Dabeibe,  and  which  is  perhaps  the  district  where  is  situated  the  present 
village  of  Dabeiba.  After  losing  many  of  his  followers,  he  had  to  retrace  his 
steps  ;  but  Cesar  was  more  fortunate,  penetrating  much  farther  inland,  and,  after 
a  toilsome  nine  months'  march  through  the  forests,  at  last  reaching  the  Eldorado, 
situated  in  the  present  state  of  Antioquia,  near  the  great  western  bend  of  the 
Rio  Cauca.  Laden  with  the  precious  metal,  he  retreated  -in  all  haste,  returning 
in  a  forced  march  of  seventeen  days  to  avoid  pursuit  by  the  formidable  Choco 
Indians,  whom  he  had  defeated  with  great  difficulty  in  a  first  engagement. 

Meanwhile  the  great  discovery  had  been  made  of  the  Cundinamarca 
plateau,  inhabited  by  the  civilised  Muysca  nation.  The  German,  Georg  von  Speier, 
governor  of  Coro,  had  started  from  that  place  in  1534,  and  after  penetrating 
into  the  llanos  through  the  pass  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Sierra  de 
Merida,  had  successively  crossed  the  Orinoco  affluents  where  they  escape  from 
the  mountains  to  the  plains.  Beyond  the  Rio  Upia,  at  the  very  foot  of  the 
Muysca  plateau,  he  had  continued  his  march  southwards  to  and  beyond  the  Ari-Ari 
in  the  Guaviare  basin,  returning  to  Coro  after  five  years  of  hardships  and  sangui- 
nary conflicts  with  the  natives,  in  which  he  had  lost  four-fifths  of  his  followers. 


186 


SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


Speier  might  perhaps  have  fared  better  had  his  lieutenant,  Fredemann,  obeyed 
orders  by  coming  to  his  assistance  en  route.  Instead  of  doing  so,  the  desire  to 
secure  the  glory  of  the  discovery  for  himself  induced  him  to  advance  alone  by  a 
different  track.  Leaving  the  plains,  he  scaled  the  escarpments  from  the  west, 
and  thus  reached  the  coveted  goal,  the  rich  land  of  the  Muyscas,  with  its  cities, 
temples,  gems,  and  precious  metals.  But  Fredemann  had  himself  been  forestalled, 
and  on  his  arrival  he  found  the  plateau  already  in  possession  of  other  Europeans, 
who  had  come  from  quite  an  opposite  quarter. 

Belalcazar,  properly  Benalcazar,  Pizarro's  lieutenant  in  Quito,  aspiring  to 
extend  his  conquests  in  the  direction  of  the  north,  and  acting  on  the  information 

Fig.  50.  — CHIEF  EXPLORING  EXPEDITIONS  IN  VENEZUELA  AND  COLOMBIA. 
Scale  1  :  24.000,000. 


80° 


62" 


Si.    =  Simons. 
Sv.    =  Sievevs. 
Bel.  =  Belaleazir. 
Fer.  =  Fernandez. 


Rob.     =  Robledo. 
M.        —  Maldonado. 
It  -St.  —  Reiss  and  Stubel. 
W.        =  Whymper. 


Col.  =  Columbus. 
P.    =  Pinzon. 
Rg.  =  Raleigh. 
Ch.  =  Chaffanjon. 


620  Miles. 


received  from  the  Peruvians  of  Quito,  had  sent  forward  a  certain  Juan  de 
Ampudia,  a  ferocious  adventurer,  described  in  the  quaint  language  of  the  chronicler 
as  "  causing  the  same  effects  as  lightning  and  quicksilver.  Like  the  latter  he 
attracted  all  the  precious  metals  that  he  found  in  the  houses ;  like  the  former  he 
burnt  and  reduced  to  ashes  the  houses  themselves  as  well  as  the  cultivated  lands." 
Forcing  his  way  by  fire  and  sword  to  the  banks  of  the  Cauca,  he  here  founded 
a  city  early  in  1536  to  which  he  gave  his  own  name.  But  the  rising  colony 
was  soon  after  removed  by  Belalcazar  to  the  spot  now  occupied  by  Cali,  political 
and  commercial  centre  of  the  district.  Returning  to  the  south,  Belalcazar 


CONQUEST  OF  COLOMBIA.  187 

transformed  the  Indian  city  of  Popayan  to  a  centre  of  Spanish  rule,  explored 
the  sources  of  the  Cauca,  overran  the  upper  valley  of  the  Magdalena,  and  at 
last  ascended  the  slopes  of  the  plateau  on  which  stands  Bogota. 

A  third  conqueror  had  already  come  from  the  north  when  these  rivals  arrived 
from  the  south  and  west.  Gonzalo  Jimenez  de  Quesada  had  first  to  cross  the 
difficult  marshy  tracts  about  the  confluence  of  the  Cesar  with  the  Magdalena,  where 
he  lost  his  flotilla.  Then  he  scaled  the  advanced  slopes  and,  after  forcing  the 
gorges  and  passes,  at  last  secured  a  firm,  footing  on  the  plateau,  where  was  soon 
founded  the  future  capital,  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota.  Quesada  was  now  informed  of 
the  near  approach  of  the  two  other  bands,  under  Belalcazar  and  Fredemann  ;  all 
three  are  said  to  have  comprised  exactly  the  same  number  of  men — 160  warriors, 
a  priest  and  a  monk.  But  all  differed  in  their  equipment,  those  fresh  from  the 
plunder  of  Peru  being  arrayed  in  silks  and  plumes,  and  those  from  Santa  Marta 
wearing  cotton  fabrics  woven  by  the  Indians,  while  the  Venezuelans  coming  from 
the  llanos  were  clothed  in  the  skins  of  wild  beasts. 

The  three  camps  established  at  three  corners  of  the  plain  threatened  to  come 
to  blows,  and  after  exterminating  the  Indians  it  was  feared  that  they  might  end 
by  slaughtering  each  other.  But  peace  was  preserved,  Fredemann  accepting 
a  sum  down  in  lieu  of  his  pretended  claims,  while  Belalcazar  came  to  friendly 
terms  with  Quesada  regarding  the  frontiers  of  their  respective  domains.  As 
governor  of  the  newly  acquired  territory,  Quesada  gave  it  the  name  of  New 
Grenada,  in  honour  of  his  native  land, 

By  thus  seizing  the  central  region,  which  the  surrounding  populations  had 
been  accustomed  to  regard  as  a  holy  land,  to  respect  and  fear  as  the  centre  of 
civilisation  and  power,  the  Spaniards  henceforth  enjoyed  the  prestige  of  victory, 
together  with  the  advantage  of  an  impregnable  strategic  position.  It  was  now  an 
easy  task  to  continue  the  work  of  exploration  and  to  connect  the  various  itineraries 
of  the  conquerors.  The  Spanish  captains  withdrew  peacefully  to  their  several 
domains,  while  the  native  chiefs  brought  the  tribute  of  their  villages,  being  at  the 
same  time  compelled  to  purchase  the  salt  of  which  the  plateau  enjoyed  a  monopoly. 

Towns  sprang  up  along  the  main  routes,  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  and  near 
the  mining  districts.  The  exploration  of  the  lower  Cauca  valley,  and  of  the 
territory  of  Antioquia  by  Badillo  and  Robledo  completed  the  survey  of  the  upper 
fluvial  basin  already  made  by  Belalcazar  and  his  lieutenants.  Then  followed  the 
navigator  Andagoya,  who,  landing  south  of  the  Rio  San  Juan  and  ascending  the 
little  river  Dagua,  crossed  the  coast  range  down  to  Cali.  Thus  was  discovered 
the  great  trade  route  of  west -Colombia,  which  is  still  followed.  There  remained 
only  the  secondary  routes  and  less  important  districts,  many  of  which,  guarded 
by  dense  forests  and  fever-stricken  marshes,  are  even  now  known  only  in  their 
more  salient  features. 

Of  the  numerous  expeditions  to  the  llanos  which  followed  those  of  Speier  and 
Fredemann  all  traces  were  lost  in  these  vast  and  monotonous  solitudes,  effaced 
like  "  the  way  of  the  ship  on  the  sea."  No  record  has  been  preserved  of  the 
itineraries  followed  by  Jimenez  de  Quesada  in  1569,  by  Antonio  Berrio  in  1591, 


188 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


and  during  the  seventeenth  century  by  Samuel  Fritz,  and  so  many  other  Jesuit 
and  Franciscan  missionaries,  who  visited  all  the  tribes,  ascended  all  the  streams, 
and  crossed  all  the  portages  of  the  Colombian  plains. 

During  the  two  and  a  half  centuries  of  Spanish  rule  the  work  of  exploration 
was  reserved  for  official  surveyors,  the  results  of  whose  labours  were  jealously 
guarded  in  the  Government  archives.  Some  of  the  documents,  connected  not 
only  with  the  quest  for  gold,  precious  stones,  or  slaves,  but  even  with  scientific 
research,  have  not  yet  seen  the  light.  At  the  close  of  the  last  century  the 
naturalist  Jose  de  Caldas,  later  executed  as  a  rebel  by  the  Spaniards,  traversed 
every  part  of  the  country  to  study  its  soil  and  inhabitants. 

Thus  was  begun  the  scientific  work  continued  with  such  brilliant  results  by 
Humboldt,  Boussingault,  and  many  other  explorers,  foreign  and  native,  down  to 
the  present  time.  Of  the  preliminary  work  preparatory  to  a  general  description 
of  Colombia,  the  largest  share  falls  to  the  credit  of  Agostino  Cedazzi,  the  same 
geographer  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  what  still  remains  the  best  map  of  Vene- 
zuela. His  map  of  Colombia,  constructed  on  the  scale  of  1  :  1,350,000,  from  his 
own  surveys  taken  in  the  years  1849-55,  is  also  the  most  trustworthy  document  of 
the  kind,  and  will  continue  to  be  chiefly  consulted  pending  the  construction 
of  a  chart  on  a  more  ample  scale.*  Such  a  work  will  soon  be  possible,  for  the 
engineers  have  already  prepared  sectional  maps  on  scales  ranging  from  the  ten  to 
the  fifty  thousandth,  while  millions  of  acres  of  unoccupied  lands  have  been 
surveyed  with  a  view  to  Government  concessions  and  sales.  The  geographer 
Vergara  y  Yelasco  has  already  consulted  all  these  topographical  documents  in  the 
preparation  of  his  great  work  on  Colombia,  where  over  two  thousand  positions 
had  been  astronomically  determined  before  the  year  1893. 

Colombia  presents  exceptional  advantages  to  colonists  of  every  race.  Like 
Mexico  it  offers,  from  sea-level  to  the  mountain  summits,  the  regular  succession 
of  all  climates — heat,  moderate  temperature,  cold,  combined  according  to  the 
slopes  and  aspects  with  varying  degrees  of  dryness  or  moisture.  But  in  Mexico 
the  transitions  are  abrupt,  and  the  temperate  zone  is  represented  only  by  compara- 
tively narrow  belts,  whereas  in  the  more  highly  favoured  Colombia  the  healthy 
plateaux  and  foothills  project  far  beyond  the  central  alpine  mass.  Thus  the 
regions  enjoying  a  climate  of  average  temperature  similar  to  that  of  West  Europe 
occupy  a  vast  space  large  enough  to  support  tens  of  millions  of  inhabitants.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Santa  Marta  group,  the  Colombian  ranges  ramify  like  the 
ribs  of  a  fan  towards  the  north  and  north-east,  and  are  so  disposed  as  to  present 

*  Chief  itineraries  of  Colombia  and  Venezuela  in  chronological  order :  — 


Columbus  .     . 
Nino,  Guerra . 


1498 
1499 


Hojeda,Vespucci      1499 
Bastidas 
Balboa  .     . 
Andagoya  . 
Alfinger     . 


1500 
1513 
1522 
1530 
Diego  de  Ordaz  .  1531 


Heredia      .     .     .     1533     Badillo  .     . 


Speier  .  . 
Berlanga  . 
Cesar  .  . 
Ampudia  . 
Quesada 
Fredemann 
Belalcazar  . 
Robledo 


1534  |  Gonzalo  Pizarro 


1535 

Orellana     .     . 

1535 

Berrio    .     .     . 

1536 

Juan  de  Sosa  . 

1537 

La  Condamine 

1537 

Solano  .     .     . 

1537 

Humboldt  .     . 

1539 
1539 

Boussingault  . 
Schomburgk   . 

1540 

Codazzi.     .     .     . 

1850 

1540 

Reiss  and  Stiibel  . 

1870 

1591 

Steinheil     .     .     . 

1872 

1609 

Andre    .... 

1875 

1740 

Crevaux 

1878 

1763 

Schenck      .     .     . 

1880 

1799 

Hettner      .     .     . 

1883 

1831 

Sievera  .... 

1884 

1840 

Chaffanjon      .     . 

1885 

CLIMATIC  ADVANTAGES  OF  COLOMBIA. 


189 


cultivable  lands  at  all  altitudes  and  under  all  the  latitudes   and  longitudes  of 
the  country. 

Hence  Colombia  would  be  in  a  position  to  welcome  multitudes  of  immigrants 
were  accessible  routes  constructed  from  the  coast  to  the  uninhabited  or  sparsely 


Fig.  51. — ZONES  OP  ALTITUDE  IN  COLOMBIA. 
Scale  1  :  9.500,000. 


78' 


West  oF  Greenwich 


CZJ 

0  to  3,300 
Feet. 


0  to  500 
Fathoms. 


Heights. 


3,300  to  6.600 
-    Feet. 


6,600  to  13,200 
Feet. 


Depths. 


500  to  1,000 
Fathoms 


1,000  to  2,000 
Fathoms. 


13.200  Feet 
and  upwards. 


2,000  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


186  Miles. 


peopled  regions  of  the  temperate  and  cold  zones.  But  the  difficulties  of  the 
approaches  to  the  uplands  have  hitherto  kept  settlers  at  a  distance,  while  the  hot, 
low-lying  coastlands  are  unsuitable  for  white  colonisation. 


HO  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

BELIEF  OF  THE  LAND. 

In  Colombia  the  highest  group  of  mountains  forms  no  part  of  the  Andean 
system,  but  rises  in  complete  isolation  on  the  verge  of  the  Atlantic  as  a  triangular 
pyramid,  with  its  most  regular  side  facing  seawards,  its  second  turned  westwards 
to  the  Rio  Magdalena,  and  its  third  south-eastwards  to  the  rivers  Cesar  and 
Rancheria. 

The  Sierra  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta,  as  it  is  called,  covers  a  space  of  some  6,500 
square  miles,  standing  out  like  an  insular  mass  high  above  the  surrounding  swamps 
and  lowlands.  At  a  former  epoch  it  was  really  an  island,  and  even  still  the 
highest  pass  over  the  rising  ground  separating  it  from  the  Cordilleras  scarcely 
exceeds  920  feet.  This  rising  ground,  the  Sierra  Negra,  is  an  alluvial  plain, 
across  which  it  would  be  easy  to  cut  a  canal  between  the  two  divergent  streams, 
the  Rio  Cesar,  flowing  to  the  Magdalena,  and  the  Rancheria,  which  sweeps  round 
the  east  foot  of  the  sierra  to  reach  the  Caribbean  Sea.  It  seems  evident  that 
the  plain  formed  the  bed  of  the  Magdalena  before  this  river  had  shifted  its  course 
to  a  lower  level  farther  west. 

THE  SANTA  MARTA  AND  GTOAJIRA  UPLANDS. 

The  snowy  Sierra  de  Santa  Marta,  rising  abruptly  above  the  sea  to  a  vertical 
height  of  over  three  miles,  presents  one  of  the  grandest  spectacles  in  the  New 
World.  Seen  from  the  sea  at  sunrise,  before  its  crests  are  wrapped  in  fleecy 
vapour  or  dense  clouds,  a  full  view  is  obtained  of  its  precipitous  flanks  from  the 
verdant  woodlands  at  its  base  and  the  bluish  crags  following  at  mid-distance  up  to 
the  crowning  glory  of  its  rose-tinged  snowy  peaks,  standing  out  against  the  azure 
sky.  Above  the  Rio  Cesar  valley  the  heights,  although  less  abrupt,  have  a  more 
forbidding  aspect,  owing  to  their  arid,  rugged  slopes,  unre freshed  by  a  breath  of 
the  moisture-charged  trade  winds.  Beneath  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun  beating 
against  the  many-coloured  bare  rocks,  the  mountains  seem  all  ablaze,  as  if  a  vast 
conflagration  were  rushing  from  the  glaciers  down  to  the  plains. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  first  Spanish  conquerors  had  penetrated  into 
the  Sierra  Nevada;  the  "frigid  mountains"  where  so  many  of  Alfinger's  men 
perished  of  cold  were  the  Citarma  uplands  inhabited  by  the  formidable  Tairona 
Indians.  Later  other  Spanish  expeditions  invaded  these  heights  in  search  of  gold, 
and  exterminated  their  inhabitants.  In  recent  times  the  sierra  has  been  visited 
by  Fane,  Karsten,  Acosta,  Sievers,  and  other  explorers,  who  ascended  the  slopes 
to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  snow-line.  Simons  came  within  a  short  distance  of 
the  great  peak  in  1875,  when  he  crossed  the  Paramo  de  Chirugua  at  an  altitude 
of  16,000  feet.  During  a  second  exploration  he  was  arrested  some  500  feet  below 
the  summit,  variously  estimated  at  from  17,350  to  19,000  feet  high.  At  last 
J.  de  Brettes  and  Manuel  Nunez  reached  the  highest  point  from  the  south,  which 
is  by  far  the  most  accessible  slope,  thanks  to  its  less  rugged  character,  the  absence 
of  forests,  and  the  greater  elevation  of  the  snow-line. 

The  central  granitic  group  stands  28  miles  from  the  sea  in  a  straight  line, 
which  would  give  a  general  incline  of  not  more  than  3  in  10  yards;  but  the 


THE  SIERRA  DE  SANTA  MARTA. 


141 


intervening  terraces,  precipices,  and  lateral  ridges  render  all  direct  approach 
absolutely  impossible.  The  formations  are  chiefly  granites  and  metamorphic  rocks, 
besides  a  few  more  recent  lavas.  Tradition  even  speaks  of  violent  eruptions  during 
the  last  century  in  the  very  heart  of  the  mountains,  and  earthquakes  are  still  of 
frequent  occurrence. 

Even  on  the  north  side,  where  they  attain  their  greatest  development,  the 
permanent  snows  scarcely  descend  below  the  line  of  13,000  feet.  The  glaciers 
are  also  few  and  of  small  size,  though  Acoata  found  clear  traces  of  older  glaciers 

Fig.  52.— SIEKRA  NEVADA  DE  SANTA  MAETA. 
Scale  1  :  2,000,000. 


Depths. 


0  to  500 
Fathoms. 


500  Fathoms 
and  upwai  ds. 


50  Miles. 


6,500  feet  below  their  present  limit.    During  the  last  glacial  epoch  they  may  even 
have  descended  to  sea-level. 

The  heights  of  the  Goajira  peninsula,  east  and  north-east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
also  constitute,  if  not  an  isolated  mass,  at  least  a  group  of  detached  hills,  hillocks, 
and  ridges,  connected  neither  with  the  Santa  Marta  nor  with  the  Andes  system. 
They  may  be  regarded  as  belonging,  with  the  Paraguana  peninsula,  to  the  chain 
of  islands  here  fringing  the  seaboard.  The  southern  section  of  Goajira,  con- 
tracted between  an  inlet  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  bay  of  P^nsenada  de  Calaboso, 
is  a  level  plain  diversified  by  a  few  isolated  hills,  such  as  the  Teta  Goajira  (1,200 
feet),  a  perfectly  symmetrical  trachytic  cone  visible  from  both  inlets.  Farther 


142  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

east  the  chain  of  hills  running  from  the  Cabode  la  Vela  south-eastwards  consists  of 
steep  crags,  huge  blocks  strewn  about  or  piled  up  in  disorder,  heights  destitute  of 
vegetation,  a  vast  chaos  of  rocks  and  boulders,  affording  a  safe  retreat  to  the 
Goajira  Indians.  The  system  culminates  with  Mount  Yuripiche  (2,300  feet),  stand- 
ing near  its  southern  extremity  in  the  midst  of  other  scarcely  less  elevated  summits. 
Parallel  with  this  chain  runs  a  second  almost  equally  desolate  ridge,  disposed 
north-west  and  ^outh-east  between  Buhia  Honda  and  the  Tucacas  lagoon ;  here 
the  highest  crest  is  the  Cerro  Aceite,  the  Guajarepa  of  the  natives  (2,200  feet). 
This  is  followed  by  another  parallel  ridge,  skirting  the  north-east  coast,  which 
takes  the  namo  of  Macuira  from  its  culminating  peak,  2,600  feet  high.  All 
these  little  sierras  consist  of  eruptive  rocks  disposed  in  a  line  with  crevasses 
transverse  to  the  main  axis  of  the  Andean  Cordilleras. 

THE  EASTERN  CORDILLERA. 

The  Andes  properly  so  called  begin  at  the  neck  of  the  Goajira  peninsula  with 
the  forest-clad  Montes  de  Oca,  a  range  of  low  elevation,  forming  the  political 
frontier  between  Venezuela  and  Colombia.  But  the  heights  soon  attain  an  eleva- 
tion of  6,500  feet  and  upwards  in  the  Sierra  de  Perijaa,  whose  loftiest  section 
usually  takes  the  name  of  Sierra  Negra  ("  Black  Range  "),  doubtless  from  the 
gloomy  forests  clothing  its  limestone  slopes,  and  contrasting  above  the  TJpar 
valley  with  the  pink  or  whitish  granites  and  snows  of  the  Nevada. 

The  Cerro  Pintado,  loftiest  summit  of  the  system,  presents  the  aspect  of  a 
citadel  raised  above  the  lower  terraces.  This  superb  eminence  takes  its  name  of 
the  "  Painted  Mountain  "  from  its  white  limestone  ramparts,  diversified  with  belts 
of  woodlands  and  grassy  gorges,  flanked  at  the  base  with  pink  sandstone 
buttresses,  and  towering  to  a  height  of  9,850,  or,  according  to  Simons'  estimate, 
11,800  feet. 

South  of  the  Cerro  Pintado  the  range,  which  is  disposed  in  the  direction  of 
the  meridian,  falls  gradually  to  a  mean  altitude  of  not  more  than  5,000  feet,  with 
a  culminating  peak  8,200  feet  high,  in  the  Motilones  district.  The  system  con- 
tinues to  fall  still  lower  in  the  region  about  the  headwaters  of  the  Colorado  affluent 
of  the  Magdalena,  and  of  the  Rio  del  Oro,  flowing  through  the  Catatumbo  to 
Lake  Maracaibo  ;  here  the  range  is  crossed  by  passes  not  more  than  3,000  feet 
high,  affording  relatively  easy  communication  between  the  two  basins. 

South  of  these  passes  the  system  maintains  its  southerly  trend,  though  no 
longer  presenting  the  aspect  of  a  normal  Cordillera,  but  developing  a  number  of 
irregular  ridges  spread  over  a  very  wide  space.  Here  Mount  Bobali  attains  an 
altitude  of  6,740  feet ;  but  the  Simana  crests  nowhere  exceed  5,000  feet,  and  the 
cordillera  is  crossed  by  a  pass  as  low  as  4,270  feet,  near  the  latitude  of  Ocana, 
on  the  Maracaibo  slope. 

Farther  on  the  lateral  ranges  increase  in  height  and  length,  the  intervening 
valleys  stand  at  a  greater  mean  elevation,  several  peaks  exceed  8,000  feet,  while 
the  Macho  Rucio  and  the  Cerro  Pelado  attain  the  respective  heights  of  9,850 
and  11,000  feet.  Secondarv  chains  run  from  the  central  nucleus  between  Ocana 


THE  EASTERN  CORDILLERA  OF  COLOMBIA.  143 

and  Bucaramanga,  east  and  north-east  towards  the  Venezuelan  frontier,  and  here 
are  seen  such  superb  peaks  as  the  Horqueta  (10,768  feet),  the  Paramillo  (10,450), 
and  the  Cerro  Mina  (11,000),  rising  above  the  grassy  plateaux  of  the  mesas,  or 
"  tables,"  which  have  themselves  a  mean  altitude  of  nearly  10,000  feet. 

Still  farther  south  follow  the  crests  which  branch  off  to  the  Nevada  de 
Merida,  forming  the  divide  between  the  Magdalena,  Maracaibo,  and  Orinoco 
basins.  Here  the  scenery  is  highly  diversified  with  craggy  heights,  rich  valleys 
penetrating  far  into  the  heart  of  the  mountains,  romantic  glens  suspended 
midway  on  the  flanks  of  the  precipitous  slopes.  Cachiri,  culminating  peak  of 
these  Colombian  Alps  (13,780  feet),  constitutes  the  central  knot  of  the  system,  while 
Tama  (13,126)  forms  the  frontier  between  the  conterminous  states.  Westwards 
extends  the  Juan  Rodriguez  ridge,  whose  passes,  11,480  feet  high,  are  amongst 
the  most  frequented  in  Colombia. 

The  whole  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  that  is,  the  Suma  Paz  range,  rises  above 
the  upper  line  of  arborescent  vegetation.  These  paramos,  or  lofty  crests,  exposed 
to  the  cold  winds  and  snowstorms,  are  much  dreaded  even  by  the  highlanders, 
while  travellers  make  immense  detours  to  avoid  them.  Under  the  tropics  the 
body  is  more  sensitive  to  alternations  of  heat  and  cold  than  in  temperate  regions, 
and  great  risk  is  incurred  by  passing  abruptly  from  the  lower  forest  zone  with  a 
temperature  often  exceeding  85°  Fahr.  to  the  breezy  plateaux,  where  the  glass  falls 
to  42°  or  43°  Fahr.  Unless  the  circulation  is  kept  up  by  great  efforts  the  way- 
farer is  overcome  by  a  feeling  of  numbness,  frequently  followed  by  death.  Even 
domestic  animals  suffer,  and  birds  in  cages,  enveloped  in  wadding,  perish  of  cold 
in  these  bleak  uplands. 

Tama  and  its  paramos  are  separated  by  the  deep  valley  of  the  Rio  Sarare, 
a  main  branch  of  the  Apure,  from  the  Sierra  Nevada  de  Cocui,  or  de  Chita, 
which  rises  some  60  miles  to  the  east  of  the  divide  near  Bucaramanga.  The 
dominating  crest  of  this  lofty  range  is  clothed  with  a  snowy  mantle  about  2,000 
feet  in  vertical  height,  above  which  rise  five  blackish  domes,  with  an  extreme 
altitude  of  16,680  feet.  The  snowfields,  some  10  miles  in  extent,  are  flanked 
by  a  vertical  wall,  interrupted  only  by  a  glacier,  below  which  follows  the  Llano 
Redondo,  a  cirque  of  upland  pasturage,  inhabited  throughout  the  year  by  a 
solitary  herdsman  at  an  altitude  of  13,000 'feet. 

South  of  the  Cocui  range,  the  cordillera  forming  the  divide  between  the 
Orinoco  and  Magdalena  basins  fulls  to  a  mean  elevation  of  about  10,000  feet,  with 
peaks  rising  at  intervals  to  scarcely  more  than  3,000  feet  higher.  The  eastern 
slopes,  scored  by  torrents  descending  to  the  Orinoco,  are  far  more  precipitous  than 
the  opposite  side,  facing  the  western  mountains  and  plateaux.  But  the  crests 
everywhere  follow  in  a  series  of  long  undulations,  so  that  this  section  of  the 
Cordilleras  nowhere  presents  an  Alpine  aspect. 

The  eastern  scarp  of  the  Andean  system  ramifies  westwards  through  a  trans- 
verse ridge,  which  skirts  the  north  side  of  the  old  lake  of  Bogota,  and  which  is 
in  reality  a  mere  parting-line  between  the  streams  flowing  to  the  opposite  basins. 
On  both  sides  the  space  limited  westwards  by  the  Rio  Magdalena  is  a  vast  chaos 


144  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

of  heights,  where  it  is  impossible  to  recognise  the  primitive  foldings  of  the 
plateau  ranges,  which  have  been  carved  into  distinct  groups  by  the  running 
waters.  The  general  trend,  however,  is  parallel  with  that  of  the  eastern  scarp  of 
the  cordillera,  and  in  the  same  direction,  that  is,  either  to  the  south-west  or  the 
north-east,  have  been  discharged  the  large  volumes  of  lacustrine  waters  which 
formerly  filled  the  depressions  of  the  plateau,  and  the  outflow  of  which  has 
modified  the  primitive  relief  of  the  land,  excavating  deep  gorges,  levelling 
mountain  masses,  heaping  up  enormous  quantities  of  detritus  at  the  foot  of  the 
escarpments,  and  depositing  vast  beds  of  alluvial  matter  brought  down  from  the 
eroded  uplands. 

South  of  the  highlands  whence  the  Rios  Upia,  Chicamocha,  and  Funza  diverge 
in  various  directions,  the  outer  rim  of  the  Eastern  Cordilleras  develops  a  series  of 
long  paramos,  such  as  the  Gacheneque,  with  its  Pan  de  Azucar  ("Sugar-loaf") 
12,140  feet  high,  and  the  Carbonera  (11,300).  Immediately  east  of  Bogota  the 
Choachi  and  Chipaque  paramos,  ranging  from  10,500  to  10,830  feet,  form  the 
divide  between  the  Magdalena  and  the  Orinoco,  and  this  rampart. is  connected 
by  a  few  bare  crests  with  Nevado  de  Suma  Paz  ("Supreme  Peace"),  which 
culminates  in  a  peak  14,146  feet  high,  and  which  gives  its  name  to  the  whole 
system  of  the  Eastern  Cordilleras.  Viewed  from  Bogota,  these  superb  heights, 
aglow  with  the  rays  of  the  setting  sun,  seem  a  new  Olympus,  a  happy  abode  of 
the  gods  dwelling  in  "  supreme  peace." 

South-westwards  the  Suma  Paz  is  flanked  by  the  Alto  de  las  Cazuelitas 
(12,800  feet),  the  Cumbre  de  las  Oseras  (12,470),  the  Ari-Ari  (11,485),  and  a  few 
lesser  giants  about  the  sources  of  the  Guayabero,  westernmost  headstream  of  the 
Orinoco.  Farther  on  begins  the  so-called  Miraflores  Chain,  last  and  lowest 
section  of  the  Cordilleras,  whose  culminating  peak,  Miraflores,  scarcely  exceeds 
9,180  feet.  Its  eastern  scarp  trends  south-westwards  to  the  three  peaks  of  La 
Fragua  ("  The  Forge"),  whose  very  name  would  seem  to  suggest  an  igneous 
origin,  as  they  are  figured  on  the  old  maps,  although,  according  to  Codazzi,  the 
dominant  peak  consists  of  syenite.  Here  terminates  the  Eastern  Cordillera, 
the  erosion  of  the  Amazonian  affluents  having  left  nothing  but  an  elongated  ridge, 
under  6,000  feet  high,  between  the  Forge  and  the  Central  Cordillera. 

THE  CENTRAL  CORDILLERA. 

The  central  branch  of  the  Colombian  Andes  is  sharply  limited  by  the  course 
of  the  twin  rivers,  Magdalena  and  Cauca.  It  often  takes  the  names  of  the 
Sierra  de  Quindio  from  the  famous  pass  by  which  it  is  crossed  about  the  middle  of 
the  system.  This  central  section,  possessing  the  loftiest  summits  and  most 
Alpine  character,  should  be  regarded  as  the  main  range  of  the  Andean  highlands, 
of  which  the  Cordilleras  of  Suma  Paz  and  of  Chojo  are  mere  ramifications.  But 
these  superb  heights,  with  their  jagged  crests  standing  out  against  the  blue  sky, 
are  seldom  visible  from  the  terraced  plateau  of  Bogota,  except  during  the  early 
morning  hours.  After  nine  o'clock  fleecy  vapours  are  seen  rising  in  the  upper 
valleys,  which  gradually  become  more  dense  and  expansive,  until  the  huge  mass 


THE  CENTRAL  CORDILLERA  OF  COLOMBIA. 


145 


of  Ruiz,  the  truncated  cone  of  Tolima,  and  all  the  intermediate  peaks  are  wrapped 
in  continuous  fog 

Rising  in  terraces  in  the  direction  of  the  south,  the  various  branches  of 
the  Central  Cordillera  soon  merge  in  the  broad  plateau  of  Antioquia,  which 
is  carved  into  secondary  mesas  by  the  Nechi  and  its  affluents.  The  Cerro 
Grande,  in  a  lateral  ridge  near  the  Magdalena,  rises  to  a  height  of  5,350  feet, 
while  the  Central  Cordillera  is  dominated  under  the  same  latitude  by  Mount 
Yarumal,  whose  twin  peaks  are  respectively  7,470  and  7,230  feet  high.  In  this 
region  the  uplands  broaden  out  considerably,  descending  in  comparatively  gentle 
slopes  down  to  the  Magdalena.  But  westwards  they  fall  abruptly,  and  beyond 
the  deep  bed  of  the  Cauca  again  rise  rapidly  in  the  escarpments  of  the  Western 
(Choco)  Cordillera. 

In  the  midst  of  this  chaos  of  crests  in  the  district  of  Antioquia  the  chief 
group  is  the  Santa  Rosa  de  los  Osos  ("  Bear"  Mountains),  which  in  the  San  Jose 

Fig.  53. — MESA  DE  HEBVEO  AND  Ruiz  VOLCANO. 
Scale  1  :  1,350,000. 


76* 


West  or  Greenwich 


30  Miles. 


peak  attains  an  altitude  of  9,000  feet.  The  various  branches  converge  south 
of  Medellin  and  of  the  Rio  Force  in  the  transverse  crest  of  San  Miguel,  9,025 
feet  high. 

The  Alto  Pereira,  eastern  limit  of  this  rampart,  constitutes  the  corner-stone  of 
a  remarkable  chain  disposed  in  the  direction  of  the  south,  and  increasing  in  height 
in  proportion  as  it  loses  in  breadth.  On  a  pedestal  of  crystalline  rocks,  flanked 
on  both  sides  by  cretaceous  formations,  rise  lofty  pyramids  of  eruptive  matter, 
mountains  piled  up  like  "  Pelion  on  Ossa."  In  this  chain  of  volcanoes  the  first 
crater  is  the  huge  Mesa  de  Herveo,  18,340  feet  high,  flanked  by  another  some 
3,000  feet  less  elevated.  Vast  buttresses  disposed  in  terrace  formation  fill  up  the 
whole  space  comprised  between  the  Rios  Magdalena  and  Cauca. 

Northwards  the  Mesa  de  Herveo  is  limited  by  a  flooded  depression,  whence  two 
streams  flow  in  opposite  directions  to  the  two  parallel  rivers.  Southwards  it  is 
followed  by  the  snowy  Ruiz  (17,390  feet)  and  Santa  Isabel  (16,760).  In  1839 
11 


146 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


Degenhardt  noticed  columns  of  smoke  rising  above  Ruiz,  which  seems  to  be  not 
yet  quite  extinct.  Hot  springs  at  a  temperature  of  148°  Fahr.  bubble  up  near 
the  summit  on  the  west  side,  liberating  36  cubic  feet  of  sulphuric  and  hydro- 
chloric acid  per  hour. 

Tolima,  giant  of  the  Colombian  Andes,  raises  its  andesite  cone  to  a  height 
of  18,400  feet,  some  4,000  feet  above  its  slate  and  mica-schist  pedestal.  Nume- 
rous parasitic  volcanoes  bristle  on  the  slopes  of  the  cone,  which  stands  to  the 
east  a  little  beyond  the  main  axis  of  the  system.  Tolima  is  one  of  the  volca- 
noes lying  farthest  from  the  sea  that  are  not  yet  quite  extinct.  In  1595  the 
snow  covering  its  crater  and  the  neighbouring  cones  was  melted  so  rapidly 
that  two  torrents,  suddenly  transformed  to  rivers  and  charged  with  vast 
quantities  of  debris,  caused  destructive  inundations  below  Ibague.  The  waters 
were  so  impregnated  with  acids  that  all  the  fish  perished.  In  1826,  and  again 

Fig.  54. — QUINDIO  PASS. 
Scale  1  :  850,000. 


76°  West  or 


18  Miles. 


in  1829,  Tolima  ejected  columns  of  vapour,  while  solfataras  have  sprung  up  on 
the  neighbouring  paramos,  and  on  the  Quindio  Pass  south-west  of  the  volcano. 
This  pass,  the  most  frequented  of  all  in  the  volcanic  sierra,  connects  the  Cauca 
and  Magdalena  basins  at  an  elevation  of  11,440  feet.  Till  recently  it  was  of 
extremely  difficult  ascent,  but  now  the  approaches  on  both  slopes  have  been  greatly 
improved  by  a  pathway  developing  regular  meanderings  at  a  uniform  gradient. 

South  of  Tolima  the  cordillera  falls  considerably  as  far  as  the  peak  of  Santa 
Catalina,  in  which  it  again  rises  to  16,170  feet,  that  is,  the  lower  limit  of  perennial 
snows.  Then  follows  the  imposing  mass  of  the  three- crested  Huila  (18,000  feet), 
which  still  shows  some  life  in  its  sulphurous  vapours  escaping  from  a  few  fissures 
and  melting  the  surrounding  snows.  South  of  Huila,  the  Guanacas  Pass,  rather 
more  elevated  than  that  of  Quindio,  connects  the  two  upper  Magdalena  and  Cauca 
valleys.  This  broad  gap  was  followed  by  Belalcazar  on  his  first  expedition  of 
conquest  in  New  Grenada. 


THE  CENTEAL  COEDILLEEA  OF  COLOMBIA. 


147 


Towards  the  south  of  Colombia  the  volcanic  cones  of  the  Central  Cordillera 
become  more  numerous  and  more  active.  In  1849  Purace",  at  that  time  terminat- 
ing in  a  regular  dome,  suddenly  exploded,  ejecting  ashes  and  melting  its  snows, 
which  rushed  down  in  a  deluge  of  slush,  sweeping  away  the  neighbouring  villages 

Fig.  55. — COLOMBIA  MOUNTAINS. 
Scale  1  :  485,000. 


West  oF  Greenwich    76°30' 


76'20 


12  Miles. 


and  even  threatening  the  town  of  Popayan  17  miles  off.  Since  then  the  summit 
presents  the  aspect  of  a  truncated  cone,  which  may  be  ascended  on  horseback  to  a 
height  of  14,440  feet,  or  within  about  1,640  feet  of  the  top,  though  the  estimates 
of  its  present  height  vary  considerably. 


148  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

In  1869  another  eruption  filled  the  bed  of  the  Cauca  with  mud  and  pumice, 
and  completely  obstructed  the  stream  for  some  time.  A  rivulet  flowing  from  the 
slopes  of  a  parasitic  cone  tumbles  over  a  superb  cascade  260  feet  high.  This  is 
the  famous  Pasambio,  or  "  Vinegar  River,"  which,  according  to  Boussingault, 
annually  liberates  17,000  tons  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  15,000  of  hydrochloric 
acid. 

Purace  forms  the  north-west  termination  of  the  snowy  five-peaked  Coconucos 
chain,  south  of  which  extend  the  Buey  plateau  and  a  large  group  of  heights  and 
paramos  collectively  known  as  the  "Mass  of  Colombia."  Here  is  the  true  hydro- 
graphic  centre  of  the  country,  where  rise  the  four  great  rivers  Patia,  Cauca, 
Magdalena,  and  Caqueta,  this  last  a  main  headstream  of  the  Amazons.  The  ridge 
separating  the  upper  Patia  and  upper  Cauca  waters  is  surmounted  at  its  northern 
extremity  by  the  extinct  Sotara  volcano  (14,500  feet),  which  presents  an  imposing 
aspect,  thanks  to  its  isolation  and  to  its  bare  gloomy  rocks,  contrasting  with  the 
surrounding  forest-clad  heights. 

South  of  the  Colombia  group  the  three  main  Cordilleras  converge  in  the 
Pasto  "  knot,"  near  which  rise  the  three  volcanoes  of  Bordoncillo  (Patascoi),  and 
Campanero  (12,470  feet),  at  the  foot  of  which  lies  the  lacustrine  Cocha  basin, 
draining  through  the  Putumayo  to  the  Amazons,  and  lastly  the  Pasto  (14,000 
feet),  which  gives  its  name  to  the  whole  group,  and  which  is  itself  named  from  its 
extensive  pasturages.  From  the  vast  crater  of  the  Pasto  flows  a  stream  charged 
with  acids,  like  the  Vinegar  River,  but  three  times  more  copious.  During  the 
frequent  eruptions  of  this  volcano  fragments  of  incandescent  rocks  are  often 
hurled  to  a  great  height. 

South  of  Pasto  towards  the  Ecuador  frontier  follow  other  volcanoes,  such  as 
the  Azufral  (13,360  feet),  the  Cumbal  (15,720),  and  the  Chiles  (15,680),  which 
already  stand  in  the  main  axis  of  the  Choco  or  Western  Cordillera,  the  third  great 
Andean  chain  of  Colombia.  The  Azufral  crater  is  at  present  flooded  by  a  deep 
emerald-green  lake,  while  sulphurous  vapours  in  a  state  of  combustion  flit  over 
the  snowy  crest  of  Cumbal. 

THE  WESTERN  CORDILLERA. 

Like  the  other  Cordilleras,  the  western  range  consists  of  a  central  crystalline 
backbone  underlying  cretaceous  formations ;  but  no  igneous  cones  occur  anywhere 
in  the  section  extending  from  the  plains  of  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  banks  of  the 
Rio  Patia.  Excluding  the  low  Maria  chain  between  the  lower  Magdalena  and 
the  sea,  the  Choco  system  proper  begins  with  the  heights  enclosing  the  Rio  Sinu 
basin.  Eastwards  are  grouped  the  Murrucucu  Mountains,  which  are  prolonged 
south-westwards  by  the  San  Jeronimo  chain,  while  on  the  west  rise  the  Quinamari 
plateaux,  whence  a  range  of  heights  runs  north-west  to  the  Aguila  headland  at 
the  eastern  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Uraba.  Here  the  Chigurrado  peak  attains  a 
height  of  over  6,500  feet. 

The  various  ramifying  branches  at  the  extremity  of  the  cordillera  converge  in 
the  Paramillo  (11,120  feet),  between  the  Cauca  and  the  upper  Rio  Leon  valley. 


COLOMBIAN  SEABOARD  AND  ISLANDS.  149 

Westwards  the  system  is  continued  due  south  with  several  lofty  crests,  such  as  the 
Paramo  de  Frontino  Citara  (11,160  feet),  and  the  San  Jose  (9,860). 

Eastwards  the  ranges  approach  the  Cauca  valley  so  closely  that  the  river  seems 
to  flow  in  a  trench  of  prodigious  size.  On  the  west  side  rises  the  Cerro  Torra,  an 
isolated  mass  of  schistose  rocks,  containing  auriferous  quartz  veins,  found  to  be 
12,600  feet  high  by  Eobert  Blake  White,  who  scaled  it  in  1878. 

South  of  the  Rio  Caramanta  the  cordillera,  running  parallel  with  the  coast, 
trends  slightly  westwards,  culminating  in  the  Tatama  peak  (9,850  feet).  The 
scarcely  less  elevated  Munchique,  dominating  the  west  side  of  the  upper  Cauca 
valley,  projects  a  spur  to  the  Sotara  volcano,  south  of  the  Central  Cordillera. 
Beyond  this  junction  the  Western  Cordillera  is  abruptly  interrupted  by  the 
Minama  gorge  (1,676  feet),  which  is  traversed  by  the  tranquil  current  of  the 
Patia.  Farther  on  the  system  merges  in  the  chaos  of  mountains  often  called 
the  Tuquerres  "plateau,"  from  one  of  its  crests,  13,360  feet  high.  Yet  the 
Tuquerres  is  itself  overtopped  by  other  summits,  such  as  the  Gualcala  (13,780), 
and  the  above-mentioned  Chiles  and  Cumbal  volcanoes. 

OSCILLATIONS  OF  THE  SEABOARD — ISLANDS. 

Various  phenomena  have  been  observed  along  the  Colombian  seaboard 
indicating  frequent  changes  of  level.  In  several  places,  and  especially  east  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta,  the  old  beach,  covered  with  shells  similar 
to  those  now  inhabiting  the  neighbouring  seas,  stands  high  above  the  present 
shore.  Elsewhere  sudden  changes  have  been  observed,  apparently  due  to  volcanic 
action,  but  which  may  be  explained  by  the  spontaneous  combustion  of  hydrogen 
gas  escaping  from  certain  "mud  volcanoes."  The  Galera  Zamba,  one  of. these 
safety-valves,  80  feet  high,  stands  on  the  coast  near  Cartagena,  at  the  neck  of  a 
long  tongue  of  land  which  projects  far  seawards,  and  which  is  alternately  an 
island  and  a  peninsula.  About  1840  an  eruption  of  the  cone  was  followed  by  the 
creation  of  a  channel,  25  to  30  feet  deep,  between  the  island  and  the  mainland. 
But  in  1848,  after  another  explosion,  accompanied  by  flames  visible  over  90 
miles  off,  the  channel  was  again  obliterated  for  a  few  weeks,  when  a  great  part 
of  the  island  itself  disappeared.  The  combustion  of  vapour,  attended  by  the 
discharge  of  mud  and  earth,  has  been  attributed  to  the  electric  tension  of 
the  carburetted  hydrogen  gases,  which  usually  escape  from  the  ground  with 
the  saline  waters  percolating  from  the  neighbouring  lagoons. 

Most  of  the  islets  fringing  the  Colombian  seaboard,  such  as  Zamba  and  the 
Cartagena  cluster,  the  Panama  archipelago,  Tumaco,  and  the  groups  at  the 
mouths  of  the  Rios  Patia  and  Mira,  are  mere  geographical  dependencies  of  the 
mainland.  The  San  Andres  and  Vieja  Providencia  groups  in  the  north  belong 
to  Central  America,  and  are  only  politically  included  in  Colombia,  like  the  two 
oceanic  islands  of  Malpelo  and  Cocos,  at  some  distance  from  the  Pacific  coast. 
Malpelo,  310  miles  west  of  Buenaventura  Bay,  is  a  mere  rock,  with  nearly 
vertical  walls  rising  850  feet  above  a  submarine  bed,  separated  from  the  con- 
tinent by  depths  of  1,400  fathoms,  Cocos,  so  named  from  its  coconut- groves, 


150  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

belongs  to  another  submarine    bank,  apparently  connected  with  the  Galapagos 
Archipelago,  and  separated  from  Cocos  by  abysses  of  1,700  fathoms. 

RIVERS  OF  COLOMBIA — THE  MAGDALENA. 

The  Magdalena,  main  fluvial  artery  of  Colombia,  and  fourth  river  of  South 
America  in  volume,  belongs  entirely  to  the  Andean  system.  Its  two  chief 
branches  rise  and  are  developed  between  two  Cordilleras,  and  all  its  affluents  come 
from  the  region  of  the  Andes.  Its  main  trend  is  also  in  the  direction  from 
south  to  north,  that  is,  in  a  line  with  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  Cordilleras. 

The  farthest  headstream  has  its  source  in  the  Colombia  mass  between  the 
two  loftiest  groups  of  volcanoes — Purace  in  the  north,  and  Las  Animas  in  the 
south.  After  collecting  various  torrents  from  the  lacustrine  Paramo  del  Buey 
plateau,  the  Magdalena  plunges  suddenly  some  300  feet  through  a  series  of  rapids 
down  to  the  confluence  of  the  Suaza,  by  which  its  volume  is  nearly  doubled. 
Here  the  mainstream  is  already  8  or  10  feet  deep,  with  some  navigable  reaches, 
although  still  6,230  feet  above  sea-level.  Regular  steam  navigation  may  be 
said  to  begin  at  Neiva,  although  steamers  usually  stop  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Saldana,  which  descends  from  the  Central  Cordillera,  and  which  increases  by 
one- third  the  normal  discharge. 

Above  Girardot,  where  it  is  deflected  west  by  north  by  the  escarpments  of 
the  Bogota  plateau,  the  Magdalena  is  joined  by  the  Fusagasuga  (Suma  Paz) 
and  the  Bogota,  both  remarkable  for  the  wild  grandeur  of  their  old  lacustrine 
valleys.  After  traversing  an  elevated  terrace,  of  which  the  capital  occupies  one 
extremity,  the  Bogota,  here  better  known  as  the  Funza,  flows  sluggishly  in  a 
slightly  inclined  bed,  overflowing  its  banks,  and  flooding  the  riverine  marshes 
during  the  rainy  season.  But  on  reaching  the  edge  of  the  plateau '  a  little 
below  Bogota,  it  is  precipitated  475  feet  over  the  Tequendama  Falls  into  a  rocky 
chasm,  clothed  with  a  rich  tropical  vegetation,  and  usually  shrouded  in  mist. 
A  marvellous  spectacle  is  presented  at  this  point,  where  4,250  cubic  feet  of  water 
per  second  are  discharged  in  a  single  column  three  times  higher  than  Niagara. 
Below  the  falls  the  stream  rushes  wildly  over  a  succession  of  rapids  to  its 
junction  with  the  Magdalena,  descending  in  this  short  space  of  about  60  miles 
a  total  incline  of  5,830  feet. 

Immediately  below  the  confluence  the  Magdalena  becomes  entangled  in  a 
rocky  gorge  430  feet  wide,  now  crossed  by  an  iron  bridge.  Between  Girardot 
and  Honda  the  fluvial  level  is  lowered,  with  a  tolerably  uniform  incline,  from 
920  to  650  feet.  But  at  Pescaderias,  near  Honda,  the  stream  enters  a  series  of 
dangerous  falls  and  rapids,  practically  interrupting  the  navigation  for  a  distance 
of  15  miles.  Hence  a  railway  has  been  constructed  on  the  west  (left)  bank  to 
facilitate  the  communications  between  the  upper  and  middle  Magdalena,  the  total 
vertical  incline  at  these  Honda  gorges  being  116  feet. 

Farther  on  the  stream  still  maintains  a  somewhat  torrential  aspect  as  far  as 
the  junction  of  the  Rio  Nare,  contracting  at  the  Carare  Narrows  to  a  channel 
410  feet  wide,  hemmed  in  by  rocky  walls  on  both  sides.  During  the  floods,  when 


THE  KIO  MAGDALENA. 


151 


there  is  a  discharge  of  180,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  the  river  has  a  depth  of  no 
less  than  100  feet  at  these  narrows. 

Beyond  the  Nare  gorge  the  character  of  the  river  is  completely  changed.      It 

Fig.  56. — TEQUENDAMA  FALLS  ;  VIEW  TAKEN  AT  THE  FIBST  TEHBACE. 


broadens  out  and  ramifies  round  wooded  islands,  and  overflows  right  and  left 
into  the  riverine  lagoons,  which  represent  old  branches  of  the  mainstream.  With 
every  inundation  the  fluvial  bed  and  lateral  channels  are  modified  ;  steamers 


152 


SOUTH  AMERICA -THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


Fig.  57. — THE  NABK  GOEOB. 

Scale  1  :  75,000. 


are  often  arrested  or  delayed ;  snags  drift  together  and  form  obstructions,  as  on 
the  Mississippi  or  its  Red  River  affluent,  or  else  become  embedded  in  the  mud,  a 
constant  danger  to  passing  craft.  In  this  section,  which  in  many  places  expands 
to  a  width  of  over  a  mile,  the  chief  affluents  are  the  Carare,  the  Opon,  and  the 
copious  Sogamoso. 

Next  to  the  Cauca  the  Sogamoso  is   the  largest  tributary,  and  derives  special 

importance  from  the  region  which  it  tra- 
verses, one  of  the  most  densely  peopled, 
industrious,  and  historically  interesting  in 
Colombia.  It  is  formed  by  the  junction  of 
two  main  branches,  the  Chicamocha,  which 
has  the  longest  course,  and  the  Sara  vita, 
which  is  the  most  copious.  On  the  banks 
of  the  Chicamocha,  which  is  regarded  as 
the  mainstream,  is  situated  the  city  of 
Sogamoso,  which  gives  its  name  to  the 
whole  system. 

Rising  in  an  upland  valley  of  the  Eastern 
Cordillera,  not  far  from  the  escarpments 
facing  the  llanos,  the  Chicamocha  flows 
parallel  with  this  outer  Andean  range  as 
far  as  the  lofty  Cocui  heights.  Here  it 
trends  round  to  the  north-west,  forcing  its 
way  through  the  successive  Andean  chains 
in  stupendous  gorges  hundreds  of  yards 
deep.  In  the  Sube  defile  the  bed  of  the 
river  is  contracted  to  70  feet  in  width,  with 
a  volume  of  6,400  cubic  feet  per  second, 
rushing  between  rocky  walls  2,730  feet 
high. 

The  Saravita  or  Suarez,  rising  midway 
between  the  Eastern  Cordillera  and  the 
Magdalena,  has  a  still  more  savage  aspect 
than  the  Chicamocha,  for  it  has  to  descend 
from  the  same  altitude  in  a  course  less  than 
half  as  long.  After  traversing  the  marshy 
plateaux  and  the  vast  Lake  of  Fuquene, 
which  looks  like  a  permanent  inundation, 
the  Saravita  makes  a  sudden  plunge  of  70 
feet,  and  then  in  the  space  of  3  miles  descends  2,300  feet  in  a  narrow  gorge, 
where  it  disappears  altogether  for  a  distance  of  over  200  yards.  Other  gorges, 
cascades,  and  rapids  follow  in  quick  succession,  while  every  lateral  torrent  has  its 
narrows,  its  caiions,  cataracts,  chasms,  and  underground  channels. 

Below  the  junction  of  the  two  main  branches  the  Sogamoso,  here  flowing 


1J  Mile. 


THE  RIO  MAGDALENA.  153 

1,900  yards  below  the  neighbouring  uplands,  still  preserves  its  wild  character, 
rushing  between  its  narrow  rocky  walls  with  a  velocity  that  arrests  all  navigation 
except  for  a  short  distance  of  some  30  miles  on  its  lower  course. 

The  Lake  of  Fuquene,  whence  the  Saravita  escapes,  was  certainly  much  larger 
at  the  period  of  the  Conquest  than  at  present.  Piedrahita,  who  visited  it  in  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  gives  it  10  by  3  leagues,  whereas  Roulin's 
recent  careful  measurements  show  only  4£  by  3  miles  for  the  whole  basin.  Its 
level,  now  8,400  feet,  was  formerly  much  higher,  comprising  the  lacustrine  basin 
of  Ubate  arid  all  the  intermediate  plains,  as  is  attested  by  the  water-marks  still 
visible  along  the  flanks  of  the  encircling  hills.  But  the  waters  gradually  subsided, 
revealing  islands,  peninsulas,  isthmuses,  and  extensive  plains,  so  that  in  1780 
the  inland  sea  had  already  been  decomposed  into  two  completely  distinct  basins. 
The  village  of  Fuquene,  originally  built  on  its  banks,  is  now  3  miles  distant. 
13oussingault  attributes  the  subsidence  to  the  destruction  of  the  surrounding  oak 
and  wax  myrtle  (myrica)  forests,  used  up  for  building  purposes,  and  especially 
as  fuel  for  the  Nemocon  and  Tausa  salines.  At  present  the  lake  has  only  an 
average  depth  of  from  20  to  26  feet,  although  much  used  for  the  traffic  in  local 
produce. 

Although  much  smaller  than  the  Sogamoso,  the  Lebrija  is  also  a  copious 
affluent,  rising  in  the  eastern  mountains  and  joining  the  Magdalena  on  the  plains, 
not  directly,  but  through  the  wide-branching  and  ever-shifting  inland  delta 
which  is  here  developed.  Towards  the  middle  of  this  delta  the  main  branch  is 
now  deflected  to  the  north-west,  but  it  formerly  continued  its  northerly  course 
to  the  sea  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta,  through  the  valley  now 
occupied  by  the  Rio  Rancheria.  During  the  floods  the  Magdalena  still  sends  its 
overflow  northwards  to  the  old  bed,  and  thus  is  formed  the  vast  Zapatosa  lagoon, 
varying  with  the  seasons  from  400  to  700  or  800  square  miles  in  extent  and  from 
20  to  25  feet  deep. 

Besides  the  periodical  contributions  of  the  Magdalena  from  the  south, 
Zapatosa  and  the  neighbouring  basins  receive  the  Rio  Cesar,  descending  on  the 
opposite  side  from  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Sierra  Negra.  The  Cesar,  formerly 
Cesari,  takes  its  name  not,  as  might  be  supposed,  from  the  Portuguese  conqueror 
of  the  Antioquia  plateau,  but  from  an  Indian  word  meaning  "  Smooth  Waters." 

Below  its  Zapatosa  affluent  the  Magdalena  again  ramifies.  Till  recently  the 
main  branch  trended  north-west  along  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  terraces ;  but 
in  1801  it  had  already  reopened  on  the  left  the  tortuous  Loba  channel,  through 
which  some  of  its  waters  flowed  to  the  Cauca.  After  various  shiftings  between 
the  two  beds,  the  Loba  at  last  became  the  main  channel  in  1868,  since  which  time 
the  more  convenient  eastern  branch  has  been  gradually  silting  up.  In  the  dry 
season  it  is  at  present  a  narrow  passage,  scarcely  20  inches  deep  at  the  sills,  and 
in  some  places  merely  stagnant  water.  The  Loba  branch,  on  the  contrary,  which 
receives  the  Cauca,  and  a  little  lower  down  the  San  Jorge  on  its  left  bank,  now 
carries  nearly  all  the  united  waters  of  the  whole  b'isin.  The  line  of  navigation 
has  thus  been  changed,  and  while  the  towns  on  the  east  branch  are  decaying, 


154 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


those  on  the  Loba  have  become  riverine  ports,  threatened,  however,  to  be  sub- 
merged by  the  rising  waters. 

THE  CAUCA  AND  MAGDALENA  DELTA. 

The  Cauca,  the  Rio  de  Santa  Marta  of  the  first  settlers,  rises  in  the  same 
uplands  as  the  Magdalena,  and  follows  a  parallel  valley  with  corresponding  stages 
on  its  course  to  the  plains.  Rushing  in  a  rugged  fissure  between  the  Purace*  and 
Sotara  volcanoes,  it  descends  a  total  vertical  height  of  8,200  feet  in  a  course  of 
60  miles,  thus  reaching  the  bed  of  the  old  lake  which  stretched  south  and  north 

Fig.  58. — INLAND  DELTA  OF  THE  MAGDALENA. 
Scale  1  :  1,900,000. 


74*      West  of  Greenwich 


44  Miles. 


between  the  Western  and  Central  Cordilleras.  Here  its  tranquil  stream  is 
navigable  for  steamers,  although  these  reaches  possess  little  economic  importance, 
being  suspended,  so  to  say,  above  the  lower  plains  and  separated  from  them  by  a 
long  series  of  rapids  and  swirling  waters. 

Below  the  town  of  Cartago  the  Cauca  glides  with  great  rapidity  down  a  steep 
incline,  without,  however,  forming  any  falls,  despite  the  misguiding  expression, 
Salto  de  Virginia,  applied  to  the  incline.  Here  begins  the  unnavigable  section 
which,  in  the  space  of  386  miles,  has  a  total  fall  of  2,660  feet  without  a  single 
cascade,  but  with  many  rapids,  eddies,  foaming  waters,  reefs,  and  gorges.  At 
certain  points  the  stream  is  narrowed  to  about  100  feet  between  sedimentary  rocky 


THE  BIO  CAUOA. 


155 


walls,  across  which  bridges  of  trailing  plants  have  been  thrown,  Indian  fashion. 
One  of  these,  on  the  route  between  Medellin  and  Antioquia,  is  no  less  than  750 
feet  long  from  bank  to  bank. 

Beyond  the  last  escarpments  the  Cauca  is  joined  by  the  Nechi,  a  considerable 
affluent  descending  from  the  heart  of  the  Central  Cordillera,  in  nearly  a  straight 
line  from  south-west  to  north-east,  thus  forming,  as  it  were,  a  chord  to  the  arc 
described  by  the  mainstream  itself.  The  Nechi  is  formed  by  two  branches,  the 
smaller  of  which  keeps  the  name  of  the  mainstream,  although  flowing  in  a  lateral 

Fig.  59.-  MOUTHS  OF  THE  MAGDALENA. 
Scale  1  :  1,600,000. 


l>ppth«. 


OtoSO 
Fathoms. 


50  to  600 
Fathoms. 


50(i  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


30  Miles. 


valley,  while  the  longer  and  more  copious,  which  retains  the  direction  of  the  lower 
course,  is  known  as  the  Force  or  Medellin.  Both  descend  from  the  highlands 
abruptly  to  the  plains  through  a  series  of  terraces,  cascades,  and  rapids,  like  those 
of  the  Sogamoso.  The  Guadalupe  affluent  of  the  Force  plunges  over  a  salto  (fall) 
no  less  than  820  feet  high. 

At  the  Nechi  confluence  the  Cauca,  here  2,000  feet  wide,  winds  through  a 
level  plain  between  low  banks  fringed  with  marshes.  At  Guamal,  where  it  joins 
the  Magdalena,  it  has  a  discharge  of  77,800  cubic  _eet  per  second,  and  seems  little 
inferior  in  volume  to  the  mainstream.  After  the  junction  of  the  San  Jorge,  and 


156  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

of  various  lateral  channels,  the  united  waters  spread  out  beyond  the  horizon,  over 
a  region  aptly  named  the  Anegadiio  ("  Submerged  "). 

The  section  of  the  Magdalena  which  extends  from  the  Oauca  confluence  to  the 
Dique  de  Calamar,  that  is,  the  first  branch  of  its  marine  delta,  has  a  total  length 
of  scarcely  more  than  60  mile?.  The  Dique  (canal)  itself  is  a  mere  channel  200 
or  300  feet  wide,  and  not  more  than  8  inches  deep  in  some  places ;  and  although 
it  becomes  a  copious  stream,  it  would  soon  be  obstructed  by  the  aquatic 
growths  and  lost  in  the  surrounding  swamps  were  the  Dique  not  kept  open  by 
embankments  and  other  artificial  works. 

To  the  right  branch  off  the  Cano  San  Antonio,  the  Cano  Remolino  and  several 
other  channels,  which  traverse  the  marshy  tracts  between  the  mainstream  and 
the  Cienaga  inlet  at  the  west  foot  of  the  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta.  But  these 
shallow,  sluggish  creeks  carry  off  very  little  water,  so  that  the  Magdalena 
proper  retains  nearly  the  whole  of  its  volume  as  far  as  the  triangular  island 
of  Los  Gomez  where  the  true  delta  is  formed  by  its  two  ramifying  branches. 

The  Rio  Yiejo,  or  eastern  branch,  600  or  800  yards  broad,  has  a  depth  of 
not  more  than  5  feet,  and  is  accessible  only  to  boats.  The  Boca  Ceniza,  a 
western  branch,  first  ascended  by  steamers  in  1857,  had  a  uniform  depth  of 
23  feet  in  1875.  But  it  is  frequently  obstructed,  and  accidents  often  occur  from 
the  lack  of  buoys,  and  especially  of  regular  and  continuous  surveys.  The  tides, 
rising  only  from  10  to  20  inches,  add  little  to  the  depth  of  water  at  the 
dangerous  bar,  which  is  consequently  avoided  by  large  vessels.  Otherwise  they 
could  easily  ascend  some  200  miles  to  Tacaloa,  at  the  Cauca  confluence,  this 
lower  reach  being  nowhere  less  than  26  feet  deep. 

Savanilla,  the  maritime  port,  stands  not  at  the  entrance,  but  on  the  west  coast, 
and  is  connected  by  rail  with  Barranquilla,  the  riverine  port  on  the  left  bank 
near  the  head  of  the  delta.  This  place,  like  so  many  others,  has  been  left  a 
little  to  the  west  by  the  main  branch,  which  is  gradually  being  displaced  east- 
wards. Between  Barranquilla  and  the  Honda  rapids  the  voyage  by  steamer 
averages  5  or  6  days  down,  and  from  10  to  15  up  stream.  Formerly  the 
bongos  and  champanes  (barges)  often  took  two  or  three  months  to  make  the  ascent.* 

Between  the  Magdalena  delta  and  the  Gulf  of  Uraba  the  Sinu  is  the  only 
river  reaching  the  coast.  It  rises  in  the  Paramillo  uplands,  and  ramifies,  like  the 
Magdalena,  into  a  labyrinth  of  shifting  branches  in  an  old  lacustrine  district,  now 
half  filled  up  by  alluvial  matter.  Beyond  this  inland  delta  all  the  waters  are 
again  collected  in  a  single  channel,  which  discharges  about  11,500  cubic  feet 
per  second  into  the  Morosquillo  Gulf.  The  Sinu  is  accessible  the  greater  part  of 
the  year  to  steamers  for  a  distance  of  110  miles,  and  to  boats  60  miles  farther, 
though  the  navigation  is  much  obstructed  by  the  shoals  of  the  gulf,  the  dangerous 

*  Statistics  of  the  Rio  Magdalena : — 

Area  of  the  basin  according  to  Vergara  y  Velasco        .         .  100,000  square  miles. 

Length  of  course 1,060  miles. 

Length  of  navigable  waters 750  miles. 

Length  of  ramifications 1,750  miles. 

Mean  discharge ...  264,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 


THE  RIO  ATEATO. 


157 


bar,  and  rapids  higher  up.     Hence  the  stream  is  chiefly  used  for  floating  down 
lumber.* 

THE  ATRATO. 

The  Atrato  (Darien,  Choco),  which  forms  the  natural  limit  of  South  America 
towards   its  north-west  extremity,  is  almost  less  a  river  than  a  moving  morass. 

Fig.  60.— MOUTHS  OF  THE  ATBATO. 
Scale  1  :  825,000. 


77-20- 


West  or    ureenwich 


76'SO 


.Depths. 


Oto  10 
Fathoms. 


10  to  25 
Fathoms. 


18  Miles. 


Thanks  to  the  heavy  rainfall  of  its  basin,  it  discharges  a  larger  volume  in  propor- 
tion to  its  extent  than  any  other  known  watercourse.     Rising  beyond  the  Andes 

*  Length  of  the  Sinu  according  to  Vergara  y  Velaaco,  286  miles  ;  extent  of  the  fluvial  basin, 
6,500  square  miles.  Mean  discharge,  11,500  cubic  feet  per  second;  at  high  water,  32,000;  at  low 
water,  7,000. 


158  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

on  the  low  divide  separating  its  sources  from  those  of  the  San  Juan,  the  Atrato 
loses  the  aspect  of  a  mountain  torrent  as  soon  as  it  trends  round  from  west  to 
north  in  a  line  with  the  longitudinal  axis  of  its  valley.  On  entering  this  depression, 
which  was  an  old  marine  inlet,  it  is  already  navigable  for  boats,  and  during  the 
floods  even  for  steamers. 

Swollen  by  hundreds  of  affluents  both  from  the  Western  Cordillera  and  from 
the  coast  range,  and  farther  on  by  the  majestic  Rio  Sucio  from  the  Paramillo 
uplands,  the  Atrato  winds  in  long  meanderings,  from  400  to  700  yards  wide,  through 
the  chain  of  riverine  marshes  and  circular  lagoons  periodically  flooded  by  its  inunda- 
tions. Its  rapid  currents,  entirely  free  from  the  aquatic  growths  covering  the 
surface  of  several  of  its  tributaries,  develop  a  vast  network  of  channels  separated 
by  sedge  and  reeds  tall  enough  to  mask  their  winding  banks.  A  few  isolated 
eminences  rise  in  the  midst  of  the  marshy  waters  along  the  adjacent  plains,  and 
the  traveller  wonders  whether  he  is  sailing  on  a  river  or  on  some  shallow 
inland  sea. 

In  its  lower  course  the  Atrato  for  some  distance  skirts  the  west  side  of  the 
Gulf  of  Uraba,  and  then,"turning  east,  falls  into  the  sea  through  a  many-branching 
delta,  whose  alluvial  deposits  extend  considerably  beyond  the  normal  coastline. 
Without  reckoning  the  minor  channels,  as  many  as  fifteen  branches  are  developed 
in  this  alluvial  delta.  But  the  position,  the  size,  and  even  the  number  of  the 
mouths  are  yearly  modified  according  to  the  volume  of  water  and  the  quantity  of 
mud  and  vegetable  matter  discharged  by  the  river. 

The  peninsular  deltaic  formation  projecting  from  the  west  coast  is  steadily 
advancing  eastwards,  and  must  eventually  close  the  Culata  (Sack)  of  the  Gulf 
of  Uraba,  leaving  only  a  narrow  channel  for  the  streams  reaching  the  coast  at 
this  point.  Thus  the  marine  inlet  is  being  gradually  transformed  to  a  lake,  and 
when  visited  by  the  explorer  Fidalgo  in  1793  the  Culata  was  already  fringed 
with  mangroves,  and  partly  covered  with  gamalotales,  that  is,  floating  meadows. 
But  the  channel  was  still  from  180  to  215  feet  deep,  whereas,  according  to  the 
most  recent  charts,  it  has  now  shoaled  to  from  70  to  160  feet.  The  Rio  Leon 
(Cuacuba),  which  discharges  into  the  head  of  the  Sack,  may  be  regarded,  like  the 
Rio  Suriquilla,  as  belonging  to  the  basin  of  the  Atrato,  which  is  also  joined  by 
several  other  lateral  streams  about  the  delta  district. 

Of  the  numerous  branches  two  only  are  accessible  to  sloops  and  eight  to  boats. 
On  the  bars  the  depth  averages  no  more  than  about  6  feet,  whereas  within 
these  obstructions  it  is  everywhere  sufficient  for  large  vessels.  In  some  places 
the  plummet  reveals  as  much  as  60  or  70  feet,  and  the  only  dangers  on  the  main- 
stream and  its  navigable  affluents  are  the  abrupt  windings  and  the  barriers  formed 
by  snags,  at  some  points  right  across  the  channel.  . 

The  Atrato  has  often  been  spoken  of  as  one  of  the  future  highways  of  navi- 
gation between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans.  In  1793  Fidalgo  already 
mentions  the  arrastradero  (portage)  of  San  Pablo,  where  a  cutting  "  a  little 
over  a  mile  long  "  would  suffice  to  connect  the  two  navigable  Rios  Atrato  and 
San  Juan.  Later  Humboldt  urged  the  facility  with  which  this  low  divide  might 


THE  EIOS  SAN  JUAN  AND  PATIA.  159 

be  pierced  at  the  Raspadura  gorge,  and  towards  the  middle  of  the  present  century 
Trautwine,  Porter,  Michler,  Selfridge,  and  other  explorers  suggested  the 
tunnelling  and  cutting  of  the  coast  range  between  the  Pacific  and  the  Truando 
or  the  Napipi  affluent  of  the  Atrato.  But  all  these  schemes  were  abandoned 
after  the  adoption  of  the  Panama  route ;  nor  have  they  been  revived  since 
the  failure  of  that  disastrous  undertaking. 

The  Atrato  itself,  which  might  have  such  paramount  importance  as  an  inter- 
national highway,  is  scarcely  utilised  for  the  local  traffic.  It  is  visited  by  a 
few  steamers,  and  ascended  by  barges,  which  take  from  36  to  42  days  to  reach 
Quibdo  in  its  upper  valley.  This  stagnation  is  due  to  the  insalubrious  climate 
of  its  valley,  and  the  almost  total  absence  of  civilised  populations  along  its 
banks. 

THE  SAN  JUAN  AND  PATIA  BASINS. 

On  the  Pacific  slope  south  of  Panama  the  only  important  watercourses  are 
the  San  Juan  and  the  Patia.  Although  not  more  than  about  190  miles  long,  the 
San  Juan  presents  with  its  affluents  over  300  miles  of  navigable  waters  for 
steamers,  barges,  and  canoes.  Unfortunately,  the  bars  at  the  mouths  of  its  delta 
just  above  Buenaventura  have  depths  of  not  more  than  from  5  to  7  feet.  The 
mean  discharge  is  estimated  by  Vergara  y  Yelasco  at  50,000  cubic  feet  per 
second,  which  exceeds  that  of  any  other  South  American  river  on  the  Pacific  slope. 

South  of  the  San  Juan  follow  several  other  coast  streams,  such  as  the  Dagua, 
the  Micai,  the  Iscuande,  and  the  Patia,  this  last  ranking  next  to  the  San  Juan  in 
volume.  It  rises  east  of  the  Western  Cordillera  in  the  Colombia  group  close  to 
the  Cauca,  the  Magdalena,  and  the  Caqueta.  The  Sotara,  or  main  headstream, 
descends  from  the  Sotara  volcano  south-westwards,  receiving  the  Mayo,  Juanambu, 
Guaitara,  and  other  affluents,  from  the  Western,  and  especially  from  the  Central 
Cordillera.  The  Guaitara,  whose  headwaters  descend  from  the  Paste  volcano 
and  the  Tuquerres  plateau,  is  remarkable  for  its  extremely  deep  and  narrow 
valley,  excavated  to  a  depth  of  3,000  feet  in  the  limestone  cliffs,  which  are 
perfectly  level  above,  having  been  deposited  in  marine  waters  at  an  epoch  ante- 
cedent to  the  appearance  of  the  surrounding  trachytic  rocks. 

The  Rio  Carchi,  main  headstream  of  the  Guaitara,  has  been  chosen  as  the 
limit  of  the  conterminous  republics  of  Colombia  and  Ecuador.  At  the  Rio 
Blanco  confluence  the  Carchi  is  crossed  on  the  route  from  Popayan  to  Quito  by 
the  famous  Rumichaca  natural  bridge,  a  block  of  siliceous  limestone  wedged  in 
between  two  granite  walls.  Although  formerly  known  as  the  "  Inca's  Bridge," 
this  natural  curiosity  owes  nothing  to  the  hand  of  man. 

After  collecting  nearly  all  its  tributaries,  the  Patia  plunges  into  the  intricacies 
of  the  Western  Cordillera,  traverses  the  Minama  gorge,  not  more  than  130  feet 
wide,  and  debouches  on  the  lower  plains  through  a  series  of  swirling  rapids. 
Beyond  the  confluence  of  the  copious  Telembi,  from  the  Ecuador  frontier,  the 
majestic  stream  rolls  seawards  in  long  meanderings  through  the  alluvial  plains 
studded  with  marshes  and  now  abandoned  fluvial  beds.  Its  delta,  like  that  of  the 


160 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


San  Juan,  projects  far  beyond  the  normal  shore-line,  but  is  too  shallow  to  admit 
any  but  light  craft.  The  lower  reaches,  however,  between  the  delta  and  the 
Cordilleras,  might  be  utilised  for  navigation  if  this  almost  uninhabited  region 
stood  in  need  of  any  such  facilities. 

The  discharge  of  all  the  Colombian  rivers  flowing  to  the  Pacific  and  to  the 
Caribbean  Sea  is  estimated  by  Vergara  at  320,000  and  460,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  respectively,  while  the  enormous  quantity  of  910,000  cubic  feet  is  sent  to 
the  Atlantic,  partly  through  the  Orinoco,  partly  through  the  Amazons.  The 
annual  rainfall  being  estimated  at  73  inches,  or  2,500,000  cubic  feet  for  the  whole 

Fig.  61. — TudtTEBBES   PLATEAU  AND  VALLEY   OF    THE    GUAITAEA. 
Scale  1  :  500,000. 


78' 


West  oF  Gree 


77 '40' 


12  Miles. 


territory,  it  would  appear  that  about  one- third  is  lost  by  evaporation,  or  absorbed 
by  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

THE  COLOMBIAN  LAKES. 

At  present  there  are  scarcely  any  lakes  in  Colombia,  unless  such  shallow 
riverine  depressions  as  the  Zapatosa  lagoon  are  to  be  regarded  as  such.  But 
although  the  lacustrine  basins  were  emptied  at  an  unknown  geological  epoch,  the 
traces  that  they  have  left  on  the  plateaux  show  that  some  of  them  were  of  vast 
extent.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  elevated  plain  of  Bogota  was  formerly 
covered  by  the  glacial  waters  descending  from  the  Suma  Paz  highlands,  but  was 
gradually  drained  by  the  erosions  of  the  Funza  (Bogota)  emissary.  The  Chibcha 
(Muysca)  Indians  appear  to  have  had  traditions  of  this  geological  fact,  for  they 


THE  COLOMBIAN  LAKES. 


161 


relate  how  the  god  Bochica  had  cleft  the  mountain  in  twain  with  his  golden  wand 
to  let  the  waters  escape  over  the  Tequendama  Falls,  The  most  recent  outflow 
from  the  plateau  appears  to  have  been  towards  the  north-west  by  the  Rio  Negro 
valley,  where  the  lacustrine  shells  left  on  the  terraced  margins  are  still  quite 
fresh. 

A  few  tarns  scattered  over  the  plateau  still  recall  the  former  inland  sea.  Such 
are  the  sacred  waters  of  Guatavita  and  Guasca,  whose  beds  are  supposed  to  be 
paved  with  gems  and  objects  in  gold.  On  certain  occasions  the  paramount  chief 
of  the  land  plunged  into  the  lake  all  covered  with  gold  dust  glued  to  his  skin  by 
the  viscous  sap  of  a  plant.  By  laving  his  body  the  spirit  of  the  waters  accepted 

Fig.  62. — PASTO  PLATEAU  AND  THE  COCHA  BAHIN. 
Scale  1  :  1,000,000. 


50 


77°40' 


Wester  breenwich 


18  Miles. 


the  precious  gift,  as  well  as  the  other  costly  offerings  thrown  in  by  the  assembled 
multitudes.  This  cacique  of  the  Chibchas  was  the  "  man  of  gold  "  (El  Dorado] 
whom  the  Spaniards,  after  finding  him  on  the  Cundinamarca  plateau,  still  vainly 
sought  in  so  many  other  regions-  of  the  New  World. 

The  chroniclers  having  left  on  record  that,  after  the  loss  of  their  freedom,  the 
Indians  cast  all  their  treasures  into  Lake  Guatavita,  search  was  afterwards  made, 
and  many  precious  objects  dredged  up  from  the  muddy  bed.  Later  attempts  were 
made  to  drain  the  basin  altogether,  and  recently  its  level  was  lowered  by  about 
50  feet. 

The  Lake  of  Fuquene,  of  which  the  Rio  Saravita  is  the  outlet,  and  which  had 
formerly  an  area  of  160  square  miles,  is  also  disappearing,  and  at  present  has  a 
12 


162  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

mean  depth  of  from  8  to  10  feet.  The  oiily  deep  basins  now  remaining  are  those 
of  the  upland  valleys,  of  which  the  largest  is  the  Cocha,  or  "  Lake  "  in  a  pre- 
eminent sense.  It  floods  an  elevated  cirque  of  the  Pasto  plateau,  source  of  the 
Guamoes  affluent  of  the  Putumayo,  and  stands  at  a  probable  altitude  of  over  8,200 
feet.  The  early  writers  gave  the  Mar  Duke,  or  Great  Lake  of  the  Mocoas  Indians, 
as  it  was  called,  a  far  greater  area  than  its  real  size,  some  12  miles  long  with  a 
mean  breadth  of  less  than  3  miles.  Although  everywhere  navigable,  with  depths 
of  from  15  to  35  fathoms,  the  Cocha  does  not  give  access  to  the  Putumayo,  its 
effluent  being  interrupted  by  cascades  and  in  places  choked  by  vegetable  growths. 
Like  Cocha,  the  Lake  of  Tota  lies  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Colombian  Andes, 
but  drains  through  the  Upia  and  Meta  to  the  Orinoco.  It  fills  a  cirque  in  the 
Sogamoso  Mountains  9,790  feet  above  sea-level,  and  has  an  area  of  24  square 
miles,  with  an  extreme  depth  of  180  feet. 

CLIMATE  OF  COLOMBIA. 

If  it  is  difficult  to  speak  of  a  Venezuelan  climate,  the  expression,  "  Colombian 
climate,"  can  still  less  be  employed  except  in  quite  a  special  sense.  A  region  of 
such  diversified  relief,  offering  in  its  mountain  ranges,  plateaux,  and  terraces  such 
marked  contrasts  of  altitudes  and  aspects,  naturally  possesses  the  whole  series  of 
climates  alternating  with  the  seasons,  and  even  from  day  to  night.  Every  valley, 
every  slope  has  its  special  meteorological  conditions  of  heat,  winds,  rains,  and 
atmospheric  moisture.  Hence  the  main  climatic  features  can  be  indicated  only  in 
a  general  way,  regardless  of  the  thousand  local  variations. 

In  theory  the  thermic  equator  coincides  with  the  low-lying  Atlantic  coast- 
lands  ;  but  here  the  heats  are  tempered  by  the  moderating  action  of  the  sea 
breezes,  so  that  the  Colombian  "  hells  "  lie  farther  inland.  On  the  seaboard  the 
mean  temperature  is  about  81°  Fahr.,  but  on  the  llanos  traversed  by  the  Meta, 
the  Casanare,  a,nd  the  Arauca  it  rises  to  90°  and  even  91° ;  on  all  the  open 
plains  at  the  east  foot  of  the  Andes  it  exceeds  87°,  except  in  the  southern  regions 
where  begin  the  great  Amazonian  woodlands. 

In  Colombia  proper,  between  the  various  oordilleras  that  ramify  from  the 
Pasto  group  towards  the  Caribbean  Sea,  the  heats  are  all  the  more  intense  that 
the  cool  trade  winds  are  intercepted  by  the  mountain  barriers.  Thus  the  lower 
part  of  the  TJpar  valley,  lying  under  the  shelter  of  the  Snowy  Sierra,  has  been 
transformed  to  a  sandy  and  marshy  desert,  with  a  mean  temperature  of  88° 
Fahr.,  or  6°  or  8°  more  than  on  the  neighbouring  coastlands.  At  Puerto  Nacional, 
on  the  Magdalena,  the  glass  has  often  registered  104°  in  the  shade. 

As  a  rule,  the  heat  is  considerably  greater  on  the  Atlantic  than  on  the  Pacific 
seaboard.  Thus  Tumaco,  on  the  south-west  coast,  not  far  from  the  equator,  lies 
under  the  isothermal  of  79°,  whereas  the  Goajira  peninsula,  washed  by  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  over  600  miles  farther  north,  has  a  normal  temperature  of 
84°.  From  this  it  appears  that  the  influence  of  Humboldt's  cold  Pacific  current 
is  still  felt  as  far  north  as  the  west  Colombian  coastlands. 

Thus  relief,  aspect,  direction  of  aerial  and  marine  currents  are  more  potent 


CLIMATE  OF  COLOMBIA. 


168 


factors  than  latitude.  From  the  torrid  heats  of  the  lowlands  to  the  arctic  zone  of 
the  snowy  crests,  all  the  transitions  are  observed,  though  not  in  direct  ratio  to 
the  rarefaction  of  the  atmosphere.  The  curves  of  altitude  and  of  temperature 

Fig.  63. — ROAD  IN  THE  HOT  LANDS,   COLOMBIA. 


nowhere  run  in  parallel  lines,  but  are,  on  the  contrary,  everywhere  interlaced 
in  an  inextricable  tangle.  Speaking  broadly,  the  temperate  zone,  comprised 
between  75°  and  59°  of  the  thermic  scale,  includes  the  largest  part  of  Colombia 
proper,  that  is,  excluding  the  llanos.  In  this  zone  the  cold  winds  descending 


164  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

from  the  uplands  and  the  hot  winds  ascending  from  the  plains  are  constantly  in- 
collision,  producing  a  state  of  permanent  instability. 

Being  intercepted  or  obstructed  by  the  Cordilleras,  the  trade  winds  blow 
regularly  only  on  the  shores  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  where  their  fury  is  intensified 
by  the  rarefaction  of  the  air,  caused  by  the  high  temperature  prevailing  on 
these  coastlands.  Although  hurricanes,  properly  so  called,  never  range  quite  so 
far  south,  the  east  and  north-east  gales  often  assume  the  aspect  of  raging  storms, 
driving  the  surf  with  tremendous  violence  against  the  exposed  parts  of  the  sea- 
board. On  the  other  hand,  the  rare  north  winds  never  acquire  the  fury  of  the 
corresponding  nortes  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  so-called  vendavales,  or  western 
breezes,  often  set  steadily  along  the  coast  from  July  to  November  ;  but  on  the 
high  seas  they  are  powerless  to  resist  the  force  of  the  trade  winds  from  the 
opposite  quarter.  These  vendavales  are  accompanied  by  a  marine  current, 
moving  in  the  same  direction,  at  times  with  a  velocity  of  over  four  miles  an  hour. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  atmosphere  often  remains  perfectly  still  in  the  hot 
inland  regions,  such  as.  the  Rio  Cesar  basin  and  the  plains  watered  by  the 
middle  Magdalena.  But  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  running  north  and  south 
between  the  trade  winds  of  both  hemispheres,  are  often  swept  by  the  northern 
gales,  which  blow  with  great  regularity  during  the  dry  season. 

As  in  other  equatorial  regions,  the  seasons  are  determined  by  the  rains, 
which  in  their  turn  follow  the  movement  of  the  sun.  When  it  reaches  the 
zenith  moisture  is  precipitated,  while  clear  skies  coincide  with  the  solstices  on 
either  side  of  the  equator.  Thus  twice  a  year  Colombia  is  visited  by  rain-bearing 
clouds,  and  every  province  has  its  alternating  veranos  and  ini'iernos,  wet  summers 
and  dry  winters.  The  heaviest  showers  occur  on  the  seaward  slopes  of  the 
mountains ;  but  the  mean  rainfall  is  far  greater  than  in  the  temperate  regions 
of  Europe.  On  the  Bogota  plateau  it  exceeds  40  inches,  rising  to  100  on  the 
Atlantic,  and  much  higher  on  the  Pacific  slope,  as  well  as  in  the  Atrato  and 
San  Juan  valleys.  Apart  from  the  loss  caused  by  evaporation  and  plant  life,  the 
discharge  of  the  Atrato  represents  a  yearly  rainfall  of  no  less  than  200  inches. 
These  moist  and  marshy  regions  are  extremely  unhealthy  for  the  white  man,  the 
Indian  half-breeds,  and  even  for  the  negroes.  They  not  only  remain  nearly 
uninhabited,  but  they  arrest  the  progress  of  explorers,  and  delay  the  settlement 
of  the  breezy  and  fertile  upland  terraces,  which  they  separate  from  the  sea- 
board.* 

FLOKA  OF  COLOMBIA. 

The  Colombian  flora  rivals  that  of  Brazil  both  in  the  variety  of  its  plants 
and  the  splendour  of  their  flowers  and  foliage.  All  the  Venezuelan  and  Brazilian 

*  Climate  of  some  Colombian  towns  : — 


Honda  . 
Ibag-ue . 
MedcUin 
Bogota . 
Tuquerres 


Altitude. 
Feet 

Atmospheric 
PresKU'e. 
Inches. 

Mean 
Temperature. 
Fabr. 

Mean 
Rainfall. 
Inches. 

664 

30 

82° 

? 

4,280 

27 

71° 

? 

4.950 

26 

70° 

55 

8.680 

23 

58° 

44 

10,200 

22 

55° 

? 

FLOKA  OF  COLOMBIA.  165 

tropical  forms  here  intermingle  with  those  of  the  Andes  and  Central  America, 
migrating  northwards  from  the  valleys  of  the  Cordilleras,  or  southwards  from  the 
region  of  isthmuses.  Moreover,  the  middle  slopes  and  elevated  plateaux  abound 
in  species  resembling  those  of  temperate  Europe  and  even  of  the  polar  lands. 

Palms  occur  everywhere,  but  nearly  always  solitary  or  in  isolated  clumps. 
Even  where  most  numerous,  as  on  the  slopes  of  the  Suma  Paz  cordillera,  they 
never  develop  continuous  forests,  but  grow  intermingled  with  other  trees,  in  such 
variety  that  the  botanist  Andre  found  as  many  as  25  different  species  in  three 
days.  Next  to  the  coconuts  of  the  San  Bias  archipelago,  those  that  form  the 
largest  groups  are  the  curuas  of  the  TJpar  Valley,  and  the  wax-palms  (ceroxylon 
andicola)  of  the  Central  Cordillera ;  in  the  Quindio  district  they  range  up  to  over 
10,000  feet,  nearly  6,500  higher  than  most  other  members  of  the  palm  family,  and 
within  2,600  feet  of  the  snow-line.  Some  wax-palms  shoot  up  straight  and 
graceful  as  a  reed  to  a  height  of  200  feet.  A  single  stem  will  yield  as  much  as 
from  16  to  24  pounds  of  a  white  or  yellowish  wax,  valued  at  from  15  to  2 )  shil- 
lings on  the  Ibangue  market,  where  it  is  bought  for  making  wax  matches.  The 
ferrugineum,  a  smaller  but  more  common  variety,  grows  at  lower  altitudes,  chiefly 
west  of  the  Choco  cordillera  and  thence  southwards  to  Ecuador.  The  mauricia 
palm,  the  characteristic  tree  of  the  Venezuelan  llanos,  penetrates  into  Colombia 
no  farther  than  the  plains  of  San  Martin  and  Casanare. 

Of  the  palms  on  the  slope  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera  facing  the  llanos  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  is  the  corneto  (deckeria),  slim  and  slender  as  the  wax-palm — 
not,  however,  shooting  directly  from  the  ground,  but  from  a  pyramid  of  aerial 
roots  about  6  or  8  feet  high.  The  fruit,  resembling  plums  in  size  and  appearance, 
grows  in  clusters  weighing  from  120  to  200  pounds.  The  tagua  (jihytelephas 
macrocarpa],  another  variety  of  palm,  growing  abundantly  on  the  banks  of  the 
Magdalena,  Atrato,  and  Patia,  has  the  appearance  of  a  young  coconut-tree ;  its 
large  fruit,  or  "  negro  head,"  of  melon  shape,  contains  numerous  grains  too  hard 
for  the  teeth  of  the  peccary  or  monkey.  This  is  the  "  vegetable  ivory  "  of 
commerce.  Another  useful  variety  is  the  carludovica  pnlmata,  the  ribs  of  whose 
fan-shaped  leaves  are  used  for  making  the  so-called  "  Panama  hats." 

Scarcely  less  numerous  than  the  palms  are  the  macanas,  or  tree-ferns,  32 
-varieties  of  which  were  recorded  by  Lindig  in  the  section  of  the  Andes  lying 
north  of  the  equator.  They  range  from  650  up  to  10,000  feet,  that  is,  far  beyond 
the  limits  assigned  to  them  by  Humboldfc.  Near  Fusagasuga  the  stems  are  used 
for  making  the  so-called  empalisados  ("palisaded  roads"),  where  but  for  these 
^'  sleepers  "  the  wayfarer  would  run  the  risk  of  disappearing  in  the  quagmires. 
The  bamboo  (bambusa  guadua)  has  even  a  still  higher  range,  occurring  in 
clumps  nearly  as  high  as  15,000  feet,  in  association  with  the  velvety  espeletia. 

The  cactus  of  the  torrid  lowlands  and  the  espeletia  of  the  snowy  plateaux 
intermingle  about  midway  on  the  mountain  slopes,  for  Ancizar  met  "  Barbary 
figs"  of  vigorous  growth  as  high  up  as  8,640  feet.  The  bcfaria,  or  American 
"  Alpine  rose,"  resembling  the  European  rhododendron,  grows  to  a  height  of  5 
-or  6  feet,  with  a  range  from  9,000  to  nearly  11,000  feet. 


166 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


Besides  several  indigenous  alimentary  plants,  such  as  the  arracacha  (racacha), 
or  celery  of  the  Andes,  the  Colombian  flora  is  distinguished  especially  by  the 
great  variety  of  its  medicinal  species.  The  cinchona  is  essentially  an  Andean 
growth,  flourishing  chiefly  between  7,900  and  9,800  feet,  in  association  with  the 
superb  red  cedar.  The  first  systematic  study  of  the  quinquinas  (Peruvian  bark) 

Fig1.  64. — CHIEF  VEGETABLE  PRODUCTS  OP  COLOMBIA. 
Scale  1  :  16,000,000. 


W.   of     Greenwich 


68" 


Forests 


310  Miles. 


was  made  in  New  Grenada  by  the  botanist  Mutis,  who  published  the  result  in 
1793.  Since  that  time  explorers  have  discovered  several  other  members  of  the 
family,  whose  bark,  however,  is  for  the  most  part  destitute  of  any  febrifugal  pro- 
perties. On  the  other  hand,  Colombia  possesses  several  other  equally  efficacious 
plants,  such  as  the  cedron  (sinabra  cedron),  highly  esteemed  by  the  natives  as  a 
tonic  ;  Saffray  even  asserts  that  it  is  far  superior  to  quinine  against  nervous  inter- 


FAUNA  OF   COLOMBIA.  167 

mittent  fevers,  the  scourge  of  the  Colombian  hot  lands.  The  cedron  is  also 
believed  to  be  an  antidote  against  poison,  like  the  armtolochia  ringem,  the  yuaco 
(mikania),  and  a  dozen  other  forms. 

The  Indians  are  acquainted  with  plants  which  yield  fast  dyes,  but  the  only 
dyewoods  at  present  exported  are  the  roco  (bija  orellana),  and  some  "red"  and 
"  yellow  "  woods,  of  the  same  species  as  those,  of  Brazil,  Nicaragua,  and  Cam- 
peachy.  Timber,  such  as  that  of  the  oak  and  of  so  many  other  species  peculiar 
both  to  the  tropical  and  temperate  zones,  is  scarcely  used  even  on  the  spot.  The 
systematic  destruction  of  plants  yielding  rubber  and  bark  is  trifling  compared 
with  the  havoc  caused  in  clearing  land  for  permanent  or  temporary  settlement. 
Thus  are  formed  the  so-called  pajonales,  vast  grassy  savannas,  which  replace  the 
primeval  forests  on  the  higher  slopes  of  the  Cordilleras. 

Even  the  orchids,  of  which  Colombia  possesses  some  of  the  very  finest  varieties, 
are  threatened  with  extinction  by  the  European  and  American  collectors.  Some  of 
the  most  gorgeous  specimens  have  already  become  extremely  rare,  and  districts 
which  formerly  abounded  in  these  forest  glories  now  yield  only  a  few  ordinary 
forms  after  days  of  search.  One  of  the  collectors  tells  us  that  during  a  campaign 
of  two  months  he  had  4,000  trees  felled  to  secure  about  10,000  of  the  odonto- 
glossum  ;  *  and  of  these  how  many  perished  before  reaching  their  destination  ? 
Henceforth  the  species  will  have  to  be  perpetuated  chiefly  in  the  European  con- 
servatories, where  they  never  assume  the  brilliant  hues  and  wondrous  shapes  that 
they  develop  in  their  native  woodlands.  Fortunately,  the  simpler  but  often  very 
lovely  wild  flowers,  which  are  not  bought  for  their  weight  in  gold  to  adorn  the 
European  gardens,  will  still  survive.  Such  is  the  thybaudia,  or  quere  me  ("  love 
me  "),  which  is  found  only  near  Cali,  in  the  Salado  valley,  and  which  the  lads 
and  lasses  exchange  in  token  of  affection. 

FAUNA  OF  COLOMBIA. 

The  Colombian  fauna,  no  less  rich  than  its  flora,  is  specially  distinguished  for 
the  amazing  variety  of  smaller  animal  forms,  birds,  fishes,  and  insects.  Like 
North  America,  this  region  had  also  its  gigantic  mammals,  whose  numerous 
remains  are  found,  amongst  other  places,  in  the  Campo  de  Gigantes  ("  Giants' 
Field"),  on  the  Bogota  plateau.  The  Zulia  valley  also  abounds  in  the  bones  of 
megatheriums,  glyptodons,  taxodons,  and  fossil  horses.  According  to  some 
naturalists  the  mastodons  would  appear  to  have  survived  till  recent  times  on  the 
elevated  plateaux.  The  complete  skeleton  of  one  of  these  animals  has  been 
discovered  in  an  artificial  salt-spring  of  Indian  construction  near  Concordia,  west 
of  the  Rio  Cauca.  It  had  evidently  been  overwhelmed  by  an  enormous  landslip, 
and  was  found  lying  in  the  stone  channel  through  which  the  salt  water  was 
conveyed  to  the  boiling -house.  The  tusks  measured  five  feet  in  length,  and  were 
in  a  good  state  of  preservation,  t 

The  present  mammals — such  as  apes,  bats,  and  vampires;  pumas,  jaguars,  and 

*  Albert  Millican,  Travels  and  Adventures  of  an  Orchid  Hunter. 

t  R.  B.  White,  Journal  of  the  Anthropological  Institute,  February,  1884,  p.  244. 


168  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

other  felines  ;  bears,  sloths,  and  ant-eaters ;  tapirs  and  peccaries — all  belong  to  the 
same  species  as  those  of  Venezuela  and  Central  America,  as  do  also  most  of  the 
birds.  Nevertheless,  certain  species  have  a  very  limited  range,  conditioned  by  the 
presence  of  certain  trees  or  flowers.  Hence  any  slight  disturbance — a  fire,  a 
clearance,  erosions,  or  landslips — will  at  times  suffice  to  cause  their  disappearance. 
The  Sierra  Nevada  de  Santa  Marta,  which  is  probably  of  very  old  geological 
formation,  has  its  own  little  floras  and  faunas,  including  at  least  five  special 
varieties  of  the  humming-bird  collected  in  this  district  by  Simons. 

The  variety,  gorgeous  hues,  and  eccentric  forms  of  the  insects  present  a  remark- 
able analogy  to  the  richness,  beauty,  and  strange  shapes  affected  by  so  many  of  the 
orchids.  Colombia  is  a  veritable  paradise  of  entomologists  :  certain  districts  have 
become  famous  for  the  myriads  of  their  magnificent  butterflies.  Such  especially 
is  the  Muso  valley,  north-west  of  Bogota,  in  the  upper  Minero  basin,  where 
popular  superstition  has  traced  some  mysterious  relation  between  the  mineral 
emeralds  asleep  in  the  rocks  and  the  living  emeralds  flitting  in  the  air. 

It  is  difficult  to  form  any  adequate  idea  of  the  prodigious  multitudes  of  these 
"  winged  gems  ";  calculations  have  been  made  that  certain  clouds  of  butterflies, 
such  as  those  at  times  shrouding  the  seaward  slopes  of  the  Santa  Marta  Nevada, 
must  contain  trillions  of  insects.  On  such  occasions  the  teeming  life  of  the 
atmosphere  corresponds  with  that  of  the  neighbouring  waters,  which  at  certain 
times  are  coloured  entirely  yellow  for  many  hundreds  of  square  miles  by  myriads 
of  small  jellyfish.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year  the  fish  ascend  the  Atrato  in 
such  dense  shoals  that  the  surface  waters  become  agitated,  as  if  obstructed  by 
formidable  rapids. 

On  the  plains  and  in  the  open  valleys  the  several  animal  species  generally  occupy 
wide  domains  round  about  the  mountain  ranges,  but,  like  those  of  the  vegetable 
forms,  these  zones  are  superimposed  on  the  surrounding  slopes.  Thus  the  monkeys 
of  the  tropical  forests  never  ascend  to  the  cold  regions  ;  above  6,000  feet  the 
traveller  is  safe  from  the  fangs  of  venemous  snake-*,  and  fleas  and  many  other 
parasites,  as  well  as  birds  and  butterflies,  are  similarly  limited  in  vertical  range. 
A  solitary  species  of  humming-bird,  the  stcganura  undencoodii,  whose  feet  are  well 
protected  by  a  fluffy  white  down,  penetrates  as  far  as  the  bleak  paramos.  But- 
high  above  the  loftiest  summits  soars  the  buitre,  or  king  vulture  (sctrcoramphvts 
papa),  a  superb  yet  repulsive  creature,  decked  in  gaudy  colours,  who  swoops 
down  from  the  depths  of  the  heavens  on  the  fallen  quarry,  and  gorges  on  the 
choice  parts,  encircled  by  eagles,  carrion  hawks,  and  other  birds  of  prey  respect- 
fully awaiting  the  end  of  the  royal  banquet. 

Certain  restricted  zones  can  be  explained  neither  by  altitude  nor  by  any  special 
conditions  of  soil  or  climate.  Thus  the  domain  of  the  mosquito  is  abruptly  limited 
in  the  districts  of  Villanueva  and  other  villages  of  the  Upar  Valley,  where  there  is 
nevertheless  no  lack  of  marshy  waters.  On  leaving  the  village  the  traveller  sees 
dense  clouds  whirling  in  the  air,  but  always  stopping  short  of  a  certain  tree 
or  some  such  landmark,  beyond  which  he  need  not  fear  their  attack. 

Despite  the  heavy  rainfall  and   vast  woodlands,  certain  regions  are  at  times 


INHABITANTS  OF  COLOMBIA.  169 

invaded  by  hosts  of  locusts,  as  in  1825,  when  the  Cauca  valley  was  wasted ;  not  a 
blade  of  grass  was  left  for  the  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  which  were  driven  to  devour 
the  grubs  and  young  locusts.  Pigs  and  poultry  also  surfeited  on  the  same  food, 
so  that  milk,  eggs,  meat,  everything  acquired  a  sickening  flavour  of  musk,  and 
reeked  of  grasshopper. 

INHABITANTS  OF  COLOMBIA. 

The  present  Colombians  descend,  for  the  most  part,  from  the  Indian  peoples 
occupying  the  land  at  the  advent  of  the  Spaniards  towards  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  How  the  natives  were  treated  by  the  ruthless  Cpnquistadores 
is  a  twice-told  tale  of  savage  massacres  and  frightful  atrocities.  Wholesale 
butcheries,  dire  oppression,  epidemics,  and  especially  weariness  of  life,  swept  away 
hundreds  of  thousands.  The  adelantado  Jimenez  de  Quesada,  the  same  who  had 
conquered  the  plateau,  testified  thirty -nine  years  afterwards  that  where  he  had 
found  2,000,000  of  inhabitants  there  then  survived  only  the  wreck  of  a  few 
wretched  tribes.  But  from  these  humble  remains,  crossed  to  a  slight  degree  by 
European  elements,  has  sprung  the  Colombian  race,  a  young  shoot  from  a  felled 
stem.  « 

Although  all  the  nations  formerly  inhabiting  the  land  have  contributed  to  the 
formation  of  the  Hispano- Colombians,  these  claim  as  their  forefathers  chiefly  the 
Muyscas  of  the  plateaux  between  the  Magdalena  and  the  Suma  Paz  cordillera.  It 
was  natural  that  preference  should  be  given  to  those  Indians  who  had  already 
developed  an  advanced  civilisation,  and  who  have  left  a  name  in  history.  In  any 
case,  Cundinamarca,  land  of  the  Muyscas,  included  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest 
not  only  the  present  province  of  that  name,  but  also  all  the  uplands  east  of  the 
Magdalena  as  far  as  the  Sierra  Nevada  de  Merida,  in  the  neighbouring  state  of 
Venezuela. 

The  Muyscas,  that  is,  "  Men,"  *  also  bore  the  alternative  name  of  Chibchas, 
from  the  frequent  recurrence  of  the  ch  sound  (as  in  church]  in  their  language. 
According  to  the  national  legends  they  were  still  barbarians,  ignorant  even  of  the 
arts  of  tillage  and  weaving,  when  a  youth  of  fairer  features  than  their  own  came 
to  teach  them  the  crafts  and  industries.  This  civiliser,  often  confounded  with  the 
god  Bochica,  had  also  given  them  a  complete  political  constitution,  and  at  his  death 
appointed  his  two  sons,  or  those  of  his  sister,  one  as  the  spiritual,  the  other  as  the 
secular  and  supreme  chief. 

The  Muyscas  worshipped  the  heavenly  bodies,  all  of  which,  as  well  as  the 
forces  of  nature,  were  personified.  Altars  were  raised  to  them  in  the  open,  and  to 
their  temples  were  brought  offerings — gold,  stuffs,  precious  stones,  even  living 
victims.  A  wayfarer  passing  by  a  mountain,  a  rock,  or  a  plant,  and  hearing  its 
voice  in  fancy,  would  forthwith  prostrate  himself  in  worship  of  the  mysterious  life 
thus  revealed,  and  henceforth  a  new  deity  was  added  to  the  multitude  of  gods. 
Above  them  all  stood  Bochica,  the  universal  spirit  and  supreme  master,  who  had 
entrusted  the  whole  earth,  and  especially  Muyscaland,  to  Chibchacum,  "  Wand  of 

*  From  Mu-isca,  "  body  -five,"  i.e.,  body  of  five  extremities,  apparently  in  reference  to  the  five- 
fingered  and  five-toed  hands  and  feet  used  in  counting. 


170  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

the  Chibchas."     Like  another  Atlas,  Chibchacum  bore  the  globe  on  his  shoulders, 
and  when  he  changed  position  to  ease  the  burden  the  earth  quaked. 

At  the  time  of  the  Conquest  the  territory  was  divided  into  numerous  distinct 
states — Cundinamarca  proper,  that  is,  the  country  between  the  Rios  Fusagasuga 
and  Sogamoso,  forming  a  northern  and  a  southern  kingdom,  with  respective 
capitals — Muequeta  (Funza),  and  Hunsa,  the  present  Tunja.  A  separate  district, 
Iraca,  was  also  set  apart  for  the  high  priest.  The  zipa  and  the  zaque  (kings  of  the 
south  and  north)  were  at  war  when  the  Spaniards  arrived,  and  soon  after  Hunsa 
was  captured  by  the  more  powerful  zipa. 

Both  were  absolute  rulers,  though  not  by  mere  hereditary  right.  The  future 
heir  was  chosen  amongst  the  sons  of  the  reigning  prince's  sisters,  and  carefully 
brought  up  in  a  temple,  where  he  was  allowed  neither  to  see  the  sun  nor  to  taste 
salt.  The  king  had  but  one  consort,  but  over  2,000  concubines,  and  when  he  issued 
from  his  palace  to  visit  the  temple,  distant  only  "  three  shots  of  an  arquebuse," 
the  procession  was  made  with  such  pomp  and  majesty  that  he  took  three  days  to 
cover  the  ground. 

The  deference  paid  to  -the  zipa  resembled  that  of  the  slavish  subjects  of  Eastern 
despots.  No  one  dared  look  him  in  the  face.  When  addressed,  the  speaker's 
back  was  turned  towards  him,  and  the  bearer  of  presents  approached  on  all  fours. 
The  severest  sentence  of  a  culprit  was  to  have  to  face  the  king,  by  the  rays  of 
whose  awful  majesty  he  was  struck  as  by  lightning ;  henceforth  no  one  spoke  to 
him,  and  he  perished  forsaken  by  all.  At  the  zipa's  death  all  went  into  mourn- 
ing, daubing  themselves  with  red  ochre.  The  body,  embalmed  with  a  kind  of 
resin,  was  placed  in  the  stem  of  a  palm  which  was  embellished  with  plates  of  gold. 
The  deceased  was  also  decked  with  gold  and  emeralds,  and  was  followed  to  the 
after-life  by  a  few  slaves  and  devoted  women. 

The  uzaques,  or  secondary  chiefs,  also  possessed  great  power  over  their  subjects, 
and  the  honours  paid  to  them  were  accompanied  by  analogous  ceremonies.  Their 
rank  was  also  transmitted  through  the  sister's  line,  and  at  the  succession  they 
were  covered  with  gold  plates  and  crowned  with  plumes.  Yet  the  old  matri- 
archal traditions  allowed  the  spouse  to  chastise  her  princely  husband,  though  the 
stripes  were  limited  to  eight,  even  for  crimes  for  which  his  subjects  would  be 
punished  with  death. 

The  high  priest  of  Iraca,  or  Sogundomuxo,  resided  near  Suamoz,  the  present 
Sogamoso,  in  a  mysterious  recess  inaccessible  to  the  vulgar.  He  was  chosen,  not 
by  inheritance,  but  by  election  ;  which,  however,  was  limited  by  custom  to  two 
princely  families.  But  the  xequcs,  or  ordinary  priests,  inherited  their  office 
through  the  sister's  line  in  the  same  way  as  the  royal  dignity.  During  his  novi- 
tiate of  twelve  years  the  xeque  was  committed  to  the  charge  of  an  elderly  priest  in 
a  cuca,  or  seminary,  where  the  diet  was  limited  to  what  was  absolutely  necessary 
to  keep  body  and  soul  together.  At  critical  times  of  national  danger  the  xeque 
led  a  solemn  procession  of  the  people  before  dawn  to  the  top  of  a  lofty  mountain, 
where,  turning  to  the  rising  sun,  he  sacrificed  a  child  captured  from  the  enemy. 
The  victim's  throat  was  cut  with  a  sharp  reed,  and  the  blood  smeared  over  the 


INHABITANTS  OF  COLOMBIA. 


171 


rocks  struck  by  the  first  rays  of  the  sun,  and  the  body  was  then  left  to  be  consumed 
by  the  heat  of  the  day. 

Like  the  Mexican  priests,  the  xeques  proclaimed  every  new  cycle  of  fifteen 
years  with  a  human  victim,  always  a  young  man  native  of  a  village  situated  on  the 
eastern  plains,  whence  Bochica  had  first  made  his  appearance  on  the  plateau.  The 

Fig.  65. — MTJYSCA  IDOL. 


victim  represented  the  god,  and  in  a  public  procession  had  to  follow  the  same 
route  followed  by  Bochica.  The  priests,  disguised  as  divinities,  demons,  and 
animals,  pierced  the  young  man  with  arrows,  and  before  his  last  gasp,  tore  out 
heart  and  entrails,  which  were  exposed  to  the  sun. 

At  the  advent  of  the  Spaniards  the  Muysca  empire  was  already  in  a  state  of 
decadence.     The  national  life  had   been  stifled  by  a  system  of  rigid  laws  and  by 


172  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

the  division  of  the  pejple  into  exclusive  social  castes.  Of  these  the  first  was  that 
of  the  priests,  at  once  magicians,  medicine-men,  judges,  and  executioners.  Then 
came  the  warriors,  who  during  peace  were  charged  with  the  functions  of  police 
and  the  collection  of  the  taxes.  The  third  and  fourth  classes  comprised  the  traders 
with  the  artisans  and  the  peasantry,  who  in  time  of  war  were  held  to  military 
service  as  simple  soldiers,  incapable  of  rising  to  the  rank  of  chiefs.  A  fifth  class 
included  the  nomads,  for  the  most  part  conquered  tribes,  differing  from  the 
Muyscas  in  speech  and  usages. 

Private  property  was  established  on  a  very  solid  base.  Defaulting  debtors 
were  condemned  to  pay  double  the  amount,  and  the  creditor,  if  a  person  of  distinc- 
tion, sent  a  tame  bear  or  jaguar  to  the  house  of  his  client,  who  had  to  feed  both  the 
animal  and  its  keeper  till  the  debt  was  discharged  in  full ;  otherwise  his  hearth  was 
quenched  with  water,  and  he  himself  enslaved.  Robbers  lost  their  eyes,  either 
burnt  out  by  means  of  red-hot  metal  plates,  or,  in  case  of  serious  theft,  torn  out 
with  thorns.  The  penalties  imposed  on  the  lower  orders  were  always  of  a  nature 
to  enrich  their  betters,  while  the  upper  classes,  regarded  as  men  of  honour, 
more  sensible  to  disgrace  than  to  torment,  were  simply  degraded.  They  received 
names  usually  reserved  for  outcasts,  their  hair  was  cropped,  their  clothes  torn, 
and  at  times  they  were  sentenced  to  be  whipped  by  their  wives. 

Although  the  industries  were  fairly  well  developed,  these  Indians  had  no 
knowledge  of  iron,  and  made  their  agricultural  implements  of  wood  or  stone ; 
hence  the  ground  could  be  properly  tilled  only  in  very  wet  seasons,  so  that  pro- 
longed droughts  were  inevitably  followed  by  famine.  On  the  plateaux  little  was 
cultivated  except  maize,  potatoes,  and  chenopodium  quinoa,  a  goosefoot  yielding 
edible  seeds ;  lower  down,  but  still  in  the  temperate  zone,  manioc  and  arracacha 
were  the  staple  products. 

Thanks  to  their  copious  salt-springs  and  rich  gold-mines,  the  Muyscas  were 
able  to  procure  abundant  supplies  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  plains,  with  whom 
they  traded  far  and  wide.  The  chief  market  was  held  in  the  upper  Magdalena 
valley,  in  the  territory  of  the  Poincos  (Yaporogos),  not  far  from  the  present  town 
of  Neiva.  In  their  commercial  transactions  the  Muyscas  made  use  of  a  gold 
currency  in  the  form  of  cast  discs,  an  almost  solitary  instance  of  a  metal  coinage 
properly  so  called  amongst  the  aborigines  of  the  New  World. 

The  Muyscas  were  tolerably  skilful  workers  in  gold,  which  they  wrought  into 
grotesque  little  figures  of  men,  frogs,  and  other  animals,  thousands  of  which  are 
preserved  in  the  museums  of  Europe  and  America,  despite  the  wholesale  destruc- 
tion of  these  objects  by  the  iconoclastic  missionaries  of  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries,  who  supposed  them  to  be  consecrated  to  demon  worship.  They 
also  executed  carvings  in  relief  on  hard  stones,  and  in  the  colled  ions  may  be  seen 
four-  and  five-sided  slabs  of  basalt,  with  symbolical  figures  in  which  some  archaeo- 
logists have  recognised  the  signs  of  the  calendar. 

But  although  their  territory  abounded  in  minerals  of  all  kinds  gold  was  the 
only  metal  they  had  learnt  to  extract  and  work.  One  of  their  most  highly 
developed  industries  was  weaving,  their  looms  producing  an  extremely  durable 


INHABITANTS  OF   COLOMBIA.  17$ 

cotton  fabric,  which  the  artists  embellished  with  brilliant  designs.  The  houses, 
built  of  wood  and  clay  with  conic  roofs,  were  poorly  furnished  ;  but  the  temples  of 
the  gods  and  the  palaces  of  the  kings  and  priests  contained  objects  worked  with 
great  care.  They  appear  to  have  even  raised  stone  structures,  and  certain  build- 
ings on  the  hills  of  Leiva  east  of  the  Rio  Saravita  were  supported  by  sandstone 
columns.  The  materials  of  what  seemed  to  Velez  to  have  been  a  large  city  built 
of  stone  have  been  utilised  in  the  erection  of  the  church  and  various  houses  in 
Moniquira.  As  amongst  the  nations  of  the  Old  World  professing  religions  with 
sanguinary  rites,  the  Muyscas  sought  the  favour  of  the  gods  for  their  buildings  by 
cementing  them  with  human  blood.  They  hoped  to  build  for  eternity  by  fixing 
each  support  in  the  body  of  a  fair  young  maiden,  or  of  a  valiant  foe. 

They  also  laid  out  paved  highways,  and  towns,  fortresses,  places  of  pilgrimage 
were  approached  by  well-constructed  roads  carried  over  marshes,  precipices,  and 
other  obstacles.  A  main  route  was  said  to  have  run  from  Sogamoso  for  "  a  hundred 
leagues"  in  the  direction  of  the  eastern  land  whence  came  Bochica;  vestiges  of 
this  road  were  still  to  be  seen  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Time  was  divided  into  months,  and  ten  periods  of  three  days,  or  three  of  ten 
days.  According  to  Oviedo,  the  first  third  of  the  month  was  set  apart  for  religious 
worship  and  "  the  exercise  of  the  virtues,"  the  second  for  work,  and  the  third 
given  up  to  rest  and  recreation.  The  great  agricultural  periods  of  sowing  and 
reaping  were  preceded  by  "  rogations,"  during  which  the  people  disguised  them- 
selves as  wild  beasts,  regarded,  perhaps,  as  the  guardians  of  the  fields.  But  the 
great  feast  was  that  of  the  sun,  kept  every  fifteenth  year.  The  moon  also  was 
worshipped  with  much  solemnity,  and  on  stated  occasions  received  messages  from 
the  priests  conveyed  by  parrots,  which,  before  being  sacrificed,  had  been  taught  to 
repeat  the  words  of  the  communication. 

As  amongst  so  many  other  peoples,  marriage  was  an  affair  of  purchase,  the 
wooer  sending  to  the  young  woman's  father  a  mantle  corresponding  in  costliness 
to  his  means.  At  the  wedding  the  bride  was  asked  by  the  priest  whether  she 
loved  Bochica  better  than  her  husband,  her  husband  better  than  her  children,  and 
her  children  better  than  herself.  But  Bochica  often  exacted  his  victims,  and  as 
the  eldest 'child  had  to  be  a  son,  all  girls  born  before  him  were  put  to  death,  as 
was  also  one  of  twins. 

The  sick  were  well  cared  for,  and  great  respect  was  shown  to  the  dead. 
Shadowland  was  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  earth,  and  was  reached  by  the 
gossamer  souls  of  the  departed  by  crossing  a  large  river  in  a  boat  made  of  the 
threads  of  a  spider,  regarded  as  a  sacred  insect.  The  funeral  rites,  both  tedious 
and  costly,  varied  with  the  castes  and  districts  ;  in  some  places  the  disembowelled 
bodies  were  filled  with  precious  objects  ;  in  others  they  were  exposed  on  platforms 
round  about  the  temples,  or  else  dried  in  the  sun.  Certain  caves  contained 
hundreds  of  bodies,  all  seated  in  circles  with  their  hands  joined.  Valiant 
captains  were  embalmed  and  borne  before  the  armies  to  ensure  the  victory. 

At  present  the  Muyscas,  merged  in  the  Hispano-Colombian  race,  have  com- 
pletely disappeared  as  a  distinct  nation.  For  over  a  century  the  language  has 


174  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

ceased  to  be  spoken,  although  to  a  great  extent  rescued  from  oblivion  by  the 
grammarians.*  The  uncivilised  branches  of  the  Muysca  family — Tocaima, 
Analoima,  Anapoima,  Coyaiina,  Natagaima,  and  others,  who  were  collectively 
known  as  Panches,  and  who  dwelt  chiefly  in  the  valleys  south  of  Bogota — have 
also  long  ceased  to  be  mentioned.  All  these  natives  went  naked,  and,  according 
to  the  statements  of  the  first  conquerors,  were  still  addicted  to  cannibalism. 

The  Colimas,  that  is  "  Cruel,"  who  occupied  the  Rio  Negro  valley  north-west 
of  Bogota,  and  the  Musos,  other  neighbours  of  the  Muyscas  in  the  upper  Minero 
valley,  recognised  neither  chiefs  nor  judges,  and  settled  all  wrongs  by  the  lex 
talionis.  They  were  said  to  commit  suicide  on  the  slightest  mishap,  and  in  any 
case  most  of  them  preferred  death  by  rushing  over  rocky  precipices  rather  than 
submit  to  the  Spanish  yoke. 

THE  COCONUCOS,  CHOCOS,  GOAJIROS,  AND  OTHER  ABORIGINES. 

Besides  the  independently  developed  Muyscan  culture,  a  second  centre  of  civi- 
lisation had  been  created  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Pasto  and  Tuquerres  plateaux, 
and  of  the  upper  Cauca  valley  round  about  Popayan,  under  Peruvian  influences. 
These  peaceful  and  gentle  populations  dwelt  in  large  and  beautiful  villages,  some 
of  which  were  built  of  houses  over  a  hundred  yards  long,  spacious  enough  to 
accommodate  as  many  as  a  hundred  families  under  one  roof.  But  these  Indians, 
the  most  timid  of  all  the  Colombian  races,  offered  far  less  energetic  resistance  to 
the  Spaniards  than  the  more  warlike  Muyscas.  They  are  even  said  to  have  hanged 
or  starved  themselves  to  death  on  hearing  of  the  near  approach  of  the  whites,  so 
that  the  route  to  Popayan  was  indicated  by  the  multitudes  of  dead  bodies  strewn 
along  the  track. 

In  the  dialects  of  the  tribes  that  have  reverted  to  the  savage  state  in  the  Cauca 
valle,y,  and  especially  in  that  of  the  Coconucos  of  the  Popayan  district,  there  occur 
numerous  Quichua  terms,  plainly  showing  that  Peruvian  influences  had  extended, 
through  trade  and  the  industries,  hundreds  of  miles  to  the  north  of  the  political 
frontiers  of  the  Inca's  empire.  But  farther  on,  in  the  direction  of  the  Atrato  and 
of  the  Panama  Isthmus,  the  scattered  tribes  of  diverse  speech  had  remained 
unaffected  by  the  civilising  action  of  the  Quichuas.  They  were,  at  the  same 
time,  too  far  removed  from  the  Aztec  and  Maya  worlds  to  be  influenced  by  those 
cultures  in  their  intellectual  and  moral  development.  Thus  both  from  the  ethnical 
and  geographical  standpoints  the  northern  and  southern  continents  were  com- 
pletely separated  by  the  Atrato  valley.  The  territory  of  the  Cuna  savages  inter- 
vened between  the  Guaymi  and  Choco  peoples,  the  former  representing  the 
southernmost  limits  of  Aztec  culture  on  Chiriqui  Bay,  the  latter  the  northernmost 
extension  of  Inca  influences  in  Colombia. 

The  Choco  nation,  comprising  the  Baudo,  Citarae,  Noanama,  Tado,  and  many 
other  tribes,  occupies  all  the  western  parts  of  Colombia  in  the  Atruto  and  San 
Juan  valleys,  and  thence  southwards  to  Ecuador.  They  also  hold  the  northern 

*  E.  Uricocchea,  Oramatica  i  vocabulario  de  la  lengua  chtbcha 


INHABITANTS  OF   COLOMBIA. 


175 


spurs  of  the  Cordillera  on  the  Atlantic  side,  the  approaches  to  the  plateaux  of 
Antioquia,  and  even  some  districts  in  the  Central  American  isthmus.  To  the 
same  ethnical  group  belong  the  various  tribes  of  the  Catios,  between  the  Atrato 
and  the  Cauca.  Of  all  the  Colombian  wild  tribes  the  Catios  are  perhaps  the  least 
advanced  in  the  social  scale.  In  the  marshy  tracts  of  the  lower  Atrato  they  were 
said  to  dwell  in  the  branches  of  trees,  like  the  ancient  Guaraunos ;  they  mostly 
went  naked,  and  "fattened  their  prisoners  of  war  for  the  table."  At  present  they 
are  reduced  to  a  few  wretched  fragments,  who  avoid  contact  with  the  whites, 


Fig.  66. — CHIEF  INDIAN  NATIONS  AND  TRIBES  OF  COLOMBIA. 
Scale  1  ;  15,000,000 


78° 


West  op  Greenwich 


372  Miles. 


although  their  speech  is  daily  becoming  more  charged  with  Spanish  elements. 
The  day  is  probably  not  distant  when  the  Chocos,  like  the  Quichuas  of  Popayan 
and  the  Muyscas  of  Cundimamarca,  will  speak  the  language  of  the  Conquerors. 

The  Nutabe  and  the  Tahami  of  Antioquia,  the  former  between  the  Cauca  and 
the  Force,  the  latter  in  the  mountainous  region  between  the  Force  and  the 
Magdalena,  resembled  the  Muyscas  in  their  customs  and  social  state.  They  also 
practised  a  rudimentary  agriculture,  manufactured  earthenware,  wove  and  dyed 
cotton  stuffs.  Although  they  have  left  no  such  name  in  history  as  their  neigh- 


176  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

hours  beyond  the  Magdalena,  they  appear  to  have  rivalled  them  in  knowledge  and 
general  culture.  The  oblivion  into  which  they  have  fallen  is  doubtless  due  ta 
the  fact  that  they  obeyed  no  powerful  kings,  and  had  failed  to  develop  a 
warlike  empire.  The  Spaniards,  subjects  of  an  emperor  who  aimed  at  universal 
dominion,  estimated  the  civilisation  of  the  aborigines  according  to  the  extent 
of  the  domains  ruled  over  by  their  chiefs,  and  the  wealth  contained  in  their 
treasuries. 

Yet  the  plateaux  of  Antioquia  surpassed  Cundinamarca  in  auriferous 
deposits,  and  consequently  the  graves  of  the  Nutabe  and  Tahami  Indians  have 
in  the  end  yielded  far  more  golden  treasures  than  those  of  the  Muyscas.  But 
they  are  scattered  over  a  wider  area,  and  not  grouped  round  a  few  sanctuaries 
visited  by  hundreds  of  thousands  of  pilgrims,  bearers  of  offerings  to  the  gods. 
The  huaqueros  of  Antioquia,  that  is,  the  riflers  of  huacas  (barrows),  are  very 
skilful  in  selecting  amongst  the  inequalities  of  the  ground  those  which  contain 
human  remains,  and  the  treasures  deposited  with  them.  In  1833  a  single  huaca 
yielded  jewels  to  the  value  of  ,£3,600 

The  marshy  valleys  "draining  east  of  Antioquia  towards  the  Magdalena 
are  inhabited  by  a  few  remnants  of  the  Pantagoros,  a  people  formerly  much 
dreaded  by  the  Spanish  settlers.  Amongst  the  various  tribes  that  roamed  the 
dense  forests  on  this  slope  of  the  Central  Cordillera  the  most  barbarous  were 
the  Pijaos  (Paes  or  Paezes),  who  selected  the  most  innocent  victims  as  offerings  to 
their  gods.  The  enemy  slain  in  battle  was  regarded  as  a  poor  sacrifice  compared 
with  women,  children,  inoffensive  strangers,  and  other  harmless  beings,  who 
were  accordingly  immolated  to  the  spirits  thirsting  for  blood.  But  even  such 
victims  could  secure  the  divine  favour  only  for  a  certain  period  ;  hence  the 
sacrifices  had  to  be  periodically  renewed  at  the  risk  of  being  abandoned  by  the 
neglected  deities. 

Although  possessing  less  gold  than  the  Muyscas  and  Tahami,  the  civilised 
Guanes,  of  the  upper  Sogamoso  basin,  were  more  richly  endowed  in  the  qualities 
of  courage,  endurance,  and  probity.  Some  of  their  descendants,  known  under 
various  names,  still  occupy  the  Carare  valley,  where  they  are  protected  from  the 
whites  by  the  unhealthy  climate  and  dense  forests  of  their  territory. 

In  the  Sierra  Perijaa  dwell  other  wild  tribes,  such  as  the  Chimilas,  accused 
of  cannibalism  without  any  proof,  and  the  Motilones,  of  Carib  stock,  who  occupy 
the  hilly  frontier  district  east  of  the  Rio  Cesar.  These  still  hold  aloof  from  the 
settled  populations,  whereas  the  Arhuacos  (Aurohuacos),  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
de  Santa  Marta,  have  already  begun  to  associate  with  and  speak  the  language 
of  the  Conquerors,  while  still  preserving  their  mother  tongue. 

The  Goajiros  (Guahiros  of  the  early  writers),  who  occupy  the  plains  east  of 
the  Rio  Rancheria,  between  Rio  Hacha  and  Maracaibo,  are  physically  a  much 
finer  race  than  the  Arhuacos,  taller,  more  robust  and  active,  and  especially 
distinguished  by  a  much  lighter  complexion.  This  feature  has  been  attributed 
to  a  more  carnivorous  diet,  their  «arid  territory  yielding  no  fruits  or  vegetables, 
and  compelling  them  to  depend  mainly  on  their  herds,  and  on  the  turtles  which. 


INHABITANTS  OF  COLOMBIA. 


177 


they  capture  in  large  numbers.  Usually  the  Goajiros  go  naked,  donning  a 
cotton  mantle  only  when  they  visit  the  frontier  market  towns.  Their  physical 
appearance,  speech,  and  haughty  bearing  show  that  they  are  an  isolated  branch 
of  the  Carib  race. 

Although  they  now  keep  aloof  from  the  Colombian  whites  and  half-breeds 
the  Goajiros  appear  to  have  formerly  shown  themselves  well  disposed  towards 
the  Spaniards.  Their  various  tribes,  occupying  the  Goajira  Peninsula  and  the 
shores  of  Lake  Maracaibo  as  far  as  the  Merida  and  Trujillo  mountains,  had 
accepted  the  ministration  of  the  missionaries,  and  even  called  themselves 


Fig.  67. — GOAJIEA  PENIKSULA. 
Scale  1  :  2.300,000. 


Deptha. 


0  to  5 
Fathoms. 


5  to  10 
Fathoms. 


10  to  50 
Fathoms. 


50  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


62  Miles. 


"  Christians."  More  intelligent  and  industrious  than  most  other  Indians,  they 
became  the  most  useful  allies  of  -the  Spaniards,  but  were  driven  to  revolt  by  the 
greed  and  lust  of  the  whites.  The  abduction  of  some  Goajiro  women  was  followed 
by  a  general  rising  of  the  Indians,  who  wasted  the  plantations  and  destroyed  the 
houses  of  the  settlers,  and  even  killed  many  of  the  residents  of  Trujillo.  Since 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  these  events  took  place,  the  Goajiros, 
solemnly  abjuring  the  religion  of  their  oppressors,  have  maintained  their 
freedom  in  the  Goajira  Peninsula.  After  expelling  all  strangers,  they  con- 
stituted the  Rio  Rancheria  an  impassable  frontier  towards  Colombia,  and  these 
13 


178  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

limits  are  never  violated  except  on  market-days,  when  the  Goajiros  visit  the  fairs 
on  the  Colombian  side. 

If  civilisation  is  to  be  measured  by  the  social  position  of  woman,  the  Goajiros 
must  be_  ranked  amongst  the  most  advanced  nations.  They  show  the  greatest 
consideration  for  their  wives,  who  are  consulted  on  all  occasions,  and  who  can 
interfere  to  stop  quarrels  by  seizing  and  breaking  the  weapons  of  the  com- 
batants, and  throwing  the  pieces  away.  A  traveller  passing  through  the  country 
under  the  escort  of  a  woman  will  be  respected  and  well  entertained  by  every- 
body. 

Formerly  the  Goajiros  were  divided  into  tribes,  each  with  its  totem,  like  the 
North  American  redskins,  and  all  regarded  themselves  as  the  descendants  of  some 
sacred  animal,  such  as  an  ape,  a  hen,  or  a  partridge.  The  chiefs,  whether  men 
or  women,  rule,  not  by  right  of  birth  or  conquest,  but  in  virtue  of  their  wealth  in 
herds.  For  them  alone  are  still  observed  the  old  funeral  rites,  which  are  accom- 
panied by  the  sacrifice  of  many  calves  and  colts,  and  by  copious  libations. 

Besides  the  true  Goajiros,  numbering  some  30,000,  their  territory  is  also 
occupied  by  the  so-called " Cocinas  ("Plunderers  "),  who,  perhaps,  belong  to  the 
same  race.  But  most  of  them  have  been  reduced  to  a  state  of  servitude,  their 
duty  being  to  tend  the  cattle,  to  build  the  ranchos,  to  prepare  the  poisoned 
arrows,  to  cultivate  the  fertile  valleys  of  the  eastern  uplands.  The  chief  wealth 
of  the  Goajiros  consists  in  their  horned  cattle  and  horses,  large  numbers  of  which 
are  brought  to  the  markets  of  Rio  Hacha,  Sinamaica,  and  Maracaibo. 

About  one-half  of  the  territory  comprised  between  the  Andes  and  the  rivers 
Orinoco,  Cassiquiare,  and  Bio  Negro  is  occupied  by  tribes  which  are  even  more 
independent  than  the  Goajiros.  Several  of  these  tribes,  such  as  the  Tunebos  or 
Tammes,  who  formerly  dwelt  on  the  plateaux,  have  descended  to  the  llanos  in 
order  to  preserve  th  eir  liberty.  But  this  chaos  of  fugitive  and  nomad  peoples 
has  no  political  importance  whatsoever,  and  even  numerically  represents  scarcely 
a  fiftieth  part  of  the  Colombian  nation — at  least,  according  to  the  general  esti- 
mates. In  other  words,  the  spaces  occupied  by  them  are  still  almost  uninhabited, 
and  these  wild  tribes,  without  having  suffered  any  direct  oppression,  are  perishing 
from  the  small-pox,  scarlet  fever,  and  other  epidemics  introduced  by  the  whites. 

In  ethnological  writings  the  names  occur  of  dozens  of  such  decimated  tribes, 
each  comprising  a  few  hundred,  or,  at  most,  two  or  three  thousand  souls.  One 
of  the  most  important  are  the  Salivas,  akin  to  the  Betoyes  and  Vichadas,  who 
cultivate  a  few  patches  of  land  on  the  banks  of  the  Meta,  the  Casanaro,  and  their 
affluents.  Eastwards  their  territory  is  conterminous  with  that  of  the  Quivas,  who 
appear  to  have  escaped  from  the  Colombian  plateaux  in  order  to  avoid  contact 
with  the  whites.  The  Salivas  are  a  musical  people,  who  have  invented  a  kind  of 
terra-cotta  French  horn  five  feet  long,  with  which  they  emit  lugubrious  notes, 
heard  at  a  great  distance. 

Another  numerous  tribe  are  the  Mituas,  of  the  Rio  Guaviare,  who  occupy  the 
lowest  rung  in  the  social  scale  ;  their  women  weave  a  kind  of  felt  resembling 
amadou,  which  is  of  too  coarse  a  texture  to  hang  in  folds  round  the  body.  On 


INHABITANTS  OF  COLOMBIA.  179 

the  lower  Guaviare,  below  the  Mituas,  follow  the  Papiocos  ("  Toucans "),  one 
of  the  many  peoples  amongst  whom  the  curious  custom  of  the  couvade  still 
survives. 

The  Mocoas  of  the  upper  Caqueta,  east  of  Pasto,  dwell  in  the  forest  glades, 
and  are  held  to  be  civilised  because  they  speak  the  Quichua  (Peruvian)  language 
mixed  with  a  few  Spanish  loan  words,  and  because  they  visit  the  settlements 
always  arrayed  in  violet-coloured  garments.  But  farther  down,  along  the  Yapura 
and  Putumayo  rivers,  are  scattered  several  primitive  groups  who  still  go  naked, 
and  preserve  their  native  languages.  All  are  of  peaceful  disposition,  and  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  ornaments,  the  cut  of  their  hair,  or  even  by  mutilations 
regarded  as  embellishments.  The  Mataquajes  (Piajes),  who  pluck  out  their  eye- 
lashes and  eyebrows  and  pierce  the  cartilage  of  the  nostrils  ;  the  Orejones  ("  Long- 
eared"),  who  cut  the  lower  lobe  of  the  ear  into  strips,  and  the  Encabellados,  who 
build  up  the  hair  into  huge  crested  helmets — all  roam  the  debatable  borderlands 
between  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Brazil. 

Some  of  these  sedentary  or  nomad  groups,  such  as  the  Papiaros,  the  Bamias, 
the  Yaruros,  and  most  of  the  middle  Orinoco  people,  are  classed  with  the  Maipure 
family  ;  others,  like  the  Carizonas  of  the  upper  Yapura,  and  the  Uitotos  widely 
diffused  throughout  the  Yapura  and  Putumayo  basins,  are  regarded  by  Crevaux 
as  pure  Caribs,  while  the  Miranhas,  of  the  middle  Putumayo,  appear  to  form  a 
separate  group  speaking  a  stock  language. 

THE    HlSPAXO-CoLOMBIANS. 

The  civilised  inhabitants  of  the  plateaux  and  upland  valleys,  in  whom  the 
European  and  aboriginal  elements  are  completely  blended,  present  certain 
contrasts,  due  to  the  different  environments  and  to  the  preponderance  of  one 
or  other  of  the  primitive  stocks.  Thus  the  Cundinamarcans,  Muysca  and 
Andalusian  mestizoes,  are  noted  for  their  clear  vision,  impulsive  action,  and 
lack  of  perseverance.  The  Pastusos,  with  some  Quichua  blood  in  their  veins, 
have  the  same  patient,  long -suffering,  cautious,  but  sullen  and  revengeful  spirit 
as  their  southern  kindred.  Ever  mindful  of  the  past,  and  clinging  to  the  old 
usages,  they  have  always  represented  the  conservative  element  in  a  pre-eminent 
degree  in  the  republic. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  people  of  the  Cauca  valley,  the  most  healthy  and 
nourishing  district  in  Colombia,  are  hospitable,  open-handed,  full  of  sympathy  and 
pity  for  the  weak.  Their  country  has  received  the  quaint  name  of  "  the  gentle 
land  of  Yes,"  being  a  people  wlio  "can  never  say  No  "  to  supplicants.  But  they 
are  impulsive  and  passionate,  flying  to  arms  on  the  least  pretext,  qualities  due 
to  a  large  strain  of  negro  blood. 

The  natives  of  Antioquia  are  said  to  have  a  considerable  admixture  of  a  Semitic 
element,  derived  from  a  number  of  Jewish  converts  taking  refuge  in  the  New 
World  from  the  persecutions  to  which  they  were  subjected  in  the  Old.  In  any 
case,  the  Basques  are  largely  represented  in  the  Antioquian  population,  which  is 


180  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  BEGIONS. 

distinguished  by  its  vigorous  constitution,  intelligence,  and  shrewdness  in  business 
matters.  No  other  section  of  the  Colombian  nation  has  increased  more  rapidly, 
having  risen  from  about  100,000  at  the  close  of  the  last  century  to  over 
1,000,000  in  1892,  despite  the  numerous  emigrants  to  every  part  of  the  republic. 
Should  they  continue  to  increase  at  the  present  rate,  the  Antioquians  will  con- 
stitute the  chief  section  of  the  Colombian  population  long  before  the  close  of  the 
twentieth  century, 

In  many  respects  the  Socorrans,  who  occupy  the  Santander  uplands,  show  a 
marked  resemblance  to  the  Catalanians.  Like  them,  they  are  extremely  thrifty, 
laborious,  usually  taciturn,  skilful  tillers  of  poor  land,  and  clever  craftsmen.  Like 
the  Antioquians  also,  they  emigrate  in  considerable  numbers,  founding  little 
agricultural  settlements  in  various  districts,  or  seeking  employment  on  the  coffee 
plantations  of  Cucuta  and  elsewhere. 

On  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coastlands  the  negro  element  has  held  its  ground, 
and  even  increased  at  the  expense  of  other  races  in  the  struggle  for  existence. 
Certain  pursuits,  such  as  those  of  bargemen,  stevedores  and  day  labourers,  are 
almost  monopolised  by  the"  Sambos,  as  all  half-breeds  are  called  in  whom  black 
blood  is  dominant. 

TOPOG  RAPHY. 

Although  the  Rio  Magdalena  is  the  great  artery  of  the  republic,  its  main 
commercial  highway  as  well  as  the  natural  link  between  the  various  provinces,  its 
basin  is  still  but  sparsely  peopled.  So  far  from  having  recovered  the  teeming 
populations  which  it  possessed  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  it  offers,  after  three 
centuries  of  Spanish  occupation,  more  ruins  than  flourishing  cities.  Most  of  its 
towns  and  villages  had  even  to  be  rebuilt  after  the  wars  of  extermination  which 
ended  in  the  destruction  of  the  Andaqui,  Yalcones,  and  Pijaos  Indians. 

SAN  AGUSTIN — TIMANA — NEIVA — FUSAGASUGA. 

San  Agustin,  most  elevated  town  in  the  Magdalena  valley  (5,360  feet),  lies 
in  a  secluded  corner  of  a  vast  territory  where  the  Andaqui  formerly  assembled 
for  their  religious  celebrations.  From  the  still  extant  remains  of  a  temple, 
converted  by  treasure-hunters  into  a  mass  of  shapeless  ruins,  it  may  be  inferred 
that  the  structure  consisted  of  a  huge  basalt  slab  resting  on  pillars  and 
masking  an  underground  recess.  Coarse  sculptures,  representing  human 
and  animal  figures — amongst  them  that  of  the  frog,  one  of  the  commonest 
idols  in  the  North  Andean  regions — occur  at  intervals,  forming  so  many 
stations,  at  which  the  pilgrims  stopped  to  recite  some  prescribed  formulas. 
The  ruins  date  probably  from  an  epoch  anterior  to  that  of  the  Muysca 
civilisation. 

Some  six  miles  east  of  San  Agustin,  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  temple  and 
line  of  idols,  is  situated  the  so-called  Llano  de  la  Matanza  ("  Field  of  Slaughter  ") 
where  a  multitude  of  Andaqui  were  butchered  by  the  Spaniards,  wlio  were  thus 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  COLOMBIA.  181 

able  to  plunder  the  shrines  and   carry  off  their  gold  statuettes  without  fear  of 
further  disturbance. 

Timana,  north-east  of  San  Agustin,  but  at  a  much  lower  elevation  (3,500  feet), 
is  surrounded  by  extensive  plantations.  This  was  the  first  Spanish  settlement 
in  the  district ;  but  its  founder,  unable  to  defend  the  place,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
an  Indian  princess.  La  Plata,  another  town,  so  named  from  its  long  profitably 
worked  silver-mines,  was  also  destroyed  by  the  Pijaos  Indians,  and  had  to  be 
rebuilt  on  another  site,  all  trace  of  the  mines  having  disappeared.  Till  recently 
over  3,000  families  of  Timana,  Naranjal,  and  neighbouring  districts  derived  a 
comfortable  income  from  plaiting  nacuma  straw  hats ;  but  the  fashion  has 
changed,  and  other  local  industries  have  also  been  partly  driven  from  the  market 
by  imported  goods. 

Neiva,  capital  of  the  old  state  and  present  department  of  Tolima,  lies  at  an 
altitude  of  1,540  feet  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Magdalena,  at  the  head  of  the 
fluvial  navigation  for  boats  and  even  occasionally  for  steamers.  Founded  in  1550 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Rio  Neiva,  whence  it  takes  its  name,  it  was  destroyed, 
like  Timana  and  La  Plata,  by  the  Pijaos ;  but  it  was  rebuilt  by  the  Spaniards 
15  miles  lower  down  on  the  well-chosen  site  which  it  at  present  occupies  over 
against  the  three  sparkling  crests  of  Huila.  One  of  the  most  frequented  high- 
ways in  Colombia  runs  from  Neiva  round  the  southern  foot  of  this  group  and  over 
the  Guanacas  Pass  down  to  Popayan. 

Neiva,  which  yields  a  much-esteemed  cacao,  is  surrounded  by  plantations,  and 
the  lower  slopes  of  the  eastern  hills  have  also  -been  cleared  of  their  forests  to 
make  place  for  the  cultivation  of  guinea- grass  (panicum  maximum).  Till  lately 
the  forests  of  the  neighbouring  cordillera  produced  large  quantities  of  cinchona. 
The  settlement  of  Colombia,  some  60  miles  north  of  Neiva,  was  even  founded  for 
this  industry,  which,  however,  is  now  much  decayed;  nevertheless,  some  fresh  plan- 
tations have  recently  been  made  to  replace  the  recklessly  destroyed  cinchona  trees. 

Aipe  and  Natagaima,  so  named  from  extinct  local  Indian  tribes,  are  followed 
by  Purification  and  Guamo  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Magdalena.  Between  the 
last  two  the  mainstream  is  joined  by  the  copious  Rio  Soldano,  in  whose  basin  lie 
the  market-towns  of  Ortega  and  Chaparral.  Below  the  confluence  Espinal 
occupies  a  favourable  position  near  the  left  bank  of  the  Magdalena,  some  12  miles 
above  the  Flandes  or  Girardot  bend. 

Fusagasuga.  which  takes  its  name  from  the  affluent  on  which  it  stands,  lies  at 
an  altitude  of  nearly  5,900  feet,  at  the  entrance  of  a  pass  leading  over  the  Suma 
Paz  Cordillera,  down  to  the  Humadea  valley  and  the  eastern  plains.  This  was 
the  route  followed  in  the  inverse  direction  by  Fredemann  in  1537,  when  he  pene- 
trated from  the  llanos  to  the  uplands  of  Cundinamarca.  Fusagasuga,  the  centre 
of  extensive  coffee  plantations,  is  much  frequented  by  orchid- seekers,  naturalists, 
and  antiquarians.  Some  huge  erratic  sandstone  boulders  at  Chinauta  and 
Anacuta  are  inscribed  with  exceedingly  intricate  characters,  which  have  not  yet 
been  deciphered. 

About  18  miles  to  the  north-west  lies  the  village  of  Pandi,  also  noted  for  its 


182 


SOUTH  AMERICA -THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


inscribed  rocks,  and  for  the  natural  bridge  of  Icononzo.  Below  Pandi  the  Cuja 
rivulet  joins  the  Suma  Paz  torrent,  which  descends  from  the  hills  of  the  same 
name,  and  which  is  navigable  for  boats  from  its  confluence  with  the  Magdaleua 
to  Melgar,  centre  of  all  the  trade  in  the  Suma  Paz  valley. 


CHOCONTA  — ZIPAQUIRA — BOGOTA. 

The  "savanna,"  that  is  to  say,  the  old  lacustrine  basin  traversed  by  the 
Funza,  or  upper  Bogota,  recalls  in  its  local  nomenclature  all  the  memories  of 
pre-Columbian  history.  At  the  north-west  corner  lies  Choconta,  one  of  the 


Fig.  68.— SUMA  PAZ  BASIN. 
Scale  1 :  830,000. 


4-  e 


West  op  Greenwich 


74-'20' 


18  Miles. 


strongholds  of  the  old  Muyscan  kings.  Near  a  side  affluent  farther  south  stood 
the  two  holy  cities  of  Guatavita  and  Guasca,  whose  lagoons  were  the  receptacles 
of  so  many  precious  offerings  to  the  tutelar  gods.  Nemocon,  one  of  the  chief  of 
Muyscan  markets,  forwarded  to  the  northern  regions  the  produce  of  its  salt- 
springs,  which  are  still  worked  by  the  Colombian  Government.  In  1889 
Nemocon  yielded  as  much  as  6,165  tons  of  salt,  valued  at  £13,000. 

Zipaquira,  whose  very  name  ("  Residence  of  the  Zipa")  indicates  that  it  was 
the  "  Windsor  "  of  the  Muyscan  sovereigns,  is  still  a  provincial  town  with  some 
flourishing  industries.  Thanks  to  its  salt-mines,  and  to  the  coal  and  iron  ores  of 
the  surrounding  mountains,  it  is  fast  becoming  the  busiest  manufacturing  centre  of 


TOPOQEAPHY   OF   COLOMBIA.  188 

Cundinamarca  and  of  the  whole  of  Colombia.  Hundreds  of  millions  of  cubic  yards 
of  salt  are  contained  in  the  neighbouring  rocks,  which  overlie  a  slaty  sandstone 
with  saline  springs,  yielding  about  two -thirds  of  the  salt  consumed  in  the 
republic ;  in  1888  over  20,000  tons  of  salt,  valued  at  £80,000,  were  derived  from 
this  source.  Unfortunately  this  salt,  unlike  most  of  that  obtained  from  the 
Antioquian  springs,  contains  no  iodine,  so  that  goitre  has  been  developed  and 
rapidly  increased  amongst  certain  communities  using  the  Zipaquira  article. 

Funza,  capital  of  the  southern  Muyscas  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  had  at  that 
epoch  a  probable  population  of  100,000,  for  Jimenez  de  Quesada  calculated  that 
it  contained  20,000  cabins.  At  present  it  is  an  obscure  village,  although  for  a 
time  chosen  as  the  capital  of  the  State  of  Cundinamarca.  Before  the  opening  of 
the  railway  on  which  it  forms  a  station  midway  between  Bogota  and  Facatativa,  it 
had  even  been  abandoned  by  the  main  highway,  travellers  usually  alighting  at  the 
neighbouring  inn  of  Cuatro  Esquinas. 

Funza  stood  originally  in  the  middle  of  the  level  plain  between  the  Rio  Funza 
and  its  tributary,  the  Serrezuela.  But  in  1538  Quesada  chose  another  site  12  miles 
to  the  south-east,  beyond  the  Rio  Funza  at  the  foot  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera, 
where  was  situated  the  Indian  village  of  Teusaquillo.  Under  the  Spanish  rule 
Bacata  (Muequeta],  an  alternative  name  for  Funza,  was  transferred  to  Santa  Fe,  as 
Quesada  had  called  his  new  settlement.  Hence  the  expression,  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota, 
or  simply  Bogota,  by  which  the  place  is  now  officially  known. 

No  other  South  American  state  has  selected  for  its  capital  a  city  so  far 
removed  from  the  seaboard,  and  consequently  left  more  entirely  to  its  own 
resources.  To  this  circumstance  are  largely  due  the  peculiar  features  by 
which  the  historic  evolution  of  Colombia  is  distinguished.  Lying  in  the 
cold  zone  at  an  altitude  of  8,680  feet,  on  a  bleak  plain  growing  no  trees 
except  the  apple  and  the  willow,  Bogota  rises  eastwards  on  the  lower  slopes 
of  the  Guadalupe  (10,580)  and  Monserrate  (10,290)  heights,  which  stand  nearly 
at  the  same  elevation  as  the  neighbouring  cordillera.  The  city  is  divided 
into  several  distinct  quarters  by  two  affluents  of  the  Funza,  which  during  the 
rainy  season  are  often  transformed  to  raging  torrents.  In  the  central  square 
stands  the  statue  of  the  "  Liberator,"  surrounded  by  the  chief  public  build- 
ings, whence  the  main  thoroughfares  radiate  in  all  directions.  The  "  Martyrs' 
Column "  commemorates  the  fate  of  about  a  hundred  Colombians,  shot  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1816. 

Besides  the  university,  founded  in  1867,  and  already  the  best  institution  of  the 
kind  in  the  Andean  region  north  of  Chili,  Bogota  possesses  a  valuable  library  of 
over  50,000  volumes,  an  observatory  founded  by  Mutis,  a  fine-arts  institute,  a 
picture-gallery,  a  herbarium,  and  other  collections.  The  city  is  expanding  con- 
siderably, especially  westwards  and  northwards  in  the  direction  of  Fontibon,  and 
of  Chapinero,  a  popular  holiday  resort. 

Owing  to  the  absence  of  easy  communications  Bogota  has  developed  few 
industries  beyond  those  needed  to  supply  the  more  urgent  local  wants.  Before 
the  year  1836  it  took  three  long  days'  journey  to  traverse  the  short  but  difficult 


184 


SOUTH  AMEBICA— THE  ANDES  BEGIONS. 


road  north-westwards  to  VilJcta,  which  is  still  cut  off  by  two  rugged  passes  and 
two  upland  valleys  from  the  Magdalena  over  against  Honda. 

In  1847  the  engineer  Poncet  undertook  the  construction  of  a  good  road  which 
was  to  follow  the  normal  north-westerly  direction  to  Subachoque,  whence  a  some- 
what gently  inclined  though  tortuous  route  leads  to  the  Magdalena  at  the  Rio 
Negro  confluence,  125  miles  from  Bogota  ;  thus  would  have  been  avoided  the  ascent 


Fig.  69 — BoaoTA  AND  ITS  APPROACHES 
Scale  1  :  1,200,000. 


75* 


West  or  Greenwich 


Railways 

completed.  projected. 

Bonds. 


.  15  Miles. 


of  the  steep  intervening  Cordilleras,  as  well  as  the  dangerous  rapids  at  Honda. 
But  the  ravages  of  the  prevalent  marsh  fevers,  followed  by  civil  wars,  arrested  the 
progress  of  the  works,  which,  however,  have  recently  been  resumed.  Meanwhile 
a  more  direct  route  was  projected  from  Bogota  westwards  to  the  Magdalena  at 
Cambao,  midway  between  Ambalema  and  Honda.  But  in  this  direction  the  only 
road  hitherto  opened  is  a  mere  bridle-path,  while  all  the  other  routes  become 


BOGOTA     AND 


-  x-  ////// » 


S      ENVI  RONS. 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF' COLOMBIA.  185 

impracticable  after  heavy  rains.  So  recently  as  1889  the  transport  of  a  mule's 
load  weighing  about  245  pounds,  which  usually  costs  £1  from  Honda  to 
Bogota,  came  to  £3,  and  took  from  ten  to  forty  and  even  sixty  days,  according  to 
the  weather. 

Hence  railway  schemes  are  now  more  in  favour  with  the  public,  and  three 
lines  have  especially  been  proposed  to  put  the  capital  of  Colombia  in  communica- 
tion with  the  rest  of  the  world.  One  runs  northward  through  Zipaquira,  Chiquin- 
quira,  and  Velez  to  the  middle  Magdalena  near  the  Sogamoso  confluence  ;  a  second 
trends  north-westwards  along  Poncet's  original  route  towards  the  Rio  Negro  con- 
fluence ;  while  the  third  follows  the  course  of  the  Funza,  south-westwards  to  the 
Magdalena  at  Girardot.  The  Zipaquira  project  was  begun  in  1892,  the  only  other 
line  possessed  by  Bogota  being  a  short  section  common  to  two  future  routes  at 
present  terminating  at  Facatativa,  on  the  edge  of  the  plateau. 

This  place  was  one  of  the  old  Muysca  strongholds,  and  some  of  the  surrounding 
rocks  are  inscribed  with  characters  analogous  to  those  of  Pandi.  Before  the  open- 
ing of  the  road  and  railway  Facatativa  was  a  mere  group  of  huts  ;  now  it  is  a 
thriving  station  forming  an  advanced  suburb  of  the  capital,  on  the  main  route  to 
the  Magdalena. 

CHIPAQUE  — UBALA — CABUYARO. 

Eastwards,  Bogota  is  separated  from  the  rapid  but  regular  slope  of  the  Orinoco 
only  by  the  relatively  easy  pass  of  the  Paramo  Choachi,  which  stands  10,400  feet 
above  the  sea,  but  not  more  than  1,756  above  Bogota  itself,  from  which  it  is  distant 
about  15  miles.  The  terraces  and  upland  valleys  draining  to  the  Orinoco  are  nearly 
as  densely  peopled  as  the  Magdalena  slope.  Here  have  sprung  up  several  towns, 
such  as  Chipaque,  Caqueza,  Ubaque,  Choachi,  Fomeque,  and  Quefama,  on  various 
affluents  of  the  Humadea,  and  farther  north  Junln,  Gacheta,  Ubala,  and  other  large 
centres  of  population  in  the  upper  Upia  basin.  But  the  population  decreases  in 
the  direction  of  the  llanos,  and  San  Martin,  Villavicencio,  Medina,  and  the  other 
settlements  founded  on  the  verge  of  the  plains  are  merely  rural  stations  for  fatten- 
ing the  cattle  before  being  driven  up  to  the  Bogota  plateau. 

These  marvellously  fertile  lands  have  hitherto  been  little  utilised,  owing 
partly  to  the  prevalent  fevers,  partly  to  the  difficult  and  even  dangerous  routes 
leading  from  the  llanos  up  to  the  central  plateaux.  During  the  past  century  there 
has  even  been  a  considerable  falling  off  in  the  number  of  the  inhabitants,  the 
Indians  having  been  reduced  to  less  than  one-third,  and  whole  tribes,  such  as  the 
Achaguas  and  the  Zeonas,  having  disappeared  altogether.  The  very  site  of  the 
ruins  of  the  old  city  of  San  Juan  de  los  Llanos  has  been  lost,  and  the  present 
stockbreeders  own  far  fewer  herds  than  were  formerly  bred  about  the  missionary 
stations. 

Nevertheless,  symptoms  of  a  revival  are  apparent  in  various  districts,  as  at  the 
Mambita  and  other  salt-springs.  Cacao  and  coffee  plantations  are  also  encroaching 
on  the  scrub  and  woodlands,  and  in  1857  the  little  riverine  port  of  Cabuyaro  was 


186 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


founded  on  the  Humadea,  near  the  Upia  confluence.  In  favourable  seasons 
steamers  from  the  Meta  ascend  to  this  point,  within  1GO  miles  of  Bogota;  but  they 
usually  get  no  farther  than  the  island  of  Orocue,  186  miles  below  Cabuyaro. 


MESA — TOCAIMA — GIRARDOT — IBAGUE. 

On  the  highway  from  Bogota  to  the  upper  Magdalena  and  Ecuador  the  first 
station  is  the  town  of  Mesa,  the  "  Table,"  so  named  from  a  conglomerate  terrace 
4,100  feet  high  which  commands  the  deep  gorge  of  the  Rio  Bogota  below  the 
falls.  At  the  foot  of  the  terrace  the  village  of  Anapoima  occupies  the  arid  bed 
of  an  old  lake  near  some  sulphur-springs  east  of  the  Rio  Apulo.  This  torrent 
descends  southwards  from  the  heights  of  Anolaima,  a  town  which,  before  the 
Spanish  Conquest,  lay  within  the  territory  of  the  Panches  Indians.  The  railway, 
which  is  to  ascend  from  Girardot  up  the  escarpments  of  the  plateau,  stops  within 
three  miles  of  the  Apulo  confluence ;  the  next  section,  by  which  it  is  to  surmount 

'     Fig.  70. — GIEA.RDOT  BEND. 
Scale  1  : 48,000. 


West  oF  Greenwich 


74-58' 


1}  Mile. 


the  Mesa  terrace,    will  be  constructed  on  the  ratchet-wheel  principle,  like  that  of 
the  Righi. 

Tocaima,  a  station  on  the  same  railway  below  Juntas,  was  till  recently  much 
frequented,  thanks  to  its  hot  sulphur  springs ;  but  visitors  have  greatly  fallen  off  ' 
since  the  appearance  of  yellow  fever  in  the  district.  Agua  de  Dios,  the  most 
noted  spring  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tocaima,  is  reserved  for  the  leprous,  for 
whom  the  State  of  Cundinamarca  has  founded  an  agricultural  settlement  and  a 
lazaret  supported  by  a  special  tax  on  legacies.  In  1890  the  village  of  Agua  de 
Dios  was  inhabited  by  520  patients,  each  owning  a  plot  2|  acres  in  extent,  which 
he  either  cultivated  himself  or  rented  to  tenants.  The  development  of  the  disease, 
which  is  not  contagious  in  the  Tocaima  climate,  is  said  to  be  nearly  always 
arrested  in  this  district.  The  high  rate  of  mortality  amongst  those  interned  in 
Agua  de  Dios  is  due,  not  to  the  leprosy  itself,  but  to  their  generally  feeble  con- 


TOPOGEAPHY  OF   COLOMBIA.  187 

stitution.  The  Tocaima  vines  yield  a  grape  of  exquisite  flavour,  but  useless  for 
making  wine,  owing  to  tlie  High  temperature  of  these  bottom-lands,  which  stand 
at  an  elevation  of  little  over  1,650  feet. 

Girardot,  terminal  station  of  the  railway  on  the  Magdalena,  lies  immediately 
below  the  two  confluences  of  the  Fusagasuga  and  Bogota.  It  is  a  modern  place, 
which  has  suddenly  acquired  some  importance,  thanks  to  the  railway  and  to  an  iron 
bridge,  430  feet  long,  which  spans  the  mainstream  at  the  Flandes  gorge,  and 
which  is  utilised  for  most  of  the  traffic  between  the  capital  and  the  province  of 
Tolima. 

Ibague,  second  city  in  the  province,  stands  at  an  altitude  of  4,270  feet,  on  a 
fertile  plain  encircled  by  the  spurs  of  the  Tolima  volcano  and  traversed  by  the 
Rio  Combeima/  which  joins  the  Magdalena  at  Coello.  Eastwards  stretch  the  arid 
lava- fields,  which  are  separated  from  the  mainstream  by  the  rocky  rampart  of  the 
volcanic  crests  of  Gualanday.  Although  Ibague  neglects  its  silver-mines  and 
sulphur-beds,  it  does  a  brisk  trade  as  a  chief  depot  between  the  Cauca  and  Magda- 
lena valleys.  The  outlet  of  this  traffic  on  the  latter  river  is  Q-uataquisito,  opposite 
Guataqui,  starting  point  of  the  route  ascending  in  the  direction  of  Tocaima  and 
La  Mesa. 

AMBALEMA — HONDA — MARIQUITA. 

Ambalema,  one  of  the  chief  towns  of  the  department  of  Tolima,  is  a  modern 
place,  founded  in  1786  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Magdalena  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Recio.  The  tobacco  formerly  grown  in  this  district  was  regarded  as  the  finest 
in  Colombia,  and  was  exported  in  large  quantities  to  the  Bremen  market.  But  it 
was  attacked  by  a  blight  which  reduced  both  the  quantity  and  quality,  so  that 
the  Tolima  plantations  were  no  longer  able  to  compete  with  those  of  other 
regions,  such  as  Java  and  Sumatra. 

Some  60  miles  below  Ambalema,  and  on  the  same  side  of  the  Magdalena,  stands 
the  town  of  Honda,  so  named  from  the  "  depth  "  of  the  stream  above  the  rapids. 
Honda,  which  is  one  of  the  historical  cities  of  Colombia,  served  in  colonial  times 
as  the  general  depot  for  all  goods  imported  from  Cartagena  by  the  Magdalena 
route  for  Bogota,  Popayan,  and  other  inland  places.  The  Guali  torrent,  which 
reaches  the  mainstream  above  the  rapids,  and  which  is  crossed  by  several  bridges, 
divides  the  town  into  two  quarters — one  on  the  right  side,  founded  by  the  Con- 
quistadores,  but  overthrown  by  the  earthquake  of  1805  ;  the  other  on  the  left  side, 
of  recent  origin.  In  the  old  town  the  ruined  houses  occupy  as  much  space  as  those 
still  standing,  and  the  population  has  fallen  from  20,000  to  about  5,000.  Nor  is 
there  much  prospect  of  a  revival,  as  the  so-called  Dorada  railway,  which  turns 
the  rapids,  has  had  the  natural  consequence  of  shifting  the  position  of  the  depots. 
This  line,  some  12  miles  long,  receives  at  the  inconvenient  port  of  Las  Yeguas  the 
goods  brought  up  by  steamer,  and  conveys  them  to  the  terminal  station  of  Arranca- 
Plumas,  above  the  rapids.  From  this  place,  which  lies  opposite  Pescaderias,  they 
are  forwarded  by  pack-animals  pending  the  construction  of  other  lines  up  the 
escarpments  of  the  Bogota  plateau.  The  Dorada  line  itself  is  also  to  be  continued 


188 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


Fig.  71. — HOXDA  AND  LA  DORADA 
RAILWAY. 

Scale  1  :  80,000. 


northwards  to  the  riverine  port  of  Conejo,  which  is  of  far -more  easy  access  than 
Las  Yeguas. 

Mariquita,  founded  in  1550  in  the  Guali  valley,  has  now  little  to  show  except 
ruined  monuments  of  the  past.     The  gold-  and  silver-mines  which  made  it  the 

chief  place  in  the  whole  district  have  long 
been  abandoned,  while  the  crumbling  remains 
of  sumptuous  Spanish  dwellings  stand  out  amid 
the  surrounding  verdure,  side  by  side  with  the 
hovels  inhabited  by  a  goitrous  community  of 
sambos  and  other  half-breeds.  This  historical 
place,  where  the  pioneer  Quesada  died,  and 
where  the  renowned  botanist  Mutis  made  his 
collections  and  planted  his  groves  of  cinnamon 
and  other  rare  exotics,  shared  the  fate  of 
Honda  in  1805,  when  over  10,000  persons  were 
destroyed  by  the  earthquake  in  both  places. 

The  Rio  Negro,  which  joins  the  Magdalena 
below  the  rapids,  contains  several  important 
places,  such  as  Villeta  and  Guaduas,  the  latter  of 
which  was  till  lately  the  second  largest  town 
in  Cundinamarca,  and  a  flourishing  station 
between  the  capital  and  the  river.  Although 
deprived  of  much  of  its  trade  by  the  opening  of 
new  routes,  Guaduas  remains  one  of  the  most 
delightful  cities  in  Colombia,  being  favoured  by 
a  mild  climate,  rich  vegetation,  and  romantic 
scenery.  Pacho,  near  the  sources  of  the  Rio 
Negro,  a  place  well  known  to  orchid  collectors, 
is  at  present  the  chief  centre  of  the  hardware 
industry,  thanks  to  the  neighbouring  iron-mines. 
The  last  village  in  the  department  of  Tolima 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Magdalena  bears  the 
fully  justified  name  of  Bucna  Vista.  It  is  en- 
circled by  magnificent  woodlands,  and  separated 
from  the  province  of  Antioquia  by  the  lovely 
Rio  Miel  (Timona),  which  reaches  the  Magda- 
lena just  below  the  Negro  confluence.  Nare, 
on  the  left  bank  farther  north,  was  formerly 
the  only  port  of  the  province  of  Antioquia  on 
the  Magdalena.  Lying  above  the  Angostura 

("  Narrows  "),  it  was  a  natural  depot  for  the  traffic  of  the  Rio  Nare,  which  is 
navigable  for  boats  as  far  as  Islitas,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Nus.  But  its 
unhealthy  climate,  and  the  selection  of  another  riverine  station  more  favourably 
situated  lower  down,  hastened  the  ruin  of  Nare.  In  the  upper  Nare  basin  are  the 


74°  50' 


11  Mile. 


TOPOGBAPHY  OF  COLOMBIA.  189 

two  towns  of  Rionegro  and  Mannilla,  which  are  familiar  names  in  the  revolu- 
tionary annals  of  the  country,  and  which  give  their  names  to  the  two  hostile 
factions  of  the  Rionegreros  ("  Reds,"  or  "  Liberals  "),  and  Marinillos  ("  Blues," 
"  Godos,"  or  "  Conservatives  "). 

PUERTO  BERRIO — TUNJA — BOYACA. 

Puerto  Berrio,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Magdalena  below  Nare,  dates  only  from 
the  year  1875,  when  this  site  was  chosen  as  the  most  convenient  terminus  for  the 
future  railway  which  is  to  ascend  from  the  river  to  Medellin,  and  thence  ramify 
over  the  Antioquian  plateau.  The  first  section,  traversing  the  low-lying  malarious 
riverine  district,  has  already  been  completed  for  a  distance  of  30  miles,  at  an  alti- 
tude of  2,620  feet,  in  the  mineral  territory  watered  by  the  JSTus  affluent  of  the  Nare, 
whence  the  line  will  be  continued  over  the  Quiebra  Pass  (6,560  feet)  north-west- 
wards to  the  Porce  valley,  and  thence  southwards  to  Medellin. 

The  San  Bartolome,  which  joins  the  left  bank  of  the  Magdalena  16  miles  below 
Puerto  Berrio,  is  scarcely  utilised  for  navigation,  and  contains  no  large  centres  of 
population  in  its  basin,  although  its  farthest  headwaters  take  their  rise  in  auri- 
ferous districts.  Farther  down  the  Magdalena  receives,  on  its  right  bank,  the 
Carare,  which  also  traverses  an  almost  uninhabited  region,  although  its  valley 
presents  the  shortest  of  all  the  projected  routes  between  Bogota  and  the  capital. 
The  Minero  (upper  Carare)  waters  a  hilly  country  abounding  in  minerals  and 
precious  stones.  Here  lies  the  village  of  Huso,  formerly  a  large  and  flourishing 
city,  which  yields  the  finest  emeralds  in  the  world.  The  open  quarry  where  the 
stones  are  found  has  been  worked  with  various  success  since  the  year  1558,  that 
is,  after  the  destruction  of  the  Muso  Indians,  who  had  ruined  the  first  Spanish 
settlement  of  Tudela,  and  who,  after  a  struggle  of  twenty  years,  were  at  last 
exterminated  by  the  aid  of  dogs  trained  to  hunt  down  the  natives.  At  present  the 
Government,  which  owns  the  mines,  farms  them  to  a  French  syndicate  for  a  yearly 
sum  of  £2,250;  the  net  profits  of  the  speculators,  although  subject  to  the  whims  of 
fashion,  are  estimated  to  average  about  £10,000  a  year.  The  mode  of  working  is 
by  open  trenches,  the  debris  being  washed  down  the  river  by  water  collected  in  a 
reservoir  built  above  the  level  of  the  mine.  About  300  natives  are  employed  at 
the  mines,  which  lie  some  80  miles  north  by  west  of  Bogota,  in  a  wild  country 
with  almost  impassable  roads.  The  rough  stones  are  mostly  sent  to  Paris  to  be  cut 
and  mounted.* 

Some  40  miles  below  the  Carare  the  Magdalena  is  joined  on  the  same  side  by 
the  Rio  Opon,  whose  valley  was  followed  in  1536  by  Jimenez  de  Quesada  on  his 
expedition  to  the  conquest  of  the  Muysca  plateau.  Before  that  event  the  Muys- 
cans  forwarded  their  cotton  fabrics  and  the  produce  of  their  salt-springs  by  the 
Opon,  but  now  all  traffic  has  ceased,  despite  the  opening  of  a  new  road  from  Zapa- 
toca  to  Barranca  Bermeja  ("  Red  Ravine  "),  on  the  Magdalena. 

Tunja,  on  the  site  of  Hunsa,  former  residence  of  the  king  of  the  northern 

*  Report  of  the  British  Minister  at  Bogota,  1892. 


190  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEG10NS. 

Muyscas,  stands  at  an  altitude  of  9,160  feet,  near  the  sources  of  the  Sogamoso. 
Numerous  churches  and  other  buildings  attest  the  former  prosperity  of  this  place, 
which,  although  chosen  as  capital  of  the  State  of  Boyaca,  is  a  decayed  town,  out- 
stripped in  population  and  trade  by  several  other  cities  in  the  province.  Its 
neighbour,  Ramiriqui,  is.  inhabited  by  a  community  of  industrious  Indians,  who 
weave  cotton  and  woollen  stuffs,  and  occupy  themselves  with  stock-breeding. 

The  province  takes  its  name  from  the  village  of  Boyaca,  a  little  to  the  south-, 
east  of  Tunja,  where  Bolivar  gained  the  famous  battle  which  secured  the  indepen-J 
dence  of  Colombia    (1819).      The  little  bridge   still  exists  which  was  so  hotly 
contested,  and  near  which  are  some  noteworthy  rock  inscriptions.     Here  the  Cor- 
dillera is  crossed  by  some   easy  passes  leading  down  to   Turmeque,  Unibita,  and 
Guateque,  which  occupy  the  first  cultivated  terraces  on  the  slopes  draining  to  the 
Orinoco. 

DUITAMA — SOGAMOSO  — SOATA. 

Below  Tunja  the  tortuous  Rio  Sogamoso  flows  at  the  foot  of  a  terrace,  on 
which  stands  the  ancient  town  of  Diritama,  formerly  inhabited  by  a  Muysca  tribe, 
which  under  the  powerful  cacique  Tundama  offered  a  valiant  resistance  to  the 
Spaniards.  Santa  Rosa  de  Viterbo,  on  the  same  terrace,  is  noted  for  its  meteorite, 
weighing  1,540  pounds,  which  was  discovered  in  1810  on  a  neighbouring  emi- 
nence, and  removed  to  a  clump  of  trees  in  the  middle  of  the  square.  But  its  extra- 
terrestrial origin,  vouched  for  by  Boussingault  and  Rlvero,  does  not  appear  to  be 
quite  beyond  suspicion,  for  similar  ferruginous  blocks  are  said  to  occur  embedded  in 
the  neighbouring  rocks. 

Sogamoso  (Suamoz),  on  the  banks  of  the  river  to  which  it  gives  its  name,  was, 
like  Tunja,  one  of  the  historical  cities  of  the  Muysca  empire.  About  a  mile  to 
the  south-east  is  shown  the  site  of  Iraca,  where  resided  the  sogamuxi,  or  high 
priest  of  the  nation,  and  where  stood  the  richest  temple  of  the  land,  a  vast  wooded 
structure  covered  with  plates  of  gold.  During  the  sack  of  the  town  the  Spaniards 
inadvertently  set  fire  to  the  building,  which  continued  to  burn  for  several  days, 
five  years  according  to  the  local  legend. 

Although  visited  by  pilgrims  from  all  quarters  with  their  offerings  of  gold 
and  precious  stones,  Sogamoso  is  a  flourishing  centre  of  the  cattle  trade,  exceeding 
the  capital  in  population.  The  surrounding  plains,  often  under  water,  are  little 
suited  for  tillage,  but  they  serve  to  fatten  numerous  herds  imported  from  the 
llanos  of  Casanare  ;  the  local  breed  of  horses  is  also  highly  esteemed. 

Soata,  some  60  miles  farther  north,  stands  on  a  well-cultivated  terrace  (6,710 
feet),  dominating  the  west  side  of  the  deep  gorge  of  the  Sogamoso.  It  is  an 
important  agricultural  and  trading  centre,  surrounded  by  fertile  plains  yielding 
abundant  crops  of  sugar,  wheat,  and  other  produce  of  the  hot  and  temperate 
zones ;  even  the  date-palm,  rare  in  Colombia,  here  arrives  at  maturity. 

North  of  Sogamoso  the  chief  places  in  the  valleys  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera  are 
Chita  and  Cocui,  the  former  south,  the  latter  north  of  the  main  range,  but  both 
within  the  cold  zone  at  the  respective  altitudes  of  9,765  and  9,045  feet.  Chita 


TOPOGRAPHY   OF  COLOMBIA. 


191 


enjoys  the  benefit  of  some  extremely  rich  saline  hot  springs  (122°  Fahr.)  in  the 
Casanare  basin,  which  are  utilised  by  the  neighbouring  Tunebo  Indians  for  various 
maladies.  The  Cocui  district  abounds  in  coal,  iron,  copper,  argentiferous  lead, 


cinnabar  and  salt,  resources  hitherto   untouched,   owing   to   the   absence  of    prac- 
ticable roads. 

West  of  the  Cocui  the  Sogamoso  bends  round  to  pierce  the  parallel  ridges  of 
the  Cordilleras  through  a  series  of  deep  gorges  in  a  romantic  region  where  all  the 
settlements  are  situated  at  some  distance  from  the  river,  on  the  elevated  terraces 


192  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

or  in  the  upland  valleys.  Such  are  Onzaga  and  Mogotes,  the  latter  about  3 
miles  from  the  IIoi/o  de  los  Pajaros  ("  Birds'  Hole  "),  a  chasm  600  feet  deep  and 
only  150  in  circumference,  in  which  hover  flocks  of  the  same  species  of  "devil- 
bird  "  that  frequents  the  Caripe  caves. 

San  Andres,  noted  for  its  schools,  stands  at  an  elevation  of  over  6,500  feet,  in 
a  mountain  valley  near  Lake  Ortices,  about  midway  between  the  industrious  town 
of  Malaga  in  the  south-east  and  the  flourishing  city  of  Bucaramanga  in  the  Lebrija 
valley.  South  of  this  place  flows  the  Suarez  (Saravita),  which  joins  the  Sogamoso 
in  one  of  the  most  rugged  regions  of  Colombia,  where  the  river  gorges,  with 
their  terraces,  overhanging  cliffs,  and  steep  escarpments,  resemble  the  canons  of 
Colorado.  Between  Sube  and  Los  Santos,  in  this  district,  the  Sogamoso  is  spanned 
by  the  first  iron  suspension-bridge  erected  in  Colombia. 

UBATE — LEIVA — SOCORRO — ZAPATOCA. 

Lake  Fuquene,  source  of  the  Suarez,  lies  within  the  central  province  of  Cun- 
dinamarca,  where  is  also  situated  the  ancient  Muysca  fortress  of  Ubate.  North 
of  the  lake,  at  the  northern  verge  of  the  old  lacustrine  basin,  stands  Chiquinquira 
("City of  Fogs  "),  which,  although  of  Spanish  foundation,  still  bears  a  Muysca 
name.  It  is  a  noted  place  of  pilgrimage,  whose  "  Miraculous  Virgin  "  is  said  in 
some  years  to  attract  as  many  as  60,000  devotees.  Thanks  to  this  continual 
concourse,  Chiquinquira  has  grown  wealthy,  and  is  at  present  the  largest  city  in 
the  province  of  Boyaca 

Some  six  miles  north  of  Chiquinquira,  near  the  village  of  Saloya,  is  seen 
the  most  remarkable  rock  inscription  in  Colombia.  The  surface  is  covered  with 
painted  characters,  most  of  which  are  unfortunately  overgrown  by  lichens.  The 
inscription,  which  has  not  yet  been  deciphered,  is  supposed  by  the  natives  to 
contain  directions  regarding  certain  hidden  treasures,  while  Ancizar  and  other 
antiquaries  infer  from  the  representation  of  the  frog,  symbol  of  "  copious  waters," 
that  it  refers  to  the  deluge  caused  by  the  overflow  of  Lake  Fuquene  into  the  deep 
gorge  apparently  indicated  by  the  paintings. 

Leiva,  standing  east  of  Chiquinquira  at  an  altitude  of  6,500  feet,  near  the  site 
of  an  old  Muysca  city,  possesses  copper-,  silver-,  and  sulphur-mines,  and  has  become 
a  centre  of  the  wine  and  olive  industries.  Moniquira,  north-west  of  Leiva,  also 
lies  in  a  mineral  district,  and  its  copper-mines  are  at  present  the  most  productive 
in  Colombia. 

Immediately  below  the  confluence  of  the  Rio  Moniquira  the  Suarez  has  the 
province  of  Santander  on  its  left  bank.  Above  the  confluence  it  is  spanned  by 
the  Pucnte  National  ("National,"  formerly  "Royal,"  Bridge),  which  gives  its 
name  to  a  large  settlement  marking  the  site  of  an  old  fair  field  frequented  by  the 
Chibcha,  Guanes,  and  Agataes  Indians.  From  this  point  the  route  ascends 
westwards  to  the  pleasant  little  town  of  Jesus  Maria,  and  northwards  to  the  city 
of  Velez  (7,190  feet),  founded  in  1539  in  an  important  strategical  position  near 
the  divide  between  the  upper  Sogamoso  basin  and  the  Carare  and  Opon  river 


TOPOGRAPHY  OP  COLOMBIA. 


193 


valleys.  Despite  the  difficult  approaches  Yelez  has  prospered,  and  is  now  scarcely 
inferior  in  size  to  the  capital  of  the  province.  Near  La  Paz,  12  miles  farther 
north,  occurs  the  curious  Hoyo  del  Aire  ("  Air-Hole  "),  a  pit  390  feet  deep  and 
over  half  a  mile  round,  which  appears  to  have  been  formed  by  the  surface  strata 
sinking  into  underground  chasms. 

Socorro,  capital  of  Santander,  lies  at  a  height  of  4,120  feet,  on  a  sloping 
terrace  rising  in  steep  escarpments  above  the  Suarez,  which  flows  2,000  feet 
below.  Socorro,  which  was  removed  in  1681  to  its  present  unhealthy  position 

Fig.  73. — CHIQUINQUIRA  AND  LAKE  OF  FUQUENE. 
Scale  1  :  280,000. 


74°  ,4 


West  op  Greenwich  74" 


6  Miles. 


from  the  site  of  the  old  Indian  settlement  of  Guame,  is  one  of  the  chief  cities  of 
the  republic.  Here  began  the  revolutionary  movement  in  1781,  when  Maria- 
Antonia  Vargas  broke  the  royal  escutcheon,  tore  down  the  edict  proclaiming 
fresh  taxes,  and  rallied  to  the  standard  of  revolt  the  first  band  of  comuneros, 
forgotten  precursors  of  the  Bolivars,  Sucres,  Santanders,  and  other  heroes  of  the 
War  of  Independence. 

South-west  of  Socorro  a  less  elevated  terrace  is  occupied  by  Simacota,  which 
was  long  famous  for  its  so-called  "  volcano,"  the  smoke  of  which,  rising  above  a 
neighbouring  gorge,  is  caused  by  a  mass  of  coal  and  pyrites  in  a  state  of  com- 
bustion.    Farther  north  the  Suarez  is  joined  below  Socorro  by  the  Rio  Sanjil, 
14 


194 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIOXS. 


which  takes  its  name  from  the  industrial  town  of  Sanjil  (San  Gil],  where  are 
manufactured  coarse  fabrics,  hammocks,  and  agricultural  implements,  besides 
sugar  and  brandy  in  sufficient  quantities  to  meet  the  local  demand.  Some  2,620 
feet  above  Sanjil  stands  Aratoca,  while  the  terrace  enclosed  by  the  beds  of  the 
Suarez  and  Sogamoso  is  occupied  by  Barichara,  a  place  of  pilgrimage,  which  had 
its  origin  in  1751  in  a  shapeless  block  mistaken  by  a  shepherd  of  the  district  for 
an  image  of  the  Virgin.  Farther  north  follows  Zapatoca,  perched  on  a  platform 
4,120  feet  above  a  suspension  bridge  which  here  crosses  the  Sogamoso. 

Zapatoca  and  neighbouring  villages  are  the  last  groups  of  habitations  in  the 


Fig.   74. — SOCOEBO,    BUCABAMANGA   AND   SOOAMOSO   GORGES. 

Scale  1 : 1,000,000. 


•  -.  ;iE 


me  V* '; .  /  "o^l^pajaj o .:  ; 


73'40 


West  op  Greenwich 


18  Miles. 


Sogamoso  valley,  for  here  begin  the  great  forests  where  nothing  is  to  be  seen, 
except  at  long  intervals  a  solitary  woodman's  or  boatman's  hut.  The  gloomy 
solitudes  of  the  lower  Sogamoso  merge  in  those  of  the  Rio  Magdalena,  which  is 
here  fringed  by  swamps,  lagoons,  false  rivers,  and  backwaters. 

Some  30  miles  below  the  Sogamoso  confluence  the  right  bank  of  the  Mag- 
dalena is  occupied  by  the  little  riverine  port  of  Paturia,  which  was  founded  in 
1867,  and  which  still  awaits  the  construction  of  the  projected  railway  to  become 
a  busy  centre  of  traffic.  At  this  point  the  Magdalena  communicates  by  a  lateral 
channel  with  the  Rio  Lebrija  and  a  system  of  inland  lagoons  affording  navigable 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF   COLOMBIA. 


195 


waterway  as  far  as  Puerto  Botijas  (Estacion  Santander],  where  the  merchants  of 
Bucaramanga  and  neighbouring  towns  have  their  depots. 


75.—  CUCUTA  DISTRICT. 
Scale  i 


JIRON  —  BUCARAMANGA  —  CUCUTA  —  OCAS  A. 

Jiron  (Giron],  the  oldest  settlement   in  this  district,  lies  at  an  elevation  of 
1,850  feet  on  the  Rio  de 
Oro,  tributary  of  the  Le- 
brija.     Thanks  to  its  gold- 
mines,  Jiron    is    a    busy 
place,    though    somewhat 
eclipsed 
bouring 


by  the  neigh- 
Bucaramanga, 
which,  although  less  ac- 
cessible, enjoys  a  more 
healthy  climate  at  an  alti- 
tude of  over  3,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  Neverthe- 
less, Bucaramanga,  like 
its  neighbours,  Jiron  and 
Piedecuesta,  has  lost  some 
of  the  sources  of  its  pros- 
perity. Its  gold-mines 
are  no  longer  worked,  and 
it  has  ceased  to  export 
tobacco,  cacao,  and  straw 
hats,  while  the  cinchona 
of  the  surrounding  forests 
is  now  little  esteemed. 

Bucaramanga  lies 
within  the  Magdalena 
basin,  near  the  waterpart- 
ing  towards  the  Maracaibo 
and  Orinoco  hydrographic 
systems.  On  the  Orinoco 
slope  the  only  place  that 
ranks  as  a  town  is  Concep- 
tion, near  which  are  some 
hot  springs. 

The    upper    Lebrija 

basin  is  separated  by  the  Mesa  Juan  Rodriguez  range  from  the  upland  valleys 
draining  to  the  Venezuelan  rivers,  Zulia  and  Catatumbo.  Pamplona,  the  most 
elevated  place  on  this  slope,  stands  at  an  altitude  of  7,550  feet  in  an  old  lacustrine 
basin,  source  of  the  Rio  Pamplonita.  Although  less  animated  than  the  other 


uert;o.Villamlzi!^:r,)^^       ^ 
^ 


^  ^      '•     :     .   ::••/&»*  ' 

j    -:M 


72°40 '  West  op  Greenwich 


16  Miles. 


196  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

towns  of  Santander,  Pamplona,  an  old  ecclesiastical  foundation  dating  from 
the  year  1549,  possesses  some  industrial  specialties,  such  as  brewing  and  match- 
making. 

Beyond  this  place  the  route  follows  the  windings  of  the  Puniplonita  from 
terrace  to  terrace  through  one  of  the  most  romantic  valleys  of  the  Andes,  and 
passes  below  the  village  of  Chinacota,  where  the  ferocious  Alfinger  met  his  fate, 
San  Jose  de  Cucuta,  or  simply  Cucutn,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Pamplonita,  lies 
already  in  the  hot  zone  at  an  altitude  of  not  more  than  960  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  coffee  plantations,  to  which  Cucuta  owes  its  prosperity,  lie  higher  up  on  the 
slopes  of  the  mountains  ;  but  the  cacao,  one  of  the  best  in  the  world,  is  grown 
in  the  immediate  vicinity.  In  1875  Cucuta  was  visited  by  an  earthquake,  with  a 
combined  vertical  and  vortical  movement,  which  left  not  a  single  house  standing. 
All  walls  over  2  feet  high  were  levelled  with  the  ground,  and  at  least  2,000 
persons  were  crushed  beneath  the  ruins.  The  two  neighbouring  towns  of  Rosario 
and  San  Antonio  were  also  overthrown,  and  the  seismic  waves,  radiating  from 
this  centre,  were  felt  with  decreasing  violence  as  fur  as  Pamplona,  Merida,  and 
Ocafia.  According  to  Sievers  the  shocks  were  propagated  only  under  sedimentary 
rocks,  the  crystalline  formations  of  the  Cordillera  remaining  almost  undisturbed. 

But  Cucuta  soon  recovered  its  prosperity,  and  at  present  this  district  is  rela- 
tively the  most  industrious  in  Colombia.  It  contains  over  80,000  inhabitants, 
and  yields  as  much  as  50,000  tons  of  coffee,  valued  at  about  £250,000.  This 
rapid  recovery  was  due  to  the  railway  which  terminates  at  Puerto-  Villamizar  (San 
Buenaventura  or  San  Bueno),  on  the  Rio  Zulia,  although  the  foreign  trade  is 
carried  on  through  the  Venezuelan  port  of  Maracaibo.  Hence  the  Colombian 
engineers  have  often  proposed  the  construction  of  roads  or  railways  across  the 
Eastern  Cordillera,  to  connect  the  Cucuta  district  and  its  rich  plantations  with  the 
banks  of  the  Magdalena,  and  thus  divert  the  traffic  from  Venezuela  to  Colombian 
territory. 

On  the  other  hand,  all  the  Venezuelan  towns  of  the  western  Sierra  de  Merida 
gravitate  towards  Cucuta,  as  do  also  the  three  Colombian  towns  of  Pueblo,  Rosario, 
and  San  Antonio.  Rosario,  lying  to  the  south-east,  near  the  Rio  Tachira, 
formerly  held  the  first  rank,  and  here  was  held,  in  1821,  the  general  Congress 
where  was  framed  the  constitution  of  the  three  united  republics  of  Venezuela, 
New  Grenada,  and  Ecuador. 

Ocana,  standing  at  an  altitude  of  3,820  feet,  near  the  sources  of  the  Rio 
Catatumbo,  is  an  old  place,  founded  in  1572  in  the  territory  of  the  Carates 
Indians.  Formerly  a  state  capital,  and  often  proposed  as  the  metropolis  of  the 
Colombian  Confederacy,  it  enjoys  special  advantages  in  the  fertility  of  the  sur- 
rounding plains  lying  within  the  temperate  zone,  midway  between  the  hot 
coastlands  and  the  cold  regions  of  the  plateau,  with  easy  communications  in  one 
direction  towards  Lake  Maracaibo  and  Venezuela  through  the  Rio  Catatumbo, 
in  another  to  the  Magdalena  basin,  over  a  much- frequented  pass  6,000  feet  high. 
In  this  basin  the  riverine  ports  of  Ocana  are  Puerto  Nacional  and  La  Gloria, 
both  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Magdalena. 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  COLOMBIA. 


197 


POPAYAN — SANTANDER — PALMIRA — MANIZALES — PACORA. 

Near  the  source  of  the  Cauca,  or  western  Magdalena,  stands  the  famous  city 
of  Popayan,  the  "  learned,"  the  "  noble,"  the  birthplace  of  more  illustrious 
citizens  than  any  other  place  in  the  republic.  Popayan,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Cauca,  presents  from  a  distance  an  imposing  view,  its  houses,  domes,  and 
towers  standing  on  the  gently  inclined  slope  of  a  cultivated  tract,  traversed  by  a 
copious  stream  which  falls  in  a  series  of  cascades  down  to  the  Cauca.  South- 
wards is  developed  au  amphitheatre  of  hills,  crowned  by  the  superb  cones  of 
Sotara  and  Purace. 

Popayan  lies  within  the  temperate  zone  at  an  altitude  of  nearly  5,900  feet, 
with  a  mean  temperature  of  from  62°  to  64°  Fahr.  The  old  Indian  settlement 
of  the  cacique  Pay  an  occupied  a  part  of  the  ground  where  the  followers  of 
Belalcazar  founded  the  Spanish  town  in  1536.  Under  the  colonial  rule  it  became 
a  thriving  colony,  thanks  to  its  gold-mines  and  various  privileges  ;  but  after  the 


Fig.  76.— POPAYAN  AND  GUANACAS  PASS. 
Scale  1  :  900,000. 


18  Miles 


political  emancipation  of  Colombia  it  suffered  more  from  the  civil  wars  than  any 
other  city  in  the  republic,  the  aristocratic  character  of  its  leading  families  making 
it  the  chief  centre  of  conservative  interests.  Its  progress  was  also  arrested  by 
earthquakes,  especially  that  of  1827,  and  the  local  industries  are  now  reduced  to 
the  production  of  coarse  woollen  fabrics. 

Popayan  has  the  advantage  of  being  situated  on  the  natural  highway  leading 
from  Quito  to  Bogota ;  but  it  still  lacks  easy  communication  with  the  Pacific, 
either  by  the  Patia  valley  or,  better  still,  by  a  road  leading  across  the  Cordillera 
down  to  the  Rio  Micai.  The  Pitayo  hills,  north-east  of  Popayan,  formerly  abounded 
in  quinquina-trees,  and  according  to  Stiibel  and  Blake  White,  the  air  of  the  district 
contains  an  extraordinary  proportion  of  ozone. 

Some  60  miles  below  Popayan  the  picturesque  town  of  Santander  stands  on 
the  site  of  the  old  Indian  settlement  of  Quilichao,  between  the  Cauca  and  the 
Quindio  range.  Beyond  it  follows  Call,  which  is  at  present  the  largest  place  in 
the  province,  and  which  has  long  outstripped  the  capital,  thanks  to  its  better 


198 


SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


Fig.  77.— UPPEE  CATJOA  VAIJ-KY. 
Scale  1  : 3,000.000. 


communications  with  the  Pacific,  from  which  it  is  distant  in  a  straight  line  scarcely 
more  than  50  miles.  Standing  on  the  first  slopes  of  the  Western  Cordillera  at 
an  altitude  of  about  3,400  feet,  Cali  is  well  watered  by  the  streams  descending  the 
slopes  of  the  mountains  to  the  west  bank  of  the  Cauca ;  every  house  has  its  garden 
and  clump  of  trees,  while  the  surrounding  district  is  covered  with  magnificent 
tropical  plantations.  Founded  in  1 536,  Cali  serves  as  the  outlet  for  all  the  pro- 
duce of  the  Cauca  valley  to  Buena- 
ventura on  the  Pacific. 

Palmira,  the  second  city  in  the 
province  for  trade  and  population, 
lies  a  little  below  Cali,  near  the 
right  bank  of  the  Cauca;  it  dates 
only  from  1794,  and  owes  its  pros- 
perity to  stock-breeding  and  its 
tobacco  industry.  On  the  same 
side  of  the  river  follow  Bnga, 
Tulua,  and  Carfago,  the  northern 
metropolis  of  the  Cauca  valley. 
Cartago  lies  in  an  agricultural 
district  abounding  in  the  produce 
of  the  tropical  and  temperate 
zones,  and  has  the  further  ad- 
vantage of  standing  at  the  con- 
verging point  of  two  important 
trade  routes,  one  of  which  serves 
as  the  chief  outlet  for  the  products 
of  north  Tolima  and  Cundinamarca 
towards  the  Cauca  basin.  Cartago 
was  originally  founded  in  1540, 
some  15  miles  farther  north  on 
the  Otun,  an  eastern  affluent  of 
the  Cauca,  and  the  old  town,  re- 
named Pereira,  has  since  been 
re-settled  by  colonists  from  Antio- 
quia. 

Manizaks,  on  a  terrace  of  the 
Quindio  range  east  of  the  Cauca, 
has  increased  more  rapidly  than 

any  other  place  in  the  republic  since  its  foundation  in  1848.  Its  prosperity 
is  due,  not  so  much  to  its  gold-mines  or  its  plantations,  as  to  its  rich 
grazing-grounds,  and  to  its  position  at  the  junction  of  two  important  routes 
crossing  the  central  range.  Thanks  to  these  advantages,  Manizales  has 
become  the  commercial  centre  for  the  southern  division  of  Antioquia ;  despite 
the  earthquakes  of  1875  and  1878  it  has  never  ceased  to  increase  in  wealth 


76 V*'   West  oF  Greenwich  75°-*»' 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  COLOMBIA.  199 

and  population,  and  is  at  present  the  chief  outlet  for  the  cacao  of  the  upper 
Cauca  basin. 

Northwards  follow  Neira,  Araazazu  and  Filadeljia,  both  recent  foundations, 
and  Salamina,  facing  Supia  and  the  mining  town  of  Marmato  on  the  opposite 
(west)  side  of  the  Cauca.  The  numerous  mines  of  gold,  silver,  and  other  metals 
occurring  in  this  district  have  long  been  known,  and  some  of  them  were  even 
worked  by  the  Indians  before  the  Conquest.  The  Cauca  is  spanned  by  a  suspension 
bridge  at  the  foot  of  the  Marmato  heights,  which  rise  2,230  feet  above  the 
river. 

Pacora,  north  of  Salamina,  recalls  the  Paucuera  Indians  exterminated  by  the 
Spaniards.  Sonson  stands  at  an  elevation  of  8,285  feet,  on  the  river  of  like 
name,  which  here  develops  the  Aures  falls,  where  the  stream  is  precipitated 
from  a  great  height  over  three  successive  cascades.  Thanks  to  its  rich  pastures, 
Sonson,  although  founded  since  the  War  of  Independence,  already  rivals  Mani- 
zales  in  trade  and  population. 

ANTIOQUIA — MEDELLIN — SANTA  ROSA. 

Farther  down  follow  numerous  mining  towns,  such  as  Fredonia,  Sabanefas, 
Titiribi,  and  Amaga.  Here  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Cauca  valley,  lying  nearest 
to  Medellin,  capital  of  the  department,  is  by  far  the  more  densely  peopled, 
although  Antioquia,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  whole  region,  is  situated  on  the 
west  side  on  a  terrace  1,880  feet  high,  at  the  foot  of  which  flows  the  Bio  Tonusco. 
Like  so  many  other  Spanish  settlements,  Antioquia  no  longer  stands  on  its  original 
site  in  the  valley  of  the  Frontino  affluent  of  the  Atrato,  where  it  was  founded  in 
1541. 

Below  Antioquia  the  hot  malarious  banks  of  the  Cauca  remain  almost  unin- 
habited, the  movement  of  the  population  having  been  deflected  farther  east  to  the 
upland  valleys  of  the  Force  and  Nechi,  which,  if  of  difficult  access,  at  least  enjoy 
a  bracing  climate.  Here  Medellin,  named  from  the  Medellin  of  Spanish  Estre- 
madura,  has  long  outstripped  Antioquia,  and  at  present  ranks  as  the  second  city  of 
the  republic.  It  lies  in  the  pleasant  valley  of  Aborra,  which  sends  its  running 
waters  through  the  Rios  Force  and  Nechi  down  to  the  Cauca;  but,  although  dis- 
covered in  1541,  no  settlement  was  made  in  this  district  till  the  foundation  of 
Candelaria  in  1674,  which  remained  little  more  than  a  group  of  farmsteads  down 
to  the  close  of  the  War  of  Independence.  But  since  then  rapid  progress  has  been 
made  by  Medellin,  as  it  is  now  called,  which,  standing  at  an  altitude  of  4,860  feet, 
lies  within  the  temperate  zone,  with  a  climate  in  which  the  enterprising  inhabi- 
tants retain  all  their  characteristic  energy. 

Medellin  is  an  active  centre  of  the  gold-mining  industry,  and  specie  to  the 
value  of  over  £1,000,000  was  issued  by  the  local  mint  between  the  years  1867 
and  1888.  In  1890  the  capital  invested  in  this  industry  by  its  citizens  was 
estimated  at  £3,000,000,  and  much  vigour  is  displayed  in  working  the  gold-  and 
silver-mines  in  the  district  and  farther  east  along  the  unfinished  line  of  railway 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


running  north  to  the  Magdalena.  By  this  route  are  forwarded  the  gold  and  silver 
ingots  destined  for  England,  where  reside  the  chief  directors  and  capitalists  of  the 
Antioquian  mining  region.  A  portion  of  the  precious  metals  is  also  utilised  on 


Fig.  78. — GrOLDFIELDS   OF  THE   DEPARTMENT   OF   ANTIOQUIA. 
Scale  1  :  2,300,000.' 


75*   West  oF  Greenwich 


CoaL 


Railway. 


Roads.  Gold  and  Silver. 
38  Miles. 


the  spot  by  the  native  jewellers.      Medellin  is  a  university  city,  with  technical 
schools  and  some  valuable  private  collections. 

The  surrounding  district  presents  the  rare  spectacle  in  Colombia  of  real  carriage 
roads,  radiating  in  various  directions  up  and  down  the  Force  valley  and  north- 
westwards to  Ana,  on  the  road  to  Antioquia.  Several  places  follow  southwards 
as  far  as  the  Alto  de  San  Miguel  at  the  head  of  the  valley ;  amongst  them  are 


TOPOGEAPHY  OF  COLOMBIA.  201 

Itagiii  and  Envigado,  the  latter  noted  for  its  exceptionally  high  birth-rate  ;  fami- 
lies of  20  or  even  23  children  are  by  no  means  rare,  and  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  settlement,  who  died  at  the  age  of  93  in  1870,  left  behind  him  as  many  as 
700  direct  descendants  in  the  district. 

On  the  northern  slopes  the  chief  centres  of  culture  are  Copacabana,  Jivardoia, 
and  £arbosa,  future  stations  of  the  projected  main  trunk  line.  Santa  Rosa  de  los 
Osos,  a  mining  station  in  the  Porce  valley  north-west  of  Barbosa,  lies  in  an 
extremely  rugged  country  everywhere  surrounded  by  deep  gorges,  with  a  relatively 
cold  normal  temperature  of  58°  Fahr.,  but  so  healthy  that,  according  to  the  local 
saying,  "  Nobody  dies  except  of  old  age  or  by  his  own  hand."  In  1880  no  physi- 
cian had  yet  ventured  to  settle  in  the  place,  although  it  had  at  that  time  a  popula- 
tion of  10,000,  chiefly  miners  and  gold- washers. 

North  of  Santa  Rosa  the  population  falls  rapidly  with  the  fall  of  the  land. 
In  the  mining  regions  the  Antioquenos,  accustomed  to  the  bracing  air  of  the 
uplands,  avoid  the  moist  valleys  and  lowlands,  and  settle  almost  exclusively  on  the 
higher  grounds.  Thus  Carolina,  near  the  magnificent  falls  of  the  Rio  Guadalupe, 
Angostura,  Yarumal,  Anon,  Amalfi,  all  stand  at  altitudes  exceeding  4,750  feet,  and 
are  all  thriving  places,  whereas  Remedies,  in  the  basin  of  the  Ite  affluent  of  the 
Magdalena,  was  soon  abandoned  after  the  exhaustion  of  the  local  gold-mines. 
Even  Zaragoza  de  las  Palmas,  capital  of  all  the  low-lying  country  below  the  Porce- 
Nechi  confluence,  remains  an  obscure  village,  despite  the  immense  extent  of  its 
district,  and  the  advantage  of  a  navigable  waterway  on  which  steamers  already 
ply  regularly.  Still  smaller  places  are  Nechi  and  Santa  Lucia,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Nechi  with  the  Cauca,  where  begins  the  marshy  region  of  labyrinthine 
channels  and  backwaters  forming  the  inland  delta  of  the  Magdalena,  Cauca,  San 
Jorge,  and  Cesar  rivers. 

MOMPOS — CARMEN. 

Till  recently  the  capital  of  this  half -submerged  region  was  Mompos,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Magdalena,  one  of  the  oldest  settlements  in  Colombia,  having  been 
founded  by  Alonso  de  Heredia  in  1539.  But  after  being  swept  away  by  the  floods 
of  1762,  and  again  almost  ruined  by  the  erratic  character  of  the  mainstream,  it 
was  threatened  with  final  extinction  in  1868,  when  the  Magdalena  shifted  its 
channel  westwards  to  the  Loba  branch. 

Formerly  Mompos  was  the  chief  riverine  port  of  the  main  artery  between 
Honda  and  its  mouth.  At  the  annual  fair  held  in  February  the  produce  of  the 
uplands  was  exchanged  for  the  merchandise  imported  from  the  coast,  the  trans- 
actions often  exceeding  £180,000  or  £200,000  in  value.  In  the  hope  of 
recovering  this  flourishing  trade  it  is  proposed  to  again  divert  the  stream 
eastwards  and  reopen  the  Mompos  channel.  Meanwhile,  the  shifting  of  the 
fluvial  current  has  conferred  some  importance  on  Guamal,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Loba  branch  with  the  Cauca ;  but  the  change  has  been  even  more  beneficial  to 
Magangue,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  united  streams  below  the  San  Jorge  confluence. 


202 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  KEGIONS. 


Magangue*  is  at  present  the  chief  station  between  the  inland  and  the  outer  deltas, 
and  its  fairs  are  much  frequented  by  the  local  traders.  But  Magangue  is 
constantly  being  threatened  with  the  fate  of  Mompos,  especially  during  the 
periodical  flood?. 

Tacaloa,  converging  point  of  all  these  ramifications,  never  acquired  any  economic 
importance,  although  the  vast  plain  extending  westwards  to  the  Gulf  of  Moros- 
quillo  has  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  material  prosperity  of  the  republic.  On 
this  plain,  nearly  midway  between  the  river  and  the  gulf,  stands  the  agricultural 
town  of  Corozal,  and  the  surrounding  savannas  afford  pasturage  for  over  500,000 


Fig.  79. — RAMIFICATIONS  OF  MOMPOS. 
Scale  1  :  900,000. 


74 '40' 


74' 


18  Miles. 


head  of  cattle,  enough  for  the  local  demand  and  for  a  brisk  export  trade  with 
Panama,  Venezuela,  and  the  West  Indies. 

Carmen,  north  of  Corozal,  grows  an  excellent  tobacco,  and  at  Chinu  (Sinu), 
south  of  the  same  place,  near  the  divide  between  the  San  Jorge  and  Sinu  basins, 
the  conquistador  Pedro  de  Heredia  discovered  those  Indian  graves  which  yielded 
the  richest  booty  ever  obtained  in  the  New  World.  Each  of  his  150  followers  is 
said  to  have  received  as  his  share  plunder  to  the  value  of  6,000  ducats,  about 
£2,700.  Yet  all  subsequent  efforts  have  proved  vain  to  re-discover  the  gold-mines 
whence  were  obtained  these  prodigious  treasures. 


TOPOGRAPHY   OF  COLOMBIA. 


203 


BARRAXQUILLA — SAVANILLA — SANTA  MARTA. 

* 

Below  Tacaloa  follow  a  few  small  settlements,  such  as  Tenerife  on  the  right, 
and  Calamar  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Magdalena,  the  latter  at  the  point  where  the 
Dique  canal  branches  off  to  an  inlet  on  the  coast  a  little  south  of  Cartagena. 
Farther  on,  near  the  mouth  of  the  mainstream,  are  Remolino  on  the  right,  and  on 
the  left  side  Sabana  Grande  and  Soledad,  just  above  Colombia's  chief  seaport, 
Barranquilla.  This  place  stretches  two  or  three  miles  along  a  lateral  creek,  which 

Fig.  80.— ROADSTEAD  AND  HABBOUBS  OF  SAVANILLA. 
Scale  1  : 110,000. 


/...<• '':••  ••(••'  ''>••( 


West  oF  Greenwich 


74-56' 


Depths. 


Oto5 
Fathoms. 


5  to  10 
Fathoms. 


10  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


2|  Miles. 


flows  through  a  poor  alluvial  soil  thinly  covering  recently  upheaved  coralline 
reefs.  The  town,  with  its  low  whitewashed  houses  and  grated  windows,  laid  out 
on  the  draught-board  pattern,  presents  a  somewhat  uninviting  aspect,  although 
its  shops  and  warehouses  are  well  stocked  with  European  goods. 

Founded  in  1629,  Barranquilla  remained  a  mere  group  of  cabins  till  the 
introduction  of  steam  navigation  on  the  Magdalena  towards  the  middle  of  the 
present  century.  Since  then  it  has  developed  into  an  important  seaport  and 


204  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

marine  station,  with,  ship-building  yards,  repairing  docks,  and  a  whole  flotilla  of 
river  steamers.  But  sea-going  vessels  are  excluded  by  the  dangerous  bar,  and 
compelled  to  ride  at  anchor  some  12  miles  to  the  north-west  in  Savanilla  Bay, 
which,  however,  is  connected  with  Barranquilla  by  a  railway  and  by  some  shallow 
channels  soon  to  be  replaced  by  a  navigable  marine  canal.  Through  the 
passages  ramifying  eastwards  in  the  direction  of  Cienaga,  this  flourishing  emporium 
also  commands  the  trade  of  Santa  Marta  with  the  Magdalena,  and  with  all  the 
inland  cities,  and  has  thus  become  the  converging  point  of  two-thirds  of  the  whole 
traffic  of  the  republic. 

Savanilla,  at  the  head  of  the  deep  bay  to  which  it  gives  its  name,  is  accessible 
only  to  the  lightest  craft ;  but  the  railway  connecting  it  with  Barranquilla  has 
been  continued  along  the  shore  south-eastwards  through  Salgar  to  Puerto  Columbia, 
at  the  foot  of  the  steep  and  rocky  coast  range.  On  the  north  side  the  bay  is 
skirted  by  a  chain  of  islets  and  sandbanks,  where  it  was  hoped  that  better 
anchorage  might  be  obtained.  A  branch  line  had  already  been  constructed  to 
Puerto  Belillo  at  the  extremity  of  these  half-submerged  lands  ;  but  the  sheltering 
islet  of  Ida  Verde  ("  Green  Isle ")  was  swept  away  during  a  fierce  storm 
in  1887. 

Santa  Maria  (Santnmarta)  may  also  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  region  of 
the  Magdalena  delta,  although  actually  lying  at  the  north-west  extremity  of  the 
snowy  range  to  which  it  gives  its  name.  This  is  the  oldest  Spanish  settlement 
in  Colombia,  having  been  founded  by  Rodrigo  Bastidas  in  1525;  here,  also,  was 
organised  the  expedition  which  was  led  by  Jimenez  de  Quesada,  a  few  years  later, 
to  the  conquest  of  the  Muysca  empire.  Communicating  with  the  Magdalena  by 
the  great  Cienaga  ("Lagoon"),  and  by  several  passages  separated  from  the  sea  by 
the  Salamanca  spit,  Santa  Marta  remained  down  to  the  present  century  the  chief 
Colombian  seaport  in  the  Caribbean  waters.  But  since  the  opening  of  the 
Sa vanilla  railway  the  "  Saniarios,"  as  the  inhabitants  are  called,  have  lost  nearly 
all  their  trade.  In  1889  the  whole  of  the  foreign  exchanges  had  fallen  to  about 
£8,000.  But  they  hope  to  recover  the  ascendency  by  constructing  a  railway  to 
the  Magdalena  at  the  Cerro  San  Antonio  nearly  opposite  the  Dique  de  Calamar, 
or  even  much  farther  up,  at  Banco,  on  the  Rio  Cesar  confluence.  But  in  1893  this 
line  had  only  reached  the  Rio  Frio  affluent  of  the  Cienaga.  Santa  Marta  also 
suffers  from  an  unhealthy  and  oppressively  hot  climate,  with  a  mean  temperature 
of  83°  or  84°  Fahr. 

Mamatoco,  on  the  Manzanares  height,  and  various  other  settlements  on  the 
encircling  slopes,  serve  as  health  resorts,  although  the  surrounding  mountains 
still  remain  almost  an  unknown  region.  San  Juan  de  Cordoba,  better  known  by 
the  name  of  Cienaga,  from  the  neighbouring  lagoon,  has  already  outstripped  Santa 
Marta  in  population  and  commercial  activity. 

Southwards,  the  highway  running  along  the  foot  of  the  sierra  in  the  direction 
of  the  Rio  Cesar  valley  has  recently  attracted  numerous  settlers.  Here  have 
sprung  up  the  settlements  of  Rio  Frio  and  La  Fundacion,  both  on  the  same 
affluent  of  the  Ingoon,  while  planters  from  Bogota  have  established  themselves  in 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  COLOMBIA.  205 

the  old  Indian  village  of  San  Sebastian  de  Rabago,  at  an  altitude  of  6,500  feet,  in 
the  very  heart  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 


DlBULLA — VlLLANUEVA — EsPIRITU  SANTO. 

On  the  almost  uninhabited  north-eastern  coastlands,  DibuUa,  formerly  San 
Sebastian  de  la  Ramada,  lies  some  60  miles  due  east  of  Santa  Marta.  At  this  point 
the  shore-line  begins  to  trend  north-eastwards  in  the  direction  of  Rio  Hacha  (Rio- 
hacha},  the  last  Colombian  station  on  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Beyond  it  stretch  the 
unproductive  steppes  roamed  by  the  Goajiro  Indians.  The  salines  along  this 
section  of  the  coast  are  almost  abandoned,  although  containing  a  supply  of  salt 
sufficient  for  millions  of  people. 

Bahia  Honda,  on  a  deep  inlet  at  the  extremity  of  the  Goajira  Peninsula,  is  the 
place  which  Bolivar  is  said  to  have  regarded  as  a  favourable  site  for  the  future 
metropolis  of  all  Spanish  America.  A  railway  might  easily  be  constructed  from 
this  point  through  Soldado  and  over  the  low  pass  in  the  neighbouring  sierra  down 
to  the  Magdalena  basin.  This  line  would  pass  several  towns  and  stations,  amongst 
others  Valledupar,  capital  of  the  Rio  Cesar  district,  formerly  a  flourishing  settle- 
ment, which  was  founded  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  which  is 
noted  as  the  residence  of  Castellanos,  poet  of  the  Colombian  Conquest. 

Villanueva  and  San  Juan  de  Cesar,  higher  up  the  Cesar  valley,  have  lately 
acquired  some  importance  from  the  coffee  plantations  that  now  cover  the  first 
slopes  of  the  Sierra  Negra.  The  extensive  savannas  of  the  same  valley  support 
numerous  herds  of  cattle,  destined  chiefly  for  the  Cuban  market. 

Skirted  on  the  north  side  by  the  territory  of  the  Arhuaco  Indians,  with  its 
capital,  Atanquez,  and  on  the  south  by  that  of  the  Motilones,  whose  central  station 
is  Espiritu  Santo  (Codazzi),  the  lower  course  of  the  Rio  Cesar  is  also  attracting 
settlers,  thanks  to  the  development  of  stock-farming  and  of  its  cacao,  coffee,  and 
tobacco  plantations.  The  northern  spurs  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  culminating  in 
the  Alto  de  las  Minas  group,  abound  in  coals  and  minerals. 


CARTAGENA. 

Cartagena  de  las  Indias,  about  65  miles  south-west  of  the  Magdalena  delta, 
was  founded  in  1553  by  Pedro  de  Heredia  under  the  name  of  Calamar,  a  name 
which  was  afterwards  transferred  to  the  riverine  station  at  the  head  of  the  canal 
connecting  it  with  the  Magdalena.  Finely  situated  on  a  cluster  of  islets  forming 
the  harbour,  Cartagena,  with  its  suburb  of  Jijimani  (Gethsemaneh),  reposes  in  the 
shade  of  Mount  Popa,  an  abrupt  eminence  dominating  the  east  side  of  the  narrow 
strait.  Church  towers,  the  old  palace  of  the  Inquisition,  and  other  buildings  rise 
above  the  line  of  old  ramparts,  which  form  a  circuit  of  some  miles,  and  on  which 
Spain  lavished  the  prodigious  sum  of  nearly  £12,000,000.  Nevertheless,  this  famous 
stronghold  of  Spanish  power  in  the  New  World  had,  like  all  fortified  towns,  to 
undergo  frequent  sieges.  In  1741  the  English  Admiral  Vernon  lost  7,000  men. 


206 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


with  a  part  of  his  fleet  in  a  vain  attempt  to  capture  the  place.  In  1815,  during 
the  War  of  Independence,  the  "  Heroic  City  "  held  out  for  four  months  against 
over  8,000  Spaniards,  who,  on  entering  the  town,  found  it  almost  abandoned  by 
the  living  and  its  streets  choked  with  the  dead. 

But  Cartagena  never  recovered  the  prosperity  for  which  it  was  indebted  mainly 
to  Government  monopolies.  In  the  subsequent  rivalry  with  its  neighbours  it  has 
been  outstripped  by  Barranquilla,  and  its  population  is  at  present  one-third  lesa 

Fig.  81.— CAETAOENA  AND  ITS  HABBOTTBS. 
Scale  1  :  220,000. 


7  5°  4-0- 


West  or  Greenwich 


75°30' 


Depths. 


0  to5 
Fathoms. 


6  to  25 
Fathoms. 


25  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


,  3J  Miles. 


than  during  the  last  century.  Besides  the  loss  of  its  privileges,  other  causes  have 
contributed  to  its  decadence.  The  islands  being  destitute  of  springs,  the  inhabi- 
tants have  to  depend  on  the  rain-water  husbanded  in  cisterns ;  but  a  still  more 
serious  drawback  is  the  absence  of  easy  access  either  by  roads  or  canals  with  the 
Magdalena. 

Cartagena  possesses  a  group  of  extensive  and  perfectly  safe  harbours,  formed 
by  a  tongue  of  land  projecting  southwards  in  the  direction  of  the  elevated  islet 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  COLOMBIA.  207 

of  Tierra  Bomba,  which  is  itself  separated  by  a  narrow  channel  from  a  northern 
promontory  of  Baru  Island.  The  marine  inlet  thus  enclosed  has  a  superficial  area 
of  no  less  than  15  square  miles,  with  an  average  depth  of  from  10  to  15  fathoms. 
But  the  approaches  are  difficult,  the  southern  passage  between  Baru  and  the  main- 
land being  fordable  by  cavalry,  whence  its  name,  "  Pasa  Caballos." 

The  south-western  entrance  of  Boca  Chica  ("  Little  Mouth  ")  is  wide  enough 
only  for  a  single  vessel,  while  the  Boca  Grande  ("  Large  Mouth  ")  has  been  com- 
pletely closed  by  an  embankment  which  cost  thirteen  years  of  labour  (1775  to 
1788),  and  an  outlay  of  nearly  £300,000.  Communication  is  afforded  with  the 
Magdalena  by  the  Calamar  Canal,  which,  however,  reaches  the  coast  at  an  inlet 
some  distance  south  of  the  roadstead.  This  winding  passage  has  been  at  different 
times  deepened  or  re-excavated,  but  only  for  small  steamers,  the  mean  depth  at  no 
time  exceeding  8  feet. 

Nevertheless,  Cartagena  possesses  in  the  neighbouring  plantations  and  pas- 
tures the  elements  of  a  local  traffic  which,  when  fully  developed,  may  prove  more 
profitable  than  the  foreign  trade,  which  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
English.  When  easy  access  is  given  to  large  vessels,  and  the  railway  completed 
to  the  Magdalena  basin,  this  place  cannot  fail  to  recover  its  former  prosperity. 
Of  the  agricultural  centres  which  gravitate  towards  Cartagena,  one  of  the  best 
known  is  Turbaco,  the  ancient  Yurbaco,  where  the  Indians  successfully  resisted 
the  advance  of  Hojeda  in  1510.  Amongst  those  killed  in  the  engagement  was 
the  famous  pilot,  Juan  de  la  Cosa. 

TOLU — LORICA — QuiBDO UllRAO. 

For  some  years  the  Gulf  of  Morosquillo,  with  its  south-western  inlet,  Puerto 
Cispata,  has  been  coming  to  the  front.  Here  debouches  the  Rio  Sinu,  the 
"  Colombian  Pactolus,"  which  traverses  a  district  even  more  productive  in  agricul- 
tural produce  than  in  mineral  wealth.  Tolu-,  on  the  shores  of  the  gulf,  was 
founded  by  Alonso  de  Heredia  in  1535,  and  does  a  brisk  trade  in  colonial  produce, 
including  the  balsam  named  from  this  place.  But  at  present  settlers  are  attracted 
chiefly  to  the  Sinu  valley,  and  to  its  capital,  Lorica,  which  lies  below  a  labyrinth 
of  channels  communicating  with  the  mainstream,  and  navigable  by  steamers.  This 
district  of  the  lower  Sinu  is  being  rapidly  settled,  and  promises  to  become  an 
important  centre  for  the  export  trade  in  timber,  cabinet- woods,  cacao,  ipecacuanha, 
and  vegetable  fibres.  The  ipecacuanha  plant,  which  formerly  grew  wild,  is  now 
cultivated  on  the  Monteria  plantations,  owned  by  a  French  company. 

The  San  Andres,  Providencia,  and  Santa  Catalina  islands  in  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Mosquitia,  are  dependent  on  the  department  of  Bolivar,  and 
not  on  that  of  Panama  as  might  be  supposed  from  their  geographical  position. 
Westwards,  the  basin  of  the  Bio  Leon  and  of  the  Atrato,  confined  between  the 
Western  Cordillera  and  the  Panama  range,  belongs  to  the  department  of  the 
Cauca,  a  vast  territorial  division  still  but  thinly  peopled,  with  many  districts  quite 
uninhabited.  Such  is  the  valley  of  the  Atrato,  one  of  the  richest  but,  at  the  same 


208 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


time,  one  of  the  unhealthiest  regions  in  the  world.  In  1885,  White  estimated 
its  entire  population  at  about  40,000,  of  whom  three-fourths  were  negroid  half- 
breeds  and  one-fourth  whites,  whose  chief  resources  were  gold,  gums,  rubber, 
bark  and  other  drugs  collected  in  the  forests. 

Quibdo,  the  chief  place  in  this  basin,  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Atrato,  250 
miles  above  its  mouth,  and  below  the  Cuia  confluence.  The  neighbouring  hills 
contain  coal-  and  copper- mines,  and  at  certain  seasons  prodigious  shoals  of  fish 
ascend  the  river,  which  has  an  average  depth  of  10  feet,  and  is  navigable  for 
steamers  to  this  point. 

A  bad  road,  crossing  the  "Western  Cordillera  at  a  height  of  6,800  feet,  connects 
Quibdo  with  Bolivar,  in  the  Cauca  valley.  But  the  stream  of  migration  to  these 

Fig.  82. — POET  OF  BUENAVENTUEA. 
Scale  1  :  660,000- 


77°2Q 


West  or  breenwicn 


Depths. 


Oto5 
Fathoms. 


6  to  26 

Fathoms. 


25  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


12  Miles. 


uplands  sets  chiefly  from  Antioquia,  whose  enterprising  citizens  have  already 
founded  several  settlements,  such  as  Urrao,  near  the  source  of  the  Murri  affluent 
of  the  Atrato  ;  Canasgordas  and  Frontino,  about  the  headwaters  of  the  Sucio,  which 
joins  the  Atrato  above  its  delta. 


NOVITA — BUENAVENTURA — EL  CASTIGO. 

In  the  upper  basin  of  the  San  Juan,  whence  comes  much  of  the  platinum  used 
in  the  world,  the  chief  centre  of  population  is  Novita,  which,  like  Quibdo,  is  built 
on  piles.  On  the  neighbouring  Pacific  coastlands  the  only  port  visited  by  skippers 
is  Baudo,  which  lies  on  a  tidal  river  of  like  name. 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  COLOMBIA.  209 

Buenaventura,  on  an  islet  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  a  long  inlet  south  of  the 
Rio  San  Juan,  attracts  to  its  port  about  three-fourths  of  all  the  foreign  trade  of 
the  Cauca  basin.  The  deep  and  well-sheltered  bight  had  been  discovered  in  1530 
by  Pascual  de  Andagoya,  who  ascended  the  Rio  Dagua,  which  here  reaches  the 
coast,  and  passed  thence  over  the  Cordillera  to  the  interior.  But  nothing  was  to 
be  seen  on  the  spot  but  a  few  fishermen's  huts  till  the  year  1821,  when  the  city 
of  Buenaventura  was  officially  founded.  On  the  mainland  the  suburb  of  Pueblo 
Nuevo  stands  on  the  banks  of  a  shallow  estuary  facing  the  north  side  of  the 
island. 

Although  the  busiest  seaport  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Colombia,  Buenaventura 
has  but  a  small  foreign  trade  compared  with  that  of  Barranquilla.  But  a  great 
development  is  expected  on  the  completion  of  the  railway  crossing  the  Cordilleras 
down  to  the  Cauca  valley. 

South  of  Buenaventura  follow  a  few  little  ports,  such  as  Micai,  Timbiqui,  and 
Isquande,  over  against  the  seven-peaked  island  of  Gorgona,  with  La  Gorgonita  at 
its  southern  extremity.  Most  of  the  territory  between  this  point  and  the 
Ecuador  frontier  is  comprised  within  the  basin  of  the  Patia,  which  is  better 
peopled  than  any  other  fluvial  valleys  draining  to  the  Pacific. 

Here  the  breezy  uplands,  relatively  cold  but  healthy,  are  occupied  by 
Almaguer,  Bolivar,  and  several  other  towns  and  villages,  whose  inhabitants 
carefully  avoid  the  low-lying  coastlands.  The  negroes  and  half-castes  alone 
are  able  to  resist  the  debilitating  climate  of  these  fertile  but  oppressively  hot 
districts,  which  yield  abundant  crops  of  the  finest  tobacco  and  other  agricultural 
produce.  In  the  El  Castigo  (Rosario)  district  the  cacao  plantations,  covering  a 
space  of  about  100  acres,  and  dating  from  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
contain  some  trees  130  feet  high,  whose  fruit  still  retains  its  full  flavour.  Some 
of  the  slopes  are  clothed  with  trees  matted  together  by  the  coils  of  the  vanilla 
climber,  whose  powerful  aroma  is  wafted  on  the  breeze  to  distances  of  many 
leagues  round  about. 


TUQUERRES — PASTO — TUMACO — IPIALES. 

Towards  the  Ecuador  frontier  the  plateau  is  occupied  by  the  two  important 
towns  of  Tuquerres  and  Pasto,  which  give  their  names  to  the  neighbouring 
volcanoes,  and  which  lie,  one  to  the  west,  the  other  to  the  east,  of  the  Guaitara 
affluent  of  the  Patia.  Tuquerres,  so  named  from  an  extinct  Indian  tribe,  stands 
at  an  altitude  of  10,035  feet,  or  100  feet  higher  than  Mucuchies,  in  Venezuela. 
From  its  sloping  terrace  a  marvellous  view  is  commanded  of  the  surrounding 
volcanoes,  of  the  plateaux  above  which  they  rise,  and  of  the  gorges  by  which  their 
flanks  are  furrowed. 

Pasto,    although  less  elevated,  stands  at  about  the  same  height  as  Bogota, 

and  enjoys  a  similar  climate.      This  city,  lying  about  midway  between  Quito  and 

Popayan,  replaced  in   1539  the  settlement  of  El  Madrigal,  founded  two  years 

previously   by  Belalcazar.       Formerly  included   in   the  diocese    of    Quito,   and 

15 


210  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

connected  with  the  southern  Quichuas  by  their  customs  and  traditions,  the 
Pastusos  constitute  an  original  ethnical  group  differing  greatly  from  the  other 
inhabitants  of  Colombia.  Their  city,  the  "  Lioness  of  the  Andes,"  remained 
loyal  to  the  crown  of  Spain  for  over  ten  years  after  the  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence in  the  other  provinces,  and  surrendered  to  Bolivar  only  after  the 
sanguinary  battle  of  Bombona,  on  the  slopes  of  the  Pasto  volcano. 

The  Pastusos  have  their  special  industries,  and  their  ruanas  (ponchos  or 
smocks),  made  of  wool,  cotton,  or  other  durable  fabrics,  are  noted  for  their  fast 
colours,  which  are  fixed  with  ashes,  the  juice  of  wild  lemons,  and  the  sulphuric 
acid  obtained  from  the  sulphur  of  the  neighbouring  volcanoes. 

Barbacoas,  the  chief  place  in  the  lower  Patia  basin,  lies  on  the  Telembi  affluent, 
which,  like  the  mainstream  itself,  is  navigable  by  steamers.  From  Barbacoas  to 
Tuquerres,  the  nearest  town  on  the  plateau,  the  route  ascends  a  height  of  10,000 
feet  by  sharp  zigzags,  over  precipices,  across  ravines  and  narrow  gorges.  At  some 
of  the  more  difficult  points  the  pack  animals  are  replaced  by  men,  the  so-called 
cargueros  or  estriberos,  who  carry  goods  and  even  passengers  on  their  backs  secured 
by  leather  straps  passed  round  their  foreheads. 

Tumaco,  the  port  of  Barbacoas,  lies  on  an  islet  a  little  to  the  north-east  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Rio  Mira.  This  place  has  lost  much  of  its  traffic  since  the  tagua,  or 
vegetable  ivory,  till  recently  the  staple  of  its  export  trade,  has  fallen  in  price 
on  the  German  markets.  Some  other  islets  on  this  coast  are  completely  unin- 
habited. 

With  the  marine  custom-house  of  Tumaco,  towards  the  Ecuador  frontier,  cor- 
responds the  inland  custom-house  of  Ipiales,  a  station  standing  at  an  elevation  of 
10,110  feet  on  the  Males  affluent  of  the  Guaitara.  But  the  traffic  of  this  place 
is  insignificant,  doubtless  owing  to  the  development  of  the  contraband  trade 
between  the  conterminous  states. 


MATERIAL  CONDITION  OF  COLOMBIA. 

The  population  of  the  republic  continues  steadily  to  increase  from  year  to  year, 
and  from  decade  to  decade,  despite  the  murderous  civil  wars,  the  insalubrity  of 
the  low-lying  plains  and  of  the  hot  moist  valleys.  The  period  within  which  the 
inhabitants  are  doubled  may  be  estimated  at  about  fifty  years.  This  movement, 
although  much  slower  than  in  the  United  States,  Chili,  Argentina  and  Uruguay, 
is  far  more  rapid  than  in  Bolivia  and  Peru.  In  the  department  of  the  Cauca  the 
increase  has  been  eightfold,  and  in  Antioquia  twelvefold,  since  1778.  The  coloni- 
sation of  the  interior,  spreading  chiefly  from  Antioquia,  proceeds,  if  not  rapidly 
at  least  continuously,  every  inland  town  forming  a  little  centre  of  dispersion  for 
the  surrounding  districts.  A  century  ago  the  Antioquians  represented  a  seven- 
teenth, at  present  (1893)  they  constitute  no  less  than  one  fifth,  of  the  entire  popu- 
lation. 

Of  all  the  departments  Panama  alone  has  received  any  large  number  of  emi- 
grants, negroes  from  Jamaica,  Chinese,  Europeans,  all  in  connection  with  the 


MATERIAL  CONDITION   OF   COLOMBIA.  211 

Panama  Canal  works ;  but  since  the  suspension  of  that  project  an  exodus  has 
taken  place  in  the  opposite  direction.  Altogether  not  mpre  than  about  10,000 
foreigners  are  supposed  to  be  at  present  resident  in  the  republic.  In  1883  the 
returns  for  Bogota  gave  only  455  in  a  total  population  of  nearly  96,000. 

Colombia  still  remains  but  thinly  peopled,  over  half  of  the  territory  being 
almost  uninhabited,  while  the  relatively  better-peopled  districts  are  interrupted 
by  vast  solitudes.  The  boundless  spaces  roamed  exclusively  by  the  wild  tribes 
are  even  decreasing  in  population,  owing  chiefly  to  the  ravages  of  small-pox. 
Amongst  the  Colombians  proper  there  is  an  excess  of  about  100,000  women  over 
men  (2,150,000  and  2,050,000  respectively).  According  to  Vergara  the  annual 
increase  by  the  excess  of  births  over  deaths  averages  from  80,000  to  85,000. 

Certain  epidemics  are  prevalent,  especially  on  the  swampy  coastlands,  where 
marsh-fevers  often  assume  a  virulent  character  along  the  shores  of  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  while  yellow  fever  or  some  analogous  disorder  occasionally  ravages  the  low- 
lying  plains.  Dysentery  is  almost  equally  dreaded,  and  cutaneous  diseases  are 
very  common,  particularly  amongst  the  negroes  and  half-breeds.  Of  late  years 
leprosy  has  also  made  its  appearance,  and  seems  to  be  rapidly  spreading  in  many 
•districts,  but  mainly  in  the  provinces  of  Santander  and  Boyaca.  Those  tainted 
by  this  loathsome  affection  already  exceed  20,000,  and  goitrous  subjects  are  even 
more  numerous,  being  met  in  all  the  dark  and  gloomy  upland  valleys,  especially 
in  the  upper  Magdalena  and  Cauca  basins. 

As  the  great  bulk  of  the  population  still  belongs  to  the  peasant  class,  indus- 
trial pauperism  has  not  yet  invaded  Colombia,  and  although  there  is  no  lack  of  poor, 
there  are  no  proletarians.  All  have  at  least  sufficient  bread,  except  when  famine 
is  caused  in  certain  districts  by  inundations  or  the  plague  of  locusts.  Slavery  was 
abolished  over  fifty  years  ago  ;  nevertheless,  servitude  may  be  said  still  prac- 
tically to  exist,  for  the  system  of  small  free  holdings  is  far  from  general,  while 
the  peasantry,  always  burdened  with  debts,  are  obliged  to  work  like  coolies  on  the 
large  estates. 

But  Colombia  still  possesses  a  vast  reserve  of  waste  lands,  more  than  sufficient 
for  the  needs  of  a  rural  population  twenty  times  more  numerous  than  the  present. 
In  1890  the  state  had  at  its  disposal  over  250,000,000  acres  of  such  lands,  and 
during  the  two  previous  years  the  public  domain  had  diminished  only  by  about 
130,000  acres. 

Settlers  chiefly  select  wooded  tracts,  where  the  trees  have  to  be  felled,  left  to 
dry  for  several  months,  and  then  fired  at  the  risk  of  infection  from  the  half-burnt 
bodies  of  the  innumerable  reptiles  and  other  animals  destroyed  by  the  conflagra- 
tion. The  rotation  of  crops  usually  begins  with  maize,  which  the  first  season 
yields  enormous  returns ;  but  after  two  or  three  harvests  the  clearings  are  often 
abandoned,  and  are  soon  again  clothed  with  forest  growths. 

The  alimentary  plants  vary  with  the  altitude  and  from  province  to  province. 
In  the  hot  lands  the  staple  food  is  yucca  bread  (manioc),  eaten  with  bananas,  of 
which,  according  to  the  local  saying,  there  are  as  many  varieties  as  days  in  the 
year.  The  most  esteemed  is  the  large  platano,  which  is  roasted  under  the  embers, 


212  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

usually  with  the  addition  of  a  panela,  or  lump  of  sugar.  In  the  temperate  zone 
maize  takes  the  place  of  manioc,  while  wheat  and  potatoes  prevail  on  the  cold 
uplands,  and  oca  (oxalis  tuberoaa}  of  a  delicate  flavour  on  the  higher  grounds,  such 
as  the  Pasto  plateau,  at  altitudes  of  1 0,000  feet  and  upwards.  Certain  species  of 
the  solanum  (S.  galeatum]  yield  fruit  of  a  tine  golden  hue,  preferred  by  the  natives 
to  oranges.  In  Socorro  and  some  other  districts,  oats,  beans,  and  potatoes  are 
cultivated  up  to  a  height  of  11,500  feet,  and  at  this  altitude  the  potato  is  exempt 
from  blight. 

Both  in  the  temperate  and  hot  /ones,  tillage,  carried  on  only  in  the  more 
favoured  localities,  yields  astonishing  results,  maize  in  many  parts  of  the  Cauca 
valley  as  much  as  three-hundredfold.  Most  of  the  plants  of  the  European  tem- 
perate lands  are  of  late  introduction,  and  it  is  curious  to  note  that  the  peach,  brought 
with  them  by  the  first  settlers,  has  become  so  far  acclimatised  that  it  never  loses 
all  its  foliage,  whereas  the  pear,  a  more  recent  arrival,  is  still  deciduous,  as  in 
Europe. 

Although  contributing  little  to  the  general  trade  of  the  world,  Colombia  has 
begun  to  export  various  products  of  the  land,  such  as  the  coffees  of  Santander  and 
Cucuta,  and  the  tobaccos  of  Carmen,  Ambalema,  and  the  Cauca  valley.  Most  of 
the  other  exports,  vegetable  ivory,  bark  and  gold,  are  natural  produce.  Stock- 
breeding  is  more  important  in  some  districts,  as  in  the  savanna  of  Bogota,  than 
agriculture  proper,  and  in  this  respect  there  has  been  a  retrograde  movement  since 
pre-Columbian  times.  According  to  certain  rough  estimates,  the  Colombian  llanos 
support  relatively  fifty  times  less  cattle  than  those  of  Venezuela,  but  they  were 
far  more  productive  before  the  herds  of  the  natives  had  been  plundered  by  the 
whites. 

Pigs,  introduced  in  1536,  have  readily  adapted  themselves  to  their  new  environ- 
ment, while  undergoing  slight  modifications  according  to  the  different  food  and 
climates.  Most  of  them  resemble  the  wild  boar  with  their  pointed  ears,  broad 
head  and  uniform  colour,  usually  black.  But  in  the  hot  valleys  they  have  become 
ruddy,  like  the  young  peccary,  and  on  the  bleak  paramos,  exceeding  8,000  feet  in 
altitude,  they  assume  a  thick  coat,  often  somewhat  curly,  and  in  some  cases  with  a 
kind  of  woolly  undergrowth. 

Analogous  changes  have  affected  the  European  sheep  :  thus  in  the  torrid  zone 
the  lamb  still  retains  its  wool ;  but,  unless  shorn  at  the  proper  season,  this  wool 
becomes  matted  and  felt-like,  at  last  dropping  off  in  cakes,  revealing  an  undercoat 
of  short  glossy  hair,  like  that  of  the  goat.  The  goat  itself  has  grown  smaller, 
but  at  the  same  time  more  graceful  and  nimble  than  its  Sicilian  congener. 

The  natives  have  domesticated  some  of  the  wild  animals,  such  as  the  saina,  a 
species  of  peccary,  as  faithful  and  intelligent  as  the  dog,  and  the  guacharaca,  a 
bird  about  the  size  of  a  fowl,  but  like  a  turkey  in  shape,  which  breeds  freely  with 
Andalusian  poultry.  In  their  farm-yards  is  also  seen  the  iguasa  (chenalopexj«bata), 
which  resembles  the  duck  in  appearance.  Geese  were  unknown  on  the  Bogota 
plateau  before  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 

From  the  reports  of  the  first  settlers  and  the  later  researches  of  geologists,  it 


MINERAL  WEALTH. 


213 


is  evident  that  Colombia  abounds  in  minerals,  and  as  many  as  40,000  hands  are 
already  employed  in  the  mining  industry.  Few  rivers  probably  roll  down  more 
auriferous  sands  than  the  unhealthy  Choco.  But  mining  operations  have  hitherto 
been  confined  to  the  temperate  districts,  where  the  foreign  engineers  enjoy  a 
climate  like  that  of  West  Europe.  In  the  course  of  three  hundred  and  fifty 
years  Colombia  has  yielded  a  quantity  of  gold  and  silver  valued  at  £140,000,000,  or 

Fig.  83. — LANDING-STAGE  AT  SALGAR,  POET  OF  SAVANILLA. 


about  £400,000  a  year.  Antioquia,  which  at  present  supplies  about  two-thirds  of 
the  auriferous  ores,  possesses  hundreds  of  known  gold-mines,  the  working  of  which 
is  determined  by  the  state  of  the  money  and  labour  markets,  the  facilities  of  com- 
munication, and  similar  outward  conditions.  Most  of  those  in  which  the  crushing 
process  is  needed  belong  to  foreign,  and  especially  English,  companies,  while  the 
washings  along  the  river- banks  are  left  to  the  natives. 


214  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

The  silver-mines,  actively  worked  under  the  Spanish  rule,  have  for  the  most 
part  been  abandoned,  and  could  scarcely  be  reopened  during  the  present  deprecia- 
tion of  the  metal  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  Copper,  lead,  and  iron  also  occur, 
but  next  to  gold,  salt  is  the  chief  mineral  industry.  The  yield  might  be  greatly 
increased  but  for  the  Government  monopoly,  which  limits  its  operations  to  sup- 
plying the  local  demand.  To  the  state  also  belong  the  emerald-mines  of  Muso, 
while  the  pearl-fisheries  of  Rio  Hacha  and  the  Gulf  of  Panama  are  private 
property,  but  of  little  value. 

The  industrial  arts  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  made  any  perceptible  progress 
since  pre-Columbian  times.  In  the  same  towns,  villages,  and  districts  the  same 
simple  crafts  are  still  pursued,  confined  chiefly  to  the  production  of  hammocks, 
coverlets,  ponchos,  straw  hats,  sacks,  wallets,  and  such-like  homely  wares.  But 
these  are  amply  sufficient  to  reveal  the  natural  taste  of  the  natives  for  colour 
and  form.  Every  earthenware  utensil,  every  woven  fabric,  every  object  of  daily 
use  is  in  some  districts  stamped  with  a  distinctly  original  character  in  its  design, 
shape,  and  harmonious  tints. 

With  twice  the  population  of  Venezuela,  Colombia  still  lags  behind  the 
conterminous  state  in  its  foreign  relations.  This  inferiority  appears  due  in  part 
to  the  relative  geographical  positions  of  the  two  countries,  in  part  to  the  peculiar 
configuration  of  Colombia,  where  economic  life  is  developed  mainly  on  the  inland 
plateaux  at  great  distances  from  the  seaboard,  and  with  difficult  approaches 
greatly  enhancing  the  price  of  foreign  wares  destined  for  the  interior.  Hence 
this  state  is  driven  to  produce  on  the  spot,  in  however  rude  a  way,  many  things 
that  Venezuela  is  enabled  to  import  from  abroad  at  moderate  charges  for 
freight. 

According  to  the  custom-house  returns  the  total  foreign  trade  of  Colombia 
amounted  in  1890  to  about  £4.000,000,  exclusive  of  the  movement  in  the  free 
ports  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  But  the  official  figures  may  be  deceiving,  in 
consequence  of  the  different  rates  of  exchange,  imports  being  valued  in  pounds 
sterling,  dollars,  and  francs;  while  the  exports  are  calculated  according  to  the 
Colombian  peso  (dollar),  nominally  4s.,  but  really  worth  only  3s.  4d.  Thus  the 
exports  according  to  the  official  tables  are  greatly  superior  to  the  imports,  whereas 
the  contrary  is  the  case.  Nearly  all  foreign  dealings  take  place  with  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  France,  and  Germany,  in  the  order  of  importance  here 
given. 

The  shipping  continues  steadily  to  increase  from  year  to  year,  although 
still  inferior  to  that  of  a  second-rate  European  port,  such  as  Plymouth  or 
Dunkirk.  Nine  custom-houses  have  been  established  by  the  Government — four 
on  the  Atlantic :  Rio  Hacha,  Santa  Marta,  Barranquilla,  and  Cartagena  ;  two  on 
the  Pacific,  and  two  in  the  Orinoco  basin ;  and  one  on  the  frontier  of  Ecuador 
(Ipiales). 

The  gold  coinage,  which  is  no  longer  issued  by  the  mints  of  Bogota  and 
Medellin,  has  almost  disappeared  from  circulation,  and  gold  is  now  known  only 
as  an  article  of  trade.  Even  silver  has  become  rare  ;  it  is  no  longer  sufficiently 


COMMUNICATIONS  OF  COLOMBIA. 


215 


abundant  for  commercial  dealings,  and  has  to  be  supplemented  by  paper  money, 
limited  by  an  Act  of  1887  to  12,000,000  pesos. 

Little  development  has  taken  place  in  the  means  of  facilitating  communications 
except  as  regards  navigation.  As  early  as  1825  steamers  were  already  plying 
on  the  Magdalena  ;  but  this  first  attempt  ended  in  failure,  and  no  regular  service 
was  established  till  1847.  In  1890  as  many  as  twenty-five  steamers  were  plying 


Fig.  84. — COMMUNICATIONS  OF  COLOMBIA. 
Scale  1  :  16,000,000. 


0°E 


Railways. 


Regular  liues  of  steamers .  Navigable  rivers. 

—— — -^— _ .    310  Miles. 


between  Barranquilla  and  the  rapids,  the  ascent  averaging  eight,  and  the  descent 
from  three  to  four  days.  Steam  has  also  penetrated  into  the  upper  reaches  of  the 
main  artery,  as  well  as  into  the  Cauca,  both  above  and  below  the  dangerous 
section  of  that  river  traversing  the  province  of  Antioquia.  Steamers  are  now 
also  navigating  the  Atrato,  the  San  Juan,  the  Patia,  as  well  as  the  numerous 
affluents  of  these  rivers  and  of  the  Magdalena.  Moreover,  a  contract  was  signed 
in  1890  with  a  steamship  company  which  undertakes  to  place  two  boats  on  the 


216  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

Meta  to  ply  as  far  as  Orocue,  370  miles  from  the  confluence,  in  the  dry  season, 
and  as  far  as  Cabuyaro,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  during  the  floods. 

Although  no  regular  railway  system  has  yet  been  developed,  Colombia  still 
possesses  a  few  short  lines,  nearly  all  at  present  stopping  in  the  marshy  lowlands 
at  the  foot  of  the  inland  plateaux.  Of  the  three  ports  that  may  be  regarded  as 
belonging  to  the  Magdalena  delta,  Savanilla  has  been  connected  with  the  great 
river  since  1892.  But  the  Buenaventura  line  is  still  arrested  in  the  forests  of 
the  Rio  Dagua  ;  nor  have  any  of  the  large  inland  cities  — Bogota,  Bucaramanga, 
Antioquia — any  direct  access  by  rail  to  the  lower  valleys.  All,  however,  enjoy 
telegraphic  communication  with  each  other  and  with  the  outer  world,  through 
the  junctions  effected  at  Colon,  Panama,  and  Buenaventura  with  the  submarine 
cables. 

The  principle  of  compulsory  instruction,  several  times  recognised  since  1870, 
is  no  longer  maintained  by  the  present  Government.  Most  of  the  inhabitants 
are  still  destitute  even  of  a  rudimentary  education,  and  in  the  department  of  the 
Magdalena,  where  the  only  periodical  is  the  official  journal,  six  of  the  so-called 
high  schools  are  said  to  have  been  closed  in  1891  for  lack  of  teachers.  The 
actual  attendance  at  school  may  be  estimated  at  100,000,  or  about  one-fortieth  of 
the  whole  population.  But  the  proportion  of  those  who  can  at  least  read  and 
write  greatly  exceeds  the  number  of  those  who  have  passed  through  the  public 
schools. 

At  Bogota,  centre  of  Colombian  culture,  the  first  printing-press  was  set  up  in 
1738,  and  the  first  journal  appeared  in  the  same  place  in  1785.  A  great  com- 
motion was  created  by  a  professor  who.  in  1763  first  proclaimed  the  doctrine  that 
the  earth  turns  round  the  sun,  and  even  still  public  instruction  is  "  organised  and 
directed  in  accordance  with  the  Catholic  religion,"  and  is  therefore  required  "  to 
react  against  utilitarianism,  materialism,  and  impiety."  The  press,  also,  "  free  in 
time  of  peace,"  must  abstain  from  attacking  the  Catholic  Church  "  in  any  way 
whatsoever." 

ADMINISTRATION. 

After  long  constituting  a  federal  republic  on  the  model  of  the  United  States, 
Colombia  has,  under  conservative  influences,  abolished  the  autonomous  states,  and 
returned  to  the  former  centralising  system.  But  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  new  order  will  again  be  set  aside  by  some  fresh  revolution,  for  the  country  is 
divided  into  two  nearly  equal  parties,  or,  in  other  words,  is  in  a  state  of  unstable 
equilibrium. 

Since  the  reaction  of  1885  the  nine  federated  states  have  become  so  many 
departments  dependent  on  the  National  Assembly,  which  meets  at  Bogota,  centre  of 
the  executive  power  constituted  by  the  two  chambers.  The  suffrage  is  also  limited 
to  men  twenty-one  years  old  exercising  some  trade  or  profession,  holding  some 
public  office,  or  enjoying  a  yearly  income.  All  citizens  thus  qualified  elect  the 
municipal  councillors  and  the  departmental  delegates.  But  these  voters  in  "  the 


ADMINISTRATION  OF   COLOMBIA. 


217 


first  degree  "  do  not  directly  elect  either  the  deputies  or  the  senators ;  they  meet 
at  an  appointed  place  to  form  a  junta,  which  nominates  the  "  electors,"  who  are 
charged  with  the  nominations. 

The  House  of  Representatives  is  constituted  by  the  nine  departments,  each  of 
which  returns  one  member  for  every  50,000  inhabitants.     The  candidates  must  be 


£ 


twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  are  elected  for  four  years,  while  the  senators,  nomi- 
nated for  six  years  in  the  proportion  of  three  for  each  department,  must  be  thirty 
years  old,  and  in  the  enjoyment  of  an  income  of  not  less  than  1,200  pesos.  But 
to  the  twenty- seven  thus  elected  by  indirect  suffrage  the  President  adds  six  chosen 
by  himself. 


218 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


Congress,  which  meets  only  every  second  year,  elects  the  President  and  the 
Vice-President  for  six  years,  and  every  second  year  nominates  a  "substitute"  to 
replace  the  President  in  case  of  vacancy.  The  Senate  has  the  right  to  judge  the 
ministers,  but  no  sentence  is  valid  unless  pronounced  by  a  majority  of  two-thirds. 
The  Council  of  State  consists  of  six  members,  nominated,  two  by  the  President, 
two  by  the  Senate,  and  two  by  the  deputies. 

The  President,  held  to  be  irresponsible  and  re-eligible,  can  neither  be  deposed 

Fig  86. — ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  OF  COLOMBIA. 

Scale  1  :  20,000,000. 


p. 


8?' 


West  or  Greenwich 


I.  Magdnlena. 
II.  Bolivar. 
III.  Panama 


IV.  Santandei. 

,  V.  Boyaca. 

VI.  Cundinamarca. 


VlI.Tolinm. 
VTTI.  Antioqnia. 
IX.  Cauca. 


500  Miles 


nor  impeached.  He  lacks  nothing  but  the  title  of  an  absolute  sovereign.  He 
chooses  his  eight  ministers,  the  departmental  governors,  the  ambassadors,  the 
councillors  of  state,  the  military  chiefs,  and  most  of  the  higher  officials.  The 
supreme  court,  consisting  of  seven  judges  nominated  for  life,  and  the  lower  courts 
also  depend  on  the  central  government,  and  the  militia  formerly  maintained  by  the 
several  states  has  been  suppressed.  Capital  punishment  has  been  restored,  except 
in  the  case  of  political  offenders,  and  the  civil  code  is  almost  a  complete  copy  of 


ADMINISTEATION  OF   COLOMBIA.  219 

the  Chilian  code,  which  had  already  been  adopted  by  the  State  of  Cundinamarca 
in  1857. 

Catholicism  remains  the  national  religion,  and  is  administered  by  a  hierarchy 
of  one  archbi&hop  and  seven  suffragan  bishops.  Although  the  religious  orders 
were  abolished  in  1863,  several  hundred  friars  still  remain  in  the  country.  Tolera- 
tion is  extended  to  other  sects,  "  so  far  as  they  may  not  be  contrary  either  to 
Christian  morals  or  to  the  laws." 

Each  department  is  governed  by  an  administrative  assembly,  chosen  in  the 
proportion  of  one  deputy  for  every  12,000  inhabitants,  and  meeting,  like  Congress, 
every  two  years.  The  departmental  prefects  are  nominated  by  the  governor  for 
two  years,  and  the  prefects  in  their  turn  appoint  the  magistrates  of  the  municipal 
districts. 

A -different  arrangement  applies  to  the  reduced  Indians  living  in  the  tribal 
state.  The  civil  government,  "  in  accord  with  the  ecclesiastical  authorities," 
recognises  the  cacique  and  the  cabildo  (tribal  council)  alone,  this  body  being  elected 
in  conformity  with  custom.  The  chiefs  have  to  see  that  each  family  receives  its 
share  of  the  resguardo,  or  tribal  domain,  in  case  of  division,  and  also  to  prevent  the 
alienation  of  such  allotments. 

Compared  with  that  of  most  other  states,  the  Colombian  revenue  seems  insig- 
nificant. Although  the  population  has  increased  at  least  fourfold  since  the 
declaration  of  national  independence,  the  total  amount  of  taxation  has  undergone 
no  such  development.  Most  of  the  taxes  levied  under  the  Spanish  rule  have  been 
abolished ;  even  the  salt  monopoly  exists  in  a  mitigated  form,  private  persons 
being  allowed  under  certain  conditions  to  work  the  saline  springs. 

At  present  the  revenue  is  derived  chiefly  from  the  customs,  nearly  all  imports 
being  taxed  except  agricultural  machinery,  scientific  apparatus,  books,  and  other 
educational  aids.  The  budget  for  1892  showed  a  deficit  of  about  £470,000,  and  in 
the  same  year  the  foreign  debt,  with  accumulated  interest,  amounted  to  £3,060,000. 
By  Act  of  Congress,  seven  per  cent,  of  the  customs  are  set  apart  to  meet  these 
liabilities.  The  internal  debt  amounts  at  present  to  over  £2,000,000,  and  most  of 
the  departments  are  also  burdened  with  debt. 

The  peace  footing  averages  about  6,000  of  all  arms,  but  the  strength  of  the 
national  army  is  determined  from  time  to  time  by  Congress.  All  able-bodied  male 
adults  are  liable  to  military  service  in  case  of  need. 

In  the  Appendix  is  given  a  table  of  the  nine  administrative  departments,  with 
their  superficial  area,  population,  and  capitals. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ECUADOR. 

I. 
EXTENT — DISPUTED  FRONTIERS. 

F  all  the  Andine  republics,  Ecuador  is  the  smallest  and  least  popu- 
lous. On  both  sides  of  the  equator,  from  which  it  takes  its 
name,  it  occupies  not  more  than  five  degrees  of  latitude  in  a 
straight  line,  while  from  west  to  east  the  inhabited  part  of  the 
country  is  still  more  contracted.  Of  its  three  natural  divisions — 
Ante-Andina  or  Cis-Andina,  Inter-Andina,  and  Traiis-Andina — the  first  two 
alone  form  the  true  territory  of  the  republic.  The  thinly  populated  Trans- 
Andine  spaces  are  of  small  extent,  and  their  population  remains  almost  sta- 
tionary. 

Certain  regions  in  this  division  are  still  absolutely  unknown,  while  towards  the 
east  many  tracts  claimed  by  Ecuador  are  contested  by  her  powerful  neigh- 
bours. Beyond  the  inhabited  provinces,  the  frontiers  claimed  by  Colombia  and 
Peru  overlap  on  the  plains  inclined  towards  the  Amazons,  and  apart  from  arbitra- 
tion, one  or  other  of  these  states  can  hardly  fail  to  get  the  better  of  Ecuador, 
weakest  of  all  the  Andine  republics. 

Before  the  recent  conventions,  which  have  not  yet  been  definitely  ratified, 
Ecuador  had  officially  a  superficial  area  of  280.000  square  miles ;  but  the  actual 
area  cannot  be  estimated  at  more  than  160,000  square  miles.  It  comprises  little 
more  than  the  plateau  less  the  Trans- Andine  territory,  and  Colombia  even 
threatens  to  seize  a  portion  of  what  still  remains.  Even  on  the  Pacific  slope 
disputes  have  arisen  on  the  subject  of  frontiers.  In  the  north  Colombia  has 
occupied  both  sides  of  the  Rio  Mira  as  far  as  the  Mataje  creek,  although  Ecuador 
claims  all  the  territory  up  to  the  left  bank  of  that  river.  In  the  south,  also,  a 
part  of  the  Rio  Achira  basin  is  contested  by  Peru. 


HISTORY  OF   ECUADOR. 
HISTORY — GEOGRAPHICAL  EXPLORATION. 


221 


Despite  its  greater  distance  from  Europe,  Ecuador  was  conquered  by  the 
Spaniards  a  few  years  before  they  penetrated  to  the  Colombian  plateau.  Attracted 
by  the  treasures  of  the  Incas,  Pizarro  had  already  completed  his  destructive  march 
across  Peru  five  years  before  the  three  bands  of  invaders  had  met  from  different 
quarters  on  the  Cundinamarca  tableland.  In  1533  a  body  of  about  300  men, 
including  80  horse,  was  led  by  Belalcazar  from  Peru  northwards,  in  the  direction 
of  the  kingdom  of  Quito,  that  is,  the  present  state  of  Ecuador.  He  met  with  a 


Fig.  87. — DISPUTED  FRONTIERS  OF  ECTTADOE. 
Scale  1  :  14,000,000. 


Present  territory 
of  Ecuador. 


Territories  claimed 
by  Ecuador. 


Districts  of  Ecuador 
claimed  by  Peru 
and  Colombia. 


250  Miles. 


stout  resistance  from  the  reigning  sovereign,  Ruminahui,  himself  a  usurper,  and 
might  have  even  been  repulsed  but  for  an  eruption  of  Cotopaxi,  attended  by  fear- 
ful rumblings  and  a  fall  of  ashes  on  the  battlefield.  The  Indians,  terrified  by  the 
unfavourable  omen,  dispersed  in  all  directions,  and  the  Spaniards  entered  the 
city  of  Riobamba  without  further  resistance.  The  conquest  was  already  effected  ; 
nothing  remained  except  to  massacre  the  natives  and  plunder  their  tombs  and 
temples. 

The  "kingdom"  of  Quito,  which  depended  alternately  on  the  vice- royalties 
of  Peru  and  New  Grenada,  and  which  was  officially    designated  as  an  audiencia 


222  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

or  a  presidencia,  had  no  political  history  under  the  Spanish  rule.  It  was,  how- 
ever, the  scene  of  a  memorable  event  in  the  history  of  the  sciences — the 
measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  meridian  by  Bouguer,  Godin,  La  Condamine,  and 
the  brothers  Ulloa.  This  important  determination  enabled  La  Condamine  to 
supersede  Samuel  Fritz's  map  by  a  more  accurate  cartographic  document  ; 
special  attention  was  at  the  same  time  directed  to  the  plateaux  and  volcanoes 
of  this  region,  which  were  then  and  long  after  supposed  to  be  the  highest  on  the 
globe. 

During  the  Spanish  regime  Humboldt  and  Bonpland  also  came  to  study  the 
orography,  geology,  and  botany  of  the  land,  making  those  famous  ascents  of 
Chimborazo  and  Pichincha  which  raised  so  many  questions  on  the  vertical  dis- 
position of  climates  and  floras. 

Scientific  exploration  was  interrupted  by  the  War  of  Independence  and  the 
subsequent  political  convulsions  ;  but  since  the  establishment  of  order  Ecuador  has 
been  frequently  visited  by  naturalists  and  students,  such  as  Spruce,  Wisse, 
Reiss  and  Stiibel.  But  the  interest  attaching  to  volcanic  phenomena  has  tended 
to  concentrate  research  on  the  regions  already  made  classical  by  the  labours  of 
La  Condamine,  Humboldt,  and  other  pioneers.  Even  Edward  Whymper's  recent 
journey,  so  important  in  some  respects,  covers  only  a  small  part  of  the  territory 
of  Ecuador. 

Thanks,  however,  to  various  geodetic  determinations,  geographers  have  been 
enabled  to  rectify  the  older  maps  in  some  essential  points.  Thus  it  results  from 
the  marine  surveys,  and  from  those  of  the  engineers  engaged  in  laying  down 
roads  and  the  tracks  of  future  railways,  that  the  whole  of  the  Andine  system 
must  be  bodily  shifted  from  12  to  25  miles  farther  east  than  was  supposed  by 
Humboldt  and  subsequent  cartographers.  In  this  respect  the  fundamental  work 
on  Ecuador  is  that  published  by  the  geologist  Wolf  in  1892,  embodying  the 
results  of  twenty  years'  travels  and  studies.* 

Ecuador  is  certainly  increasing  in  population,  which,  even  according  to 
the  most  cautious  estimates,  has  doubled  since  the  proclamation  of  inde- 
pendence. Nearly  all  the  elements  of  progress  are  drawn  from  her  own 
resources,  for  there  has  been  no  immigration  in  the  strict  sense,  except  of  the 
Pastusos  from  Colombia.  Even  adventurers  and  fortune-hunters  seldom  pene- 
trate far  beyond  the  coastlands,  being  little  attracted  towards  a  region  where 
the  inhabited  districts  have  a  rigid  climate  and  poor  soil,  where  volcanoes 
flame,  and  the  ground  quakes  almost  incessantly  beneath  the  peasant's  plough- 
share, where  the  highways  lead  over  formidable  passes  exposed  to  glacial 
winds  and  snowstorms. 

The  very  sadness  natural  to  the  Quichuas,  their  sullen  temperament  combined 
with  the  gloomy  environment,  may  have  even  tended  to  repel  immigrants  from 
brighter  climes.  Nevertheless,  the  construction  of  roads,  already  begun,  cannot 
fail  to  open  up  for  settlement  the  more  favourable  tracts,  both  on  the  Pacific  and 
Amazonian  slopes  of  the  Andes. 

*  Teodoro  Wolf,  Geografia  y  Geologia  del  Ecuador. 


MOUNTAINS  OF  ECUADOR.  228 

II. 

PHYSICAL  FEATURES — THE  ECUADOREAN  ANDES. 

Viewed  as  a  whole,  the  Ecuadorean  Andes,  stretching  from  the  Pasto  to  the 
Loja  group,  present  a  distinctive  character  in  their  relief,  which  has  been 
compared  to  a  ladder  of  primitive  construction  with  rude  and  twisted  rungs, 
varying  in  thickness,  and  following  at  irregular  intervals.  Eastwards  runs  the 
main  range,  the  "  Royal  Cordillera,"  as  it  is  called,  whose  waters  all  descend  to 
the  Amazons.  Although  Chimborazo,  the  culminating  point  of  Ecuador,  lies  in 
the  western  range,  this  eastern  chain  has  a  greater  mean  altitude  (about  13,000 
feet),  while  its  crystalline  rocks  give  it  the  first  place  in  point  of  geological  age. 
It  consists,  partly  in  its  northern,  and  altogether  in  its  southern,  section,  of 
granites,  gneiss,  and  slaty  schists,  rocks  which  in  the  "Western  Cordillera  nowhere 
crop  out  except  in  the  deepest  valleys.  Here  the  prevailing  formations  are 
mesozoic  strata,  probably  cretaceous,  dominated  by  diorites,  porphyries,  and  other 
rocks  of  igneous  origin. 

Despite  its  generally  more  regular  trend,  the  eastern  system  presents  a  double 
curvature,  the  first  concave,  the  second  convex,  towards  the  plains  at  its  foot. 
The  parallel  western  range  follows  an  analogous  direction,  but  with  far  more 
numerous  local  irregularities  and  breaks  in  its  normal  disposition.  So  frequent, 
in  fact,  are  these  breaks  that  Whymper  went  so  far  as  to  deny  the  existence  of 
the  range  as  such,  regarding  the  western  edge  of  the  main  (eastern)  chain 
merely  as  "  a  certain  sequence  of  peaks  more  or  less  in  a  line  with  each  other."  * 
But  whatever  name  be  applied  to  this  line  of  domes  and  crests,  it  remains  none 
the  less  a  rim  parallel  to  the  greater  Cordillera,  and  it  is  certainly  regarded  by 
the  inhabitants  as  a  distinct  range,  broken  into  fragments  by  numerous  river- 
valleys.  The  Royal  Cordillera  is  pierced  through  and  through  only  by  the  two 
rivers  Pastaza  and  Paute,  whereas  the  western  chain  is  interrupted  by  no  less 
than  seven  watercourses  having  their  sources  in  the  upland  basins  of  the  interior. 
The  Mira,  the  Guallabamba  of  Quito,  the  Chanchan  of  Alausi,  and,  farther  south, 
the  Canar,  Jubones,  Tumbez,  and  Achira  have  all  forced  their  way  through  the 
western  mountains,  or  rather,  they  have  preserved  their  valleys  despite  the 
upheavals  and  foldings  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  seaboard. 

Thus  the  contrast  between  the  two  systems  is  very  marked  from  the  hydro- 
graphic  as  well  as  from  the  geological  point  of  view.  But  they  resemble  each 
other  in  the  volcanoes  which  have  raised  their  superb  cones  above  the  vast 
Ecuadorean  pedestal.  The  transverse  ridges  connecting  both  Cordilleras  from 
the  Colombian  frontiers  to  the  Cuenca  basin  also  consist  in  a  great  measure  of 
eruptive  cones.  Ecuador,  like  south  Colombia,  is  thus  disposed  by  these 
intermediate  "  rungs  of  the  ladder  "  into  so  many  separate  basins,  probably  of 
lacustrine  origin,  which  stand  at  a  mean  altitude  of  about  8,000  feet,  but  the 
beds  of  which  have  been  disordered  by  erupted  matter  and  by  erosion. 

*  Travels  amongst  the  Great  Andes  of  the  Equator,  p.  335. 


224  SOUTH  AMEBICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

VOLCANOES  :   COTOCACHI — IMBABURA. 

In  the  extreme  north  the  first  basin  is  that  of  Ibarra,  so  named  from  the 
town  which  occupies  its  centre  at  a  height  of  7,300  feet,  and  which  stands  on  an 
affluent  of  the  Mira,  the  frontier  river  towards  Colombia.  "West  of  this  basin  a 
distinct  range  is  formed  by  Cotocachi  ("  Salt  Mountain  "),  Yana-Urcu  ("  Black 
Mountain"),  and  other  volcanoes,  while  eastwards  rises  gloomy  Imbabura,  its 
black  sharp-pointed  crater  standing  out  in  almost  solitary  grandeur  against  the 
blue  sky. 

Cotocachi,  scaled  by  "Whymper,  shows  no  visible  crater  between  its  two 
terminal  peaks,  though  the  intervening  space,  now  filled  by  a  glacier,  may  have 
formed  an  old  igneous  vent.  Lake  Cui-cocha  floods  a  depression  at  the  south- 
eastern base,  which  was  formerly  a  crater  with  two  cones  still  rising  above  the 
surface.  The  slopes  of  Cotocachi  up  to  a  considerable  height  are  furrowed  in 
all  directions  by  deep  fissures  disposed  at  various  angles  to  each  other,  and 
forming  a  chaos  of  gorges  very  difficult  to  cross.  Some  of  the  cracks  are  as 
much  as  6  miles  long,  and  so  precipitous  that  they  have  to  be  turned  like  the 
crevasses  of  a  glacier.  The  inhabitants  of  the  district  are  unanimous  in  attributing 
them  to  earthquakes,  and  several  are  shown  60  or  70  feet  wide  which  were 
suddenly  opened  during  the  great  convulsion  of  1868. 

This  tremendous  disturbance  appears  to  have  been  propagated  from  south  to 
north  beneath  the  Ibarra  basin,  rebounding  from  the  Colombian  mountains  upon 
Ibarra,  where  20,000  persons  are  stated  to  have  perished.  Towns  and  villages 
were  completely  razed  to  the  ground,  with  a  total  loss  of  some  50,000  lives.  In 
many  places  the  houses  were  bodily  swallowed  up,  and  during  the  shock 
Imbabura  is  said  to  have  discharged  a  perfect  deluge  of  mud  and  water,  drowning 
the  flocks  on  the  lower  pastures.  The  deep  lake  of  San  Pablo,  5  miles  round, 
which  lies  near  Imbabura,  close  to  the  north  foot  of  Mojanda,  may  perhaps  have 
contributed  to  this  local  discharge.  Mojanda,  forming  the  transverse  link 
between  the  two  Cordilleras  at  this  point,  falls  below  the  snow-line. 


CAYAMBE — SARA-URCU. 

Between  the  Ibarra  and  the  Quito  basins  the  divide  is  formed  by  Cayambe, 
third  or  fourth  highest  peak  of  Ecuador.  Lying  just  north  of  the  equator,  this 
triple -crested  mountain  presents  an  aspect  no  less  imposing  than  Chimborazo 
itself,  its  glaciers  and  snowfields  (explored  to  the  highest  summit  by  Whymper) 
towering  some  6,000  feet  above  the  bare  rocks  of  the  range.  By  following  the 
course  of  the  streamlets,  which  rise  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  extinct  volcano, 
and  which  converge  to  form  the  Rio  Guallabamba,  the  traveller  enters  that  pro- 
digious avenue  of  burning  mountains  which  has  no  rival  in  the  whole  world.  On 
all  sides  are  seen  cones  of  igneous  origin ;  even  the  long  crests  and  the  so-called 
panecillos,  or  bladder-like  knolls  dotted  like  bosses  over  the  surface  of  the  inner 
basin,  consist  of  luvas,  scorise,  ashes,  and  other  erupted  matter. 


MOUNTAINS  OF  ECUADOR.  225 

The  first  mountain  seen  to  the  south-west  of  Cayambe,  beyond  the  upland 
combes  where  rise  some  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Coca  affluent  of  the  Napo,  is 
Pambamarca,  called  also  Frances-Urcu,  or  "  French  Mount,"  in  memory  of  La 
Condamine's  geodetic  studies.  Then  follow  Guamani  and  other  superb  crests,  not 
however,  reaching  the  snow-line,  and  to  the  east  the  snowy  Sara-Urcu,  scaled  by 
Whymper  with  his  Swiss  guides,  the  two  Carrels,  at  the  cost  of  almost  super- 
human efforts. 

According  to  Yillavicencio,  copied  by  Orton  and  others,  Sara-Urcu  has  often 
emitted  flames,  and  in  recent  times  (1843,  1856)  vomited  showers  of  ashes,  to  the 
great  alarm  of  the  inhabitants  of  Quito.  But  some  mistake  must  have  been  made 
as  to  the  focus  of  these  eruptions,  for  Sara-Urcu,  ascended  by  Whymper,  is  not  a 
volcano ;  its  rocks  consist  of  a  micaceous  gneiss,  which  in  some  places  has  the 
structure  of  slate.  "  I  found  that  Sara-Urcu  is  only  15,502  feet  high,  that  it  is 
not  a  volcano,  and  cannot  have  emitted  fire  and  ejected  ashes,  and  that  it  lies 
considerably  to  the  north  of  east  of  Quito  at  the  distance  of  about  45  English 
miles  [jiot  35  miles  south  by  east  of  Quito,  as  stated  by  VillavicenckTj.  Instead 
of  being  the  fifth  in  altitude  of  the  Great  Andes  of  the  Equator,  it  proved  to  be 
the  lowest  of  all  the  snow -peaks,  and  considerably  inferior  in  elevation  to  several 
which  scarcely  reach  the  snow-line."  * 

Antisana,  one  of  the  giants  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  is  a  huge  mountain  mass, 
13,000  feet  high,  whose  base  covers  a  space  extending  some  18  miles  north  and 
south,  and  an  equal  distance  east  and  west.  It  terminates  in  a  long  double-crested 
dome  entirely  snow-clad  for  a  vertical  height  of  about  3,500  feet,  and  sends  down 
glaciers  to  the  encircling  combes.  The  ascent  is  extremely  difficult  and  dangerous 
owing  to  the  enormous  crevasses  by  which,  the  upper  icecap  is  fissured.  From  a 
rent  on  the  western  slope  flows  a  lava-stream  7  or  8  miles  long,  red  on  the  surface 
and  here  and  there  clothed  with  lichens ;  three  other  streams  of  smaller  size 
meander  over  the  flanks  of  the  mountain. 

An  eruption  is  said  to  have  occurred  in  1590,  and~^,t  the  time  of  Humboldt's 
visit  in  1802  a  column  of  smoke  rose  above  the  upper  crest.  In  1880  "Whymper 
traversed  a  broad  fissure  in  the  ice,  which  emitted  puffs  of  sulphurous  vapour, 
but  he  saw  no  trace  of  a  crater.  Nevertheless,  Reiss  fancied  he  detected  one  in 
a  depression  on  the  east  side,  which  is  now  filled  by  a  thick  glacier,  and  which 
discharges  a  sulphurous  torrent,  the  Piedra  Azufre,  one  of  the  innumerable  head- 
streams  of  the  Amazons. 

Between  Antisana  and  Cotopaxi  stands  Sincholagua,  which  has  certainly  no 
terminal  crater,  nor  do  the  chronicles  refer  to  any  former  eruptions  from  this 
mountain. 

COTOPAXI — LLANGANATI. 

Amongst  all  the  Ecuadorean  giants  Cotopaxi  stands  out  as  the  "  ideal  volcano." 
Of  regular  conic  form  with  uniformly  sloping  flanks,  Cotopaxi  bears,  not  on  a 

*  Whymper,  op.  cit.,  p.  251. 
16 


226  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

shoulder  or  on  any  lateral  crevasse,  but  on  its  summit,  a  large  crater,  which  is 
still  in  constant  commotion.  At  all  epochs  since  the  arrival  of  the  white  man  in 
the  country,  history  speaks  of  its  eruptions. 

The  great  disturbances,  which  take  place  at  intervals  of  centuries,  are  dreaded 
far  more  for  their  torrents  of  mud  than  for  their  showers  of  stones.  In  1877  the 
deluge  of  slush,  water,  ice,  and  rocks  rushed  down  to  the  plains  with  a  velocity  of 
over  half  a  mile  a  minute,  sweeping  away  houses,  bridges,  and  all  other  obstacles 
along  its  passage,  and  reaching  the  sea  280  miles  distant  on  the  very  day  of 
the  eruption.  The  catastrophe  had  been  heralded  the  day  before  by  a  huge  column 
of  black  ashes  which  was  projected  to  a  height  of  18,000  feet  above  the  crater, 
and  which,  swaying  with  the  east  wind,  was  diffused  widely  over  the  Pacific. 
The  steamships  plying  along  the  coast  between  Guayaquil  and  Panama  found 
themselves  suddenly  wrapped  in  the  darkness  caused  by  the  dense  clouds  of  dust, 
and  when  the  black  shroud  was  lifted  streams  of  molten  red  lava  were  seen  boiling 
over  the  rim  of  the  crater,  melting  the  ice  and  snows  and  suddenly  changing  them 
to  avalanches  of  mud  and  slush.  Blocks  of  ice  transported  to  the  Latacunga 
plain,  30  miles  away,  remained  on  the  ground  for  months,  while  the  summit  of 
the  volcano,  usually  white  with  snow,  became  black  and  calcined  except  at  some 
points  left  like  islands  amid  the  boiling  sea  of  lavas.  On  previous  occasions 
Cotopaxi  belched  forth  flames  which,  according  to  La  Condamine,  shot  up  in 
1743-4  to  a  height  of  at  least  2,000  feet  above  the  top  of  the  mountain. 

Cotopaxi,  the  flanks  of  which  were  figured  by  Humboldt  with  an  exaggerated 
incline  of  about  50°,  has  a  mean  slope  of  not  more  than  30°  on  the  north  and 
south,  and  32°  on  the  east  and  west  sides.  Hence  it  may  easily  be  scaled  by 
climbers  capable  of  resisting  mountain-sickness.  Moritz  Wagner  had  to  retrace 
his  steps  in  1858,  but  several  have  succeeded  since  the  ascent  of  Reiss  in  1872; 
and  "Whymper  passed  a  whole  night  on  the  edge  of  the  terminal  crater  in  order 
to  study  the  physiological  effects  of  rarefaction  on  the  human  organism  at  an 
altitude  of  nearly  20,000  feet. 

The  surface  heat  was  very  perceptible  on  the  outer  wall  of  the  crater,  where 
the  snow  melted  in  many  places  as  it  fell.  Consequently  every  snowfall  was  fol- 
lowed by  vapours  ascending  in  puffs  from  the  slopes  of  the  volcano,  which  seemed 
to  smoke  as  if  in  a  state  of  combustion.  Nevertheless,  a  few  narrow  glaciers  were 
formed  in  the  ravines  round  about  the  cone,  and  these  were  here  and  there  covered 
and  blackened  by  a  layer  of  volcanic  scoria?. 

"  At  intervals  of  about  half  an  hour  the  volcano  regularly  blew  off  steam.  It 
rose  in  jets  with  great  violence  from  the  bottom  of  the  crater,  and  boiled  over  the 
lip,  continually  enveloping  us.  The  noise  on  these  occasions  resembled  that  which 
we  hear  when  a  large  ocean  steamer  is  blowing  off  steam.  It  appeared  to  be  pure, 
and  we  saw  nothing  thrown  out  ;  yet  in  the  morning  the  tent  was  almost  black 
with  matter  which  had  been  ejected.  Steam  unquestionably  plays  a  leading  part 
in  the  operations  of  Cotopaxi,  and  sometimes  the  quantity  that  issues  is  enormous. 
One  morning  in  the  following  April,  when  encamped,  at  the  height  of  14,760 
feet,  onCayambe,  at  a  distance  of  about  60  miles  to  the  north-north-east,  just  after 


MOUNTAINS  OF  ECUADOE.  227 

daybreak  we  saw  Cotopaxi  pouring  out  a  prodigious  volume  of  steam,  which 
boiled  up  a  few  hundred  feet  above  the  rim  of  its  crater,  and  then,  being  caught 
by  a  south-westerly  wind,  was  borne  towards  the  north-east  almost  up  to  Cay- 
ambe.  The  bottom  of  this  cloud  was  about  5,000  feet  above  us  ;  it  rose  at  least  a 
mile  high,  and  spread  over  a  width  of  several  miles.  I  estimated  that  on  this 
occasion  we  saw  a  continuous  body  of  not  less  than  60  cubic  miles  of  cloud 
formed  from  steam.  If  this  vast  volume,  instead  of  issuing  from  a  free  vent,  had 
found  its  passage  barred,  itself  imprisoned,  Cotopaxi  on  that  morning  might  have 
been  effaced,  and  the  whole  continent  might  have  quivered  under  an  explosion 
rivalling  or  surpassing  the  mighty  catastrophe  at  Krakatoa."  * 

The  irregular  rim  of  the  crater,  broken  by  vertical  or  even  overhanging  preci- 
pices, encloses  a  space  2,300  feet  long  from  north  to  south  and  1,640  from  east  to 
west,  with  a  depth  of  about  1,300  feet.  The  various  measurements  of  altitudes 
taken  by  travellers  since  the  time  of  La  Condamine  offer  many  discrepancies  for 
Cotopaxi,  as  well  as  for  the  other  mountains  of  Ecuador.  But  as  regards  Coto- 
paxi, loftiest  of  all  the  still  active  volcanoes  in  the  world,  Whymper  is  inclined  to 
believe  that  it  has  considerably  increased  in  height  during  the  last  150  years.  In 
the  Ecuadorean  Andes  it  is  overtopped  only  by  Chimborazo,  whose  extinct  crater 
has  long  been  covered  by  a  dome  of  snows  and  ice. 

Cotopaxi  is  surrounded  by  several  other  cones,  one  of  the  highest  of  which  is 
Ruminahui  in  the  north-west.  Although  scarcely  reaching  the  lower  limit  of 
perennial  snows,  few  eminences  present  a  more  majestic  form  than  this  volcano, 
whose  crater,  according  to  Reiss,  has  a  depth  of  2,645  feet.  Ruminahui,  with  its 
northern  neighbour,  Pasochoa,  connects  Cotopaxi  with  the  Western  Cordillera  by 
the  transverse  Tiupullo  ridge  (Humboldt's  Chisinche),  which  forms  the  parting- 
line  between  the  northern  basin  of  Quito  and  the  southern  Latacunga  plain. 

South-eastwards,  a  spur  separating  the  upper  Rio  Napo  valleys  from  the  Rio 
Pastaza  is  continued  to  a  great  distance  by  the  Quelendaiia  chain.  Then  trending 
round  to  the  south  and  south-east,  it  terminates  in  the  snowy  Llanganati  (Cerro 
Hermoso,  or  "  Fairmount "),  whose  schistose  mass  rises  in  the  midst  of  the  sur- 
rounding forests  to  a  height  of  15,000  feet. 

South  of  Cotopaxi  the  range,  varying  greatly  in  altitude,  is  prolonged  by  a 
wild  and  precipitous  mass  which,  of  all  the  Ecuadorean  groups,  most  resembles  the 
European  Alps  in  its  varied  aspects.  But  its  exploration  has  been  scarcely  begun, 
and  little  is  known  of  its  general  character  beyond  what  may  be  gathered  from  a 
distant  view  of  its  snowy  peaks  glittering  in  the  sun.  In  1875  Reiss  ascended  the 
slopes  of  Llanganati  to  the  snow4ine.  The  summit,  from  which  flows  a  glacier, 
presents  the  aspect  of  a  gloomy  rampart,  which  seems  quite  inaccessible.  Copper 
pyrites  glisten  in  all  the  cleavages  of  the  rocky  mass. 

TUNGURAGUA — THE    ALTAR — SANGAY. 

The  cordillera,  interrupted  by  the  deep  gorge  of  the  Rio  de  Banos  (Pastaza), 
soon  rises  again  to  form  the  superb  Tunguragua,  which  is  all  the  more  imposing 

*  Whymper,  pp.  153-4. 


228  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

that  its  base  has  been  eroded  by  the  river.  Presenting  a  clean  outline  up  to  its 
truncated  summit,  this  volcano  is  draped  in  snows  and  glaciers  like  the  other 
giants  of  Ecuador.  Its  action  is  extremely  irregular — quiescent  for  long  periods, 
then  suddenly  bursting  into  violent  explosions.  In  1886  it  ejected  ashes  to  great 
distances,  some  falling  on  the  port  of  Guayaquil,  avalanches  of  mud  at  the  same 
time  rushing  down  its  flanks  and  filling  up  the  valleys  at  its  base.  The  deluge 
was  comparable  to  the  tremendous  outburst  of  Cotopaxi  itself,  but,  instead  of 
taking  the  direction  of  the  Pacific  across  the  intervening  plateaux,  it  ran  out 
in  the  valley  of  the  Pastaza,  on  the  Amazonian  slope. 

Tunguragua,  like  Imbabura,  is  one  of  those  volcanoes  which  are  most  frequently 
mentioned  as  having  ejected  myriads  of  live  fish  together  with  the  waters  of 
some  underground  lake.  But  no  direct  observation  has  ever  confirmed  these  reports, 
which  are  entirely  discredited  by  Whymper.  "  As  it  is  stated  that  the  fish  which 
are  supposed  to  have  been  ejected  from  the  crater,  or  to  have  been  expelled  from 
the  subterranean  reservoirs,  were  frequently  alive,  and  had  their  flesh  in  good  pre- 
servation, it  appears  to  me  there  is  stronger  evidence  against  the  notion  that  they 
dwelt  in  subterranean  rese'rvoirs  than  in  favour  of  it.  Fish  cannot  emerge  in  this 
rough  manner  from  boiling  water  or  from  superheated  steam  alive,  and  with  their 
skins  intact.  Possibly  after  some  eruptions  and  earthquakes  large  numbers  of  these 
fish  /wwbeen  found  out  of  water,  but  this  would  not  prove  ejection  by  or  from  volca- 
noes. Floods  occasionally  pour  down  the  slopes  of  Cotopaxi,  causing  rivers  to  swell 
and  to  overflow  their  banks,  and  it  would  be  no  marvel  if,  during  such  inundations, 
multitudes  of  fish  were  borne  from  their  native  haunts,  and  left  stranded  when  the 
waters  subsided.  Also,  during  earthquakes,  fissures  opening  in  the  earth  may 
change  the  course  of  streams,  or  might,  by  intersecting  the  beds  of  pools,  drain 
them  and  leave  shoals  of  fish  high  and  dry,  living  and  unscathed.  In  these  possi- 
bilities there  is,  I  imagine,  the  substratum  of  truth  upon  which  a  mountain  of  fable 
has  been  raised." 

The  Altar,  the  Capac-Urcu  ("  Head  Mountain  ")  of  the  Quichuas,  and  called 
also  Cerro  de  Collanes.f  was,  perhaps,  at  one  time  the  loftiest  mountain  in  Ecuador. 
According  to  the  local  tradition,  the  summit  collapsed  after  a  series  of  eruptions 
which  lasted  eight  years  and  which  occurred  not  long  before  the  arrival  of  the 
Spaniards.  To  this  collapse  of  the  supreme  cone  has  also  been  attributed  the  pre- 
sent picturesque  form  of  the  volcano,  terminating  in  an  altar  encircled  by  peaks 
and  needles.  The  old  crater,  which  has  the  shape  of  a  horseshoe  broadly  opening 
westwards,  is  at  present  filled  with  a  glacier,  above  which  hang  long  stalactites 
formed  by  the  melting  and  re-freezing  of  the  upper  snows. 

This  nearly  extinct  cone  is  followed  by  Sangay,  or  the  volcano  of  Macas,  which 
rises  in  the  midst  of  the  woodlands,  and  which  is  said  to  have  formerly  been  the 
most  active  in  the  whole  region.  Its  upper  slopes  are  at  present  clothed  in  a 
snowy  mantle,  except  round  about  the  rim  of  the  crater  blackened  by  fine  dust 

*  Op.  tit.,  p.  254. 

t  Probably  from  Collana,  which  in  Aymara  (a  sister  language  to  Quichua)  means  "  grand "  or 
''sublime"  (A.  Stiibel). 


MOUNTAINS  OF  ECUADOR.  229 

from  the  interior  of  the  mountain,  whose  explosions  appear  to  alternate  with  those 
of  Cotopaxi.  When  one  is  agitated,  the  other,  say  the  natives,  is  in  repose  ;  thus 
each  of  these  vents  would  appear  to  become  in  its  turn  a  sort  of  safety-valve  for 
the  whole  district. 

But  of  the  two,  Sangay  is  by  far  the  more  violent.  From  Guaranda,  60  miles 
distant,  with  the  thickness  of  the  plateau  intervening,  Whymper  heard  every 
morning,  always  between  seven  and  eight  o'clock,  a  dry  sound  like  the  rattle  of 
musketry  platoon-firing.  In  clear  weather  the  cone  is  visible  from  the  top  of 
Chimborazo  to  a  height  of  about  4,000  feet,  and  from  this  point  is  ejected,  at 
intervals  of  20  or  30  minutes,  a  jet  of  steam  scarcely  visible  owing  to  its  high 
temperature,  but  rising  to  a  height  of  some  6,000  feet.  At  this  altitude  it 
expands  into  mushroom-like  clouds  with  horizontal  base,  and  then  disperses  south- 
wards. Not  a  speck  is  seen  in  the  azure  sky,  when  a  fresh  jet  starts  up,  which 
in  its  turn  slowly  dissolves  in  the  same  direction.  Whymper  calculates  that 
these  jets  are  projected  into  space  at  a  velocity  of  no  less  than  22  miles  per 
minute,  while  the  southward  drift  shows  the  temporary,  if  not  permanent  exist- 
ence of  a  current  of  air  22,000  to  23,000  feet  above  the  sea,  steadily  setting  due 
north  and  south.  From  another  eminence  of  the  Quito  Andes,  Reiss  saw  the 
outrush  from  the  volcano,  which  was  itself  invisible.  The  vapour  assumed  the 
aspect  of  a  black  column,  rising  like  a  prodigious  tower  above  the  horizon  ;  then, 
under  the  influence  of  the  trade  wind,  drifting  away  to  the  Pacific. 

From  the  top  of  Nagsangpungo,  the  "  Mirador  del  Sangay"  (13,235  feet), 
Stiibel  also  obtained  a  near  view  of  the  smoking  mountain.  The  mass  of  ashes 
ejected  by  the  crater  during  its  explosions  would  appear  to  represent  an  enormous 
cube  equal  in  bulk  to  several  large  mountains.  The  country  round  about  is 
covered  to  a  great  thickness  with  a  grey  dust,  while  the  shifting  dunes  of  this 
volcanic  ash  attain  a  height  of  over  300  feet.  At  times  the  rocky  surface  is  swept 
by  furious  gales,  revealing  the  mica-schist  escarpments  which  form  the  primitive 
backbone  of  the  cordillera.  At  times  scoriae  are  wafted  from  Sangay  as  far  as 
Guayaquil,  and  on  the  plateau  the  pastures  are  often  poisoned  by  the  fall  of 
volcanic  dust.  Patches  of  fresh  snow  are  formed  round  the  edge  of  the  crater, 
and  the  ravines  radiating  from  the  upper  cone  are  filled  with  blackened  glaciers. 
Lava-streams  also  overflow  down  to  the  virgin  forests  clothing  the  eastern  slopes 
facing  the  Amazons  basin.  Stiibel  assures  us  that  the  Indians  of  Macas  see 
these  rivers  of  fire  for  years  together  lighting  up  the  western  horizon  during  the 
night.  The  earthquake  which  destroyed  Riobamba  in  1797  is  said  to  have  been 
propagated  from  beneath  Sangay. 

South  of  this  volcano  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  though  interrupted  by  the 
valley  of  the  Rio  Paute,  is  still  dominated  by  a  few  lofty  summits,  such  as 
Quinoaloma  and,  farther  on,  the  mountains  with  which  is  connected  the  transverse 
Azuay  or  Pucaloma  ridge.  It  was  recently  supposed,  on  the  authority  of  Hum- 
boldt,  that  no  volcanic  formations  occurred  farther  south  than  this  group,  and 
that  the  mountains  of  the  surrounding  region  consisted  of  sedimentary  rocks. 
But  such  is  not  the  case.  Reiss  and  Wolf  have  determined  the  existence  of  old 


230  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

volcanoes,  which  stand,  not  on  the  edge  of  the  plateau,  as  elsewhere  in  Ecuador, 
but  in  the  very  heart  of  the  inter-Andean  region. 

Azuay  itself  represents  one  of  these  igneous  groups ;  another  rises  farther  east 
near  Cuenca,  and  a  third  more  to  the  south  towards  the  sources  of  the  Rio  Jubones. 
Although  their  outlines  are  so  far  effaced  that  regular  cones  and  craters  can  no  longer 
be  recognised,  their  eruptive  origin  is  still  attested  by  the  surrounding  lava-fields. 

Eastwards  the  cordillera  offers  nothing  but  crystalline  schists,  some  few  of 
whose  summits  penetrate  to  the  lower  limit  of  perennial  snows.  Beyond  the 
mountain  mass  which  sends  its  running  waters  eastwards  to  the  Rio  Paute,  and 
the  centre  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  town  of  Loja,  the  Andean  system 
contracts  to  a  single  range  trending  southwards  between  the  upland  Peruvian 
valleys  on  the  west,  and  those  draining  to  the  upper  Maranon  on  the  east.  Here 
is  developed  the  upper  bend  of  the  great  river  within  200  miles  of  the  Pacific 
seaboard,  so  that  in  this  district  the  cordillera  is  reduced  to  little  more  than  a 
narrow  ridge  forming  the  link  between  the  Ecuadorean  and  the  Peruvian  Andes. 
The  ridge  itself,  decreasing  in  height  in  proportion  to  its  contracted  width,  falls 
to  an  altitude  of  scarcely  6,500  feet  above  sea-level. 

PiCHlNCHA CORAZON IbLINlZA. 

South  of  the  deep  Guallabamba  valley  follows  Pululagua,  an  igneous  cone, 
standing  not  on  the  summit  of  a  mountain,  but  on  the  flank  of  the  cordillera 
itself.  Pichincha,  the  first  volcano  of  the  western  range,  is  the  famous  mountain 
at  whose  base  lies  the  city  of  Quito.  Since  La  Condamine's  expedition  of  1742 
numerous  explorers  have  visited  Pichincha,  which  is  of  extremely  easy  ascent, 
its  broad  flanks,  with  their  grassy  approaches,  sloping  so  gently  that  riders  are 
able  to  reach  a  height  of  13,800  feet  before  dismounting.  Yet  this  volcano 
is  still  but  imperfectly  known,  and  the  number  of  peaks  and  craters,  as  well  as 
their  height  and  respective  dimensions,  continue  to  be  subjects  of  dispute. 

A  feeling  of  local  pride  has  inspired  certain  inflated  descriptions,  in  which 
the  reader  finds  it  difficult  to  draw  the  line  between  truth  and  exaggeration. 
But  Guagua  (the  "Young"),  loftiest  of  the  two  chief  peaks,  appears  to  have 
certainly  increased  in  height  during  the  historic  period,  outstripping  Rucu  (the 
"  Old  "),  and  the  three  other  peaks.  Pichincha,  whose  Quichua  name  has  the 
meaning  of  "  Boiling  Mountain,"  has  been  the  scene  of  violent  explosions, 
although  since  1660  it  has  ejected  nothing  but  steam,  accompanied  by  some  ashes. 
The  principal  crater,  which  has  a  very  wide  breach  on  its  west  side,  is  one  of 
the  deepest  known,  the  pipe  being  variously  estimated  at  2,540  and  2,860  feet. 
At  the  bottom  are  still  seen  some  solfataras  and  smoking  crevasses,  while  a 
stream,  well  named  the  Rio  del  Volcan,  descends  from  the  breached  crater 
across  the  wooded  slopes  in  the  direction  of  the  Rios  Toachi  and  Esmeraldas. 

South  of  Pichincha  follow  in  a  straight  line  Atacazo,  Corazon,  and  Illiniza, 
the  first  a  regular  cone,  with  gentle  slope  falling  below  the  snow-line.  Corazon, 
in  which  popular  fancy  detects  the  form  of  a  "  heart,"  is  both  higher  and  of 


MOUNTAINS  OF  ECUADOR. 


231 


Fig.  88. — DOTTBLE  CHAIN  OF  ECUADOBEAN  VOLCANOES. 


Scale  1  :  4,500,000. 


more  difficult  access,  terminating  in  a  nearly  vertical  wall  about  820  feet  high, 
which  has  to  be  scaled  by  clambering  up  narrow  gorges  excavated  by  the   rains 
and   avalanches.       La    Condamine   and   Bouguer    resided    twenty-two   days    on 
Corazon,  ascending  to   the  sum- 
mit, which  was  long   supposed 
to    be    the    highest    elevation 
reached  by  man.     The  terminal 
caldcra      ("  cauldron ")     is    the 
deepest   yet   discovered   in   the 
Andes,  3,950  feet,  according  to 
Reiss's  measurement. 

Illiniza,  with  its  twin  ice- 
capped  peaks,  is  nearly  always 
wrapped  in  mist,  so  that  a  clear 
vista  is  seldom  obtained.  Whym- 
per,  who  passed  seventy- eight 
days  in  the  neighbourhood, 
never  got  more  than  a  partial 
view,  or  a  short  glimpse  of  the 
summit.  He  tried  to  clamber 
to  the  top,  on  all  fours,  so  to 
say,  but  had  to  give  up  the 
attempt,  being  intercepted  by 
huge  seracs*  some  of  which 
showed  clean  walls  of  ice,  appa- 
rently 200  feet  high,  lurching 
forward  as  if  ready  to  fall,  and 
separated  by  crevasses  from  20 
to  25  feet  across. 

Farther  south  rises  Quilotoa, 
whose  crater  is  flooded  by  a 
tarn  at  a  temperature  of  61° 
Fahr.  or  14°  above  the  surround- 
ing atmosphere.  According  to 
Velasco,  an  eruption  of  lavas 
occurred  in  1725,  when  flames 
were  seen  to  shoot  up  from  the 
middle  of  the  lake. 

Beyond  Quilotoa  follow  other  less  elevated  cones,  bristling  on  the  slopes  of 
broad  paramos,  whence  branches  off  south-westwards  a  third  cordillera,  with 
peaks  scarcely  lower  than  those  of  the  main  range. 

*  Seracs  are  the  solid  cubical  blocks  into  which  glaciers  are  sometimes  broken,  owing  to  steep 
gradients  or  other  causes.  The  fragments  are  often  separated  by  very  large  crevasses,  rendering  the 
ascent  extremely  difficult,  if  not  altogether  impossible.— ED. 


78s    West  op  Greenwich 


62  Miles. 


232  SOUTH  AMEE1CA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

THE  ECUADOKEAN  COAST  RANGES. 

The  pass  followed  by  the  road  from  Guayaquil  to  Chimborazo  attains  a  height 
of  10,420  feet  where  it  crosses  this  "  Pacific  Range  of  Ecuador,"  as  Whymper 
calls  it,  that  is,  Wolf's  "  Cordillera  of  Chitnbo."  In  its  culminating  peak, 
Pumin,  this  range  reaches  an  altitude  of  11,500  feet;  but  farther  on  the  crest 
falls  rapidly,  terminating  in  the  steep  cliff  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Chirnbo,  which 
reaches  the  coast  at  Guayaquil  Bay. 

East  of  the  Rio  Daule,  which  joins  the  Chimbo  in  the  Guayaquil  estuary, 
a  few  small  coast  ranges  and  groups  attain  altitudes  of  1,000  or  2,000  feet. 
The  so-called  Cordillera  de  Colonche,  highest  of  these  ridges,  exceeds  2,450 
feet,  and  ramifies  eastwards  in  the  Cordillera  de  Chongon,  which  projects  as 
far  as  the  Rio  Guayas.  The  system  is  even  continued  beyond  the  estuary 
by  a  rocky  islet,  and  some  eminences  rising  just  above  Guayaquil,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Chimbo.  Chanduy,  southernmost  member  of  this  group,  although 
only  1,000  feet  high,  is  lofty  enough  to  intercept  the  southern  breezes,  and 
deflect  them  towards  Guayaquil,  where  they  are  locally  known  as  the  Chanduy 
winds. 

CHIMBORAZO — CARIHUAIRAZO — TABLE  OF  ALTITUDES. 

In  Ecuador  the  last  snowy  peak  is  Chimborazo,  that  is,  the  "  Chimbo  Snows," 
so  named  from  the  western  valley,  whence  the  ascent  is  made  to  its  glaciers. 
On  the  east  side  the  corresponding  name  was  Urcu-Razu  ("  Snowmount "), 
already  mentioned  under  a  slightly  different  form  by  Cieza  de  Leon. 

This  giant  of  the  Ecuadorean  Andes  develops  its  rounded  crest  above  a 
rugged  mountain  mass  flanked  by  two  superb  buttresses,  the  Igualata  volcano  on 
the  east,  and  on  the  north  the  extinct  Carihuairazo,  often  called  Chimborazo 
Hembra,  the  "  "Woman,"  as  if  regarded  by  the  popular  fancy  as  the  mate  of  its 
taller  neighbour.  Yet  according  to  a  somewhat  doubtful  tradition,  Carihuairazo 
exceeded  Chimborazo  in  altitude  down  to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when 
its  summit  collapsed  during  an  earthquake,  leaving  the  two  fragments  now 
covered  with  snow. 

But  whatever  truth  may  be  veiled  by  this  legend,  Chimborazo  at  present 
overtops  Carihuairazo  by  about  5,000  feet.  It  was  undoubtedly  the  scene  of 
former  eruptions,  although  no  reference  is  made  to  them  by  the  chroniclers,  or 
even  by  any  local  traditions.  The  crater,  if  it  still  exists,  is  entirely  buried 
beneath  the  deep  snows  and  the  glaciers  radiating  from  the  summit.  Even  the 
lava-streams  that  must  have  once  flowed  down  its  flunks  can  no  longer  be 
detected,  while  the  original  regularity  of  the  cone  has  been  effaced  by  the 
tremendous  cataclysm  which  carried  off  a  portion  of  the  mountain,  leaving 
those  enormous  and  inaccessible  walls  which  now  rise  above  the  lower  ice-cliffs. 

Boussingault's  hypothesis,  that  the  entire  mass  of  fractured  trachytes  was 
bodily  displaced,  has  not  yet  been  confirmed  by  the  observations  of  subsequent 
explorers.  The  walls  still  standing  are  formed  by  innumerable  strata  of  diverse 


MOUNTAINS  OF  ECUADOR. 


233 


colours — grey,  black,  red,  and  yellow,  evidently  representing  so  many  layers  of 
lavas  deposited  by  successive  eruptions.  The  fragments  detached  from  time 
to  time  by  the  avalanches  are  of  such  a  texture  as  to  leave  no  doubt  on  this 
point. 

All  the  upper  combes  round  the  terminal  domes  discharge  glaciers,  which 
have  been  named  by  Whymper  after  the  explorers  who  had  most  contributed  to 
the  study  of  the  orography  of  the  Andes.  Humboldt,  Boussingault,  and  Hall 
failed  in  their  attempts  to  reach  the  top,  which  may  possibly  have  been  scaled  in 
1856  by  Jules  Remy  during  a  snowstorm  which  prevented  him  from  recognising 


Fig.  89.— CHIMBORAZO. 
Scale  1  :  200,000. 


5  Miles. 


the  positions,  though  not  from  measuring  the  altitude  by  the  boiling-water 
process.  From  the  highest  point,  ascended  by  "Whymper  in  1879  and  again  in 
1880,  a  view  is  commanded  of  all  the  volcanoes  forming  the  Ecuadorean  "  avenue," 
as  well  as  of  the  western  Pacific  range,  with  its  peaks,  its  passes,  and  valleys, 
and,  beyond  the  intervening  woodlands,  the  broad  expanse  of  the  ocean  200  miles 
off.  During  the  second  ascent  Whymper  and  his  companions  encamped  on  the 
upper  snows,  while  the  atmosphere  was  filled  with  a  cloud  of  ashes  ejected  by 
Cotopaxi  60  miles  away  to  the  north-west. 

Southwards   the  porphyritic  range  decreases  in  height,    and  is  successively 


234 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


pierced  by  the  valleys  of  the  Rios  Chanchan,  Canar,  and  Jubones.      Beyond  the 
first  short  section,  Chilchil,  more  like  an  isolated  group  than  a  range,  the  crest 


Fig.  90. — GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION  OF  ECTTADOB. 
Scale  1  : 4,000,000. 


West  oF  Greenwich 


Granite,  Gneiss,  Porphyries,  Diorites.         Cretaceous  Formations.        Tertiary  and  Quaternary 

Irystalline  Schists.  Formations. 


Cry 


Alluvia.        Tufas  and  Volcanic  Conglomerates.       Andesites,  Lavas. 
______^^—_  62  Miles. 


is  developed  in  a  long  curve  of  paramos,  which  is  crossed  at  the  Gajas  pass  (13,570 
feet).  Beyond  the  Rio  Jubones  the  cordillera  loses  all  regularity,  and,  under 
the  name  of  Chilla,  takes  a  trend  transverse  to  its  primitive  axis,  to  merge  in 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  ECUADOR.  285 

the  Eastern  Cordillera   at   the   Loja  Knot ;  the  whole  Ecuadorean  system  thus 
passes  in  a  single  ridge  into  Peruvian  territory. 

Since  the  time  of  La  Condamine  and  his  associates,  the  altitudes  of  the  heights 
and  cities  of  Ecuador  have  frequently  been  measured,  but  nearly  always  with 
varying  results.  Even  the  first  observers  recorded  figures  for  Chimborazo  with 
discrepancies  of  over  1,000  feet.  Hence  it  would  be  premature  to  base  any 
geological  hypotheses  on  the  growth  or  decrease  of  the  igneous  cones  of  Ecuador 
during  modern  times.  There  are  altogether  as  many  as  twenty-two  summits 
which  at  present  penetrate  above  the  zone  of  perpetual  snows.  Subjoined  are 
the  estimates  of  Reiss  and  Stiibel  and  of  Whymper  for  some  of  the  more  important 
altitudes: — 

Peips  and 

Stubel.  Whymper. 

Feet.  Feet. 

Chimborazo  .                                               20,703  20,498 

Cotopaxi 19,498  19,613 

Cayambe       .         .         .         .         .         .         .                  .         .         19,161  19,186 

Antisaua 18,885  19,335 

Altar    ....'. 17,736 

Sangay 17,460 

Illiniza 17,400 

Carihuairazo         .         .        . 16,752  16,515 

Tunguragua 16,700 

Cotocachi      16,293  16,301 

Corazon 15,801  15,871 

Pichincha 15,706  15,918 

Sara-Urcu ,        .         15,749  15,502 

City  of  Quito 9,350  — 


III. 

HYDROGRAPHY  OF  ECUADOR. 

Despite  an  abundant  rainfall,  springs  and  running  waters  are  rare  in  the 
volcanic  region  of  Ecuador.  In  the  loose  scoriae  and  ashes  covering  much  of 
the  surface  the  moisture  disappears  as  soon  as  precipitated,  and  infiltrates  to  great 
depths,  reappearing  at  the  crater  mouths  under  the  form  of  vapours.  Even 
thermal  springs,  usually  occurring  in  hundreds  in  volcanic  regions,  are  absent  in 
Ecuador.  Whymper  mentions  one  only  near  Machachi,  between  Cotopaxi  and 
Corazon,  although  the  native  geographers  speak  of  several  others  at  the  base  of 
the  Illiniza,  on  the  Tunguragua  slopes  and  elsewhere. 

Being  fed  by  no  springs  about  their  sources,  the  rivers  developed  on  the 
plateaux  are  of  slight  volume,-  and  are  scarcely  affected  even  by  copious  rains. 
But  beyond  the  region  of  ashes  and  pumice,  where  the  surface  waters  disappear 
as  in  a  sieve,  the  streams  flowing  in  less  spongy  beds  increase  rapidly  in  volume, 
many  assuming  the  aspect  of  real  rivers  before  reaching  the  coast.  Such  is  the 
Guallabamba,  which,  after  leaving  the  plain  of  Quito,  passes  into  a  frightful 
gorge,  2,000  feet  deep,  at  the  foot  of  the  Mojanda  volcano.  Joined  by  the 
Toachi,  it  forms  the  Chinto  (Perucho  or  Esmeraldas,  "Emerald  River"),  a 
navigable  stream,  but  little  utilised,  owing  to  the  absence  of  riverine  popula- 


236 


SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


tions.      According  to  Teodoro  Wolf,  the  Bio  Esmeraldas  has  a  drainage  area  of 
8,500  square  miles. 

A  few  small  coast- streams  follow  southwards  as  far  as  the  deep  inlet  at  the 
head  of  which  debouches  the  copious  Rio  Guayas,  which  gives  its  name  to  the 
port  of  Guayaquil.  The  Babahoyo,  its  chief  headstream,  rises  in  the  Pacific 
coast  range,  and,  after  collecting  numerous  tributaries  on  both  sides,  assumes  the 
proportions  of  a  considerable  river  below  the  so-called  bodegas,  or  "  stores,"  at  the 
landing-stages,  where  travellers  start  for  the  ascent  of  the  plateau.  Even  before 
its  junction  with  the  Yaguachi  or  Chimbo,  which  collects  the  running  waters  from 
the  Chimbo  heights,  fed  by  the  Chimborazo  and  Chanchan  glaciers,  the  Baba- 


Fig.  91.— CONFLUENCE  OF  THE  GUAYAQUIL  RIVERS. 
Scale  1 :  1,000,000. 


West  or  Greenwich 


79°20' 


25  Miles. 


hoyo  is  a  large  stream,  2,000  feet  wide  from  bank  to  bank.  Lower  down  it  is 
joined  on  its  right  side  by  the  Rio  Daule,  which,  after  emerging  from  an  exten- 
sive forest  region,  winds  through  a  low-lying  plain  between  pajonales  ("savannas") 
and  tembladeras  ("quagmires"),  expanding  to  a  width  of  over  half  a  mile  as  it 
enters  the  Guayaquil  estuary.  This  marine  inlet,  which  is  here  called  the  Rio 
Guayas,  rapidly  broadens  out  to  a  width  of  over  a  mile  at  the  town  of  Guayaquil, 
beyond  which  it  ramifies  through  a  small  archipelago  and  round  the  large  island 
of  Puna  at  the  entrance  of  the  gulf.  The  Guayas  catchment  basin  has  an  area 
estimated  by  Wolf  at  14,000  square  miles. 

On  the  Amazonian  slope  the  copious  rains,  intercepted  by  the  dense  vege- 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  ECUADOR. 


287 


tation  even  along  tolerably  steep  inclines,  transforms  its  surface  to  a  veritable 
sponge,  like  the  turf  bogs  of  the  Irish  mountains.  Here  the  matted  arborescent 
growths  are  in  some  districts  replaced  by  grasses  or,  rather,  sharp-pointed  reeds 
(chusquea  aristata),  forming  almost  impenetrable  masses  of  an  average  height  of 
about  10  feet.  In  order  to  make  any  progress  the  wayfarer  has  to  brush  them 
aside  with  both  arms,  as  in  the  act  of  swimming,  pressing  with  the  whole  weight 
of  his  body  on  these  herbaceous  waves. 

The  spongy  chusquea  savannas  peculiar  to  Ecuador  are  succeeded  by  rugged 

Fig.  92. — TUNGURAOUA  AND   PASTAZA   GrOEGE. 
Scale  1  :  900,000. 


top  Greenwich 


78* 


18  Miles. 


heights,  swift  streams,  and  woodlands  festooned  with  the  endless  coils  of  lianas, 
the  dangers,  hardships,  risks  of  sickness  and  death  increasing  with  every  step. 
One  reads  with  astonishment  that  Gonzalo  Pizarro  was  able  to  bring  back  alive 
even  eighty  of  his  followers  from  his  memorable  expedition  of  1540  to  the  "  Land 
of  Cinnamon,"  as  it  was  called.  On  emerging  from  these  wild  Andine  valleys, 
the  watercourses  forming  the  Napo,  Pastaza,  Paute,  and  even  the  affluents  of  these 
Amazonian  streams,  are  already  copious  rivers  difficult  to  cross. 

The    Napo,   formerlv  Naapo,  fed  by  the   snows  of  Antisana  and  Cotopaxi, 


238  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

receives  two  great  tributaries  in  Ecuador,  the  Coca  from  the  north  and  the  Curaray 
from  the  south.  To  judge  from  the  trend  of  the  main  valley,  disposed  in  the 
direction  from  north-west  to  south-east,  the  Coca  should  be  regarded  as  the  chief 
artery.  But  the  Napo,  thanks  to  its  vicinity  to  Quito,  retains  its  name  below  the 
confluence  all  the  way  to  the  Amazons.  The  traders  and  missionaries  also  have 
usually  followed  the  course  of  this  river,  which  during  the  present  century  has 
been  preferred  by  most  travellers  and  explorers.  "Wiener  ascended  the  Napo  as 
far  as  Misahualli,  eight  days'  march  from  Quito.  At  this  point  the  channel  has 
still  an  average  depth  of  6  or  7  feet. 

The  Pastaza  draws  some  of  its  supplies  from  the  region  of  the  Ecuadorean 
volcanoes.  Such  is  the  Patate,  which,  after  receiving  some  contributions  from 
Chimborazo  and  Cotopaxi,  flows  due  north  and  south  across  the  plain  of  Ambato, 
beyond  which  it  turns  the  southern  spurs  of  Llanganati,  and  suddenly  plunges 
into  a  chasm  160  feet  deep  eroded  in  the  thickness  of  a  lava-stream.  At  the 
outlet  of  this  gorge  the  Patate  is  joined  by  the  Chambo  from  the  south,  and  just 
below  the  confluence  the  Pastaza,  or  Agoyan,  as  the  united  stream  is  also  called, 
trends  round  to  the  east'  along  the  northern  foot  of  Tunguragua.  Farther  on 
it  plunges  a  height  of  200  feet  into  a  gorge  5,000  feet  above  sea-level,  where  the 
exuberant  vegetation  of  tropical  nature  already  begins  to  flourish. 

Of  all  the  rivers  on  the  Atlantic  slope  of  South  America,  the  Paute,  which 
rises  in  the  Cuenca  basin,  has  its  source  nearest  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  From  its 
farthest  headstream  to  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil  the  distance  in  a 
straight  line  is  not  more  than  34  miles. 


IT. 

CLIMATE  OF  ECUADOR. 

Like  Colombia,  Ecuador  presents  a  succession  of  all  climates  superimposed  on 
the  flanks  of  the  highlands.  Each  of  the  three  physical  zones — ante- Andean, 
inter- Andean,  and  trans- Andean — has  its  special  climatic  features,  and  in  each 
the  atmospheric  relations  are  modified  by  altitude,  aspect,  and  relative  proximity 
to  the  ocean.  Were  Ecuador  deprived  of  its  uplands  it  would  be  essentially  a 
torrid  region,  whereas  for  most  of  its  inhabitants  it  is  a  temperate,  almost  even 
a  cold  land,  where  the  snows  and  glaciers  on  the  mountain  summits  sparkle 
beneath  the  sun  at  its  zenith. 

On  the  projecting  coastlands  of  the  province  of  Manabi  the  climate  is  cooled 
by  the  coast  stream ;  here  the  mean  temperature  of  the  sea  is  not  more  than 
73°  or  74°  Fahr.,  whereas  farther  north,  in  the  sheltered  waters  of  Esmeraldas, 
it  rises  to  83°.  Along  these  shores  the  local  winds  blow  chiefly  from  the  west 
in  the  northern,  and  from  the  south  in  the  southern  sections. 

Although  protected  from  the  normal  winds  by  the  double  and  triple  barrier 
of  the  Andes,  the  Ecuadorean  seaboard  is  subject  to  the  rhythmical  succession 
of  tropical  seasons.  From  June  to  December,  Guayaquil  enjoys  a  so-called 


CLIMATE  OF  ECUADOR. 


289 


"  summer,"  when  the  air  is  drier  than  during  the  rest  of  the  year,  while  the  land 
and  sea  breezes  alternate  pleasantly,  dispersing  both  the  mosquitos  and  the  marshy 
exhalations.  Then  follows  the  "  winter,"  or  rainy  season,  with  its  fierce  heats 


o- 


Fig.  93. — RAINFALL  AND  FOBESTS  OF  ECUADOR. 
Scale  1  : 5,600,000. 


Perennial  Snows. 


Paiamos. 


Andean  Forests.  Inter- Andean  Regions. 

Cere  ils. 


Moist  Regions  of  the  Cacao  Plantations. 

Pacific  Slope. 


Arid  Regions. 


124  Miles. 


during  the  day,  its  storms  at  evening  and  at  night,  its   downpours,  destructive 
floods,  swarms  of  pestiferous  insects,  and  often  its  epidemics. 

On  the  inter- Andean  uplands  the  alternation  of  seasons  is  half  effaced  by  the 


240  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  KEGIONS. 

effects  of  the  east  winds  bringing  their  regular  burden  of  rains  and  vapours  to  the 
eastern  slopes  of  both  Cordilleras.  Summits  like  those  of  Sara-Urcu  and  Illiniza, 
which  lie  near  the  aerial  regions  of  conflicting  clouds,  are  nearly  always  shrouded 
in  dense  aqueous  vapours ;  the  observer  may  reside  months  together  at  their  foot 
without  obtaining  a  single  glimpse  of  their  crests.  "  The  mountain  lives  thus 
during  the  whole  year,"  replied  a  native  to  the  geologist  Stiibel  asking  whether 
the  veil  of  clouds  would  presently  be  rent. 

In  those  upper  combes  storms  are  very  frequent,  and  often  accompanied  by 
hail.  At  Quito  the  stormy  days  average  as  many  as  three  hundred  in  the  year. 
Usually  the  sky  remains  longest  free  from  clouds  at  the  epoch  of  the  solstices,  in 
July  and  December ;  consequently  during  those  months  explorers  have  the  best 
chance  of  successfully  scaling  the  snowy  heights.  At  all  other  times  the  evening 
storms  recur  so  regularly  that  preparation  is  made  for  them,  as  for  the  return  of 
astronomic  phenomena.  The  blue  sky  generally  lasts  till  one  or  two  o'clock, 
after  which  the  vapours  begin  to  rise,  the  clouds  bank  up  on  the  horizon  and 
then  discharge  their  torrential  downpours.  Towards  six  o'clock  nature  resumes  its 
peaceful  mood.* 

FLORA. 

The  two  cis- Andean  and  trans- Andean  forest  zones  of  Ecuador  rival  those  of 
Brazil  itself  in  richness  and  variety.  In  fact,  the  thickets  traversed  by  the  tracks 
descending  to  the  Napo  and  the  Pastaza  valleys  are  mere  extensions  of  the  great 
Amazonian  woodlands.  The  Ecuadorean  forests  have  already  yielded  several 
valuable  species,  and  hold  many  others  in  reserve.  It  was  in  the  province  of 
Esmeraldas  that  La  Condamine  procured  from  the  natives  the  first  samples  of 
caoutchouc  gums  ever  sent  to  Europe. 

The  first  barks  reduced  to  febrifugal  powders  by  the  European  chemists  were 
those  of  cinchona  macrocalyx  and  cinchona  pubcscens,  which  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury were  procured  exclusively  in  the  Ecuadorean  forests  of  Loja  and  surrounding 
districts.  The  efficacy  of  the  bark  of  cinchona,  arbol  de  calenturas,  the  "fever 
tree,"  was  well  known  to  the  natives  when  Juan  de  Vega  ventured  to  use  it  in 
1638  to  cure  the  chuchu,  or  endemic  ague  contracted  by  the  Countess  de  Chin- 
chon.  Henceforth  the  polvos  de  la  condesa  ("countess's  powders"),  later  called 
"  Jesuit's  powders,"  "  Jesuit's  bark,"  or  "  Peruvian  bark,"  entered  into  the 
European  pharmacopeia. 

The  ratanhia,  much  used  in  the  case  of  dysentery  and  haemorrhages,  was  also 
a  member  of  tho  Ecuadorean  flora.  The  "  cinnamon  "  discovered  by  Gonzalo 
Pizarro  in  the  eastern  forests  is  a  ncctandra,  one  species  of  which  yields  the 

*  Meteorological  conditions  of  Ecuador  : — 

Fxh*me»  of 

Altitude.  Mean  Tern-  - — —~ '— — — -                    K»infall. 

Feet.  peratnre.  Heat.              Cold.                  Inches. 

Guayaquil    ...             33  79°  F. 

Quito   ....        9,350  66°  F.  79°  F.            45n  F.                47 

Cueuca         .        .        .        9,470  68°  F. 


FLOBA  OF  ECUADOR. 


241 


so-called  "  cinnamon  of  Santa  Fe."  Another  tree  growing  in  the  same  region 
produces  copal,  and  the  upper  Rio  Mira  basin  is  the  home  of  the  false  pepper 
(schinus  mollc]  which  has  become  so  common  round  the  Mediterranean  seaboard. 


The  Quitonians  also  possess  the  guaynsa,  a  kind  of  "  tea,"   which  grows  sponta- 
neously in  dense  thickets  on  the  slopes  of  Pichincha  and  other  mountains. 

In  the  Ecuadorean  Andes  the  upper  limit  of  arborescent  vegetation  attains  an 
altitude  of  11,800  feet  above  sea-level.     But  many  vast  spaces  comprised  within 

17 


242  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

this  zone  are  absolutely  treeless,  despite  a  superabundant  rainfall.  Thus  the 
volcanic  uplands  of  the  Quito  and  Riobamba  basins  have  no  trees  except  willows 
(capuli)  or  wild  cherries  (rhainnm  hiimboldtiana),  fringing  the  river-banks.  On  the 
sandy  Riobamba  plain  nothing  is  seen  except  agaves,  euphorbiae,  Barb.iry  figs, 
and  other  cactuses,  besides  a  species  of  reed  known  by  the  Quichua  name  of  sigsig 
(arundo  nitida). 

Even  far  below  the  plateau,  in  the  Guallabamba  gorge,  trees  are  absent,  which 
is  to  be  attributed,  not  to  the  climate,  but  to  the  loose  volcanic  ground,  where 
the  rain  waters  rapidly  disappear.  But  forest  growths  recover  their  exuberance 
and  variety  in  the  regions  of  more  tenacious  soil,  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  both 
Cordilleras,  and  farther  south  on  the  Loja  plateau,  where  the  woodlands  of  the  sea- 
board are  continuous  across  the  Cordillera  with  those  of  the  Amazons  basin.  Here 
botanists  have  found  the  condurango,  an  asclepias  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  specific 
against  cancer,  and  some  rare  species  of  orchids,  which,  thanks  to  the  temperate 
climate  of  the  Andes,  are  more  easily  acclimatised  in  the  European  conservatories 
than  those  of  Brazil.  On  the  seaboard  vast  spaces,  lying  to  leeward  of  the  moun- 
tain ranges,  and  consequently  cut  off  from  the  moist  trade  winds,  remain  arid  and 
unproductive,  despite  their  naturally  fertile  soil. 

The  polylepis,  dwarf  trees  with  twisted  boughs  and  roots  and  birch -like  bark, 
which  occur  here  and  there  on  the  slopes,  r»nge  far  higher  than  the  forest 
growths ;  Andre  met  one  on  Chimborazo  at  an  altitude  of  13,860  feet.  In  those 
districts  where  the  shrubs  have  been  fired,  they  are  invariably  replaced  by  various 
herbaceous  plants  (stipa,  andropogon,  paspalmuni)  comprised  by  the  Indians  under 
the  general  name  of  ichn.  Farther  up  nothing  is  seen  except  low,  vivid  green 
growths,  such  as  the  woolly-leafed  cnlcitium,  one  variety  of  which  (C.  nivale) 
flourishes  in  the  very  midst  of  the  snows.  Certain  flowering  plants  reach  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  snow -line,  which  is  estimated  at  about  15,750  feet ;  they 
even  occur  as  high  as  16,200  feet,  though  nowhere  presenting  those  brilliant  hues 
which  are  so  admired  in  the  flora  of  the  European  Alps.  At  an  altitude  of  18,500 
feet  Whymper  still  met  patches  of  a  lichen  (lecanora  subfiisca),  probably  "the  greatest 
elevation  at  which  anything  appertaining  to  the  vegetable  kingdom  has  been  found 
in  either  of  the  Americas  "  (page  76). 

FAUNA, 

Taken  as  a  whole  the  Ecuadorean  fauna  differs  in  no  respect  from  those  of 
the  conterminous  regions  of  Colombia  and  Peru.  Southern  species  absent  from 
the  northern  Andes  range  as  far  as  Ecuador,  although  the  llama,  "  camel "  of  Peru, 
reaches  no  farther  north  than  Riobamba.  In  most  other  districts  it  has  been 
replaced  by  the  mule  as  a  pack-animal.  The  condor  hovers  over  the  Quito 
plateaux,  as  well  as  over  the  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  mountains.  But  Humboldt 
was  mistaken  in  supposing  that  it  soars  above  the  loftiest  summits  of  the  Andes, 
and  that,  by  a  remarkable  power  of  adaptation  to  the  environment,  it  finds  itself 
equally  at  home  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sea  and  in  the  upper  aerial  spaces, 


FAUNA  OF  ECUADOK.  243 

where  the  atmosphere  has  already  lost  half  of  its  weight.  If  the  Chilian  condor 
descends  to  the  coast,  its  congener  of  the  Ecuadorean  Andes  is  scarcely  seen  below 
8,850  feet,  and  even  dies  if  brought  in  captivity  down  to  the  sea. 

On  the  other  hand  Whymper  never  met  the  condor  higher  than  15,000  feet ; 
it  hovers  over  the  pastures  usually  at  about  1,500  feet  from  the  ground,  maintain- 
ing itself  by  nearly  imperceptible  movements  of  the  wing,  and  scarcely  ever 
attacking  any  but  young  animals  or  those  enfeebled  by  age,  calves,  old  horses 
and  the  like. 

The  eastern  forests  harbour  a  great  variety  of  birds,  which  have  mostly  a  very 
limited  range,  often  depending  for  their  existence  on  a  single  species  of  flower  or 
fruit.  Most  of  the  humming-birds,  even  on  the  uplands,  are  thus  confined  to 
very  small  areas.  Wagner  mentions  one  species  which  occurs  only  at  the  altitude 
of  13,780  feet  on  the  slopes  of  Pichincha,  while  a  closely  related  variety  is  found 
only  on  Chimborazo  between  the  same  altitude  and  the  lower  limit  of  perpetual 
snow.  An  ibis  (thcristicus  caudatus)  is  the  characteristic  bird  of  Antisana,  and 
the  flautero  ("flute-player'"'),  endowed  with  a  marvellously  correct  musical  note, 
is  restricted  to  the  eastern  forests. 

The  habits  of  various  species  have  also  been  modified  by  their  different  envi- 
ronments. Thus  on  the  Amazonian  slope  of  the  Rio  Napo  the  bananas  of  Ba  eza, 
planted  at  an  elevation  of  7,880  feet  at  the  foot  of  cliffs  well  exposed  to  the  solar 
heat,  suffer  much  from  the  ravages  of  a  vampire  (thyroptera  bicolor],  which  pene- 
trates into  the  terminal  flower  and  absorbs  its  sap.*  The  chief  obstacle  to  the 
settlement  of  the  Amazonian  slope  is  the  multitude  of  bats  (phylostoma  spectrum}, 
which  attack  both  man  and  beast.  Many  of  the  children  die  of  exhauslion  from 
the  attacks  made  on  them  while  asleep  by  these  blood-sucking  vampires.  In 
these  eastern  forests  the  reptiles  are  represented  by  innumerable  species  of 
snakes,  which,  however,  are  nowhere  met  higher  than  about  13,000  feet  on  the 
plateaux. 

The  originality  of  the  local  f-iuna  appears  especially  in  the  lower  organisms, 
notably  the  insects,  most  of  which  are  also  confined  to  very  narrow  ranges, 
several  being  found  only  on  certain  mountains.  Whymper  discovered  on  Pic- 
hincha no  less  than  twenty-one  new  species  of  beetles,  eight  of  which  have  been 
met  nowhere  else.  Ecuador  has  altogether  as  many  as  8,000  known  species  of 
coleoptera.  The  colias  alticola  butterfly  flits  upwards  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
snow-line,  although  never  seen  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  mountains. 

On  the  plateaux  the  streams  and  meres  at  the  great  altitude  of  14,600  feet 
present  only  a  single  species  of  fish,  the  prenadilla  (pimelodes  or  cyclopuim  cyclopum). 
The  natives,  no  doubt,  speak  of  others  inhabiting  the  upland  basins,  but  naturalists 
have  hitherto  failed  to  discover  them.  Even  the  reports  current  on  the  subject  of 
the  prenadilla,  accepted  in  good  faith  by  Humboldt,  have  been  questioned  by  recent 
zoologists.  They  are  said  especially  to  inhabit  the  deep  waters  concealed  in  the 
cavities  of  the  volcanoes,  and  during  the  eruptions  of  Imbabura  (•'*  Fish  Moun- 
tain ")  in  1691,  of  Carihuairazo  in  1698,  and  of  Tunguragua  in  1797,  myriads  are 

*  A  Fred  Simson,   Travels  in  the  Wilds  of  Ecuador. 


244  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  BEGION3. 

stated  to  have  been  ejected  with  the  mud  and  slush,  the  stench  from  their  putrid 
bodies  spreading  dangerous  fevers  far  and  wide. 

The  seas,  especially  about  the  estuaries  along  the  north  coast  near  Colombia, 
abound  in  animal  life.  One  species,  large  shoals  of  which  frequentPailon  Bay  and 
.the  Sardines  archipelago,  is  the  famous  "  musical  fish,"  first  described  by  Onffroy 
de  Thoron ;  it  is  distinguished  from  the  grondin  and  all  other  singing-fishes  by  a 
peculiar  note  "  well  sustained,  prolonged  and  harmonious."  The  same  waters  are 
infested  by  the  mania,  another  curious  marine  animal,  much  dreaded  by  sailors. 
According  to  De  Thoron's  description  it  has  no  fins,  but  two  arms,  with  elbows  of 
almost  human  shape,  and  seizes  the  floating  seaweeds  on  which  it  feeds  with  its 
"  palmed  hands." 


V. 

INHABITANTS. 

In  Ecuador  proper  the  aborigines  have  disappeared,  or  have  been  merged  in 
the  conquering  races  of  pre-Columbian  times,  and  afterwards  slightly  modified  by 
crossings  with  the  Spaniards.  The  Caras,  Caiiars  and  Quitus,  formerly  dominant 
on  the  plateau  and  western  slopes,  had  originally  come  from  the  south.  In 
Ecuador  they  intermingled  with  the  indigenous  peoples,  who  perhaps  belonged  to 
the  same  ethnical  stock,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  generally  current  Quito 
language,  a  dialect  of  the  Peruvian  Quichua.  According  to  a  native  chronicler, 
quoted  by  the  Spanish  historians,  all  the  subjects  of  the  Incas  were  required  to 
speak  the  language  of  the  conquerors,  and  this  injunction  was  everywhere  com- 
plied with.  But  such  conformity,  even  if  it  were  possible,  would  of  itself 
imply  a  certain  affinity  between  all  these  forms  of  speech. 

Quichua  tradition  spoke  of  a  race  of  "  giants  "  who  inhabited  the  forests  of  the 
seaboard,  and  whose  remains,  probably  those  of  mastodons,  are  supposed  still  to  be 
met  with.  The  term  "  giant "  itself,  given  to  these  aborigines,  may  perhaps  be 
explained  by  the  stout  resistance  they  offered  to  the  Quichua  invaders.  A  powerful 
nation  dwelling  north  of  the  Guayaquil  peninsula,  between  the  Rio  Daule  and  the 
sea,  bore  the  Peruvian  designation  of  Huanca-Vilca  ("Break-Teeth"),  from  the 
custom  of  the  men  to  extract  two  of  the  upper  incisors.  The  Inca,  Huayna-Capac, 
is  said  after  the  Conquest  to  have  condemned  them  to  extract  two  others. 

Under  the  Spanish  rule  the  Cara  tribes  of  the  coastlands  all  became  merged  in 
the  general  population,  except  a  few  Colorado  families  of  the  upper  Rio  Toachi, 
and  about  2,000  Cayapas,  who  still  keep  to  the  forests  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio 
Cayapa,  holding  carefully  aloof  both  from  the  whites  and  the  negroes.  Wolf 
hus  collected  a  vocabulary  of  their  language,  which  has  also  remained  unaffected 
by  Quichua  or  Spanish  influences.  In  the  inter-Andean  districts  all  the  abori- 
gines have  been  similarly  merged  in  the  half-caste  population  of  Quichua  speech  ; 
a  few  Cafiar  families  alone  still  survive  near  Zaraguro. 

But  while  most  of  the  Indians  have  lost  the  memory  of  their  origin,  numerous 


INHABITANT  OF  ECUADOE.  245 

huacas  or  tolas  ("  graves  "  or  "  barrows")  liave  at  least  been  discovered,  and  unfortu- 
nately eagerly  rifled  of  their  contents  by  treasure-seekers.  Even  the  "  Castles  of 
the  Incas,"  which  had  been  erected  in  various  parts  of  south  Ecuador,  have  been 
systematically  destroyed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring  towns  in  the 
hope  of  finding  gold,  afterwards  using  them  as  convenient  quarries.  In  several 
places  archaeologists  have  re-discovered  sections  of  the  highways  laid  down  by  the 
Incas ;  but  they  are  not  built  with  the  same  care  as  those  of  Peru  itself,  being,  in 
fact,  little  more  than  tracks  along  which  little  posts  or  guard-houses  were  erected 
at  long  intervals. 

In  the  eastern  regions  on  the  Amazonian  slope,  the  uncivilised  tribes  are  still 
reckoned  by  the  dozen,  or  even  by  the  hundred  were  account  to  be  taken  of  all 
the  ethnical  names  collected  at  various  times  by  travellers,  missionaries  and 
administrators.  But  many  of  these  designations  often  refer  to  one  and  the 
same  group,  at  one  time  mentioned  by  its  proper  tribal  name,  at  another 
by  that  given  to  it  by  its  neighbours,  or  else  by  that  of  some  river,  mountain, 
or  forest,  or  even  by  some  nickname  in  allusion  to  personal  peculiarities,  habits 
or  customs. 

But  despite  their  interminable  nomenclature  nearly  all  these  Indians  are 
thinly  scattered,  not  in  Ecuador  proper,  but  in  the  Amazonian  regions  contested 
by  Colombia,  Peru  or  Brazil.  Only  a  very  small  number  dwell  in  undisputed 
Ecuadorean  territory,  and  even  these  have  representatives  of  their  race  beyond 
the  frontiers.  They  form  two  social  and  political  groups — reduced  and  "  salt- 
eating  "  Indians,  and  Injieles  ("Infidels"),  called  also  Ancas,  a  term  formerly 
applied  by  the  Quichuas  to  the  independent  populations,  such  as  the  Orejones, 
Encabellados  and  others  who  made  no  use  of  salt. 

Most  famous  of  these  rude  tribes  were  the  Jivaros  (Xibaros,  Gibaros),  who 
were  formerly  grouped  in  soveral  stations  round  about  the  missions.  The  ruins 
of  churches  on  the  banks  of  the  Paute  and  of  the  Santiago,  in  south-east  Ecuador, 
still  recall  the  time  of  their  complete  subjection  to  the  authorities.  But  towards 
the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  they  rose  in  mass  under  their  chief,  Quirruba, 
and  massacred  the  whites,  sparing  the  women  alone. 

Since  then,  driven  eastwards  by  the  planters  from  the  Loja  plateau,  they  have 
roamed  the  forests  between  the  Pastaza  gorges  and  the  Pongo  de  Manseriche. 
Till  recently  they  were  reported  to  be  very  numerous ;  according  to  one  account 
as  many  as  500,000,  distributed  in  400  tribal  groups,  and  capable  of  mustering 
150,000  armed  warriors.  But  in  reality  they  probably  number  less  than  one- 
hundredth  of  the  latter  figure. 

The  Jivaros,  whose  speech  is  absolutely  distinct  from  the  Quichua,  and  who 
have  been  affiliated  by  D'Orbigny,  Hamy  and  other  anthropologists  to  the  great 
Guarani  family,  are  a  fine  race,  living  on  the  produce  of  the  chase,  of  fishing, 
and  their  swine.  Proud  of  their  personal  appearance,  they  embellish  themselves 
with  paint,  usually  red  on  a  black  ground,  with  plumes,  bead  necklaces,  and 
bits  of  reed  inserted  in  their  ear-lobe.  They  are  distinguished  from  most 
other  wild  tribes  by  their  industrious  habits,  occupying  nearly  all  the  time  spared 


246  SOUTH  AMEEIOA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

from  fishing  and  the  chase  in  tilling  the  land  and  manufacturing  diverse  useful 
objects. 

They  dwell  in  large  houses  where  each  family  has  its  separate  "  suite  "  ;  but 
those  addicted  to  polygamy  live  apart,  some  even  keeping  their  women  in  jealous 
seclusion,  after  the  Eastern  fashion.  The  warriors  practise  a  kind  of  telephonic 
art  by  means  of  the  tundili  (drum),  whose  rattle  reverberates  from  hill  to  hill. 
They  show  remarkable  skill  in  preserving  the  skin  of  the  enemy's  head,  which  is 
shrunk  by  a  drying  process  without  undergoing  any  modification  of  form.  As 
men  of  honour,  they  allow  their  hair  to  grow  in  long  tresses,  in  order  to  enable 
the  foe  the  more  easily  to  seize  and  strike  off  the  highly-prized  trophy  of  their 
heads. 

All  ailments  and  accidents  are  attributed  to  magic,  to  the  influence  of  the  evil 
eye,  to  the  charms  of  some  wizard  disguised  as  a  snake  or  jaguar,  to  the  dart  of 
some  invisible  agency.  On  the  least  suspicion,  the  head  of  the  family  throws 
himself  into  a  state  of  frenzy  by  drinking  the  juice  of  a  narcotic  plant,  and  devotes 
to  death  whoever  has  been  revealed  in  his  vision  as  the  author  of  the  evil.  Prepara- 
tions are  at  once  made  to  compass  his  destruction  ;  no  rest  is  known  till  the  fancied 
injury  is  avenged,  and  the  vendetta  is  thus  transmitted  from  family  to  family, 
from  tribe  to  tribe. 

Those  aborigines  of  the  lower  Napo  who  have  preserved  their  independence, 
while  keeping  up  peaceful  relations  with  the  viracochas  ("  whites  "),  belong  for 
the  most  part  to  the  Zaparo  and  Pioje  nations.  The  Zaparos,  or  "  Panniers/'  so 
called  from  the  waterproof  hampers  they  make  of  wickered  lianas,  speak  a  stock 
language  noted  for  its  harsh,  guttural  sounds.  Divided  into  "  two  hundred  " 
hostile  groups,  they  live  in  a  constant  state  of  inter-tribal  feud,  kidnapping  their 
neighbours'  women  and  children,  pursuing  and  "  bagging  "  each  other  like  so 
much  game.  Bloodshed  is  their  delight,  and  they  are  overjoyed  at  the  prospect 
of  a  battle.  They  often  kill  their  sick,  either  to  get  rid  of  useless  mouths  or 
through  sheer  love  of  cruelty. 

Lower  down  the  Napo  dwell  the  Piojes,  akin  to  the  Piojes  of  the  Putumayo 
basin,  a  much  less  warlike  people  than  the  Zaparos,  and  noted  for  their  indus- 
trious habits.  Excellent  agriculturists,  they  devote  the  day  to  tillage,  and  often 
pass  the  night  weaving  and  knitting  hammocks  keeping  themselves  awake  with 
a  decoction  of  yoco,  a  plant  rich  in  caffeine.  All  these  independent  groups — 
Jivaros,  Zaparos,  Piojes — present  in  their  manly  bearing  a  marked  contrast  to 
the  servile  Napos  and  Quijos  (Canelos),  who  live  in  settlements  about  the  missions 
of  the  upper  Napo  region  subject  to  the  whites. 

The  mestizoes,  who,  however,  have  but  a  slight  strain  of  Spanish  blood,  and 
who  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  of  Ecuador,  appear  to  have  preserved 
the  character,  habits  and  genius  of  their  Quichua  ancestry.  Accustomed  to 
dread  the  violence  and  oppression  of  their  Inca  and  Spanish  rulers,  they  still 
cringe  before  the  white  man,  mistrusting  even  those  who  treat  them  with  kindness. 
They  never  decline  service,  and  are  always  full  of  promises,  and  seek  by  a 
thousand  subterfuges  to  shirk  work  and  deceive  their  masters.  Their  courtesy, 


INHABITANTS  OF  ECUADOR. 


247 


however,  is  genuine,  being  in  fact  inspired  by  fear.  This  timidity  of  character 
so  common  amongst  the  Ecuadoreans  may  perhaps  be  explained  by  the  frequency 
and  destructive  force  of  the  earthquakes.  The  frightful  shocks,  swallowing  up 
whole  cities,  seem  to  them  divine  punishments  for  their  sins.  Hence  they  live 
in  a  state  of  perpetual  terror,  ever  imploring  the  priests,  saints  and  angels  to 
plead  for  them. 

In  their  fervent  piety  they  worship  the  Catholic  saints  with  the  same  faith  as 
their  former  idols.  The  two  religions,  old  and  new,  have  been  superimposed,  and 
their  supplications  are  equally  addressed  to  all  supernatural  beings,  gods  and 
demons  from  whom  they  hope  for  mercy,  or  whose  wrath  they  dread.  In  the 


Fig.  95. — INDIOENOTTS  POPULATIONS  OF  ECTTADOB. 
Scale  1  : 10,000,000. 


80- 


West  of  Greenwich 


186  Miles. 


picture  of  Michael  Archangel  overcoming  the  devil  the  Indian  invokes  both 
victor  and  vanquished,  the  latter  possibly  with  the  greater  fervour,  bringing 
him  special  offerings  of  wax  tapers,  flowers  and  garments. 

As  in  Spain  and  as  amongst  the  ancient  Quichuas,  the  solemn  processions 
have  their  masks,  their  mimes  and  dancers ;  they  have  also  their  voluntary 
martyrs,  who  lacerate  themselves  like  the  mediaeval  flagellants  and  the  fakirs  of 
India.  Some  of  the  devotees  follow  the  crowd  half  naked,  dragging  along  heavy 
beams  fastened  to  their  arms  and  shoulders  by  wire  cords  which  cause  the  flesh  to 
swell  and  the  blood  to  spout.  Others  lash  thorny  fagots  to  their  bodies,  which  at 
every  step  tear  their  limbs  and  leave  a  stream  of  blood  in  their  wake.  These  peni- 
tents are  known  by  the  name  of  chacatascas. 


248  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

Except  during  these  days  of  frenzy  and  ecstasy  the  Ecuadoreans  are  a  sad 
and  sullen  people.  The  features  especially  of  the  women  seem  haggard  with  care 
and  biding  misery.  Some  of  their  customs  greatly  shock  visitors,  and  uncleanly 
habits  prevail  in  this  land  of  dust.  Yet,  despite  their  sordid  surroundings  the 
Quitonians  appear  to  possess  the  sentiment  of  form  and  colour  in  the  highest 
degree.  Notwithstanding  the  rigid  hieratic  formulas  and  conventionalities  to 
which  the  priests  have  enslaved  them,  many  of  the  mestizoes  and  even  of  the 
full-blood  Indians  succeed  in  executing  really  remarkable  religious  paintings,  as 
well  as  sculptures  of  Christs  and  Madonnas,  works  greatly  admired  in  Peru  and 
other  South  American  countries,  to  which  they  are  regularly  exported.  But  the 
natives  have  lost  one  artistic  industry,  inlaid  work  in  costly  woods.  It  has  also 
been  noticed  that  neither  his  extreme  poverty,  nor  the  dull  existence  to  which  he 
is  condemned,  has  prevented  the  Ecuadorean  from  distinguishing  himself  by  the 
elegant  cut  and  harmoniously -blended  colours  of  his  clothes. 


YI. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

All  the  northern  towns  of  Ecuador  are  comprised  within  the  limits  of  the 
plateaux,  which  form  a  southern  continuation  of  the  Pasto  uplands.  Tulcan, 
guardian  of  the  frontier  near  the  Colombian  Ipiales,  owes  its  importance  to  its 
trade  with  the  neighbouring  republic.  In  this  respect  it  serves  as  the  depot  of 
the  larger  city  of  Ibarra,  founded  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  on  a  plain 
whose  waters  flow  northwards  to  the  Rios  Chota  and  Mira.  The  climate  of  Ibarra 
is  much  milder  than  that  of  Tulcan,  thanks  to  its  considerably  lower  altitude 
(13,200  and  15,830  feet  respectively). 

Ibarra  lies  in  the  heart  of  the  historical  region,  and  near  it  is  shown  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Camnqui,  where  stood  a  temple  of  the  sun  and  a  convent  of  vestals, 
and  where  was  born  Atahuallpa,  done  to  death  by  Pizarro.  The  plain  of  Hatun- 
Taqui  (the"  Great  Drum  "),  recalling  the  battle  in  which  the  Inca,  Huayna-Capac, 
overcame  the  Caranqui  Indians,  slopes  towards  the  deep,  land-locked  basin  of 
Yaguar-Cocha  ("  Lake  of  Blood  "),  where  the  victor  caused  thousands — the  legends 
say,  "  forty  thousand  " — of  the  vanquished  to  be  butchered,  dyeing  crimson  the 
vast  sheet  of  water  some  ten  miles  in  circumference.  Over  these  plains  are  scat- 
tered hundreds  of  tolas  (sepulchral  mounds),  from  which  the  treasure-seekers  have 
recovered  many  curious  archaeological  objects. 

Lying  at  the  base  of  Imbabura,  Ibarra  was  the  scene  of  a  frightful  disaster 
in  1868,  when  nearly  all  its  buildings  were  overthrown  in  a  few  seconds,  burying 
3,000  persons  beneath  the  debris.  The  picturesque  ruins  of  churches  and  convents 
are  still  seen,  more  beautiful  in  their  drapery  of  flowers  and  verdure  than  when 
they  left  the  builder's  hands.  Otavalo,  lying  south  of  the  valley  on  the  northern 
slopes  of  Yana-Urcu,  suffered  even  more  than  Ibarra,  losing  nearly  the  whole  of 
its  6.COO  inhabitants. 


TOPOGEAPHY  OF  ECUADOR. 


249 


But  the  violence  of  man  has  done  even  more  than  hostile  nature  to  depopulate 
the  land.  The  native  settlement  of  Pimampiro  had  at  one  time  a  population  of 
probably  11,000  civilised  Indians,  all  of  whom  left  in  a  body  to  escape  the  oppres- 
sion of  the  Spaniards,  descending  to  the  eastern  forests  inhabited  by  the  Sucurnbio 


Fig.  96. — ANCON  DE  LAS  SABDINAS. 
Scale  I  :  700,000. 


79°  10- 


West  of  Greenwich 


76°50' 


Depths. 


0  to  5 
Fathoms. 


5  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 

12  Miles. 


tribe.  In  general  the  inhabitants  of  these  uplands  are  extremely  industrious, 
and  the  disasters  of  1868  have  already  been  more  than  repaired,  so  far  as  regards 
population,  agriculture,  and  public  wealth.  The  gold,  silver  and  salt  mines,  how- 
ever, are  little  worked ;  but  the  Indians  of  the  lower  Mira  valley  collect  the 


250  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

alluvial  gold  by  an  ingenious  process  acquired  without  any  instruction  from  the 
Californian  miners. 

These  marvellously  fertile  low-lying  coastlands  have  for  natural  haven  the 
Ancon  de  las  Sardinax,  with  its  deep  harbour  of  Pailon,  well  sheltered  by  islands 
and  headlands,  and  far  better  situated  than  Guayaquil  for  deep-sea  navigation.  It 
takes  its  name  from  the  shoals  of  fish  of  all  kinds  to  which  the  Spaniards  give  the 
general  name  of  "  sardines,"  and  which  are  used  both  as  food  and  manure. 

Quito,  city  of  the  ancient  Quitu  nation,  and  present  capital  of  Ecuador, 
follows  south  of  Ibarra  and  Otavalo,  along  the  line  of  Andean  volcanoes.  The 
urban  population,  variously  estimated  at  from  25,000  to  40,000,  was  formerly  much 
greater,  when  Quito  was  capital  of  one  of  the  Quichua  empires,  and  when  under 
the  Spanish  rule  it  shared  with  Bogota  the  government  of  a  vast  colonial  depen- 
dency, besides  being  the  centre  of  the  Jesuit  missions  scattered  over  the  Amazons 
basin. 

Quito,  the  city  of  perennial  spring,  with  a  climate  whose  temperature  scarcely 
varies  two  degrees  between  the  hottest  and  the  coldest  months,  stands  at  an  alti- 
tude of  9,350  feet  on  the  last  eastern  slopes  of  Pichincha  in  a  narrow  basin 
bordered  eastwards  by  the  Poiagasi  ridge.  Deep  ravines,  dividing  the  city  into 
several  sections,  rapidly  discharge  the  rain  and  sewer  waters  through  a  torrent 
to  the  Guallabamba  affluent  of  the  Pacific.  Thanks  to  its  stesp  incline,  its 
channels,  and  the  pure  water  drawn  from  Pichincha,  Quito  continues  to  enjoy  a 
salubrious  climate. 

South-westwards  rises  the  regular  dome-shaped  Panecillo  (Yavirac)  eminence, 
crowned  by  ruins  dating  from  the  Inca  period  and  by  Spanish  structures.  This 
old  volcanic  cone  commands  a  panoramic  view  of  the  whole  city,  with  its  suburbs, 
its  monuments,  and  gardens,  together  with  the  vast  circuit  of  volcanoes  bounding 
the  horizon  on  all  sides — the  sharp-peaked  Cotocachi  on  the  north,  then  to  right 
and  left  massive  Yana-Urcu,  snowy  Cayambe,  Sincholagua,  smoking  Cotopaxi, 
with  its  humbler  neighbours,  Pasochoa  and  Ruminahui,  and  lastly  the  western 
chain  formed  by  Corazon,  Atacazo,  and  double-crested  Pichincha. 

Regularly  laid  out,  but  built  of  low  houses,  here  and  there  cracked  by  earth- 
quakes, ''Quito  bonito  "  (the  "charming"),  as  the  surrounding  peasantry  call  it, 
is  nevertheless  a  dull  city,  like  the  people  that  inhabit  it.  There  are,  however,  a 
few  interesting  buildings,  a  library,  museums,  some  fifty  convents,  mostly  dilapi- 
dated. Several  of  these  contain  some  fine  paintings,  for  Ecuador  boasts  of  having 
created  the  "  Quito  School "  with  over  a  dozen  painters  constantly  engaged  in 
reproducing  the  images  of  the  saints  for  the  local  demand  and  for  the  export 
trade.  As  there  is  no  school  of  design,  nearly  all  the  artists  begin  as  simple 
pupils  with  their  father  or  some  patron,  and  several  acquire  a  remarkable  dexterity 
in  handling  the  brush. 

The  observatory,  which  recent  studies  place  some  18  miles  east  of  the  position 
indicated  by  Humboldt,*  stands  in  the  middle  of  a  garden  at  the  north-east 

*  Longitude  of  the  Quito  Observatory  according  to  Humboldt :  81°  4'  38"  E.  of  Paris ;  according  to 
Stiibel:  80°  47' 54". 


TOPOGRAPHPY  OF  ECUADOR. 


251 


extremity  of  the  city.  Here  is  seen  the  famous  stone  on  which  La  Condamine  and 
his  associates  commemorated,  by  an  inscription,  their  operations  connected  with 
the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  terrestrial  meridian.  But  the  base  line  which 
they  had  traced  with  so  much  care  north-east  of  the  city,  and  which  enabled  them 
to  measure  three  degrees  of  the  meridian  between  Ibarra  and  Cuenca,  can  no  longer 
be  identified.  Either  through  some  narrow  patriotic  feeling  of  jealousy  or  through 
barbarous  ignorance,  the  Government  ordered  the  two  terminal  pyramids  to  be 
razed  which  La  Condamine  had  erected,  one  near  the  town  of  Pifo,  between  Coto- 
paxi  and  Cayambe,  the  other  on  the  edge  of  the  Guallabamba  gorge.  The  first, 
that  of  Oyambaro,  has  been  reconstructed  since  the  War  of  Independence,  but 
not  on  the  old  site  and  only  as  a  commemorative  monument ;  the  second  (Caraburo) 


Fig.  97. — QUITO  AND  ITS  ENVIEONS. 
Scale  1 :  760,000. 


78'20' 


West  or  Greenwich  78" 


18  Mile". 


may  possibly  occupy  its  original  position,  though  Whymper  was  unable  to  deter- 
mine the  point.  Some  blocks  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Quito  recall  the  old 
fortresses  of  the  Incas  and  of  their  Cara  predecessors. 

A  carriage-road,  often  ploughed  up  by  the  rains,  and  always  threatened  by  the 
avalanches  of  mud,  connects  Quito  with  Ambato.  But  Quito  still  lacks  easy  com- 
munication with  the  nearest  seaport,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Esmeraldas.  The 
road  begun  by  Maldonado  in  1735  was  never  completed,  though  another  has  been 
begun  farther  south,  to  run  through  Aloag,  along  the  base  of  Corazon  and  by  the 
Rio  Toachi  valley.  The  port  of  Esmeraldas  itself  is  obstructed  by  a  bar,  and 
Quito  remains  without  any  access  to  the  sea  except  by  the  extremely  difficult 
Guayaquil  route,  twice  as  long  as  that  of  Esmeraldas.  The  emeralds  which  excited 
the  cupidity  of  Pizarro  are  no  longer  exported  from  this  place;  one  of  the  stones 


252 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


formerly  worshipped  by  the  people  of  Mania  has,  according  to  a  local  legend,  been 
hidden  by  the  natives.  The  mouth  of  the  Rio  Verde,  a  little  north-west  of  the 
Esmeraldas  estuary,  indicates  the  spot  where  Pizarro  landed  in  1526  during  his 
first  expedition  in  search  of  Peru. 

East  of  Quito  the    most  frequented   route    crosses  the    Eastern    Cordillera, 
between  Sara-Urcu  and  Antisana,  passing  the  village  of  Papallacta,  Baeza  in  the 

Fig.  98.— ESMEBALDAS. 
Scale  1  :  950,000. 


West  op  Greenwich 


79°30 


Depths. 


Oto5 
Fathoms. 


5  to  50 
Fathoms. 


50  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


18  Miles. 


territory  of  the  Quijos,  and  the  town  of  Archidona,  whence   travellers  descend  to 
Puerto  Napo,  at  the  head  of  the  navigation  of  the  Bio  Napo. 

Latacunya  (La  Tacunga,  Tacunga)  is  the  highest  town  (9,200  feet)  in  the 
Pastaza  valley.  It  stands  to  windward  of  Cotopaxi,  by  which  it  has  been  fre- 
quently destroyed,  but  has  always  revived,  thanks  to  its  favourable  position  on 


TOPOGEAPHY  OF  ECUADOR.  258 

the  route  from  Quito  to  Guayaquil.  Latacunga  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  chief 
colleges  of  Ecuador,  founded  by  one  of  its  citizens,  in  honour  of  whom  the  province 
has  received  the  name  of  Leon. 

Ambato,  lying  some  18  miles  farther  south  in  the  upper  Patate  basin,  has  also 
been  frequently  threatened  by  the  neighbouring  volcanoes.  It  is  separated  by 
the  spurs  of  Chimborazo  from  Riobamba,  which  lies  in  the  same  basin  to  the  west 
of  Altar.  The  old  city — founded  by  the  Puruha  Indians  about  10  miles  farther 
west,  where  are  now  the  villages  of  Cicalpa  and  Cajabamba—  having  been  destroyed 
by  the  earthquake  of  1797,  the  present  site  was  selected  as  being  less  exposed 
to  disasters.  In  the  vicinity  is  shown  the  chasm  in  which  the  town  of  Cacha, 
with  its  5,000  inhabitants,  was  swallowed  up  in  the  year  1640.  Of  all  the  cities 
of  Ecuador,  Riobamba  commands  the  most  extensive  panoramic  view  of  the  snowy 
heights  grouped  in  amphitheatrical  form  about  the  plateau. 

The  carriage-road  crossing  the  plateau  stops  at  the  foot  of  Chimborazo  between 
Ambato  and  Riobamba.  At  this  point  travellers  bound  for  Guayaquil  leave  the 
inter-Andean  plains  and  turn  the  great  mountain  on  its  south  side  by  the 
Arenal  route,  unless  they  prefer  the  alternative  road  over  the  Tiocajas  Pass  down 
to  the  towns  of  Alausi  and  Sibambe,  thence  reaching  the  Chimbo  terminus  of  the 
railway  in  the  Rio  Chimbo  valley. 

Tiojacas,  the  natural  stronghold  of  the  upper  Pastaza  valley  and  of  the  more 
thickly-peopled  regions  of  Ecuador,  was  at  all  times  a  strategic  position  of  the 
first  importance.  Here  the  Incas  conquered  the  native  tribes ;  here,  also,  Belul- 
cazar  gained  the  decisive  battle  which  opened  the  road  to  Quito,  and  other 
sanguinary  engagements  have  been  fought  at  the  same  place  during  the  civil 
wars  of  the  present  century. 

As  a  section  only  of  the  trunk  line  of  railway  has  been  completed  (1894),  nearly 
all  the  traffic  between  the  plateaux  and  Guayaquil  continues  to  follow  the  old 
route,  where  travellers  may  usually  procure  mounts  and  pack- mules.  Guaranda, 
on  a  terrace  dominating  the  upper  Chimbo  valley  from  an  altitude  of  8,890  feet, 
is  the  intermediate  depot  of  this  traffic.  Farther  down,  the  Rio  Chimbo  plunges 
beneath  the  Socabon,  a  natural  bridge  of  imposing  size.  The  ordinary  route  from 
Guaranda  to  Guayaquil  does  not  follow  the  banks  of  the  river,  but  rises  westward 
to  the  Tambo  Gobierno  Pass,  crossing  the  Chimbo  range  at  a  height  of  10,420 
feet,  whence  it  descends  to  the  Guayas  valley  at  the  Babahoyo  confluence,  where 
the  river  becomes  navigable  for  steamers.  During  the  floods,  from  January  to 
May,  the  village  of  Bodegas  (Babahoyo),  standing  at  this  point,  is  completely  inun- 
dated up  to  the  second  storey  of  the  houses,  and  the  alligators  disport  themselves 
in  the  flooded  streets. 

A  conic  eminence  980  feet  high,  at  the  foot  of  which  are  grouped  the  houses 
of  Zamborondon,  indicates  the  point  where  the  Guayas  estuary  begins.  Here  the 
current  frequently  shifts  its  beds  with  the  tides  and  inundations. 

Guayaquil,  converging  point  of  nearly  all  the  trade  of  Ecuador  and  of  its  capital, 
develops  along  the  west  bank  of  the  Guayas  a  handsome  facade  about  two  miles 
long,  above  which  are  seen  the  towers  of  some  fine  structures.  Its  busy  quays, 


254 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


the  vehicles  driving  about  in  all  directions,  the  flags  waving  over  its  balconies 
make  it  the  liveliest  place  on  the  coast  for  a  distance  of  over  1,200  miles  between 
Panama  and  Callao.  Despite  various  disasters,  piratical  attacks,  fires,  frequent 
street  fighting  during  the  civil  wars,  Guayaquil  has  always  rapidly  recovered, 
thanks  to  its  favourable  position  at  the  head  of  the  deep  inlet  penetrating  into 
the  interior  in  the  form  of  a  cornucopia  curving  round  to  the  north. 

Guayaquil  represents  the  old  Indian  city  of  Culenfa,  which,  however,  was  dis- 

Fig.  99.— GUAYAQUIL  ESTUABY. 
Scale  1  : 1,800,000. 


West  oF  Gree 


79°30' 


Depth*. 


0  to  ft 
Fathoms. 


6  to  10 
Fathoms. 


10  to  25 
Fathoms. 


30  Miles. 


2.">  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


placed,  and  is  now  indicated  only  by  the  remains  of  Ciudad  Vieja  ("Old  Town"), 
on  the  slopes  of  the  northern  hills.  The  Spanish  settlement,  founded  by  Belal- 
cazar  in  1535,  stood  farther  south,  and  was  connected  with  the  native  town  by  a 
causeway  2,300  feet  long,  carried  over  the  intervening  channels  and  morasses. 
The  harbour,  which  chiefly  exports  cacao,  the  staple  product  of  tropical  Ecuador, 


I-J 

I 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  ECUADOE.  256 

is  accessible  at  low  water  only  to  craft  of  moderate  draught ;  larger  vessels,  draw- 
ing up  to  21  feet,  ride  at  anchor  in  the  estuary  lower  down.  The  navigable 
channel  passes  south  of  the  islet  of  Santa  Maria  (Araortajada),  and  then  sweeps 
round  to  the  east  of  the  large  island  of  Puna  through  the  Jambeli  passage,  which 
leads  north  to  the  Rio  Guayas.  Here  the  Estero  Salado  ("  Saline  Estuary "), 
which  winds  to  the  west  of  the  city,  is  available  only  for  boats  and  barges. 

Being  thus  encompassed  by  brackish  creeks,  Guayaquil  was  till  recently 
destitute  of  fresh  water,  which  had  to  be  sent  down  from  the  upper  reaches  on 
rafts  laden  with  pitchers.  Now,  however,  potable  water  is  brought  from  a  valley 
of  the  Andes  by  a  canal  running  parallel  with  the  railway.  River  steamers 
convey  goods  for  the  interior  either  to  the  bodegis  of  Babahoyo,  or  to  the 
suburb  of  Diiran,  facing  the  city  on  the  left  bank  of  the  estuary.  Here  is  the 
seaward  terminus  of  the  Ecuador  railway,  whose  first  station,  Yaguachi,  on  the 
river  of  like  name,  was  formerly  the  depot  for  merchandise  destined  for  the 
plateau.  But  the  harbour  having  silted  up  with  the  alluvia  of  the  river,  the  place 
had  to  be  abandoned  by  the  traders. 

Guayaquil  depends  almost  entirely  on  its  import  and  export  traffic.  The 
chief  locul  industries  are  tanning  and  shipbuilding,  the  neighbouring  forests 
yielding  an  abundance  of  excellent  timbers  (guachapeli,  guaiac  and  guaratigo}, 
which  are  easily  worked,  and  are  practically  incorruptible,  resisting  the  attack  of 
worms  better  than  any  other  species. 

On  the  west  side  of  the  Guayaquil  peninsula  stands  the  little  seaport  of  Santa 
Elena,  which  like  the  village  of  Puna,  on  the  island  of  the  same  name,  is  one  of 
the  health  resorts  of  Guayaquil.  It  exports  salt,  dried  fish,  wax,  cattle,  straw 
hats,  and  small  decked  and  open  craft  caulked  with  cope,  an  oily  substance  oozing 
in  abundance  from  the  neighbouring  beach.  Mixed  with  other  ingredients  this 
cope  is  also  used  in  the  treatment  of  cutaneous  diseases  in  man  and  beast,  and  it 
even  yields  a  gas  light  for  Guayaquil.  Eastwards  rises  the  mud  volcano  of  San 
Vicente,  the  only  one  occurring  on  the  west  coast  of  South  America. 

Between  Santa  Elena  and  Esmeraldas  follow  a  few  little  seaports,  such  as 
Mania,  which  exports  the  produce  of  the  inland  towns  of  Montecristi  and  Jipijapa. 
But  the  chief  place  in  the  whole  region  comprised  between  the  sea  and  the 
Western  Cordillera  is  Puerto  Viejo  ("  Old  Port"),  which,  despite  its  name,  lies  some 
18  miles  in  the  interior.  The  Rio  Charapoto,  on  which  it  stands,  marks  the  limit 
between  the  forest  zone  and  the  arid  plains  stretching  southwards.  A  broad  inlet 
north  of  Charapoto  terminates  in  the  estuary  or  Bay  of  Caraques  (Caracas),  so 
named  from  the  Caraques  (Caraqui)  Indians,  former  rulers  of  the  land.  Caraques 
stands  on  the  south  side  of  the  estuary,  but  its  harbour  is  unfortunately  obstructed 
by  a  bar  impassable  by  large  vessels. 

The  Rio  Grande  (Cafiar),  which  enters  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil  opposite  the 
island  of  Puna,  and  whose  port  has  taken  the  name  of.  Naranjal  from  the  neigh- 
bouring "  orange  "-groves,  recalls  the  powerful  Cafiar  (Cafiares)  nation,  which 
offered  such  a  stout  resistance  to  the  Incas.  The  present  town  of  Canar  lies  higher 
up  the  river  near  the  pre-Columbian  ruins  of  Hatun-Ctmar  and  Tomcbamba — the 


256 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


former  said  to  have  been  Huayna-Capac's  palace  a  few  years  before  the  arrival  of 
the  Spaniards ;  the  latter  an  old  stronghold  captured  in  1530  by  Atahuallpa  after 
the  massacre  of  60,000  of  its  Canar  defenders. 

South-west  of  Canar  and  on  the  same  Pacific  slope  stands  the  flourishing  town 
of  Machala,  whose  harbour,  Puerto  Hiiaila  or  Bolivar,  lies  on  the  Jambeli  channel 


Fig.  100. — CUENCA  BASIN. 
Scale  1  :  900,000. 


79*25' 


West  oF  Greenwich 


78'4C 


18  Miles. 


under  the  shelter  of  the  islets  of  like  name.  Here  are  shipped  the  ores  from  the 
Zaruma  valley  in  the  upper  Rio  Tumbez  basin,  the  only  important  mining  district 
in  Ecuador.  Its  decomposed  porphyry  rocks,  transformed  to  a  reddish  clay,  contain 
veins  of  gold  formerly  worked  by  the  Indians,  and  now  treated  by  an  English 
company  by  a  new  process.  Between  1888  and  1891  the  Zaruma  gold-mines 
yielded  an  average  annual  output  of  about  £11,000.  Copper  ores  occur  in  the 


TOPOGEAPHY  OF  ECUADOR. 


257 


neighbouring  cliffs.  A  few  other  southern  towns — Celica,  Catacocha,  Cariamanga 
— are  also  situated  on  the  Pacific  slope ;  the  headstrearas  of  their  valleys  unite 
to  form  the  Rio  Achira  (Chira),  which  reaches  the  coast  at  Puita  Bay,  between  the 
Tumbez  and  Sechura  deserts. 

But  the  better-peopled  districts  of  this  part  of  Ecuador  lie  on  the  Amazonian 
slope.  The  chief  towns  and  most  fertile  plains  are  situated  in  the  upper  basin  of 
the  Paute  (Santiago),  which  joins  the  Maranon  just  above  the  Pongo  de  Man- 
seriche.  Cuenca,  metropolis  of  this  district,  occupies,  with  its  suburb  of  Egido 


Fig.  101. — LOJA  MOUNTAINS. 
Scale  1  : 1,000.000. 


18  Miles. 


(8,830  feet),  the  fine  plain  of  Bamba,  where  the  running  waters  vanish  in  a  rocky 
cavern  and  reappear  five  miles  lower  down. 

The  province  of  Azuay,  whose  capital  is  Cuenca,  supplies  a  large  part  of  the 
republic  with  wheat  and  cattle,  while  its  industrious  inhabitants,  of  Canar  origin, 
prepare  woven  fabrics  and  straw  hats.  Despite  the  successive  invasions  of  Incas 
and  Spaniards,  their  old  culture  has  been  but  slightly  modified. 

South-west  of  Cuenca  are  situated  the  much-frequented  thermal  springs  of 
Banos,  but  the  mineral  deposits  of  the  district,  formerly  worked  with  profit,  are 
now  for  the  most  part  abandoned.  The  town  of  Azopues  ("  Mercury  ")  no  longer 
collects  the  quicksilver  occurring  in  the  neighbouring  sandstones ;  the  Indian 
village  of  Nacas,  in  the  forest  zone  roamed  by  the  Jivaros,  has  also  ceased 
18 


258  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

to  yield  the  large  quantities  of  gold  which  formerly  earned  for  it  the  title  of 
Sevilla  de  Oro. 

Between  Cuenca  and  Jiron,  overlooking  the  old  lacustrine  plain  of  Tarqui,  stands 
the  "  Pyramid  Mountain,"  so  named  from  the  signal  set  up  by  La  Condamine  at 
the  extremity  of  his  chain  of  triangles  taken  for  the  measurement  of  the  meri- 
dian. The  carriage-road  which  is  to  connect  Cuenca  with  the  port  of  Naranjal 
over  the  Cajas  Pass  has  been  scarcely  begun. 

Although  less  healthy  than  Cuenca,  the  sanatorium  of  south  Ecuador,  the 
town  of  Loja  is  perhaps  better  situated  for  traffic,  standing  as  it  does  at  an 
altitude  of  7,300  feet,  the  most  favourable  under  the  torrid  zone,  and  at  a  point  in 
the  Cordillera  which  would  present  the  least  difficulty  but  for  the  horrible  road. 
But  despite  its  advantages  Loja  has  diminished  in  population.  Owing  to  the 
destruction  of  its  cinchona-trees  it  has  lost  the  export  trade  in  bark,  of  which  it 
had  formerly  a  monopoly.  The  town  of  Zamora,  on  the  river  of  the  same  name, 
which  served  as  its  eastern  outlet  towards  the  Amazons,  has  also  ceased  to  exist, 
its  Indian  inhabitants  having  either  perished  or  dispersed. 

Logrono,  on  the  Rio  Paute,  has  similarly  disappeared  under  an  exuberant 
forest  growth,  and  solitude  reigns  in  a  region  which  seemed  destined  to  become 
the  great  trans-continental  highway  between  Guayaquil  and  Para.  With  a 
railway  constructed  across  the  southern  uplands  of  Ecuador  from  the  Pacific  coast 
to  the  head  of  the  navigation  on  the  Paute  or  the  Zamora,  the  continent  might 
be  traversed  in  a  week  from  ocean  to  ocean. 

South  of  Loja  is  situated  the  upland  valley  of  Piscobamba,  where,  according 
to  the  Indian  legend,  are  buried  the  heaps  of  gold  sent  from  Quito  to  Cajamarca 
to  ransom  the  Inca  Atahuallpa.  Many  fortune-hunters  have  been  ruined  in  their 
vain  quest  for  these  treasures. 


vir. 

MATERIAL  CONDITION  or  ECUADOR. 

Of  all  the  Hispano- American  republics  Ecuador  has  been  the  least  modified 
under  the  influence  of  European  customs  and  ideas.  On  the  elevated  plateaux, 
always  difficult  of  access,  the  Quichua,  Canar,  and  Puruha  natives  scarcely 
changed  their  social  habits  in  the  presence  of  a  handful  of  whites,  themselves 
almost  cut  off  from  all  intercourse  with  their  fellow-countrymen  elsewhere.  The 
first  collision  had  been  terrible  and  decisive,  and  after  the  battles,  massacres  and 
epidemics  the  surviving  Indians  had  been  fain  to  adapt  themselves  to  a  new 
political  system,  to  work  for  new  masters,  to  give  up  the  road  to  the  old  places 
of  pilgrimage,  and  to  worship  at  new  shrines. 

But  once  this  transformation  was  effected,  the  descendants  of  the  Quitu  and 
kindred  nations,  but  slightly  crossed  with  the  ethnical  element  of  European  origin, 
maintained  themselves  without  further  change.  Their  conservative  spirit  was 
subjected  to  no  fresh  strain,  and  the  whole  population  remained  docile  and  sub- 


SOCIAL    CONDITION   OF   ECUADOR.  259 

missive  to  their  secular  and  religious  masters,  without  betraying  the  least  dis- 
position to  revolt.  The  later  political  movements  had  their  origin,  not  in  the 
lower  strata  of  society,  but  exclusively  in  Quito  and  the  other  cities,  where  the 
Creoles  of  Spanish  descent  felt  themselves  outraged  in  a  thousand  ways  by  the 
privileges  and  arrogance  of  the  fresh  arrivals  from  the  peninsula.  Lawyers 
ousted  from  their  lucrative  positions  by  young  Spanish  favourites  were  the 
instigators  of  the  first  rising,  which  took  place  in  1809  at  Quito,  "in  the  name 
of  the  legitimate  sovereign,  Ferdinand  VII.,  and  of  the  holy  Roman  Catholic 
Church."  But  the  mass  of  the  nation  took  no  part  in  this  outbreak,  which  was 
soon  crushed  by  a  general  massacre. 

AGRICULTURE — TRADE — INDUSTRIES. 

Nevertheless,  since  the  War  of  Independence  and  the  constitution  of  an 
autonomous  republic  in  Ecuador,  the  new  order  of  things  has  necessarily  been 
followed  by  certain  changes  in  the  social  condition  of  the  people.  Some  of  the 
rural  classes  have  been  attracted  to  the  large  towns  by  the  development  of  trade, 
and  in  a  less  measure  by  the  awakened  thirst  for  knowledge.  Following  at  a 
long  distance  the  example  of  the  United  States,  Australia  and  other  commercial 
and  industrial  lands,  Ecuador  presents  the  phenomenon  of  a  gradual  concentration 
of  its  inhabitants  gravitating  round  the  various  centres  of  the  population.  Of  the 
sixteen  provinces  those  possessing  the  three  largest  cities — Pichincha  with  Quito, 
Guayas  with  Guayaquil,  and  Azuay  with  Cuenca — contain  far  more  than  one-third 
of  all  the  inhabitants. 

Racial  crossings,  more  developed  in  the  urban  than  in  the  rural  districts,  tend 
to  blend  the  ethnical  elements  in  which  Indian  blood  predominates,  and  at  the 
same  time  diffuse  European  political  and  social  sentiments.  The  inter- Andean 
region,  where  have  sprung  up  all  the  towns,  properly  so  called,  except  Guayaquil, 
may  be  regarded  as  practically  constituting  the  whole  of  Ecuador,  viewed  from 
the  standpoint  of  wealth  and  culture.  Thus  the  vast  province  of  Esmeraldas, 
perhaps  the  richest  in  natural  resources,  but  l}Ting  in  the  hot  zone  beyond  the 
Andean  plateau,  has  according  to  the  official  returns  only  a  hundredth  part  of  the 
population.  The  province  of  Oriente,  also,  which  alone  comprises  one-half  of  the 
territory,  would  appear  to  have  only  about  80,000  inhabitants,  about  as  many  as 
Plymouth,  or  any  other  second-rate  English  city. 

IMMIGRATION — SOCIAL  CONDITION. 

The  movement  of  immigration,  except  to  Guayaquil,  remains  insignificant, 
despite  the  efforts  of  various  financial  companies,  amongst  others,  an  English 
association,  to  which  the  Government  has  conceded  1,750,000  acres  on  the  banks 
of  the  Pailon  and  in  the  eastern  forests.  A  small  German  colony  has  been 
established  in  the  Cordillera  about  the  sources  of  the  Rio  Toachi ;  but  even  in  the 
capital,  foreigners  of  all  classes — professionals,  artisans  and  labourers — may,  so 


260  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

to  say,  be  counted  on  the  fingers'  ends.  Many  of  the  inland  towns  have  not  a 
single  foreign  resident. 

But  the  inhabitants  of  the  conterminous  Colombian  and  Peruvian  states, 
who  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  aliens,  freely  cross  the  frontiers  and  settle  in  the 
territory  of  Ecuador.  In  the  provinces  of  Carchi  and  Esmeraldas  especially,  the 
white,  half-caste,  and  black  immigrants  from  Colombia,  numbering  about  40,000, 
already  form  a  considerable  section  of  the  population ;  which,  however,  differs 
little  from  the  native  element. 

Ecuador,  a  country  of  old  Spanish  and  aristocratic  traditions,  is  also  a  country 
of  vast  landed  estates.  One  proprietor  is  lord  of  Cayambe,  Sara-Urcu  and  all  the 
intervening  plains  and  valleys.  Another  owns  Antisana,  with  the  farmsteads 
and  cattle-runs  of  the  whole  district,  while  towards  the  Amazons  his  domain  is 
boundless  :  "  The  land  is  his  as  far  as  you  can  go  eastwards." 

The  result  is  that  the  bulk  of  the  population  are  serfs,  almost  slaves,  still 
burdened  with  debt,  an  oppressed  generation  whose  woeful  condition  is  disguised 
under  the  name  of  concertados,  by  contraction  conciertos,  as  if  their  wretched 
plight  were  the  effect  of  "  free  contract."  The  plough  has  not  yet  made  its 
appearance  in  all  the  provinces,  while  few  are  the  haciendas  where  the  wayfarer 
can  get  so  much  as  a  cup  of  milk  to  quench  his  thirst.  In  some  of  the  remote 
southern  valleys  the  natives  are  said  still  to  thrash  out  the  corn  by  dancing  on 
the  ears  with  heavy  clogs  ;  hence  it  is  not  surprising  that  wheat-flour  has  to  be 
imported  from  California  and  Chili. 

Stock-breeding  constitutes  the  chief  industry  on  the  plateaux,  where  certain 
runs,  such  as  the  hato  of  Antisana,  contain  over  5,000  cows,  besides  sheep  and 
horses.  Even  some  of  the  Indians,  robbed  of  their  lands,  at  least  own  sheep,  which 
they  graze  on  the  bleak  paramos.  Besides  the  natural  pastures  lucerne  is  also 
grown  as  fodder  in  favourable  localities. 

But  midway  up  the  mountains  the  most  profitable  plantations  are  those  of  the 
coffee  shrub,  replaced  on  the  plains  lower  down  by  sugar  and  cacao,  of  which  the 
latter  yields  the  best  returns  in  Ecuador.  Guayaquil  also  exports  a  large  quantity 
of  tagua,  or  vegetable  ivory  ;  which,  however,  is  not  cultivated,  but  grows  wild  in 
the  forests. 

Of  the  numerous  mining  districts  that  of  Zaruma  alone  is  worked  with 
energy.  Other  industries,  represented  at  Guayaquil  by  large  steam  factories,  are 
undeveloped  farther  inland.  Even  the  home  industries  of  weaving  and  straw- 
hat  plaiting,  in  the  hands  of  the  women,  are  yielding  to  foreign  competition, 
which  gluts  the  market  with  cheaper  but  greatly  inferior  goods.  Possessing  no 
cotton-mills  or  other  large  manufactures,  Ecuador  is  compelled  to  import  from 
the  United  States  and  Europe  nearly  all  manufactured  wares,  taking  them  in 
exchange  for  the  natural  products  of  the  land.  This  foreign  trade,  almost 
entirely  concentrated  in  Guayaquil,  represents  an  annual  value  of  from 
£2,000,000  to  £3,000,000,  or  about  forty  shillings  per  head  of  the  population,  a 
proportion  lower  than  that  of  most  countries  within  ^the  sphere  of  European 
civilisation.  The  traffic  is  carried  on,  in  order  of  importance,  chiefly  with  France, 


SOCIAL   CONDITION   OF   ECUADOR.  261 

Great  Britain,  the  United   States,  and  Spain,  the  foreign  shipping   being  more 
than  half  British. 

COMMUNICATIONS — EDUCATION. 

In  1893  Ecuador  still  possessed  only  one  carriage-road  and  one  railway,  the 
former  100  miles  long,  between  Quito  and  Riobamba,  the  latter  63  miles  long, 
between  Duran,  opposite  Guayaquil,  and  the  foot  of  the  Andes.  At  the  bridge 
spanning  the  Rio  Chimbo  the  line  is  distant  only  15  miles  in  a  straight  line  from 
Sibambe,  the  nearest  upland  town.  But  so  difficult  is  the  intervening  ground 
that,  according  to  the  engineers'  survey,  the  distance  would  be  increased  to  over 
50  miles,  winding  round  gorges  and  precipices,  with  an  average  gradient  of  about 
Sin  100  yards.  Here  the  route  will  have  to  ascend  from  a  level  of  1,135  to 
8,860  feet  above  the  sea,  and  it  has  been  doubted  whether  such  an  incline  is 
practical  in  a  tropical  climate  subject  to  tremendous  downpours,  which  sweep  away 
the  strongest  embankments,  and  score  with  deep  furrows  all  loose  soil.  Even  the 
section  already  completed  is  still  little  utilised  for  the  transport  of  goods  to  the 
plateaux,  owing  to  the  lack  of  pack-animals  except  along  the  old  familiar  route 
by  Babahoyo.  Hence  forwarders  prefer  the  difficult  and,  at  times,  even  dangerous 
route  by  the  southern  foot  of  Chimborazo  (15,660  feet).  The  Guamani  Pass,  on 
the  road  from  Quito  to  the  Rio  Napo,  is  almost  equally  elevated,  and  still  more 
dangerous,  because  less  frequented  and  more  neglected. 

Steamers  coming  from  the  Amazons  have  now  and  then  ascended  the  Napo 
and  the  Pastaza  ;  but  no  regular  service  has  yet  been  established  on  these  or  any 
of  the  other  navigable  rivers  of  the  eastern  province.  In  1893  there  was  a  total 
mileage  of  1,074  telegraph  lines,  connected  at  Guayaquil  by  cable  with  the  rest  of 
the  world. 

Although  slow,  the  progress  of  Ecuador  is  none  the  less  real  and  continuous 
in  agriculture,  trade  and  the  industries.  A  pledge  of  even  more  rapid  develop- 
ment in  the  near  future  is  afforded  by  the  spread  of  primary  instruction.  In 
1892  nearly  70,000  children,  mostly  boys,  were  attending  the  schools,  where  both 
Spanish  and  Quichua  are  taught.  There  are  also  nine  schools  for  higher,  and 
thirty-five  for  secondary  education,  besides  three  so-called  "universities,"  founded 
at  Quito,  Guayaquil,  and  Cuenca. 


VIII. 
GOVERNMENT. 

Although  the  republic  of  Ecuidor  is  theoretically  founded  on  the  "  sove- 
reignty "  of  the  people,  the  suffrage  is  far  from  being  universal.  The  privilege 
of  voting  is,  in  fact,  restricted  to  Roman  Catholics,  twenty-one  or,  if  married, 
eighteen  years  of  age,  able  to  read  and  write,  and  possessing  an  income  of  200 
sucres  (about  £40).  The  electors  may  even  be  excluded  from  the  voting-books 
for  misconduct,  of  which  the  administration  is  judge. 


262  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

The  legislative  power  has  been  entrusted  to  a  Congress  of  two  houses — a 
Senate  composed  of  two  members  for  each  province,  elected  for  four  years,  and  a 
Chamber  of  Deputies  elected  for  two  years  on  the  basis  of  one  deputy  for  every 
30,000  inhabitants.  One-half  of  the  Senate  retires  every  two  years. 

Both  president  and  vice-president  are  elected  by  direct  popular  suffrage, 
for  four  years,  but  the  latter  is  nominated  two  years  after  the  president,  so  that 
he  remains  in  office  two  years  after  him,  and  is  thus  a  member  of  two  suc- 
cessive administrations.  During  his  term  of  office  the  president  is  aided  by  a 
ministry  of  four  members  charged  with  the  conduct  of  home  and  foreign  affairs, 
finance,  war,  religion  and  public  instruction.  A  council  of  state,  nominated  for 
six  years,  and  composed  of  a  Church  dignitary,  a  judge  of  the  High  Court,  and 
three  others,  controls  the  acts  of  the  president,  and,  in  case  of  divergent  views, 
may  submit  the  points  at  issue  to  the  verdict  of  Congress. 

The  president  appoints  the  generals  and  colonels,  but  only  on  the  advice  of 
the  state  council  and  after  the  sanction  of  Congress.  He  also  chooses  the  judges 
of  the  higher  courts  from  a  list  of  three  candidates  presented  by  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Justice.  This  "tribunal  consists  in  its  turn  of  judges  named  by  Con- 
gress for  ten  years  and  re-eligible.  Their  power  is  thus  less  exposed  to  political 
vicissitudes  than  that  of  any  other  functionaries. 


POSITION  OF  THE  CHURCH — FINANCE. 

The  constitution  is  surrounded  by  numerous  guarantees  intended  to  make  it 
immutable,  as  if  everything  did  not  ultimately  depend  upon  the  force  of  public 
opinion.  No  act  can  be  subjected  to  revision  or  repeal  until  it  has  been  enforced 
for  a  period  of  four  years.  On  the  other  hand  all  modifications,  after  being  voted 
by  two-thirds  of  the  national  assembly,  have  the  force  of  law  only  after  the  sanc- 
tion of  a  new  assembly. 

Two  articles  of  the  constitution  are  withdrawn  from  all  possible  revision,  one 
determining  the  republican  form  of  government,  the  other  declaring  Catholicism, 
the  Fe  ("Faith")  in  a  pre-eminent  sense,  to  be  the  state  religion.  In  fact, 
Ecuador,  one  of  the  few  nations  of  modern  origin  with  an  official  cult,  proclaims 
itself  explicitly  "Catholic,  Apostolic,  and  Roman,"  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other 
creeds.  "  The  only  government  which  has  a  really  and  thoroughly  Catholic  char- 
acter is  the  republic  of  Ecuador."  The  secular  arm  is  required  to  "  respect  the 
official  religion,  to  make  it  respected,  to  protect  its  liberty  and  its  right."  On 
assuming  office  both  president  and  vice-president  have  to  take  an  oath,  more  of  a 
religious  than  of  a  political  nature,  either  before  Congress  or  before  the  Supreme 
Court,  thus  worded  :  "  I  swear  by  our  Lord  God  and  on  this  Holy  Gospel  to  loyally 
fulfil  my  charge,  to  protect  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Apostolic  religion,  to  uphold 
the  integrity  and  independence  of  the  State,  to  maintain  and  cause  to-be  maintained 
the  constitution  and  the  laws.  Doing  so,  may  God  be  my  help  and  defence  ;  not 
doing  so,  may  He  and  my  country  call  me  to  account !  " 

Formerly  the  role  of  Ecuador  as  a  Catholic  power  was  even  far  more  explicitly 


ADMINISTRATION    OF    ECUADOR. 


263 


defined.  Moreno,  returned  to  Congress  in  August,  1873,  thus  clearly  expressed 
the  subordination  of  the  State  to  the  Church :  "  Having  the  happiness  of  being 
Catholics,  let  us  be  so  frankly  and  without  reserve,  not  only  in  the  domestic 
circle,  but  also  in  our  political  life,  and  let  us  prove  the  sincerity  of  our  convictions 
and  of  our  profession  of  faith  by  the  public  testimony  of  our  acts.  Let  us  efface 
the  last  traces  of  all  hostility  towards  the  Church." 

The  introduction  of  books,  periodicals,  pamphlets  was  subjected  to  ecclesiastical 
control.  Lastly,  the  whole  republic  was  solemnly  placed  under  the  protection  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  while  the  army  was  divided  into  four  bodies,  those  of  the 


Fig.  102. — POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  OF  ECUADOE. 
Scale  1  ;  10,000,000. 


West  oF  Greenwich 


74' 


Provincial  Capitals. 


•    Cantonal  Capitals. 

250  Miles. 


Son  of  God,  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  of  the  Five  Wounds  and  of  the  Immaculate 
Virgin.  The  subdivisions  also  bore  such  devout  titles  as  "  Guards  of  the  Virgin," 
"Zealots  of  Mary,"  and  the  like. 

In  Ecuador  the  ecclesiastical,  more  important  than  the  civil,  organisation  com- 
prises the  Archbishop  of  Quito  with  the  six  suffragan  bishops  of  Ibarra,  Biobamba, 
Cuenca,  Loja,  Guayaquil,  and  Puerto  Vie  jo.  The  dioceses  are  subdivided  into 
vicariates,  and  these  into  parishes,  nearly  all  of  which  coincide  with  the  civil  com- 
munes. The  ecclesiastical  budget  averages  from  £160,000  to  £200,000  a  year,  a 
prodigious  sum  for  such  a  pcor  country.  Moreover,  the  male  and  female  religious 
orders,  nearly  all  of  which  are  represented  in  Ecuador,  enjoy  great  power,  and 


264  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

nearly  monopolise  public  instruction.  Thus  the  Christian  Brothers  have  charge 
of  the  primary  schools,  and  all  the  "  young  ladies'  academies  "  are  directed  by 
nuns,  while  the  Jesuits  administer  the  four  high  schools  of  Quito,  Guayaquil, 
Riobamba  and  Cuenca. 

The  Indians  of  the  eastern  province  have  been  placed  under  the  care  of  the 
Jesuits,  Franciscans  and  Friars  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  each  order  having  its  own 
district,  within  which  its  jurisdiction  remains  undisputed.  Nearly  all  the  traders 
have  been  expelled  from  this  territory,  the  missionaries  undertaking  all  the 
barter  traffic  with  the  natives.  Even  many  travellers  are  politely  "  boycotted," 
the  Indians  in  obedience  to  orders  declining  to  have  any  dealings  with  them. 
When  strangers  are  admitted,  the  priest  or  magistrate  appoints  a  certain  number 
of  Indians  to  carry  their  baggage,  the  stages  being  always  arranged  beforehand. 
Relays  or  porters  are  arranged  for  this  service  between  the  cold  and  hot  zones. 

About  three-fourths  of  the  revenue  is  raised  from  customs,  the  rest  being 
derived  from  a  tax  of  a  thousandth  on  the  sale  of  real  estate  and  the  transfer  of 
capital,  from  the  post  office,  sale  of  stamps,  the  brandy  and  salt  monopolies,  and 
the  income  of  the  national  domain.  A  special  tax  has  now  replaced  the  tithes, 
which  were  formerly  paid  directly  to  the  clergy. 

The  Government  mints  no  money,  silver  specie  and  bullion  being  all  imported 
from  abroad.  The  municipal  rates,  averaging  about  £40,000,  constitute  a  special 
budget  in  the  several  towns,  and  the  chief  expenditure,  as  in  most  other  countries, 
is  applied  to  the  maintenance  of  the  land  and  sea  forces.  The  former  comprise  an 
effective  of  3,000  infantry,  cavalry  and  artillery  ;  the  latter  includes  five  steam- 
ships of  various  sizes,  a  transport,  a  gunboat  and  a  cruiser. 

The  administrative  divisions,  with  their  approximate  areas  and  populations, 
are  tabulated  in  the  Appendix. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  GALAPAGOS  ARCHIPELAGO. 

JHE  Galapagos  ("  Turtle  ")  Islands,  which  form  a  little  world  apart 
far  from  the  South  American  seaboard,  belong  politically  to  Ecua- 
dor, heir  of  the  administrative  province  of  Quito.  Despite  its 
distance  from  the  coast,  this  group  was  probably  known  to  the 
Quichuas.  According  to  a  Peruvian  legend  preserved  by  the 
Spanish  chroniclers,  a  certain  Tupac-Inca-Yupangui  discovered  in  these  waters 
the  two  islands  of  Hahua-Chumbi  and  Nina-Chumbi,  meaning  in  Quichua 
"  Seaward  Island  "  and  "  Fire  Island/'  Possibly  some  shower  of  volcanic  ashes? 
or  the  flight  of  some  strange  birds,  borne  by  a  westerly  gale  to  the  shores  of 
Peru,  may  have  revealed  to  the  Incas  the  existence  of  these  western  lands  and 
induced  them  to  send  a  fleet  of  rafts  in  their  quest. 

But  the  Peruvian  legends  were  too  vague  to  direct  the  Spaniards  to  the 
re-discovery  of  the  group,  to  which  their  vessels  were  carried  by  a  marine  current. 
In  1535  Tomas  de  Berlanga,  Bishop  of  Castille  d'Or,  on  his  voyage  from  Panama 
to  Peru  to  report  on  the  conduct  of  Pizarro,  fell  in  with  the  archipelago,  and 
even  determined  its  exact  latitude  south  of  the  equator.  It  was  again  visited 
in  1546,  by  the  deserter,  Rivadeneira,  but  was  left  unnamed  by  both  of  these 
discoverers. 

At  first  the  group  was  vaguely  designated  the  Idas  Encantadas  ("  Enchanted 
Islands  "),  doubtless  because  of  their  ill-defined  position,  constantly  eluding  the 
Spanish  pilots.  Lying  far  from,  the  chief  maritime  routes,  destitute  of  mineral 
treasures,  and  offering  no  attractions  except  their  forests,  their  birds,  fishes  and 
turtles,  these  islands  remained  uninhabited  till  the  arrival  of  the  buccaneers, 
who  used  them  as  a  rallying  point  for  their  attacks  on  the  Spanish  main,  and  also 
for  repairing  their  ships  and  distributing  their  plunder. 

During  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  trading- vessels  carefully 
avoided  this  nest  of  corsairs.  Later  the  whalers  utilised  them  as  a  victualling 
station  for  their  fleets ;  but  the  first  official  survey  was  that  of  Alonso  de  Torres, 


266 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


despatched  for  the  purpose  by  the  Viceroy  of  Peru  in  1793.  Even  this  summary 
exploration  was  followed  by  no  attempt  at  colonisation,  and  during  the  War  of 
Independence,  Argentine  pirates  were  able  to  establish  themselves  in  the  archi- 
pela»o  to  mask  their  operations  against  the  Spanish  navy. 

The  republic  of  Ecuador  delayed  occupation  of  the  islands  till  1832,  since  which 
time  they  have  been  visited  by  few  men  of  science ;  one  of  whom,  however,  was 


Fig.  103.— GALAPAGOS  AECHIPELAOO. 

Scale  1  :  3,600,000. 


West  op  Greenwich  90* 


62  Miles. 


Charles  Darwin,  who  explored  the  group  in  1836.      Thanks  to  his  researches,  the 
Galapagos  have  acquired  a  definite  and  important  place  in  biological  studies. 

The  fifteen  islands  and  forty  islets  and  reefs  comprising  the  group  have 
frequently  changed  name,  nor  is  it  possible  to  identify  all  of  the  designations 
adopted  by  Torres  and  the  various  navigators  since  the  sixteenth  century.  To 
these,  others  have  recently  been  added  by  the  Ecuadorean  Government ;  never- 
theless, most  even  of  the  Spanish  maps  have  retained  the  English  names  entered 
during  the  last  half-century  on  the  official  charts  of  the  British  Admiralty. 


THE  GALAPAGOS  ARCHIPELAGO.  267 

Subjoined  is  a  table  of  the  various  islands,  arranged  in  order  of  size,  and  with 
their  respective  English  and  Spanish  names. 

Albemarle ;  Isabella.  Bindloe  ;  Marchena  ;  Torres. 

Indefatigable  ;  Infatiguable ;  Tierra  de  Valdez  ;  Abingdon  ;  Pinta  ;  Geraldino. 

Duke  of  Norfolk  ;  Santa  Cruz  ;  Santiago.  Tower ;  Genovesa. 

Narborough  ;  Fernandina.  Culpeper  ;  Jervis ;  Rabida  ;  Guerra. 

James  ;  Santiago  ;  San  Salvador ;  Tierra  de  Gil.  Wenman ;  Nunez  ;  Gasna. 

Chatham  ;  Grande  ;  San  Cristobal.  Harrington  ;  Santa  Fe. 

Charles  ;  Mascarin  ;  Floreana  ;  Santa  Maria.  Duncan  ;  Pinzon. 

Hood  ;  Espanola.  Islote  Redondo  ;  Roca  Redonda. 

The  archipelago  has  a  collective  area  of  3,000  square  miles,  with  a  settled 
population  (1892)  of  232,  concentrated  in  Chatham  Island. 

From  the  easternmost  reef  of  the  archipelago  to  the  coast  of  Ecuador  the 
total  distance  is  574  miles,  and  the  mean  oceanic  depth  exceeds  1,250  fathoms, 
the  greatest  cavity  revealed  by  the  soundings  of  the  Albatross  being  1,675  fathoms 
deep.  The  islands  are  disposed  in  two  groups,  each  resting  on  a  pedestal  of 
1,000  fathoms.  The  isobathmic  curve  of  1,500  fathoms  is  developed  along  a 
submarine  bank,  which  is  prolonged  north-eastwards  under  Cocos  Island,  tapering 
thence  to  a  point  turned  towards  the  Azuero  peninsula  in  the  region  of  the 
isthmuses.  Hence,  if  they  are  to  be  regarded  as  a  geological  dependency  of  the 
New  World,  the  Galapagos  Islands  must  be  attached,  not  to  South  but  to  Central 
America,  although  still  separated  even  from  this  region  by  depths  of  1,500 
fathoms. 

VOLCAMC  FORMATION, 

But  whatever  be  the  origin  of  these  oceanic  lands,  whether  upheaved  from 
the  abysses  of  the  ocean  or  the  remains  of  some  vanished  continent,  they  have 
certainly  been  isolated  from  the  rest  of  dry  land  since  remote  geological  times. 
All  are  entirely  composed  of  volcanic  rocks,  presenting  little  beyond  molten  lavas, 
obsidians,  dolerites,  basalts  and  other  erupted  matter  of  various  ages.  In  the 
gorges  of  the  volcanoes  there,  no  doubt,  occur  here  and  there  a,  few  fragments  of 
vitrified  granite,  but  these  were  evidently  torn  from  the  marine  bed  and  thrust 
upwards  during  the  eruptions. 

To  judge  from  the  disposition  of  the  groups,  the  sea-bed  would  appear  to  have 
been  rent  by  two  systems  of  fractures  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles.  The 
most  numerous  fissures  run  in  the  direction  from  south-east  to  north-west,  parallel 
with  the  submarine  plateau  dominated  by  Cocos  Island,  and  in  a  line  with  the 
igneous  chains  of  Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua  in  Central  America.  This  system  is 
intersected  by  the  second,  which  is  disposed  north-east  and  south-west  parallel 
with  the  Eastern  Cordillera  of  the  Colombian  Andes. 

The  large  island  of  Albemarle  consists  of  volcanic  ridges  belonging  to  both 
systems,  the  larger  section  rising  parallel  with  Central  America  at  right  angles 
with  the  two  smaller  chains  in  the  extreme  north  and  south.  A  general  upheaval 
of  the  archipelago  would  give  a  length  of  300  miles  to  an  elongated  island  trending 
south-east  and  north-west  from  Hood  to  Culpeper. 

All  volcanic  life  has  ceased  everywhere,  except  in  the  two  western  islands  of 


268 


SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


Albemarle  and  Narborough.  In  1735  Admiral  Byron  saw  flames  shooting  up  from 
a  cone  in  Albemarle,  and  in  1814  and  1825  other  English  observers  witnessed 
eruptions  in  Narborough,  where  the  volcanoes  reach  the  greatest  height,  and 
where  the  red  lavas  best  preserve  the  appearance  of  molten  metal.  All  the 
summits,  which  vary  in  altitude  from  1,600  to  3,300  and  even  3,700  feet,  had 


Fig.  104. — VOLCANIC  GSOUP  OF  ALBEMARLE  ISLAND. 
Scale  1  :  1,200,000. 


9I°40' 


West  or  Greenwich  91' 


18  Miles. 


terminal  craters,  some  obliterated,  some  still  open  and  pierced  with  vents,  from 
which  were  formerly  ejected  lavas  or  vapours.  Besides  these  terminal  vents,  nume- 
rous openings  occur  on  the  lateral  cones  and  even  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains. 
In  the  whole  archipelago  the  still  plainly  visible  craters  are  estimated  at  over 
two  thousand. 


THE  GALAPAGOS  AKCHiPELAGO.  269 

CLIMATE. 

Although  traversed  by  the  equator,  the  Galapagos  lie  entirely  within  the 
climatic  zone  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  for  the  south-east  wind  prevails  regu- 
larly, bearing  its  rains  and  its  vapours  to  the  upper  slopes  of  the  volcanoes.  The 
archipelago  is  also  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  southern  marine  currents. 
After  passing  Cape  Blanca,  Humboldt's  stream  would  seem  to  ramify  into  two 
branches,  one  of  which  continues  its  northerly  course,  while  the  other  sets  north- 
west and  west  in  the  direction  of  the  Galapagos.  In  these  latitudes  both  currents 
have  a  normal  temperature  of  about  73°  Fahr.,  or  5°  less  than  in  the  inter- 
mediate space.  In  the  archipelago  this  temperature  is  further  diminished  by 
another  current  coming  directly  from  the  south  ;  west  of  Albemarle  and  Nar- 
borough,  Wolf  recorded  only  70°  Fahr.,  while  Fitzroy  found  places  in  the 
neighbouring  seas  as  low  as  60°  Fahr. 

In  the  straits  between  the  islands  the  currents  move  in  some  places  north- 
westwards with  a  velocity  of  over  two  miles  an  hour.  Thanks  to  the  coolness  of 
these  currents,  the  archipelago  enjoys  a  far  more  temperate  climate  than  the 
section  of  the  continental  seaboard  under  the  same  latitude,  The  mean  tempera- 
ture scarcely  exceeds  70°  Fahr.  at  sea-level,  although  in  some  of  the  islands 
sheltered  from  the  trade  winds  it  may  at  times  rise  to  86°,  and  even  95°  during 
the  heat  of  the  day.  Speaking  generally,  the  Galapagos  may  be  said  to  have  the 
same  climate  as  they  would  have  if  removed  some  1,200  miles  from  the  equator. 

The  effects  of  this  climate  may  be  distinctly  read  on  the  mountain  slopes. 
Geologists  may  doubtless  recognise  the  different  ages  of  the  erupted  rocks.  But 
the  chief  contrasts  are  due,  not  to  the  nature  or  to  the  age  of  the  igneous 
formations,  but  to  altitude  and  the  vertical  disposition  of  the  climates.  Up  to  a 
height  of  650  feet  the  bare  rocks  unexposed  to  any  rainfall  preserve  their 
primitive  aspect.  They  have  their  crests,  their  protuberances,  their  cavities  caused 
by  the  explosion  of  gases,  just  as  when  they  were  first  upheaved  from  the  marine 
depths.  But  on  the  higher  slopes  and  summits  the  rocky  surfaces  have  betn 
modified  in  accordance  with  the  greater  or  less  abundance  of  the  rain  waters 
brought  by  the  trade  winds.  These  rains  have  dissolved  some  of  the  chemical 
substances  contained  in  the  rocks,  and  disintegrated  the  rest,  transforming  the 
surface  of  the  rugged  lavas  to  a  layer  of  red  clay.  The  jagged  heights  and 
crests  have  been  rounded  off,  and  the  whole  covered  with  a  dense  vegetation. 

On  all  the  upper  slopes,  where  the  rocks  are  seen  from  a  distance  cropping 
out  amid  the  surrounding  verdure,  the  erupted  matter  is  of  too  recent  origin  to 
be  yet  clothed  with  forest  growths.  At  an  average  height  of  from  650  to 
about  800  feet  the  vegetation  begins  to  girdle  the  mountain  slopes,  which  are 
black  or  red  at  their  base,  and  on  their  summits  clad  with  a  mantle  of  green. 
The  cactuses  and  lichens,  with  here  and  there  a  few  scrubby  bushes,  appearing  in 
the  fissures  of  the  lower  rocks,  are  replaced  higher  up  by  a  narrow  belt  of  thinly 
scattered  trees,  their  branches  draped  with  the  "  Spanish  beard  "  and  other  para- 
sitic growths.  Then  follow  almost  abruptly  the  dense  leafy  woodlands,  the  vege- 
tation thus  everywhere  increasing  in  exuberance  with  the  abundance  of  moisture. 


270  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

The  lower  zone  formed  by  the  fringe  of  thickets  is  disposed  obliquely  to  the  sea- 
level,  descending  lower  on  the  south-east  slopes  exposed  to  the  moist  trade  winds. 
The  rain  water  which  feeds  the  arborescent  vegetation  develops  scarcely  any 
springs  and  but  few  rivulets.  Issuing  slowly  from  the  upper  clays,  the  brooks 
nearly  everywhere  disappear  in  the  porous  lavas  of  the  lower  slopes.  For  the  same 
reason  these  islands  are  destitute  of  guano,  although  the  headlands  are  the  resort 
of  multitudes  of  birds.  The  salts,  dissolved  by  infiltration,  disappear  in  the  ground. 

FLORA  AND  FAUNA. 

Despite  its  distance  from  the  continental  seaboard,  the  insular  flora  presents 
an  essentially  American  character.  The  species,  however,  are  generally  distin- 
guished by  their  smaller  foliage  and  less  brilliant  flowers ;  there  is  also  an 
absence  of  lianas,  while  orchids  and  other  epiphytes  are  rare,  and  in  some  islands 
nothing  is  seen  but  cactuses.  The  forests  are  not  bound  together  in  a  compact 
mass  of  verdure  by  the  coils  of  trailing  plants,  like  the  tropical  woodlands  of  the 
New  World.  Palms,  musacea3,  araceas  are  all  absent,  and  it  would  almost  seem 
as  if,  by  some  strange  phenomenon,  the  flora  of  the  lofty  equatorial  Andes,  as 
seen  at  an  altitude  of  10,000  feet  on  the  flanks  of  Pichiucha,  had  been  bodily 
transported  to  the  Galapagos  volcanoes,  only  1,000  feet  above  sea-level.  On  the 
highest  summits  round  the  edge  of  the  craters  are  seen  herbaceous  growths 
like  those  of  the  paramos  on  the  elevated  Andean  plateaux. 

In  the  insular  fauna,  studied  by  Darwin,  the  great  naturalist  found  numerous 
arguments  in  favour  of  the  evolutionary  doctrine  which  he  afterwards  formulated 
in  his  Origin  of  Species.  Few  oceanic  archipelagoes  constitute  a  more  distinct 
biological  world  in  the  original  form  of  its  plants  and  animals.  The  species,  how- 
ever, are  not  numerous  compared  with  those  of  tropical  regions  lying  under  the 
same  latitude,  although  during  the  historic  period  increased  by  new  types  intro- 
duced from  the  Old  and  New  Worlds. 

The  primitive  mammalian  fauna  is  represented  by  a  single  variety  of  the 
mouse,  and  even  this  was  met  by  Darwin  only  in  Chatham,  easternmost  member  of 
the  archipelago.  He,  however,  determined  the  presence  of  twenty- six  species  of 
land  birds,  all  peculiar  to  the  Galapagos  except  a  sparrow  resembling  the  North 
American  lark.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  forms  is  a  bird  of  prey,  already 
described  in  1546  by  Bivadeneira  under  the  name  of  hermoso  girifalte,  "  beautiful 
gerfalcon"  (craxirex  galapagoen&is),  which  destroyed  multitudes  of  young  turtles. 

Since  Darwin's  voyage  the  naturalist  Habel,  who  lived  six  months  in  the 
archipelago  with  the  orchilla  collectors,  has  doubled  the  number  of  known  birds. 
The  avifauna  at  present  comprises  fifty- eight  peculiar  species,  including  one 
discovered  by  Markham,  and  several  islands,  such  as  Albemarle,  Hood,  Tower, 
Wenman,  and  Culpeper,  still  remain  to  be  explored.  Amongst  the  different 
bird-forms  several  closely  resemble  each  other,  and  according  to  a  hypothesis  of 
Darwin  these  descend  from  a  single  species,  branching  off  in  various  direc- 
tions during  the  course  of  ages.  At  the  arrival  of  the  first  navigators  these 


THE  GALAPAGOS  ARCHIPELAGO. 


271 


birds  had  not  yet  learned  to  escape  by  flight  and  could  often  be  taken  by  the 
htmd. 

The  aquatic  species,  gulls,  stormy  petrels,  and  two  or  three  others,  belong 
exclusively  to  the  Galapagos  fauna,  but  are  nearly  all  distinguished  from  their 
congeners  of  the  opposite  seaboard  by  their  smaller  size  and  duller  plumage ;  in 
the  latter  respect  they  resemble  the  corresponding  Patagonian  forms. 

Of  all  animal-forms  the  turtles  were  formerly  most  numerously  represented, 

Fig.  105. — SCENERY  IN  INDEFATIGABLE  ISLAND,  GALAPAGOS  ARCHIPELAGO. 


as  indicated  by  the  very  name  of  the  archipelago.  When  the  first  navigators 
landed  they  found  turtles  everywhere,  in  the  arid  coast  districts  as  well  as  in  the 
.dank  thickets  of  the  hills  and  plateaux.  All  the  beaten  tracks  crossing  the 
brushwood  had  been  traced  nearly  in  a  straight  line  by  these  animals  moving  to 
and  fro  between  their  feeding-grounds  and  drinking-places  in  the  upper  glens. 
Some  weighed  several  hundredweights,  and  it  took  six  or  eight  men  to  turn  them 


272 


SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  KEGIONS. 


over  ;  they  swarmed  in  such  multitudes  that  the  crews  of  passing  vessels  occasion- 
ally captured  hundreds  in  a  single  hunt. 

But  this  source  of  wealth  is  now  lost  to  the  Galapagos  ;  the  land  tortoises 
have  become  everywhere  rare  except  in  Albemarle,  and  have  disappeared  alto- 
gether from  Chatham.  The  otters,  or  "  sea  lions,"  formerly  abounding  in  the 
surrounding  waters,  have  also  vanished;  but  this  region  of  the  Pacific  is  still 
frequented  by  the  whale,  and  sea  turtles  are  also  still  very  numerous  in  some 
places.  In  the  waters  of  the  archipelago  is  found  a  curious  reptile,  highly  inte- 
resting to  geologists,  a  marine  lizard  (amblyrhyncus  crustatus),  the  last  surviving 
species  of  a  genus  widely  diffused  in  mesozoic  times.  In  the  interior  of  the 
islands  various  domestic  animals — ox,  ass,  pig,  sheep,  goat,  cat,  and  poultry — 

Fig.  106.  — CHATHAM  ISLAND. 
Scale  1  :  60U.UUO. 


Depths. 


Oto50 
Fathoms. 


50  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


12  Miles. 


have  reverted  to  the  wild  state,  and  an  official  report  estimates  at  25,000  the 
horned  cattle  at  present  roaming  the  archipelago.  Some  cultivated  plants,  also, 
such  as  the  cotton  shrub,  tobacco,  fig,  orange,  and  chirimoya,  now  grow  sponta- 
neously in  the  woodlands. 

It  seems  surprising  that  the  Galapagos,  with  their  elevated  terraces,  rich  in 
pastures  and  easily  cultivated,  should  have  hitherto  remained  almost  valueless 
from  the  economic  standpoint.  Although  they  might  become  as  productive  as 
the  Hawaiian  group,  till  recently  they  yielded  nothing  to  the  trade  of  the  world 
except  a  few  bales  of  orchilla  weed,  collected  on  the  trees  and  shrubs  of  Albe- 
marle. 

A  first  attempt  at  colonisation  was  made  by  the  Ecuador  Government  in  1832, 
soon  after  it  had  acquired  possession  of  the  group  ;  but  the  undertaking  ended  in 


THE  GALAPAGOS  ARCHIPELAGO. 


273 


failure.  General  Villamil,  originally  of  Louisiana,  formed  a  settlement  of  from 
300  to  400  colonists  in  Charles  Island,  which  he  re-named  Floreana.  But  the 
settlers  soon  found  themselves  without  present  resources  or  future  prospects,  and 
took  the  first  opportunity  to  return  to  the  mainland.  No  better  success  attended 
a  second  attempt  made  by  Ecuador  to  utilise  the  same  island  as  a  penitentiary 
station  and  convict  settlement.  The  enterprise  had  to  be  abandoned,  owing 
partly  to  the  expense  of  maintaining  order  amongst  the  convicts,  partly  to  the 
difficulty  of  keeping  up  communications  with  the  mainland.  Hence  Chatham 
Island,  which  has  the  advantage  of  lying  nearest  to  Ecuador,  and  which  is  owned 
by  a  single  proprietor,  still  remains  the  only  member  of  the  Galapagos  Archipelago 
that  has  yet  received  any  permanent  colonists.  Most  of  them  reside  at  the  little 
settlement  of  Wreck  Bay  (Puerto  Chico),  which,  although  swarming  with  sharks, 
is  accessible  to  small  vessels  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 


19 


CHAPTER  VII. 


PERU. 
I. 

GENERAL  SURVEY.  • 

IRU  or  Biru,  famous  land  of  the  Incas,  whose  fame  attracted  from 
afar  the  Andagoyas  and  the  Pizarros,  and  which  from  the  very 
first  year  of  its  discovery  filled  the  world  with  rumours  of  its 
fabulous  wealth,  has  not  maintained  in  history  the  pre-eminence 
which  it  had  so  early  acquired  in  the  popular  imagination.  Its 
mines  are  no  doubt  far  from  exhausted,  and  its  agricultural  resources  rest  undi- 
minished  ;  from  the  headwaters  and  upland  valleys  of  the  Amazons  it  commands 
scores  of  trade  routes  between  the  Pacific  seaboard  and  the  slopes  facing  the 
European  seas. 

Nevertheless,  Peru  has  allowed  herself  to  be  outstripped  by  many  other 
colonies  whose  very  names  long  remained  almost  unknown.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  century  it  was  the  foremost  of  the  Spanish  South  American  viceroyalties  in 
trade  and  population ;  at  present  it  occupies  only  the  fourth  place,  coming  next 
to  Argentina,  Colombia  and  Chili. 

Gold,  which  had  in  such  large  measure  caused  the  decadence  of  the  mother 
country,  was  also  the  bane  of  Peru ;  it  impoverished  the  soil,  degraded  labour 
and  demoralised  man.  The  Peruvian  nation  still  feels  to  the  very  marrow  of  its 
bones  the  evil  effects  of  the  period  during  which  its  rulers  thirsted  after  nothing 
but  gold. 

DISPUTED  FRONTIERS — EXTENT. 

Although  deprived,  in  1883,  after  her  disastrous  war  with  Chili,  of  a  territory 
estimated  at  about  50,000  square  miles,  Peru^  still  remains  one  of  the  large  states 
of  the  New  "World.  Even  within  its  narrowest  limits,  as  determined  by  the 


FRONTIERS— EXTENT  OF  PERU. 


275 


claims  of  the  conterminous  republics,  it  has  an  area  of  at  least  400,000  square 
miles,  between  three  and  four  times  that  of  the  British  Isles.  But  according  to 
Paz  Soldan  it  would  comprise  no  less  than  745,000  square  miles,  if  the  whole 
space  were  included  which  Peru  demands  on  her  own  interpretation  of  the  treaties. 


Fig.  107. — FEONTIEES  OF  PEBU. 
Scale  1  :  21,000,000. 


Present  Peruvian  Ecnadorean  Peruvian  Territory  disputed 

territory.  territory  claimed     territory  claimed         by  Colombia 

by  Peru.  by  Ecuador.  and  Peru. 


Peruvian  province  provisionally        Chilian  Territory  disputed  by 

held  by  Chili  till  1894.  Conquest.  Colombia  and  Brazil. 


3 10  Miles. 


In  the  north  she  claims  the  course  of  all  the  Amazonian  affluents  rising  in 
Ecuador  from  the  head  of  the  navigation  as  indicated  by  the  first  cascades  or 
rapids. 

The  frontier  would  thus  extend  to  that  of  Colombia  north  of  the  Rio  Napo, 


276  SOUTH  AMEHICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

and  would  run  eastwards  along  1°  south  latitude  as  far  as  the  confluence  of  the 
Yapura  and  Apaparis,  in  the  region  of  the  llanos. 

Farther  on,  the  boundary  towards  Brazil  would  reach  the  junction  of  the 
Amazons  with  its  Yavari  tributary  from  the  south.  Here  the  frontier  is  officially 
determined  by  treaty,  and  by  the  commissions  appointed  to  survey  the  ground  in 
1874,  under  Guillermo  Black,  and  Hoonholtz,  acting  respectively  for  Peru  and 
Brazil ;  the  parting-line  coincides  with  the  course  of  the  Yavari  from  its  mouth 
to  the  point  where  it  ceases  to  be  navigable. 

But  farther  on  begin  the  disputed  zones.  Peru  claims,  south  of  7°  south 
latitude,  a  strip  of  territory  extending  for  over  600  miles  eastwards  to  the 
Madeira,  and  following  the  course  of  this  river  up  to  the  Beni  and  its  Madidi 
affluent,  which  form  the  boundary  towards  Bolivia  as  far  as  their  source. 
On  reaching  the  mountains  the  dividing-line  again  becomes  more  definite, 
following  the  crest  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  and  crossing  Lake  Titicaca  in  the 
direction  of  the  Western  Cordillera.  Here  Peru  is  conterminous  with  Chili, 
which,  by  right  of  conquest,  has  dictated  the  common  boundary,  which, 
according  to  the  treaty  of  peace,  coincides  with  the  valley  of  the  Sama  between 
Moquegua  and  Tacna. 

Except  on  the  coastlands,  the  claims  of  the  conterminous  states  are  concerned 
only  with  little-known  or  even  absolutely  unexplored  territories,  inhabited  by  a 
few  unreduced  Indian  tribes.  Apart  from  such  solitudes  on  the  plains  and  on  the 
Amazonian  slopes,  Peru,  properly  so  called,  may  be  said  mainly  to  comprise  only 
those  Andean  regions  which  correspond  with  the  section  of  the  seaboard  extending 
from  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil  to  the  Arica  bend,  middle  point  of  the  west  coast 
of  the  southern  continent.  To  this  should  be  added  the  two  narrow  strips 
formed  by  the  banks  of  the  Huallaga  and  those  of  the  Amazons  as  far  as  Taba- 
tinga.  Thus  denned,  Peru  constitutes  a  section  of  the  Andean  region  presenting 
tolerably  distinct  natural  limits — on  one  side,  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  with  the 
lowest  passes  of  the  Andes  between  the  Pacific  and  the  axis  of  the  Amazons 
valley ;  on  the  other,  at  a  distance  of  some  1,200  miles,  a  second  segmentation 
indicated  by  Lake  Titicaca  and  the  abrupt  change  of  trend  in  the  continental 
shore-line.  The  whole  population,  estimated  at  3,000,000,  is  comprised  within  the 
limits  of  the  vast  quadrilateral. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  EESEARCH. 

During  the  first  years  of  the  Conquest  the  Spaniards  had  already  traversed 
Peru  in  all  directions.  The  two  royal  residences  of  Cajamarca  and  Cuzco  being 
situated  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  land,  the  conquerors  were  unable  to  con- 
solidate their  power  without  frequent  expeditions  across  the  intervening  region. 
Then  after  Lima  had  been  founded  by  Pizarro  as  capital  of  the  Spanish  posses- 
sions, a  constant  movement  of  troops  took  place  between  the  coast  and  the  large 
mining  cities,  and  the  strategical  points  of  the  interior.  Even  certain  valleys 
beyond  the  Andes,  which  are  no  longer  visited,  such  as  the  auriferous  combes  of 


GEOGRAPHICAL  EESEAECH.  277 

the  Carabaya  mountains,  in  the  Inambari  basin,  are  known  only  from  the  descrip- 
tions of  the  early  chroniclers. 

Thanks  to  the  attractions  of  a  country  whose  riches  were  increased  a  hundred- 
fold by  report,  a  great  number  of  adventurers  hastened  to  Lima,  amongst  whom 
were  some  explorers  and  even  historians,  who  have  left  to  posterity  valuable 
descriptions  of  the  land,  of  the  customs,  institutions,  and  social  life  of  its 
inhabitants.  Some  of  the  writers  took  part  in  the  events  of  that  terrible 
epoch,  while  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  the  chief  historian  of  the  generation  that 
followed  the  Conquest,  belonged  at  once  to  both  races — Spanish  on  his  father's 
side,  Peruvian  on  his  mother's,  and  grandson  of  an  Inca. 

After  the  conquerors  came  the  missionaries,  who  crossed  the  plateaux  to 
evangelise  the  tribes  of  the  Amazonian  slope,  and  gather  them  into  the  fold 
round  about  the  parochial  churches.  These  men  made  important  geographical 
discoveries  ;  Simon  Jara,  amongst  others,  penetrated  into  those  magnificent  plains 
known  as  the  Pampa  del  Sacramento,  which  form  the  "  Mesopotamia  "  between 
the  Bios  Huallaga  and  Ucayali. 

But  the  work  of  the  missionaries  was  not  lasting ;  the  groups  that  they  had 
brought  together  died  away ;  the  roads  traced  through  the  woodlands  were 
obliterated  ;  solitude  spread  over  those  regions,  which  have  to  be  again  discovered, 
and  which  are  now  far  less  thickly  peopled  than  at  that  time. 

But  many  geographical  points  have  been  scientifically  determined,  and  these 
are  being  connected  by  the  continually  contracting  meshes  of  a  network  of 
itineraries.  Since  the  War  of  Independence,  Peru  has  been  freely  thrown  open 
and  traversed  by  numerous  men  of  science,  several  of  whom  have  left  their  mark 
in  the  records  of  systematic  exploration.  Such  are  Pentland,  Meyen,  Poeppig, 
Grandidier,  Tschudi,  Squier,  Jimenez  de  la  Espada,  Markham,  who  have  published 
remarkable  descriptions  of  the  interior ;  Fitzroy,  Darwin,  and  recently  Gormaz, 
who  have  surveyed  the  seaboard;  D'Orbigny,  De  Castelnau,  Marcoy,  Herndon, 
Gibbon,  Chandless,  explorers  of  the  trans- Andean  watercourses  ;  Tucker,  Black, 
Werthemann,  Guillaume,  Marcel  Monnier,  surveyors  more  especially  of  the  routes 
between  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  slopes  ;  Bivero,  Angrand,  Wiener,  Beiss  and 
Stiibel,  whose  studies  have  been  mainly  directed  to  the  old  populations,  their 
monuments  and  industries. 

For  geography,  in  the  stricter  sense,  the  brothers  Paz  Soldan  rank  amongst 
the  foremost  writers  and  most  useful  cartographers,  while  Antonio  Baimondi  may 
be  said  to  have  been  for  Peru  what  his  fellow-countryman,  Codazzi,  has  been 
for  Venezuela  and  Colombia.  H-is  great  work  on  Peru,  with  the  accompanying 
atlas  of  thirty- four  sheets,  is  being  continued  under  the  direction  of  the  Lima 
Geographical  Society.  Various  "  Andean  Clubs  "  are  also  co-operating  in  the 
work  of  Peruvian  exploration,  while  special  commissions  have  been  appointed  to 
study  the  hydrography,  the  agricultural  and  commercial  resources  of  all  the 
valleys  of  the  Amazonian  slope. 


278  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  KEGIONS. 

II. 

PHYSICAL  FEATURES — OROGRAPHIC  NOMENCLATURE. 

In  ordinary  language,  the  terms  "  Andes  "  and  "  Cordillera  "  are  used  indif- 
ferently for  the  whole  mountain  system  which  forms  the  backbone  of  South 
America ;  all  the  ranges  are  even  collectively  comprised  under  the  general 
designation  of  "  Cordillera  of  the  Andes."  But  in  the  special  geography  of 
Peru  the  word  "Andes"  is  applied  to  a  particular  range  quite  distinct  from 
the  other  cordilleras.  It  is  employed,  in  fact,  in  its  original  Quichua  sense,  to 
designate  the  mountains  of  the  Quichua  country,  that  is  to  say,  of  Ecuador, 
Peru  and  Bolivia,  by  which  the  border  plateau  of  South  America  is  bounded  on 
the  east  side. 

But  whatever  be  the  origin  of  the  word  itself,  whether  derived  from  the  Antis» 
people  of  the  eastern  slopes,  or  a  shortened  form  of  Antasuya,  "  Metal "  or 
"  Copper  "  Mountain,  the  Andes,  properly  so  called,  constitute  the  eastern  escarp- 
ment of  the  great  plateau  between  the  Pasto  group  in  south  Colombia  and  that  of 
Cochabamba  in  south  Bolivia.  To  the  western  or  coast  range  is  more  especially 
applied  the  term  "  Cordillera  "  ;  that  is,  the  long  "  cord  "  skirting  the  continent 
from  north  to  south,  as  viewed  by  the  Spaniards  arriving  from  the  sea.  All  the 
other  ridges  of  the  orographic  system  are  also  so  many  "  cordilleras,"  to  which 
are  given  special  names  according  to  the  regions  which  they  dominate,  or  the 
cities  rising  in  the  valleys  or  on  their  flanks. 

The  Peruvian  Andes  begin  with  the  single  range  of  Loja  in  south  Ecuador, 
which  soon  after  entering  Peruvian  territory  breaks  into  numerous  ridges 
running  parallel  with  the  coast,  and  disposed  somewhat  uniformly,  so  as  to  form 
between  the  Pacific  and  the  Amazons  a  series  of  natural  regions,  all  trending 
north-west  and  south-east.  The  Cuesta,  or  coast  zone,  which  rises  gradually 
towards  the  foot  of  the  Cordillera,  also  presents  a  number  of  distinct  ridges,  for 
the  most  part  disposed  in  the  same  direction  as  the  main  range,  though  not 
usually  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  Sierra,  that  is,  to  the  orographic  system 
taken  as  a  whole. 

This  word  Sierra  is  not  applied  to  any  particular  cordillera,  although  it  may 
embrace  several.  Thus  it  indicates  the  region  between  the  altitudes  of  5,000  and 
11,500  feet,  which  corresponds  to  the  temperate  lands  of  Mexico  and  Colombia, 
and  in  which  the  white  race  thrives  best  in  a  cultivated  environment  like  that  of 
Europe.  Above  the  Sierra,  the  cold,  but  still  cultivable  regions  between  11,500 
and  13,800  or  even  14,800  feet,  take  the  name  of  Puna,  a  term  synonymous 
with  the  Colombian  paramo.  It  forms  a  narrow  zone  of  terraces  and  passes 
exposed  to  gales  and  snowstorms,  where  the  shepherd  tending  his  flocks  and 
the  traveller  crossing  the  mountains  have  to  struggle  hard  to  preserve  the  vital 
heat. 

Still  higher  up  the  rugged  cliffs,  the  snow-clad  slopes  and  isolated  crags,  which 
till  recently  no  Alpine  climber  ventured  to  scale,  are  comprised  under  the  general 


THE  PERUVIAN  COEDILLEEAS.  279 

appellation  of  cordillera,  which,  as  so  used,  is  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
the  "Western  Cordillera,  or  coast  range. 

Beyond  all  these  parallel  ranges  the  little-known  eastern  slope  of  the  high- 
lands disappears  under  the  vast  forests  which  merge  in  the  Amazonian  wood- 
lands. The  whole  of  this  eastern  section  of  Peru  constitutes  the  so-called 
Montana,  whether  it  be  "mountainous"  or  not,  a  region  of  great  fertility,  abounding 
in  the  most  diverse  natural  products. 


THE  NORTHERN  CORDILLERAS. 

In  the  northern  parts  of  Peru  the  mountains  are  of  relatively  low  elevation, 
and  of  somewhat  irregular  form.  In  these  regions  the  axis  of  the  Andean  system 
might  seem  to  be  indicated,  less  by  any  particular  chain  of  heights,  than  by  the 
deep  valley  of  the  upper  Maranon,  regarded  as  the  main  headstream  of  the 
Amazons.  This  axis  is  continued  northwards  by  the  Rio  Chinchipe,  which 
descends  from  the  Loja  uplands  and  flows  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the 
Maranon.  Below  their  confluence  the  united  waters,  trending  round  to  the  east, 
pierce  the  easternmost  chain  of  the  Andes.  Another  crest,  forming  a  southern 
extension  of  the  Loja  mountains,  skirts  the  west  side  of  the  upper  Maranon 
valley,  beyond  which  it  merges,  south  of  the  Cajamarca  basin,  in  another  cordil- 
lera  rising  immediately  above  the  coastlands.  Several  summits  in  these  various 
ranges  exceed  10,000  feet. 

But  as  they  advance  southwards  the  two  mountain  barriers  rising  between 
the  upper  Maraiion  and  the  Pacific  attain  in  some  of  their  precipitous  spurs 
heights  of  20,000  feet  and  upwards.  The  loftiest  summits  occur  in  the  Ancachs 
section,  although  their  names  are  still  but  little  known.  Such  are  the  Cerro 
Huandoy  above  Caraz,  the  double-peaked  Cerro  de  Huascan,  and  the  Cerro  de 
Hualcan.  As  measured  by  Hindle,  the  loftiest  peak  of  Huascan  (22,080  feet) 
overtops  Chimborazo  by  about  1,350  feet. 

On  these  uplands  the  lower  limit  of  persistent  snows  descends  lower  than  on 
any  of  the  other  Peruvian  cordilleras.  On  the  Yangunaco  Pass,  above  Yungay, 
the  snowy  zone  begins  at  15,750  feet,  whereas  on  the  other  Peruvian  mountains, 
even  those  farthest  removed  from  the  equator,  it  scarcely  reaches  down  to 
16,500  feet.  Usually  the  snowfields  of  the  eastern  slopes,  exposed  to  the  moist 
trade  winds,  are  more  extensive  than  on  the  relatively  drier  west  side.  Here  the 
tepid  sei  breezes  are  intercepted  by  the  lofty  parallel  ridge  of  the  Cordillera 
Negra,  which  extends  like  a  screen  along  the  seaboard,  and  thus  prevents  the 
snows  of  the  great  Cordillera  from  melting. 

The  Cordillera  Negra  ("  Black  Range  ")  has  no  passes  lower  than  13,800  feet, 
while  some  of  its  peaks  exceed  16,500  feet,  that  is,  rise  above  the  snow-line  of  the 
greater  Sierra.  Nevertheless,  the  range  still  remains  "  black,"  being  deprived 
of  snow  by  the  influence  of  the  hot  winds  ascending  from  the  coast  to  their  sum- 
mits. But  the  ravines  in  both  ranges  show  traces  of  extensive  glaciers,  the 
remains  of  whose  moraines  are  still  visible. 


280 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


The  deep  valley  separating  the  Cordillera  Negra  from  the  Cordillera  Nevada 
is  commonly  known  as  the  Callejon  ("  Road,"  "  Path  ")  of  Huaylas.  It  consists, 
in  fact,  of  a  long  gulley  between  two  chains  which  seem  quite  distinct,  but  which 
were  formerly  united  in  a  single  rampart.  At  the  source  of  the  Rio  de  Santa, 


Fig.  108. — DRAINAGE  ABBA  OF  HUAYLAS. 
Scale  1  :  1,500,000. 


West  of  Greenwich 


77'20' 


30  Miles. 


where  they  have  their  common  origin,  it  is  easy  to  observe  the  cohesion  at  one 
time  presented  by  both  geological  formations,  which  became  gradually  separated 
by  the  action  of  the  snows,  ice  and  running  waters.  The  whole  valley  has  been 
excavated  step  by  step,  forming  at  first  a  series  of  lakes  connected  by  a  river 


THE  PERUVIAN  CORDILLERAS.  281 

flowing  from  one  to  another.  Then  the  sills  between  each  basin  were  slowly 
eroded  by  the  stream  till  all  the  intervening  rising  grounds  were  levelled. 
Nevertheless,  the  observer  may  still  recognise  the  several  terraces  of  the  old 
lakes,  now  transformed  to  verdant  basins. 


THE  CENTRAL  CORDILLERAS. 

South  of  the  source  of  the  Maraiion  all  the  converging  chains,  connected  by 
lofty  intermediate  ridges,  form  the  knot  or  group  of  the  Cerro  de  Pasco,  so  named 
from  the  neighbouring  city.  Nevertheless,  the  two  main  ranges,  Andes  and 
Cordillera,  may  still  be  clearly  distinguished  in  this  section  of  the  orographic 
system.  Huaylillas,  one  of  the  summits  of  the  group,  towers  to  a  height  of  16,240 
feet.  Farther  on,  the  range  of  the  Andes  proper,  consisting  of  mesozoic  rocks 
with  crystalline  nodes  cropping  out,  trends  away  with  perfectly  clear  outline  in 
the  direction  of  the  south-east,  with  peaks  over  13,000  feet  high,  but  carved  into 
separate  blocks  by  the  Perene  and  Mantaro  affluents  of  the  Ucayali.  North-west 
of  Cuzco  it  is  even  completely  obliterated  by  the  erosive  action  of  the  numerous 
main  headwaters  of  the  Apurimac,  radiating  like  the  ribs  of  a  fan  through  a  vast 
basin  at  a  mean  altitude  of  7,600  feet. 

A  chain  rising  east  of  the  Apurimac  is  followed  by  a  second  east  of  the  Pau- 
cartambo,  both  evidently  belonging  to  the  same  system,  and  developing  their  main 
axis  in  the  same  direction  from  north-west  to  south-east.  One  of  the  summits  of 
the  Sierra  de  Vilcaconga,  east  of  the  Apurimac  valley,  rises  to  a  height  of  13,650 
feet,  but  it  is  greatly  exceeded  by  the  Carabaya  range  dominating  the  vast  region 
of  the  Montana,  source  of  the  great  Amazonian  rivers.  Several  of  the  snowy 
peaks  of  this  range  certainly  rise  above  15,500  feet.  Chololo,  which,  however, 
lies  in  Bolivian  territory  a  little  beyond  the  Peruvian  frontier,  would  appear  to 
be  17,625  feet  high. 

This  mountain  indicates  a  break  in  the  general  trend  of  the  system,  which  is 
here  deflected  a  little  to  the  south,  as  if  in  anticipation  of  the  movement  which 
farther  on  gives  to  the  whole  of  the  Andes,  together  with  the  continental  sea- 
board itself,  a  normal  direction  from  north  to  south  in  a  line  with  the  meridian. 

East  of  the  Rios  Huallaga  and  Ucayali  the  ranges  of  heights,  mountains  or 
hills  not  yet  measured  are  all  developed  parallel  with  the  two  main  ranges  of 
the  Cordilleras  and  Andes. 

South  of  the  Pasco  knot  the  Cordillera,  properly  so  called,  becomes  merged 
in  the  escarpments  of  the  inter- Andean  uplands,  rising  but  little  above  the  level 
of  the  inland  plateau.  It  takes  the  name  of  Ceja  ("  Eyebrow  ")  of  the  Sierra, 
and  presents  the  aspect  of  a  mountain  chain  only  on  its  west  side,  facing  the 
Pacific.  Nevertheless,  it  has  some  very  lofty  peaks,  such  as  Viuda,  north-east  of 
Lima,  and  Meiggs,  named  from  the  engineer  who  pierced  the  crest  of  the  Cordillera 
by  a  railway  tunnel,  both  about  15,270  feet  high.  Meiggs  terminates  in  the 
Pietra  Parada,  an  isolated  block  on  which  the  Archbishop  of  Lima  was  wont, 
during  his  visitations,  to  celebrate  Mass  in  the  midst  of  the  snows. 


282  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

East  of  lea  the  Cordillera  ramifies  into  two  branches.  The  scarp  of  the 
plateau  continues  its  south-easterly  trend  parallel  with  the  coast,  while  the  inter- 
Andean  space  is  traversed  by  a  connecting  ridge,  which  usually  takes  the  name 
of  the  Vilcanota  knot.  This  series  of  meandering  heights,  however,  is  not  a  true 
cordillera  ;  it  deviates  from  the  normal  direction  of  the  system,  and  is,  in  fact, 
merely  a  divide,  left  uneroded  between  two  drainage  areas — on  one  side  the 
Amazonian  slope  with  the  thousand  sources  of  the  Apurimac  and  Urubamba ;  on 
the  other  the  Pacific  slope,  divided  into  several  secondary  basins  by  numerous 
long  but  waterless  gorges  furrowing  the  whole  face  of  the  outer  cordillera  with 
deep  fissures. 

The  chief  summits  of  the  water-parting  rise  along  the  southern  prolongation 
of  the  Andean  ranges  here  eroded  by  the  running  waters.  Thus,  Vilcanota 
(17,390  feet),  which  gives  its  name  to  the  whole  divide,  stands  exactly  in  a  line 
with  the  axis  of  the  main  Andean  range.  Azungato,  also  south-east  of  Cuzco, 
from  which  its  snowy  peak  is  visible  glittering  in  the  sun,  lies  in  the  normal 
direction  of  another  Andean  crest. 


THE  SOUTHERN  CORDILLERAS. 

In  its  southern  section  the  Western  Cordillera  is  distinguished  from  the  other 
Peruvian  chains  by  the  presence  of  igneous  cones,  which  make  their  appearance 
at  a  distance  of  about  1,240  miles  from  those  of  Ecuador.  Their  appearance  may 
perhaps  be  a  recent  phenomenon  analogous  to  the  formation  of  the  fluvial  valleys 
which  rise  farther  east,  and  which  continue  to  traverse  the  range,  despite  the 
barriers  of  molten  matter  by  which  they  must  have  often  been  obstructed. 

THE  MISTI  AND  OMATE  VOLCANOES. 

The  first  group  of  these  volcanoes,  all  exceeding  13,000  feet — Sara-Sara, 
Achatayhua,  Coro  Puna  (comparable  to  Chimborazo  in  the  extent  of  its  snow- 
fields  and  the  beauty  of  its  crest),  Ampato,  Chachani  (19,820  feet) — are  all 
quiescent  and  snow-clad  for  a  great  part  of  the  year,  or  even  permanently.  The 
famous  Misti  (Sucahuaya),  whose  superb  snow-streaked  cone  rises  immediately  to 
the  north-east  of  the  Arequipa  plain,  owes  its  celebrity  more  to  its  imposing 
aspect  and  conspicuous  position  on  the  great  Bolivian  trade  route  rather  than 
to  its  geological  importance  and  altitude,  though  this  is  considerable  enough 
(18,500  feet). 

From  time  immemorial  Misti  has  been  in  repose,  and  at  present  its  crater 
contains  nothing  but  ashes  and  snow.  Yet  from  this  focus  appear  to  be  pro- 
pagated the  earthquakes  from  which  Arequipa  has  so  often  suffered,  and  by  which 
it  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  in  1868.  Misti  was  first  ascended  by  "VVeddell  in 
1847,  and  since  that  time  the  exploit  has  been  often  repeated,  but  always  on  the 
north  side,  facing  Chachani.  Ryder  and  Rothwell  perished  in  the  attempt  to  scale 
it  on  the  west  side  in  order  to  explore  its  crevasses.  Henceforth,  Misti  cannot 


I 


PEBTJVIAN  VOLCANOES. 


283 


fail  to  attract  many  visitors,  thanks  to  the  astronomic  observatory  founded  by 
Pickering  on  Carmen  Alto,  one  of  its  buttresses. 

South  of  Misti  extends  the  breached  crest  of  Pichu-Pichu,  followed  by  the 


Fig.  109. — ZONES  OF  ALTITUDE,  PEEU. 
Scale  1  :  16,000,000. 


Heights. 


0  to  3,230  3,280  to  6  5SO          6,560  to  13,030          13,000  to  20,000  20  000  Feet 

Feet.  Feet.  Feet.  Feet.  and  upwards. 

Depths. 


Oto  1,000 
Fathoms. 


1,000  to  2,000 
Fathoms. 


2,000  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


310  Miles. 


elongated  Ornate  volcano,  called  also  Huayna-Putina  ("Putina  the  Bold").     This 
is  not  so  much  an  isolated  mass  as  a  crest  some  18  miles  long,  whose  highest 


284  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

summit  terminates  in  a  sort  of  crown  marking  the  orifice  of  the  volcano.  Although 
of  less  imposing  aspect  than  Misti,  Ornate  was  at  one  time  the  most  restless  of  all 
the  Peruvian  cones.  In  1600  the  column  of  vapours  escaping  from  Ubinas, 
15  miles  to  the  north,  is  said  to  have  suddenly  ceased,  while  Ornate,  which  had 
never  before  emitted  smoke,  became  violently  agitated,  spreading  darkness  over 
a  wide  space  and  covering  all  the  surrounding  district  with  ashes.  Six  villages 
scattered  over  the  lower  slopes  disappeared  under  a  shower  of  scoriae  "  a  spear  in 
thickness."  Arequipa,  over  42  miles  away,  was  first  half-ruined  by  the  earth- 
quake shoi.-ks,  and  then  remained  ten  days  shrouded  in  black  night,  during  which 
the  multitude  prepared  for  the  end  of  all  things,  while  others  tried  to  lose  con- 
sciousness in  drink. 

The  roar  of  the  eruption  was  stated  to  have  been  heard  at  a  distance  of  over  600 
miles.  At  Lima,  530  miles  off,  the  people  thought  a  naval  battle  was  raging  in  the 
neighbouring  waters  between  the  Spanish  fleet  and  some  Dutch  corsairs.  Wafted 
on  the  land-breeze,  the  volcanic  dust  was  borne  seawards  930  miles  from  the  coast. 
In  the  surrounding  district  all  landmarks  between  private  property  were  effaced 
under  the  rain  of  ashes,  and  for  six  years  after  the  disaster  the  Arequipa  vineyards 
yielded  no  returns. 

Farther  south,  but  still  within  the  Peruvian  frontier,  rises  another  burning 
mountain,  Tutupaca,  or  Candarave  (18,960  feet),  at  the  south-west  foot  of  which 
nestles  a  lagoon  fed  by  the  melting  snows.  The  engineer  Church,  who  scaled  it 
in  1862,  found  on  the  summit  a  regular  crater,  where  a  little  sulphur  was 
deposited  by  the  still  ejected  vapours.  Tutupaca  was  the  scene  of  a  tremendous 
explosion  in  1779. 

THE  PACIFIC  COASTLANDS. 

Beyond  the  Cordilleras,  properly  so  called,  the  zone  of  coastlands  presents  a 
few  eminences  whose  glittering  rocks  are  seen  a  great  distance  seawards  by  passing 
vessels.  Thus  the  projecting  headlands  of  North  Peru  between  Tumbez  and 
Lambayeque  represent  the  terminal  spurs  of  the  coast  mountains.  Amotape, 
highest  of  these  groups,  attains  an  elevation  of  over  3,000  feet.  It  also  bears  the 
name  of  Cerros  (Montes)  de  la  Brea  ("  Pitch  Hills  "),  and  for  over  a  century  the 
people  of  the  hacienda  de  Parifias  at  the  west  end  of  the  ridge  used  this  brca  or 
cope,  natural  tar  or  bitumen,  for  coating  the  inside  of  their  earthenware  utensils. 
But  the  substance  was  utilised  for  no  other  purpose  until  the  reports  of  the  fortunes 
made  in  the  oil  districts  of  the  United  States  induced  the  local  proprietors  to  turn 
to  better  account  the  treasures  contained  in  the  Amotape  rocks. 

The  chief  reservoirs,  occupying  a  space  of  about  2,500,000  acres,  are  distri- 
buted in  the  hills  and  along  the  coast  from  Tumbez  to  Sechura,  and  are  far 
more  extensive  than  the  famous  oil  region  of  the  upper  Allegheny  basin  in  West 
Pennsylvania.  The  asphalt  occurs  at  an  average  depth  of  from  100  to  400  feet 
below  various  strata  of  sands,  sandstones  of  marine  origin,  decomposed  limestones 
and  schists  more  or  less  charged  with  oil.  In  many  places  the  oleaginous  matter 


THE  PERUVIAN  COASTLANDS. 


286 


is  brought  to  the  surface  by  filtration  through  the  upper  strata,  and  sometimes 
even  gases  and  fatty  substances  ooze  up. 

South  of  Sechura  some  hills  of  similar  formation  are  perhaps  even  richer  still 
in  underground  reservoirs  of  petroleum,  while  the  surface  on  the  coast  plains 


Fig.  110. — AMOTAPE  MOUNTAINS. 
Scale  1  :  1,200,000. 


8I'20' 


We?t  of  Greenwich 


80'20' 


Dep'hs. 


Oto  10 
Fathoms. 


10  to  50 
Fathoms. 


50  to  500 
Fathoms. 


18  Miles. 


500  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


bubbles  up,  so  to  say,  in  miniature  volcanoes,  30  feet  high  and  650  in  circum- 
ference, from  which  the  bitumen  escapes  in  a  liquid  state,  often  mixed  with  salt 
water,  and  rapidly  solidifies  on  the  ground.  The  Garita  and  Reventazon  plains 
near  the  sea  are  dotted  over  with  hundreds  of  these  hillocks  of  hardened  pitch. 


286  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

Submarine  streams  of  petroleum  are  even  carried  seawards,  and  iridescent  films  of 
oil  are  often  seen  glistening  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Along  the  seaboard  follow  other  hilly  groups  separated  either  by  fertile 
alluvial  valleys,  or  by  ravines  which  cannot  be  cultivated  for  lack  of  fertilising 
water.  The  Sierra  de  Paita,  between  the  Rios  Achira  and  Piura,  has  an  elevation 
of  scarcely  1,300  feet ;  but  farther  south  the  coast  range  skirting  the  Sechura 
desert  attains  a  greater  height  in  Mount  Ilescas.  The  headland  projecting  from 
this  point  north-westwards  to  Punta  Aguja  ("Needle  Point ")  is  the  most  advanced 
promontory  of  South  America. 

North  of  Lima  the  coast  range  culminates  in  a  conic  height  to  which  has  been 
given  the  name  of  Darwin  (5,840  feet).  Other  less  elevated  groups  dominate  the 
valley  of  the  Rio  Rimac  and  the  Peruvian  capital.  South  of  the  Rio  Grande, 
Mount  Criterion  rises  to  an  altitude  of  about  5,800  feet,  while  near  Islay  the 
coast  range,  limited  by  the  Rio  Vitor,  has  an  extreme  elevation  of  3,350  feet. 

The  whole  of  this  seaboard  is  subject  to  frequent  underground  disturbances, 
and  Callao,  after  being  destroyed  in  1630,  was  again  nearly  ruined  in  1746,  when 
a  huge  wave  hurled  the  shipping  in  the  roadstead  over  piers  and  quays,  and  on 
retreating  left  hundreds  of  houses  levelled  with  the  ground.  These  convulsions 
are  associated  by  the  geologist  Suss  with  a  deep  movement  of  the  rocks  caused  by 
the  subsidence  of  the  cliffs  along  the  coast  in  the  abysses  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

But  in  any  case  the  Peruvian  seaboard  presents  some  curious  phenomena 
which  were  formerly  attributed  either  to  an  upheaval  of  the  shore  or  to  a  retreat 
of  the  marine  waters.  On  the  northern  slopes  of  the  island  of  San  Lorenzo, 
sheltering  the  roadstead  of  Callao,  are  seen  a  series  of  three  terraces  which, 
although  somewhat  obliterated,  Darwin  recognised  as  old  beaches  covered  with 
shells  of  the  contemporaneous  epoch  in  various  stages  of  preservation  according  to 
the  different  heights  of  the  upheaved  terraces.  The  upper  beach  stands  at 
present  84  feet  above  the  mean  level  of  the  ocean.  These  changes  of  level, 
however,  may  have  taken  place  in  remote  prehistoric  times,  while  the  shells 
observed  by  the  great  naturalist  may  perhaps  be  the  accumulated  refuse  of 
kitchen-middens. 

The  apparent  marine  erosions  seen  higher  up  on  the  cliffs  have  also  by  some 
naturalists  been  referred  to  the  action  of  certain  lichens,  causing  the  rocks  to 
gradually  crumble  away,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  excavating  veritable 
caverns.  Mr.  Nation,  of  Lima,  informed  Mr.  John  Ball  that  after  twenty-five 
years'  study  he  was  satisfied  that  the  appearances  are  due  to  sub-aerial  and  not  to 
marine  action.  "  The  chief  agent,  in  his  opinion,  is  a  cryptogamic  plant  growing 
on  the  surface  of  the  rock.  During  a  great  part  of  the  year,  when  dense  fogs 
prevail  at  this  elevation,  the  plant  is  in  active  vegetation.  In  the  alternations  of 
relative  dryness  and  dampness  of  the  air  the  cells  swell  and  mechanically  remove 
scales  from  the  surface,  which  are  seen  to  accumulate  rapidly  in  the  course  of  a 
single  season.  I  am  disposed  to  think  that  vicissitudes  of  temperature  play  a 
great  part  in  the  disintegration  of  rock  surfaces,  and  such  action  must  be 
increased  by  alternations  of  moisture  and  dryness  which  must  occur  where,  during 


.      THE  PEEUVIAN  COASTLANDS.  287 

a  great  part  of  the  year,  the  hills  are  covered  with  fog  in  the  morning  and 
exposed  to  the  sun  in  the  afternoon."* 

Nevertheless  a  real  upheaval  of  the  land  would  appear  to  have  taken  place 
after  the  earthquake  of  1746  ;  at  least,  the  strait  flowing  between  San  Lorenzo 
island  and  the  mainland  had  become  so  narrow  that  the  boys  of  the  district  were 
able  to  throw  stones  right  across  from  shore  to  shore.  13 ut  the  recorded  changes 
of  level  may  possibly  be  due  to  volcanic  shocks  thrusting  up  or  engulfing  the 
coastlands.  San  Lorenzo  is  still  about  two  miles  from  the  mainland,  as  before  the 
disturbance  of  1746,  and  an  old  garden  in  which  were  cultivated  camotes  (sweet 
potatoes)  still  bears  its  name  of  Camotal,  but  is  now  a  marine  sandbank.  North 
of  the  bay  some  sugarcane-fields  have  shared  the  same  fate,  while  near  Lurin, 
south  of  Callao,  the  holy  island  of  Pachacamac,  two  miles  from  the  coast,  was 
still  a  peninsula  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest.  The  original  site  of  Callao  itself 
lies  now  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  the  old  sailors  used  to  relate  that  when 
passing  at  midnight  over  the  submerged  city  they  could  see  from  their  boats  the 
people  seated  at  the  doors  of  the  houses,  and  even  hear  the  shrill  crow  of  the 
cock  beneath  the  waters. 

Darwin  and  Tschudi  also  speak  of  upheavals  in  the  interior  of  the  country 
shown  by  the  change  of  level  in  the  old  valleys,  where  the  streams  no  longer  flow 
in  the  same  direction  as  formerly.  Thus  the  bed  of  the  Rio  Chillon,  north-east 
and  north  of  the  plains  of  Lima,  is  interrupted  at  one  point  by  a  hill  which  has 
obliged  it  to  open  a  new  passage  by  a  great  bend  round  to  the  west.  Another  old 
watercourse  met  farther  north,  on  the  road  between  Casma  and  Huaraz,  has  also 
changed  its  direction,  leaving  in  one  place  a  dry  bed  which  was  formerly  tapped 
by  irrigation  rills. 

The  various  rocks,  argillaceous  or  sandy  heights,  also  appear  to  have  been 
subject  to  the  action  of  marine  or  fluvial  waters,  as  shown  by  the  erosions,  the 
siltings,  and  the  shell-heaps  strewn  round  about  their  base.  In  the  desert  regions 
marine  sandhills  occupy  vast  spaces  along  the  seaboard,  where  all  are  disposed 
in  medanos,  or  crescents,  following  with  regularity,  and  by  the  character  of  both 
slopes  and  of  the  crests  everywhere  indicating  the  direction  of  the  prevailing 
wind.  Near  Casma,  in  north  Peru,  musical  notes  like  those  of  an  organ  are  often 
heard  during  the  great  heats  of  the  day,  emitted  by  a  mountain  covered  with 
sands.  Unable  otherwise  to  explain  the  phenomenon,  the  natives  suppose  that 
the  eminence  is  a  "  water  volcano,"  and  that  the  sound  results  from  the  liquid 
mass  boiling  inside.  But  this  music,  like  that  of  Serbal  in  the  Sinai  group,  and 
of  so  many  mountains  elsewhere,  roust  be  due  to  the  incessant  movement  of  the 
sand  particles  vibrating  in  the  heat.  The  stronger  the  breeze  the  louder  the 
notes. 

Although  in  general  somewhat  regular  in  its  trend,  this  part  of  the  coast 

presents  a  few  small  prominences,  which  resemble  each  other  in  their  outline,  an^l 

which  are  due  to  the  underground  forces  all  acting  in  the  same  direction.     Thus 

the  shore  stretching  south  of  the  Amotape  hills  is  diversified  by  a  series  of  hooks 

*  Notes  of  a  Naturalist  in  South  America,  p.  114. 


288 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


facing  northwards  and  intercepting  the  sands,  which  are  carried  along  by  the 
current  setting  southwards.  South  of  the  Rio  Santa  the  coast  is  similarly  indented 
by  remarkably  regular  oval  inlets,  separated  by  islets  and  promontories  from  the 


Fig.  111.—  POETS  OF  CHIMBOTE  AND  CASMA. 
Scale  1  :  530,000. 


1C      «& 


78*40' 


West  oF  Greenwich 


78°20' 


Depths. 


Oto  10 

Fathoms. 


10  to  50 
Fathoms. 


50  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


12  Miles. 


open  sea.      The  sandy  surf  rolling  landwards  develops  graceful   curves  which 
reproduce  on  a  large  scale  the  symmetrical  oval  of  the  shore-line. 

Off  the  Peruvian   seaboard  the   marine   bed   slopes   rapidly  down   to   great 
depths ;  hence  there  are  scarcely  any  islands,  and  even  these  are  little  more  than. 


HYDEOGEAPHY  OF  PEEU.  289 

headlands  detached  from  the  mainland  by  erosion.  South  of  the  promontories 
terminating  in  the  Punta  Parifia  and  Punta  Aguja  capes  the  surface  is  studded 
with  the  two  little  insular  groups  of  Lobos  de  Tierra  and  Lobos  de  Afuera. 
These  are  followed  by  others  lying  nearer  to  the  shore,  such  as  the  Guanape, 
Huaura,  Pescadores  d'Ancon,  San  Lorenzo,  and  Hormigas  de  Afuera  clusters,  and 
lastly  the  Chinchas,  so  important  before  the  exhaustion  of  their  rich  guano- 
beds,  but  now  valueless  except  for  the  shelter  they  offer  to  the  harbour  of 
Pisco.  The  other  reefs  fringing  the  coast  farther  south  also  contained  similar 
deposits,  some  of  which  are  still  worked.  Some  210  miles  off  Punta  Aguja  an 
island  is  reported  to  have  recently  appeared  above  the  surface,  but  the  state- 
ment awaits  confirmation. 


III. 

RIVERS — THE  SANTA  AND  OTHER  PACIFIC  STREAMS. 

In  their  hydrographic  aspect  the  two  slopes  of  Peru  present  a  striking 
contrast,  entirely  due  to  the  climate — on  one  side  feeble  watercourses,  usually  dry 
in  their  lower  reaches,  on  the  other  a  superabundance  of  running  waters  descend- 
ing through  various  channels  to  the  mighty  Amazons.  In  the  extreme  north 
the  Achira,  fed  by  numerous  torrents  from  the  Loja  heights,  still  reaches  the  sea 
in  an  exhausted  state;  but  the  Rio  Piura,  which  follows  next  southwards,  is 
entirely  lost  in  the  riverine  plantations  and  the  sands  of  the  lower  plains.  Other 
quebradas,  or  river  gorges,  occur  on  the  outer  slope  of  the  Cordillera  ;  but  none 
are  perennial  except  the  Santa,  which  differs  from  most  other  Peruvian  coast 
streams  in  that  it  rises,  not  on  the  western  slopes,  but  in  a  longitudinal  valley  in 
the  very  heart  of  the  Andes. 

After  escaping  from  the  Aguach  lagoon  (13,850  feet),  the  Santa  is  joined  by 
the  emissary  of  the  still  larger  Cono-cocha  basin  (12,930  feet),  the  united  currents 
flowing  from  south-east  to  north-west  along  the  bed  of  an  enormous  fissure 
dominated  by  both  parallel  ranges.  At  the  foot  of  the  Andean  giants,  Hualcan, 
Huascan,  and  Huandoy,  the  Santa  receives  several  contributions  from  the  eastern 
plateau,  rising  close  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Amazon,  and  forcing  their  way  in 
deep  ravines  through  the  Western  Cordillera.  After  its  junction  with  the  Rio  de 
Manta,  one  of  these  torrents  from  the  plateau,  the  mainstream  turns  westwards  to 
the  gorge  through  which  it  escapes  seawards.  Beyond  the  gorge  it  occasionally 
discharges  an  enormous  volume,  so  that  during  the  floods  it  is  difficult  to  cross, 
and  presents  great  obstacles  to  traffic  on  the  plains.  The  Santa  is  at  times  joined 
just  above  its  mouth  by  the  intermittent  Lacramarca  coast  stream. 

The  Rimac,  another  of  these  coast  streams,  owes  its  celebrity  to  the  city  which 

it  traverses,  and  which  bears  the  same  name  under  the  modified  form  of  Lima,  that 

is,  the  "  Speaker,"  in  reference  to  a  temple  on  its  banks  famous  for  its  oracles. 

The  Rimac  rises  in  the  Sierra  at  the  Antarangra  Pass  (15,600  feet),  within  thirty 

20 


290  SOUTH  AMEKICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

paces  of  the  source  of  the  Pachachaca,  head  stream  of  the  Ucayali  affluent  of  the 
Amazons. 

South  of  the  Rimac  follow  several  equally  impoverished  coast  streams,  mere 
quebradas  or  wadics,  usually  with  insufficient  water  even  to  irrigate  the  riverine 
tracts.  This  description  even  applies  to  the  so-called  Rio  Grande,  which,  despite 
its  name  and  its  numerous  branches,  has  scarcely  enough  water  to  moisten  its 
sandy  bed.  South  of  the  Rio  Grande  some  of  the  rivers  rising  in  the  inter- 
Andean  valleys,  the  Mages  amongst  others,  have  at  least  a  very  long  course  out 
of  all  proportion  to  their  discharge. 

In  some  of  the  apparently  dry  fluvial  beds  the  natives,  acquainted  with  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  are  able  to  follow  the  course  of  the  current  percolating  below 
the  surface  and  utilise  it  for  their  plantations.  In  several  of  the  maritime 
districts,  and  especially  between  lea  and  Pisco,  the  hollows  between  the  dunes  are 
moist  enough  for  the  formation  of  the  so-called  mahamaes,  deep,  broad  trenches 
forming  little  garden  plots.  Here  are  grown  dates,  grapes  famed  along  the  whole 
of  the  Pacific  seaboard,  prime  melons,  various  other  fruits  and  vegetables,  besides 
wheat  and  large  crops  of  fodder.  Some  of  the  mahamaes  are  very  extensive,  while 
the  water  in  others  is  brackish,  in  which  case  the  effect  of  the  salt  is  neutralised 
by  thick  layers  of  the  leaves  of  the  huarango  (acacia  punctata),  common  in  the 
country. 


THE  AMAZONIAN  AFFLUENTS — THE  MARAXON. 

On  the  Amazonian  slope  the  rivers,  so  far  from  running  dry  in  their  lower 
valleys,  increase  continually  in  volume.  Thanks  to  the  abundant  rainfall  every 
rivulet  has  here  a  larger  volume  than  the  most  copious  streams  on  the  Pacific 
side.  The  whole  region  is  comprised  in  three  secondary  basins — those  of  the 
upper  Maranon,  the  Huallaga,  and  the  Ucayali,  all  entirely  within  the  Peruvian 
frontier,  besides  a  few  affluents  of  the  Purus  and  the  Madeira,  rising  at  the  foot  of 
the  Carabaya  Andes  on  the  eastern  plains. 

From  the  standpoint  of  physical  geography,  however,  these  various  tributaries 
of  the  Amazons  belong  to  the  Andean  region  only  in  their  upper  courses,  where 
they  are  obstructed  by  cascades  and  rapids.  The  true  periphery  of  the  Peruvian 
highlands  is  thus  indicated  in  each  fluvial  basin  by  the  zone  of  free  navigation. 
Hence  the  extreme  importance  taken  in  the  economic  geography  of  the  country 
by  the  various  "gateways"  where  the  Amazonian  rivers  escape  from  the  Peruvian 
uplands  to  the  plains.  These  are  the  vital  points  where  one  day  will  J)e  effected 
all  the  exchanges  in  the  traffic  of  the  Andean  regions  with  the  eastern  world. 

The  upper  Maranon,  formerly  Tunguragua,  is  commonly  regarded  as  the  main 
upper  branch  of  the  Amazons,  not  for  its  volume,  but  because  it  prolongs  farthest 
in  the  direction  of  the  Pacific  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  valle}'.  It  rises  between 
the  Andes  and  the  Western  Cordillera  in  the  little  Lake  Lauri-cocha  (Yauri-cocha), 
a  basin  about  three  miles  broad  which  floods  the  bed  of  a  cirque  encircled  by  steep 
schistose  cliffs.  Escaping  from  this  basin  through  narrow  winding  gorges  spanned 


HYDROGKAPHY  OF  PEKU. 


291 


here  and  there  by  the  so-called  "  Incas*  bridges,"  the  Maranon  is  eoon  tripled  in 
volume  by  the  Napo,  from  the  slopes  of  the  Cordillera,  below  the  confluence  of 
which  it  trends  north-west  as  if  to  fall  into  Guayaquil  bay.  For  a  distance  of 
nearly  600  miles  it  continues  to  traverse  the '  deep  longitudinal  valley  of  the 
,Andes,  swollen  by  a  lateral  torrent  at  every  gorge  opening  from  the  mountains  on 


Fig.  112. — Poxoo  DE  MANSEEICHE. 
Scale  1  :  1,000,000. 


•  igm  -~t^ 

VVest  or  Greenwich  77°40' 


Oold-minee. 


26  Miles. 


both  banks.  Here  again  the  narrows  are  spanned  by  suspension  bridges  made  of 
huctros,  oroyas,  or  other  lianas,  though  most  of  the  tracks  on  the  opposite  sides  are 
connected  only  by  balsas,  or  rafts  formed  by  three  or  four  trunks  of  trees  firmly 
lashed  together  and  boarded  over.  All  these  ferries  are  called  puertos,  "  ports  "  or 
"harbours,"  like  those  on  the  seaboard. 


292  SOUTH  AMERICA— TliE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

After  receiving  the  Chinchipe,  which  prolongs  the  Andean  trough  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Loja  heights,  the  Marafion  trends  round  to  the  north-east  and  then  to 
the  east  through  a  series  of  fissures  piercing  the  Andes  and  their  foothills.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  walls  of  one  of  these  fissures  are  said  to 
have  collapsed,  completely  damming  the  stream  for  several  hours.  At  this  point 
it  is  joined  by  the  Paute  (Santiago,  or  Canusa-Yaco),  which  would  seem  destined 
to  become  the  chief  fluvial  valley  between  Guayaquil  bay  and  the  banks  of  the 
Amazons. 

An  obstruction,  however,  still  exists  below  the  confluence,  where  the  stream 
contracts  from  270  to  86  and  then  to  55  or  60  yards  between  its  rocky  walls 
1,300  feet  high,  and  beneath  a  dense  overhanging  vegetation  through  which  but 
a  dim  light  penetrates  to  the  swirling  waters  below.  In  a  few  minutes  boats  and 
rafts  rush  down  this  gorge,  over  a  mile  long,  which  separates  the  Maranon  serrano 
("  Maranon  of  the  Mountains")  from  the  Maranon  llanero  ("Maranon  of  the 
Plains").  Above  the  Pongo  de  Manseriche,*  as  these  narrows  are  called,  the 
stream  is  navigable  for  very  light  craft;  below,  that  is,  410  feet  above  sea- 
level,  the  Maranon  is  already  accessible  to  steamers,  which  have  a  clear  waterway 
of  some  2,450  miles  from  this  point  to  Para.  In  their  passage  down  the  Pongo 
boats  run  some  risk  of  being  dashed  against  a  rocky  islet  detached  from  the 
schistose  walls,  or,  escaping  this  danger,  of  being  engulfed  in  the  eddies  formed 
by  theunderwash  of  the  overhanging  cliffs.  During  the  heavy  floods,  snags  swrpt 
down  with  the  current  disappear  in  large  numbers  in  these  whirlpools,  and 
according- to  the  natives,  ever  lovers  of  the  marvellous,  the  shattered  fragments 
never  return  to  the  surface. 

Below  the  Pongo  begins  the  erratic  course  of  the  stream,  meandering  through 
its  own  alluvial  deposits,  where  it  has  left  traces  of  old  abandoned  beds,  blind 
channels,  swamps  and  backwaters.  Even  lakes  are  formed,  especially  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  affluents  joining  the  mainstream  through  transverse  furos 
or  canos.  From  the  northern  Andes  descend  the  Morona,  the  Pastaza,  the  Tigre 
and  the  Napo ;  from  the  south,  the  Huallaga  and  the  Ucayali ;  all  of  which  have 
their  confluences  within  Peruvian  territory.  It  might  have  seemed  natural  to 
change  the  name  of  the  river  at  the  point  where  it  changes  its  regime ;  but, 
according  to  general  usage,  the  Maranon  does  not  become  the  Amazons  till  the 
junction  of  the  Ucayali,  which,  owing  to  its  longer  course,  is  regarded  by  many 
geographers  as  the  true  upper  branch.  But  such  distinctions  are  frivolous,  the 
main  artery  being  determined  by  the  whole  system  of  ramifications. 

THE  HUALLAGA  AND  UCAYALI. 

The  Huallaga,  i.e.  "  Great,"  rises  south  of  the  Lauri-cocha,  near  Cerro  de 

Pasco,  in  the  same  group  as  the    upper  Maranon  itself.      But  it  escapes  more 

rapidly  from  the  entanglement  of  the  mountains,  and  after  piercing  the  barrier  of 

the  Andes  and  skirting  its  eastern  base,  it  descends  through  "  forty-two  "  rapids 

*  Pongo  is  the puncu  of  the  Quichuas,  meaning  "gateway." 


HYDEOGEAPHY  OF  PEEU. 


293 


between  the  wooded  hills  and  cliffs.  The  Moyo  (Mayo),  its  chief  affluent,  rises 
in  a  valley  of  the  foothills  and  joins  its  left  bank  above  the  gorge  where  are 
developed  the  last  cataracts.  The  Indian  boats  ascend  easily  to  this  obstruction ; 
but  laden  steamers  have  to  stop  during  the  season  of  low  water  at  Laguna,  some 
25  miles  below  the  confluence.  Even  here  there  is  no  lack  of  water,  but  the  navi- 
gation is  endangered  by  abrupt  windings,  reefs,  snags  and  the  rapid  current. 

The  copious  Ucayali,  although  even  less  utilised  for  traffic  than  the  Huallaga, 
owing  to  its  greater  distance  from  the  inhabited  plateaux,  possesses  a  far  more 
extensive  system  of  tributaries,  and  promises  one  day  to  become  the  chief  high- 
way of  trade.  The  term  Ucayali,  meaning  "  Confluence,"  belongs  only  to  the 


Kg.  113. — MABANON  AND  HUALLAGA  CONFLUENCE. 
Scale  1  :  900,000. 


West  oF  Greenwich 


7530 


12  Miles. 


lower  course,  and  every  special  branch  has  its  distinct  name,  the  whole  hydro- 
graphic  system  being  formerly  known  as  the  Paro,  or  Apo-Paro,  "  Great 
River." 

The  same  Pasco  group  which,  on  its  north  side,  gives  rise  to  the  Huallaga 
also  sends  some  torrents  to  the  Ucayali  basin.  But  these  headwaters  flow  south- 
wards, losing  themselves  in  Lake  Chanchay-cocha  (Junin),  remnant  of  an  old 
inland  sea,  and,  next  to  Titicaca,  the  largest  reservoir  on  the  Andean  plateau. 
This  lake,  which  is  almost  entirely  surrounded  by  forests  of  reeds,  is  drained  by 
the  Ancas-yacu,  "  Blue  Water,"  which  first  flows  north-westwards,  and  then,  under 
the  name  of  Acobamba,  or  Rio  Jauja,  descends  south-east  parallel  with  the 
Andean  axis.  Beyond  a  narrow  gorge,  excavated  in  the  thickness  of  the  plateau, 


294 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


it  reverses  its  course  as  far  as  another  fissure,  through  which  it  pierces  the  eastern 
range  east  of  Huancayo. 

Beyond  the  mountains  the  Acobamba  takes  the  name  of  Mantaro,  and  at 
Pisquitini  joins  the  right  bank  of  the  Apurimac,  the  "  Boisterous,"  which  also 
flows  in  a  longitudinal  valley  parallel  with  the  Andean  escarpments,  and  which 
is  joined  by  the  Pampas  and  other  tributaries  descending  in  abrupt  windings  and 
deep  gorges  between  the  mountains  and  plateaux.  Below  the  confluence  the 
united  waters  of  the  Mantaro  and  Apurimac  become  the  Ene  or  Eni,  that  is, 
"  Great  River  "  in  the  Campa  language. 

On  the  plains  the  Ene  is  joined  by  the  Perene,  which,  although  only  one  of  the 


Fig.  114. — HAKANOX  AND  UCATALI  CONFLUENCE. 
Scale  1 :  1,600,000. 


-•/ 


5° 


. o". ;..•  '•«.*.  ."•.*.".• 


•   •    .   a   •     .    .     '        ••     • 
v^    '  "•        •  •'  •   • 

.'  •       O  • 


icy  ,  West  op  Greenwich 


73°  10- 


30  Miles. 


secondary  streams  of  the  basin,  is  perhaps  the  most  important  from  the  economic 
point  of  view ;  its  valley  forms  a  prolongation  of  the  road  between  Lima  and  the 
plateau,  while  its  lower  course,  navigable  for  a  distance  of  eome  12  miles,  offers 
the  shortest  route  to  the  Amazons.  After  its  junction  with  the  Perene  the  Ene 
takes  the  name  of  Tambo,  which  beyond  a  last  spur  of  the  mountains  intermingles 
its  waters  with  the  Quillabamba  to  form  the  great  Rio  Ucayali. 

The  Quillabamba,  flowing  in  a  line  with  the  lower  valley,  may  be  regarded  as 
the  main  upper  branch  of  the  system.  Its  chief  affluents,  the  Paucartambo  and 
the  Urubamba,  the  latter  rising  at  the  Raya  Pass,  are  also  disposed  in  the 


HYDEOGBAPHY  OF  PERU. 


295 


direction  from  south-east  to  north-west,  enclosing  right  and  left  the  Carabaya 
Andes  and  their  prolongations. 

A  well-marked  parting-line  between  two  perfectly  distinct  fluvial  systems  is 
indicated  by  the  confluence  of  the  Tambo  with  the  Quillabamba  at  an  elevation  of 
860  feet  above  sea-level.  Above  the  confluence  the  streams  are  in  the  nature  of 
mountain  torrents,  rushing  wildly  between  their  rocky  walls,  or  disappearing  in 
deep  romantic  gorges  ;  below  the  mainstream  flows  sluggishly  in  a  broad  winding 
channel,  whose  banks  are  everywhere  covered  with  continuous  forest  growths.  In 

Fig.  115. — MANTABO,  PAMPAS  AND  APUEIMAC  VALLEYS. 
Scale  1  :  2,000,000. 


WesLop  Greenwich 


75' 


62  Miles. 


this  section  of  its  course  the  Ucayali,  still  within  the  political  frontiers  of  Peru, 
although  presenting  the  normal  aspect  of  the  Brazilian  rivers,  is  joined  by  only 
one  considerable  affluent,  the  Pachitea,  which  is  swollen  by  the  Palcazu,  and,  like 
the  Perene,  appears  destined  to  become  one  of  the  main  commercial  highways 
of  Peru. 

All  these  watercourses  descending  to  the  Ucayali  and  to  the  Huallaga  have 
been  the  object  of  numerous  hydrographic  surveys  by  Tucker,  Werthemann  and 
other  engineers  in  the  service  of  Peru.  At  the  Mantaro  confluence  the  Apurimac 
has  a  mean  discharge  of  about  42,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 


296  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  KEGIONS. 


IV. 

CLIMATE. 

The  Peruvian  climate  is  more  temperate  than  might  be  expected  from  its 
tropical  position  between  3cand  18°  south  latitude.  Thanks  to  their  great  elevation, 
the  inhabited  regions  enjoy  a  temperature  resembling  that  of  the  lowlands  in 
higher  latitudes ;  even  on  the  coastlands  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  sea  the 
heat  is  lower  than  under  corresponding  latitudes  elsewhere,  being  tempered  by  the 
influence  of  the  marine  current  setting  steadily  from  the  Antarctic  Ocean  towards 
the  equatorial  waters. 

The  "  Humboldt  Current,"  as  this  stream  is  called,  in  honour  of  the  great 
traveller  and  physicist  by  whom  it  was  first  observed  and  described,  contains  a 
liquid  mass  some  hundred  miles  broad  and  of  enormous  thickness.  The  soundings 
of  the  Romanchc  have  shown  that  the  temperature  falls  rapidly  down  to  the  bottom, 
undisturbed  by  any  counter-current  of  warm  water.  In  fact,  it  is  the  lower 
strata  which,  by  continually  returning  to  the  surface,  tend  to  modify  the  normal 
heat  of  the  coastlands,  for  they  are  as  cold  at  Callao  as  at  Valparaiso,  21°  of 
latitude  farther  south.  Under  the  action  of  the  south-east  trade  winds  the 
surface  waters  are  driven  seawards,  while  near  the  coast  the  void  thus  created  is 
filled  by  the  cold  layers  rising  from  the  lower  depths. 

The  mean  temperature,  which  increases  slowly  in  the  equatorial  regions,  only 
reaches  59°  or  60°  Fahr.  off  the  coast  of  Lima ;  hence  it  is  some  18°  below  the 
normal  heat  of  the  oceanic  waters  at  a  distance  from  the  seaboard.  Speaking 
generally,  the  atmosphere  above  the  marine  current  is  scarcely  warmer,  and  thus 
refreshes  by  several  degrees  the  coastlands  exposed  to  its  influence.  Lima,  situated 
near  12°  south  latitude,  a  little  nearer  to  the  equator  than  Bahia  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  continent,  enjoys  a  perceptibly  more  temperate  climate.*  The  fogs  in 
which  the  maritime  plains  of  Peru  are  shrouded  for  a  great  part  of  the  year  also 
tend  to  temper  the  heats.  In  winter  the  south  wind  is  occasionally  replaced  by 
a  northern  monsoon ;  which,  however,  never  blows  in  high  gales,  so  that  the 
surrounding  waters  remain,  if  not  calm,  at  least  amongst  the  most  tranquil  of  the 
"  Pacific  "  Ocean. 

But  if  the  Peruvian  seaboard  is  exempt  from  the  torrid  heats  of  coastlands 
lying  under  the  same  latitude,  the  Andean  uplands  enjoy  a  much  warmer  climate 
than  might  be  supposed  from  their  great  altitude.  In  this  respect  the  climate 
of  Peru  is  unparalleled  in  the  whole  world.  Usually  there  is  a  fall  of  1°  Fahr.  for 
about  528  feet  of  increased  altitude  ;  but  on  the  Andean  slopes  the  average  is  no 
more  than  1°  for  every  935  feet.  Thus  the  climate  of  Lima  is  entirely  local, 
while  the  isothermal  lines  of  the  higher  regions  correspond  to  those  of  the 
African  mountains,  f 

In  Peru  the  normal  trade  wind,  which  in  the  torrid  zone  usually  blows  from 

*  Mean  temperature  of  Lima  (12°  3'  S.  lat.),  67°  Fahr.  ;  of  Bahia  (12°  53'  S.  lat.),  77°  Fahr. 
t  John  Ball,  op.  tit.,  p.  100. 


CLIMATE  OF  PERU.  297 

east  to  west,  finds  free  play  only  on  the  Montana  and  the  Amazonian  slopes.  Here 
it  reveals  itself  in  the  moisture-charged  clouds  which  it  brings  from  the  Atlantic, 
and  which  precipitate  such  an  abundant  rainfall  on  the  upland  valleys.  Beyond 
the  mountain  barriers,  over  which  it  throws  a  snowy  mantle,  it  penetrates  to  the 
plateau  through  breaches  in  the  outer  rampart,  and  thus  reaches  the  eastern  slopes 
of  the  successive  ranges  of  Cordilleras,  all  of  which  receive  their  share  of  mois- 
ture in  the  form  of  snow  or  rain.  But  the  intervening  valleys  remain  dry,  and 
travellers  crossing  the  Puna  meet  by  the  wayside  the  carcasses  of  pack-animals 
mummified  in  the  dry  cold  air  without  showing  any  symptoms  of  decomposition. 

After  surmounting  the  Western  Cordillera  the  trade  wind  ascends  into  the 
higher  atmospheric  regions,  returning  to  the  surface  of  the  ocean  at  distances  of 
from  120  to  600  miles  from  the  seaboard,  according  to  the  seasons  and  the  nature 
of  the  coastlands.  Thus  the  intermediate  spaces  are  again  withdrawn  from  the 
influence  of  the  regular  winds,  and  here  the  aerial  currents  set  in  diverse 
directions.  The  light  winds  come  especially  from  the  high  seas,  either  as  return 
currents  of  the  trade  winds  striking  the  ocean  far  seawards,  or  as  southern 
breezes  following  the  Humboldt  current  northwards.  These  cold  breezes  from 
the  polar  seas  are  attracted  landwards  by  the  relatively  high  temperature  of 
the  littoral  plains  and  deserts. 

But  the  eastern  rain-bearing  clouds  are  intercepted  by  the  crests  of  the 
Cordillera,  while  the  marine  breezes  have  too  restricted  a  range  to  take  up 
moisture  to  the  point  of  saturation ;  thus  it  happens  that  the  Peruvian  coastlands 
receive  very  little  rain,  and  certain  districts,  especially  those  that  have  earned  the 
title  of  "  deserts,"  near  Tumbez,  south  of  Piura  and  Sechura,  on  the  plains  of  lea 
and  the  pampa  of  Tunga,  come  altogether  within  the  rainless  zone.  When 
Boussingault  visited  the  northern  coasts  of  Peru  in  1832,  no  rain  was  said  to  have 
fallen  at  Chocope  for  eighty-eight  years. 

Nevertheless,  the  Cordillera  is  low  enough  in  these  regions,  which  correspond 
to  the  axis  of  the  Amazons  valley,  to  allow  occasional  passage  through  their  gaps 
to  the  moisture-laden  trade  winds.  On  such  occasions  the  wilderness  bursts  into 
verdure,  and  is  brought  by  the  inhabitants  under  temporary  cultivation.  But 
twenty  or  thirty  years  pass  in  the  Peruvian  deserts  without  a  single  shower,  and 
the  brazen  firmament  is  unrelieved  by  the  endless  forms  of  shifting  clouds  which 
form  the  glory  of  the  skies  in  most  other  regions  of  the  globe. 

Hazy  masses  of  vapour,  however,  are  seen  in  the  distance  hanging  over  the 
Ceja  of  the  Sierra,  and  at  sunset  these  vapours  reflect  the  flashes  of  lightning 
from  storms  too  far  off  for  their  thunder  to  be  heard.  After  a  tempest  in  1803 
sixty-four  years  passed  before  the  rattle  of  thunder  was  again  heard  by  the 
citizens  of  Lima.  But  towards  the  end  of  1877  a  fierce  thunderstorm  burst 
over  the  place,  accompanied  by  such  a  deluge  of  rain  that  it  was  feared  it  might 
be  completely  washed  away.  A  certain  coincidence  is  said  to  have  often  been 
observed  between  such  downpours  and  the  underground  disturbances. 

Despite  the  lack  of  rain,  the  beds  of  the  coast  streams  are  not  always  waterless ; 
in  the  region  about  their  source  they  are  fed  by  the  snows  of  the  Cordillera,  while 


298  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

the  sea-breezes,  which  are  too  dry  to  precipitate  any  moisture  on  the  plains,  at 
times  discharge  torrents  on  the  higher  slopes,  where  the  pressure  of  the  aerial 
masses  extracts  the  rain  as  from  a  vast  sponge.  During  these  sudden  downpours 
the  porous  and  friable  clays  on  the  slopes  are  transformed  to  huge  masses  of  mud, 
which  rush  like  avalanches  down  to  the  gorges,  where  they  move  steadily  forward, 
absorbing  the  lateral  rivulets,  and  sweeping  away  the  trees,  plantations  and  houses 
along  their  passage. 

For  six  months,  from  April  to  October,  a  moist  tepid  fog  hangs  over  the  low- 
lying  Peruvian  coastlands,  especially  in  the  Lima  district.  Towards  October  and 
November  the  vapours  lift  and  become  light  enough  to  admit  the  solar  rays.  At 
times,  particularly  in  August,  the  essentially  foggy  month,  it  is  dense  enough  to 
precipitate  a  kind  of  dew,  locally  called  garua,  which  farther  inland  is  replaced  by 
rain.  Tschudi  mentions  certain  plantations  where  the  garua  and  rainy  zones  are 
separated  by  a  single  wall. 

The  general  lack  of  moisture  facilitates  the  development  of  saline  efflorescences 
wherever  the  air  is  too  dry  even  to  form  dews.  South  Peru,  though  in  a  less 
degree  than  in  the  provinces  lately  annexed  to  Chili,  abounds  in  chemical 
substances,  such  as  gypsum,  salts  and  nitre,  and  deposits  of  cachi,  or  native  salt, 
occur  in  every  part  of  the  country,  even  on  the  inter- Andean  plateau,  associated 
in  many  districts  with  layers  of  caliche,  or  nitrate  of  soda.  Certain  coastlands 
might  be  compared  to  flights  of  marble  steps,  being  disposed  in  successive  terraces 
covered  with  white  saline  particles.  To  the  same  absence  of  moisture  must  be 
attributed  the  formation  of  the  guano -beds,  which  were  formerly  so  valuable,  and 
which  could  never  accumulate  in  regions  enjoying  even  a  moderate  rainfall.* 


V. 

FLORA. 

The  Peruvian  flora,  varying  with  the  climate,  is  represented  on  the  rocky  and 
argillaceous  coastlands  by  a  few  grey  plants  and  open  scrub  ;  by  a  richer  and 
greener  vegetation  on  the  western  slopes  exposed  to  damp  fogs  and  even  rains ;  by 
a  great  variety  of  species  in  the  inter- Andean  regions,  but  diminishing  in  number 
and  size  with  the  altitude  ;  lastly  by  a  boundless  exuberance  of  growth  on  the 
Montana,  where  nature  reveals  herself  in  thousands  of  forms  not  yet  fully  known 
to  science.  As  elsewhere  in  the  Andean  regions,  the  botanical  zones  are  super- 
imposed, but  with  a  few  overlappings  due  to  local  contrasts  of  soil  and  climate. 

Amongst  the  native  species  the  order  of  compositse  is  best  represented, 
especially  by  the  sunflowers,  a  family  characteristic  of  the  New  World  ;  in  some 

*  Meteorological  conditions  of  some  Peruvian  cities  : — 

Altitude.  Mean  Rainfall 

Latitude.              Feet.              Temperature.  Inch. 

Lima     .        .        .        12°  8.                 544  65°  F.  1J 

Arequipa       .         .         16°  24'             6,650  63°  P 

Cuzco    .         .         .         13J30'            11,390  60°  P 

CerrodePagoo       .         10°  55'            14,280  61'  P 


FLOEA  AND  FAUNA  OF  PERU.  299 

districts  the  mountain  slopes  seen  from  a  distance  assume  a  golden  aspect  from 
the  multitude  of  yellow  marguerites.  Yast  spaces  on  the  elevated  plateaux  are 
occupied  by  the  so-called  pajonales,  herbaceous  tracts  called  also  ichales,  from  the 
prevailing  ichu  (herbs).  Extensive  stretches  are  also  covered  with  resinous 
shrubs  called  tolas  (boccharis),  a  true  type  of  sociable  plants,  while  the  gigantoti 
cactus  creeps  up  to  the  vicinity  of  the  snows.  According  to  Wolf,  the  upper  limit 
of  forests  and  shrubs  has  diminished  during  the  historic  period,  owing  to  the  fires 
kindled  by  the  shepherds. 

Although  not  exclusively  confined  to  this  region,  the  coca  (erythroxylon  coca) 
was  first  studied  in  Peru  and  Bolivia,  and  it  is  still  chiefly  gathered  in  the 
Montana  of  Huanuco  and  Cuzco.  After  the  native  reports  of  its  marvellous 
properties  had  long  been  received  with  incredulity,  the  khokha,  or  "  shrub  "  in  a 
pre-eminent  sense,  as  the  Aymaras  call  it,  has  at  last  found  an  honourable  place 
in  the  European  pharmacopoeia.  Its  masticated  leaf  really  allays  hunger  and 
thirst  for  a  certain  time ;  it  sustains  the  miner  in  his  hard  work  beneath  the 
surface  ;  it  helps  the  alpine  climber  to  resist  the  baneful  effects  of  mountain- 
sickness  ;  and  as  a  local  anaesthetic  possesses  sovereign  virtues.  When  crossing 
the  Andes  the  Indian  carriers  always  reckon  their  marches  by  cocadas  (acullicos),  so 
many  balls  of  coca,  just  as  elsewhere  the  time  is  often  measured  by  so  many 
"  pipes."  The  effects  of  these  doles,  distributed  at  the  stations  to  each  carrier,  are 
usually  felt  for  about  40  minutes,  and  a  good  day's  march  with  a  load  of  four 
arrobes  (100  pounds)  is  calculated  at  from  six  to  eight  cocadas.  Against  pul- 
monary affections  the  natives  also  employ  the  huamanripa  (cryptoehcete  andicola),  a 
plant  of  the  snowy  regions,  scarcely  yet  known  in  European  medicine. 

The  Peruvian  rubber,  different  from  that  of  Brazil,  is  extracted  from  the 
syphocampylus,  a  plant  about  50  feet  high,  which  contains  a  very  large  quantity  of 
milky  sap.  The  liquid  obtained  by  incision  coagulates  at  contact  with  the  sacha- 
camote  liana,  and  is  formed  into  cakes  of  a  greyish  colour,  which  blacken  on  the 
surface.  A  tree  in  its  prime  yields  from  30  to  34  pounds,  which  is  extracted  for 
about  tenpence  in  the  forest,  and  sold  for  from  40s.  to  50s.  on  the  Quito  market. 
The  plant  is  always  "  bled  to  death,"  and  its  regular  cultivation  is  said  to  be 
impossible  owing  to  the  worms  which  attack  it  on  the  least  incision  and  cause  it 
rapidly  to  decay.  Saplings  springing  from  the  felled  tree  take  some  fifteen  years 
to  arrive  at  maturity. 

Amongst  the  most  remarkable  species  of  the  Amazonian  woodlands  is  the 
famai  caspi  (pithecolobium  samam — Ernst),  the  "  rain-tree,"  which  grows  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Moyobamba,  and  attains  a  height  of  60  feet.  It  absorbs  the 
atmospheric  moisture,  especially  in  dry  weather,  in  such  quantities  that  the  leaves 
keep  constantly  dripping,  changing  the  surrounding  soil  to  mud. 


FAUNA. 

Like  its  flora,  the  Peruvian  fauna  corresponds  with  the  climatic  conditions. 
Extremely  diversified  on  the  Montana,  it  is  poor  on  the  Pacific  slope,  and  displays 


800  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  BEGIONS. 

its  most  original  features  in  the  intermediate  regions,  where  the  species,  confined 
to  narrow  areas,  present  sharp  contrasts  resulting  from  the  varying  environment. 

In  the  coast  zone  Tschudi  enumerates  only  26  species  of  mammals,  the  most 
remarkable  comprising  the  group  of  "  American  camels  "  (auchenia) — llama, 
huanaco,  alpaca  and  vicuna.  Of  these  the  most  celebrated  is  the  llama,  which 
the  Quichuas  had  domesticated  from  such  a  remote  period  that  no  representatives 
of  the  species  are  anywhere  found  in  the  wild  state.  The  llama  is  used  almost 
exclusively  as  a  pack-animal,  although  it  figures  on  the  old  potteries  as  a 
mount. 

The  male,  which  is  alone  employed,  carries  an  average  load  of  from  45  to  90 
pounds,  and  covers  a  day's  march  of  from  12  to  18  miles.  The  poorest  fodder 
suffices  to  nourish  the  llama,  whose  wool  is  woven  into  coarse  fabrics.  The 
animal,  which  is  extremely  sensitive,  requires  to  be  treated  with  the  utmost 
kindness.  The  slightest  blow,  or  even  a  harsh  word,  would  cause  it  to  lie  down 
by  the  wayside,  and  then  neither  prayer  nor  abuse  would  induce  it  to  resume  the 
march.  At  dawn  the  llama  turns  to  the  east  and  salutes  the  sun  with  a  low 
bleating,  "  a  sort  of  worship  which  was,  perhaps,  not  without  its  influence  on  the 
religious  instincts  of  the  Peruvians."  * 

All  the  other  species — vicuna,  huanaco  and  alpaca — still  run  wild,  although 
perfectly  successful  attempts  have  been  made  to  tame  them.  The  fleece  differs 
greatly  in  value  according  to  its  texture,  length  and  colour.  The  fur  of  the 
huanaco  is  highly  prized,  and  from  the  hair  of  the  alpaca  extremely  light  and 
glossy  fabrics  are  made. 

At  the  time  of  the  Conquest  the  vicunas,  which  under  the  Incas  were  preserved 
as  game,  roamed  the  upper  regions  in  vast  flocks.  But  the  Spaniards  spared 
neither  game  nor  hunter,  and  the  pasturages  were  soon  thinned.  Thousands  were 
slaughtered  for  the  sake  of  the  brain  alone,  although  they  are  still  numerous 
enough  to  be  hunted  by  organised  battues,  as  in  the  time  of  the  Incas,  who 
regarded  the  vicuna  as  their  exclusive  property.  But  all  the  wild  species  must 
soon  disappear,  exterminated  by  sportsmen,  unless,  like  the  llama,  domesticated 
for  the  service  of  man. 

Other  fur-bearing  animals  range  up  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  snows,  and 
even  beyond  the  snow-line.  Such  are  the  chinchilla  and  the  viscacha,  both 
rodents,  dwelling  in  the  recesses  of  the  rocks.  The  fur  of  the  former  is  much 
prized,  while  that  of  the  latter,  though  thick  and  soft  to  the  touch,  commands 
such  a  low  price  that  hunters  take  little  trouble  to  trap  it. 

The  fauna  of  the  Montana  comprises  nearly  all  the  species  of  the  vast  Brazilian 
zone  extending  from  the  Orinoco  to  the  Plate  River.  Of  birds  there  are  hundreds 
of  forms,  all  of  which  here  find  a  suitable  environment.  On  the  Pacific  slope  there 
are  but  few  bird-forms,  and  some  of  these,  such  as  the  parrots,  adapt  themselves 
to  the  changed  surroundings,  dwelling  in  the  clefts  of  the  rocks,  so  different  from 
their  leafy  homes  in  the  Amazonian  woodlands.  One  species  in  the  Lima  district 
(conurus  rupicola]  has  even  acquired  troglodytic  habits. 

*  Philibert  Germiin,  Actes  de  la  Societe  scientifque  du  Chili,  1891. 


INHABITANTS  OF  PERU.  801 

Along  the  beach,  especially  at  Huacho,  crawfish  are  taken  by  the  million. 
The  neighbouring  waters  also  teem  with  fish,  which  in  their  turn  attract  myriads 
of  penguins,  petrels,  cormorants,  and  other  aquatic  fowl. 


VI. 

INHABITANTS  OF  PERU. 

As  in  pre-Columbian  times,  the  Quichuas  are  still  the  dominant  people  of 
Peru.  The  term  Quichua,  said  to  mean  "  temperate  climate,"  served  originally  to 
distinguish  the  habitable  plateau  region  from  the  desert  Puna  of  the  snowy  high- 
lands, and  then  was  extended  to  a  whole  section  of  the  inhabitants.  But  according 
to  another  etymology  the  Quichuas  are  the  "men  of  understanding,"  those  who 
*'  speak  well,"  and  in  any  case  their  language  is  still  dominant  amongst  the 
Peruvian  population.  It  is,  however,  subdivided  into  several  quite  distinct 
dialects,  such  as  that  of  Ecuador,  which  is  unintelligible  to  the  people  of  South 
Peru.  The  pronunciation,  which  is  very  soft  in  the  northern  regions,  becomes 
guttural  and  complicated  with  explosive  letters  in  the  south,  and  is  also  affected 
by  Spanish  and  Aymara  elements  in  varying  proportions. 

The  national  speech  has  been  best  preserved  in  Cuzco  and  the  surrounding 
district,  where  the  natives  held  out  longest  in  defence  of  their  political  indepen- 
dence. This  idiom  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  "  language  of  the  Incas,"  because 
employed  by  those  potentates.  They  must,  however,  have  themselves  learnt  it 
from  the  nation,  and  the  general  name  of  tbe  people  should  also  be  that  of  their 
language.  At  the  same  time  they  may  have  affected  a  form  of  speech  somewhat 
different  from  that  of  their  subjects,  and,  in  fact,  it  is  stated  by  the  early  chronicles 
that  the  court  of  Cuzco  had  its  special  idiom. 

Clements  Markham  quotes  several  words  apparently  answering  in  sound  and 
sense  to  corresponding  Sanskrit  terms,  and  he  seems  half  inclined  to  accept  such 
coincidences  as  pointing  to  a  Hindu  origin  of  the  old  masters  of  Peru.*  But,  as 
they  said  themselves,  they  came  from  the  shores  and  islands  of  Lake  Titicaca,  that 
is  to  say,  from  an  Aymara  land.  It  may  therefore  be  assumed  that  Aymara  was 
their  mother-tongue. 

Quichua,  formerly  prevalent  throughout  Tahuanti-Suyu,  as  the  Inca  empire 
was  called,  is  still  current  in  all  the  provinces  of  that  state  forming  part  of  the 
present  republics  of  Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia,  Chili  and  Argentina.  In  these 
western  regions  it  is  the  letigua  general,  corresponding  to  the  Tupi-Guarani,  which 
is  the  lengoa  geral  of  Brazil,  Paraguay  and  Corrientes,  that  is,  of  the  eastern 
section  of  the  southern  continent.  This  "  general  language"  of  the  Andean 
uplands,  the  mother-tongue  of  two  millions  of  people,  has  held  its  ground  in  all 
the  lands  where  it  had  been  introduced  by  the  Incas.  In  the  rural  districts  of 
the  Sierra  it  is  nowhere  yielding  to  the  encroachments  of  Spanish  ;  but,  on  the 

*  Clements  R.  Markham,  Cuzco  and  Lima. 


802 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


Fig.  116.— EMPIBE  OP  THE  INCAS. 
Scale  1  : 37,000,000. 


contrary,  the  Spaniards  themselves  learn  Quichua,  and  usually  speak  it  in  the 
family  circle  in  preference  to  their  own.  Several  Quichua  terms,  such  as  pampa, 
llama,  condor,  guano,  quina,  have  entered  into  the  universal  speech  of  cultured 
peoples. 

But,  despite  its  hard  struggle  for  existence,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 

Quichua  must  eventually  yield  to 
Spanish,  which  is  the  speech  of 
the  dominant  urban  populations,  of 
literature,  commerce,  and  contem- 
porary civilisation.  Quichua  is  a 
remarkable  language  in  several  re- 
spects, and  may  be  taken  as  a  type 
of  the  South  American  agglutinating 
tongues.  Thanks  to  the  facility  of 
composition,  it  is  extremely  rich 
and  pliant,  capable  of  expressing 
with  ease  the  subtlest  shades  of 
thought,  not  by  inflections  of  the 
root,  as  in  the  Aryan  system,  but 
by  particles  loosely  attached  to  the 
word.  Both  subject  and  object  are 
incorporated  in  the  verb,  and  in 
conversation  the  two  speakers  are 
clearly  indicated  by  the  formal 
elements. 

Between  the  years  1560  and 
1754  no  less  than  ten  grammars 
and  dictionaries  were  published,  all 
but  one  at  Lima.  Quichua  also 
possesses  a  copious  literature,  in- 
cluding the  Apu  Ollantai,  an  ancient 
drama  in  several  texts,  relating  the 
feudal  wars  of  the  Inca  empire. 
Markham  has  also  brought  to  light 
the  Usca  Paucan  ("Loves  of  the 
Golden  Flower"),  a  tragedy  which 
has  unfortunately  been  tampered 
with  in  the  extant  copies  made  by 
the  missionaries,  who  have  intro- 


West  op  Greenwich  .65' 


Empire  ot 
the  Iiicas. 


Zone  of 
Influence. 


Aymaras. 


620  Miles. 


duced   the    Madonna,    angels,    and 
Catholic  miracles. 

Quichua  letters  continue  even  still  to  be  enriched  by  fresh  works.  Besides 
devotional  texts  and  satirical  songs,  in  which  Spanish  and  the  native  language  are 
intermingled,  elegies  and  other  poems,  mostly  pervaded  by  a  melancholy  spirit, 


INHABITANTS  OF  PEEU.  803 

are  frequently  composed,  and  usually  designated  by  th  e  name  of  yaravis.  These 
songs,  which  are  accompanied  by  the  plaintive  notes  of  the  quena  (flute),  speak 
more  eloquently  than  all  the  historians  of  the  horrors  of  the  Conquest  and  the 
sufferings  of  the  oppressed  natives. 


THE  QUICHUAS — EMPIRE  OF  THE  INCAS. 

The  Quichuas  and  the  kindred  Peruvian  populations  resemble  the  Aztecs  and 
other  Mexicans  of  the  plateaux  in  the  massive  build  of  their  frames,  the  broad 
chest,  round  and  pyramidal  form  of  the  skull,  a  feature  which  was  formerly 
exaggerated  by  artificial  deformation.  A  curious  racial  characteristic  is  the 
presence  in  the  cranium  of  an  inter-parietal  bone,  the  so-called  os  Incce,  which 
occurs  far  more  frequently  amongst  the  Quichuas  than  amongst  European  races. 
The  complexion  is  generally  olivaster,  and  the  features  are  strongly  marked,  as  is 
usual  amongst  highlanders. 

They  are  a  timid,  peaceful  people,  in  whom  the  family  sentiment  is  highly 
developed;  but  the  majority  yield  readily  to  the  passion  for  strong  drinks,  passing 
days  together  in  a  brutal  delirium,  accompanied  by  wild  dancing  and  other  orgies. 
Like  all  descendants  of  conquered  and  enslaved  peoples,  they  lack  dignity,  defend- 
ing themselves  with  the  weapons  of  flattery,  cunning  and  falsehood,  and  even  at 
times  displaying  a  cruel  and  ferocious  spirit. 

The  servile  sentiment  is  deeply  ingrained  in  the  Quichua,  who  obeys  uncom- 
plainingly, and  if  he  ever  rises  against  intolerable  oppression,  does  so  not  in  the 
name  of  his  outraged  liberties,  but  through  a  sense  of  loyalty  for  his  old  Inca 
masters.  All  the  Indian  revolts  and  wars  of  emancipation  have  been  made  with 
a  view  to  restoring  the  past.  Raimondi  relates  the  story  of  a  native  of  the  Rio  de 
Santa  district,  who,  when  driven  to  take  vengeance  on  a  parish  priest,  exchanged 
his  "  Christian  "  clothes  for  the  costume  of  an  Inca,  and  then  slew  his  enemy. 

The  Quichuas  and  the  other  Indians  of  the  Andean  uplands  had  certainly 
reached  a  highly  developed  state  of  culture  several  centuries  before  the  arrival  of  the 
Europeans.  The  most  remarkable  monuments  on  the  coastlands  are  even  attributed 
to  peoples  who  preceded  the  Quichuas  in  that  region.  In  any  case,  they  were  by  no 
means  the  only  nation  that  made  progress  in  the  arts,  in  which  they  were  rivalled 
and  even  distanced  by  others.  Viewed  through  a  long  historic  perspective,  to  us 
they  may  seem  to  have  always  been  what  they  showed  themselves  when  the  Inca 
rule  was  suddenly  overthrown  by  the  Spanish  Conquest.  But  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  at  that  time  they  had  already  entered  a  period  of  complete  decadence. 
The  genius  previously  displayed  by  various  inventions  could  scarcely  have  been 
developed  under  a  political  system  which  crushed  all  personal  enterprise. 

As  skilful  potters,  the  Quichuas  made  fictile  vases  of  diverse  form,  representing 
symbolic  or  grotesque  figures  of  men  and  animals.  They  also  knew  how  to  utilise 
the  mineral  ores,  smelting  gold,  silver  and  copper,  and  even  extracting  quicksilver. 
They  could  solder  the  metals  and  manufacture  arms  and  other  implements,  but  were 
still  at  the  copper  age,  having  no  knowledge  of  iron.  Their  cotton  and  woollen 


804  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

fabrics  were  far  more  durable  than  those  at  present  imported  from  Europe,  and 
were  coloured  with  fast  and  brilliant  dyes. 

In  engineering  they  executed  great  works.  Not  only  in  the  Sierra,  from 
Ecuador  to  Bolivia,  but  near  the  coasts,  there  still  exist  hundreds  of  their 
structures,  huacas  (graves),  dykes  and  embankments,  bridges,  temples  and  for- 
tresses. Such  is  the  Ollanta'i-tarabo,  "  House  of  Ollanta'i,"  celebrated  in  the  most 
valuable  literary  document  of  Peru.  On  a  limestone  rock,  towering  above  the 
Vilcamayo  valley  north-east  of  Cuzco,  stand  the  unfinished  walls  of  the  renowned 
citadel,  on  which  thousands  of  hands  had  been  employed  for  a  period  of  ten  years. 
Enormous  granite  slabs  project  above  the  buildings,  while  others,  the  so-called 
"  tired  stones,"  lie  abandoned  on  the  road  from  the  quarries  some  six  miles  distant. 
The  observer  stands  amazed  at  the  prodigious  labour  involved  in  the  transport  of 
these  huge  monoliths  across  a  roaring  stream,  and  up  steep,  rugged  slopes.  His 
wonder  is  enhanced  by  the  marvellous  finish  of  these  blocks,  hewn  without  the  aid 
of  iron,  and  polished  by  the  friction  of  other  stones  and  of  plants  with  silicious 
integuments. 

The  high  state  of  culture  attained  by  the  ancient  Quichuas  is  also  revealed  by 
their  bridges  and  highways.  In  this  respect  they  were  unrivalled  in  the  New 
World,  except  perhaps  by  the  Maj'as  ;  and  even  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  they 
had  been  surpassed  by  the  Romans  and  the  Chinese  alone.  Their  roads,  all  laid 
down  in  a  straight  line,  avoided  any  such  unsurmountable  obstacles  as  lakes  and 
precipices,  but  were  carried  over  swamps,  ascended  steep  inclines,  and  in  places 
were  cut  out  of.  the  live  rock.  The  causeways,  strengthened  by  a  layer  of  pika 
(concrete),  resisted  the  action  of  frosts  and  rains,  and  were  kept  in  repair  by 
gangs  of  "  navvies,"  stationed  at  intervals  along  the  route.  Llama  enclosures  for 
the  transport  service  were  also  maintained  at  fixed  stations,  and  tambos  (tampu, 
"shelters")  were  erected  at  the  passes  and  on  the  more  difficult  slopes. 

Stone  bridges,  some  of  a  monumental  character,  still  exist,  spanning  the 
narrower  streams,  while  the  broad  watercourses  and  rocky  defiles  were  crossed 
by  means  of  the  oroyas,  basket-chairs,  swung  in  mid-air  on  the  liana  suspension 
bridges.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  the  interior  of  the  Sierra,  Peru,  being 
better  provided  with  roads,  was  formerly  far  more  accessible  than  at  present. 
Hence,  during  the  last  four  centuries,  there  has  been  a  retrogade  movement  in 
this  respect,  despite  the  infusion  of  new  blood.  But  even  under  the  Incas,  these 
highways,  which  ramified  in  all  directions  throughout  the  empire,  at  last  became 
useless  in  the  economic  life  of  the  nation.  They  had  been  transformed  to  an 
instrument  of  despotism,  along  which  the  chasqui,  or  "  carriers,"  were  organised 
to  keep  up  the  communications  between  Cuzco  and  Quito,  and  from  the  plateaux 
to  the  coast,  and  transmit  the  imperial  orders  from  one  end  of  the  empire  to  the 
other  more  rapidly  than  could  elsewhere  be  done  by  mounted  messengers. 

As  in  some  modern  European  "  republics,"  the  subjects  of  the  Inca  were  all 
confined  to  their  respective  districts,  from  which  they  could  not  stir  without  a 
special  "permit."  Now,  however,  the  railways  which  are  creeping  up  the 
Cordilleras  may  become  disseminators  of  new  ideas  on  the  elevated  plateaux. 


INHABITANT  OF  PERU. 


805 


Their  work  may  thus  prove  more  important  than  that  of  the  Inca  couriers,  just 
as  the  steamers  plying  on  the  coast  must  tend  to  stimulate  progress  to  an  incom- 
parably greater  extent  than  the  otherwise  really  remarkable  Peruvian  craft.  These 
large  balsas,  or  "  rafts,"  as  the  Spaniards  called  them,  were  strong  enough  to  resist 
the  ocean  waves,  as  we  are  assured  by  Pizarro's  pilot,  Ruiz  de  Estrada.  They 


Fig.  11 7. — ANCIENT  HIGHWAYS  OP  THE  INCAS. 
Scale  1  : 17,000,000. 


West  of  Greenwich 


70' 


3 10  Miles. 


were  most  solidly  built,  with  double  masts,  carrying  broad,  square  sails,  and  not 
only  navigated  the  waters  near  the  coast,  but  even  ventured  on  the  high  seas  as 
far  as  the  Galapagos  archipelago,  600  miles  distant  from  the  nearest  land. 

Even  science,  in  the  strict  sense,  had  made  considerable  progress,  as  is  evident 
from  their  decimal  system,  as  accurate  as  that  of   modern  times,  their  observation 
21 


306  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

of  eclipses  and  of  the  precession  of  the  sun  along  the  ecliptic,  and  their  division 
of  the  year  into  365  days.  They  were  also  able  to  transmit  their  ideas  by  certain 
sculptures,  and  the  so-called  "  written  stones,"  representing  animals,  constella- 
tions, various  symbolical  objects,  and  probably  also  signs  of  notation,  are  seen  in 
many  parts  of  the  country,  and  especially  on  the  cliffs  in  the  rainless  zone  not 
exposed  to  weathering. 

According  to  Montesinos  they  were  even  acquainted  with  the  art  of  writing; 
but  one  of  the  Incas,  after  consulting  the  supreme  god,  had  announced  that  letters 
were  the  cause  of  all  depravity  and  of  all  national  misfortunes,  consequently  that 
this  diabolical  invention  should  be  abandoned  under  pain  of  the  stake.  But 
however  this  be,  the  Quichuas  were  certainly  ignorant  of  writing  at  the  arrival  of 
the  Spaniards,  using  as  aids  to  the  memory  the  so-called  quipos  (quippu],  woollen 
cords  of  varying  length,  which,  by  diverse  combinations  of  knots,  red,  blue,  white 
and  brown  colours,  were  able  to  record  events,  even  express  a  few  simple  thoughts, 
and  give  the  results  of  the  official  census. 

The  Jesuit  missionary  Acosta  tells  us  that  the  old  men  of  his  time  could  still 
represent  articulate  sounds  by  arranging  pebbles  of  various  colours  on  the  ground. 
Such  arrangements  represented  such  prayers  as  the  Pater  noster,  the  Are  Maria, 
the  words  of  which  were  recalled  by  observing  the  different  disposition  of  the 
pebbles.  The  couriers,  however,  charged  with  the  transmission  of  news  and 
Government  orders,  do  not  appear  to  have  been  supplied  with  quipos,  but  had  to 
learn  the  messages  by  heart,  passing  them  on  from  relay  to  relay  till  they  reached 
their  destinations.  At  present  the  shepherds,  fishers  and  workers  on  the  planta- 
tions still  keep  their  reckonings  by  means  of  rudimentary  quipos,  like  the  abacus 
of  the  Chinese  and  Russian  peasantry. 

The  Quichuas  had  developed  a  national  communistic  system,  which  the  Incas 
would  appear  to  have  simply  codified  without  contributing  anything  to  its 
formation.  All  inventions  were,  of  course,  attributed  to  various  members  of  the 
royal  dynasty.  But  the  will  of  a  potentate  is  insufficient  to  inform  the  national 
life  ;  he  can  but  legislate  to  his  personal  aggrandisement  in  accordance  with  the 
traditional  usages. 

The  land  was  divided  into  four  equal  parts,  one  for  the  labourers  and  their 
families,  one  for  the  sick,  widows  and  orphans,  and  the  other  two  for  the  Inca  and 
the  Sun,  that  is,  for  the  political  and  religious  administration.  But  being  at  once 
emperor  and  high  priest,  the  Inca  was,  in  fact,  the  real  owner  of  one-half  of  the 
national  domain.  The  alimentary  crops  were  garnered  in  common,  each  person 
receiving  a  share  in  accordance  with  his  wants.  Of  the  harvest  attributed  to  the 
Inca  and  to  the  Sun,  a  portion  was  also  set  apart  to  replenish  the  granaries  reserved 
for  times  of  distress. 

The  arable  land  was  distributed  in  family  allotments  proportionate  to  the 
number  of  members,  and  all  field  operations  were  carried  on  under  Goverment 
overseers.  The  lash  was  applied  in  public  to  idle  or  refractory  toilers ;  but  they 
were  never  deprived  of  their  land — which,  in  fact,  did  not  belong  to  them  in 
personal  ownership. 


INHABITANTS  OF  PERU. 


807 


Besides  the  seed-corn,  and  the  dole  in  case  of  famine,  the  State  also  distributed 
every  two  years  wool  and  leather  on  the  uplands,  and  cotton  in  the  hot  regions. 
Each  family  had  to  make  its  own  clothes  and  foot-gear,  also  under  Government 
commissioners,  scrupulously  returning  all  remnants  to  the  public  stores.  The 
livestock  was  similarly  common  property ;  that  is  to  say,  the  administration 
appointed  the  herdsmen,  regulated  the  conditions  of  slaughter,  and  on  special 
occasions  even  the  distribution  of  meat. 

All  the  national  customs  and  institutions  were  thus  transformed  by  the  State 
to  rigid  laws,  until  the  whole  people  had  finally  become  mere  serfs  of  the 
"  divine  "  family  of  the  Incas.  Manco  Capac,  founder  of  the  dynasty,  was 
supposed  to  have  suddenly  appeared  on  an  island  in  Lake  Titicaca,  unless  he  fell 
from  heaven,  like  the  gold,  silver  and  copper  eggs  whence  sprang  the  chiefs,  the 

Fig.  118. — STRING  OF  QUIPOS. 


nobles  and  the  common  people.  But  according  to  another  legend  the  first  Inca 
emerged  from  the  ocean  like  the  divine  Yiracocha  ("Sea  Foam"),  whose  name 
was  transferred  to  the  Spanish  conquerors  also  arriving  like  gods  from  the 
high  seas. 

During  the  four  or  five  centuries  of  the  "  mild  sway  "  to  which  the  nation 
was  subjected  it  ended  by  adapting  itself  to  the  yoke,  and  obedience  became 
"  blind,"  as  required  by  the  laws.  Even  culprits  came  forward  for  the  most  part 
to  denounce  themselves.  All  men  were  held  to  military  service,  death  being  the 
penalty  of  any  act  of  insubordination. 

All  conquered  peoples  were  obliged  to  accept  the  national  religion,  the  feasts 
and  ceremonies  of  which  were  strictly  regulated  by  the  State ;  the  least  change  in 
the  traditional  rites  would,  in  fact,  have  seemed  more  than  a  crime.  The  public 
worship,  however,  as  well  as  the  common  tenure  of  land,  at  least  kept  alive  the 


808  SOUTH  AMERICA -THE  ANDES  BEGIONS. 

memory  of  times  anterior  to  the  Inca  rule,  and  was  itself  intimately  associated 
with  astronomic  phenomena,  the  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  seasons 
and  harvests. 

The  sun,  whose  rays  quickened  the  sluggish  life  of  the  plateaux,  was  the  God 
of  the  Quichuas  in  a  pre-eminent  sense,,  whereas  the  Yuncas  worshipped  more 
especially  Mama  Cocha,  the  "  Mother  Lake,"  whose  waves,  stirred  up  by  the 
underground  forces,  came  at  times  to  waste  their  lands.  The  great  chief  of  the 
Quichua  cult  was  of  royal  blood,  a  "child  of  the  sun,"  and  the  priests  and 
priestesses  owed  him  absolute  obedience;  even  the  nunneries  were  royal  harems. 

No  othor  nation  in  the  whole  world  was  ever  more  thoroughly  classified, 
drilled  and  disciplined.  Every  man  had  his  badge  ;  everywhere  the  people  were 
numbered  and  enrolled  in  set  divisions,  which  were  classed  in  groups  of  five,  ten 
and  ten  times  ten ;  each  hundred  had  its  centurion,  each  thousand  its  captain, 
while  each  viceroy  of  the  four  provinces — North,  South,  East,  and  West — knew 
exactly  how  many  captains  were  at  his  disposal. 

The  working  of  the  vast  machine  was  controlled  by  a  secret  police,  and  the 
education  suitable  to  each  child  was  likewise  determined  by  the  State.  The  sons 
of  the  Incas  and  of  the  "  decorated  gentlemen  "  alone  were  taught  the  arts  and 
sciences,  mathematics  and  astronomy,  theology,  history  and  law,  politics  and  the 
art  of  war,  music  and  poetry.  Agriculture,  the  manufacture  of  arms,  implements, 
and  clothes  comprised  the  education  of  the  sons  ;  weaving,  cooking,  and  certain 
field  operations  that  of  the  daughters,  of  plebeians. 

Marriage  was  obligatory,  its  date,  like  that  of  the  military  service,  being 
determined  by  the  magistrates.  All  unions  were  essentially  endogamic,  even  the 
Inca  himself  being  compelled  to  marry  his  eldest  sister.  Government  supervision 
was  extended  to  every  act  of  daily  life,  and  the  very  doors  of  the  houses  had  to 
be  left  unbolted,  so  that  the  agents  of  the  police  might  have  access  at  all  hours. 

All  conquered  nations  were  at  once  subjected  to  the  same  regime,  which 
extended  in  their  case  to  the  style  of  dress  and  the  cut  of  the  hair.  The  different 
types  of  special  cranial  deformation,  as  found  in  the  graves,  are  even  supposed  to 
have  been  officially  prescribed  to  the  different  tribal  groups.  The  result  of  all 
this  drilling  and  meddlesome  interference  was  that  when  Pizarro,  at  the  head  of  a 
few  Spanish  brigands,  presented  himself  before  the  highly-disciplined  armies  of 
Atahuallpa,  seized  the  Inca  by  his  embroidered  robe  and  dragged  him  from  his 
throne,  the  empire  collapsed  ! 

A  partial  destruction  of  the  nation  rapidly  followed  the  fall  of  the  dynasty. 
Massacres,  epidemics,  famines,  swept  away  hundreds  of  thousands  and  even  millions, 
say  the  early  chroniclers.  But  the  new  economic  conditions  were  certainly 
the  chief  cause  of  the  mortality.  Not  only  were  the  natives  forcibly  con- 
verted to  the  Christian  religion,  and  subjected  to  the  tribute  as  under  the  Incas 
but  they  had  also  to  submit  to  the  system  of  mita,  requiring  all  to  take  their  turn 
in  the  mines.  One  year  of  excessive  labour  carried  off  half  the  hands,  so  that  the 
mining  districts  were  converted  into  ever-increasing  solitudes,  while  the  losses 
were  supplied  by  fresh  importations. 


INHABITANTS  OF  PERU.  309 

Those  who  escaped  the  mita  were  hopelessly  ruined  by  the  accumulating  eccle- 
siastical dues,  and  by  the  so-called  repartimientos,  a  kind  of  enforced  truck  system, 
applied  to  the  purchase  of  the  necessaries  of  life.  During  the  first  years  of  the 
Spanish  occupation  many  sought  safety  in  flight.  Both  the  chroniclers  and 
popular  tradition  speak  of  Incas  followed  by  thousands,  laden  with  enormous 
quantities  of  the  precious  metals,  who  escaped  from  the  oppressors  by  crossing  the 
eastern  Andes  and  seeking  refuge  amongst  the  allied  tribes  of  the  Amazonian 
valleys.  According  to  the  legend  these  fugitives  settled  about  the  confluence  of 
the  Huallaga  and  Maranon,  where  they  built  the  great  city  of  Paytiti,  called  also 
Yurac-Huasi,  "  White  House,"  which  in  the  popular  imagination  was  often  con- 
founded with  the  palace  of  El  Dorado,  the  "  Golden  King."  So  strong  was  the 
belief  in  the  fugitive  dynasty  of  the  old  kings  that,  in  1740,  a  certain  Juan  Santos 
was  able  to  assume  the  name  of  Atahuallpa,  rally  to  his  standard  the  Chumhos, 
or  savages  of  various  tribes,  massacre  or  expel  the  missionaries,  and  set  up  the 
empire  of  Emin  or  Paytiti  in  defiance  of  the  Spanish  authorities. 

Although  the  revolts  in  the  inter- Andean  provinces  were  ruthlessly  suppressed, 
the  Government  was  for  a  moment  endangered  by  the  rising  of  1780,  when  Tupac- 
Amaru,  a  descendant  of  the  Incas,  ordered  all  the  corregidores  to  be  hanged, 
abolished  the  mita  and  repartimientos,  and  in  a  few  months  found  himself  master 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  Peruvian  plateau.  But  he  was  unable  to  resist  the 
regular  troops,  and  after  his  execution  at  Cuzco  the  natives  returned  to  their 
obedience.  The  repartimientos,  however,  were  never  revived,  and  the  mita  was 
greatly  modified,  though  not  finally  abolished  till  the  War  of  Independence. 

At  present  the  Quichua  race  is  scarcely  anywhere  found  in  a  pure  state.  In 
the  Huancavelica  district  it  is  intermingled  with  the  Huancas,  and  elsewhere  with 
the  Huamanes,  the  Yuncas,  Charcas  and  Antis.  Besides  these  aborigines  the 
Quichuas  have  also  absorbed  some  European,  African,  and  even  Chinese  elements, 
and  without  being  fundamentally  changed,  they  have  been  somewhat  modified  by 
the  Spanish  administration  itself. 


THE  YUiNCAs,  ANTIS  AND  OTHER  ABORIGINES. 

Besides  the  Quichuas,  who  held  most  of  the  Sierra,  the  Bolivian  Aymaras 
occupied  some  of  the  southern  districts.  On  the  hot  coastlands  dwelt  several 
civilised  peoples  collectively  called  Yuncas,  like  the  country  itself,  but  differing 
greatly  from  each  other,  and  probably,  on  the  whole,  superior  to  the  Quichuas  in 
culture  and  mental  capacity.  But  occupying  a  narrow  zone,  broken  into  several 
fragments  by  intervening  arid  and  desert  tracts,  the  Yuncas  were  unable  to  resist 
the  Peruvian  armies  descending  from  the  uplands  and  attacking  them  in  detail. 
Most  of  their  fortified  villages,  still  seen  in  large  numbers  on  the  heights  along 
the  coast,  were  perched  on  bare  rocks  destitute  of  springs,  so  that  water  had  to  be 
brought  with  great  labour  from  the  gorges  at  the  foot  of  the  hills. 

Besides  these  ruined  settlements  the  Yuncas  have  left  numerous  structures, 
such  as  citadels,  temples  and  huacas,  which  far  exceed  those  of  the  Quichuas 


810  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

iu.  size  and  architectural  beauty,  as  well  as  in  their  wealth  of  metal  objects, 
earthenware  and  woven  fabrics.  But  the  nation  itself  has  been  merged  in  the 
mass  of  the  surrounding  half-caste  populations.  One  of  their  dialects  was  still 
current  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  on  the  coastlands  near  Trujillo, 
but  it  now  survives  only  in  Fernando  de  la  Carrera's  grammar. 

On  the  Amazonian  slope  the  native  populations  have  been  protected  by  their 
hot  and  moist  climate,  their  vast  forests,  precipices  and  dangerous  rivers.  JBut 
they  have  suffered  especially  from  the  epidemics  introduced  by  the  whites,  and 
most  of  the  villages  founded  by  the  missionaries  have  been  depopulated  mainly 
by  these  contagious  disorders.  Thus  disappeared  San  Francisco  de  Borja  on  the 
Maranon,  where  the  smallpox  broke  out  in  1660  and,  spreading  to  the  surrounding 
missions,  swept  away  44,000  Indians.  Nine  years  afterwards  the  same  scourge 
carried  oil  20,000  fresh  victims,  and  its  repeated  visits  have  left  vast  solitudes  in 
the  country. 

The  greatest  sufferers  were  always  the  Mansos,  "  tame,"  or  semi-civilised, 
enfeebled  by  their  very  change  of  life  ;  hence  at  present  the  Indios  bravos,  that  is 
the  independent  wild  tribes,  are  far  more  numerous  than  the  Mansos.  Those 
occupying  the  east  foot  of  the  Carabaya  mountains  have  successfully  risen  against 
the  Spanish  intruders,  and  destroyed  the  colonies  that  had  been  founded  in  their 
territory.  All  these  Indians,  collectively  known  as  Chunchos,  that  is,  "  Barbarians  " 
in  the  Quichua  language,  are  probably  of  Antis  stock. 

The  Antis  proper,  who  have  given  their  name  to  the  surrounding  mountains, 
and  by  extension  to  the  Andes  themselves,  are  a  mere  remnant  of  the  nation. 
These  Campas,  as  they  are  also  called,  are  of  mean  stature,  with  more  graceful 
figures  than  the  Quichuas,  although  betraying  more  of  a  Mongolic  type  in  their 
slightly  oblique  eyes,  flat  nose  and  prominent  cheekbones.  They  show  remarkable 
skill  in  taming  wild  animals,  which  are  kept  in  menageries  in  their  forest  glades. 
Amongst  these  "  pets "  are  not  only  poultry  and  other  birds,  but  peccaries, 
capybaras  (water  cavies)  and  even  tapirs. 

The  Antis  have  not  yet  forgotten  all  the  practices  which  they  formerly 
learned  at  the  Franciscan  missions.  But  the  old  religious  ideas  have  been  little 
modified  and  a  belief  in  witchcraft  is  still  universal.  All  maladies  are  caused 
by  the  machinations  of  some  witch,  who  when  discovered  by  a  counter-spell  is 
strangled,  with  the  approbation  of  her  kinsfolk.  They  still  sing  a  kind  of  litany, 
the  form  of  which  was  probably  acquired  at  the  old  missions.  But  the  words 
are  very  different,  the  Catholic  formularies  having  been  replaced  by  an  oath  of 
brotherhood  probably  dating  from  the  time  when  they  rose  against  the  Spaniards. 

"  If  you  hunger,  I  will  share  with  you  my  game  and  my  fish  and  the  fruits  of 
my  garden,  for  you  are  a  Campa  !  If  you  are  attacked  by  an  enemy,  I  will 
expose  my  life  to  defend  you,  for  you  are  a  Campa  !  If  the  devil  compasses  your 
death,  your  children  shall  be  mine,  for  you  are  a  Campa,  and  the  Campas  should 
love  one  another." 

The  reiterated  "  For  you  are  a  Campa"  produces  just  the  effect  of  the  "  Ora 
pro  nobis  "  of  the  Catholic  litany. 


INHABITANTS  OF  PEKU.  811 

Amongst  the  tribes  that  have  preserved  some  cannibal  practices  are  the 
Oauhibos,  a  terra  which,  according  to  Calvo,  has  the  meaning  of  "  Vampire  "  in  the 
Pana  language.  In  1865  two  Peruvian  officers  and  their  escort  were  eaten  by 
the  Cachibos,  who  also  eat  their  relatives,  smoked  or  roasted.  They  do  not 
always  wait  the  natural  end  of  the  aged,  who  at  their  own  request  are  clubbed. 
The  same  fate  overtakes  all  adults  unable  to  support  themselves,  as  well  as 
childless  women — though  they  are  not  eaten,  the  flesh  of  women  being  considered 
poisonous. 

It  is  related  of  two  sick  neophytes  that  at  the  approach  of  death  they  wept 
hot  tears  at  the  thought  that  they  would  not  have  the  honour  of  serving  as  food 
for  their  friends,  but  would  be  consumed  by  worms.  At  solemn  feasts  so 
numerous  were  said  to  be  the  candidates  for  this  honour  that  the  young  man 
intended  to  supply  the  banquet  had  at  times  to  be  chosen  by  lot.  It  is  also  asserted 
by  the  Peruvians  that  the  Ca,chibos  and  other  cannibals  hunted  man,  regarded 
purely  as  game.  The  white  or  half-caste  settlers,  on  their  part,  feel  themselves 
justified  on  the  strength  of  these  more  or  less  veracious  reports  to  treat  the 
Cachibos  as  wild  beasts,  and  massacre  them  without  remorse.  Nor  are  they 
always  very  particular  to  distinguish  between  the  Cachibos  and  others,  but  in 
their  hunting  expeditions  are  apt  to  regard  all  Indians  as  cannibals. 

Altogether  the  traditions  of  murders  and  massacres  perpetrated  in  these  lands 
are  of  a  harrowing  character.  From  time  immemorial  the  polygamist  tribes  of  the 
Ucayali  basin — Piros,  Conibos,  Sipibos  and  Setibos — have  been  accustomed  to 
ascend  the  lateral  streams  in  search  of  women.  But  such  correrias  (roving 
expeditions)  are  undertaken,  not  on  their  own  account,  but  are  organised  by  the 
whites  for  the  capture  of  women  and  children.  For  their  purposes  the  adult  males 
would  be  useless,  as  they  would  prefer  to  die  than  to  submit  to  a  life  of  slavery  ; 
hence  these  are  usually  killed  and  their  habitations  fired. 

Nevertheless,  some  of  the  groups,  such  as  the  Piros  (Chontaquiros),  who  occupy 
a  space  of  over  300  miles  along  the  Urubamba  and  Ucayali  rivers,  have  already 
adopted  civilised  ways ;  many  speak  Spanish,  Quichua,  and  even  Portuguese, 
and  show  much  skill  as  weavers,  armourers  and  builders.  Admirable  boatmen, 
they  make  long  voyages  of  hundreds  of  miles,  often  merely  for  pleasure. 

The  Conibos  and  Sipibos,  who  adjoin  the  Piros  on  the  banks  of  the  Ucayali, 
have  even  made  still  greater  progress,  wearing  the  dress  of  the  Peruvian  peasantry, 
replacing  their  bows  and  arrows  and  stone  hatchets  with  firearms,  importing 
English  or  American  utensils,  drinking  foreign  liquors,  speaking  Portuguese,  and 
travelling  by  the  steamers  plying  on  the  Amazons  and  its  affluents.  Nevertheless, 
in  the  recesses  of  the  forests  they  still  adhere  to  some  of  the  old  usages,  such  as 
artificial  deformation  of  the  skull,  and,  it  is  said,  even  occasionally  bury  alive 
badly- shaped  or  troublesome  new-born  babes.  They  would  also  appear  to  recruit 
their  numbers,  decimated  by  these  barbarous  practices,  by  kidnapping  expeditions 
amongst  the  Amahuacas  (Ipiteneres),  who  dwell  in  the  branches  of  the  trees  and 
whose  only  weapons  are  the  blow-pipe  and  arrows. 

In  the  Huallaga  and  Ucayali  valleys  the  natives,  often  named  from  symbolical 


812  SOUTH  AMERICA -THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

animals,  speak  languages  radically  distinct  from  the  Quichua-Aymara  family. 
The  Piros  and  other  southern  tribes  belong  to  the  Antis  group,  while  the 
Amahuacas,  Conibos,  Cachibos,  Sipibos,  Setibos,  and  Remos  of  the  Ucayali, 
together  with  the  Christian  Hibitos  (Itibos)  of  the  Huallaga,  form  another  group 
with  the  now  reduced  Panos,  who  formerly  constituted  a  great  nation  on  the 
lower  Ucayali  and  Upper  Amazons.  The  Panos  manufactured  a  bark-paper  like 
the  Mexican  papyrus,  on  which  they  were  said  to  record  memorable  events  and 
divisions  of  the  year  by  means  of  various  signs.  On  their  amulets  they  also 
painted  diverse  coloured  figures,  which  were  supposed  to  exert  a  favourable 
influence  on  their  destinies.  They  made  wooden  and  clay  effigies,  decked  their 
dead  and  deposited  them  in  large  painted  jars,  did  homage  to  the  fire,  and,  like 
the  Quichuas,  worshipped  the  sun. 

Converted  in  the  seventeenth  century,  they  relapsed  after  the  massacre  of 
the  missionaries  in  1767,  but  were  again  gathered  into  the  fold  towards  the  close 
of  the  Spanish  rule.  According  to  Marcoy,  the  purest  representatives  of  the  old 
Pano  nation  are  the  Sensi,  a  small  section  of  the  Setibos,  who  dwell  apart  from 
the  whites  on  a  plateau  east  of  the  lower  Ucayali.  The  Sensi  have  no  chiefs, 
and  recognise  no  superiors,  though  they  pay  deference  to  the  advice  of  their 
elders. 

Others,  such  as  the  Cocamas,  the  Iquitos,  the  Pebas,  Ticunas  and  Omaguas, 
have  either  already  disappeared,  or  are  being  assimilated  to  the  surrounding 
settled  populations.  The  Omaguas,  of  whom  no  pure  representatives  any  longer 
survive,  have  played  a  considerable,  although  a  passive,  part  in  the  history  of 
South  American  exploration.  Vague  rumours  propagated  from  tribe  to  tribe, 
and  repeated  to  the  Spanish  adventurers  in  Colombia  and  Peru,  represented  them 
as  a  wealthy  nation,  in  whose  sumptuous  capital  resided  the  El  Dorado.  Nume- 
rous expeditious  were  organised  to  discover  these  treasures,  and  thus  the  work  of 
discovery  was  stimulated. 

In  the  forests  of  the  Ucayali  and  Yavari  are  situated  the  camping-grounds  of 
the  Mayorunas,  who  also  gave  rise  to  numerous  legends.  They  were  supposed 
by  some  to  be  the  descendants  of  the  Spanish  soldiers  left  in  the  country  after  the 
murder  of  Pedro  de  Ursua  by  the  "  tyrant "  Lopez  de  Aguirre,  and  it  was  added 
that  they  still  preserved  their  European  features  with  thick  black  beards.  But 
the  Mayorunas  are,  on  the  contrary,  full-blood  Indians,  and  the  legend  originated 
in  a  confusion  of  terms.  The  pirates  accompanying  Aguirre  had  received  the 
name  of  Maranones,  that  is,  "  People  of  Maranon,"  a  word  which  came  to  be  easily 
confused  with  Mayorunas. 

But  this  name  itself  presents  a  difficulty.  In  Quichua  Mayo  Rnna  means 
"River  People,"  whereas  they  are  a  tribe  of  hunters,  living  in  the  depths  of  the 
forest,  without  boats  or  rafts.  They  may,  however,  have  originally  come  from 
the  unnavigable  headwaters  of  some  river,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  Mayo,  on  the 
banks  of  which  the  Spaniards  founded  Moyobamba. 

The  Mayorunas  are  accused  of  cannibalism  by  their  neighbours,  but  without 
any  proof ;  they  are,  however,  hostile,  and  even  dangerous  to  whites  venturing  into 


INHABITANTS  OF  PERU. 


313 


their  territory.  In  1866  a  Brazilo-Peruvian  expedition  up  the  Yavari  had  to 
retrace  its  steps  after  losing  its  canoes  and  arms,  and  although  the  commissioners 
of  1874  were  more  fortunate,  they  lost  twenty-seven  of  their  party  from  fever, 
hardships,  and  the  poisoned  arrows  of  the  Mayorunas. 

Akin  to  these  are  the  Marahuas,  who  dwell  farther  east  on  the  right  bank  of 


Fig.  119.—  INDIAN  POPULATIONS  OF  PBRIT. 
Scale  1  :  15,000,000. 


310  Miles. 


the  Yavari,  and  who  are  now  mostly  Catholics.  But  of  all  the  riverine  peoples 
above  the  Brazilian  frontier,  the  Yahuas  (Yaguas)  are  physically  the  finest.  Both 
men  and  women  have  the  same  proud  bearing,  and  their  almost  naked  figures  look 
like  living  statues.  Their  Ticuna  neighbours,  higher  up  the  river,  are  also  a 
fine  race,  who  dress  in  excellent  taste,  ornamenting  their  robes  with  unsymmetrical 
but  highly  effective  paintings,  and  at  a  distance  resembling  the  conventional 


8H  SOUTH  AMEBICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONc*. 

figures  of  angels,    with  their  long   tresses  and  white  wings  pendent  from   the 
shoulders. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Orejones  ("  Long  Ears  "),  although  tall  and  muscular, 
make  themselves  repulsive  by  slitting  the  lower  lobe  of  the  ear  into  two  strips, 
which  hang  down  nearly  to  the  shoulders.  Their  territory  lies  on  the  north  side 
of  the  Napo,  above  its  confluence  with  the  Maranon. 


THE  SPANIARDS,  NEGROES  AND  COOLIES. 

The  Spanish  immigrants,  who  have  served  to  leaven  the  native  populations, 
nearly  all  settled  originally  in  the  metropolis  and  in  the  mining  cities  of  the 
plateau.  From  these  centres  the  Creoles  (full-blood  Spaniards)  and  the  half- 
castes  gradually  spread  over  the  land  in  sufficient  numbers  to  slowly  modify  the 
aboriginal  elements.  But  after  the  heroic  age  of  the  Conquest,  Spain  was  too 
exhausted  to  send  any  more  colonists  to  Peru ;  there  never  was  an  immigration  in 
the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  and  the  subsequent  arrivals  were  mainly  a  few 
fortune-hunters,  officials. and  soldiers. 

Since  the  War  of  Independence  and  the  rupture  of  the  commercial  relations 
with  Spain,  Peru  has  ceased  to  receive  any  settlers  of  Spanish  speech.  Amongst 
the  immigrants  from  other  lands,  who  in  1876  constituted  about  one-sixth  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Lima,  the  Italians  are  by  far  the  most  numerous ;  they  have 
acquired  a  sort  of  monopoly  of  the  retail  trade,  and  most  of  the  eating-houses 
are  in  their  hands.  The  English  and  Germans  are  for  the  most  part  engaged 
in  the  wholesale  trade,  while  the  French  follow  pursuits  more  like  those  of  the 
Italians. 

Under  the  Spanish  rule  the  African  element  was  somewhat  strongly  repre- 
sented on  the  Peruvian  seaboard.  But  it  tends  to  be  absorbed  in  the  general 
population,  especially  since  the  complete  cessation  of  slavery  in  ,1855,  after 
which  year  all  further  importations  from  any  quarter  became  impossible. 
Towards  the  middle  of  the  century  there  were  still  about  50,000  negroes  in 
Peru;  at  present  they  number  at  most  5,000.  On  the  plantations  they  are  replaced 
by  Chinese  coolies  and  South-Sea  Islanders,  of  whom  nearly  100,000  have  been 
introduced  since  1849. 

Whatever  be  said  to  the  contrary  by  interested  persons,  the  coolie  traffic  has 
always  been  accompanied  by  injustice  and  atrocities.  The  pretended  free  hands 
had  often  been  kidnapped  on  the  coasts  of  China,  while  those  who  signed  the 
contract  voluntarily  discovered  too  late  the  hollowness  of  the  promises  in  which 
they  had  believed.  Revolts  occurred  on  the  high  seas,  and  frightful  struggles 
took  place  between  the  crews  and  the  captives.  Reports  are  current  of  vessels 
which  disappeared  altogether,  burnt  by  their  living  freight,  preferring  death  to 
bondage. 

After  the  horrors  of  the  middle  passage  came  those  of  forced  labour  on  the 
plantations.  Groaning  under  the  lash  during  the  day,  confined  at  night  in 
hovels  guarded  by  armed  men,  with  only  three  days  of  rest  in  the  whole  year, 


INHABITANTS  OF  PERU.  815 

and  a  vile  diet,  supplied  at  exorbitant- charges  by  the  planters  themselves,  those 
who  survived  the  eight  years  for  which  they  had  signed  found  themselves  at 
the  end  burdened  with  a  debt  of  which  they  knew  nothing,  and  for  which  they 
had  to  serve  a  fresh  term  of  slavery. 

Nevertheless,  an  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the  labourers  was  effected, 
partly  by  the  protests  of  the  Chinese  Government,  partly  by  the  ruin  of  the 
plantations  or  the  exhaustion  of  the  guano-beds,  and  often  by  the  revolts  of  the 
victims.  The  importation  of  coolies  ceased,  and  those  who  remained  in  Peru,  some 
50,000,  have  recovered  their  liberty.  Most  of  the  Chinese  have  given  up  thtir 
national  dress  and  no  longer  wear  the  pig-tail.  They  are  scattered  everywhere, 
and  are  even  met  in  the  settlements  on  the  Amazonian  slope. 

In  the  towns  they  take  to  trade,  keep  hotels  and  restaurants,  practise  diverse 
crafts,  and  succeed  in  all  their  undertakings.  Hence  they  excite  great  jealousy, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  occupation  of  Lima  by  the  Chilian  forces,  nearly  300 
Chinese  tradesmen  were  murdered  and  their  shops  plundered ;  a  massacre  also  took 
place  on  the  plantations  of  Canete. 

Formerly  the  natives  were  often  compared  with  the  Chinese,  and  in  the  popular 
language  the  term  Chinos  is  still  applied  to  the  uncivilised  Indians.  It  was  even 
pretended  that  the  coolies,  on  landing  at  Eten,  recognised  the  descendants  of  the 
Yuncas  as  their  kinsmen,  both  in  origin  and  speech.  But  whatever  be  the 
primitive  stock  of  the  Peruvian  natives,  the  recent  Chinese  immigrants  differ 
altogether  from  them  in  their  more  energetic  and  resolute  character,  as  well  as 
in  their  mental  capacity. 

Numerous  Sino-Peruvian  families  have  already  been  constituted,  and  thus  has 
begun  the  gradual  ethnical  fusion  of  the  races  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds.  Till 
recently  the  Peruvian  women  showed  the  greatest  repugnance  to  the  Chinese, 
the  Macacos  ("  Apes  "),  or  "  people  of  Macao,"  as  they  called  them  ;  now,  on  the 
contrary,  they  greatly  appreciate  the  gentle  character,  the  sense  of  justice  and 
the  family  virtues  of  these  "  celestials." 

Of  the  Pacific  Islanders  scarcely  any  survive,  nearly  all  having  been  carried 
off  by  consumption ;  2,000  Kanakas  imported  in  1863  from  the  Marquesas 
Archipelago  had  perished  almost  to  a  man  within  eighteen  months. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  national  unity  appears  to  be  far  less  firmly  established 
in  Peru  than  in  the  other  South  American  republics.  Class  differences,  far  more 
than  diversity  of  origin,  separate  the  urban  from  the  impoverished  rural  popu- 
lations as  widely  as  if  they  were  two  distinct  nations.  This  lack  of  cohesion 
constitutes  a  great  danger,  and  was  one  of  the  factors  that  in  the  late  conflict 
assured  the  triumph  of  the  Chilian  forces,  animated  by  a  more  developed  national 
sentiment. 


816 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


VII. 
TOPOGRAPHY. 

In  her  northern  provinces  Peru  has  no  cities  to  rival  the  Ecuadorean  seaport 
of  Guayaquil  in  commercial  importance.  Tumbez,  sighted  by  vessels  coming 
from  the  south,  before  penetrating  into  the  Jambeli  channel,  at  the  entrance  of 
Guayaquil  bay,  is  more  interesting  for  its  historic  memories  than  for  its 
exchanges.  Here  the  first  Spanish  adventurers  landed  in  the  year  1528,  at  which 
time  this  city  of  the  Incas  possessed  a  strong  fortress,  a  palace,  a  wealthy  temple, 


Fig.  120. — TUMBEZ  AND  ITS  DESERTS. 
Scale  1  :  750,000. 


80"  so- 


West  or    Greenwich 


8CT.O- 


Depths. 


Oto5 
Fathoms. 


5  to  5!5 
Fathoms 


25  to  50 
Fathoms. 


50  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


18  Miles. 


and  a  convent  of  the  "  Yestals  of  the  Sun."  At  present  it  has  little  to  show 
except  its  low  houses  threatened  by  the  sands  ;  and  the  Rio  Tumbez,  descending 
from  the  auriferous  Zaruma  regions,  no  longer  feeds  the  network  of  irrigating 
rills  which  formerly  ramified  to  a  great  distance  over  the  surrounding  plains. 
At  Tumbez  the  beach  shoals  so  gradually  that  the  shipping  has  to  ride  at  anchor 
a  long  way  off  the  coast. 

"West  of  the  Amatope  "  Pitch  Hills  "  the  port  of  Talara  has  recently  been 
founded  by  some  capitalists  interested  in  the  petroleum  industry.  An  under- 
ground conduit,  7  miles  long,  fed  by  pumping  gear  capable  of  raising  1,000  tons 
of  petroleum  in  a  day,  conveys  the  oil  from  the  wells  of  Negritos  to  the  Talara 


TOPOGBAPHY  OF  PEEU.  817 

reservoirs,  while  another  conduit  supplies  the  water  required  for  the  works  and 
for  the  surrounding  gardens. 


TALARA — ETEN. 

At  Talara,  which  has  one  of  the  best  anchorages  on  the  Peruvian  coast,  only 
the  refined  oil  is  shipped,  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  northern  district  being 
all  forwarded  through  the  ports  of  Tumbez  and  Paita.  Two-thirds  of  the  whole 
traffic,  estimated  in  favourable  years  at  from  £500,000  to  £600,000,  are  centred 
in  Paita,  which  stands  at  the  head  of  a  deep  inlet.  Although  surrounded  by 
sands,  like  Tumbez,  the  harbour  of  this  place  is  better  sheltered  from  the  pre- 
vailing southern  winds,  and  it  is  also  deeper,  affording  from  20  to  24  feet  of 
water  within  half  a  mile  of  the  shore. 

The  copious  Rio  Achira  (Chira),  which  reaches  the  bay  of  Paita  some  12 
miles  farther  north,  yields  an  abundance  of  water,  conveyed  to  the  town  by  an 
aqueduct.  The  Rio  de  Piura,  another  scarcely  less  copious  stream,  describes  a 
great  bend,  bringing  it  close  to  Paita,  and  ramifying  in  a  thousand  channels 
over  the  fertile  plains  of  Piura  (San  Miguel  de  Piura),  This  place  claims  to 
produce  "  the  best  cotton  in  the  world,"  which,  with  the  straw  hats  of  the  neigh- 
bouring Catacaos,  and  fabricated  antique  potteries,  supposed  to  come  from  the 
surrounding  burial-places,  is  shipped  by  the  steamers  calling  regularly  at  Paita. 
A  coast  railway  connects  Paita  with  Piura  and  Catacaos,  and  also  affords  com- 
munication by  a  loop  line  between  the  Achira  and  Piura  valleys.  In  this  district 
are  bred  the  best  mules  in  Peru,  and  some  gold-mines  are  worked  near  Ayavaca, 
perched  on  a  lofty  mountain  (10,200  feet),  in  the  upper  Achira  basin. 

South  of  the  Sechura  desert,  the  most  extensive  solitude  in  North  Peru,  the 
first  seaport  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Morrope,  whose  bed  is  waterless  for  the 
most  part  of  the  year.  Here  are  situated  the  two  large  villages  of  Morrope  and 
Motupe,  surrounded  by  sugar-plantations  cultivated  by  Chinese  labour.  Farther 
on  are  the  open  roadsteads  of  Lambayeque,  San  Jose,  Pimentel,  and  Puerto  de 
Eten,  all  shallow,  dangerous,  and  exposed  to  the  winds  and  surf.  The  towns  of 
the  plains,  standing  a  few  yards  above  sea-level,  are  all  connected  by  a  network 
of  railways  radiating  from  Chiclayo,  One  branch  runs  north-east  by  Lambayeque 
to  Ferrinafe ;  another  ascends  the  slopes  eastwards  in  the  direction  of  Patapo, 
at  the  entrance  to  the  gorges ;  a  third  runs  south  to  Monsffn  and  Puerto  de  Eten, 
and  a  fourth  west  to*  Pimentel. 

Eten  was  till  recently  inhabited  by  a  community  of  full-blood  Indians, 
speaking  a  Yunca  dialect,  supposed  by  some  to  be  related  to  Chinese.  At  present 
all  speak  Spanish,  and  are  one  of  the  most  industrious  peoples  in  Peru,  manu- 
facturing hats,  fans,  cigar-cases,  and  many  other  fancy  articles  of  artistic 
design.  Lambayeque  and  Tmjillo  contend  for  the  honour  of  having  been  the 
first  towns  to  throw  off  the  Spanish  yoke.  The  Lobos  Islands,  off  Lambayeque, 
have  acquired  considerable  economic  importance  from  their  guano-beds,  estimated 
originally  at  8,000,000  tons. 


818 


SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


PACASMAYO — TRUJILLO — CHIMU. 

The  port  of  Pacasmayo,  south  of  the  Jequetepeque  coast  stream,  presents  the 
same  general  aspect  as  Eten ;  it  does  a  brisk  export  trade  in  sugar,  hides,  and 
silver  ores,  and  is  connected  by  rail  with  the  inland  towns  of  San  Pedro  de  Lloc, 
Chepen,  and  Guadalupe.  But  far  more  important  for  its  future  prosperity  is  the 
projected  line  to  Cajamarca  and  the  Amazons  valley,  which  will  probably  form 
part  of  the  trans-continental  trunk  line  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific. 
North-east  of  San  Pedro  de  Lloc  the  rails  penetrate  into  the  mineral  district  of 
the  Jequetepeque,  which  river  is  followed  along  all  its  windings  up  to  its  very 


Fig.  121. — TEUJILLO  AND  GRAND  CHIMTT. 
Scale  1  :  600,000. 


West  or  Greenwich 


78'40 


Eepths. 


Oto5 
Fathoms. 


6  to  10 
Fathoms. 


10  to  50 
Fathoms. 


60  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


25  Miles. 


source.  .Farther  on  the  line  ascends  in  zigzags  up  the  slopes  to  a  breach  in  the 
cordillera  at  an  altitude  of  about  9,500  feet,  through  which  it  descends  to  the 
Amazonian  slope,  reaching  Cajamarca  by  a  great  bend  round  to  the  north-west. 
Beyond  this  point,  in  the  direction  of  Chachapoyas  and  Moyobamba,  it  enters  a 
little-known  region,  where  the  surveys  are  not  yet  complete. 

South-east  of  Pacasmayo  follow  the  wretched  little  port  of  Garita  de  Moclie 
(now  Salacerri]  at  the  foot  of  the  Cerro  Can-etas,  and  the  equally  exposed  road- 
steads of  Huanchaco  and  Mdlabrigo  ("  Bad  Shelter  ").  The  railway,  starting  from 
Salaverri,  penetrates  northwards  to  the  rich  plantations  of  the  Rio  Moche,  Trujillo, 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  PERU.  819 

Huanchaco,  and  the  Chicuma  plains,  which  last  have  since  1860  again  been 
brought  under  cultivation  by  reopening  the  old  Indian  irrigating  canals.  On 
these  slopes  the  irrigation  works  take  the  collective  name  of  manpuesteria,  and 
amongst  them  was  the  vast  reservoir,  built  of  concrete  by  the  Chimu  Indians,  with 
u  capacity  of  about  1,760  million  cubic  feet. 

Trujillo,  founded  by  Francesco  Pizarro  in  1535,  and  named  from  his  native 
place,  has  preserved  a  certain  urban  aspect,  thanks  to  the  remains  of  its  old 
ramparts ;  but  it  probably  contains  less  than  a  tenth  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  its 
predecessor,  Chimu,  or  Grand  Chimu,  capital  of  an  empire  anterior  to  that  of  the 
Incas.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  and  of  its  dependent  villages  cover  a  vast 
space,  stretching  north  and  south  of  the  Rio  Moche,  a  distance  of  over  12  miles, 
with  a  breadth  of  from  5  to  5£  miles.  It  appears  to  have  been  the  largest  centre 
of  population  of  the  New  World  in  pre-Columbian  times.  Everywhere  are  seen 
crumbling  walls  and  heaps  of  adobe,  in  some  places  distinct  enough  to  trace  the 
plan  of  the  old  buildings.  The  city  proper,  standing  on  three  terraces  which  rose 
above  the  shore  between  Trujillo  and  Huanchaco,  contained  temples,  palaces, 
reservoirs,  granaries,  labyrinths,  tombs  and.  aqueducts,  which  have  been  clearly 
determined  by  archaeologists. 

Cjrtain  sepulchral  pyramids,  with  innumerable  niches  in  which  the  bodies 
were  deposited  in  a  sitting  attitude,  are  comparable  in  dimensions  to  the  secondary 
pyramids  of  Egypt.  One  of  these  huacas,  the  •"  Pyramid  of  the  Sun,"  near  the 
village  of  the  same  name  on  the  south  side  of  the  Rio  Moche,  is  200  feet  high,  with 
a  base-line  of  800  feet  in  one  direction.  According  to  the  local  belief  it  contains 
vast  treasures,  and  communicates  by  underground  galleries  with  other  structures 
of  a  similar  character.  Another  pyramid  is  150  feet  high,  while  a  third  is  said 
to  have  yielded  the  treasure-seekers  as  much  as  £3,200,000  of  gold  between  the 
years  1560  and  1592.  Since  that  time  fictile  vases,  textile  fabrics  and  jewellery 
of  all  kinds  have  been  found  amid  the  rubbish  and  in  the  graves.  No  other 
Peruvian  necropolis  has  yielded  to  collectors  such  an  abundance  of  statuettes, 
earthenware,  skulls  and  mummies. 


VIRU — YUNGAY — CABANA — CAJATAMBO. 

According  to  some  etymologists  the  Rio  Yiru,  which  waters  a  narrow  strip  of 
cultivable  land  south  of  the  Rio  Moche,  is  the  famous  "  river  of  Biru  "  or  "  Piru," 
which  for  so  many  years  dazzled  the  dreams  of  Pizarro,  Almagro  and  their  associates, 
and  the  name  of  which  under  the  modified  form  of  Peru  has  since  been  applied  to 
one  of  the  large  South  American  States.  But,  however  this  be,  the  present 
village  of  Viru  has  little  to  show  except  the  graves  of  the  surrounding  district 
rifled  by  treasure-hunters  and  archaeologists.  Facing  it,  however,  is  the  little 
cluster  of  the  G nan  ape  Islands,  which  till  recently  possessed  rich  guano-beds, 
though  of  inferior  quality  to  those  of  the  Chinch  a  Islands,  being  deprived  of  some 
of  their  salts  by  more  frequent  rains.  When  first  opened  the  deposits  were 
estimated  at  1,500,000  tons,  but  in  a  few  years  the  bare  rock  had  been  reached ; 


820  SOUTH  AMERICA-  THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

in  1874  as  many  as  372  vessels  shipped  over  300,000  tons,  and  in  1883  nothing 
remained. 

South  of  the  Rio  Santa  the  semicircular  curves  of  the  shore-line  offer  better 
and  more  sheltered  anchorage  than  farther  north.  '  On  El  Ferrol  Bay  the  new 
town  of  Chimbote  has  sprung  up,  amid  the  shapeless  ruins  and  graves  of  an  old 
city  of  the  Yunca  Indians.  This  place  was  a  mere  fishing  hamlet  before  the  year 
1871,  when  it  was  chosen  as  the  first  station  of  the  Huaraz  line,  which  ascends 
the  Rio  Santa  valley,  and  the  construction  of  which  rapidly  drew  a  considerable 
population  of  Peruvians,  Europeans  and  Chinese  to  the  district.  Unlike  most  of 
the  other  coast  lines,  this  railway  already  penetrates  into  the  heart  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras, ascending  the  long  Huaraz  (Huaylas)  valley  to  the  mining  town  of  Recuay, 
at  the  source  of  the  Rio  Santa,  11,000  feet  above  sea-level.  The  earthenware 
found  in  the  Chimbote  graves  resembles  the  Etruscan  potteries,  being  made  of  a 
whitish  clay  embellished  with  red  and  black  designs. 

Huaraz,  capital  of  the  department  of  Ancachs,  also  stands  at  a  height  of  over 
10,000  feet,  in  a  cold  region,  but  with  an  equable  climate,  where  water  never 
freezes.  The  district  abounds  in  ruins  dating  from  pre-Columbian  times.  In 
the  walls  of  the  modern  cemetery  have  been  built  in  numerous  old  sculptured 
blocks,  all  brought  from  a  plateau  facing  Huaraz  on  the  slopes  of  the  Cordillera 
Negra.  Many  of  these  stones  represent  deformed  or  grotesque  human  figures, 
their  heads  encircled  by  a  kind  of  coronet,  and  rods  or  sceptres  in  their  hands. 
Other  blocks,  found  both  here  and  in  many  other  parts  of  Peru,  are  hollowed  out 
like  cattle-troughs,  and  were  probably  graves,  being  about  the  normal  size  of  the 
Quichuas. 

Yungay,  in  the  same  basin,  stands  on  a  torrent  over  against  Huascan,  giant  of 
the  Peruvian  Andes.  Almost  daily  avalanches  of  snow  are  seen  from  the  village 
rushing  down  the  slopes  from  precipice  to  precipice,  and  so  rapidly  transformed 
to  clouds  of  dust  that  the  vapours  are  dispersed  and  the  outlines  of  the  mountain 
again  revealed  before  the  long  echoes  of  the  crashing  masses  reach  the  ears  of  the 
spectators.  A  short  distance  below  Yungay  flows  the  Ancachs  brook  from  which 
the  department  takes  its  name,  in  memory  of  the  decisive  victory  here  gained  by 
the  republicans  over  the  royalists.  Yungay  itself  was  officially  named  Ancachs, 
but  in  popular  usage  retains  its  old  title. 

Lower  down,  the  cheerless  town  of  Caraz  lies  in  a  fertile  district  where  is 
cultivated  the  chaucha  variety  of  the  potato,  which  matures  in  three  months,  that  is, 
in  half  the  time  of  the  ordinary  kinds.  This  tuber  grows  wild  on  the  surrounding 
slopes,  though  not  so  profusely  as  in  the  upper  Santa  valley.  Near  Caraz  is  a 
quicksilver-mine,  which  also  contains  argentiferous  lead.  But  the  chief  resource 
of  Caraz  are  its  coal-beds,  of  excellent  quality,  cropping  out  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  river.  Coal  also  occurs  at  Huaylas,  farther  down  the  valley,  where  the  Rio 
Santa  begins  to  trend  north-westwards  on  its  course  through  the  Western  Cor- 
dillera to  the  Pacific. 

Above  the  last  gorges  the  Santa  is  joined  by  the  Manta,  or  Chuquicara,  which 
traverses  a  mining  district  inhabited  by  an  impoverished  population  living  in 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  PERU. 


821 


wretched  hovels.  Yet  the  country  was  formerly  rich,  and  covered  with 
sumptuous  cities,  such  as  lluandoval  and  Cabana,  whose  ruins  still  present  an 
imposing  aspect.  The  still  standing  walls  are  decorated  with  granite  friezes, 
and  were  originally  covered  on  the  inner  side  with  sculptures  in  porphyry  and 
other  hard  stones,  most  of  which  have  been  removed  to  churches  and  other 
modern  buildings.  Nowhere  else  have  the  Quichua  artists  carved  more  lifelike 
figures ;  they  are,  in  fact,  real  portraits,  stamped  with  a  highly  original 
expression. 

Fine   earthenware    has  also  been  brought   to    light,   attesting  a   lamentable 


Fig.  122. — CAEAZ  AND  ANCACHS  MOUNTAINS. 
Scale  1 :  700,000. 


77°50 


West  op  Greenwich 


77" 20- 


12  Miles. 


debasement  of  art  since  the  old  times.  The  same  decay  is  seen  in  the  now  arid 
terraces,  over  10,000  feet  high,  which  were  cultivated  by  the  ancestors  of  the 
present  Peruvians.  Farther  east  the  black  ramparts  of  a  ruined  fortress  rise 
above  the  snowy  wastes  on  the  Huaullang  plateau,  leading  to  the  upper  Maranon 
valley.*  In  this  now  desolate  region  the  largest  place  is  Santiago  de  Chuco,  on  a 
headstream  of  the  Chuquicara. 

South  of  Chimbote  the  coast  streams,  such  as  the  Rio  de  Casma,  the  Rio  de 
Huarmey,  and  the  Barranca,  continue  to  flow  through  alternating  sandy  wastes 
and  green  oases,  watered  by  irrigating  rills  derived  from  the  rivers.  Cajatambo, 

*  Ch.  Wiener. 
22 


322  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

chief  place  in  the  upper  Barranca  basin,  possesses  rich  silver-mines.  But 
formerly  the  population  appears  to  have  been  concentrated  more  on  the  coastlands, 
where  are  still  seen  the  extensive  ruins  of  Pativilca,  and  the  superb  "fortress" 
of  Paramanca.  The  surrounding  plain,  flooded  during  the  sudden  freshets  of  the 
Barranca,  is  one  vast  necropolis,  the  panteon  de  tos  gentiles,  in  which  are  found 
thousands  of  skeletons  sewn  up  in  sacks. 


SUPE — ANCON. 

Supe  (Huaura],  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Supe,  and  Huacho,  six  miles  farther 
on,  have  acquired  considerable  importance  since  the  opening  of  the  railway  con- 
necting them  with  Lima.  From  Huacho  the  capital  draws  much  of  its  fruits, 
vegetables  and  other  supplies,  besides  salt  from  the  large  salines  on  the  neigh- 
bouring coast.  In  the  district  numerous  Peruvian  graves  have  been  opened  ;  but 
the  most  interesting  remains  have  been  found  near  Chancay,  midway  between 
Huacho  and  Lima  ;  here  are  also  seen  large  underground  chambers,  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  local  tradition,  were  used  as  granaries. 

"While  the  railway  works  were  in  progress  a  cutting  in  the  dunes  at  A  neon, 
south  of  Chancay,  exposed  a  vast  necropolis,  containing  well-preserved  mummies, 
several  often  wrapped  in  a  single  pack,  besides  textiles,  utensils  and  an  endless 
variety  of  other  objects,  throwing  a  flood  of  light  on  the  social  life,  arts  and 
industries  of  these  populations.*  Several  of  the  graves  have  the  form  of  the 
rancho  or  cam,  their  roofs  resting  on  four  stakes  or  on  four  walls,  and  apparently 
thatched  originally  with  reeds.  This  mode  of  burial  was,  no  doubt,  reserved 
for  the  wealthy  classes,  whose  equipment  also  was  far  more  sumptuous  than  that 
of  the  common  people.  Some  of  the  outer  wraps  enclosing  the  mummies  of 
perhaps  a  whole  family  were  extremely  rich,  and  usually  arranged  so  as  to  repre- 
sent a  single  human  effigy,  with  a  false  head,  and  very  broad,  but  showing  no 
extremities  or  other  outlines  of  the  figure. 


LIMA. 

Unlike  most  Peruvian  cities,  Lima  dates  only  from  post-Columbian  times, 
having  been  founded  by  Francesco  Pizarro  in  1535.  After  choosing  as  his 
residence  first  Cuzco,  capital  of  the  Incas,  and  then  the  more  central  Jauja,  the 
Conqueror  finally  decided  on  a  site  close  to  the  sea,  in  order  to  maintain  easy 
communications  with  Europe.  *  His  choice  fell  on  the  banks  of  the  Rimac, 
thanks  to  the  proximity  of  the  roadstead  sheltered  by  the  island  of  San  Lorenzo, 
From  the  first  the  city  was  laid  out  on  a  vast  plan,  with  large  squares  and  broad 
thoroughfares.  In  fact,  like  Washington,  it  began  by  being  a  city  of  "  mag- 
nificent distances,"  in  anticipation  of  its  destinies  as  metropolis  of  a  mighty 
empire.  The  municipal  arms  of  the  Ciudad  de  los  Reyes,  "  City  of  Kings,"  as  it 

*  W.  Hoiss  and  A.  Stiibel,  Peruvian  Antiquities,  the  Necropolis  of  Ancon,  in  Peru.  English 
Edition,  by  A.  H.  Keane. 


LIMA     FROM    CHAI 


Y  TO    PACHACAMAC . 


26    to    SO 


<5C  upward* 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  PERU.  823 

was  first  called,  bear  the  symbolic  star  which  guided  the  royal  Magi  to  the  cradle 
of  a  God. 

But  all  Pizarro's  hopes  have  not  been  realised.  Rimac,  softened  to  Lima  in 
the  mouth  of  the  Spanish  settlers,  has  not  maintained  the  position  assigned  to  it 
by  the  Conquerors,  a  position  of  which  it  made  little  use  except  to  oppress  the 
native  populations  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Spain  and  of  the  Holy  Inquisition. 
Like  Seville  and  Yalludolid,  Lima  had  its  auto-da-fes,  and  its  prisons  were 
ever  crowded  with  real  or  suspected  rebels  and  heretics  sent  from  all  the  Pacific 
coastlands  between  Panama  and  the  island  of  Chiloe.  So  far  from  being  the 
"  Empire  City  "  of  the  New  World,  it  has  been  outstripped  by  several  places  even 
in  the  Southern  Continent. 

Its  position  at  the  outlet  of  a  valley,  affording  free  play  to  the  cool  breezes  of 
the  snowy  mountain,  gives  it  a  lower  and  pleasanter  temperature  than  that  of  the 
neighbouring  towns,  the  mean  range  of  the  thermometer  being,  according  to  Tschudi, 
little  more  than  8°  Fahr.  But  although  equable,  the  climate  is  far  from  healthy, 
the  foggy  wdnter  season  bringing  fevers  and  dysentery,  which  in  some  years 
assumes  an  epidemic  character.  The  mortality  constantly  exceeds  the  birth- 
rate, and  the  population  has  also  suffered  much  from  wars  and  political  disorders. 
Moreover,  for  many  years  Lima  was  little  more  than  the  nominal  centre  of  the 
Peruvian  republic.  The  lack  of  easy  communications  severed  its  relations  with 
the  remoter  provinces,  so  that  Cuzco,  Arequipa  and  other  centres  of  attraction 
were  able  to  challenge  its  political  preponderance. 

Although  little  over  three  miles  in  a  straight  line  from  the  coast,  Lima 
stands,  not  on  the  lowlands,  but  on  a  triangular  plateau  skirting  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rimac,  at  a  height  of  575  feet  above  sea-level.  Around  the  central 
quarter  as  planned  by  Pizarro  have  been  developed  some  less  geometrical 
quarters,  while  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  here  spanned  by  two  bridges, 
the  new  town  of  San  Lazaro  has  sprung  up  at  the  foot  of  the  San  Cristobal 
eminence  (1,415  feet),  which  is  crowned  by  a  fortress.  The  houses,  usually  of 
two  stories,  are  built  of  adobe,  and  are  disposed  in  a  square  round  a  central  patio 
in  the  Moorish  style  adopted  by  the  Spaniards. 

The  chief  edifice  is  the  cathedral,  which  was  begun  by  Pizarro  and  finished 
in  ninety  years.  Few  religious  edifices  contain  such  a  wealth  of  gold  and  gems ; 
the  very  pillars  are  of  massive  silver,  and  several  other  churches  show  an  almost 
equally  lavish  display  of  the  precious  metals  and  marbles.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  monastery  of  San  Francisco,  formerly  the  richest  in  the  city,  is  falling 
to  ruins,  while  the  palace  of  the  Inquisition  is  now  the  Senate  House.  Statues 
and  fountains  adorn  the  squares  and  avenues  ;  but  the  only  local  industries  are 
those  concerned  with  the  production  of  objects  of  primary  necessity.  Nothing 
is  manufactured  for  the  export  trade,  and  the  commerce  of  the  place  is  almost 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  foreign  merchants, 

Amongst  the  learned  institutions  are  the  University  of  San  Marcos,  the  oldest 
in  South  America,  dating  from  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  ;  the  library, 
enriched  by  treasures  transferred  from  the  convents  or  bequeathed  by  private 


824 


SOUTH  AMERICA— TUB  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


munificence  ;  the  museum,  comprising  objects  of  art,  archaeology,  ethnology  and 
natural  history.  But  both  library  and  museum  have  suffered  from  the  visit 
of  the  Chilians,  who  carried  off  some  of  their  most  valuable  contents. 

CALLAO — PACHACAMAC — ICA. 

Callao,  port  of  Lima,  from  which  it  is  distant  scarcely  seven  miles,  is  con- 
nected with  the  metropolis  by  an  avenue  of  trees  and  by  two  railways,  one  direct, 
the  other  winding  over  the  plain.  The  bed  of  the  Rimac  reaching  the  coast 
two  miles  farther  north  is  usually  waterless,  and  Callao,  which  retains  its  old 
Quichua  name  in  a  slightly  modified  form,  derives  nothing  from  the  irrigation 
canals  except  what  is  absolutely  needed  for  alimentary  purposes.  It  has  been 
twice  rebuilt  since  1535,  after  its  destruction  by  earthquakes  in  1630  and  1746. 


Fig.  123. — OBOYA  RAILWAY. 
Scale  1  :  1,800,0.10. 


75°-to'          West  oF  Greenwich 


30  Miles. 


The  fortress  at  the  western  extremity  was  the  last  point  on  the  American  sea- 
board held  by  the  Spaniards,  who  did  not  abandon  the  place  till  1826.  They 
even  attempted  again  to  capture  it  in  1866,  but  their  fleet  was  repulsed,  an 
event  commemorated  by  a  bronze  group  erected  on  the  public  square.  Later 
the  Chilians  were  more  successful,  having  captured  both  port  and  citadel. 

In  Callao  is  centred  over  half  of  the  whole  trade  of  Peru.  Its  roadstead  is 
sheltered  by  a  sandy  spit  from  the  south  wind,  and  by  the  islands  of  San  Lorenzo 
and  Fronton  from  the  south-west  gales.  The  shipping  rides  at  anchor  close  to 
the  shore,  or  in  a  new  harbour  over  50  acres  in  extent ;  lines  of  railway  are 
carried  over  piers  into  deep  water,  and  amongst  other  harbour  works  is  a  repairing 
dock  over  300  feet  long. 

Callao  imports  textiles  and  other  European  ware.s,  coal,  wheat  and  maize  for 
the  natives,  and  rice  for  the  Chinese ;  the  chief  exports  are  guano,  nitrates  and 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  PERU. 


825 


the  precious  metals.  In  this  foreign  trade  British  shipping  takes  the  first  and 
that  of  Chili  the  second  place,  France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States  following 
at  a  long  distance  in  the  order  named.  Numerous  war-vessels  also  visit  Callao, 
which  is  one  of  the  chief  stations  for  the  Pacific  squadrons. 

Lima  is  connected  by  rail  with  several  watering-places  and  pleasure  resorts, 
such  as  Ancon  in  the  north,  and  Magdalena,  Mira/iores,  and  Chorrillos  in  the  south, 


Fig.  124. — Pisco  AND  ICA. 
Scale  1  :  1,600,000. 


76'30' 


West  01  Greenwich, 


75'30' 


Oto50 
Fathoms. 


Depths. 


50  to  500 
Fathoms. 


500  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


30  Miles. 


the  last  mentioned  near  the  fertile  and  well-peopled  valley  of  Lurin.  To  this 
district  archaeologists  are  attracted  by  the  ruined  temples  and  palaces  of  the 
ancient  city  of  Pachacamac,  so  named  in  honour  of  the  "  Creator  of  the  World," 
God  of  the  Yunca  Indians. 

Some  old  buildings,  most  of  which  appear  to  date  from  pre-Inca  times,  crown 
the  rocky  summits  extending  along  the  coast  south-eastwards  from  the  Chorrillos 
eminence.  The  great  temple,  probably  dedicated  to  the  Sun,  stood  on  a  crag 


826  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

560  feet  high,  culled  by  the  natives  Maraa-cuna.  This  eminence  has  been  cut 
into  step  terraces  forming  a  pedestal  to  the  whole  group  of  buildings,  the  cliffs 
facing  seawards  being  painted  red.  Here  Squier  discovered  a  true  arch,  a  feature 
elsewhere  unknown  in  native  American  architecture. 

The  other  palaces  can  no  longer  be  recognised,  Pachacamac  having  been  first 
plundered  by  Pizarro's  followers,  and  then  for  350  years  exposed  to  the  pickaxe 
of  treasure-seekers.  According  to  a  local  legend,  the  Incas  of  Cuzco  had  a  palace 
at  Pachacamac,  and  on  the  neighbouring  beach  were  captured  the  fish  destined 
for  the  emperor's  table. 

Since  the  opening  of  the  Andes  line  Lima  has  obtained  access  to  several 
inland  health  resorts,  such  as  Surco,  Matucana,  San  Hateo  and  Chicla,  stations 
presenting  a  succession  of  superimposed  climates  ascending  from  above  the  dusty 
plains  to  the  highest  zones  of  rains  and  snows. 

South  of  Lurin  and  Chilca  the  seaboard  assumes  the  aspect  of  a  vast  desert 
interrupted  at  intervals  by  narrow  oases,  one  of  which,  Canete,  comprises  some 
of  the  richest  plantations  in  Peru.  Farther  on,  the  shore-line  curves  round  to  the 
south  as  far  as  the  rocky  headland  of  Paracas,  which  projects  northwards  and 
is  continued  in  the  same  direction  by  the  Chincha  Islands.  Thus  is  inclosed  a 
somewhat  sheltered  basin,  near  which  has  sprung  up  the  seaport  of  Pisco. 

This  place  is  connected  by  a  railway,  45  miles  long,  with  lea,  which  lies  on 
the  Rio  lea  at  the  point  where  it  emerges  from  the  mountain  gorges,  and  ramifies 
in  countless  channels  through  the  orchards,  vineyards  and  palm-groves  of  the 
surrounding  plains.  The  famous  wines  of  lea,  although  resembling  Madeira, 
and  containing  a  large  proportion  of  alcohol,  are  not  exported  to  Europe,  but 
largely  used  in  the  preparation  of  highly  appreciated  liqueurs.  From  the  name 
of  the  seaport  whence  they  are  forwarded  to  various  parts  of  South  America, 
the  term  "  pisco  "  is  now  commonly  applied  to  all  brandies,  and  even  to  the 
spirits  extracted  from  sugar-cane. 

The  Rio  Chunchanga  (Pisco),  whose  bed  is  mostly  dry,  and  which  reaches  the 
coast  just  north  of  Pisco,  descends  from  a  region  of  the  cordillera  exceptionally 
rich  in  argentiferous  veins.  The  town  standing  at  its  source  has  taken  the  name 
of  Castrovireinu,  in  memory  of  the  viceroy  Castro's  wife,  to  whom  the  owner  of 
the  mines  presented  the  silver  pavement  of  the  path  which  she  had  to  follow  in 
order  to  attend  the  christening  of  his  son.  But  most  of  the  mines  are  now 
abandoned,  the  richest  having  given  way  and  crushed  to  death  over  120  of  the 
hands  engaged  on  the  works. 

THE  CHINCHA  ISLANDS. 

The  Chincha  Islands  fringing  the  coast  at  Pisco  were  till  lately  the  centre  of 
an  active  trade.  In  his  Historia  del  Nuevo  Mundo  the  Jesuit  missionary,  Bernabe 
Cobo,  states  that  in  stormy  weather  the  air  was  darkened  by  the  yellow  dust  of 
the  guano  from  these  islands,  which  dust,  falling  on  the  surrounding  plains,  burnt 
the  vegetation  and  sterilised  the  ground.  But  the  ancient  Quichuas  were  well 


TOPOGEAPHY— THE  CHINCHA  ISLANDS. 


327 


aware  that  this  Tiuanu  (guano),  applied  in  moderation,  stimulated  the  growth  of 
plants  and  improved  the  crops.  In  some  of  the  old  quarries  their  implements, 
especially  a  kind  of  three-pronged  fork  in  hard  wood,  have  been  found  associated 


Fig.  125. — THE  CHINCHA  ISLANDS  IN  1856. 
Scale  1  :  45,000. 


76°  26* 


West  oF  Greenwich 


Depths. 


Oto50 
Fathoms. 


50  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


1J  Mile. 


with  gems  and  other  valuable  objects.  The  penalty  of  death  was  passed  on  those 
killing  the  guanero  birds,  and  no  one  was  allowed  to  approach  the  islands  during 
the  season  of  incubation. 

In  modern  times  the  export  of  guano  in  a  large  way  began  in  1841,  and  three 


328 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


years  later  Rivero  estimated  at  36,000,000  tons  the  accumulated  contents  of  the 
beds ;  those  covering  the  three  Chincha  Islands  to  a  thickness  of  from  60  to  100 
feet  alone  represented  some  23,000,000  or  24,000,000  tons.  It  was  expected  that 
such  treasures  would  last  over  a  century.  But  the  deposits,  of  a  yellowish-grey 
above,  of  a  blackish -red  below,  rapidly  disappeared  under  the  pick  and  shovel 
of  the  thousands  of  hands,  nearly  all  Chinese,  South- Sea  Islanders  or  convicts, 

Fig.  126. — AREQUIPA  GRADIENT. 
Scale  1  :  2,000,000. 


\T 


West  dP  Greenwich 


Depths. 


OtoSO 

Fathoms. 


60  to  600 

1'athoms. 


500  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


62  Miles. 


employed  on  the  works.  The  wretched  coolies  perished  in  multitudes,  having 
little  food  except  the  birds  which  they  captured  at  night  by  holding  out  lanterns 
at  the  entrance  of  their  roosting-places. 

The  Peruvian  Government,  owner  of  the  guaneras,  and  the  speculators  of  all 
nations  who  acted  as  its  intermediaries  with  the  European  buyers,  saw  in  this 
industry  nothing  but  present  profits  from  a  turn-over  exceeding  £4,000,000 
yearly.  Sale  prices  rising  to  thirty  times  the  cost  of  production  left  the  directors 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  PEEU. 


829 


ample  scope  for  "  rigging  the  market,"  for  distributing  favours  and  sinecures,  for 
peculation  and  frauds  of  all  kinds.  Like  the  legacy  of  the  old  gold-mines,  the 
guano-beds  proved  a  baneful  "  windfall "  for  Peru,  and  the  demoralisation  caused 
by  it  may  have  largely  contributed  to  the  humiliating  defeat  of  the  nation  in  the 
war  with  Chili.  Not  a  shovelful  now  remains,  and  henceforth  Peru  will  have  to 
depend  on  the  honest  labour  of  her  citizens. 


AREQUIPA — CARMEN  ALTO. 

Some  60  miles  south-east  of  the  Chinchas  follow  San  Nicolas  and  San  Juan, 
two  of  the  best  havens  on  the  Peruvian  seaboard.     But  harbours  can  be  of  little 


Fig.  127. — AEEQUIPA. 
Scale  1  :  330,000. 


7l'40 


6  Miles. 


use  on  a  desert  coast,  where  the  Tanga  wastes  offer  nothing  but  bare  rocks  for  a 
space  of  over  400  square  miles.  Farther  on  follow  Camanct,  Quilca,  Islay  and 
Mollcndo,  which  were,  or  still  are,  maritime  outlets  of  the  important  city  of 
Arequipa.  Mollendo  has  been  chosen  as  the  seaward  terminus  of  the  trunk  line 
which  already  connects  South  Peru  and  Bolivia  with  the  coast.  It  is  supplied  with 
water  by  a  conduit  116  miles  long,  which  descends  from  the  Arequipa  valley  over 
hills  and  precipices  down  to  the  sea.  Next  to  that  conveying  water  from  Pica  to 
Iquique,  it  is  the  most  remarkable  work  of  the  kind  on  the  seaboard. 


880  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

The  railway  climbs  the  slopes  in  zigzags,  a  distance  of  100  miles,  to  Arequipa 
at  an  altitude  of  7,650  feet,  the  mean  incline  scarcely  exceeding  half  an  inch  in 
the  yard.  After  turning  the  Caldera  hills  on  the  west  it  curves  round  east,  and 
continues  the  ascent  along  the  Rio  Vitor.  The  city  stands  in  the  centre  of  a 
fertile  plain  12  miles  in  circumference,  covered  with  maize  and  lucerne  fields, 
and  dominated  by  the  superb  cone  of  Misti. 

Villa  Hermosa,  the  Spanish  settlement  founded  by  Francisco  Pizarro  in  1540, 
near  the  Indian  town  of  Arequipa,  claims  to  be  the  first  city  in  Peru,  not  for 
extent  or  population,  but  for  its  industrial  spirit,  the  literary  and  artistic  taste  of 
the  inhabitants,  the  charm  and  intelligence  of  the  women.  But  it  is  exposed  to 
frequent  earthquakes,  by  one  of  which  it  was  nearly  destroyed  in  1868 ;  it  has  also 
suffered  much  from  sieges  and  revolutions,  being  the  great  southern  rival  of  the 
northern  metropolis. 

Numerous  villages  scattered  over  the  environments  serve  as  rural  retreats  for 
the  wealthy  citizens  of  Arequipa  during  the  so-called  "  winter  "  season,  from 
December  to  May,  when  the  arid  plains  are  refreshed  by  light  showers.  Such  are 
Bella-vista  in  the  south-west,  and  Tingo  in  the  south,  both  connected  with  the  city 
by  fine  avenues  ;  Sabandia  in  the  east ;  Tiabaya  and  Uchmnayo  at  the  head  of  the 
Mollendo  aqueduct  in  the  west.  The  neighbouring  eminence  of  Carmen  Alto,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  sparkling  Rio  Chili,  is  now  crowned  with  an  observatory, 
8,050  feet  high,  due  to  the  efforts  of  Pickering  of  Harvard  University.  Thanks 
to  the  rarity  of  the  air  observers  are  enabled  to  pursue  their  researches  with  little 
interruption  throughout  the*  whole  year.  They  have  already  made  some  remark- 
able studies  of  the  planet  Mars,  and  when  all  the  apparatus  is  set  up  Carmen  Alto 
will  be  the  most  important  observatory  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  On  the 
summit  of  Chachani  a  meteorological  station  has  also  been  established,  at  an 
altitude  of  16,280  feet,  2,140  feet  higher  than  that  of  Pike's  Peak,  hitherto  the 
most  elevated  on  the  globe. 

CALERA — MOQUEGUA. 

Beyond  Arequipa  the  railway  continues  to  ascend  the  slopes,  crossing  the  Chili 
gorges  below  the  magnificent  bridge,  regarded  as  a  marvel  of  art  by  the  Arequi- 
penos,  then  mounting  to  a  lateral  valley  of  the  Rio  Vitor  at  Calera,  and  farther 
on  to  the  thermal  waters  of  Yum  (9,430  feet).  After  sweeping  in  a  great  curve 
round  Mount  Chachani  it  enters  the  upper  Sumbay  (Chili)  valley,  whence  it 
reaches  the  culminating  point  at  Crucero  Alto  (14,640  feet),  where  many  of  the 
passengers  are  often  taken  with  mountain-sickness.  Here  begins  the  descent 
towards  Lake  Titicaca,  a  closed  basin  which  may  be  regarded  as  belonging 
geologically  to  the  Amazonian  slope. 

In  the  desolate  southern  province  of  Moquegua  the  only  seaport  is  Ho,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Ho  gorge,  where  Coles  Point  affords  a  little  shelter  from  the  south 
wind.  Moqucgua,  capital  of  the  province,  stands  near  the  source  of  the  same 
torrent,  4,490  feet  above  the  sea.  Like  lea  it  is  surrounded  by  vineyards,  and 
occupies  an  oasis  noted  for  the  excellence  of  its  produce. 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  PEETJ.  331 

COLPA — CAJAMARCA — HUALGAYOC. 

In  the  upper  Maraiion  valley,  which  is  disposed  parallel  with  the  coast  of 
North  Peru,  the  thinly  scattered  populations  have  been  unable  to  found  any 
important  towns,  although  it  is  evident  from  the  numerous  ruins  that  this  region 
was  far  more  densely  peopled  under  the  Incas  than  at  present.  Here  are  seen 
the  remains  of  large  cities,  such  as  Colpa  (Huanuco  Viejo]  on  a  western  headstream 
of  the  Maraiion,  said  to  have  been  "  three  leagues  "  in  circumference.  Castillo,  as 
the  chief  ruin  is  called,  is  a  vast  structure  of  shingle  embedded  in  clay,  decorated 
on  its  outer  face  with  animal  figures.  This  "  castle,"  the  palaces,  temples  and 
baths  of  this  aucient  city  date  probably  from  a  civilisation  anterior  to  that  of  the 
Incas. 

Chavin  de  Huantar,  on  another  affluent  of  the  Maraiion,  was  also  a  great  city, 
above  which  rises  a  two-storied  stronghold  which  is  reported  to  contain  a  labyrinth 
of  underground  galleries.  Here  is  a  carved  block  representing  a  human  monster, 
whose  hair  is  represented  by  coiling  snakes,  and  who  grasps  snakes  in  both  hands, 
either  the  "  Genius  of  Evil,"  or,  more  probably,  the  "  God  of  Thunder."  Here  is 
also  a  superb  bridge  of  Roman  solidity  still  in  use,  formed  of  three  slabs  20  feet 
long  resting  on  strong  stone  abutments. 

The  old  road  of  the  Incas  may  still  be  clearly  traced  for  a  great  part  of  its 
course,  running  north-eastwards  in  the  direction  of  Pomabamba  and  Hiiamachuco, 
the  latter  a  modern  place  dominated  by  an  old  Inca  castle.  These  remote  districts 
have  made  no  progress  since  the  days  of  the  Inquisition  ;  so  recently  as  1889  a 
witch  was  burnt  alive  in  the  public  square  of  Huamachuco. 

Cajamarca,  metropolis  of  the  Central  Quichuas,  and  chief  stage  of  the  couriers 
between  Cuzco  and  Quito,  lies  in  the  Sierra  at  an  altitude  of  9,385  feet.  Towards 
the  south-east  is  seen  the  breach  through  which  will  pass  the  railway,  now  in 
progress,  which  is  to  connect  Cajamarca  with  the  port  of  Pacasmayo  on  the 
Pacific.  In  the  district  are  some  ruins  dating  from  Inca  times,  including  the 
remains  of  Atahuallpa's  palace,  the  block  on  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  been 
sacrificed,  and  the  chamber  where  was  to  be  deposited  his  ransom,  estimated  at 
£800,000.  About  three  miles  from  the  town  are  some  sulphurous  thermal  waters 
at  a  temperature  of  129°  Fahr ,  where  the  Emperor  was  keeping  his  fast,  surrounded 
by  30,000  men,  when  Pizarro,  at  the  head  of  his  small  band,  penetrated  into  the 
neighbouring  city.  The  spring,  which  is  supposed  to  rise  from  the  infernal 
regions,  is  visited  in  procession  on  the  great  feasts  and  purified  with  holy  water. 
Cctjamarqnilla  ("  Little  Cajamarca  "),  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Maraiion,  was  also 
an  Inca  city,  and  later  a  centre  of  the  Indian  missions. 

The  district  where  the  invaders  found  so  much  booty  is  one  of  the  chief 
mining  regions  of  Spanish  America.  The  rugged  escarpments  encircling  Hual- 
gayoc  (11,880  feet)  are  pierced  with  hundreds  of  shafts,  from,  which  silver  ores 
have  been  and  still  are  extracted.  Next  to  Cerro  de  Pasco,  Hualgayoc  is  the 
chief  silver-mining  centre  in  Peru  ;  but  this  place  has  lost  much  of  its  importance 
from  the  lack  of  easy  communications,  the  rigorous  climate  and  the  depreciation 


382 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  BEG10NS. 


of  silver  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  The  gold-washings,  also,  which  were 
formerly  extensively  worked  in  North  Peru,  have  been  mostly  abandoned,  though 
a  few  Indians  and  half-breeds  still  occupy  themselves  in  sifting  the  sands  of 
various  affluents  of  the  Mara  A  on.  Jaen  de  Bracamoros,  so  named  from  an  extinct 
Indian  tribe,  was  the  capital  of  these  auriferous  districts. 

East  of  the  Maranon,  Chachapoyas,  on  the   Utcubamba,  one  of  the  chief  tribu- 
taries of  the  upper  Maranon,  occupies  the  centre  of  a  thinly-peopled  agricultural 

Fig.  128. — FROM  PACASMAYO  TO  CAJAMABCA. 
Scflle  1  :  2,000,000. 


SO' 


Depths. 


OtolO 
Fathoms. 


10  to  50 
Fathoms. 


50  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


30  Miles. 


region,  which  might  become  one  of  the  most  flourishing  in  the  New  "World.  The 
town  stands  at  an  altitude  of  7,530  feet  in  the  midst  of  extremely  fertile  lands, 
and  enjoys  an  excellent  climate  intermediate  between  the  cold  and  temperate 
/ones.  These  solitudes  must  have  formerly  been  thickly  peopled,  as  is  evident 
from  the  remains  of  a  vast  necropolis  near  the  village  of  Cuelap,  with  enclosing 
walls  about  330  feet  high,  pierced  with  innumerable  niches. 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  PERU. 


883 


HUANUCO — CERRO  DE  PASCO. 

Huanuco,  the  health  resort  of  Cerro  de  Pasco,  near  the  source  of  the  Huallaga 
(6,140  feet),  is  a  mining  town  which  has  been  enriched  more  by  its  coffee  and 


sugar  plantations  than  by  its  goldfields.     In  Tnca  times  it  was  the  chief  strategic 
centre  between  Cuzco  and  Quito.     On  the  Mayo  affluent  of  the  Huallaga  stand  the 


334 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


towns  of  Moyobamba  and  Lamas,  the  latter  near  Tarapoto,  where  is  grown  the  best 
tobacco  in  Peru. 

In  colonial  times  Jeberos,  on  the  Aipena,  which  communicates  both  with  the 
Maraiion  and  the  Huallaga,  was  the  largest  place  in  the  Upper  Amazons  basin, 


Pig.  130.— CKBBO  DE  PASCO. 
Scale  1  :  30,000. 


gMile. 


with  an  estimated  population  of  15,000,  now  reduced  to  about  1,500.  Later  it 
was  eclipsed  by  the  village  of  Laguna,  which  in  1830  contained  as  many  as  6,000 
Indians.  At  present  it  is  rivalled  by  Yurimaguas,  at  the  head  of  the  navigation 
/or  steamers  ascending  the  Huallagft 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  PERU.  835 

Cerro  de  Pasco  (14,280  feet)  occupies  one  of  the  highest  points  of  the  irregular 
mass  where  have  their  rise  the  Maraiion  and  the  Huallaga  in  the  north,  and  in 
the  south  the  streams  flowing  through  the  Apurimac  to  the  Ucayali.  But  for  some 
powerful  attraction  a  place  situated  in  an  extremely  rugged  district,  at  an  altitude 
high  above  arborescent  vegetation,  and,  despite  its  proximity  to  the  equator,  in 
an  excessively  rigorous  climate,  could  never  have  invited  any  settlers  beyond 
'perhaps  a  few  solitary  pastors.  But  in  1630  one  of  these  rare  visitors  found  some 
silver  ingots  in  his  hearth,  and  there  was  a  sudden  rush  to  the  spot.  The  town 
sprang  up  as  by  enchantment,  though  its  population  has  ever  been  of  a  fluctuating 
character,  increasing  or  falling  off  according  to  the  output  of  the  mines  or  the 
market  price  of  the  precious  metal. 

The  silver  lode  discovered  by  the  shepherd  Huari  Capcha,  who  was  rewarded 
by  his  master  with  perpetual  imprisonment,  is  still  well  known  and  even  worked. 
But  besides  the  Descubridora,  as  it  is  called,  there  are  over  2,000  other  veins 
crossing  each  other  in  various  directions  above  the  town,  and  forming  a  vast 
network  connected  with  two  main  lodes.  Hundreds  of  galleries  have  been  filled 
up  by  the  debris,  while  others,  still  open  but  abandoned,  develop  a  vast  labyrinth 
where  the  explorers  at  times  get  lost.  In  the  Matagente  mine  as  many  as  300 
Indians  were  on  one  occasion  buried  alive. 

In  the  course  of  250  years  the  Pasco  mines,  the  most  productive  in  Peru, 
have  yielded  a  quantity  of  silver  valued  at  nearly  £80,000,000,  and  the  yearly 
output,  although  much  diminished,  still  averages  £400,000.  The  yield  might  be 
vastly  increased  were  the  mines  properly  drained  by  tunnelling  under  all  the 
galleries  and  carrying  off  the  water  to  the  Lake  of  Junin.  The  Pasco  uplands  also 
contain  gold  and  copper,  as  well  as  coal-beds. 


O  ROY  A — TARMA. 

Formerly  the  communications  were  extremely  difficult,  and  the  most  frequented 
route  crossed  the  cordillera  by  the  Lachagual  Pass  at  an  altitude  of  15,620  feet, 
nearly  the  height  of  Mont  Blanc.  At  present  the  place  is  reached  by  the  Lima- 
Oroya  railway,  which  follows  a  still  more  elevated  pass.  The  section  between 
Oroya  and  Cerro  de  Pasco  is  not  yet  finished  (1894),  but  here  the  incline  is  gradual 
across  the  plateau. 

Oroya  ("  Liana  Bridge  ")  takes  its  name  from  a  frail  suspension-bridge  of 
trailing  plants  130  feet  long  swung  across  the  Rio  Jauja  at  this  point,  12,178  feet 
above  sea-level.  Since  the  completion  of  the  railway  it  has  become  a  health  resort  for 
the  capital,  and  an  important  Government  station,  with  engineering  and  artillery 
schools,  besides  other  large  public  establishments.  Oroya  is  destined  to  become 
the  central  station  of  the  Andes  railway  system,  forming  the  junction  of  two  lines, 
one  running  south-east  through  the  Jauja  or  Mantaro  valley,  the  other  by  Cacas 
and  the  plain  of  Junin  northwards  to  Cerro  de  Pasco  and  the  Amazonian  slope. 
It  was  on  the  plain  of  Junin  that  Bolivar  gained  the  famous  battle  which  put  an 
end  to  Spanish  rule  in  Peruvian  territory  in  1824. 


886  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

The  Central  Peruvian  Railway,  at  present  terminating  at  Oroya,  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  structures  of  the  kind  in  the  whole  world.  Starting  from  Callao 
at  sea-level,  it  rises  500,  1,300,  2,800  and  6,000  feet  at  the  respective  distances  of 
7,  18,  33  and  50  miles ;  the  ascent  continues  steady  and  rapid  to  the  culminating 
point,  15,665  feet,  at  the  106th  mile,  beyond  which  it  descends  at  the  rate  of 
120  feet  per  mile  along  the  last  section  of  30  miles  to  Oroya,  a  total  distance  of 
136  miles  from  the  coast.  The  British  Consul  at  Callao,  who  supplies  these  details, 
adds  that  Oroya  is  likely  to  become  a  place  of  great  commercial  importance,  and  is 
already  the  centre  of  an  active  mining  industry,  smelting- works  having  been 
established  at  convenient  points  near  the  terminus,  where  ores  from  the  neigh- 
bouring districts  are  reduced  to  a  form  suitable  for  conveyance  to  the  coast  for 
exportation. 

The  Oroya  line  is  to  be  continued  eastwards  in  the  direction  of  Tarma  and 
Chanchamayo,  and  thence  to  the  head  of  the  navigation  of  the  Maraiion.  It  is 
expected  that  Peru  will  enter  on  a  career  of  great  prosperity  on  the  completion 
of  this  section,  which  will  afford  rapid  and  easy  communication  from  the  Pacific 
through  the  Amazonian  regions  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Tarma,  which  is  separated 
from  Oroya  by  one  of  the  inter- Andean  chains,  stands  at  an  altitude  of  10,000 
feet,  on  a  verdant  plain  where  formerly  stood  the  Peruvian  city  of  Tarmatambo. 
The  ruins  of  this  place,  with  its  "  palace  of  the  Incas,"  stand  on  a  terrace  still 
dominated  by  crumbling  fortifications. 

Farther  east  the  Chanchamayo  valley  has  already  attracted  several  groups 
of  settlers,  who  supply  the  inhabitants  of  the  plateau  with  most  of  their  coffee, 
sugar  and  rum.  French  and  German  colonists  own  most  of  the  plantations 
between  Tarma  and  the  fortified  station  of  San  Ramon,  which  stands,  at  a  height 
of  2,590  feet,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Chanchamayo  and  the  Tulumayo,  forming 
the  Oczabamba,  main  branch  of  the  Rio  Perene.  Beyond  this  district  the 
most -frequented  route  at  present  runs  through  the  Amazonian  forests  to  Puerto 
Tucker,  on  the  navigable  Rio  Pichis,  leading  to  the  Rio  Pachitea  and  the  lower 
Ucayali. 

JAUJA — HUANCAVELICA. 

Following  the  course  of  the  Jauja  below  Oroya,  the  traveller  reaches  the 
town  of  Jauja  (11,160  feet),  which  gives  its  name  to  the  river,  and  which  at  the 
time  of  the  Conquest  was  described  as  "  a  very  large  city,  built  like  those  of  Spain, 
where  over  100,000  people  daily  gathered  on  the  public  square."  Lower  down 
near  the  Huancayo  route  stands  the  convent  of  Ocopa,  mother-house  of  the 
Barefoot  Friars,  who  founded  numerous  stations  in  the  forests  traversed  by  the 
Ucayali  and  its  affluents. 

Huancayo  also  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Jauja,  which  in  this  section  of  its  course 
takes  the  name  of  Mantaro,  and  which  continues  to  descend  through  deep  gorges 
south-eastwards  in  the  direction  of  Lake  Titicaca.  But  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Huerpa  (Ayacucho),  whose  valley  was  formerly  flooded  by  the  waters  of  the  lake, 
the  Mantaro  escapes  through  a  breach  in  the  mountains  round  to  the  north-east 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  PERU.  837 

and  north.  Here  it  rushes  down  a  series  of  wild  gorges  through  a  desolate  region 
visited  only  by  a  few  Campa  savages.  The  towns  in  the  tributary  valley, 
JIuancavelica,  Huanta  and  Ayacucho,  all  stand  above  the  gorges  beyond  the  limits 
of  Peru  proper.  Between  Ayacucho  and  Huancavelica  the  plateau  of  greyish 
rocks  has  been  weathered  into  thousands  of  monoliths  affecting  the  form  of 
obelisks,  some  as  high  as  150  or  160  feet,  and  all  disposed  like  the  colossal  tomb- 
stones of  a  vast  graveyard.  Some  of  the  sandstone  blocks  have  been  hollowed 
out  to  serve  as  dwellings. 

In  the  district  of  Huancavelica  (Huancavilca)  a  Portuguese  miner  discovered 
some  quicksilver-beds  in  1567,  and  five  years  later  the  town  was  founded  under 
the  Spanish  name  of  Villarica  de  Oropesa,  which,  however,  yielded  to  that  of 
Huancavelica,  perpetuating  the  memory  of  the  former  Huanca  Indians.  The  new 
settlement  increased  rapidly,  and  for  two  centuries  it  held  a  foremost  position 
amongst  the  cities  of  Peru.  Its  mines  yielded  nearly  all  the  quicksilver  used  in 
the  New  World  in  the  preparation  of  gold  and  silver  amalgams.  But  after  yield- 
ing nearly  £20,000,000  of  metal  the  mines  became  impoverished,  and  at  present 
the  annual  output  averages  no  more  than  about  50  tons.  Copious  thermal 
springs  with  petrifying  properties  occur  near  the  town.  Huanta  also,  which  was 
formerly  rich  in  silver  ores,  has  lost  nearly  all  its  mining  resources. 

AYACUCHO — SICUANI. 

Ayacucho,  "Gorge  of  the  Dead,"  formerly  Huamanga,  "Falcon  Rock,"  owes 
much  of  its  importance  to  its  rank  as  administrative  centre  of  the  department, 
and  as  the  chief  stage  on  the  highway  between  Lima  and  Cuzco.  Several 
decisive  battles  were  fought  round  about  this  strategic  position  ;  in  the  south  the 
village  of  Chupas  recalls  the  defeat  of  Almagro  the  younger  in  1542,  and  in 
the  north  Quinua  should  have  given  its  name  to  the  so-called  battle  of  Ayacucho, 
gained  by  the  republicans  over  the  Spanish  troops  in  1824.  The  college  of 
Ayacucho  ranks  as  a  university. 

Below  its  confluence  with  the  Mantaro  the  Apurimac  basin  has  scarcely  any 
centres  of  population  except  Cangallo  on  the  Calcamayo  affluent,  and  Abancay  on 
the  mainstream,  near  the  point  where  the  Lima-Cuzco  route  crosses  the  river  by 
the  highest  rope-bridge  in  Peru. 

Sicuani,  present  terminus  of  the  Arequipa  railway  (11,590  feet),  occupies  a 
delightful  position  on  the  banks  of  the  upper  Huilcamayo  (Vilcanota),  which 
here  flows  at  a  moderate  incline  through  one  of  the  "  paradises  of  Peru."  Near 
Urcos,  lower  down,  is  shown  the  lagoon  where,  according  to  a  local  legend,  was 
formerly  suspended  the  gold  chain  enclosing  the  great  square  of  Cuzco.  But 
the  city  itself — usually  written  with  the  article,  "El  Cuzco,"  that  is,  "The  Naval  " — 
was  built,  not  on  the  river,  but  on  a  bolson,  a  long  narrow  plain  covered  with 
barley  and  lucerne  fields,  and  dominated  north-westwards  by  a  rocky  eminence 
crowned  with  ruins.  It  stands  at  a  height  of  11,385  feet,  in  a  climate  cold  enough 
for  snow  to  fall  occasionally  on  the  city. 
23 


888 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


Cuzco. 

This  old  religious  metropolis,  "  City  of  the  Sun,"  has  overgrown  its  ancient 
limits,  which  were  indicated  on  the  right  and  left  by  two  torrents  descending 
south-eastwards  in  the  direction  of  the  Vilcanota.  The  towers  of  the  Inca 
enclosures  have  disappeared,  and  new  quarters  have  sprung  up  beyond  the  two 
watercourses.  In  Inca  times  Cuzco  comprised  four  distinct  quarters,  named  from 
the  four  points  of  the  compass,  and  in  each,  separate  dwellings  were  set  apart  for 
the  Indians  according  to  their  northern,  southern,  eastern  or  western  origin.  In 
the  interior  of  the  city  the  foundations  of  the  houses  present  solid  and  broad 


Fig.  131.— Cuzco. 
Scale  1  :  20,000. 


West  oP  Greenwich 


72'4 ' 


876  Yards. 


stone  walls,  as  if  built  for  fortresses,  while  the  light  superstructure  with  its  red- 
tiled  roof  reveals  its  modern  origin.  Most  of  the  temples  and  palaces  still  survive 
in  analogous  form,  serving  as  foundations  to  the  present  churches,  convents, 
warehouses  and  private  mansions.  These  old  structures  were  concentrated 
especially  along  the  banks  of  the  Huatanay,  or  western  torrent,  and  here  the 
observer  admires  the  wonderful  accuracy  with  which  these  undressed  cyclopic 
blocks  were  put  together.  Formerly  many  of  the  houses  were  decorated  with 
plates  of  gold  both  on  the  inner  and  outer  surfaces. 

On  one  side  of  the  great  square  stands  the  cathedral,  a  Spanish  structure  in  bad 
taste,  but  prodigiously  rich  in  the  interior,  as  if  to  efface  the  memory  of  the  old 


TOPOGKAPHY  OF  PERU.  389 

temple  of  the  Sun,  which  contained  a  solid  gold  image  of  the  day- star.  Amongst 
the  scientific  and  literary  institutions  are  a  university,  a  library  and  a  museum 
of  antiquities. 

From  the  archaeological  standpoint  the  eminence  overlooking  Cuzco  is  fully 
as  interesting  as  the  city  itself.  On  the  first  terrace  are  seen  the  ruins  of  the 
Colcampata  palace,  attributed  by  tradition  to  Manco  Capac,  first  of  the  Incas, 
reputed  civiliser  of  the  Quichuas.  But  however  this  be,  the  remains  present 
extremely  curious  architectural  features,  particularly  in  their  recesses  and  door- 
ways, resembling  the  pylons  of  Egyptian  temples.  A  much  weathered  figure 
of  a  siren  projects  in"  one  place  beyond  the  face  of  the  wall. 

On  the  crest  of  the  hill,  rising  745  feet  above  the  square,  stands  the  citadel 
of  Sacsahuaman,  which  was  erected  by  the  great  chieftain  Viracocha.  It  com- 
prises three  concentric  ramparts  formed  by  blocks  of  a  dark  limestone,  which 
are  joined  together  as  nicely  as  the  cubes  of  a  piece  of  Roman  mosaic- work. 
The  walls,  which  have  been  partly  demolished  and  rolled  down  block  by  block 
to  the  foot  of  the  hill  as  building  materials  for  the  modern  city,  were  disposed  at 
projecting  and  receding  angles,  so  as  to  present  two  fronts  to  the  enemy  advanc- 
ing from  any  single  point.  Here  the  Incas  long  held  out  against  the  Spanish 
force  led  by  Hernando  Pizarro.  Near  Sacsahuaman  rise  the  steep  rocky  slopes 
of  Rodadero,  carved  into  flights  of  steps,  seats,  and  terraces.  From  both  hills  a 
splendid  view  is  afforded  of  the  city,  the  surrounding  verdant  plain  dotted  over 
with  villages,  the  smiling  Yilcanota  valley,  the  white  cone  of  Azungato,  and  in  the 
distance  the  frowning  heights  of  the  snowy  cordillera. 

The  Spaniards  had  entered  Cuzco  in  1532,  and  for  the  natives  the  anniversary 
of  the  Conquest  long  remained  a  day  of  mourning.  Years  after  the  event  the 
old  men  on  that  day  laid  their  ears  to  the  ground,  listening  for  the  roaring  waters 
which  were  suddenly  to  rise  from  the  underground  lake  and  overwhelm  the 
invaders.  During  the  religious  processions,  when  the  multitude  devoutly  followed 
the  great  crucifix  of  Nuestro  Senor  de  los  Temblores,  prayers  may  even  have  been 
addressed  to  the  "  Lord  of  Earthquakes  "  to  overturn  the  desecrated  city. 

Nowhere  else  has  the  old  cult  left  so  many  memories  in  the  hearts  of  the 
people.  During  lunar  eclipses  the  women  implore  Father  Sun  with  much  moaning 
not  to  devour  Mother  Moon.  Under  the  Spanish  rule  many  noble  families  had 
gradually  given  an  aristocratic  air  to  the  old  Inca  city ;  but  after  the  War  of 
Independence  nearly  all  emigrated,  and  most  of  the  old  palaces,  more  or  less 
debased,  are  now  occupied  by  Quichua  half-breeds.  But  a  revival  must  take 
place  when  the  ancient  City  of  the  Sun  will  be  placed  in  direct  railway  communi- 
cation with  the  Pacific  Ocean  by  the  Arequipa  line. 

OLLANTAI-TAMBO — SARAYACU — OMAGUA. 

Ruins  are  also  numerous  in  the  environs.  The  original  kingdom  of  the  Incas, 
at  first  of  small  extent,  was  here  defended  by  fortresses,  whose  remains  are  still 
seen  on  the  Apurimac,  the  Vilcanota  and  the  Paucartambo.  Ollantai-tambo, 


340 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


most  imposing  of  these  strongholds,  which  is  reached  by  crossing  the  Vilcanota, 
between  Maras  and  Uintbamba,  may  still  be  regarded  as  marking  the  frontier  of 
Peru,  properly  so  called.  Beyond  it  nothing  is  seen  except  a  few  obscure  villages, 
hamlets,  farmsteads  or  Indian  huts.  Civilisation  is  advancing  timidly  to  the 

Fig.  132. — IQUITOS  AND  THE  NAPO  CONFLUENCE. 
Scale  1  :  750,000. 


15  Miles. 


re-conquest  of  this  fertile  valley,  which  was  wasted  in  the  eighteenth  century  by 
the  Chuncho  natives,  who  burnt  no  less  than  115  plantations. 

Sarayacu,  the  chief  riverine  port  of  the  lower  Ucayali,  lies  on  a  lateral  creek, 
where  some  Franciscan  missionaries  have  gathered  round  them  Indians  of 
various  tribes — Piros,  Cachibos,  Orejones — who  have  adopted  neither  Spanish  nor 
Portuguese,  but  Quichua  as  the  language  of  general  intercourse.  Here  the 
traveller  enters  the  lowlands  at  an  altitude  of  not  more  than  544  feet  above 
the  Atlantic,  and  steamers  easily  ascend  from  the  Amazons  to  Sarayacu. 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  PERU. 


841 


At  the  confluence  of  the  Maranon  and  Ucayali,  the  two  main  head  branches 
of  the  Amazons,  the  village  of  Nauta  is  perched  on  a  cliff  which  rises  some 
34  feet  above  low- water  level.  Founded  in  1830  on  the  site  of  an  old  mission, 
this  little  group  of  straw  huts  is  inhabited  by  the  Cocamas  Indians  and  a  few 
half-breeds ;  it  is  far  from  possessing  the  importance  to  which  its  geographical 

Fig.  133. — LOBETO,  AMAZONS-YAVARI  CONFLUENCE. 
Scale  1  :  750,000. 


reorio  .•  •*• .   '    "°.      I  «=.'„, ,i\  *     '  •/   ° 


18  Miles. 


position  would  seem  to  entitle  it ;  but  it  has  lost  all  its  trade  by  a  shifting  of  the 
channel  and  the  formation  of  broad  alluvial  banks. 

At  long  intervals  along  the  margin  of  the  great  river  follow  other  ports, 
such  as  Omaguas,  so  named  from  a  colony  of  Omagua  Indians,  who  have  since 
been  replaced  by  numerous  half-breeds  of  diverse  origin  ;  Iquitos,  which.  Was 
founded  in  1862,  and  rapidly  developed  a  considerable  trade,  and  at  present 
metropolis  of  the  Amazonian  Montana  ;  Oran,  situated  below  the  Napo  confluence  ; 
Pebas,  Cochaquines,  both  at  first  exclusively  Indian  missions  ;  Sancudo,  and  lastly, 
Caballo-cocha,  which  till  recently  was  an  obscure  village,  but  is  now  growing 
at  the  expense  of  Loreto,  an  ancient  settlement  inhabited  by  a  few  Ticuna  Indians, 
skilled  in  the  preparation  of  the  curare  poison. 


842  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

Steamers  call  regularly  at  these  Upper  Amazons  ports,  and  the  dealers  who 
have  settled  in  the  district,  for  the  most  part  Brazilians  or  Portuguese,  collect 
all  the  local  produce — rubber,  tobacco,  fish,  sarsaparilla,  wax,  Moyobamba  hats — 
which  is  brought  down  by  the  Indian  boatmen  by  the  Napo,  Pastaza,  Maraiion, 
Ucayali  and  other  Amazonian  headwaters. 

SANUIA — PUNO — YUNGUYO. 

Sandia,  beyond  the  snowy  Carabaya  range  towards  the  Brazilian  frontier,  lies 
in  one  of  the  most  auriferous  districts  of  the  New  World.  Prospectors  have 
estimated  at  many  millions  the  quantity  of  the  precious  metal  contained  in  the 
alluvia  of  its  running  waters,  which  flow  north-east  through  the  Manu  (Madre 
de  Dios)  to  the  Beni  affluent  of  the  Madeira.  But  the  absence  of  roads,  or 
even  tracks,  through  the  surrounding  forests  prevents  the  exploitation  of  these 
treasures.  It  was  in  the  Carabaya  woodlands  that  Clements  Markham  discovered 
the  cinchona- plant  in  1860,  which  was  afterwards  successfully  acclimatised  on  the 
uplands  of  Southern  India. 

Although  lying  on  the  west  slope  of  the  range,  Crucero  has  been  chosen  as 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Carabaya.  It  stands  at  an  altitude  of  12,970  feet,  on 
a  torrent  which  flows  southwards  in  the  direction  of  Lake  Titicaca.  In  the  same 
valley,  but  much  nearer  to  the  lake,  is  situated  the  more  important  town  of 
Azangaro.  Here  are  some  ancient  ruins,  including  a  round  tower  which  till 
recently  was  covered  with  an  old  Peruvian  roof  of  reeds  and  short  thatch,  the 
only  one  of  the  kind  still  in  existence  at  the  time  of  its  destruction.  According 
to  all  the  local  traditions,  Azangaro  was  the  place  where  the  Quichuas  buried  the 
heaps  of  gold,  valued  at  nearly  £1,000,000,  which  they  were  bringing  to  Pizarro 
for  the  ransom  of  Atahuallpa. 

By  its  junction  with  the  Pucara  the  Azangaro  river  forms  the  Ramiz,  chief 
affluent  of  Lake  Titicaca.  The  Pucara,  descending  from  the  Vilcanota  Knot,  is 
skirted  by  the  railway  running  from  Arequipa  towards  Cuzco,  and  crossing  the 
Cordillera  at  the  Raya  Pass  (13,090  feet)  near  Santa  Rosa.  Pucara  ("  The 
Fortress  "),  the  most  flourishing  place  in  the  valley,  stands  at  the  foot  of  a  reddish 
sandstone  cliff  1,316  feet  high,  pierced  with  clefts  and  cavities,  around  which 
hover  clouds  of  birds. 

Below  Pucara  the  railway  still  follows  the  river  valley  as  far  as  Nicasio, 
beyond  which,  trending  southwards,  it  turns  the  northern  extremity  of  Lake 
Titicaca,  passing  by  Lampa  to  reach  Juliaca,  near  an  inlet  of  the  lake,  12,670 
feet  above  sea-level.  Juliaca,  the  frontier  town  towards  Bolivia,  cannot  fail  to 
acquire  great  importance  as  the  central  station  of  lines  branching  off  in  one 
direction  towards  Cuzco,  in  another  through  Puno  towards  La  Paz. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  Puno  mines  were  amongst  the  most  productive 
in  the  New  World ;  but  the  owner  of  one  of  the  lodes  having  acquired 
enormous  wealth,  the  greed  of  the  impecunious  viceroy  was  excited.  The 
"  millionaire  "  was  accused  of  treason,  condemned  and  executed,  and  the  very  day 


MATERIAL  CONDITION  OF  PERU.  343 

of  his  death,  saith  the  legend,  the  galleries  were  flooded,  or  else  the  entrances 
choked  by  the  Indians.  All  subsequent  efforts  to  re-discover  the  rich  lodes 
have  failed,  although  a  little  silver  still  continues  to  be  extracted  from  the  mines. 

In  connection  with  the  Pacific  Railway,  Puno  maintains  a  number  of 
steamers  on  the  lake,  besides  a  whole  flotilla  of  balsas,  made  entirely  of  reeds 
and  propelled  by  a  reed  sail.  On  a  neighbouring  island  is  the  grave  of  the 
distinguished  North- American  traveller,  Orton.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
Titicaca  was  often  called  the  Lake  of  Chicuito,  from  a  place  lying  farther  south  on 
the  west  side,  which,  before  the  insurrection  of  Tupac  Amaru,  was  a  flourishing 
town ;  but  it  was  plundered  and  partly  destroyed  during  the  war,  and  never 
recovered  from  the  disaster. 

On  the  headland  of  Sillustani,  at  the  little  Lake  of  Umuyo,  near  Puno,  are  some 
megalithic  granite  circles  which,  of  all  Aymara  monuments,  most  resemble  the 
menhirs  and  other  similar  pre-historic  remains  of  West  Europe.  Near  the  south- 
west extremity  of  Lake  Titicaca  the  town  of  Yunguyo,  formerly  a  holy  place, 
situated  on  the  low  Copacabana  peninsula,  still  attracts  all  the  surrounding 
populations  to  its  market,  which  appears  to  date  from  pre-Inca  times. 


VIIL 

MATERIAL  CONDITION  OF  PERU. 

The  population  of  Peru,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  full-blood  or  half-caste 
Indians,  has  increased  less  rapidly  than  that  of  the  other  American  republics ; 
in  some  of  the  more  remote  upland  districts  it  may  even  have  diminished, 
owing  to  the  attraction  of  the  large  towns.  Nevertheless,  the  increase  has  been 
about  threefold  since  the  War  of  Independence — from  a  little  over  1,000,000  in 
1810  to  nearly  3,000,000  in  1876.  The  losses  caused  by  the  war  with  Chili 
have  already  been  more  than  repaired,  and  at  present  (1894)  the  population 
certainly  exceeds  3,000,000,  of  which  the  civilised  Quichua  element,  pure  or 
mixed,  is  in  a  decided  majority.  The  uncivilised  Indians  were  roughly  estimated 
at  350,000  in  1876. 

It  may  be  doubted  whether  the  Creoles,  that  is,  the  whites  of  pure  Spanish 
descent,  have  yet  been  completely  acclimatised  on  the  insalubrious  coastlands, 
where  the  mortality  of  infants  is  still  excessive.  Convulsions  especially  are  very 
fatal,  as  is  also  the  "  seven-days  sickness,"  so  called  because  it  attacks  infants  in 
the  first  week  after  birth,  always  with  deadly  result.  Yellow  fever  has  also 
frequently  invaded  the  coastlands,  sparing  the  negroes,  but  proving  more  dangerous 
to  the  Indians  than  to  the  whites.  Typhus  and  typhoid  fever  prevail  on  the  hot 
lands,  and,  as  in  most  torrid  climates,  intermittent  agues  and  dysentery,  often 
complicated  by  liver  complaints,  ravage  the  coastlands. 

According  to  Tschudi,  no  country  presents  so  many  peculiar  forms  of  disease 
as  Peru;  every  valley  has  its  special  ailment,  unknown  in  the  neighbouring 


844  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

districts.  On  the  uplands,  all  strangers,  and  even  the  natives,  suffer,  either 
directly  or  indirectly,  from  the  soroche,  caused  by  the  rarefaction  of  the  air, 
and  assuming  different  forms  in  different  localities.  The  mining  districts  rich 
in  antimony  are  specially  dreaded,  and  certain  domestic  animals  suffer  even  more 
than  travellers  from  mountain-sickness.  Above  13,000  feet,  dogs  never  survive 
beyond  a  twelvemonth,  while  cats  die  in  horrible  convulsions  a  few  days  after 
their  arrival. 

On  the  other  hand,  some  ailments  contracted  on  the  lowlands  are  cured  in  the 
mountains.  Dysentery  stops  almost  immediately,  and  consumption — rare  amongst 
the  upland  Indians — is  arrested  and  even  disappears,  provided  the  patients  take 
care  to  accustom  themselves  gradually  to  the  more  rarefied  air  of  the  elevated 
regions.  Thus,  although  Oroya  may  be  reached  from  Lima  in  a  single  day,  the 
journey  has  to  be  made  by  at  least  twelve  or  fifteen  stages 

AGRICULTURE. 

In  former  times  Peruvian  agriculture  was  certainly  of  far  greater  importance 
than  at  present.  The  so-called  andenes,  steps  or  terraces,  now  lying  fallow,  but 
still  girdling  the  mountain  slopes  up  to  the  vicinity  of  the  snow- line,  and  the 
astonishing  irrigation  works,  drawing  the  fertilising  waters  from  the  rocky  upland 
valleys  down  to  the  plateaux,  attest  both  the  density  and  the  remarkable  industry 
of  the  old  populations.  In  those  days  agriculture  served  only  to  supply  the  local 
wants,  and  to  entertain  a  little  exchange  of  commodities  between  the  lowlands 
and  the  elevated  regions  of  the  Sierra. 

The  produce  was  mainly  restricted  to  two  alimentary  plants — maize  in  the 
temperate  lands,  and  higher  up  chenopodium  quinoa,  the  seeds  of  which  were  ground 
to  flour  or  boiled  like  rice.  Various  species  of  the  potato,  such  as  euro  or  papa, 
were  also  cultivated,  besides  arracacha,  ulluco  (ullucus  tuberosus),  and  oca  (oxalis 
crenata).  Certain  choice  varieties,  like  the  "Cuzco"  maize,  developed  with  mar- 
vellous art,  were  grown  only  for  the  Inca's  table.  For  kings  and  nobles  was 
also  reserved  the  use  of  coca,  although  the  leaf  was  occasionally  distributed  among 
the  common  people.  In  recent  years  the  cultivation  of  this  plant  has  been  revived 
and  extended,  especially  on  the  Amazonian  slopes,  and  exported  to  Europe  for  the 
preparation  of  cocaine. 

Wheat  and  barley  were  introduced  from  Spain,  and  bananas  from  the  Canaries, 
this  last  by  the  same  Bishop  Tomas  de  Berlanga  to  whom  we  owe  the  discovery  of 
the  Galapagos  archipelago.  Beruabe  Cobo  relates  that  in  1543  Lima  was  already 
surrounded  by  banana-groves,  but  an  invasion  of  ants  having  consumed  all  the 
supplies  in  the  city,  the  calamity  was  attributed  to  these  plantations,  which  were 
consequently  ordered  to  be  rooted  up  under  a  fine  of  ten  gold  crowns.  The  vine 
and  olive  made  their  appearance  some  years  later  ;  but  since  1551,  when  the  first 
bunch  of  grapes  was  gathered  tit  Lima,  viniculture  has  been  mainly  confined  to  the 
southern  provinces,  and  especially  to  the  districts  of  lea  and  Moquegua. 

Cotton,  which  was  grown  to  some  extent  during  the  American  Civil  War,  has 


MINERAL  WEALTH  OF  PEEU.  845 

since  been  mostly  replaced  by  sugar-cane,  which  succeeds  well  in  the  equable 
climate  of  the  Pacific  seaboard.  Next  to  sugar,  which  is  forwarded  chiefly  to 
Great  Britain,  the  wool  and  hair  of  sheep,  llamas  and  alpacas,  form  the  most 
important  articles  of  export  from  the  farmsteads,  the  department  of  Puno  alone 
forwarding  from  £120,000  to  £200,000  worth  annually.  On  the  low-lying  coast- 
lands  horned  cattle  do  not  thrive,  and  here  the  livestock  consists  exclusively  of 
horses,  asses,  swine  and  mules ;  as  a  pack-animal  the  llama  is  being  gradually 
replaced  by  the  mule,  which  carries  a  four  times  heavier  load  twice  the  distance 
at  a  stretch,  and  which  is,  moreover,  more  manageable  and  much  more  easily  bred. 
Despite  political  revolutions,  the  system  of  large  estates  still  prevails  in  Peru, 
where  some  of  the  great  proprietors  possess  domains  80  or  100  leagues  in  circuit, 
yielding  5,000  or  even  10,000  tons  of  sugar,  or  else  affording  pasturage  for 
100,000  sheep.  Nevertheless,  the  Government,  in  the  hope  of  attracting  foreign 
settlers,  has  from  time  to  time  attempted  to  create  small  holdings,  by  distributing 
unoccupied  lands  in  lots  of  300  acres,  and  even  less.  But  the  best  lands  on  the 
Amazonian  slope  have  already  been  ceded  to  an  English  syndicate  with  almost 
sovereign  rights. 


MINERAL  WEALTH. 

Peru  no  longer  holds  the  first  rank  as  a  mining  country,  having  already  been 
far  outstripped,  not  only  by  the  United  States  and  Australia,  but  even  by  Bolivia 
and  Chili  in  South  America  itself.  Nevertheless,  the  whole  region  may  still  be 
regarded  as  a  vast  storehouse  of  the  metals.  It  would  be  almost  impossible, 
writes  Raimondi,  to  point  to  a  single  district  in  Peru  proper  which  does  not 
possess  deposits  of  some  mineral  or  of  some  substance  valuable  as  fuel  or  for 
other  purposes. 

In  the  distribution  of  these  treasures  a  certain  contrast  may  be  observed 
between  the  coast  region  and  both  of  the  main  ranges.  The  "  Andes,"  that  is 
to  say,  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  consisting  mainly  of  Silurian  strata,  contain  gold 
in  their  schistose  quartz  veins,  while  the  torrents  descending  their  flanks  to  the 
Amazonian  regions  wash  down  numerous  pyrites.  The  Western  Cordillera,  which 
separates  the  inter- Andean  plateaux  from  the  seaboard,  is  poor  in  gold,  but 
abounds  in  silver  lodes,  with  endless  ramifications  wherever  the  dioritic  rocks 
are  found  in  contact  especially  with  Jurassic  limestones.  Here  the  silver  ores 
are  nearly  always  associated  with  antimony,  copper  and  lead,  though  copper  occurs 
in  greatest  abundance  on  the  coastlands.  In  this  maritime  zone  vast  spaces  are 
impregnated  with  salt,  nitrate  of  soda,  borax,  petroleum,  and  till  lately  the  cliffs 
and  neighbouring  islets  were  covered  with  thick  beds  of  guano.  In  the  Ancachs 
valley  there  is  an  untouched  store  of  coal  belonging  to  the  Jurassic  period. 

The  annual  yield  of  gold  is  small,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  richest  places 
•occur  in  the  least  healthy,  the  most  remote  and  inaccessible  regions  of  the 
Montana.  Hence  silver  remains  the  chief  mineral  product  of  Peru,  and  to  it 
jsome  towns,  such  as  Cerro  de  Pasco  and  Hualgayoc,  owe  all  their  importance. 


846 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


Quicksilver,  which  formerly  enriched  the  city  of  Huancavelica,  is  now  obtained 
only  in  small  quantities.  The  falling  off  in  the  production  of  this  and  other 
minerals  is  partly  explained  by  the  economic  conditions  of  the  market,  the 


Fig.  134.— MINES  OF  PBBU. 
Scale  1  :  20,000,000. 


••»  M  f  A  -  0  O  « 

Gold.    Platinum.        Silver.          Copper.  Tin.  Lead.  Iron.         Salt.  Cinnabar. 

».>•*•"••',* 
Coal.  Nitrate.  Quano.  Asphalt.         Petroleum. 

__^^__^^^_^__^^^_  600  Miles. 


difficulties  of  transport  and  the  competition  of  the  United  States,  Australia  and 
Transvaal.  Nevertheless,  the  mining  industry  has  received  a  fresh  stimulus 
since  the  state  mines  have  been  ceded  to  the  English  creditors  of  the  Government. 


TEADE  AND  INDUSTRIES  OF  PERU.  847 

Being  of  quite  recent  origin,  the  petroleum  industry  has  not  yet  acquired  any 
great  development,  despite  the  extensive  reservoirs  discovered  south  of  Tumbez, 
and  in  the  neighbouring  districts  of  Payta  and  Sechura.  Nevertheless,  mineral 
oil  is  already  employed  by  the  local  railways  and  steamers,  as  well  as  in  many  sugar 
refineries.  In  1885  the  total  yield  was  estimated  at  21,000  tons,  not  more  than 
two  per  cent,  of  that  of  the  United  States,  whose  reservoirs  are  less  copious  than 
those  of  Peru.  To  encourage  the  industry,  an  Act  of  Congress,  passed  in  1890, 
exempts  from  any  fiscal  charges  the  output  for  twenty-five  years.  It  is  hoped 
that  this  new  source  of  wealth  may  replace  the  exhausted  guano-beds  and  the 
borax  and  nitre  regions  wrested  by  Chili  from  Peru  by  right  of  conquest. 

TRADE  AND  INDUSTRIES. 

The  manufacturing  industries  possess  no  importance,  being  mainly  confined 
to  the  coarse  woollen  fabrics  and  earthenware  prepared  by  the  Quichuas  of 
the  plateaux  for  local  consumption,  and  to  the  hats,  filigree  and  other  fancy 
articles  manufactured  by  the  artisans  of  Moyobamba  and  a  few  coast  towns. 
Modern  industry  is  represented  only  by  a  cotton-mill  and  various  little  factories, 
centred  chiefly  at  Bellavista,  near  Callao.  Hence  machinery  and  wares  of  all 
kinds  have  to  be  imported  from  Europe  and  the  United  States  in  exchange  for 
silver  ores,  sugar,  wool,  nitre  and  other  local  produce.  In  this  foreign  trade 
Great  Britain  holds  the  first  place,  followed  by  France,  Germany,  the  United 
States  and  Chili  in  the  order  named.  The  imports  and  exports  average, 
collectively,  about  £3,200,000,  .of  which  £2,200,000  fall  to  the  share  of  England. 

Till  recently  Peru  possessed  an  insignificant  mercantile  navy  of  somewhat  less 
than  12,000  tons  burden ;  but  foreigners  having  obtained  the  right  to  naturalise 
their  vessels,  this  little  fleet  was  suddenly  enlarged  to  a  considerable  extent.  But 
the  deep-sea  navigation  remains  in  the  hands  of  foreigners ;  more  than  half  of 
the  ships  engaged  in  the  ocean  carrying  trade  fly  the  British  flag,  Chili  owning 
the  larger  part  of  the  rest,  which  is  divided  between  Germany  and  France. 
More  than  half  of  the  traffic  is  concentrated  in  the  roadstead  of  Callao. 


COMMUNICATIONS. 

Peru  already  possesses  numerous  sections  of  a  railway  system,  which  jointly 
far  exceed  in  length  the  carriage-roads  of  the  country.  Not  only  Lima,  but  most 
of  the  larger  inland  towns  on  the  Pacific  slope,  are  connected  by  rail  with  their 
seaports.  Even  the  arduous  attempt  to  surmount  the  barrier  of  the  Western 
Cordillera  was  made,  at  a  time  when  the  profits  of  the  guano  trade  rendered  the 
expense  a  question  of  minor  importance.  Over  £20,000,000  were  employed  in 
this  undertaking,  an  enormous  sum  for  a  population  of  3,000,000,  scattered  over  a 
vast  area, 

The  original  plan  was  to  push  forward  the  northern,  central  and  southern 
trans-Andean  lines ;  the  first  running  from  Pacasmayo  through  Cajamarca  to  the 


348 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


upper  Maranon  ;  the  second  forming  a  junction  with  the  Callao-Liraa  line  to  reach 
the  Rio  Jauja  valley  and  ramify  thence  over  the  inter- Andean  plateaux;  the 
third  starting  from  Mollendo  and  climbing  the  slopes  to  Arequipa,  then  crossing 


Fig.  135. — COMMUNICATIONS  OF  PEKU. 
Scale  1  :  18  000.000. 


.Pozuzo1     'J^Tu 
P°Werthemann     '{•--; 


20' 


Tonquini 


^rro-febJfcCanete  rAyacucho 

Hlk. 
=g\^*-lca 


Cuzco 


'Rosa 


^•CE^Jky 


82' 


//eat  or  Greenwich 


eo 


Railways 


Deep-sea  Navigation. 


310  Miles. 


the    cordillera    and    descending  to   Puno,   here   sending    off  two  branches,   one 
towards  Cuzco,  the  other  towards  Bolivia. 

Of  these  three  trunk  lines,  the  southern  made  most  rapid  progress,  and  before 
the  disastrous  Chilian  war  the  section  between  the  coast  and  Lake  Titicaca  was 
already  finished.  The  Lima  route  had  reached  the  crest  of  the  Andes  by  an 


RAILWAYS  OF  PERU. 


349 


incline  which  is  a  triumph  of  engineering  skill ;  but  it  had  not  yet  connected  the 
capital  with  any  important  place  on  the  plateaux.  Lastly,  the  Pacasmayo  line 
had  not  yet  surmounted  the  gorges  of  the  Rio  Jequetepeque. 

These  undertakings  were  arrested  by  the  war,  and  several  lines,  deprived  of 
their  rolling-stock,  were  abandoned,  and  fell  out  of  repair.  After  a  decade  of 
inaction  the  work  has  been  slowly  resumed,  and  in  1892  the  Arequipa-Puno  line 

Fig.  136. — LIMA-OBOYA  RAILWAY  ;  VIEW  TAKEN  AT  CHICLA. 


completed  its  northern  branch  over  the  Vilcanota  Pass  as  far  as  Sicuani.  At 
three  points  it  attains  an  altitude  of  over  13,000  feet,  rising  at  the  Raya  Pass  to 
14,180  feet.  But  the  Oroya  line  crosses  the  cordillera  at  the  still  higher  elevation 
of  15,650  feet. 

But  much  remains  to  be  done  before  the  system  can  be  regarded  as  even 
roughly  completed.  Lines  are  especially  needed  to  connect  the  navigable 
Amazonian  rivers  with  the  Pacific  seaports,  where  the  transport  of  goods  varies 


850  SOUTH  AMERICA -THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

at  present  from  £40  to  £80  per  ton,  according  to  the  season  and  the  nature  and 
bulk  of  the  wares.  A  first  section  in  construction  of  the  Oroya  line  is  intended  to 
run  through  Tarma  and  down  the  Rio  Perene  valley  to  the  Ucayali,  and  thence 
over  a  lateral  pass  to  the  Unini  basin.  A  second,  starting  from  Ayacucho,  is 
projected  to  descend  northwards  by  the  Rio  Mantaro  valley  to  the  Apurimac- 
Tambo  confluence. 

Lastly,  a  continuation  of  the  branch  now  advancing  from  Lake  Titicaca 
towards  Cuzco  is  planned  to  turn  the  rapids  of  the  Urubamba,  and  thus  reach 
Tonquini  at  the  entrance  of  the  defile  where  the  headwaters  escape  to  the  plains. 
These  various  riverine  ports,  standing  at  a  mean  altitude  of  not  more  than  1,000 
feet  above  the  Atlantic,  from  which  they  are  distant  3,300  miles,  would  offer 
more  advantages  than  Callao  for  forwarding  the  produce  of  the  Sierra.  An 
English  company  has  already  undertaken  to  complete  the  whole  system,  the  first 
sections  of  which  were  constructed  with  the  badly  administered  resources  of  the 
nation. 

The  telegraph  lines  are  in  a  much  more  forward  state,  and  already  extend  to 
the  remotest  provinces  of  the  republic.  The  officials  sent  to  administer  this 
department  in  the  distant  Amazonian  regions  find  it  more  convenient  and  far  less 
expensive  to  proceed  to  their  posts  not  directly  across  the  Cordilleras,  but  by  the 
sea  route  from  Callao  to  Panama,  then  across  the  Isthmus  to  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
and  so  on  by  large  steamers  to  Para,  and  thence  by  smaller  boats  up  the  Amazons 
to  Loreto. 

But  the  number  of  telegraph  despatches,  as  well  as  of  letters  forwarded 
through  the  post,  continues  to  be  insignificant,  owing  to  the  backward  state  of 
education.  Although  public  instruction  is  "free  and  obligatory,"  the  great 
majority  of  the  pure  and  mixed  population  has  no  knowledge  of  letters.  In  1890 
not  more  than  one-fortieth  of  the  inhabitants  were  attending  the  primary  schools, 
though  secondary  establishments,  both  public  and  private,  are  numerous.  Peru 
possesses  as  many  as  three  "  Universities,"  those  of  Lima,  Cuzco  and  Arequipa. 


IX. 

ADMINISTRATION. 

As  in  Ecuador  and  Colombia,  the  Government  shows  centralising  tendencies. 
The  electorates  of  the  different  territorial  divisions  have  but  little  influence,  while 
the  ruling  body  seated  at  Lima,  regarding  itself  as  the  heir  of  the  Spanish  viceroys, 
takes  advantage  of  the  natural  docility  of  the  Quichuas  to  act  independently  of 
the  popular  will.  Even  the  various  revolutions  were  caused,  not  by  the  sufferings 
of  the  people,  but  mainly  by  military  aspirants  to  office  and  provincial  rivalries. 
Hence  the  constitution  has  frequently  been  suspended  in  the  interest  of  absolute 
dictators. 

The  suffrage,  nominally  universal,  is  de  facto  extremely  limited,  the  whole  of 


ADMINISTRATION  OF   PERU.  851 

the  illiterate  class  being  excluded,  as  well  as  those  owning  no  property  or  paying 
no  taxes.  Deputies  and  senators  also  must  be  of  a  certain  age,  25  or  35  years,  and 
possess  an  independent  income  of  500  or  1,000  dollars.  The  Senate  is  composed 
of  provincial  deputies,  in  the  proportion  of  one  for  every  30,000  inhabitants  or 
fraction  exceeding  15,000 ;  the  House  of  Representatives  is  nominated  by  the 
electoral  colleges  of  the  provinces  into  which  the  departments  or  main  political 
divisions  are  divided — two  members  for  each  of  the  provinces  where  there  are  two 
only,  and  one  member  more  for  every  other  two  provinces.  Thus,  if  the  depart- 
ment has  two  provinces,  it  will  be  represented  by  four  members ;  but  if  it  has  four, 
by  six  only. 

The  President,  who  possesses  great  power,  especially  if  he  happens  to  be  a 
general  popular  with  the  troops,  is  nominated  for  four  years  by  the  delegates  of 
both  Houses.  He  is  assisted  by  a  cabinet  of  five  ministers — council,  justice, 
foreign  affairs,  finance,  and  war — all  nominated  by  himself  and  at  his  pleasure. 
He  also  appoints  and  deposes  the  departmental  prefects  and  the  provincial  sub- 
prefects,  and  chooses  the  judges  from  six  candidates  presented  by  the  Supreme 
Court. 

A  Vice-President  replaces  the  President  in  case  of  illness  or  death,  and 
may  himself  be  replaced  by  a  second  Vice-President  appointed  by  election.  The 
electoral  colleges  choose  the  municipal  councillors  and  the  deputies  of  the  provin- 
cial assemblies.  Catholicism  is  the  state  religion,  and  although  other  cults  are 
tolerated  they  cannot  be  exercised  publicly. 

The  yearly  budget  is  only  one -fourth  of  what  it  was  before  the  Chilian 
war,  when  it  still  enjoyed  the  sale  of  guano  and  the  nitrates.  The  taxes,  nearly 
all  of  an  indirect  character,  comprise  in  the  first  place  the  customs,  and  then  the 
sale  of  what  guano  remains,  and  further  the  profits  of  the  postal,  telegraph 
and  railway  services,  the  charges  on  the  sale  of  property  and  legacies,  patents, 
stamps  and  powder. 

The  public  foreign  debt,  contracted  in  England  in  1870  and  1872,  originally 
represented  a  sum  of  £31,580,000 ;  on  which,  however,  no  interest  has  been  paid 
since  1876,  so  that  in  1889  the  whole  of  the  liabilities  were  stated  to  be  about 
£40,000,000,  of  which  nearly  half  was  represented  by  an  enormously  depreciated 
paper  currency.  Before  the  withdrawal  of  this  paper,  the  sole,  or  dollar,  nominally 
worth  4s.,  had  fallen  to  2^d.  In  virtue  of  a  convention  concluded  with  her 
English  creditors,  the  so-called  "  Grace- Donoughmore  "  contract,  finally  ratified  in 
1890,  Peru  is  relieved  of  all  responsibility  for  the  1870  and  1872  debts,  ceding 
to  the  bondholders  in  return  all  the  state  railways,  guano-beds,  mines  and 
unoccupied  lands  for  a  period  of  sixty -six  years.  The  creditors  undertake  on 
their  part  to  complete  and  extend  the  existing  railways,  thus,  so  to  say,  taking 
the  place  of  the  Government  so  far  as  regards  all  useful  and  profitable  public 
works,  and  leaving  to  the  state  the  administrative  functions  and  the  pomp  of 
office.  In  modern  times  this  is  the  most  signal  instance  of  state  control  trans- 
ferred to  capital  and  enterprise. 

The  army,   which  has  contributed  so  much  to  increase  the  public  burdens, 


352 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


comprises  a  peace  footing  of  over  3,000  men,  with  a  nearly  equal  number  of 
gendarmes,  and  a  war  force  of  40,000  of  all  arms.  Before  the  Chilian  war  Peru 
had  a  really  formidable  navy,  which  is  now  reduced  to  a  few  vessels  of  small 
tonnage. 

There  are  eight  ecclesiastical  divisions  (dioceses)  : — Chachapoyas,    Trujillo,. 


Fig.  137. — ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  OF  PEBTT. 
Scale  1  : 16,000,000. 


.r   •   ,i.  a**.  *\\   \  \     ^-~ 

Huanc^yel.^    <JSjj*j£?    Cv      U.^-^C 


250  Miles. 


Huanuco,  Lima,  Ayacucho,  Cuzt-o,  Puno  and  Arequipa ;  and  nine  judicial 
circuits : — Cajamarca,  Piura,  Trujillo,  Huaraz,  Lima,  Ayacucho,  Cuzco,  Puno  and 
Arequipa. 

The  departments,  as  the  administrative  divisions  are  officially  called,  coincide 
neither  with  the  judicial  circuits  nor  with  the  ecclesiastical  dioceses.      Formerly 


ADM1NISTKAT10N  OF  PERU.  853 

eighteen,  they  were  recently  increased  to  nineteen  by  the  addition  of  Callao, 
which,  owing  to  its  growing  importance,  has  been  detached  from  Lima,  of  which 
it  formed  one  of  the  seven  provinces,  and  is  now  constituted  a  department.  The 
number  of  provinces  into  which  each  department  is  subdivided  differs  greatly, 
some  having  only  two  or  three,  others  as  many  as  eight  or  even  ten.  In  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  franchise  this  is  an  important  consideration,  as  the  representation 
of  the  departments  does  not  increase  uniformly  with  the  number  of  their  provinces. 
Thus  a  department  with  two  provinces  will  have  four  representatives,  whereas 
one  with  three  provinces  will  have  five  only,  not  six,  which  would  be  the  propor- 
tionate number. 

For  details  of  areas  and  populations,  see  Appendix. 


24 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


BOLIVIA. 

I. 

BOUNDARIES — EXTENT. 

HE  former  territory  of  Charcas  or  "  High  Peru,"  which  depended  on 
the  viceroy alty  of  Buenos  Ayres  from  1776  till  the  War  of 
Independence,  and  which  constituted  itself  a  republic  under  the 
name  of  Bolivia,  in  honour  of  Bolivar,  presents  of  all  the  South 
American  states  the  most  eccentric  political  frontiers.  On  the 
conclusion  of  the  struggle  with  Spain,  Bolivia  had  already  been  sacrificed  to  Peru, 
to  which  were  assigned  her  natural  communications  with  the  sea.  She  sustained 
a  still  greater  loss  when  she  was  deprived  by  Chili  of  the  roundabout  route  by 
which  the  coast  could  be  reached  from  the  Bolivian  plateaux.  The  little  section 
of  the  seaboard  owned  by  her  before  the  Chilian  war  lay  almost  beyond  her 
territory  proper,  at  its  south-west  extremity,  and  separated  from  the  better- 
peopled  inland  provinces,  not  only  by  the  volcanic  cordillera  and  the  parallel 
coast  ranges,  but  also  by  arid,  uninhabitable  desert  spaces.  Hence  this  remote 
and  almost  worthless  region  was  little  utilised  by  Bolivian  commerce,  and  all  the 
foreign  trade  passed  through  the  Peruvian  seaports  of  Islay,  Mollendo,  Arica, 
Pisagua  and  Iquique. 

But  despite  their  inhospitable  character,  these  coastlands  were,  unfortunately 
for  Bolivia,  extremely  rich  in  nitrates  and  other  chemical  substances  of  great 
value  in  the  modern  industries.  A  war,  caused  by  a  conflict  of  interest  in  these 
mineral  treasures,  broke  out  between  Chili  and  Peru ;  Bolivia,  unable  to  remain 
neutral,  lost  the  stakes,  and  being  the  weakest  of  the  three  states,  suffered  most. 

In  virtue  of  an  "  indefinite  truce,"  Chili  seized  all  the  coast  provinces,  and 
took  the  place  of  Peru  as  the  intermediary  of  Bolivian  commerce.  Henceforth 
Bolivia  ha3  to  forward  her  produce  through  the  Chilian  seaports  of  Iquique  and 
Antofagasta. 

On  the-'  north-east  the  frontier  towards  Peru  coincides  fairly  well  with  the 


-Sj 
t» 
OP 

H 


BOUNDAEIES  OF  BOLIVIA.  855 

ethnical  parting-line  between  the  Quichuas  and  the  Aymiras,  although  here  also 
Peru  encroaches  on  her  weaker  neighbour,  so  as  to  appropriate  Puno  and  other 
Aymara  towns.  The  natural  geographical  limit  indicated  by  the  Vilcanota  Knot 
between  the  Amazonian  affluents  and  the  Titicaca  basin  is  deflected  far  to  the 
south  ;  even  the  lake  itself  has  been  divided  in  an  oblique  direction  in  such  a 
way  as  to  leave  the  larger  section  to  Peru. 

At  the  southern  extremity,  also,  the  political  boundary  runs  counter  to  the 
natural  divisions,  although  here  Bolivia  would  appear  to  be  favoured  at  the 
expense  of  her  Argentine  neighbour.  If  the  formal  will  of  the  inhabitants  were 
not  the  first  consideration  in  these  matters,  the  province  of  Tarija,  at  present 
included  in  Bolivia,  should  be  restored  to  Argentina,  lying  as  it  does  to  the  south 
of  the  Rio  Pilcomayo,  in  the  upper  Bermejo  basin.  By  a  royal  decree  Tarija  had 
been  attached  to  Salta  for  civil  and  ecclesiastical  purposes,  and  this  union  with 
the  Argentine  city  continued  from  1807  to  1825,  when  the  new  Bolivian  republic 
was  constituted.  Then,  however,  the  municipality  of  Tarija  expressed  a  wish 
to  be  incorporated  in  the  new  state,  and,  despite  the  protests  of  the  Argentine 
diplomatists,  supported  by  Bolivar's  decision,  the  Bolivians  have  continued  to 
occupy  the  old  dependency  of  Salta. 

On  the  northern  and  eastern  plains,  as  well  as  in  the  slightly  broken  regions  of 
the  divide  between  the  Amazons  and  the  Plata,  the  Bolivian  territory  stretches  to 
vast  distances  beyond  the  elevated  plateaux  which  constitute  Bolivia  proper.  At 
present  these  boundless  spaces  have  a  merely  nominal  value,  and  add  nothing  to 
the  strength  of  the  country  ;  but  here  as  well  as  on  the  Pacific  slope  Bolivia  has 
lost  a  part  of  her  domain.  The  more  or  less  fictitious  frontier  between  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  America  has  never  ceased  to  shift  westwards  to  the  advantage  of 
Brazil.  Formerly  the  eastern  boundary  of  Bolivia,  indicated  by  the  course  of  the 
Rio  Verde,  of  the  Guapore,  and  of  the  Itenes  (Mamore),  was  continued  along  the 
Rio  Madeira  to  San  Antonio  below  the  rapids,  whereas  it  now  stops  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Mamore  with  the  Beni,  about  130  miles  to  the  south-west.  After 
the  triumph  of  Brazil  over  Paraguay,  Melgarejo,  President  of  Bolivia,  surrendered 
to  Brazil  the  riverine  zone  skirting  the  Paraguay  "  the  space  of  twenty  leagues," 
comprised  between  the  Bahia  Negra  and  Fort  Olimpo  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river. 

Towards  the  south-west,  however,  the  common  frontier  between  Bolivia  and 
Brazil  still  coincides  with  the  course  of  the  Paraguay  as  far  as  22°  south  latitude, 
which  parallel  forms  the  conventional  limit  towards  Argentina.  On  the  north 
another  conventional  line,  drawn  from  the  Beni  confluence  to  the  sources  of  the 
Javari,  corresponds  to  no  real  division,  for  these  regions,  still  held  by  independent 
tribes,  have  hitherto  been  visited  only  by  a  few  collectors  of  plants,  rubber  and 
sarsaparilla. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  RESEARCH — POPULATION. 

With  few  exceptions,  the  exploration  of  Bolivia  has  been  mainly  the  work  of 
strangers.  D'Orbigny  made  a  special  study  of  the  Bolivian  regions  during  the 


856 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


years  1826-33.  Twelve  years  later  a  group  of  explorers,  under  Francis  de 
Castelnau,  surveyed  the  fluvial  districts  between  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes 
and  the  Brazilian  forests  of  Matto  Grosso.  Pentland  and  Forbes  devoted  them- 
selves more  particularly  to  the  peaks,  chains  and  valleys  of  west  Bolivia,  with  a 
view  to  determining  their  altitudes  and  geological  constitution.  Weddell  traversed 
the  mining  districts  in  all  directions,  describing  the  land,  its  products  and  inhabi- 


Fig.  138.— CHIEF  ITINERARIES  OF  EXPLORERS  IN  PERU  AND  BOLIVIA. 
Scale  1  :  27,000,000. 


78' 


62" 


Explorers  of  the  16th  century :— C.,  Conquistadores  ;  Q.  P.,  Gonzalo  Pizarro  ;  O.,  Orellana. 
„  „    17th        „  &.,  De  Sosa;  T.,  Texeira. 

„  „    18th        ,.  He  ,  Hervas  ;  Ay.,  Ayolas  ;  L.C  .  La  Condamine. 

„      J8<  0  to  1850 :— H.,  Humboldt ;  d'O..  D'Orbigny ;  Ca.,  De  Castelnau ;  Wed..  Weddell. 
„      Modern  :— R.,  Eeyes;    Cba.,  Chandlers;  Br.,  Brown;    Li.,  Lidstone ;   Chu.,  Church; 

K.,  Keller  ;  M.,  Markham  ;  W..  Wiener  ;  Mi.,  Mincbin ;  Th..  Thouar ;  B.,  Bravo  ; 

Mo  ,  Monnier  ;  L.  A.  F.,  Labre,  Armentia,  Fry ;  C.H.,  Hydrographic  Commission ; 

E.,  Eaimondi ;  Wo.,  Wolf. 


620  Miles. 


tants.  The  engineer,  Hugo  Reck,  explored  many  regions  and  prepared  a  map 
which,  despite  its  date  (1865),  is  still  much  valued.  In  1875,  Musters,  Minchin 
and  Cilley  occupied  themselves  mainly  with  the  geodesy  of  the  land,  determin- 
ing the  positions  of  most  of  the  towns,  mines  and  mountain  passes.  Wiener 
studied  the  people,  their  history  and  their  works  (1877)  ;  while  Church,  Keller, 
Labre  and  Armentia  surveyed  the  vast  network  of  running  waters  in  the  eastern 
basins.  Crevaux,  Thouar,  Balzan,  Fernandez,  Stiibel  and  others  have  also 


POPULATION— PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  BOLIVIA.  357 

contributed  in  recent  times  to  determine  the  main  geographical  features,  while  the 
measurements  of  the  engineers  engaged  in  the  mines,  on  the  roads  and  railways 
have  helped  in  the  preparation  of  more  accurate  maps  than  those  formerly  in  use. 

Even  after  the  encroachments  of  Brazil  and  Chili,  Bolivia  remains  a  vast 
domain  at  least  four  and  a  half  times  lurger  than  the  whole  of  the  British  Isles. 
But  apart  from  the  boundless  wastes  of  the  Amazonian  woodlands,  known  only 
from  the  reports  of  travellers,  Bolivia  proper,  where  towns  have  been  built,  mines 
opened  and  roads  constructed,  comprises  not  more  than  a  fourth  of  this  domain, 
being  mainly  confined  to  the  south-western  region  of  the  Andean  plateaux  with 
their  border  ranges  and  surrounding  valleys. 

Such  are  its  natural  resources,  minerals  and  other  products  of  the  western 
uplands,  agricultural  produce  and  the  valuable  forest  growths  of  the  eastern  slopes, 
that  the  inhabited  section  might  become  the  privileged  land  of  South  America. 
But  these  resources  still  lie  dormant,  pending  the  arrival  of  settlers,  the  opening 
of  highways  and  the  development  of  the  industries.  Bolivia  has  been  compared 
to  a  "  silver  table  standing  on  pillars  of  gold."  But  these  very  mineral  treasures 
have  contributed  to  her  impoverishment,  by  encouraging  wasteful  and  indolent 
habits  and  the  passion  of  gambling. 

The  population,  estimated  by  one  authority  at  over  2,500,000  in  1875,  would 
appear,  according  to  the  last  returns,  based  on  nearly  complete  censuses,  to  fall 
short  of  1,500,000.  Wars,  civil  strife,  the  slaughter  of  the  Indians,  and  especially 
epidemics  have  greatly  retarded  the  natural  increase,  and  even  at  times  diminished 
the  number  of  inhabitants.  The  malignant  fevers  which  broke  out  amongst  the 
Indians  in  1866,  and  which  spared  the  whites,  caused  a  frightful  mortality,  sweep- 
ing away  whole  villages  and  leaving  extensive  tracts  unpeopled  for  years. 


II. 

PHYSICAL  FEATURES. 

Although,  by  the  late  rectification  of  frontiers,  deprived  of  the  Western 
Cordillera  forming  the  outer  edge  of  the  plateau,  Bolivia  still  comprises  several 
peaks,  which,  although  rising  at  some  distance  from  the  main  axis,  none  the  less 
belong  to  the  border  range.  It  also  contains  spurs  and  buttresses  and  parallel 
lateral  ridges,  which  must  be  regarded  as  connected  with  the  same  system.  Tacora 
(Chipicani)  and,  farther  south,  Sajama  (21,000  feet),  Tata  Sabaya,  Ullullu,  Tahua, 
Sapaya,  Tua,  Aucasquilucha  and  Viscachillas,  all  stand  within  the  Bolivian 
frontier,  although  dependent  on  the  Western  Cordillera,  which  continues  the 
Peruvian  Sierra  and  stretches  southwards  to  the  extremity  of  the  continent. 

THE  BOLIVIAN  ANDES. 

The  Andes,  properly  so  called,  which  comprise  the  loftiest  summits  of  Bolivia, 
traverse  this  region  for  a  distance  of  about  eight  degrees  of  latitude.  The  first 


358  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

section,  formed  by  the  convergence  of  the  Carabaya  range  with  the  crests  stretching 
north  of  Lake  Titicaca,  usually  takes  the  name  of  the  "  Apolobamba  Knot,"  one  of 
whose  peaks  rises  to  a  height  of  17,020  feet.  Farther  on  the  system  broadens 
out  in  the  direction  of  the  south-east,  rising  from  6,500  to  8,000  feet  above  the 
eastern  plains  of  the  lacustrine  basin,  and  penetrating  above  the  snow-line,  which 
in  the  Cordillera  Heal,  as  this  section  is  called,  stands  at  the  enormous  altitude  of 
17,250  feet.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  chain  the  three-crested  Sorata,  so  named 
from  the  town  at  its  foot,  or  Illampu,  from  a  Quichua  word  meaning  "  snow," 
shoots  up  to  21,300  feet,  according  to  the  lowest  estimate. 

Illampu  is  followed  along  the  main  axis  by  other  snowy  peaks,  such  as 
Chaehacomani,  Huaina  Potosi,  Cacaca,  Mesada  and  Illimani.  Although  it  is  now 
known  to  be  overtopped  by  Illampu,  Illimani,  the  second  highest  of  Bolivian  peaks, 
still  remains  the  first  for  its  imposing  aspect  and  variety  of  outline.*  Encircled  at 
its  base  by  tropical  plantations,  higher  up  by  forests  and  crops  of  the  temperate 
zone,  it  lifts  into  the  clear  atmosphere  high  above  the  clouds  its  three  snowy 
peaks,  one  of  which  (not  the  highest)  was  scaled  by  Wiener  in  1877,  and  by  him 
named  the  "Pic  de  Paris." 

At  the  foot  of  Illimani  the  Cordillera  Real  is  interrupted  by  a  deep  fluvial 
valley,  which,  rising  on  the  plateau  west  of  the  chain,  pierces  the  main  axis  in  an 
oblique  direction  close  to  La  Paz,  capital  of  Bolivia.  Beyond  the  gorge  Illimani 
is  faced  by  Quimsa  Cruz,  the  "  Three  Crosses."  Here  is  the  starting  point  of  the 
southern  section,  which  at  a  distance  of  about  200  miles  from  La  Paz  ramifies  into 
two  branches — the  main  range,  which  is  deflected  southwards  parallel  with  the 
Western  Cordillera  and  coastline,  and  an  eastern  chain  trending  away  irregularly 
in  the  direction  of  the  plains.  The  Cochabamba  Knot,  where  the  bifurcation  takes 
place,  culminates  in  the  Cerro  Tunari,  16,185  feet  high.  The  whole  space 
enclosed  by  the  two  ranges  develops  east  of  the  western  plateau  a  chaotic  system 
of  ridges  and  masses  carved  into  numerous  fragments  by  the  headwaters  of  the 
streams,  ramifying  like  the  ribs  of  a  fan,  in  one  direction  towards  the  Madeira,  in 
the  other  to  the  Paraguay. 

The  southern  continuation  of  the  Cordillera  Real,  skirting  the  west  side  of  the 
central  Bolivian  tableland,  comprises  several  isolated  groups  and  rocky  ridges, 
which  in  some  places  run  in  two  parallel  lines.  Here  a  number  of  peaks  exceed 
16,500  feet;  Asanaque  (16,840)  is  followed  farther  south  by  the  still  more 
elevated  Michaga  (17,390),  and  Cuzco  (17,900)  in  the  Cordillera  de  los  Frailes. 

Farther  on  broad  gaps  occur,  beyond  which  the  peaks  fall  to  a  lower  altitude ; 
Ubina  is  only  14,360  feet  high,  but  Tuluma,  culminating  point  of  the  Sierra  de 
Chichas,  overtops  it  by  nearly  1,300  feet.  East  of  the  main  axis  Chorolque  towers 
to  a  height  of  18,450  feet,  and  this  is  exceeded  by  Guadalupe  (18,870),  Todos 


*  Measurements  of  Illampn  and  Illimani :  — 


Illampu:  21,310  feet 

„  21,490    ,, 

„  21,500    ,, 

.       „  21,430    „ 

„  21,300    „ 


(Pentland) 
(Minchin) 


Illimani:  24,220  feet 

„  22,230    „ 

21,990    „ 

21,245    „ 

20,970    „ 


(Pentland) 

(Ondarza) 

(Reck) 

(Minchin) 

(Wiener) 


THE  BOLIVIAN  HIGHLANDS.  859 

Santos  (19,382),  and  Lipez  (19,650).  This  last  gives  its  name  to  the  Lipez 
range,  a  transverse  section  connecting  the  Central  with  the  Western  Cordillera, 
and  enclosing  on  the  south  the  old  lacustrine  plains,  whose  deepest  depressions  are 
occupied  by  Lakes  Titicaca  and  Parapa-Aullagas.  Lipez  thus  corresponds  in  the 
south  with  the  Vilcanota  Knot  on  the  north  side  of  the  same  lacustrine  region.  In 
the  middle  of  the  plains  rise  some  isolated  masses,  amongst  others  Tahua,  which 
attains  a  height  of  17,400  feet. 

The  "  Bolivian  Switzerland,"  which  stretches  east  of  the  Central  Cordillera  in 
the  direction  of  the  plains,  still  presents  some  Alpine  peaks,  such  as  the  Cerro  de 
Potosi,  which  rises  east  of  the  city  of  like  name  to  an  altitude  of  15,380  feet.  But, 
as  a  rule,  the  elevation  of  the  mountains  corresponds  to  that  of  the  plateaux  on 
which  they  stand,  and  consequently  falls  gradually  towards  the  eastern  llanos.  In 
this  vast  labyrinthine  system  the  trend  of  the  several  ranges  is  extremely  irregular, 
although  they  are  mainly  disposed  in  two  directions  parallel  with  the  border 
chains ;  that  is,  the  Cordillera  de  Cochabamba  in  the  north,  which  runs  first  west 
and  east  and  is  then  deflected  towards  the  south-east,  and  in  the  east  the  Misiones 
range,  continued  by  other  ridges,  which  with  Cochabamba  form  a  sort  of  advanced 
rampart  terminating  at  a  right  angle  above  the  plains.  The  outer  escarpments  of 
these  mountains  are  extremely  abrupt,  scarcely  anywhere  presenting  accessible 
tracks ;  hence  travellers  descending  from  the  uplands  to  the  plains  all  take  the 
river  routes,  trusting  their  lives  to  frail  barks. 

Some  of  the  offshoots  of  the  Bolivian  Andes  stand  out  with  sufficient  prominence 
to  constitute  distinct  ridges  beyond  the  region  of  the  Cordilleras.  Thus  the 
Sierra  Manaya  skirts  the  right  bank  of  the  Beni,  and  the  Sierra  Charaaya  takes  a 
more  northerly  trend,  while  the  Manaya  is  continued  to  the  foot  of  the  Cocha- 
bamba Alps,  first  by  the  Cordillera  de  los  Mosetenes,  and  then  by  several  "  little 
Andes."  Even  in  the  heart  of  the  plains  there  rise  isolated  groups  of  gneiss  hills, 
which  in  remote  geological  times  certainly  formed  part  of  the  Andean  system, 
from  which  they  are  now  separated  by  the  erosive  action  of  rain  and  running 
waters.  These  groups,  forming  an  advanced  promontory  of  the  Brazilian  heights, 
have  been  collectively  called  the  Chiquitos  system,  from  the  Indians  of  that  name 
inhabiting  their  valleys. 


MAIN  PHYSICAL  DIVISIONS. 

From  the  standpoint  of  its  relief  Bolivia  falls  naturally  into  four  distinct 
regions.  On  the  west  the  alta  planicie,  or  "  high  tableland,"  as  it  is  locally  called, 
answers  to  the  inter- Andean  plateau  of  Peru,  though  much  broader  and  far  more 
uniform.  This  vast  space,  varying  in  altitude  from  11,000  to  13,000  feet,  stretches 
north-west  and  south-east  between  the  two  Cordilleras,  from  the  Vilcanota  to  the 
Lipez  Knot,  a  total  length  of  over  500  miles,  with  a  mean  breadth  of  80  miles,  and 
a  superficial  area  of  some  40,000  square  miles.  On  the  east  the  Cordillera  Real, 
with  all  the  dependent  chains  and  valleys,  forms  the  most  populous  part  of  Bolivia, 
in  which  are  situated  nearly  all  the  large  towns.  It  is  naturally  divided  into  two 


860  SOUTH  AMEBICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

parts,  the  cabcceras  de  mile,  the  "  valley  heads,"  and  the  vallcs,  the  "  valleys  " 
themselves,  expressions  which  in  Bolivia  have  the  special  sense  of  temperate 
uplands  and  hot  lands  respectively. 

The  latter  zone,  comprising  all  the  valleys  merging  in  the  plains,  takes  the 
general  name  of  Yungas,  formerly  Yuncas,  a  term  applied  to  all  the  hot  regions 
and  their  inhabitants.  In  Peru  the  Yuncas  were  the  coastlanders,  whereas  in 
Bolivia  the  word  was  applied  to  both  the  lands  and  peoples  of  the  eastern 
slopes  of  the  Cordilleras  with  the  valleys  and  woodlands  at  their  base.  At  present 
it  is  restricted  to  the  lower  margin  of  the  Andes  traversed  by  the  affluents  of  the 
Amazons,  and  abounding  in  tropical  products. 

Lastly,  the  fourth  region  comprises  the  saddle-back  extending  as  far  as  the 
Guapore  and  the  Paraguay,  with  its  forests  and  savannas,  its  rivers  and  marshes, 
and  its  fertile  lands,  vast  enough  to  supply  bread-stuffs  for  many  hundred  thousand 
people. 


III. 

LAKES  AND  RIVERS  OF  BOLIVIA. 

Since  the  loss  of  its  western  (Pacific)  slopes  Bolivia  drains  partly  to  the 
Atlantic  through  the  Amazons  and  Plate  rivers,  partly  to  the  closed  basin  of  the 
plateau,  which  has,  at  present,  no  seaward  outflow.  But  within  a  probably  recent 
geological  epoch  this  upland  basin  also  communicated  with  the  Atlantic,  being 
flooded  by  a  lake  much  larger  than  the  great  lacustrine  basins  of  North  America 
and  Central  Africa.  At  that  time  the  climate  appears  to  have  been  much  more 
humid  than  at  present,  and  the  whole  depression  was  filled  by  an  inland  sea  at  a 
much  higher  level  than  Lake  Titicaca,  as  shown  by  the  mountains  skirting  the 
Oruro  plain,  where  the  overhanging  whitish  cliffs,  apparently  deposited  in  water, 
stretch  200  miles  away  to  the  north. 

This  vast  mediterranean  discharged  its  overflow  through  the  breach  where  now 
stands  the  city  of  La  Paz,  and  where  rises  one  of  the  main  head  streams  of  the 
Beni  affluent  of  the  Amazons.  Thus  at  that  epoch  the  largest  river  was  fed  by 
the  largest  lake  in  the  world,  while  the  gorges  of  the  emissary  skirted  the  foot  of 
one  of  the  loftiest  summits  in  America.  According  to  Minchin's  measurements 
the  present  divide  between  the  lake  and  the  river  stands  at  an  altitude  of  13,390 
feet,  that  is  to  sav,  515  above  Titicaca  and  1,450  above  La  Paz. 


LAKES  TITTCACA  AND  PAMPA-AULLAGAS. 

Titicaca,  "Tin  Stone,"  called  also  Lake  of  Puno,  and  formerly  Lake  of 
Chucuito  from  a  Peruvian  city  on  its  west  bank,  is  the  largest  fragment  left  by 
the  ancient  inland  sea.  From  its  north-west  extremity  near  the  Peruvian  town  of 
Lampa,  to  the  south-easternmost  Bolivian  inlet  near  Tiahuanuco,  it  has  a  total 
length  of  98  miles,  with  a  mean  breadth  estimated  at  36  miles.  The  southern 


LAKE  TIT1CACA. 


861 


basin,  separated  from  Titicaca  proper  by  the  Strait  of  Tiquina,  takes  the  name  of 
Unimarca  or  Guinimarca,  that  is,  "  Dried  Lake,"  as  Billinghurst  explains  the 
word.  The  two  sections  have  a  joint  area  of  3,300  square  miles,  with  an  extreme 
depth  of  700  feet. 

As  the  deepest  abysses  on  the  oceanic  seaboard  generally  occur  at  the  foot  of  the 


Fig.  139. — OLD  LAKE  OF  THE  BOLIVIAN  PLATEAU. 
Scale  1  :  7,000,000. 


Depths. 


Old  lake. 


Oto  600 
Fathoms. 


500  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


124  Miles. 


loftiest  mountains,  here  also  the  greatest  depths  are  dominated  by  the  snowy  peaks 
of  Illampu.  While  the  annual  change  of  level  due  to  evaporation  and  the  rains 
amounts  to  about  4  feet,  a  slight  absolute  subsidence  seems  to  have  taken  place} 


362  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  BEGIONS. 

even  within  the  historic  period.  Thus  five  islets  near  Puno  are  now  connected 
with  the  mainland,  and  the  exposed  surface  is  strewn  with  freshwater  shells.  The 
west  coast  which  elopes  very  gently,  is  studded  with  lagoons  and  swamps  traversed 
by  causeways  dating  from  pre-Columbian  times.  In  fact,  the  lake  is  so  shallow 
along  the  western  margin  that  a  further  subsidence  even  of  10  feet  would  suffice 
to  reduce  its  whole  area  by  at  least  one-fifth.* 

Viewed  as  a  whole  the  lake  would  present  the  form  of  an  elongated  oval  but 
for  a  chain  of  hills  revealed  by  a  line  of  emerged  summits,  and  disposed  in  the 
direction  of  the  main  axis  parallel  with  both  shores.  Thus  have  been  upraised  the 
southern  peninsula  of  Tiahuanuco  and  neighbouring  islands;  the  large  promontory 
of  Capocabana  connected  with  the  west  coast  by  a  narrow  stem;  the  long  island 
of  Titicaca  ;  a  limestone  and  sandstone  hill  which  has  given  its  name  to  the  lake  ; 
lastly,  the  island  of  Coati  and  other  smaller  lands  which  have  become  famous 
in  Peruvian  mythology.  One  of  these  islands  is  indicated  in  the  national  legends 
as  the  cradle  of  man  and  civilisation. 

Although  standing  at  a  high  altitude  in  the  cold  regions,  Titicaca  is  fringed 
with  an  impenetrable  forest  of  reeds  covering  all  the  low-lying  tracts ;  it  also 
supports  a  few  animal  organisms,  amongst  others  fish  of  the  orestias  family,  a  few 
siluridse  (catfish),  and  eight  species  of  allorchcstes,  a  crustacean  apparently  of 
pelasgic  origin.!  Films  of  ice  are  formed  around  the  margin,  but  Titicaca  is 
never  completely  frozen,  even  in  the  hardest  winters.  It  affords  pasturage  to 
animals  at  all  seasons,  in  summer  along  the  shores,  in  winter  in  the  water  itself, 
where  they  graze  on  a  lacustrine  vegetation  growing  down  to  a  depth  of  3  or  4 
feet  below  the  surface. 

Amongst  the  numerous  streams  discharging  into  the  lake  is  the  Ramis,  which 
is  formed  by  various  torrents  descending  from  the  Carabaya  and  Vilcanota  heights, 
and  which  presents  the  aspect  of  a  veritable  river.  The  emissary  at  the  south- 
eastern extremity  of  the  lake,  known  simply  as  the  Desaguadero  or  "  effluent,"  also 
discharges  a  considerable  volume  deep  enough  to  be  navigated  by  river  steamers. 
This  emissary,  flowing  south-eastwards  in  a  line  with  the  axis  of  the  plateau,  is 
joined  by  the  Rio  de  Maure,  a  large  tributary  descending  from  the  Western 
Cordillera  and  ramifying  at  the  confluence  into  several  mouths. 

The  Desaguadero  itself  divides  into  a  number  of  branches,  which  are  obstructed 
by  aquatic  growths  forming  extensive  thickets  frequented  by  the  Tiros.  These 
Indian  fishers  construct  floating  villages  by  means  of  reed  rafts,  above  which  are 
raised  matted  huts  of  these  plants.  In  a  course  of  about  200  miles  the  Desaguadero 
descends  by  a  uniform  incline  a  total  height  of  475  feet  down  to  another  lacustrine 

*  Comparative  areas  of  Titicaca  and  other  large  lakes  : — 

Sqiinre  Miles. 
Superior 33,'200 

Nyanza 30,000? 

Michigan 24,700 

Tanganyika 15,600 

Baikal 14,000 

Tilicaca 3,300 

Geneva 230 

t  Alexander  Aga-siz,  Ausland,  1876,  part  xxxv. 


TEE  BOLIVIAN  LAKES.  363 

basin  variously  known  as  Pampa-Aullagas,  Poopo,  Oruro,  from  the  towns  on  or 
near  its  banks.  Into  this  land-locked  lake  the  Desaguadero  discharges  a  volume 
estimated  at  over  3,500  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Pampa-Aullagas,  which  is  of  a  more  regular  oval  form  than  Titicaca,  appears 
to  be  much  shallower;  its  survey,  which,  however,  is  far  from  complete,  has 
nowhere  revealed  depths  of  more  than  70  feet.  Panza,  an  island  in  the  middle  of 
the  basin,  is  disposed  in  the  same  direction  as  the  general  axis  of  the  plateau. 
Besides  the  Desaguadero,  the  lake  receives  a  few  affluents  from  the  Eastern  Cor- 
dilleras. But  the  evaporation  from  a  surf  ace  of  about  1,100  square  miles  would 
appear  to  exceed  the  contributions  from  all  these  sources,  for  the  effluent  escaping 
south-westwards  has  apparently  a  mean  discharge  of  scarcely  35  cubic  feet  per 
second. 

This  outlet  even  disappears  for  some  distance  in  the  sands,  reappearing  lower 
down  under  the  Ayraara  name  of  Laca  Ahuira,  "  Effluent,"  which  is  soon  lost  in 
the  saline  Coipasa  marshes.  Other  rivulets  also  descend  from  the  Western  Cordillera 
towards  this  shallow  depression,  which  is  transformed  to  a  temporary  lake  during 
the  wet  season.  The  Coipasa  morass,  standing  at  an  altitude  of  11,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  occupies  almost  the  lowest  part  of  the  Titicaca  hydrographic  depression. 
If,  however,  the  surveys  can  be  trusted,  it  would  still  be  some  10  feet  higher  than 
another  Bolivian  basin,  the  extensive  saline  swamp  of  Empeza,  which  lies  farther 
south,  to  the  west  of  the  Huanchaca  mines.  Owing  to  the  argillaceous  mud  of 
their  bed  these  marshy  tracts  are  completely  impassable  during  the  rainy  season; 
but  in  summer  they  offer  a  solid  surface  over  3  feet  thick,  formed  by  thin 
alternate  layers  of  salt  and  clay. 

THE  BEN:  AXD  MADRE  DE  Dios. 

At  present  the  La  Paz  gorge,  through  which  the  inland  sea  formerly  sent  its 
overflow  to  the  Amazons,  gives  rise  only  to  the  La  Paz  torrent,  so  named  from  the 
city  on  its  banks.  But  before  escaping  from  the  mountains  this  rivulet  is  joined 
by  larger  streams,  such  as  the  Cotocayes,  and  the  Altamachi,  forming  with  them 
the  Rio  Beni,  which  winds  away  north  and  north-east  to  the  Madeira  affluent  of 
the  Amazons.  Although  comparable  in  volume  to  the  most  copious  rivers  of 
Europe,  the  majestic  Rio  Beni  is,  nevertheless,  surpassed  by  the  Mamore,  which 
rises,  under  the  name  of  the  Rio  Grande,  in  the  Bolivian  Andes  between  the  Cor- 
dillera Real  and  the  Cochubamba  ranges.  After  describing  a  vast  semicircular 
bend  round  the  north-eastern  ramparts,  the  Mamore  is  swollen  by  numerous 
affluents  descending  from  the  northern  slope  of  the  mountains,  the  southern  waters 
of  which  it  had  already  collected. 

The  Beni  is  also  rivalled  by  the  Madre  de  Dios,  which  has  its  source  in  Peru, 
but  in  its  middle  and  lower  course  flows  through  Bolivian  territory.  According 
to  the  missionary  Armentia,  who  navigated  both  rivers,  the  Madre  de  Dios  is  the 
larger  of  the  two,  thanks  to  its  copious  main  branch,  the  Rio  Inambari.  Pent  up 
in  a  rocky  longitudinal  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  Carabaya  highlands,  it  receives 


364 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


successive  contributions  of  the  torrents  from  all  the  surrounding  upland  valleys. 
Yet  despite  its  great  size,  geographers  were  ignorant  till  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  of  the  true  course  of  the  Madre  de  Dios,  which  also  bears  the  local 
names  of  Mana,  Mayu-Tata  and  Amaru-Mayo,  or  "  Snake  River." 

About  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  Inca  Yupanqui  descended  this 
river  at  the  head  of  10,000  men  to  reduce  the  wild  tribes  along  its  banks.  He 
had  to  return  after  losing  nine-tenths  of  his  troops,  but  must  have  ascertained  the 
true  course  of  the  stream  beyond  the  point  actually  reached  by  the  expedition. 
Thus  is  explained  the  fact  that  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  heir  of  the  science  of  the 
Incas,  was  aware  that  the  Madre  de  Dios  joined  the  Beni.  Yet  the  normal  direc- 


Fig.  140. — BASIN  OF  THE  MADRE  DE  Dios. 
Scale  1  :  10,000,000. 


•71' 


Wesi  of  Greenwich 


Supposed  course  of  the  Madre  de  Dioe  before  the  late  discoveries. 
186  Miles 


tion  of  its  valley  would  seem  to  make  such  a  confluence  impossible,  and  most 
geographers  long  continued  to  regard  the  Madre  de  Dios  as  the  chief  branch  of  the 
Rio  Purus,  which  flows  directly  to  the  Amazons. 

The  question  was  at  last  settled  by  Faustino  Maldonado  and  his  seven  brave 
young  associates,  who  committed  themselves  to  the  current  of  the  Inambari  on  a 
frail  raft.  After  overcoming  difficulties  of  all  kinds,  especially  on  the  part  of  the 
savage  tribes  roaming  the  riverine  tracts,  they  entered  the  Madre  de  Dios,  passing 
thence  down  the  Beni  to  the  Madeira,  where  Maldonado,  with  three  of  his  comrades, 
perished  in  the  rapids.  The  rest  of  the  party  succeeded  in  reaching  Manaos,  where 
they  reported  the  discovery.  Their  report,  however,  was  discredited  till  confirmed 


THE  BOLIVIAN  RIVERS— CLIMATE.  865 

in  1884  by  Armentia,  the  explorer  best  acquainted  with  the  forest  regions  of  east 
Bolivia,  who  ascended  the  river  up  to  Peruvian  territory. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Purus  was  also  surveyed  as  far  as  the  region  of  its 
headwaters,  while  the  whole  basin  has  been  traversed  in  all  directions  by  the 
collectors  of  rubber.  Hence  there  can  no  longer  be  any  doubt  that  the  Inambari, 
flowing  north-west  parallel  with  the  Carabaya  Alps,  effects  a  junction  with  the 
Beni  winding  to  the  north-east.  At  the  confluence  the  Madre  de  Dios  (lower 
Inambari),  much  the  broader  of  the  two,  is  1,260  yards  wide  from  bank  to  bank. 
Farther  down  the  united  stream  is  precipitated  a  vertical  height  of  30  feet. 


THE  PILCOMAYO. 

South-east  Bolivia  sends  its  running  waters  through  the  Pilcomayo  to  the 
Paraguay.  Eising  inclose  proximity  to  theGuapay  (Rio  Grande),  the  Pilcomayo 
flows  south-east,  successively  piercing  several  chains,  and  after  its  junction  with 
the  Pilaya,  a  river  of  equal  volume,  winds  in  a  shallow  bed  through  the  plains  of 
Gran  Chaco.  A  few  headstreams  of  the  Bermejo  have  also  their  sources  in 
Bolivian  territory,  while  the  upper  Paraguay  receives  some  small  tributaries,  of 
which  the  Otuquis  is  the  most  important,  from  the  eastern  savannas  and  the 
upland  valleys  of  the  Chiquito  mountains.  Lastly,  in  the  broad  space  between 
the  Mamore  and  Pilcomayo  affluents  various  watercourses  of  undecided  incline 
run  out  in  closed  basins  on  the  divide,  leaving  saline  incrustations  on  their  banks. 

In  this  part  of  Bolivia,  where  the  rainfall  is  deficient,  the  lakes  or  lagoons  are 
due  mainly  to  the  small  volume  of  the  streams,  which  lack  the  strength  to  excavate 
deep  and  regular  channels.  In  the  north,  on  the  contrary,  that  is,  in  the  Beni 
and  Mamore  basins,  the  analogous  formations  owe  their  origin  to  the  super- 
abundance of  water  which  overflows  into  the  lacustrine  depressions  skirting  both 
sides  of  the  rivers.  The  Rogoaguado,  one  of  these  basins  of  fluvial  origin, 
between  the  Beni  and  the  Mamore,  is  reported  to  cover  a  space  some  thousand 
square  miles  in  extent. 

IV. 

CLIMATE. 

In  Bolivia  the  climate  varies  with  the  zones  of  the  plateau,  the  Cordilleras, 
the  upland  regions  sloping  eastwards,  the  Yungas  valleys  and  the  eastern  plains, 
while  the  zones  themselves  are  further  modified  by  latitude.  Being  comprised 
within  the  tropics,  Bolivia  would  naturally  be  a  land  of  extreme  heat  but  for 
the  great  elevation  of  its  plateaux  and  highlands,  which  give  it  the  advantage 
of  a  superimposed  series  of  climates,  ranging  from  a  torrid  to  an  arctic  tempera- 
ture. 

The  districts  in  which  the  towns  have  been  founded  and  where  the  populations 
are  mostly  concentrated,  between  the  altitudes  of  12,500  and  8,000  feet,  have  a 
mean  temperature  ranging  from  54°  to  61°  Fahr.  Here  the  south-east  trade 


866  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

winds  prevail  regularly  during  the  fine  season  preceding  the  rains,  and  espe- 
cially iu  July  and  August.  With  November  begins  the  wet  season,  which  lasts 
throughout  the  austral  summer,  or  at  least  till  the  end  of  February.  May,  June 
and  July  are  the  cold  months,  though  the  change  is  less  felt  in  the  more  equable 
climate  of  Lake  Titicaca,  thanks  to  the  moderating  influence  of  its  waters.  Hail 
falls  usually  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  wet  season,  and  is  much  dreaded 
especially  by  the  wine-growers  in  the  south-eastern  district  of  Cinti. 

According  to  the  Jesuit  missionary,  Bernabe  Cobo,  who  lived  in  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  thunder  prevails  mostly  in  the  region  of  the  Andes  about 
the  sources  of  the  Amazons  and  Plate  River  affluents.  Here  is  situated  the  city 
of  Chuquisaca,  which  is  "  every  year  struck  several  times  by  lightning."  The 
Yungas  district  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  whose  steep  escarpments  are  exposed  to 
the  moisture-bearing  clouds,  receives  copious  downpours  throughout  the  whole 
year.  This  abundance  of  humidity  combined  with  the  high  temperature  develops 
an  exuberant  growth  of  every  product  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.* 

FLORA. 

The  marvellous  richness  of  the  flora  of  Bolivia  is  due  to  the  fact  that  this 
is  the  central  region  of  the  South  American  continent,  where  are  intermingled 
the  Andean  and  Brazilian  zones,  as  well  as  numerous  forms  characteristic  of 
the  Amazonian  and  Plate  basins.  Here  also  all  the  plants  of  the  Old  World 
are  acclimatised  with  the  greatest  ease,  provided  care  be  taken  to  select  districts 
with  corresponding  climates.  Timber  suitable  for  building  purposes,  cabinet  and 
dye  woods,  fibrous  and  medicinal  plants,  all  are  found  in  superabundance,  and 
the  great  variety  of  plant  life  explains  the  industry  of  the  so-called  itinerant 
"  botanists,"  native  quacks  who  traverse  every  part  of  South  America,  retailing  all 
kinds  of  nostrums. 

In  the  Yungas  region  there  are  woodlands  even  more  dense  and  leafy  than 
those  of  the  Brazilian  seaboard,  and  nowhere  else  do  the  lands  under  tillage  yield 
more  abundant  or  finer  harvests.  In  the  eastern  zone,  where  the  Andean  flora 
disappears,  replaced  by  that  of  Bolivia  proper,  forests  and  savannas,  locally  called 
pajonales,  are  diversely  intermingled.  But  the  clearings  are  gradually  reduced  in 
number  and  extent  in  the  direction  of  the  mountains,  and  at  the  foot  of  the 
cordillera  the  woods  are  continuous. 

In  the  hot  lands,  palms  are  represented  by  numerous  species,  which  supply  the 
natives  with  food,  drink,  clothes,  habitations  and  various  implements.  Some 
members  of  this  family  are  even  found  penetrating  into  the  temperate  lands,  and 
the  variety  known  to  botanists  by  the  name  of  enterpe  andicola  grows  on  the 
steepest  slopes  of  the  Cochabamba  range  almost  in  immediate  proximity  to  the  line 

*  Mean  temperature  of  some  Bolivian  towns  : — 

Latitude.  Altitude.  Temperature. 

LaPaz     .        .         .     16°  30'  .  .  .  11,9.50  feet  .         .         .     60°  Fahr. 

Cochabamba     .         .     17°  27'  .  .  .       8,400    ,,                             68°  „ 

Tipuani    .         .         .     15°  35'  .  .  .       1,9JO    ,                               73°,, 


BOLIVIAN  FLOKA. 


867 


of  permanent  snow.  Like  the  tree-ferns,  this  palm  lies  on  the  verge  of  the  zone 
of  woody  vegetation.  Despite  the  great  altitude  of  the  plateau,  the  shores  of  Lake 
Titicaca  have  also  some  arborescent  forms,  such,  amongst  others,  as  the  dwarf  olive. 


60 


Above  the  zone  of  trees  the  prevailing  form  is  the  ttareta,  a  plant  with  strong 
roots,  and  a  dense  foliage  closely  matted  together  like  a  yellowish  lichen,  and  in 
appearance  presenting  a  musty  metallic  surface. 


868  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  KEGIONS. 


FAUNA. 

The  mammalian  fauna  of  Bolivia  differs  little  from  that  of  Peru,  except  in 
respect  of  the  greater  or  less  relative  abundance  of  the  various  species.  In  the 
region  of  the  Yungas  one  of  the  animals  most  frequently  met  is  the  capybara,  or 
cabiai  as  it  is  called  in  Brazil  (hydrochcerm  capybara},  a  large  rodent  about  three 
feet  in  length,  which  commits  great  devastations  on  the  plantations  along  the 
river-banks.  In  general  appearance  it  resembles  a  diminutive  hippopotamus,  but 
is  allied  to  the  guinea-pig  family. 

The  country  is  also  extremely  rich  in  all  the  smaller  forms  of  animal  life,  such 
as  birds,  butterflies  and  beetles.  Humming-birds  of  exquisite  form  and  colour  are 
met  on  the  very  summits  of  the  mountains  ;  Hugo  Reck  saw  some  flitting  about 
on  the  Cerro  de  Potosi,  over  14,450  feet  above  sea-level. 


V. 

INHABITANTS  OF  BOLIVIA — THE  AYMARAS. 

The  Aymaras,  who  constitute  the  chief  ethnical  element  of  the  Bolivian  nation, 
are  in  almost  exclusive  possession  of  the  plateau  regions,  and  their  domain  also 
encroaches  northwards  on  Peruvian  territory  in  the  departments  of  Arequipa, 
Moquegua  and  Cuzco.  In  these  northern  districts  they  are  conterminous  with  the 
Quichuas,  while  other  Quichuas  dwell  in  the  neighbouring  southern  lands. 

But  the  true  centre  of  the  Aymara  race  lies  in  the  islands,  headlands  and  shores 
of  Lake  Titicaca,  where  from  remote  times  were  grouped  the  Aymaras  proper, 
whose  national  name  was  afterwards  extended  to  all  the  populations  of  like  speech. 
At  the  same  time,  this  focus  of  primitive  Aymara  culture  was  a  "holy  land"  for 
the  Incas  themselves,  whose  national  legends  pointed  to  the  Titicaca  region  as  the 
land  whence  came  the  civilisers  of  the  Quichua  nation. 

From  these  and  many  other  indications,  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  Incas 
were  themselves  of  Aymara  origin  or,  at  least,  had  adopted  Aymara  culture,  and 
perhaps  Aymara  was  even  the  court  language  of  the  Inca  dynasty.  While  all 
other  people  conquered  by  the  Quichuas  were  compelled  to  learn  the  language  of 
their  masters,  the  Aymaras  alone  were  privileged  to  continue  the  use  of  their 
mother- tongue. 

But  at  the  epoch  when  the  Spaniards  penetrated  into  the  country  the  Aymaras, 
having  long  been  subdued,  had  already  entered  a  period  of  decline,  and  were  a  less 
polished  people  than  the  Quichuas.  They  had  lost  all  memory  of  their  ancient 
culture,  and,  being  no  longer  capable  of  raising  monuments  comparable  to  those 
that  their  ancestors  had  erected  in  the  Tiahuanuco  peninsula,  they  attributed  these 
remains  to  a  race  of  unknown  builders,  who  were  supposed  to  work  in  the  dark, 
ceasing  at  sunbreak. 


INHABITANTS  OF  BOLIVIA.  369 

After  the  arrival  of  the  whites  the  Aymaras  continued  to  decline  so  steadily 
that  fears  were  entertained  of  their  total  extinction.  To  judge  from  the  innumer- 
able remains  of  buildings  and  from  the  extensive  burial-places  in  the  vicinity  of 
Lake  Titicaca,  this  basin,  now  so  sparsely  inhabited,  must  have  formerly  been  a 
thickly  peopled  region.  But  on  this  open  plateau  the  inhabitants  had  no  places  of 
refuge  ;  none  could  escape  the  "  mining  conscription  "  compelling  them  to  join 
the  doomed  gangs  of  workmen  in  the  metalliferous  galleries  of  Potosi,  Oruro  and 
other  places.  The  destruction  of  the  race  thus  proceeded  in  a  systematic  and,  so 
to  say,  legalised  manner. 

Then,  at  the  time  of  Tupac  Amaru's  insurrection,  those  who  still  survived 
eagerly  joined  the  revolt,  in  the  hope,  if  not  of  recovering  their  independence, 
at  least  of  bringing  about  a  change  of  masters.  The  ensuing  war,  massacres, 
famine  and  epidemics  reduced  the  whole  nation  to  a  few  wretched  fragments. 
But  with  the  War  of  Independence  a  revival  took  place,  and  at  present  the 
Aymara  nation  may  be  estimated  at  about  1,000,000,  including  in  this  expression 
all  those  who  have  already  become  more  or  less  Hispanified.  It  appears,  however, 
that  in  the  case  of  unions  with  the  whites  the  type  of  the  Aymara  mother  is  more 
persistent  than  that  of  the  Spanish  father.  After  several  successive  generations 
of  such  interminglings,  the  true  Aymara  always  reappears  under  the  disguise  of 
the  national  name,  "  Hispano- American." 

Although  Christianity  with  its  Spanish  formulas  has  become  the  universal 
cult,  numerous  ceremonies  of  national  origin  are  still  associated  with  the  new 
religion.  Neither  peasant  nor  pastor  will  drink  a  glass  of  brandy  without  raising 
his  hat  and  making  a  libation  of  a  few  drops  to  the  spirits  of  the  mountain.  In 
many  habitations  the  fossil  remains  of  the  huge  pre-historic  animals — mastodons, 
megatheriums,  glyptodons — are  set  up  as  household  gods. 

Like  the  Semites  of  former  ages,  all  the  present  Indian  inhabitants  of  the  Sierra 
still  preserve  the  worship  of  the  "high  places."  Every  mountain-top  terminates 
in  a  large  cairn  or  heap  of  stones,  raised  by  the  hands  of  passing  wayfarers. 
Formerly,  all  packmen  climbing  a  steep  slope  were  required,  on  reaching  the 
summit,  to  offer  to  the  god  Pachacamac  a  thanksgiving  offering  of  the  first  object 
their  eyes  lighted  upon,  and  as  this  was  usually  a  stone,  the  heap  gradually  rose 
higher  and  higher.  At  the  same  time  they  repeatedly  uttered  an  invocation,  of 
which  the  burden  was  the  word  Apachecta.  Thus  it  happens  that  this  term — under 
its  Spanish  form,  apacheta — is  now  universally  applied  both  to  the  cairns  them- 
selves and  to  the  heights  on  which  they  stand.  On  the  elevated  plateaux  of  the 
Puna  district  the  shepherds  fancy  that  on  Good  Friday  they  can  commit  all 
imaginable  crimes,  except  murder,  without  any  fear  of  punishment,  because  God 
having  died  on  that  day  and  remained  dead  the  two  following  days,  He  knows 
nothing  of  what  has  happened  when  He  does  rise.* 

Like  Quichua,  the  Aymara  language  is  still  generally  current,  and  has  even 
invaded  the  towns.  In  La  Paz,  metropolis  of  Bolivia,  the  Spaniards,  being  nearly 
all  brought  up  by  native  nurses,  and  surrounded  by  native  servants,  speak  the 

*  David  Forbes,  Journal  of  the  Ethnological  Society,  vol.  ii. 
25 


872  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

social  and  rural  usages  did  not  prevent  the  Chiquitos  from  occasionally  engaging 
in  wars  ;  which,  however,  were  soon  over.  The  temporary  chiefs  chosen  for  such 
emergencies  merely  retained  an  empty  title,  without  any  personal  authority 
maintained  by  force.  The  Chiquito  warriors  even  made  captives,  who  received 
the  name  of  slaves,  but  who  none  the  less  married  into  their  master's  families. 

Before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  the  Chiquitos  were  certainly  a  numerous 
nation.  But  then  came  the  first  conqueror,  Alvarez,  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  "  Cow- 
Head,"  who,  after  his  long  and  marvellous  adventures  in  unknown  lands  and 
amongst  barbarous  tribes,  undertaken  in  quest  of  Mexico,  arrived  at  the  head  of 
armed  bands  on  the  banks  of  the  Paraguay,  and  set  to  butchering  the  natives,  as 
if  to  indemnify  himself  for  his  previous  sufferings. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  so-called  "  Mamelucos"  of  the  province  of  Sao 
Paulo  raided  the  country  in  search  of  slaves,  and  they  found  imitators  in  the 
Spanish  traders  of  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra.  Then  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  in  their 
eagerness  to  save  the  remnants  of  numerous  broken  tribes,  unwittingly  brought 
them  death  in  the  form  of  sm ill-pox  and  other  contagious  maladies.  Nevertheless, 
the  race  has  survived,  and  every  year  not  marked  by  the  visitation  of  some  epi- 
demic scourge  the  population  has  even  increased,  for  the  Chiquito  women  are 
mosj  prolific.  According  to  the  statistical  report  prepared  by  D'Orbigny  in  1831, 
they  numbered  nearly  20,000  at  that  time,  without  reckoning  the  kindred  tribes 
dwelling  in  Brazil  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Paraguay. 

Of  this  number  the  Chiquitos,  properly  so  called,  represented  about  15,000> 
all  converted  to  the  Catholic  religion.  Nearly  all,  even  those  who  had  a  distinct 
mother-tongue,  spoke  the  soft  and  melodious  Chiquito  language,  which  was 
methodically  taught  by  the  Jesuits  amongst  all  the  surrounding  tribes.  It  was, 
however,  supplemented  by  Spanish  for  all  purposes  connected  with  public  worship, 
the  industries  and  calculation,  for  the  Chiquito  arithmetic  got  no  farther  than 
the  number  ten.  Some  of  the  old  heathen  practices  still  survive  under  the 
outward  form  of  Christianity,  although  those  Indians  who,  after  the  departure  of 
the  Jesuits,  reverted  to  the  wild  state  have  not  revived  their  former  primitive 
usages.  Thus,  while  discarding  the  European  clothes,  they  no  longer  paint  their 
bodies,  or  perforate  certain  parts  of  the  face,  as  did  their  pagan  forefathers. 

THE  MOJOS. 

Dwelling  in  a  land  of  hills,  glens  and  brooks,  the  Chiquitos  have  no  know- 
ledge of  navigation.  The  Mojos,  on  the  contrary,  who  have  their  camping- 
grounds  along  the  banks  of  large  rivers  or  on  frequently- flooded  plains,  are  all 
skilful  boatmen.  Nevertheless,  they  depend  for  their  sustenance  chiefly  on 
agriculture.  The  periodical  floods  occur  at  regular  seasons,  leaving  the  crops  full 
time  to  ripen  between  sowing  and  harvest  tides. 

Physically  the  Mojos  closely  resemble  the  Chiquitos  ;  but  they  are  more 
robust,  and  rather  taller,  while  the  women  have  somewhat  less  massive  figures. 
Without  possessing  the  overflowing  spirits  of  their  neighbours,  they  are  dis- 


MOJOS  INDIANS. 


INHABITANTS  OF  BOLIVIA.  v  878 

tinguished  by  a  remarkably  equable  disposition,  a  frank  and  upright  character 
and  great  industry.  They  give  up  less  time  to  merrymaking  than  their  southern 
kinsfolk,  and  are  generally  of  more  laborious  habits.  Hence  their  industries  are 
greatly  developed,  and  although  living  far  from  the  large  towns  and  markets, 
the  Mojos  excel  all  the  other  Indians  as  weavers,  builders  and  wood-carvers. 
They  even  probably  surpass  the  Chinese  themselves,  as  well  as  all  other  people, 
in  the  surprising  skill  with  which  they  can  work  on  given  models ;  but  they  lack 
the  inventive  faculty,  as  is  so  often  the  case  with  good  imitators. 

According  to  Viedma,  an  explorer  quoted  by  D'Orbigny  and  by  most  other 
writers  on  Bolivia,  the  Mojos  were  acquainted  with  a  sort  of  writing  system, 
which  consisted  of  strokes  drawn  on  tablets.  Their  language  is  at  once  more 
guttural  and  far  less  rich  than  that  of  the  Chiquitos.  Some  of  their  tribes  not 
engaged  in  commercial  pursuits  were  even  unable  to  reckon  above  five,  some 
stopping  at  three  or  four. 

All  the  Mojos  dwelling  within  the  Bolivian  frontiers  number  collectively 
about  30,000  ;  this  figure  should  be  perhaps  doubled  to  include  the  kindred  tribes 
living  in  Brazil  and  the  northern  forests  nominally  belonging  to  Bolivia. 
Formerly  they  were  far  more  numerous ;  but,  like  so  many  other  nations,  they 
were  reduced  more  by  the  epidemics  following  in  the  wake  of  the  missionaries 
than  by  wars  and  massacres,  from  which  they  were  always  protected  by  their 
swampy  domain,  lying  beyond  the  routes  generally  taken  by  the  gold-hunters, 
slave-dealers  and  other  adventurers. 

They  accepted  the  administration  of  the  Jesuit  priests  with  perfect  submission, 
and  on  no  occasion  ever  attempted  to  shake  off  the  yoke.  Their  own  primitive 
religion  was  complicated  by  some  atrocious  superstitions.  Thus,  women  suffering 
a  miscarriage  were  doomed  to  death,  and  the  sacrifice  had  to  be  made  by  their 
husbands.  When  twins  were  born  they  also  were  destroyed,  on  the  ground  that 
such  births  showed  them  to  be  mere  animals.  Occasionally  on  the  death  of  the 
mother  the  new-born  babe  was  buried  alive  with  her. 

Their  religion  was  pure  nature- worship.  They  believed  they  had  themselves 
sprung  from  the  lakes,  the  woods  or  the  river-banks,  and  when  navigating  the 
streams  they  were  always  seeking  to  return  to  their  birth-place.  Every  village, 
every  family  had  its  gods  in  the  air  or  under  the  ground,  or  amongst  the  living 
creatures  inhabiting  the  streams  and  forests. 

At  present  most  of  the  Mojos  are  zealous  or  even  fanatical  Roman  Catholics ; 
during  Holy  Week  they  scourge  themselves  or  otherwise  mortify  the  flesh,  sprink- 
ling their  blood  on  the  steps  of  shrines  and  altars.  The  influence  of  the  Catholic 
system  appears  to  have  completely  modified  their  political  status.  Formerly  the 
caciques  had  no  authority,  whereas  now,  as  agents  of  the  priests,  they  exercise 
absolute  power.  Their  least  word  is  a  command,  and  "  the  rod  has  not  been  given 
them  in  vain."  But  to  priestly  influence  has  succeeded  that  of  the  traders,  espe- 
cially since  the  fruitless  works  undertaken  to  turn  the  rapids  of  the  Madeira  by 
means  of  a  railway. 

The  Mojos  are  found  so  useful  as  boatmen  that  efforts  have  naturally  been 


374  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEG10NS. 

made  by  the  whites  to  secure  their  services,  with  the  result  that  many  of  their 
separate  commuuities  have  been  broken  up,  while  their  customs  have  generally 
undergone  a  rapid  change.  The  Mojos  boatmen,  seen  at  all  riverine  ports  of  the 
Beni,  the  Madeira  and  the  Amazons  as  far  as  Manaos,  are  the  admiration  of  all 
travellers.  They  are  clothed  in  a  comfortable  smock,  made  by  themselves  from 
the  bark  of  some  forest  giant.  In  a  few  hours  a  tree  suitable  for  the  purpose  is 
felled,  and  a  strip  of  the  bast  or  under-bark  about  12  or  14  feet  long  is  detached. 
This  substance,  which  shines  like  silk,  is  then  made  pliable  by  pounding  with 
mallets,  after  which  the  best  and  most  elegant  of  ponchos  is  made  by  merely 
effecting  an  opening  for  the  head. 

THE  CANICHANAS  AND  GUARAYOS. 

D'Orbigny  classes  with  the  Mojos  other  tribes  resembling  them  in  various 
physical  traits,  and  perhaps  of  the  same  origin,  although  differing  greatly  from 
them  at  present.  Such  are  the  Canichanas,  who  have  the  reputation  of  being 
cannibals,  and  who  in  any  case  are  still  fierce  marauders,  often  lurking  behind 
the  trees  to  waylay  passing  whites.  Unless  they  keep  a  sharp  look-out  travellers 
are  in  a  moment  deprived  of  their  arms  and  of  all  iron  implements  in  their 
possession. 

The  Canichanas  speak  a  language  quite  distinct  from  that  of  the  Mojos,  as  do 
also  the  Itonamas,  another  tribe  also  much  dreaded  for  their  treacherous  ways 
and  thievish  propensities.  They  have  not  yet  abandoned  the  horrible  practice  of 
smothering  the  sick  to  prevent  death  from  escaping  and  passing  into  other  bodies. 
The  Ite,  or  Itenes,  another  people,  who  have  given  their  name  to  the  river  also 
called  the  Rio  G  uapore,  have  persisted  in  their  hostile  attitude  towards  the  whites, 
traders  and  missionaries.  They  are  often  called  Guarayos,  a  name  wrongly 
applied  to  several  different  tribes,  as  are  such  designations  as  Arawaks  and 
Guaycurus  in  other  parts  of  South  America. 

The  true  Guarayos,  who  occupy  the  heights  of  the  Amazonian  water-parting, 
belong  undoubtedly  to  the  great  Guarani  family,  which  is  dominant  in  Paraguay, 
in  the  Argentine  province  of  Corrientes  and  the  conterminous  regions  of  Brazil. 
They  are  a  small  tribe  (estimated  by  D'Orbigny  at  not  more  than  1,100  souls), 
who,  according  to  their  traditions,  came  originally  from  the  south-east.  But  the 
migration  must  have  taken  place  in  pre-Columbian  times,  for  the  first  pioneers 
found  them  in  the  same  district  which  they  still  occupy,  between  the  Chiquitos 
and  the  Mojos.  The  vast  territory  over  which  their  little  hamlets  and  camping- 
grounds  are  thinly  scattered  resembles  the  lands  inhabited  by  the  Chiquitos — the 
same  low  hills  and  fertile  glens,  the  same  patches  of  woodlands,  the  same 
picturesque  and  sunny  landscapes. 

The  Guarayos,  that  is,  Guara-Yu,  or  "  Yellow  Men,"  have  really  an  extremely 
light  complexion,  so  that  were  they  transported  to  Europe  they  would  easily  be 
confounded  with  the  rest  of  the  population.  Although  akin  to  the  Guarani  of 
Paraguay,  the  Guarayos  are  of  taller  stature.  With  their  robust  and,  at  the 


INHABITANTS  OF  BOLIVIA.  875 

same  time,  graceful  figures,  they  present  a  fine  type  of  manhood.  The  face  is 
round,  with  mild  bright  eyes  slightly  oblique  at  the  outer  angle  ;  but  they  are 
specially  distinguished  from  the  other  Guarani  and,  in  fact,  from  all  American 
aborigines  by  a  long,  full  and  straight  beard,  never  frizzly  like  those  of  Europeans, 
covering  the  chin,  the  lower  part  of  the  cheeks  and  upper  lip.  According  to 
D'Orbigny,  this  remarkable  physiological  anomaly  of  the  Guarayos  must  be 
attributed  to  some  unexplained  influence  of  the  environment. 

Their  character  reflects  their  physical  constitution,  offering,  in  the  language  of 
the  same  scientific  observer,  "a  type  of  the  good  nature,  courtesy,  frankness,  honesty, 
hospitality  and  proud  bearing  of  the  free  man."  The  Guarayo  holds  himself 
superior  to  the  European,  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that  in  the  exercise  of  freedom 
and  uprightness  he  compares  favourably  with  most  of  the  civilised  peoples  with 
whom  he  comes  in  contact.  He  recognises  no  master,  but  shows  great  respect  for 
old  age,  and  readily  hearkens  to  the  counsel  of  the  elders. 

The  Guarayo  penal  code,  which,  however,  seldom  needs  practical  application, 
is  of  a  summary  character,  being  resumed  in  the  sentence  of  death  for  all  cases 
of  theft  and  infidelity.  The  young  women  are  not  required  to  account  for  their 
conduct ;  but  once  sold,  not  by  the  father  but  by  the  brother,  such  being  the 
marriage  law,  they  belong  to  their  husband,  who  may  give  them  a  companion 
in  their  old  age. 

Their  habitations  take  the  form  of  roomy  octagonal  huts,  resembling  those 
of  the  Carib  natives  of  Haiti  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest.  They  also  make  dug- 
outs somewhat  like  our  light  paddle  canoes,  some  of  which  are  over  30  feet  long  and 
nearly  2  feet  wide.  Their  religion,  like  that  of  certain  mediaeval  sectaries,  requires 
them  to  disregard  clothing,  so  that  they  go  naked  except  in  the  vicinity  of 
European  settlements,  where  they  don  a  bast  smock,  such  as  that  worn  by  the 
Mojos  boatmen.  But  they  paint  the  body  in  motley  red  and  black  colours, 
and  as  distinctive  tribal  marks  wear  garters,  plumes,  a  little  rod  passed  through 
the  cartilage  of  the  nose,  besides  various  tattoo  markings  ;  the  hair  is  allowed  to 
grow  to  its  full  length,  never  under  any  circumstances  being  cut. 

They  worship  Tamoi,  that  is,  "  Grand-Father,"  a  great  spirit  who  taught  them 
husbandry,  and  ascended  to  heaven,  promising  to  take  them  thither  after  death. 
The  sacred  tree,  planted  at  the  side'  of  every  cabin,  is  intended  to  serve  as  a  perch 
from  which  the  soul  flits  upwards  when  released  from  the  body.  In  memory 
of  Tamoi's  ascension,  and  in  hope  of  their  own,  they  celebrate  certain  solemn 
feasts,  armed  with  a  bamboo  cane,  with  which  they  beat  the  ground  in  unison 
with  their  songs  and  prayers. 

THE  CHIRIGUANOS,  TOBAS  AND  SIRTONOS. 

Akin  to  the  Guarayos  are  the  Chiriguanos  or  Chirihuanas,  who  are  much 
farther  removed  from  the  body  of  the  Guarani  race,  dwelling  at  the  foot  of  the 
Bolivian  Andes,  and  along  the  banks  of  the  Caca  or  Rio  Grande  as  far  as  the  great 
forest  zone.  But  their  language,  although  differing  little  from  that  current 


876  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIOXS. 

in  Paraguay,  is  nevertheless  more  distinct  than  the  Guarayo  from  the  primitive 
stock. 

A  part  of  the  nation,  settled  by  the  missionaries  in  large  villages,  has  accepted 
Christianity,  and  these  are  said  to  be  rapidly  increasing  in  the  province  of  Tarija. 
But  most  of  the  Chiriguanos  have  preserved  their  independence,  and  these  wild 
tribes  a?e  estimated  by  D'Orbigny  to  number  altogether  19,000.  Being  of  indus- 
trious habits,  they  eagerly  seek  employment  in  various  occupations  beyond  the 
field  operations  and  other  pursuits  necessary  for  their  support.  Of  the  numerous 
peoples  mentioned  as  practising  the  couvade,  none  would  appear  to  have  till  recently 
observed  this  strange  custom  more  strictly  than  the  Chiriguanos. 

Their  councils  of  war,  compared  with  those  of  other  peoples,  presented  some 
original  features.  They  sought  inspiration  first  in  music  and  dancing;  then, 
after  deliberating  the  whole  night  long,  they  bathed  at  dawn,  painted  their  faces, 
decked  themselves  in  plumes,  fasted,  and  put  the  final  decision  to  the  vote.  Both 
Christians  and  pagans  seem  singularly  indifferent  to  religious  matters ;  but,  like 
practical  men,  they  readily  accept  whatever  comforts  may  be  derived  from  Euro- 
pean culture. 

The  Tobas,  a  people  of  the  Pilcomayo  basin,  conterminous  with  the  Chiriguanos, 
have  often  attempted  to  seize  some  of  their  Bolivian  valleys  ;  they  also  occasionally 
undertake  marauding  expeditions,  plundering  and  murdering  the  surrounding 
populations.  They  are  much  dreaded,  and  at  Bolivian  feasts  the  figures  of  Tobas, 
adorned  with  ostrich  feathers,  are  always  introduced  to  represent  typical  "savages." 
It  was  while  attempting  to  traverse  the  Tobas  territory,  in  order  to  reach  Bolivia 
by  the  direct  route  of  the  Pilcomayo,  that  the  French  explorer  Crevaux  and  his 
companions  met  their  death. 

The  Sirionos,  another  Guarani  people  now  settled  in  Bolivia,  appear  to  number, 
according  to  D'Orbigny 's  estimate,  not  more  than  1;000  souls.  Holding  the 
whites  and  half-castes  in  abhorrence,  they  dwell  north  of  the  Chiriguanos,  and 
not  far  from  the  Guarayos,  in  the  forests  through  which  winds  the  Rio  Grande. 
The  immigration  into  this  district  certainly  dates  from  a  very  remote  epoch,  for 
their  Guarani  speech  has  become  so  corrupted  that  they  have  great  difficulty  in 
understanding  their  Chiriguano  neighbours.  Despite  their  long  sojourn  in  a 
region  abounding  in  navigable  waters,  they  have  not  yet  learnt  to  build  boats  ; 
hence  when  they  have  to  cross  the  streams  they  skilfully  suspend  lianas  from  bank 
to  bank,  availing  themselves  of  snags  or  other  convenient  supports  lying  athwart 
the  current. 

THE  ANTISJAXS. 

West  of  the  Rio  Mamore,  and  north  of  the  Cochabamba  and  Carabaya  Andes, 
the  Indians  of  North  Bolivia  who  roam  the  region  of  plains  and  foothills  are 
designated  in  a  general  way  as  Antisians,  a  collective  name  which  embraces  several 
groups  differing  greatly  from  each  other  in  many  respects.  The  civilised  people 
of  the  plateaux  usually  call  them  Chunchos,  a  word  which,  as  used  by  them,  has 
simply  the  meaning  of  "  Savages." 


INHABITANTS  OF  BOLIVIA. 


377 


Occasionally  this  term  Chuncho  is  applied  in  a  special  way  to  those  Mosetenes 
who  have  remained  pagans,  who  dwell  on  the  banks  of  the  Beni,  and  who  are  thus 
distinguished  from  the  Christian  Mosetenes  and  Lecos.  The  absolutely  incorrect 
name  Guarayos  is  applied  in  a  still  more  hostile  sense  to  the  Indians  who  roam  the 
dense  forests  between  the  Rios  Madre  de  Dios  and  Madidi.  In  this  region 

Fig.  142. — ABORIGINAL  POPULATIONS  OF  BOLIVIA. 
Scale  1 :  18,000,000. 


72" 


West  or  Greenwich 


Depths. 


Oto50 
Fathoms. 


50  to  500 
Fathoms. 


500  to  1.000 
Fathoms. 


1  000  to  2,000 
Fathoms. 


2  000  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


310  Miles. 


Guarayos  has  acquired  the  sense  of  "  enemy,"  and  from  it  is  even  derived  a 
verb  meaning  "  to  kill." 

The  whites  have  little  knowledge  of  these  pretended  Guarayos,  who  differ  so 
greatly  from  the  true  Guarayos  of  Guarani  origin.  They,  in  fact,  give  a  wide 
berth  to  these  wild  forest  tribes,  who  go  nearly  naked,  except  on  feast-days,  when 
they  strut  about  arrayed  in  flowing  mantles.  Daring  boatmen,  they  use  fire  to 
hollow  out  canoes,  50  feet  long,  formed  of  a  single  trunk,  and  also  make  swords 


878  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

or  cutlasses  of  the  hard  wood  of  the  bactris  ciliata  ;  but  they  leave  all  agricultural 
work  to  the  women. 

These  Guarayos,  however,  are  a  religious  people,  who  worship  Baba-Buada,  a 
deity  identified  with  the  wind,  who  dwells  in  the  southern  regions  whence  blow 
the  trade  winds.  Before  sowing  time,  as  well  as  during  the  harvests,  they 
celebrate  great  feasts  in  his  honour,  and  on  these  occasions  also  drink  a  liquor 
extracted  from  the  manioc,  but  not  to  excess. 

Neighbours  of  the  Mosetenes  are  the  Christian  Lecos  of  the  Maipiri  basin,  who 
appear  to  belong  to  the  same  ethnical  stock.  They  present  a  striking  contrast  to 
the  gloomy  Aymaras  in  their  cheerful,  gentle  disposition  and  childlike  frankness. 
Although  possessing  an  extremely  melodious  language,  they  never  sing,  possibly 
because  forbidden  this  indulgence  by  the  missionaries.  Nor  do  they  ever  dance, 
and  under  the  stern  rule  of  the  priests  the  slightest  fault  is  punished  with  the  lash  ; 
an  "  arroba,"  that  is,  five-and-twenty  strokes,  is  quite  a  common  punishment.* 

Of  all  these  Antisians  or  Chunchos  the  most  remarkable  group  is  that  of  the 
Yuracares,  or  "  White  Men,"  a  people  of  tall  stature  and  fine  presence,  who  are 
met  chiefly  between  the  headwaters  of  the  Beni  and  Mamore  on  the  northern  slope 
of  the  Cochabamba  Andes.  The  Yuracares  are  nearly  white,  and  this  complexion, 
combined  with  their  proud  bearing  and  graceful  slim  figures,  might  at  a  distance 
cause  them  to  be  mistaken  for  Europeans.  The  features,  however,  are,  like  those 
of  the  Quichuas,  very  distinctly  Indian.  D'Orbigny  asks  whether  the  light 
colour  of  the  Yuracares  may  not  be  attributed  to  the  tepid  moisture  of  the  gloomy, 
sunless  forests  in  which  they  pass  their  lives. 

Their  customs  differ  greatly  from  those  of  the  Guarani,  who  are  husbandmen 
seldom  indulging  in  the  chase  except  as  a  relaxation,  whereas  the  Yuracares  live 
exclusively  by  the  hunt,  usually  leaving  the  care  of  their  garden  plots  to  the 
women.  As  craftsmen  they  display  great  skill  in  weaving  their  garments  and 
covering  them  with  patterns  stamped  by  means  of  carved  wooden  blocks.  It 
therefore  appears  that  these  barbarians  are  acquainted  with  the  printing  process, 
of  which  the  cultured  Quichuas  were  absolutely  ignorant. 

Calling  themselves  the  "  First  of  Men,"  the  Yuracares  try  to  show  their 
superiority  over  other  mortals  by  their  contempt  of  physical  pain.  At  the  feasts 
they  cover  themselves  with  wounds  without  ever  uttering  a  cry,  and  smear  them- 
selves with  their  own  blood.  They  have  also  their  "  code  of  honour  "  to  regulate 
their  duels,  vehemently  discussing  the  various  points  at  the  public  gatherings. 
"When  honour  requires  it  they  die,  despatching  themselves  with  the  magnanimous 
simplicity  of  a  Japanese,  or  the  dignity  of  a  Roman  philosopher.  Their  strong 
imaginative  faculty  has  evolved  a  rich  national  mythology,  in  which,  however,  tho 
supernatural  is  left  a  moot  question  ;  the  terror  of  the  unknown  beyond  this  life 
forms  no  part  of  their  religious  system. 

A  fundamental  principle  of  education  forbids  them  ever  to  reproach  or  offer 
the  least  advice  to  their  children,  who  are  left  to  guide  themselves  as  they  please 
on  the  example  of  their  elders.  But  though  their  freedom  is  respected,  their  lives 

*  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  tf  Anthropologie,  1861. 


INHABITANTS— TOPOGEAPHY  OF  BOLIVIA.  879 

are  held  in  small  account,  and  if  troublesome  they  are  quickly  got  rid  of.  Similar 
customs  prevail  amongst  the  Caripunas,  the  Araonas,  Pacauaras,  Toromanas  and 
other  tribes  of  the  wooded  plains  watered  by  the  Beni  and  Madre  de  Dios. 


THE  APOLISTAS. 

Various  Indian  groups  occupying  the  foothills  and  plains  of  Apolobamba  bear 
the  general  name  of  Apolistae.  One  of  these,  the  Collahuayas,  called  also 
Munecas,  from  the  name  of  their  province,  and  Charazani  from  one  of  their 
villages,  dwell  on  the  elevated  uplands  in  the  midst  of  the  Aymaras,  from  whom, 
however,  they  keep  aloof  apparently  indifferent  to  all  passing  events.  Outwardly 
Catholics,  and  round  their  necks  wearing  a  massive  silver  crucifix  as  a  distinctive 
mark,  the  Collahuayas  never  marry  outside  the  tribe,  and  speak  a  distinct  language. 
More  active  and  of  lighter  complexion  than  the  Quichuas  and  Aymaras,  they  have 
also  more  delicate  features,  softer  and  more  abundant  hair,  which  they  do  up  in  a 
thick  plaited  knot. 

Taciturn,  patient  and  cunning,  eager  for  gain  and  miserly,  they  think  only  of 
hoarding  the  family  wealth.  Like  certain  highlunders  of  the  Balkan  peninsula, 
tie  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  they  roam  abroad  as  itinerant  dealers  in  nostrums, 
magnets,  metal  objects,  strolling  minstrels  and  occasionally  as  doctors.  In  these 
capacities  they  traverse  Bolivia,  Lower  Peru,  even  Brazil  and  the  Argentine 
States,  where  they  are  simply  known  as  Indios  del  Peru,  "  Peruvian  Indians." 
After  many  years  of  this  wandering  life  they  bring  back  to  their  families  the 
earnings  thus  laboriously  acquired,  at  times  returning  with  convoys  of  mules 
laden  with  their  amassed  wealth. 


YL 

TOPOGRAPHY  OF  BOLIVIA — TIAHUANACO. 

At  present  Bolivia  has  no  large  towns,  though  it  is  possible  that  large  centres 
of  population  may  have  formerly  existed  in  this  region.  The  now  obscure  village 
of  Tiahuanaco  on  the  dry  margin  of  Lake  Titicaca,  and  118  feet  above  the  present 
water-level,  was  at  one  time,  if  not  a  great  city,  at  least  a  political  and  religious 
metropolis.  The  ruins  of  a  temple  crown  an  eminence  which  was  long  believed 
to  be  artificial,  but  which  Stiibel  shows  is  a  natural  hill.  Sculptured  granite  and 
porphyry  blocks  lie  strewn  over  the  ground,  some  looking  as  if  still  waiting  to 
be  placed  in  position  by  the  builders,  and  there  are  many  other  indications  to 
show  that  the  great  works  here  projected  were  never  entirely  completed,  having 
doubtless  been  interrupted  by  the  Quichua  conquest  of  Aymaraland,  about  120 
or  130  years  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards.  Rows  of  huge  megaliths  are 
still  standing,  which  either  mark  the  line  of  ancient  streets,  or  more  probably 
formed  part  of  a  vast  cyclopean  structure  of  the  Stonehenge  type. 


380  SOUTH  AMEBICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

The  churches  of  all  the  native  villages  have  been  to  a  large  extent  built  of 
materials  taken  from  the  scattered  remains  of  the  old  Aymara  city,  and  even  the 
cathedral  of  La  Paz  has  been  brought,  so  to  say,  block  by  block,  from  this  vast 
quarry.  The  only  tolerably  well  preserved  monument  of  Tiahuanaco  consists  of  a 
sort  of  pylon,  the  so-called  "  Gateway  of  the  Sun,"  a  title  suggested  by  a 
remarkable  central  figure  carved  in  intaglio  and  surrounded  by  undeciphered 
signs  or  symbolic  sculptures.  On  this  astounding  monument,  which  consists  of  a 
single  block  weighing  about  150  tons,  are  seen  images  of  owls,  snakes  and  other 
ornaments,  bearing  a  certain  resemblance,  even  in  the  details,  to  the  carvings  of 
Palenque  and  Ococingo,  and  certainly  belonging  to  a  cult  distinct  from,  and 
anterior  to,  that  of  the  Incas.  Some  of  the  statues  have  been  preserved  and  set 
up  outside  the  modern  church.  A  colossal  head  forming  the  capital  of  a  column  is 
also  still  seen  half-way  between  Tiahuanaco  and  La  Paz  ;  this  was  probably  part  of 
an  enormous  human  figure,  which  had  to  be  abandoned  after  all  efforts  had  failed 
to  transport  it  to  the  Spanish  city.  The  local  Indians  consider  this  curious  block 
as  a  diabolical  object,  and  when  passing  throw  a  handful  of  dust  or  mud  in  its 
face,  in  order  to  conjure  its  evil  eye. 

The  origin  of  these  remains  has  been  much  discussed  ;  but  Stiibel,  who  has 
most  carefully  examined  them  on  the  spot,  and  continued  their  study  in  Europe 
jointly  with  Herr  Uhle,  argues  convincingly  that  they  can  be  assigned  neither 
to  the  Toltecs  of  North  and  Central  America,  nor  to  the  Incas,  by  whom  they 
were  more  probably  destroyed  than  erected,  but  must  be  attributed  to  the 
Aymaras  themselves,  whose  culture,  if  ruder,  is  also  more  primitive  than  that 
of  the  Quichuas.  This  culture  was  characterised  especially  by  megalithic 
structures,  which  are  more  numerous  in  their  domain  than  elsewhere  in  America. 
In  pre-Inca  times  Tiahuanaco  itself  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  two 
distinct  religious  centres  of  Peru  (using  the  word  in  its  broadest  sense),  the  other 
being  Paccaritambo,  some  16  or  18  miles  from  the  Inca  capital,  Cuzco. 

Tiahuanaco  was  specially  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  Viracocha,  tutelar 
deity  of  the  Aymaras,  while  Paccaritambo  was  the  seat  of  the  Quichua  sun- 
worshippers.  But  when  the  sway  of  the  Incas  was  spread  over  the  whole 
of  the  middle  Andean  plateau  (Peru  and  Bolivia),  there  was  no  longer  room 
for  two  rival  religious  centres;  and  the  political  subjection  of  the  Aymaras  to 
the  Quichuas  was  followed  by  the  inevitable  suppression  of  the  Viracocha  cult 
at  Tiahuanaco  by  the  Incas,  shortly  before  the  suppression  of  the  Incas  them- 
selves by  the  Conquistadores.  Such  appear  briefly  to  have  been  the  politico- 
religious  relations  of  the  two  great  Peruvian  nations  (Quichuas  and  Aymaras)  in 
pre-Columbian  times,  though  these  relations  have  been  strangely  obscured  by 
Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  who,  because  of  his  Inca  descent,  has  been  blindly  followed 
by  nearly  all  writers  on  Peruvian  subjects  down  to  the  appearance  of  Stiibel  and 
Uhle' s  great  work.* 

*  This  work,  Die  Ruinenstaette  von  Tiahuanaco  im  Hochlande  des  dlten  Peru,  &c.,  von  A.  Stiibel  und 
M.  Uhle,  Breslau,  1893,  appeared  too  late  to  be  consulted  by  M.  Reclus,  who  is  consequently  not 
responsible  for  the  treatment  of  the  Tiahuanaco  ruins  and  associated  questions  in  the  English 
edition. — ED. 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  BOLIVIA. 


381 


COPACABANA — CoROCORO. 

The  Copacabana  peninsula,  north  of  Tiahuanaco,  appears  to  have  also  been 
a  sacred  spot  during  the  primitive  period  of  Ayraara  civilisation,  and  its  hallowed 
associations  have  been  preserved  in  the  memory  of  the  natives  down  to  the 
present  day.  The  local  church  contains  a  Virgencita  milagrosisima,  "  a  most 
miraculous  little  Madonna,"  to  which  flock  eager  votaries,  the  sick  and  infirm, 
those  in  trouble,  and  especially  gold-seekers  praying  for  some  indications  to  guide 
them  to  the  rich  lodes  and  placers.  This  word  Copacabana,  which  is  met  as  far 


Fig.  143. — COPACABANA  PENINSULA. 
Scale  1  : 1,000,000. 


69'4D' 


West  or  Greenwich 


68'40- 


18  Miles. 


north  as  Colombia,  is  not  due  to  the  old  Quichua  conquests,  but  to  the  widespread 
fame  of  the  Titicaca  Virgin. 

The  chief  antiquities  of  the  peninsula  consist  of  flights  of  steps,  terraces  and 
seats  carved  in  the  live  rock.  The  thermal  waters  known  as  the  "  Incas'  Baths  " 
have  been  well  preserved,  with  their  three  griffons  and  fish-tank.  But  on  the 
neighbouring  islet  of  Titicaca,  or  of  the  Sun,  nothing  now  remains  except  tracks 
worn  in  the  rock  by  the  steps  of  pilgrims,  and  some  fragments  of  walls  and 
other  shapeless  ruins,  nowhere  presenting  the  imposing  aspect  of  the  cyclopic 
Tiahuanaco  structures.  Here  also  a  thermal  spring  still  feeds  other  "Incas' 


882  SOUTH  AMEEICA—  THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

baths,"  and  in  the  vicinity  is  seen  a  grotto  where,  according  to  the  national 
legend,  Manco  Capac  dwelt  before  he  issued  forth  to  give  laws  to  the  Quichua 
world.  On  the  little  island  of  Coati,  or  the  Moon,  close  to  the  east  side  of 
the  Sun,  stands  the  Palace  of  the  Vestals,  best  preserved  of  all  Aymara 
monuments. 

CorocorOy  which  lies  in  a  deep  gorge  of  a  little  eastern  affluent  of  the  Desagua- 
dero,  dominated  by  bare  rocks,  owes  its  prosperity  to  the  deposits  of  native  copper 
contained  in  the  neighbouring  mountains.  The  metal  occurs  either  in  granulated 
form  disseminated  in  the  rock,  or  in  crystals,  cakes  or  nodules,  and  numerous 
veins  are  also  argentiferous.  The  mining  operations  are  carried  on  by  means  of 
galleries  terminating  in  lateral  pits  communicating  with  tramways.  The  ores 
are  extremely  rich,  but  at  this  great  altitude  above  arborescent  vegetation  the 
only  available  fuel  is  the  resinous  baccharis  shrub,  which  yields  insufficient  heat 
for  smelting  purposes  ;  hence  the  ores  are  simply  crushed  and  levigated  to  get  rid 
of  all  impurities.  The  powder  obtained  by  this  grinding  process  is  exported  to 
Europe  under  the  name  of  barrilla. 

Due  west  of  the  mines  is  the  village  of  Calacoto,  riverine  port  of  Corocoro  on 
the  Desaguadero,  which  is  here  spanned  by  a  reed  bridge  occasionally  swept 
away  by  the  floods.  Formerly  Calacoto,  which  stands  above  the  Maure  affluent, 
was  passed  by  the  most  important  route  in  Bolivia,  the  great  commercial  highway 
connecting  the  elevated  plateaux  with  the  Pacific  seaport  of  Arica  over  the 
Tacora  pass  and  by  the  city  of  Tacna.  But  the  stream  of  traffic  along  this  route 
has  been  partly  displaced  by  the  new  railway  running  from  Arequipa  to  Puno  on 
Lake  Titicaca.  The  road  from  La  Paz  to  Tacna  passes  higher  up  by  Nazacara, 
where  is  the  terminus  of  the  steamers  descending  the  Desaguadero  from  the  lake. 


HUA1S7GHACA. 

Ontro,  formerly  San  Felipe  de  Austria,  stands  at  an  elevation  of  about  11,700 
feet  on  the  saline  plain  stretching  from  the  Desaguadero  eastwards  in  the  direction 
of  the  slopes  of  the  Cordillera  Real.  Next  to  Potosi  this  was  at  one  time  the 
largest  city  in  Bolivia,  and  in  the  seventeenth  century  was  said  to  have  a  popula- 
tion of  76,000,  ten  times  more  than  at  present  ;  in  1891  it  was  chosen  as  the 
temporary  capital  of  the  republic.  Its  wealth  is  derived  from  its  now  mostly 
abandoned  silver-mines  ;  but  operations  are  still  carried  on  at  the  tin-mines  in 
the  north  near  Scpulturas,  so  named  from  its  ancient  tombs,  and  in  the  south, 
near  Sorasora  and  Poopo.  These  tin  deposits,  which  occur  at  the  point  of 
contact  of  the  porphyries  with  the  schistose  clays,  formerly  yielded  from  1,000  to 
1,500  tons  annually,  and  the  output  has  been  increased  since  the  Huanchaca 
railway  has  been  carried  northwards  as  far  as  Oruro.  Here  begins  the  difficult 
track,  which  climbs  the  slopes  north-  west  wards  to  the  Tluaillas  Pass  leading  down 
to  Cochabamba. 

Huanchaca  was  till  recently  a  mere  cluster  of  cabins  passed  by  the  few 
travellers  between  Potosi  and  the  port  of  Iquique  at  an  altitude  of  13,460  feet. 


•      TOPOGRAPHY  OF  BOLIVIA.  388 

But  silver  ores  here  occur  in  such  quantities  that  a  large  population  has  been 
attracted  to  the  district,  which  is  now  connected  by  a  railway  with  the  Chilian 
seaport  of  Antofagasta;  the  Huanchaca  branch  forms  a  junction  with  the  main 
Oruro  line  at  the  station  of  Uyuni.  This  is  the  longest  of  all  the  railways 
ascending  from  the  Pacific  coast  towards  the  Andean  plateaux,  and  as  the  steepest 
gradients  have  already  been  constructed,  it  will  soon  be  easily  continued  along  the 
shores  of  Lake  Titicaca  to  the  Arequipa-Puno  line. 

The  Huanchaca  mines,  whose  rich  ores  have  supplied  the  funds  required  to 
build  this  costly  railway,  were  not  opened  till  1874,  nor  systematically  worked 
with  proper  appliances  till  1880.  At  present  they  yield  more  silver  ores  than 
all  the  rest  of  Bolivia,  the  output  between  1877  and  1890  being  valued  at 
£5,200,000,  and  that  of  the  single  year  1890  at  £820,000.  Scarcely  less  pro- 
ductive are  some  other  argentiferous  lodes  rediscovered  in  the  district  south  of 
Huanchaca,  at  Colqucchaca,  near  Lake  Aullagas  and  in  the  Lipez  mountains. 


LA  PAZ — SORATA. 

On  the  Amazonian  slope  the  foremost  place  is  taken  by  the  city  of  La  Paz, 
which  is  the  most  populous  in  Bolivia,  and  which,  although  it  has  not  been  the 
permanent  capital,  may  still  be  regarded  as  the  true  metropolis  of  the  republic. 
The  Bolivian  Government  has  been  described  as  being  nearly  always  on  its  travels, 
shifting  about  in  an  erratic  sort  of  way  from  Sucre  to  La  Paz,  Oruro  and 
Cochabamba,  according  to  the  vicissitudes  of  wars  and  revolutions.  On  the  least 
alarm  generals  and  troops,  ministers  and  officials  with  their  archives  and  papers 
mount  their  saddle-mules  and  clamber  up  hill  and  down  dale  in  search  of  a  safer 
residence. 

A  preference,  however,  has  always  been  shown  for  La  Paz,  thanks  to  its  more 
advanced  position  towards  the  outer  world.  The  attraction  of  Europe,  which  is 
reached  by  a  somewhat  direct  route  down  the  Amazons  and  across  the  Atlantic, 
has  made  La  Paz  the  busiest  place  in  Bolivia.  Situated  at  a  height  of  12,465 
feet,  in  the  broad,  steeply  inclined  gorge  through  which  the  great  inland  sea  of 
the  Titicaca  depression  formerly  sent  its  overflow  to  the  Amazons,  and  which  is 
still  watered  by  one  of  the  chief  headstreams  of  the  Beni,  La  Paz  is  separated 
from  the  lake  only  by  a  sill  with  a  gentle  westerly  slope.  The  long  and  rugged 
easterly  incline  has  been  surmounted  by  a  narrow  zigzag  track,  and  heavy  works 
have  been  projected  to  bring  La  Paz  into  communication  with  the  Huanchaca 
and  the  Arequipa  railways,  as  well  as  with  the  lacustrine  port  of  Chililaya,  where 
is  situated  the  Bolivian  custom -house  on  the  south-east  side  of  the  lake. 

Chuquiabo  was  the  name  of  the  group  of  Indian  dwellings  which  Alonzo  de 
Mendoza  replaced  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  by  the  Spanish  city, 
bearing  the  religious  title  of  Nuestra  Senora  de  la  Paz,  "  Our  Lady  of  Peace." 
After  the  War  of  Independence,  which  was  here  begun  by  the  revolt  of  1809,  it 
took  the  patriotic  name  of  La  Paz  de  Ayacucho,  in  honour  of  the  final  victory  of 
the  national  arms.  At  the  point  where  the  city  rises  in  amphitheatrical  form  on 


384 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


the  slopes,  the  quebrada  (gorge)  expands  to  a  broad  lacustrine  basin,  which  was 
afterwards  discharged  through  a  ravine  caused  by  erosion. 

The  houses  of  La  Paz  are  constructed  on  both  sides  of  the  rivulet,  whence  a 
view  is  commanded  of  the  lower  valleys  beyond  the  winding  and  verdant 
quebrada.  But  the  city  lies  too  high  for  its  gardens  and  promenades  skirting  the 
torrent  to  nourish  any  but  a  stunted  growth  of  hardy  apples  and  other  trees 
which,  however,  retain  their  foliage  through  the  winter.  Towards  the  south-east 
the  horizon  is  bounded  by  the  sparkling  crest  of  Illirnani.  The  La  Paz  torrent, 
as  well  as  the  neighbouring  brooks,  washes  down  auriferous  sands.  But  the  local 
mining  industry  has  no  longer  the  importance  that  it  formerly  possessed,  and 
La  Paz  owes  its  present  prosperity  to  the  traffic  carried  on  with  the  agricultural 
districts  of  the  Yungas,  which  here  exchange  their  produce  for  foreign  wares. 


Fig.  144. — LA  PAZ  AND  ENVIBONS. 
Scale  1  : 2,000.000. 


West  op  Greenwich 


38  Miles. 


The  only  noteworthy  monument  is  the  sumptuous  cathedral,  built  at  a  time  when 
the  silver-mines  of  Potosi  were  controlling  the  money  markets  of  the  world. 
European  culture  is  represented  by  a  university,  some  high  schools,  and  other 
educational  establishments. 

Below  the  gorge  the  La  Paz  takes  the  name  of  Beni,  and  is  joined  by  several 
auriferous  streams  from  the  great  mining  district,  which  is  approached  by  several 
difficult  routes,  such  as  those  of  the  Rio  Coroico,  or  of  the  Sorata  (Caca  or 
Maipiri).  Towards  the  source  of  this  river  stands  the  health  resort  of  Sorata,  a 
large  place  before  the  insurrection  of  Tupac  Amaru  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
Here  all  the  Spaniards  of  the  surrounding  districts  had  taken  refuge  ;  but  instead 
of  waiting  to  reduce  them  by  siege  operations,  the  descendant  of  the  Incas  created 
a  temporary  reservoir  higher  up,  and  then  suddenly  discharged  its  contents  on  the 
doomed  city.  Those  who  survived  the  avalanche  of  slush  and  water  perished  by 


TOPOQBAPHY  OF  BOLIVIA. 


885 


the  sword.     Sorata  still  does  an  active  trade  with  the  raining  region  of  Tipuani, 
the  "  Gold  Potosi,"  which  yielded  £2,000,000  between  the  years  1818  and  1868. 

Coroico,  lying  on  a  fertile  terrace  farther  north,  an  "  earthly  paradise  "  of 
banana  and  orange  groves,  is  the  chief  centre  of  the  coca  and  other  plantations 
of  the  Yungas  region.  The  botanist  Joseph  de  Jussieu,  who  resided  at  Coroico  in 

Fig.  145. — LA  PAZ — PALACE  OF  CONGRESS. 


1740,  studied  the  properties  of  the  coca  plant,  which  he  was  the  first  to  introduce 
into  Europe. 

COCHABAMBA — SANTA    CRUZ. 

Cochabamba,  the  "  Plain  of  the  Lake,"  so  named  from  the  now  dry  lacustrine 
depression  where  it  stands  at  a  height  of  8,300  feet,  is  scarcely  inferior  to  La  Paz 
as  a  centre  of  population,  despite  its  unfavourable  position  for  trade  in  the  rugged 

26 


386  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

district  about  the  source  of  the  Mizgue  affluent  of  the  Rio  Grande.  But  the 
difficulty  or  lack  of  communications  is  counterbalanced  by  its  excellent  soil  and 
climate.  The  well-cultivated  plain  yields  wheat  in  abundance,  as  well  as  other 
produce  utilised  by  the  numerous  local  industries — woollen  and  cotton  spinning 
mills,  tanneries,  soap  and  starch  works.  The  trade  of  this  flourishing  department 
is  estimated  at  one-fourth  of  the  exchanges  of  the  whole  republic.  Its  chief 
exports  are  coca-leaves,  cereals,  flour,  horned  cattle,  wool,  and  beer,  taken  in 
exchange  for  cotton  fabrics,  mostly  from  North  America.  The  neighbouring 
mines  are  no  longer  worked. 

Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra  is  so  called,  not  because  of  its  elevation,  for  it  stands 
at  the  entrance  of  the  plains  not  more  than  1,450  feet  above  the  sea,  but  in 
memory  of  an  upland  town  from  which  the  inhabitants  removed  to  this  place. 
The  neighbouring  Rio  Piray  (Sara)  is  not  navigable,  but  the  Rio  Grande,  a  little 
farther  east,  is  accessible  to  boats,  and  well-beaten  tracks  radiate  in  all  directions 
across  the  savannas  and  forests.  Thus  Santa  Cruz  occupies  a  central  position  as 
the  starting-point  for  all  travellers  proceeding  eastwards  in  the  direction  of 
Chiquitos,  Matto  Grosso  and  Paraguay. 

POTOSI — SUCRE. 

Potosi  was  two  centuries  ago  the  most  populous  city  not  only  in  Bolivia,  but 
in  the  New  World.  Despite  its  great  elevation  of  13,325  feet,  its  prodigious 
mining  wealth  had  attracted  a  population  of  160,000  to  a  place  which  now  ranks 
only  as  the  fourth  city  of  the  republic.  Of  the  children  born  at  this  tremendous 
altitude,  some  die  at  once,  while  others  remain  blind  or  deaf.  Founded  in  1545 
under  the  name  of  Villa  Imperial,  it  stands  at  the  foot  of  the  bare,  yellow  Cerro 
de  Potosi  (15,380  feet),  which  was  in  times  past  described  as  a  silver  cone,  and 
which  was  in  fact  traversed  by  powerful  argentiferous  lodes  in  every  direction. 
It  had  been  transformed  by  over  five  thousand  galleries  into  a  vast  underground 
labyrinth  ;  but  the  excavations  have  for  the  most  part  collapsed,  while  the  deepest 
pits  have  been  flooded  by  water.  Nevertheless  mining  operations,  formerly  so 
productive,  have  not  yet  been  entirely  abandoned;  the  annual  output  is  still 
valued  at  £160,000,  which  is  an  insignificant  sum  compared  with  the  total  yield, 
exceeding  £320,000,000,  according  to  the  lowest  estimates.  Potosi  alone  would 
appear  to  have  supplied  the  world  with  one-twelfth  of  the  precious  metals 
which  have  found  their  way  into  general  circulation  since  the  discovery  of 
America. 

The  now  partly-ruined  city  contains  sumptuous  buildings,  eloquent  witnesses 
to  the  vast  treasures  at  the  command  of  their  builders.  The  mint,  which  is  no 
longer  used,  terminates  in  a  magnificent  open  roof,  the  timber  for  which  was 
transported  across  the  crests  of  the  Andes  from  the  forests  of  the  Rio  Salado  in 
Argentina,  some  600  miles  away.  The  aqueducts  are  also  remarkable  monuments 
of  those  halcyon  times,  and  the  dammed-up  lakes,  fed  by  the  snows  of  the 
Andacahua  Sierra,  now  yield  far  more  water  than  is  required  by  the  inhabitants, 


TOPOGEAPHY  OF  BOLIVIA. 


387 


and  for  the  reduction  of  the  ores.     In  the  neighbourhood  of  Potosi  are   some 
mineral  waters. 

Sucre,  which  at  the  beginning  of  1892  was  still  the  official  capital  of  Bolivia, 
lies  like  Potosi  in  the  upper  Pilcomayo  basin,  but  on  the  opposite  slope  and  at  a 
much  lower  elevation  (8,850  feet).  It  was  owing  to  this  relatively  moderate 
altitude  that  it  owed  its  importance  during  the  flourishing  days  of  Potosi,  whose 
wealthy  inhabitants  had  made  it  a  health  resort  and  place  of  rest.  At  that  time 
it  bore  the  Quichua  name  of  Chuquichaca  (Chuquisaca),  that  is,  "  Golden  Bridge," 
a  name  suggestive  of  the  boundless  mineral  treasures  of  this  region.  It  also  bore 


Fig.  146. — POTOSI  AND  SUCEB. 
Scale  1  :  2,000,000. 


West  op  Greenwich 


65' 


Gold.      Silver. 


38  Miles. 


the  name  of  La  Plata  (Chuquisaca  de  la  Plata] ,  while  it  received  its  present  official 
title  in  honour  of  Marshal  Sucre,  who  gained  the  decisive  battle  of  Ayacucho. 

Sucre  stands  on  a  sloping  terrace  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  where  it  is 
surrounded  by  deep  gorges  in  the  centre  of  a  superb  amphitheatre  of  lofty 
summits.  Its  university  and  colleges  earned  for  it  the  perhaps  somewhat 
ambitious  title  of  the  "  Athens  of  Peru,"  at  a  time  when  it  still  belonged  to  that 
region.  Sucre  is  at  present  an  important  agricultural  centre  for  the  cereals  and 
other  produce  of  the  temperate  lands.  Its  potters  prepare  little  vases  of  an 
argillaceous  earth,  which  are  sucked  like  chocolate,  and  the  moderate  use  of  this 
clay  does  not  seem  to  be  injurious.  As  at  La  Paz,  "clay  dumplings"  are  eaten 
with  potatoes  (Weddell). 


888  SOUTH  AMERICA —THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

CINTI — TARIJA — TRINIDAD. 

Cinti,  Tupiza,  and  Tarija,  standing  at  a  lower  altitude  and  a  higher  temperature 
in  South  Bolivia,  are  surrounded  by  far  more  productive  plains.  Cinti,  the  ancient 
Camargo,  on  a  secondary  affluent  of  the  Pilcomayo,  is  embowered  in  verdure  amid 
the  reddish  walls  of  bare  rocks,  and  its  vineyards  produce  one  of  the  best  wines  in 
America. 

Tupiza,  on  a  tributary  of  the  upper  San  Juan,  a  main  branch  of  the  Pilaya, 
is  the  chief  riverine  port  for  the  trade  with  Argentina.  North  of  this  place  a 
mine  in  the  Sierra  de  Chorolque  is  worked  at  the  tremendous  altitude  of  17,420 
feet,  that  is,  1,640  higher  than  Mount  Blanc. 

Tarija  (5,810  feet),  on  an  affluent  of  the  Bermejo,  is  famous  throughout  all 
the  land  for  its  fertile  soil,  yielding  corn,  fruits,  vegetables,  fodder,  all  of  prime 
quality,  with  little  care  on  the  part  of  the  growers.  Tarija  recalls  Southern 
Italy  with  its  blue  skies,  rugged  mountains,  fertile  valleys,  and  excellent  produce 
of  all  kinds.  During  the  revolutions  in  the  neighbouring  republic  of  Argentina 
it  has  often  served  as  a-  place  of  refuge  for  the  politicians  of  the  vanquished 
party.  Here,  as  at  Cinti  and  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra,  the  women  greatly 
predominate  over  the  men,  who  are  usually  widely  scattered  over  the  surrounding 
haciendas. 

East  of  the  Andean  spurs  the  only  groups  of  habitations  in  the  valleys  and  on 
the  plains  of  the  Chiquitos  territory  are  the  villages  attached  to  the  missions  and 
the  camping-grounds  of  the  Indians.  One  of  these,  Trinidad,  near  the  right  bank 
of  the  Mamore,  serves  as  capital  of  the  department  of  Beni,  which  comprises  all 
the  north-eastern  part  of  the  republic.  A  few  military  stations  line  the  banks 
of  the  Paraguay  on  the  eastern  frontier  of  Bolivia. 


TIL 

MATERIAL  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITION  OF  BOLIVIA. 

Till  recently  the  relatively  sparse  population  of  Bolivia  received  but  slight 
additions  from  immigration.  Even  still,  European  and  North  American  settlers 
are  rare,  numbering  certainly  less  than  a  thousand  altogether.  But  the  con- 
terminous districts  receive  a  large  number  of  immigrants  from  Peru,  Chili  and 
Argentina,  chiefly  miners,  traders  and  labourers.  The  Chilians,  especially,  have 
poured  like  invaders  into  the  mining  district  of  Huanchaca. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Bolivians  are  easily  tempted  to  descend  from  their 
plateaux  to  the  more  temperate  or  more  fertile  lands  belonging  to  the  neighbouring 
states.  Thus  a  natural  equilibrium  is  established  between  the  inflow  and  the 
outflow.  Apart,  therefore,  from  some  great  social  changes  modifying  the  system 
of  land  tenure  and  throwing  open  the  boundless  eastern  plains  to  wholesale  immi- 
gration, Bolivia  will  have  to  depend  upon  her  own  resources  for  the  gradual 


MATERIAL  CONDITION  OF  BOLIVIA.  889 

settlement  of  regions  vast  and  fertile  enough  to  support  a  population  of  many 
millions. 

But  during  the  present  century  the  natural  increase  has  been  extremely  slow. 
No  doubt  in  ordinary  years  the  birth-rate  greatly  exceeds  the  mortality,  occasionally 
by  as  much  as  two-thirds.  But  many  sections  of  the  community  are  wasted  by 
epidemics  ;  they  perish  in  myriads,  and  at  times  whole  districts  are  changed  to 
solitudes.  Statistical  observations  show  that  the  zone  of  mean  altitude  is  peopled 
most  rapidly ;  lower  down  the  births  are  very  numerous,  but  they  are  nearly 
equalled  by  the  deaths  ;  higher  up  in  the  puna  region  large  families  are  rare.  On 
these  uplands  the  aborigines  appear  to  resist  the  rigorous  climate  even  less  than 
the  whites  and  half-breeds.  Here  a  disorder  known  as  "  yellow  fever,"  though 
quite  different  from  that  of  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil,  assumes  a  contagious 
character,  and  carries  off  the  patient  usually  on  the  third  day.  A  mottled  skin, 
due  to  the  disappearance  of  the  natural  pigment,  is  one  of  the  commonest  affections 
amongst  the  Bolivian  Indians. 


AGRICULTURE. 

Long  neglected,  owing  to  the  greater  attraction  of  the  precious  metals,  agri- 
culture has  resumed  its  importance  as  the  chief  industry  of  Bolivia,  and  has  even 
made  rapid  progress  in  some  districts,  and  especially  in  the  department  of  Cocha- 
bamba.  The  patient  and  industrious  natives  apply  themselves  with  intelligence 
to  tillage,  stock-breeding,  dairy- farming,  the  preparation  of  cheese,  jams  and  other 
preserves.  The  potato  is  the  staple  food  taken  in  the  form  of  chuno,  a  freezing 
process  in  which  its  natural  flavour  is  completely  changed. 

On  the  slopes  of  the  Yungas  zone  the  Indian  peasantry  display  as  much  skill 
as  those  of  the  Vivarais  or  of  the  Riviera  of  Genoa  in  retaining  the  steep  declivities 
by  constructing  a  series  of  superimposed  inclines  with  the  fragments  of  rocks. 
The  flanks  of  the  hills  are  thus  disposed  in  the  so-called  pircas,  terraces  rising  one 
above  another,  each  with  its  own  carefully-tilled  plot.  Besides  the  alpaca,  they 
rear  a  fine  breed  of  asses,  the  only  pack-animals  employed  on  the  eastern  plains. 

The  Bolivian  peasantry  would  be  model  farmers  if  they  were  personally 
interested  in  the  results  of  their  labour.  But  they  possess  nothing.  The  live 
stock  belongs  for  the  most  part  to  large  proprietors,  whose  tenants  are  not  a  few 
Indian  labourers,  but  whole  village  communities,  family  groups  and  clans.  The 
lands  under  tillage  are  themselves  merely  parts  of  vast  domains  whose  owners, 
nearly  all  absentees,  direct  the  works  through  agents  and  middlemen.  The  Aymara 
peasants,  who  are  deprived  of  all  motive  for  improving  their  position,  indemnify 
themselves  with  their  numerous  feasts,  always  ending  in  drunken  orgies.  Drink 
has  thus  become  the  national  vice. 

A  new  zone  of  agricultural  enterprise  is  being  gradually  developed  in  the 
region  of  the  eastern  Yungas.  Within  a  recent  epoch,  the  capitalists  who  had 
received  government  concessions  of  vast  domains  in  these  favoured  lands,  occupied 
themselves  exclusively  with  the  cinchona  industry.  The  native  eascarilteros, 


890 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIOXS. 


"  bark  strippers,"  had  no  occupation  except  that  of  searching  the  forests  in  all 
directions  in  quest  of  the  finest  trees.  A  period  of  systematic  culture  had  even 
succeeded  to  that  of  the  reckless  destruction  of  the  spontaneous  growths  in  the 
forests  of  the  Yungas  valleys.  Four  million  trees  had  been  planted,  of  which 
500,000  had  arrived  at  maturity,  when  the  propagation  of  the  plant  in  India, 
Java  and  other  regions,  arrested  the  progress  of  the  industry  in  Bolivia,  where  the 
absence  of  communications  made  all  competition  hopeless.  The  bark  fell  rapidly  in 


Fig.  147. — CHIEF  MINERAL  DEPOSITS  OF  BOLIVIA. 
Scale  1  :  18,000,000. 


10' 


72" 


West  oF  Greenwich 


310  Miles. 


price,  and  the  planters  were  compelled  in  many  districts  to  give  up  the  struggle 
and  turn  their  attention  to  the  cultivation  of  coca ;  in  1885  the  coca  crop  was 
valued  at  £343,000,  and  some  of  the  exquisitely- flavoured  Yungas  coffee  has  also 
begun  to  reach  the  European  markets. 

But  cinchona  has  been  chiefly  replaced  by  rubber,  and  this  new  industry  has 
done  more  than  scientific  zeal  to  forward  the  exploration  of  the  eastern  streams 
flowing  to  the  Madeira  or  directly  to  the  Amazons.  In  the  basin  of  the  Madre  de 
Dios  the  rubber -seekers  are  already  acquainted  with  all  the  valleys,  and  have 


MATERIAL  CONDITION  OF  BOLIVIA.  891 

opened  tracks  in  all  directions,  enabling  them  in  their  daily  rounds  to  visit  every 
plant,  usually  about  150,  comprised  in  their  beat.  According  to  Guillaume,  this 
industry  began  on  the  banks  of  the  Madre  de  Dios  in  1883,  and  spread  rapidly 
throughout  the  whole  region.  In  1890  about  3,000  persons  found  employment  in 
this  district  preparing  or  forwarding  the  rubber.  The  variety  cultivated  in 
Bolivia  is  the  siphonia,  a  member  of  the  euphorbia  family,  of  which  there  are  three 
distinct  species. 


MINING — TRADE. 

The  mining  industry,  which  had  languished  for  many  years  after  the  War 
of  Independence,  has  again  become  very  active.  Yet  the  auriferous  deposits, 
though  by  no  means  rare,  have  caused  many  disappointments.  The  sands  of  the 
Maipiri,  the  Tipuari  and  some  other  torrents  in  the  Yungas  region  are,  however, 
now  carefully  washed.  But  as  in  the  flourishing  days  of  Potosi,  silver  is  still 
the  most  abundant  metal,  the  ores  of  most  of  the  Bolivian  mines  being  extremely 
rich.  Those  of  Huauchaca,  which  of  late  years  have  become  the  most  important 
in  the  world,  contain  seven-thousandths  of  silver ;  but  in  the  Oruro  mines  lodes 
are  frequently  met  with  as  much  as  one-tenth  of  pure  metal.  Elsewhere  the 
proportion  rises  to  50  and  even  75  per  cent. 

Nearly  all  the  foreign  exports,  which  formerly  included  wool  and  bark,  now 
consist  of  silver,  copper  and  other  metals.  Europe,  Chili  and  the  United  States 
take  the  ores  in  exchange  for  manufactured  goods,  while  Argentina  supplies 
pack-animals  and  oxen  in  return.  The  greater  part  of  the  foreign  trade  is  carried 
on  with  Great  Britain.  In  1890  the  collective  exchanges  were  valued  at 
£3,000,000,  and  in  1889  silver  was  exported  to  the  value  of  £1,340,000. 


COMMUNICATIONS. 

But  in  Bolivia  the  development  of  the  mineral  and  other  industries  is  entirely 
a  question  of  communications.  Even  the  Huanchaca  mines  would  have  failed 
to  acquire  their  present  importance,  but  for  the  completion  of  the  railway  con- 
necting them  with  the  Chilian  port  of  Antofagasta.  Thanks  to  this  line,  574 
miles  long,  as  far  as  its  present  inland  terminus  at  Oruro,  Bolivia  now  possesses 
the  chief  trunk  line,  with  which  all  the  projected  branches  may  easily  be  con- 
nected. From  the  elevation  of  over  13,000  feet,  which  has  already  been  reached, 
nothing  remains  except  to  descend  eastwards  in  the  direction  of  Sucre,  La  Paz, 
Cochabamba,  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra  and  the  plams.  On  the  plateaux  them- 
selves, the  track  will  be  laid  nearly  at  a  dead  level  along  the  shores  of  Titicaca, 
in  connection  with  the  steamers  now  plying  on  the  lake.  Between  the  opposite 
ports  of  Puno  or  Puerto  Perez  and  Chililaya  the  distance  is  about  114  miles.  At 
Chililaya  begins  a  carriage  road,  running  south-eastwards  in  the  direction  of  La 
Paz,  and  now  regularly  served  by  diligences. 

Progress  has  also  been  made  in  the  direction  of  Argentina.     Here  the  lines 


892 


SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


running  from  Buenos  Ayres  in  the  direction  of  the  Bolivian  Andes,  have  already 
reached  the  villages  near  the  frontier,  from  which  it  would  be  easy  to  carry  them 
to  the  towns  of  Tarija,  Cinti  and  Sucre.  "With  the  completion  of  this  system  the 
isolation  of  Bolivia  would  cease ;  but  at  the  same  time  a  political  danger  would 


Fig.  148. — INTEBNATIONAL  COMMUNICATIONS  OF  BOLIVIA. 
Scale  1 :  19,000,000. 


Railways.        Railways  in  progress.        Route.         Deep-sea  navigation.    Coast  navigation. 


Regular  marine  service. 
_- -__   310  Miles. 


arise  similar  to  that  created  on  the  opposite  side  by  the  Chilian  line  between 
Antofagasta  and  Huanchaca. 

On  the  one  hand,  the  political  independence  of  Bolivia  is  threatened  by  the 
influence  of  Chili  strengthened  by  the  mining  interest ;  on  the  other,  Argentina, 
which  already  claims  a  portion  of  Bolivian  territory,  would  become  an  extremely 
dangerous  neighbour.  Buenos  Ayres,  the  largest  city  in  South  America,  might 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  BOLIVIA.  893 

remember  that  the  ancient  province    of  Cu  areas,  that   is   to  say,  the  whole  of 
Bolivia,  was  comprised  within  its  jurisdiction  in  colonial  times. 

In  the  direction  of  Paraguay,  the  towns  of  the  Bolivian  sierra  are  still  con- 
nected only  by  tracks  crossing  the  forests  and  savannas,  although  the  distance  in 
a  straight  line  scarcely  exceeds  400  miles.  Obstacles,  such  as  swamps  and  rocks, 
might  easily  be  turned,  for  in  this  low  water-parting  between  the  Plate  and 
Amazons  there  are  no  large  rivers.  The  thorny  scrub,  which  in  many  places 
forms  an  impassable  barrier  for  ordinary  wayfarers,  would  present  no  difficulty 
for  railway  "  navvies."  Here  the  Pilcomayo  might  at  first  sight  seem  to  offer  the 
natural  highway  for  the  passenger  and  transit  trade  between  Bolivia  and  the 
lower  Paraguay ;  but  the  Pilcomayo  is  not  a  navigable  river,  as  was  discovered 
by  Crevaux,  Thuar  and  several  other  recent  explorers. 


VIII. 

ADMINISTRATION. 

Bolivia,  which  was  constituted  an  independent  state  in  1825,  under  the 
name  of  the  "  Bolivar  Republic,"  had  placed  itself  under  the  special  protec- 
tion of  the  "  Good  Father,"  as  the  "  Liberator  "  was  called.  He  was  not  only 
entrusted  with  the  supreme  power  as  President,  but  was  also  invited  to  draft  a 
social  contract  at  his  own  pleasure.  Thus  was  issued  under  his  direct  inspiration 
the  "  Bolivian  Code,"  that  is  to  say,  the  National  Constitution,  which  he  intended 
to  become  the  Magna  Charta  of  a  universal  confederacy  of  the  South  American 
republics.  It  was  in  reality,  under  a  new  and  complicated  form,  an  organised 
system  of  hereditary  power,  in  a  word  a  monarchy  in  disguise. 

The  Chamber  of  Tribunes,  named  by  certain  electors  in  the  second  degree, 
was  to  vote  the  laws  relating  to  finance,  peace  and  war;  while  the  Chamber  of 
Senators,  elected  by  the  same  voters  for  eight  years,  would  occupy  itself  mainly 
with  questions  of  jurisprudence  and  religion.  But  in  case  of  collision  between 
these  two  elected  bodies,  a  third  body  called  the  Chamber  of  Censors,  whose 
members  were  to  be  elected  for  life,  was  to  interpret  the  meaning  of  the  Con- 
stitution, and  recall  the  other  Chambers  to  a  sense  of  duty,  respect  for  laws  and 
treaties. 

The  president,  on  his  part,  also  elected  for  life,  would  be  assisted  in  his  func- 
tions by  a  vice-president  chosen  by  himself  and  designated  beforehand  as  his 
successor.  In  1836  the  Bolivian  Congress  voted  by  acclamation  the  Code  brought 
forward  by  the  dictator  ;  which,  however,  was  very  far  from. realising  the  expecta- 
tions of  its  promoters.  In  none  of  the  Hispano-American  states,  so  often  con- 
vulsed by  civil  strife,  have  political  murders  been  more  numerous  than  in 
Bolivia. 

At  present  the  Bolivian  Government,  like  that  of  the  other  South  American 
republics,  comprises  three  distinct  and  nominally  independent  centres  of  authority, 


894 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


as  required  by  the  theory  of  its  paper  Constitution.  The  legislative  power 
consists  of  two  houses  elected  by  direct  popular  suffrage,  a  senate  of  sixteen  and 
a  lower  house  of  sixty-four  deputies.  The  executive,  in  other  words  the  president, 
should  also  be  elected  by  the  people ;  but  most  frequently  he  elects  himself  by 
the  summary  process  of  presenting  himself  before  Congress  at  the  head  of  his 
troops.  In  fact  nearly  all  the  presidents  have  hitherto  been  professional  soldiers, 


Fig.  149. — POLITICAL  DIVISIONS  OF  BOLIVIA. 
Scale  1  :  18,000,000. 


310  Miles. 


seizing  the  reins  of  state  by  force,  by   force  expelled,  and  for  the  most  part 
assassinated  or  dying  in  exile. 

In  abnormal  times,  as  the  intervals  between  the  chronic  revolutions  may  be 
called,  the  president,  nominated  for  four  years,  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  five 
ministers  of  state — the  secretaries  of  foreign  affairs,  finance,  administration,  war, 
justice  and  public  instruction.  In  case  of  death  or  deposition  he  is  replaced  by  a 
vice-president,  who,  should  the  occasion  require  it,  may  be  supplemented  by  a 
second  functionary  of  like  standing.  The  president  names  most  of  the  higher 


ADMINISTRATION  OP  BOLIVIA.  895 

civil,   political  and    military  officials,  appoints    and   deposes    the   prefects,   sub- 
prefects  and  corregidores  (justices). 

The  third  centre  of  power  is  constituted  by  the  magistracy — a  supreme  court 
of  appeal,  district  courts,  and  cantonal  tribunals  with  an  array  of  judges,  and  the 
so-called  "  parochial  alcaldes,"  parish  justices.  The  departments  (provinces)  are 
governed  by  prefects  with  "  supreme  administrative  and  military  authority." 
But  as  each  provincial  capital  has  its  municipal  council,  there  still  remains  a  shred 
of  local  self-government. 


ARMY — FINANCE — EDUCATION. 

The  army,  which  is  likewise  at  the  disposition  of  the  president,  comprises  a 
peace  footing  of  from  1,500  to  4,000  men,  and  during  war  as  many  able-bodied 
troops  as  the  authorities  can  manage  to  muster.  At  times  the  generals  have  had 
as  many  as  10,000  of  all  arms  under  their  command.  Military  colonies  have  even 
been  founded  in  the  Chaco  territory. 

In  1892  a  conscription  law  was  passed,  which  came  into  operation  the  following 
year,  and  which  makes  military  service  compulsory  on  all  citizens  from  twenty- 
one  to  forty  years  of  age  in  the  line,  the  reserve  and  the  extraordinary  reserve. 
These  reserves  constitute  a  national  guard,  in  which  military  service  had  always 
been  obligatory.  The  annual  expenditure  for  military  purposes  averages  about 
£365,000. 

The  yearly  revenue,  mostly  showing  a  deficit,  is  drawn  chiefly  from  the 
mining  and  custom-house  dues ;  but  along  such  a  vast  and  ill-guarded  frontier  it 
is  easy  to  defraud  the  state.  It  may  even  be  regarded  as  fortunate  for  the  slight 
trade  of  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra  with  the  neighbouring  states  that  the  Bolivian 
Government  has  been  strong  enough  to  enforce  payment  of  the  imposts  charged 
on  goods  passing  the  frontier.  The  custom-house  officers  are,  no  doubt,  always 
found  in  their  place,  but  being  unsupported  by  troops  they  are  unable  to  levy  the 
dues  on  the  traders,  who  treat  them  with  contempt.  According  to  Fernandez,  the 
Bolivian  treasury  has  thus  lost  millions  of  dollars  since  the  issue  of  the  futile  tariff 
laws.  The  indemnity  due  to  Chili  after  the  last  war  is  levied  on  the  goods 
passing  through  the  custom-house  which  Bolivia  keeps  in  the  Chilian  port  of 
Arica ;  two-fifths  of  the  yearly  revenue  derived  from  this  source  are  guaranteed 
to  the  Chilian  Government.  The  commodities  introduced  into  Bolivia  through 
Antofagasta,  and  on  the  Argentine  frontier  through  Tupiza,  are  charged  with  no 
special  transit  dues. 

In  1893  the  estimated  revenue  from  all  sources  was  £1,147,000,  and  the 
expenditure  £1,187,000.  In  the  same  year  the  internal  debt  was  £1,090,000,  and 
the  foreign  £124,000,  giving  a  total  of  £1,214,000.  But,  while  the  internal  debt 
remains  somewhat  stationary,  the  foreign  is  rapidly  being  paid  off. 

Public  instruction,  although  in  theory  "  gratuitous  and  obligatory,"  is  never- 
theless much  neglected.  In  1890  scarcely  more  than  a  sixtieth  of  the  whole 


896  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

Bolivian  population  was  receiving  even  elementary  instruction.  On  the  other  hand 
there  are  no  less  than  five  "  universities,"  with  a  collective  staff  of  83  professors  in 
the  three  faculties  of  law,  medicine  and  theology,  and  a  total  attendance  of  nearly 
1,400  students,  besides  16  secondary  schools  or  colleges  with  over  2,000  pupils. 
These  are  exclusive  of  a  military  school  with  a  staff  of  nine  professors  maintained 
by  the  government,  which  also  contributes  about  £10,000  to  the  yearly  support  of 
the  public  primary  schools. 

Bolivia  is  divided  into  eight  administrative  departments,  which  are  officially 
called  "provinces,"  and  which,  with  their  estimated  areas  and  populations  according 
to  various  official  returns  between  the  years  1880  and  1888,  will  be  found  tabulated 
in  the  Appendix. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

CHILI. 
I. 

HE  southernmost  republic  of  the  Andean  regions  occupies  on  the 
Pacific  seaboard  an  elongated  zone,  extending  a  total  distance  of  no 
less  than  3,000  miles  in  a  straight  line,  and  comprising  over  one- 
half  of  the  South  American  seaboard  between  the  Gulf  of  Panama 
and  Cape  Horn.  But  its  breadth  is  far  from  corresponding  to 
this  enormous  expansion  in  the  direction  of  the  meridian.  Before  the  recent 
annexations  of  Bolivian  and  Peruvian  territories,  Chili  proper  was  everywhere 
bounded  inland  by  the  crest  of  the  Andes,  which  here  especially  run  close  to  the 
coast.  Towards  the  tapering  extremity  of  the  continent  its  domain  is  even  still 
reduced  to  a  few  uninhabited  escarpments  of  the  Cordilleras  between  the  Pata- 
gonian  plains  and  the  archipelagoes  fringing  the  seaboard. 

In  the  interior  no  state  of  this  slender  elongated  form  could  possibly  be  held 
together  under  any  circumstances ;  at  the  first  shock  it  would  necessarily  break 
into  fragments,  each  with  its  special  centre  of  attraction.  Even  the  Italian 
peninsula,  although  a  maritime  region  with  a  perfectly  defined  geographical 
unity,  was  nevertheless  till  recently  broken  into  a  number  of  distinct  states,  and 
even  territories  distributed  amongst  foreign  powers. 


RECENT  CONQUESTS. 

The  persistence  of  Chili  as  a  homogeneous  state,  possessing  even  more  close 
cohesion  than  most  of  the  other  South  American  political  communities,  is  explained 
by  the  vicinity  of  the  sea.  To  the  oceanic  waters,  traversed  along  the  whole 
length  of  the  Chilian  coast  by  the  Antarctic  current,  this  region  is  indebted  for  its 
distinct  physical  unity.  All  the  most  distant  points  of  the  seaboard  are  brought 
into  almost  close  proximity  by  the  vessels  plying  in  these  waters.  They  also  enjoy 


898  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

the  advantage  of  a  great  centre  of  attraction  in  Valparaiso,  chief  seaport  of  the 
republic,  which  lies  about  midway  between  the  extremities  of  the  long  coast-line. 

Analogous  positions  were  held  in  ancient  times  by  Phrenicia,  and  afterwards 
by  Greece,  which,  thanks  to  the  command  of  the  sea,  were  able  to  enlarge  their 
narrow  bounds  by  numerous  colonies  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  In 
mediaeval  times,  also,  Venice  founded  a  maritime  state  stretching  all  along  the 
east  side  of  the  Adriatic,  and  in  our  own  days  Great  Britain,  which  "  rules  the 
waves,"  encircles  the  whole  globe  with  its  zone  of  colonies,  constituting  a  vast 
maritime  empire  which  is  destined  to  last  as  long  as  the  naval  supremacy  of  the 
mother  country. 

Thus  enjoying  substantial  geographical  and  political  unity,  Chili  tends  even 
to  expand,  and  hitherto  the  fortune  of  war  has  been  favourable  to  her  in  the 
conflicts  with  her  northern  neighbours.  In  1878  Bolivia,  ill-advised  by  Peru, 
wishing  to  replace  the  revenue  derived  from  her  exhausted  guano  beds  by  heavy 
duties  on  the  nitrates,  had  imprudently  offended  the  Chilian  traders  working  the 
Bolivian  deposits.  Taking  as  her  motto,  "  By  right  or  might,"  Chili  took  up  the 
cause  of  her  subjects,  mostly  wealthy  members  of  the  local  aristocracy.  A  few 
months  after  the  declaration  of  war,  the  Chilian  fleet,  having  triumphed  over  the 
Peruvian  ironclads,  landed  an  armed  force  on  Peruvian  territory  between  Iquique 
and  Arica.  Victory  followed  victory,  though  sometimes  dearly  bought,  especially 
before  Tacna,  and  in  storming  the  two  lines  of  fortified  works  defending  Lima. 

In  virtue  of  the  treaty  dictated  by  the  conquerors,  Chili,  already  in  possession 
of  the  department  of  Gobi j a  wrested  from  Bolivia,  annexed  the  Peruvian  depart- 
ment of  Tarapaca,  containing  the  nitrate  deposits  which  had  given  rise  to  the 
quarrel.  She  at  the  same  time  sequestrated  for  ten  years  the  surplus  revenues  of 
Tacna,  Arica,  and  of  all  the  adjacent  territory  as  far  as  the  Andes. 

These  northern  deserts,  which  the  patriots  of  Chili  had  hitherto  regarded  as 
"  providential  barriers  "  against  any  attack  from  the  north,  were  thus  appro- 
priated by  the  Chilians  themselves,  who  even  extended  their  conquests  farther 
north.  The  superficial  area  of  the  republic,  increased  some  130,000  square 
miles  by  these  annexations,  was  thus  nearly  doubled  at  a  single  stroke,  and  is  at 
present  estimated  at  294,000  square  miles,  or  nearly  two  and  a  half  times  that  of 
the  British  Isles.  Even  if  the  department  of  Tacna  be  surrendered  in  1894  for  an 
indemnity  of  £2,000,000,  or  if,  as  the  Bolivians  hope,  it  be  presented  to  them  as 
a  peace-offering  to  cement  a  permanent  alliance,  Chili  will  still  be  the  gainer, 
adding  to  military  renown  the  reputation  of  generosity. 

ISLANDS — BOUNDARIES — EXTENT — POPULATION. 

As  a  naval  power  Chili  has  also  added  some  insular  groups  to  her  territory  on 
the  mainland.  The  islets  of  San  Ambrosio  and  San  Felix,  as  well  as  the  little 
Juan  Fernandez  archipelago  lying  within  600  miles  of  the  continent,  fell  naturally 
to  her  share  in  the  general  dismemberment  of  the  Spanish  colonial  empire.  To 
these  were  afterwards  added  the  larger  Easter  Island  and  Sala-y- Gomez  by  the 


BOUNDARIES  OF  CHILI. 


899 


simple  process  of  occupation.  Before  this  occurrence  Easter  Island  (Waihu)  was 
generally  regarded  as  belonging  to  France,  the  only  planter  who  had  settled  there 
some  years  previously  being  a  Frenchman,  while  his  Tahitian  coolies  were  French 
subjects. 

But  however  well  equipped  Chili  may  be  compared  with  some  other  South 
American  countries,  she  is  nevertheless  exposed  to  great  dangers  at  the  hands  of 
the  conterminous  republic  of  Argentina,  from  which  she  is  separated  only  by  a 
conventional  line  not  yet  definitely  laid  down  on  the  official  maps.  Along  a 
frontier  of  no  less  than  2,000  miles  frequent  occasions  of  dispute  must  necessarily 


Fig.  150.— CONQUESTS  OF  CHILI. 
Scale  1  :  60,000,000. 


55' 


'150' 


West  ol    breenwich 


55' 


Province  temporarily  annexed. 


Chili  in  1880. 


Provinces  permanently  annexed. 
1,220  Miles. 


arise,  and  in  the  absence  of  a  mutual  friendly  feeling  the   settlement  of  con- 
flicting interests  will  need  much  wise  and  conciliating  diplomacy. 

At  least  one  great  difficulty"  has,  however,  been  .already  tided  over  by  the 
peaceful  arrangement  in  respect  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Till  the  year  1881  all 
the  Magellanic  lands  with  the  archipelagoes  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
continent  had  remained  unappropriated,  both  parties,  so  to  say,  claiming  "all  or 
nothing."  But  in  that  year  a  compromise  was  effected  by  a  treaty  concluded  at 
Buenos  Ayres,  though  the  boundary  then  laid  down  follows  the  crest  of  the  divide 
between  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  slopes  only  as  far  as  52°  south  latitude. 


400  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

Here  the  frontier  runs  due  east,  coinciding  with  this  parallel  to  its  point  of  inter- 
section with  70°  longitude  west  of  Greenwich,  beyond  which  it  follows  the  crest 
of  a  chain  of  hills  to  the  Dungeness  headland  on  the  north  side  of  the  Atlantic 
entrance  to  Magellan  Strait. 

In  Tierra  del  Fuego  proper,  the  frontier  runs  from  Cape  Espiritu  Santo  due 
south  to  Beagle  Channel,  thus  coinciding  with  68°  34'  west  of  Greenwich.  All 
the  groups  of  islands  lying  south  of  Beagle  Channel  belong  to  Chili,  in  whose 
territory  are  consequently  comprised  the  Diego  Ramirez  islets  with  Cape  Horn, 
southernmost  headland  of  the  New  World.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Staten  Island 
group,  situated  to  the  south,  but  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  Fuegia,  is  assigned  to 
Argentina.  Magellan  Strait  itself  is  held  to  be  neutral,  and  freely  open  to  the 
ships  of  all  nations.  Here  the  contracting  powers  undertake  to  raise  no  fortifi- 
cations or  military  lines  calculated  in  any  way  to  obstruct  the  navigation  of  the 
great  inter-oceanic  passage. 

As  regards  the  long  Andean  frontier  running  north  and  south  between  the 
two  states,  the  very  text  of  the  treaty  itself  already  gives  rise  to  different  inter- 
pretations in  stipulating  that  "  the  parting-line  shall  be  drawn  over  the  highest 
summits  which  mark  the  divide  between  the  slopes."  But  a  line  bounding  from 
peak  to  peak  in  no  way  coincides  with  one  separating  the  two  opposite  watersheds 
of  a  drainage  area.  Thus,  to  give  only  one  case  in  point,  to  which  of  the  two 
republics  will  belong  Aconcagua,  loftiest  of  American  mountains  ?  If  the 
boundary  is  to  follow  the  highest  crests  it  must  pass  over  the  dome  of  this 
mountain,  which  will  become  the  international  corner-stone.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  limit  is  to  coincide  with  the  divide  between  two  slopes,  the  whole 
mass  of  Aconcagua  will  be  included  in  Argentine  territory.  The  delineation 
has  to  be  made  by  three  delegates,  two  specially  representing  each  state,  and  the 
third  chosen  by  mutual  agreement  to  give  a  casting  vote,  serious  disputed  cases 
being  referred  to  the  final  arbitration  of  some  friendly  power. 

In  respect  of  population,  although  making  rapid  progress,  Chili  occupies  only 
the  fourth  place  amongst  the  South  American  nations,  being  surpassed  not  only 
by  Brazil  and  Argentina,  but  even  by  Colombia.  The  population  is  increasing  in 
all  the  provinces,  but  especially  in  those  of  the  central  region  round  about  the 
capital  and  its  seaport,  Valparaiso,  as  well  as  in  the  agricultural  districts.  The 
southern  section  between  the  island  of  Chiloe  and  Cape  Horn,  is  almost  unin- 
habited, while  the  northern  lands,  wrested  from  Bolivia  and  Peru,  are  relatively 
ten  times  less  peopled  than  the  original  provinces. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DISCOVERY — PIONEER  WORK. 

Geographical  exploration,  already  far  more  advanced  than  in  any  of  the  other 
Andean  lands,  is  still  progressing  systematically.  Although  begun  later  than  in 
the  Atlantic  sections  of  the  South  American  seaboard,  its  starting  point  was  a  dis- 
covery of  primary  importance,  that  of  the  sinuous  strait  intersecting  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  continent.  Nevertheless,  Magellan,  who  had  the  good  fortune  to 


EXPLORATION  OF  CHILI.  401 

first  traverse  this  gateway  of  the  two  oceans  in  1520,  continued  his  voyage  of 
circumnavigation  without  waiting  to  survey  the  Fuegian  Archipelago  or  the 
adjacent  coastlands. 

Even  Loaysa's  squadron,  which  penetrated  into  the  strait  five  years  later,  made 
no  further  discoveries  in  these  waters,  although  weatherbound  for  several  months 
by  head-winds,  fogs  and  snowstorms.  One  only  of  Loaysa's  vessels,  driven  by  a 
tempest  beyond  the  eastern  (Atlantic)  entrance  of  the  strait,  passed  southwards 
to  a  place  which,  to  the  crew,  seemed  the  "  land's  end,"  and  which  was,  doubtless, 
one  of  the  southern  islands  of  the  Fuegian  archipelago.  At  the  outlet  of  the 
strait  another  of  the  vessels,  that  commanded  by  Guevara,  steered  northwards 
and  ultimately  reached  New  Spain  (Mexico),  without,  however,  sighting  any  of  the 
South  American  coastlands.  In  1540  Alonzo  de  Camargo  succeeded  in  coasting 
these  shores  between  Magellan  Strait  and  one  of  the  Arequipa  ports,  and  thus 
began  the  land  expeditions  in  Chilian  territory. 

So  early  as  the  year  1534  a  royal  decree  granted  to  Almagro  the  fief  of  Nuevo 
Toledo,  south  of  Peru,  requiring  him  to  reduce  and  colonise  the  land.  This  region, 
still  unknown  to  the  Spaniards,  was  the  country  to  which  the  Quichuas  gave  the 
name  of  Chili  or  Chile,  a  name  which  ultimately  prevailed,  and  which  has  probably 
the  meaning  of  "  cold."  Compared  with  the  shores  of  Peru,  those  of  Chili  have, 
in  fact,  a  much  lower  temperature,  which  during  one  season  is  distinctly  cold. 

In  154o  Almagro,  following  the  route  of  the  plateaux,  and  then  making  a 
detour  eastwards  to  avenge  the  murder  of  a  Spanish  envoy,  crossed  the  Andes  in 
one  of  the  most  elevated  regions  of  the  crest,  and  thus  penetrated  into  the  vast 
domain  which  he  was  commissioned  to  reduce.  Copayapu,  the  Copiapo  of  the 
Spaniards,  being  a  dependency  of  the  Quichua  empire,  made  no  resistance,  and 
meekly  surrendered  its  treasures  in  compliance  with  the  orders  of  the  Inca's 
brother,  who  accompanied  Almagro. 

After  passing  Coquimbo,  the  conqueror  sent  forward  his  lieutenant,  Gomez 
de  Alvarado,  who  followed  the  coast  "  very  near  the  world's  end,"  as  far  as  a  land 
where  the  people  were  clothed  in  sealskins,  and  where  rain  fell  in  abundance 
The  expedition  came  to  an  end  probably  at  the  river  Maule,  for  farther  on  begin 
the  forest  regions  inhabited  by  Indians  who  had  never  submitted  to  the  Quichua 
yoke,  and  who  would  undoubtedly  have  stoutly  resisted  the  intruding  strangers. 
Nor  had  they  any  gold  to  attract  the  invaders,  who  retraced  their  steps  towards 
Peru,  following  the  maritime  route  across  the  arid  Atacama  and  Tarapaca  solitudes. 
With  these  two  journeys  were  connected  all  subsequent  expeditions  of  conquest 
and  settlement. 

In  1540  Pedro  de  Valdivia  resumed  the  work  of  exploration.  Passing  the 
point  where  Almagro  had  stopped,  he  founded  the  city  of  Santiago,  which  has 
remained  the  capital  of  the  country,  and  then  pushed  on  from  stage  to  stage  as 
far  as  the  Rio  Biobio,  limit  of  the  territory  of  the  Araucanians.  Here  the 
conquerors  came  into  collision  with  men  of  resolute  courage.  They  succeeded  at 
first  in  founding  a  few  military  posts,  and  even  some  colonies ;  but  the  natives 
maintained  a  ceaseless  war  of  surprises  and  open  conflicts  until  the  Spaniards 
27 


402  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

were  compelled  to  withdraw,  when  the  forests  resumed  possession  of  the  foreign 
settlements. 

For  three  centuries  all  exploration  ceased  in  the  interior  of  Araucania ;  but 
south  of  the  territory  of  these  valiant  natives  the  maritime  districts  continued  to 
be  gradually  annexed  to  the  great  colony  of  Chili.  Thus,  after  the  death  of 
Valdivia,  clubbed  by  an  Araucanian,  Garcia  Hurtado  de  Mendoza  penetrated  into 
the  island  of  Chiloe,  accompanied  by  the  poet,  Alonzo  de  Ercilla,  who  inscribed 
his  heroic  lines  on  the  bark  of  trees. 

This  occurred  in  1558,  and  in  the  same  year  the  navigator  Ladrilleros  again 
explored  Magellan  Strait  to  study  the  nature  of  its  currents,  which  were  popularly 
supposed  to  set  like  a  river  always  in  the  same  direction  from  the  eastern  to 
the  western  entrance.  He  found,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  waters  were  in  a 
state  of  perfect  equilibrium  at  both  entrances,  and  proved  it  by  navigating  in 
both  directions  between  the  "  South  Sea  "  and  the  "  North  Sea  "  (Pacific  and 
Atlantic) . 

But  no  colonies,  properly  so-called,  were  established  beyond  Chiloe  Island, 
where  was  founded  the  settlement  of  Castro  in  156d,  and  where  for  over  two 
centuries  the  Spanish  documents  reported  la  fin  de  la  Cristianidad,  "  the  end  of 
Christendom." 

A  maritime  expedition  under  the  pilot  Fernando  Gallego  was  shipwrecked 
on  an  island  in  the  Fuegian  Archipelago  towards  49°  south  latitude.  But  a 
better  fate  awaited  Juan  Fernandez,  who,  during  a  voyage  between  Callao  and 
Valparaiso,  kept  far  out  on  the  high  seas  to  avoid  the  coast-winds  blowing  from 
the  south,  and  so  discovered  the  islands  named  from  him,  which  afterwards 
acquired  great  importance  as  ports  of  call  and  victualling  stations. 


FIRST  EXPLORATIONS  OF  TIERRA  DEL  FUEGO. 

While  the  discoveries  of  the  Spanish  mariners  remained  almost  unknown 
beyond  the  Peninsula,  the  expeditions  of  the  English  rovers  and  privateers 
acquired  a  word-wide  celebrity.  At  this  epoch  the  memory  of  Magellan's  famous 
voyage  of  circumnavigation  was  already  fading  into  a  dim  past,  and  even  some 
Spaniards,  such  as  Ercilla  in  his  Araucania,  asserted  that  the  route  had  been  lost, 
"  either  because  the  entrance  was  no  longer  known,  or  because  an  island  hurled 
by  the  stormy  sea  and  the  fierce  gales  had  blocked  the  passage." 

On  the  part  of  the  Spanish  Government  the  ignorance  was  intentional ;  all 
captains  navigating  the  southern  seas  were  strictly  forbidden  to  engage  any 
foreign  sailor  among  their  crews,  as  the  gate  of  the  great  ocean  covering  half  the 
globe  was  to  remain  closed.  At  this  time  Drake  was  preparing  his  expedition 
to  plunder  the  Spanish  colonies  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  in  the  New  World. 
In  1578  he  rediscovered  and  successfully  steered  through  Magellan  Strait ; 
then  being  driven  southwards  he  discovered  the  west  side  of  the  Fuegian  Archi- 
pelago, the  east  side  of  which  had  already  been  sighted  by  Hoces.  After  the 


EXPLOEATION  OF  FUEGIA. 


403 


most  successful  plundering  expedition  ever  undertaken  by  any  rover,  Drake 
completed  his  voyage  round  the  globe  by  the  Moluccas  and  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
route,  thus  acquiring  both  wealth  and  fame. 

Next  year  followed  the  far  more  fruitful,  if  less  famous,  expedition  of 
Sarmiento  de  Gamboa  to  Magellan  Strait.  Gamboa  was  the  first  to  introduce  a 
spirit  of  scientific  observation  into  his  surveys.  He  carefully  explored  all  the 
lands  separating  the  large  island  of  Madre  de  Dios  from  the  strait,  studying  the 
channels,  the  bays  and  inlets,  determining  the  exact  position  of  the  havens,  sounding 
the  depths,  measuring  the  mountains,  recording  the  directions  of  winds,  tides 
and  currents.  Most  of  the  names  given  by  him  have  remained  in  the  local 
geographical  nomenclature.  Then,  passing  into  the  strait,  he  dreams  of  a  great 


Pig.  151. — MAGELLAN  STBAIT. 
Scale  1 :  6,000,000. 


352J 


West  oP  Greenwich 


68" 


Depths. 


0  to  250 
Fathoms. 


250  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


124  miles. 


city  with  its  towers  and  domes  rising  above  its  waters,  and  feels  himself  pre- 
destined to  realise  the  vision.  So  he  returned  a  few  years  later,  in  1584,  but 
with  only  one  ship,  solitary  survivor  of  a  considerable  fleet  with  which  he  had 
sailed  from  Cadiz.  Penetrating  into  the  strait  he  founded  two  cities  in  succession, 
one,  Nombre  de  Jesus,  near  the  eastern  entrance ;  the  other  near  the  middle,  on  a 
long  peninsula  terminating  in  the  headland  of  Cape  Froward. 

The  latter,  which  was  henceforth  to  hold  the  key  of  the  strait,  arresting  all 
passing  vessels  hostile  to  Spain,  received  the  name  of  San  Felipe,  or  Philippopolis, 
and  here  were  settled  400  colonists,  including  30  women.  Unfortunately, 
Sarmiento,  despite  prodigies  of  energy  and  perseverance,  was  unable  to  keep 
them  in  supplies.  The  corn  sent  from  Spain  failed  to  germinate,  and  the 


404  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  BEGIONS. 

unhappy  settlers,  besieged  by  the  Patagonians  and  abandoned  by  the  whites, 
had  no  resources  except  fishing.  Within  three  years  all  had  perished  of 
famine  or  exhaustion.  Cavendish,  who  had  followed  in  the  wake  of  Drake, 
found  nothing  in  the  ruined  settlement  except  frozen  bodies.  "Port  Famine,'r 
the  name  given  by  him  to  the  ill-fated  colony,  was  adopted  by  the  Spaniards 
themselves. 

After  the  English  came  the  Dutch  corsairs,  Mahn,  Cordes,  Sebastian  de 
Weert,  Olivier  van  Noort,  who  also  ventured  into  the  Fuegian  waters  without 
adding  much  to  the  geographical  knowledge  of  the  archipelago.  Nearly  a 
century  had  elapsed  since  Magellan's  voyage,  and  Tierra  del  Fuego  was  still 
supposed  to  form  part  of  a  great  Antarctic  continent,  although  both  Hoces 
and  Drake  had  seen  the  "land's  end."  But  the  Amsterdam  trader  and  geo- 
graphical student,  Isaac  Lemaire,  being  convinced  of  the  popular  error,  and 
firmly  believing  in  the  existence  of  an  open  sea,  sent  two  ships  in  quest  of  it. 
They  set  sail  in  1615  under  the  command  of  his  son  Jacob  Lemaire  and 
Schouten,  and  on  reaching  the  southern  extremity  of  the  continent,  having 
lost  one  ship  on  the  way,  they  penetrated  with  the  other  into  marine  waters 
where  a  strong  swell  rolled  up  from  the  south-west,  and  where  they  met  large 
schools  of  whales.  From  these  indications  they  concluded  that  here  was  the 
sought-for  passage,  the  "  royal  highway "  between  the  two  oceans.  This  was 
in  fact  the  strait  which  has  ever  since  borne  the  name  of  Lemaire.  Eastwards 
they  left  the  long  Staten  Island,  believing  it  to  form  part  of  an  Austral  conti- 
nent, and  then  far  to  the  south  doubled  Cape  Horn,  supposing  it  to  be  a  headland 
of  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

Thus  was  reached  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  western  entrance  to  Magellan 
Strait,  whence  they  sailed  on  the  return  voyage  to  the  Moluccas.  As  a  natural 
consequence  of  the  then  prevailing  system  of  monopolies,  Lemaire  and  Schouten 
were,  on  their  arrival  in  Java,  arrested  by  their  fellow-countrymen  and  deprived  of 
their  vessel,  as  having  infringed  on  the  privileges  of  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company,  which  claimed  the  exclusive  right 'to  explore  the  South  Seas. 

After  the  Dutch  discoveries  the  Spaniards  could  not  fail  to  revisit  the  southern 
waters,  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  whether  it  might  be  possible  to  close  this 
"  royal  road,"  which  offered  such  easy  access  to  their  Pacific  colonies.  Hence, 
Nodal  was  sent  to  Tierra  del  Fuego,  to  carefully  study  the  coasts  and  survey  the 
new  passage.  He  circumnavigated  the  Staten  Island  group,  but  he  was  fain  to 
recognise  the  impossibility  of  defending  these  waters  by  fortifications,  and  in  1624 
the  Dutch  Admiral,  L'Hermite,  sailed  through  with  a  fleet  in  the  hope  of 
conquering  Chili  and  Peru. 

But  his  geographical  work  was  more  important  than  his  military  exploits.  He 
discovered  the  Gulf  of  Nassau,  and  found  that  Cape  Horn  belonged  to  a  distinct 
group  of  islands  which  still  bear  his  name,  modified  by  the  Spaniards  to  Ermita. 
He  determined  their  insular  character,  and  it  was  henceforth  known  to  all  sea- 
farers who  ventured  into  these  waters  that  here  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  inter- 
mingled over  a  wide  expanse. 


EXPLORATION  OF  THE  CHILIAN  MAINLAND. 


405 


Marcant,  the  only  French  navigator  who  took  part  in  these  explorations, 
penetrated  into  Magellan  Strait  in  1713,  in  order  to  reach  the  west  coast  of 
America,  but  instead  of  following  the  Long  Reach  of  the  channel,  he  diverged 
into  a  lateral  branch,  now  called  Barbara  Passage  from  the  name  of  his  vessel. 

Meanwhile,  the  Jesuit  missionaries  had  traversed  Chili  in  various  directions, 
and  had  prepared  more  accurate  charts  than  those  of  the  first  navigators.  In  1(546 
the  missionary  Ovalle  had  already  had  a  map  of  Chili  printed  in  Rome  far  superior 
to  those  previously  issued.  Sanson  d' Abbeville  had  little  to  add  when  reproducing 
it  ten  years  later. 

Other  missionaries  had  crossed  the  Andes  to  found  stations  amid  the  Patagonians 
of  the  eastern  slopes,  as  appears  from  the  ruins  of  ancient  missions  on  the  shores 


Fig.  152. — STATEN  ISLAND. 
Scale  1  :  1,100,000. 


55' 


65° 


West  op  Greenwich 


64° 


18  miles. 


of  Lake  Nahuel  Huapi,  discovered  by  Basil  Villarino  during  his  explorations  in 
the  Rio  Negro  basin  in  1782.  On  their  expulsion  from  Chili,  the  Jesuits  brought 
away  some  valuable  geographical  materials.  Ignacio  Molina,  amongst  others, 
published  at  Bologna  several  works  on  Chili,  in  which  is  summed  up  all  that  was 
known  of  that  region  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  that  is  to  say,  before 
the  period  of  political  and  social  transformation  which  was  soon  to  follow. 
Feuillee,  a  French  priest  of  the  Order  of  Minims,  had  approximately  determined 
the  longitude  of  the  Chilian  seaboard  early  in  the  same  century.  His  observations 
remained  uncontrolled  till  corrected  by  the  mariners  of  various  nations  during  the 
course  of  the  present  century. 


406  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  BEGIONS. 


LATER  EXPLORATIONS  or  TIERRA  DEL  FUEGO. 

After  the  establishment  of  the  Chilian  Republic,  Great  Britain,  desirous  of 
increasing  her  commercial  relations  with  the  regions  which  had  till  lately  been 
interdicted  to  her  traders  by  Spanish  exclusiveness,  organised  the  memorable 
expedition  conducted  by  King  and  Fitzroy,  and  accompanied  by  the  young 
naturalist  Charles  Darwin,  at  that  time  unknown  to  fame.  This  voyage  of  ten 
years,  1826  to  1836,  was  the  starting-point  of  a  new  era  in  the  geographical 
history  of  all  the  lands  visited  by  the  expedition.  For  the  study  of  Argentina  and 
Chili  it  had  the  same  scientific  importance  as  the  earlier  researches  of  Humboldt 
and  Bon  plan  d  had  for  the  regions  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  continent. 

The  men  of  science  on  board  the  Beagle  and  Adventure  completed  in  all  its 
details  the  survey  of  the  Magellanic  lands.  South  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  proper, 
they  discovered  that  remarkable  fiord  now  known  as  Beagle  Channel,  which 
presents  the  aspect  of  a  broad  stream  fringed  with  glaciers  winding  between  Fuegia 
and  the  southern  archipelagoes.  They  explored  all  the  lateral  sounds  and  inlets  of 
Magellan  Strait,  of  Otway  and  Skyring  "Water.  North  of  the  western  entrance  of 
the  Strait,  they  also  followed  all  its  branches :  Smyth  Channel,  Messier  Channel, 
and  the  other  countless  fiord-like  formations  ramifying  amid  the  labyrinth  of 
islands  already  visited  by  Sarmiento. 


TOPOGRAPHIC  AND  COAST  SURVEYS. 

North  of  Chiloe  and  of  the  Gulf  of  Reloncavi,  they  had  little  to  do  beyond 
rectifying  the  contour-lines  of  already  well-known  coastlands  ;  but  the  observations 
of  Fitzroy  and  Darwin  on  the  geology  of  the  seaboard,  on  the  oscillations  of  the 
land,  on  its  meteorology,  flora,  fauna,  and  all  the  phenomena  of  the  terrestrial 
planet  formed  the  basis  of  the  studies  made  by  their  numerous  successors  in  the 
same  field. 

Amongst  these  were  the  brothers  Philippi,  who  made  important  researches  in 
the  geology  and  natural  history  of  the  Atacama  desert  and  of  the  southern  districts 
of  the  republic.  Claude  Gay  has  studied  the  physical  and  political  history  of  the 
country,  embodying  the  observations  made  by  geographers,  in  a  work  of  encyclo- 
paedic dimensions  The  geologist  Domeyko,  the  geodesian  Moesta,  the  astronomer 
Gilliss,  have  on  their  part  added  much  by  their  special  memoirs  to  our  knowledge 
of  Chili,  which  has  also  been  visited  and  described  by  numerous  travellers. 

In  general,  the  maps  of  Chili  have  been  prepared  with  more  accuracy  and  in 
fuller  detail  than  those  of  any  other  South  American  State.  In  1848  Aime  Pissis 
had  already  begun  his  works  of  triangulation,  which  were  continued  for  sixteen 
years,  and  which  enabled  him  to  draw  a  map  to  the  scale  of  ^-5.^^^,  comprising 
over  ten  degrees  of  latitude  from  Caldera  on  the  former  Bolivian  frontier  to  the 
Rio  Cauten  (Imperial)  south  of  Araucania,  that  is  to  say,  the  most  populous  section 
of  the  country,  in  which  are  situated  all  the  seaports,  the  mines  and  railways. 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  CHILI.  407 

This  first  and  necessarily  defective  essay  at  a  topographical  chart  has  since  been 
greatly  improved  by  surveys  of  the  central  region,  and  is  being  completed  from  year 
to  year  in  the  northern  districts  lately  detached  from  Peru  and  Bolivia,  and 
towards  the  south  in  the  Magellanic  archipelagoes. 

In  1875  the  Chilian  hydrographic  bureau  began  to  issue  the  charts  of  the  sea- 
board, and  the  national  navigators  now  co-operate  with  those  of  Europe  and  the 
United  States  in  extending  and  completing  the  surveys  of  those  coastlands.  In 
1882  the  Romanche  landed  at  Orange  Bay,  not  far  from  Cape  Horn,  a  group  of 
French  naturalists,  for  the  purpose  of  observing  the  transit  of  Venus.  The  occasion 
was  utilised  to  take  more  accurate  surveys  of  the  labyrinth  of  surrounding  straits 
and  fiords,  and  to  study  the  natural  history  and  ethnology  of  this  insular  region. 


II. 

PHYSICAL  FEATURES. 

Throughout  its  entire  length,  from  the  Peruvian  frontier  to  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  continent,  and  even  to  the  terminal  headland  of  Cape  Horn,  Chili 
is  occupied  by  the  great  chain  of  the  Andes,  which  here  develops  one  or  more 
lateral  ridges.  The  system  is  interrupted  only  towards  its  south  end  by  straits 
and  fiords,  or  by  now  dry  marine  inlets. 

North  of  Tacna,  the  Cordillera,  which  rises  above  the  plains  some  sixty  miles 
from  the  sea,  begins  to  bend  round  parallel  with  the  coast.  But  the  igneous 
rocks  of  Peru  also  penetrate  into  Chili,  where  eruptive  cones  dominate  the  broad 
pediment  formed  by  the  escarpment  of  the  plateau.  Candarave  or  Totupaca 
(15,750  feet),  which  sends  its  running  waters  in  one  direction  to  the  Pacific,  in 
another  to  the  Bolivian  Rio  Maure,  still  emits  vapours,  while  its  fumerolles 
deposit  enormous  quantities  of  sulphur  in  its  crater. 


THE  NORTHERN   HIGHLANDS. 

Other  mountains  of  volcanic  origin  are  clothed  with  snows  which  feed  the  head- 
streams  of  the  Rio  Tacna  and  of  the  Maure,  chief  affluent  of  the  Desaguadero. 
Tacora  (19,750  feet),  dominant  cone  of  this  group,  and  the  neighbouring  Chipicani, 
both  snow-clad  peaks,  stand  on  the  north  side  of  the  much-frequented  Guailillas 
or  Huailillas  Pass  (13,750  feet).  The  crest  of  the  water-parting,  1,000  feet  lower 
down,  commands  a  view  of  the  isolated  Bahama  (Sajama)  cone,  whose  smoking 
crest  rises  21,000  feet  in  Bolivian  territory,  while  within  the  Chilian  frontier 
smoky  Pomarape  scarcely  falls  more  than  500  feet  lower.  Farther  south, 
Parinacota  (20,930)  is  separated  by  Lake  Chungarra  from  the  ridge  above  which 
Gualatieri  (Huallatiri)  rises  to  a  height  of  19,700  feet.  Farther  south,  Isluya 
(17,000),  according  to  native  report,  is  frequently  the  scene  of  underground 
rumblings. 


408  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

In  this  region  the  Andes  ramifies  into  two  distinct  ranges  enclosing  shallow 
basins  probably  of  lacustrine  origin,  which  generally  bear  the  name  of  pampas. 
The  Huasco  and  Chacarilla  pampas  stand  at  the  respective  altitudes  of  12,635  and 
12,670  feet.  Above  the  east  side  of  the  encircling  heights  rise  the  snowy  Iquima 
(20,275  feet)  and  Toroni  (21,340). 

The  western  chain  culminating  in  the  Tata  Yachura  and  Yabricoya,  both  about 
17,000  feet,  falls  east  of  Iquique,  developing  an  extremely  regular  plateau  at  a 
mean  elevation  of  13,650  feet,  which  from  its  resemblance  to  a  "  table  "  bears  the 
name  of  mesa.  It  serves  as  an  outer  terrace  to  the  eastern  chain,  that  is,  the 
true  Cordillera,  which  here  takes  the  name  of  Sierra  de  Sililica,  and  where  occur 
the  highest  peaks,  as  well  as  still  active  craters.  Tua,  Chalo  (Chela),  Olca,  Mino, 
ranging  from  16,400  to  17,400  feet,  and  Ollagua  (19,330),  all  emit  vapours  or  dis- 
charge lavas,  and  are  flanked  on  the  west  side  by  the  San  Pedro  volcano  rising 
above  a  lateral  ridge. 

All  these  cones  are  disposed  in  irregular  order  to  the  right  and  left  of  the 
normal  axis  of  the  system,  while  Aucasquilucha  (Aucaquilcha),  the  loftiest  summit 
in  this  section  of  the  Andes  (20,260  feet)  stands  quite  apart,  raising  its  isolated  dome 
above  the  saline  wastes  in  Bolivian  territory.  None  have  been  ascended,  or  even 
seen  near  enough  to  permit  of  accurate  measurements,  except  Ollagua,  whose  crater 
was  reached  in  1880  by  the  engineer,  Hans  Berger,  engaged  in  the  construction 
of  the  Antofagasta-Huanchaca  railway.  The  present  crater,  which  lies  1,150 
feet  below  the  highest  peaks,  is  not  of  the  normal  circular  form,  but  comprises  a 
number  of  fissures  and  cavities,  from  which  escape  white  wreaths  of  aqueous  and 
sulphurous  vapours  accompanied  by  hissing  and  rumbling  sounds.  Clear  yellow 
crystals  are  deposited  round  all  the  apertures.  Round  the  cone  are  seen  traces  of 
glaciers  with  their  semi-circular  moraines,  showing  that  the  climate  was  formerly 
more  humid,  as  in  the  Cordillera  generally. 

South  of  Ollagua  the  main  range,  in  which  are  comprised  all  the  igneous  vents, 
at  first  trends  regularly  north  and  south,  then  bends  round  south-westwards  to  its 
junction  with  the  West  Andean  chain  under  the  latitude  of  Copiupo.  Above  the 
pedestal  of  the  chief  cordillera  rise  the  domes  or  pyramids  of  at  least  thirty  extinct 
volcanoes,  all  exceeding  16,400  feet  in  altitude.  Atacama,  Licancaur,  Toconado, 
Hlascar,  Tumisa,  Socaira,  follow  at  short  distances,  and  are  flanked  on  the  right  by 
the  Antopalla  group  (20,920),  and  on  the  west  by  Socompoz  (19,620),  Guanaquero, 
and  Llullaillaco  (21,670).  These,  also,  despite  their  great  altitude  and  easy  access, 
are  little  known,  and  Licancaur  alone  has  been  ascended  to  within  1,300  feet  of 
the  summit  by  Steinmann,  who  found  traces  of  habitations  up  to  the  point  reached 
by  him. 

The  whole  of  the  Atacama  region  is  occupied  by  parallel  ranges  disposed  mostly 
north  and  south,  but  also  throwing  off  irregular  spurs  and  foothills  of  considerable 
elevation.  Even  in  the  vicinity  of  the  coast  heights  occur  exceeding  6,500  feet, 
and  here  Trigo  rises  to  8,780  feet,  while  the  Cerro  Negro  farther  inland  east  of 
Antofagasta  attains  10,970  feet.  The  Caracoles  or  "  Shell  "  Mountains,  so  called 
from  their  fossil  ammonites,  also  exceed  10,000. 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  CHILI. 


409 


THE  MEJILLONES  RANGE. 

Beyond  the  normal  coast-line  has  been  developed  the  steep  rampart  of  the 
Mejillones  Chain,  whose  bold  southern  headland  rises  4,150  feet  above  the  Jorge 


Fig.   153. — MEJILLONES  CHAIN 
Scale  1  :  900,000. 


70'50' 


West  oP  Greenw'cVi 


Depths. 


0  to  ino 
Fathoms. 


100  to  1,000 
Fathoms. 


1.000  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


18  Miles. 


or  Chimba  Bay.  The  plain  connecting  this  inlet  with  that  of  Mejillones  at  the 
north  end  of  the  range  is  evidently  a  marine  bed  upheaved  at  a  comparatively 
recent  epoch.  The  lowest  strata  resting  on  the  hard  rock  contain  thick  silicious 
layers,  a  species  of  tripolite,  composed  almost  entirely  of  the  remains  of  marine 


410  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

organisms,  such  as  infusoria,  urchins  and  corals.  Above  follow  shell  sandstones, 
gypsum,  and  beds  of  native  salt,  succeeded  on  the  surface  by  sands  covered  with 
shell  mounds,  the  remains  of  mussels  and  other  species  resembling  those  still  living 
in  the  neighbouring  waters. 


THE  CHILIAN  ANDES  PROPER. 

Juncal  (17,530  feet)  and  towards  the  south-west  Dona  Inez  (18,245)  are  the  first^ 
great  summits  of  the  Andean  Cordillera  within  the  former  limits  of  Chili.  A  little 
farther  south  is  the  converging  point  of  the  various  Atacama,  Bolivian  and  Argen- 
tine ranges,  and  here  cease  the  old  lacustrine  depressions,  which  occupy  vast  level 
spaces  between  the  different  sierras.  Owing  to  their  moister  climate  these 
uplands  have  been  far  more  eroded  than  those  farther  north  ;  the  cirques,  combes 
and  valleys  have  been  more  deeply  excavated,  and  consequently  present,  at  least 
on  the  southern  slope  facing  the  Argentine  plains,  terraced  escarpments  assuming 
the  aspect  of  mountain  ranges.  Thus  are  formed  on  the  south  side  such  groups 
of  summits  as  the  Cerro.  Azul,  the  Cerro  Pintado,  the  Negro  Muerto  and  the 
Cerro  Bravo. 

The  narrow  territory  of  Chili  proper,  excluding  the  recent  northern  annexa- 
tions, is  disposed  in  three  parallel  zones  running  from  north  to  south  with  varying 
breadth :  the  Andean  Cordillera,  the  coast  range,  and  between  the  two  a  longi- 
tudinal depression,  interrupted  at  intervals  in  the  northern  regions  by  transverse 
ridges.  In  South  Chili  the  intervening  valley,  although  extremely  sinuous,  and 
in  certain  districts  narrowed  to  a  sort  of  gorge  between  the  opposite  slopes,  still 
remains  an  open  plain  with  a  gradual  incline.  Towards  the  south  it  is  studded 
with  lakes,  beyond  which  it  falls  to  sea-level,  developing  a  vast  marine  basin  half 
lake,  half  gulf.  Farther  on  the  plain  assumes  the  form  of  a  strait,  and  here  a  long 
line  of  channels  stretches  between  the  insular  Magellanic  groups  (a  continuation 
of  the  coast  range)  and  the  Andean  Cordillera,  whose  southern  extremity  plunges 
into  deep  water. 

The  coast  range  is  far  less  elevated  than  the  inner  cordillera,  and  in  some 
places  even  falls  below  the  transverse  ridges  connecting  it  with  the  main  chain, 
although  on  both  sides  a  certain  correspondence  has  been  observed  between  the 
respective  altitudes.  East  of  Quillota,  Valparaiso  and  Santiago,  between  32°  and 
34°  south  latitude,  rise  the  culminating  peaks  of  the  Chilian  Andes,  and  under 
the  same  latitudes  also  occur  the  loftiest  summits  of  the  coast  range. 

Of  the  two  Cordilleras  the  highest  is  not  geographically  the  oldest.  The 
coast  range,  formed  chiefly  of  heights  with  gently-rounded  contour  lines  and 
undulating  crests,  consists  of  granites  and  other  crystalline  rocks  in  the  northern 
and  central  provinces,  and  in  the  south  of  mica  schists,  while  tertiary  strata,  locally 
called  cancaguas,  abut  on  the  seaward  slope  against  the  primitive  crystalline 
nucleus. 

The  islands  forming  a  southern  continuation  of  the  coast  range  belong  to  the 
same  archaean  and  paleozoic  horizons.  On  the  other  hand,  the  more  recent 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  CHILI. 


411 


cordillera  of  the  Andes  consists  chiefly  of  metamorphic  porphyries  dating  from  the 
secondary  period,  and  elsewhere  represented  by  limestones,  marls  and  sand- 
stones. Volcanic  rocks,  such  as  trachytes  and  modern  lavas,  have  also  cropped 
out  in  many  parts  of  the  primitive  formations. 

The  longitudinal  valley  comprised  between  the  two  mountain  ranges  is  covered 
with  lacustrine  strata  deposited  in  tertiary  times,  and  in  their  composition  resem- 
bling the  formations  of  the  Atacama  desert  and  those  traversed  by  the  Desagua- 
dero  of  Lake  Titicaca.  They  consist  of  sandstones  and  clays,  covered  with  a 
layer  of  rocks  and  gravels  rolled  down  from  the  Andes  by  the  torrents  and  ava- 
lanches. Here  fossils  are  rare,  although  some  traces  of  vegetation  are  met,  while 
the  remains  of  the  Andean  mastodon  occur  in  the  alluvia  filling  the  cavities  of  the 
surface  gravels. 

The  central  knot,  where  converge  the  Atacama,  Bolivian  and  Argentine 
branches,  is  dominated  by  the  so-called  "  volcano  "  of  Copiapo,  19,700  feet  high. 


Fig.   154. — PARALLEL  COEDILLEBAS  OF  THE  CHILIAN  ANHES. 
Scale  1  :  16,500,000. 


310  Miles. 


The  name  is  so  far  justified  that  vast  deposits  of  sulphur  are  found  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  mountain.  South  of  Copiapo  the  Argento-Chilian  cordillera  expands  to 
a  broad  plateau,  where  the  range  presents  but  a  slight  relative  altitude,  and  is 
crossed  by  low  passes  ;  which,  however,  are  difficult  to  surmount  owing  to  the  long 
spaces  swept  by  biting  winds  and  fierce  storms.  One  of  the  most  frequented  of 
these  passes,  connecting  the  Argentine  mining  regions  of  Famatina  with  those  of 
Copiapo  in  Chili,  is  the  Portezuelo  de  Come  Caballos,  "  Horse-Eater's  Pass,"  14,530 
feet  high.  Other  tracks  cross  the  Andes  farther  south  at  the  Pulido  and  Pircas 
Negras  passes. 

In  these  regions  the  mass  of  the  cordillera  consists  of  yellowish  earthy  heights 
rolling  away  without  apparent  order,  and  marked  with  a  few  patches  of  snow. 
The  bleak  "  pampas  of  the  cordillera  "  are  very  dangerous  to  cross  in  the  winter 
months  from  May  to  November,  and  especially  at  the  turn  of  the  seasons,  owing 


412  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

to  the  sudden  fierce  squalls  followed  by  intense  cold  in  an  exposed  region  offering 
scarcely  the  shelter  of  a  rocky  ledge  to  the  benighted  wayfarer.  But  in  summer 
these  deserts  are  crossed  by  hundreds  of  the  Catamarca  and  Rioja  muleteers,  the 
best  in  Argentina,  with  droves  of  horses  and  mules  for  sale  in  the  mining  districts 
of  Chili. 

South  of  the  Cerro  del  Cobre  the  cordillera  presents  the  same  general  aspect. 
Here  one  of  the  lateral  ridges  branching  off  from  the  Andes,  at  the  Tres  Graces, 
(15,324  feet)  forms  the  transverse  Dona  Ana  range,  which  terminates  near  the 
coast  in  the  Pajonal  group  (6,720)  between  the  Rios  Huasco  and  Coquimbo  valleys. 
Other  transverse  ridges  follow  southwards  between  the  river  basins,  but  all  fall 
below  the  altitude  of  Pajonal. 

In  this  part  of  its  course  the  main  range  itself  decreases  in  height,  and  here  the 
Azufre  Pass  (11,960)  falls  some  thousand  feet  below  the  other  passes  over  the 
Chilian  Andes.  But  it  is  relatively  little  frequented,  owing  to  its  oblique  direction 
to  the  chain  of  the  two  fluvial  valleys  which  here  take  their  rise.  Nowhere  else 
does  the  crest  of  the  Andes  approach  so  near  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific.  A  little 
south  of  the  Azufre  Pass  the  distance  in  a  straight  line  is  only  66  miles,  and  less 
than  23  to  the  alluvial  plain  through  which  winds  the  Illapel  river. 

Beyond  the  Illapel  basin  the  cordillera,  bending  round  to  south  by  east, 
suddenly  rises  to  altitudes  equal  to  those  of  the  great  masses  farther  north.  The 
Cerro  del  Mercedario  even  overtops  Chimborazo,  Huascan,  Illimani  and  Sahama. 
According  to  Pissis  its  enormous  snowy  dome  towers  22,315  feet  above  the 
Argentino-Chilian  frontier,  but  is  surpassed  by  its  southern  neighbour,  Aconcagua, 
monarch  of  the  Andes,  to  which  Giissfeldt  assigns  a  height  of  22,884  feet.  Some 
of  the  summits  which  flank  Mercedario  on  the  south-east,  and  which  Giissfeldt 
groups  under  the  general  name  of  Ramada,  rise  above  19,700  feet. 

ACONCAGUA — THE  CUMBRE — JUNCAL. 

Although  distant  over  90  miles  from  the  coast,  Aconcagua  is  visible  from  the 
Pacific,  and  is  often  seen  standing  out  against  a  clear  sky,  disencumbered  of  its 
cloudy  mantle.  Being  surrounded  by  numerous  rugged  spurs,  and  everywhere 
farrowed  by  winding  gorges,  Aconcagua  is  of  difficult  access,  although  its  upper 
section  for  a  total  height  of  about  6,500  feet  rises  in  a  superb  cone  above  the 
elevated  pediment  of  the  surrounding  uplands.  A  broad  snowfield,  intersected  by 
crevasses,  is  developed  round  the  western  and  north-western  slopes,  but  presents  no 
great  obstacle  to  the  climber,  nor  would  the  higher  and  almost  snowless  escarp- 
ments be  difficult  to  scale,  but  for  the  rarefied  atmosphere  and  sudden  snowstorms. 
In  1885,  Gussfeldt  first  attempted  the  ascent,  but  could  get  no  farther  than  21,540 
feet,  or  1,340  below  the  summit. 

Aconcagua  is  often  wrongly  described  by  the  Chilians  as  a  volcano ;  it  consists 
of  porphyritic  rocks  without  any  traces  of  crater,  lavas  or  scoriae.  It  is  separated 
from  Ramada  by  a  breach  famous  in  the  history  of  Chili,  the  Boquete  de  Valle 
Itermoso  (11,700),  called  also  De  los  Patos,  from  the  Argentine  river  of  that 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  CHILI. 


413 


name  ("Duck  River"),    towards  which    the  Valle  Hermoso  ("Fair  Vale")  is 
inclined.     Few  travellers  venture  to  cross  from  one  slope  to  the  other  by  this 


difficult  pass;  nevertheless  in  1817,  General  San  Martin  surmounted  it  with  his 
whole  army  to  outflank  the  Spanish  forces,  which  were  expecting  him  farther  south 
at  the  Cumbre  Pass.  Thanks  to  this  movement  the  Republican  troops  were  able  to 


414 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


give  battle  on  a  field  chosen  by  themselves,  and  thus  gained  the  first  great  victory 
over  the  Royalists  which  brought  about  the  independence  of  Chili. 

The  pass  which  is  followed  by  nearly  all  travellers,  and  which  is  to  be  crossed 


Fig.  156. — ACONCAGUA  AND  LA  CUMBEE. 
Scale  1 :  450,000. 


West  oF  Greenwich  70 


12  Miles. 


by  a  railway  before  the  end  of  the  century,  lies  south  of  Aconcagua,  but  bears  no 
special  name,  being  simply  called  the  Cumbre,  or  "  Summit."  It,  however, 
occasionally  takes  the  name  of  the  Argentine  town  of  Uspallata,  and  is  also  some- 


PHYSICAL  FEATUEES  OF  CHILI. 


415 


times  called  the  Cumbre  Iglesia,  to  distinguish  it  from  another  500  feet  higher, 
which  lies  farther  south,  and  which  couriers  often  follow  in  winter  because  free 
from  snow.  According  to  Gussfeldt,  the  lowest  and  most  frequented  pass,  where 
the  railway  tunnel  is  to  be  cut,  stands  at  an  elevation  of  12,340  feet.  A  number 
of  casuchas,  or  shelters,  where  the  navvies  keep  their  tools,  and  where  the 
wayfarers  take  refuge  from  snowstorms,  have  been  constructed  at  intervals 
along  the  route,  which  is  not  difficult,  rising  in  a  series  of  terraces  to  the  highest 
point. 

Above    the   border   range   between    the    Chilian    slope   and    the    Cuyo,    the 
"Argentine  Piedmont,"  rises  Mount  Juncal  (a  name  common  enough  in  Chilian 

Fig.  157. — CASUCHA  DEL  POETILLO,  ON  THE  CTJMBEE. 


geographical  nomenclature),  which,  although  falling  below  19,700  feet,  is  important 
as  the  knot  whence  a  lateral  ridge  ramifies  west  and  north-west  to  the  Chacabuco 
Pass  (4,220  feet).  Here  is  the  northern  limit  of  the  great  longitudinal  plain  of 
Chili,  where  is  situated  Santiago,  capital  of  the  republic. 

South  of  Juncal  follows  snowy  Tupungato,  a  mountain  of  volcanic  origin 
20,286  feet  high.  At  its  southern  base  lies  the  Portillo  de  los  Piuquenes  Pass 
(13,780  feet),  so  named  from  the  species  of  herbage  clothing  the  flanks  of  the 
neighbouring  hills  and  the  shores  of  a  lakelet  on  the  Chilian  slope.  It  also  takes 


416  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

the  name  of  Portezuelo  San  Jose*,  from  the  extinct  San  Jose  volcano  (20,020  feet)r 
rising  to  the  south,  with  an  enormous  breached  crater  facing  west.  In  1843  an 
earthquake  overthrew  one  of  the  neighbouring  heights,  filling  the  valley  with  a 
chaos  of  rocks  for  a  space  of  "  over  three  leagues." 

Maipo  (17,670  feet)  seems,  like  San  Jose,  to  be  extinct,  nor  is  there  any  record 
or  tradition  of  its  disturbances.  The  crater,  two  miles  round  and  filled  with  snow, 
inclines  eastwards  at  a  height  of  6,560  feet  above  Lake  Diamante,  one  of  the  chief 
sources  of  the  Argentine  river  of  like  name.  From  the  summit,  scaled  by 
Giissfeldt  in  1883,  the  gaze  sweeps  over  a  range  of  heights,  grayish  on  the  Chilian, 
black  on  the  Argentine  side,  flecked  with  snow  and  scored  by  short  glaciers. 

OVERO — TlNGTJIRAIRICA. 

Eastwards  a  cordillera  disposed  parallel  with  the  dividing  line  of  crests,  but 
4,900  feet  lower,  stretches  north  and  south  in  Argentine  territory.  At  the 
southern  foot  of  the  cone  the  frontier  is  crossed  by  the  Maipo  Pass  (11,400  feet) 
at  a  scarcely  perceptible  incline,  whereas  farther  south  the  more  elevated  Atravesio 
de  la  Lena  Pass,  as  it  is  called  by  Giissfeldt,  forms  a  narrow  ridge  with  steep 
approaches  on  both  sides.  From  this  gap  a  view  is  commanded  of  the  Overo 
volcano  (15,550  feet),  in  Argentine  territory,  a  mass  of  black  lavas  and  grey  ashes, 
with  a  glacier  descending  obliquely  down  its  flanks. 

In  these  regions  the  snowfields  present  peculiar  forms  known  by  the  name  of 
nieve  penitente,  "penitent  snow,"  so  called  from  the  eccentric  resemblance  to 
cowled  "  friars  penitent  "  affected  by  the  frozen  masses  under  the  action  of  sun 
and  wind.  The  crystalline  parts,  which  resist  evaporation  and  the  melting 
process,  ramify  in  the  strangest  fashion,  in  many  places  leaving  the  black 
ground  exposed  between  the  fantastic  blocks  of  ice  which  sometimes  stand  five  or 
six  feet  high. 

Under  the  same  latitude  as  the  Overo  volcano,  but  far  within  the  Chilian, 
frontier,  Giissfeldt  discovered  a  wonderful  glacier  descending  in  a  lateral  valley 
parallel  with  the  main  range  down  to  the  zone  of  cultivated  land  and  human 
habitations.  In  1882  the  Los  Cipreses  torrent,  to  which  it  gives  rise  between  the 
Agua  de  la  Vida  and  Agua  de  la  Muerte  sources,  had  its  head  at  the  level  of 
6,260  feet,  and  the  natives  show  a  block  5,840  feet  high,  which  thirty  year* 
previously  was  reached  by  the  front  of  the  glacier. 

Beyond  Tinguirairica  (14,700  feet),  which  has  been  quiescent  throughout  the 
historic  period,  the  main  cordillera  is  continued  southwards  by  Las  Damas  and 
by  Peteroa  (11,925  feet),  which  is  said  to  have  ejected  lavas  or  ashes  in  1762,  and 
again  in  1837.  The  Las  Damas  Pass  has  received  its  name  from  the  astronomer 
Souillac,  who  visited  these  districts  in  1805,  and  reported  that  the  mountain 
might  be  quite  easily  crossed  even  by  "  ladies  "  The  Planchon  Pass  stands  at 
an  elevation  of  9,915  feet  on  the  flanks  of  Peteroa,  and  was  frequently  followed 
by  the  marauding  Indians,  who  formerly  carried  off  the  cattle  of  the  Argentine 
farmers  and  sold  them  on  the  Chilian  markets.  Many  engineers  have  proposed 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  CHILI. 


417 


it  as  the  most  convenient  for  a  road  and  a  railway,  its  latitude  being  about  the 
same  as  that  of  Buenos  Ay  res. 

DESCABEZADO — ANTUCO. 

The  numerous  volcanoes  which  are  grouped  round  the  Descabezado,  or  "Decapi- 
tated" (12,760  feet),  although  at  present  quiescent,  show  evidences  of  former 
•eruptions.  They  lie  entirely  within  the  Cbilian  frontier  in  the  Maule  river  basin, 
which  is  fed  by  their  snows,  their  little  glaciers  and  lakelets  dotted  over  the 


Fig.  158. — VOLCANIC  DESCABEZADO  GROUP. 
Scale  1 :  370,000. 


West  of  Greenwich 


70'40' 


upland  valleys.  The  isolated  Las  Yeguas  volcano  (11,350  feet),  which  has  also 
been  extinct  from  time  immemorial,  stands  in  the  same  basin  west  of  the  main 
range.  The  crest  is  covered  with  snow  like  the  Cerro  de  Campanario  (11,050 
feet),  and  the  neighbouring  Nevado  de  Longavi  (10,520). 

Here  the  transition  to  a  colder  climate  is  already  perceptible  in  the  wintry 
aspect  of  the  mountains  with  their  zones  of  snow  and  ice.  Farther  south,  between 
36°  and  37°  south  latitude,  the  Nevado  de  Chilian  rises  to  a  height  of  probably 
10,000  feet,  and  sends  down  its  southern  and  eastern  slopes  a  considerable  glacier, 
which  has  never  melted  even  during  the  most  violent  eruptions.  The  winter 
28 


418  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

snows  alternate  in  many  places  with  layers  of  ashes,  and  trenches  made  in  the 
snowfields  have  revealed  a  regular  succession  of  such  alternating  layers  spread 
over  a  wide  space. 

Chilian  terminates  in  four  peaks — the  Old,  the  Red,  the  White  and  the  Black, 
from  which  the  lava  floods  have  poured  down  a  distance  of  25  miles.  During 
the  four  years  between  1861  and  1865  it  was  in  a  continuous  state  of  eruption, 
ejecting  scorise  in  all  directions.  An  avalanche  of  slush  dammed  up  the  Chilian 
torrent,  and  the  fish  of  the  running  waters  were  killed  by  the  vaporous  acids. 
Thermal  springs  of  diverse  composition,  fumerolles  and  solfataras,  have  made  their 
appearance  on  the  flanks  of  the  mountain. 

The  Antuco  volcano,  nearly  of  the  same  height  as  the  Nevado  de  Chilian 
(9,000  feet),  rises  some  60  miles  farther  south,  also  within  Chilian  territory,  but 
separated  from  the  Argentine  frontier  only  by  a  narrow  longitudinal  valley  flooded 
by  Lake  Laja.  From  the  wooded  shores  of  this  basin  descends  the  river  of  like 
name,  which  is  one  of  the  main  branches  of  the  Biobio.  During  the  historic 
period  Antuco  has  almost  incessantly  given  some  signs  of  life,  were  it  only  a  few 
wreaths  of  vapour  disappearing  in  the  blue  sky  ;  but  tradition  speaks  of  no  catas- 
trophe caused  by  its  eruptions. 

The  volcanoes  following  farther  south,  Trilope,  Callaqui,  Lonquimai,  Llaima 
or  Imperial,  all  falling  below  10,000  feet,  appear  to  be  extinct,  or  at  least  quies- 
cent. This  section  of  the  cordillera  is  crossed  by  easy  passes,  such  as  that  of 
Antuco,  just  south  of  the  volcano  of  like  name,  which,  according  to  Domeyko,  is 
only  6,890  feet  high,  and  which  has  at  all  times  been  frequented  by  the  Indians. 
Its  slopes  are  not  very  steep,  nor  are  they  snowclad  throughout  the  year,  so  that 
this  would  seem  to  be  the  natural  route  to  be  followed  by  a  railway  between  South 
Chili  and  the  flourishing  district  of  Bahia  Blanca  in  Argentina.  Another  route 
has  been  proposed  over  the  depression  in  the  crest  south  of  Llaima,  which  has 
been  called  the  Paso  de  los  Andes,  the  "  Andean  Pass  "  in  a  pre-eminent  sense. 


THE  SOUTHERN  CHILIAN  ANDES. 

East  of  the  southern  provinces  of  Chili  proper  the  main  range  maintains 
about  the  same  average  altitude  of  from  8,000  to  10,000  feet.  Here  the  Yillarica 
volcano,  which  has  been  in  flames  several  times  since  1640,  and  which  still  emits 
some  luminous  vapours  at  night,  rises  to  a  height  of  9,320  feet.  Rinihue  and 
Puyehue  (Puntiagudo)  also  exceed  the  snow-line,  which  in  these  latitudes  falls 
as  low  as  5,000  feet.  Osorno,  a  perfectly  regular  cone  which  was  the  scene  of 
slight  disturbances  in  1839  and  1869,  falls  below  7,550  feet,  while  the  so-called 
Calbuco  "  volcano,"  south  of  Lake  Llanquihue,  appears  never  to  have  had  a 
crater. 

In  this  land  of  transition  between  continental  Chili  and  the  coast  region  of 
Magellanic  fiords,  the  culminating  point  is  Tronador,  the  "  Thunderer  "  (9,790 
feet),  so  named  not  from  its  volcanic  explosions,  but  from  the  avalanches  of  snow  and 
ice  crashing  down  to  the  valleys.  North  of  this  mountain  some  Germans,  settled 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  CHILI.  419 

in  south  Chili,  discovered  in  1856  a  track  leading  over  the  cordillera  directly  to 
the  Nahuel-Huapi,  "  Tiger  Lake,"  a  magnificent  sheet  of  water  whence  flows  .one 
of  the  main  branches  of  the  Rio  Negro.  The  Boquete  de  Perez  Itosalez,  as  this 
pass  is  called,  is  said  to  be  only  2,760  feet  high.  In  the  last  century  the  Jesuit 
missionaries  were  already  acquainted  with  the  passes  near  the  Tronador,  for  they 
had  a  station  on  the  Argentine  slope  in  an  island  of  Nahuel-Huapi. 

South  of  this  depression  follows  another  forming  an  eastern  continuation  of 
the  narrow  Reloncavi  fiord,  the  first  occurring  south  of  continental  Chili.  The 
dull  green  vegetation  clothing  its  rugged  walls  imparts  a  savage  aspect  to  this 
wild  mountain  gorge. 

In  the  vast  bend,  exceeding  twelve  degrees  of  latitude,  which  the  Andean 
cordillera  describes  south  of  the  Tronador,  the  system  nowhere  offers  any 
altitudes  comparable  to  those  of  the  northern  and  central  sections.  The  Yate 
or  Yebcan  volcano  rises  6,970  feet  above  Reloncavi  Bay,  while  the  more  southerly 
Hornopiren,  ascended  in  1872  by  the  botanist  Downtown,  falls  as  low  as  5,280 
feet.  Minchinmavida  or  Chayapiren,  again  rises  to  7,946  feet,  and  this  is  followed 
by  Ghana,  Corcovado  and  Millimoia  (Melimoyu),  all  about  the  same  height. 

In  Magdalena  Island,  Motalat  (Mentalat)  falls  to  5.450  feet,  although  its  base 
fills  the  whole  island,  which  is  enclosed  by  a  circular  trough  like  the  moat  of  a 
castle.  A  subsidence  of  a  few  hundred  years  would  suffice  to  transform  all  the 
coast  mountains  to  so  many  islands,  like  Motalat,  for  they  form  not  so  much  a 
chain  properly  so  called,  as  a  system  of  isolated  cones  disposed  in  a  line. 

These  unexplored  mountains  are  supposed  to  be  volcanoes,  although  neither 
history  nor  tradition  knows  of  any  eruptions.  Darwin  alone  states  that  Min- 
chinmavida emitted  flames  in  1835.  San  Valentin,  the  highest  peak  yet  measured 
in  this  part  of  the  cordillera,  attains  12,720  feet ;  it  stands  at  the  neck  of  the 
Taytao  Peninsula,  and  appears  greatly  to  exceed  most  of  the  surrounding  summits, 
which  on  the  marine  charts  fall  below  8,200  feet. 

But  if  the  Magellanic  crests  do  not  constitute  a  very  elevated  range,  they 
present  an  imposing  aspect  in  their  bold  escarpments,  the  variety  of  the  clear 
waters  in  which  they  are  mirrored,  the  wealth  and  bright  foliage  of  their  wood- 
lands, the  dazzling  white  snows  congealed  to  glaciers  in  their  upland  glens  and 
gorges.  Every  summit  has  its  native  name  imposed  by  the  Patagonian 
Tehuelches ;  but  these  names  having  mostly  been  forgotten,  many  peaks  have 
been  designated  from  such  explorers  and  observers  as  Fitzroy,  Stokes,  Payne, 
Burney  and  Ladrilleros. 

The  continental  backbone  terminates  in  the  bold  headland  of  Cape  Froward, 
at  the  foot  of  which  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  sections  of  Magellan  Strait  inter- 
mingle their  waters. 


THE  CHILIAN  COAST  RANGE. 

The  Chilian  coast  range  does  not  become  clearly  distinct  from  the  Andean 
cordillera  till  about  the  latitude  of  the  Chacabuco  Hills,  between  Santiago  and 


420 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEOIONS. 


Valparaiso.  This  ridge,  consisting  of  hard  rocks  and  here  and  there  very  steep 
walls,  presents  numerous  easy  passes,  all  valleys  or  gorges  through  which  the  old 
lakes  of  the  inland  plain  escaped  seawards.  Colliguai,  one  of  its  crests  south- 
east of  Valparaiso,  attains  a  height  of  7,320  feet.  But  farther  south  none  of  the 


Fig.  159.— CHILOE. 
Scale  1  :  1,800,000. 


Depths. 


OtoSO 
Fathoms. 


60  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


30  Miles. 


summits  reach  this  elevation,  and  even  the  main  chain,  the  granitic  Nahuelbuta, 
"  Great  Tiger,"  which  runs  parallel  with  the  coast  in  the  territory  of  the  Arau- 
canians,  falls  below  5,000  feet.  Farther  south,  the  Cordillera  Pelada  and  other 
coast  ridges,  consisting  of  mica  schists  and  cancagua,  that  is  tertiary  sandstones 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  CHILI.  421 

containing  lignite,  have  only  an  average  height  of  2,000  feet,  the  loftiest  summit 
rising  to  no  more  than  2,824  feet. 

On  the  seaward  slope  these  hills  present  a  dreary  monotonous  aspect  with  their 
bare  flanks  and  round  arid  crests.  Several  bear  distinct  traces  of  terrace  formations, 
which  are  regarded  by  Darwin,  Poppig,  and  other  observers  as  old  marine  beaches 
successively  levelled  by  the  action  of  the  sea.  Indications  occur  of  the  presence 
of  the  oceanic  waters  some  hundreds  of  yards  above  the  present  sea-level,  caused 
either  by  an  upheaval  of  the  land  or  a  subsidence  of  the  Pacific.  Oscillations  of 
level  seem  to  be  also  indicated  by  the  shell  mounds  of  relatively  recent  origin 
covering  certain  terraces  and  consisting  of  species  identical  with  those  still  living 
in  the  neighbouring  waters. 

But  the  successive  stages  noticed  on  the  flank  of  the  mountains  at  the  issue  of 
the  fluvial  valleys  are  not  necessarily  of  marine  origin.  Such  terraces  may  be 
the  result  of  the  work  of  erosion  accomplished  by  the  inland  streams  in  eating 
their  way  through  the  hilly  rampart  separating  them  from  the  sea.  The  recent 
shell  mounds  also  may  perhaps  be  nothing  more  than  kitchen-middens  accumulated 
by  the  coast  populations.  The  indigenous  Araucanians,  Chilotes  and  Chonos  were 
accustomed  to  dig  long  pits  on  the  shore  and  to  fill  them  with  edible  shell-fish, 
which  they  covered  with  hot  stones,  sods  and  earth,  and  remains  of  such  curantos, 
or  primitive  fireplaces,  occur  everywhere. 

But  however  this  be,  the  upheaval  does  not  appear  to  have  been  general.  In 
one  of  the  Chonos  Islands  Philibert  Germain  would  even  appear  to  have  discovered 
evidences  of  the  opposite  movement  of  subsidence,  indicated  by  a  partly-submerged 
wooded  shore. 

Another  question  much  discussed  by  geologists  concerns  the  sudden  abrupt 
changes  of  level  said  to  have  taken  place  on  this  part  of  the  Chilian  seaboard. 
The  most  violent  earthquakes  recorded  in  Chili  were  those  of  the  years  1822, 
1835  and  1837  along  the  shores  of  Conception  Bay,  under  the  same  latitude  as  the 
Chilian  and  Antuco  volcanoes.  According  to  the  unanimous  statement  of  the 
inhabitants  reported  by  Maria  Graham,  the  shock  of  1822  resulted  in  a  general 
upheaval  of  the  whole  of  the  Valparaiso  coast,  or  a  subsidence  of  the  sea  for  a 
space  of  about  60  miles.  In  1835  Fitzroy  and  Darwin  found  evidence  of  such  a 
change  in  Conception  Bay,  where  the  difference  of  level  was  as  much  as  5  feet 
at  the  town  itself,  while  the  neighbouring  island  of  Santa  Maria  would  appear  to 
have  been  tilted  up  8  or  9  feet  at  its  southern,  and  10  at  its  northern  extremity. 
Altogether  the  upward  thrust  would  have  raised  above  the  surface  a  mass  of  land 
equal  in  weight  to  about  363,000,000  pyramids  such  as  that  of  Cheops,  largest  of 
the  great  monuments  at  Gizeh.  But  the  old  level  was  gradually  re-established, 
and  in  four  months  all  trace  of  the  sudden  rise  had  disappeared. 


CHILOE  AMD  NEIGHBOURING  ARCHIPELAGOES. 

Beyond  the  extreme  promontory  at  Reloncavi  Bay,  the  seaboard  is  continued 
southwards  by  the  island  of  Chiloe,  formerly  Chili-hue,  that  is,  "  Part  of  Chili." 


422 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


From  the  sea  may  be  seen  the  broad  gulf  penetrating  inland,  but  not  the  narrow 
Chacao  strait  or  "  channel "  separating  the  island  from  the  southern  peninsula 
of  Llanquihue.  Like  the  neighbouring  mainland,  Chiloe  presents  its  steepest 


Fig.  160. — CHONOS  ABCHIPELAGO. 

Scale  1  :  3,000,000. 


Depths. 


0  to  500 
Fathoms 


500  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


f.2  Miles. 


escarpments  towards  the  west,  these  escarpments  being  the  continuation  of  the 
coast  range  with  steep  hills  2,000  and  even  2,300  feet  high.  But  the  culminating 
point  is  reached  by  a  peak  3,200  feet  high  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  island. 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  CHILI. 


428 


The  ground  slopes  gradually  eastwards,  that  is,  towards  the  southern  prolonga- 
tion of  the  longitudinal  depression  of  Chili,  and  the  gulf  is  studded  with  islands 
and  islets,  like  the  hills  scattered  over  the  plains  round  about  Valparaiso.  As 
many  as  120  of  these  islands  have  been  counted  in  the  Chiloe  Archipelago.  But 
far  more  numerous  are  those  of  the  more  southerly  Chonos  Archipelago,  which 
is  sub-divided  into  secondary  groups  by  a  labyrinth  of  straits  and  channels.  On 
the  marine  charts  are  figured  over  a  thousand  distinct  islands  of  all  sizes.  But  a 
general  survey  of  all  these  separate  masses  shows  that,  together  with  the  Taytao 


Fig.  161. — SAN  EAFAEL  LAKE. 
Scale  1  :  800,000. 


12  Miles. 


Peninsula  projecting  from  the  mainland  farther  south,  they  form  a  vast  penin- 
sular region  broken  into  fragments  and  separated  from  the  Patagonian  seaboard 
by  the  Moraleda  Channel.  Viewed  from  north  to  south  it  presents  the  aspect  of 
a  ruined  embankment  about  220  miles  long  and  some  60  miles  broad  at  its  base. 
But  the  isthmus  connecting  Taytao  with  the  mainland  consists  of  two  narrow 
alluvial  strips  enclosing  the  circular  lacustrine  depression  of  Lake  San  Rafael. 
Taytao  culminates  in  the  Cerro  Encinas,  4,000  feet  high. 

Lake  San  Rafael  presents  one  of  the  most  remarkable  spectacles  on  the  Chilian, 


424  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

seaboard.  A  glacier  descending  from  the  spurs  of  the  neighbouring  Mount  San 
Valentin  penetrates  far  into  the  interior  of  the  lacustrine  basin,  its  sparkling 
surface  offering  a  striking  contrast  to  the  dark  cliffs  of  the  rocky  gorge  through 
which  it  falls  a  height  of  over  300  feet  down  to  the  lake.  Here  it  glides  along 
the  bottom  at  a  depth  of  over  650  feet,  until  broken  into  fragments  by  the  upward 
thrust  caused  by  its  greater  relative  buoyancy  in  the  denser  waters  of  the  reservoir. 
An  incessant  thunder  produced  by  the  crash  of  the  yielding  blocks  is  re-echoed 
from  the  surrounding  cliffs,  while  the  tempanos,  or  icebergs,  some  as  much  as  100 
feet  high,  drift  away  with  the  current  setting  towards  the  Rio  de  los  Tempanos. 
Through  this  emissary  they  float  northwards  down  to  the  Elephant  Gulf,  where 
the  fresh  water  of  the  melting  masses  mingles  with  the  marine  floods. 

The  bed  of  the  lake  is  steadily  silting  up  with  the  deposits  of  shingle  and 
glacial  muds,  which  are  brought  down  from  the  uplands,  and  which  have  already 
created  the  Isthmus  of  Ofqui,  enclosing  the  lake  on  the  south  side.  A  much 
larger  glacier  than  that  of  the  lacustrine  basin  descends  from  the  same  heights  to  the 
southern  part  of  the  isthmus,  which  is  traversed  by  the  sluggish  Rio  San  Tadeo, 
draining  these  moist  alluvial  plains  southwards  to  the  Gulf  of  San  Estevan.  The 
discovery  of  this  curious  glacial  region  is  due  to  the  missionary  Garcia,  who  in 
1766  passed  from  one  gulf  to  the  other  by  the  Ofqui  Isthmus,  which  might  easily 
be  pierced  by  a  navigable  canal. 

WELLINGTON  AND  SOUTHERN  GROUPS. 

South  of  the  Taytao  Peninsula,  which  curves  round  south-westwards  like  a  crab's 
claw,  the  sea  is  clear  of  islands  for  a  distance  of  about  60  miles.  Beyond  the  break 
the  insular  system  again  begins  under  various  names,  nearly  all  taken  by  the  English 
Admiralty  surveyors  from  British  celebrities.  First  comes  the  group  of  Wellington 
Islands,  separated  from  the  Magellanic  mainland  by  the  Messier  Channel,  and 
farther  on  by  a  narrow  passage  winding  like  a  river,  and  in  some  places,  especially 
the  English  Narrows,  contracting  to  a  width  of  300  or  400  feet.  At  Saumarez 
Island  a  superb  prospect  is  presented  by  the  steep  granite  and  schistose  cliffs,  where 
the  ships  glide  along  the  base  of  lofty  mountains  washed  by  tides  swift  &» 
impetuous  rivers. 

A  peak  3,840  feet  high,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Archipelago,  has 
received  the  name  of  "  The  Cathedral,"  from  its  dome,  belfries  and  turrets,  carved 
by  the  hand  of  time,  and  decorated  by  the  falling  moss  with  white  lines,  cornices 
and  parapets.  The  recent  German  expedition  of  the  Albatross  and  that  of  the 
Chilian  hydrographer  Serrano,  have  decomposed  the  Archipelago  into  several 
separate  groups,  which  were  formerly  regarded  as  forming  the  single  large 
island  of  Wellington.  A  navigable  inner  channel  was  also  discovered,  far  less 
dangerous  than  the  Messier  passage. 

All  the  more  recent  explorations  in  the  insular  groups  farther  south — Madre  de 
Dios,  Duke  of  York,  Hanover,  Queen  Adelaide — have  similarly  increased  the 
number  of  known  islands  studding  the  inlets  which  wind  amidst  the  mountains. 


PHYSICAL  FEATUEES  OF  FUEGIA.  425 

Some  of  the  headlands  which  are  now  taken  for  peninsulas  may  also  turn  out  to  be 
islands.  In  all  these  fiords  the  water  is  very  deep,  deeper  even  than  the  open 
seas  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  this  depth  itself  constitutes  a  danger  for  storm- 
tossed  vessels,  which  have  great  difficulty  in  finding  safe  anchorage  under  the 
shelter  of  the  leeward  shores.  Simpson  measured  from  70  to  160  fathoms  in  the 
Moral eda  Channel,  east  of  the  Chonos  group. 


TlERRA    DEL    FuEGO. 

Despite  the  endless  diversity  of  ramifying  contour-lines  presented  by  the  inner 
labyrinth  of  fiords,  Tierra  del  Fuego  itself  is  connected  with  the  other  Magellanic 
lands  by  an  outer  curve  of  singular  beauty.  This  archipelago  begins  at  the 
western  entrance  of  Magellan  Strait  with  the  surf-beaten  headland  of  Cape 
Pillar  (1,755  feet).  The  long  spear-shaped  island  of  which  it  forms  a  part 
has  been  well  named  a  "  Land  of  Desolation,"  recalling  at  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  New  World  that  other  "  Land  of  Desolation  "  which  lies  at  its  northern 
extremity. 

Then  follow  Santa  Inez  and  Clarence,  with  their  suite  of  clustering  islets,  and 
lastly  the  great  triangular  mass,  some  20,000  square  miles  in  extent,  the  Land  of 
Fire,  at  the  extremity  of  the  continent.  The  expression,  Tierra  de  Humos, 
"  Smoke  Laud,"  given  by  Magellan  to  this  great  island,  would  certainly  be  far 
more  appropriate  than  the  "  Fire  Land,"  said  to  have  been  suggested  by 
Charles  V.  remarking  that  "  there  is  no  smoke  without  fire."  *  The  smoke  which 
the  illustrious  navigator  saw  at  a  distance  curling  up  on  the  plains,  and  which  was 
doubtless  intended  to  signal  the  approach  of  strange  beings  in  great  ships,  must 
have  harmonised  well  with  the  stern  and  dreary  scenery  of  those  cheerless  shores 
washed  by  waves  of  the  polar  seas. 

Fuegia  and  its  dependent  islands  offer  within  narrow  limits  a  succession  of 
diverse  zones  following  from  east  to  west  in  the  South  American  waters.  The 
western  and  southern  sections,  which  merge  in  the  archipelagoes  of  the  extreme 
south,  belong  to  the  Cordillera  of  the  Andes.  They  bristle  with  steep  snow-clad 
summits,  which  send  down  glaciers  to  the  surrounding  valleys,  and  which  project 
seawards  in  long  serrated  headlands,  with  ramifying  inlets  and  deep  fiords. 

One  of  the  first  mountains  in  the  Andean  region  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  (King 
Charles  South  Land)  is  the  superb  Sarmiento  (6,630  feet),  clothed  to  about  an  eighth 
of  its  altitude  with  a  zone  of  sombre  woodlands  and  covered  higher  up  with  vast 
snowfields,  filling  the  upland  valleys  with  winding  glaciers.  Although  most  of 
the  rocks  of  this  region  may  be  of  igneous  origin,  Sarmiento  is  certainly  not  a 
volcanic  cone,  nor  is  even  the  rock  of  which  it  is  composed  of  plutonic  origin. 
"  Whether  its  real  form  be  that  of  a  tower,  or  that  of  a  ridge  with  precipitous 
sides  seen  in  profile,  no  volcanic  rocks  elsewhere  in  the  world  can  retain  slopes  so 
nearly  approaching  to  the  vertical.  It  is,  I  believe,  a  portion  of  the  original 
rock  skeleton  that  formed  the  axis  of  the  Andean  chain  during  the  long  ages  that 

*  Popper,  Boletin  del  Institute  Geogrdfico  Argentina,  1887,  viii. 


426 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


preceded  the  great  volcanic  outbursts  that  have  covered  over  the  framework  of 
the  western  side  of  South  America."* 

But  whatever  its  origin,  few  other  mountains  impress  the  mind  so  deeply  with 
a  sense  of  wonder  and  awe  as  this  "  Matterhorn  of  Fuegia,"  sole  sovereign  of 
the  Antarctic  solitudes.  "  As  seen  from  the  north,  the  eastern  and  western  faces 
are  almost  equally  precipitous,  and  the  broad  top  is  jagged  by  sharp  teeth,  of 
which  the  two  outermost  present  summits  of  apparently  equal  height.  At  a 
distance  of  about  25  miles  the  whole  mass  seemed  to  be  coated  with  snow  and 
ice,  save  where  some  sharp  ridges  and  teeth  of  black  rock  stood  out  against  the 
sky"  (ibid.). 

The  name  of  another  illustrious  explorer  is  commemorated  in  the  Darwin 
range,  which  skirts  the  north  side  of  Beagle  Channel,  terminating  in  Mount 


Fig.  162. — SAN  FELIX  AND  SAN  AMBEOSIO  IBLES. 
Scale  1 :  275,000. 


[•'••• 


26 


\Vt st  oP  Greenwich 


79'bO- 


Depths. 


0  to  50 
Fathoms. 


50  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


6  Miles. 


Francais  (7,055  feet)  near  the  Argentine  frontier.  Beyond  the  frontier  the 
chain  decreases  in  height,  Mount  Cornu  falling  to  4,334  feet,  while  the  "  Three 
Brothers,"  at  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  the  continent,  scarcely  exceeds  1,640 
feet.  But  in  Staten  Island  the  Andean  system  again  develops  more  precipitous 
scarps  and  higher  summits. 

North  of  the  outer  crystalline  range  a  hilly  inner  zone,  densely  clad  with 
evergreen  forest  growths,  is  followed  north  and  west  by  an  intermediate  strip  of 
grassy  parklands,  beyond  which  all  the  rest  of  King  Charles  South  Land  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Magellan  Strait  east  and  west  presents  a  vast  plain  of  tertiary 
formation,  a  sort  of  Patagonia  in  miniature,  destitute  of  a  single  shrub.  This 
dreary  steppe  terminates  seawards  in  deeply  ravined  cliffs  and  elevated  escarp- 

*  John  Ball,  op.  cit.,  p.  247. 


PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  FUEGIA. 


427 


merits  incessantly  attacked  by  the  waves,  which  strew  the  shores  of  the  inlets  with 
their  triturated  fragments.  Here  the  contrast  between  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic 
seaboards  is  complete.  While  the  former  is  broken  by  innumerable  inlets,  with 
endless  channels,  headlands  and  insular  groups,  the  latter  continues  the  regular 
concave  curvature  of  the  Patagonian  shore-line  with  scarcely  a  break  all  the  way 
from  Magellan  to  Lemaire  Strait. 

The  clusters  of  islands  separated  from  Fuegia  proper  by  Beagle  Channel — 
Hoste,  Navarin,  the  "Wollaston  archipelago  and  Cape  Horn — belong  entirely  to 
the  Andean  system.  They  represent  the  summits  of  plateaux  and  mountains, 

Fig.  163. — "  PETEBBOBOUGH  CATHEDEAL." 


whose  base  is  deeply  submerged  in  the  waters  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean.  The  black 
headland  of  Cape  Horn  rises  some  500  feet  above  the  surface  of  these  storm-tossed 
southern  seas. 


THE  SAN  AMBROSIO  AND  JUAN  FERNANDEZ  GROUPS. 

The  oceanic  lands  politically  dependent  on  Chili  lie  at  far  too  great 
distances  to  be  regarded  as  geological  dependencies  of  the  South  American 
continent,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  abysses  some  thousand  fathoms  deep. 
San  Ambrosio,  the  northernmost  group,  discovered  by  Juan  Fernandez,  and  by 
him  called  the  Islas  Desventuradas,  "  Strayed  Islands,"  forms  a  rocky  archipelago 


428  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

of  difficult  access.  The  group  culminates  in  a  peak  in  the  islet  of  San  Ambrosio, 
830  feet  high.  The  Morro  Amarilla,  in  the  neighbouring  San  Felix,  falls  to  600 
feet,  while  another  rock,  174  feet  high,  has  received  from  an  English  navigator 
the  name  of  "  Peterborough  Cathedral "  from  the  curious  resemblance  to  that 
edifice  presented  by  its  two  towers  crowned  with  pinnacles,  its  pillars  of  columnar 
basalt  and  the  deep  porch-like  recesses  at  its  base. 

The  group  of  islets  bearing  the  name  of  their  discoverer,  Juan  Fernandez,  have 
been  known,  like  San  Ambrosio,  since  1574,  when  the  Spanish  navigator  sighted 
them  on  his  voyage  from  Peru  to  Chili.  This  little  oceanic  world  consists  of  two- 
islands  and  an  islet.  In  the  east  rises  Mas  a  Tierra,  "Landward,"  prolonged 
towards  the  south  by  the  insular  Santa  Clara ;  some  100  miles  farther  west  is  seen 
Mas  a  Fuera,  "  Seaward,"  which  is  completely  isolated.  Mas  a  Tierra,  the 
larger  of  the  two,  and  sometimes  specially  called  Juan  Fernandez,  consists  in 
reality  of  two  distinct  sections,  one  rather  low  in  the  south,  the  other  much  more 
elevated  in  the  north-east.  Towards  the  centre  rises  the  pyramidal  Yunque, 
"  Anvil,"  whose  peak  (3,225  feet)  stands  out  above  the  forest  zone.  Although 
smaller,  Mas  a  Fuera  rises  more  imposingly  above  the  waters,  its  summit  towering 
to  a  height  of  6,170  feet. 

Surrounded  by  a  boundless  expanse  of  water,  and  swept  by  high  winds,  the 
Juan  Fernandez  group  receives  an  abundant  rainfall.  During  the  wet  season, 
from  about  April  to  September,  the  northern  and  north-eastern  gales  prevail, 
bringing  frequent  downpours  ;  but  even  in  the  summer  season  from  October  to 
March  showers  fall  at  night  and  morning,  the  weather  clearing  up  in  the  after- 
noon. 

Easter  Island  and  Sala-y-Gomez,  which  have  been  occupied  by  Chili,  are 
members  of  the  Polynesian  insular  world. 


III. 
HYDROGRAPHY  OF  CHILI. 

The  western  slopes  of  the  Chilian  Andes  approach  too  near  the  coast  to  allow 
space  for  the  development  of  any  large  river  basins.  Most  of  the  fluvial  valleys 
themselves  are  disposed  at  right  angles  to  the  cordillera,  and  consequently  reach 
the  Pacific  Ocean  by  the  shortest  and  most  rapid  course.  Under  the  rainless  skie& 
of  the  recently  annexed  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  territories,  and  of  the  northern 
districts  of  Chili  proper,  the  rivers  are  mere  wadies,  dry  in  their  lower  reaches,  or 
even  in  the  mountain  gorges  themselves.  Farther  south  the  watercourses  assume 
more  the  aspect  of  torrents  tumbling  over  cascades  and  rapids,  and  flowing  in  a 
more  tranquil  current  only  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  coast. 

THE  Rios  SAM  A,  LOA,  ACONCAGUA. 

In  the  extreme  north  the  so-called  rios,  whose  sands  are  occasionally 
moistened  by  the  melting  snows,  are  known  only  as  political  or  administrative 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  CHILI. 


429 


frontiers.  Such  is  the  Rio  Sama,  which  since  1892  forms  the  boundary  between 
Peru  and  Chili ;  the  Rio  Camarones,  whose  valley  is  still  claimed  by  Peru  ;  the 
Rio  Loa,  formerly  the  common  frontier  between  Peru  and  Bolivia  ;  the  Rio  Paposa, 
which  before  the  treaty  of  1883  formed  the  southern  boundary  of  Bolivia. 

Flowing  beneath  more  humid  skies,  the  Huasco  is  copious  enough  to  reach  the 
sea,  from  which,  however,  it  is  at  times  separated  by  a  strip  of  sands.  The  Rio 
Coquimbo  (river  of  Elqui),  which  is  tapped  by  an  irrigation  canal,  and  the 

Fig-.  164. — Rio  LAJA  AND  BIOBIO  CONFLUENCE: — TIEW  TAKEN  OPPOSITE  SAN  ROSENDO. 


Limari  also  struggle  intermittently  seawards.  But  the  first  two  really  perma- 
nent rivers  of  Chili  are  the  Choapa  and  the  Aconcagua,  which  are  fed  by  the 
snows  of  the  two  loftiest  mountains  in  South  America.  Farther  south  the  Maipo, 
flowing  well  within  the  rainy  zone,  and  receiving  the  contributions  of  the  torrent 
descending  from  Santiago,  assumes  the  character  of  a  fully  developed  stream. 


THE  RAPEL,  MAULE  AND  CAUTEN. 

All  the  rivers  following  southwards  as  far  as  the  Strait  of  Chacao  continu- 
ally increase  their  volume  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  their   basins,  a  fact 


480  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

due  to  the  continual  increase  of  the  annual  snow  and  rainfall  in  the  same 
direction.  Thus,  despite  their  short  course,  the  Rapel  and  the  Mataquito  are 
perennial  streams,  and  the  latter  has  to  be  crossed  by  ferry. 

The  Maule,  which  formerly  marked  the  southern  limit  of  the  Inca  empire, 
discharges  a  volume  ten  times  larger  than  that  of  the  Maipo.  The  Itata  is 
equally  copious,  while  the  Biobio,  whose  basin  includes  a  considerable  part  of 
the  central  plain  comprised  between  the  Andes  and  the  coast  range,  has  a 
discharge  twice  as  large  as  that  of  the  Maule.  One  of  its  tributaries,  the  Laja 
torrent,  rises  in  the  lake  which  nestles  at  the  eastern  foot  of  the  Antuco  volcano, 
whence  it  flows  precipitously  down  to  the  plains.  The  cascades  along  the  upper 
course  of  this  stream  are  the  finest  in  Chili. 

The  Rio  Cauten,  or  Imperial,  draining  a  much  smaller  area,  has  also  a 
smaller  volume,  but  at  its  mouth  develops  a  considerable  tidal  estuary  penetrating 
15  miles  inland.  The  Tolten,  like  all  the  other  rivers  of  South  Chili,  is  fed  by 
the  overflow  of  a  lacustrine  basin,  Lake  Yillarica.  The  Valdivia,  flowing  from 
another  flooded  depression,  broadens  out  in  its  lower  reaches,  where  its  numerous 
navigable  channels  are  accessible  to  steamers. 


THE  BUENO,  MAULLIN  AND  PALENA. 

The  Rio  Bueno,  unfortunately  obstructed  by  a  difficult  bar  at  its  mouth, 
comprises  within  its  basin  three  of  the  largest  lakes  in  Chili — the  vast  island- 
studded  Ranco,  the  Payehue  and  the  Rubanco — the  first  of  oval  form,  the  other 
two  developing  their  crescent- shaped  contours  in  narrow  valleys.  Although 
exceeded  by  other  Chilian  rivers  in  the  extent  of  its  drainage  area,  the  Bueno  is 
the  most  copious  of  all,  its  volume  being  greater  than  that  of  several  considerable 
French  rivers,  such  as  the  Seine,  the  Somme  or  the  Charente. 

In  the  extreme  south  of  Chili  proper  follows  the  Rio  Maullin ;  which, 
however,  is  little  more  than  the  sluggish  and  marshy  emissary  of  Llanquihue, 
largest  of  all  the  Chilian  lakes.  In  all  these  rivers  high  and  low  water  follow 
with  the  regularity  of  the  seasons,  rising  in  the  winter  months  (June,  July 
and  August)  under  the  influence  of  the  rains,  then  subsiding  continuously  till 
midsummer  (December  and  January),  when  they  are  again  swollen  by  the 
melting  snows. 

Farther  south,  in  the  Magellanic  lands,  a  few  rapid  torrents  rush  down  from 
the  upland  valleys  of  the  Cordillera,  or  else  have  their  source  in  the  glaciers.  One, 
however,  the  Rio  Palena,  takes  its  rise  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes,  and 
forces  its  way  seawards  in  deep  gorges  piercing  the  intervening  ridges.  Flowing 
south  of  the  Corcovado  volcano,  the  Palena  debouches  in  the  fiords  over  against 
the  southern  point  of  Chiloe.  Inside  the  bar  it  may  be  navigated  by  boats 
for  a  long  distance  above  its  mouth.  It  traverses  the  fertile  district  long 
associated  in  legendary  lore  with  the  mythical  city  de  los  Ccsares,  or  the 
Ciudad  Encantada,  that  is,  the  Eldorado  of  the  south  continental  regions.  The 
rumblings  which  are  occasionally  heard  in  the  mountain,  and  which  are  prob- 


HYDROGRAPHY  OF  CHILI. 


481 


ably  caused  by  the   rush  of  avalanches,  are   attributed  by  the    Indians  to  dia- 
bolical agency. 

Two  other  still  more  copious  rivers,  the  Aysen  and  Huemules,  descend  from 
the  Cordillera,  but  are  supposed,  like  the  Palena,  to  have  their  farthest  sources  in 


Fig.  165. — LAKES  OF  SOUTH  CHILI  AND  PUERTO  MONTT. 

1:  1,000,000. 


<•  o  •    r.  *'  •  '*'*'wfa 

.       "  lllfl  j^     Puerto  Montt '.  •   Y>  $& 

•  ff  •        °  0         .      I        .— l 


Depths. 


Oto50 
Fathoms. 


50  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


18  Miles. 


the  pampa  beyond  the  mountains,  that  is,  in  Argentine  territory.  The  Huemules 
has  been  ascended  as  far  as  a  lateral  glacier  between  pumice  walls  which  are  rapidly 
decomposed  by  the  grinding  action  of  the  ice.  The  debris  gets  lodged  in  the 
crevasses,  while  a  stream  of  blackish  mud  escapes  from  the  crystalline  mass. 


432  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

THE  CHILIAN  LAKES. 

The  lakes  of  North  Chili,  dried  by  the  process  of  evaporation,  have  all  been 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  mere  saltpans  or  morasses.  Nevertheless,  the  old 
contour-lines  may  still  be  traced,  while  the  lakes  themselves  are  often  conjured 
back  by  the  mirage.  Ascotan,  Atacama  and  the  other  neighbouring  lacustrine 
depressions  have  all  been  filled  in  by  vast  quantities  of  alluvial  matter  washed 
down  from  the  Cordillera.  Shafts  have  been  sunk  in  Salar  del  Carmen,  east  of 
Antofagasta,  to  a  depth  of  290  feet  without  reaching  its  rocky  bed. 

True  lakes  of  pure  water  and  abysmal  depths  are  met  only  in  South  Chili  at 
the  foot  of  the  glaciers,  whose  crystalline  masses  probably  at  one  time  filled  these 
lacustrine  basins.  The  Laguna  Negra,  near  the  sources  of  the  Rio  Maipo,  has  a 
depth  of  no  less  than  890  feet.  Southwards  the  flooded  depressions  increase 
gradually  in  size  and  number  as  far  as  Lake  Llanquihue  and  Reloncavi  Bay,  which 
itself  appears  to  be  also  of  lacustrine  origin.  All  these  sheets  of  water  are 
extremely  deep,  and  in  Llanquihue  the  soundings  have  revealed  depths  of  360  feet 
near  the  shore.  Rubanco,  to  which  the  name  of  its  larger  neighbour  is  often 
given,  is  partly  fed  by  thermal  springs.  The  low  ridges  of  gravel  which  separate 
the  Araucanian  lakes,  and  through  which  the  streams  easily  excavate  a  channel, 
appear  to  be  composed  of  ancient  moraines.* 


IV. 

CLIMATE  OF  CHILI. 

The  long  strip  of  Chilian  territory  presents  every  degree  of  transition  between 
heat  and  cold,  moisture  and  aridity.  As  a  rule  the  isothermal  line  of  temperature 
diminishes  by  about  1°  Fahr.  for  every  parallel  of  latitude  in  the  direction  from 

*  Table  of  the  Chilian  rivers  according  to  the  Anuario  hydrogrdfico  and  other  documents :  — 

Discharge  in 
cubic  feet 
per  second. 

0 

70 
70 
106 
180 
355 
955 
9,215 
3,510 
9,785 
6,360 
15,900 
6,185 
3,510 
13,250 
18,000 
8,800 
7,000  ? 
10,600  ? 
Huemules ?  P  10,600  ? 


Drainage 

area  in 

Length 

Names. 

square  miles. 

miles. 

Copiapo      ...... 

4,300 

155 

Huasco       ...... 

4,200 

134 

Elqui  (Coquimbo)       .... 

3,500 

90 

Limari        

2,600 

96 

Choapa       ...... 

3,800 

96 

Aconcagua          ..... 

3.560 

160 

Maipo         ...... 

5,250 

155 

Rapel          ...... 

6,570 

134 

Mataquito           

2,680 

166 

Maule        

8,000 

140 

Itata          

4,400 

108 

Biobio        

7,430 

220 

Cauten       

5,000 

200 

Tolten        

2,100 

134 

Valdivia    ...... 

6,000 

82 

Bueno        ...... 

7  200 

150 

Maullin      ...... 

1,600 

710 

Palena        

i 

P 

Aysen                                            ., 

p 

? 

CLIMATE  OF  CHILI.  433 

north  to  south.  On  the  other  hand,  it  varies  everywhere  with  the  altitude,  so  that 
every  district  in  Chili  has  its  special  climate. 

Under  equal  latitudes  the  mean  temperature  on  the  west  side  of  the  New 
"World  is  distinctly  lower  than  on  the  east  side,  on  an  average  about  6°  Fahr. 
Hence  a  climate  corresponding  in  Chili  to  that  of  Buenos  Ayres  in  respect  of  its 
mean  annual  heat  must  be  sought  9°  of  latitude  farther  north,  that  is  to  say,  in 
the  Atacama  Desert. 

In  Chili  the  two  extreme  seasons,  summer  and  winter,  are  clearly  marked, 
and,  speaking  generally,  all  the  inhabited  part  may  be  said  to  lie  in  the  temperate 
zone  south  of  the  southern  tropic.  The  central  district  between  Santiago  and 
Valparaiso  is  traversed  by  the  33rd  degree  of  south  latitude,,  and  consequently  lies 
in  the  heart  of  the  temperate  zone,  where  considerable  contrasts  occur  between  the 
different  periods  of  the  year.  Thus  at  Valparaiso  the  mean  summer  temperature 
exceeds  that  of  winter  by  about  11°  Fahr.  In  South  Chili,  as,  for  instance,  at 
Valdivia,  the  contrast  is  still  more  marked,  and  corresponds  to  the  differences 
observed  in  West  Europe. 

With  the  alternations  of  heat  and  cold  coincides  a  shifting  of  the  aerial 
currents,  for  the  persistent  trade  winds,  being  intercepted  by  the  Cordilleras,  are 
not  felt  on  the  low-lying  Chilian  coastlands.  By  the  physical  conformation  of  the 
land,  which  is  disposed  in  the  direction  from  north  to  south,  the  atmospheric 
currents  are  compelled  to  take  the  same  meridional  direction,  either  from  the  pole 
towards  the  equator  or  from  the  equator  towards  the  pole.  In  spring  and 
summer  the  southern  or  polar  winds  are  predominant ;  in  winter  the  northern  or 
equatorial  prevail. 

But  when  these  general  winds  blow  with  less  vigour,  the  aerial  movements  are 
limited  to  the  play  of  the  land  and  sea  breezes,  the  former  prevailing  at  night,  the 
latter  refreshing  the  atmosphere  on  the  inland  plains  during  the  day.  At  times 
the  terrales,  as  the  land  breezes  are  called,  assume  the  character  of  tramontanes. 
Rising  on  the  Argentine  pampas  east  of  the  cordillera,  they  also  take  the  name  of 
puelches,  which  is  the  appellation  given  to  the  Patagonian  tribes  of  the  interior  by 
the  western  Araucanians.  These  puelches  usually  coincide  with  the  normal  trade 
winds,  the  result  being  often  somewhat  analogous  to  that  of  the  Pyrenean  autan, 
or  of  the  vaudaire  and  foehn  of  the  Valais  and  the  Grisons  in  the  Swiss  Alps. 
They  are  alternately  hot  and  cold,  and  towards  the  end  of  summer,  when  they 
sweep  down  from  the  Andes  over  the  southern  plains  of  Chili  after  traversing  the 
arid  Argentine  pampas,  they  bring  a  stifling  atmosphere,  which  raises  the  normal 
temperature  of  the  land  16°  or  18°  Fahr.  At  the  end  of  winter  and  beginning 
of  spring  the  reverse  phenomenon  takes  place ;  at  this  period  they  arrive  after 
traversing  vast  stretches  of  snowy  wastes,  and  consequently  lower  the  temperature 
by  as  many  degrees  as  they  had  raised  it  six  months  previously. 

Both   North  Chili  proper  and,  still  more,  the  lately-annexed  Peruvian  and 

Bolivian  provinces  fall  within  the  rainless  zone.     For  a  distance  of  "  about  600 

miles  (farther  than  from  Liverpool  to  Oporto)  there  is  no  inhabited  place,  with  the 

possible  exception  of  Pisagua,  where  drinkable  water  is  to  be  had.     Nowhere  in 

29 


434  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

the  world  is  there  such  an  extensive  tract  of  coast  so  unfitted  for  the  habitation  of 
man."  *  Rain  may  be  said  never  to  fall  in  the  Atacama  Desert,  where  miners  have 
passed  long  years  without  ever  observing  a  single  refreshing  shower.  So  entirely 
is  the  absolute  dryness  of  the  climate  depended  upon  that  the  old  ravines  formerly 
excavated  by  the  running  waters  are  now  chosen  as  the  most  convenient  tracks  for 
the  construction  of  railways.  Thus  the  line  from  the  port  of  Chanaral  to  the 
Salado  mines  follows  the  bed  of  the  permanent  or  intermittent  coast  stream  which 
now  runs  out  in  the  sands  some  30  miles  from  the  sea. 

In  these  regions  the  process  of  denudation  and  the  weathering  of  the  rocks 
cropping  out  above  the  surface  is  caused,  not  by  the  action  of  rain  and  snow,  but 
mainly  by  the  great  oscillations  of  temperature  between  day  and  night.  After 
exposure  during  the  day  to  the  continuous  action  of  the  solar  rays,  the  rocks  are 
rapidly  cooled  at  night,  when  the  glass  falls  from  70°  to  90°  Fahr.  below  the 
midday  heat.  They  are  thus  subjected  to  alternating  movements  of  expansion  and 
contraction,  which  cause  them  to  scale  and  crack  in  various  ways  according  to 
their  geological  structure.  Certain  formations  are  decomposed  in  thin  films  like 
the  leaves  of  a  book ;  others  break  into  concentric  layers,  scaling  off  like  the  bark 
of  the  plane-tree.  Under  the  action  of  the  air  the  felspar  crystals  are  transformed 
to  kaolin,  and  all  this  debris  accumulates  in  earthy  masses  at  the  foot  of  the  hills. 
The  more  compact  nuclei,  which  offer  a  greater  resistance  to  the  atmospheric 
influences,  assume  the  form  of  towers  or  obelisks  rising  above  the  surrounding 
plains,  which  are  themselves  thickly  strewn  with  vast  quantities  of  shingle, 
innumerable  fragments  of  quartz,  chalcedony,  and  other  crystals. 

THE  CHILIAN  NITRATE-FIELDS. 

Pissis  has  advanced  the  hypothesis  that  the  nitrate-fields,  so  extensive  in  the 
Atacama  Desert,  and  farther  north  in  the  Pampa  de  Tamarugal,  are  also  due  to 
the  same  climatic  conditions.  But  various  theories  have  been  proposed  by  Darwin, 
Forbes,  Noller  and  others.  At  first  it  was  supposed  that  the  deposits  originated  in 
a  chemical  transformation  of  guano  ;  but,  if  so,  other  substances  should  also  be 
present  which  are  absent.  Nor  have  the  nitrates  their  origin  in  the  decomposition 
of  the  seaweed  stranded  on  the  beach,  for  in  none  of  these  beds  have  any  marine 
shells  been  found.  On  the  contrary,  the  nitrate  is  almost  everywhere  interspersed 
with  small  unrolled  stones,  not  such  shingle  as  we  should  expect  to  find  in  basins 
of  pelasgic  origin,  separated  from  the  sea  by  upheaval  and  dried  by  the  process  of 
evaporation. 

Moreover,  the  nitrates,  so  far  from  occupying  the  beds  of  such  lagoons,  are 
usually  disposed  along  the  eastern  slopes  and  in  proximity  to  the  crest  of  the  coast 
range,  far  from  all  limestone  formations  and  from  all  stratified  rocks  such  as  would 
have  been  deposited  in  marine  waters.  But  it  may  be  asked  whether  volcanic 
exhalations  may  not  have  transformed  the  salts  assumed  to  have  been  originally 
precipitated  in  the  old  lacustrine  depressions  of  the  plateau.  Pissis  explains  the 

•John  Ball,  op.  eit.,  p.  123. 


THE  CHILIAN  NITRATE-FIELDS.  485 

genesis  of  the  nitrates  by  the  disintegration  of  the  felspar  rocks  exfoliating  under 
the  action  of  the  air  and  changes  of  temperature,  and  then  transformed  to  a 
substance  containing  kaolin,  iron  oxide,  salts  of  lime  and  soda,  which  in  their  turn 
were  changed  to  sodium  chlorides  and  nitrates.  But  these  slow  chemical  opera- 
tions can  take  place  only  in  waterless  districts,  for  wherever  the  ground  is  washed 
by  rains  or  streams  the  caliche,  as  the  deposit  is  called,  is  always  melted.  Hence, 
large  masses  could  be  formed  only  on  the  margin  of  the  basins  farthest  removed 
from  the  Sierra  where  the  running  waters  had  their  source. 

In  the  Pampa  de  Tamarugal,  that  is,  of  the  "  Tamarisks,"  the  nitrate-fields 
cover  a  continuous  area  of  about  500  square  miles,  with  a  varying  thickness,  which 
in  some  places  exceeds  10  feet.  According  to  the  calculations  of  the  engineer 
Smith,  the  total  quantity  of  nitrates  contained  in  the  surface  strata  of  the  pampa 
amounted  in  1860  to  65,000,000  tons.  Moreover,  the  presence  of  extensive 
underground  beds  is  revealed  by  numerous  fissures  in  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
which  cross  each  other  in  all  directions.  Thus  are  formed  countless  polygonal 
figures  covered  with  small  stones,  which  give  to  the  plain,  viewed  as  a  whole,  the 
fantastical  aspect  of  a  mosaic  pavement.  The  surface  fissures  themselves  correspond 
with  the  underground  fissures  produced  in  the  nitrate-beds  reduced  in  volume  by 
the  crystallising  process,  and  decomposed  in  prisms  analogous  to  basalt  columns. 
But  even  these  spaces  are  as  nothing  to  the  saline  efflorescences  deposited  by 
evaporation  in  the  depressions  of  these  arid  regions — lacustrine  basins  of  which 
nothing  now  remains  except  the  salt. 

Everywhere  numerous  traces  are  seen  of  the  presence  of  water  at  a  former 
epoch  in  these  arid  deserts.  The  running  waters  have  left  their  deep  beds,  whose 
banks  were  fringed  by  a  vegetation  the  remains  of  which  still  survive.  In  the 
mountainous  district  stretching  between  Iquique  and  Huantajaya  explorers  have 
discovered  the  presence  of  a  vast  half -buried  forest,  whose  branches  have  worn 
with  age,  but  whose  huge  stems  still  exist.  As  far  as  can  be  judged  from  their 
appearance,  the  trees  belonged  to  a  species  which  no  longer  flourishes  either  on  the 
coastlands  or  on  the  plateau.  They  were  changed  to  stone,  say  the  Indians,  by 
the  god  Pachacamac,  in  order  to  destroy  the  wicked  generation  that  dwelt  beneath 
their  shade. 

There  are  evidences  of  continuous  desiccation  even  since  the  epoch  of  the 
Conquest.  In  certain  now  desert  districts  of  Atacama  are  seen  the  remains  of 
buildings  which  no  one  would  now  dream  of  erecting  in  places  rendered  absolutely 
uninhabitable  by  the  absence  of  water.  The  very  name  of  "  San  Fernando  de  la 
Selva  "  given  to  Copiapo  attests  plainly  enough  the  presence  of  an  ancient  wood 
(selva]  in  a  climate  which  is  now  far  too  dry  for  a  forest  vegetation.  It  appears 
also  from  numerous  documents  that  the  Rio  Copiapo,  at  present  dry  in  its  lower 
course,  formerly  reached  the  sea.  One  of  the  gorges  on  the  east  even  bears  the 
name  of  Qucbrada  Seca  ("  Dry  Ravine  "),  as  if  to  distinguish  it  from  the  channel 
through  which  the  river  flowed  seawards.  The  town  of  Totoral  ("  Rushgrove  '*) 
perpetuates  by  its  very  name  the  memory  of  an  old  fen  which  still  existed  at  the 
close  of  the  Spanish  rule. 


486  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

As  it  approaches  the  equator,  the  south  wind  setting  along  the  Chilian  coast  is 
gradually  heated,  and  thus  becomes  proportionately  drier,  for  heat  raises  the  point 
of  saturation — that  is,  increases  the  capacity  for  containing  aqueous  vapour.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  northern  winds  become  more  moist  by  losing  their  high 
temperature,  and  the  aqueous  vapour  is  thus  precipitated  in  the  form  of  rain. 
On  the  coasts  of  Chili  proper  the  proportion  of  rain  water  increases  with  the 
latitude.  Thus  the  average  number  of  wet  or  showery  days  rises  from  1  at 
Copiapo,  and  3  or  4  at  Coquimbo,  to  21  at  Santiago  and  as  many  as  150  at 
Valdivia ;  the  Maullin,  meaning  the  "  Rainy  River,"  fully  justifies  its  Indian 
name. 

In  the  Magellanic  arch'pelagoes  it  rains  throughout  the  whole  year,  and  in 
the  Straits  of  Messier  and  Smyth,  King  recorded  in  4  L  days  a  rainfall  of  over 
120  inches.  This  superabundance  of  moisture,  which  in  the  upper  atmospheric 
regions  assumes  the  form  of  snow,  explains  the  great  development  of  the  glacier. 
These  frozen  rivers  reach  right  down  to  the  sea  under  latitudes  corresponding  to 
regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere  where  winter  snows  are  rare.  Thus  the  San 
Rafael  glacier  lies  under  .46°  30'  south  latitude,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  as  near  the 
equator  as  the  mouth  of  the  Gironde  below  Bordeaux,  while  the  lower  limit  of 
perpetual  snow  descends  to  the  level  of  4,000  feet  on  the  flank  of  the  mountain 
where  it  has  its  source.  On  the  other  hand,  Aconcagua,  less  than  950  miles  farther 
north,  has  been  seen  free  of  snow  at  altitudes  of  18,000  or  20,000  feet. 

CLIMATE  OF  CHILOE  AND  FUEGIA. 

Even  in  Chiloe  the  moisture  is  excessive.  In  winter  it  rains  incessantly,  "  six 
days  in  the  week,"  say  the  natives,  "  and  on  the  seventh  the  sky  is  overcast."  In 
summer  the  vapoury  veil  lifts  oftener,  but  even  then  a  succession  of  a  few  bright 
days  is  a  rare  occurrence  ;  the  horizon  remains  cloudy  and  the  forests  and  heights 
of  the  interior  are  shrouded  in  greyish  mists.  The  annual  rainfall,  ranging  from 
80  to  100  inches,  transforms  the  underwoods  to  morasses.  Those  engaged  in 
clearing  the  forests  for  cultivation  find  it  difficult  to  fire  the  trees,  which  rot  as 
they  stand  and  are  blown  down  by  every  gale  ;  few  crops  succeed,  and  on  the  dank 
soil  the  green  corn  grows  mouldy  in  the  ear. 

The  Magellanic  land  resembles  Alaska,  not  only  in  the  form  of  seaboard 
indented  by  a  labyrinth  of  inlets,  but  also  in  its  heavy  downpours  and  its  wood- 
lands springing  from  a  flooded  soil.  But  thunderstorms  are  rare,  although  the 
tempests  rage  at  times  with  fury.  Magellan  Strait  is  occasionally  swept  by 
sudden  squalls  from  the  lateral  gorges,  the  williwam  of  the  English  sailors,  who 
compare  them  to  avalanches. 

According  to  the  natives  there  is  always  a  coincidence  between  the  earth- 
quakes and  the  torrential  rains.  At  the  same  time  the  snows  and  glaciers  on  the 
slopes  of  the  cordillera  give  an  index  to  the  mean  temperature  of  the  land,  which 
may  be  determined  by  the  level  to  which  the  frozen  masses  descend  on  the  flanks 
of  the  mountains,  as  well  as  by  the  greater  or  less  abundance  of  moisture,  and  the 


CLIMATE  OF  FUEGIA.  437 

number  and  magnitude  of  the  crystalline  streams  discharging  into  the  upland 
gorges  or  lower  valleys. 

Tierra  del  Fuego,  forming  a  triangular  mass  projecting  between  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  Oceans,  has  a  special  climate  corresponding  to  these  conditions. 
The  advanced  headlands  present  a  rocky  surf-beaten  barrier  to  the  cold  polar 
current  with  its  huge  icebergs  torn  from  the  antarctic  glaciers  and  lowering  the 
temperature  of  the  sea  to  about  39°  or  40°  Fahr.  The  larger  portion  of  this 
current,  averaging  about  300  miles  in  breadth,  follows  the  direction  of  the  coast- 
line, first  from  south-east  to  north-west,  and  then  from  south  to  north.  With  a 
mean  velocity  of  28  miles  a  day,  reduced  in  some  places  to  less  than  12,  or  even 
apparently  neutralised  by  the  north  wind,  the  Humboldt  current,  as  it  is  called, 
follows  the  coasts  of  Chili  and  Peru,  beyond  which  it  is  merged  westwards  in  the 
great  equatorial  current. 

On  reaching  the  submerged  scarp  of  the  terminal  plateau  of  South  America, 
this  polar  stream  throws  off  to  the  right  (east)  a  smaller  branch,  which,  instead 
of  following  the  Patagonian  and  Argentine  seaboard,  sets  due  east  in  the 
direction  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  deflection  is  due  to  the  tepid  waters  of 
the  Atlantic  equatorial  current  flowing  south-westwards  to  the  extremity  of  the 
continent,  and  impinging  upon  the  east  branch  of  the  Antarctic  stream.  Accord- 
ing to  Popper,  the  equatorial  current  maintains  a  temperature  of  50°  Fahr.,  with 
a  daily  velocity  of  over  200  miles  in  the  Fuegian  waters  Thus  there  is  a  diffe- 
rence of  10°  Fahr.  between  the  two  streams  setting  along  the  shores  of  the  archi- 
pelago in  opposite  directions,  the  Humboldt  from  south  to  north  on  the  west, 
the  equatorial  from  north  to  south  on  the  east  side.  The  result  is  a  very  marked 
contrast  between  the  climates  of  the  opposite  shores  of  Fuegia. 

The  relatively  cool  atmosphere  of  the  Pacific  side,  whose  temperature  is  further 
lowered  by  the  mountain  snows  and  by  the  polar  winds,  descends  rapidly  in  the 
direction  of  the  east  to  replace  the  warmer  and  more  rarefied  air  ascending  into 
the  higher  regions  above  the  eastern  shores  of  the  archipelago.  Thus  arises  the 
fierce  gale  which  sweeps  the  eastern  plains  of  Fuegia,  preventing  the  growth 
of  a  single  tree  on  the  bare  steppe,  whereas  in  the  west  leafy  forest  growths 
flourish  under  the  shelter  of  the  mountains  in  the  glens  unexposed  to  the 
boisterous  winds. 

The  rainfall  also  diminishes  gradually  in  the  direction  of  the  east.  On  the 
south-western  slopes  the  wet  days,  according  to  Popper,  rise  to  at  least  300 
in  the  year,  whereas  there  are  scarcely  as  many  hours  of  rain  at  San  Sebastian 
Bay  on  the  Atlantic  coast.* 

*  Meteorological  conditions  of  some  towns  in  Chili : — 

Summer  Winter  Mean  Mean 

Tempe-  Tempe-  Tempe-  Rainfall. 

Towns.                                            Latitude.            rature.  rature.  rature.  Inchep. 

Iquique       .         .         .         .         20°  23'             75^  F.             59°  F.             66°  F.  0-5 

Copiapo       .         .         .         .         27°  22'             67°                  52°                  60°  1- 

Valparaiso           .         .         .         33°  1'               63°                  51'                  57°  14' 

Santiago      ....         33^27'             65°                  45°                  54°  17' 

Valdivia      ....         39°  49'             61°                  453                  52'  108' 

Ancud         ....         41°  46'             56'                  463                  51°  94- 

Punta  Arenas                                53°  10'            49'                 36°                 43"  23- 


488  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


V. 

FLORA  OF  CHILT. 

The  influence  of  soil  and  climate  is  reflected  in  the  vegetation  of  Chili.  In 
most  lands  the  flora  increases  in  variety  and  splendour  in  the  direction  of  the 
equator;  but  not  so  in  Chili,  where,  although  the  temperature  diminishes  nomin- 
ally from  north  to  south,  the  moisture  increases  in  the  same  direction,  its  influence 
more  than  compensating  the  waning  heat.  The  beauty  and  variety  of  the  forest 
growths  also  increase  as  far  as  39°  or  40°  south  latitude;  here  the  Chilian  wood- 
lands display  all  their  magnificence  with  the  endless  diversity  of  their  lianas  and 
parasitic  plants. 

But  farther  south  the  flora  is  impoverished  under  the  action  of  the  lowering 
temperature.  Nevertheless,  the  arborescent  vegetation,  which  is  absent  from  the 
northern  regions  of  Chili,  ranges  in  the  south  down  to  Cape  Horn.  Nearly  all 
the  trees  of  the  Chilian  flora  are  evergreens,  and  this  flora  also  contrasts  with 
that  of  the  northern  hemisphere  in  the  absence  of  extensive  forests  of  a  single 
species,  such  as  the  pine,  fir  or  birch  groves  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

Vegetation  of  every  kind  disappears  on  the  arid  terraces  and  plateaux  of 
Bolivian  Chili,  and  on  the  saline  Atacama  plains,  where  the  mules  tethered  about 
the  enclosures  gnaw  away  the  green-painted  palings,  mistaking  them  for  their 
mountain  pastures.  Here  the  aspect  of  the  land  "  is  absolutely  that  of  the 
scenery  of  the  moon,  of  a  world  without  water  and  without  an  atmosphere."  * 

South  of  this  dismal  region  the  first  plants  to  make  their  appearance  are  the 
cactuses,  beyond  which  the  monotonous  scenery  begins  to  be  relieved  by  a  few 
thorny  or  resinous  shrubs,  whose  scant  foliage  offers  but  a  slight  surface  of 
evaporation  to  the  air.  Towards  Copiapo,  where  the  arborescent  vegetation  com- 
mences, the  inter- Andean,  plain  still  remains  absolutely  bare,  the  trees  being 
entirely  confined  to  the  slopes  of  the  Andes  and  of  the  coast  range.  Here  the  fogs 
and  dews  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  the  rains  and  melting  snows,  supply 
sufficient  moisture  to  nourish  the  woody  species,  which  are  intermingled  with  the 
cactuses  and  bromeliacege.  . 

Farther  south,  the  zone  of  scanty  arborescent  forms  broadens  out,  and  is  followed 
by  the  region  of  groves  and  thickets.  Here  a  few  trees  are  seen  even  on  the  plain 
itself,  while  south  of  the  Rio  Aconcagua,  which  marks  the  climatic  divide  between 
North  and  South  Chili,  woodlands  flourish  spontaneously  wherever  they  have  not 
been  cleared  for  tillage. 

On  the  plains  the  most  characteristic  tree  is  the  peumo  (cryptocarya  peumus), 
an  evergreen  whose  foliage  is  impenetrable  to  the  sun,  and  which  yields  little  red 
berries  with  a  resinous  taste.  A  species  of  palm,  the  only  member  of  the  family 
in  Chili,  formerly  abounded  in  this  coast  region  for  a  space  of  about  220  miles 
between  32°  and  35°  south  latitude.  But,  although  rich  in  saccharine,  it  has  been 
nearly  exterminated  by  the  planters,  and  will  soon  have  to  be  sought  in  private 

•  John  Ball,  op.  cit.,  p.  130. 


FLORA  OF  CHILI. 


489 


gardens  and  enclosures  reserved  for  exotics.     The  bamboo  is  absent,  but  replaced 
by  allied  or  analogous  forms. 

South  of  Cachapoal  the  beech  and  the  so-called  "cypress,"  distinct  from  the 
European  genus,  begin  to  present  themselves  in  the  forests,  while  on  the  slopes  of 
the  Araucanian  mountains  is  seen  the  pifion  (araucaria  imbricata),  one  of  the  few 
fruit-trees  possessed  by  Chili  before  the  arrival  of  the  Europeans.  The  Antarctic 
zone  begins  with  the  Fitzroya  pafagonica,  wrongly  called  a  "  larch  "  ;  it  occurs  in 
the  forests  of  Yaldivia,  but  is  confined  to  the  mainland,  being  nowhere  seen  in  the 
neighbouring  archipelagoes.  On  the  other  hand,  the  cypress  of  Chiloe  (libocedrus 

Fig.  166. — MAS  A  TIEEBA,  EASTERN  MEMBEB  OF  THB  JUAN  FEBNANDEZ  GEOITP. 

Scale  1:  175,000. 


West  op  Green w.ch  78°48 


,  3  Miles. 


tetragona)  had  ranged  as  far  as  the  Guaiteca  Islands  ;  but  it  had  too  little  value  to 
be  spared  by  the  woodman's  axe,  and  has  now  nearly  disappeared. 

The  pretended  "  oak,"  really  a  beech  (fagus  dombeyi],  and  various  other 
varieties  of  this  tree,  forming  a  considerable  part  of  the  69  species  accredited 
to  the  indigenous  flora,  constitute,  with  the  birch  and  an  aromatic  tree  (drimys 
winteri)  with  foliage  like  that  of  .the  laurel,  the  great  bulk  of  the  forest  vegetation 
in  the  Magellanic  archipelagoes. 

Of  plants  introduced  from  Europe  and  other  regions,  the  most  widely  diffused 
are  the  oak,  which  grows  more  rapidly  than  in  its  native  home  ;  the  poplar,  in 
great  request  for  the  alamedas  or  avenues  about  the  large  towns  ;  the  eucalyptus, 
willow,  chestnut,  and  apple  tree,  which  now  runs  wild ;  lastly,  the  vine,  wheat  and 
other  economic  plants. 


440  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  LEGIONS. 

Some  of  these  have  also  found  their  way  to  the  Juan  Fernandez  group,  where 
before  the  arrival  of  man  the  flora  was  essentially  distinct  from  that  of  South 
America,  presenting  even  a  greater  resemblance  to  that  of  New  Zealand.  Most  of 
the  species  were  found  only  on  the  island  of  Mas  a  Tierra,  and  amongst  them  was  a 
palm  unknown  elsewhere,  which  was  simply  called  chonta,  the  general  name  of  all 
palms  in  the  Quichua  language.  Nearly  all  the  arborescent  species  in  this  island 
have  aromatic  properties.  The  sandalwood,  which  was  supposed  to  have  dis- 
appeared from  the  archipelago,  still  survives  in  some  of  the  more  secluded  districts. 

FAUNA. 

The  Chilian  fauna,  in  some  respects  less  rich  than  its  flora,  comprises  only  a 
small  number  of  mammals.  The  ape  and  even  the  jaguar  are  absent,  and  the 
vicuna  is  rare,  except  in  the  recently  annexed  northern  provinces ;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  southern  regions  are  roamed  by  large  herds  of  the  guanaco.  The 
huemul  (huelmul,  guelmul,  cervus  chilensis],  which  figures  on  the  Chilian  escutcheon 
like  the  unicorn  on  the  British  arms,  is  not  peculiar  to  the  country ;  it  is  met  also 
in  the  Peruvian  Andes,  where  it  has  received  the  name  of  cervus  antinensis.  In 
Chili  proper  it  is  even  very  rare,  though  it  abounds  in  the  Magellanic  lands.  The 
pudu,  another  species  of  deer,  and  the  smallest  of  the  whole  family,  also  inhabits  the 
austral  provinces.  But  the  chinchilla  dreads  the  cold,  and  ranges  no  farther  south 
than  32°  south  latitude  :  it  avoids  the  Andean  uplands,  and  is  seen  only  in  the 
coast  range  and  in  the  intermediate  zone  on  the  foothills  of  the  Andes.  ,X3hili  also 
possesses  the  coypu  (myopotamus  coy  pus),  a  rodent  which  corresponds  to  the  North- 
American  beaver,  and  which,  like  it,  frequents  the  river  banks. 

Far  more  numerous  than  the  mammals  are  the  birds,  which  also  present  some 
highly  original  types.  Several  species  are  seen  nowhere  else,  not  even  in  Argen- 
tina, which  is  separated  from  Chili  only  by  the  Cordillera  of  the  Andes.  The 
condor,  which  in  the  equatorial  Andes  hovers  only  above  the  uplands,  descends  in 
Chili  to  the  lower  parts  of  the  Andean  slopes,  and  ranges  southwards  into  Pata- 
gonia. Three  or  four  species  of  humming-birds  flit  amidst  the  flowering  plants 
of  South  Chili.  Parrots  also  are  seen  in  the  woodlands  as  far  south  as  Magellan 
Strait,  as  had  already  been  noticed  by  Sarmiento  in  1580. 

All  these  birds,  whose  brilliant  plumage  seems  a  reflection  of  the  fierce  tropical 
solar  rays,  have  adapted  themselves  to  the  fogs,  the  rains,  and  the  dull  grey  skies 
of  the  Patagonian  Andes.  But  taken  as  a  whole,  the  avifauna  of  the  watery 
archipelagoes  comprises  but  few  species,  except  as  regards  the  seafowl. 

The  reptile  order,  which  is  somewhat  numerously  represented,  presents  a  great 
difference  of  forms  between  the  dry  and  the  moist  regions.  In  the  Atacama 
Desert  and  in  the  Copiapo  and  Coquimbo  districts  the  lizard  family  prevails, 
whereas  frogs  and  toads  are  chiefly  met  in  the  marshy  and  peaty  lands  farther 
south.  Chili  possesses  no  representatives  of  the  turtle  family,  although  they  are 
found  in  Argentina  on  the  other  side  of  the  Andes.  Nor  are  there  any  venomous 
snakes  or  insects,  except  a  species  of  spider  which  keeps  to  the  wheat-fields ;  its 


FAUNA  OF  CHILI.  441 

bite  is  very  dangerous  in  the  hot  harvest  season.  Reptiles  are  altogether  absent 
in  the  humid  southern  islands. 

In  the  Magellanic  and  Fuegian  archipelagoes  the  insects  present  a  remarkable 
affinity  to  those  of  North  Europe ;  even  the  corresponding  species  occurring  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  New  World  diverge  more  from  those  of  the  extreme 
south  than  do  the  allied  European  types. 

The  running  waters  of  Chili  have  scarcely  any  fish,  and  the  Andean  lakes  none 
at  all,  but  the  neighbouring  seas  abound  in  animal  life.  Prodigious  banks  of 
mussels  (mytilus  chorus]  encircle  the  Chonos  islands.  A  seaweed  (macrocystis 
pyriferd)  growing  to  a  length  of  300  or  400  feet,  in  depths  of  150  feet  off  the 
Magellanic  coasts  round  the  headlands  and  reefs,  forms  a  distinct  marine  world 
inhabited  by  myriads  of  shellfish,  animalcules  and  organisms  of  all  sizes,  which 
cling  to  its  leathery  bands,  and  by  multitudes  of  fishes  frequenting  its  mane-like 
branches.  Floating  masses  of  these  algae  are  strong  enough  to  deaden  the  shock 
of  a  vessel  going  at  full  speed. 

The  Juan  Fernandez  group,  which  is  distinguished  by  its  indigenous  flora, 
also  possesses  a  fauna  of  an  original  character.  Here  are  captured  a  species  of 
cod  different  from  that  of  Newfoundland,  and  a  crayfish  of  huge  size  (palinurm 
frontalis),  which  are  brought  to  the  Valparaiso  market.  Sea  otters,  seals  and  "sea 
lions"  abound  in  the  surrounding  waters.  The  larger  island  is  inhabited  by  two 
species  of  humming-birds,  one  unknown  elsewhere,  the  other  found  also  in  Chili ; 
Mas  a  Fuera  possesses  a  third  species  occurring  nowhere  else,  either  in  the  archi- 
pelago or  on  the  mainland.  These  three  humming-birds  belong  to  the  genus 
eustcphanus,  so  surprisingly  rich  in  differentiated  forms. 


VI. 

INHABITANTS  OF  CHILI. 

When  the  Spaniards  were  led  into  the  country  by  Almagro  and  Valdivia  the 
Quichuas  were  masters  of  all  the  northern  section  as  far  as  the  river  Maule.  But 
they  do  not  appear  to  have  formed  any  colonies,  but  merely  held  military  posses- 
sion of  the  land,  while  striving  to  impose  their  laws  and  institutions  on  the  inhabi- 
tants. In  this  they  may  perhaps  have  succeeded  in  some  districts,  for  according 
to  the  local  traditions  their  rule  had  already  lasted  a  century,  while  their  political 
system  was  everywhere  distinguished  by  the  success  with  which  it  was  imposed 
on  the  conquered  peoples. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Quichuas  came  from  such  a  remote  region,  which  was, 
moreover,  separated  from  Chili  by  lofty  ranges  and  inhospitable  wastes,  that  they 
could  at  no  time  have  been  very  numerous  in  these  southern  lands.  Nothing 
remains  to  recall  their  sojourn  in  the  country  except  a  few  sculptures,  amongst 
others  the  so-called  Piedra  Pintada  in  Atacama.  This  "  Painted  Rock  "  shows  that 
the  civilised  invaders  had  reached  Chili  not  only  by  the  valleys  of  the  Argentine 
Andes,  but  also  by  the  direct  routes  across  the  desert  plains  of  the  seaboard. 


442  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

But  if  few  traces  survive  of  the  old  Quichua  masters  of  North  Chili,  abundant 
evidence  has  been  found  of  the  presence  of  their  Aymara  rivals.  The  Atacamas 
and  the  Lipez,  who  have  left  their  names  to  parts  of  the  plateau  and  of  the  arid 
coastlands,  belonged  to  this  ethnical  stock.  The  Chungos,  who  live  in  the  vicinity 
of  Gobi j a,  and  whose  fishing-nets  are  supported  by  floats  made  of  inflated  seal- 
skins, are  also  pure  Aymaras.  But  in  the  oases  of  the  desert,  and  farther  south 
in  all  the  coast  districts  where  agriculture,  mining  and  other  industries  have 
attracted  a  white  population,  the  Indian  type  has  been  assimilated  to  that  of  the 
modern  Chilians  of  Spanish  speech. 

The  Calchaquis,  from  beyond  the  mountains,  appear  to  have  been  formerly 
strongly  represented  amongst  the  coast  peoples.  The  Huasco  Valley,  where  the 
Indian  race  has  been  best  preserved,  and  where  are  situated  the  towns  of 
Vallenar  and  Freirina,  still  possesses  a  type  quite  distinct  from  that  of  the  popu- 
lations of  European  origin.  It  is  marked  by  a  dull  brown  complexion  and 
features  sharply  chiselled  in  strong  relief.  In  general  these  aborigines  surpass 
the  other  Chilian  populations  in  beauty,  muscular  vigour,  dignified  presence  and 
graceful  carriage. 

THE  ARAUCANIANS. 

At  the  arrival  of  Almagro  the  Chilian  territory  proper  wjs  occupied  by  a 
powerful  people  which  had  taken  the  name  of  Molu-che,  "Warriors."  From 
the  Spaniards  they  received  the  designation  of  Araucans  (Araucanians),  a  term 
which  seems  derived  from  the  Quichua  word  Aucaes,  "  Rebels,"  uttered  with  a 
strong  guttural  sound.  They  had  offered  a  stout  resistance  to  the  Quichuas,  and 
they  defended  themselves  no  less  valiantly  against  the  Spaniards.  Yet  they  did 
not  constitute  a  nation  in  the  proper  sense,  but  were  divided  and  subdivided  into 
a  large  number  of  tribes,  septs  and  clans,  each  independent  and  recognising  no 
master.  Every  family  group  had  its  isolated  habitation  under  the  shade  of  some 
wide-branching  tree,  enlivened  by  the  ripple  of  some  babbling  brook.  No 
cacique  had  any  authority  in  time  of  peace ;  no  man  owned  any  serf  or  slave 
subject  to  his  pleasure  ;  even  the  father  did  not  presume  to  rebuke  or  chastise  his 
son.  There  were  no  laws  or  any  penal  code,  and  the  vendetta  remained  a  private 
affair  to  be  settled  between  the  parties  concerned. 

Yet  despite  this  absolute  lack  of  legal  or  political  cohesion,  the  Araucanians 
were  merged  in  a  single  people  the  moment  their  independence  was  threatened. 
The  family  and  tribal  groups  coalesced,  and  all  rose  as  one  man,  electing  their 
toqui,  or  war  chiefs,  and  deposing  them  if  lacking  in  vigour  during  a  protracted 
struggle.  Their  forefathers,  as  they  believed,  watched  them  from  the  firmament, 
where  they  shone  as  stars  moving  along  tlie  Milky  Way. 

With  the  year  1550  began  the  long  conflict  with  the  Spaniards,  who  sought 
to  gain  a  footing  in  Araucanian  territory,  and  who  belonged  to  that  group  of 
veterans  who  had  achieved  so  many  triumphs  over  less  resolute  foes.  After  the 
first  defeats,  due  to  their  ignorance  of  the  resources  of  the  invaders,  the  Arau- 


INHABITANTS  OF  CHILI. 


443 


canians  assumed  the  offensive,  storming  and  razing  the  Spanish  towns  and 
strongholds,  carrying  off  arms,  cattle  and  horses,  and  even  organising  troops 
of  cavalry  to  sweep  down  on  the  scattered  bands  of  the  enemy. 

Reinforcements  had  frequently  to  be  sent  from  Spain  to  protect  the  northern 
settlers  from  the  Araucanian  incursions,  and  to  recover  the  towns  founded  in  their 
territory.  The  Araucanian  wars  cost  Spain  more  men  than  had  fallen  in  the 
conquest  of  Mexico  and  Peru.  Yet  all  the  Araucanian  warriors  together 
formed  an  army  less  numerous  than  that  by  which  Atahuallpa  was  surrounded 
when  he  was  dragged  from  his  throne  by  Pizarro  in  the  public  square  at 

Fig.  167. — GEOUP  OP  ABATTCANIANS. 


Cajamarca.  Hence  the  Spaniards  themselves,  who  were  good  judges  of  valour, 
frankly  acknowledged  the  prowess  of  their  adversaries,  and  Alonzo  de  Ercilla's 
Araucana,  the  finest  poem  inspired  by  the  discovery  and  conquest  of  the  New 
World,  written  by  a  poet  who  had  himself  taken  part  in  the  war,  was  dedicated 
to  the  glory  of  the  Indian  warriors. 

Three  generations  were  consumed  in  the  struggle,  yet  after  over  a  century 
of  incessant  strife,  the  victory  remained  with  the  natives.  By  the  treaty  of 
1641,  confirmed  in  1655,  the  representatives  of  Spain  solemnly  recognised  the 
independence  of  the  valiant  Araucanians,  these  engaging  on  their  part  to  allow 
no  enemy  of  Spain  to  land  in  their  territory.  They  kept  their  word  through 


444  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

sheer  distrust  of  all  strangers,  and  persistently  refused  to  aid  the  English  or 
Dutch  corsairs  in  their  excursions  against  the  Spanish  main. 

Originally  the  territory  left  them  by  the  treaties  was  very  extensive,  occupying 
a  space  of  about  30,000  square  miles  between  the  sea  and  the  Andes,  and  stretch- 
ing from  Arauco  Bay  south  to  the  Rio  Calle-Calle  (Valdivia).  No  other  region  was 
more  suited  by  its  soil  and  climate  for  European  settlement  ;  none  more  diversified 
by  lovely  scenery.  Hence,  although  the  wars  have  never  been  renewed,  a  peace- 
ful forward  movement  has  taken  place,  with  the  result  that  the  Araucanians, 
nominally  free,  have  practically  lost  their  political  autonomy. 

They  have  made  several  partial  attempts  to  recover  their  independence,  and  a 
French  adventurer,  originally  a  lawyer  in  a  provincial  town,  even  essayed  some 
years  ago  to  carve  himself  a  kingdom  and  found  a  dynasty  in  Araucanian 
territory.  But  the  supremacy  of  Chili  had  already  been  too  firmly  established 
for  any  such  attempt  to  succeed.  Her  war-ships  now  command  the  seaboard, 
where  ports  have  been  opened  and  where  troops  may  be  landed  at  any  moment. 
Towns  have  sprung  up  in  the  interior,  and  while  these  are  connected  by  broad 
tracks  through  the  forests,  the  railway  steadily  advances  farther  into  the  plain 
between  the  Andes  and  the  coast  range,  thus  dividing  Araucania  into  two  dis- 
tinct sections.  Nor  have  the  natives  themselves  preserved  their  racial  purity. 
During  the  old  frontier  wars  they  frequently  carried  off  Spanish  women,  whose 
offspring  approached  the  white  type.  At  present  the  reverse  process  is  going  on  ; 
the  Chilians  intermarry  with  the  Araucanians,  and  thus  the  race  becomes  more 
and  more  modified  from  year  to  year. 

The  old  tribal  divisions  corresponded  in  no  way  with  any  family  or  racial 
differences,  and  were,  in  fact,  of  a  purely  territorial  character.  Thus  the  Picun- 
che  were  the  "  North  Men,"  whose  southern  boundary  was  formed  by  the  Rio 
Maule ;  the  Pehuen-che,  most  numerous  of  all,  and  ancestors  of  the  present 
Araucanians,  inhabited  the  district  of  Pehueti,  that  is,  of  the  Araucanian  plant ; 
the  Huilli-che,  or  "  South  Men,"  occupied  all  the  rest  of  the  Chilian  mainland  ; 
while  the  Puel-che,  or  "  East  Men,"  beyond  the  Andes,  dwelt  in  territory  now 
included  in  Argentina. 

The  Chiloe  group  had  also  its  Araucanians,  the  Cunchos  and  the  Payos, 
whose  Hispanified  descendants  have  received  the  general  name  of  Chilotes.  The 
peoples  dwelling  on  the  banks  of  the  lakes  and  rivers  call  themselves  Lubu-che 
(Levu-che),  that  is,  "  Water  Men."  The  Chonos  Archipelago  recalls  an  Arau- 
canian people  of  that  name,  of  whom  only  a  single  family  was  still  surviving  in 
one  of  the  Guaitecas  islands  in  1871.  Some  mummies  found  on  one  of  the  insular 
headlands  show  that  the  Chonos  buried  their  dead  in  the  same  way  as  did  the 
Quichuas. 

Collectively  the  Araucanians  may  have  originally  numbered  about  100,000  ; 
but  they  were  greatly  reduced  during  the  wars,  and  still  more  by  the  process  of 
assimilation  with  the  half-caste  nation  of  Spanish  speech.  At  present  they  are 
estimated  at  not  more  than  40,000.  Although  living  in  comfort — owners  of  land 
and  livestock — they  continue  to  decrease,  their  power  of  resisting  epidemics  being 


INHABITANTS  OF  CHILI.  445 

greatly  inferior  to  that  of  Europeans.  They  yield  especially  to  small-pox,  and  to 
dysentery,  and  their  constitution  is  sapped  by  the  alcoholic  liquors  fabricated  by 
the  neighbouring  settlers. 

In  general  of  stout  build,  but  without  any  great  muscular  development,  they 
are  much  shorter  than  the  kindred  Patagonians.  The  young  men,  who  being 
accustomed  to  the  saddle  make  excellent  grooms,  have  round  soft  features  without 
prominent  bones,  hence  of  a  somewhat  feminine  cast.  But  the  cheekbones  grow 
with  years,  the  large  nose  acquires  strength,  and  the  expression  assumes  that 
dignity  and  gravity  which  is  so  often  combined  with  a  gentle  disposition.  The 
complexion,  mostly  a  pale  yellow,  is  lighter  than  that  of  the  Quichuas. 

Their  sonorous  language,  spoken  with  a  measured  utterance,  is  admirably 
suited  for  oratorical  display,  so  highly  valued  by  this  warlike  people.  Some  words 
of  Quichua  origin  show  that,  although  never  reduced  by  the  northern  invaders, 
they  had  received  some  of  their  civilisation  from  them,  notably  the  art  of  reckon- 
ing and  a  knowledge  of  various  industrial  processes.  The  acquisitive  faculty  is 
strongly  developed,  and  they  are  already  scarcely  inferior  to  their  Chilian  teachers 
as  husbandmen  and  stock-breeders.  The  chuera  or  linao,  one  of  the  national  games, 
closely  resembles  the  English  game  of  cricket. 

Those  Araucanians  who  still  keep  aloof  in  their  upland  valleys  worship,  or 
rather  dread,  the  evil  spirit  Quecubu,  whose  wrath  or  malevolence  they  seek  to 
conjure  by  the  intercession  of  the  wizards.  They  do  not  believe  in  final  extinction 
after  death,  and  accordingly  deposit  with  the  departed  those  objects  which  they 
most  valued  in  life.  Till  recently  even  horses  were  sacrificed  on  their  graves ;  but 
all  these  practices  are  gradually  yielding  to  the  laws  of  inheritance.  Like  the 
Quichuas  in  pre-Columbian  times,  they  bury  the  dead  seated,  the  knees  bent  back 
to  the  breast.  Like  all  the  surrounding  aborigines,  they  treat  their  women 
well,  although  the  universal  practice  of  polygamy  enables  the  wealthy  to  purchase 
several  wives,  so  that  none  remain  for  the  poor.  This  is  one  of  the  causes  of  the 
rapid  decrease  of  the  Araucanian  race. 

THE  FUEGIANS. 

The  Onas  (Aona,  Yacana),  the  Gente  Grande  ("  Big  People")  of  the  Spaniards, 
who  are  scattered  in  small  groups  over  the  large  eastern  island  of  Tierra  del 
Fuego  (King  Charles  South  Land),  are  undoubtedly  Patagonians,  like  those  of 
the  Argentine  mainland.  But  they  must  have  migrated  at  a  somewhat  remote 
period  into  their  new  homes,  certainly  before  the  arrival  of  the  Europeans,  for  they 
have  no  knowledge  of  the  horse,-  whence  their  English  name,  "  Foot  Indians." 
Recently  they  were  estimated  at  1,000  or  perhaps  2,000,  all  born  hunters,  who 
even  chased  the  animals  of  the  white  settlers,  being  unable  to  understand 
how  five  or  six  shepherds  could  have  need  of  as  many  thousand  sheep  all  for 
themselves.  Hence  they  are  now  hunted  down  in  their  turn  by  riders  armed 
with  rifles,  who  receive  a  "  capitation  grant "  of  £1  sterling  for  every  Indian 
head. 


416 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


Fig.  168.— INDIGENOUS  POPU- 
LATIONS OF  CHILI. 

Scale  1  :  37,000,000. 


If  this  system  of  reprisals  is  continued  all  must  soon  perish  except  the 
children  and  the  young  women  employed  about  the  farmsteads,  who  will  be 
rapidly  absorbed  in  the  already  half-caste  Argentine  settlers.  The  Onas  resemble 
the  Patagonian  Tehuel-ches  in  height,  appearance  and  pursuits,  and  like  them, 

they  live  on  the  flesh  of  the  guanaco,  which  they 
capture  with  bow  and  arrows.  The  languages  are 
sufficiently  near  for  the  tribes  to  be  mutually  intel- 
ligible, but  the  Ona  pronunciation  is  so  harsh  that 
Bridges  compares  it  to  the  noise  produced  by  a 
man  gargling  under  difficulties. 

The  only  natives  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  entitled 
to  be  called  "  Fuegians  "  in  the  sense  of  aborigines 
are  the  nomads  who  have  their  camping-grounds 
in  the  western  and  southern  parts  of  the  archipel- 
ago. There  are  two  distinct  groups,  the  western 
Alakalufs  and  the  South|jn  Yahgans,  the  Teke- 
nikas  of  the  early  writers,  both  probably  descended 
from  a  primeval  American  race,  who  formerly 
peopled  the  whole  of  theW,ontinent  south  of  the 
Amazons.  Their  small  stature,  averaging  about 
4  feet  6  inches,  presents  a  striking  contrast  to  that 
of  the  Ona  descendants  of  the  gigantic  Patagonians. 
They  differ  also  in  the  form  of  the  head,  which 
is  disproportionately  large,  and  the  face,  which 
appears  to  be  angular,  and  often  of  the  lozenge 
type.  The  low  narrow  forehead  surmounts  small 
black  eyes,  usually  well  formed,  but  at  times  with 
oblique  lids.  The  short,  crushed  nose,  depressed  at 
the  root,  terminates  in  very  wide  nostrils,  and  the 
mouth,  usually  very  large,  is  a  highly  characteristic 
feature,  with  thick,  pouting  lips.  The  sonorous 
Yahgan  language  has  44  distinct  sounds  and, 
according  to  Bridges,  a  vocabulary  of  at  least 
30,000  words* 

The  Yahgans,  who  constitute  the  most  numerous 
section  of  the  Fuegian  race,  have  been  wrongly 
described  as  cannibals  by  Fitzroy  and  Darwin. 
They  eat  neither  the  aged  nor  their  enemies,  as 

has  been  often  asserted,  and  their  chief  food  consists  of  shellfish,  especially 
mussels,  as  shown  by  the  huge  shell-mounds  in  the  vicinity  of  their  ( camping- 
grounds.  They  wear  no  clothes  beyond  the  skins  of  animals,  thrown  loosely 

*  This  statement  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Bridges  has  been  received  with  the  utmost  surprise  by  philo- 
logists, and  must  clearly  rest  on  some  strange  misconception.  Probably  the  endless  changes  in  the 
Yahgan  verb,  due  to  the  incorporating  process  of  all  polysynthetic  languages,  have  been  mistaken  for 
separate  words. — ED. 


55 


INHABITANTS  OF  CHILI.  447 

over  the  shoulders  and  shifted  according  to  the  direction  of  the  wind.  The 
explorers  by  whom  they  have  been  visited  have  collected  no  legends  or  any 
folklore  regarding  their  origin  and  migrations,  nor  is  there  anything  to  show 
that  they  worship  a  Supreme  Being.  Nevertheless,  they  believe  in  a  future  life, 
and  the  unknown  causes  a  sort  of  religious  awe,  for  they  speak  of  ghosts,  who  at 
times  attack  and  devour  the  living. 

The  dead  are  either  burned,  or  buried  under  the  shell-mounds.  There  are  no 
proper  or  family  names,  and  in  conversation  they  designate  each  other  by  the 
place  they  occupy,  or  by  some  other  detail.  They  sing,  or  at  least  hum,  incessantly 
repeating  the  same  word  or  syllable ;  but  they  never  dance.  The  social  circle 
is,  in  fact,  too  fragmentary  for  any  collective  demonstrations,  in  which  mutual 
sympathy  and  the  assthetic  sense  play  such  a  large  part. 

Since  the  arrival  of  the  English  missionaries  in  the  archipelago  the  mortality 
has  been  frightful,  the  natives  having  been  more  than  decimated  by  typhoid, 
small-pox  and  consumption.  Those  patients,  however,  who  escape  from  the 
stations  and  resume  the  savage  life  exposed  to  cold,  wind  and  storms,  have  some 
chance  of  recovery. 

The  Alakalufs,  who,  according  to  Bridges,  number  only  about  150  persons, 
formerly  occupied  a  far  more  extensive  territory  than  at  present  along  the  shores 
of  Magellan  Strait.  They  are  the  Pesherais  of  Bougainville,  King  and  Fitzroy, 
being  so  called  from  a  word  which  they  have  perpetually  on  their  lips.  Essen- 
tially a  fishing  folk,  they  build  large  skiffs,  in  which  they  venture  on  the  high 
seas  as  far  as  the  remotest  islands  of  the  archipelago  in  quest  of  seals  and  aquatic 
birds.  They  live  chiefly  on  mussels  and  fish,  although  they  also  pursue  the  guanaco 
with  bow  and  arrows. 

Their  language  differs  altogether  from  that  of  the  Yahgans  (Yamana, 
"  Men  "),  southernmost  of  the  American  aborigines.  But  both  groups  lead  the 
same  existence,  have  the  same  appearance,  and  must  be  regarded  as  belonging  to 
the  same  ethnical  stock.  They  have  often  been  described  as  scarcely  belonging  to 
humanity  at  all,  as  a  sort  of  "  primates  "  scarcely  higher  in  the  ascending  scale 
than  the  ape,  incapable  even  of  development,  or  of  being  trained  as  the  animal 
is  trained.  The  contrary,  however,  has  been  proved  by  the  efforts  made  by  Mr. 
Bridges  and  other  devoted  missionaries  to  educate  them.  The  Fuegians  are 
assuredly  human  beings,  and  their  destruction  would  be  as  much  a  crime  as  was 
that  of  the  Tasmanians  and  of  so  many  other  primitive  peoples  exterminated  by 
the  whites. 


THE  CHILIANS. 

All  these  southern  groups — Onas,  Yahgans,  Alakalufs — constitute  but  an 
infinitesimal  section  of  the  Chilian  nation,  in  the  formation  of  which  the  Arau- 
canians,  the  Molu-ches  and  other  northern  aborigines  have  had  a  large  share. 
The  white  invaders  all  took  native  wives,  and  Inez  Suarez,  who  arrived  in  1541, 
was  the  first  Spanish  woman  who  settled  in  the  colony.  More  Indian  than 


448  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

European  by  descent,  but  Spanish  by  their  speech,  the  Chilians  have  a  very 
marked  personality  amongst  the  South  American  populations.  They  are  cooler 
and  more  collected  than  their  fiery  neighbours  of  the  central  and  northern  Andean 
regions,  less  impulsive  but  also  more  steadfast  and  tenacious  of  purpose.  They 
often  speak  of  themselves  as  the  English  of  the  southern  continent,  by  contrast 
with  the  Peruvians,  or  rather  the  people  of  Lima,  whom  they  assimilate  to  the 
French.  They  are  described  as  reserved,  harsh  and  even  cruel,  and  in  the  last 
war  with  Peru,  they  certainly  showed  little  pity  for  the  vanquished. 

"While  largely  of  Araucanian  lineage,  the  Chilians  are  not  even  pure  Castilians 
in  speech,  the  Spanish  language  having  undergone  more  changes  in  Chili  than  in 
any  of  the  other  Iberian  colonies  in  the  New  World.  The  European  Spaniard 
landin^  at  Valparaiso  cannot  at  first  understand  the  current  speech,  not  only 
because  of  some  Araucanian  terms  introduced  into  the  local  dialect,  but  also  owing 
to  the  habit  the  Chilians  have  of  dropping  the  last  syllables  of  the  words. 


VII. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

Tacna,  till  lately  included  in  Peru,  became  the  northernmost  town  of  Chili  in 
1892.  Lying  no  less  than  1,260  miles  to  the  north  of  Santiago,  it  differs  greatly 
in  the  character  of  its  inhabitants,  who  comprise  a  considerable  negro  element, 
from  the  urban  groups  of  Chili  proper.  Standing  at  an  altitude  of  about  1,870 
feet,  the  town  stretches  along  the  banks  of  a  stream  whose  bed  is  nearly  always 
dry,  being  exhausted  by  the  irrigation  canals  ramifying  amid  the  surrounding 
gardens  and  orchards. 

Before  the  construction  of  the  railway  between  Mollendo  and  Puno,  Tacna  was 
the  emporium  for  nearly  all  the  produce  and  metals  forwarded  from  La  Paz  and 
Oruro  towards  the  Pacific.  The  Tacora  pass,  the  approach  to  which  was  com- 
manded by  Tacna,  served  as  the  main  outlet  for  the  trade  of  Bolivia. 

A  RICA PlSAGUA. 

Arica,  which  lies  on  the  coast  near  the  point  where  the  waterless  bed  of  the 
Rio  Lluta  reaches  the  sea,  occupies  a  position  of  great  interest  in  the  physical 
structure  of  the  continent.  In  this  district,  at  the  intersection  of  the  main  axes 
of  the  Peruvian  and  Chilian  Andes,  frequent  vibrations  of  the  ground  are  caused 
by  the  subterranean  disturbances.  Occasionally  the  shocks  are  extremely  violent, 
and  Arica,  which  was  destroyed  in  1605,  suffered  much  in  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  earthquakes  of  1868  and  1877  were  still  more  disastrous, 
because  it  had  become  a  flourishing  trading  place.  But  so  strongly  built  are  the 
low  houses  that  they  run  little  risk  of  being  overthrown,  and  the  chief  danger 
comes  from  the  sea,  which  first  retires,  leaving  the  shipping  stranded  on  the  beach, 


TOPOGEAPHY  OF  CHILI. 


449 


and  then  returns  in  a  prodigious  wave,  rolling  in  with  irresistible  force,  and 
sweeping  away  all  obstacles.  In  1868  it  tore  a  frigate  from  its  moorings,  and 
hurled  it  to  a  distance  of  over  a  mile  inland.  Then  in  1877  another  wave  bore  it 
back  to  within  half  a  mile  of  the  sea,  without  drowning  the  numerous  families  that 
had  taken  up  their  abode  in  the  hull. 

These  disasters  have  not  prevented  Arica  from  rising  from  its  ruins.     It  occu- 


Fig.  169.— AEICA. 
Scale  1  :  82,000. 


70  °a\- 


70°  2.0'    West  oF  Greenwich 


Depths. 


Oto5 
Fathoms. 


5  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


Mile. 


pies  too  favourable  a  position  at  .the  natural  issue  of  the  Tacora  pass  to  be  neglected 
by  vessels  plying  in  these  waters.  Before  the  completion  of  the  Arequipa 
and  Antofagasta  railways  it  was  the  chief  intermedia,  or  port  of  call,  between 
Valparaiso  and  Callao,  and  it  still  carries  on  a  brisk  export  trade  in  Bolivian  wools 
and  metals. 

The  surrounding  plain  is  a  mere  waste  of  sands  and  stones ;  but  the  village  of 
Lluta  in  the  north-east  collects  sufficient  water  in  its  river  bed  to  grow  a  little 
30 


450  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

maize  and  lucerne.  Formerly  the  district  must  have  been  far  more  thickly  peopled, 
as  is  evident  from  the  remains  of  buildings  and  of  numerous  tombs  full  of  mum- 
mies, whose  large  yellow  eyes  are  formed  by  the  shells  of  a  species  of  mollusc 
fished  in  the  neighbouring  waters. 

Pisagua,  Junin,  Mejillones  del  Norte,  Caleta  Buena,  Iquique  and  Patillos,  all 
trading  and  industrial  centres,  almost  without  families,  and  peopled  mainly  by  rude 
adventurers  and  dealers,  follow  along  the  coast  in  the  direction  from  north  to 
south.  All  owe  their  origin  or  their  prosperity  to  the  development  of  the  industries 
connected  with  the  export  trade  in  the  nitrates  and  other  chemical  substances 
mined  in  the  Pampa  de  Tamarugal  east  of  the  coast  range. 


IQUIQUE — TARAPACA. 

Of  all  these  places  Iquique,  the  largest,  has  the  best  anchorage,  thanks  to  the 
shelter  afforded  by  three  rocks  formerly  covered  with  guano.  Nevertheless  large 
vessels  are  unable  to  approach  the  quays,  so  that  all  freights  have  to  be  landed  or 
shipped  by  means  of  barges  plying  to  and  fro.  In  the  middle  of  the  century 
Iquique  was  a  mere  group  of  mud  and  roofless  huts,  there  being  no  need  of  shelter 
against  the  rain  which  so  seldom  falls  on  this  seaboard.  The  various  structures 
now  introduced  from  North  America  and  England  have  all  terraced  roofs,  while 
the  wooden  or  corrugated-iron  walls  are  so  put  together  as  to  leave  free  play  to  the 
eea  breezes. 

Iquique  lies,  like  Arica,  in  the  earthquake  zone,  and  has  been  frequently  de- 
stroyed ;  it  is  also  far  removed  from  any  potable  water  or  cultivable  land,  and 
had  formerly  to  import  all  its  supplies  from  Arica.  Now  it  receives  sufficient 
water  by  an  aqueduct  running  from  Pica  in  an  upland  valley  of  the  Andes. 
Thanks  to  a  costly  system  of  irrigation,  a  few  Norfolk  pines  and  other  trees  have 
also  struck  root  in  the  public  squares  and  along  the  promenade  skirting  the  beach 
southwards  in  the  direction  of  CamncJia. 

At  Iquique  English  influence  is  dominant;  here  the  English  own  all  the  work- 
shops, factories,  trade,  shipping,  warehouses  and  harbour  works.  They  have  also 
constructed  the  network  of  railways,  some  250  miles  long,  connecting  Iquique  with 
La  Noria  and  the  surrounding  nitrate  works.  Beyond  this  point  the  lines  ramify 
northwards,  touching  at  all  the  nitrate  beds  stretching  along  the  eastern  slopes  of 
the  coast  range  in  the  Pampa  de  Tamarugal,  and  then  returning  in  sharp  curves 
to  the  coast  at  the  port  of  Pisagua. 

The  mining  industry  has  been  completely  transformed  in  this  province  of 
Tarapaca,  which  takes  its  name  from  an  obscure  village  lying  east  of  the  saline 
Tamarugal  plateau,  at  the  issue  of  a  valley  in  the  cordillera.  Formerly  silver  was 
the  chief  source  of  attraction,  and  the  centre  of  business  was  the  village  of  If/ianta- 
j(iy<t,  about  10  miles  east  of  Iquique,  some  3,000  feet  above  the  sea,  in  the  midst 
of  mountains  abounding  in  metalliferous  veins.  Since  the  year  1556,  when  the 
deposits  were  discovered,  the  Huantajaya  mines  have  yielded  a  quantity  of  silver 
estimated  at  about  £70,000,000,  or  very  nearly  as  much  as  Cerro  de  Paeco.  At 


I 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CHILI. 


451 


present  they  are  almost  abandoned,  and  Iquique,  which  owed  its  existence  to  these 
mines,  has  now  turned  its  attention  to  the  treatment  and  transport  of  the  chemical 
substances  which,  although  known  to  abound  in  the  province,  had  hitherto  been 
neglected.  The  guano  of  the  neighbouring  islets  was  lirst  attacked  and  exhausted 
by  the  year  1827.  "When  Frezier  visited  the  place  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  the  planters  of  Peru  were  receiving  a  yearly  supply  of  from 
ten  to  twelve  small  cargoes. 

A  chain  of   workshops  supplied  with  the  best  modern  plant  skirts  the  railway 
west  of  the  Pampa  de  Tamarugal,  and  communicates  by  branches  with  the  oficinas 

Fig.  170. — JatriQTTE. 

Scale  1  :  96,000. 


70° iO'  West  oF  Greenwich 


Depths. 


Oto6 
Fathoms. 


5  to  50 
Fathoms. 


50  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


.  2  Miles. 


where  the  caliche  is  reduced.  The  operations  are  carried  on  without  interruption 
day  and  night,  the  electric  light  alternating  with  the  sun,  and  the  quantity  of 
nitrates  extracted  from  the  soil  is  steadily  increasing.  In  1889  it  had  already 
reached  the  enormous  quantity  of  921,400  tons,  valued  at  £6,000,000. 

According  to  the  engineers  engaged  on  the  works,  the  still  untouched  deposits 
would  hold  out  against  this  prodigious  rate  of  production  for  half  a  century,  during 
which  the  English  capitalists  and  the  Chilian  Government  would  share  between 
them  immense  profits.  But,  as  in  the  case  of  the  guano  beds,  these  anticipations 
may  perhaps  not  be  realised,  and  the  deposits  may  be  exhausted  sooner  than  has 


452 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


been  announced  by  the  founders  of  the  industry.  Meanwhile,  however,  these  arid 
regions,  which  seemed  condemned  to  solitude,  have  developed  a  movement  of 
exchanges  far  more  extensive  than  any  other  mining  or  agricultural  district  in 
Chili. 

Thus  is  supported  a  large  export  trade  not  only  through  Iquique  and  Pisagua, 
but  also  through  several  intermediary  ports.  Caleta,  one  of  these  ports,  com- 
municates with  the  works  by  an  automatic  railway,  on  which  the  trucks  move 
along  an  inclined  plane  2,620  feet  high.  A  labouring  population  of  nearly  30,000, 


Fig.    171. — NlTHATE    AND    SALT   WOEKS   OF   TAEAPACA. 
Scale  1  :  400,000. 


West  or   breenwicK 


66° 


,  62  Miles. 


including  women  and  children,  has  been  attracted  to  this  industrial  centre.  Boli- 
vian traders  and  carriers  come  to  share  in  the  general  movement,  while  water, 
vegetables  and  other  provisions  are  supplied  by  the  village  of  Pica,  in  an 
upland  Andean  valley  south  of  Tarapaca 


PATILLOS — MEJILLONES — ANTOFAGASTA. 

Patillos,  or  the  "Ducklings,"  so  named  from  three  islets  which  seem  to  float 
about  in  the  middle  of  the  bay,  takes  part  in  the  nitrate  business,  though  to  a  far 
less  extent  than  Iquique,  its  railway  communications  not  being  yet  completed. 


TOPOGEAPHY  OF  CHILI.  458 

Here  also  the  salines  and  nitrate  deposits  of  the  plateau  are  very  rich,  and  may 
take  the  place  of  those  farther  north  when  exhausted.  Formerly  the  headland  of 
Palellon  de  Pica,  at  the  north  foot  of  Mount  Carrasco,  south  of  Patillos,  possessed 
enormous  guano  beds,  which  had  been  worked  even  before  those  of  the  Chincha 
Archipelago.  But  the  seaquake  of  1877,  which  overwhelmed  Iquique  and  Arica, 
nearly  made  a  clean  sweep  of  the  village  of  Pabellon.  Of  400  houses  only  two 
remained  standing,  and  all  the  guano  was  washed  away. 

Other  ports  follow  southwards,  such  as  Huanillos,  Tocopilla  with  its  copper- 
foundries,  and  Cobija  or  La  Mar,  this  last  well  known  as  having  formerly  been 
the  only  port  possessed  by  Bolivia  on  the  Pacific  coast.  But  the  lack  of  com- 
munication with  the  interior,  the  complete  absence  of  all  harbour  works,  and  the 
vast  distance  from  the  large  cities  of  Bolivia,  prevented  Cobija  from  benefiting  by 
the  commercial  monopoly  derived  from  its  political  situation. 

Tocopilla  seems  to  be  still  more  unfavourably  placed.  But  although  pre- 
senting nothing  but  a  narrow  beach  between  a  stormy  sea  and  frowning  cliffs,  it 
has  still  the  advantage  of  proximity  to  certain  watering  places  in  the  interior 
along  the  mule  tracks  leading  to  the  Caracoles  mines.  Mcjillones  del  Sur,  or 
simply  Mejillones ,  occupies  a  much  more  convenient  position,  like  the  other 
Mejillones  between  Pisagua  and  Iquique,  on  the  south  side  of  a  deep  bay  amply 
sheltered  by  the  lofty  headland  of  the  Morro  Mejillones  (2,850  feet),  which  was 
formerly  covered  with  guano.  But  after  the  discovery  of  the  rich  argentiferous 
lodes  at  Caracoles,  Mejillones  was  soon  eclipsed  by  Antofagasta  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  headland,  which,  although  destitute  of  a  natural  harbour,  possessed 
more  capital  and  enterprise.  Mejillones  was  destroyed  by  the  earthquake  of 
1877,  and  in  1885  had  only  53  inhabitants. 

Its  rival,  Antofagasta,  another  Iquique  in  its  general  aspect,  history  and 
rapid  development,  forms  a  huge  aggregate  of  wooden  and  galvanised-iron  houses, 
stores,  workshops  and  depots.  It  is  the  great  centre  of  the  silver  industry,  though 
by  no  means  monopolising  the  export  trade  in  that  metal.  The  railway  running 
from  Antofagasta  towards  the  Bolivian  plateaux  has  still  the  advantage  of 
penetrating  into  the  interior  much  farther  than  that  of  Iquique,  and  in  1892  had 
a  total  length  of  560  miles,  being  at  that  date  the  longest  of  any  of  the  lines  on 
the  east  slope  of  the  Andes. 

The  first  stage  on  this  railway,  which  usually  makes  the  ascent  in  three  days, 
leads  to  the  mines  of  Caracoles,  so  named  from  the  fossil  "  shells  "  deposited  in 
seas  of  the  Jurassic  period  on  their  porphyry  bed.  La  Placilla,  the  largest  place 
in  this  mining  district,  stands  at  an  altitude  of  9,780  feet,  in  a  depression  of  the 
Atacama  Desert,  dominated  eastwards  by  a  volcanic  range.  La  Placilla  is  not 
connected  by  a  branch  with  the  main  line,  as  the  output,  which  in  favourable 
years  amounts  to  £2,500,000,  has  greatly  fallen  off. 

Leaving  this  arid  region,  where  provisions,  fuel,  water  and  all  other  supplies 
have  to  be  brought  from  long  distances,  the  miners  have  penetrated  along  the 
line  of  the  new  railway  into  Bolivia,  whither  they  have  been  attracted  by  the 
Huanchaca  mines,  richer  even  than  those  of  Caracoles.  The  railway  is  carried  by 


454 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


a  viaduct,  1,170  feet  long  and  nearly  400  feet  high,  across  the  Rio  Loa,  where  are 
situated  the  two  little  stations  of  Calama,  "  Queen  of  the  Desert,"  and  Chiuchiu. 


COPIAPO — SERENA — COQUIMBO. 

South  of  Antofagasta  follow  along  the  rocky,  treeless  seaboard  a  number  of 
little  towns  and  ports,  all  owing  their  existence  to  the  mining  industries.  One  of 
these  stations  has  received  the  name  of  Blanco  Encalada,  in  memory  of  one  of  the 


Fig.  172. — COPIAPO  AND  ITS  MINERAL  DISTRICT. 
Scale  1  :  1,100,000. 


West  oF  Greenwich 


70' 10' 


Depths. 


OtoSO 
Fathoms. 


60  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 

18  Miles. 


heroes  of  the  Revolution.  Paposo,  on  the  old  Bolivian  frontier,  forwards  the 
copper  ores  of  Rcbenton.  Taltal,  connected  by  a  railway  with  the  nitrate  beds  of 
Cachinal  (7,450  feet),  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  has  become  one  of  the  busiest 
seaports  in  Chili.  Pan  de  Azucar,  so  named  from  the  "  sugar-loaf "  peak  of  a 
neighbouring  islet,  exports  silver  and  copper  ores  as  well  as  borax  from  Chanaral 
Alto  and  other  places  in  the  Andean  valleys  and  intermediate  plains.  It  is 
connected  by  railway  with  the  cupriferous  districts  of  Carrizalillo  and  Chanaral  de 
las  Animas. 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CHILI. 


455 


The  historical  raining  city  of  Copiapo  stands  at  an  elevation  of  1,300  feet  on 
the  right  bank  of  a  dry  watercourse,  which  formerly  ramified  in  endless  branches 
throughout  the  upland  plains.  Here  lived  the  Copayapu  Indians,  and  here  the 
Spanish  town  was  founded  during  the  first  years  of  the  Conquest.  But  its 


bo 


prosperous  days  date  only  from  1832,  when  Juan  Godoy  discovered  the  exceed- 
ingly productive  silver  lodes  near  Chanarcillo,  50  miles  farther  south.  Since  then 
the  Copiapo  district  has  yielded  silver  ores  to  the  value  of  £1,200,000.  A  statue 
of  the  discoverer  stands  in  front  of  the  Mining  College  at  Copiapo,  which  is 


456 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 


connected  by  rail  with  its  seaport  of  Caldera,  50  miles  to  the  north-west,  and  with 
all  the  surrounding  mineral  districts.  The  Caldera  line,  the  first  opened  on  the 
Pacific  slope  of  the  Andes,  dates  from  the  year  1851,  and  is  consequently  the 
oldest  in  South  America,  that  of  Demerara  in  British  Guiana  alone  excepted. 

Copiapo  does  a  flourishing  trade  with  Famatina,  on  the  Argentine  side  of  the 
Andes,   which  is  reached  through  the  Come-Caballos   Pass   and   other   difficult 


Fig.  174.— LA  SEKENA  AND  COQUIMBO. 
Scale  1 :  1,100,000. 


7I'4Q 


West  or  Greenwich 


Depths. 


0  to  5 

Fathoms. 


5to50 

Fathoms. 


50  to  500 
Fathoms. 


500  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


18  Miles. 


routes,  sooner  or  later  to  be  replaced  by  a  railway  over  ground  already  surveyed. 
Large  numbers  of  meteoric  stones  have  fallen  near  Imilac,  on  this  line. 

South  of  Copiapo  the  mineral  zone  still  continues  to  and  beyond  the  mining 
town  of  Yerbabuena  at  the  foot  of  Cerro  de  la  Plata  ("  Silver  Mount  ").  Yerba- 
buena  is  connected  by  rail  with  the  port  of  Carriznl  Biijo,  which,  with  its  neigh- 
bour, Carrizal  Alto,  forms  an  important  centre  of  the  copper-mining  industry. 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CHILI.  457 

Farther  south  the  Huasco  valley  begins  to  assume  a  different  aspect.  Here 
the  running  waters  are  copious  enough  to  irrigate  the  upland  valleys,  and  Vallenar, 
at  the  confluence  of  two  streams,  is  an  agricultural  centre  producing  excellent 
wines.  The  Indian  half-breeds  of  Freirina,  lower  down  the  Huasco  valley,  also 
depend  on  husbandry,  forwarding  grapes  and  other  fruits  through  the  port  of 
Huasco  Bajo  at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

In  the  Rio  Elqui  basin,  which  yields  both  minerals  and  agricultural  produce, 
the  population  becomes  more  dense ;  here  Elqui,  or  Vicuna,  the  chief  place  in  the 
valley,  is  surrounded  by  rich  lands  growing  vegetables  and  fruits,  especially  grapes 
and  figs,  which  are  largely  exported.  Serena  (Serena  de  Coquimbo),  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river,  has  acquired  considerable  importance  as  a  provincial  capital.  It  is 
the  oldest  Spanish  settlement  in  the  district ;  but  its  harbour,  if  it  ever  existed, 
has  either  silted  up  or  been  upheaved,  so  that  the  shipping  has  to  stop  five  miles 
farther  south  in  the  sheltered  roadstead  of  Coquimbo.  Formerly  this  place 
forwarded  little  except  copper  ores ;  but  at  present  it  does  a  general  export  trade 
in  produce  of  all  kinds,  brought  by  the  railways  radiating  eastwards  up  the  Elqui 
valley,  southwards  to  Ovallc,  chief  place  in  the  Limari  valley,  and  south-westwards 
to  the  ports  of  Rivadavia  and  Tongoy.  But  the  line  is  still  unfinished  which  is  to 
effect  a  junction  with  the  Santiago  system  by  the  towns  of  Combarbala,  Illapel, 
and  Petorca. 

Illapel  communicates  directly  with  the  sea  by  the  port  of  Vilos,  while 
Petorca  forwards  its  produce  through  the  lower  Ligua  valley,  which  is  con- 
nected by  rail  with  the  Rio  Aconcagua  basin.  The  Bay  of  Quintero,  where 
Cavendish  landed,  occupies,  north  o£  the  Rio  Aconcagua,  a  position  analogous 
to  that  of  Valparaiso,  south  of  the  same  river.  Valparaiso,  that  is,  "  Paradise 
Vale,"  the  Quintil  of  the  aborigines,  was  so  named  by  the  Conquistador  Saave- 
dra,  in  memory  of  his  native  town,  the  Valparaiso  of  Old  Castile.  But  the 
aspect  of  the  Chilian  city  scarcely  justifies  such  a  name.  The  red  or  greyish 
slopes  of  the  hills,  with  their  scanty  vegetation  of  scattered  or  stunted  trees, 
appear  refreshing  only  in  the  eyes  of  travellers  coming  from  the  sandy  and 
parched  shores  of  Peru. 

VALPARAISO. 

Valparaiso,  which  now  enjoys  such  a  large  share  of  the  trade  of  the  world, 
long  remained  an  obscure  village  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  corsairs.  In  1578, 
when  it  had  a  population  of  only  250  souls,  it  was  pillaged  by  Drake,  and  again 
in  1594  by  Richard  Hawkins.  But  its  convenient  position  on  the  point  of  the 
coast  nearest  to  the  capital  and  to  the  fertile  inland  plains,  enabled  it  to  benefit 
by  the  general  progress  and  prosperity  of  the  country.  But,  despite  this 
geographical  advantage,  it  suffers  from  the  lack  of  a  good  harbour,  for  the  bay 
does  not  penetrate  sufficiently  inland  to  develop  a  natural  haven.  The  headland 
projecting  seawards  is  not  high  enough  to  shelter  the  shipping  from  the  south, 
while  the  north  winds,  at  times  very  dangerous,  are  intercepted  by  no  obstacle. 


458  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

Efforts,  however,  are  now  being  made  to  extend  the  southern  headland  by  means 
of  dykes  and  breakwaters. 

The  form  of  the  city  is  determined  by  that  of  the  shore-line.  A  long  quay 
skirting  the  curved  beach  presents  a  frontage  to  three  parallel  thoroughfares, 
which  fill  the  whole  space  between  the  sea  and  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  which 
are  intersected  at  intervals  by  transverse  streets.  The  two  rows  of  houses  lying 
nearest  to  the  roadstead  stand  on  level  ground  which  has  been  widened  several 
hundred  yards,  either  by  the  effects  of  an  earthquake,  or  by  matter  washed  in 
with  the  waves.  Continuous  lines  of  suburbs  climbing  up  the  slopes  are  con- 
nected with  the  low-lying  quarters  by  means  of  lifts, 

Being  entirely  devoted  to  trade,  Valparaiso  has  scarcely  any  noteworthy 
monuments,  but  it  possesses  large  arsenals,  shipyards,  workshops  and  a  naval 
college.  In  the  peaceful  year  1890  the  shipping  exceeded  2,400,000  tons,  and  even 
in  1891,  a  time  of  sieges,  blockades  and  battles,  it  fell  little  short  of  1,900,000  tons. 
The  greater  part  of  this  trade  is  carried  on  with  Great  Britain,  and  British 
influence  is  everywhere  in  the  ascendant ;  in  some  quarters  English  is  spoken  as 
generally  as  Spanish. 

At  the  narrow  depression  between  the  hills  and  the  shore,  much  additional 
space  was  obtained  by  levelling  a  western  promontory  and  throwing  the  debris 
into  the  sea.  But  even  this  new  quarter  with  the  districts  ascending  the  escarp- 
ments of  the  hills,  no  longer  suffices  for  the  growing  population.  East  and  north- 
east, beyond  the  quays  and  the  railway  station,  the  rows  of  houses  have  already 
reached  the  foot  of  the  cliffs,  here  uniting  with  the  fashionable  quarter,  Vina 
de  Mar,  where  are  situated  the  bathing  establishments,  hotels  and  suburban 
villas. 


SANTIAGO. 

Vina  de  Mar  and  Salto,  another  pleasant  retreat  from  the  bustle  of  the 
trading  quarters,  are  railway  stations  on  the  only  line  (1893)  connecting 
Valparaiso  with  the  capital  by  Quillota  and  the  Aconcagua  valley.  The  much 
shorter  but  more  difficult  route  over  the  mountains  runs  by  Casa  Blanco, 
("  Whitehouse  "),  an  old  wayside  inn  which  has  developed  into  a  rural  town. 
A  third  road,  soon  to  be  replaced  by  a  railway,  follows  the  south  coast  by  San 
Antonio  and  the  Rio  Maipo  valley  round  to  Santiago. 

This  place  was  founded  as  capital  of  the  provincial  government  over  350 
years  ago.  A  white  marble  statue  of  the  Conquistador  Pedro  de  Valdivia,  crown- 
ing the  Santa  Lucia  eminence  which  dominates  the  city,  bears  an  inscription 
to  the  effect  that  the  "  captain,"  first  Governor  of  Chili,  settled  his  troop  of  150 
men  in  this  place,  where  he  founded  the  city  of  Santiago  in  the  year  1541. 
Born  in  Estremadura,  he  gave  the  colony  the  name  of  his  native  town,  Santiago 
del  Nuevo  Extreme,  a  now  forgotten  designation  replaced  by  that  of  Santiago 
simply,  or  more  specially  Santiago  of  Chili. 

On  the  Pacific  seaboard  the  Chilian  capital    has  no  rival  in  the   southern 


VALPARA1SC 


West 


CD 

0  -to  10  fathom* 


1O     W       50 


,ND    SANTIAGO. 


50    to    600 


(plelOTL 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CHILI.  459 

continent,  and  in  the  northern  it  is  outstripped  by  San  Francisco  alone. 
Relatively  to  its  population,  scarcely  more  than  200,000,  it  covers  a  vast  space, 
all  the  houses,  as  is  usual  in  districts  subject  to  earthquakes,  being  low  even  in 
the  business  quarters,  and  generally  built  round  one,  two  or  even  three  patios, 
that  is,  courts  or  inclosures  planted  with  trees.  These  structures  are  themselves 
interrupted  by  broad  thoroughfares,  squares  and  avenues  with  long  strips  of 
verdure,  so  that,  seen  from  the  crests  of  the  encircling  hills,  Santiago  has  more 
the  aspect  of  a  vast  park  than  of  a  great  city.  The  atmosphere  is  laden  with  the 
fragrance  of  orange-groves,  while  the  former  grazing-grounds  with  their  sparse 
and  scrubby  vegetation  have  been  transformed  to  lovely  gardens  by  the  fertilising 
waters  of  the  Maipo  canal,  the  construction  of  which  took  over  a  quarter  of  a 
century,  1817  to  1844. 

Standing  at  an  altitude  of  1,755  feet  on  the  broad  level  plain  between  the  two 
cordilleras,  Santiago  extends  some  miles  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio  Mapocho, 
an  affluent  of  the  Maipo,  whose  waters  are  for  most  part  of  the  year  absorbed 
by  the  irrigation  canals.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  watercourse  stretch  the 
spacious  suburbs,  connected  by  bridges  with  the  more  central  quarters.  The  main 
thoroughfare  is  formed  by  a  splendid  boulevard  shaded  with  four  rows  of  poplars, 
embellished  with  statues  and  kiosks,  and  enlivened  with  running  waters.  Every 
street  and  avenue  terminates  in  a  mountainous  prospect,  westwards  the  grey 
or  reddish  heights  of  the  coast  range,  eastwards  the  spurs  of  the  cordillera  with 
the  upper  Mapocho  valley,  a  charming  glen  leading  up  to  the  snowy  peaks  of  the 
Andes. 

In  the  central  square  are  grouped  the  cathedral,  the  municipal  buildings,  the 
post  office  and,  under  the  portales,  or  covered  ways,  the  richest  and  most  frequented 
shops.  The  volcanic  Santa  Lucia  hill,  rising  230  feet  above  the  east  side  of  the 
city,  is  beautifully  laid  out  with  gardens,  exotic  plants,  marble  fountains,  kiosks, 
cafes,  theatre  and  other  handsome  structures.  From  its  summit  is  commanded  a 
superb  view  of  the  metropolis,  the  cultivated  plains  and  encircling  mountains. 

As  seat  of  government  and  centre  of  the  administration,  Santiago  possesses 
some  public  buildings  not  destitute  of  a  certain  architectural  beauty.  Here  are 
grouped  together  nearly  all  the  high  schools  of  the  republic,  the  university  with 
its  various  faculties,  the  National  Institute,  the  schools  of  agriculture,  mines, 
industrial  arts,  practical  engineering,  painting,  sculpture,  music  and  the  military 
academy.  There  are  also  an  astronomic  observatory,  a  public  library  with  70,000 
volumes  and  40,000  manuscripts,  a  museum  of  the  fine  arts,  and  a  "Salon,"  where 
the  local  artists  exhibit  their  productions,  as  in  the  great  European  capitals.  The 
Natural  History  Museum  comprises  a  complete  collection  of  the  South  American 
fauna,  as  well  as  a  carefully  classed  herbarium  of  several  thousand  plants.  Over 
2,400  cultivated  species  have  also  been  brought  together  in  the  Botanic  Garden, 
the  Model  Farm  and  the  numerous  parks  in  the  city  and  its  environs. 

South  of  the  capital,  Melipilla,  in  the  Mapocho  valley,  exports  its  ponchos, 
potteries  and  agricultural  produce  through  the  little  port  of  San  Antonio,  which 
is  connected  by  a  short  railway  with  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Maipo.  Melipilla  was 


460  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

a  familiar  name  in  England  and  the   Colonies  during  the  Tichborne  trials,  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  "  Claimant "  spent  some  time  in  this  place. 

Farther  on,  the  great  highway  and  railroad  traversing  the  central  plain  between 
the  Andes  and  the  coast  range  passes  several  important  places,  such  as  San 
Bernardo  at  the  foot  of  the  twin-peaked  mountain  of  like  name ;  Rancagua,  near 
the  right  bank  of  the  Cachapoal,  a  main  branch  of  the  Rio  Rapel,  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  Cauquencs,  whose  thermal  waters  are  the  most  frequented  in  Chili. 


CURICO CONCEPCION. 

Rengo  and  San  Fernando,  both  in  the  Rapel  basin,  are  followed  by  Curico, 
which  was  founded  near  the  Rio  Mataquito  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  which,  since  the  opening  of  the  central  railway,  has  become  one  of 
the  chief  trading  centres  of  Chili.  Here  terminates  the  Argentine  railway  ascend- 
ing to  the  plateau  through  the  Rio  Planchon  pass.  Curico  is  now  endeavouring 
to  establish  direct  communication  with  some  port  on  the  Pacific  by  a  line  crossing 
the  coast  range  down  to  the  Rio  Llico  valley.  In  this  valley  lies  the  navigable 
Lake  Vichuquen,  115  feet  deep  and  3,750  acres  in  extent,  consequently  spacious 
enough  to  accommodate  large  fleets.  But  a  canal  about  two  miles  long  would  have 
to  be  constructed  between  this  basin  and  the  roadstead  of  Llico,  which  would  itself 
have  to  be  sheltered  by  piers  and  breakwaters. 

Curico  is  outstripped  in  trade  and  population  by  Talcn,  which  occupies  a 
favourable  position  in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Rio  Maule.  Talca  enjoys  direct 
communication  with  the  port  of  Constitution,  formerly  Nuevo  Bilbao,  on  the  left 
(south)  side  of  the  Maule  estuary,  which,  despite  the  bad  approaches,  has  deve- 
loped a  considerable  foreign  trade.  It  has  been  proposed  to  construct  an  artificial 
harbour  in  the  so-called  Caleta  creek  south  of  the  Maule,  which  a  moderate  outlay 
might  make  one  of  the  best  havens  in  Chili.  Farther  south  the  little  port  of 
Curanipe  serves  as  the  outlet  for  another  Cauquenes,  capital  of  a  department. 

Along  the  central  railway  follow  the  busy  towns  of  Linares,  Parral,  San  Carlos 
and  Chilian,  this  last  a  great  agricultural  centre  and  a  much-frequented  cattle 
market.  It  communicates  through  the  neighbouring  station  of  Bulnes  with  the 
port  of  Tome  on  Talcahuano  Bay. 

The  historical  city  of  Conception  dates  from  the  year  1541,  when  Yaldivia, 
immediately  after  the  foundation  of  Santiago,  established  a  military  station  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Biobio  near  the  spot  where  now  stands  the  capital  of  South 
Chili.  But  Valdivia,  unable  to  hold  his  ground  against  the  Indians,  was  captured 
after  a  sanguinary  battle  and  tortured  to  death;  The  few  settlers  had  to  take 
refuge  in  Santiago,  and  although  the  town  was  rebuilt  some  years  afterwards  under 
the  shelter  of  a  fort,  it  continued  to  suffer  much  from  the  attacks  of  the  Arau- 
canians.  Its  development  was  also  retarded  by  earthquakes,  irruptions  of  the  sea 
and  fluvial  inundations,  so  that  it  had  to  be  removed  in  1752  to  its  present  site 
seven  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river.  But  it  is  still  destitute  of  a  maritime 
harbour,  and  large  vessels  have  to  ride  at  anchor  outside  the  bar. 


TOPOGEAPHY  OF  CHILI.  461 

The  railway  bridge  spanning  the  Biobio  at  Concepcion  is  one  of  the  triumphs 
of  modern  industry,  consisting  of  62  massive  piers  with  a  total  length  of  2,000 
yards,  or  440  more  than  the  viaduct  crossing  the  Volga  at  Sizran,  the  longest  on 
the  European  mainland.  The  suburb  of  San  Pedro  stands  at  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  bridge,  beyond  which  the  railway  continues  to  skirt  the  coast  as  far  as  the 
southern  coalfields. 

A  line  seven  miles  long  runs  from  Concepcion  north  to  Talcahuano  (Takaguano) 

Fig.  175. — CONCEPCION,  THB  BIOBIO  AND  NEIGHBOURING  INLETS. 
Scale  11 :  1,000,000. 


Depths. 


Oto5 
Fathoms. 


5  to  25 

Fathoms. 


25  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


18  Miles. 


Bay,  which  is  completely  sheltered  on  the  west  by  the  Tumbel  peninsula,  and  on 
the  north  by  Quiriquina  Island  and  a  headland  projecting  from  the  coast.  Thus 
is  formed  a  magnificent  closed  basin  protected  from  all  winds,  and  especially  from 
those  of  the  south-west,  the  most  dangerous  on  this  seaboard.  The  Government 
has  taken  possession  of  the  south  side  of  the  bay,  where  it  has  established  the 
arsenal  and  the  chief  strategical  base  of  operations  along  the  south  coast  of  the 
continent.  An  artificial  harbour  has  been  enclosed  in  front  of  Talcahuano  by 
piers  carried  out  to  a  depth  of  26  feet  at  low  water.  Thus  are  combined  all 


462  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

possible  advantages — good  anchorage  in  deep  sheltered  waters,  facilities  of  defence, 
proximity  to  a  large  city,  a  copious  river,  rich  coalfields  and  metallurgic  works. 

But  Government  regulations  have  driven  much  of  the  local  trade  to  other 
ports  in  the  bay,  such  as  Penco  on  the  east  side,  where  Concepcion  had  been 
originally  founded,  and  Tome,  close  to  the  entrance  on  the  same  side  and  at  the 
terminus  of  the  line  from  Chilian.  Including  all  these  ports  the  total  annual 
shipping  of  the  Talcahuano  basin  falls  little  short  of  3,000,000  tons. 

ARAUCO — VALDIVIA — MAULLIN — CHACAO. 

Arauco  Bay,  south  of  Concepcion,  is  a  repetition  of  the  Talcahuano  inlet,  but  on 
a  larger  scale,  and  with  a  much  wider  entrance.  The  town  of  Arauco,  which  gives 
its  name  to  the  district  and  province,  and  which  is  itself  derived  from  the  Araucan 
Indians,  from  whom  it  was  wrested,  is  a  quiet  little  trading  station,  whereas 
Coronel  and  Lota,  on  the  east  side  of  the  bay,  are  active  industrial  centres.  Here 
the  carboniferous  beds  of  the  tertiary  epoch  have  been  surveyed  for  a  space  of 
nearly  100  miles  along  the  .coast  south  of  Tome.  They  are  easily  worked,  and  the 
coal,  although  inferior  to  the  English  fuel,  is  far  superior  to  that  of  most  other 
regions.  Since  its  introduction  to  the  market  in  1855,  its  use  has  become  general, 
not  only  in  Chili,  but  along  the  whole  of  the  Pacific  seaboard.  The  yearly  output 
of  the  Arauco  district  already  exceeds  400,000  tons,  and  here  the  deepest  shaft 
traverses  three  successive  beds  down  to  a  depth  of  920  feet.  Most  of  the  coal  is 
used  up  on  the  spot  in  the  glass-works,  brickfields  and  copper-foundries  of  Lota 
and  Coronel,  the  most  active  manufacturing  centres  in  Chili.  Lebu,  at  the  mouth 
of  a  rivulet  outside  the  bay,  does  a  considerable  export  trade  in  coal,  but  the 
copper-mines  of  the  neighbouring  Sierra  have  hitherto  been  neglected. 

Nacimiento  and  Angol,  in  the  Biobio  basin  south-east  of  Concepcion,  as  well 
as  Los  Angeles,  Mulchen,  CoUipulli,  Traiguen,  all  lie  in  territory  which  the 
Araucanians  had  recovered  from  the  Spaniards,  and  which  the  Chilians  are  now 
gradually  re-occupying  by  the  insidious  processes  of  colonisation  and  the  sale  of 
strong  drinks  to  the  natives. 

East  of  Traiguen,  the  most  advanced  station  in  this  direction,  the  railway 
is  carried  over  the  Rio  Malleco  by  a  fine  viaduct  ],400  feet  long  and  310  feet 
above  the  stream.  Farther  south,  the  Chilian  settlers  in  the  Rio  Cauten  valley  have 
assumed  a  very  aggressive  attitude  towards  the  Indians.  After  occupying  Nueva 
Imperial  they  have  pushed  forward  as  far  as  Tcmitco,  half-way  to  the  Andes,  and 
the  whole  country  must  soon  be  annexed,  for  it  is  one  of  the  healthiest  agricultural 
regions  in  the  whole  of  Chili. 

Valdivia,  a  name  recalling  the  first  years  of  the  Conquest,  occupies  a  position 
somewhat  analogous  to  that  of  Concepcion,  lying  on  the  banks  of  a  considerable 
stream  at  some  distance  from  the  coast,  where  it  possesses  the  port  of  El  Corral, 
sheltered  by  a  rocky  headland  from  the  west  winds.  At  present  the  chief  exports 
are  hides,  lumber,  cattle  and  "  lager  beer,"  for  Valdivia  is  half  German. 

Puerto  Philippi  and  Puerto  Domeyko,  at  the  extremity  of  the  Chilian  mainland, 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CHILI. 


463 


perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  two  chief  explorers  of  this  region.  But  here  the 
most  promising  settlement  is  Maiillin,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Maullin  River,  which  has 
the  advantage  of  standing  on  a  navigable  estuary  near  the  Chacao  Channel  flowing 
between  the  continent  and  the  island  of  Chiloe.  The  eastern  entrance  of  this 
passage  is  commanded  by  Fort  Calbtico,  and  Puerto  Montt  occupies  an  admirable 
position  near  the  extremity  of  the  lacustrine  fiord  formed  by  Reloncavi  Bay  and 
at  the  southern  termination  of  the  great  central  plain  of  Chili.  Although  the 


Fig.  176.— CHACAO  CHANNEL. 
Scale  1  :  400,000. 


''• :':'.\-\:i-°Mir •••'"•    •' -•'-'''•''•' 


C 


73 '55 


We  stop  Greenwich 


75-30' 


Depths. 


Otos 
Fa  horns. 


5  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 

6  Miles 


Chilian  and  German  settlers  are  still  far  from  numerous,  Puerto  Montt,  formerly 
Melipulli,  has  made  steady  progress  since  its  foundation  in  1853. 

Chiloe  Island  may  be  regarded  as  an  integral  part  of  South  Chili  so  far  as 
regards  its  climate,  soil,  products  and  inhabitants.  The  towns  also  present  the 
same  general  aspect.  Castro,  founded  in  1566  on  a  strip  of  land  on  'the  east  side, 
has  remained  an  obscure  village,  its  dangerous  island-  and  reef-studded  waters 
being  avoided  by  shipping. 

Chacao,  on  the  channel  of  like  name  over  against  the  mainland,  is  also  of 
difficult  access,  so  that  most  of  the  traffic  has  been  deflected  farther  west  to  the 


464 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


port  of  Ancitd,  the  San  Carlos  of  the  first  Spanish  settlers.  Ancud  stands  near 
the  western  entrance  of  the  Chacao  passage,  and  although  large  vessels  cannot 
approach  the  shore,  they  find  good  anchorage  in  a  broad,  well-sheltered  bay, 
formerly  much  frequented  by  whalers.  Since  these  have  become  rare,  Ancud 
exports  little  except  timber  and  agricultural  produce.  About  2,000  of  the  native 
Chilotes  depart  every  year  for  the  southern  archipelagoes,  where  they  collect 
lumber  and  engage  in  seal  fishing.  Few  of  these  remain  in  the  islands,  and  the 


Fig.  177. — CAPE  HOEN  ARCHIPELAGO. 
Scale  1 :  900,000. 


Depths. 


Oto50 
Fathoms. 


50  Fathoms 
and  upwards. 


18  Miles. 


permanent  emigration  of  the  surplus  population  of   Chiloe  is  directed  towards 
the  cities  of  the  mainland. 

The  labyrinth  of  Magellanic  islands  has  hitherto  attracted  but  few  settlers. 
They  are  naturally  repelled  from  this  region  of  rains,  snows  and  high  gales. 
Nevertheless  the  ocean  steamers  have  already  established  a  few  stations,  which  may 
be  regarded  as  so  many  starting  points  of  future  settlements.  A  stock-breeding 
farm  has  been  founded  on  the  banks  of  the  Pulena,  at  one  of  the  most  convenient 
entrances  to  the  Southern  Andes.  Here  an  estate  of  nearly  500,000  acres  of  arable 
land  is  owned  by  a  single  proprietor. 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CHILI. 


465 


HELINCA — PUNTA  ARENAS — MAS  A  TIERRA. 

A   German  has  founded  the  station  of  Melinca  on  one  of  the  islands  of  the 
Guaitecas  group.    Some  Frenchmen  have  settled  on  a  member  of  the  Chonos  Archi- 


Fig.  178. — PUNTA  ABENAS  (SANDY  POINT). 
Scale  1 :  800,000. 


71'JO' 


West  of  Gree.nwich 


70-30' 


Depths. 


OtoSQ 
Fathoms. 


.  12  Miles. 


pelago,  where  they  engaged  in  the  tinned  mussel  business.  The  well- sheltered 
ports  of  Otway  and  Conway  in  the  south  of  the  Chonos  and  Wellington  Islands 
serve  as  convenient  harbours  of  refuge  for  vessels  in  distress  navigating  those 
stormy  seas.  Navigators  also  find  good  shelter,  abundance  of  fuel,  pasturage  and 
31 


466  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  LEGIONS. 

pure  drinkable  water  in  Port  Eden  south  of  the  English  Narrows,  in  Puerto  Bueno 
at  the  northern  entrance  of  Smyth  Strait,  and  at  Muhoz  Gomero  at  the  southern 
entrance  of  the  same  channel  in  King  "William's  Land. 

Till  recently  the  shores  of  Magellan  Strait  and  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  were 
regarded  as  condemned  to  perpetual  solitude  and  death.  The  frequent  shipwrecks 
that  have  taken  place  about  the  headlands  and  fringing  reefs  of  the  insular  groups, 
the  reports  of  mariners  regarding  the  storm-tossed  waters,  the  torrential  rains  and 
intense  cold  of  the  Cape  Horn  archipelago — lastly,  the  vast  deserts  of  the  interior, 
tbe  snows  and  glaciers  of  the  surrounding  mountains,  had  earned  for  these  terminal 
lands  of  the  South  American  continent  a  terrible  reputation,  as  attested  by  such 
local  names  as  Port  Famine  in  Magellan  Strait,  N'Entre  Pas  ("  Enter  Not ")  in 
Dawson  Island  and  Anxious  Point  in  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

Nevertheless  such  a  passage  as  Magellan  Strait,  340  miles  long,  much  fre- 
quented by  sailing-vessels  and  offering  special  advantages  to  steamers,  could  not 
permanently  remain  without  some  maritime  station.  So  early  as  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  illustrious  Galician  pilot  Sarmiento  had  attempted  to  found 
a  colony  on  the  shores  of  the  strait,  and  but  for  a  series  of  untoward  incidents 
which  the  daring  and  persevering  pioneer  was  unable  to  overcome,  the  "  City  of 
San  Felipe,"  well  situated  on  the  strait,  had  every  prospect  of  maintaining  itself. 
But  the  failure  of  supplies  to  arrive  in  time  transformed  it  to  the  "  Port  Famine  " 
of  sad  memories. 

Before  the  establishment  of  permanent  stations  a  signal,  placed  at  the  extremity 
of  Cape  Froward,  indicated  the  spot  where  an  ocean  letter-box  would  be  found, 
entrusted  to  the  care  of  seafarers  of  all  nations. 

In  1843,  when  the  Chilian  Government  revived  the  project  of  Sarmiento,  it 
established  a  convict  station  at  Puerto  Hambre  (Port  Famine),  which  was  after- 
wards removed  to  a  position  a  little  farther  north,  but  on  the  same  side  of  the  strait 
in  the  Brunswick  peninsula.  Here  was  founded  in  1852  the  town  of  Punta 
Arenas  ("Sandy  Point"),  a  penal  settlement  which  at  first  made  but  slow  progress. 
But  as  soon  as  it  became  a  centre  of  free  industry  it  developed  rapidly. 

Situated,  as  indicated  by  its  name,  on  a  sandy  beach,  Punta  Arenas  presents 
no  very  inviting  prospect,  but  possesses  immense  resources  as  a  victualling  station. 
Since  1868  the  neighbouring  auriferous  deposits  have  been  worked.  A  still  more 
useful  discovery  was  that  of  carboniferous  beds,  also  in  the  vicinity,  from  which 
passing  steamers  can  replenish  their  bunkers.  Another  flourishing  industry  is 
stock-breeding,  which  is  now  carried  on  not  only  on  the  mainland,  but  also  in 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  especially  along  the  shores  of  Gente  Grande  Bay.  Ranches 
are  springing  up  in  every  direction,  and  from  these  sources  Punta  Arenas  draws 
the  supplies  required  for  its  victualling  stores,  and  even  for  an  increasing  export 
trade.  In  1882  the  German  scientific  expedition  despatched  to  observe  the  transit 
of  Yenus  had  its  headquarters  in  this  terminal  town  on  the  American  mainland. 

The  oceanic  islands  which  belong  politically  to  Chili  have  but  a  scant  popula- 
tion, and  some  are  even  quite  uninhabited.  Such  are  San  Felix  and  San  Ambrosio, 
where  nothing  is  found  except  a  few  shrubs  and  some  guano  beds  deposited  by  the 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  CHILI. 


467 


Even  Mas  a  Tierra  and  Mas  a  Fuera  were  at  first  inhabited  only  by  the 
goats  left  loose  by  Juan  Fernandez,  and  by  wild  cats  descended  from  those  which 
had  escaped  from  passing  vessels.  But  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century 
these  islands  became  the  resort  of  buccaneers,  who  here  obtained  supplies  of  fresh 
meat  and  water,  and  from  that  time  they  frequently  received  temporary  visitors. 

Nevertheless  Mas  a  Tierra,  which  had  been  most  visited,  was  found  to  be 
unoccupied  in  1704,  when  an  English  skipper  here  abandoned  Alexander  Selkirk, 
one  of  his  crew,  whose  history,  combined  with  that  of  another  castaway  on  Tobago 
Island,  supplied  Defoe  with  the  materials  for  his  immortal  romance  of  Robinson 

Fig.  179. — MOUNT  SELKIRK,  JUAN  FERNANDEZ  ISLAND. 


Crusoe.  Near  the  most  frequented  anchorage  is  shown  a  cave  on  the  north  side 
where  dwelt  the  unfortunate  derelict.  Here  the  officers  of  an  English  frigate  have 
placed  a  marble  tablet  with  an  inscription  recording  the  adventures  of  Selkirk. 
Later  Mas  a  Tierra  was  utilised  by  Spain,  and  afterwards  by  Chili,  as  a  place  of 
detention  for  criminals.  Now  both  islands  have  been  granted  to  a  rich  stock-breeder, 
and  in  1878  Mas  a  Tierra  had  a  small  permanent  population  of  54  persons. 

Easter  Island,  which  the  Chilian  Government  has  made  a  penal  settlement, 
is  also  engaged  chiefly  in  stock-breeding,  and  carries  on  a  little  trade  with 
Tahiti.  In  1874,  when  it  was  occupied  by  Chili,  the  Frenchman  who  had 
installed  himself  in  the  island  was  governing  it  through  a  "  queen."  This 


468  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

potentate  held  a  council  of  women  every  evening,  and  on  their  advice  issued 
her  edicts  regulating  the  conduct  of  the  men,  their  husbands.  The  "  high  priest  " 
acquired  his  right  to  direct  the  public  worship  by  winning  a  swimming  match 
between  the  large  island  and  the  neighbouring  Sala-y-Gomez,  a  mere  basalt  rock 
without  any  resources. 


VIII. 

MATERIAL  CONDITION  OF  CHILI. 

Since  the  close  of  the  colonial  period  the  population  of  Chili  has  increased 
more  rapidly  than  that  of  any  other  Andean  region.  If  the  early  estimates  and 
present  returns  can  be  trusted,  the  relative  rate  of  progress  has  even  been  much 
greater  than  that  of  Colombia,  having  advanced  from  700,000  to  3,500,000,  or 
nearly  fivefold,  since  1810.  But  statisticians  depend  more  on  conjecture  than  on 
precise  figures.  As  the  starting  point  of  their  calculation  they  take  the  census 
of  1885  and  infer  the  annual  increase  by  adding  to  the  total  some  50,000 
independent  Indians,  and  allowing  a  deduction  of  15  per  cent,  on  the  official 
estimates. 

But  even  so,  the  density  of  the  Chilian  population  can  be  compared  to  that 
of  Europe  only  in  the  central  provinces,  where  are  situated  the  two  chief  cities, 
Valparaiso  and  Santiago.  North  and  south  of  this  zone  the  provinces  are  very 
thinly  peopled.  As  in  all  other  countries  receiving  a  considerable  stream  of 
immigrants,  the  urban  is  relatively  larger  than  the  rural  population,  though 'it 
has  not  yet  acquired  the  absolute  preponderance.  According  to  the  returns  for 
1885  the  respective  figures  were  1,062,544  townsfolk  and  1,464,776  countryfolk. 
The  equilibrium  of  the  sexes  seems  to  be  perfectly  established,  the  same  census 
showing  1,263,640  males  and  1,263,680  females  in  a  total  of  2,527,320. 

AGRICULTURE. 

Although  Chili  still  possesses  vast  stretches  of  land  awaiting  cultivation, 
hundreds  of  thousands  own  no  freehold,  and  many  of  these  seek  their  fortunes 
either  in  the  Cnyo,  that  is,  the  conterminous  Argentine  province,  or  in  Peru  and 
Bolivia,  or  even  in  California.  On  the  other  hand,  the  tide  of  immigration  has 
been  continuous,  except  during  the  recent  civil  strife,  settlers  being  attracted  to  the 
mining  industries  in  the  northern  districts  and  in  the  province  of  Concepcion, 
or  to  Santiago  and  to  the  other  large  industrial  and  trading  places,  especially 
along  the  seaboard.  Some  farmers,  also,  nearly  all  German  and  Swiss,  have 
settled  in  the  southern  provinces,  where  the  Government  allots  them  the  lands 
appropriated  from  the  Araucanian  aborigines.  Thus  the  foreign  element  increases 
from  census  to  census  more  rapidly  than  the  native,  numbering  at  present  nearly 
100,000  if  Peruvians  and  Bolivians  be  included. 


MATERIAL  CONDITION  OF  CHILI. 


469 


Fig.  180. — MINES  OP  CHILI. 
Scale  1 :  37,000,000. 


Amongst  European  colonists  the  Germans,  mostly  farmers,  brewers,  surveyors 
and  petty  dealers,  are  the  most  numerous.  Next  in  importance  are  the  English, 
mainly  merchants  and  miners,  the  Italians  and  the  French  in  the  order  named. 
But  if  the  present  exodus  from  Italy  continues,  the  Italians  will  soon  outstrip 
all  others  in  point  of  numbers.  Since  1875  the  Chinese  have  also  taken  part  in 
the  movement.  But  the  general  increase  is  mainly 
due  to  the  natural  excess  of  births  over  the  mor- 
tality, although,  owing  to  the  defective  registra- 
tion, the  official  returns  would  seem  to  show  the 
reverse. 

The  agricultural  zone,  which  properly  begins 
with  the  province  of  Coquimbo,  comprises  all  the 
mainland  thence  southwards,  with  the  rich  and 
well-watered  island  of  Chiloe.  This  industry 
already  yields  sufficient  breadstuffs  for  a  mean 
annual  export  trade  of  about  5,500,000  bushels, 
chiefly  to  Peru,  Bolivia  and  Ecuador,  where  the 
Chilian  cereals  have  already  driven  those  of  North 
America  from  the  market.  They  even  compete 
with  those  of  California  along  the  central  American 
seaboard.  As  in  France,  the  chief  crop  is  wheat, 
estimated  at  28,000,000  bushels  in  normal  years, 
all  other  cereals  yielding  about  8,000,000  bushels. 

Yiniculture,  introduced  at  an  early  date,  has 
also  acquired  some  development  since  the  middle 
of  the  present  century  in  the  region  between  the 
Huasco  valley  and  Valdivia.  Here  about  250,000 
acres  are  under  vineyards  ;  -but  the  grape,  chiefly 
of  French  stock,  appears  to  have  a  tendency  to 
approach  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  (sherry  and 
port)  in  flavour.  About  110,000  gallons  of  wine 
were  exported  in  1888,  when  imports  were  made 
almost  impossible  by  a  prohibitive  duty  of  £4 
per  hogshead.  A  kind  of  coarse  cider  (chicha]  is 
fabricated  from  the  apples  of  European  stock 
which  are  yielded  in  enormous  quantities  by  the 
orchards  of  the  southern  provinces,  where  the 
plant  now  runs  wild.  Seri-culture  has  also 
acquired  some  development  in  Chili,  the  only 

South  American   country  where  attention   has  been  paid  to   this  industry.     In 
1890  the  crop  of  cocoons  was  estimated  at  over  11,000  pounds  weight. 

Chili  is  too  mountainous  to  find  room  for  extensive  cattle-runs,  and  has  con- 
sequently to  import  much  stock  from  the  Argentine  plains.  Formerly  the  Pampas 
Indians  made  frequent  incursions  into  Argentine  territory,  the  Chilian  cattle- 


a  Silver.        c  Copper.        s  Salt. 


,  620  Miles. 


470  SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  REGIONS. 

dealers  being  their  confederates  in  these  plundering  expeditions.  The  animals 
were  thus  procured  at  a  low  price,  and  generally  sold  at  a  large  profit  at  the 
famous  horse  and  cattle  fairs  of  Chilian. 

Tierra  del  Fuego  is  best  suited  for  this  industry,  and  here  numerous  cattle- 
farms  have  already  been  established  along  the  shores  of  Magellan  Straits  and 
the  lateral  inlets.  But  in  Fuegia  scarcely  any  agricultural  produce  can  be  raised 
except  some  vegetables,  especially  potatoes,  and  a  few  fruits  such  as  strawberries. 
All  attempts  to  acclimatise  cereals  have  failed,  owing  to  the  fierce  south-western 
gales  and  the  morning  frosts,  which  are  felt  even  in  January,  which  is  the  mid- 
summer of  these  austral  lands. 

But  while  agriculture  makes  rapid  progress,  the  condition  of  the  peasant 
classes  has  perhaps  deteriorated.  Owning  no  laud,  they  are  obliged  to  seek 
employment  under  the  great  territorial  proprietors,  who  possess  vast  domains  of 
from  100,000  to  500,000  acres.  With  low  wages,  wretched  dwellings,  insufficient 
and  often  unwholesome  food,  the  rate  of  mortality  is  naturally  excessive  amongst 
the  pcones  or  huasos  ("Hodges"  or  "farm  labourers").  Amongst  them  the 
inquilinos  ("  tenants  ")  constitute  a  sort  of  aristocracy,  because,  although  receiving 
less  pay,  they  are  provided  with  cabins  and  a  plot  of  land,  always  located  on  the 
boundaries,  in  order  to  defend  the  estate  from  marauders. 

This  system  of  large  domains,  combined  with  the  extremely  low  rate  of  wages, 
bars  all  competition  on  the  part  of  German,  Swiss,  Italian  or  other  foreign 
peasantry,  who  must  have  at  least  a  "  living  wage."  The  European  squatters 
have  to  live  apart  on  small  holdings  assigned  to  them  by  the  Government  in  the 
still  thinly-peopled  southern  provinces.  But  most  of  the  recent  arrivals  have  a 
hard  battle  to  fight  before  they  can  acquire  even  a  moderate  degree  of  comfort. 
Despised  or  hated  as  gringos  by  the  native  populations,  often  ill-treated  by  the 
Government  underlings,  cheated  by  the  dealers  and  middlemen,  they  often  run 
great  risk  of  falling  into  the  helpless  condition  of  the  peones.  Their  plight  is  at 
times  even  worse,  for  they  lack  the  power  of  endurance  which  can  be  acquired 
only  by  long  suffering. 

The  public  domain  is  disposed  of  at  an  average  rate  of  about  125,000  acres  a 
year,  yielding  a  revenue  of  from  £240,000  to  £320,000.  In  the  Magellanic 
regions,  however,  the  lands  are  not  sold,  but  leased  in  very  large  lots  for  a  period 
of  twenty  years. 


MINEKAL  RESOURCES — THE  NITRATES. 

The  mineral  resources  of  Chili  surpass  even  those  of  the  neighbouring  Peru- 
vian and  Bolivian  States,  famous  as  they  are  for  their  mineral  treasures.  It 
should,  however,  be  noticed  that  a  large  part  of  the  Chilian  mines  lies  in  territory 
but  recently  wrested  from  these  two  central  Andean  republics.  The  annexed 
provinces  may  be  regarded  as  one  vast  deposit  of  silver,  nitrates,  copper,  borax 
and  salt. 

Although  one  of  the  least  widely  diffused  metals  in  Chili,  gold  has  yielded 


MATERIAL  CONDITION  OF  CHILI.  471 

altogether  a  sum  little  short  of  £40,000,000  between  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century  and  the  year  1888.  Towards  1880  the  production  had  dwindled  down  to 
a  trifling  amount,  when  the  industry  was  again  revived  by  fresh  discoveries. 

Silver,  which  occurs  in  far  greater  abundance,  especially  in  the  former  Bolivian 
district  of  Caracoles,  north-west  of  Antofagasta,  yields  a  yearly  sum  of  about 
£1,200,000,  and  this  might  be  easily  increased  but  for  the  present  depreciation  of 
the  metal. 

As  a  copper-producing  region  Chili  held  till  lately  the  first  place,  yielding  in 
1879  as  much  as  50,000  tons,  or  one-third  of  the  total  output  of  the  world.  But 
since  then  she  has  been  surpassed  both  by  the  United  States  and  by  Spain. 
Including  iron  and  all  other  minerals,  the  yearly  production  of  the  mines  properly 
so  called  is  estimated  at  over  £4,000,000. 

The  nitrates  extracted  from  the  soil  and  treated  in  the  rainless  northern  zone 
return  a  much  larger  revenue  to  the  capitalists  than  the  metals.  Under  the  direc- 
tion of  foreign  engineers,  nearly  all  English,  about  30,000  Chilians,  Bolivians, 
and  Peruvians  are  engaged  digging  and  delving  on  the  elevated  saline  pampas, 
from  which  they  extract  the  caliche  in  prodigious  quantities.  This  raw  material 
is  treated  on  the  spot  in  a  chain  of  oficinas  stretching  along  the  cordillera,  where 
it  is  reduced  by  various  processes  to  the  condition  of  saleable  nitrates  destined  for 
the  manufacture  of  gunpowder  or  for  the  much  more  important  preparation  of 
artificial  manures. 

The  nitrate  industry,  which  has  covered  apparently  uninhabitable  regions  with 
numerous  villages,  has  been  rapidly  developed,  and  at  present  supplies  the  largest 
item  in  the  Chilian  revenue.  Thanks  to  this  wealth  of  chemical  substances,  with 
which  must  be  included  salt  and  borax,  thanks  also  to  the  coalfields  such  as  those 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Concepcion,  the  capitalists  have  found  it  profitable  to 
establish  workshops  on  the  spot,  instead  of  forwarding  the  raw  materials  to  Great 
Britain,  where  they  had  hitherto  been  reduced  and  distributed  in  various  forms 
over  the  whole  world. 


MANUFACTURES — TRADE — SHIPPING. 

Chili  has  thus  already  become  a  manufacturing  country  in  virtue  of  her  copper- 
foundries,  silver-refineries,  chemical,  smelting  and  other  works,  with  their  tall 
furnaces  like  those  of  the  Old  World,  on  which  they  have  been  modelled.  There 
is  scarcely  a  branch  of  human  industry  that  is  not  represented  by  factories 
furnished  with  modern  plant,  and  employing  numerous  hands.  The  wheat  of  the 
southern  provinces  supplies  grist  to  several  large  flour-mills ;  Vina  del  Mar  near 
Valparaiso,  Penco  and  Tome  near  Talcahuano,  have  sugar-refineries ;  textiles  are 
woven  at  Santiago  ;  the  potter's  wheel  is  kept  going  at  Penco  and  Lota ;  paper- 
mills  are  at  work  in  Llai-Llai ;  and  at  Chilian  have  been  set  up  the  first  nail- 
works  in  South  America.  In  these  industrial  centres  the  peasantry  are  already 
being  transformed  -to  a  proletariat  class. 

Commerce,  fed  by  the  output  of  the  mines  and,  to  some  extent,  by  the  agri- 


472 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


Fig. 


181 . — COHMTTNICATIONS 
OF  CHILI. 

Scale  1  :  37,600,000. 


cultural  produce,  and  even  in  a  slight  degree  by  manufactured  wares,  enables  Chili 
to  take  a  relatively  high  place  amongst  the  trading  nations  of  the  world.  Even 
in  1890,  a  year  of  political  strife,  the  exchanges  amounted  to  nearly  £40,000,000. 
By  far  the  largest  share  in  this  trade  is  taken  by  Great  Britain,  which  in  the 

year  1880  took  nearly  45  per  cent,  of  the  whole  of 
the  imports,  Germany  and  France  being  respec- 
tively represented  by  23  and  12  per  cent.  In 
the  export  trade  the  three  countries  follow  in  the 
same  order,  except  that  the  share  of  England  is 
even  still  larger,  no  less  than  68  per  cent,  in  the 
same  year  1880. 

The  exports  are  mainly  mining  and  agricul- 
tural produce,  the  former  representing  in  1888  as 
much  as  six-sevenths  of  the  total,  and  the  nitrates 
more  than  half  of  the  mining  products.  In  the 
import  trade  the  chief  items  are  such  manufac- 
tured wares  as  textiles,  machinery,  implements 
and  utensils  of  all  kinds,  jewellery  and  arms,  and 
provisions,  such  as  wines,  spirits  and  tobacco. 

Punta  Arenas  is  now  a  free  port  open  to  all 
nations.  Fifteen  other  "  habilitated  "  ports,  that 
is,  open  to  foreign  trade,  follow  from  north  to 
south,  the  long  list  beginning  with  Arica,  Pisagua, 
Iquique,  Tocopilla,  Antofagasta,  Taltal,  Caldera, 
Carrizal  Bajo,  Coquimbo  and  Valparaiso,  and 
closing  with  Talcahuano,  Coronel,  Corral,  Puerto 
Montt  and  Ancud.  The  passes  across  the  Andes, 
where  trade  is  carried  on  between  Chili,  Argen- 
tina and  Bolivia,  are  also  called  "  ports,"  as  in 
the  French  Pyrenees.  During  the  Spanish  rule 
only  one  of  these  puertos  secos  ("  dry  ports  ")  was 
frequented,  that  of  Cumbre,  between  Santa  Rosa 
and  Uspallata ;  at  present  at  least  fifteen  are 
utilised,  and  the  number  is  yearly  increasing. 

Including  vessels  entering  and  clearing,  the 
shipping  averages  about  20,000,000  tons  a  year, 
two-fifths  flying  the  national,  most  of  the  rest 
the  British  flag.  In  1886  the  mercantile  navy 
comprised  nearly  200  vessels  of  all  sizes,  with  a 
collective  burden  of  over  86,000  tons.  One-fifth 

of  these  are  steamers  plying  along  the  Pacific  seaboard  between  Panama  in  the 
north  and  Puerto  Montt  in  the  south.  Various  European  companies  also  share  in 
this  traffic,  by  far  the  largest  being  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company,  flying 
the  British  flag  and  owning  a  fleet  with  a  total  capacity  of  over  100,000  tons. 


55" 


63" 


Railways. 


Railways 
in  progress. 


Regular  marine  service. 


,  500  Miles. 


MATERIAL  CONDITION  OF  CHILI. 


478 


COMMUNICATIONS — PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION. 

In  1810  Chili  had  only  one  carriage- road,  leading  from  Valparaiso  to  Santiago  ; 
at  present  both  roads  and  railways  are  numerous.  The  line  ascending  the  Acon- 
cagua valley  from  Valparaiso  to  Santa  Rosa  de  los  Andes  throws  off  a  southern 
branch  through  Llai-Llai  and  over  the  Chacabuco  Pass  down  to  Santiago.  From 

Fig.  182.— CENTRAL  VALLEY  or  SOUTH  CHILI. 
Scale  1 :  5,000,000. 


37' 


124  Miles. 


this  point  it  is  continued  southward  through  the  central  Chilian  plain,  and  has 
already  penetrated  into  Araucania,  where  in  1892  Victoria  was  its  most  advanced 
station.  Farther  on  the  works  are  in  progress  right  down  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Rio  Tolten,  with  various  branch  lines  following  between  Valdivia  and  Puerto 
Montt.  At  the  end  of  1891  the  total  length  of  the  system  exceeded  680  miles, 
representing  an  outlay  of  £11,500,000.  The  whole  system  belongs  to  the  Govern- 
ment, which  has  also  acquired  the  Chafiaral  line  in  the  northern  mineral  region. 


474  SOUTH  AMEEICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 

All  the  other  northern  lines  owe  their  existence  to  the  mining  industry,  and 
are  due  to  private  enterprise.  The  most  costly  runs  from  Antofagasta  up  to  the 
Bolivian  plateaux,  the  section  within  Chilian  territory  being  about  270  miles  long. 
The  nitrate  lines  terminating  at  Pisagua,  Iquique  and  Patillos  have  a  joint  lerigth 
of  240  miles ;  those  of  the  Copiapo  copper-mining  district  over  150  miles. 

Since  the  late  civil  war,  railway  enterprise  has  received  a  fresh  impulse,  and  the 
three  lines  have  been  taken  in  hand  which  are  ultimately  to  cross  the  Andes  in 
the  north,  centre  and  south,  with  terminal  Chilian  stations  at  Copiapo,  Santa  Rosa 
de  los  Andes  and  Yumbel,  near  Concepcion,  respectively.  But  the  greatest 
activity  is  concentrated  on  the  trans- Andean  trunk  line,  which  is  to  connect  Val- 
paraiso with  Buenos  Ay  res,  and  thus  realise  the  scheme  of  a  trans-continental 
railway  projected  by  "Wheelwright  in  1863.  In  1893  the  whole  line,  925  miles 
long,  had  been  completed  except  a  short  section  of  40  miles ;  but  in  this  section 
occur  the  steepest  gradients,  the  longest  and  most  difficult  tunnels.  On  the  Chilian 
side,  which  is  by  far  the  more  precipitous,  an  escarpment  will  have  to  be  sur- 
mounted by  means  of  a  spiral  tunnel  making  a  complete  letter-S  twist,  and  steep 
inclines  will  have  to  be  ascended  by  the  ratchet  system  with  a  gradient  of  8  in 
100.  Five  tunnels  follow  in  rapid  succession,  with  a  collective  length  of  14,300 
yards,  the  last  and  longest  (5,540  yards)  piercing  the  Cumbre  at  an  altitude  of 
10,430  feet  in  order  to  reach  the  Argentine  slope.  But  financial  disasters,  strikes 
and  mishaps  of  all  kinds  have  retarded  the  undertaking,  which,  unless  fresh  funds 
can  be  raised,  will  scarcely  be  completed  before  the  close  of  the  century. 

The  telegraph  system  has  also  been  rapidly  developed  in  recent  years,  and  in 
1891  there  was  a  total  length  of  13,730  miles,  of  which  8,000  were  owned  by  the 
State.  A  telephone  company  had  established  apparatus  in  over  forty  towns  of  the 
republic,  and  more  than  44,000,000  letters,  papers  and  parcels  had  been  forwarded 
through  514  district  post-offices. 

Chili  is  surpassed  by  Venezuela  alone  amongst  the  Andean  States  in  the 
number  of  her  educational  establishments ;  but  she  greatly  excels  the  rival  republic 
in  scientific  and  literary  activity.  The  primary  schools  are  attended  by  about 
100,000  children,  or  a  thirtieth  of  the  whole  population,  while  several  small  towns 
possess  lyceums,  colleges  and  other  secondary  schools.  The  University  of  Santiago 
comprises  the  same  faculties  as  those  of  Europe,  and  schools  of  practical  agriculture 
have  been  founded  at  Santiago,  Tacna,  Concepcion  and  elsewhere.  But  in  Chili, 
as  in  Peru  and  Colombia,  the  educated  youth  devote  their  energies  chiefly  to  law 
and  the  "  political  sciences  " — in  other  words,  to  party  politics  and  journalism. 

The  printing-press,  first  introduced  in  1820.  now  issues  over  200  periodicals, 
including  7  daily  papers  and  35  other  journals  in  Santiago,  and  16  in  Valparaiso. 

IX. 

ADMINISTRATION. 

The  Chilian  Constitution,  several  times  modified  by  legal  procedure  and 
recently  suspended  by  the  civil  war,  dates  from  1833.  The  State  is  declared  to  be  a 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  CHILI. 


475 


Fig.  183. — PROVINCES  or  CHILI. 
Scale  1  :  37,000,000. 


republic,  "  one  and  indivisible,"  with  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  powers. 
The  suffrage  is  limited  to  married  men  at  least  twenty-one  years  old,  or  celibates 
twenty-five  years  old,  capable  of  reading  and  writing,  owning  some  landed 
property,  or  exercising  a  lucrative  trade  or  profession.  Thus  the  lower  orders  are 
practically  excluded,  and  in  1876  the  electors  numbered  less  than  50,000  in  a  total 
population  of  2,140,000. 

Congress  comprises  two  chambers  with  legislative  functions.  The  members  of 
the  Lower  House  are  directly  elected  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  for  every  30,000  inhabitants,  and  are 
returned  by  the  departments,  whereas  the  Senate, 
three  times  less  numerous,  represents  the  provinces. 
The  Lower  House,  which  comprised  97  members  in 
1890,  is  completely  renewed  by  the  general  elec- 
tions held  every  three  years,  while  half  only  of  the 
senators  retire. 

The  President  is  elected  for  five  years,  by  a  body 
of  delegates  appointed  for  the  purpose.  He  enjoys 
royal  prerogatives,  and  appoints  all  the  six  minis- 
ters, as  well  as  five  of  the  eleven  members  of  the 
Council  of  State,  the  other  six  being  elected  by 
Congress.  He  also  nominates  the  magistrates  for 
life  and  most  of  the  higher  officials  ;  the  civil 
administration  of  the  departments  and  provinces 
depends  directly  on  him  ;  he  commands  the  army, 
may  suspend  all  personal  guarantees  in  time  of  war, 
and  even  enjoys  the  right  of  presenting  the  names 
of  persons  to  be  nominated  to  the  episcopacy  by  the 
Pope,  and  lastly,  may  prevent  the  publication  of 
Papal  bulls  in  the  republic. 

The  judicial  power  comprises  a  supreme  court  of 
seven  members,  six  courts  of  appeal,  and  secondary 
judges  in  the  chief  towns  of  the  various  depart- 
ments and  districts. 

An  article  in  the  Constitution  declares  that 
"  the  religion  of  Chili  is  the  Catholic,  Apostolic  and 
.Roman,  with  exclusion  of  all  other  cults  from  the 
right  of  public  worship."  The  private  observance 
of  these  non-Roman  rites  was,  however,  expressly 
permitted  by  a  special  law  passed  in  1865.  The 

influence  of  the  Roman  Church  has  greatly  diminished  since  the  frightful  calamity 
of  1868,  when  over  2,000  women  were  burnt  in  the  fire  that  broke  out  in  the 
Jesuits'  church  during  a  public  service.  The  clergy  have  been  deprived  of 
various  privileges :  they  are  excluded  from  the  council  of  state ;  they  no  longer 
enjoy  private  jurisdiction,  but  are  subject,  like  all  other  citizens,  to  the  common 


•-••-'    ^ 

ALPARAISOf  ,°.>CONGAGUA 
==4<<    .'1  SANTIAGO  - 


476 


SOUTH  AMERICA— THE  ANDES  EEGIONS. 


law  in  civil  and  criminal  matters.  Tithes  are  abolished,  and  schools,  cemeteries 
and  the  registration  of  births  and  deaths  have  been  removed  from  their  control, 
while  civil  marriage  was  established  in  1884.  The  Catholic  Church,  however,  is 
still  subsidised,  and  the  country  is  officially  divided  into  four  dioceses,  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Santiago  and  the  bishoprics  of  Serena,  Concepcion  and  Ancud,  with 
the  two  vicariates  of  Tarapaca  and  Antofagasta. 

The  army  is  limited  to  a  peace  footing  of  6,000 ;  but  the  National  Guard 
comprises  all  Chilians  capable  of  bearing  arms,  and  is  expected  to  supply  on  a  first 
requisition  about  51,000  men.  The  fleet  includes  an  ironclad  of  6,900  tons,  31  other 
war  vessels  of  all  sizes,  and  1,665  sailors  and  marines. 

Since  the  action  of  the  Dictator  during  the  late  war,  Chili  is  encumbered  with 


Fig.  184. — THE  DISPUTED  TEEETTOBT  OF  AEICA  AND  TACNA. 
Scale  1  :  1,400,000. 


70°20' 


West  oP  Greenwich 


S9'20' 


25  Miles. 


a  public  debt,  which  in  1892  exceeded  £4,400,000.  The  receipts,  which  nearly 
balance  the  expenditure,  are  derived  chiefly  from  the  customs,  railway  profits,  sale 
of  public  lands,  stamps  and  the  land  tax.  Despite  recent  events  the  public  credit 
is  good,  and  the  State  is  now  withdrawing  the  paper  money,  which  in  1892 
exceeded  £10,000,000.  Pending  the  settlement  of  her  claims  against  Peru,  Chili 
enjoys  the  usufruct  on  the  sale  of  the  guanos  on  the  Peruvian  seaboard.  She 
will  also  be  entitled  to  a  sum  of  £2,000,000  should  the  disputed  province  of  Tacna 
decide  by  popular  suffrage  to  transfer  its  allegiance  from  Chili  to  Peru. 

The  republic  is   divided  administratively  into    provinces    and    departments, 
tabulated  in  the  Appendix. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  CHILI.  477 

These  political  divisions  vary  immensely  in  extent  and  population,  the  latter 
being  as  a  rule  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  former.  Thus,  about  one-fourth 
of  all  the  inhabitants  of  Chili  are  concentrated  in  the  two  central  provinces  of 
Santiago  and  Valparaiso,  although  their  joint  area  is  considerably  less  than  one- 
fortieth  of  that  of  the  whole  republic.  On  the  other  Band  Magellanes,  by  far  the 
largest  administrative  division  in  extent  (over  75,000  square  miles),  has  scarcely 
the  population  of  a  good-sized  village  (about  3,000  in  1893).  Hence  this  vast 
region  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Chili  forms  neither  a  province  nor  even  a 
department,  but  only  a  territory  without  any  representation  in  the  national 
assembly,  and  according  to  the  present  Constitution  it  must  continue  unrepre- 
sented until  it  can  show  a  population  of  30,000. 

Meanwhile  the  balance  of  political  power,  so  far  as  it  depends  on  the  body  of 
electors,  is  in  a  great  measure  held  by  the  little  central  district  in  which  are 
situated  the  capital,  Santiago,  and  its  port  of  Valparaiso.  With  a  collective  area 
of  less  than  7,000  square  miles,  this  favoured  district  returns  as  many  as  twenty 
deputies  to  the  Lower  House,  which  in  1891  comprised  not  more  than  ninety- 
seven  members  altogether. 


APPENDIX. 


STATISTICAL    TABLES, 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Area  with  adjacent  islands,  6,740,000  sq.  miles. 

Extreme  length,  4, 500  miles;  extreme  breadth,  3,100  miles  ;  coastline,  18,000  miles. 

Population  :  (1810)  8,350,000  ;  (1892)  37,225,000. 


PROGRESS  OF  THE 

SOUTH  AMERICAN  STATES,    1810  TO   1892. 

Population. 

Trade. 

1810. 

1892. 

1810. 

1892. 

Venezuela     .... 

800,000 

2,200,000 

£400,000 

£7,000,000 

Colombia       .... 

1,000,000 

4,200,000 

400,000 

6,000,000 

Ecuador        .... 

400,000 

1,260,000 

200,000 

3,000,000 

Peru     

1,100,000 

3,000,000") 

(  14,000,000 

Bolivia          .... 

800,000 

1,450,000) 

2,000,000 

(    3,000,000 

Chili     

700,000 

3,300,000 

400,000 

26,000,000 

Argentina     .... 

400,500 

4,000,000  j 

t  32,000,000 

Paraguay      .... 

100,000 

400,000V 

1,000,000 

/     1,000,000 

Uruguay       .... 

50,000 

750,000  ) 

(  20,000,000 

Brazil  

2,800,000 

16,000,000 

4,000,000 

64,000,000 

British  Guiana 

100,000 

290,000  \ 

(  4,000,000 

Dutch  Guiana 

40,000 

70,000  V 

1,600,000 

1     800,000 

French  Guiana,  with  Cunani 

20,000 

30,000  ) 

(     600,000 

British  Islands  (Trinidad,  i 
Tobago)          .        .       J 

25,000 

235,000  ) 

i'iUl     f\f\t\ 

\  4,410,000 

Dutch    Islands,    Curacao,  ( 
&c.         .         .         .       ) 

15,000 

40,000  ( 

600,  UUO 

y     480,000 

Totals 


8,350,000          37,225,000          £10,600,000     £i86,690,OUO 


ISLANDS  ON  THE  VENEZUELAN  COAST. 

BRITISH  ISLANDS. 


Tobago 
Trinidad 


Area  in  sq.  miles. 

114 
1,754 


Population  (1891). 

18,387 
200,030 


APPENDIX.  479 

Land  under  cultivation  in  Trinidad  :   194,000  acres  (52,000  sugar  ;  43,000  cacao  and  coffee  ;  18,000 
ground  provisions). 

Chief  Towns: — Port  of  Spain,  population,  32,000  ;  San  Fernando,  population,  6,340. 

Revenue.  Expenditure.  Exports.  Imports. 

Trinidad  (1891)  .         .         £488,000  £490,000  £2,059,000  £2,097,000 

Tobago  (1891)  .         .  8,700  8,700  24,000  24,000 

DUTCH  ISLANDS. 

Area  in  sq.  miles.  Population  (1890). 

Curacao 220  26,000 

Buenaire 214  4,900 

Aruba 66  7,800 


Total      ...  500  38,700 

VENEZUELAN  ISLANDS. 

Area  in  sq.  miles.  Population. 

Margarita  ~\ 

Cubagua     V         .         .         .        .  .  470  40,000 

Tortuga      ) 
Orchilla,  Aves,  &c 170  40 


Total        ...  640  40,040 


VENEZUELA. 

STATES. 

Area  in  sq.  miles.  Population,  1891. 

Federal  District 45  89,133 

Miranda 33,969  484,509 

Carabobo         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  2,984  198,021 

Bennudez        . 32,243  300,597 

Zamora 25,212  246,676 

Lara 9,296  .  246,760 

Los  Andes 14,719  336,146 

Falcon  and  Zuila    .         .         .         .         .         .  36,212  224,566 

Bolivar 88,701  50,289 

TEKRITORIES.    . 

Goajira 3,608  65,990 

Alto  Orinoco 119,780) 

Amazonas 90,928  j  45,197 

Colon      ........  166  129 

Yuruauri 81,123  22,392 

Caura 22,564  ) 

Armistice '.'.,".  7,046  J 

Delta 25,347  7,222 


Total  of  States  and  Territories    .      593,943  2,323,527 

CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  VENEZUELA,   WITH  ESTIMATED  POPULATIONS. 


Caracas       75,000 

Valencia 40,000 

Maracaibo 35,000 

Barsiquimeto      .....  15,000 

La  Guaira 12,000 

Puerto  Cabello 11,000 

Ciudad  Bolivar 11,000 

Barcelona 10,000 


Maturin 10,000 

Tocuyo 10,000 

Maracai 7,500 

Nirgua 7,000 

Parapara 7,000 

Cumana  ......  6,500 

Turmero 6,000 

Carora 6,000 


480 


APPENDIX. 


CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  VENEZUELA,  WITH  ESTIMATED  POPULATIONS — continued. 


Calabozo     . 
Merida 
Coro  . 
Victoria 
Guanare 
La  Grita     . 
Ortiz  . 

San  Cristobal 
Sail  Carlos 


6,600 
5,000 
6,000 
6,000 
4.r>00 
4,000 
4,000 
3,500 
3,000 


Varinas 

Valera 

Quibor 

Guacipati  . 

San  Fernando  de  Apure 

Tovar 

Trujillo       . 

Capatarida 

San  Fernando  de  Atabapo 


3,000 
3,000 
3,000 
3,000 
3,000 
2,500 
2,500 
2,000 
500 


ESTIMATED  POPULATION  OF  VENEZUELA  AT  VARIOUS  DATES. 

1839,  according  to  A.  Codazzi 945,000 

1854,  official  estimate 1,564,000 

1873,       „             ,, 1,784,000 

1892,       „             „ 2,238,900 

Vital  Statistics  (1889):  Births,  76,187;  deaths,  55,213;  increase,  20,969. 

Total  increase  for  the  five  years  from  1883  to  1887,  159,140 ;  or  a  yearly  average  of  nearly  32,000. 


Horned  Cattle 
Sheep  and  Goats 
Pigs       . 
Horses   . 
Mules     . 
Asses     , 


LIVESTOCK  OF  VENEZUELA  IN   1875  AND   1888. 

1875. 

1,390,000 

- 1,128,000 

362,000 

93,000 

.         .         .         .         .  47,000 
281,000 


Total 


1888. 

8,476,000 
5,727,000 
1,940,000 
388,000 
300,01(0 
859,000 

3,301,000          17,690,000 


PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  DOMAINS  IN  SQUARE  MILES  (1891). 


Agricultural 
Pastoral  . 
Forest 


Total 


Public. 

87,236 

57,900 

298,273 


443,409 


Private. 

47,626 

98,430 

4,700 

150,756 


Total. 
134,862 
156,330 
302,973 

594,165 


OUTPUT  OF  THE  VENEZUELAN  MINES  (1886). 
Gold,   £803,000;  copper,  £165,000;  total,  £968,000. 


United  States    . 
Great  Britain     . 
France 
Germany   . 
Other  Countries 


FOREIGN  TRADE  OF  VENEZUELA  (1888). 

Imports. 

£780,000 

940,000 


Total 
Total  (1891) 


610,000 
640,000 
400,000 

£3,170,000 
£4,050,000 


Exports. 
£1,830,000 
132,000 
620,000 
400,000 
410,000 

£3,392,000 
£3,000,000 


Total. 

£2,610,000 

1,072,000 

1,130,000 

940,000 

810.000 

£6,562,000 
£7,050,000 


Coasting  trade  (1888),  £3,720,000. 

Railways  open  (1891),  282  miles;  projected,  1,240,000  miles. 
Post  Office  returns  (1890) :  letters,  &c.,  forwarded,  6,412,000. 
Telegraph  lines,  3,528  miles  ;  despatches,  420,000. 
Telephone  instruments,  776;  subscribers,  1,477. 
Primary  schools,  1,990  ;  attendance,  102,200. 
Attendance  at  secondary  and  higher  schools,  4,784. 
Revenue  (1890) :  customs,  £1,340,000  ;  total,  £1,800,000. 


APPENDIX. 


481 


Average  expenditure,  £1,400,000. 

Internal  and  external  consolidated  debt  (1890),  £4,530,000. 

Regular  forces  :  5,760  of  all  anus;  national  militia,  60,000. 

TRADE  AND  SHIPPING  RETURNS. 

La  Guaira  (1891) :  total  exchanges,  £2,300,000.    Shipping  entered  and  cleared,  500,000  tons. 

Puerto  Cabello  (1891)  :  exchanges,  £1,400,000. 

Vela  de  Coro  (1889)  :  exports,  £120,000. 

Ciudad  Bolivar  (1889)  :  total  exchanges,  £680,000. 


Departments. 
MAGDALENA     . 

BOLIVAE 


PANAMA  . 


BOTACA  . 


SANTANDEB 


CtTNDINAMARCA 

TOLIMA 
32 


COLOMBIA 


Provinces. 
Banco 
Cienaga 
Padilla 
Valle  de  TJpar 
Barranquilla 
Cartagena  . 
Corozal 
Lorica 
Mompos 
San  Andres 
'  Azuero 
Chiriqui 
Code  . 
Colon . 
Panama 
Veraguas    . 
Balboa 

Bocas  del  Toro    . 
Darien 
Norte 

Nord-este    . 
Gutierez 
Centro 
Oriente 
Occidente    . 
Tundama     . 
\Casanare 
f  Charala 
Cucuta 

Garcia  Rovira     . 
Guanenta    . 
Ocana 
Pamplona    . 
Socorro 
Soto ;  Velez 
Bolivar 
Oriente 
Ubate 
Zipaquira    . 
Bogota 
Facatativa  . 
Tequendama 
La  Palma   . 
•  San  Martin . 
Norte 
Centro 
Sur 


Area  in  sq.  miles.    Population  (est. 
.      24,440  125,000 

.      21,345  350,000 


31,571  315,000 


)     .      33,351  645,000 


16409 


600,000 


79,810 


18,069 


595,000 


353,000 


482 


APPENDIX. 


Department*. 


ANTIOQUIA 


CACCA 


Provinces. 
'Norte 

Nord-este  . 

Occidente    . 

Cauca;   Centre    . 

Oriente 

Sud-Oeste ;  Sur  . 

Sopetran     . 
/Atrato 

Barbacoas  . 

Buenaventura 

Buga ;  Caldas     . 

Call;  Obando      . 

Palmira ;  Paste  . 

Popayan      .         . 

Quindio      .         . 

Santander  . 

San  Juan ;  Toro . 

Tulua ;  Caqueta . 

Tuquerres  . 

Total 


Area  in  sq.  miles.    Population  (est.). 


22,316 


560,000 


257,462 


700,000 


504,773  4,243,000 


Estimated  population  :  (1870)  2,951,000;  (1881)  3,878,000. 


Cienaga  . 
Santa  Marta 
Rio  Hacha 
Villanueva 


CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  MAGDALENA. 


Population. 
7,200 
5,000 
4,000 
2,400 


Banco 

Valle  de  Upar 

Tamalameque . 


Population. 
1,700 
1,400 
1,000 


CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  BOLIVAR. 


Barranquilla 
Cartagena 
Sabanalarga 
Sincelejo . 
Carmen   . 
Mompcs 


Population. 

15,000 

12,000 

10,000 

9,000 

7,500 

6,000 


Magangue 
Since 
Chinu 
Corozal   . 
Lorica     . 
Calamar . 


Population. 
4,000 
4,000 
3,600 
3,600 
3,000 
2,000 


CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  BOY  AC  A. 


Population 

•with  District. 

Chiquinquira  .... 

18,000 

Santa  Rosa 

Soata       

17,500 

Cocui 

Sogamoso        . 

14,000 

Guateque 

Moniquira       .... 

13,000 

Saboya    . 

Pesca      

12,500 

Guayata  . 

. 

Duitama          .... 

12,000 

Ramiriqui 

Miraflores       .... 

12,000 

Tunja     . 

. 

Paipa      ..... 

12,000 

Caldas     . 

Turmeque       .... 

11,000 

Labranza  Grande 

Chita      

10,000 

Boyaca    . 

Jenezano 

10,000 

MH-.. 

Population 
with  District. 
9,000 
9,000 
9,000 
9,000 
8,500 
8,500 
8,000 
7,000 
7,000 
7,000 
5,000 


Socorro  . 
Jesus  Maria    . 
Bucaramanga 


CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  SANTANDER. 


Population 

with  District. 

20,000 

18,000 

17,000 


Puente  Nacional 

Velez 

Sanjil      . 


Population 
with  District. 

16,000 
15,000 
14,000 


APPENDIX. 


488 


CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  THE  DEPAETMF.NT  OF  SANTANDEB— continued. 


Population 

Population 

•with  District. 

with  District- 

Cucuta    . 

13,000 

Suaita     

10,000 

Jiron 

12,500 

Mogotes  ..... 

9,000 

San  Andres 

.         .         .          .          12,000 

Ocafia     

8,000 

Piedecuesta 

12,000 

Zapatoca          .... 

8,000 

Barichara 

.          .          .          .          .          11,000 

Salazar   ..... 

7,500 

Charala  . 

.         .         .          11,000 

Malaga  ..... 

7,500 

Pamplona 

11,000 

Rosario  .         .         .         .         . 

6,000 

Onzaga  . 

•  11,000 

Concepcion      .... 

6,000 

CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  CUNDINAMARCA. 

Population 

Population 

with  District. 

with  District 

Bogota    . 

...          .        110,000 

Guatavita        .... 

7,000 

La  Mesa 

14,000 

Tocaima          .... 

7,000 

Zipaquira 

12,000 

Pacho      ..... 

7,000 

Guaduas 

...          .          11,000 

Gacheta  

G,500 

Anolaima 

.         .         10,000 

Villeta    ..... 

6,000 

La  Palma 

10,000 

5,000 

Choconta 

10,000 

Nemocon          .... 

5,000 

Fomeque 

9,000 

Funza    ..... 

3,000 

Junin 

9,000 

Pandi      .         .         . 

2,500 

Fusagasuga 

8,000 

Fontibon          .... 

2,500 

Caqueza 

8,000 

Girardot          .... 

2,000 

Ubate      . 

8,000 

Fuquene          .         .         .         . 

1,500 

Facatativa 

7,500 

Villavicencio  .... 

1,000 

CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  TOLIMA. 

Population 

Population 

with  District. 

with  District. 

Neiva 

15,000 

Natagaima      .... 

9,000 

Ibague    . 

13,000 

Ambalema       .... 

8,000 

Guamo    . 

12,000 

Melgar   ..... 

6,000 

Purificacion 

11,000 

Honda    ..... 

5,000 

Espinal  . 

10,000 

Timana  ..... 

5,000 

Ortega    . 

10,000 

La  Plata          .... 

4,000 

Chaparral 

9,000 

Mariquita        .... 

3,000 

Guayapal 

9,000 

San  Agustin  .... 

1,000 

CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  ANTIOQUIA. 

Population. 

Population. 

Medellin 

37,000 

Antioquia       .... 

8,800 

Manizales 

14,600 

Abejorral         .... 

8,100 

Sonson    . 

14,000 

Neira       ..... 

8,000 

Bionegro 

11,800 

Sopetran          .... 

7,900 

Jerico 

11,600 

Amalfi     

6,600 

Aguadas 

11,300 

Envigado         .... 

6,500 

Fredonia 

.          .          .          10,400 

Itagui     ..... 

6,500 

Santa  Rosa  de  los  Osos    .         .         .         10,000 

Remedies         .... 

6,400 

Yarumal 

10,000 

Amaga   ..... 

6,400 

Titiribi  . 

9,200                 Marinilla         .... 

5,600 

Salamina 

9,100                Zaragoza         .... 

2,100 

CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  CAUCA. 

Population 

'Population 

with  District. 

with  District. 

Call 

16,000 

Novita      

8,000 

15  000 

Bando 

8,000 

Pasto       . 

13,000 

Quibdo     . 

7,'flOO 

Ipiales     . 

13,000 

Cumbal     ..... 

6,500 

Basra 

12,500 

6,500 

*-'**&"' 
Popayan 

10,000 

Barbacoas         .... 

6,000 

Cartago  . 

9,500 

Buenaventura  .... 

5,000 

Tuquerres 

8,500 

Iscuande  ..... 

5,000 

484  APPENDIX. 

FOREIGN  TRADE  OF  COLOMBIA  (1890). 

Imports.  Exports.                     Total. 

Great  Britain £960,000  £930,000             £1,890,000 

France       .         .         ."        .         .         .         .           390,000  1,060,000               1,450,000 

United  States 490,000  360,000                  850,000 

Germany 300,000          .  280,000                 580,000 

Total     .         .         .       2,140,000  2,630,000               4,770,000 
Total  exchanges  with  Great  Britain  (1891) :   £1,600,000. 

SHIPPING  RETURNS   (1889). 

Sailing-vessels.        Tonnage.  Steamers.           Tonnage. 

Entered 933                41,920  589                772,930 

Cleared 924                39,746  583                771,679 

Total  entered:    1,522  vessels;    814,850   tonnage. 

„       cleared:   1,507        „           811,425  ,. 


Total     3,029        ,,         1,626,275 
Total  entered  (1890)  :    1,022  vessels;   801,858  tonnage. 

Cucuta  (1889) :— Imports,  £200.000;  exports,  £692,000. 

Coffee  exported :  Colombian,  5,569  tons ;  Venezuelan,  4,937  tons  ;  total,  10,506  tons. 
Barranquilla  (1889;  :— Imports,  £1,470,000  ;  exports,  £1,970,000  ;  total,  £3,440,000. 
Shipping  entered,  240  ;  tonnage,  368,000. 
,,  cleared,  231;         ,,         364, OuO. 

Rio  Hacha  (1889) :  Imports,  £25,000  ;  exports,  £54,000  ;  total,  £79,000. 
Santa  Marta  (1889) :  Foreign  exchanges,  £8,000  ;  shipping,  105,000  tons. 
Cartagena  (1889)  :— Imports,  £400,000  ;  exports,  £367,000  ;  total,  £767,000. 

Shipping,  470  vessels;  603,346  tonnage. 
Buenaventura  (1889)  :— Imports,  £128,000;  exports,  £100,000;  total,  £228,000. 

Shipping,  141  vessels;  72,689  tonnage. 

Tumaco  (1889) :  Foreign  exchanges,  £44,000  ;  shipping,  78,000  tons. 
Rio  Magdalena :  Average  yearly  traffic,  £7,000,000 ;  tonnage,  50,000. 

FINANCE. 

1690.  1892.  18P3. 

Revenue £4,000,000  £4,070,000  £4,980,000 

Expenditure 4,500,000  4,800,000  5,460,000 

External  debt  (1892),  £1,913,500  ;  arrears  of  interest,  £1,146,485  ;  total,  £3,059,985. 

PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION   (1891). 

Primary  schools,  1,822:  pupils,  114,331  ;  attendance,  91,976. 
Normal  schools,  colleges,  &c. :   14  ;  students,  587. 
Universities  (Bogota,  Cartagena,  and  Popayan)  :  students,  755. 

Railways  (1890) :  218  miles  completed ;  150  miles  in  progress. 
Post  Office  returns  (1891)  :  2,592,000  letters,  &c.,  forwarded. 
Telegraph:  6,016  miles;  273  stations;  505,000  despatches. 


ECUADOR. 

Provinces.  Districts.  Area  in  sq.  miles.    Population  (est.). 

CABCHI  .         .         .       Tulcan  ....  15,000  36,000 

f  Ibarra  .         .  . 

IMMABIBA        .         .    I  Otavalo  .         .  .         .  2,100  67,940 

^  Cotocache  .         .  . 

f  Quito  .         .  . 

PICHINCHA      .         .    /  Cayambe  .         .  .         .     .  6,400  205,000 

I,  Mejia 


APPENDIX. 


485 


Provinces. 
LEON 

TUNGUBAGUA 


CHIMBOUAZO 

CA5JAR      . 

AZUAY     . 

LOJA 

ESMERALDAS 

Los  Rios 
MANABI  . 

GUAYAS   . 

OBO 

OBIENTK 
GALAPAGOS 


Districts. 
j  Latacunga  . 
\  Pujili 
I  Ambato 
I  PiUaro 
\  Pelileo 
Riobamba  . 
Alausi 
Guano 

Area  in  sq.  miles.    P 
'\     .          2,700 

.  |     .         1,700 
}3,100 

Colta  . 
,  Sangay 
(  Guaranda    . 
(  Chimbo 
I  San  Miguel 
<  Cuenca 
Gualaceo     . 
{  Paute 
Giron 
s,  Gualaquiz  i 
Loja   . 
Zaraguro    . 

1,600 

'.      '.     •      4»ooo 

.  i     .         3,800 

Paltas 
Calvas 
Esmeraldas 
fBaba  . 
(  Vinces         .         .   . 
V  Pueblo  Viejo 
Puerto  Viejo 
Jipijapa 
Montecristi 
Rocaf  uerte  . 
Sucre  . 
Santa  Ana  . 
(  Guayaquil  . 
J  Santa  Elena 
\  Daule 
I  Olmedo 
/  Machala 
x  Santa  Rosa  . 
\  Yaruma 
('Napo  .         .         . 
1  Canelos 
j  Gualaquiza 
\  Zamora 

5,600 
.  \     .         2,400 

8,000 

'  \     .        8,500 
.  V    .         2,400 

'  I     .     100,000 
3,200 

Total     . 

iON  OF  ECUADOR 

f-caste  Whites  and  Inc 

157,000 

ACCORDING  TO  RACES 

lians)     . 

Full-blood  Indians,  settled  and  baptized     ...... 

Full-blood  Indians,  Nomad  and  Pagan 

Zambos  (White  and  Black,  Indian  and  Black,  and  all  other  Half-castes) 
Full-blood  Africans 

Total 


109,600 
103,033 

122,300 

64,014 

132,400 

66,456 

14,553 
32,800 

64,123 

98,042 
32,600 
80,000 

1,271,861 


500,000 

500,000 

105,000 

40,000 

10,000 

1,155,000 


CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  ECUADOR. 


Guayaquil 
Quito 
Cuenca   . 
Latacunga 


Population. 
45,000 
35,000 
25,000 
12,000 


Riobamba 
Loja 
Ambato 
Jipijapa  . 


Population. 

12,000 

9,000 

8,000 

6,000 


486 


Puerto  Viejo 
Ibarra  . 
Cotocachi 
Guano  . 
Otavalo  . 
Alausi  , 


APPENDIX. 
CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  ECUADOR — continued. 


Population. 
5,000 
5,000 

A/oques 

Population. 
4,000 
4  000 

4,500 
4,500 

Tulcan    . 
Machala 

4,000 
3  000 

4,000 

Babahoyo 

3  OOJ 

4,000 

FOREIGN  TRADE  OF  ECUADOR  (1891). 


France  . 
Great  Britain 
Germany 
United  States 
Peru      . 
Chili      . 
Spain     . 
Colombia 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Total. 

£500,000 

£360,000 

£860,000 

360,000 

200,000 

560,000 

200,000 

210,000 

410,000 

500,000 

200,000 

700,000 

100,000 

40,000 

140,000 

50,000 

80,000 

130,000 

36,000 

12,000 

48,000 

9,000 

S.OvJO 

17,000 

Total 


£1,745,000  £1,110,000 


£2,865,000 


CHIEF  EXPORTS  :— Cocoa,  £900,"000  ;  coffee,  £140,000  ;  gold  and  silver,  £100,000  ;  rubber,  £80,000  ; 
hides,  £20,000;  sugar,  £31,000. 

CHIEF  IMPOSTS:—  Textiles,  £400,000;  provisions,  £200,000;  hardware,  £40,000. 


SHIPPING  RETURNS  (1891). 
ENTERED. 


CLEARED. 


National 

British 

Foreign 


Vessels. 
176 
307 
123 


Tonnage. 

8,400 

249,057 

116,120 


('easels. 
182 
303 
130 


Tonnage. 

8,600 

241,400 

106,000 


Total     .        .        606  373,577  615  456,000 

Guayaquil  (1890)  :— Total  exchanges,  £2,400,000.    Shipping,  896  vessels ;  tonnage,  642,000. 

FINANCE. 

Revenue  (1892)  :  Customs,  £386,000  ;  total,  £572,000. 

Expenditure  (1892) :  Charges  on  debt,  £114,300  ;   total,  £602,000. 

Public  Debt  (1892)  :  External,  £750,000  ;'  internal,  £1,000,000;  total,  £1,750,000. 

Regular  forces,  3,350  ;  National  Guard,  30,000. 
Railway,  Duran-Chimbo  line,  63  miles. 
Primary  and  other  schools,  866  ;  attendance,  58,000. 
University  (Quito)  :  staff,  24;  students,  11 6. 


GALAPAGOS  ISLANDS. 


Albemarle     . 

Indefatigable 

Narborough 

James  (Santiago) 

Chatham 

Floreana 

Other  islands  and  islets 


Area  in  sq.  miles. 

1,710 

400 

260 

250 

270 

50 

230 


Total 


3,170 


APPENDIX. 


487 


PERU. 


Departments. 

ProTinces. 

Area  in  sq.  miles.         Population. 

Tumbez       .         .         •         •  * 

Paita  

PIURA      .         .         .    < 

Ayabaca     .... 

.      13,931                155,502 

Piura  

Huancabamba     .         .         ., 

LAMBAYEOUE  .        .    < 

Lambayeque 
Chiclayo      .         .         .         .  1 

.      17,939                  85,984 

t  Pacasmayo           . 

Pataz  (Parcoy)    . 

LIBEETAD        .         .    < 

Huanachuco 

.      15,649                147,541 

Otusco        .         .••.-- 

.Trujillo 

'Pallasca 

Pomabamba 

Huaylas      .... 

A                                                                                             . 

Santa  ..... 

17  405                284  091 

ANCACHS              .             .      ( 

Huari          .... 

Huaraz       .... 

Cajatambo  .         .         .         .  , 

Canta          .... 

Chancay      .... 

LIMA       .        .        .    < 

Huarochiri          » 
Lima  ..... 

>      .      14,560                226,922 

Yauyos        .... 

^Cafiete         .... 

200                  34  492 

ICA 

f  Chincha  (Pisco)  . 

I      .        6,295                  60,111 

Union          .         .         .         .  ^ 

Cayllonia    .... 

Castilla        .... 

AREQUIPA       .        .    ' 

Condesuyos 

>     .      27,744                160,282 

Camana       .... 

Arequipa    .... 

v  Islay 

MOQUEGUA 

Moquegua  .... 

.      22,516                  28,786 

Jaen   .         .         .         .     "  . 

Chota 

Hualgayoc 

CAJAMAHCA     .        .    < 

Cajamarca  .... 

,      .      14,188                213,391 

Oelindin 

Cajabamba 

i.  Contumaza  .         .         .         . 

'  Bongara      .... 

1 

AMAZONAS 

Chachapoyas 
v  Luya           .... 

>     .      14,129                  34,245 

f  Huamalies  .... 

^ 

. 

TTlT  A  "WTTPn 

Huanuco     .... 

)            11  000                  78  856 

-1  .L  U  A.DI  U  \s\J                 •                  • 

[  Dos  de  Mayo 

j  Pasco           .... 

I  Tarma         .... 

JUNIN       . 

\  Jauja           .... 

i      .      22,822                209,871 

I  Huancayo  .... 

f  Tayacaja     . 

, 

HUANCAVELICA 

J  Angaraes    .... 
\  Huancavelica 

\      .      10,814                104,155 

(  Castrovireina 

1 

APPENDIX. 


Department*. 


AYACUCHO 


Ctrzco 


APUBMAC 


LOEETO  . 


Provinces. 

Huanta 

La  Mar 

Huamanga          .         . 

Cangallo     . 

Parinacochas 

Lucanas 
(  Convencio  (Santa  Ana) 

Paucartambo 

Urubamba 

Calca  .... 

Quispitanchi 

Cuzco 

Anta  .... 

Paruro 

Acomayo     . 
\Canchis  (Sicuani) 
( Andahuaylas 

Cotabambas 
\  Abancay     . 

Aymaraes   . 
*•  Antabamba 
(  Bajo  Amazonas  . 
:  Alta  Amazonas  . 


Area  in  sq.  miles.         Population. 


.   24,213       142,205 


>      .      95,547  238,445 


62,325       119,246 


\  Moyobamba 
Huallaga     . 

I  San  Martin 
Azangaro  . 
Carabaya  . 
Huancane  . 
Lampa 
Chucuito 


Total 
Uncivilised  and  semi  -independent  Indians 

Total  estimated  population  (1892) 


Area  of  Peru  before  the  war  with  Chili 
Area  of  Tarapaca  and  Tacna  ceded  to  Chili 

Present  area  of  Peru 


32,727 


61,125 


39,743  256,594 


463,747  2,621,844 

350,000 


.       2,971,844 

Sq.  miles. 

514,000 

50,000 

464,000 


Lima 

Callao 

Arequipa 

Chiclayo 

Monsefu  and  Eten 

Trujillo  . 

Ferrinafe 

lea 

Piura 

Lambayeque 

Motupe     . 

Huaraz    . 

C.i  m  ana  . 


CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  PERU  ON  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE. 

Population. 
.     101,488 

Coracora  .... 

.       35,492 
I         .         .       29,237 

Pampa-colca 
Chorrilloe 

.       11,325 
10,833 
7,538 
7,043 
6,906 

Huacho    .... 
Yungay    .... 
Moquegua 
Morrope   .... 
San  Padro  de  Lloc    . 

6,811 
6,248 

Paita         .... 
Caraz        .... 

4,861 

Pisco        .... 

v                                   4,851 

Tumbez    .... 

4,658 

Mollendo  .... 

Population. 
4,431 
4,352 
4.329 
3,972 
3,750 
3,581 
3,407 
3,320 
2,396 
2,387 
2,348 
1,851 
1,434 


CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  PERU  IN  THE  AMAZONIAN  AND  TITICACA  BASINS. 


Cuzco 
Ayacucho 


Population. 
18,970 
9,387 


Iquitos     . 
Cajamarcrt 


Population. 
8,000 
7,225 


APPENDIX. 


489 


CHIEF  TOWNS  OP  PERU  IN  THE  AMAZONIAN  AND  TITICACA  BASINS  —  continued. 

Population. 

Moyobamba      .... 

7,103 

Chachapoyas     .... 

CerrodePasco  .... 

7,000 

Lamas       ..... 

Huanuco  ... 

5,263 

Jauja        ..... 

Tarapoto  ..... 

4,740 

Puno         ..... 

Maras       ..... 

4,421 

Andahuaylas     .... 

Huancayo          .... 

4,089 

Sicuani     ..... 

Santiago  de  Chuco  . 

3,904 

Chasuta    ..... 

Huancavelica    .... 

3,937 

Hualgayoc        .... 

Tarma      ..... 

3,834 

Jeberos     .          .          . 

Huanta    ..... 

3,739                 Cangallo  

Population. 
3,366 
3,135 
2,806 
2,729 
2,388 
2,290 
2,021 
1,914 
1,733 
1,703 


FOREIGN  TRADE  OF  PERU  (YEARLY  AVERAGE). 

Total  Imports,  £2,000,000  ;  Imports  from  Great  Britain,  £1,000,000. 
Total  Exports,  £1,500,000;  Exports  to  Great  Britain,    £1,200,000. 


Total  Exchanges    £3,500,000 

Exports  to  Great  Britain   . 
Imports  from  Great  Britain 


1887. 

£1,640,000 
717,000 


Total    £2,200,000. 

1889. 

£1,294,000 
960,000 


1891. 

£970,000 
1,040,000 


Tons 
Value 


GUANO  EXPORTED  TO  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

1876.  1883. 

157,000  14,000 

.     £1,966,000  £122,000 


1891. 

3,800 

£16,000 


NITRATES  EXPORTED  TO  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


Cwts. 

Value 


1887. 

1,356,000 
£642,000 


75,000 
£36,000 


1891. 
70,000 
£29,000 


MINING  INDUSTRIES. 

Total  yield  of  silver  (1888) :  280,000  Ibs.  ;  value,  £1,040,000. 

Mines  open  (1891)  :  4,187,  of  -which  2,641  silver,  427  gold,  46  gold  and  silver,  18  silver  and  copper, 
25  silver  and  lead,  zinc  or  quicksilver,  28  copper,  20  quicksilver,  613  petroleum,  278  coal,  60  salt,  14 
sulphur,  17  sundries. 

Capital  (mostly  British)  invested  in  mining  and  associated  industries  (1889-91),  £8,350,000. 

Average  coca  crop,  12,000,000  to  14,000,000  Ibs.  ;  value,  £240,000  to  £300,000.  Sugar  exported 
(1890),  £412,000  ;  alpaca,  £252,000. 

Paita  (1890):  Total  exchanges,  £6)0,000. 

Callao  (1889)  :— Customs  receipts,  £656,000.  Shipping  entered  and  cleared,  653  steamers,  of  816,896 
tons;  1,890  sailing-vessels  of  237,063  tons  ;  total,  2,543  vessels,  1,053,959  tonnage. 

Mollendo  (1890)  :  Shipping,  606  vessels;  805,000  tonnage. 

Iquitos  (1891) :— Customs  receipts,  £25,003.     Average  exchanges,  £240,000  to  £400,000. 


FINANCE  (1892). 


Customs 
Taxes    . 
State  Property 
Telegraphs    . 
Posts     . 
Various 


REVENUE. 


Total     . 

Public  Debt,  internal  (1889) 
Unredeemed  paper  money 


£1,072,000 
243,000 

Congress 
Government 

12,000 
5,000 

Foreign  Affairs 
Justice 

37,000 
52,000 

Army  and  Navy 
Sundries 

£1,421,000 

EXPENDITUEF. 


Total 


Total     . 

£22,000,000 
17,000,000 

£39,000,000 


£61,000 
199,000 
42,000 
150,000 
660,000 
300,000 

£1,412,000 


490 


APPENDIX. 
EXTERNAL  DEBT  CONTRACTED  IN  ENGLAND. 


Railway  6  per  cent,  loan  (1870) 
Railway  6  per  cent,  loan  (1872) 
Accumulated  arrears  of  interest  (1890) 


£11,142,000 
20,438,000 
23,000,000 


Total 


£54,580,000 


NOTE. — "  In  January,  1890,  what  is  known  as  the  Grace-Donoughmore  Contract  was  finally 
ratified.  By  this  the  English  Council  of  Foreign  Bondholders  releases  Peru  of  all  responsibility  for  the 
1870  and  1872  debts,  on  condition  that  the  bondholders  have  ceded  to  them  all  the  railways,  guano 
deposits,  mines  and  lands  of  the  State  for  66  years.  The  bondholders  undertake  to  complete  and 
extend  the  existing  railways." — Statesman's  Year  Book,  1893,  p.  822. 


Railways  open  (1892) :— State,  760  miles;    private,  122  miles;   total,  882  miles, 
construction,  £36,000,000;  gross  receipts  (1892),  £348,500;  expenses,  £215,000. 
State  telegraph  lines  (1892),  1,080  miles. 
Post  Office  (1890) :  Letters,  parcels,  &c.,  forwarded,  937,300. 


Total  cost  of 


BOLIVIA. 


Departments. 


OBUHO    . 


POTOSI    . 


COCHABAMBA 


BENI 


SANTA  CRUZ 


CHUQTTISACA 


TARIJA   . 


Provinces. 
'Munecas     .... 

Area  in  sq.  miles.      Pop.  1888  (eat). 

Omasuyos   .... 
Ingavi        .... 
,  La  Paz        .... 
Sicasica      .... 

>    .     171,200                346,139 

Larejaca      .... 
Yungas       .... 
\Inquisivi     . 

(  Caraugas    .... 
:  Oruro           .... 
[Paria           . 

21,331                 111,372 

Poreo          .         .         .         .  x 

Lipez           .... 
Potosi          .... 

52,084                237  755 

Chayanta    .... 
^  Chicas 

Tapacari 
Arque          .... 
Cochabamba 
Cliza  

.       21,417                196,766 

Mizque        .... 

s  Ayopaya 

'Caupolican          .        .         .  l 
Mojos 
,  Yuracares   .         .         .         .  J 

.      100,551                  16,744 

Santa  Cruz          .        .         .  ~) 
Valle  Grande       . 
Cordillera   .         .         .         .  J 

.      120,305                  97,185 

Yamparaez          .         .         .  "j 
Tomina  y  A  zero  .         .         .  :« 
^  Cinti  J 

39,871                123,347 

Tarija          .         .         .         .  ~\ 
Concepcion          .         .         .  ( 
Salinas        .         .         .         .  I 

34,599                   62,854 

Total 


.    567,360 


1,192,162 


APPENDIX.  491 

ESTIMATED  POPULATION  OF  BOLIVIA   (1893). 

Half-caste  Whites  and  Aborigines 800,000 

Whites  and  recent  immigrants 600,000 

Full-blood  Indians,  nomad  and  settled 1,000,000 

Total        .         .         .         2,300,000 

CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  BOLIVIA. 

Population.  Population. 


LaPaz    .                                     .         .  45,000 

Sucre  (Chuquisaca).         .         .         .  26,000 

Cochabamba 19,500 

Potosi 12,000 

Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra  .         .         .  10,300 

Oruro 10,000 

Huanchaca               ....  8,000 


Tarija 6,000 

Corocoro 4,000 

Tupiza 3,500 

Cinti         .         .         .         .         .         .  2,000 

Trinidad 1,800 

Sorata                        .         .         .         .  1,200 


TRADE    RETURNS. 

Average  annual  value  of  imports £1,200,000 

Average  annual  value  of  exports                             .                 ....  1,800,000 

Total  yearly  exchanges  about        .         .  £3,000,000 

1886.                          1887.  1888. 

Exports  to  Great  Britain          ....         £190,620             £145,950  £142,550 

Imports  from  Great  Britain     ....              53,600                  84,600  111,000 


Total  exchanges  with  Great  Britain  .         £244,220  £230,550  £253,550 

MINING  RETURNS. 

Huanchaca  silver-mines  (1890) :  Ores,   £900,000;    net  value,  £520,000.     Total  net  value  of  output 
(1877-1890),  £5,200,000. 

Tipuani  gold-mines :  total  yield  (1818-1868),  £2,000,000. 
Total  output  of  all  the  Bolivian  mines  (1890),  £2,300,000. 
Coca  crop  (1885),  £340,000  ;  other  agricultural  produce,  £3,200,000. 

FINANCE. 

Revenue  (1891),  £400,000  ;   expenditure,  £448,000. 

Public  debt:   internal,  £890,000  ;    external,  £124,000  ;  total,  £1,014,000. 

Primary  schools  (1890),  493  ;    attendance,  24,200. 
Secondary  schools  (1890),  16  ;   pupils,  2,126. 
Universities  (1890),  5  ;    students,  1,384. 
Army  (peace  footing^,  2,000. 


CHILI. 

Provinces.  Departments.  Area  in  sq.  miles.        Pop.  (est.)  1891. 

TACNA     •         •         •       Tacna          .....         8,685  31,303 


I"  Antof  agasta        .         . 
ANTOFAQASTA  .        .    I  Tocopilla    .        .        .        .  \    .       60,968  35,851 

[Taltal          .         .         . 


492 


Provinces. 
ATACAMA 

COQUIHBO 

ACONCAGUA     . 

VALPARAISO     . 
SANTIAGO 

O'HlGGINS 

COLCHAGUA       , 
CUEICO    . 

TALCA  . 
LINARES 
MAIM:  . 

CHLLLAN  (NUBLE) 

CONCEPCION     . 

ARAITCO  . 
BIOBIO  . 
MALLECO 


APPENDIX. 

Departments. 
Copiapo 
Freirina 
Vallenar 
Chafiaral     . 

Serena 

Illapel 

Combarbala         .        . 

Ovalle 

Puerto  de  Coquimbo   . 

Elqui 

San  Felipe .         .        . 
!  Andes          .         .         . 
Putaendo    . 
Ligua 
Petorca 

Valparaiso  . 
Casablanca 

I.  in  1:1  die 
QuUlota      . 

I  Santiago 
<  Victoria 
(  Melipilla 


i  Rancagua  . 
(  Cachapoal  . 
1^  Maipo 

f  San  Fernando 
1  Caupolican 

,  Corico 
Vichuquen  . 

C  Talca 
J  Curepto 
[  Lontae 


( Linares 
Parral 
v  Loncomilla 

Cauquenes . 
Itata  . 
Constitucion 

Chilian 
Yungay 
Bulnes 
San  Carlos  . 

'  Concepcion 
Lautaro 
Talcaguano 
Yum.be! 
Pachacay    . 
Coelemu 

rLebu.  . 
(  Canete 
I  Arauco 


f  Angeles 
f  Nacimiento 

(  M uli-lii •!! 

f  Angol 

Traiguen     . 
i  CoUipulli    . 


Area  in  cq.  miles. 
)     .        43,180 

;    .        12,905 

>  .         5,840 

)    ,         1,637 

5,223 

>  •         2,524 

>  .         3,795 

>  .         2,913 

>  .         3,678 
I    .         3,488 

2,930 

|    .         3,556 

I 

3,535 

4,248 
158 
2,856 


Top.  (est),  1891. 
68,855 

191,901 

153,049 

221,788 

383,609 

92,063 

161,788 
104,909 

152,719 
110,652 
127,771 

161,689 
223,850 

86,236 

125,582 

69,892 


APPENDIX. 


493 


Provinces. 
CAUTIN  . 

VALDIVIA 

LLANQTJIHTTE 

CHILOE  . 


Departments.  Area  in  sq.  miles. 

/  Temuco       .  .  .         .{             ,  m 
(  T           •   i                                           f     '           B**«0 

\  Imperial      .  .  .         .  / 

f  Valdivia     .  .  .        .1 

(    TT     •  /        •  0,OlO 

\  Union          .  .  .         .  / 

I  Melipulli     .  .  .         .  S 

I  Carelmapu .  .  .         .  >    .         7,823 
I  Osorno                                   .  / 


f  Ancud 


Castro 
Quinchao 


MAGELLANES  (Territory) 


Total 


3,995 

75,292 
293,970 


Pop.  (est.),  1891. 
42,411 

60,437 
74,818 

79,514 
3,111 


2,817,552 


Area  of  Chili :  (1880)  120,000  sq.  miles  ;   (1881)  196,000  sq.  miles-,   (1892)  294,000  sq.  miles. 
Estimated  population  of  Chili  (1892),  3,270,000. 
Immigration  (1889)  :  9,660,  chiefly  Italians  and  Germans. 


CHIEF  ETHNICAL  ELEMENTS  OP  CHILI. 

Hispano-Americans 3,000,000 

Full-blood  Indians  (Araucanians,  Fuegians)       ......  50,000 

European  immigrants  (Germans,  Italians,  French,  English)        .         .         .  50,000 

American  immigrants  (Peruvians,  Bolivians,  Argentines)   ....  160,000 

Sundries  (Chinese,  &c.) 10,000 

Total     .         .         .  3,270,000 


CHIEF  TOWNS  OF  CHILI. 


Santiago 

Valparaiso 

Concepcion 

Talca      . 

Chilian    . 

Serena  de  Coquimbo 

Iquique  . 

Tacna 

San  Felipe  de  los  Andes 

Curico     . 

Copiapo  . 

Quillota  . 

Angeles  . 

Mulchen 

Linares   . 

Antofagasta    . 

San  Carlos 

San  Fernando 

Cauquenea 

Constitucion    . 

Limache . 


Municipal 
Population. 

237,000 
115,000 
40,000 
70,000 
61,000 
37,000 
33,000 
21,000 
35,000 
59,000 
28,000 
.49,000 
51,000 
34,000 
45,000 
17,000 
40,000 
80,000 
46,000 
32,000 
25,000 


Angol     . 
Coquimbo 
Parral     . 
Rancagua 
Rengo     . 
Tome       . 
Ovalle     . 
Valdivia 
San  Bernardo . 
Vallenar . 
Taltal     . 
Illapel     . 
Pisagua  . 
Arica 
Ancud     . 
Talcahuano 
Santa  Rosa 
Puerto  Montt . 
Tocopilla 
Punta  Arenas 


Municipal 
Population. 
19,000 
16,000 
32,000 
35,000 
76,000 
33,000 
61,000 
24,000 
38,000 
16,000 
13,000 
32,000 
12,000 

9,000 
25,000 

7,000 
34,000 
16,000 

5,000 

2,100 


SHIPPING  OF  CHILI   (1889). 


Entered 
Cleared 


Tonnage. 
11,109 
11,286 


Vessels. 

9,723,998 

10,174,173 


Totals 


22,395 


19,898,171 


494 


APPENDIX. 


Total  value  of  exports  of  Chili  (1890) 
,,        ,,      ,,  importe ,,     „         ,, 


Total  exchanges  (1890) 


£19,200,000 
18,250,000 

£37,450,000 


1890:  Entered 
Cleared 


VALPARAISO:  SHIPPING  1890  AND  1891. 

Vessels. 

1,267 

1,270 


Totals 


2,537 


Tonnage. 
1,204,145 
1,203,077 


2,407,222 


1891  :  Entered 
Cleared 


Totals 


1,048 
1,029 

2,077 


945,523 
910,260 

1,855,783 


AEICA  (1889) :— Imports,  £600,000;  exports,  £1,300,000  ;  total,  £1,900,000. 


Shipping  entered   . 
cleared    . 


Totals 


Vessels. 
585 
569 

1,154 


Tonnage. 
536,593 
523,064 

1,059,657 


IQUIQUE  (1887)  :— Imports,  £1,125,000;  exports,  £3,700,000  ;  total,  £4,825,000. 


Shipping  entered 
cleared 


Totals 


Vessels. 
270 
394 

664 


Tonnage. 
319,345 
445,355 


764,700 


PISAGUA  (1887)  :— Imports,  £230,000;  exports,  £3,000,000  ;  total,  £3,230,000. 


Shipping  entered     . 
cleared 


Totals 


Vessels. 
154 
365 

519 


Tonnage. 
181,222 
375,403 

556,625 


Cobija  and  Tocopilla  :  Average  annual  exchanges,  £1,200,000.  Shipping:  550  vessels  ;  5,200,000 
tonnage. 

Antofagasta  (1889)  :  Imports,  £275,000;  exports,  £506,000  ;  total,  £781,000. 

Taltal  (1889):  Imports,  £120,000 ;  exports,  £500,000 ;  total,  £620,000.  Shipping  (1891)  :  725 
vessels ;  749,476  tonnage. 

Copiapo  :  Average  annual  yield  of  silver  ores,  £1,200,000. 

Caldera:  Average  annual  exchanges,  £2,400,000  to  £3,200,000.  Shipping:  over  1,000  vessels; 
1,000,000  tonnage. 

Coquimbo  (1889):  Imports,  £400,000;  exports,  £600,000;  total,  £1,000,000.  Shipping :  454 
vessels  ;  468, 340  tonnage. 

Talcahuano  (1889) :  Total  value  of  exchanges,  £1,580,000.  Shipping  :  1,310  vessels  entered  and 
cleared  ;  tonnage,  1,223,800. 

Corral :  Average  annual  exchanges,  £600,000  ;  average  annual  tonnage,  300,000. 


MINING  RETURNS. 

Yield  of  gold  (1888),  5,400  Ibs.  ;   value,  £342,000. 

Total  yield  of  gold  (1550-1888),  £40,000,000. 

Yield  of  silver  (1888),  434,000  Ibs.  ;   value,  £1,200,000. 


APPENDIX. 


495 


Yield  of  copper  (1888),  31,240  tons ;   value,  £2,600,000. 
Yield  of  coal  (1890),  580,000  tons;   value,  £240,000. 
Yield  of  nitrates  (1888),  784,250  tons  ;   value,  £6,800,000. 


TRADE  RETURNS. 

Imports,  1889. 

Exports,  1J 

589. 

Textile  Fabrics     .... 

£2,150,000 

Nitrates       .... 

£6,000,000 

Cattle  

1,000,000 

Other  Minerals     . 

5,000,000 

Sugar  .         

1,300,000 

Wheat         .... 

500,000 

Coal     

590,000 

Other  agricultural  produce  . 

1,000,000 

Sacks  

280,000 

Specie          .... 

160,000 

Wine  

150,000 

Sundries      .... 

12,000 

Tea      

160,000 

225,000 

570,000 

Timber        

170,000 

MINERALS    EXPORTED. 

Year. 

Nitrates.               Copper  in  Bars. 

Silver. 

1886           .... 

.       £3,750,000             £1,550,000 

£1,250,000 

1888           .         . 

6,000,000                  760,000 

1,500,000 

1889           .... 

7,180,000              3,000,000 

900,000 

1890           .... 

7,320,000               1,500,000 

800,000 

FOREIGN  TRADE  OF  CHILI  (1890). 

Imports.                      Exports. 

Total. 

Great  Britain  . 

.       £4,000,000             £9,000,000 

£13,000,000 

Germany- 

2,300,000                1,200,000 

3,500,000 

France      .... 

1,050,000                   440,000 

1,490,000 

United  States  . 

600,000                1,600,000 

2,200,000 

Peru        .... 

500,000                   420,000 

920,000 

Argentina 

410,000                       7,000 

417,000 

Brazil       .... 

140,000                     15,000 

155,000 

Italy         .... 

100,000                       8,000 

108,000 

Total 

.       £9,100,000           £.2,790,000 

£21,890,000 

1887.                             1889. 

1891. 

Exports  to  Great  Britain 

£2,208,000             £3,264,000 

£3,710,000 

Imports  from  Great  Britain 

1,980,000                3,130,000 

2,000,000 

FINANCE. 

BUDGET  FOE  1893. 

Eevenue. 

Expenditure. 

Import  duties         .... 

£4,000,000 

Interior           . 

£800  000 

Export  duties         .... 

4,750,000 

Foreign  Affairs  and  Worship 

200,000 

Land  Tax       

200,000 

Justice  and  Education  . 

1,300,000 

150,000 

Finance          .         .         .         . 

2  300  000 

Post  and  Telegraphs      . 

150,000 

War      

1  200  000 

2,700,000 

Marine  ..... 

1,100,000 

Storage  and  Wharfage  . 

50,000 

Industries  and  Public  Works 

2,500,000 

Miscellaneous         .... 

200,000 

Total     . 

£12,200,000 

Total     . 

.       £9,400,000 

STATE  OF  THE  PUBLIC  DEBT  (1892). 


External  Debt      .... 
Internal  Debt       .... 
Paper  Money  (legal)     . 
Paper  Money  (illegal,  issued  1891) 


Total 


£9,300,000 
4,200,000 
4,000,000 
4,200,000 


£21,700,000 


496 


APPENDIX. 


RAILWAY  SYSTEM  OF  CHILI   (1892). 


Total  length  of  completed  lines 1,735  miles. 

Estimated  value  at  £5,000  per  mile    ...'...  £8,675,000 

Receipts  of  the  State  lines  (685  miles) £1,700.000 

Expenditure  on  the  State  lines £1,300,000 

Number  of  passengers  carried 3,382,000 

Telegraphs  (1892),  13,730  miles,  of  which  8,000  belonged  to  the  State. 
Telegraph  offices,  411  ;  messages  forwarded,  620,000. 
Post  Office  (1890)  :  letters,  &c.,  forwarded,  44,000,000. 


PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  (1890). 

Public  primary  schools,  1,201;  attendance,  102,000. 

Private  primary  schools,  547  ;  attendance,  27,500. 

Colleges  and  high  schools  :  attendance,  6,014. 

University  and  National  Institute  (Santiago)  :  students,  1,200. 


INDEX. 


ABANCAY,  337 
Aborra,  199 
Aoarigua,  120 
Aceite  Mountain,  142 
Aohaguas,  121 
Achatayhua  Mountain,  282 
Achira,  Rio,  223,  286,  289 
Acobamba  River,  293 
Aconcagua  Mountain,  21,  412 

Rio,  429 
Asjataes,  193 
Agoyan  River,  238 
Ayuach  Lagoon,  289 
Agua  de  Dios,  186 

de  la  Muerte,  416 

Vida,  416 
Aipe,  181 
Alakalufs,  446 
Alaraeda,  123 
Alausi,  223,  253 
Albemarle  Island,  267 
Alegre,  Rio,  4 
Almaguer,  209 
Aloajr,  251 

Altagracia  Mines,  112 
Altamaachi,  Rio,  363 
Altar  Mountain,  228 
Alto  de  las  Cazuelitas,  144 
Minas,  205 

Pereira,  145 

de  San  Miguel,  200 
Amacuro,  R'O,  79,  97 
Amaga,  199 
Amahuacas,  311 
Amain,  201 
A  mat  ope  Hills,  316 
Amazons  River,  3,  279 
Arnbalema,  184,  187 
Ambato,  238.  251,  253 
Ameraca,  109 
Amortajada  Island,  255 
Amotape.  284 
Ampato  Mountain,  282 
Ana,  200 
Anacuta.  181 
Analoimas,  174 
Annpnima,  186 
-Anapoimas,  174 
AncHchs  Department,  320 

Mountain.  279 
Ancas-yacu,  Rio,  293 
Ancon,  322 

de  las  Sardinas,  250 
Ancud,  464 
.  Andalusians,  179 
Andaqui,  180 

33 


Andes,  1,  19,  278 

BoLvian,  21,  357 

Chilian,  11,  410 

Colombian,  85,  142,  144 

Ecuadorean,  21 

Peruvian,  11,  31,  278     • 

Venezuelan,  83 
Anfgadizo,  156 
Angeles,  Los  (Chili),  462 
Anjrol,  462 

Angostura,  123,  188,  201 
Anirnas,  Las,  150 
Anolaiu'a,  186 
Anori,  201 
Antasuya.  278 
Antilles,  40,  55 
Antimano,  112 
Autioquia,  199 

Plateau.  145 

Antis,  41,  278,  309,  310,  376 
Antisaua  Mountain,  225 
Antofagasta,  453 

Bay,  v'5 

Antopalla  Volcano,  408 
Autuco  VoL  ano,  418 
Anxious  Point,  466 
Apnparis,  Ri<>,  276 
Apolistao,  379 
ApoloViamba  Mountain,  358 

Town,  379 
Apo-pam,  Rio,  293 
Apulo,  R.o,  186 
Apure,  Rio,  103 
Apurimac,  Rio,  281    294 
Aragua  River,  84,  98 
Aragiiaya,  41 
Araonas,  379 
Artt.Hca,  194 
Arauca,  Rio,  94 
Arancania,  442 
Araucans,  46,  442 
Arauco  Bay,  444,  462 

Town,  462 
Arawak-s,  40,  56,  106 
Ar-aya  Peninsula,  87,  109 
Archidona,  252 
Aiecunas,  83,  106 
Arpquipa,  282,  329 
Arhuacos,  176 
Ari  Ari  Mountain,  144 

Rio,  92 
Arica,  19,  448 
Arima,  70 
A>oa  Mines,  116 

Riv^r,  97 
Arranca-Pluma0,  187 


Atuba  Inland,  73,  76 
Asanaque  Mountain,  358 
Asph-ilc  Lake,  60 
Asuncion,  72 
Atabapo,  Rio,  92 
Atacama  Detert,  31,  411 

Volcano,  408 
Atacazo  Mountain,  230 
Atanquez,  205 
Afrato,  Rio,  157 
Airavesio,  416 
Atures,  93,  122 

Rapids,  3,  93 
Au^as,  245 

Auoasquilucha  Mountain,  357 
A'ires,  199 
Aurohuacos,  176 
Avea  Islands,  55 
Ayabaca,  317 
Ayacucho  River,  336 

Town,  337 
Ayamanes,  105 
Aymaras,  39,  301,  368 
Ay  sen,  Rio,  431 
Azangaro,  342 
Az  ij-ues.  257 
Azua  Island,  76 
Azua\ ,  229,  257 
Azulral  Chiquito,  87 

Grande,  87 

Mountain,  148 
Azufie  Mountain,  412 
Azuiigato  Ptak,  282 

Babahoyo,  253,  255 

Rio,  236 
Baoata,  183 
Baeza,  252 

Babia  Honda,  142,  205 
Bail  adores,  118 
B«mia8,  179 
Banco,  El,  204 
Banivas,  106 
Bhfios,  257 
Harbac'>as.  210 
Barbosa,  201 
Barcelona,  110 
I'.aiia   Rio,  78 
Barichara,  194 
Barima  Island,  79.  97 
Baiquisimeto  Mountains,  95 

Town,  116 
Barrancas,  124 
Barranqnilla,  156,  203 
Baru  Island,  207 
Bj,udo,  208 


493 


INDEX. 


Haudos.  174 
I'.i.il.  El.  1  Jl 

Doable  Channel,  400,  426 
Hcjuraa,  l.n 
Bellavista,  330 
Beni,  Kio,  359,  363 
U-Tif.-iiiiiii  Mountain,  84 
Biobio  River,  430 
Bird  IsUnds.  55 
Blanco  Euoulada,  454 

Rio,  159 

HI.  -in.  j.  i  ill  i  I-lmd,  55,  73 
B  -bali  Mountain,  142 
Boca  de  los  Monos,  68 

de  Navios,  58,  96 
Bodegas.  253 
Bogota  City,  137,  183 

Lake,  143 

Bolivar    Department    (Colombia), 
207 

Province  (Ecuador).  256 

Town  (Colombia),  208 

(Venezuela),  95,  123 
Bolivia,  354 
B  mil  luiui,  210 
Bordoncillo  Mountain,  14  < 
Boya^a  Town.  190 
Brea  Lake,  60 

Moui.  tains,  284 
Bucaranmns?a,  143.  192,  195 
Bueiiaire  Island,  73 
Buenaventura  Bay,  149 

Town,  209 
lluenavista,  18S 
Bu-no,  Rio.  430 
Buev  Mountains,  148 


B  .lues,  460 

Caballa-coeha,  341 
Cibana,  321 
Cdbtrres,  107 
Cabrera  Island,  99 
Crtbruta,  81,  94 
Cabuyaro,  185 
Cdcaoa  Mountain,  358 
Cacas,  335 
Cacha,  253 
Cachapoal,  439 
Cichi'ios,  311 
Gtchinal,  454 
Cichiri  Mounta'n,  143 
Caicara,  123 

Cijabamba  (Ecuador),  253 
Cijamarca,  331 
Oajatambo,  321 
Ca'abozo,  108,  120 
Calacoto,  382 
Calama,  454 
Oalamar,  203,  205 
Calbuco  Mountaiu,  418 

Town,  463 
Calohaquin,  442 
Caldera,  330,  456 
Calera,  330 

Caleta  Buena,  450,  452 
Cali,  136,  167,  197 
Callao  (Peru).  10,  324 

(Venezuela),  124 
Callaqui  Vr.lcmo,  418 
Caninna,  329 
Camarones,  Kio,  429 
Cambao,  184 

Campanario  Mountain,  148 
Campas,  310 
Canaburi,  Rio,  78 


Cafiar  Rio,  255 

Town,  255 

Tribe,  244 
Ciina»gordas,  208 
Caudarave  Volcano,  284 
Candelnria,  199 
Ca-.elos,  246 
Can.te,  315,  326 
Can  gall  >,  337 
Canichanas,  374 
CunoCamburi  River,  98 
Capac-Ur.-u  Mountain,  228 
Ciipanapiro,  luo,  94 
Ciipatarida,  118 
C<i|,e  Blanca,  269 

Horn,  10,  400,  427 
Capocabana,  364 
Caqueta,  Rio,  159,  179 
Caqueza,  185 

Carabaya  Mountains,  281,  342 
C^rabobo,  80,  88,  113 
Caracas,  111,  112 

Mountains,  106 
Cariooles  Mines,  453,  471 

Mountains,  408 
Ciramanta  Mountains,  149 
Caranqui,  248 
Caraques,  255 
Camre  Narrows,  loO 
-      Rio,  193 
Caras,  244 
Carates,  196 
Caravellada,  111 
(.'arnvas,  41 
Caraz,  279,  320 
Carlionera  Mountain,  144 
C^rchi,  Rio,  159 
Carhuaz,  109 
Cariaco  Gulf,  59,  83 

Peninsula,  55 
Cariamanga,  257 
Cnribbe>!ii  Sea.  3 
Cirib  Mountains,  85 
('su-ibs,  40,  56.  105 
Carihuairazo  Volcano,  232 
Caupunas,  379 
Carizalillo,  454 
Carmen.  202 

Alto,  283 
Carolina,  201 
Caroni,  Kio,  62,  94 
Crirora,  116 

<'arra*co  Mountain,  453 
Canizal  Alto,  456 

liajo,  456 
Cartas?fna,  205 
Oartago,  154,  198 
Carupuno  Bay,  83 

Town,  109 

C^saj)are,  Rio,  93,  162 
Casma,  Kio,  287,  321 

Town,  287 

Cassiquiare,  Rio,  78,  91 
Ca^tigo,  El,  209 
Castillo,  331 
Castro,  463 
Castrovireina.  326 
Catacaos,  317 
Catacochn,  257 
Catatumho,  Rio,  98    142 
Cathedral  Rock,  424 

of  Peterbr>rough  Rook,  428 
Catia  Prtss,  112 
Catios,  175 

Cauca,  Rio,  52,  148,  154 
Cauquenes,  460 


Caura,  Ri<s  82,  94 
duteii,  Rio,  430 
Cavancha,  450 
Ciiyainbe  Mountain,  224 
Cayapns,  244 
Ceiba,  La,  118 
Ceja  Mountains,  281 
Celica,  257 
Ceniza,  Rio,  156 
Cerro  Azul,  410 

Bravo,  410 

de  Campanario,  417 

de  Collanes,  228 

Gordo,  25 

Grande,  145 

de  Luna,  106 

de  Mato,  81 

Mina,  143 

de  los  Muertos,  93 

Negro,  408 

de  Pasco,  52,  281,  335 

Peinado,  142 

Pintado,  93,  142,  410 

Santo,  110 

Cesar,  Rio,  78,  140,  154 
Cbacabuoo,  415,  419,  473 
Chaoao,  422 

Strait,  28,  463 

Town,  463 
Chacarilla,  408 
Cbachacomani  Mountain,  358 
Chachani  Mountain,  282 
Cbachapoyas,  318,  332 
ChagUdramas,  70 
Cbaimas,  106 
Chalo  Mountain,  408 
Chama,  Rio,  118 
Chamaya  Mountain,  359 
Chana  Mountain,  419 
Chanaral,  454 
Chanar'-illo,  455 
Chanaro  Mountain,  82 
Chancay,  322 
Chaucbamayo,  336 
Chanchau  River,  223 
Chancbay-cocba  Lake,  293 
Chanduy  Mountain,  232 
Chaparral,  181 
Chap  uero,  183 
Charapoto,  Rio,  255 

Town,  <  55 
Charazani,  379 
Charles  Island,  273 
Charruas,  41 
Chatham  I-land,  267 
Chavin  de  Huantar,  331 
Chepen,  318 
Chibchas,  39,  169 
Chicamocha,  R.o,  144,  152 
Chichas  Mountains,  358 
Chichirivichi,  116 
Chicla,  326 
Chiclayo,  317 
Cbigurrado  Mountain,  148 
Chiles  Mountain,  148 
Chili.  397 

Rio,  330 
Chilians,  447 
Chililaya,  391 
Chilla  Mountains,  234 
Chilian  Town,  460,  470 

Volcano,  417 
Chillon,  Rio,  287 
Chiloe  Island,  11,  402,  421 
Chilotes,  421,  444,  461 
Chimacota,  196 


INDEX. 


499 


Chimbo  Mountains,  232 

liio,  236 

Chimborazo  Mountain,  16,  224,  232 
Chimbote,  320 
Chimilas,  176 
Chimu,  319 
Chinauta,  181 

Chinoha  Islands,  289,  319,  326 
Chinchipe,  Kio,  279 
Chinese  of  Peru,  315 
Chin  to  River,  235 
Chinu,  202 
Chipaque,  144,  185 
Cbipicani  Mountain,  357,  407 
Chiquinquira,  185,  192 
Chiquitos,  370 
Chiriguaiios,  375 
Chiriqui  Bay,  1 74 
Chirugua,  140 
Chisinche  Mountains,  227 
Chita  Mountains,  143 

Town,  190 
Chiuchiu,  454 
Choachi,  144,  185 
Choapa,  Rio,  429 
Choco  Mountain,  1 48 

Rio,  157 

Tribe,  135,  174 
Choconta,  182 
Chocope,  297 
Chololo  Mountain,  281 
Chongon  Mountains,  232 
Chonos  Islands,  421,  423 

Tribe,  421,  444 
Chontaquiros,  311 
Chorolque  Mountain,  358 
Chomllos,  325 
Chucuito,  360 
Chunchanga,  326 
Chunchos,  309,  376 
Chungarra  Lake,  407 
Chungos,  442 
Chupas,  337 
Chuquisaca,  320,  366 
Ciealpa,  253 
Cienasra  Inlet,  156 

Town,  204 
Cinti,  388 
Citaraes,  174 
Ciudad  Vieja,  254 
Clarence  Island,  425 
Coati,  362 
Cobija,  398,  453 
Coci,  Rio,  225 
Cocal,  64 
Cocamas,  312,  341 
Cocha  Lake,  148,  162 
Cocbabamba,  278,  358,  385 
Coche  Isls,nd,  55,  71 
Cociiias,  178 
Coconucos  Tribe,  174 
Cocos  Islands,  149,  267 
Cocui  Mountains,  21,  143 
Coello,  187 
Coipasa,  363 
Cojedeg,  Rio,  85,  116 

Town,  120 
Cojoro,  120 
rolimas,  174 
Collahuayas,  379 
Colliguai  Mountain,  420 
Collipulli,  462 
Colombia,  133 
Colonche  Mountains,  232 
Colorado,  Rio,  97 

Tribe,  244 


Colpa,  331 
Coluna  Peak,  85 
Combarbala,  457 
Come-Caballos  Pass,  411 
Concepcion  Bay,  421 

(Chili),  4(iO 

(Colombia),  195 
Concha  Peak,  85 
Concordia,  167 
Conejo,  188 
Conibos,  311 
Cono-cocha  Basin,  289 
Constitution,  460 
Conway,  465 
Copacabana,  201,  343 
Copei  Mountain,  71 
Copiapo  Mountain,  411 

Town,  455 
Coquimbo,  412,  457 

Rio,  429 
Corocoro,  381 
Corazon  Mountain,  230 
Corcovado  Mountain,  419 
Cordillera  Pelada,  142 

Real,  223,  358 
Coro  Gulf,  85 

Town,  116 
Coroico,  Rio,  384 

Town,  385 
Coronel,  462 

Coro  Puna  Mountain,  282 
Corozal,  202 
Corral,  El,  462 
Cotocuche  Mountain,  224 
Cotocayes,  Rio,  3b3 
Cotopaxi,  225 
Coyaimas,  174 
Creoles,  45 
Crucero,  342 

Alto,  330 

Crystal  Mountain,  82 
Cubagua  Island,  55,  71 
Cuchivano  MouiitHiii,  h7 
Cuchivero,  Rio,  94 
Cucua,  196 
Cuouba,  120 
Cuelap,  332 
Cuenca,  52,  2-57 
Cuevas,  Las,  59 
Cuia,  Kio,  208 
Cui-cocha  Lake,  224 
Culata,  158 
Culenta,  254 
Cuimma,  16,  55,  83,  87,  109 

Gulf,  58 

Cjmanacoto,  105 
Cuml.al  Volcano,  148 
Cunibre,  413 

de  los  Oseras,  144 
Cunas,  174 
Curiavana,  82 
Cim<-bo8,  444 
Cundinamaroa,  11 

Tr.be,  179 
Cura,  113 

Curacao  LJand,  55,  73 
( 'uranipe,  460 
Curico,  460 
Cuyo,  415,  468 
Cuyuni,  Rio,  79,  94 
Cuzco,  337,  338 

Dagua,  Rio,  137,  159 
Darwin  Mountain  (Pern),  286. 

Range,  Fuegia,  426 
Daule,  Rio,  232 


Daw«on  Inland,  466 

Djsaguadero,  362 

Descabezado  Volcano,  417 

Desolation,  Land  of,  425 

Diamante  Lake,  416 

Dibulla,  205 

Diego  Kamirtz  Islands,  400 

Dique,  156 

Dona  Ana  Mountiins,  412 

Inez  Peak,  410 
Dragon's  Mouth,  68 
Duida  Mount-Jin,  82 
Duitama,  190 
Duke  of  York  Island,  424 
Dungeness,  400 
Duran,  255 

Faster  Island,  399,  467 
Ecuador,  220 
Elephant  Gulf,  424 
El  Ferrol  Bay,  320 
Elqui,  Rio,  429,  457 

Town,  457 
El  Valle,  112 
Einpeza,  363 
Eucabellados,  245 
Encinaa  Mountain,  423 
Ene,  Rio,  294 
Euglish  Narrows,  424 
Eusenada,  141 
Envigado,  201 
Escalaute,  Rio,  118 
Enueralda,  121 
Esmeraldas,  Rio,  235 

Town,  251 
Espinal,  181 
Enpiritu  Sinto,  205 
E-piritu  Santo  Cape,  400 
Eten,  317 

Facatativa,  185 
Falkland  IslandH,  34 
Famatiua,  411,  456 
Famine,  Port,  466 
Fern  ind  .  Noronho,  8 
Fichilingos,  56 
Filadelfia,  199 
Flandes,  181 
Fomeque,  185 
Fontibon,  183 
Fragua  Mountain,  144 
Frailes  Mountains,  358 
Frances-Urcu  Mountain,  225 
Fredouia,  199 
Freirina,  442,  457 
Frontino  Citara,  149 

Rio,  199 

Town,  208 

Froward  Cape,  403,  466 
Fuegia,  401,  425 
Funzri,  Rio,  144,  150,  160 

Town,  183 
Fuqut-ue  Lake,  152 

Village,  153 
Fusagasuga,  Rio,  150 

Town,  165,  181 

Gacheneque.  144 
Gacheta,  185 
Galapagos  Islands,  265 
Galera  P.dnt,  58,  62 

Zamba,  149 
Oarita,  285,  318 
Georgia  Islands,  19 
Ges,  41 
Gibraltar,  119 


500 


INDEX. 


Oirardot.  150,  187 

Giron,  195 

Goajira,  141,  177 

GoajiroN.  9,  170 

Gorgoim  Inland,  209 

Goytacaw,  4 1 

Grior,  125 

Grita,  118 

Guadalupe  Mountain,  183,  358 

Town,  318 
Guadua.s,  183 
Guagua  Mountain,  230 
Guaharibos  Rapids,  90 
GuahiboH,  107 
Guaicas,  107 
Guain:a,  Rio,  78,  92 
Guaira,  8t 
Guaitird  Gorge,  159 

Rio,  159 

Ouaiteca  Island*,  439 
Guajarepa,  142 
Gualcala  M  aintain,  149 
Guallabama,  Rio,  235 
Guamal,  201 
Guamani,  22-5 
Guamoes,  162 
Guamos,  107 
Giianaoas.  146,  181 
Guonape  Inlands,  289,  319 
Guanare  Mountain,  120 
Guanes,  176 
(iiuntii.  110 
Guapay,  Rio,  365 
Gimp  >re,  Rio,  4,  355 
Guarncnaro,  408 

Rio,  62 

Guaranda,  229,  253 
Guarani,  41,  375 
Guarapiche  River,  79 
Guaraunos,  101,  106 
Guarayos  374,  377 
Gunrico,  Rio,  8y 
G  iias  -a  Lake,  161 

Town,  182 
Gnataquisito,  187 
Guatiro  Rio,  62 
Guatavita  Lake,  161 

Town,  182 
Guateque,  190 
Guaviare,  Rio,  78,  92 
Guayabtro,  Rio,  92,  144 
Guayana  Vieja,  123 
Guayanos,  106 
Guayaquil,  15,  253 
Bay,  134,  291 
Guayas,  Rio,  236 
Guaycurus,  41,  374 
Guaymi,  174 
Guayra,  19 
Guiria,  109 
Guzman  Blanco,  113 

Hacha,  Rio,  176 
H>m''ver  Isl.nd,  424 
Hatum  Taqui,  248 
Herveo  Mountains,  21,  145 
Hibitos,  312 
Hlas<  ar,  408 
Honda,  184,  187 
Hood  Island,  267 
Hornrigas  de  Afuera  Islands,  289 
Horn,  Cape,  10 
Hornopiren  Mountain,  419 
Horqueta  (Goajira),  143 
(Sierra  Nevada),  143 
Hoste  IclanH,  427 


Hoaeho,  300,  322 

Hur.iJillas,  407 
Hiiitiiia  Potosi,  3~>8 
Hualeaii  Mountain,  279 
Hualgayoc,  331 
Huallaga.  Kio,  281,  292 
1 1  uamachuco,  321 
Hiiaraanga,  337 
Huaucas,  309 
lluancavelica,  337 
Huancavilca,  244 
Huaucayo,  336 
Huanchaca,  382 

Mines,  383 
Huanchaco,  318 
Huandoval,  321 
Huandoy  Mountain,  279 
Huanillos,  453 
Huanta,  337 
Huantajaya.  450 
Huanuco,' 299,  333 
Huaraz,  287,  320 
Huarmey,  Rio,  321 
Huascan  Mountain,  279 
Huasco,  Pampa,  408 

Port,  457 

Rio,  412,  429 
TJuatanay,  Rio,  338 
Huanra  Islands,  289 

Town,  322 
Huaylas  Mountains,  280 

Town,  320 

Huaylil las  Mountain,  281 
Huayna  Putina,  283 
Huemules,  Rio,  431 
Huerpa.  Rio,  336 
Huila  Peak,  146,  181 
Huilcamayo,  Rio,  337 
Huilli-che,  444 
Humadea,  Rio,  93,  185 
Hunsa,  189 

Ibague,  146,  187 
Ibarra  Town,  248 

VolcHno,  221 
lea,  282,  326 
I9a,  18 

Icacos  Cape,  60 
Icononzo,  182 
Igualata  Volcano,  232 
Iles'-as  Mountain,  286 
IHaiupu  Mountain,  21,  358 
Illapel,  412,  457 
Illimani  Mountain,  21,  358 
Illini/a  Mountain,  230 
Ilo,  330 

Imambari,  Rio,  277,  363 
Imbabura  Mountain,  224 
Imperial,  Rio,  430 
Inca«,  303 
Inirida,  Rio,  92 
Ipiales,  210 
Ipiteneres,  311 
Iquique,  329,  450 
Iquitos.  312,  341 
Iraca,  170,  190 
Iscuande,  Rio,  159 

Town,  209 
Isla  Verde,  204 
I»lay,  329 
Islitas,  188 

Isluga  Mountain,  407 
Itagui,  201 
Itapicuru,  25 
It  es,  Itenes,  355,  374 
Itibos,  312 


Jaen  de  Bracamoros,  332 
Jambeli,  255 
.l.mj  i.  Rio,  293 

'J'own,  336 
Javari,  Rio,  355 
Jay  OS,  64 
Jeberos,  334 
Jequetepeque,  318 
Jesus  Maria,  193 
Jijimani,  208 
Jipijapa,  255 
Jirardota,  201 
Jiiou,  195 
Jivaros,  245 
Juauambu,  Rio,  159 
Juan  Fernandez,  398 

Fernandez  Islands,  427 

Rodriguez  Mountaiu,  143 
Juboues,  Rio,  223 
Jujuy,  52 
Juli*ca,  342 
Jimcal  Peak,  410,  415 
Juuin  (Colombia),  185 

Lake,  293,  335 

(Peru),  335 
Juntas,  186 

King  Charles  South  Land,  426 

Laca  Ahuira,  363 
L  ichagudl,  335 
Lacramarca,  Rio,  289 
La  Gloria,  196 
La  Gorgonita,  209 
La  Guiyra,  111 
Laguna  Negra,  432 
L-igunillas,  118 
Laja  Lake,  418 

Rio,  418,  430 
La  Luz,  116 
La  Mar,  453 
Lamas,  334 
Lambayeque,  284 
Latnpa,  342 
La  Noria,  450 
LtPalma,  317 
LaP-.z  (Bolivia),  363,  383 

(Colombia),  193 
La  Placilla  Mine,  453 
La  Plata,  10 

Town,  181,  387 
Las  Damas  Mountains,  416 
LHS  Yeguas,  187 

Mountain,  417 
Latacunga,  252 
Lebrijo,  Rio,  153,  192 
Lebu,  462 
Lecos,  378 
Leiva,  173,  193 
Lemaire  Straits,  427 
Lena,  416 

Leon,  Rio,  148,  158 
Licancaur  Volcano,  408 
Lima,  322 
Limari,  Kio,  429 
Linares,  400 
Lipez  Mountnins,  359 

Town,  383 
Llai-Llai,  471 
Llaima  Volcano,  418 
Llanganati,  227 
Llano.-,  87 

Llanquihue  Lake,  422,  430 
Llata,  449 
Llico  Port,  460 

Rio,  460 


INDEX. 


501 


Llullaillaco  Mountain,  408 

Loa,  Rio,  429 

Loba,  Rio,  154 

Lobos  Island.*,  289,  317 

LogTofio,  258 

Lojt  Mountains,  223 

Town,  258 
Longavi,  417 
Loiiquimai  Volcano,  418 
Loretx),  341 
Lorica,  207 
Los  Gomez,  156 
Los  Santos,  192 
Los  Teques,  112 
Lota,  402,  471 
Lubuches,  444 
Lurin,  3'J5 

Macanao  Mountain,  71 

]\lacareo,  97,  112 

Macas,  228,  257 

Machala,  256 

Macho  Rucio  Mountain,  142 

Macuira  Mountain,  142 

Madeira,  Rio,  290 

Madidi,  Rio,  276 

Madre  de  Dios,  Rio,  18,  364 

Madrigal.  El,  209 

Magangue,  201 

Magdulena  Delta,  154 
Island,  419 
Rio,  150 
Station,  324 

Magellan  Straits,  22,  400 

Mages,  Rio,  290 

Maigualida  Mountains,  81 

Maipiri,  Rio,  378 

Maipo,  Rio,  4'29,  459 
Volcano,  416 

Maipures  Rapids,  3,  92 
Town,  122 
Tribe,  106 

Malabrigo,  318 

Malaga,  192 
Malleoo,  Rio,  462 
Malpelo  Island,  149 
Mamatoco,  204 
Mambita,  185 

Mamore,  Rio,  4,  363 
Manabi,  238 
Manamo  River,  96 
Manaya  Mountain,  359 
Mancenillier,  64 
Manizales,  198 
Manta,  255,  320 
Mantaro,  Rio,  281.  294 
Maparana  Mountain,  82 
Mapocho,  Rio,  459 
Maquiritarns,  107 
Maracai,  1 1 3 
Mrtracaibo.  118 
Gulf,  9,  98 
Lake,  77,  98 

Maraguaca  Mountain,  82 
Marahuas  313 
Maranon,  Rio,  279,  290 
Maranones,  312 
Mans,  340 
Maraval,  Rio,  69 
Margarita  Island,  55,  71 
Maria  Mountains,  148 
Mariara,  113 
Maiinilla,  189 
Mnriquita,  188 
Marmoto,  199 
Mas  a  Fuera  Island,  428,  467 


Mas  a  Tierra  Island,  428,  467 
Matagente,  335 
Mataje,  Rio,  133,  220 
Mutaquajes,  179 
Mataquito,  Rio,  430 
Matro  Grosso,  7,  32 
Matm-ana,  326 
Maturiu,  108 
Mtule,  Rio,  417,  430,  441 
AJaulliu,  Rio,  430,  463 

Town,  463 
Maure,  Rio,  362 
Mayaro,  61 
Miyo,  Rio,  159,  293 
Mayoruuas,  312 
Medellin,  Rio,  155 

Town,  199 
Medina,  185 
Meiggs  Mountain,  281 
Mejillones  Bay,  25 

Mountains,  409,  453 

Town,  450,  453 
Melgar,  182 
Melinca,  465 
Melipilla,  459 
Melipulli,  463 
Mercedario  Mountain,  412 
Merida  Mountains,  85 
Mesa  de  Herveo,  145 

Plateau,  21 

Town,  186 

Mesada  Mountain,  358 
Messier  Strait,  424 
Mt-ta  River,  78,  93,  163 
Micai  Town,  209 
Micai,  Eio,  159 
Michaga  Mountain,  358 
Miel,  Rio,  188 
Millimora  Mountain,  419 
Minama  Gorge,  149,  159 
Minchinmavida  Mountain,  419 
Minero,  Rio,  168,  189 
Mino  Mountain,  408 
Mira,  Rio,  220 
Miraflores  Mountain,  144 

Town,  325 
Miranda,  120 
Miranbas,  41,  179 
Misti  Volcano,  282 
Mitan  River,  62 
Mituas,  178 
Mizque,  Rio,  3S6 
Moche,  Rio,  318 
Mocoas,  162,  179 
Mogotes,  192 
Mojanda  Mountain,  224 
Mojos  Tribe,  372 
Mollendo,  329 
Molu-che,  442 
Monipos,  201 
Moniquira,  173,  192 
Mono  Island,  59 
Monsefu,  317 
Montana,  279 
Monte  Cristi,  255 
Munteria,  207 
Montserrat,  70 
Moquegua,  276,  330 
Moraleda  Channel,  423 
Momna,  Rio,  292 
Morrope  River,  317 
Morrosquillo,  156 
Mosetenes  Mountains.  359 
Motalat  Mountain,  419 
Motilones,  142,  176 
Motupe,  317 


Moyabamba,  334 
Mucuohies  Mountain,  86 
Mtiequeta,  183 
Mulchen,  462 
Munchiquo  Mountain,  149 
Munoz  Gomero,  466 
Murruoucu  Mountain,  148 
Muso  Valley,  168 
Village,  189 
Musos,  174 
Muyscat*,  39,  169 

Nacimiento,  462 
Nagsanpungo,  229 
Nabuelbuta  Mountain,  420 
Nahuel-Huapi,  406,  419 
Naiguata  Peak,  84 
Naparima  Mountain,  59 
Napo,  Rio,  12,  237,  292 

Tribe,  246 
Naranjal,  181,  255 
Narborough,  268 
.Nare,  Rio,  150 

Town,  188 
Nariva,  Rio,  62 
Natagaimas,  174 

Town,  181 
Nauta,  341 
Navarin  Island,  427 
Nechi,  Uio,  145,  155 
Negra  Mountains,  142,  279 
Negritos,  316 

Negro  Muerto  Mountain,  410 
Neira,  199 
Neiva  Mountain,  82 

Town,  150,  181 
Nemocon,  182 
Nepoyos,  64 
Nevada  de  Merida,  143 

de  Santa  Marta,  140 
Neveri,  Rio,  110 
Nirgua,  120 
Nomhre  de  Jesus,  403 
No  vita,  208 
IS'utva  Cadiz,  72 

Esparta,  71 

Imperial,  462 
Nus,  Rio,  188 
Nutabes,  175 
Nutrias,  121 

Oca  Mi  untains,  78,  142 

Ocana,  98,  142,  196 

Ocopa,  336 

Ofqui  Isthmus,  424 

Olca  Mountain,  408 

Ollagua  Mountain,  408 

Ollantai-tambo,  304,  339 

Omaguas,  341 
Tribe,  312 
Ornate  Volcano,  283 
Onas,  445 
On.  .to,  113 
Onzagua,  192 
Opon,  Rio,  11,  152 
Oran,  341 
Orchilla  Island,  55,  73 

Mountain,  73 
Orejones,  179,  245,  314 
Orinoco,  9,  90 
Oro,  Rio  del,  142 
Oroya,  335,  348 
Ortega,  181 
Ortiz,  121 
Oruro,  382 
Osorno  Volcano,  418 


502 


INDEX. 


Ofnvalo,  248 
Otoinacoe,  107 
OtuquiH,  ilio,  365 
Otwiiy,  465 
Ovalle,  457 
Overo  Mountain,  416 
Oyapoc,  91 

Pabellon,  453 

Pacaraima  Mountain,  78,  125 

!'acasmayo.  318 

Pacauar/ts,  3  7  9 

Paocaritambo,  380 

Pdchacamui',  '_'S7,  325 

I'.i.-h.-i'-haoa,  Rio,  290 

1'achitea,  Rio,  295 

P*cho,  188 

Pacific  Range,  232 

Pacora,  199 

Padamo,  Rio,  90 

!'..•*,  176 

Paezes,  176 

Pailon.  250 

Paita,  317 

Paito,  Rio,  98 

P  ijonal  Mountain,  412 

Paloizu,  Rio,  295 

Palena,  Rio.  430 

Puimarito,  94 

Palmira,  198 

Pcimbamarca,  225 

Pampa-Aullagas,  363 

Pampa  del  Sacramento,  277 

Pamplona,  120,  195 

Panama,  47,  174 

I»landx,  149 
Panches,  174 
Pan  de  Azucar  (Chili),  454 

(Colombia),  144 
Pandi,.181,  185 
Panecillo  Mountain,  250 
Panos,  41,  312 
Pantagoros,  176 
Pao,  Rio,  98 

Town,  120 
Papallacta,  252 
Papiaros,  179 
Paposo,  Rio,  429 

Town,  454 
Paracas,  326 
Paraguana,  98 
Paraguay,  Rio,  365 
Paramanca,  322 
Paramillo  Mountain,  143,  148 
Para  para,  121 
Paria  Gulf,  3,  58 

Mount  tins,  83 

Province,  109 
Pitrima  Mountains,  24,  78 
Pdro  River,  293 
Parral,  460 
Pasambio,  Rio,  148 
Pasco  Mountains,  281 
Paso/hoa  Mountain,  227 
Pastaza,  Rio,  238,  292 
Pasto  Mountains,  148 

Town,  209 
Patagonians,  445 
Patapo,  317 
Patate,  Rio.  238 
Patia,  Rio,  148,  159 
Patillos,  450,  452 
Pativilca,  322 
Paturia,  194 
PaucHrtambo,  Rio,  294 
Paulistas,  47 


Paute,  Bio,  238,  292 

Payfhue  Lake,  430 

Payos,  444 

Paytiti,  309 

Pebas.  312,  341 

Pehuen-che,  444 

1'elado  Mountain,  420 

Penco,  471 

Pereira,  198 

Perene,  Rio,  281.  294 

Perez  Rosales,  4 1 9 

Perijaa  Mountain,  78,  120,  142 

Peru,  274 

Perucho.  Rio.  235 

IVscaderias,  150,  187 

Pew-adores  d'Ancon  Islands,  289 

Petare,  112 

Peteroa  Mountain,  416 

Petorca,  457 

Philippopolie.  403 

Piajes,  179 

Piaroas   108 

Pica,  450.  452 

Pichincha,  230 

Pichu-Pichu  Mountain,  283 

Pied^cuesta,  195 

1'iedra  Pintada.  441 

Pietra  Parada,  281 

Pifo,  251 

Pijaos,  176,  181 

Piloomayo.  Rio,  4,  365 

Pillar,  Cape,  425 

Pimampiro,  249 

Pimentel,  317 

Piuiichiu,  121 

Piojes,  246 

Piray,  Rio,  386 

Pircas  Negras,  411 

Piros.  311 

Pisagua,  354,  450 

Pisco.  289 

Piscobamba,  258 

Piura,  Rio,  286,  289 

Plane  hon  Pass,  416 

Poinoos,  172 

Pomabamba,  331 

Pomarape  Volcano,  407 

Pongo  de  Manseriche,  245,  292 

Poopo,  382 

Popa  Mountain.  205 

Popayan,  147.  197 

Porce,  Rio,  155 

Porlamar,  72 

Port  Eden,  466 

Famine,  466 

of  Spain,  62,  69 
Portillo,  415 
Portuguesa,  Rio,  89,  94 
Potosi",  359,  386 
Princestown,  70 
Pucaloma  Mountain,  229 
Pucara,  Rio,  312 

Town,  342 
Pueblo,  196 

del  Norte,  72 

Nuevo,  209 
Puelche,  444 
Puente  Nacional,  193 

Real,  193 
Puerto  Berrio,  189 

Hotija",  195 

Bueno,  466 

Cabello,  58,  114 

Domeyko,  462 

Espaiia,  69 

Hanabre,  466 


Puerto  Tluaila,  256 

JVlontt,  463 

Nacioual,  162,  196 

Napo,  252 

Perez,  391 

Philippi,  462 

Tablas,  124 

Tuoacas,  116 

Tucker,  336 

Viejo,  255 

VilJamizar,  196 
Puleua,  Rio,  464 
Pulido,  411 

Pululagua  Mountain,  230 
Puna,  255 

Island,  236,  255 
Puno,  342 
Punta  Aguja,  286 

Arenas,  466 

Pariua,  19,  289 
Purace  Mountain,  147 
Puri,  41 

Purificacion,  181 
Puruba  Tribe,  258 
Purus,  Rio,  290,  365 
Putumayo,  Rio,  179 
Puyehue  Mountain.  418 

Quebrada  Seca,  435 
U,ueen  A<lelaide  Island,  424 
Quellenaana  Mountains,  227 
Quetama,  185 
Quibdo,  159,  208 
Quibor,  116 
Qaichuas,  40,  244,  301 
Uuiebra  Pa^s,  189 
Quijoc,  246,  252 
Quilca,  329 
Quiliohao,  197 
Quiliabamba,  Rio,  294 
Quillota,  458 
Quilotoa  Mountain,  231 
Quimsa  Cruz  Mountain,  358 
Quinamaii,  148 
Quindio  Mnuntain,  144 

Pass,  146 

Quinoaloma  Mountain,  229 
Quintero  Bay,  457 
Quinua,  337 
Quiriquina  Island,  461 
Quiriquiripas,  125 
Quito,  12,  250 
Quitus,  244 
Quivas,  178 

Ramada,  205 

Mountains,  412 
Ramiz,  Rio,  342,  362 
Rancagua,  460 
Rancheria,  Rio,  140,  154 
Rnnco,  Lake,  430 
Rapel.  Rio,  430 
Raspadura,  159 
Rdya  Pass,  294 
Rebenton  Mine,  454 
Recuay,  320 
Reloncavi  Gulf,  419 
Reinedios,  201 
Remolino,  Rio,  156 

Town,  203 
Remof»,  312 
Rengo,  460 
Reventazon,  285 
Rimac,  Rio,  289,  323 
Rincon  Peak,  85 
Rinihue  Mountain,  418 


INDEX. 


503 


Riobamba,  253 
Rio  Br*nco,  78 

Frio,  '204 

Grande,  255,  286,  290 

Hacha,  205 

Negro,  78,  91,  188 
Riouegro  Town,  189 
Rio  VerJe,  252,  355 

Viejo,  156 
Rivadavia,  457 
Rogoaguado  Lake,  365 
Roques  Islands,  55,  73 
Rorrtima  Mountain,  79,  82 
Rosario,  196,  209 
Rubinco  Lake,  430 
Kubio,  120 
Rucu  Mountain,  230 
Ruiz  Volcano,  145 
Kuminahui  Mountain,  227 

Sabana,  203 

Sabandia,  330 

Sabanetas,  199 

Saboya,  193 

Sacsahuaruan,  339 

Sajama  Volcano,  357,  407 

Saiado,  167 

Salamina,  199 

^aldr  Lake,  432 

Salaverri,  318 

Sala-y-Gomez  Island,  428,  468 

ivaldana,  Rio,  150 

Salgar,  204 

Salivas,  178 

Sdlto,  458 

de  Virginia,  154 
Sama,  Rio,  276,  429 
San  Agustin,  180 

Ambrosio  Island,  398,  427,  466 

Andres  Islands,  149 

Antonio,  Rio,  156 
de  Tachira,  120 
Town,  458 

Bartolome,  189 

Bernardo,  460 

Bueno,  196 

Carlos  (Chili),  460,  464 
(Venezuela),  91,  113 

Cristobal,  120 

Panct  Christoffel  Mountain,  73 
Sancudo,  341 
Sandia,  342 
Sau  Esteban,  Rio,  424 

F.iustino,  78 

Felipe,  116,  382,  403,  466 

Felix  Island,  398,  466 

Fernando  de  A  pure,  121 
de  Atabapo,  121 
(Chili),  435,  460 
(Trinidad)  59,  70 
Sangay  Volcano,  228 
Sanjil,  Rio,  193 

Town,  194 
San  Jorge,  Rio,  154 

Jo.*e  Mountain,  145,  149 

Juan,  329 

de  los  Llanos,  185 

Morros,  86 
Rio,  158,  159 

Lorenzo  Island,  287 

Luis  Peak,  85 

Martin,  165,  185 

Mateo,  326 

Miguel  Mountain,  145 
(Piura).  316 

Nicolas,  329 


San  Pablo,  158 

Lake,  224 

Pedro  de  Lloc,  318 

Rafael  Lake,  423 

Ramon,  336 

Sebastian,  135,  205 
Santa  Ana,  74 

Mountain,  85 

Barbara,  118 

Catalina  Peak,  146 

Cruz  de  la  Sierra,  386 

Elena,  255 

Fe,  183 

Inez  Island,  425 

Isabel  Mountain,  145 

Lucia,  1 12 
Hill,  458 

Marit  Island,  255 

Marta,  204 

Sierra,  140 

Rio,  280,  288,  289 
Santander,  180,  197 
Santa  Rosa,  342,  472 

de  Maracaibo,  120 
de  los  Osos,  145,  201 
de  Viterbo,  190 
San  Valentin  Mountain,  419 
Sapaya  Mountain,  357 
Sarare,  Rio,  94,  143 
Sara- Sara  Mountain,  282 
Sara-Urcu,  225 
Saravita,  R'o,  152,  161 
Sarayucu,  340 
Sarmiento  Mountain,  425 
Saumarez  Island,  424 
Savanilla,  156,  204 
Sechura,  32,  284 
S-nsi,  312 
Sepulturas,  382 
Serena,  457 
Serpent's  Mouth,  59 
Setihos,  311 
Sevilla  de  Oro,  258 
Sihambe,  253 
Sicuani,  337 
SiMica  Mountains.  408 
Silla  Mountains,  84 
Sillustani,  343 
Simacota,  193 
Sincholagua  Mountain,  225 
Sum,  Rio,  135,  156 

Town,  202 
Sipibos,  311 
Sirionos,  376 
So>tta,  190 
Socabon,  253 
Socaira  Volcano,  408 
Soconipoz  Mountain,  408 
Socorrans,  180 
Socorro,  193 
Sogamoso  Mountains,  162 

Rio,  152,  190 
SoldHdo,  59,  205 
Suledad  (Colombia),  203 

(Venezuela),  112,  124 
Sbnson,  199 
Sorasora,  382 
Soratn,  Rio,  159 

Town,  384 

Volcano,  148,  358 
Staten  Island,  18,  400,  426 
Suamoz,  170 
Ruarez,  Rio,  152 
Suaz-i,  Rio,  150 
Subachoque,  184 
Sube  Gorge,  152 


Sucio,  Rio,  158 

Sucre,  387 

Sucumbio  Tribe,  249 

Suma  Paz  Mountains,  92,  143 

Supia,  199 

Surco,  326 

Trtbatinga,  276 
Tacaloa,  -J02 
Tucsirigua  Lake,  87,  89 
Tachira,  Rio,  86 
Tacna,  Rio,  407 

Town,  448 
Tacora  Mountain,  357 

Pass,  448 
Tacunga,  252 
Tacuto  Mountain,  82 
Tados,  174 
T*gacigua,  113 
Taguaciti,  Iz6 
Tahami,  175 

Tahua  Mountain,  357,  359 
Talara,  316 
Talca.  460 
Talcahuauo  Bay,  460 

Town,  461 
Taltal,  454 

Tama  Mountain,  86.  143 
Tamana  Mountain,  59 
Tamarugal,  32,  435 
Tambo,  Rio.  294 
Tarapaca,  450 
Tarapoto,  334 
Tarija,  120,  355,  388 
Tarma,  336 
Tarmatainba,  336 
Tatarna  Mountain.  149 
Tatasabaya  Mountain,  357 
Tata  Yachura  Mountain,  408 
Tajtao  Peninsula,  419 
Tehuelche,  446 
Tekenikas.  446 
Telembi,  Rio,  159 
Tempanon,  Rio,  424 
U'eruuco,  462 
Tequendama,  150,  161 
Testigos  Islands,  55,  73 
Teta  Goajira,  141 
Three  Brothers  Islands,  426 
Tiabaya,  330 
Tiahuanuco,  362,  379 
Ticunas,  312 

Tierra  del  Fuego,  10,  402,  425 
Tigre,  Rio,  292 
Timana,  181 
Timbiqui,  '209 
Timona,  Rio,  188 
Timotes,  106 
Tingo,  330 

Tmguirairira  Volcano,  416 
Tiojacas,  253 
Tipuani  Mountain,  385 

Town,  385 
Tiquina,  361 
Titica.  a  Lake,  360 
Titiribi,  199 

Tiupullo  Mountains,  227 
T..achi,  Rio,  235 
Tobago  Island,  49,  55 
Tobas,  376 
Tocaimas,  174,  186 
Toconido  Volcano,  408 
Tocopilla,  453 
Tocnyo,  Rio,  97,  116 

Town,  116 
Todos  Santos  Mountains,  358,  359 


504 


INDEX. 


Tolima  Department,  187 

Mountain,   146 

Tolten,  Rio,  430 
Tola,  '207 
Tome,  460 
Tomebamha,  255 
Tongoy,  457 
Torbes,  Rio,  120 
Toromanas,  379 
Torra  Mountain,  149 
Tortuga  1  -land,  65,  73 
Tortuguillos  Inland,  73 
Tota  Lake,  162 
Totoral,  435 
Tovar,  113,  118 
Tower  Island,  270 
Traig-uen,  462 
Tres  Graces  Mountain,  412 
Trigo  Mountain,  408 
Trilope  Volcano,  418 
Trinrheras  Springs,  87,  114 
Trinidad  (Beni),  388_ 

I-l:nnl,   18,  55,  58 
Triste  Gulf,  85 
Tronador,  418 
Traando,  159 
Trujillo  (Peru),  317,  319 

( Venezuela)  ,118 
Tua  Mountain,  357,  408 
Tudela,  189 
Tui,  Rio,  112 
Tulcan,  248 
Tulua,  198 

Tuluma  Mountain,  358 
Tulumayo.  Rio,  336 
Tumaco"  Island,  149,  162 

Town,  210 
Tumbel,  461 
Tumbez,  Rio,  32,  223,  256 

Town,  316 

Tumisa  Volcano,  408 
Tunari  Mountain,  358 
Tunebos,  191 
Tunga,  297 
Tunguragua  Mountain,  227 

Rio,  290 
Tunjd,  170,  189 
Tupi,  41,  301 
Tupiza,  388 

Tuquerres,  11,  149,  209 
Turagua  Mountain,  82 
Turbaco,  207 
Turmeque,  190 
Turmero,  113 

Turumiquire  Mountains,  83 
Tury-assu,  26 
Tutuche  Peak,  59 
Tutupaca  Mountain,  284 

TTbala,  185 
Ubaque,  185 
Ubate  Lake,  153 

Town,  192 
Ubina  Mountain,  358 


Ubinas  Volcano,  284 

Ucayali,  Rio,  41,  281,  292 

Uchumayo,  330 

Uitotos.  179 

Ullullu  Mountain,  357 

Umbita,  190 

Uinuyo  Lake,  343 

Unare,  Rio,  59.  83 

Uniana  Peak,  82 

UnimHrca,  361 

Upar  Valley,  168 

Upata,  124 

Upia,  Rio,  93,  135,  162 

Uraba  Gulf,  9,  134 

Uribante,  Rio,  94 

Uros,  362 

Urrao,  208 

Uruana,  123 

Urubamba,  340 

Rio,  282,  294 
Uspallate,  472 
Uyuni,  383 

Vagre  Bay,  97 
Valdivia,  Uio,  430,  444 

Town,  462 
Valencia,  113 

Lake,  98 
Valera,  118 
Valledupar,  205 
Valle  Hermoso,  412 
Vallenar,  442,  457 
Valparaiso,  457 
Varinas,  120 
Vayamaras,  106 
Vela,  Cabo  de  la,  142 
Velez,  185 
Venezuela,  77 

Gulf,  125 

Ventuad,  Rio,  81,  82,  92 
Vichada,  Rio,  92,  107 
Vichadas,  178 
Victoria  (Venezuela),  113 
Vicuna,  457 
Vieja    Providencia    Islands, 

149 
Vilcaconga    Mountain,    281, 

355 
Vilcanota  Mountain,  282 

Rio,  337 

Villa  deCura,  113 
Villa  Hermosa,  330 
Villanueva,  205 
Villarica  Lake,  430 

de  Orepoao,  337 

Volcano,  418 
Villavicencio,  185 
Villeta,  184,  188 
Vilos,  457 

Vina  de  Mar,  458,  471 
Viru,  319 

Viscachillas  Mountain,  357 
Vitor,  Rio,  286,  330 
Viuda  Mountain,  281 


Waihu  Inland,  399 
Waraun,  108 
Wellington  Islands,  424 
Wenman  Island,  270 
West  Indies,  355 
Willemstad,  74  . 
Wollaston  Island,  427 
Wreck  Bay,  273 

Xingu,  Rio,  41 
Xivaros,  245 

Yabricoya  Mountain,  408 
Yacana,  445 
Yaguachi,  Rio,  236 

Town,  255 

Yaguar-cocha  Lake,  248 
Yahgans,  446 
Yahuas,  313 
Yalcones,  180 
Yamari  Mountain,  82 
Yana-Urcu  Mountain,  224,  250 
Yangunaco  Pass,  279 
Yaots  64 
Yaporogos,  172 
Yapura,  Rio,  179,  276 
Yaracui  River,  85,  116 
Yaritwgua,  116 
Yarumal  Mountain,  145 

Town,  201 
Yaruros,  107 
Yate  Volcano,  419 
Yauri-cocha  Lake,  290 
Yavari,  Rio,  276 
Yavirac  Mountain,  259 
Yavita,  78,  121 
Yebcan  Volcano,  419 
Yerbabuena,  456 
Yumbel,  474 
Yuncas  (Peru),  309 
Yungas  (Bolivia),  360 
Yungay,  279,  320 
Yunguyo,  343 
Yunque  Mountain,  428 
Yura,  330 
Yuracares,  378 
Yurac-Huasi,  309 
Yuibaco,  207 
Yurimaguas,  334 
Yuruauri,  Rio,  124 
Yurupiche  Mountain,  142 

Zamba  Island,  149 
Zamora  Town,  118,  258 
Zaparos,  246 
Zapatoca.  189,  194 
Zapatosa  Lagoon,  154,  160 
Zaragoza  de  las  Palmas,  20 1 
Zaraguro,  244 
Zaruma,  256,  316 
Zenta  Mountains,  21 
Zeonias,  185 
Zipaquira,  182 
Zulia,  Rio,  78,  98,  196 
Town,  118 


END    OF    VOL.    XVIII. 


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